SCHOOLS AND MASTERS 
 OF PAINTING 
 
 WITH AN APPENDIX ON 
 THE PRINCIPAL GALLERIES OF EUROPE 
 
 BY 
 
 A. G. RADCLIFFE 
 
 Illustrated 
 
 FIFTH EDITION, REVISED 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 1900
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1876, 1881, 1887, 1896, 1899, 
 BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGAN PAINTING. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Painting less enduring than Sculpture. Invented by Egyptians. 
 Tombs and Temples. Painting in Egypt. Painting in Assyria. 
 Painting in Greece. Polygnotus, Zeuxis, Apelles, and other 
 Grecian Painters. Mosaic Pavements. Greek Relic in Cortona. 
 " Aldobrandini Marriage." Painting in Etruria. Painting in 
 Rome. Mural Remains of Pompeii and Rome. Greco- Egyptian 
 Panel Portraits. Decline of Pagan Painting . . . . I 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 RISE OF CHRISTIAN ART. 
 
 Revival of Art in Catacombs. Early Symbols. Primitive Christian 
 Paintings. Portraits of Christ in the Catacombs. Profile of Christ. 
 Letter of Lentulus. Abgarus Portrait of Christ. The " Archi- 
 rotopeton." Handkerchief of St. Veronica. Portraits of Virgin 
 Mary. Madonnas of St. Luke. Types of St. Peter and St. Paul. 
 Accession of Constantine. Basilicas and Mosaics. Mosaics of 
 Rome and Ravenna II 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 BYZANTINE AND MINIATURE PAINTING. 
 
 Empire of Constantine. Greek Ecclesiastical Art. Early " Crucifix- 
 ions." Byzantine Stiffness and Splendor. Byzantine Mosaics. 
 Panel and Altar Pictures. Emblems of Father, Son, and Spirit. 
 Sacred Art-Manufactories. Miniature Painting in Fourth and 
 Fifth Centuries. MSS. of the Vatican. French Illuminations. 
 German Miniatures. Anglo-Saxon MSS. Miniatures of San 
 Marco 31 
 
 2029048
 
 i v CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 EARLY ITALIAN PAINTING. 
 
 PVGi 
 
 Roman Mosaics of Ninth Century. Early Roman Frescoes. Roman 
 Mosaics of Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. Andrea Tafi. 
 Revival of Art under Cimabue. His Predecessors. Guido of 
 Sienna. Giunta Pisano Margaritone of Arezzo. Life and Works 
 of Cimabue. St. Fiancis, and his Church at Assisi. Duccio of 
 Sienna. Life and Works of Giotto. Pupils of Giotto. Simone 
 Memmi. Andrea Orcagna. Campo Santo of Pisa. Bernardo 
 Orcagno. Spinello Aretino and his " Lucifer." Life and Death 
 of Fra Angelico a 9 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Religious Nature of Mediaeval Art. Fresco and Tempera Painting. 
 Ancient Altar-Pieces. Significance of Colors. Old - Testament 
 Tradition. Angels and Archangels. Sibyls. St. John Baptist. 
 Legends of the Virgin Mary from her Conception to her Corona- 
 tion. Life and Legends of Christ. His Nativity, Adoration, Pre- 
 sentation, and Flight into Egypt ; Transfiguration, Last Supper, 
 and Incidents of Passion, Crucifixion, and Burial. Legend of 
 Descent into Limbus. Resurrection and Ascension. Last Judg- 
 ment. Attributes of the Apostles. Legends of the Magdalene, 
 of the Early Fathers, of St. Christopher, St. Sebastian, and St. 
 Lawrence ; of St. Catharine, St. Margaret, St. Agnes, and St. Ce- 
 cilia. Books of Reference 58 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ITALIAN PAINTING IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 The Renaissance. Culture and Changes. Florentine Influences. 
 Ghiberti and his Gates of Bronze. Paolo Uccello. Masolino. 
 Masaccio and the Brancacci Chapel. The Artist-Monk, Filippo 
 Lippi. Benozzo Gozzoli. Cosimo Roselli. Antonello da Mes- 
 sina, the First Italian Oil-Painter. Andrea Castagno. Andrea 
 Mantegna and the Paduan School. Verocchio, Master of Da 
 Vinci. Signorelli. Ghirlandajo. Botticelli. Filippino Lippi. 
 The School of Bologna, and Francia. Decline of Siennese Art and 
 Rise of Umbrian. Gentile da Fabriano. Alunno. Perusjino.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Pintunichio and the Father of Raphael. Savonarola at Florence. 
 His Artist-Adherents. Fra Bartolomeo. His Friend Alberti- 
 nelli. Rafiaeilino del Garbo. Lorenzi di Credi . . . .93 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 LEONARDO DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. 
 
 Genius of Leonardo. Scarcity of his Works. His Youth and Educa- 
 tion. His Medusa Shield. Veisatility of his Talents. His Re- 
 moval to Milan. His Equestrian Statue. Art Labors and Writ- 
 ings. " The Last Supper." His Return to Florence. Journey to 
 Rome. Friendship with Francis I. Death at Amboise. His 
 Pictures and Pupils. Bernardino Luini. Michael Angeio. His 
 Birth and Vocation. Patronage of the Medici. Genius as a 
 Sculptor. The Colossal " David." Rivalry with Leonardo. 
 Visit to Rome. Mausoleum of Pope Julius. Quarrels with the 
 Pope. Sistine Chapel. Medici Sacristy. Florentine Vicissitudes. 
 " Last Judgment." Vittoria Colonna. Old Age and Death. 
 Daniele da Volterra . . .*>.._ ., 124 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 RAPHAEL AND CORREGGIO. 
 
 Childhood of Raphael. Studies with Perugino. Early Works. 
 " Marriage of the Virgin." Sojourn at Florence. Florentine 
 Madonnas. Invitation to Rome. Frescoes of the Vatican. 
 Stanze and Loggie. Cartoons and Tapestries. Farnesina Fres- 
 coes. Portraits and Easel-Pictures. " The Fornarina." Roman 
 Madonnas and Holy Families. Altar - Pieces. "The Transfig- 
 uration." Fame and Fortune. Illness and Death. Birth of Cor- 
 reggio. His Youthful Genius and Secluded Life. Frescoes at 
 Parma. Classical Pictures. " II Giorno " and " Santa Notte." 
 " The Reading Magdalene." Remaining Works. Character 
 ofCorreggio ... 1ST 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE. 
 
 Rise of Painting in Venice. The Vivarini. The Bellini Family. 
 Gentile and Gian Bellini. Giorgione, the Master of Color. Birth 
 of Titian. First Employment with Giorgione. Mythological and
 
 vi CONTENTS. 
 
 MM 
 
 Religious Paintings. Meeting with Charles V. Celebrated Tor- 
 traits. Venetian Life. Summons to Rome. Enumeration of his 
 Works. Last Years at Venice. Death, of the Plague. Palma 
 Vecchio and his Daughter Violante. Pordcnone. Sebastian del 
 Piombo. Bon-fazio. Moretto. Moroni. Paris Bordone. Tin- 
 toretto. Paul Veronese and his Feasts. The Bassano Family. 
 Canal e and Canaletto I&7 
 
 CHAPTER X. . 
 
 LATER ITALIAN PAINTING. 
 
 Andrea del Sarto. Francia Bigio. Pontormo. Bronzino. The Al- 
 lori Family. Vasari, the Artist-Author. II Sodoma. Giulio Ro- 
 mano and other Pupils of Raphael. Garofalo. The Brothers 
 Dossi. Parmagianino. Baroccio, Zuccaro, and the Later Romans. 
 The Eclectics of Bologna. The Carracci. Domenichino. 
 Guido Reni. Albani. Guercino. Lanfranco. The Naturalist! 
 or Tenebrosi. Caravaggio. Salvator Rosa. Luca Giordano. 
 Artists of Seventeenth Century. Sassoferrato. Carlo Dolce. 
 Carlo Maratta. Romanelli. Battoni. Close of Painting in Italy. 3IQ 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 EARLY GERMAN AND FLEMISH PAINTING. 
 
 Art in the North. German MSS. Requirements of Gothic Archi- 
 tecture. School of Bohemia. School of Cologne. Meister Wil- 
 helm and Meister Stephan. School of Flanders. The Brothers 
 Van Eyck. Invention of Oil-Painting. Adoration of the LamN. 
 Margaret van Eyck. Ancient Flemish Painters. Roger van 
 der Weyden. Memling. The Shrine of St. Ursula. Mabuse. 
 Bernard van Orley and Michael Coxie. Quintin Matsys . .24} 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 GERMAN PAINTING IN THE FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES. 
 Martin SchSn. The School of Nuremberg. Wohlgemuth. Albrecht 
 Dttrer. His Wife and Works. Wanderings in Italy. Influence 
 on his Style. Paintings and Woodcuts. " The Knight, the Devil, 
 and Death."" Melancolia." Later Pictures. Death at Nurem- 
 berg. Followers and Pupils. Artists of Ulm and Augsburg.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 The Holbein Family. Hans Holbein the Younger. His Eng- 
 lish and German Portraits. The " Meyer Madonna." The 
 " Dance of Death." Lucas Cranach, the Painter of the Reforma- 
 tion . . 268 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 LATER FLEMISH AND GERMAN PAINTING. 
 
 Sustermann. Frans Floris. The Pourbus Family. Birth of Land- 
 scape-Painting in the Netherlands. Matthew and Paul Bril. 
 The Breughel Family and Genre Painting. Peter Paul Rubens. 
 His Fertility and Success. Snyders, the Animal - Painter. 
 Jordaens. Vandyck. Portraits by Vandyck. Teniers. His 
 " Temptation of St. Anthony " and other Pictures. Van der Meu- 
 len. Philippe de Champagne. Dennar. Dietrich. Raphael 
 Mengs. His Pupil Angelica Kaufmann. Future Revival of Ger- 
 man Art 288 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 PAINTING IN HOLLAND. 
 
 Founding of Dutch School. Cornelis Engelbrechtsen. Lucas of Ley- 
 den. Dutch Landscape-Painting. Pictures of Cuyp. Mierevelt's 
 Portraits. Frank Hals and his Apprentice Brauwer. Gerard of 
 the Night. Rembrandt van Rhyn. Peculiarities of Light and 
 Shade." The Night - Watch." Poetic Sacred Scenes. Pupils 
 of Rembrandt. Gerard Dow. Terburg. Van der Heist. Pa- 
 tier 1 Genre Painters. Van Ostade. Steen. Miens. Schal- 
 ken. Netscher. Van der Werff. Ruysdael's Landscapes. Berg- 
 hem. Wouverman. Paul Potter and his Animals. Van de 
 Velde's and Backhuysen's Marine Views. Painters of Interiors 
 and Exteriors. Jan Weenix. Hondekoeter. Kalfs Kitchen- 
 Scenes. Flowei: and Fruit Pieces. De Heem, Van Huysum, and 
 Rachel Ruysch jrc 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 
 
 Peculiarities of Spanish Art. Religious Element. Spanish MSS. 
 National Schools of Painting. Age of Charles V. Luis de Var-
 
 viii CONTENTS. 
 
 nm 
 
 gas. Juan Joanes. The Di\ine Morales. Coellos Portrait.; 
 El Mudo. Cespedes, the Poet. Roelas. Zuroaran. I-acheco, 
 the Inquisitor. Alonzo Cano. School of Valencia. The Ribal- 
 tas and Ribera. Velasquez. His Appointment as Court-Painter. 
 "Las Meninas." His Death at Madrid. Muriilo and his 
 Works. Valde's Leal. Decline of Art in Spain. Foreign Paint- 
 ers. Luca Giordano and Raphael Mengs. Francisco Goya, 
 Dispersion of Spanish Pictures . . . . . . . 33<i 
 
 CHAPTER XV I. 
 PAINTING IN FRANCE. 
 
 French Illuminations. Ancient Frescoes. King Ren<, of Anjou. 
 Jean Cousin. Clouet. Francis I. and Fontainebleau. Simon 
 Vouet. Callot. Poussin. Landscapes of Claude Lorraine. 
 " Arcadian Shepherds." Caspar Dughet. Le Sueur, the French 
 Raphael. Charles Le Brun. Mignard. Rigaud. Watteau and 
 the " Pompadour Genre." Vernet's Marine Views. Greuze. 
 Vien. New Era in Art. David, the Painter of the Empire. 
 Trioson, Gros, Ingres, and Gerard. Prudhon. Madame Lebrun. 
 Isabey. Granet. Horace Vernet. Geiicault. " The Raft of 
 the Miduse." Leopold Robert 369 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 
 
 Progress of Art in England. Foreign Portraits. Collection of Charles 
 I. Sir Peter Lely. Sir Godfrey Kneller. Italian Importations. 
 English Taste. Thornhill. Hogarth. Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
 Romney. Gainsborough. West. Copley. Fuseli. Barry. 
 Northcote. Opie. Flaxman. Blake. Portraits of Raeburn and 
 Lawrence. English Landscapists. Turner. Constable. Cal- 
 cott. Collins." High Art." Haydon. Wilkie. Nasmyth. 
 M ulready. Etty. Eastlake. Leslie. Stanfield. Roberts's 
 Spanish Views. Water-Colorists JQI 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Art-Revival in Germany. Cornelius. Overbeck. Schadow and the 
 Dusscldorf Academy and Artists. Kaulbach. Piloty. The Mu-
 
 CONTENTS. i x 
 
 PAGE 
 
 nich School. Franz von Defregger and Prominent Artists of Mu- 
 nich. Gabriel Max. Berlin School. Knaus, Von Werner, and 
 other Professors. Alfred Rethel. Artists of Middle Germany. 
 Adolf Schreyer. Vienna Academy. Hans Makart. Munkacsy. 
 Viennese and Polish Painters. Progress of French Art. Ary 
 Scheffer. Flandrin, Picot, and Fleury. Paul Delaroche and his 
 Pupils. Leon Cogniet and his Pupils. Eugene Delacroix. Cou- 
 ture, Laurens, and Regnault. Decamps and Painters of the 
 East. Gerome. Boulanger and Kindred Artists. Cabanel. 
 Bouguereau, Henner, and other Artists of the Nude. Dore. 
 Meissonier, Detaille, and French Battle-Painters. Revival of 
 Landscape Art in France. Corot, Rousseau, Daubigny, and 
 Diaz. Felix Ziem. Rosa Bonheur, Troyon, and Animal-Paint- 
 ers. Rustic Art of Millet, Jules Breton, and others. Gustave 
 Courbet. Manet and the Impressionists. Vibert and other 
 Genre Painters. French Portrait-Painters. Fortuny. Modern 
 Spanish and Italian Artists. The Art of Russia. Of Denmark, 
 Sweden, and Norway. Modern Schools of Belgium and Holland. 
 Alma-Tadema. English Art in the Present Century. Landseer 
 and English Animal-Painters. Bonington. Egg. Frescoes of 
 Parliament Houses. Dyce and Maclise. Historical Painting and 
 Painters. Battle-Painters. Sacred Art. Pre-Raphaelitism. 
 Hunt. Millais. Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Burne Jones. Leigh- 
 ton. Poynter. Watts. Eminent Portrait-Painters. Eminent 
 Landscapists. Marine Art. English Rural Art. Macbeth 
 Erskine Nicol. Boughton. Herkomer. Holl. Frith, Faed, 
 and English Genre Painters. Venetian and Eastern Specialists. 
 Richmond. Waterhouse. Solomon. Book Illustrators. Water- 
 Colorists. American Art. Allston. Stuart and other Portrait- 
 Painters. Huntington. Historical Art. Prospects of the Amer- 
 ican School. American Landscapists. Younger American Paint- 
 ers. Vedder. Hunt. Bridgman. Weir. Development of 
 Genre, Realistic, and Portrait Painting in America . . . 421 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Review. Progress of Art. National Characteristics. Byzantine Art. 
 Italian Schools. Schools of Sienna, of Pisa, of Florence. List
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 of Florentine Artists. Subdivisions. The Lombard School. 
 The Umbrian School. The Roman School. The Venetian 
 School. The Eclectics. The Naturalisti. Painting in the North. 
 School of Bohemia; of Cologne. Flemish School. German 
 School. Dutch School. Spanish School. French School. Eng- 
 lish School. American School. Modern Painting . . . 485 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 WORLD-PICTURES. 
 
 Raphael's " Transfiguration." " Sistine Madonna." Michael Ange- 
 lo's " Last Judgment." Fra Angelico's " Angels and Madonna." 
 Leonardo da Vinci's " Mona Lisa." Leonardo da Vinci's 
 "Last Supper." Titian's "Assumption of the Virgin." Correg- 
 gio's " Nativity, or Santa Notte." Guide's " Aurora." Rem- 
 brandt's " Night Watch." Murillo's " Immaculate Conception." 
 Rubens's " Descent from the Cross " . ', ... 501 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 GALLERIES OF FLORENCE. Academy of Fine Arts The Uffizi The 
 
 P'i 527 
 
 GALLERIES OF ROME. The Vatican The Capitol Private Galleries 
 
 The Doria Sciarra Borghese Corsini .... 539 
 
 GALLERY OF VENICE --, 548 
 
 GALLERY OF MADRID 555 
 
 GALLERY OF THE LOUVRE 562 
 
 GALLERY OF LONDON 572 
 
 GALLERY OF DRESDEN 580 
 
 GALLERY OF MUNICH 591 
 
 (JALLERY OF BERLIN . . . 598
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGAN PAINTING. 
 
 THE golden age of Painting lies in the Christian centuries. 
 The legacies of Beauty and Art which have come down from 
 the Old World exist in undecaying stone, not in fading color 
 or transitory light and shade. Sculpture glories in the an- 
 tique, but pagan pictures were only born to die. Some charm- 
 ing fragments indeed remain, such as the frescoes of Pompeii 
 and other mural decorations; but the materials of the art 
 were too perishable, and the art itself too lightly rooted, to 
 be spared by Time. Yet the history of painting is coeval 
 with the Pyramids ; and the curious mummy-cloths which we 
 may examine in our museums, and the tomb-pictures, of which 
 travelers tell us, in the ruins along the Nile, are still left us as 
 the records of the alphabet of the art. According to Pliny, 
 the Egyptians boasted that they had invented painting six 
 thousand years before it passed into Greece. Making all due 
 allowance for the poetic license of such a statement, it is at
 
 2 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 least certain that the earliest pictorial attempts among all na- 
 tions were outline figures, roughly traced on bark or stone, and 
 that these were soon introduced as adornments of Egyptian 
 tombs and temples. These figures were probably sketched, 
 with a reed or rush, in red and black. The next advance was 
 to fill the outlines with a flat, uniform tint without any shad- 
 ing. An appreciation of the harmony of colors is intuitive in 
 Oriental lands, and was peculiarly felt by the ancient Egyp- 
 tians, whose favorite combination was red, blue, and green. 
 Black and yellow were also put in juxtaposition. The blue 
 had the brilliancy of our modern "smalt," and was composed 
 of fine glass ; the green was also a glass powder, mixed with 
 a little ochre. Chalk-white and ivory-black gave strong and 
 decided tones. Pink, purple, orange, and brown, were known 
 to them, though not so often employed. " Different colors 
 were used for different things; but almost invariably the 
 same color for the same thing. Thus men and women were 
 usually red, the men several shades darker than the women ; 
 water blue, birds blue and green, and so on." 
 
 The first subjects of these mural pictures were principally 
 battle and hunting scenes, intended to impress the mind with 
 the majesty and authority of warlike and despotic rulers. 
 Such are still to be found in the temples of Thebes. In the 
 tombs were also sacred representations, suggestive of the des- 
 tiny of the soul after death, and many sketches descriptive of 
 the private life, trades, manners, and customs of the people. 
 The mode of drawing the human figure was strictly conven- 
 tional, and could not deviate from certain rules established by 
 the priests. The faces were in profile, but with a front view of 
 the eye and shoulders. The expression of the features never
 
 PAGAN PAINTING. 3 
 
 varied. " Every portion of a picture was conceived by itself, 
 and inserted as it was wanted to complete the scene ; and 
 when the walls of a building where a subject was to be drawn 
 had been accurately ruled with squares, the figures were fitted 
 to this mechanical arrangement. The members were append- 
 ed to the body, and these squares regulated their form and 
 distribution, in whatever posture they were placed." 
 
 Under such limitations it is easily understood that Egyp- 
 tian painting, though graphic and realistic, was never pro- 
 gressive. It was cultivated as ornament and history ; not as 
 art. Some few pictures upon wood were indeed attempted. 
 Herodotus relates that Amasis sent a portrait of himself to 
 Cyrene ; and a subject has been discovered at Beni-Hassan, 
 dated about nine hundred years before the siege of Troy, 
 representing an artist painting on panel a calf and antelope 
 overtaken by a dog. It must, however, be remembered that 
 sculpture and painting were ever integral parts of their 
 colossal and wonderful architecture. The temple and the 
 tomb were the culmination of Egyptian life, and the adorn- 
 ment of these was the glory of the nation. From the ruins 
 of naked granite which remain to us we can form but little 
 idea of the true aspect of Egyptian buildings. They were 
 colored, we are told, within and without, even the bass-reliefs 
 and the statues of the sphinxes being painted. The stone 
 was covered with stucco, richly overpaid with brilliant de- 
 signs ; the ceilings were blue, and studded with stars to 
 represent the firmament ; while gilding was occasionally em- 
 ployed to heighten the effect of the other decorations, as in 
 the temple at Kalabshee in Nubia. Thus the universal pas- 
 sion for ornament found expression, and the primeval monu-
 
 4 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 ments of the world's civilization had their own splendor as 
 well as their own sublimity. 
 
 . In the remains from Egypt which are preserved in most 
 national museums the paintings upon the mummy cloths and 
 cases will be of great interest to the student. The colors of 
 these mostly blue, green, red, and yellow are still fresh 
 and bright, and the designs take us back to the days of the 
 Pharaohs. The faces are frequently -intended as portraits of 
 the deceased, while the emblems and hieroglyphics usually 
 relate to the state of the departed soul. Sometimes the god- 
 dess Isis is seen throwing her arms around the enswathed 
 feet ; sometimes the dead is being carried, in the spirit-boat, 
 across the sacred lake ; sometimes there are judgment-scenes 
 and funeral-rites, depicted not only on the mummy-cloths, 
 but upon the long and strangely illustrated papyrus-rolls 
 which are deposited in the tombs. In the British Museum 
 are a color-box, some pallets and fragments of brushes from 
 painters of Thebes and Memphis. Our own Egyptian col- 
 lections in the Metropolitan Museum, and Historical Society 
 Building, New York, are worthy of careful examination. 
 
 The art of Assyria was of a character similar to that of 
 Egypt ; but its architecture, being mostly of unbaked brick, 
 has so entirely disappeared that we have only the traditions 
 of the magnificence of Babylon with its gayly painted palaces, 
 whose relics are the ruined heaps and fragments of tiles still 
 elaborately covered with figures of kings, animals, and flow- 
 ers. Layard also found remains of pictures on the walls at 
 Nimroud and Khorsabad, and traces of color are yet to be 
 seen upon the Assyrian bass-reliefs preserved in London and 
 at the Louvre. In this connection it is curious to notice the
 
 PAGAN PAINTING, 5 
 
 words of the prophet Ezekiel, chapter twenty-third, verse 
 fourteenth, who speaks of " men portrayed upon the wall ; 
 the images of the Chaldeans portrayed with vermilion." 
 
 The painting of vases and statues seems to have been an 
 early employment of color among the Greeks. They were at 
 first executed conventionally in monochrome, but, as art ad- 
 vanced, began to imitate real life. Color and gilding were 
 sometimes used in architecture, as appears from vestiges on 
 the temples of Theseus at Athens and of Diana at Ephesus. 
 Yet the Greek artist soon perceived that painting was no 
 mere adjunct of architecture, but had its separate mission 
 and merits, and that no other medium could so record the 
 stirring events of the times. Frescoes were multiplied, and 
 even before the epoch of Aristides an encaustic painting in 
 colors boiled in wax and oil was introduced. Tradition tells 
 of the picture of the battle of the Magnesians, executed 
 about 700 B. c., for which the King of Lydia paid its weight 
 in gold. But the most famous of early Athenian masters 
 was Polygnotus, who lived about the year 462, and adorned 
 Athens and Delphi with his genius. He painted at Delphi 
 the " Taking of Troy " and " Visit of Odysseus to the Under 
 World." These were produced either in monochrome, or in 
 white, yellow, red, and bluish-black, which were the only 
 colors employed on the first Greek pallets. Most of the 
 names of the characters were nai'veiy written beside the fig- 
 ures. Yet his compositions were universally praised for 
 harmony, delicacy, and expressiveness. It was said of his 
 Polyxena that "the whole Trojan War lay in her eyelids." 
 
 Next came Micon ; and Agatharchus, who, devoting him- 
 self to the theatre, gave the dramas of ^Eschylus and Sopho-
 
 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 cles their proper stage scenery, and much promoted the 
 science of perspective. To him (about 450 B. c.) succeeded 
 the more gifted Apollodorus, called the " Shadow-Painter," 
 from his study of light and shade. He was, says Pliny, the 
 doorkeeper who threw open the beautiful gate of art to other 
 painters. Ephesus and Sicyon, after the Peloponnesian War, 
 became art-centers as renowned as Athens, and Zeuxis, Par* 
 rhasius, and Timanthes, were the masters of the period. It 
 was one of these who painted grapes at which the birds 
 pecKed, while the other executed a curtain so well as to 
 deceive his rival himself. The pride of Zeuxis was equal to 
 his genius. In his later years he would present his pictures 
 to his friends, as he considered nobody rich enough to buy 
 them. Sometimes persons complained of the slowness with 
 which he worked. " It is," he replied, " because I work for 
 immortality." He is reported to have died of laughing over 
 the likeness of an old woman which he had painted. Ti- 
 manthes was famous for his picture of "The Sacrifice of 
 Iphigenia," in which the figures showed gradations of grief; 
 and the father, as a climax, turned away to hide his face. 
 Nikias, the Athenian, contemporary of Praxiteles, dignified 
 his art, and attained to riches and reputation ; but Sicyon 
 gloried in Pamphilus, who was as learned in mathematics 
 and belles-lettres as in painting, and attracted many pupils to 
 a ten-years' art-course. Pausias, his distinguished follower, 
 successfully continued his methods. 
 
 But to the great Apelles, who flourished in the latter half 
 of the fourth century, the palm of classic painting properly 
 belongs. Anything attempted by this Raphael of antiquity, 
 whether portraits, or heroic or mythological subjects, roused
 
 PAGAN PAINTING. -j 
 
 in his countrymen the greatest enthusiasm. Grace and 
 beauty were constant attributes of his pencil. His most 
 celebrated work was " Venus emerging from the waves and 
 wringing out the sea-foam from her hair." Lucian describes 
 his " Calumny," and Pliny his portraits of Alexander the 
 Great, especially the one in the character of Jupiter holding 
 the thunderbolts, designed for the temple at Ephesus. He 
 painted another of Alexander mounted on Bucephalus, which 
 at first did not give satisfaction ; but a mare, accidentally 
 passing, neighed at sight of the charger, and the artist, ad- 
 dressing the hero, said to him, "Is it possible that this animal 
 is a better judge of painting than the King of Macedon ? " 
 Protagenes of Rhodes, so elaborate in his art-labors, owed 
 much of his fame to the generous friendship of Apelles. 
 
 After the age of Alexander painting declined to such 
 representations of ordinary life and domestic scenes as are 
 known in modern days by the name of genre pictures. An- 
 other branch of art, however, seems to have then developed 
 in the mosaic floor and ceiling decorations, popular among 
 Greeks and Romans, many of which may at the present day 
 be seen in Roman collections, and in the ruins of the baths 
 of Caracalla and the palace of the Caesars. They were com- 
 posed of bits of precious marbles or vitreous pastes, in varied 
 colors and designs. One of the most curious was at Perga- 
 mos, and was called " The Unswept House," because the 
 floor ingeniously displayed the remains of food, and all that 
 is generally swept away. 
 
 Another interesting relic is to be found at the town of 
 Cortona, Italy, whose museum preserves a valuable example 
 of Grecian easel-painting in the head and bust of a young
 
 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 girl with a lyre, painted in a wax medium on a piece of slate. 
 It was discovered in the last century by a peasant, in the 
 earth of his farm, and was used by him to stop a hole in his 
 oven. In this position it was seized by his landlord and 
 given to the museum, on condition of being perpetually kept 
 at Cortona. Among the treasures of the Vatican the famous 
 fresco of the Nozze Aldobrandini is still to be remarked. 
 This represents, in a composition of ten figures, a Greek 
 marriage ceremony possibly the nuptials of Peleus and 
 Thetis. The bride is modestly veiled, and several women 
 are arranging her toilet ; while others, in adjacent rooms, 
 sing or prepare the bath. The bridegroom, crowned with a 
 garland, sits upon the threshold. It was found on the Esqui- 
 line Hill, near the arch of Gallienus, early in the seventeenth 
 century, and became the property of Cardinal Aldobrandini ; 
 but was finally sold to Pope Pius VII., for more than ten 
 thousand dollars, in the year 1818. 
 
 Passing into Italy, we come to many Etruscan tombs ; as 
 well as to numberless vases, whose graceful designs are famil- 
 iar to all travelers, but whose workmanship is suggestive of 
 Grecian skill. The tomb-paintings were generally colored 
 outlines, sometimes of gay and pleasant scenes, with green 
 branches placed between their compartments ; sometimes 
 of serious and tender subjects, such as death-bed farewells, 
 where children embrace their dying parents, and by-standers 
 mournfully watch the parting. "A spirit-horse for a man, 
 and a chariot for a woman, are depicted quietly waiting out- 
 side, with their winged attendants, until they are needed to 
 carry the departed to their new land." Copies of several of 
 these wall-paintings may be studied in the Etruscan Museum
 
 PAGAN PAINTING. g 
 
 of the Vatican. In some of them horses are represented in 
 bright red or bright blue, or black and red. There is also a 
 tradition of an Etrurian artist, who, previous to the founding 
 of Rome, painted at Ardea the cupola of the temple of Juno, 
 which retained its colors till the first Christian century. 
 
 Among the Romans native talent found comparatively 
 small encouragement, their intercourse with the Greeks en- 
 abling them to supply themselves with much better paintings 
 than their own artists could produce. Early Roman work 
 was principally decorative, though portraits were also in 
 favor. If we rely upon Pliny's authority, we may believe 
 that their landscape-painting was " invented" in the time of 
 Augustus ; for a certain Ludius is much commended for the 
 excellence of his forests, villas, rural towns, and peasants. 
 The Roman emperors were liberal patrons of art. Julius 
 Caesar paid nearly two hundred thousand dollars of our 
 money for two pictures of Ajax and Medea ; and Nero was 
 far more extravagant. All such masterpieces have perished. 
 
 Remains of Graeco-Roman art are, however, the most 
 accessible of all antique labors. The mural beauties of Pom- 
 peii are so bright and fresh, and so well known everywhere 
 through photographs and copies, that they seem almost to 
 belong to modern times. The brilliant reds and soft yellows 
 of their backgrounds show us capacities of vivid coloring 
 among the ancients which we should never have imagined. 
 Dancing girls, lovely as the so-called "Raphael's Hours," 
 legendary representations, Grecian myths, fantastic animals, 
 and genre sketches, mingled, indeed, with many designs de- 
 grading to all true art, still live for us in that buried city, or 
 fade into dimness in the museum of Naples. The parting of
 
 I0 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Achilles and Briseus, the Battle of the Amazons, Perseus and 
 Andromeda, Medea and her children, Demeter Enthroned, 
 and subjects from Homer, may be specified. Graceful bor- 
 ders and arabesques also diversify Pompeiian wall-spaces. 
 Similar mural decorations are found among Roman ruins, as 
 in the villa disinterred beneath the Farnesina Palace, where 
 the name of the artist Seleucis was recorded on his work. 
 The scenic pictures of this villa were taken to the museum 
 lately arranged in the Baths of Diocletian. Greek portrait- 
 painting of nearly the same epoch has been recently illus- 
 trated in the seventy portraits, by Greco-Egyptian artists, 
 exhumed from tombs near Fayoum in 1887. These may 
 date from the second century B. c. to the reign of Hadrian, 
 117-138 A. D. They are generally executed on wooden pan- 
 els, in encaustic, with the ancient cestrum, or occasionally 
 in distemper ; and were bound on the mummy whose features 
 they perpetuate. The likenesses are simply done, but so 
 vivid as to be often more of historic than of artistic value. 
 They are represented in full face, with colors composed of 
 white, brown, black, yellow, and red. Such is our first col- 
 lection of realistic panel portraits, though hidden treasures 
 may yet lie in classic soil. Practically, however, painting 
 may be said to have died in the darkness of heathenism, and 
 to have been born again in the light and life of a Christian 
 world. Very feebly born and very slowly nurtured, its strug- 
 gles and triumphs were to be upon a different field ; and 
 the first effort of its new mission was to appeal through the 
 senses to the things beyond the senses, and thus to link per- 
 ception to imagination and faith.
 
 .?fSE OF CHRISTIAN ART. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 RISE OF CHRISTIAN ART. 
 
 THE burial-p-ace of the primitive Christians was the cradle 
 of Christian art. The faith which struggled in the early cen- 
 turies with the old paganism held the germ of all the beauty 
 which later culture has developed ; but the life of the saints 
 was first to be lived afterward painted ! The martyrs of 
 the Catacombs had little need of visible symbols to express 
 or stimulate their devotion. They were even at first suspi 
 cious of such symbols, and disdained the wisdom and the grace 
 of this world, so associated with profligacy and idol-worship. 
 A pictured image and a graven image stood practically in the 
 same category, and the second commandment seemed a 
 warning against both. But the natural tendency of the re- 
 ligious instinct to avail itself of some external signs could not 
 be long repressed. On the graves of believers began to be 
 carved the cross ; the Alpha and Omega ; the X. P., or mono- 
 gram of the name of Christ ; the Vine, of which his followers 
 are the branches ; the Fish, whose letters contained the 
 initials of "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour;" the Palm, 
 emblem of the martyr's victory ; the Dove, which represents 
 the Holy Ghost; the Peacock and Phoenix, types of eternity 
 and the resurrection ; and the Ship, which signified the 
 Church Rudely sculptured or rudely sketched, these were
 
 12 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 the infant efforts of religious art. Soon came the delineation 
 of Christ as the Good Shepherd, mild and youthful, with the 
 rescued lamb in his arms or upon his shoulders ; but no 
 actual scenes from his life are represented till a few years 
 later. Events from the Old Testament were earlier and more 
 freely painted. These were all intended to have some alle- 
 gorical meaning the sacrifice of Isaac, Jonah and the whale, 
 Daniel in the lions' den, the history of Elijah, and the history 
 of Moses, being regarded as furnishing types of Christian 
 truths. Indeed, in the Catacombs of both Rome and Naples 
 subjects from the Old Testament are far more frequent than 
 from the New. Even classic mythology is interpreted in ac- 
 cordance with the rising faith. Some remarkable paintings 
 have been found of Christ in the character of Orpheus, sur- 
 rounded by wild beasts who listen entranced to the sound of 
 his lyre, and who are supposed to signify the wild and hea- 
 then nations of the earth, subdued by the power of Christi- 
 anity. As the early prejudices against art began to soften, 
 the picturesque and touching details of the life of Christ be- 
 came the natural theme of the painter, while the old symbols 
 multiplied, and their meaning extended. The four beasts of 
 the Apocalypse represented the four Evangelists the human 
 face for St. Matthew, because he begins with the human gener- 
 ation of our Lord ; the lion for St. Mark, in allusion to his 
 clear account of the resurrection ; the ox for St. Luke, be- 
 cause he dwells upon the Saviour's sacrificial character ; and 
 the eagle for St. John, because of the apostle's lofty contem- 
 plations and undazzled gaze upon truth. These four were 
 occasionally combined into one mysterious emblem, called a 
 Tetramorph. From the crosses then drawn or cut four rivers
 
 PAINTING FROM THE CATACOMBS.
 
 RISE OF CHRISTIAN ART. 13 
 
 are seen flowing, typifying the four Gospels ; or sometimes 
 these are baptismal crosses, where the forth-springing waters 
 of baptism are overshadowed by the holy dove. " On one side 
 stand the lambs of the Christian congregation, while on the 
 other is the stag, an emblem of the outer Gentile world desir- 
 ing baptism." The Agnus Dei, or Lamb of God, was also a 
 favorite design of this period sometimes seen upon the altar, 
 or standing in the centre of twelve sheep, who are intended 
 for the Twelve Apostles. The nativity, the adoration of the 
 Magi, and the miracles of Christ especially the raising of 
 Lazarus are repeatedly delineated. Lord Lindsay forcibly 
 remarks : " Not a thought of bitterness or revenge expressed 
 itself in sculpture or painting during three centuries ; not a 
 single instance has been recorded of the tortures or martyr- 
 doms which have furnished such endless food for the pencil 
 in later ages. Even the sufferings of Christ are alluded to 
 merely by the cross borne lightly in his hand as a sceptre of 
 power rather than a rod of affliction : the agony, the crown 
 of thorns, the nails, the spear, seem all forgotten in the full- 
 ness of joy brought by his resurrection. This is the theme, 
 Christ's resurrection, and that of the Church in his person, 
 on which, in their peculiar language, the artists of the Cata- 
 combs seem never weary of expatiating." It is one of the 
 privileges of our own day to be able to trace, by means 
 of photographs, taken by magnesium-light from these very 
 walls, the records of primitive centuries, and thus see for 
 ourselves the Catacomb interiors, with their sarcophagi and 
 frescoes. The Vatican and Lateran Museums at Rome 
 also contain many relics brought thither from their original 
 places.
 
 I 4 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 It will be interesting in this connection to notice the por- 
 traits of Christ and the Virgin Mary which have been handed 
 down to us by tradition. The earliest pictures purporting to 
 be portraits of our Lord were discovered in the Roman Cata- 
 combs, and are considered as dating from the third or fifth 
 century. One of the best preserved is thus described by 
 Liibke : " The noble oval of the countenance is shaded by 
 long brown hair, parted in the middle; the eyes are large and 
 thoughtful, the nose long and narrow, the mouth serious and 
 mild, and the beard almost youthfully tender. The left hand 
 holds the open book of life, and the right hand is raised as if 
 for solemn invitation and warning." Such portraits, as well 
 as the profile lately photographed, professing to be taken 
 from one cut in an emerald by command of Tiberius Caesar, 
 and restored to Pope Innocent VIII. by the Emperor of the 
 Turks as a ransom for his brother, were founded upon the 
 type set forth by ancient writers, as in the famous letter of 
 Lentulus to the Roman Senate. Lentulus was an officer 
 supposed to have been attached to the person of Pilate, but 
 the letter is really a forgery of a later date, though it em- 
 bodies the existing traditions : " A man of stately figure, 
 dignified in appearance, with a countenance inspiring ven- 
 eration and which those who look upon may love as well as 
 fear. His hair, rather dark and glossy, falls down in curls 
 below his shoulders, and is parted in the middle, after the 
 manner of the Nazarenes. The forehead is smooth and re- 
 markably serene; the face without line or spot, and agree- 
 ably ruddy. The nose and mouth are faultless; the beanl 
 of the color of the hair, not long, but divided; the eyes 
 bright and of a varied color." Another version of the lettei
 
 RISE OF CHRISTIAN ART. ^ 
 
 adds that " his hair was the color of the hazel-nut ; the eyes 
 grayish-blue, and full of light." 
 
 A curious early legend relates how "Abgarus, King of 
 Edessa, lay r grievously sick, and sent a messenger to the 
 Saviour, enjoining him to bring back either Christ or his 
 portrait. The messenger, who arrived while Jesus was 
 preaching, endeavored to sketch his features, but the divine 
 light that streamed from them rendered it impossible ; where- 
 upon Christ, taking a piece of linen, wiped his face with it, 
 and handed it to him with the impression of his countenance 
 upon it. This passed into the hands of the Emperor of 
 Constantinople, and was said to have been afterward 
 brought to Italy, where its true possession is claimed in 
 various localities. A copy called the Nazaraeum is pre- 
 served in the Latin convent at Nazareth." 
 
 An equally miraculous origin is invented for the great 
 portrait held authentic by the Romish Church, called the 
 " Archirotopeton," or the "picture made without hands." 
 It is inclosed in a silver tabernacle, in the chapel of the 
 Sancta Sanctorum, where it was placed A. D. 752. Hare 
 repeats the legend : " The apostles and the Madonna, 
 meeting aftei the Ascension, resolved to order a portrait 
 of the Crucified, for satisfying the desire of the faithful, 
 and commissioned St. Luke to execute the task. After 
 three days' fasting and prayer such a portrait was drawn 
 in outline by that artist, but, before he had begun to col- 
 or, the tints were found to have been filled in by invisible 
 hands." 
 
 Among other legendary portraits is a so-called miniature 
 of our Saviour, still shown at Easter among the relics of the
 
 !6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 church of St. Prassede, Rome, said to have been given by 
 St. Peter to the daughters of Pudens. 
 
 Another legend, having its source in the middle ages, is 
 the handkerchief or veil of St. Veronica, upon which the 
 features of Christ were imprinted. The veil is exhibited at 
 Rome, but a wonderfully fine picture, painted from the tra- 
 dition, as predella to an altar, is ascribed to Zeitblom, in 
 the Museum of Berlin. 
 
 The Council of Ephesus in 431 defined the manner in 
 which the Virgin Mary was to be represented by art ; and 
 the ecclesiastical historian Nicephorus thus gives the tradi- 
 tion of her personal appearance : " She was of middle stature, 
 though some assert her to have been somewhat taller. She 
 had a pale tint, light hair, piercing eyes, with yellowish olive- 
 colored pupils. Her brows were arched and modestly black ; 
 her nose moderately long, her lips fresh, and full of amiability 
 when speaking. Her face not round or pointed, but oval ; 
 hands and fingers fairly long. She spoke little, but she spoke 
 freely and affably. She was not troubled in her speech, but 
 grave, courteous, tranquil. Her dress was without ornament, 
 and in her deportment was nothing lax or feeble." 
 
 In the Catacombs of Santa Priscilla is a very ancient 
 seated figure of the Virgin, " her head partially covered with 
 a jhort, light veil, and with the Holy Child in her arras. 
 Opposite her stands a man clothed in the pallium, holding a 
 volume in one hand, and, with the other, pointing to a star 
 which appears above and between the figures." 
 
 Many pictures of the Madonna which are shown to trav- 
 eleib are ascribed to St. Luke. Indeed, in the church of 
 Santa Maria, in Via Lata, on the Corso, Rome, visitors are led
 
 MADONNA OF ST. LUKE.
 
 RISE OF CHRISTIAN ART. I? 
 
 to a little chamber, which, they are told, is the identical studio 
 where the apostle painted with his own hand her likeness ; 
 and there is a German " Kunst-Lexicon " in which the biog- 
 raphy of St. Luke is given as the first Christian artist. Most 
 of these so-called portraits are, however, considered to have 
 been executed by a monk named Luca, who flourished about 
 the eleventh century, when it became the fashion to paint the 
 Virgin's complexion of the deepest brown or even black, in 
 allusion to the passage in Canticles : "I am black, but 
 comely, O ye daughters of Jerusalem ! " It is these black 
 Virgin pictures which always gain the reputation of working 
 miracles. 
 
 Ancient types of St. Peter and St. Paul existed in the 
 time of the Emperor Constantine. St. Peter is a robust old 
 man, with a broad forehead and rather coarse features, an 
 open, undaunted countenance, short gray hair, and short thick 
 beard, curled and of a silvery white. " The priestly tonsure 
 is said to have originated iii the shaving of his head by the 
 Gentiles, in order to bring him into derision. The keys in 
 his hand appear as his peculiar attribute about the eighth 
 century. He usually carries two keys, one of gold and one 
 of silver to absolve and to bind." 
 
 The portrait or image of St. Paul was known, according 
 to St. Augustine, in the second century. Chrysostom speaks 
 of himself as owning such a portrait, but gives no description 
 of it. But tradition endows him with " a small and meagre 
 stature, aquiline nose, high forehead, and sparkling eyes.' 
 He wears a white mantle over a blue tunic. His attribute is 
 a sword, and he commonly carries a book or roll, in allusion 
 to the Epistles.
 
 !8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 With the accession of Constantine and the triumph of 
 Christianity, art assumed a grandeur more proportionate to 
 the grandeur of the faith. The Church emerged from the 
 Catacombs, and magnificent basilicas were built, requiring a 
 corresponding style of decoration. Fortunately for us, most 
 of these decorations were in mosaic, and have thus often sur- 
 vived ruin and decay. The materials employed for this work 
 were not merely bits of marbles, but also small cubes of stone 
 and vitrified substances, such as may be examined to-day in 
 the Pope's mosaic manufactory at Rome, where pictures are 
 still extensively prepared. Some idea of the patience re- 
 quired may be gained from the statement that ten men 
 labored for nine years on the mosaic copy of Raphael's Trans- 
 figuration, now to be seen in St. Peter's. The earliest, though 
 much-damaged, mosaic remains which have come down to us 
 date frorr. the fourth century, and are discoverable on the 
 vaulted roof of Santa Constanza, Rome, erected as the funeral 
 chapel of the daughter of Constantine. They represent Christ 
 and the apostles, while the ornaments of the arches are vine- 
 tendrils with little genii and symbolic signs, on a white 
 ground. 
 
 But it is in the churches of Ravenna that we see the most 
 ancient yet satisfactory specimens of the art. The baptistery 
 of that city is peculiarly remarkable. Baptisteries are a 
 special feature in Italian ecclesiastical architecture. They 
 are circular or polygonal buildings, placed beside the cathe- 
 drals, and surmounted by cupolas whose vaulting is richly 
 adorned with appropriate subjects. In the Ravenna bap- 
 tistery is a singular representation of the baptism of our Lord, 
 executed in the fifth century. Christ is standing in the water,
 
 RISE OF CHRISTIAN ART. Ip 
 
 with the lower part of his figure visible through the waves, 
 " while the river Jordan, under the form of a river-god, rises 
 on the left in the act of presenting a cloth." Below the cen- 
 tral figure are twelve colossal apostles on a blue background. 
 The mosaics of SS. Nazaro e Celso, also at Ravenna, are ex- 
 tremely interesting; so are those of San Vitale, about A. D. 
 547, and of San Apollinare Nuovo. 
 
 In the new church of St. Paul without the walls, at Rome, 
 are preserved some precious mosaics of the fifth century, 
 rescued from the burning of the old basilica, portraying 
 Christ adored by the twenty-four elders and four beasts of 
 the Apocalypse. Mosaics of the same century, though con 
 siderably restored, may be studied at Santa Maria Maggiore. 
 Over the arch of the tribune in the Lateran is a head of the 
 Saviour, surrounded by seraphim. " Below is an ornamented 
 cross, above which hovers a dove, from whose beak, running 
 down the cross, flow the streams which supply the four 
 rivers of Paradise. Harts and sheep flock to drink of the 
 waters of life. In the distance is the New Jerusalem, within 
 which the Phoenix, the bird of Eternity, is seated upon the 
 Tree of Life, guarded by an angel with a two-edged sword. 
 Beside the cross stand the Virgin and saints. All these per- 
 sons are represented as walking in a flowery paradise, in 
 which the souls of the blessed are sporting, and in front of 
 which flows the Jordan." 
 
 But the finest mosaics of ancient Christian Rome may be 
 inspected in the old church of SS^Cpsmo e JDamianp, near 
 the palace of the Caesars. There is the figure of Christ which 
 has been called one of the grandest conceptions of primitive 
 ages. He is coming in the clouds of sunset. " Countenance
 
 20 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 attitude, and drapery, combine to give him an expression of 
 quiet majesty which for many centuries after is not found 
 again in equal beauty and freedom." 
 
 Most of these mosaics are laid upon a blue ground. The 
 transition to a gold ground gradually leads us to a change of 
 style which marks what is termed the Byzantine period.
 
 BYZANTINE AND .MINIATURE PAINTING. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 BYZANTINE AND MINIATURE PAINTING. 
 
 AFTER the establishment of the Byzantine Empire by 
 Constantine, with Constantinople as its capital, a school of 
 painting began to rise, destined to supersede for a time all 
 Roman art, which was apparently falling into premature de- 
 cay. It was a school which flourished from the fifth to the 
 thirteenth century, and was exclusively under the influence 
 of the early priests and monks, many of whom were them- 
 selves artists. Its works display a singular contrast of intense 
 and often extravagant symbolism with the stiffest and most 
 conventional execution. Ecclesiastical art had now rooted 
 itself as a power in the Church ; but it was a power not with- 
 out opposition. The decoration of churches and the growing 
 splendor of Christian services had originated the charge of 
 idol-worship, and roused the zealous anger of iconoclasts. 
 One of the emperors even conceived the idea of entirely 
 abolishing b' th pictures and statues ; and the fierce conflict 
 of a hundred years resulted in the triumph of painting, but 
 the suppression of sculpture. It was regarded as a matter 
 quite important enough for the legislation of general coun- 
 cils; and these councils considered not only whether sacred 
 subjects should be represented at all, but also prescribed, in 
 IP any instances, the mode of their representation. The Couu-
 
 22 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 cil of Constantinople, held in 692, decided that the lamb, 
 formerly used as the symbol of our Lord, should give place 
 to the humanity of Christ; and from the time of this decision 
 we may date the pictures of the crucifixion which soon 
 became so universal. At first they portrayed a fully-clothed 
 and generally youthful figure, standing, with open eyes and 
 calm features, erect upon the cross ; but very soon followed 
 the drooping head, contorted muscles, and agonized face, 
 where all traces of the divine are painfully absent. This 
 delineation of a suffering Saviour, " with no beauty that we 
 should desire him," suggested the ideal for suffering and 
 ascetic saints. Spirituality was expressed by meagreness and 
 meanness of form, and gloom or severity of countenance. 
 Madonnas grew " black " and most uncomely ; flesh-tints 
 darkened into deep brown, or a hideous olive-green ; tall, 
 narrow figures stiffened into rigidity; and eyes looked out 
 from under frowning brows with a spectral stare. Dra- 
 peries, on the other hand, were voluminous and gorgeous. 
 These morose martyrs shine in rich vestments of cloth of 
 gold.- Wealth of ornament and jeweled embroidery are 
 lavished upon the folds of their garments. Indeed, the whole 
 Byzantine school is characterized by a sort of barbaric splen- 
 dor, whose costly accessories were intended to dazzle the 
 beholder, and conceal artistic ignorance. Its best remains 
 are its early mosaics, all usually done on a gold ground, the 
 most interesting of which are those of San Apollinare in Classe, 
 at Ravenna, and of St. Mark's, Venice. Those of St. Mark's 
 are peculiarly worthy of study, because the period of their 
 execution extends from the tenth century down to the time 
 of Titian, and necessarily embraces a variety of styles, and a
 
 BYZANTINE AND MINIATURE PAINTING. 23 
 
 wide range of subjects. " Here we find that remarkable As- 
 cension where the Saviour is represented mounting over the 
 riven gates of Hades, with the banner of victory in one hand, 
 and drawing Adam upward with the other, while on each side 
 the apostles are lifting up their hands in prayer. Here we 
 see the guests of the feast of Pentecost, each two and two in 
 their respective costumes, the Jews in pointed hats, the Par- 
 thians with bow and arrow, the Arabians almost naked, and 
 so on." Curious Byzantine mosaics of the Emperor Justinian 
 adoring the enthroned Redeemer have been recently brought 
 to light in the church of St. Sophia at Constantinople. 
 
 The same peculiarities of the age are embodied in the 
 panel and altar pictures. A conventional type of counte- 
 nance belonged to each character. No variation of expres- 
 sion was attempted, but, instead of this, scrolls were often 
 painted, issuing from the mouth or held in the hands of the 
 different personages, with sentiments suitable to the occasion. 
 Gold grounds were universally employed, magnificent draper- 
 ies were finished and polished with the most careful minute- 
 ness. The glory, nimbus, and aureole, were of pagan origin, 
 and only adopted by Christians about the fifth century, but 
 came into more general use with the Greek artists. A glory 
 round the whole person is only appropriate to Christ and the 
 Virgin, or occasionally to ascending saints. The aureole, or 
 nimbus encircling the head, is the common emblem of sanc- 
 tity. From the fifth to the twelfth century it was shaped like 
 a plate, and laid in solid gold. The Latin nimbus is a simple 
 circle, the Greek nimbus has a red cross included within the 
 circle. A square nimbus indicates that the saint so adorned 
 was living when the work was painted. Sometimes the glory
 
 2 . SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 is composed entirely of seraphs, with their six wings arranged 
 according to the vision of Isaiah : " With twain he did cover 
 his face, with twain he did cover his feet, and with twain be 
 did fly." The color of seraphs in ancient art is always red, 
 to cxr-ress their ardent love ; that of cherubs is blue, to sig- 
 nify their profound knowledge. 
 
 The earliest emblem of God the Father is a hand, -visible 
 among clouds at the top of the picture. This is seen in the 
 Roman and Ravenna mosaics, especially in a mosaic of the 
 Transfiguration in San Apollinare in Classe. The dove ap- 
 pears as the symbol of the Holy Ghost, while God the Son is 
 represented as standing in majestic manhood, surrounded by 
 his apostles, or as a child in the arms of his enthroned and 
 resplendent mother. But still more significant of this period 
 are the scenes from the passion of our Lord, never till now 
 delineated, and the blood-streaming crucifixes and harrowing 
 martyrdoms, so suggestive of the gloom and terror which in 
 the tenth century were overspreading Christendom. 
 
 Through the eleventh and twelfth centuries we have in- 
 teresting remains of Byzantine altar-pieces, sometimes on a 
 single panel, sometimes in two or three parts, called diptychs 
 or triptychs, the folding side-pieces being united by hinges 
 and termed " wings." They represented the same subjects 
 as in former years, treated in the same style. Painters fre- 
 quently worked together. "One designed the compositions, 
 another drew the heads, a third the draperies, a fourth the 
 ornaments, a fifth the inscriptions, while others prepared the 
 gold ground and colors according to written directions." 
 Thus Byzantine art degenerated into almost Egyptian formal- 
 ism. " Under such conditions the school survives even to
 
 BYZANTINE AND MINIATURE PAINTING. 25 
 
 (his day, and still supplies the present pictures of the Greek 
 Church. Its principal workshop is Mount Athos in Greece, 
 which is a province of monks. As a school of painting it has 
 continued to exist in a uniform and unbroken career for 
 thirteen hundred years. It has nine hundred and thirty-five 
 churches, chapels, and oratories, nearly all of which are paint- 
 ed in fresco, and crowded with sacred pictures on wood." 
 
 The art of miniature-painting, which seems to have been 
 partially known among the Greeks, began to be applied to 
 Christian uses in the fourth and fifth centuries, and it is sin- 
 gular to observe how often the modest parchment, which was 
 the material for this labor, has been quite as enduring as 
 massive mosaics of imperishable stone. The fineness and 
 delicacy of touch here necessary developed a genius which 
 could never have adapted itself to vast or imposing forms. 
 Yet, the illuminator shared the spirit of his age, and advance 
 and change of style are as perceptible in his compositions 
 as in larger works. The hermits of the Thebai'd and Syria 
 first ornamented their hoi} books, and wrote the verses in let- 
 ters of gold upon purple-tinted parchment; but the earliest 
 manuscripts which we are now able to examine are treasured 
 in the library of the Vatican especially a roll of thirty feet 
 in length, with miniatures executed in water-colors, descrip- 
 tive of the life of Joshua. In the same library is a manu- 
 script " Virgil," probably of the fifth century, whose groups 
 have apparently been studied after the antique ; while in the 
 Ambrosian Library at Milan is a similar " Homer," some of 
 whose figures still shine in warm and transparent coloring. 
 Yet the art does not seem to have progressed with much 
 rapidity till nearly the ninth century, when it was practised
 
 2 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTLRS OF PAINTING. 
 
 by many Byzantines, either in their own compositions or in 
 copies made by them of older Roman works. A very inter- 
 esting psalter of the ninth century shows us David sur- 
 rounded by allegorical figures " Melody " leaning on his 
 shoulder, " Clemency " hovering over him, and " Vain-glory " 
 fleeing behind Goliath Of the same century is the " Chris- 
 tian Topography of Cosmos," also in the Vatican. The Vati- 
 can " Menologium," a calendar of the eleventh century, has 
 four hundred and thirty splendid miniatures, all on gold 
 backgrounds, representing animals, temples, houses, furniture, 
 arms, instruments, and architecture. The " Klimax " of the 
 eleventh or twelfth century exhibits, in miniatures of delicate 
 finish, an allegory of the Virtues and Vices, with the Vices 
 all depicted as negroes. 
 
 The Royal Library of Paris is rich in illuminated manu- 
 scripts. One of the earliest and most important is the 
 " Commentaries of Gregory of Nazianzus " though later 
 works, of the thirteenth century, are in better preservation, 
 and of almost equal interest to the student. From that 
 period date the celebrated " Romances " so famed in song 
 and story. Whoever inspects the miniature of the " Four 
 Sons of Aymon on their good steed Bayart " will have a fair 
 idea of the manuscript art of France about the year 125^. 
 The family likeness of the " Four Sons " and the anatomy of 
 the "good steed " will doubtleis receive their full share oi 
 admiration. But steady improvement went on in this direc- 
 tion through the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth cen- 
 turies, till the later " Romaunts " and the French " Books of 
 Hours " became the most beautiful specimens of mediaeval 
 illuminations. None can be more curious than a " Corona-
 
 CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN (Foucguet).
 
 BYZANTINE AND MINIATURE PAINTING. 27 
 
 tion of the Virgin," in a prayer-book, by Jehan Foucquet, 
 where the Three Persons of the Trinity are present. 
 
 The earliest German miniatures are to be found in the 
 Royal Library at Munich some of the Byzantine, and some 
 of the Carlovingian period. Probably the most ancient is 
 a manuscript from the Convent of Wessobrunn, A. D. 814 
 or 815, illustrating, in rude designs, the Recovery of the 
 True Cross, and containing the "Wessobrunn prayer." The 
 same library is well supplied with native manuscripts of the 
 Gospels, of the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries mostly 
 of Gothic stiffness. A Netherland " Evangelarium " of the 
 eleventh century, formerly at Treves, has a primitive paint- 
 ing of the " Last Supper," where Judas is taking the sop 
 offered to him by Christ, while at the same time Satan, in 
 the form of a bird, is flying into his mouth. Soon succeeded 
 the age of romance, marked by many manuscripts of the 
 troubadours or minnesingers, the most celebrated of which, 
 dating about 1300, is in the Library of Paris, and contains 
 portraits of each poet. Still more interesting are the works 
 of the Flemish painters of the fifteenth century. The de- 
 scription of a manuscript, also in the Paris Library, by Pol 
 von Limberg, 1410, will give some idea of their abilities. 
 " The Saviour stands in a rose-colored mantle, supported by 
 angels on pedestals, uniting Adam and Eve under a rainbow. 
 The waters of life well out, in front of the group, from an 
 octagonal fountain, swarming with fishes, and bathing a bank 
 alive with quadrupeds." 
 
 Curious Anglo-Saxon manuscripts may be seen at Oxford 
 and in London. Some of these are of very early Irish origin, 
 for the Irish monks were particularly fond of this form of art,
 
 2 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 and excelled in calligraphy, though they made comparatively 
 little use of gold or splendor of coloring. A device known 
 as the " Runic knot " is as peculiar to their penmanship as 
 is the familiar " Grecian chain " to Eastern borders. Rude 
 and grotesque as are many of their designs, they often evince 
 great originality and native force. A Saxon " Book of the 
 Gospels " is kept in the British Museum, written and orna- 
 mented by Endfrith, Bishop of Lindisfarne, " for God and St. 
 Cuthbert," about the year 700. Some of the " Psalters " are 
 remarkable for their extraordinary and fantastic Heads of 
 Christ ; while in a paraphrase of the Pentateuch, which is the 
 chief specimen of the eleventh century, is a singular render- 
 ing of the " Fall of the Rebel Angels," where Lucifer, as the 
 Prince of Hell, is encircled by an almond-shaped glory which 
 the vermilion-colored dragon is biting with his tail. In a 
 manuscript of the fourteenth century, also in the British 
 Museum, the cross of Christ at the crucifixion is planted in 
 the grave of Adam; and from this tomb rises Adam himself, 
 holding up a chalice to catch the blood of the Redeemer. 
 
 But nowhere do we examine this style of painting with 
 more satisfaction and delight than in the old monastery of 
 San Marco, Florence, now converted into a National Mu- 
 seum. Psalters, gospels, missals, and books of prayer, illu- 
 minated principally in the fifteenth century, by the brother 
 of Fra Angelico and his pupils, with the most elaborate care 
 and the richest coloring, are constantly laid open for public 
 inspection, and still bear witness to the universal love of 
 beauty and consecration of every variety of talent which foi 
 several centuries characterized the progress of mediaeval art, 
 both in Italy and the North.
 
 EARLY ITALIAN PAINTING. 29 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 EARLY ITALIAN PAINTING. 
 
 WHILE the Byzantine school was flourishing at Constan- 
 tinople, Italian art seemed to have preserved just enough 
 vitality to keep itself from extinction, and to transmit from 
 generation to generation a germ of genius destined to a later 
 development. Mosaists still worked at Rome, though not 
 with the old spirit and power. In the church of St. Agnes 
 without the walls are some remains of the seventh century, 
 showing St. Agnes standing between Popes Honorius and 
 Symmachus. The figures are on a green ground. In the des- 
 olate old church of San Stefano Rotunda, renowned for its 
 frescoes of horrible martyrdoms, are some mosaic fragments 
 of the same century. Elaborate mosaics of the ninth century 
 decorate the church of St. Prassede. They represent the 
 New Jerusalem, shaped like a polygon, with a gate at each 
 angle, guarded by angels. The hand of the Father holds a 
 crown over the Saviour, who stands within, the twelve apos- 
 tles under the symbol of twelve sheep below him, while 
 toward the gates advances a procession of white-robed mar- 
 tyrs with crowns in their hands. Ninth-century mosaics are 
 ilso found in the church of St. Cecilia. 
 
 The year 1000 was the epoch at which all Christendom 
 expected the end of the world ; and in the terror and agita-
 
 3 o SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 tion of that period art was neglected and mosaic-work aban- 
 doned, not to be resumed again, except by some Greek artists 
 in Sicily, till the twelfth or thirteenth century. Meanwhile a 
 few frescoes, much ruined or restored, attest the slow prog- 
 ress of wall-painting. These frescoes are so called because 
 their colors, mixed with water or glutinous substances, are 
 laid on fresh, damp plaster. Some, of the eighth or ninth 
 century, are still found in the lower church of St. Clement, 
 Rome. But it is unsatisfactory to inspect these by the dim 
 light of wax-tapers, and the only time when they can be 
 seen to advantage is at the illumination of the church on the 
 festival of the saint. In an almost obliterated fresco of San 
 Sylvestro, Rome, is a "Crucifixion," "where an angel is 
 taking off the crown of thorns, and putting on a real crown 
 an incident nowhere else introduced in art." 
 
 Europe's earliest historic paintings were frescoes of the 
 Lombards' warlike deeds, executed for Queen Theodolinda's 
 Italian palace at Monza. But such frescoes, though most in- 
 teresting, are generally so defaced that we can scarcely judge 
 of their excellence. Far more enduring and effective are the 
 remains of revived mosaics, once more multiplied everywhere, 
 but almost invariably sacred in character ; especially those of 
 the twelfth-century Roman church of Santa Maria in Trasta- 
 vere, or the rich mosaics of the thirteenth century, still brill- 
 iant in color, in the churches of the Lateran and Santa Maria 
 Maggiore, executed by Jacobus Torriti. In those of Santa 
 Maria Maggiore is said to be the earliest example of the Coro- 
 nation of the Virgin. The family of the Cosmati were also 
 celebrated mosaists at Rome during the thirteenth century. 
 About the same period Andrea Tafi became renowned at
 
 EARLY ITALIAN PAINTING. ^ 
 
 Florence, and adorned the baptistery of that city with mo- 
 saics of great merit, which still shine along the entire height 
 of the dome. Gaddo Gaddi, and other Tuscan artists, worked 
 in the same building. Vasari commences his lives of the 
 painters with a biography of Tafi, and grows ardent in his 
 praise. There is little, however, calculated to interest the 
 reader of to-day except his labors as a mosaist, and le fact 
 that he first represented angels playing on the violin, and 
 first painted the outsides of cabinets for the reception of 
 bridal gifts. 
 
 The thirteenth century witnessed the great revival of 
 Italian art by Cimabue ; yet he had not been without pred- 
 ecessors, who had striven, according to their small abilities, 
 to infuse some force and beauty into the old Byzantine types. 
 But their names and their works have mostly perished, and 
 posterity is well able to bear the loss. The earliest men- 
 tioned are one Giovanni, who flourished in 960, and Petrolino, 
 who is reported to have lived about the year noo. The 
 different Italian cities each aspired to produce a school of 
 painting, rendering more or less honor and patronage to 
 their artists, who began to form themselves into societies or 
 "guilds," soon to grow renowned and profitable. Sienna 
 seemed at first to give the highest promise of excellence. 
 She encouraged art with much liberality and discretion, and 
 took care not only of the prosperity but of the respectability 
 of her architects and painters, who were, for the most part, 
 gentle, contemplative, and holy. No immoral person was 
 allowed to work upon her magnificent cathedral then build- 
 ing. Purity and delicacy, faith and joy, were the characteris- 
 tics principally sought. Lord Lindsay speaks of the drooping
 
 3 2 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 bend of the neck of their Madonnas, so humble and so 
 meek ; of the caressing intercourse between the Virgin and 
 the Child ; of their rich yet simple coloring, and their love 
 for flowers and birds and every thing sweet, and pure, and 
 fresh, in creation. The city was devoted to the Virgin, and 
 she was of course the painters' chief subject. It is of inter- 
 est to examine the pictures of this school, kept in the Siennese 
 Academy ; but to our educated eyes they will seem stiff and 
 feeble, and still bound by the old Byzantine trammels so 
 destructive to beauty. The drawing of hands and feet was 
 also a hopeless problem to the artists of that day. 
 
 Guido of Sienna is the first well-authenticated personage 
 in the history of Italian painting. They show you, in the 
 church of San Domenico, his " Enthroned Madonna," heavi- 
 ly draped and seated under an arch, with three angels hover- 
 ing above her. The infant Saviour, in robes of yellow and 
 gold, is in her lap, and holds up two fingers of his little hand 
 in the attitude of benediction universally adopted. The 
 flesh-tints are not quite so dark as among the Greeks, but 
 they can scarcely be called much fairer than olive-green. 
 At the bottom of the panel is this inscription in Latin, 
 with the date 1221 : 
 
 " I, Guido of Sienna, upon whose soul may Christ have mercy, 
 Have painted this in pleasant days! " 
 
 In the early school of Pisa. Nicolo Pisano produced as 
 wonderful a revolution in sculpture as Cimabue and Giotto 
 in painting. Sculpture was therefore its favorite department, 
 leaving pictorial art less practised ; but reliable mention is 
 made of one Giunta Pisano, who is said to have painted about
 
 EARLY ITALIAN PAINTING. 33 
 
 1230, in the church of St. Francis at Assisi. Some half 
 obliterated frescoes are there ascribed to him, especially a 
 ' Crucifixion," in which a dead Christ, of a repulsive Byzantine 
 type rises above a crowd of grave and motionless figuresi 
 arranged as in ancient congregations the men on one side, 
 the women on the other. At the foot of the cross is a much- 
 damaged figure of St. Francis. He executed at the same 
 time a small, full-length, mild-faced figure of St. Francis, 
 which is now preserved in the sacristy of the church^ and 
 has almost the authenticity of a portrait. A little panel pict- 
 ure, also ascribed to Giunta, very old, very black, and very 
 ugly, is in the Dresden Gallery. It will not excite a burning 
 desire in the beholder for a further research into his works. 
 
 A family of artists, called the Berlinghieri, dwelt at Lucca 
 in the commencement of the thirteenth century, but most of 
 the primitive Lucca paintings are only crucifixes, after the 
 most disagreeable models. St. Francis was also an occa- 
 sional subject for their brush ; but the peculiar devotee of 
 this saint was Margaritone of Arezzo, born in 1236. He was, 
 moreover, an architect and sculptor, and his native city 
 Arezzo still preserves some efforts of his skill, all in Byzan- 
 tine taste and style. He has an altar-piece in the English 
 Gallery, representing " the Virgin and Child in an elliptical 
 glory, supported by angels, with the symbols of the evan- 
 gelists; and, on the sides, scenes from the lives of St. John, 
 St. Benedict, St. Catharine, and St. Margaret." The com- 
 plexions are dusky bronze, with vermilion spotted cheeks. 
 According to Vasari, he died aged seventy-seven. 
 
 Into this faint twilight dawning of a day of beauty and 
 progress was born, in 1240, Giovanni Cimabue. He was a
 
 34 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 native of Florence, and of a proud and noble family. His 
 own character is reported to have been haughty and disdain- 
 ful, yet lofty in aim and patient in labor. He could not 
 brook a fault in his pictures, but aspired far beyond the at- 
 tainments of his age, and achieved a fame which, according 
 to his enthusiastic biographer Vasari, entitles him to be called 
 the "father of modern painting." This reputation may seem 
 to rest upon slight foundations ; but we must remember that 
 what now appears to us painful feebleness and formalism in 
 art, and crudeness in color, was then a daring advance upon 
 all received standards. Until the time of Cimabue, painting 
 had never been considered as in any real sense an imitation 
 of Nature. It is true that under his hands it did not proceed 
 very far in this direction, but he at least perceived the ideal, 
 though it was reserved for his pupil Giotto to illustrate, both 
 by precept and example, the new theory of art. Cimabue 
 changed the Byzantine system of color, and introduced an- 
 other method of flesh-tints, giving warm shadows, and a light 
 instead of a dark undertone. He also emancipated draperies 
 from their Greek rigidity, and caused them, though still vo- 
 luminous, to fall in more natural and tasteful folds. He 
 avoided the round eyes of his predecessors, and gave a faint 
 touch of sweetness and grandeur to the severe and repulsive 
 faces which had formerly disfigured both Virgin and saints. 
 His knowledge of perspective was of course small, of anat- 
 omy still less, and kindness forbids us to allude to his 
 attempted hands and feet; but the soul of the picture began 
 to struggle through, and art was no longer mechanical. 
 Whether he had been instructed by Greek masters is a dis- 
 puted question, but he must at least have studied their paint-
 
 EARLY ITALIAN PAINTING. 
 
 35 
 
 tngs and felt their deficiencies. His earliest work was a "St. 
 Cecilia " no inspired musician, but a heavily-draped matron, 
 sealed on a throne, with a book of the gospels in one hand 
 and a palm-branch in the other. In the Florence Academy 
 is preserved a large " Madonna and Child," originally intend- 
 ed for the monks of Vallambrosa, with three adoring angels 
 on each side, on a gold ground. Several saintly heads at the 
 bottom are the finest part of the picture; yet when we con- 
 trast it with a Byzantine " Magdalen " which hangs close by 
 we can form a better opinion of Cimabue's real progress . es- 
 pecially if we subjoin a description of this Byzantine penitent, 
 who is spoken of by a distinguished spectator as possessing 
 " wooden hands, projecting ears, and the figure and pose of a 
 mummy." Two red daubs ornament her cheeks, and her 
 appalling length is enveloped in a dark reddish-brown gar- 
 ment. She stares fixedly before her, and holds the conven- 
 tional scroll. 
 
 When put into competition with such representations as 
 these, we begin to comprehend the rapturous admiration 
 which was universally accorded to the colossal Madonna 
 afterward painted by Cimabue for the church of Santa Maria 
 Novella. This was the largest altar-piece Florence had ever 
 seen. It was carried to its destined abode by a festive pro- 
 cession with music and banners, and the artist realized for 
 the moment all his dreams of fame. It still remains in the 
 Rucellai Chapel of the venerable church. " The Virgin, in a 
 red tunic and blue mantle, with her feet resting on an open- 
 worked stool, is sitting on a chair hung with white drapery, 
 flowered in gold and blue, and carried by six angels, kneeling 
 in threes above each other. A delicately-engraved nimbus
 
 3 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 surrounds her head and that of the infant Saviour on her lap, 
 dressed in a white tunic and purple mantle shot with gold." 
 But years have sadly dimmed its splendors, and I doubt if 
 many travelers of the present day would have joined the 
 procession. 
 
 Another " Madonna and Child " from the hand of Cima- 
 bue is at present in the Louvre, but has been much injured 
 and restored. A " Madonna " uncertainly ascribed to him 
 is in the London Gallery. But (if genuine) his extensive 
 works are the frescoes, now falling into decay, in the church 
 of St. Francis at Assisi. The best of these are on the roof 
 of the nave of the upper building, and on the walls of the 
 nave in a line with the windows. The subjects on the left- 
 hand side are taken from the Old Testament ; on the right 
 from the life of Christ, especially the scenes of the Betrayal, 
 and the Deposition from the Cross. 
 
 Before proceeding further it will be necessary to give a 
 somewhat full description of this remarkable church, in re- 
 gard to which Crowe and Cavalcaselle observe that its paint- 
 ings " comprise and explain the history of the revival of 
 Italian art," and that this edifice is undoubtedly " the most 
 important monument of the close of the thirteenth century." 
 To understand the reason of its erection we must refer to the 
 legend of the saint it was intended to commemorate. St. 
 Francis, often termed the Seraphic, was the founder of the 
 Franciscan order of friars. He was a native of Assisi, and 
 was baptized Giovanni, but called Francisco, the Frenchman, 
 from his early knowledge of that language. He was always 
 noted for a sweet and benevolent disposition, but his youth 
 vas given over to the pursuit of pleasure, till a long illners,
 
 EARLY ITALIAN PAINTING. 37 
 
 at the age of about twenty-five, produced more serious 
 thoughts, and the determination to devote himself wholly to 
 religion. His father bitterly opposed this resolution, and be- 
 sought a friendly bishop to dissuade his son from such a 
 course. But the bishop was moved with joy and reverence 
 at Francis's holy fervor, gave him a beggar's cloak, and en- 
 couraged him in his vocation. He first assumed the charge 
 of a lepers' hospital, cared for the poor and sick, and lived in 
 ragged penitence, prayer, and fasting, supporting himself 
 only by begging alms. Instead of a girdle he wore a rope 
 about his waist, from which peculiarity his followers are 
 sometimes termed Cordeliers. The three vows of poverty, 
 chastity, and obedience, he held to be indispensable to all 
 Christian perfection. Crowds were converted by his preach- 
 ing, and marvelous stories were told of his penances, his gen- 
 tleness, his tenderness, and piety. The birds were friends 
 with him, and the beasts of the field followed him like chil- 
 dren. " Hares and pheasants sought refuge in the folds cl 
 his robe, and his heart overflowed with love toward all living 
 creatures." A pet lamb was his frequent companion. He 
 went upon missions to heathen countries, was rapt in trances 
 and ecstasies ; and finally, in a cave upon Mount Alverna, 
 he saw the vision of a seraph, with six shining wings, and re- 
 ceived in his hands, and feet, and side, the marks of the 
 wourds of our Saviour. This subject has been pointed 
 under the title of " St. Francis receiving the Stigmata." 
 Two years after his death he was canonized, and became the 
 most popular saint of Italy. Over his tomb a church was 
 dedicated in his honor early in the thirteenth century. 
 
 The architecture of this church was Gothic, and its ar.
 
 3 g SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 rangernent peculiar; "two churches of almost equal extent 
 being built, one over the other : " the lower to cover the 
 sepulchre of St. Francis, the upper intended for the religious 
 uses of the monastery. " The great veneration in which this 
 place was held was evinced by the quantity of paintings with 
 which the walls were covered in the thirteenth and fourteenth 
 centuries. First, Grecian masters, and after them, it is sup- 
 posed, Giunta Pisano, executed considerable paintings, of 
 which little, however, is now recognizable." Cimabue and 
 his pupils continued the work, and afterward Giotto, as we 
 shall see, left in these remains some of his most characteristic 
 frescoes. 
 
 The present condition of the church of St. Francis at 
 Assisi is thus strikingly described by Taine, in his volume 
 upon Italy : 
 
 " Over the body of the saint, which the people regard as 
 ever living and absorbed in prayer at the bottom of an inac- 
 cessible cave, the edifice has arisen and gloriously flowered, 
 like an architectural shrine. Here is a crypt, dark as a 
 sepulchre, into which the visitors descend with torches ; pil 
 grims keep close to the dripping walls, and grope along in 
 order to reach the grating. Here is the tomb, in a pale, dim 
 light, similar to that of limbo. A few brass lamps, almost 
 without light, burn here eternally, like stars lost in mournful 
 obscurity. The ascending smoke clings to the arches, and 
 the heavy odor of the tapers mingles with that of the cave. 
 The guide trims his torch, and the sudden flash in this hor- 
 rible darkness, above the bones of a corpse, is like one of 
 Panic's visions. 
 
 " But that which cannot be represented by words is the
 
 EARLY 17* A LI AN PAINTING. 39 
 
 middle church, a long, low spiracle, supported by small, 
 round arches curving in the half-shadow, and whose volun- 
 tary depression makes one instinctively bend his knees. A 
 coating of sombre blue and of reddish bands, starred with 
 gold, a marvelous embroidery of ornaments, wreaths, delicate 
 scroll-work, leaves, and painted figures, covers the arches and 
 ceiling with its harmonious multitude. On one hand is the 
 choir, surcharged and sown with sculptures ; yonder a rich, 
 winding staircase, elaborate railings, a light marble pulpit, 
 and funereal monuments ; here and there, haphazard, a lofty 
 sheaf of slender columns, a cluster of stone gems whose 
 arrangement seems a fantasy, and, in the labyrinth of col- 
 ored foliage, a profusion of ascetic paintings, with their halos 
 of faded gold ; all this vaguely discernible in a dim, purple 
 light, amid dark reflections from the wainscotings. 
 
 " On the summit, the upper church shoots up as brilliant, 
 as aerial, as triumphant, as this is low and grave. It tapers 
 its columns, narrows its ogives, refines its arches, mounts 
 upward and upward, illuminated by the full day of its lofty 
 windows, by the radiance of its rosaces, by the stained glass 
 and golden threads of stars, which flash through the arches 
 and vaults that confine the beatified beings and sacred per- 
 sonages with which it is painted from pavement to ceiling. 
 Time, undoubtedly, has undermined them ; several have 
 fallen, and the azure that covers them is tarnished ; but the 
 mind immediately revives what is lost to the eye, and it again 
 beholds the angelic pomp such as it first burst forth six hun- 
 dred years ago." 
 
 Contemporary with Cimabue, in the then prosperous city 
 of Sienna, Duccio, called Duccio di Buoninsegna, was slowly
 
 4 o SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 beginning to learn that the teachings of Nature are a safei 
 guide in art than the traditions of the East. The time for 
 the aesthetic freedom of Italy was fully come, and the mas- 
 ter minds in all provinces were preparing for the change, 
 Duccio was independent of Cimabue, as Cimabue of Duccio, 
 but the same spirit was stirring in each. We have no posi- 
 tive record of his birth, though a picture marked 1278 is 
 ascribed to him in the Museum of Nancy, as is also a Virgin 
 and Child of somewhat later date, now in the London Gal- 
 lery. But his greatest work, and one most instructive to his 
 countrymen, was the grand altar-piece, fourteen feet long and 
 seven high, which he completed for the Sienna Cathedral. 
 This was painted on the front with a Madonna and Child 
 encompassed by saints, and on the back with twenty-eight 
 small scenes from the passion of Christ, beginning with the 
 entry into Jerusalem. It has since been sawed in two, and the 
 parts placed in the museum opposite the cathedral. Below 
 the Madonna he wrote : " Holy Mother of God, grant peace 
 to the people of Sienna, grant life to Duccio, since he has thus 
 painted thee ! " It was finished in 1310, and the Siennese were 
 as much excited by it as the Florentines had previously been 
 >y the Virgin of Cimabue ; so that similar honors were lav- 
 ished on it, and a similar procession bore it from the studio 
 to its magnificent altar. The little paintings on the back, 
 which the citizens doubtless thought far inferior to the 
 highly -ornamented Madonna in front, are now the valued 
 evidences of Duccio 's skill. They are beautifully finished, 
 finely grouped, and unexpectedly natural and impressive 
 His touch may be less free and noble than that of Cimabue, 
 but he displays refinement and elegance. Yet he must, in
 
 EARLY ITALIAN PAINTING. 4I 
 
 turn, give place to Giotto, whom all acknowledge to have 
 been the first true " lord of Painting's field " an artist, as 
 Vasari expresses it, "by the gift of God." 
 
 The events of Giotto di Bordone's life have so often been 
 narrated that it may seem tedious to repeat them, yet none 
 can be omitted from a history of art. He was born at 
 Vespignano, not far from Florence, in 1276 ; and every one 
 has heard how, when he was a shepherd-lad of ten years old, 
 Cimabue came riding through the valley, and saw him mak- 
 ing a drawing of his sheep with a piece of stone upon a 
 rock. With quick perception and sympathy, he recognized 
 the genius of the child, took him to his own home, and edu- 
 cated him as a painter. Growing to manhood, Giotto be- 
 came the friend of Dante, of Petrarch, and of Boccaccio : his 
 enthusiasm was roused and his ambition fired, while at the 
 same time his abilities were properly trained and regulated. 
 He was appreciative, yet practical ; his nature was inventive, 
 fertile, and varied ; " though born in a mystic century, he was 
 himself no mystic." He looked on Nature with keen, com- 
 prehensive eyes, and boldly aimed to reproduce what he saw. 
 With himself, the result was originality; with his critics, 
 amazement and admiration. They were filled with wonder 
 to perceive that human passions could be painted on pictured 
 faces that the melancholy figures should really look sorrow- 
 ful, or the happy glad. 
 
 Giotto's acquirements were not only those of an artist, but 
 he was liberally educated in the various accomplishments of 
 the period. His literary attainments were great, and he was 
 even himself somewhat of a poet as in the lines which he 
 penned upon " Poverty." Of his powers as a mosaist we have
 
 4- 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 ample proof in the famous mosaic of the " Navicella," much 
 defaced and repaired, but yet preserved in the porch of St. 
 Peter's, at Rome, representing the ship of the Church, manned 
 by the apostles, and tossed upon the sea, while St. Peter, in 
 the foreground, is being rescued by Christ from the waves. 
 As an architect he has left us the matchless Campanile of 
 Florence to speak his praise. Personally he was genial, witty, 
 and popular, but far from handsome. His eight children 
 were so ugly that Dante commented upon their appearance 
 in most unflattering terms. The poet of " Paradiso " and the 
 " Inferno " had been himself a scholar of Cimabue, though the 
 only notice we have of his progress is in language which he 
 himself uses when, in speaking of Beatrice, he says, " Whiles 
 I thought of her, I drew an angel." But he always continued 
 his regard for his fellow-pupil, and many of Giotto's most 
 forcible ideas were probably due to his suggestion. Counter- 
 balancing this, we find that Giotto (or pupil) has given us the 
 finest and most favorable portrait of Dante, discovered within 
 the last forty years, among some frescoes which had been 
 whitewashed over, in the chapel of the Palace of the Podesta, 
 Florence. It was much damaged, but shows us a youthful 
 and noble figure, with a red hood and vest, and green under- 
 waistcoat, bearing in the right hand " a stem with triple fruit, 
 possibly emblematic of the three great poems of which he is 
 the author." This photographs admirably, and is quite dif- 
 ferent from the better-known but less agreeable likeness on 
 the north wall of the cathedral, which depicts him standing in 
 a robe of red, with head crowned with laurel, holding in his 
 hand an open book. 
 
 As a painter, Giotto's chief excellences were the natural-
 
 EARLY ITALIAN PAINTING. 43 
 
 ness and life-like expression which have been already com- 
 mended delicate carnation flesh-tints, flexible attitudes, 
 and simple and graceful draperies. His defects were igno- 
 rance of anatomy and perspective, oblique and half-closed 
 eyes, flatness of form, and want of correct method in fore- 
 shortening. 
 
 The frescoes in the church of Assisi, illustrative of the 
 life of St. Francis, are among his earliest efforts. His scholars 
 of course assisted in their execution, but many in the lower 
 church are known to be from his own hand All these fres- 
 coes are very interesting; some are most curious, and clearly 
 display the novelty of his style. For instance, in the painting 
 of St. Francis causing water to flow from a rock in answer to 
 his prayers, we perceive a thirsty man stooping to drink the 
 first example of so common an incident in ordinary life being 
 introduced into art. Another singular fresco depicts St. 
 Francis preaching to the birds. The good friar is earnestly 
 exhorting his feathered congregation who, gathered under 
 the shade of a very symmetrical tree, turn up their little 
 heads and listen with profound attention ; for St. Francis ex- 
 tended his loving spiritual care to all creation, and, when he 
 heard the songs of the larks, was wont to say, " Our sisters, 
 the birds, are praising God ; let us sing with them ! " By far 
 the best, however, of this series of wall and ceiling paintings 
 are the four compartments of the vault of the lower choir, 
 representing the espousals of St. Francis to poverty, chastity, 
 and obedience. First we behold the fortress of Chastity 
 *hich the monk is scaling; in the second, the angel of Obe- 
 dience, draped in black, lays the yoke upon his neck ; in the 
 third stands Poverty as a bride, while Francis places a ring
 
 44 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 upon her finger, and the Saviour blesses the union ; and in 
 the fourth we see the apotheosis of the saint enthroned in 
 glory and honored by angels. Realism blends with tradition 
 and poetry in many trifling details ; as where " a dog barks 
 at the feet of Poverty, a child goads her with a stick, and a 
 boy throws stones at her." 
 
 Pope Boniface VIII., who was, like his wealthy successors, 
 a patron of rising art, soon summoned Giotto to Rome ; and 
 with this visit is connected the familiar story of the papal 
 envoy who asked from the painter a proof of his ability. 
 "Whereupon Giotto, who was very courteous, took a sheet of 
 paper, and a pencil dipped in red color ; then, resting his el- 
 bow on his side, with one turn of his hand he drew a circle 
 so perfect and exact that it was a marvel to behold. This 
 done, he turned to the courtier, saying, ' There is your draw- 
 ing ! ' " The amiable Pope appears to have been quite satis- 
 fied with this effort, and it is still perpetuated in the Italian 
 proverb, "rounder than the O of Giotto." No remains of his 
 works are now discoverable in Rome, except the mosaic of 
 the Navicella, some old panels in the sacristy of St. Peter's, 
 and a fragmentary fresco in the church of St. John Lateran, 
 in which Pope Boniface announces from a balcony the open- 
 ing of a jubilee. 
 
 Returning to Florence in 1300, he, or his pupils, adorned 
 the Palace of the Podesta with frescoes of the " Inferno " and 
 41 Paradiso," in which occurs the portrait of Dante mentioned 
 a few pages back, as well as other contemporary likenesses. 
 The same room contains almost obliterated paintings from 
 the lives of St. Mary Magdalen and Mary of Egypt. The 
 passion for whitewash which concealed these valuable pict-
 
 CHRIST ADORED (Giotto).
 
 EARLY ITALIAN PAINTING. 45 
 
 ures was similarly exercised in the chapels of Santa Croce 
 and other Florentine churches, and artistic treasures long lay 
 hid under such coarse covering. A " Last Supper," perhaps 
 a work by Giotto's best scholar, is the earliest large ren- 
 dering of this subject. The Peruzzi and Bardi Chapels 
 contain Giotto's fine frescoes on St. John and St. Francis. 
 The " Birth of the Virgin," in Santa Maria Novella Clois- 
 ters, may also be admired. In his pictures of the Madonna, 
 Giotto generally placed the angels kneeling before her 
 throne, singing to her or waiting on her as her celestial min- 
 istrants. 
 
 In 1305 the artist made a journey to Padua, and there 
 completed his celebrated frescoes from the lives of the Virgin 
 and the Saviour, in the Scrovigni Chapel of the church of 
 the Arena. These are full of expression and energy, espe- 
 cially a figure of St. John about to throw himself on the body 
 of Christ. Several of them have been chromo-lithographed 
 by the Arundel Society. He also visited Ravenna and other 
 parts of Italy, but, though he may have gone to Naples, it 
 has been ascertained that the "Seven Sacraments" in the 
 church of the Incoronata, in that city, formerly ascribed to 
 him, is not genuine ; neither is he now believed to have 
 worked in the Campo Santo of Pisa; but some of his panel 
 and altar pieces are collected in the Florentine galleries. 
 
 Giotto's crucifixes may be said to have marked, in a minor 
 way, an era in art. All who have passed through Southern 
 Europe must recollect the innumerable "Crucifixions," carved 
 or painted, which decorate churches, chapels, convents, or 
 wayside shrines. In the fourteenth century these were even 
 more reverenced, and their early style was assuredly no
 
 4 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING, 
 
 calculated to attract the beholder to the cross. Wounded 
 and harrowing figures, with emaciated limbs, despairing 
 countenances, and streaming jets of blood, were their best 
 conceptions of the Saviour of the world. But Giotto so im- 
 proved upon this ancient type as to convey some expression 
 of suffering majesty, heavenly love, and resignation, and thus 
 to furnish a new incentive to devotion, which his successors 
 were eager to adopt and copy. 
 
 Popular and beloved in life, Giotto was no less honored 
 in death. He was buried in 1337 in the cathedral of Flor- 
 ence, where a monument was erected to his memory, near 
 the tomb of Cimabue. His pupils and immediate followers 
 were entitled "the Giotteschi." None of them possessed 
 extraordinary ability, but the most talented was Taddeo 
 Gaddi (1300-1366), to whom Giotto had stood godfather. 
 His principal frescoes are in the church of Santa Croce, and 
 his panel-pictures exist in Berlin, in London, and in the 
 Florentine Academy of Fine Arts. Indeed, some of the works 
 attributed to Giotto were probably painted by Gaddi. He 
 was also an architect, and continued his master's labors upon 
 the Campanile. Like the rest of his school, he had a pen- 
 chant for long, slender figures, and architectural backgrounds. 
 
 Tommaso di Stefano, called Giottino, or the Little Giotto, 
 born in 1324, appears to have been a melancholy recluse, who 
 died early of consumption. He, too, has pictures in Santa 
 Croce, Florence, from the legend of St. Sylvester. His father 
 was so good an imitative painter that he was spoken of as 
 "// Scimia della Natura" the "Ape of Nature," a term in. 
 tended to be highly complimentary. 
 
 While Florence was thus gaining supremacy in the fine
 
 EARLY ITALIAN PAINTING. 47 
 
 arts, Sienna did not yield her renown without a struggle. She 
 possessed a rival painter, though posterity no longer allows 
 him to cope with Giotto. Simone Martini, often called Simone 
 Memmi, was born in 1283, and in 1324 married the daughter 
 of one Memmi, a painter, whose name has thus been trans- 
 ferred to him. His brother-in-law, Lippo Memmi, was his 
 associate, but ranked far below him in merit. Simone excelled 
 in the old Siennese characteristics of delicacy, purity, and re- 
 pose. His pictures shine with the beauty of holiness. One of 
 his large early frescoes is exhibited in the hall of the Public 
 Palace of Sienna, while in the chapel of St. Martin at Assisi is 
 a series of fresco illustrations from the life of that saint, in- 
 cluding the familiar subject of Martin dividing his cloak with 
 a beggar. The frescoes of the Spanish chapel in the church 
 of Santa Maria Novella, Florence, which were for many years 
 ascribed to Simone Memmi and Taddeo Gaddi, are now 
 ascertained to be the work of but second-rate artists. After 
 the removal of the papal court to Avignon, Simone was in- 
 vited thither, but his labors in that city have been ruined by 
 time and decay. There he resided as the friend of Petrarch 
 who wrote two sonnets in his praise, and there he completed 
 the portrait of Laura which has unfortunately perished. 
 There, too, he died in 1344. He is more celebrated for his 
 frescoes than his panel-pieces, though an "Annunciation " is to 
 be found in the Uffizi, Florence, the joint work of himself and 
 Lippo ; also a " Madonna and Child," and (possibly) a " Find- 
 ing of the Saviour in the Temple," in the Liverpool Gallery 
 The figures in this last production display much grace and 
 gentleness, and are elaborately modeled, but covered with 
 most cumbersome drapery. In addition to his other talents,
 
 4 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Simone was quite eminent as a miniaturist, and is also said 
 to have painted the first equestrian portrait known in Italian 
 art. After his death the reputation of the Siennese painters 
 declined, though Taddeo di Bartolo, who flourished about 
 the close of the fourteenth century, is in some degree worthy 
 of note. Frescoes on the " Death of the Virgin " in the 
 chapel of the Public Palace at Sienna, and a few pictures at 
 Perugia, or altar-pieces at Sienna, are his chief remains. 
 
 Andrea Orcagna, or Andrea Arcagnuolo di Cione, born in 
 1329, was the son of a Florentine goldsmith, and became pro- 
 ficient as an "architect, goldsmith, sculptor, painter, mosaist, 
 and poet." Orcagna is a corruption of his second name, which, 
 in its primary meaning, signified "archangel." His talents 
 as a sculptor will be best appreciated by an inspection of his 
 " Tabernacle " in the church of Or San Michele, Florence, 
 while he also had reputation as an architect. Orcagna's 
 genuine frescoes are found in the Strozzi Chapel of Santa 
 Maria Novella, Florence ; but he is most interesting to us 
 from his long-reputed connection with the famous frescoes in 
 the Campo Santo. This burial-place of Pisa has an extremely 
 remarkable history. Ships which, shortly before the year 1200, 
 sailed from Jerusalem to Pisa, brought fifty-three loads of 
 sacred earth from Mount Calvary, which were deposited in a 
 small inclosure near the Pisan cathedral, and planted with 
 cypress-trees. An arcade, very like cloisters, with adjoining 
 chapels, was built around it. On one side of this arcade 
 were many windows, looking upon the holy field, while the 
 opposite side was decorated with appropriate frescoes by the 
 best artists. This process of decoration was continued for 
 two hundred years. Dampness and time soon discolored and
 
 EARLY ITALIAN PAINTING. 
 
 49 
 
 defaced the pictures, but when in good preservation they 
 were unique of their kind. Conspicuous among all were the 
 " Last Judgment " and " Triumph of Death," first ascribed to 
 Andrea Orcagna, then assigned to Lorenzetti of Sienna, now 
 supposably by an unknown artist. The " Last Judgment " 
 is a large and powerful composition, in which Christ, accom- 
 panied by the Madonna, decides the destinies of the rising 
 dead. Mrs. Jameson observes that the attitudes of Christ 
 and the Virgin were afterward borrowed by Michael Angelo 
 in his celebrated " Last Judgment," but that even he could 
 not equal this old fresco in dignity and grandeur. The other 
 yet more singular and terrible wall-painting is the " Triumph 
 of Death," of which I add Lord Lindsay's description : 
 
 " It is divided by an immense rock into two irregular 
 portions. In that to the right Death, personified as a female 
 phantom, bat-winged, claw-footed, her robe of linked mail, 
 and her long hair streaming on the wind, swings back her 
 scythe in order to cut down a company of the rich ones of 
 the earth. Castruccio Castracani and his gay companions, 
 seated under an orange-grove, are listening to the music of a 
 troubadour and a female minstrel ; little genii or Cupids float 
 in the air above them ; one young gallant caresses his horse, 
 a lady her lapdog Castruccio alone looks abstractedly away, 
 as if his thoughts were elsewhere. But all are alike heedless 
 and unconscious, though the sand is run out, the scythe fall- 
 ing, and their doom sealed. 
 
 " Meanwhile the lame and the halt, the withered and the 
 blind, to whom the heavens are brass and life a burden, cry 
 on Death, with impassioned gestures, to release them from 
 their misery, but in vain ; she sweeps past and will not hear
 
 5 o SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 them. Between the two groups lie a heap of corpses, already 
 mown down in her flight kings, queens, bishops, cardinals, 
 young men and maidens, huddled together in hideous confu- 
 sion : some are dead, others dying angels and devils draw 
 their souls out of their mouths. The whole upper half of the 
 fresco, on this side, is filled with angels and devils carrying 
 souls to heaven or to hell ; sometimes a struggle takes place, 
 and a soul is rescued from a demon who has unwarrantably 
 appropriated it. The angels are very graceful, and their in- 
 tercourse with their spiritual charge is full of tenderness and 
 endearment ; on the other hand, the wicked are hurried off 
 by the devils and thrown headlong into the mouth of hell, 
 represented as the crater of a volcano belching out flames, 
 nearly in the centre of the composition. These devils exhibit 
 every variety of horror in form and feature. 
 
 " Below the volcano, a tract of mountain-country extends 
 to the left extremity of the compartment, representing, appar- 
 ently, the desert of Egypt, crowned by a monastery, and peo- 
 pled by hermits. A hermit is seated, reading, in front of the 
 monastery ; another, leaning on two crutches, stands beside 
 him both are full of truth and character ; a third, to the 
 left, milks a doe ; a fourth gazes downward after the fifth, St. 
 Macarius, who has descended the mountain, but from whom 
 attention is distracted by a gallant cavalcade of lords and 
 ladies who ride past below him, their falcons on their wrists, 
 returning from the chase, and headed by Uguccione, Signor 
 of Pisa, and by the Emperor Louis of Bavaria. They issue 
 from a narrow gorge of the mountains ; the hermit, St. Maca 
 rius, stands on the lowest declivity, and invites their attention 
 to three open coffins laid beside the road, in which are seen
 
 EARLY ITALIAN PAINTING. 
 
 5 1 
 
 three human corpses in three stages of decomposition. They 
 look eagerly down upon them, Uguccione holding his nose. 
 The lady on the right hand seems touched with the spectacle, 
 but the rest are indifferent ; and the exhortation of the hermit 
 passes by like idle wird they scarcely heed him. 
 
 " Nothing can be more admirable than the action of the 
 animals in this procession the horror, especially of the 
 horses, shying back, and yet eagerly peering forward as they 
 scent the carrion nor are the attitudes and action of their 
 riders less graphic. Verses explanatory of the subject are 
 dispersed in scrolls, in semi-Byzantine taste, throughout the 
 composition." 
 
 Let nobody, however, fancy that we can see all this to- 
 day, at a single glance, in the great hall of the Campo Santo. 
 Its paintings are mutilated and injured, and it needs intelli- 
 gence and patience to correctly trace them out ; but, as excel- 
 lent engravings of them were long since taken, and as photo- 
 graphs are easily procurable, all may judge for themselves of 
 their original and impressive power. 
 
 Bernardo, the brother of Orcagna, was supposed to have 
 added a third fresco a representation of " Hell," where 
 Satan is seated as a fiery giant, with flames bursting from 
 him in all directions. Bernardo also assisted in Andrea's 
 frescoes of " Hell " and " Paradise," in the Strozzi Chapel of 
 Santa Maria Novella, Florence. 
 
 A number of other artists were employed in the Campo 
 Santo, among whom may be mentioned one Spinello Aretino, 
 of Arezzo (1328-1400), who executed scenes from the life of 
 St. Ephesus. Unluckily for himself, he did not confine his 
 labors to such designs ; but, probably stimulated by the exam-
 
 5 2 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 pie of Bernardo, painted a " Fall of the Angels " for a church 
 of his native city, in which he depicted Satan as so unutter- 
 ably and appallingly hideous, that he is said to have become 
 insane over his own conception, and to have died distracted. 
 This may be a legend without foundation, but we can only 
 wonder why such a fate did not befall many old masters. 
 
 It is pleasant to turn from Spinello to the artistic monk 
 Lorenzo Monaco (1370-1422), whose name and large pict- 
 ures are preserved in one saloon of the Uffizi, Florence ; and 
 to the mild, peaceful, and seraphic Fra Angelico " the St. 
 John of art." So appropriate and universal is his surname of 
 Angelico that few are aware it never rightfully or even monas- 
 tically belonged to him. He was born in 1387, in the prov- 
 ince of Mugello, and christened Guido Petri. At the age of 
 twenty he entered the Dominican convent at Fiesole near 
 Florence, under the title of Fra Giovanni. Here his vocation 
 soon manifested itself. Learned monks might write of heaven, 
 zealous monks might preach of heaven, but his peculiar call- 
 ing was to paint heaven before the eyes of all. He began his 
 labors as a miniaturist, working with his brother Benedetto, 
 who was also an illuminator of choral books and missals; 
 but the agitations of th; times disquieted even the dwellers 
 on the heights of Fiesole, and the brethren were sent for a 
 season to Cortona, where we still find Angelico's early works 
 a " Madonna with Saints and Angels." an "Annunciation," 
 and " Scenes from the Lives of the Virgin and St, Dominic." 
 Returning to Fiesole, he remained for some years in his old 
 abode, till, upon the acquisition of the Florentine monastery 
 of San Marco, the order removed him thither. With the 
 history of this monastery, one of the most interesting spots
 
 EARL Y ITALIAN PAINTING. 
 
 53 
 
 in Florence, his name will ever be intimately connected. 
 There he dwelt in saintly calm ; humble, holy, devout ; work- 
 ing with all diligence at the command of his prior; taking no 
 gain or payment for himself; altering nothing, because he 
 believed his first inspiration to be direct from God ; painting 
 Christ and Mary, according to Montalembert, "only on his 
 knees, and his crucifixes amid floods of tears ; " adorning the 
 cells of the friars with those marvelous frescoes which now 
 shine, faintly faded, "less like a picture at all than some 
 celestial shadow on the gray old walls." An eloquent writer 
 has thus imaged his convent-life : " Around him all actions 
 were prescribed, and all objects colorless ; day after day uni- 
 form hours brought him the same bare walls, the same dark 
 lustre of the wainscoting, the same straight folds of cowls 
 and frocks, the same rustling of steps passing to and fro 
 between refectory and chapel. But amid this monotony his 
 heart involuntarily summoned up and contemplated the con- 
 course of divine figures. Glittering staircases of jasper and 
 amethyst rose above each other up to the throne on which 
 sat celestial beings. Golden aureoles gleamed around their 
 brows ; red, azure, and green robes, fringed, bordered, and 
 striped with gold, flashed like glories. All was light ; it was 
 the outburst of mystic illumination." 
 
 No observer of to-day need consider such language ex- 
 aggerated if he carefully notes the peculiar merits of this 
 master. His range is narrow, but within its own limits comes 
 as near perfection as human art can ever reach. He painted 
 only sacred subjects, and those only in the most sacred man- 
 ner. His forms were always closely draped a fortunate cir- 
 cumstance, when we consider his ignorance of anatomy ; his
 
 54 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 coloring was clear, pure, and tender beyond the power of 
 words to describe ; and the expression of his faces so inno- 
 cently radiant, so exalted, and so heavenly, that a glance at 
 their beauty is like a glimpse into another world. No wonder 
 that after regarding his holy throngs he should be ever known 
 as Fra Angelico, and almost canonized in addition as " II 
 Beato," so that in Italian catalogues he is usually entered as 
 "Beato Angelico." His deficiencies were what might natu- 
 rally be expected. His chief gift being imaginative spirituality, 
 he failed in delineating the real and the actual. His drawing is 
 often faulty, and his proportions incorrect. He could depict 
 repose, but not action ; and when he attempts to portray the 
 workings of any evil or malignant passions the result is almost 
 ludicrously weak. All his sinners " look like sheep in wolves' 
 clothing." Even if he tries to paint foul fiends an effort 
 into which I regret to say his gentle nature was on rare oc- 
 casions beguiled they are only very ugly but very tame hob- 
 goblins, with scarcely any flavor of the genuine devil in their 
 composition. 
 
 In America Fra Angelico is most widely known by the 
 angels on gilded panels which are so generally imported into 
 every city. These are copied from the originals in the Uffizi 
 Gallery, Florence, where they are painted in the frame of ? 
 large picture, styled a " Tabernacle," representing a Madonna 
 and Child, with attendant saints. The angels, playing on in- 
 struments, stand, in the size and colors in which we see them, 
 on the gilt ground of the frame, entirely surrounding the in- 
 terior picture. A much smaller but most exquisitely finished 
 painting of a similar subject, similarly grouped, a standing 
 Madonna and Child, called the " Madonna della Stella," with
 
 EARLY ITALIAN PAINTING. 
 
 55 
 
 figures of miniature proportions, rests upon an easel in one 
 of the apartments of San Marco. This building dso contains, 
 besides the frescoes in the cells already alluded to, and sev- 
 eral other wall-paintings in the corridors and cloisters, Fra 
 Angelico's largest but by no means most pleasing work a 
 " Crucifixion " or " Adoration of the Cross," in the chapter- 
 house, made the scene of the interview between Savonarola 
 and Romola in George Eliot's novel. This immense com- 
 position covers the whole side of the room, and shows us 
 Christ on the cross, with the two thieves near him, and St. 
 Mark, the patron saint of the convent, and many life-sized 
 Fathers, founders and heads of orders, gathered in worship- 
 ing rows below. " The main event goes for nothing, but 
 Jerome and Augustine, Francis and Dominic, with faces more 
 real than our own, have carried on a perpetual adoration 
 ever since, and never drooped or failed." In the Florentine 
 Academy of Fine Arts we discover a few other specimens of 
 the painter's skill, especially a " Last Judgment," an extraordi- 
 nary piece, whose centre represents a long pavement of tombs, 
 out of which rise the dead, having thrown off the stone slabs 
 which marked their burial-place. Above them we perceive 
 Christ the Judge with descending angels. At his left is hell, 
 with demons seizing the condemned ; while at his right is 
 paradise, a fair, flowery meadow lit with stars, and thronged 
 with angels who press forward to receive the just. They 
 meet ; they embrace ; golden halos gleam upon their heads, 
 and hand-in-hand they glide along, through the bright per- 
 spective, toward a distant gateway luminous with rays of 
 glory. Monk though he was, the artist distributed his rewards 
 and punishments with singular impartiality; for many a friar 
 5
 
 5 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 and even bishop, meets our gaze in his assembly of the 
 wicked. The other picture, usually placed upon an easel be- 
 side it, is the "Descent of Christ into Hades." This cannot 
 boast of beauty, but is very interesting and grotesque. Ha- 
 des, or "Limbus," as it was then called, is a dark, rocky 
 cave. Christ, bearing the banner of the cross, has burst open 
 its heavy door ; in fact, the door has literally fallen down, 
 and a howling devil lies under it, crushed perfectly flat. Re- 
 joicing souls rush to greet the Redeemer, and Adam seizes 
 him by the hand. In the corners of the cavern, or up among 
 the black rocks, ugly little imps look on with disappointed 
 rage. 
 
 A more beautiful and celebrated composition of Fra An- 
 gelico hangs at present in the Louvre. It is a " Coronation 
 of the Virgin," a subject in which he particularly delighted. 
 But of all his Coronations this is the gem. August Schlegel, 
 the German critic, has written a whole volume in its honor. 
 An enthroned Saviour sets a diadem upon the head of the 
 Madonna, who bends meekly forward. A chorus of twelve 
 angels play their harps, viols, and other instruments, in har- 
 monious concert ; below them a crowd of holy figures ador- 
 ingly behold the scene, and several lovely saints, among them 
 St. Catharine with her wheel, St. Agnes with her lamb, and 
 St. Cecilia crowned with roses, kneel around. Seldom shall 
 we find a picture which can give more pleasure than this rich 
 and varied piece. So clear and brilliant, yet so soft in color, 
 its sweet, serene faces full of joy and calm, we may still say 
 of it what Vasari wrote, more than three hundred years ago, 
 when he declared himself convinced that those blessed spirits 
 could look no otherwise in heaven itself.
 
 EARLY ITALIAN PAINTING. 
 
 57 
 
 Thus praying and painting, the course of Fra Angelico's 
 cloister-life flowed on most tranquilly for nearly forty years. 
 But his fame had reached to Rome, and in 1446 the then 
 reigning pope desired his presence at the Vatican, where he 
 decorated a chapel with frescoes from the histories of Saints 
 Lawrence and Stephen. This is his only work now in that 
 city, except the pictures ascribed to him in the Vatican and 
 Corsini Galleries. During a short stay at Orvieto, he began 
 a " Last Judgment " in the cathedral, which was afterward 
 finished by Luca Signorelli. The purity and elevation of his 
 nature so excited the admiration of the pope that he offered 
 him the archbishopric of Florence as soon as it became 
 vacant; but Angelico refused, saying that he did not feel 
 himself capable of ruling men, and requested that another 
 might be appointed. He died in Rome, in 1455, at the age 
 of sixty-eight, and is buried in the church of Santa Maria 
 Sopra Minerva. On the simple slab which serves as his mon- 
 ument is a Latin inscription which has been thus translated : 
 
 " It is no honor to be like another Apelles, but rather, O 
 Christ, that I gave all my gains to Thy poor. One was a work 
 for earth, the other for heaven. A city, the flower of Etruria, 
 bare me, John ! "
 
 5 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTIWG. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 
 
 To properly comprehend the rise and progress of paint- 
 ing during the middle ages, something more is necessary than 
 mere biographies of the painters. We must be able to enter 
 somewhat into the spirit of the times, to understand what 
 thoughts and aspirations were likely to find expression in art, 
 what subjects were best calculated to reach the popular 
 mind, and in what form and through what technical methods 
 they were conveyed. The brief history of the earliest mas- 
 ters, detailed in the few preceding chapters, suffices to show 
 that the Church, and the traditions of the Church, were the 
 first motive powers in art as well as in literature. A certain 
 framework of faith was the very basis upon which all civilized 
 society rested. We may differ in our estimate of the quality 
 and value of that faith, but the fact is indisputable. To set 
 forth its truth, and illustrate its legends, was long held to be 
 the chief end of the human intellect. Even the Real was for 
 many centurier. kept in rigorous subjection to the Ideal, or 
 considered as its antagonist; and it was only very slowly 
 that their true relation began to be appreciated. Painting 
 was first entirely sacred ; subsequently the historical and clas- 
 sical elements were added ; now we understand that all fields 
 are open, and that it may gather its laurels where it will
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 
 
 59 
 
 But during the fourteen Christian centuries in which we have 
 been at present interested, and, in a modified degree, for 
 some time afterward, all art was ecclesiastical in sentiment 
 and expression. Its usual aim was to portray in the most 
 graphic manner, and with the most emotional lesults, the 
 various scenes in the life of Christ, of the Virgin Mary, and 
 of the favorite saints ; together with such representations of 
 doctrines or holy mysteries as best tended to the instruction 
 of the people. Whatever embellishments of these events or 
 doctrines had been supplemented by tradition were unhesi- 
 tatingly accepted and embodied with the original facts. 
 Symbolism was an important part of the artistic creed ; even 
 different colors had a different significance. We shall there- 
 fore devote some pages to ascertain what were the main 
 events within whose limits the painter labored, and how and 
 with what accessories he was accustomed to depict them. So 
 only can we appreciate and explain the numberless pictures 
 of the old masters which we find, not only in all European 
 galleries and churches, but in the very engravings and photo- 
 graphs which we hang in our own houses. 
 
 And first we must remember that oil-painting, as we now 
 see it, was in those days unknown. Pictures were either fres- 
 coes, executed in large proportions on the outer and inner 
 walls of churches, palaces, and public buildings, with colors 
 ordinarily light in hue, laid quickly on the plaster while still 
 damp and fresh (hence the name fresco] ; or they were done 
 in distemper (a tempera), upon panels of wood, with colors 
 mixed, not with oil, but with fig-juice, gum, or white of egg. 
 Sometimes the same preparation was used on a ground of 
 lime, polished "as white as milk, and as smooth as ivory
 
 6o SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 When these were small in size they might be called panel 01 
 easel pictures ; yet they were not intended to ornament the 
 dwellings 'of citizens, but adorned cathedrals, churches, or 
 private chapels; or possibly the doors of sacristies, or the 
 presses and chests in which the robes of the priests and the 
 sacramental vessels, or even occasionally a maiden's bridal 
 gifts, were kept. If large in dimensions they were employed 
 as altar-pieces, and were often architecturally arranged. "In 
 the centre was the main painting, above which the frame 
 formed pointed arches, each containing pictures of single 
 saints, while below was a platform, called a predella, which 
 was ornamented by small designs relating to the principal 
 subject. When the altar-piece was in two parts, united by 
 hinges, it was called a diptych, when in three parts a triptych, 
 whose sides or doors could open and shut, and were spoken 
 of as ' wings.' On these wings the Annunciation to the Vir- 
 gin, or the portraits of the donors of the altar-piece, might 
 be painted. In after-years, when removed from the churches 
 for which they were constructed, these altar-pieces were 
 taken apart, so that the predella and upper pieces were fre 
 quently lost, or carried away separately." 
 
 These being the uses to which painting was as yet applied, 
 we are less inclined to wonder that it was confined to reli- 
 gious themes. Before particularizing the number and treat- 
 ment of those themes, it will be well to quote the standard 
 explanation of the mystic meaning of the colors with which 
 llie artist worked : 
 
 " White was the emblem of religious purity, joy, or life. 
 The Saviour generally wears white after his resurrection. 
 The Virgin wears white only in the Immaculate Conception
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 6 r 
 
 and the Assumption. Her proper dress is a blue mantle, 
 with a star in front, long sleeves, red tunic, and head veiled. 
 
 " Red signifies divine love, fire, creative power, and roy- 
 alty. 
 
 "White and red roses, as worn by Saints Cecilia and 
 Dorothea, imply love and innocence, or love and wisdom. 
 
 " In a bad sense red implies hatred, blood, war, and pun- 
 ishment. Red and black were the livery of hell and the 
 devil. 
 
 " Blue, or the sapphire, is heaven, truth, and fidelity. St. 
 John the evangelist wears a blue tunic and red mantle. 
 
 " Yellow, or gold, was the symbol of the sun, goodness of 
 God, marriage, faith, or fruitfulness. St. Peter wears a yel- 
 low mantle over a blue tunic. In a bad sense it means in- 
 constancy, jealousy, or deceit. A dirty yellow is the livery 
 of Judas. 
 
 " Green, or emerald, signifies hope or victory. 
 
 " Violet, union of love and truth ; passion and suffering. 
 Hence it was worn by martyrs. Mary Magdalen, as patron 
 saint, wears a red robe ; as a penitent, violet and blue. Red 
 and green with her signify love and hope. The Virgin wears 
 violet after the crucifixion ; and sometimes the Saviour after 
 the resurrection. 
 
 " Gray is the hue of mourning, humility, and innocence 
 accused. Black refers to darkness, mourning, wretchedness; 
 white and black together, to humility and purity of life, 
 They are the colors of the Carmelites and Dominicans." 
 
 The traditions of painting range through the history of 
 Ihe Old and New Testaments ; yet the principle of selection 
 has been shown here as well as elsewhere, and after the period
 
 62 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 of the Catacombs we find the events of the Old Testament 
 comparatively neglected. Such artists as wished to conform 
 to the standard sacred chronology were willing to begin their 
 pictorial records by representations of the fall of Lucifer 
 and the rebel angels, which, they were taught, took place 
 just before the creation. This was the correct order, not 
 only for ecclesiastical art but for ecclesiastical literature, of 
 which we have an example in Milton's " Paradise Lost." 
 In many cases, the degree of ugliness in these angels " is 
 proportioned to their relative distance from heaven or hell," 
 Lucifer being the most hideous of all; as we see in the 
 fresco of Spinello Aretino, mentioned in the last chapter. 
 Michael Angelo wished to execute the " Fall of the Angels " 
 on the wall of the Sistine Chapel opposite " The Last Judg- 
 ment," that the beginning and end of the world's history 
 might so be visible : but never carried out his intention. 
 
 Of good angels, powerful and lovely attendants of the 
 Saviour, the Madonna, and mankind, all painters were roman- 
 tically fond. These were first introduced into mosaics, colos- 
 sal in height, and rather severe in aspect, and their ministry 
 was afterward suggested on all suitable occasions. They an- 
 nounce the birth of our Lord ; hymn his nativity ; wait upon 
 his mother, and on all the scenes of his life and passion ; 
 mourn his crucifixion ; guard his tomb ; proclaim his resur- 
 rection ; bear up the Virgin and the saints to heaven ; com- 
 fort the sorrowing ; guide the wandering ; and conduct the 
 blessed to the joys of Paradise. Strictly speaking, they should 
 have no sex ; but in primitive art are masculine, " with the 
 feminine attributes of beauty and purity." Female angels 
 were quite unheard of till the fifteenth and seventeenth cen-
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 63 
 
 turies. Among the seven traditional archangels, St. Michael 
 (whose name signifies "who is like unto God "), the Captain 
 of the Hosts of Heaven, Overcomer of Lucifer, Lord of 
 Souls, and Separator of the Wicked from the Just at the 
 Resurrection ; Gabriel (God is my strength), the Herald of 
 the Divine Will, and Messenger of the Annunciation to the 
 Virgin ; and Raphael (the medicine of God), the Chief Guar- 
 dian Angel, are familiar to Christian art. " Michael bears the 
 sword and scales ; Gabriel the lily ; and Raphael the pilgrim's 
 staff and gourd full of water, as a traveler." 
 
 The creation of the earth, Adam and Eve, the expulsion 
 from Eden, and the lives of the patriarchs, have been indeed 
 artistically treated, but were rarely selected as subjects be- 
 tween the tenth and fifteenth centuries. Adam and Eve 
 found most favor among the German painters ; the religious 
 avoidance of the nude being sufficient reason for their early 
 neglect in Italy. The prophets were more frequently deline- 
 ated ; grand old figures, whose aged heads afforded fine scope 
 for sublimity of form and expression. Sibyls were looked 
 upon as semi-Christian candidates for art, " heathen prophet- 
 esses who predicted the coming of Christ to the Gentiles as 
 the prophets did to the Jews." They were supposed to have 
 lived at different periods, and to have been twelve in num- 
 ber ; but they are scarcely incorporated into sacred themes 
 till the time of Michael Angelo. 
 
 John the Baptist, the prophet of the New Testament, U 
 the first historic character who appears as a universal favor- 
 ite. In many ancient mosaics and in many baptisteries he 
 simply takes the character of the baptizer, standing in the 
 Jordan, beside our Saviour, in water which sometimes
 
 64 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINT2NU. 
 
 scarcely covers his feet, and sometimes rises up in heaping 
 waves to his very shoulders. He has a staff and shell from 
 which the water is poured ; kneeling angels hold the garments 
 or cloths. Often too he is seen beside the Madonna and 
 Child, wrapped in a hairy mantle, and bearing a reed cross or 
 scroll inscribed " Ecce Agnus Dei." On such occasions he is 
 tall and gaunt, with a look of austerity and age. Occasion- 
 ally he is portrayed as one of the patron saints of Florence. 
 A few large frescoes are entirely devoted to representations 
 of his life, from birth to death ; such as those of Ghirlan- 
 dajo in the church of Santa Maria Novella, Florence, and 
 those of Filippo Lippi in the cathedral of Prato. Some 
 of the latter are very beautiful, especially where, still a child, 
 he takes leave of his parents to retire to the wilderness, or 
 prays, a lonely, devout boy, amid the rocky desert. His 
 death is of course included in such series, but it did not 
 become popular as a separate subject till about the six- 
 teenth century, when we have the fine picture, by Luini, 
 of the daughter of Herodias with the head of St. John the 
 Baptist, a composition subsequently adopted by artists of all 
 nations. Neither does his introduction as a child into the 
 group known as a " Holy Family " occur till nearly the same 
 period. 
 
 Around the history of the Virgin Mary so many traditions 
 have congregated, and have been so eagerly embodied, that it 
 is scarcely possible to condense them into a single chapter. 
 Yet it is very desirable to know, at least in outline, what are 
 the motives of a class of pictures so numerous and varied; 
 and it will therefore be necessary to quote largely from float- 
 ing legends and from the apocryphal gospels.
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 65 
 
 The first authentic delineation of the Virgin displays to 
 us the mother holding the infant Christ. Some indeed assert 
 that a female figure, praying with outstretched arms, found in 
 the Catacombs, and generally alluded to as an " Orante," was 
 intended as a portrait of Mary ; but critics seldom uphold 
 this idea. At the close of the fifth century the Virgin and 
 Child were represented together ; not in reference to any 
 divine element in the mother, but to express a belief in the 
 humanity as well as the divinity of the Son, which had been 
 questioned by Nestorian heretics. The reverence paid to the 
 one was, however, soon extended to the other, till both were 
 honored and at last worshiped. In early pictures of Byzan- 
 tine origin the Virgin sometimes stands alone, a veiled, ma- 
 jestic figure, with spreading hands, as in seventh-century 
 mosaics in Rome and Ravenna. By the fourteenth century 
 she is enthroned in solitary state, both by Italian and Flemish 
 painters, with diadem and halo, and gorgeous raiment. In 
 the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries she becomes the 
 crowned Madonna of mercy, shielding and saving the human 
 race, and protecting them under the folds of her ample robe, 
 as in the pictures of Filippo Lippi and Fra Bartolomeo at 
 Berlin and Lucca. Her half-length figure, as the Mater 
 Dolorosa, belongs properly to the sixteenth century, and to 
 the later Italian and Spanish schools which followed ; but 
 the " Stabat Mater," or Mary beside the cross, is of much 
 earlier date, and is given us by Fra Angelico and other devo- 
 tional painters. The Immaculate Conception, as a subject of 
 art, is quite modern, and originated in Spain, where Murillo 
 did his best to perpetuate it. 
 
 But it is the group of the Madonna and Child which most
 
 66 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 excites our attention. This was built into Byzantine and 
 Italian mosaics, and we have seen that it is so frequently 
 depicted by every early painter that, if any of their works 
 remain, a Virgin and infant Christ is sure to be among them. 
 Such ancient Virgins are seated, and always carefully draped 
 in a red tunic with blue veil and mantle : the Child also was 
 at first invariably draped, a white tunic being the orthodox 
 garb ; by-and-by this garment disappeared. Saints and an- 
 gels were sometimes added ; while the patron saints of the 
 city, church, or convent, for which the picture was painted, 
 often stood adoringly near. 
 
 The historical life of the Virgin traditionally begins with 
 the meeting of her parents, Joachim and Anna, and ends with 
 her assumption and coronation. Many series of frescoes 
 have been painted to illustrate such legendary scenes. All 
 these frescoes show us the birth of the Virgin in a stately 
 apartment (for her family was "exceedingly rich"), where 
 St. Anna lies beneath a canopy, or sits up in bed to receive 
 the congratulations of the noble ladies who come to visit her. 
 Attendants wash the new-born babe, and bring in refresh- 
 ments. Examples of this subject are found by Taddeo Gad- 
 di, in the Baroncelli Chapel of Santa Croce, Florence; by 
 Ghirlandajo, in Santa Maria Novella, Florence ; afterward by 
 Andrea del Sarto, in the church of the Annunziata in the 
 same city; and by Pinturrichio, in the fifteenth century, in 
 the church of Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome. 
 
 Her presentation in the temple, as a very young girl, is 
 next in order. She is dressed in blue or white, with flowing 
 hair, and ascends the fifteen steps of the temple, sometimes 
 holding a taper in her hand. The aged high-priest stands
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 67 
 
 waiting to receive her, and a crowd of maidens and followers 
 form a procession behind. This, too, is among the frescoes 
 already mentioned ; and is given by several other artists, par- 
 ticularly in the Venetian school by Carpaccio, Titian, and 
 Tintoretto. Titian's large painting in the Venice Academy 
 is one of the most attractive instances. 
 
 Now succeeds her marriage, which tradition fixes at the 
 age of fourteen or fifteen. According to St. Jerome's legend, 
 her suitors were required to deposit wands or rods in the 
 temple overnight, that whichever should blossom into leaves 
 and flowers might indicate the appointed husband. In the 
 frescoes and pictures we behold Joseph and Mary standing 
 before the priest, who joins their hands. Maidens attend the 
 Virgin, while the disappointed suitors look silently on. In 
 Giotto's composition at Padua, one of them is about to strike 
 Joseph, while another breaks his useless wand across his 
 knee. This last incident occurs again in Raphael's celebrated 
 Sposalizio at Milan. Giotto, Angelico, Perugino, and Ra- 
 phael, as well as Taddeo Gaddi and other Florentines, have 
 attempted this marriage-scene. Joseph is commonly repre- 
 sented as at least middle-aged, and often very old. In some 
 ancient German pieces he is almost in his dotage, and is 
 wrapped "in furs and an embroidered gown." 
 
 The Annunciation follows, treated either historically or as 
 a mystery. The event was supposed to have taken place on 
 an evening in the month of March, at the hour after sunset 
 called the " Ave Maria." Mary's bedroom was considered 
 on the whole as the most suitable spot for its representation ; 
 and we repeatedly see her kneeling at a " Prie-Dieu," with a 
 pot of lilies, her symbolical flower, near her, and a work-
 
 68 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 basket, or even a spinning-wheel, close by. The archangel 
 Gabriel enters at the door, bearing a spray of lilies, or, in 
 some antique specimens, an olive-branch. His drapery is 
 usually rich and full, while his wings may be peacock-eyed, 
 or ornamented with gold. Sometimes the angel kneels be- 
 fore the Virgin, sometimes the Virgin before the angel. The 
 dove of the Holy Spirit should of course be present. Often 
 the Eternal Father is introduced as a majestic and venerable 
 form, looking benignly from the clouds, and sending forth the 
 dove. Most painters, from the early Siennese school down 
 to modern times, have delighted in this theme, varied in atti- 
 tudes and other unimportant particulars. The scene of the 
 Mystery has been also changed. In some compositions we 
 find the Madonna in a cloister ; in others, standing on a 
 green hill, or seated enthroned under a canopy, or even in a 
 rose-garden, in allusion to the verse in Canticles, " A garden 
 inclosed is my sister, my spouse ! " 
 
 The Visitation of Mary to Elizabeth, in which the two 
 women meet and embrace, holds its rank among the frescoes, 
 and is also the subject of separate easel-pieces. The three 
 most famous examples are by Mariotto Albertinelli. 1474, in 
 the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, where they salute each other 
 under an Italian archway ; by Ghirlandajo in the Louvre, 
 and in a picture ascribed to Raphael at Madrid. 
 
 The legends from the nativity to the resurrection and 
 ascension of our Lord we shall presently touch upon while 
 noticing the treatment of the life of Christ. In describing 
 what followed the resurrection, quaint old writers have re- 
 corded that Christ, after rising from the dead, appeared first 
 of all to his mother who was praying in the solitude of he?
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 
 
 69 
 
 chamber; "while she prayed, a host of angels surrounded 
 her, singing ' Regina Coeli : ' and then came Christ, partly 
 clothed in a white garment, having in his left hand the stand- 
 ard of the cross ; and with him came the patriarchs and 
 prophets whose long-imprisoned spirits he had released frorr. 
 Hades." This, however, was seldom painted till the sixteenth 
 and seventeenth centuries. 
 
 The poetical tradition relating to the death and assump- 
 tion of the Virgin, I repeat in substance from the " Christian 
 Art " of Lord Lindsay, who copied it from its ancient 
 source : 
 
 " The Virgin dwelt, for twenty-four years after the ascen- 
 sion, in her house beside Mount Zion. One day the angel 
 Gabriel came and reverently saluted her, and told her that 
 after three days she should depart from the flesh, and reign 
 with him forever. He gave her also a palm-branch from 
 Paradise, which he commanded should be borne before her 
 bier. And the palm-branch was green in the stem, but its 
 leaves were like the morning star." 
 
 Then the apostles were miraculously summoned to be 
 with her when she should die. 
 
 "And when the Virgin beheld the apostles assembled 
 round her, she blessed the Lord ; and they sat around her 
 and watched, with lights burning till the third day. 
 
 " And toward nightfall, o.n the third day, Jesus came 
 down with his hosts of saints and angels, and they ranged 
 themselves before Mary's couch, and sweet hymns were heard 
 at intervals, till the middle of the night. Then Jesus called 
 her softly, twice, that she should come to him, and she an- 
 swered that she was ready joyfully to yield her spirit. And
 
 7 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 thus her spirit quitted the body and flew into the arms of hei 
 Son ; and she neither suffered pain, nor her body corruption 
 
 " And straightway there surrounded her flowers of roses, 
 which are the blessed company of martyrs ; and lilies of the 
 valley, which are the bands of angels, confessors, and vir- 
 gins. 
 
 " And when the body was laid on the bier, Peter and Paul 
 uplifted it, and the other apostles ranged themselves around 
 it. And John bore the palm-branch in front of it. And 
 Peter began to sing, ' In Exitu Israel de Egypto,' and the 
 rest joined softly in the psalm. And the Lord covered the 
 bier and the apostles with a cloud, so that they might be 
 heard and not seen ; and the angels were present, and sing- 
 ing with the apostles ; and all the city was gathered to that 
 wondrous melody. 
 
 " And the apostles laid the body of the Virgin in the 
 tomb, and they watched beside it three days. And on the 
 third day the Lord appeared with a multitude of angels, and 
 raised up Mary, and she was received, body and soul, into 
 heaven." 
 
 Another slightly different version makes the saluting angel 
 not Gabriel, but Michael, the lord of souls, who carries either 
 a starry palm or a taper. Byzantine artists, as well as Italian, 
 have left us many such compositions. Cimabue painted the 
 miraculous death at Assisi ; Giotto, Angelico, and others in 
 every age reproduced it ; frescoes of Mary's life rivaled each 
 other in depicting it ; while Taddeo Bartolo devoted the wall 
 of the chapel of the Public Palace at Sienna to its commem- 
 oration. 
 
 Pictures of the Virgin's Assumption are easily recognized
 
 ENTHRONED VIRGIN (Guido Kent).
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. y r 
 
 Their characteristics are nearly uniform. She is draped, and 
 upborne by angels ; sometimes her robes are spangled. The 
 expectant Saviour waits above. Seven centuries have thus 
 represented her. The old wall-paintings of Giunta Pisano at 
 Assisi may be ruder but are not less expressive than the float- 
 ing forms of Guido or Murillo. But the " Assumption " by 
 Titian at Venice throws all others into the shade, and stands 
 preeminent as one of the marvels of art. 
 
 With the legend of the Assumption is connected the story 
 of the Girdle. It is said that St. Thomas was not present at 
 the Madonna's ascension, and on being told the tale refused 
 to believe it. He desired the tomb to be opened ; it was 
 done, and found filled with lilies and roses. " Then Thomas, 
 looking up to heaven, beheld the Virgin bodily, in a glory of 
 light ; and she, for the assurance of his faith, flung down to 
 him her girdle, the same which is to-day preserved in the 
 cathedral at Prato." Of course the cathedral of Prato has 
 illustrated this event in a set of frescoes, which travelers may 
 examine, after contemplating the girdle ! 
 
 The Coronation of the Virgin is another splendid picto- 
 rial tribute to this queen of tradition. But it is not seen till 
 the twelfth or thirteenth century, when we find it in mo- 
 saics in Rome and Florence. Giotto and the painters of the 
 fourteenth century imparted to it a charm of purity and 
 sweetness, as in Fra Angelico's " Coronations " in the Louvre 
 and San Marco, to which we have referred. The Virgin is 
 customarily seated, veiled, and magnificently draped. She 
 inclines her head with humble and modest mien, while Christ 
 himself places the crown upon her brow ; or, in rarer exam- 
 ples, she kneels before him. The figures may be surrounded
 
 7 2 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 by a glory of seraphim. A few cases exist where God the 
 Father gazes down from above, or where the Trinity unite in 
 the coronation. 
 
 In the life of Christ the statements of the Bible are in like 
 n.anner filled out by tradition, and painted with equal fer- 
 vency. The scriptural descriptions of the nativity are so 
 minute that the help of imagination is scarcely needed. The 
 time is a winter midnight, the scene a stable. In the earliest 
 pictures this stable is a rocky cave, where the Virgin either re- 
 clines on a sort of couch, or more commonly sits holding the 
 Child ; Joseph remains near, in meditation. Three seraphs, 
 afterward increasing to an angelic chorus, sing the " Gloria in 
 Excelsis," while the ox and ass are wondering or even ador- 
 ing spectators of the mystery. This ox and ass are necessary 
 accessories and never omitted, for the one animal typifies the 
 Jews, and the other the Gentiles. Mrs. Jameson alludes to 
 some old German pictures in which " the Hebrew ox is quiet- 
 ly chewing the cud, while the Gentile ass lifts up his voice 
 and brays with open mouth as if in triumph." Somewhat 
 later the scene was varied from a cavern to a wooden shed, 
 not far from the mouth of the cave, as in Taddeo Gaddi's 
 fresco in Santa Croce, Florence. Then come the shepherds, 
 sometimes with shepherdesses, pipes, and songs. The mother 
 displays the Babe to their astonished eyes. This scene is 
 very familiar, and all have probably had an opportunity to 
 study at least one example of it in an engraving of Correg- 
 gio's celebrated " Nativity," where the dazzling light which 
 floods the picture radiates solely from the holy Child. 
 
 From a survey of Italian and German galleries we should 
 infer that every artist, from the time of the Byzantine Empire
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. ^ 
 
 to the seventeenth century, had painted at least one "Adora- 
 tion of the Magi." The conclusion would of course be un- 
 warranted, yet their number is legion. The treatment differs, 
 but certain points and incidents must be always introduced. 
 The place of reception is frequently changed. The Virgin, 
 holding the Infant, should be seated; but she may sit at the 
 entrance of a temple, or under a shed, or enthroned beneath 
 a canopy. Over this shed or canopy often hangs the star, 
 sometimes looking as if it had been nailed on the roof. 
 Three kings approach and adore. Tradition proceeds to say 
 that the first of these kings was the venerable " Caspar," who 
 presented gold from Tarsus; the second, the middle-aged 
 " Melchior," who brought frankincense from Arabia ; and the 
 third, the negro "Balthasar," who offered myrrh from Ethio- 
 pia. In return, the Saviour bestowed upon them matchless 
 gifts. " For their gold he gave them charity and spiritual 
 riches ; for their incense, perfect faith ; and for their myrrh, 
 perfect truth and meekness." He is pictured as receiving 
 them graciously, holding up two fingers of his little hand in 
 the act of benediction ; or, less appropriately, taking some 
 gold-pieces from the coffer. The wise men may be alone, but 
 it is much more common to see them accompanied by an 
 Eastern train of pages, followers, horses, dogs, camels, and 
 even elephants. Joseph may be absent, or, if present, should 
 modestly stand aside. I remember an old Florentine com- 
 position in which one of the Magi is shaking hands with him 
 in the most friendly manner. 
 
 A different though pleasing worship of the Child is also 
 found in the class of paintings entitled " The Madre Pia," or 
 "The Infant Saviour ad-red by his Mother." Here the Babe
 
 74 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 reposes on the ground, or reclines upon a wheat-sheaf, which 
 signifies the bread of life. He lays his finger on his lip, as if 
 to say, " I am the Word ! " while the Virgin and Joseph kneel 
 a short distance off. An angel, too, may kneel and hold a 
 crown, while other angels are occasionally seen in the sky, 
 holding a cross, with the instruments of the passion. This 
 was a favorite theme with Perugino, Francia, and Loienzo 
 di Credi. 
 
 The " Presentation in the Temple " originated among the 
 Byzantines, and could not greatly change its style. Mary 
 gives the Child to the aged Simeon ; Anna, the prophetess, 
 stands by. Nothing could be finer than Fra Bartolomeo's 
 rendering of this subject at Vienna. It is also displayed to 
 advantage in the Venetian school. 
 
 The Flight into Egypt is likewise known. The holy 
 family journey through the country; a flight by boat is an 
 innovation of later artists. Sometimes friends and attendants 
 are with them, as in the Arena frescoes by Giotto in Padua ; 
 but more commonly the three are alone. The ox and ass 
 accompany them, the Virgin generally riding the ass; and 
 the palm-tree bends its branches in homage. The aspen re- 
 fused to bow, and the Infant cursed it for its pride, where- 
 upon it began to tremble, and trembles to this day. The 
 kindred scene of the Repose in Egypt does not seem to have 
 been depicted till the fifteenth or sixteenth century. Here 
 the sacred group have stopped to rest. A fountain springs 
 up beside them, and angels bring refreshments, and dance 
 before them, or minister to their wants. Joseph also waits on 
 them in various ways, or leans like a pilgrim on his staff; in 
 t curious Dutch painting he is shaking his fist to silence the
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 75 
 
 ass, who, while Mary and the Child slumber, has opened his 
 mouth to bray. 
 
 The many Holy Families where Jesus abides with his 
 parents at Nazareth tell their own story ; as does the subject 
 of Christ among the Doctors, sought and found by his 
 mother. Of the Baptism we have written in the history of 
 St. John Baptist. The Marriage at Cana is almost peculiar 
 to the Venetians. Paul Veronese has immortalized it archi- 
 tecturally in his splendid picture in the Louvre. The Raising 
 of Lazarus existed even in the Catacombs ; but the other 
 miracles and the parables did not become popular till near 
 modern times. 
 
 The representation of the Transfiguration is almost as 
 ancient as Christian painting itself. It is singular to observe 
 in a small picture in the Florentine Academy, executed either 
 by Giotto or one of his disciples, a treatment identical with 
 that of Raphael's great composition. Christ is upraised 
 above, while the amazed apostles below hide or shade their 
 eyes from his dazzling glory. 
 
 The incidents of the Passion, beginning with the details 
 of Palm-Sunday, furnish copious materials for the painter. 
 We have lately spoken of Duccio's altar-piece at Sienna, 
 adorned on one side with twenty-eight such representations. 
 His " Entry into Jerusalem " is very graphic and excellent. 
 An animated crowd throngs forth to meet the Redeemer, 
 who rides with dignity upon the traditional ass. Figures in 
 the trees throw down branches to strew the way. A legend 
 of the times tells us that " the dark line down the back and 
 across the fore-quarters of the ass, forming the shape of 3 
 Latin cross, was the heritage of the race from that day."
 
 7 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Pictures of the Last Supper have been multiplied in all 
 Christian countries. The earliest instance in which it is pre- 
 sented to us is in embroidery upon a deacon's robe of the 
 eighth century, shown in the Vatican. Byzantine art re- 
 produced it, both in sculpture and painting. Giotto, or 
 one of his pupils, has given us an example of its Italian 
 treatment in the old refectory of Santa Croce, Florence; 
 and his successors, Ghirlandajo, Luca Signorelli, Andrea del 
 Sarto, Raphael, and others, adhered substantially to the 
 same type. The subject was called " II Cenacolo," or " La 
 Cena," and was very popular as a fresco for convent refec- 
 tories. There is always a long table at which Christ and the. 
 apostles are seated. The Saviour is generally blessing or dis- 
 tributing the elements. Sometimes other food, such as cher- 
 ries, apples, or fish, is lying on the table. In the position of 
 Judas we find the principal variation. He is either among 
 the group of the apostles, only distinguishable by action and 
 expression, or, as is often the case, especially among the early 
 Florentines, he sits alone in front, villainously ugly and mean. 
 He may clutch the bag, or receive the sop ; in a few instances 
 a demon crouches near him. Occasionally he is stealing out 
 of the door, or is even absent altogether. Every one will 
 here recall Leonardo da Vinci's famous "Cena" at Milan, 
 which in a later chapter will be fully described. 
 
 The Agony in the Garden, though often attempted, is 
 ever most inadequately rendered. We meet it in an old 
 pictuie, ascribed to Giotto, in the Uffizi Gallery, called 
 M Christ on the Mount of Olives," which is quaint but quiet. 
 But in almost every case, particularly in later centuries, (he 
 dramatic element introduced makes it painful in the ex-
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 77 
 
 treme. The same remark applies to the Scourging of Christ, 
 and to the subject known as " Ecce Homo," though many 
 critics would make an exception in favor of Sodoma's "Christ 
 bound to the Pillar," at Sienna, or of Guido's celebrated 
 Head. 
 
 The Procession to Calvary seeks to depict the super- 
 human sufferings of the Redeemer with more or less success : 
 but divine expression is too often wanting. The agony of 
 the Virgin, who so hopelessly longs to aid him, has been 
 most forcibly given, as in Giulio Romano's " Lo Spasimo di 
 Sicilia," at Madrid. 
 
 Upon the Crucifixion itself artists have concentrated all 
 their powers. In early tiroes angels are always waiting on 
 the scene, to lament, comfort, or adore. They catch the 
 precious blood-drops in golden chalices, or kiss the lifeless 
 hands, or hover, in wondering grief, above; or speed away 
 to bear to heaven the tidings of the finished sacrifice. The 
 cross is frequently placed upon the summit of a hill, with the 
 two thieves on either side. Tradition mentions the names 
 of these thieves as Dismas and Gestas. The penitent in- 
 clines his head toward our Lord, the impenitent turns his 
 face away. The souls of the dying thieves are sometimes in- 
 dicated by little naked bodies coming out of their mouths 
 St. Michael receiving the forgiven, and a fantastic demon the 
 condemned spirit. This is most interestingly portrayed in a 
 large fresco by Luini, in a church at Lugano on the Italian 
 lakes, as well as in a number of other instances. The face 
 and figure of the Saviour himself in his last moments have 
 been given with every variety of conception. Few, however, 
 can be satisfied with the result : but the group attendant at
 
 7 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 the crucifixion is often touching and tender. St. John stands 
 below on the left, and the Virgin, usually with the other 
 Maries, on the right, while the Magdalen embraces the foot 
 of the cross. Other saints or spectators may be added, while 
 kneeling mediaeval votaries have, on some occasions, been 
 painted in. The soldier, traditionally named Longinus, wh 
 pierced the Saviour's side with the spear, and was converted, 
 is present, in historical compositions, with the rest. In the 
 frescoes of the Spanish chapel of the church of Santa Maria 
 Novella, Florence, he appears " in a rich suit of black-and- 
 gold armor." 
 
 The next subject, the Descent from the Cross, is equally 
 familiar, especially in the renowned painting by Volterra. 
 The Western Church had always its prescribed mode of rep- 
 resentation. Joseph of Arimathea mounts a ladder to the 
 right of the Redeemer, and draws the nail from his hand. 
 Nicodemus then draws the nail from the left hand, and gives 
 it to St. John. Afterward Nicodemus descends and takes 
 the nails from the feet, while Joseph supports the partially 
 relieved body. The apostles assist, and the Virgin holds 
 the right hand of Christ, embracing and weeping over it. A 
 Crucifixion containing only the solitary figure of Christ was 
 a subject legitimately descended from ancient earrings and 
 sculptured crosses, but reappeared in modern art in the six- 
 teenth century. A most noble and beautiful example will 
 be found in Guide's altar-piece in the church of San Lorenzo 
 in Lucina, Rome. We see nothing but the form of the dying 
 Saviour standing out alone against the stormy darkness of a 
 sunset sky ; but his look of unutterable love, and sorrow, and 
 majesty, never fades from our minds.
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 
 
 79 
 
 The " Pieta," or "Dead Christ in theArms of his Mother," 
 is dear to the Italian heart. We meet it everywhere, with the 
 same general rendering. The Virgin holds the lifeless body, 
 while the Magdalen and St. John remain with her to mourn. 
 The intensity of the expressions depends upon the genius or 
 the conception of the artist. In other existing compositions 
 the dead Christ is sustained and mourned by angels. 
 
 The Entombment affords material for a scene dramati- 
 cally given. In some old representations of the age of 
 Giotto and his followers, the apostles, aided by the Virgin, 
 deposit the body in a sarcophagus ; but customarily there is 
 a rock-hewn tomb to which they are carrying their sacred 
 burden. Raphael, Titian, and more modern painters, adopt 
 a similar treatment. The muscular efforts of the bearers 
 are too frequently made disagreeably visible ; a criticism 
 which is applicable even to Raphael's much-admired picture 
 in the Borghese Palace, Rome. 
 
 The Descent of Christ into Hades or Limbus was too 
 graphic a tradition to be left unembodied. The event was 
 supposed to have been related by the sons of Simeon, who, 
 it is said, were among those who rose again after his resur- 
 rection, and "appeared unto many." I make an abridg- 
 ment of the legend quoted by Mrs. Jameson. It was the 
 traditional conclusion of the crucifixion, as affecting the dead 
 not less than the living : 
 
 " Being with the fathers in the depths of hell, in the 
 blackness of darkness, suddenly there appeared the color of 
 the sun like gold, and a thick purple light, enlightening the 
 place ; whereupon Adam and all the patriarchs and prophets 
 rejoiced, as understanding who it was that thus cast the rays
 
 g SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 of his glory before him. And Isaiah the prophet cried out 
 and said, ' This is the light of the Father and of the Son of 
 God, according to my prophecy when I was alive upon earth.' 
 
 " And then Simeon said, * Glorify the Lord Jesus Christ, 
 the Son of God, whom I took up in my arms when an infant 
 in the temple.' 
 
 " Then, while all the saints were praising God, Satan, the 
 prince and captain of death, addressed Lucifer, the prince of 
 hell, bidding him prepare to receive him who still hung upon 
 the cross. But the prince of hell replied in consternation, 
 and adjured Satan not to bring the Crucified One to his keep- 
 ing, for he should have no power to hold him, and would 
 even lose them whom he now held in bondage. 
 
 " And while they were thus in altercation there arose on a 
 sudden a voice as of thunder, and the rushing of winds, say- 
 ing, ' Lift up your gates, O ye princes, and be ye lift up, O 
 everlasting doors, and the King of glory shall come in.' At 
 which the prince of hell desired Satan to depart, or, if he 
 were a warrior, to fight with the King of glory. And then he 
 said to his impious officers, ' Shut the brass gates of cruelty, 
 and make them fast with iron bars, and fight courageously.' 
 But the mighty Lord entered, in likeness of a man, and en- 
 lightened those places which had ever before been in dark- 
 ness. And Death and all the legions of devils were seized 
 with horror and great fear, and confessed that never before 
 did earth send them a man ' so bright as to have no spot 
 and so pure as to have no crime.' 
 
 " Now Jesus, turning to the saints, took hold of Adam by 
 his right hand, saying, 'Peace be to thee, and to all thy 
 righteous posterity ' On which Adam, casting himself at the
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 81 
 
 feet of the I ord with tears, magnified him with a loud voice. 
 And, in like manner, all the saints prostrated themselves, and 
 uttered praises. Then David, the royal prophet, boldly cried 
 out, and said, ' sing unto the Lord a new song, for he hath 
 done marvelous things ! ' And the whole multitude of saints 
 answered, ' This honor have all his saints : praise ye the 
 Lord ! ' And then the prophet Habakkuk spoke, and in 
 like manner all the others. And the Lord, still holding Adam 
 by the right hand, ascended from hell, and all the saints 
 followed him." 
 
 Not only was this legend considered a perfectly proper 
 theme for painting, but it was also perpetuated in sculpture, 
 especially on the doors of old cathedrals, where it was in- 
 tended to signify, " Thou didst open the kingdom of heaven 
 to all believers." 
 
 Representations of the Resurrection were more scriptural, 
 but scarcely less fanciful. In a small series of the " Life of 
 Christ," after Giotto, in the Florentine Academy, we see Ro- 
 man soldiers asleep before a rocky tomb, out of which steps 
 the Lord, bearing a banner. In another work of the sixteenth 
 century, in the same gallery, the Saviour soars up out of a 
 stone sarcophagus in the foreground, while one of the guards 
 lies screaming beneath the cover of the sarcophagus which 
 has fallen on him. The other soldiers run terrified away. 
 Perugino's painting in the Vatican has nearly the same 
 arrangement, with the addition of adoring angels. The Re- 
 deemer always holds the white banner of victory crossed 
 with red. So, too, we find delineations of Christ appearing 
 to the Magdalen, a subject known as "Noli me tangere." 
 Here imagination has strangely sought to reconcile Mary's
 
 8 2 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 supposition that she beheld the gardener with the divine 
 character of the risen Jesus. The scholars of Giotto show 
 him shouldering a spade, Raphael adds a pickaxe, a gar- 
 dener's hat, and a halo ; while the German, Albrecht Diirer, 
 puts the sacred banner in one hand and a spade in the 
 other! 
 
 Eaily Ascensions are more simple and grand. Angels 
 encircle the blessing and departing Christ ; apostles are 
 ranged below in different attitudes of ecstasy or grief. The 
 Virgin should be prominent, with outstretched arms. In 
 Giotto's fresco at Padua angels are omitted. The cupola of 
 a cathedral was often chosen to display this subject. 
 
 A peculiar composition, styled a " Trinity," was popular 
 in Italy from the twelfth to the seventeenth century. We 
 discover it particularly among antique Florentine pictures. 
 The Son of God hangs upon a cross, just above and be- 
 hind which is a venerable form, typifying the Father. The 
 Dove of the Spirit proceeds from the lips of the Father, and 
 touches the head of the Son. The ends of the cross may be 
 held by angels, 
 
 The Last Judgment is usually thought to date back to the 
 most primitive Christian ages. But in early mosaics it is not 
 the Last Judgment as an historical fact, with the accessories 
 of the righteous and the wicked, but principally Christ as the 
 judge of the world, which is represented. The scene of the 
 judgment appears to have been first depicted in some sacred 
 compositions carried about in the ninth century to convert 
 the heathen. It was soon after introduced into sculpture and 
 mosaic. By the Giotteschi and the artists of the Campo 
 Santo, as well as by early German oainters. it was occa-
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 83 
 
 sionally executed. We shall soon find it terribly and power- 
 fully delineated by Michael Angelo in the Sistine Chapel. 
 
 The lives of the apostles have also been illustrated and 
 embellished. We have not space to enter into details, but 
 will merely mention the attributes by which they may be 
 recognized : 
 
 " St. Peter, the keys or a fish. 
 
 " St. Andrew, the transverse cross which bears his name. 
 
 " St. James Major, the pilgrim's staff. 
 
 " St. James Minor, a club. 
 
 " St. John the chalice with the serpent is the proper at- 
 tribute of the apostle ; but the eagle, which is his attri- 
 bute as an evangelist, is sometimes seen when he is with the 
 apostles. 
 
 " St. Thomas, generally a builder's rule ; rarely a spear. 
 
 " St. Philip, a small cross on a staff, or crozier surmounted 
 by a cross. 
 
 " St. Bartholomew, a knife. 
 
 " St. Matthew, a purse. 
 
 "St. Simon, a saw. 
 
 " St. Thaddeus, a halberd or lance. 
 
 " St. Matthias, a lance. 
 
 " Sometimes St. Paul, St. Mark, and St. Luke, are repre- 
 sented with the apostles, and some others are left out, as 
 the number is always twelve. In such cases St. Paul bears 
 either one or two swords." 
 
 The legends of the Magdalen are a treasure to art. Tra- 
 ditions of the Western Church insist upon her identity with 
 Mary of Bethany, and go on to tell us that she owned a 
 castle on the sea of Galilee, and was, with Martha and Laza-
 
 84 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 rus, descended from a noble race. Beautiful and young, she 
 became luxurious and dissolute, and was possessed by the 
 seven deadly sins, which Christ cast out as seven devils. 
 Many Venetian pictures present to us " Christ in the house 
 of Martha," seated in a kitchen whose disorder Martha vainly 
 seeks to remedy, while Mary sits tranquilly by, and a servant 
 maid, " Marcella," is cooking at the fire. After the resurrec- 
 tion, the whole family " were by the heathen set adrift in a 
 vessel without sails, oars, or rudder ; but, guided by Provi- 
 dence, were safely braught to the harbor of Marseilles, in the 
 country now called France." Here they preached ; and 
 when the people were converted, and Lazarus was made 
 bishop, Mary retired to a desert, where she lived for thirty 
 years, in fasting, penance, and prayer. Angels came and 
 bore her in trances into heaven, or watched over her soli- 
 tary death-bed, and carried her to the skies, as we perceive 
 in the paintings .of her death and assumption. The box of 
 ointment is her attribute ; disheveled golden hair and very 
 scanty drapery fix her identity. Every valuable art-col- 
 lection in Europe has one or more of these lovely, but not 
 always repentant, Magdalens ; none is fairer than that, now 
 discredited, once ascribed to Correggio, at Dresden. 
 
 Neither can the early fathers or saints complain of being 
 neglected in art. Very often we encounter St. Jerome, the 
 great doctor of the Church, and the first Western monk, 
 whom we recognize by his usual robe of red, and his pet lion. 
 He is frequently clad as a cardinal, and takes his place 
 among other dignitaries ; yet we see him again as a hermit 
 in the wilderness, to which he often retreated when wearied 
 *ith the tumults of the Church and the world, translating the
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 85 
 
 Bible, or engaged in devotion. The accompanying lion prob- 
 ably symbolizes his fiery, enthusiastic nature ; but tradition 
 preserves the tale of a lion from whose foot he extracted a 
 thorn with such skill and tenderness that the grateful creat- 
 ure would never leave him. 
 
 St. Augustine and St. Gregory are similarly commemo- 
 rated. They are, however, less common than St. Christopher, 
 "the Christ-Bearer " the old giant who had been employed 
 by many masters, but who was always seeking the service of 
 the strongest, and desired to make himself acceptable to 
 Jesus Christ, though it was not in his line to fast or pray. 
 A holy hermit bade him dwell near a river that he might aid 
 such as must struggle with the stream. One night he heard 
 the voice of a little child who called, "Come forth, Christo- 
 pher, and carry me over." And, as the child was very small; 
 he took him on his shoulders and stepped into the stream. 
 But the waves and the winds buffeted him sore, and the babe 
 became so heavy that he could scarcely reach the land. When 
 he had gained the bank he said, "Who art thou, child, 
 that hath put me in such peril ? Had I carried the wh _*le 
 world on my shoulders, the burden had not been heavier." 
 And the child replied : " O Christopher, thou hast not only 
 borne the world, but him who made the world. I have 
 accepted thy service ; therefore plant thy staff in the ground 
 that it may bring forth leaves and fruit." And he did even 
 so, but the holy child vanished. And Christopher became a 
 Christian, and a martyr of the Lord. At his death he pra>ed 
 that those who looked on him and trusted in Christ " might 
 not suffer from tempest, earthquake, or fire." 
 
 It soon became a custom to paint his image in very large
 
 86 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 proportions, sometimes even thirty feet high, on the outside 
 of churches and houses, where it might be seen a long way 
 off; and many, beholding it, might reap the benefit of his 
 prayer. Such effigies still exist in Germany, France, and 
 Italy. As a subject for easel-pieces or engravings St. Chris- 
 topher was more popular in Germany than at the South ; but 
 a chapel was frescoed in his honor by Andrea Mantegna 
 at Padua. 
 
 The martyrs St. Sebastian and St. Lawrence also become 
 ere long well known to travelers, St. Sebastian is usually a 
 nude, youthful figure, bound to a tree or column, and pierced 
 with arrows ; St. Lawrence rests, without much sign of dis- 
 comfort, on a gridiron. In the legends Sebastian is a Roman 
 soldier whom neither persuasions nor threats can induce to 
 abandon the Christian faith. He is therefore sentenced to 
 be shot with arrows on the Palatine Hill, at Rome. His sen- 
 tence is executed, and he is left for dead ; but the friends 
 who would bury him find that he still breathes, and through 
 their care he revives and lives ; yet only to be seized again 
 by his enemies, and beaten to death with clubs. Perugino, 
 Luini, Mantegna, and many other painters, have given us 
 his story. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries he be- 
 came the model for masculine beauty of form, as the Mag- 
 dalen for sensuous female loveliness. Guido was enthusiastic 
 over him. St. Sebastian was a patron saint against the plague, 
 and one of the ancient basilicas of Rome was built in his 
 honor. A similar basilica was erected to St. Lawrence or 
 Lorenzo. St. Lawrence was a deacon at Rome ; and when 
 commanded by the heathen prefect to deliver up the treasures 
 of the church, he brought him the sick and poor, saying,
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 87 
 
 a Here are our treasures ! " Then the prefect ordered that 
 he should be tortured, and roasted on a gridiron ; but his 
 constancy was no way shaken, and he died in glorious faith. 
 A series of frescoes, ending with his martyrdom, once orna- 
 mented his basilica. Another like series, however, by Fra 
 Angelico, was designed in a chapel of the Vatican. His 
 single figure is sometimes found in galleries, with the gridiron 
 as his emblem ; and he often stands in company with groups 
 of saints. The Escorial at Madrid was dedicated to him by 
 Philip II. Of St. Francis, so beloved in the middle ages, we 
 have already spoken in describing his church at Assisi, and 
 it is therefore unnecessary to repeat his legend, which art has 
 copiously illustrated. 
 
 Among female saints and martyrs, St. Catharine, St. Mar- 
 garet, St. Agnes, and St. Cecilia, are most frequently met with. 
 St. Catharine of Alexandria was the daughter of the half- 
 brother of Constantine the Great and of Sabinella, Queen of 
 Egypt. She was carefully educated in all branches of Eastern 
 learning, and in the philosophy of Plato, but knew nothing 
 of Christianity. At the age of fourteen her father's death left 
 her heiress of the kingdom. Her subjects were discontented 
 with her passion for study, and begged her to marry ; but 
 she replied that she must first find a prince so noble that all 
 should worship him, so great that she should never think she 
 had made him king, so rich as to surpass all others, so beauti- 
 ful that the angels should long to behold him, and so benign 
 as to forgive all offenses. Her counselors and her mother 
 were utterly discouraged at such conditions ; but the Virgin 
 Mary sent a hermit to tell her that her Son was the husband 
 she desired, for he perfectly met all her requirements. She 
 7
 
 88 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 looked upon the picture of the Saviour which the holy man 
 had left with her till her heart became so filled with love that 
 all else wearied her. Then she dreamed that angels pre- 
 sented her to him, but he turned away his face, saying, 
 ' She is not fair enough for me ! " Upon waking she wept, 
 and, requesting instruction in the Christian faith, was con- 
 verted and baptized. The following night she slept again, 
 and in her vision the Virgin herself led her to her divine 
 Son, who smiled on her with favor, plighted his troth to her, 
 and placed a ring on her finger. In the morning the ring 
 was still upon her hand ; and thenceforth she looked upon 
 herself as the bride of Christ, and despised all earthly 
 vanities. 
 
 After Sabinella's death the tyrant Maximin came to Al- 
 exandria to persecute the Christians. Catharine argued with 
 him, and confuted all his philosophers; but, refusing to sub- 
 mit to him, he commanded that she should be stretched upon 
 four sharply-pointed revolving wheels, and torn in pieces. 
 But she prayed, and the angels of God came down and broke 
 the wheels into fragments, which flew among the people and 
 killed thousands of her persecutors. Then the tyrant caused 
 her to be beheaded ; and when all was over, angels took her 
 body, carried it across the desert and the sea, and laid it in 
 a marble tomb on the summit of Mount Sinai, where a 
 monastery was afterward built above her revered remains. 
 
 Of this picturesque tradition many painters availed them- 
 selves. Eastern artists were proud of such a saint, and she 
 was declared patroness of learning and philosophy, and also 
 chosen as patroness of Venice. Ruined frescoes, illustrative 
 of her fame, were discovered in the church of St. Francis at
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 89 
 
 Assisi, another series by Masaccio, better preserved and 
 restored, exists in St. Catharine's Chapel in the church of 
 San Clemente, Rome. Francia, Perugino, and the scholars 
 of Giotto and of Leonardo da Vinci, perpetuated her mem- 
 ory; and all Venetians claimed her as their favorite, and 
 decked her with splendid drapery and royal jewels. A wheel 
 should always be near her, to indicate her martyrdom. It is 
 very conspicuous in Raphael's valuable " St. Catharine " in 
 the National Gallery, London. 
 
 The Marriage of St. Catharine, where the infant Jesus, on 
 the lap of his mother, espouses her with the nuptial ring, is 
 excellently depicted. The two pictures by Correggio, in the 
 Louvre, and at Naples, convey a sufficient idea of its treat- 
 ment. Another very brilliant and very remarkable com- 
 position is ascribed to Paul Veronese in the Uffizi. Other 
 Venetians also painted it. 
 
 Her Burial by the Angels is charmingly rendered by 
 Luini, in the Brera, Milan ; but we are better acquainted with 
 engravings of this subject from modern German paintings at 
 Vienna and Berlin. 
 
 St. Catharine of Sienna, a Dominican nun, who, like St. 
 Francis, traditionally received the stigmata, must not be con- 
 founded with St. Catharine of Alexandria. 
 
 St. Margaret was the daughter of a priest of Antioch. 
 The governor of that city wished to make her his wife ; but 
 she rejected his offer, and declared herself a Christian. She 
 was tormented, and cast into a dungeon, where Satan ap- 
 peared to her as a frightful dragon. He opened his mouth 
 to destroy her, but she held up the cross, and he fled before 
 it. In one version of the legend he is said to have swallowed
 
 9 o 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 her, but she came forth from his jaws unhurt. By the sight 
 of her constancy so many were converted that it was deter- 
 mined she should be beheaded, and she suffered martyrdom 
 in the fourth century. In her pictures she holds a palm- 
 branch or cross, but is identified by the dragon. The fair 
 "St. Margaret," in the Louvre (long attributed to Raphael) 
 with blue robes and palm, is one of the sweetest, purest, and 
 most heavenly faces in the whole realm of art. This saint 
 was also represented by the schools of Bologna and Ger- 
 many. In a painting by Lucas van Leyden she stands meek 
 and calm, with a cross between her folded hands, upon a 
 hideous monster, whose tail twists into her hair. 
 
 St. Agnes is probably the most interesting of the early 
 virgin martyrs. Churches and shrines have been consecrated 
 in her honor. She was a young Roman maiden, whom the 
 son of the heathen prefect of the city sought for his bride, 
 but she would not yield to his solicitations, for she told him 
 she was affianced to the Lord. Sempronius, the prefect, 
 ordered that, if she did not marry his son, she should become 
 a vestal virgin. To this proposal she would not listen ; and 
 finding her obstinate he had her dragged to a place of in- 
 famy and stripped of her clothing. But in answer to her 
 prayers her hair grew long and shining, and fell around her 
 like a golden veil, and she saw a white and radiant garment 
 which she put on with praise to God. The youth who wooed 
 her was struck with blindness ; she cured him by a miracle ; 
 but the people demanded her destruction, and she was led to 
 the stake. Yet the flames refused to burn her, though the 
 fiery heat killed her executioners, till one ascended the blaz- 
 ing pile and slew her with the sword.
 
 TRADITIONS OF PAINTING. 9 x 
 
 She is the patronness of maidenhood, and her attribute 
 is the lamb, although in the mosaics which ornamented her 
 ancient basilica the lamb was omitted, and flowers were 
 springing at her feet. Domenichino frequently painted her, 
 as did the artists of Venice, and Andrea del Sarto, who has 
 left a very pleasing picture in the cathedral of Pisa. In 
 Northern art her hair is fair and flowing. 
 
 St. Cecilia, the last of whom we shall speak, was a noble 
 Roman lady of the third century, who sang and played on 
 many instruments with such entrancing sweetness that the 
 very angels stooped to listen. She invented the organ, and 
 is the patron saint of music. She converted her husband and 
 her husband's brother, and the three devoted themselves to a 
 holy and charitable life, till the Roman ruler, desirous to 
 secure her wealth, accused her as a Christian. She refused 
 to sacrifice to the gods, and was borne back to her house, 
 where she was thrown into her own bath which had been 
 filled with boiling water. It did her no harm, and a soldier 
 was commanded to behead her. He wounded her three 
 times in the neck, and left her half dead. For three days 
 she continued to live and proclaim Christ, and at her death 
 directed that her dwelling should be turned into a church. 
 Her body was buried in the Catacombs, and afterward re- 
 moved to the present church of St. Cecilia, in Trastevere, 
 Rome, where her bath, with its stones and pipes, is still to 
 be visited. When her coffin was opened in 1599, her remains 
 were found quite perfect, and in the same graceful attitude 
 now copied in the recumbent statue which lies before her 
 altar. 
 
 In the Catacombs was discovered a drawing of a half-
 
 9 2 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 length female figure inscribed with her name. Mosaics also 
 immortalized her, and we have seen that she was the subject 
 of Cimabue's early picture. In Raphael's famous piece at 
 Bologna musical instruments are scattered at her feet, while 
 she ecstatically pauses at the sound of the angels' song. 
 Moretto, Garofalo, Parmagianino, Domenichino, and Carl. 
 Dolce, all give us her lovely ideal as the patroness of music. 
 Older frescoes upon the events of her life once adorned her 
 church. Francia decorated the walls of her chapel at Bologna, 
 and Domenichino illustrated her legend at Rome, in scenes 
 which portray her distributing alms to the poor, crowned 
 with roses by an angel, refusing to adore the idols, and 
 wounded by the sword of the executioner. A wreath of red 
 and white roses, a martyr's palm, a roll of music, or a harp or 
 organ, indicate her character and history. Even modern art 
 retains her as an attractive and graceful subject. 
 
 If the brief sketch of the traditions of painting which 
 this page closes has roused a desire for further investigation 
 of so interesting a topic, I commend my readers to the writ- 
 ings of Mrs. Jameson, Lord Lindsay, and Mrs. Clement, from 
 which I have gleaned many legendary materials. Meanwhile 
 we shall continue our study of the masters of the fifteenth, 
 sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, with a more intelligent 
 appreciation of their works.
 
 IT A I JAN PAINTING FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 93 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ITALIAN PAINTING IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 WITH the fifteenth century began what is called the 
 period of the Renaissance. This word " Renaissance " signi- 
 fies "re-birth," and is applied to the different style of art 
 which gradually arose, partly produced by a study of the old 
 classic models so long neglected, but still more by a close 
 attention to real life and natural objects, and a blending of 
 the ideas thus obtained, and of individual conceptions and 
 individual modes of treatment, with the traditions and cus- 
 toms peculiar to the middle ages. This change extended to 
 architecture as well as to sculpture and painting. In fact, it 
 found in architecture its widest range, and grace and beauty 
 were grafted upon Romanesque strength. The development 
 of art which thus took place when, being firmly fixed on the 
 mediaeval basis, it began to reach freely in all directions for 
 new ideas of beauty, truth, and progress, culminated in the 
 following century with the maturity of Michael Angelo and 
 Raphael; but meanwhile it is very interesting to notice the 
 mixture of quaintness and originality, formalism and fresh- 
 ness, in the artists who come between. Some cling tenacious- 
 ly to the old methods, and suspiciously tarn their backs upon 
 any temptation to "free-thinking;" others take refuge in the 
 " ideal," and seldom venture beyond its limits; others pour
 
 94 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 their new wine into the old bottles, regardless of the fermen- 
 tation of public opinion thus occasioned; while still others 
 profess themselves so enamored of the " antique " that they 
 would give their figures the muscles and rigidity of a statue 
 rather than copy a living model. Yet all these elements con- 
 tributed toward the results which we to-day enjoy. 
 
 We shall also perceive that not only the scope of thought 
 but the sphere of painting itself extended. With the revival 
 of letters came a knowledge of history and antiquity which 
 introduced historical and classic pictures; the study of 
 mathematics led to an accurate acquaintance with form and 
 perspective ; portraiture grew much more common, and even 
 the beauties of landscape were imperfectly anticipated. The 
 discovery and use of oil-colors was another most important 
 advance, though it was long before distemper was quite aban- 
 doned. The necessity for large frescoes in architectural 
 adornment demanded grandeur and boldness of conception 
 and treatment, and the intellectual culture of Italy was nobly 
 expressed in art. 
 
 To such culture the circumstances and influences of the 
 times were extremely favorable. Florence was the centre of 
 Italian power and prosperity, and the merchant-princes who 
 held its government were ever ready to patronize literature, 
 learning, sculpture, building, and painting. Rival guilds gave 
 superb orders, and paid superb prices. No magnificence was 
 too costly to ornament the city ; no luxury too lavish for its 
 festivals and palaces. With the ascendency of the Medici 
 family came still greater liberality and still greater pomp 
 Talent was everywhere recognized, and everywhere recom- 
 pensed ; and, though morals languished, aesthetics flourished
 
 ITALIAN PAINTING FIFTEENTH CENTURY. ' 95 
 
 At the commencement of the century, however, this 
 climax had not been reached, though the appreciative Floren- 
 tines were moved to enthusiasm by the success of their own 
 young sculptor, Lorenzo Ghiberti, who had cast, at their 
 request, new gates of bronze for their splendid baptistery. 
 The old gate, executed about 1330, by Andrea Pisano, had 
 been thought so wonderfully fine that none could ever hope 
 to equal it ; but this youthful Ghiberti, who had been edu- 
 cated as a goldsmith, surprised his countrymen and the world 
 by master-pieces of art so perfect that Michael Angelo 
 declared them worthy to be the gates of paradise, while our 
 present age but echoes his judgment. The first illustrated 
 the " history of Redemption from the Annunciation to the 
 Ascension ; " the last represented the events of the Old Tes- 
 tament from the creation to the reign of Solomon. More 
 than forty years were required for their completion. They 
 were modeled in most florid yet most natural style, in very 
 high relief, and with entire conformity to the rules of per- 
 spective. Their study and imitation were most instructive to 
 the rising painters, some of whom were Ghiberti's pupils. 
 
 Foremost among these we read of Paolo di Dono (1397- 
 1475), known as Paolo Uccello, from his passion for birds. 
 He was possessed with a yet greater passion for perspective, 
 and practised it so incessantly that his wife remonstrated at 
 his unquenchable ardor. He decorated the houses of the 
 nobles with fantastic fables of bipeds and quadrupeds, and 
 has left us a panel in the Louvre ; with frescoes in the ca- 
 thedral, and in the cloisters of Santa Maria Novella, Florence ; 
 as well as an old battle-piece, now in the National Gallery, 
 London. He is less familiar to posterity than his contetn-
 
 9 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 porary Masolino (1383-1447), who was long believed to be 
 the master of Masaccio, and the originator of the celebrated 
 frescoes in the church of the Carmine, Florence. But later 
 investigations prove the last supposition incorrect, and Maso- 
 lino must now retire to the obscurity of his only positively 
 authentic works in the church and baptistery of Castiglione 
 di Olona, not far from Milan. 
 
 This but increases the fame of Masaccio, the pioneer of 
 the Realists. He was born at Castei San Giovanni, in the 
 valley of the Arno, near Florence, in 1401 ; and, though 
 rightfully named Tommaso Guidi, the lazy habits of his boy- 
 hood were amply avenged by handing him down to our 
 knowledge as Masaccio, or "Slovenly Tom." But he was 
 certainly no slovenly painter. He was the first to introduce 
 intelligently the study of the nude ; while his groups are at 
 once so correct in proportion, so dramatic in action, and so 
 excellent in perspective and color, that the greatest artists of 
 the sixteenth century never wearied of contemplating his 
 magnificent frescoes on the life of St. Peter, in the Brancacci 
 Chapel of the church of the Carmine, Florence, repairing 
 thither like pupils to the studio of a master. He copied on 
 every available occasion from real life, and astonished all 
 spectators by the vigor and animation of his figures. The 
 " Preaching of Peter," and the " Presenting of the Tribute- 
 money," are the scenes most admired by competent critics. 
 In coloring he was accustomed to employ " transparent tints 
 over a white undertone ; " yet the effect was grave and power- 
 ful. He also planted his men and women firmly on their feet, 
 instead of poising them on the end of their toes, as had been 
 too often the earlier habit. More juvenile frescoes from the
 
 ITALIAN PAINTING FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 97 
 
 history of St. Catharine exist in the church of St. Clement, 
 Rome, but they may be by Masolino. Panel-pieces, such as 
 the " Head of an Old Man " in the Uffizi, Florence, and other 
 " Heads," called his own portraits, in the London and Mu- 
 nich Galleries, are occasionally ascribed to him ; yet their 
 genuineness is uncertain. The manner of his death was 
 mysterious, but it is thought that he was poisoned at Rome 
 about 1429. His Brancacci frescoes were unhappily left in- 
 complete, but were afterward finished by Filippino Lippi. 
 
 The father of this coming Filippino, whose name, Filtppo 
 Lippi (14061469), is so similar to that of his son, was edu- 
 cated in the monastery of the Carmine, Florence, belonging 
 to the same church for which Masaccio labored, and had the 
 benefit of constantly seeing those works before him, which so 
 incited his progress as to lead many to affirm that " the spirit 
 of Masaccio had entered into the body of Fra Filippo." The 
 story which Vasari relates of him is far from creditable ; but 
 Vasari's stories must often be taken with grains of allowance. 
 It is said that to escape a religious life he ran away from the 
 convent, and fled to Ancona; was seized by pirates, and 
 sold as a slave into Barbary, where his master was so de- 
 lighted with a portrait which his talented captive drew of 
 him that he set him free, and sent him home enriched with 
 many gifts. This may be only a romantic legend, but it is 
 certain that Lippi subsequently settled at Florence, where he 
 painted many pictures under the patronage of the Medici. 
 His Florentine career, though possibly not so profligate as 
 has been represented, was by no means ascetic. Tradition, 
 which may be unreliable, goes on to mention that he eloped 
 with a nun, Lucretia Buti, from the convent at Prato, where
 
 9 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 he had been employed to paint a Madonna, and was finally 
 married to her, according to the latest discoveries. But, 
 whatever may have been his faults as a man, as an artist his 
 merits are many; he was a brilliant colorist; firm, free, and 
 graceful in outline, and eminently cheerful and vivacious 
 in expression. Yet he carried his realism to the extent of 
 grouping undignified, fantastic, and even sensuous figures 
 into the most sacred compositions ; and his feeling for beauty 
 was so much stronger than his sense of reverence that he 
 never hesitated to paint the Virgin or the saints from the 
 face of any pretty woman with whom he chanced to be in 
 love. A Madonna, now in the Pitti Palace, Florence, is 
 thought to be the portrait of Lucretia Buti, and the same is 
 probably true of others. His best efforts are the frescoes 
 from the histories of Sts. Stephen and John Baptist, in the 
 cathedral of Prato. He also worked in the Duorao of Spo 
 leto, and several easel or altar pieces are preserved at Flor 
 ence, Berlin, Munich, and London. 
 
 Benozzo Gozzoli, or Benozzo di Lese di Sandro, born in 
 Florence, 1420, though drawn by natural inclination toward 
 the style of the Realists, was yet so modified by association 
 with Fra Angelico that he presents us with an agreeable 
 mixture of the real with the ideal. He loved beauty and 
 splendor, and was innocently gay. In composition he was 
 fond of architectural vistas, rich landscape backgrounds, 
 gilding, and embroidery. He accompanied Fra Angelico to 
 Rome and Orvieto, and was employed in a number of Italian 
 churches. A picture of the "Triumph of St. Thomas Aqui- 
 nas," once in the cathedral of Prato, now hangs in the Louvre; 
 the London Gallery possesses a large Florentine altar-piece.
 
 ITALIAN PAINTING FIFTEENTH CENTURY. gg 
 
 and San Gemiguano still shows stately frescoes ; while the 
 Riccardi Palace, Florence, the old palace of the Medici, is 
 decorated by his " Adoration of the Magi." But none of 
 these can interest us in comparison with his long series of 
 frescoes in the Carapo Santo, Pisa, beginning with the story 
 of Noah, and ending with the Queen of Sheba's visit to Solo- 
 mon. They are unfortunately injured, but gave such de- 
 light to the Pisans of the fifteenth century that upon the 
 completion of the work, in 1484, they gratefully and unani- 
 mously bestowed upon him a tomb in their holy ground, 
 which, however, he did not occupy till after 1496. 
 
 His friend Cosimo Roselli, born at Florence in 1439, was 
 a pupil of Fra Angelico, but far below Gozzoli in originality. 
 He worked in the cloisters of the Annunziata, Florence, and 
 assisted, with other Tuscan artists, in frescoing the Sistine 
 Chapel, where we may see his " Destruction of Pharaoh," 
 " Adoration of the Gold .-n Calf," and " Sermon on the 
 Mount." Of Melozzo da Forli, his contemporary, we have 
 but slight records ; yet the grand and graceful angels found 
 among his fragmentary frescoes, and lithographed by the 
 Arundel Society, prove his boldness and power. He seems 
 to have painted chiefly in Rome, where he was knighted by the 
 pope. 
 
 We now reach the time when the invention or application 
 of oil-painting afforded, both to Italy and Germany, new and 
 wonderful facilities for art. Experiments in oils and various 
 mediums had, indeed, been previously made, but none were 
 practically successful till the brothers Van Eyck, in Flanders, 
 discovered how oil and resin could be so simply used as to 
 supersede all former varnishes, and avoid the old and trouble-
 
 100 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 some necessity of drying pictures in the sun. Antonello da 
 Messina, a native of Sicily, who went to the Netherlands 
 about the middle of the fifteenth century, learned the secret 
 from Jan van Eyck, or some other Flemish master ; and 
 practised the new method with great success in Italy, where 
 he communicated it to some artists of Venice. Antonello's 
 best pictures are at Berlin ; but the Academy of Antwerp has 
 secured a remarkable " Crucifixion," where the two thieves 
 are bound, not to crosses, but to tree-trunks twisted into cru- 
 ciform shape. A " Bust of Christ " in benediction is in the 
 London Gallery ; a " St. Sebastian " at Dresden ; and a fine 
 " Head," small and dark, in the Grand Salon Carre" of the 
 Louvre. Antonello died at Venice about 1493, and was most 
 honorably buried. A painter of that republic, Domenico 
 Veneziano, was called to Florence, where he is said to have 
 instructed Andrea Castagno in the mixture and use of 
 colors. 
 
 The character of Castagno is one more subject for " his- 
 toric doubts." Vasari, the only critic who has written of him 
 at any length, begins his biography by a short dissertation 
 upon envy and murder, and lets his story point the moral. 
 The facts which he asserts pretend to show that Andrea dal 
 Castagno, born at the close of the fourteenth century, in the 
 province of Mugello, being found to possess uritommon 
 talents, was brought up as a painter, aided by Bernardetto de' 
 Medici, and given several important Florentine commissions. 
 Domenico Veneziano being associated with him in those 
 commissions, and treated with more deference on account of 
 his proficiency in oil-painting, Andrea, actuated by the mean- 
 est motives, sought his friendship, gained a knowledge of his
 
 ITALIAN PAINTING FIFTEENTH CENTURY. IQI 
 
 method, and then perfidiously stabbed him a deed which 
 earned him the title of " Andrea the Assassin ! " But other 
 documents have since proved that Domenico survived Andrea 
 three or four years ; therefore this theory of depravity cannot 
 be sustained. Yet the pictures of Castagno, exhibited at 
 Florence, though powerful, seem coarse and unpleasing, and 
 are generally models of ugliness ; a, for example, his " St. 
 Jerome " in the Academy, and some of his portrait frescoes 
 in the convent of S. Appolonia, Florence. 
 
 Another Andrea, in another city, has connected his name 
 much more influentially with the growth of Italian art. The 
 Tuscan school had thus far surpassed all others ; but the 
 University of Padua, which was foremost in the revival of 
 classical learning, developed new tastes and new aspirations 
 among painters as well as professors. Francisco Squarcione 
 conceived a passion for ancient sculpture, and made the tour 
 of Italy and Greece, purchasing precious fragments, and tak- 
 ing valuable casts and drawings, which he brought back to 
 his native city, where he founded an Academy of Painting 
 and a Museum of Antiquities. His own abilities to execute 
 were but second rate, but he proved an a'dmirable teacher of 
 more than a hundred scholars. His generous care in the 
 education of Andrea Mantegna has had its reward, for the 
 honor of the pupil has been reflected upon the master. 
 Andrea, who was humbly born near Padua in 1431, was 
 adopted as the foster-child of Squarcione when but ten years 
 old. This affectionate relation lasted till manhood, when 
 Andrea is said to have married the daughter of Jacopo Bellini, 
 Squarcione's Venetian rival, and to have thus incurred the 
 bitter enmity of his benefactor. Under these circumstances
 
 102 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Squarcione mercilessly criticised his pupil's work, yet the 
 severity of his judgment was useful in the correction of earlier 
 faults. Mantegna had so long studied from statuary that he 
 had fallen into rigidity of attitude, stiffness of composition, 
 and coldness of color ; but he now sought to overcome these 
 defects, to combine classic grace with classic accuracy, and to 
 catch a little of the glowing tones of the Bellini. In this 
 effort he succeeded sufficiently to astonishingly improve his 
 former style, and to secure the admiration of all Italy and the 
 imitation of many followers. Giovanni Santi, the father of 
 Raphael, who composed a poem on the artists of his day, 
 thus writes of him : 
 
 " Great the delight it gave him to admire 
 
 Mantegna's wondrous paintings, splendid proof 
 Of his high genius. . . . For than his 
 No brighter banner waves, no name more known 
 Even of our glorious age." 
 
 Yet he never conquered his predilection for sculpturesque 
 form and arrangement of pictures ; he could not display much 
 depth of feeling, for his nature was purely intellectual and not 
 at all emotional; he colored and composed upon scientific 
 rather than natural principles, was sharp and precise in finish, 
 luxuriant in ornament, dignified and refined in expression, 
 realistic, but never life-like. The frescoes on the lives of St. 
 James and St. Christopher in the church of the Eremitani 
 are his best paintings in Padua. About 1460 he entered the 
 service of the Marquis of Mantua, who gave him very liberal 
 orders ; but in the subsequent sack of that city in 1630 most 
 of his works were destroyed or carried away. The traveler 
 should, however, see the graceful frescoes of the Castello di
 
 ITALIAN PAINTING FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 103 
 
 Corte, representing the life and family of Lodovico Gonzaga. 
 The famous cartoons of the " Triumph of Caesar," now at 
 Hampton Court, England, were intended for stage-decora- 
 tions of the theatre of the castle of Mantua. They are in 
 nine compartments, executed in water-colors on twilled linen, 
 and were purchased from the Mantuan collection by Charles I. 
 of England. These compartments show a superb procession, 
 with standard-bearers, statues, and armor, trophies, and at- 
 tendant captives ; and lastly the conqueror in his car, followed 
 by the triumphal banner, "Fern, vidi, vici." 
 
 While at the court of Duke Gonzaga, Mantegna accepted 
 the invitation of Pope Innocent VIII. to paint a chapel in the 
 Vatican ; but the frescoes no longer exist. One of his fine 
 altar-pieces will be found in the church of San Zeno at 
 Verona. A " Triptych " and " Madonna of the Rocks " are 
 in the Uffizi, Florence. Three excellent pictures a " Pieta," 
 " Madonna in Nimbus," and a large altar-piece are in the 
 Brera, Milan. The London Gallery contains an enthroned 
 " Madonna " and an interesting classical picture. One of his 
 supposed masterpieces, a " Dead Christ bewailed by Angels," 
 is now attributed to Bellini. At the Louvre he has a repre- 
 sentation of " Parnassus," a " Wisdom victorious over the 
 Vices," a " Crucifixion, ' and especially a " Madonna of Vic- 
 tory," one of his later and best productions, originally de- 
 signed in commemoration of the victory of the Duke of Man- 
 tua over the French. 
 
 Andrea Mantegna was not only a painter, but an eminent 
 engraver. He was the first artist who ever engraved his own 
 works ; and some of his plates yet remain. His last years 
 were less prosperous than his youth and middle life. Family
 
 IO4 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 troubles and comparative poverty appear to have afflicted 
 him, but his industry was still great, and his renown perma- 
 nent. He died in 1506, and is buried in the church of San 
 Andrea, Mantua. 
 
 The classical style which he so affected became extremely 
 popular in all the provinces of Italy. The Florentines united 
 it with what was fast becoming an intense realism. Sculpture 
 and anatomy, plastic precision, and perfection of muscle, 
 were the favorite study of the schools. Many were sculptors 
 as well as painters, as, for example, Andrea Verocchio (1435- 
 1488), whose main interest to us lies in the fact of his having 
 been the instructor of Leonardo da Vinci. There is an anec- 
 dote that Verocchio was given a commission for a " Baptism 
 of Christ," which he treated after the traditional manner, 
 affording an opportunity to Leonardo, then a youth in his 
 studio, to paint in one of the kneeling angels. But when fin- 
 ished Leonardo's part of the piece was seen to be so much 
 better than the rest, that Verocchio, disgusted, threw away 
 his palette, and returned to his statues. This picture now 
 hangs in the Academy at Florence, and all guide-books are 
 sure to point out which is Leonardo's angel, though the ob- 
 server will not be likely to discern any such overwhelming 
 difference. 
 
 About this same epoch shone a galaxy of Tuscan painters 
 whose works foretokened the brilliancy of the coming masters. 
 Signorelli, Botticelli, and Ghirlandajo, were the heralds of Da 
 Vinci and Michael Angelo. Luca Signorelli, or Luca Egidio 
 di Ventura, often called Luca di Cortona, was born .t Cor- 
 tona in 1441. Several of his altar and panel pieces are pre- 
 served at Cortona, and in Italian and German galleries, par-
 
 ITALIAN PAINTING FIFTEENTH CENTURY. IO5 
 
 licularly in the Uffizi. He was employed during his youth, 
 with the most promising artists of Florence, in the frescoes 
 of the Sistine Chapel, Rome, where his " Moses's Journey into 
 Egypt " and " Death of Moses " are dramatically and forci- 
 bly conceived. But he is seen to best advantage in his grand 
 frescoes of the " Resurrection," " Hell," and " Paradise," in 
 the cathedral of Orvieto, begun by Fra Angelico many years 
 before. " Beneath the pure and blessed figures of Fiesole 
 which look down from the vaulted ceiling the powerful crea- 
 tions of Signorelli cover the walls like a race of mighty be- 
 ings struggling against the universal annihilation. In the 
 appalling ferryman who transports the dead across, while 
 various naked figures are wandering along the shore, we rec- 
 ognize the idea which Michael Angelo subsequently adopted 
 in his ' Last Judgment." " The devils are fiercely strong and 
 horrible, but we are compensated for their terror by a most 
 beautiful group of angels crowning the blessed. 
 
 Though Signorelli's manner of painting was thus severe 
 and majestic, with a special delight in the nude, and in active 
 physical development, his conversation is reported to have 
 been amiable and fascinating, his mode of living sumptuous, 
 and his attire' magnificent. Liibke speaks of other frescoes 
 from the life of St. Benedict, in the monastery of Monte Oli- 
 veto near Sienna ; but they are not so deserving of attention. 
 His death took place in 1523 or 1524. 
 
 Domenico Ghirlandajo, or not to rob him of his baptis- 
 mal heritage Domenico di Tommaso Curradi di Doffo Bi- 
 gordi, born in 1449, since known as Ghirlandajo, or "the 
 garland-twiner," from his own or his father's skill in fashion- 
 ing the gold and silver garlands which women then wore in
 
 I0 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. . 
 
 their hair, exhibited still more strikingly the peculiar genius 
 of Florence. His father desired his son to become a gold- 
 smith like himself, and so brought him up for twenty-four 
 years ; but with the youth's unusual talents a transition to a 
 higher branch of art was natural and inevitable.. His style 
 was not so muscular and mighty as Signorelli's, but he de- 
 lighted in large, free compositions, bold yet full of grace in 
 their arrangement ; embellished by portraits, architectural 
 backgrounds, picturesque costumes, and antique, broken dra- 
 peries. He was very ambitious, and often wished he were 
 able to fresco the entire walls of the city. His works, which 
 show the fruits of his study of Masaccio, are well finished 
 and exceptionally pleasing in tone, for the tendency of the 
 age was to glorify form and neglect color. His female figures 
 are elegant and aristocratic, and Jarves calls his angels "ladies 
 with wings." His finest frescoes are the wall-paintings from 
 the lives of the Virgin and St. John the Baptist in the choir 
 of Santa Maria Novella, and from the history of St. Francis in 
 the Sassetti Chapel of Santa Trinita, Florence. In the most 
 remarkable picture of the latter series, on the death of St. 
 Francis, we may perceive " an old priest at the foot of the 
 bier, chanting the litanies for the dying, with spectacles on 
 his nose the earliest known representation of those useful 
 instruments." Indeed, all his compositions are crowded with 
 contemporary portraits, contemporary buildings, and contem- 
 porary landscape. We also find an impressive " Last Supper " 
 and other frescoes in Ognissanti, Florence, and a " Calling of 
 Peter and Andrew," in the Sistine Chapel, to whose adorn- 
 ment he too contributed. He was an enthusiast for mosaic 
 work, which he called " painting for eternity," but his repu-
 
 ITALIAN PAINTING FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 107 
 
 tation rests principally upon the frescoes just mentioned, and 
 upon his excellent easel-pieces, such as "The Adoration of 
 the Magi " in the Uffizi, a subject which he frequently treated ; 
 an " Adoration of Shepherds," at the neighboring Academy ; 
 a " Visitation," at the Louvre ; " Glorified Christ " at Vol- 
 terra, and various Madonnas and Saints in the Florentine 
 Uffizi and Academy. 
 
 As Ghiriandajo advanced in life his works advanced in 
 power ; but while yet in the prime of strength and success he 
 was cut off by fever, 1494, in the forty-fifth year of his age. 
 He was the teacher of Michael Angelo, and probably no 
 master of that period, except Signorelli, was better calculated 
 to direct such a scholar. The favor which he enjoyed among 
 the Florentines was afterward extended to his son Ridolfo 
 (1483-1560), who could not be by any means compared with 
 his father, but who was popular for ready and fertile inven- 
 tion, and willingness to carry out the designs of his patrons, 
 the Medici, in their perpetual processions, shows, and festi- 
 vals. The best examples of Ridolfo's manner are his " Mir- 
 acles of St. Zenobius " in the Uffizi, and his frescoes of the 
 "Assumption," and " Gift of the Girdle," in the cathedral of 
 Prato. 
 
 Sandro Botticelli (1446-1510), whose family name was 
 Alessandro FUipepi, another able Florentine artist, appre- 
 ciated by the Medici, was a pupil of Filippo Lippi, upon 
 whom he modeled his style, though his tone of feeling was 
 evidently sadder and tenderer than that of the vivacious 
 monk. His religious works are elaborate in their purity and 
 sweetness, and are generally beloved by critics. He was 
 one of the first to introduce classical easel subjects, as in the
 
 ,08 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 " Birth of Venus," rising from the ocean ; the " Spring," and 
 the allegorical " Calumny " in the Uffizi. In another picture 
 in the Uffizi, an "Adoration of the Magi," the king kissing 
 the feet of Jesus is the first Cosmo de' Medici, while the other 
 two kings are his son and a relation. There is also found in 
 Florence a" Coronation," which, with other Madonnas in Lon- 
 don and Paris, displays Botticelli as a beautiful artist. But 
 he appears on a larger scale in the frescoes of " Moses kill- 
 ing the Egyptian," " The Extermination of Korah," and the 
 " Temptation of Christ " in the Sistine Chapel. A fine paint- 
 ing of " Pallas subduing a Centaur" was discovered in 1895 
 in the Pitti Palace, Florence. 
 
 Botticelli repaid his obligations to Fra Filippo by educat- 
 ing Lippo's illegitimate son Filippino, who inherited all his 
 father's gifts, but added to them a more virtuous and modest 
 character. Crowe and Cavalcaselle think Filippino may pos- 
 sibly have been Filippo's nephew, and not his son, but it is a 
 vexed question. Be he whom he may, he was considered so 
 promising that the important task of completing Masaccio's 
 frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel was intrusted to him, and 
 most admirably performed. *' The King's Son restored to 
 Life," and " St. Peter and St. Paul conversing in Prison," are 
 particularly worthy of praise. His manner is realistic and 
 less simple than that of Masaccio, with great fondness for 
 decoration ; while his other frescoes in the Strozzi Chapel of 
 Santa Maria Novella, containing scenes from the Acts of the 
 Apostles, are rich, expressive, and warmly colored, as are also 
 his frescoes in the Caraffa Chapel in the church of Santa 
 Maria sopra Minerva, Rome. His panel-pieces are not so 
 rare as those of Botticelli, and are collected, not only in Con-
 
 ITALIAN PAINTING FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 109 
 
 tinental galleries, but in England, where a '' Madonna with 
 St. Jerome and St. Dominic " and a glowing " Adoration of 
 the Wise Men " amply illustrate his talents. He survived the 
 fifteenth century, and died in 1504. 
 
 Meanwhile the school of Bologna, so prominent in later 
 Italian history, rejoiced in the birth of its first great painter, 
 Francesco Raibolini, " II Francia," born in 1450. Like the 
 celebrated Florentines whose biographies we have just re- 
 corded, he was trained as a goldsmith and medal-coiner, and 
 did not abandon the trade till middle life. His earliest work 
 is a " Madonna and Six Saints," at Bologna, dated 1490 or 
 1494. This was followed by an altar-piece for the Benti- 
 voglio Chapel in the church of San Giacomo in the same city. 
 This, too, was a " Madonna," accompanied by St. Sebastian, 
 St. John, and two musical angels. The execution of these 
 pictures was such as to delight all who saw them ; their soft, 
 rich color, quiet fervency, and holy peace, appeared tc 
 breathe around them an atmosphere of sacred rest. Francia 
 had found his vocation, and henceforth he appears as one of 
 those painters ordained "by the gift of God," whose mission 
 is to bring down faith, repose, and hope. The technical 
 qualities of his work, purity and depth of tone, delicacy of 
 finish, finely-wrought backgrounds, and serene and beautiful 
 figures, were such as to correspond with their elevation of 
 sentiment. He was most successful in oil-colors, but has left 
 an able series of frescoes in the church of St. Cecilia in 
 Bologna. His works were eagerly sought in Lombardy and 
 Tuscany, and have, in later years, found numerous pur- 
 chasers. An excellent altar-piece is owned by the National 
 Gallery, London, displaying in one part a " Pietn " in the
 
 IIO SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 other the "Virgin and Child with Saints." At Dresden is a 
 very lovely and wonderfully- finished little picture of the 
 " Baptism of Christ." We see each detail most richly and 
 exquisitely rendered. The Louvre has an excellent " Christ 
 upon the Cross." Several other pictures are also at Berlin and 
 Vienna, while Munich possesses another which Mrs. Jameson 
 pronounces the most charming he ever painted. " It repre- 
 sents the infant Saviour lying on the grass, amid roses and 
 flowers; the Virgin stands before him, looking down with 
 clasped hands, in an ecstasy of love and devotion, on her 
 divine Son. The figures are rather less than life." Many 
 public or private collections contain his half-length Ma- 
 donnas with the Child ; easily recognizable from the one type 
 of countenance in which all are cast mild, soft-eyed, and 
 devoutly calm. 
 
 As a man, we learn that Francia was no less attractive 
 than as a painter. We are not surprised to hear that he was 
 very gentle and obliging, and had great nobility and earnest- 
 ness of soul. Though he was more than thirty years older 
 than Raphael, the two became sincere friends, corresponding, 
 and exchanging sketches. The St. Cecilia which Raphael 
 executed for Bologna was sent to Francia's care, and, so far 
 from being jealous, he received it with enthusiasm and joy. 
 The time of his death has been disputed, but it is asserted 
 fhat state documents, which speak of him as the Master of 
 the Mint at Bologna, fix the date of his decease on the 6th 
 of January, 1517. Others in Bologna were painters in his 
 style, the most talented of whom was Lorenzo Costa, of Fer- 
 rara. His son Giacomo and his cousin Giulio were also 
 artists, and their pictures are occasionally attributed to him.
 
 ITALIAN PAINTING FIFTEENTH CENTURY. i x j 
 
 The school of Sienna, which in the fourteenth century 
 displayed such promise and aspiration, had nevertheless dis- 
 appointed the expectations of the age. Depending only upon 
 sentiment and tradition, it had refused to appropriate the 
 new vitality and thought which were inspiring the Floren- 
 tines, and so had worn out its own fervor. Nobody appeared 
 to revive its declining power till the time of Sodoma, whom 
 we cannot yet notice, as he was rather the contemporary of 
 Michael Angelo and Raphael. But the religious element so 
 strongly pervading Siennese art, and so natural to a region 
 familiar with the story and spirit of St. Francis of Assisi, 
 found other interpreters and a fresh home in Umbria, whose 
 painters were slowly rising into repute. Oderisio, of Gubbio, 
 had, in the days of Giotto and Dante, distinguished himself by 
 his miniatures; Guido Palmerucci had labored, about 1300, 
 upon frescoes, now dilapidated, which exhibit the long, slen- 
 der bodies, small heads, and ill-drawn hands of the period. 
 Other artists of Gubbio continued their feeble though deli- 
 cate efforts, only to give place to Ottaviano Nelli, whose best 
 wall-pieces have perished; and to the brilliancy of Gentile 
 da Fabriano, an inhabitant of the adjacent town of Fabriano. 
 
 This Gentile di Nicolo di Giovanni Massi, whom some 
 consider Allegretto Nuzzi's pupil, was no ascetic, but a 
 gay, genial, romantic, and accomplished person, whose char- 
 acter was reflected in his painting. Born about 1370, his 
 successful and influential career was by no means confined 
 to Umbria, but was passed in different cities of Italy. He 
 was highly esteemed in Venice, where he worked in the hall 
 of the Grand Council, and became the teacher of Jacopo 
 Bellini, the founder of the Venetian school. His coloring
 
 1 1 2 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 was rich and splendid, and profusely heightened by golden 
 ornament. Much admiration has been expressed for him by 
 the masters of Italy and Flanders. Michael Angelo is re- 
 ported to have remarked that his hand in painting resembled 
 his name. His frescoes have perished, though a " Madonna 
 with St. Catharine " in the cathedral of Orvieto is still attrib- 
 uted to him. Some of his panel-pictures are found in Ber- 
 lin, Paris, Fabriano, and Florence ; but the Florentine Acad- 
 emy of Fine Arts possesses his chef-d'oeuvre, an " Adoration 
 of the Magi," which introduces his own portrait, and of 
 which Jarves says : 
 
 " The landscape of this picture is filled with every thing 
 pleasant to gaze upon. A magnificent sweep of sunlit hills, 
 distant, peaceful sea, flourishing cities, and signs of stirring, 
 prosperous life, occupy the background. Far off begins the 
 journey of the Magi, whose retinue winds among flowers, 
 forests, and trees laden with luscious fruit, until it reaches 
 the foreground, where the kings dismount before the Virgin 
 Mother to offer their gifts and to worship. They have come 
 in truly royal guise, as Christian knights, bringing with them 
 those mediaeval appendages of rank, dwarfs, monkeys, and 
 dogs; horses richly caparisoned, a train of animals laden 
 with presents, and comely young men. But the eye centres 
 on those handsome kings, resplendent in attire, whose pride 
 of rank and condition fits them most gracefully, and whose 
 countenances, as they adore the infant Saviour, are lighted 
 up as by a prophetic consciousness of the incoming triumph 
 of the new faith thus ushered upon earth through the instru- 
 mentality of heaven." 
 
 As Gentile da Fabriano had been in many ways a debtor
 
 ITALIAN PAINTING FIFTEENTH CENTURY. n^ 
 
 to Fra Angelico, so Nicolo Alunno, of Foligno, was thrown 
 into contact with Benozzo Gozzoli, and then became the 
 predecessor, or possibly the master, of Perugino, who was in 
 turn the instructor of Raphael. Thus we see how the schools 
 of Italy, spite of their different characteristics, link together, 
 and fuse each other's merits into common beauties. 
 
 The style of Alunno is usually judged by the altar-pieces 
 and Madonna preserved in Rome, in the Vatican and the 
 Colonna Gallery. These are antique and reverent in treat- 
 ment, somewhat rigid in form, and subdued rather than in 
 tense in expression. He painted in distemper, with deep- 
 brown shading, and loved to embody the old conception of 
 angels hovering about the crucifixion, catching the sacred 
 blood-drops in their holy cups. Better altar-pieces hang in 
 the Brera Gallery, Milan, also in London, Foligno, and Sala 
 Nuova, Perugia. The announcing angel appearing to Mary, 
 in the latter composition, " with crisp, wavy hair bound by a 
 crimson cincture," is particularly graceful. 
 
 Pietro Vanucci, or, as we call him, Perugino, born in the 
 village of Citta della Pieva, in 1446, is, however, the true 
 exponent of the Umbrian ideal. The name of Perugino was 
 not given him till he had reached maturity, and been made 
 a citizen of Perugia. His father was a respectable peasant, 
 but, having several children to support, sent this little son, at 
 nine years old, to be articled to a painter of Perugia, who, 
 though not of much ability himself, had the good sense to 
 advise all his pupils to study at Florence as soon as circum- 
 stances would permit. To Florence, therefore, Pietro event- 
 ually bent his steps, though so poor that he was obliged to 
 sleep in a chest instead of a bed. There he was admitted to
 
 II4 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 the studio of Verrochio, the teacher of Leonardo da Vinci, 
 and had every opportunity to study the masterly frescoes 
 with which the city abounded. His friend Leonardo doubt- 
 less fixed his attention upon perspective, and scientific rules 
 of compcsition, while both indulged their natural inclination 
 toward pure, harmonious color, fineness of touch, and smooth- 
 ness of finish. Some pictures at Perugia, and a panel of the 
 " Virgin and Child " in the Louvre, painted in tempera, are 
 among his early labors, and already illustrate his peculiarities. 
 The Virgin, gorgeously dressed and attended by richly-ap- 
 pareled saints and meditative angels, sits in innocent calm- 
 ness " on a throne partitioned off from a pleasant wilderness 
 by parapets of stone." Every tint is bright and fair ; every 
 shadow soft and warm. Here we have an example of all his 
 future method. Dreamy gentleness, elegant tranquillity, re- 
 fined and often melancholy mysticism, with slender shapes, 
 nun-like placidity of faces, pure color, and great precision 
 and elaboration of detail, were its main features. It is very 
 difficult to reconcile this spirituality of style in Perugino the 
 artist, with the appearance and reported character of Peru- 
 gino the man. His portrait in the Uffizi, now thought to be 
 misnamed, shows " small black eyes under a fleshy brow ; a 
 short but well-cut nose, and sensual lips ; broad cheeks, a 
 bull neck, and bushy, frizzled hair." A better portrait of 
 Perugino, in the Borghese Gallery, Rome, is ascribed by Mo- 
 relli to the hand of Raphael himself. 
 
 Between 1480 and 1486 Perugino was employed by Pope 
 Sixtus in the Sistine Chapel, where he was assisted by his 
 friend Pinturrichio. His large frescoes are effaced, or given to 
 Pinturrichio, as "Moses and Zipporah" and the "Baptism of
 
 ITALIAN PAINTING FIFTEENTH CENTURY. n 5 
 
 Christ." The " Delivery of the Keys to Peter " remains. After 
 the completion of the chapel in 1486 he returned to Florence, 
 and by 1492 had abandoned his previous practice of dis- 
 temper, and habituated himself to the use of oils. One of 
 his successful attempts with the new medium was the " Pieta," 
 now in the Academy of Arcs, though this does not equal the 
 " Pieta " of the following year which we may admire in the 
 Pitti. After the death of Lorenzo de Medici, Perugino re- 
 moved to Perugia, where he was commissioned to prepare 
 elaborate frescoes for the Audience Hall of the Guild of the 
 Cambio. Here we see the " Nativity," the " Transfiguration," 
 the " Triumph of Religion," and the " Cardinal Virtues," 
 with classical ceiling-designs painted in by his pupils from 
 their master's sketches. The artist was at this epoch very 
 prosperous. He married a young wife so beautiful that he 
 delighted to deck her with rich and picturesque garments; 
 his pay was certain and sufficient, and his studio was thronged 
 with scholars, among whom soon came the young Raphael, 
 who was greatly indebted to Perugino for his early style. lu 
 fact, all who will observe Raphael's picture of the " Marriage 1 
 of the Virgin," at Milan, cannot but remark that it is almos/ 
 a reproduction of Perugino's painting on the same subject, 
 now in the Museum of Caen, France. The arrangement is 
 identical the high-priest in the centre ; the group of Joseph 
 and his friends, and Mary and her attendants, only changed 
 in their relative position from left to right; the rejected 
 suitor breaking his wand across his knee, and the octagonal 
 temple in the background. It is true that Raphael's faces 
 are much sweeter and more expressive than Perugino's, and 
 his high-priest more venerable and dignified; but the com-
 
 Il6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 position is so little modified that superficial gazers might 
 even consider it a copy. 
 
 Space will not allow us to catalogue Perugino's numerous 
 works. They will be found especially at Perugia and Flor- 
 ence, and in every important gallery. As one of the most 
 celebrated, we may mention the " Resurrection " of the Vati- 
 can, where Christ, with his banner and an almond-shaped 
 aureole, is soaring from a sarcophagus placed conspicuously 
 in the midst of a landscape. Three sleeping guards sit near 
 the tomb, while one awakened soldier flies terrified away. 
 Tradition describes the latter as the portrait of Perugino, and 
 gives to the slumbering watchman on the right the likeness 
 of Raphael ; but the spectator can only imagine such resem- 
 blances. Yet this picture cannot equal the triptych of the 
 " Madonna adoring the Child, with the Archangel Michael on 
 one side, and the Archangel Raphael leading Tobit," on the 
 other, painted for the Certosa of Pavia, but now transferred 
 to the London Gallery. Its coloring is surpassingly brill- 
 iant and tender, and its sentiment simple, tranquil, and holy. 
 A duplicate of the central part hangs in the Pitti Palace, 
 Florence. 
 
 The Florence Academy retains another excellent altar- 
 piece of the " Assumption of the Virgin," from the con- 
 vent of Vallambrosa. The Belvedere, Vienna, possesses, 
 among other specimens, a " Madonna and Saints," one of his- 
 first efforts in oil-painting; while the Pinakothek, Munich, 
 best represents him in the " Appearance of the Virgin to St. 
 Bernard." For his native town, Citta della Pieva, he exe- 
 cuted a fresco of the " Adoration of the Magi," which has 
 been chromo-lithographed by the Arundel Society, as has
 
 ADORATION OF THE VIRGIN (Perugino). 
 
 p. 116.
 
 IT ALT AN PAINTING FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 117 
 
 also a "Crucifixion " from Santa Maria Maddalena de Pazzi. 
 of much earlier date. 
 
 In 1507 he was invited to Rome by Julius II. to fresco 
 the Stanza dell' Incendio del Borgo of the Vatican. But, 
 upon acquaintance with Raphael, the unceremonious pope 
 coolly ordered Perugino's work to be obliterated and renewed 
 by his more gifted scholar. Raphael endeavored to soothe 
 his mortification by leaving the ceiling medallions, which por- 
 tray the Eternal Father in various attitudes and glories ; but 
 Perugino's star was on the wane. His biographers speak of 
 moral defects which decreased his power ; but accusations 
 such as these should not be received without convincing evi- 
 dence. The traditions of his century dealt hardly with him. 
 Not only do historians describe him as mean and mercenary, 
 but Vasari even accuses him of disbelief in the immortality 
 of the soul. This cannot accord with his style and subjects, 
 which were continually sacred, with very few exceptions 
 from Perugia or the Louvre. Let us hope for the interests 
 of psychology that the contradictions of his nature may be 
 harmonized through further researches. 
 
 Many sensational stories have been told of his refusal of 
 the last sacraments, and his burial in unconsecrated ground ; 
 but facts appear to show that he perished of the plague in 
 1524, and was so hastily interred that no one knows of hU 
 resting-place. 
 
 His early pupil or assistant, Bernardino Pinturrichio, of 
 Perugia (1454-1513), had died some years before. He seems 
 to have been a partner of Perugino, accompanying the latter 
 to Rome, aiding him in his labors in the Sistine Chapel, and 
 receiving a third of the profits. Indeed, Pinturrichio f s most
 
 n8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 popular frescoes must all be sought at Rome, as he there 
 came under the patronage of the Borgia family and other 
 nobles, and was employed in many churches. The most ex- 
 tensive of these wall and ceiling frescoes exist in the different 
 chapels of Santa Maria del Popolo ; others are the fresco of 
 the " Journey of Moses " in the Sistine Chapel, once given to 
 Perugino, and frescoes in the Ara Cceli. He worked chiefly 
 in tempera, with many Umbrian characteristics, but with 
 occasional coarseness of feeling and execution. Yet he 
 abounds in gilded ornament and minute detail, his pictures 
 being crowded with incidents. His figures are slight, but not 
 graceful, with crisp, luxuriant hair ; his draperies heavy, with 
 rich bordering ; and his colors sometimes dark and some- 
 times glaring. Some good altar-pieces still remain, but the 
 easel-pieces ascribed to him in various galleries are commonly 
 of inferior merit. One of the most interesting is a small 
 panel at Dresden, called the portrait of Raphael as a boy ; 
 though better critics have long since declared the likeness 
 only a myth. Yet we find that Raphael was on friendly 
 terms with Pinturrichio during his execution of the fine 
 frescoes of the Piccolomini Library of the Duomo of Sienna, 
 portraying scenes from ths life of one of the Piccolomini 
 who became Pope Pius II., finished in 1507, and compara- 
 tively well preserved. These frescoes were undertaken after 
 Pinturrichio had changed his abode from Perugia to Sienna, 
 in which city he is said to have died of hunger from the 
 neglect of his heartless wife Grania during his last illness. 
 
 It is of course superfluous to observe that among all the 
 successors of Pinturrichio, or followers formed by Perugino, 
 Raphael holds the first rank. Yet while we defer him to
 
 ITALIAN PAINTINGS FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 119 
 
 future consideration, it will not be inappropriate to briefly 
 notice his father, Giovanni Sanzio or Santi, of Urbino, an 
 artist of good abilities, to whose compositions and talents 
 considerable attention has lately been devoted. He was evi- 
 dently a man of earnestness, refinement, and culture, and has 
 left us a poem, full of generous appreciation, upon the art of 
 his times. His paintings are quiet, careful, pure, and elevated 
 in sentiment, but often stiff in outline, and weak or leaden in 
 color. Liibke thinks the frescoes in the Dominican church 
 at Cagli his best and most attractive efforts. There is also an 
 " Annunciation " in the Brera, Milan, and an " Enthroned 
 Madonna " at Berlin. Travelers through Urbino will be 
 likely to visit the house which saw the infancy of Raphael, 
 and will there find relics of Giovanni, especially a " Madonna 
 with a Sleeping Child," painted on the wall. 
 
 No records of Raphael's fellow-pupils need cumber our 
 pages, with the exception of an allusion to Giovanni di Pietro, 
 mentioned as " Lo Spagna," or " the Spaniard," from the 
 country of his birth, whose elaborate altar-piece of the " Ador- 
 ation of the Magi," mystically treated, in the Museum of 
 Berlin, and paintings at Spoleto, where he married and re- 
 sided, indicate some original genius and much imitation of 
 his famous colleague. 
 
 From this digression into Umbria we return to Florence, 
 and the favorites of the Medici. The agitating period of 
 Savonarola's preaching was approaching, and no better de- 
 scription can be given of the times than that furnished by 
 George Eliot in the novel of "Romola." The readers of 
 that story may possibly recollect the character of the misan- 
 thropic Piero di Cosimo (1462-1521), the scholar of Cosimc
 
 120 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Roselli, and the master of Andrea del Sarto. He was still 
 more noted for his eccentricities than for his pictures, and 
 would shut himself up in his room undisturbed for days, 
 eating only hard eggs which he boiled by fifties in his glue- 
 pot. He succeeded in landscape and portraits, aiming at 
 clearness and polish; but his classical paintings, of which 
 there are fair specimens in " The Rescue of Andromeda," in 
 the Uffizi, and the " Death of Procris," in the London Gal- 
 lery, are superior to his sacred pieces at Florence, and to his 
 " Coronation of the Virgin " in the Louvre. He liked to 
 introduce grotesque animals and ornaments, and was invalu- 
 able in preparing triumphal cars, and other fantastic novel- 
 ties, for carnival festivals and processions, but is utterly 
 eclipsed as an artist by Roselli's more renowned apprentice, 
 Baccio della Porta. 
 
 " Baccio " being the Tuscan diminutive for Bartolomeo, 
 and " della Porta " having been added from the circumstance 
 of his dwelling while a student near one of the gates of 
 Florence, we shall probably recognize this painter by his 
 monastic title of Fra Bartolomeo, or, as he is simply styled 
 by the Italians, "II Frate." He was born about 1475, m tne 
 small town of Savignano, not far from Florence. We have 
 no detailed narrative of his youthful life, except that he was 
 soon brought under Roselli's tuition, where he formed a close 
 friendship with his associate student Mariotto Albertinelli, 
 and showed such natural and artistic proclivities toward 
 " sweetness and light," that the beauty of his Madonna-faces, 
 and the sunny fervor of his coloring, won the approbation 
 even of the critical Florentines. Yet nothing of these years 
 is now discoverable ; his first extant work being a likeness of
 
 ITALIAN PAINTING FIFTEENTH CENTURY. T2 i 
 
 Savonarola, which he long afterward reproduced in the panel 
 portrait kept in the Florence Academy. This eloquent man 
 so impressed Bartolomeo that he not only became his dis- 
 ciple, but testified to his sincerity by burning all his nude 
 studies and worldly designs in the carnival fires which the 
 Piagnoni (or adherents of the monk) were wont to kindle to 
 consume the earthly vanities that hindered the progress of 
 his followers toward holiness. We cannot imagine that any 
 of Bartolomeo's sketches could have been indecent, and must 
 therefore regret such precipitate enthusiasm ; but his appre- 
 ciation of the ideal being more intelligent than conventual 
 strictness approved, he took pains to gain a knowledge of 
 anatomy, and sometimes outlined his Madonnas nude before 
 covering them with drapery, in order to obtain proper form 
 and folds. He also invented what we call lay-figures, to 
 serve the same purpose, so jointed that he could arrange 
 them in various positions. Before the persecution of the 
 Dominicans had reached a climax, Bartolomeo was commis- 
 sioned to fresco a " Last Judgment," now exceedingly dam- 
 aged, in the cemetery of Santa Maria Nuova. Here his 
 refined feeling improved upon past conceptions. His Christ 
 is majestic, yet tender, and encircled by a glory of very love- 
 ly cherub-heads. His apostles do not attitudinize, but are 
 calmly seated in perspective rows. The figures and gestures 
 are noble and gentle, and it is suggestive of the sympathies 
 of the artist that the part which he left till the last, and 
 finally abandoned incomplete, so that it had to be finished by 
 Albertinelli, was the representation of the condemned. Not 
 that such abandonment was premeditated, but the arrest and 
 death of Savonarola, which just then occurred, so powerfully
 
 122 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 affected his mind that he vowed to consecrate himself to a 
 religious life, and, leaving every thing behind, was received, in 
 July, 1500, by the Dominicans of Prato, and in a few months 
 entered the same monastery of San Marco at Florence which 
 had been the home of Fra Angelico and Savonarola. Yet, 
 with insight rare among the priesthood, his superiors per- 
 ceived that the monotony of the cloister, however congenial 
 to his temperament, was not suited to his talents ; and after 
 four or six years' quiet he was persuaded to resume his brush, 
 painting by the direction of the prior, and for the profit of 
 the order. Two little gems, of the " Nativity " and " Circum- 
 cision," at present in the Uffizi, are supposed to be the first 
 fruits of this renewed activity. These were quickly followed 
 by the much-restored " Vision of St. Bernard " in the Acad- 
 emy. His old friend Albertinelli was engaged to help him, 
 and thenceforth the life of the gentle friar was not only 
 tranquil but truly happy. We see his affection for his con- 
 vent in the frescoes with which he occasionally adorned its 
 walls ; but the very touching " Providenza " in the refectory, 
 where the monks are patiently seated at an empty table, till 
 two angels hasten forward to reward their faith and bring 
 them food, is not from his hand. These may be compared 
 with the greater works which were ordered far and wide, and 
 which largely extended his fame. A visit to Venice, in 1508, 
 influenced his coloring ; and another visit to Rome, in 1514, 
 perfected his style, and led him to an ampler practice of the 
 new rules of composition. Many pictures were then exe- 
 cuted, most important of which are Madonnas of the Pitti, 
 a " Madonna and St. Catharine, "now hanging in the Louvre, 
 and the unfinished "Madonna" of the Uffizi. But it is in
 
 ITALIAN PAINTING FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 123 
 
 his later days, when his mind had broadened and strength- 
 ened, and his touch grown firm, that we find such master- 
 pieces as the " Pieta " of the Pitti the most purely beautiful 
 Pieta ever painted; the "Presentation in the Temple," at 
 Vienna; the "Madonna della Misericordia," or "Virgin of 
 Mercy," at Lucca, where the mother of Christ, with uplifted, 
 beseeching face, intercedes with her Son for the suppliant 
 crowd who are sheltered by her robes ; and the grand " Res- 
 urrection of the Saviour," and seated " St. Mark," which 
 also hang in the Pitti Gallery. From these and many other 
 specimens we soon learn to identify Fra Bartolomeo's pict- 
 ures. Holy without absolute unearthliness, and pure without 
 insipidity, their charm is enhanced by a brilliancy and soft- 
 ness of color which suggest both the splendor of Venice and 
 the spirituality of Umbria. A glowing but not gaudy red is 
 their prevailing tone, while arches, thrones, and canopies, 
 contribute to the effectiveness of his backgrounds. 
 
 Biographers always dwell upon the intimacy between Fra 
 Bartolomeo and Raphael, begun soon after the former had 
 entered the monastery. It was, of course, productive of much 
 good to both. To Bartolomeo it gave not only a lively im- 
 pulse, but much active knowledge and energy ; while it so 
 affected Raphael's manner that one of his early pieces, the 
 " Madonna del Baldacchino " in the Pitti, often engraved, is 
 hardly to be distinguished from the works of Bartolomeo. 
 The friendship was sadly terminated by the death of the ar- 
 tist monk at Florence, of a malignant fever, October 8, 1517. 
 
 Another, less eminent friend of Bartolomeo, Mariotto 
 Albertinelli, has been alluded to. He was of a gayer dis- 
 position, and versatile though not profound genius. Born
 
 124 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 at Florence in 1474, he too was instructed by Cosimo Roselli, 
 but preferred the party of the Medici to the leadings of 
 Savonarola. Yet he was deeply attached to Fra Bartolomeo, 
 and gladly assisted him even after he had become " II 
 Fiate;" till at last he grew disgusted with art, declared his 
 preference for a roving life, and went to keep a tavern ! After 
 a while, however, he returned penitently to painting, and 
 died at the age of forty-one. He has left some able pictures, 
 particularly the " Visitation," or " Salutation," in the Uffizi, 
 and an " Annunciation " and a " Trinity " in the Florence 
 Academy; together with a Madonna in the Louvre. 
 
 The easel-pieces of his contemporary, Raffaellino del 
 Garbo (1466-1524), are sometimes valued in collections, es- 
 pecially at Berlin ; though the generality of observers will 
 be most interested by his quaint " Resurrection " in the 
 Academy at Florence. His coloring is clear, but hard ; and 
 his style not so pleasing as that of another Florentine, Lo- 
 renzo di Credi (1459-1537), the fellow-pupil and friend of 
 Leonardo da Vinci. 
 
 Lorenzo was a good artist, and a still better man ; but his 
 sphere was narrow, and his powers limited. He bestowed 
 much labor on his work, finishing with such extreme delicacy 
 that his pictures are sometimes mistaken for Leonardo's ; 
 though the invariable expression of the countenances of his 
 Virgins might always correct such an error. He never cared 
 to fresco, but attempted only altar and easel paintings, upon 
 sacred subjects, having cast, like Fra Bartolomeo, his profane 
 drawings into Savonarola's bonfire. His favorite theme was 
 the " Nativity," or the " Virgin adoring the Child ; " and 
 very charming instances of its treatment exist in the Uffizi
 
 VISITATION (Albertinelli).
 
 ITALIAN PAINTING FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 125 
 
 and Academy at Florence, while the fine " Madonna with 
 the Flower-Glass" is in the Borghese Palace, Rome, and Ma- 
 donnas and Saints in London and Paris. Di Credi's style so 
 closely imitates Leonardo's that he well serves to introduce 
 us to the golden epoch of Da Vinci and Michael Angelo, 
 Raphael and Correggio.
 
 I 2 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 LEONARDO DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. 
 
 ITALIAN history of the sixteenth century is best studied 
 in biographies. Nowhere are the political, social, and reli- 
 gious aspects of the time more faithfully mirrored than in the 
 lives of Leonardo da Vinci and Michael Angelo. Leonardo 
 especially represents its highest type of intellect, refinement, 
 and cultivation. If any person in our day be an eminent 
 artist, scientist, or poet, we are apt to lionize him as a re- 
 markable genius ; but what are we to think of one who was 
 so admirable a mathematician, mechanic, engineer, chemist, 
 author, architect, musician, and sculptor, that painting was 
 regarded as one of his minor accomplishments ? Seldom, if 
 ever, has the world beheld such a combination of gifts; 
 and seldom, if ever, has it beheld them so fitly embodied as 
 in the handsome, high-bred, reflective, and dignified man 
 whose noble portrait still looks down upon us in the gallery 
 of the Uffizi. 
 
 The life of Leonardo da Vinci has been often written, and 
 its leading facts are easily impressed upon the memory. Its 
 events were few, its industry versatile, its experiments pro- 
 digious, yet its results but meagre. What he was seems 
 only a hint of what he might have been ; but posterity has 
 appreciated his possibilities, and we judge him rather by
 
 DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. 
 
 127 
 
 what he could have done than by what he actually did. A 
 ruined and almost obliterated fresco ; a fascinating female 
 head, smiling mysteriously from out its dreamy shadow ; a 
 very few Madonnas and Holy Families ; (possibly the " St. 
 Jerome " of the Vatican), and large unfinished "Adoration of 
 the Magi, "in brown color, at Florence are the only paintings 
 of whose authenticity we are absolutely certain ; yet upon this 
 slight foundation is built a fame which has never been sur- 
 passed and rarely equaled, and whose secret must be sought 
 in the quality and not in the quantity of his works, and in 
 the capacities and not the achievements of his intellect. 
 
 Born in 1452, as the natural son of a notary, Piero da 
 Vinci, in the valley of the Arno, the prospects of Leonardo 
 could not, in his infancy, have been thought very brilliant. 
 But Piero's wife was kind, and had no children of her own, 
 and the boy was brought up in his father's house, so pre- 
 cocious in beauty and learning, so active a rider, dancer, and 
 fencer, so sanguine and clever in all kinds of skillful experi- 
 ments, and so passionately fond of the arts of design, that all 
 fear as to his future fortunes was soon at rest. It seemed a 
 pity, indeed, that the great and discriminating Cosmo de 
 Medici should have died when this young genius was but 
 twelve years old ; yet talents like his were beyond the need 
 of patronage, and Florence could well afford to spare one 
 artist to Milan and Northern Italy. No princely favor was 
 lavished on his youth ; but his father took him, like any other 
 art-apprentice, to the studio of Andrea Cione or Andrea Ver- 
 rochio, by whom Perugino and Lorenzo di Credi were also 
 educated. Verrochio's lessons extended to sculpture and 
 perspective, as well as to painting; and, though there is an
 
 I2 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 anecdote of Leonardo's having excelled his master in an 
 adoring angel kneeling beside the Saviour in a " Baptism of 
 Christ," yet there is no doubt of Verrochio's ability as an in- 
 structor in technical methods of art, however dry and soulless 
 he may have been in execution. At all events, Leonardo re- 
 mained with him till the age of twenty-five, amusing himself 
 at intervals with mathematics, natural philosophy, mechanical 
 contrivances and inventions, botany, astronomy, anatomy ; 
 modeling heads in terra-cotta and wax ; studying his draper- 
 ies from clay figures covered with wet linen ; perfecting him- 
 self in exactness yet softness of drawing, shading, and relief; 
 till his style became so entirely formed that future years 
 needed only to develop, but never to alter it. The large but 
 uncompleted " Adoration of the Kings," in brown color, in 
 the Uffizi Gallery, is supposed to have been executed soon 
 after his quitting Verrochio. But the most famous work of 
 his early Florentine days was the painting of the shield 
 known as the " Rotello del Fico " (from rotello, a buckler, and 
 ficO) a fig-tree). This shield had been cut by a peasant from 
 the trunk of a fig-tree on his farm, and brought by him to 
 Piero da Vinci, with the request that something might be 
 painted on it. Piero handed it to his son, with a repetition 
 of the request. Leonardo conceived the idea of imitating 
 the traditional shield of Perseus, which was supposed to have 
 been ornamented with a Medusa-head that petrified all his 
 enemies. In order to carry out this scheme, he collected the 
 most frightful reptiles, bugs, serpents, bats, scorpions, hedge- 
 hogs, and all noxious animals that swamps or dens could fur- 
 nish, which, as Vasari says, " filled the room with a mortal 
 fetor ; " and combined all their hideousness into one horrible
 
 DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. 
 
 129 
 
 monster, which he painted so vividly and appallingly that his 
 father fled from its sight in terror. Leonardo was quite satis- 
 fied with the effect produced ; and Piero considered his per- 
 formance so extraordinary that he presented the countryman 
 with another shield, nicely adorned with a heart and arrow, 
 while his son's passed eventually into the possession of the 
 Duke of Milan, but has since perished. This story will recall 
 the " Medusa " still to be seen in the Uffizi, which is another 
 remarkable production, once thought from Leonardo's own 
 hand, but now no longer so considered. It is simply the 
 head of the Fury, severed from her body, and most ghastly 
 in death, with the hair turning into serpents, yet with a 
 strange, weird fascination of beauty amid all its horror. 
 
 Geometry, architecture, and engineering, appear, however, 
 to have more fully occupied Leonardo's mind, during the 
 first thirty years of his life, than either sculpture or painting. 
 He proposed many daring projects to his fellow-citizens, 
 such as lifting the baptistery bodily, by means of levers, to a 
 higher level, or cutting a canal from Florence to Pisa ; and 
 invented all sorts of machines, from cannon and compasses 
 to tread-mills, camp-stools, and wheelbarrows. But, not find- 
 ing this likely to bring him much honor or profit in Florence, 
 he wrote a singular and characteristic letter to the Duke of 
 Milan, Lodovico Sforza, then called " II Moro," in which he 
 enumerated all he could do to commend himself to such a 
 patron. The letter still exists, and is often quoted. He tells 
 the duke of the many destructive engines he can contrive 
 for attacking his enemies, and, after describing these as the 
 matters of importance, adds, as trifling items : " In time of 
 peace I believe I can equal any one in architecture, in con-
 
 '3 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 structing buildings, and in carrying water from one place to 
 another. I can execute sculpture, whether in bronze, marble, 
 or terra-cotta ; also in painting I can do as much as another, 
 be he who he may." 
 
 II Moro was evidently pleased with this prospectus, and 
 gave him an appointment with a fixed salary, at a date as yet 
 unsettled, but supposed to be 1482 or 1483. Vasari declares 
 that the duke valued him chiefly as a musician and an im- 
 provisatore, and that Leonardo took with him a charming 
 lute which he had invented, made of silver and shaped like 
 a horse's head. So accomplished and attractive a man natu- 
 rally became a favorite at the court, where he was commis- 
 sioned to model a large equestrian statue in memory of 
 Francesco Sforza, Lodovico's father. To this he devoted 
 immense pains, but worked so slowly that it was sixteen years 
 before the horse was finally completed in clay. He began by 
 pen-and-ink drawings, made anatomical sketches, engravings, 
 and designs, which have been more enduring than the monu- 
 ment itself. It was never cast in bronze, and the colossal 
 clay model was either broken by the French in 1499, or after- 
 ward destroyed in some unknown way, while the sketches 
 and etchings are still preserved, and have been photographed 
 and published. All traces of any casts or statuary by Leo- 
 nardo have long since disappeared, and the proof of his 
 abilities in that direction is supplied solely by his fragmentary 
 drawings, and by history and tradition. 
 
 While the statue was in tardy progress, Leonardo made 
 some few but valuable essays in painting. He had so studied 
 the beauties of expression, particularly in female faces, that 
 none could excel him in the loveliness and seductiveness of
 
 DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. I T >I 
 
 his portraits. The strange, enchanting smile by which we 
 have learned to know him, was already one of the peculi- 
 arities of his style, and the duke soon called on him to im- 
 mortalize the charms of his many mistresses. Most of these 
 works have perished, leaving only the Ambrosian Library 
 sketches as their record ; but the picture in the Louvre 
 called " La Belle Ferronniere " was supposed, had it been 
 genuine, to be the likeness of the favorite Lucrezia Cri- 
 velli, or of Isabella Gonzaga; though there will always 
 be much dispute upon such uncertain points of history. 
 The same sweet calmness and dreamy tenderness are more 
 appropriately visible in the Virgins and children of some 
 " Holy Families," also painted at Milan. Depth of shadow 
 and melting light, roundness of outline, and most minute 
 and enamel-like finish, are the invariable qualities of all these 
 fine pictures, imitated over and over again by numerous 
 pupils, whose labors are confused with those of their master. 
 By the patronage of the duke an art academy was estab- 
 lished at Milan, of which Leonardo was head. For this 
 academy he wrote the celebrated treatise entitled "Tratta- 
 to della Pittura," which has been translated into several lan- 
 guages, and is sold by booksellers to-day. It has 365 chapters, 
 and many excellent and suggestive maxims. He remarks, for 
 example : " A painter should never imitate another, or he will 
 be called the nephew, and not the son, of Nature." Or, 
 again : " A painter should be universal. He must study all 
 he sees ; but he should only take that which is best and most 
 perfect for his work." Or, as a practical hint to young 
 artists : " Contrive that your figures receive a broad light 
 from above, particularly in portraits ; because we see people
 
 132 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 in the street receive all the light from above. It is curious 
 to observe that there is not a face ever so familiar but would 
 be recognized with difficulty were it lighted from beneath." 
 Multiform manuscripts, sketches, and literary works, were 
 prepared for the same academy. All are written in his pe- 
 culiar manner, from left to right. An enormous folio, called 
 the " Codice Atlantico," is kept in the Milan Library, from 
 which copious extracts were made in an admirable work 
 prepared for the Italian Government on the inauguration of 
 the Da Vinci monument. This codex was taken from Milan 
 on the invasion of Italy by Napoleon, who was so delighted 
 with its possession that he carried it to his hotel himself, 
 exclaiming with enthusiasm, " This is mine ! " It was finally 
 restored to its proper place, but twelve manuscript volumes 
 are yet retained by the French ; and many drawings and 
 studies of Leonardo, principally in red and black chalk, are 
 in the various collections of Europe. The Royal Library at 
 Windsor Castle contains manuscripts, drawings, and a number 
 of his scores for music. 
 
 But the crown and glory of Leonardo's Milan labors was 
 the famous " Last Supper," painted, by command of the duke, 
 on the wall of the refectory of Santa Maria della Grazia. 
 This is his true memorial, the point at which his genius cul- 
 minated. Every one has heard of its past history, and its 
 present ruin. For its premature decay both Lodovico and 
 Leonardo are responsible Lodovico for insisting upon its 
 execution in so damp and wretched a building, and Leonardo 
 for experimenting in oil mediums and untried preparations, 
 instead of employing the good old method of ordinary fresco. 
 It represents the scene of the Eucharist, not in its usual
 
 DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. 133 
 
 phase of calm repose, but at the dramatic moment when 
 Christ announces his approaching betrayal, and each disciple 
 starts forward to express his grief and horror, and repel any 
 implied accusation. Judas uplifts both hands; St. Peter 
 beckons to John to ask the Lord of whom he spake; Philip 
 lays his hand on his heart ; Bartholomew, at the end of the 
 table, rises in agitation from his seat. Notice here especially 
 the expression of the hands, as well as of the faces and 
 figures ; and then pass on to consider the marvelous head of 
 Christ, which has passed almost into a type of divinity, and 
 which is certainly the only instance in which any painter has 
 been able to combine, in the features of the Redeemer, 
 dignity, solemnity, and majesty, with sweetness, resignation, 
 and gentleness. The sketch for this head, in black and white 
 chalk, is still at Milan. Fragmentary studies of a like nature 
 are in Windsor Castle, and also at Weimar. An original 
 drawing of a part of the composition is at Paris. There was 
 long a tradition that the prior of the convent had served as 
 a model for the head of Judas, but such a story is only 
 mythical. The fate of this renowned fresco is forcibly told 
 in a late article in the Edinburgh Review : 
 
 " The misery and destruction of Italy fell heavily on the 
 great ' Cena,' as upon every good and beautiful thing. Fifty 
 years after its completion its glory had already departed. A 
 painter called it a mere blotch of color, a cardinal called it a 
 mere relic. Then came the monks, and pierced the feet ol 
 the Saviour afresh, and broke the legs of the disciples. 
 Quack doctors followed, who professed to know a healing 
 secret, and who anointed and painted over the wounds with 
 gaudy colors, till, in the opinion of the Milanese people, ii
 
 I 3 4 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 was far more beautiful than when it issued from the master's 
 hand. Half a century later, in 1770, the small remains of 
 original epidermis were carefully scarified, and a new restorer 
 is believed to have given the coup-de-grdce. From time to 
 time, also, the waters rose and soaked the walls to which so 
 precious a surface had been imperfectly attached. Finally 
 the horses of Napoleon's cavalry were stabled in its august 
 presence, innocent at all events of the sanctuary they defiled. 
 And when wars had ceased and the map of Europe had been 
 rearranged, the new masters of Lombardy paraded their 
 possession of the majestic ruin by nailing the wretched em- 
 blazonry of their imperial house directly above the head of 
 the Saviour. To this day, perhaps of necessity, a species of 
 tinkering under the plea of preservation is always going on, 
 and every fresh visit to it shows fresh dilapidation." In- 
 numerable copies have, however, been made, the best of 
 which, by Marco d'Oggione, a pupil of Leonardo, is now in 
 England. A splendid engraving, by Raphael Morghen, pre- 
 serves still more perfectly the expressions of the original. It 
 has also been twice copied in mosaic. 
 
 After the capture of Milan by the French, in 1499, Leo- 
 nardo returned to Florence, where he received a commission 
 for an altar-piece in the church of the Serviti. This was to 
 be a " Holy Family with St. Anne," but it was never finished, 
 and all that is left of it is the cartoon in the London Academy. 
 A more celebrated cartoon of a battle-scene, intended to 
 adorn the council-hall of the Palazzo Vecchio, has entirely 
 vanished. Leonardo and Michael Angelo prepared designs 
 for this apartment, and each exerted himself to produce a 
 masterpiece. Leonardo's was exhibited two years before his
 
 MONA LISA (Leonardo da Vina).
 
 DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. 
 
 '35 
 
 competitor's ; but he experimented with such poor materials 
 that it fell to pieces as he painted it, and the cartoon was 
 finally destroyed and lost. Rubens discovered a small frag- 
 ment of it, from which he made a drawing, at present in the 
 Louvre. An engraving has been taken from this drawing, 
 called " The Battle of the Standard." Michael Angelo and 
 Leonardo were not congenial companions. Leonardo had 
 been too long supreme in Milan to brook a rival in Florence, 
 and, when he quarreled with Buonarotti, contemptuously 
 remarked to him, " I was famous long before you were 
 born." He found Michael Angelo's style of painting prom- 
 inent muscles and harsh outlines so especially disagreeable 
 that he declared his figures to look more like " a sack of wal- 
 nuts " than human forms. Very little artistic work was done 
 by Leonardo during his sojourn in Florence, except the 
 superb portrait of Mona Lisa, the wife of his friend Gio- 
 condo, hence called " La Joconde." Upon this he labored 
 for four years, touching and retouching it, but never satisfied 
 with the result. It was afterward purchased by Francis I. 
 for about nine thousand dollars, and now hangs in the 
 Louvre. All its beauties, specially its sweet, vague smile, 
 have been frequently described ; but it is sadly injured and 
 darkened. In the Uffizi Saloon of the Painters hangs the 
 portrait of Leonardo, familiar to all through engravings ; but 
 it is no longer ascribed to the master himself. 
 
 A journey to Rome, in 1513, did not secure him the 
 honors he expected. Michael Angelo and Raphael were then 
 diligently painting for Pope Leo X., and no place seemed 
 ready for Leonardo. The pope did indeed give him a com- 
 mission, but made such uncomplimentary remarks in regard
 
 I3 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 to his slowness and procrastination that he soon withdrew to 
 Milan. The " Madonna " now shown at San Onofrio, Rome, 
 as a specimen of Leonardo's labors, is thought to have been 
 executed by Beltraffio, who accompanied him. 
 
 Francis I. of France, whose conquests in Italy had in- 
 creased his passion for art, became at last his appreciative 
 patron. Not only did Francis profoundly admire his talents, 
 but he was personally very fond of him, and delighted with 
 the ingenious toys which Leonardo, still true to the tastes of 
 h's youth, loved to provide for his entertainment. Mention 
 is particularly made of his constructing an automaton lion, 
 which walked into the king's presence, opening its breast, 
 and disclosing bouquets of lilies. No record is left of any 
 pictures undertaken in these declining years spent at the 
 court of the French monarch. An illness of some months 
 closed this illustrious career. Vasari tells us that in his last 
 sickness Leonardo sought to acquaint himself with " the good 
 and holy path of the Catholic religion," having previously 
 been more of a philosopher than of a Christian. His life had 
 always been calm, temperate, and entirely moral never en- 
 thusiastic, never self-sacrificing, never spiritual. His will, 
 written April 18, 1518, in a strain of mingled devotion and 
 courtliness, recommends his soul " to the Lord Jesus, to the 
 glorious Virgin Mary, to Monsignor my Lord the Archangel 
 Michael, and all the blessed angels, saints, and saintesses 
 of paradise." He died at the chateau of Cloux at Amboise, 
 May 2, 1519, and was long believed to have expired in the 
 arms of Francis I. ; but an entry in the king's journal shows 
 that Francis, with his court, was that day at St.-Germain-en- 
 Laye, and the tradition is thus proved to be unfounded,
 
 DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. I37 
 
 though it has been often repeated, and Angelica Kaufmann 
 has embodied it in a large picture. 
 
 Much dispute and much uncertainty have prevailed in 
 regard to the authenticity of the paintings attributed to Leo- 
 nardo. Such questions cannot yet be regarded as entirely 
 settled ; but it is hoped that the researches of Crowe and 
 Cavalcaselle and Morelli have thrown light on the sub- 
 ject. Meanwhile it is certain that many popularly ascribed 
 to him are really by his pupils, or imitations taken in some 
 cases from Leonardo's rough sketches. Such as are most 
 clearly by himself have been already noticed. Catalogues of 
 galleries cannot be trusted, as the matter requires very criti- 
 cal discrimination. Several pictures at the Louvre are con- 
 sidered as possibly authentic ; but the enthusiastic " St. 
 John " is doubtful, and " La Belle Ferronniere " not credited. 
 Scarcely anything, except the " Last Supper " and sketches 
 mentioned in the Ambrosian Library, is left at Milan. A Ma- 
 donna in London, called " Madonna of the Rocks," is a 
 replica of " Vierge aux Rochers " at the Louvre. Florence 
 has only the imitated " Medusa Head," and the half-finished 
 "Adoration" of the Uffizi ; but the male portrait, and the 
 " Nun," of the Pitti, are merely of his school. Liibke denies 
 the genuineness of the " Vanity and Modesty " in the Sciarra 
 Palace, Rome, and of the celebrated "Vierge au Bas-relief." 
 The German galleries possess almost nothing of value. The 
 half-length "Christ disputing with the Doctors," in the Na- 
 tional Gallery, London, is from the brush of Bernardino 
 Luini. Viardot observes that, if it represents an incident 
 during the childhood of Christ, the painter has made him too 
 old, as it is evidently a figure of twenty years of age. " If
 
 I 3 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 he wished to depict him during his work, and before the 
 Pharisees, he has made him too young and also too richly 
 dressed ; a silk garment covered with jewels is scarcely suit- 
 able to the humble life of the preacher who chose fishermen 
 for his disciples." 
 
 That such cases of " mistaken identity " should so fre- 
 quently have occurred, convinces us that the scholars of 
 Leonardo must have been artists of unusual excellence. 
 Their master was most thorough and accurate in his own 
 work, and imparted the' same merits to his pupils. They 
 were taught a careful and laborious finish, a tender and lu- 
 minous chiaro-oscuro, a delicate polish of surface, and a per- 
 fect avoidance of sharply-outlined lights and shadows. These 
 qualities, joined with their perpetual imitation of Leonardo's 
 gentle, languid smile, so invariably characterize them that 
 travelers soon learn to classify at sight the paintings of 
 "Leonardo's school." 
 
 Bernardino Luini was so talented and promising a pupil, 
 that beside any one else but Leonardo he would be termed a 
 master. He was born on Lake Maggiore ; and the town of 
 Lugano still displays with pride, in the church of the Fran- 
 ciscans, some small pieces by his hand, and a large and ad- 
 mirable fresco of the " Crucifixion," crowded with figures, 
 and very interesting in detail. Many of his frescoes have 
 been removed to the Brera Gallery, Milan, not escaping in- 
 jury in the process. Their Madonnas and angels are ex- 
 ceedingly graceful. His frescoes from the history of the 
 Virgin, in the church at Saronno, executed about 1530, are 
 etill more pleasing. All must be charmed with the specimen, 
 now chromo-lithographed, of the " Finding of Jesus," or the
 
 DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. 
 
 139 
 
 " Entombing of St. Catharine " in Brera. His easel-pieces 
 are also noble, richly-colored, and expressive. Kugler attrib- 
 utes to him the Sciarra " Vanity and Modesty," and also the 
 beautiful " Herodias with the Head of St. John the Baptist," 
 in the tribune of the Uffizi. He appears to great advantage 
 at Milan, not only in the Brera, but in the Ambrosian Li- 
 brary, where we find his curious fresco of the " Crowning with 
 Thorns." Christ is seated in the centre: two rows of Mi- 
 lanese citizens, each reverently holding his cap in his hand, 
 kneel on either side. The scene takes place under an arcade 
 whose pillars are wreathed with gilt thorns. 
 
 Francesco Melzi is more distinguished as the friend than 
 as the scholar of Leonardo. He has given an account of Da 
 Vinci's death, and inherited many of his studies and manu- 
 scripts. His principal painting is the " Vertumnus and Po- 
 mona," at Berlin. 
 
 Andrea Salaino, whose style is soft and graceful, with 
 reddish flesh tints ; Marco d'Oggione, the successful copyist 
 of the " Cena," and Cesare di Sesto, who endeavored to unite 
 the manner of Raphael with that of Da Vinci, are the only 
 remaining members of the school whom it is necessary to 
 mention ; with the exception of Andrea Solario, another 
 Milanese, surnamed " Del Gobbo," and Gaudenzio Ferrari 
 (1484-1549), Leonardo's followers, but not his immediate 
 disciples. Gaudenzio is noted for his peculiarly beautiful 
 bands of angels in the dome of the church at Saronno. Other 
 paintings of the " Crucifixion " and " Last Supper " are in 
 Piedmont and at Milan. A " Martyrdom of St. Catharine," 
 in the Brera, and a group lamenting over the dead Christ, in 
 the Royal Gallery of Turin, are among his best easel-pieces
 
 T4 o SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 The Titanic genius of Michael Angelo Buonarotti found 
 a fitter expression in sculpture than in painting ; but the 
 mighty measure of his mind displays itself in the frescoes of 
 the Sistine Chapel as powerfully as in his seated " Moses " or 
 colossal "David." Utterly unlike Leonardo, and yet still 
 more original, both his character and his works range them- 
 selves upon a level too high for ordinary comprehension. In 
 comparing the influential masters of this epoch it has been 
 justly said : " Leonardo and Raphael were men of the world; 
 supple, courtier-like, swimming with the stream ; Michael 
 Angelo was stern, upright, and always in conflict with it. 
 Leonardo was the greater genius ; Michael Angelo the nobler 
 spirit; Raphael the happier man." 
 
 The family of Michael Angelo was of noble, and, accord- 
 ing to his own belief, even of princely descent. Their prestige 
 had, however, faded, and their fortunes dwindled by the 
 middle of the fifteenth century. But the father of the artist, 
 though poor, had an honorable position as governor of two 
 little cities in the valley of the Singarna ; and there, on the 
 6th of March, 1475, Michael Angelo was born. Grimm in- 
 forms us that his name was properly Michael Agnolo, instead 
 of Angelo, but custom has fixed the orthography. In the 
 year 1476 his father, Lodovico Buonarotti, returned to Flor- 
 ence, but left his infant son at the town of Settignano, with 
 the wife of a stone-mason, till he imbibed a love for the 
 marble with his nurse's milk. This did not suit the plans of 
 the father, who wished him to become a scholar ; but the 
 spirit of determined opposition was as strong in the boy as in 
 the man, and at the age of fourteen he gained his point, and 
 was permitted to enter the Florentine studio of Ghirlandajo
 
 DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. 
 
 141 
 
 
 to whom he was apprenticed for three years. There he exe- 
 cuted his first painting, an enlarged copy in colors of a 
 "Temptation of St. Anthony," etched by a quaint German 
 artist, Martin Schongauer. This was a favorite subject in the 
 Netherlands, but had the charm of novelty to the young Ital- 
 ian, who worked with enthusiasm on the tormented saint and 
 his fishy demons. Ghirlandajo praised it, but was not pleased 
 with the growing talents of his pupil, who, he feared, might 
 prove superior to the master ; and before the stipulated three 
 years were over their contract was broken, and Michael An- 
 gelo left free to enter for himself upon his life of art. 
 
 His opening prospects were sunshiny and splendid. The 
 Medici were supreme in Florence, and Lorenzo the Magnifi- 
 cent had adorned the gardens of San Marco with statuary, 
 cartoons, and pictures. To this delightful spot Michael Angelo 
 obtained admission through his friend Francesco Granacci, 
 and soon attracted the attention of Lorenzo. The story runs 
 that while the youthful sculptor was modeling the mask of a 
 faun, Lorenzo passed by, and jestingly told him so old a 
 faun ought to have lost some of his teeth ; and that Michael 
 Angelo listened, and struck one out so skillfully, leaving the 
 mouth with such a natural gap, that Lorenzo became much 
 interested in his talents, inquired into his history, gave his 
 father a government office, and took the young man into his 
 own palace, where he made him permanently at home, and 
 treated him with great honor and affection. An incredulous 
 critic declares that in this piece of sculpture, which is still 
 preserved in the gallery of the Uffizi, under the name of 
 " Head of an Old Satyr," there is no place visible where any 
 tooth could have been knocked out, and that the tale is all a
 
 142 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 pleasant fable. But, whatever may be the truth of this, life 
 in the Medici Palace must have been an agreeable reality : 
 though even there Michael Angelo seems to have sometimes 
 shown himself sarcastic and passionate; and so quarreled 
 with one of his companions, Torregiano, that the latter struck 
 him in the face with his mallet, and broke his nose. His at 
 tention as a student was principally called to the works of 
 Donatello and Masaccio, and his preference for sculpture was 
 plainly evident. The death of Lorenzo ended these peaceful 
 labors ; for, though his successor, Piero de Medici, was kind, 
 yet he had not the ability or disposition to be so liberal a 
 patron as his father. Political troubles which followed soon 
 broke up all Florentine interest ; and upon the overthrow of 
 the Medici Michael Angelo temporarily escaped from the 
 city, and fled to Bologna, where he remained a year, pre- 
 vented by the jealousy of the Bolognese artists from under- 
 taking any important work. 
 
 When he returned to Florence Savonarola was at the zenith 
 of his popularity, and deeply impressed him by his zeal and 
 patriotism. Not that, like his fellow-artists, Bartolomeo and 
 Lorenzo di Credi, he was prepared to burn his designs and 
 drawings, for no earthly power could have subdued Michael 
 Angelo's affection for the nude; but he became an adherent 
 of the monk, and long remembered his preaching. Mean- 
 while he modeled a Cupid so perfectly that it was bought by 
 a Roman cardinal as a veritable antique. When the secret 
 of its authorship was discovered, the artist was invited to 
 Rome, and there accomplished two statues, very different in 
 character, the " Drunken Bacchus," at present in Florence, 
 and the marble " Pieta " in St. Peter's Church. The latter
 
 DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. 143 
 
 was completed when he was but twenty-four years old ; and 
 then, as political matters in Florence were once more com- 
 paratively quiet, he came back again to his home, where 
 even yet his powers were scarcely recognized. A life-sized 
 " Madonna," sculptured at this time, was purchased for a 
 church of Bruges, while the painted " Holy Family," in 
 the tribune of the Uffizi, may also be referred to the same 
 period. But he was now to be called to an undertaking 
 which should forever fix his fame. The city of Florence 
 owned an immense block of marble which had long been 
 thought entirely useless, till Andrea Sansovino, the mas- 
 ter of the celebrated Venetian architect, requested that it 
 might be presented to him. This the governing consuls 
 would not agree to do till they had offered it to Michael 
 Angelo, who declared he would use it to their satisfaction. 
 Thus originated the gigantic " David," which was finished in 
 less than three years, and weighed eighteen thousand pounds. 
 The Florentines were most animated in expressing their de- 
 light, and the statue was placed, by the artist's own desire, 
 in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, close to the spot where Sa- 
 vonarola had been put to death. 
 
 This was the epoch when Leonardo da Vinci revisited 
 Florence, and proposed to fresco the Hall of Public Council, 
 for which the rival cartoons we have already mentioned were 
 designed. It has been said that the subject chosen was a 
 " Battle-Scene ; " but Michael Angelo proceeded to represent, 
 not the combat itself, but a group of soldiers, who, while 
 bathing in the Arno, hear the call of the trumpet, and spring 
 out at once for the fight. Thirty figures were drawn of the 
 size of life, with all the vigorous attitudes and gestures which
 
 144 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 he so loved to delineate. The cartoon was produced a little 
 later than Leonardo's, and while it was still in progress the 
 sculptor was summoned to Rome by Pope Julius II., who de- 
 sired him to furnish plans for a colossal papal mausoleum, to 
 be erected in St. Peter's. Thi? mausoleum Michael Angelo 
 wished to place in the tribune of the church, and threw 
 himself with all his heart into the necessary preparations. 
 His drawing for the intended monument is still shown in the 
 Uffizi. Eight large figures were to be seated on its pedestals ; 
 among them the renowned " Moses," now so disadvantageous- 
 ly exhibited in the church of San Pietro in Vincoli. The 
 pope commissioned him to purchase an enormous quantity of 
 marble from Carrara; but, before any thing could be really 
 begun, the jealous architect Bramante persuaded Julius that 
 it would be a bad omen to erect a mausoleum in his lifetime, 
 and the pope showed such hesitation and reluctance to pro- 
 ceed with the undertaking, that Michael Angelo, in deep dis- 
 gust, wrote an angry letter, quitted his service, and left Rome 
 for Florence. The pope was much enraged, and demanded 
 his return. But he refused to comply, and went on with the 
 cartoon of the " Bathing Soldiers/' which after all was never 
 painted, but mysteriously destroyed, and now survives only 
 in a small copy and an engraving. 
 
 Julius II., in the interval, had made war upon Bologna, 
 and after reducing the city to submission, sent again for 
 Michael Angelo, who at last yielded, and presented himself 
 to his Holiness. He was received at Bologna with tolerable 
 graciousness, and given an order to mould a bronze statue of 
 the pope, three times the size of life, to be seated before the 
 gate of St. Petronio. While thus absent from home we have
 
 DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. I4S 
 
 the records of his correspondence with his family, showing 
 how thoroughly and generously he devoted himself to provid- 
 ing fo. his father and brothers ; living always like a poor man, 
 and investing his earnings for their benefit. He did not win 
 much favor among the artists of Bologna, to whom he showed 
 the bitter and satirical side of his character. But the pope 
 did not again lose sight of him, and, in 1508, insisted upon 
 his establishing himself at Rome, not allowing him, as he had 
 hoped, to continue the designs for the mausoleum, but re- 
 quiring him to fresco the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. To 
 this Michael Angelo objected, replying that he was not accus- 
 tomed to work in colors, and that painting was not his voca- 
 tion. Julius was determined that he should execute the task, 
 and to his obstinacy we owe that matchless series of paintings 
 to which the world unites in rendering homage. 
 
 The vaulted roof of the chapel, sloping down to the win- 
 dows, is covered with these splendid frescoes, which are, 
 however, so high and so badly lighted that one can only see 
 them to advantage by lying flat on the back, with the best of 
 opera-glasses. The artist often had to stretch himself in the 
 same position upon the scaffolding in order to paint correctly. 
 The student should, if possible, procure an engraving or 
 photograph, that he may understand the arrangement of the 
 frescoes. The ceiling is arched at the sides, but flattened in 
 the centre. This middle space is occupied by scenes from 
 Genesis, beginning with the " Creation of the World ;" the 
 " Creation of Adam ;" and the " Creation of Eve : ' continu- 
 ing through the " Expulsion from Paradise ; " the " Sacrifice 
 of Cain and Abel," or, as some explain it, the " Sacrifice of 
 Noah;" the "Deluge;" and the "Drunkenness of Noah.'
 
 I4 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Around the curved sides, and between the tops of the win- 
 dows, are twelve compartments, each of which contains an 
 immense single figure. Five of these figures are sibyls, and 
 seven prophets described in the following passages quoted 
 from Mrs. Jameson and Grimm : 
 
 " The Sibylla Persica, supposed to be the oldest of the 
 sisterhood, holds her book close to her eyes, as if from dim- 
 ness of sight ; which fact, contradicted as it is by a frame of 
 obviously Herculean strength, gives a mysterious intentness 
 to the action. 
 
 "The Sibylla Erythraea, a grand, bareheaded creature, 
 sits reading intently, with crossed legs, about to turn over 
 her book. 
 
 " The Sibylla Delphica, with waving hair escaping from 
 her turban, is a beautiful young being, the most human of all, 
 gazing into vacancy or futurity. She holds a scroll. 
 
 " The Sibylla Cumana, also aged, and with her head cov- 
 ered, is reading, with her volume at a distance from her eyes. 
 
 " The Sibylla Libyca, of powerful proportions, but less 
 closely draped, has lifted a massive volume from a height 
 above her head on to her knees." 
 
 The prophets are placed alternately with these female 
 forms. Next to the " Persica " comes Jeremiah, " his feet 
 crossed under him, bent forward, supporting the elbow of 
 his left arm against his side, and his hand across his mouth, 
 buried in the great beard of his leaning head ; the image of 
 the deepest, calmest thought." 
 
 11 Then Ezekiel, his body eagerly bent forward ; his right 
 hand stretched out demonstratively ; his left holding an un- 
 rolled parchment.
 
 DANIEL (Michael Angela).
 
 DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. 
 
 147 
 
 " Next comes the prophet Joel, unrolling with both hands 
 a parchment lying before him. 
 
 " Then Zacharias, entirely absorbed in his book, as if he 
 would never leave off reading. 
 
 "Then Isaiah, with a slightly-wrinkled brow, the fore- 
 finger of his left hand stretched out, the right grasping the 
 leaves of a closed book. 
 
 " Then comes Daniel. Before him is a boy holding on 
 his back an open book. He, however, a beautiful youth, 
 looking sideways past it into the depths below, seems to 
 listen to the words which reach him ; and, forgetting that he 
 has no pen in his hand, he makes a movement of writing on 
 another book, which lies at his side upon a desk." 
 
 " Lastly Jonah, who, lying backward, naked, with only a 
 cloth around his body, has been just discharged from the 
 jaws of the fish which is visible behind him." 
 
 In the angles made by the four corners of the ceiling are 
 four historical subjects from the Old Testament, portraying 
 great deliverances of the children of Israel "Judith with 
 the Head of Holofernes," " David slaying Goliath," the 
 ' Miracle of the Brazen Serpent," and the " Punishment of 
 Haman." The arches of the windows are adorned with re- 
 posing groups of the ancestors of the Virgin. 
 
 " A great number of figures are also connected with the 
 architectural framework ; those in unimportant situations are 
 executed in the color of stone or bronze ; in the more im- 
 portant, in natural colors. They serve to support the archi- 
 tectural forms, to fill up and connect the whole ; and may be 
 best described as the living and embodied genii of archi- 
 tecture."
 
 i 4 8 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 The entire composition is intended to be harmonious iu 
 all its parts ; commencing with the Creation and Fall of 
 man ; depicting the prophets who foretold a Redeemer to the 
 Jews, and the Sibyls who predicted his advent to the Gentile 
 world; showing, in stories from the Old Testament, well- 
 known types of greater deliverances through the Messiah; 
 and finally leading the mind to the immediate ancestors of 
 the Virgin and the Saviour, who await in calm expectancy 
 the coming of Christ. 
 
 This magnificent work exhibits every quality of Michael 
 Angelo's genius. We see his perfect mastery of the human 
 form, his sublimity of design, his profound imagination and 
 boldness of execution, his astonishing skill in perspective and 
 foreshortening, and his feeling for the beautiful, so seldom 
 visible in his colossal and muscular sculpture. No other 
 hand was allowed to touch the frescoes. He himself de- 
 signed the scaffolding and other preparations necessary to 
 his plans, working furiously at intervals from 1508 during 
 the next four years. Viardot says he constructed for himself 
 a sort of card-board helmet, on the top of which he fastened 
 a candle, that he might be able to labor through the night. 
 Julius insisted that the painting should be displayed to the 
 public. Michael Angelo remonstrated, but the pope, in a 
 violent passion, threatened to throw him from the scaffolding 
 if he opposed him; and on All Saints' Day, 1509, the populace 
 of Rome crowded into the chapel to gaze upon its wonders 
 The removal of the scaffolding rendered the finishing of the 
 pictures very difficult. The pope desired some of the figures 
 to be retouched, and decorated with gold ; the artist, how- 
 ever, did not consider this necessary. "But it looks so poor,"
 
 DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. i 49 
 
 replied Julius. " They are only poor people," returned 
 Michael Angelo, jestingly, " whom I have painted there. They 
 did not wear gold on their garments." 
 
 The next two or three years were barren of profitable 
 orders. The papal coffers had been emptied by wars and 
 negotiations, and whatever patronage was to be given was 
 monopolized by Raphael, who had been cordially welcomed 
 at Rome, and was employed in the Vatican. After the death 
 of Julius, in 1513, Michael Angelo resumed his plans for the 
 Mausoleum, for which he was sculpturing the " Moses hold- 
 ing the Tables of the Law." It is supposed that at this 
 period he was also engaged upon the " Two Chained Youths," 
 likewise intended for the Mausoleum, but eventually brought 
 to France, where they are preserved in the Louvre. After 
 three years of such labors, Leo X., the successor of Julius, 
 and himself one of the Medici family, who had lately been 
 restored to power at Florence, proposed to erect a marble 
 facade to the Florentine church of San Lorenzo ; and the 
 commission was intrusted to Michael Angelo, who stipulated 
 that he should be allowed to continue at the same time his 
 work upon the Mausoleum. This left Raphael monarch of 
 the situation at Rome. Grimm, in his "Biography," en- 
 deavors to soften the account of the antagonism between 
 these artists, but there can be no doubt that Michael Angelo 
 looked with jealousy and bitterness upon Raphael's increas- 
 ing fame, and even entered into intrigues with Sebastian del 
 Piombo in the hope of lessening his favor with the pope. 
 We find no expression of sympathy or regret in Michael 
 Angelo 's words or letters in regard to his rival's early death. 
 Indeed, however high may be our appreciation of this great
 
 I 5 o SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 master's really noble character, we must admit that he had 
 such faults as misanthropy, envy, and a violent temper. His 
 virtues were strict, unblemished integrity, deep sincerity, an 
 unfaltering sense of duty, an intense though secret capacity 
 and yearning for affection, self-sacrificing devotion to his 
 family, and profound reverence and religion. Through a 
 long and lonely life he showed a constant respect and love 
 for his father, who must have been a disagreeable and ex- 
 acting man, as is proved in one of the sculptor's letters where 
 he says : " I live shabbily, and care not for outward honor , 
 a thousand cares and works burden me, and thus I have now 
 gone on for fifteen years, without having a happy, quiet hour. 
 And I have done all this for the sake of supporting you, 
 which you have never acknowledged or believed." Such a 
 temperament should not be judged by the same standard as 
 the genial Raphael, who lived among metaphorical roses, and 
 whose destiny was all sunshine. 
 
 The fa9ade of San Lorenzo was abandoned for want of 
 funds, and many changes took place in Rome. Meanwhile 
 Michael Angelo dwelt quietly but not patiently at Florence, 
 chiseling the statue of Christ now in the Roman church of 
 Santa Maria sopra Minerva, and commencing the Medici 
 chapel of San Lorenzo, ordered by Cardinal de Medici, who, 
 after the death of Leo X. and the short pontificate of Adrian, 
 was chosen pope under the title of Clement VII. This was 
 the period when the two admirable statues of Duke Lorenzo 
 and Duke Julian, which adorn this celebrated sacristy, were 
 executed. The state troubles of Italy were once more en- 
 grossing all hearts. In 1527 the victorious army of the Con- 
 stable de Bourbon sacked Rome, and threatened Florence
 
 DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. I5r 
 
 the Medici were again deposed, and a new government pro- 
 claimed, which prepared to defend the city. In 1529 Michael 
 Angelo was employed to fortify the heights of San Miniato. 
 Apprehensive of treachery, he fled with his friend Rinaldo 
 Corsini to Venice, where the nobles desired to keep him 
 permanently ; but he refused all public honors, and preferred 
 to live very quietly as a mere visitor. He was declared a 
 rebel and an exile by the Florentine authorities, and his 
 sonnets show that he felt the proscription almost as severely 
 as Dante. His friends, however, procured his recall, and 
 with a change of administration he assumed his former 
 charge of the fortifications. 
 
 But the Emperor Charles V. supported the pope in de- 
 manding the reinstatement of the Medici, and, however 
 bravely the city might fight, its submission was only a ques- 
 tion of time. After suffering, starvation, and struggles, which 
 tried the very souls of such patriots as Michael Angelo, 
 Florence abandoned the contest, freedom was at an end, and 
 the Medici conquered. The vanquished artist kept himself 
 concealed, but he was too great a man to be ignored or 
 punished by the victors. They were willing enough to par- 
 don him as a citizen, in order to retain him as a sculptor ; 
 and immediately commissioned him to continue his labors 
 in the Medici Sacristy. He plunged into the work with 
 morbid eagerness, and in a few months had chiseled the 
 four great figures which still repose on their stone coffins 
 " Night," and " Day," " Evening Twilight," and " Early Dawn." 
 Of these, the "Dawn," or "Aurora," is the most beautiful; 
 " Night," the most powerful. The motto affixed to the latter 
 
 statue by the artist himself ran thus : " Sleep is dear to me, 
 ii
 
 152 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 and still more that I am stone, so long as dishonor and 
 shame last among us ; the happiest fate is to see, to hear 
 nothing ; for this reason waken me not ! I pray you speck 
 gently." No one denied him such license of expression. 
 Even Pope Clement stood in awe of him ; and it has been 
 remarked that he did not dare to sit down when he spoke 
 with him, for fear the sculptor, unasked, would do the same. 
 "And if he ordered Michael Angelo to put on his hat in 
 his presence, it was probably only because Michael Angelo 
 would not long have waited for an invitation to do so." 
 
 The decoration of the sacristry and library of San Lorenzo 
 was carried on till the death of the pope, in 1534. Ales- 
 sandro de Medici, ruler of Florence, was then so avowedly 
 hostile to Michael Angelo that the master returned to Rome, 
 where, at the command of the new pope, Paul III., he began 
 his marvelous painting of the " Last Judgment," on the 
 altar-wall of the Sistine Chapel. The task was congenial to 
 his mood ; and the passionate anger and sorrow of his soul are 
 reproduced in the fresco. The picture is sublime, but most 
 painful; rather suggesting a heathen tragedy than a Chris- 
 tian judgment-scene. It will be described with the " Trans- 
 figuration," " Last Supper," and other masterpieces ; at pres- 
 ent it is only necessary to refer to its main features. At the 
 top of the composition, which is thronged with two hundred 
 figures, Christ is condemning the wicked, while the Virgin 
 looks away in pitying silence. The dead rise in naked crowds 
 from their graves; and angels and demons enforce the Judge's 
 sentence. Nothing but despair and horror prevails. The 
 angels look like "fighting athletes; " the demons are Titanic 
 fiends; even the blessed seem but miserable, muscular sin-
 
 DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. I53 
 
 ners. It was finished and exhibited to the people on Christ- 
 mas-day, 1541. We now behold it so blackened by age and 
 incense-smoke that we can but faintly trace its original color- 
 ing. Indeed, the chapel is so dark that only calcium-light 
 can perfectly illuminate it. Add to this the fact that an altar- 
 canopy is frequently placed before the painting, and we gain 
 some idea of the difficulty of thoroughly inspecting it. 
 
 As soon as the " Last Judgment " was completed, Paul 
 III. desired that the Pauline Chapel which he had con- 
 structed in the Vatican should be frescoed by the same 
 artist ; and Michael Angelo accordingly adorned its one wall 
 with the " Conversion of St. Paul," and the other with the 
 " Crucifixion of St. Peter ; " but these have become so faded 
 and obliterated that there is little satisfaction in studying 
 their remains. They are, however, his last pictures. Thence- 
 forth he devoted himself to architecture. The reader will 
 have noticed that no mention is made of any finished easel- 
 piece by Michael Angelo's own hand, except the " Holy 
 Family " in the tribune of the Uffizi. He despised oil- 
 painting, saying it was only fit for women ; but he often 
 allowed his pupils to copy from his cartoons and drawings. 
 Some critics once ascribed to him the group of the " Parcae," 
 or "Three Fates," in the Pitti Palace, Florence. It is cer- 
 tainly haggard, vehement, and muscular enough to warrant 
 the assertion ; but it was only his design, executed by his 
 imitator Rosso. An unfinished picture is in England. 
 
 The declining years of Michael Angelo's life were sweet- 
 ened by a friendship which is one of the purest instances of 
 Platonic love on record. The solitary, sensitive man had 
 always had a certain susceptibility under his outward stern-
 
 154 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 ness. He had loved children, and would have loved women 
 if he could ever have brought himself to believe that his 
 affection would be returned. But he appears to have ex- 
 aggerated the defects of his own person and temperament. 
 His projecting forehead, broad head, small, light eyes, and 
 disfigured nose, convinced him that it was useless to hope 
 for any tender passion, and he resigned himself to loneliness. 
 But, when over sixty years of age, he met at Rome Vittoria 
 Colonna, a daughter of the old and princely house of Co- 
 lonna, and the widow of the Marchese di Pescara. It is not 
 known how the friendship began, but Vittoria was at that 
 time leading a secluded and charitable life in the home of 
 her ancestors, and the artist seems from the first to have 
 worshiped her as Dante did his Beatrice. He wrote her en- 
 thusiastic letters and sonnets; and though she never really 
 reciprocated his love her deepest feelings being consecrated 
 to the memory of her husband yet her regard for him was 
 most true and sincere, and the influence of such a noble, 
 intellectual, refined, and holy woman upon his morbid nature 
 was inexpressibly elevating and sweet. She died in her fifty- 
 seventh year, and he long afterward lamented that even in 
 her last hour he had only kissed her hand, and not her fore- 
 head or cheek. His affection for her, his care for his father, 
 and his kindness to his old servant Urbino, bring before us 
 the most beautiful traits of his character. 
 
 Time removed from him both friends and foes. His old 
 Age at Rome was melancholy, but honored. He was ap- 
 pointed architect of St. Peter's Church, and to him we owe 
 its magnificent dome, but not its awkward f^ade. He con- 
 sidered this labor a work of piety, and refused all payment
 
 DA VINCI AND MICHAEL ANGELO. 
 
 155 
 
 Successive popes treated him with every mark of reverence, 
 and his death, on the lyth of February, 1564, filled the city 
 with mourning. He was then eighty-nine years old, and in 
 full possession of his faculties. His will was brief, but 
 pointed : " I commit my soul to God, my body to the earth, 
 and my property to my nearest relations." He is buried in 
 Florence, in the church of Santa Croce, where a monument 
 now stands to his memory. A still more interesting monu- 
 ment, however, is his family house at Florence, where many 
 relics of the great artist are collected, and where we see the 
 sad, earnest, and mournful portrait of this gifted man, who 
 in much genius found much grief, and whom the world could 
 neither comprehend nor satisfy. 
 
 Very few of Michael Angelo's followers were under his 
 personal teaching. His favorite, Condivi, though not much 
 of a painter, devoted himself to writing his master's biog- 
 raphy. It was subsequently rewritten by Vasari. Sebas- 
 tian del Piombo, his early pupil, often worked from Michael 
 Angelo's own sketches, yet he belongs by birth to the. Vene- 
 tian school, where he will be briefly noticed. Marcello 
 Venusti, another pupil, painted the portrait of Vittoria Colon- 
 na ; but it is Daniele Ricciarelli, better known from his birth- 
 place as Daniele da Volterra (1509-1566), who best profited 
 by his instructions. 
 
 Volterra's celebrated altar-piece, " The Descent from the 
 Cross," is still preserved in Rome, but it is not accessible 
 to the general public. It is the one instance where Daniele 
 rose to fame, for his frescoes at Volterra, his " Baptism of 
 Christ " in San Pietro in Montorio, his " David and Goliath " 
 in the Louvre, and his " Massacre of the Innocents " in the
 
 I5 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Uffizi, Florence, are far less striking and sublime. To him 
 was intrusted the very delicate task of covering the figures 
 of Michael Angelo's " Last Judgment '' with drapery, in 
 order to satisfy the modesty of Pope Paul IV., who was scan- 
 dalized by their nudity. 
 
 Volterra survived Michael Angelo scarcely two years. 
 The glory of the Florentine and Roman schools was waning. 
 Even Titian was near the close of his long career. But, in 
 order to understand more clearly how great had been this 
 vanishing glory, we must retrace our steps awhile, and once 
 more view the splendor of Roman art as illustrated by the 
 works of Raphael.
 
 RAPHAEL AND CORREGGIO. 
 
 '57 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 RAPHAEL AND CORREGGIO. 
 
 No life was ever writter more fascinating and satisfactory 
 than that of Raphael Santi. From whatever point we regard 
 it, we find it so rounded and complete that it seems more like 
 a pleasant romance than a real human history. It shows us 
 nothing of the usual contrast between a man's deserts and 
 his successes no struggle, no bitterness, no disappoint- 
 ments ; no shadow whatever, except the untimely death, 
 which, after all, embalmed it in immortal youth. Endowed 
 with countless gifts of Nature beauty, genius, the sunniest 
 and sweetest of dispositions, purity and nobleness of char- 
 acter, and a nameless charm which disarmed every enemy 
 and encompassed him with friends it is no wonder that all 
 biographies of this favorite of fortune turn to eulogies, and 
 that the sourest critics distill honey in his praise. 
 
 Born at Urbino on the Good Friday of the year 1483 
 (falling April 6th or March 28th), Raphael's early home was 
 happy enough to suggest the peaceful domestic bliss, so con- 
 stantly expressed in his many " Holy Families." His father, 
 Giovanni Santi, or Sanzio, an Umbrian artist, in very com- 
 fortable circumstances, doted upon his young wife Magia and 
 '.he beautiful boy of whom he has left us portrait sketches at 
 three and nine years old. when the lovely little creature was
 
 I5 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 just as much the ideal child as he afterward became the ideal 
 man. The family circle was soon broken by Magia's death ; 
 but the second wife whom Giovanni married reversed, on 
 Raphael's behalf, the popular attributes of step-mothers ; and 
 even when his father died, in 1494, the love of a parent was 
 supplied by a kind uncle, to whom Raphael ever after wrote 
 with deep affection and gratitude. 
 
 Like most great geniuses, Raphael had given indication 
 of talent almost from his babyhood ; and had been instructed 
 by his father, whom he learned to assist in painting. After 
 lessons possibly given by Timoteo della Vite of Urbino, 
 his step-mother and uncle, in accordance with his father's 
 wishes, placed him, at a date varying from 1495 to J 499> i n 
 the studio of Perugino. During these years of continued study 
 he made rapid progress, often worked on important pictures 
 of that master, where the traces of his hand are still visible, 
 and thoroughly acquired Perugino's method, incorporating 
 his merits into his own style, but adding an original tender- 
 ness and grace. This Peruginesque influence lingered in his 
 mind till his establishment at Rome, but it is peculiarly 
 perceptible in such productions of his youth as the Vatican 
 " Coronation of Mary ; " or even in many of his Florentine Ma- 
 donnas and Holy Families. A church-flag and an altar-piece 
 of the crucifixion are believed to be his earliest independent 
 works ; but the most interesting effort of this primitive period 
 is a little picture, now in the London Gallery, called " The 
 Dream of a Young Knight," through which we gain an in- 
 sight into Raphael's secret thoughts. It represents a youth- 
 ful knight, to whom some imagine he has given his own 
 features, asleep beneath a laurel-tree. At his right stands a
 
 RAPHAEL AND CORREGGIO. I59 
 
 gra\ e, noble figure, in violet robes, who offers him a sword 
 and book. Behind her rises a rocky height, like the " HiU 
 Difficulty." At his left approaches another female fcrm, 
 adorned with pearls and roses, who holds out to him a flower 
 and would allure him to come and enjoy life with her in the 
 rich landscape near them. 
 
 His first renowned undertaking, at the age of twenty-one, 
 was the " Sposalizio," or " Marriage of the Virgin," which is 
 found at present in the Gallery of Milan, ordered originally 
 for the Franciscan church at Citta di Castello. It is closely 
 modeled on a painting of the same subject executed by Pe- 
 rugino some years before, for the Perugian Cathedral. The 
 faces are purer and sweeter, and the grouping a little varied, 
 but otherwise the composition is quite the same. A " Christ 
 on the Mount of Olives," painted immediately afterward for 
 the Duke of Urbino, is even more Umbrian and traditional 
 in treatment. It would seem as if Raphael had felt a most 
 unnecessary timidity in trying his own powers. But the 
 friendship of the Duke of Urbino and his family, and of the 
 many celebrated men assembled at that court, encouraged 
 the young artist ; and we find an immense advance in origi- 
 nality in the very small pictures of " St. George and the 
 Dragon," and the " Combat of St. Michael," purchased by 
 his princely patron, but now come into possession of the 
 Louvre. Another small " St. George " is at St. Petersburg. 
 
 Like all youths of that day, Raphael longed for Florence ; 
 and the kindness of his court-friend, the Duchess von Sora, 
 furnished him with a letter of introduction to the gonfalo- 
 nier of that city, who gave him access to all the best works 
 of the best na inters. The frescoes of Masaccio and Filip-
 
 T 6o SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 pino Lippi, in the Brancacci Chapel, particularly attracted 
 him ; and we behold in his own frescoes, especially in his 
 cartoon of "St. Paul preaching at Athens," evidences of his 
 study of those noble works. The pictures of Leonardo da 
 Vinci, whose battle cartoon was then on exhibition, also im- 
 pressed him with the deepest admiration, and many figures 
 and faces are found copied in his sketch-book. From this 
 epoch until his call to Rome in 1508, his time was divided 
 between Florence, Perugia, and Urbino ; with the exception 
 of a visit to Bologna, where he made the acquaintance of 
 Francia ; and his Umbrian manner began to merge into the 
 style of what is called his Florentine period. His first fres- 
 coes adorn the church of San Severo, Perugia, and repre- 
 sent the Saviour seated between angels and saints, with the 
 form of God the Father and the dove of the Holy Spirit hov- 
 ering above. But as yet his genius appeared to adapt itself 
 more naturally to easel-pieces, particularly to groups of the 
 Madonna and Child, for which he was even then beginning 
 to be distinguished. As he painted during his lifetime Ma- 
 donnas enough to form a gallery by themselves, and as every- 
 body is expected to be familiar with them, I shall add short 
 lists of the most celebrated, dividing them into those exe- 
 cuted before and during his residence in Rome. Thus be- 
 tween the time of his quitting Perugino and the year 1508, 
 we may enumerate 
 
 Two Madonnas now in the Berlin Museum, in one of 
 which the mother with the Infant in her lap, sits reading a 
 book. In the other, the heads of St. Francis and St. Jerome 
 are introduced behind the Virgin and Child. 
 
 The " Madonna del Gran Duca," in the Pitti Gallery,
 
 RAPHAEL AND CORREGGIO. T 6i 
 
 Florence. The Virgin, with downcast eyes and drapery of 
 red and deep blue- green, stands tranquilly holding the Child. 
 This is one of Raphael's most beautiful pictures, and shows 
 the effect of his study of Leonardo da Vinci. It received its 
 name from the fact that the Grand-duke of Tuscany, to 
 whom it belonged, prized it as an inestimable treasure, and 
 carried it with him in all his journeys. 
 
 Enthroned Madonna in the Royal Palace, Naples, sur- 
 rounded by adoring saints. The little St. John stands before 
 the Virgin and Child on the steps of the throne. (Doubtful.) 
 
 " Blenheim or Ansidei Madonna," enthroned between St. 
 John and St. Nicholas, now in the National Gallery, London. 
 
 " Madonna with the Palm-Tree," owned by the Earl of 
 Ellesmere, England. The Virgin sits under a palm-tree, 
 holding the Child. St. Joseph kneels before him, offering 
 flowers. 
 
 " Madonna del Cardinello," or " Madonna with the Gold- 
 finch," in the tribune of the Uffizi, Florence. The seated 
 Madonna has a book in her left hand, but does not read. 
 The two holy children stand before her, the little St. John 
 presenting a goldfinch to the infant Christ. 
 
 " Madonna of the Meadow," in the Belvedere Gallery, 
 Vienna. The group are in the midst of a beautiful land- 
 scape. The little Saviour is presenting a reed cross to St. 
 John. 
 
 " La Belle Jardiniere," the famous Madonna of the Lou- 
 vre. The Virgin sits in a garden among blooming flowers. 
 The Christ-child stands at her knee ; and the young St. 
 John, bearing a cross in his left hand, kneels in adoration. 
 
 " Madonna della Casa Tempi," at Munich. A small pict-
 
 X 6 2 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 ure where the Virgin presses the Infant to her breast, and 
 appears to be whispering words of endearment. 
 
 " Orleans Madonna," Chantilly. The Child sits in his 
 mother's lap, clinging with both hands to the bosom of her 
 dress, yet with eyes turned to the spectator, apparently look- 
 ing out of the picture. 
 
 " Colonna Madonna," now in the Berlin Museum, some- 
 what the same attitude, but the Virgin turns away from the 
 book she is holding and gazes down upon the Infant. 
 
 "Madonna Carnigiani," now in the Munich Gallery, 
 large in size, and rather artificially grouped. Mary and Eliz- 
 abeth are seated on the ground, with the children before 
 them. Behind stands Joseph, leaning on his staff. 
 
 " Madonna," sometimes called the " Beardless Joseph," in 
 the Hermitage, St. Petersburg. The Child clings closely to 
 his mother's robe, but turns his face toward St. Joseph, who 
 is looking down upon him. (Doubtful.) 
 
 " Madonna of the Pink," so named from the flower which 
 the Virgin is giving the Child, who sits on a pillow in her 
 lap. It has been engraved from the collection of Earl Cow- 
 per, at Panshanger, England. 
 
 " Madonna del Baldacchino," in the Pitti Gallery, Flor- 
 ence. A very pleasing Virgin and Child, enthroned beneath 
 a rich canopy, whose curtains are held by angels. St. Peter 
 and St. Bruno, St. Anthony and St. Augustine, stand on each 
 side of the throne. In the foreground are two boy-angels 
 holding a parchment-scroll inscribed with notes of music. 
 This was begun by Raphael (but it was left unfinished) just 
 before his departure to Rome, when he was on terms of such 
 friendly intimacy with Fra Bartolomeo that he received his
 
 RAPHAEL AND CORREGGIO, ^3 
 
 instructions, and modeled his compositions after that mas- 
 ter's style. 
 
 To the same interval, or to the few subsequent years, 
 belong several graceful portraits, especially of Angelo Doni, 
 Maddalena Doni, La Donna Velata, and Donna Gravida in 
 the Pitti Palace, and Bindo Altoviti in the Gallery of Mu- 
 nich. A portrait of Perugino in the Borghese Gallery of 
 Rome is possibly an early work by Raphael ; and we un- 
 doubtedly find his own portrait, by himself, fragile and pen- 
 sive looking, with black robe and beretta, and brown eyes, 
 among the artists of the Uffizi. 
 
 Two other works of this period have much artistic value 
 the half-length " St. Catharine of Alexandria," at present 
 in the London Gallery, and the " Entombment of Christ," 
 dated 1507, and intended for a church of Perugia, but now 
 considered one of the gems of the Borghese collection, Rome. 
 The latter has been highly praised. Its technical rendering 
 is excellent, and the figure of the dead Saviour is very for- 
 cibly drawn ; but the picture as a whole does not leave an 
 agreeable impression. The winding-sheet is too small, and 
 the muscular efforts of the bearers are too great ; while we miss 
 the harmony and beauty which are Raphael's main charac- 
 teristics. It serves as a link, however, between his early 
 manner and the free development of his powers at Rome. 
 
 Raphael was but twenty-five years old when summoned by 
 the despotic but art-loving Pope Julius II. to the papal court. 
 Partly recommended by his rising reputation, partly by the 
 good offices of his relative Bramante, who, it is supposed, 
 regarded him as a useful rival to Michael Angelo, he was 
 commissioned to decorate the state apartments of the Vati-
 
 2 6 4 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 can, and began his labors on the rooms now known as the 
 Stanze of Raphael. These consist of a large saloon and 
 three smaller chambers, frescoed on the walls and ceilings. 
 He did not hasten their completion, but painted on them at 
 intervals, from the time of his arrival till the year of his 
 death. 
 
 The first small room, called the Camera della Segnatura, 
 is ornamented with allegorical paintings of Theology, Poetry, 
 Philosophy, and Jurisprudence; each embodied in a noble 
 female form in the ceiling, and in a corresponding or ex- 
 planatory fresco on each wall. Thus the fresco correspond- 
 ing to the figure of Tlieology is the " Dispute on the Sacra- 
 ment," in which the Church Militant is seen adoring the host 
 on the altar, and the Church Triumphant the visible Saviour. 
 As a pendant to Poetry we have the delineation of " Mount 
 Parnassus," with groups of poets below, and Apollo and the 
 Muses on the heights. Philosophy is illustrated by the cele- 
 brated fresco of the " School of Athens," which shows us a 
 splendid hall or porch, where Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Dio- 
 genes, Pythagoras, Archimedes, Zoroaster, Ptolemy, and their 
 disciples, all indicate their respective systems and sciences. 
 Raphael and his master Perugino are beheld entering the hall 
 among the pupils ; while Archimedes has the features of 
 Bramante. Corresponding to Jurisprudence are scenes por- 
 traying the giving of civil and ecclesiastical law by different 
 popes. 
 
 The next room, or Stanza of the Heliodorus, has its ceil- 
 ing divided among the Old Testament subjects of " God's 
 Promise to Abraham," " The Sacrifice of Isaac," " Jacob's 
 Dream," and "The Burning Bush." The four large paintings
 
 RAPHAEL AND CORREGGIO. 165 
 
 on the walls refer to the superhuman assistance granted to 
 the Church against her foes, and the divine corroboration of 
 her doctrines, viz., the " Miraculous Expulsion of the Covet- 
 ous Syrian Treasurer, Heliodorus, from the Temple at Jeru- 
 salem ; " the " Mass of Bolsena," where a priest who had lost 
 his faith in the dogma of transubstantiation was converted 
 by the bleeding of the consecrated host; " Attila, King of the 
 Huns, deterred by the Apostles and the Pope from an On- 
 slaught upon Rome ; " and the " Angelic Deliverance of St. 
 Peter from Prison." The latter fresco is broken into several 
 parts by the window of the wall ; but what would naturally 
 have been thought a great blemish has been so well arranged 
 by the artist as to add a new charm to the composition. 
 
 The third room, or Stanza dell' Incendio, still retains on 
 its ceiling the old frescoes of Perugino ; but the large wall- 
 painting is from the hand of Raphael, and displays to us 
 the " Incendio del Borgo," or a great fire in one of the sub- 
 urbs of Rome, which, according to the legend, was extin- 
 guished by the pope making the sign of the cross. The other, 
 less powerful pictures are entitled " The Victory at Ostia 
 over the Saracens," "The Oath of Leo III.," and "Charle- 
 magne crowned by Leo III." 
 
 The great saloon, from which these open, is styled the 
 Hall of Constantine ; but its decorations are attributed to 
 Raphael's pupils, and were never finished till after his death. 
 Most of the drawings from which they were taken were Ra- 
 phael's own, and depicted scenes from the life of Constantine, 
 the imperial champion of the Church. The chief fresco is 
 the " Battle between Constantine and Maxentius," designed 
 by Raphael, but executed by Giulio Romano.
 
 1 66 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 In the limited space of one concise chapter it is impos- 
 sible to give a more detailed account of these wonderful 
 Stanze ; but the reader should refer to the volumes of Pas- 
 savant and Kugler. The most noteworthy of the paintings 
 are the " Dispute on the Sacrament," whose upper portion 
 glows with sacred beauty, and in whose lower assemblage of 
 forty-three figures we find many interesting portraits; the 
 " School of Athens," also famous for its portraits, and for its 
 calm and classic dignity ; the " Expulsion of Heliodorus," a 
 most spirited and poetic scene, where the figure of Julius II. 
 is introduced as invoking vengeance on the offender; the 
 " Mass of Bolsena," very richly colored and effective, over 
 which, with the same easy disregard of centuries, Pope Ju- 
 lius is again presiding, in pontifical robes; and the "Con- 
 flagration in the Borgo," less attractive in color and harder 
 in outline, but extremely animated and dramatic, with many 
 nude figures, suggestive of the groups of Michael Angelo. 
 All these frescoes have been grievously damaged by time and 
 neglect. They were restored by Carlo Maratti. 
 
 It will be remembered that while Raphael was employed 
 in such labors at the Vatican, Michael Angelo, but a few 
 rooms distant, was completing the ceiling of the Sistine 
 Chapel. A strange glimpse into the varied interests of the 
 age will also be afforded us by the mention of the fact that 
 just at this time Martin Luther, then a simple monk, made 
 his eventful journey to Rome, and may perhaps have looked 
 in upon the two great painters whose life-aim must have 
 seemed to him an incomprehensible enigma, as he watched 
 them glorifying, with all the beauty of art, the triumphs of 
 the papacy whose dominion he was destined to overthrow
 
 RAPHAEL AND CORREGGIO. r 6 7 
 
 For the insatiable ambition of Popes Julius II. and Leo 
 X. had resolved that religion, science, and art, should alike 
 be brought under their rule. All things temporal and spirit- 
 ual were to be subservient to their splendor. On this prin- 
 ciple no pomp of adornment was too lavish to render their 
 cathedrals, chapels, and palaces worthy of their august 
 presence, and fitting monuments of their power. In further- 
 ance of this purpose the Loggie, as well as the Stanze, of the 
 Vatican were to be decorated. The task had been begun by 
 Bramante during the reign of Julius, but was not carried out 
 by Raphael till the pontificate of Leo. 
 
 These Loggie, leading from the Stanze, are built round three 
 sides of the court of St. Damasus. They consist of three sto 
 ries ; the two lower formed by vaulted arcades, the upper by 
 an elegant colonnade. The paintings are in the second-story 
 gallery. They are not from the master's own brush, but were 
 generally designed by him, and done by his pupils, under 
 his careful direction. The walls are covered with stuccoes, 
 flower festoons, and most graceful arabesques; but in the 
 thirteen cupolas of the roof are fifty-two pictures, about six 
 feet long and four feet wide, taken from Scriptural subjects, 
 and known as " Raphael's Bible," beginning with the " Crea- 
 tion of the World," and ending with the " Last Supper." 
 The best of the series are, " The Almighty dividing Light 
 from Darkness," the " Creation of the Firmament," and 
 the "Creation of Adam and Eve." All have been well en- 
 graved. 
 
 More important than the Loggie are the cartoons intended 
 as models of tapestries for the Sistine Chapel. They were 
 prepared by order of I eo X., who wished to have all the
 
 X 68 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 lower walls of the chapel, below Michael Angelo's frescoes, 
 hung with rich tapestry, which Raphael should design, and 
 which should be copied by Flemish weavers in a fabric of 
 wool, silk, and gold. Such tapestries were then very highly 
 esteemed, and many remarkable specimens, woven for the 
 Medici family, still remain, in the passage between the Uffizi 
 and Pitti Galleries, Florence. The work was intrusted to 
 the looms of Arras, and the pope's desires were gratified ; 
 but the tapestries themselves were carried away from Rome 
 by the French^ and greatly injured. They were finally restored 
 to the Vatican, where they have been since kept, but are so 
 faded and damaged that they give us only feeble ideas of 
 what they were meant to represent. It is the cartoons whence 
 they were taken which are now most valuable. 
 
 The vicissitudes of these celebrated cartoons make it 
 almost a miracle that they survived at all. They were colored 
 in distemper upon paper, and the weavers of Arras treated 
 them like any other patterns, cutting them into strips, some 
 of which were torn or lost, and when their use was over 
 throwing them aside in an old warehouse. There Rubens 
 found seven of them, and through his persuasions they were 
 purchased by Charles I. of England. During the period of the 
 Commonwealth and the Restoration they were neglected, and 
 were never mounted till the reign of William III., who, by 
 the advice of Sir Godfrey Kneller, had the strips of paper 
 pasted together, stretched on canvas, and placed in Hamp- 
 ton Court. They are at present exhibited at the South 
 Kensington Museum, London. Raphael's pupil, Francesco 
 Penni, is supposed to have executed Raphael's designs. 
 
 Their size is from fourteen to eighteen feet in length, and
 
 RAPHAEL AND CORREGGIO. 169 
 
 about twelve in height, with figures larger than life. Their 
 subjects are drawn from events in the lives of St. Peter and 
 St. Paul : 
 
 1. The Death of Ananias, containing twenty-four figures. 
 St. Peter stands among the group of the apostles, lifting his 
 hands in reproof of Ananias, who falls dead before him. 
 The spectators are struck with consternation. Sapphira is 
 counting money in the background. 
 
 2. Elymas struck with Blindness. St. Paul, standing grandly 
 near the front, utters the sentence of the sorcerer, who im- 
 mediately begins to grope his way in darkness, to the wonder 
 of the by-standers. The proconsul, seated on the throne, is 
 astounded and angered at the miracle. 
 
 3. The Healing of the Lame Man at the Beautiful Gate of 
 the Temple. Here we see a pillared portico open to the sky, 
 and thronged with pleasing groups of people entering the 
 temple, among whom are some very lovely female forms. 
 St. Peter and St. John in the centre are addressing the crip 
 pie, who looks up to them with confidence and joy. 
 
 4. The Miraculous Draught of Fishes. Two boats on the 
 sea of Gennesaret, each holding three large figures, occupy 
 the foreground. The disciples are striving with great muscu- 
 lar exertion to draw in the heavily-laden nets. St. Peter, in 
 one of the boats, is humbly kneeling before the seated Sav- 
 iour. Three black cranes stand on the water's edge. These 
 birds and the fish in the nets are supposed to be the work of 
 Raphael's pupil Giovanni da Udine. 
 
 5. Paul and Barnabas at Lystr a. The two apostles stand 
 under a portico, with a temple in the background. A proces- 
 sion of citizens approaches with rams and oxen to sacrifice
 
 1 70 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 before them. St. Paul rends his garments in deprecation of 
 their homage. A cripple, whom he has healed, has thrown 
 down his crutches. The scene is festive in character, and 
 modeled after the antique. 
 
 6. St Paul preaching at Athens. This displays conclu- 
 sively, in various figures, the influence of the Brancacci fres- 
 coes upon the mind of Raphael. Philosophers and sophists 
 are gathered below the inspired apostle, who eloquently ad- 
 dresses them from the steps of a building. Behind them we 
 behold a statue of Mars, near the entrance of a circular 
 temple. 
 
 7. The Charge to St. Peter. The Saviour and his disciples 
 are grouped in a landscape by the sea of Tiberias, with a 
 flock of sheep near them. St. Peter, holding the keys, kneels 
 before Christ, who extends one hand toward him, and points 
 with the other toward the flock, as if to say, " Feed my 
 sheep ! " 
 
 The lost cartoons, whose subjects are visible in the tapes- 
 tries, were the "Stoning of Stephen," the "Conversion of St. 
 Paul," and " Paul in the Prison of Philippi." 
 
 A later set of tapestries is still preserved in the Vatican, 
 for which it is thought Raphael furnished designs, but did 
 not execute cartoons. They illustrate the New Testament 
 history. The " Adoration of the Kings," " Adoration of the 
 Shepherds," and " Resurrection of Christ," are very excel- 
 lently and dramatically arranged. 
 
 As a further contribution to the glories of the Vatican, 
 frescoes of the apostles, from Raphael's designs, were copied 
 in chiaro-oscuro in an apartment now altered. It is asserted 
 that the charming figures known as " Raphael's Hours " were
 
 RAPHAEL AND CORREGGIO. I?I 
 
 also painted in an inner room of the same palace ; but Pas- 
 savant rejects the idea of their genuineness, and insists that 
 they are engraved from mural remains of Pompeii. 
 
 Raphael's other Roman frescoes will be found in the 
 church of Santa Maria della Pace, above the arch of a side- 
 chapel near the entrance, where he has portrayed four beau- 
 tiful Sibyls, attended by angels ; in the church of St. Agos- 
 tino, where his large figure of Isaiah imitates, but is inferioi 
 to, the " Prophets " of Michael Angelo ; and in the Villa Far- 
 nesina, then owned by his wealthy friend and patron, Agos- 
 tino Chigi, where we see him abandoning religious motives 
 and devoting himself with equal success to the antique and 
 mythological. 
 
 These fascinating pictures display the story of Psyche in 
 a light and airy series, most graceful in conception and treat 
 ment. First we have the jealous Venus ; then Cupid pointing 
 out Psyche to the Three Graces; then Venus seeking to dis 
 cover Psyche, and making her complaint to Jupiter ; then 
 Mercury floating down to bear the message of Jupiter's 
 anger ; then Psyche in search of the box of Proserpina, and 
 afterward brought back by genii from the depths of th* 
 under-world ; then her meeting with Venus ; the interview 
 between Cupid and Jupiter; and, lastly, Mercury bearing 
 Psyche to Olympus. 
 
 In the centre of the ceiling are the two fine compositioni 
 of the " Marriage of Cupid and Psyche," and the " Feast of 
 the Gods." According to his usual habit at this period, the 
 sketches for the frescoes were made by Raphael, but the 
 greater part of their execution was committed to his pupils. 
 The " Galatea," however, in an adjoining saloon, was painted
 
 172 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 by Raphael himself, and represents " the Goddess of the Sea, 
 borne over the waves in her shell : tritons and nymphs sport 
 joyously round her; amorini, discharging their arrows, ap- 
 pear in the air like angels of glory." These classic fables, 
 though pagan in sentiment, and naturally in accordance with 
 the tastes of the age, are neither coarse nor sensual. If 
 Raphael worshiped beauty, it was at least refined beauty, 
 simple, sweet, and alluring. 
 
 Meanwhile, amid these more ambitious labors, easel-pieces 
 were not forgotten. The oil-paintings of Raphael's Roman 
 period are among his perfect and most finished production*. 
 Even his portraits show the advance in his style. Foremost 
 among these must be noticed the likenesses of Popes Julius 
 II. and Leo X., called the best portraits in the world. Rep- 
 etitions of both exist, but the originals are at Florence. 
 Portraits of the " Fornarina," or, as the name implies, " Ba- 
 ker's Daughter," whom Raphael is said to have so passion- 
 ately loved, are also of extreme interest. One by Giulio Ro- 
 mano is in the Barberini Gallery, Rome ; very lightly draped, 
 with a shawl twisted round her head, and a golden bracelet 
 on her arm inscribed with Raphael's name. Her eyes are 
 dark and bold, and her features beam with material but not 
 with intellectual beauty. Another portrait, with the same 
 title, in the tribune of the Uffizi, is decidedly nobler. It is 
 a much more pleasing face, with flowing hair, and has fur 
 trimming, or a panther's skin, thrown over the left shoulder. 
 It is, however, not only uncertain whether it is the Fornarina, 
 but it was not painted by Raphael at all. Some ascribe it to 
 Giorgione, others to Sebastian del Piombo. Indeed, all ac- 
 counts of the Fornarina are very dubious. We know there
 
 GALATEA (Raphael).
 
 RAPHAEL AND CORREGGIO. 
 
 173 
 
 was some such person or persons with whom Raphael was in 
 love ; but whether she was the daughter of a baker, or what 
 was her precise station in life, or how long the passion lasted, 
 are unsettled questions. Passavant gives her the name of 
 Margarita. 
 
 The " Violin-Player," in the Sciarra Palace, Rome, is an- 
 other portrait-picture, but is not the likeness of Raphael, 
 though the countenance resembles his. It is the figure of a 
 youth, by Sebastian del Piombo, in a cap and mantle, hold- 
 ing in his hand a few flowers and the bow of a violin, and 
 looking over his shoulder at the spectator. 
 
 A selected list of Raphael's famous Madonnas and Holy 
 Families, from his arrival at Rome until his death, may now 
 be recorded : 
 
 " Madonna Casa d'Alba," or " Madonna of the Duke of 
 Alba," a round picture, in the Hermitage, St. Petersburg. 
 The Virgin, with the infant Saviour on her lap, sits in the 
 foreground of a landscape, watching the little St. John, who 
 kneels before them, receiving a cross from the hands of 
 Christ. 
 
 " La Vierge au Diademe," in the Louvre. The Madonna 
 bends above the sleeping Child, and lifts a veil which had 
 covered him. St. John, with clasped hands, kneels beside 
 her. This is also called " La Vierge au Linge," or " Ma- 
 donna of the Veil." Many critics believe this to be mostly 
 by Giulio Romano. 
 
 " Garvagh Madonna," or " Madonna of the Aldobrandini 
 Family," also indebted to Giulio Romano, Fronting a land- 
 scape is the pillar of an arcade, before which the Virgin is 
 sitting. With on arm she holds the Child, and with the
 
 I 74 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 other draws forward St. John, who is reaching up to take the 
 flower which Jesus offers him. 
 
 " Bridgewater Madonna," in the Bridgewater Gallery, Lon 
 don. The Child is stretched on his mother's lap, gazing ten- 
 derly up into her eyes. This has also been repeated. 
 
 " Madonna della Tenda," at Munich and Turin. So 
 named from the curtain in the background. Very similar in 
 arrangement to the celebrated " Seggiola," but the face of 
 the Virgin is more in profile. 
 
 "Madonna del Pesce," or " Madonna of the Fish," now 
 at Madrid. This was originally painted as an altar-piece for 
 St. Domenico, Naples. The Virgin and Child are enthroned 
 in the centre. At their left is St. Jerome, reading from a 
 book. His lion lies at his feet. On the right the archangel 
 Raphael presents the young Tobit, who is holding a fish. 
 
 " Vierge aux Candelabres," in England. A circular pict- 
 ure, where we see a calm, sweet-faced Madonna and Child, 
 between torch bearing angels. But we know the execution 
 of this painting belongs to Raphael's pupils. The same 
 may be said of the larger 
 
 " Madonna del Impannata," in the Pitti Gallery, Florence. 
 This takes its title from the window behind the figures. The 
 Child, placed as usual on his mother's lap, turns his face 
 toward two kneeling women. St. John, sitting at the side of 
 the picture, points to the Holy Infant. 
 
 "Madonna della Sedia," or "Seggiola Madonna," often 
 called the " Virgin of the Chair." The spectator sees the 
 full face of the seated Virgin, who bends her head toward the 
 Child and clasps him closely to her bosom. A very lovely little 
 St. John, with folded hands, stands adoringly behind them.
 
 RAPHAEL AND CORREGGIO. T -j^ 
 
 Madonna called " The Pearl," a Holy Family in the Ma- 
 drid Gallery, so termed because King Philip IV. of Spain 
 exclaimed, after purchasing it, " This is my pearl ! " This is 
 now ascribed to Giulio Romano. Cromwell sold it to Spain 
 from the collection of Charles I. of England. The Child, 
 on the Virgin's lap, rests one foot upon a cradle in the fore- 
 ground, and receives from the young St. John the fruits 
 which the latter carries in his panther's skin. The aged St. 
 Elizabeth looks on in worship. 
 
 " Madonna of Francis I.," in the Louvre. Another 
 charming Holy Family, where the Child is springing from a 
 cradle into his mother's arms. Two angels are introduced, 
 one uplifting a crown of flowers. St. Elizabeth folds the hands 
 of St. John. Much of this is due to Giulio Romano. 
 
 " Madunna," or " Holy Family," also in the Louvre ; 
 much smaller in size. The infant Saviour stands on the edge 
 of a cradle beside his mother, embracing St. John. St. Eliza- 
 beth is on the other side. This may rather be described as 
 the work of Giulio Romano than of Raphael. 
 
 " Madonna col Divino Amore," or " Madonna of Divine 
 Love," in the Naples Museum. The Child, on his mother's 
 knee, with arm guided by St. Elizabeth, blesses St. John, 
 who kneels before him, bearing the cross. This also shows 
 Giulio Romano's handiwork. 
 
 " Foligno Madonna," or "La Vierge au Donatoire," now 
 placed next to the Transfiguration in the Vatican. Painted 
 as a votive picture for Sigismondi Conti, secretary of Pope 
 Julius II., and hung in the church of Ara Cceli, Rome ; but 
 afterward removed to Foligno, whence it was carried by the 
 French, and subsequently restored to the Vatican. It was
 
 176 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 ordered by Sigismondi as a thank-offering for his escape from 
 a thirhder-bolt or meteor. The figure kneeling in front, to 
 the right of the observer, is the portrait of Sigismondi him- 
 self, presented by St. Jerome to the Virgin and Child en- 
 throned in glory above him, with a rainbow beneath their 
 feet. On the opposite side are St. Francis and St. John Bap- 
 tist, pointing to the Madonna. Just in front stands a boy- 
 angel, with upturned face, holding a tablet. A landscape 
 background displays the city of Foligno, overshadowed by a 
 storm-cloud and falling meteor. 
 
 " Sistine Madonna," in the Dresden Gallery, the last and 
 most beautiful of all Raphael's Virgins. She stands en- 
 throned upon the clouds, with her Son in her arms. In the 
 sky around her innumerable cherub-heads melt into the blue, 
 transparent atmosphere. The aged St. Sixtus and the fair 
 young St. Barbara kneel below her, to offer " the love and 
 worship of the Holy Catholic Church." On a parapet at the 
 bottom the well-known boy cherubs lean in adoration. Two 
 green curtains, painted at the top, appear to have been drawn 
 back to open the scene to our gaze. It has been conjectured 
 that this picture was intended to be borne as a kind of stand- 
 ard in a religious procession, but this is not at all probable. 
 It was placed above the altar of St. Sixtus at Piacenza, where 
 it remained till transferred to Dresden. 
 
 This catalogue, together with the one previously given, is 
 sufficiently full for purposes of reference. The Madonnas 
 omitted are principally in the possession of noblemen, where 
 they can seldom be seen by travelers, or in the Madrid Gal- 
 lery, where it is extremely difficult to distinguish between the 
 work of Raphael and that of his pupils. The " Madonna of
 
 FOLIGNO MADONNA (Raphael}.
 
 RAPHAEL AND CORREGGIO. 
 
 177 
 
 the Well," attributed to Raphael, in the tribune of the Uffizi, 
 Florence, is more probably supposed to be from the hand of 
 Francia Bigio. 
 
 The " Madonna of Francis I." is not the only specimen 
 of Raphael's talents secured by the French monarch. Two 
 others of great beauty adorn the Louvre the " St. Michael," 
 transfixing Satan with his spear; and the "St. Margaret and 
 the Dragon," one of the sweetest and purest of sacred figures, 
 with blue robes, golden hair, and palm-branch. But it, too, 
 is ascribed chiefly to Giulio Romano. A smaller " St. Mar- 
 garet," by Giulio Romano, is found at Vienna, with a crucifix 
 instead of palm. 
 
 A " Vision of Ezekiel " (executed by Giulio Romano), 
 representing the Almighty as seen by the prophet, hangs in 
 the Pitti Palace, Florence. But three splendid altar-pieces re- 
 main to be mentioned, as completing the number of Raphael's 
 important works : the " St. Cecilia," in the gallery of Bologna, 
 painted about 1516, and very familiar to all lovers of art, 
 showing us the saint, holding a small organ and gazing up 
 into heaven, with broken instruments of music at her feet, 
 and St. John, St. Augustine, St. Paul, and Mary Magdalen 
 near her ; the " Lo Spasimo di Sicilia " (probably by Giulio 
 Romano), executed for the convent near Palermo, but now 
 in the museum at Madrid, which gives us the procession to 
 Calvary, with Christ sinking beneath the cross, while the 
 fainting Virgin stretches out her hands toward him in an 
 agony of sympathy ; and, lastly, the " Transfiguration on 
 Mount Tabor," the crowning effort of his maturity, left un- 
 finished by his death, and mournfully suspended over his 
 bier as the final trophy of his genius.
 
 I? 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 It seems impossible to realize that the vast amount of labor 
 briefly sketched in the preceding pages should have been ac- 
 complished by any man, however gifted, in the short space of 
 thirty-seven years. Such a fact suffices of itself to prove Ra- 
 phael's constant and unwearied industry and devotion to his 
 art. He loved beauty for its own sake, and its creation af- 
 forded him ceaseless delight. He was fond of magnificence 
 and pleasure, and enjoyed the luxury of his Roman house, the 
 adornment of his villa, the applause of his friends, and the 
 attractions of society. The courtier of those days was per- 
 mitted a license which public opinion no longer tolerates 
 but, judged by the standards of his age, Raphael's life was 
 pure and stainless ; genial, yet free from vice. The numerous 
 band of pupils who formed his daily retinue loved him with 
 ardent affection, his friends were cheered by his presence as 
 by the sunshine, and his very rivals were propitiated by his 
 kindness and amiability. Even Michael Angelo might dis- 
 dain, but could net quarrel with him. Enriched and flattered 
 by his patrons, he was appointed Architect of St. Peter's 
 Church, and offered a most advantageous alliance with the 
 niece of Cardinal Bibiena ; but his heart did not seem inter- 
 ested in the marriage, and, after putting it off from time to 
 time, the lady died, and he bore her loss with resignation. 
 His own death was occasioned by a violent fever, treated 
 with great lack of medical skill. He expired on Good Fri- 
 day, the 6th of April, 1520, and was buried with much pomp 
 in the Pantheon. "No eye," says Vasari, "was tearless." 
 He requested in his will that the remains of Maria di Bibiena 
 should be laid beside his own, as his betrothed. In the year 
 1833 some doubt was raised as tc the exact locality of his
 
 RAPHAEL AND GORREGGIO. l ^ 
 
 resting-place ; and his body was exhumed and found entire. 
 A second funeral ceremony followed, and he was once more 
 interred in the same spot, in a marble sarcophagus presented 
 by the pope. 
 
 It is unnecessary to criticise either his abilities or his 
 works, as the judgment of posterity has been fixed, and 
 authors of every nation have exhausted language in their 
 panegyrics of his pictures. We can therefore turn without 
 delay to his successor Correggio, -who, though he could not 
 equal Raphael in genius, was yet a master of delicate love- 
 liness, graceful sentiment, forcible drawing, and transparent 
 interfusion of light and shade. If Raphael's style was epical, 
 that of Correggio may be called lyrical ; and the same qualities 
 of harmony, smoothness, tenderness, finish, and easily-flow- 
 ing rhythm, which constitute the charm of a beautiful poem, 
 lend their fascination to his paintings. 
 
 The father of Correggio was Pelegrino Allegri, a merchant 
 of moderate means, residing not far from Ferrara, in the little 
 town of Correggio or Reggio, which has ever since given its 
 name to his artist son, whose family title was really Antonio 
 Allegri. Antonio was born in 1494, about the time when 
 Leonardo da Vinci was founding his art academy in Milan, 
 and Andrea Mantegua was still famous at Mantua. An 
 uncle, Lorenzo Allegri, probably gave him some rudimentary 
 instruction, but he may have studied under Lorenzo Costa 
 or in the school continued by Mantegua's son after his 
 father's death, and thus have acquired a love of foreshort- 
 ening, which, joined to the deep effect produced upon his 
 mind by his solitary study of a few of Leonardo's pict- 
 ures, so directed his great natural talents that, when but
 
 180 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 eighteen or twenty, he was able to produce the large and 
 masterly composition of the " Madonna of St. Francis," now 
 in the Dresden Gallery, which seems to be his earliest extant 
 work. It did not, of course, appear as remarkable to the 
 monks of the Franciscan convent at Correggio, for which it was 
 designed, as it does to us, for they paid him only about seven- 
 ty-five dollars for his labor ; but we already see in it the soft 
 and melting color, delicate gradations of shadow, and delight 
 in physical beauty, which ever characterized him. The en- 
 throned Madonna and Child are in a golden glory above Sts. 
 Francis, Anthony, John Baptist, and Catharine. Not Raphael 
 himself, at the age of twenty, could have surpassed this altar- 
 piece : yet it is said that Correggio's most effective inspiration 
 came from the sight of Raphael's "St. Cecilia," before which 
 he uttered his celebrated exclamation, " I too am a painter ! " 
 As a pendant to this anecdote we may record the subsequent 
 exclamation of Titian, who, beholding the works of Correggio 
 at Parma, modestly remarked, "Were I not Titian, I should 
 desire to be Correggio ! " 
 
 A " Holy Family " at Pavia, and two pictures in the trib- 
 une of the Ufnzi, Florence, may, like the " St. Francis Ma- 
 donna," be referred to Antonio's youthful years. The last of 
 these pictures, a " Madonna adoring the Child," who lies or 
 the ground before her, is a favorite with travelers, but must 
 be allowed to exhibit, in the figure of the Virgin, some of 
 the tendency to affectation and exaggeration which was Cor- 
 reggio's only fault. A more important undertaking was 
 intrusted to him in 1518, in the commission tc fresco a saloon 
 of the convent of San Paolo at Parma. The choice of sub- 
 jects, indeed, may be considered rather extraordinary for a
 
 RAPHAEL AND CORREGGIO. jgi 
 
 holy abbess and a family of nuns ; but posterity cannot but 
 feel obliged to them for having evoked such exquisite mytho- 
 logical beauties as " Diana returning from the Chase," the 
 "Three Graces," "Adonis," "Endymion,"etc., and particular- 
 ly the vaulted ceiling painted as a vine-arbor, with charming 
 little genii peeping down through the grape-clusters. 
 
 His friend the abbess, who doubtless appreciated his 
 efforts for her entertainment, procured for him soon after- 
 ward another and more remunerative appointment as deco- 
 rator of the cupola of the church of San Giovanni. There 
 he depicted the " Ascension of Christ," with twelve adoring 
 apostles below. This, however, was simply an introduction 
 to his greater and more magnificent fresco of the " Assump 
 tion of the Virgin," in the cupola of the Parma Duomo, where 
 we still perceive " the Madonna soaring into heaven, while 
 Christ descends from his throne in haste to meet her. Art 
 innumerable host of saints and angels, rejoicing and singing 
 hymns of triumph, surround these principal personages. 
 Lower down in a circle stand the apostles ; and, lower still, 
 genii bearing candelabra and swinging censers. In lunettes 
 below are the four evangelists ; the figure of St. John being 
 one of the finest." Some of the cartoons for the fresco, 
 drawn in chalk, were discovered in a garret in the city of 
 Parma, and were purchased by the British Museum. This 
 bold composition, which occupied him four years, is a strange 
 blending of heavenly loveliness, magical power of light and 
 shade, and ecstatic figures, so forcibly foreshortened that, 
 gazing upward, one beholds such a giand confusion of limbs 
 as gave rise to the Parmese criticism that Correggio had 
 served them with a fricassee of frogs.
 
 !8 2 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Just previous to the execution of the cathedral-dome, 
 Correggio had been invited to Mantua, where Duke Gonzaga 
 employed him on a number of classical easel-pictures. To 
 these commissions we owe the " Education of Cupid," 01 
 " Mercury teaching Cupid to read," in the London Gallery ; 
 the "Jupiter and Antiope," in the Louvre; the "lo," and 
 " Leda with the Swan," of Vienna and of Berlin ; and the 
 " Danae," of the Borghese Palace, Rome. All these paintings 
 exhibit the softness, tenderness, flowing outlines, and airy 
 grace, which were natural to the artist whatever subject might 
 be delineated by his brush. The Duke of Orleans, who at 
 one time owned two or three of these pictures, so disliked 
 the expression of lo's head that he had it cut out of the can- 
 vas, and burned. This summary process soothed his moral 
 sense; but the decapitation was afterward remedied, as far 
 as possible, by the French artist Prud'hon, who painted a 
 new head. A copy or repetition of the " lo " is in the Gallery 
 of Vienna. The " Danae " of the Borghese, a fair female form, 
 reclining on her couch, amid the golden shower, is best 
 known by the two fascinating little Cupids in the foreground, 
 trying their arrows on a stone. 
 
 The sacred easel-pieces of Correggio are even more lovely 
 and attractive. They are, in fact, the main inducement to the 
 tourist to visit Parma, as we there find not only his frescoes, 
 including the " Madonna della Scala," but several oil-paint- 
 ings, especially the Madonna and Child spoken of as the 
 " Madonna della Scodella," from the cup which the Virgin 
 is lifting; and the "St. Jerome presenting his Translation of 
 the Scriptures to the Virgin," styled "II Giorno," or the 
 " Day," from the clear, brilliant daylight diffused over the
 
 MADONNA DELJ-A SCALA (Correggio).
 
 RAPHAEL AND CORREGGIO. X 8 3 
 
 painting, in contrast to the celebrated composition at Dres- 
 den known as the " Santa Notte," or " Holy Night " a rep- 
 resentation of the dark and shadowy scene of the Nativity, 
 illuminated only by the celestial radiance of the Sacred Babe 
 and the angelic choir. 
 
 Besides the " Santa Notte," and the early " Madonna of 
 St. Francis," the Dresden Gallery contains two large altar- 
 pieces, called the " Madonna of St. Sebastian," and the " Ma- 
 donna of St. George," from the attendant saints who look up 
 in fervent worship to the enthroned Virgin and Child. The 
 graceful angels and children are peculiarly charming. In one 
 of the cabinets is an admirable portrait, very highly-finished, 
 but unhappily not genuine, classed as the portrait of " Correg- 
 gio's Physician ; " while not far distant from it is the " Read- 
 ing Magdalen," which we no longer regard as from Correggio. 
 She lies upon the ground, her blue drapery relieved against 
 the sombre green of the landscape. Her head is leaning on 
 her hand, and her golden hair floats down her shoulders and 
 veils her bosom. Her drooping eyes are attentively fixed 
 upon her book, and her alabaster vase is on the turf beside 
 her. The poet might well exclaim : 
 
 " . . . . What a fair picture ! 
 The dark, o'erhanging shade, the long fair hair, 
 The delicate white skin, the azure robe, 
 The full, luxuriant life, the grim death's head, 
 The tender womanhood, and the great book : 
 These various contrasts have you cunningly 
 Wrought into sweetest harmony." 
 
 This famous but much criticised painting, executed upon cop- 
 per (only two feet long), has always found most enthusiastic 
 admirers. We are told that the princes of Este carried it with 
 13
 
 !8 4 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 them in all their journeys, and that the King of Poland kept 
 it under lock and key in a frame of jeweled silver. Yet it is 
 now claimed that the present picture is not the original, but 
 merely a copy, or a later Flemish painting. 
 
 In the National Gallery, London, a few Correggios are 
 treasured the " Education of Cupid," already noticed ; a 
 small Holy Family, sometimes named "La Vierge au Panier," 
 or the " Virgin of the Basket ; " an " Ecce Homo," and 
 " Christ on the Mount of Olives," both of which are over- 
 strained and painful figures, though the technical manage 
 ment of the last is very remarkable ; the Saviour being lighted 
 from heaven, and the attendant angel by light reflected from 
 the person of the Lord. There are also studies, after Cor- 
 reggio, of "Angels' Heads," possibly intended for a Parmese 
 fresco. They have the liquid eyes, dim half -smile, and 
 blended chiaro-oscuro so indicative of his handiwork. 
 
 The Louvre has retained only the " Jupiter and Antiope," 
 and the famous " Marriage of St. Catharine." A similar 
 " Marriage " is in the Naples Museum, which has also the 
 " Hagar in the Desert," and the " Repose in Egypt," often 
 styled the " Zingarella Madonna," from the gypsy-like ar- 
 rangement of the turbaned head-dress. His wife is believed 
 to have been his model for the Virgin. The Madrid Gallery 
 has a much-commended " Noli me tangere," or " Appearance 
 of Christ to the Magdalen after the Resurrection." Viardot 
 remarks : " Nothing in the work of the pencil can surpass the 
 execution of that fine figure, the soft tints and harmonious 
 colors which stand out against the deep blue of the sky and 
 the dark green of a thick foliage." 
 
 The life and character of Correggio had the gentleness
 
 RAPHAEL AND CORREGGIO. ^5 
 
 and suavity, but not the animation, of his pictures. He was 
 tiiild and unassuming, and did not realize his own superi- 
 ority ; founded no school, and did not allow himself to be 
 much troubled by ambition. His years were passed in com- 
 parative retirement, and his experience of the world was 
 limited to a narrow province. Raphael Mengs asserts that 
 he visited Rome, but his other critics have expressed a 
 contrary opinion. He was miserably compensated for his 
 works in oil. Even the sublime " Nativity," whose value is 
 now counted by thousands, is stated to have originally 
 brought him less than forty dollars. The system of payment 
 at Parma must have been, to say the least, peculiar; as 
 modern researches have chanced to find the record of the 
 painting of the famous altar-piece " II Giorno," which was 
 ordered by a wealthy widow lady, who agreed to give the 
 artist forty-seven sequins (one hundred and ten dollars), to 
 furnish him with a six months' supply of provisions, and to 
 present him in addition with " two loads of wood, several 
 measures of wheat, and a fat pig." 
 
 Yet the old theory of poverty and distress which led to 
 the story (repeated even by Vasari) of Correggio's destitution, 
 penuriousness, and wretched death, is now exploded. Though 
 not rich, or very famous in his lifetime, he is believed to 
 have been comfortable and contented, of a cheerful and ami- 
 able disposition, and quite unfit for the hero of the melan- 
 choly German tragedy which has been written upon his sup- 
 posed misfortunes. His pictures are full of movement and 
 joy, and reveal a mind which must have had a spring of 
 pleasure within itself. His talents were not only remarkable 
 in degree, but original in kind. He had scarcely any great
 
 1 86 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 models of art from which to study ; but grace, elegance, and 
 serene beauty, appeared to come to him by intuition. No 
 painter of any age has equaled him in chiaro-oscuro, and none 
 but Raphael can compete with him in simple sweetness and 
 loveliness. He was particularly happy in his delineations of 
 sportive, smiling children, whose attitudes are usually as ex- 
 pressive as their faces. 
 
 He died, like Raphael, of fever, after a few days' illness, 
 on the 5th of March, 1534, and was buried in his family 
 sepulchre in the Franciscan convent at Reggio.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE. 
 
 THOUGH the perfect art of Leonardo da Vinci, Michael 
 Angelo, and Raphael grew slowly into maturity from its 
 Tuscan and Umbrian root, there was one Italian province 
 where genius seemed to burst into sudden bloom and to luxu- 
 riate in free magnificence. Venice, so given over to Byzan- 
 tine influences that she might for several centuries have been 
 described as only an Eastern art-colony, roused herself at 
 last, in the fifteenth century, through the talents of the Bel- 
 lini family, and founded a school of painting, destined within 
 the next two hundred years to surpass all others in brilliancy, 
 and to rival that of Florence in ability. 
 
 Few critics of Venetian art push their researches behind 
 the histories of Jacopo Bellini, and his sons Gentile and 
 Gian ; yet we should not altogether ignore what had been 
 done and was doing on the suburban island of Murano, so 
 early noted for its glass-manufactories, and for the labors of 
 a few enterprising artists then spoken of as Andrea, Giovanni, 
 and Antonio da Murano, who are believed to have had their 
 first lessons from Flemish masters, and who are still repre- 
 sented by pictures among the antique treasures at Venice and 
 at Berlin. According to Crowe and Cavalcaselle, the name
 
 1 88 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Df Vivarini was assumed by a younger painter, Bartolomeo, 
 who thus originated the traditional Vivarini family, so well 
 known in ancient art-annals. These partners worked zealous- 
 ly together, blending, as far as they were able, the manner 
 of the Umbrian Gentile da Fabriano with their German-like 
 hardness and accuracy, and adopting, about 1473, the prac- 
 tice of oil-painting, which Antonello da Messina introduced 
 from Flanders. The earliest Venetian picture in oils is said 
 to be from the hand of Bartolomeo Vivarini. 
 
 Just previous to this epoch, the native historian and 
 artist Zanetti alludes to a certain Lorenzo, who was asso- 
 ciated with Antonio da Murano in the production of an 
 " Ancona,"or altar-piece in compartments, now in the gallery 
 of Venice. Similar mention is made of one Paulus, who 
 painted in 1346, but the specimens of his skill perished, as 
 did also the comparatively rude monochromes, executed be- 
 fore 1350 in the ancient hall of the Grand Council. These 
 were replaced by large frescoes by Pisanello and Gentile da 
 Fabriano, whom the state invited to ornament its palace, and 
 treated with suitable honors. But the natural dampness of 
 the climate proved ruinous to such mural splendors, and we 
 afterward hear of a third attempt at decoration by the 
 brothers Bellini, with pictures on canvas fitted into paneled 
 frames. These were proof against water, though not against 
 fire, for the hall itself was burned in 1577. 
 
 Yet if the evidences of Gentile da Fabriano's art were 
 fleeting, his influence was permanent. His early pupil Ja- 
 copo di Piero, or, as we may call him, Jacopo Bellini, born 
 about 1400, studied his style with admiring devotion, was his 
 constant companion during his stay in Venice, painted his
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE. jgp 
 
 portrait, and finally made him godfather of his eldest son 
 Jacopo had previously been familiar only with the Paduan 
 ideal of art, which was severe, hard, and coldly classical. 
 The brilliancy, ease, and flexibility of Fabriano's method 
 could not fail to be attractive to any one with a true love for 
 color and an inborn genius, and we consequently find that, 
 when Jacopo established a workshop at Padua, he was a for- 
 midable rival to Squarcione, even captivating Andrea Man- 
 tegna, who married Bellini's daughter Nicolosia, and greatly 
 profited by the examples of his new connections. 
 
 Very few of Jacopo Bellini's works survive. A half- 
 length, full-faced " Virgin and Child " is in the Venice Acad- 
 emy, while a " Crucifixion " is found in the archiepiscopal 
 palace at Verona. Far more interesting than these is his 
 book of sketches, now owned by the British Museum. It has 
 99 P a es > seventeen by thirteen inches. The drawings are in 
 pencil, with pen-and-ink touches, and a pale-green tint of 
 water-color. "Still and animal life, Nature, ancient sculpture, 
 buildings, and human figures, are all there. The stories of 
 Judith and Holofernes, of David and Goliath, many New Tes- 
 tament histories, the wonders of hagiology and of mythology, 
 all have a place. In contrast with these are studies of apes, 
 eagles, dogs, cats, village-scenes, hawking-parties, etc., etc." 
 
 His sons, however, both of whom were artists, far eclipsed 
 their father. He had trained them as enthusiastic followers 
 of his own profession, and was delighted to see them sur- 
 pass himself. Gentile Bellini, born about 1426, early became 
 eminent as a portraitist, and when the Council of Ten decided 
 to replace Gentile da Fabriano's frescoes in the Hall of State 
 with pictures executed in oils, he was given charge of the
 
 i go 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 work. This brought him into such favor that when the 
 Sultan of Turkey dispatched a request to the Venetian Gov- 
 ernment that one of their best painters might be sent to him, 
 Gentile was unanimously selected. Mohammed II., quite re- 
 gardless of the curse of the Prophet against every image of a 
 living person, not only employed Gentile to paint his own 
 portrait and that of a sultana, but took the deepest interest 
 in all his practice of art. This Turkish visit came to a hasty 
 termination when, upon the exhibition of a picture of a head 
 of St. John Baptist in a charger, the sultan found fault with 
 the appearance of the severed neck, and, perceiving that Gen- 
 tile did not yield to his criticisms, immediately decapitated a 
 slave that he might see for himself the proper working of the 
 muscles under such circumstances. The artist was instantly 
 convinced, and seized the first opportunity to escape such 
 practical instructions. But his foreign experiences stored his 
 memory with many effective incidents of Turkish life, which 
 he used in his future compositions; as, for instance, in the 
 example, with strong local color, of the " Reception of a Ve- 
 netian Embassador at Constantinople." His large paintings 
 in the Venice Gallery of the " Procession through the Piazza 
 of San Marco," " Relic of the Cross," and its " Recovery from 
 the Grand Canal," are very quaint and valuable. His last 
 picture, the " Sermon of St. Mark," was left unfinished by 
 his death in 1507. It was completed by his brother Gian, 
 and is now in the Brera, Milan. 
 
 Giovanni or Gian Bellini (1428-1516) is the true leader 
 of art in Venice. He had been taught as a youth the old 
 manner of tempera-painting, but availed himself as soon as 
 possible of the new oil medium. Indeed, ancient historians
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE. I 9I 
 
 have a story that he gained admittance in disguise to the 
 studio of Antonello da Messina and stole his Flemish secrets; 
 but this is only a fiction, and a very unnecessary one, for 
 Antonello did not hesitate to impart his knowledge to those 
 who wished to learn. The use of oil-colors was particularly 
 adapted to Gian's tastes, and allowed him scope for his love 
 of brilliant hues, strong in tone, but softly blended into 
 beautiful gradations of tint. A moment's reflection will show 
 us how naturally Venetian surroundings led up to such 
 style of color. The location and climate of the city gave its 
 inhabitants through most of the year an atmosphere bathed 
 in sunshine, half veiled at sunrise and sunset by golden or 
 rosy mists which magically melted into the deep-blue sky and 
 sparkling blue water that reflected every thing in changeful 
 and transparent lights and shadows. Snowy marble palaces, 
 gilded domes and columns, gleaming mosaics, and richly- 
 decorated architecture, all contributed to the splendid pano- 
 rama ever before the eye and imagination of the painter, and 
 ever ready to be reproduced on his canvas. The great diffi- 
 culty was to acquire such skill in handling the brush as to be 
 able to copy faithfully from Nature's model. This Giovanni 
 Bellini was the first to accomplish. 
 
 An "Agony in the Garden" in the London Gallery 
 and a " Transfiguration " at Naples are among his early 
 works ; but we discover his best in the Venetian Gallery and 
 churches. His subjects were usually sacred, whereas those 
 of his brother Gentile had been anecdotal or historical in 
 character. Gian's Madonna-faces are so nearly alike that it 
 is plainly evident a type of the Virgin was fixed in his imag- 
 ination, and never varied. Serious, pure, and gentle, she
 
 I 9 2 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 sits upon her throne, and looks placidly down upon her wor- 
 shipers. Architectural backgrounds and admirable land- 
 scapes form the vistas of his pictures, in which we also see 
 the pleasing musical angels which were a favorite feature of 
 the Venetian school. He was engaged, like Gentile, on the 
 grand paintings of the Council-Chamber, recording the wars 
 of the Venetians with the Emperor Barbarossa, and the Doge 
 Ziani receiving from the pope the ring with which he was to 
 wed the Adriatic. His best work was done after the age of 
 maturity, and is largely represented in Venice by the Ma- 
 donna in S. Zaccaria, and by the various Madonnas with 
 Saints and Angels which are now to be found in the halls 
 of the Gallery of Fine Arts. 
 
 The influence of Gian Bellini upon the art of his times 
 was very powerful not only in Venice but throughout Italy 
 and Germany. He was extremely popular with his fellow- 
 citizens, painting the portraits of doges and nobles, living in 
 affluence, and receiving flattering attentions at home and from 
 abroad. Albrecht Diirer has left an account of a visit to his 
 studio near the close of Bellini's long and prosperous life, 
 which ended on the 2pth of November, 1516. He is buried 
 beside his brother in the church of San Giovanni e Paolo. 
 
 Many of his so-called compositions should really be at- 
 tributed to his pupils, especially those in distant collections. 
 Venice, of course, contains the greatest number of his pict- 
 ures. An early and not attractive " Pieta " is in the Brera, 
 Milan. The same subject, very brown in tone, is repeated in 
 the Vatican. Several oil-paintings are ascribed to him at 
 Berlin. A remarkably good portrait of the old Doge Lore- 
 dano, the founder of the state Inquisition, is in the London
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE. ! 93 
 
 Gallery. His masterpieces are a seated " Madonna " in Ven- 
 ice Academy, with three musical angels below the throne, and 
 the Madonnas in the Church of S. Zaccaria and of the Frari. 
 The painting in the Louvre of two young men in one frame, 
 one with fair complexion and red hair, the other dark-haired, 
 catalogued as "Gentile and Gian Bellini," is now conceded 
 not to be genuine, but is probably from the hand of an artist 
 of Bergamo. Gian's own portrait at Florence, displaying him 
 as a man near middle age, in a black cap and dark vest, is 
 thought to have been executed by his brother Gentile, or an 
 obscurer artist. But it cannot be authenticated. 
 
 Before quitting this early period we must notice Carlo 
 Crivelli, born between 1430 and 1440, and surviving till the 
 end of the century. He was a contemporary of the Bellini, 
 but far behind them in enterprise and progress, though sharing 
 somewhat of Gian's feeling for color. While every one else 
 was experimenting in oils, he always adhered to tempera- 
 painting on wood. Yet his stiff but rich compositions were 
 not without vigor and expression, and gained him sufficient 
 reputation to deserve the honor of knighthood from Prince 
 Ferdinand of Capua. His style appears to have been modeled 
 in hard, strong outline, but with scenic effect. Strange to 
 say, he may now be best studied in Milan, or in the London 
 Gallery, where his finest altar-pieces are collected. Vincenzo 
 Catena, a pupil of the Bellini, also has interesting altar- 
 pieces in the London National Gallery. 
 
 Of much more decided genius were Vittore Carpaccio 
 (about 1455-1525), and Cima da Conegliano (about 1460- 
 1517), followers, but not pupils, of the Bellini. The exact 
 date of their birth and death has not been ascertained, but is
 
 194 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 approximately given from modern authorities. Carpaccio is 
 little known out of Venice, but our interest in him there is 
 strongly excited by his noble and charmingly colored " Pres- 
 entation of the Infant Saviour," hanging in the Academy 
 with the aged Simeon standing in the midst of superb archi- 
 tecture, and ready to sing his " Nunc Dimittis " in a cardinal's 
 gorgeous mantle, held up by two servants behind him, while 
 a couple of musical angels below prepare to play the accom- 
 paniment ; also by his large and curious series of pictures on 
 the story of St. Ursula, so oddly imaginative, yet so graphic- 
 ally arranged. A " Madonna Enthroned " is in London. 
 
 Gian Battista Cima, surnamed da Conegliano from his 
 native town, has somewhat wider celebrity. His style was 
 rather simple than grand ; but he is most correct, precise, and 
 symmetrical in form, lustrous in tint, and enamel-like in 
 finish. Kugler says that his coloring sometimes " glistens 
 like jewels." Fine Madonnas by him are preserved in the 
 Venice churches and Academy ; but his most pleasing com- 
 position out of Venice is the stately group in the Brera, at 
 Milan, of St. Peter Martyr and other saints; also " Incredulity 
 of St. Thomas," in London ; with Madonnas in Berlin, in the 
 Louvre, and in other European collections. Cima's pictures 
 may occasionally be identified by a little rabbit painted in 
 the corner as his signature. As a rabbit is coneglio in Italian, 
 this was intended as a play upon his name. 
 
 But as yet we have only lingered on the threshold of Ve- 
 netian art-history. The close of the fifteenth century brings 
 us to Giorgione and Titian, the illustrious pupils of Gian 
 Bellini, and the great world-masters of color. 
 
 Giorgio Barbarelli, born at Castelfranco, in 1477, the same
 
 INCREDULITY OF ST. THOMAS (Ciina).
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE. ! 95 
 
 year as Titian, received his title of Giorgione, which means 
 George the Great, from his tall, commanding figure, inherited 
 from a patrician father. His mother, however, having been 
 only a simple country-girl, the child was not acknowledged, 
 but was left to make his own way in the world. This he 
 did quite effectually, as he was " of distinguished presence, 
 spirited character, kindly, and of good manners, adored by 
 women, an admirable musician, a welcome guest in noble 
 houses," and, above all, a most powerful and original painter. 
 Yet an undercurrent of melancholy seemed natural to his 
 temperament, and is often very subtly visible in his romantic 
 pictures. 
 
 While still a boy, he was placed in the Bellini studio, but 
 in charm and loveliness of light he eventually excelled the 
 master, and Gian Bellini was glad to catch from his pupil a 
 more glowing intensity of coloring, and greater harmony and 
 depth of tone. After quitting his studies, one of his first 
 independent tasks was to fresco, with Titian, the outside of a 
 public hall of exchange, which he adorned so beautifully that 
 he was soon occupied with many similar commissions for 
 other Venetian buildings and palaces. The dampness of the 
 sea has long since destroyed all such splendors. Doubtless 
 they were surpassed by the rich oil-paintings still left us, 
 which many regard as superior even to Titian's in their deep 
 and fiery color, their profound sentiment, their luminous 
 glow and mysterious shadow, their breadth of outline, and 
 pastoral poetry. The rivalry with Titian was only too brief, 
 being terminated by Giorgione's early death, at the age of 
 thirty-four. He has been made the hero of a love-story, in 
 which he is reported to have perished of grief at the loss of
 
 196 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 his mistress through an unfaithful friend ; but facts appear 
 to prove that he died of the plague in 1511. 
 
 Much discussion has arisen in regard to the genuineness 
 of most of Giorgione's pictures. Few of authenticity seem 
 to be left in Venice except the Giovanelli landscape with its 
 very interesting figures. Some outside of Italy still bear his 
 name, but none of these can be relied upon with any great 
 assurance of certainty. Yet one of the finest and most 
 characteristic of these is the " Astrologers," at Vienna, often 
 known by the name of " Three Philosophers," represent- 
 ing three men in a wild, extended landscape. " The first, 
 very aged, in an Oriental costume, with long gray beard, 
 stands holding in his hand an astronomical table ; the next, 
 a man in the prime of life, seems listening to him ; the third, 
 a youth, seated and looking upward, holds a compass." Far 
 on the horizon the mystic star is just rising. Another master- 
 piece, at Dresden, is the " Meeting of Jacob and Rachel " 
 (no longer considered as from Giorgione). The surround- 
 ings of Jacob certainly mark him as a shepherd, but Rachel is 
 more Venetian than biblical. A Concert, or Fete Champetre, 
 in the Louvre is well known. Another admirable Concert 
 once received as authentic in the Pitti, composed of a monk 
 at the piano and two bystanders, is now ascribed to Titian ; 
 but Morelli asserts that the " Three Stages of Life," long 
 assigned to Lorenzo Lotto, must henceforth be considered 
 as a very genuine Giorgione. The Louvre " Concert " is 
 chiefly remarkable for its sumptuous and lovely landscape. 
 The Gallery of Berlin has also a portrait of " A Young Man," 
 which Berenson considers authentic. A " Knight of Malta," 
 " Moses," and " Judgment of Solomon " are in the Uffizi. A
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE. 
 
 197 
 
 "Sleeping Venus," once thought a Titian, is in Dresden; 
 a " Shepherd with Pipe " at Hampton Court ; while others 
 (little credited) are seen at Madrid, including a " Madonna 
 with Saints " (accepted), and a " Family Portrait." An early 
 altar-piece of a "Madonna with SS. Francis and Liberalis," 
 which has been thoroughly authenticated by critics, is shown 
 in the Cathedral of Castelfranco Veneto, his birthplace. 
 
 The study of color, thus happily introduced at Venice, 
 was carried on to perfection by Tiziano Vecellio, who, dur- 
 ing his long life of ninety-nine years, has been described 
 as " the most fortunate and healthy of his species ; Heaven 
 having awarded to him nothing but favors and felicities." 
 Born in 1477, at Cadore, in the Friulian Alps, he began 
 to paint almost as soon as he began to breathe ; and 
 there is a pretty little legend to the effect that he used no 
 prosaic chalk or charcoal, but that the juices of flowers 
 formed his childish colors. To the beautiful horizon of hills 
 which encircled his birthplace we can trace back his un- 
 wearied partiality for fine, bold landscape, deep-blue skies, 
 and mountain scenery, so often visible in the background of 
 his pictures. 
 
 An uncle in the not distant city of Venice appears to have 
 first taken charge of his education, and to have entered him 
 when very young, as a pupil in the studio of Gian Bellini 
 where he was more impressed with the genius of his fellow- 
 student Giorgione than with that of his master. Giorgione's 
 style was eminently attractive to a nature like Titian's; 
 (hough we see in their paintings the character of the two men 
 in contrast : Giorgione's more intense, Titian's broader and 
 more ample. Jealousy finally terminated their friendship;
 
 I9 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 yet they were employed together on the exterior frescoes of 
 the Hall of Exchange at Venice where, however, Titian's 
 work was most admired. 
 
 But it was easel-painting and not fresco which best dis- 
 played Titian's talents ; yet it is difficult to decide which of 
 the small pictures ascribed to him are earliest. Little is re- 
 corded of his first working in oils. He married about 1523. 
 His " Sacred and Profane Love " had been executed before 
 this period. We know nothing of his wife, except that she 
 was named Lucia, or Cecilia, and died in 1530. 
 
 In 1514 he spent some time at the court of Ferrara, made 
 famous to us by its associations with Tasso and his Leonora. 
 There he met Ariosto, and other men of brilliancy and learn- 
 ing; and there he painted for Duke Alphonso the picture of 
 " Christ and the Tribute-Money " (Cristo della Moneta), now 
 to be found at Dresden. The flesh-tints of the face of our 
 Saviour, its finely-rendered hair and beard, and the calm, 
 piercing majesty of its expression,- as he turns toward the 
 crafty Pharisee, are the points for which it has been most 
 praised. But the duke, who was a patron of pleasure, as well 
 as of the arts, found mythological and sensuous subjects more 
 to his taste, and ordered from the painter two Bacchanalian 
 scenes one the " Bacchus and Ariadne," at present in the 
 London Gallery ; the other the " Arrival .of Bacchus in the 
 Isle of Naxos," since removed to Madrid, as is also a more 
 celebrated companion-piece, the " Sacrifice to the Goddess 
 of Fertility," where fair young girls offer fruit and flowers 
 before the statue of Venus, and some sixty figures of children 
 and Cupids sport in most graceful attitudes through the 
 charming landscape. Portraits of Duke Alphonso's wives
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE. 
 
 199 
 
 and of other court beauties, who may have been models for 
 the Venuses in which the artist so delighted, likewise belong 
 to this epoch. It must be confessed that Titian painted this 
 class of subjects con amore, and was much more familiar with 
 the material than with the sacred or spiritual. Yet there is a 
 grand, calm beauty about his human forms, a splendor of life 
 and luxury, which, with all his power of color, does not de- 
 generate into Rubens's coarseness. His magnificent women 
 appear as far above ordinary life as they are below heavenly 
 sainthood ; yet they seem to grow as naturally under his 
 brush as glowing flowers in tropical sunshine. We perceive 
 this particularly in his portraits those, for instance, of 
 his daughter Lavinia, variously posed ; of Isabella d'Este ; 
 of the " Bella " in the Pitti Palace of Florence ; of the 
 " Flora " at the Uffizi ; and the " Maitresse de Titien " at the 
 Louvre. 
 
 In 1516 we again find Titian at Venice, engaged upon his 
 great "Assumption of the" Virgin," in which he shows him- 
 self in the full maturity of talent, complete master of every 
 secret of color. The " Presentation of the Youthful Virgin 
 in the Temple," a much larger piece in the same Venetian 
 gallery, dates considerably later, being assigned by Crowe 
 and Cavalcaselle to the year 1539. But as yet much of the 
 great painter's attention was absorbed by the public work 
 of the city, he having received an appointment from the 
 state to continue or superintend the paintings in the ducal 
 hall of the Grand Council. All these splendid efforts per- 
 ished by fire, which has been peculiarly fatal to Titian's 
 labors, as it destroyed, about fourteen years ago, his superb 
 altar-piece of the " Death of St. Peter Martyr," belonging to 
 14
 
 200 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 the church of the Frari. This was one of Titian's finest 
 compositions. It is still well known through engravings. 
 The saint represented was not the Apostle Peter, but a Do- 
 minican monk, Peter of Verona, who, returning from a coun- 
 cil of the Church, was slain by an assassin in a lonely wood. 
 The painter depicted the moment when the murderer seized 
 his victim, whose companion fled in terror from the spot. 
 The surrounding landscape, with its tall, mysterious trees, its 
 fading light, the deep-purple hills on its horizon-line, and the 
 angels waiting in the open heavens to receive the martyr's 
 soul, formed a scene which has been extolled as one of the 
 sublimest in art. The celebrated " Entombment," once treas- 
 ured in the Gonzaga Gallery, but now hanging in the 
 Louvre, is in the same forcible style, but more conventional 
 in the treatment of its sacred figures and therefore less im- 
 pressive. 
 
 Among the political events of this exciting century was 
 the meeting of the powerful Chafles V. and Pope Clement 
 VII. at Bologna, in the year 1530. Thither Titian was invited 
 by the pope's relative, Cardinal de Medici, and both emperor 
 and pontiff subsequently sat for portraits. These portraits 
 still remain to us : that of the emperor on horseback, in the 
 Gallery of Madrid ; that of Clement, in the Bridgewater col- 
 lection, London, while the large likeness of Cardinal de Me- 
 dici, in Florence, and portrait of Francis I. (from a medal), in 
 the Louvre, are also memorials of history. The emperor was 
 delighted with the artist, who ever after enjoyed his most 
 lavish patronage, and a very irregularly-paid pension. But it 
 did not need such imperial favor to testify to the fact that 
 Titian was the greatest portrait-painter the world has ever
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE, 20 1 
 
 produced. Every distinguished man of the age was eager to 
 secure a likeness from his brush. Such as the King of Spain 
 and Emperor of Germany, the popes, doges, and cardinals, 
 are easily recognizable ; but many others are now without a 
 name, and have so changed owners that we can no longer tell 
 whom they were meant to delineate ; yet their dignified and 
 eloquent faces, instinct with physical and intellectual life, seem 
 as real and striking as though they were men of yesterday. 
 The same may be said of his fresh, youthful, and splendidly- 
 developed females, so warmly colored, and full of all the joy 
 of existence, yet so vigorous, majestic, and serenely calm. 
 
 Taine has given us, in his " Italy," a vivid description of 
 Venetian life in the sixteenth century. We can thus imagine 
 Titian, in the midst of wealth and splendor, with his friends, 
 the magnificent and licentious Aretino and the architect 
 Sansovino, " eating and drinking daintily and heartily, ap- 
 preciative of music, of elegant luxury, and the society of 
 pleasure-seeking women. . . . Around him beauty, taste, edu- 
 cation, the talents of others, reflect back on him, as from 
 a mirror, the brightness of his own genius. His brother, his 
 son Orazio, his two cousins Cesare and Fabrizio, are all ex- 
 cellent painters. His daughter Lavinia, dressed as Flora, 
 with a basket of fruit on her head, furnishes him with a model 
 in the freshness of her carnation, and in the amplitude of 
 her admirable form. Daily he designs something in chalk 01 
 charcoal. A supper with Sansovino, or Aretino, makes the 
 day complete." 
 
 This luxurious existence continued with little variation 
 for more than half a century ; for there is no reliable evi- 
 dence that Titian ever went to Spain; and his occasional
 
 202 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 journeys to Ferrara or Urbino, where he painted the Venus 
 in the tribune of the Uffizi, were not long enough to break in 
 seriously upon his Venetian pleasures; while his sojourn with 
 the Emperor Charles, at Augsburg, was but a repetition, on a 
 grander scale, of his domestic gayeties. Still he never aban- 
 doned himself to profligacy or idleness. Painting was the 
 business of his life, and he pursued it with diligence ; grow- 
 ing in excellence as he grew in age. 
 
 In the autumn of 1545, Pope Paul III. summoned Titian 
 to Rome, to paint his portrait. The pope was terribly ugly ; 
 with pinched-up features, keen, snake-like eyes, and fingers 
 like bird-claws ; and assuredly Titian's hand was too faithful 
 for flattery yet the pontiff was much pleased with the pict- 
 ure, which represented him between his two nephews, the 
 Duke Ottavio and Cardinal Farnese. It is now at Naples. 
 Other paintings were completed at Rome : a " Venus and 
 Adonis," repeated in the National Gallery, London ; and 
 " Danae in the Golden Shower," a favorite classical subject 
 of the Renaissance, which Michael Angelo was compelled 
 to admire, though he qualified his praise by remarking 
 that Titian did not know how to draw. In truth, the 
 Roman artists were jealous of the great Venetian, re- 
 ceived him very coldly, and were glad when he returned 
 to more appreciative neighbors. He evidently did not 
 waste his best work upon lukewarm patrons. The fine 
 " St. Sebastian," now in the Vatican, was not done to the 
 order of the pope, but came from the church cf the Frari, 
 Venice. 
 
 A majority of the masterpieces of Titian's later years were 
 executed for Charles V. and his son Philip, who kept them
 
 ST. SEBASTIAN (Titian).
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE. 203 
 
 carefully treasured at Madrid ; though fire has attacked some 
 chefs-d'oeuvre in Spain as well as in Venice. Among the forty- 
 two (not all genuine) in the Madrid Gallery we may count a 
 number of portraits, principally of the art-loving emperor, his 
 successors, and the royal families. The first portrait of Charles 
 on horseback has been previously mentioned; but another, 
 more mature in age, in a standing position, with one hand 
 resting on the head of a favorite dog, is an even finer and 
 more stately likeness. Philip II., who lives to posterity 
 through Titian's faces and Motley's history, stands before us 
 with pale, melancholy, and effeminate features; and after we 
 are wearied of contemplating Spanish celebrities we may 
 pause to look at Titian's own likeness of himself in dignified 
 old age. Among the mythological representations for which, 
 in spite of the censures of the Inquisition, the Castilian 
 monarchs had an unconcealed fondness, we shall see the 
 ubiquitous " Venus ; " joyous and highly-colored " Baccha- 
 nalian Scenes ; " " Diana and Calisto ; " " Diana surprised 
 by Actaeon ; " the " Goddess of Fertility ; " " Venus and 
 Adonis;" and "Prometheus." These are counterbalanced 
 by some sacred pieces, such as a " Madonna," " Ecce Homo," 
 " Entombment," " St. Margaret," " Daughter of Herodias," 
 " Dolorosa Magdalen," and " Original Sin," in which the 
 serpent, coiled round the tree of life, watches the action 
 of Eve who presents the fruit to Adam. The most remark- 
 able, however, of these subjects is " The Apotheosis of the 
 Imperial Family," where Charles V., Philip II., and their 
 wives, are presented in heaven to the Trinity. God the 
 Father. Christ, and the Virgin, all draped in long blue man- 
 tles and attended by the dove of the Holy Spirit, graciously
 
 204 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 welcome the royal comers, who are admitted by angels to the 
 celestial court. Such a picture appeared neither incongruous 
 nor irreverent to the Spanish mind! The list of Madrid 
 paintings here briefly indicated must close with the " Battle 
 of l.epan*o," a large historical composition finished by Titian 
 at the age of ninety-four. This commemorates the Spanish 
 victory at Lepanto, yet does not give the combat itself, but 
 rather its results in allegory ; with a chained Turk and Orien- 
 tal trophies on one side, and King Philip holding up his in- 
 fant son in thanksgiving on the other, while the Goddess of 
 Fame brings a crown and palm-branch. 
 
 Another marvelous production of Titian's declining years 
 was the " Martyrdom of St. Lawrence," much injured by 
 time, in the church of the Jesuits, Venice. This colossal 
 altar-piece, a work of his eighty-first year, thought by Kugler 
 to excel " St. Peter Martyr," displays some wonderful effects 
 of color, being lighted by the mingled glow of the pans of 
 burning pitch beneath the gridiron, the fire of a tripod blazing 
 before a heathen statue, and the heavenly radiance of a de- 
 scending angel to whom the martyr is stretching out his hands. 
 Another splendid altar-piece of earlier date, in the church of 
 the Frari, must not be left unnoticed. It is styled the " Ma- 
 donna of the Pesaro Family," and may be taken as a repre- 
 sentative of a class of subjects which Titian, like other Ve- 
 netians, frequently attempted, and examples of which will be 
 ftnmd in many galleries, showing an entire family presented 
 to the Virgin by some patron saint or saints. 
 
 But time, which ends all things, brought at last the clos- 
 ing days of this eminent and fortunate man. One of the 
 .ast records of his brilliant career was the visit of Henry III
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE. 
 
 205 
 
 :o his house, while passing through Venice on his way from 
 Poland. He came with his lords and princes to pay his re- 
 spects to the painter. " The aged artist received him with 
 dignity, and with those easy and noble manners which were 
 peculiar to him, and talked to him a long time about the 
 vicissitudes of his own life. In the mean while, he caused his 
 domestics to give a splendid entertainment to the courtiers 
 of his majesty, and the train who accompanied him ; so that 
 they seemed to be in the palace of a great prince instead of 
 in the house of an artist. Nor was the generosity of Titian 
 confined to this ; for, being asked by the king the price of 
 some pictures that pleased him, he entreated him to accept 
 of them as a gift." 
 
 Titian's final labors were devoted to altar-pieces intended 
 for Venetian churches and monuments. His vigor and skill, 
 even at that advanced period, were most extraordinary ; but 
 his coloring grew heavy and somewhat gloomy, as may be 
 seen by his last composition, an " Entombment," now in the 
 Gallery of Venice, finished by Palma after the master's death 
 
 He had survived his friends Aretino and Sansovino; had 
 outlived his beautiful daughter Lavinia, who had married and 
 left behind her six children ; and was still in Venice, with his 
 artist-son Orazio, when the plague of 1576 began its ravages. 
 Both father and son were taken ill and died. Old historians 
 tell us that he was robbed upon his death-bed by a band of 
 ruffians, who broke into his house and carried off his jewels 
 and pictures before his eyes. His only remaining child, a 
 worthless son Pomponio, who had entered the priesthood and 
 lived in profligacy, came post-haste from Milan to Venice, 
 sold the rest of his property, and soon squandered all his
 
 206 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 inheritance. Titian's body was interred in the church of the 
 Frari the Senate, in consideration of his renown, having de- 
 parted from the usual rule of refusing honorable burial to 
 the victims of the plague but his grave remained unmarked 
 for many years. A splendid monument to his memory has 
 been now erected in the church of the Frari, opposite the 
 tomb of Canova. 
 
 His pictures have within "the last three hundred years 
 been widely distributed over Europe. Scarcely more than 
 thirty are left in Venice. Most of the remainder are in 
 Spain and Italy. Many have been just specified, especially 
 those in the Venetian churches and galleries, the great num- 
 ber at Madrid, and the few at Rome. In the Uffizi, Flor- 
 ence, we see his two famous figures of " Venus ; " a " Flora," 
 very lightly draped, holding flowers in her hand ; the Papal 
 Nuncio Beccadelli, with a few portraits, especially that of 
 Catharine Cornaro, and his own likeness in the Saloon of 
 the Painters. The Pitti Palace is rich in portraits, includ- 
 ing those of Aretino, Cardinal de Medici, and a bright young 
 girl with auburn tresses and robes of blue and violet embroid- 
 ered with gold, called Titian's " Bella." The more generally 
 known " Bella " is, however, in the Sciarra Palace, Rome, but 
 is supposed by the best critics to have been painted by 
 Palma Vecchio instead of Titian. The Pitti also possesses 
 one of his many " Magdalenes," a most lovely but not very 
 penitent head, with tearful eyes raised to heaven, and mag- 
 nificent hair veiling her neck and bosom. This was one of 
 his favorite conceptions, repeated at Madrid, St. Peters- 
 burg, and elsewhere. The St. Petersburg " Magdalene " is 
 quite as beautiful as, and less bold than, the Florentine. A
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE. 
 
 207 
 
 portrait of Pope Paul III. is at Naples ; several portraits 
 and sacred pieces at Munich; and a large collection, not all 
 genuine, at Vienna ; though we there see Physician Parma, 
 " Virgin with the Cherries," "a. large " Ecce Homo," and 
 other subjects previously painted. Dresden has his youthful 
 " Christ and the Tribute Money," a "Virgin and Child with 
 Saints," some female portraits, specially that of his daughter 
 Lavinia, grown fat and middle aged ; a Venetian family pre- 
 sented to the Virgin ; and an auburn-haired "Venus, which 
 the critical research of Morelli depreciates. This represents 
 a beautiful female, once believed to be Princess Eboli, 
 crowned by Cupid, and listening to a lover playing the lute, 
 to whom were ascribed the features of Philip of Spain. 
 
 In the Berlin Museum are Titian's own portrait, and 
 the celebrated painting known par excellence as " Titian's 
 Daughter." She stands, in superb womanhood, with her 
 face turned toward the gazer, holding above her head a plate 
 of fruit. Titian, who loved to represent his daughter, has 
 immortalized her in another picture owned by Lord de 
 Grey, where she bears a jewel-box instead of the fruit, and 
 also in the " Daughter of Herodias " with the head of St. 
 John Baptist, at Madrid. 
 
 In the Louvre are the remarkable " Man with a Glove," 
 the " Vierge au Lapin," and other Madonnas. The " Entomb- 
 ment," the " Christ crowned with Thorns," and the " Supper 
 at Emmaus," are other fine sacred subjects. Several excellent 
 portraits, a "Jupiter and Antiope," called the "Venus del 
 Pardo," and the figure of a woman combing out her hair (be- 
 ing Laura Dianti with Duke of Ferrara), sometimes known 
 as " Titian's Mistress," complete the list. The National
 
 2 o8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Gallery, England, possesses a " Holy Family and Shepherd," 
 a " Noli Me Tangere," and " Bacchus and Ariadne." Some 
 valuable portraits are at Hampton Court and Windsor Castle; 
 while the " Three Ages of Man " is to be found in the 
 Bridgewater Gallery, London. Copies of this were made for 
 Italian palaces. 
 
 Jacopo Palma, or Palma Vecchio (1475-1528), so called 
 to distinguish him from his grandnephew, the younger Palma, 
 was Bellini's p'upil and Titian's friend. He has the same rich 
 coloring, and amplitude and beauty of female forms. Indeed, 
 his works are often mistaken for Titian's. His masterpiece 
 is a full-length " St. Barbara," the central figure of an altar- 
 painting in the church of Santa Maria Formosa, Venice. 
 He is represented in the Venice Academy by an "Assump- 
 tion," and other works ; in the Louvre by an Adoration. In 
 Dresden are his Madonnas," " Venus," and " Meeting of Jacob 
 and Rachel," so long attributed to Giorgione. His " Holy 
 Families " and " Holy Conversations " are in many collections. 
 The well-known group at Dresden called the " Three Graces," 
 or the " Three Sisters," is very interesting from the story that 
 Titian was deeply in love with the central sister, named Vio- 
 lante, whose single portrait is in Vienna. This recalls the 
 " Bella " of the Sciarra Palace, now assigned to Palma Vec- 
 chio. The friend of Palma, Lorenzo Lotto, an excellent 
 Venetian artist, must not be omitted. He died in 1556, 
 leaving many works, especially refined and elegant portraits. 
 His biography has been ably written by Bernhard Berenson. 
 
 But though Palma never pretended to rival Titian, his 
 contemporary Pordenone (1483-1540), or rather Giovanni 
 Antonio Licinio Regillo, called Pordenone from his birth-
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE. 
 
 209 
 
 place, aspired to that honor. It is difficult to see on what 
 qualities the competition was founded, for though he painted 
 life-like and rich-toned portraits, and grouped his composi- 
 tions in a spirited manner, he is not by any means to be com- 
 pared with Titian, of whom he professed himself in such 
 dread that he painted with his shield and poniard lying at 
 his side. His best productions are his portraits, renowned 
 for their tender flesh-tints ; his altar-pieces in the Gallery of 
 Venice ; and his Madonnas and Saints in the Duomo of 
 Pordenone. 
 
 Sebastian del Piombo (1485-1547), another Venetian 
 artist whose life was mostly spent at Rome, claims our atten- 
 tion from the fact that Michael Angelo thought him worthy 
 to compete with Raphael for the favor of Pope Leo X. He 
 was a pupil or follower of Giorgione, whose intensity of 
 coloring he partially acquired, but later professed eclectic 
 principles. Coming early to Rome, he gained celebrity, and 
 entered into intimacy with Michael Angelo. The following 
 have been given as their points of congeniality : " They were 
 alike in temperament, impulsive and realistic ; they loved 
 Nature alike; they hated Raphael together; they equally 
 detested monks and friars ; they both loved out-door sketch- 
 ing for a recreation ; they were alike in their muscular forms, 
 and both were left-handed." Sebastian's " Raising of Laza- 
 rus," now in the National Gallery, London, was executed in 
 rivalry with Raphael's "Transfiguration." Michael Angelo is 
 said to have assisted in its outlines. After Raphael's death 
 Sebastian was universally praised and flattered. Clement 
 VII. appointed him keeper of the Piombi, or seals of the 
 Roman Chancery, on which account he is entitled " del Pi-
 
 2io SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 ombo," his real name being Sebastiano Luciano. Together 
 with the " Raising of Lazarus," his most forcible paintings 
 are " The Scourging of Christ," a fresco in St. Pietro in 
 Montorio, Rome, repeated on a small scale in the Borghese 
 collection ; a " Descent into Hades," at Madrid ; the " Mar- 
 tyrdom of St. Agatha," in the Pitti Palace, Florence ; and a 
 " Visitation," at the Louvre. The Galleries of Naples and of 
 Berlin contain some portraits, for which he was deservedly 
 famous. One of Andrea Doria, at the Doria Palace, Rome, 
 and another of Cardinal Pole, at St. Petersburg, are peculiarly 
 excellent. Singularly enough, he has scarcely a single picture 
 in Venice. The portrait of the " Fornarina " in the Uffizi 
 Gallery, and the " Violin Player " in Rome, once ascribed to 
 Raphael, should be regarded as the work of Sebastian. 
 
 Bonifazio Veronese (with following Bonifazio family), a 
 pupil of the elder Palma, but a clever imitator of Titian, 
 has left, among a number of comparatively feeble works, 
 some sacred scenes, in splendid color, in excellent Venetian 
 style. Perhaps the most celebrated of these is the " Finding 
 of Moses," in the Brera, Milan, long attributed to Giorgione. 
 It is a very extraordinary composition just a Venetian pleas- 
 ure-party of ladies and gentlemen in superb costumes of bro- 
 cade and velvet, enjoying themselves in a cheerful Italian 
 landscape. Pharaoh's daughter has her retinue of dogs, 
 monkeys, dwarfs, troubadours, and maids-of-honor. The 
 little Moses in the bulrushes is an entirely secondary consid- 
 eration. Another characteristic picture is his " Banquet of 
 Dives," in the Venice Academy. Dives, clothed in red vel- 
 vet, sits, in the light of afternoon, at a table between two 
 females, one of whom listens to singers and players on the
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE. 21 1 
 
 lute. The scene is an open hall, with a stately garden vista, 
 crowded with horses, grooms, and falconers. Some little 
 distance from the group, Lazarus, the beggar, is sent away 
 by a page. 
 
 A very different style of sacred subjects is given us by 
 Alessandro Bonvicino of Brescia (1498-1555), commonly 
 called " II Moretto." He was a pious, studious man, famed 
 for silvery color, and left many works in Brescia and its 
 neighborhood, especially large altar-pieces, which may there 
 be studied. The " St. Justina," at Vienna, is his most suc- 
 cessful effort. The kneeling St. Cyprian beside Justina is 
 believed to be a portrait of the Duke of Ferrara. The Berlin 
 Museum possesses two very large paintings, a " Madonna and 
 Child " with their votaries below, and a colossal " Adoration 
 of the Shepherds." The Dresden Gallery has a sweet, con- 
 templative, full-length Madonna, robed entirely in neutral 
 tints. (Discredited by Morelli.) 
 
 His pupil, Giovanni Battista Moroni (1510-1578), who 
 as a Venetian portraitist is only eclipsed by Titian, confined 
 himself almost wholly to that branch of art. One of his 
 most vivid likenesses is that of a " Tailor," in the Gallery of 
 London. There is, too, a " Lawyer ; " and in Stafford House 
 a seated " Jesuit," spoken of as Titian's Schoolmaster, with 
 his fingers between the leaves of a book. Moroni's own por- 
 trait is in Bergamo ; other fine portraits in Florence. 
 
 Other graceful, rosy-tinted portraits by Paris Bordone, of 
 Treviso (1495-1570), are also in German and Italian muse- 
 ums. He particularly excelled in female heads, though he 
 produced some historical and classical pieces. His chef- 
 d'oeuvre is the " Doge and Fisherman," in the Venice Gal-
 
 2i 2 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 lery ; but all his decorative paintings are richly colored, 
 and suggestive of the style of Giorgione or Titian. He is 
 said to have been called " Paris " from his sojourn in that 
 city. His successor, Andrea Schiavone, or Andrea Medola 
 (1522-1582), a melancholy and feeble painter, though, like all 
 Venetians, a good colorist, deserves but a passing mention. 
 An " Adoration of the Shepherds," at Vienna, and a " Christ 
 before Pilate," at Naples, are among the few creations of his 
 brush which rise above mediocrity. 
 
 The middle of the sixteenth century, still contemporary 
 with the old age of Titian, was enriched by the labors of two 
 distinguished painters, even more purely Venetian, though 
 less able, than Titian himself. The elder of these, Jacopo 
 Robusti (1518-1594), remembered as Tintoretto from the 
 trade of his father, " II Tintoret," the dyer, began to design 
 on the walls of the paternal dye-house, and was in his early 
 days the pupil of Titian, who is reported to have become 
 jealous of his promising talents, and to have turned him 
 away from his studio. Nothing daunted by such repulse, the 
 bold young man still persisted in copying his master's works ; 
 and also procured casts of Michael Angelo's statues from 
 Florence, which he studied in every conceivable position, often 
 suspending his models in the air that he might get effects of 
 foreshortening, or drawing from them by lamp-light in order 
 to secure more forcible shadows. On the wall of his own 
 painting-room he inscribed the modest motto, " The drawing 
 of Michael Angelo, with the coloring of Titian ! " and im- 
 petuously struggled to combine these impossible excellences, 
 The result is often most extraordinary, for the wild vigor of 
 his imagination was such that many of his pictures look as if
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE. 
 
 213 
 
 they might have been the pastime of a delirious giant. He 
 painted so rapidly that he acquired the surname of " II Furi- 
 oso ; " his love for the nude and the muscular was as sincere 
 as Michael Angelo's , while the immensity of his pictures 
 would have convinced the great Florentine that oil-painting 
 was not always "work for women." His " Paradise," in the 
 Ducal Palace, Venice, is seventy-four feet long and thirty 
 high. It was intended to suggest celestial bliss and beauty ; 
 but its four hundred figures, distractedly whirling through a 
 furnace-like sky, give it rather the air of what Charles Blanc 
 calls an " illuminated Erebus." Other vast compositions 
 adorn the same building. The old school of San Rocco 
 treasures in its dim and dreary chambers fifty-seven more of 
 his pictures, principally sacred, but all designed with the 
 same exuberance, inequality, poetry, disproportion, grand- 
 ness, and sublimity. In one of its rooms we find the " Cru- 
 cifixion," frequently called his masterpiece. An upraised 
 Christ on the cross is in the centre ; while eighty moving 
 figures, executioners, populace, soldiers, horsemen, women, 
 disciples, now faded into dimness of color, mingle in inex- 
 tricable confusion, and amaze yet weary us with profuse 
 detail. 
 
 These inexhaustible productions are also plentifully dis- 
 tributed through Venetian churches. Santa Maria della Orte 
 possesses some colossal examples. The " Presentation of the 
 Virgin," similar in design to Titian's large canvas, is his most 
 pleasing subject. Nobody can forget the fascinating little 
 Virgin. The " Martyrdom of St. Agatha " is highly realis- 
 tic. A wild and weird " Last Judgment," most energetic in 
 style, is described by Ruskin in a marvelous piece of word-
 
 214 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 painting. The " Last Supper " in St. Paolo is as far removed 
 as possible from the dignified and solemn conception of 
 Leonardo da Vinci. St. John is fast asleep. " The central 
 figure is a large, kneeling servant, her head in shadow, and 
 her shoulder luminous ; she holds a platter of beans, and is 
 bringing in dishes ; a cat attempts to climb up her basket. 
 Round about are buffets, domestics, ewers, and disciples, in a 
 perpendicular file, bordering a long table. It is a supper, a 
 veritable evening repast. Above the table glimmers a lamp, 
 while a blue light from the moon falls on their heads ; but 
 the supernatural enters on all sides ; in the background by 
 an opening in the sky, and a choir of radiant angels ; on the 
 right by a swarm of pale angels whirling about in the noctur- 
 nal obscurity." 
 
 The least exaggerated and most magnificently colored of 
 Tintoretto's pictures are undoubtedly "Bacchus and Ari- 
 adne " and the " Miracle of St. Mark," which Viardot classes 
 with the finest paintings in the world. It may, however, be 
 justly admired without exalting it to such honor. We be- 
 hold St. Mark's dark figure against a clear sky, plunging 
 through the air, head downward, to deliver a slave from the 
 hands of the heathen. The slave, in a white garment, has 
 been flung to the earth by his persecutors, who stand aghast 
 at the interference of his protector. The varied draperies 
 and figures of the populace, and broad, massive architecture 
 of the background, give deep intensity or vivid gleams, of 
 color to every part of the composition. 
 
 The majority of Tintoretto's less striking pictures, in- 
 cluding masterly portraits, have not been removed from 
 Venice. He left an artist son, Domenico, who is represented
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE. 
 
 215 
 
 in the gallery ; while his daughter Marietta, who died when 
 but thirty years of age, had gained such a reputation for 
 painting that she was invited to the court of Philip of Spain, 
 but refused to leave her father. He survived her four years, 
 and died at the age of seventy-two. 
 
 The more popular and fascinating Paul Veronese, or 
 Paolo Cagliari of Verona (1528-1588), mingled a silvery clear- 
 ness with the amber, purple, and crimson of former Venetian 
 colorists, and adorned his paintings with such a pomp of 
 decoration and accessories as dazzled even Italian eyes. A 
 perpetual pageant is embodied on his canvas. His subjects 
 may be sacred, but their rendering is splendidly secular. In 
 tone and treatment he reminds us of Rubens, though his 
 imagination is more luxurious and refined. He is peculiarly 
 noted for banqueting-scenes, painted for the refectories of 
 wealthy convents. Four of these festivals have long been 
 famous the " Marriage of Cana," the " Feast in the House of 
 Simon the Pharisee," the " Feast in the House of Levi," and 
 the "Supper held at Emmaus with the Disciples." All of 
 them have been very beautifully engraved. The originals will 
 be found in Paris, in Venice, and Milan. The " Marriage 
 of Cana," in the Louvre, thirty feet long and twenty high, 
 with more than a hundred and twenty figures, many of which 
 a^e over life-size, is said to be the largest easel-picture in the 
 world. It is a magnificent feast in a marble porch whose 
 colonnades melt on each side into perspective. Its spacious 
 vista, as well as the balcony above, is crowded with servants, 
 spectators, and musicians. The table is spread with a sump- 
 tuous array of gold and silver vessels, while among the 
 gayly-appareled guests, attended by negroes, pages, and jest- 
 15
 
 2T 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 ers, we find it at first difficult to distinguish the figures of the 
 Saviour and the Virgin, to whose costumes an aureole has 
 been added. Many portraits enhance the interest of *he 
 piece. The bride is supposed to be Eleanor of Austria, sec- 
 ond wife of Francis I. Francis himself is at her side. Mary 
 of England is near them, in yellow drapery. Vittoria Colon - 
 na sits a little farther off, holding a toothpick. All the great 
 Venetian painters are represented among the musicians. 
 Veronese himself, clad in white silk, plays a violoncello; 
 Tintoretto, just behind, accompanies him; Titian, on the 
 other side, plays the bass ; Bassano is engaged with the flute. 
 
 The " Feast in the House of Levi," in the Venice Acad- 
 emy, is smaller, but quite as beautiful. We are not so much 
 interested in the figures, but are more impressed with its 
 airiness and brilliancy. Its marvelous perspective, superb 
 architecture, and splendor of coloring, render it one of the 
 most attractive pictures in the gallery. Almost as sumptuous, 
 but much more incongruous, is the large painting of the 
 " Supper at Emmaus," in the Louvre, where the whole family 
 of the artist is introduced with the disciples, and the fore- 
 ground is occupied by his little girls, merrily playing with an 
 immense dog. Quite a number of other " Veroneses " are 
 now in the Louvre, with Saints grave yet festive, and with 
 "Holy Conversations." The architectural backgrounds and 
 elegant ornaments of these entertainments were often exe- 
 cuted by his brother Benedetto. His son Carlo was also an 
 artist, but died when only twenty-six. 
 
 Paul Veronese's sacred historical paintings were done tor 
 the church of San Sebastian, Venice, in illustration of the 
 legend of the saint. Many cf these are now placed in the
 
 PAINTING IN VENICE. 
 
 217 
 
 Gallery of Venice, during the restoration of the church. His 
 most gorgeous decorative work was undertaken for the Ducal 
 Palace, especially his splendid mythological and allegorical 
 representations of the " Rape of Europa " and the " Apo- 
 theosis of Venice." The collections of Europe have eagerly 
 purchased his pictures. Besides those already alluded to in 
 the Louvre, we have the "Adoration of the Kings," the 
 " Madonna with Attendants," representing the Cuccina fam- 
 ily, and several others in Dresden ; a portrait called the 
 " Man in Green," in the Colonna Palace, Rome ; a " Marriage 
 of St. Catherine" and "St. Justina's Martyrdom," in the 
 Uffizi ; a famous " Marriage of St. Catherine " in St. Cate- 
 rina's Church, at Venice ; together with a " Consecration of 
 St. Nicholas," and the " Family of Darius," in the London Gal- 
 lery. The " Family of Darius " is really a rich portrait-group 
 of the Pisani family in their national costumes. 
 
 After the death of Veronese, in 1588, no more such ex- 
 tensive and brilliant works were attempted. A genius for 
 color still lingered, but it was chiefly employed on much 
 smaller subjects. Many of these were skillfully executed by 
 a succession of artists known, from their birthplace, as the 
 Bassano family. The father, Jacopo da Ponte (1510-1592), 
 may be termed the first Italian genre painter. He developed 
 a taste for sheep, cattle, beasts, and poultry, natural enough 
 in a country like Holland, but quite extraordinary in Venice, 
 where even a horse is but a traditional animal. As he was 
 well patronized, he educated his four sons to the same pro- 
 fession, and their pictures became popular throughout Italy, 
 Germany, and Spain. Some of the best, thronged with his 
 favorite beasts, are in Bassano or in Vienna. Some beauti-
 
 21 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 fully-finished specimens are at Hampton Court. His coloring 
 was deep and glowing, with gem-like sparkle, which lent a 
 charm even to his homeliest details. One of his often-repeated 
 subjects is " Christ in the House " or rather in the kitchen 
 "of Martha," apparently chosen more from an innate love of 
 pots and pans than of any sacred symbolism. In his " Sup- 
 per at Emmaus " a cook stands at the fire, and a servant is 
 arranging cups. One of his daughters is said to have served 
 him as a model, " sometimes personating the Queen of Sheba, 
 sometimes a Magdalene, and sometimes a peasant-girl with 
 poultry." He had the strange habit of always hiding the feet 
 of his figures, using various devices for the purpose, or occa- 
 sionally concealing them under old household utensils. His 
 portraits are admirably rendered, and display the fine quali- 
 ties of the Venetian school. 
 
 Our notice of this school may fitly end with a brief men 
 tion of two accomplished painters of the eighteenth century, 
 Antonio Canale, and his nephew Bernardo Bellotti, spoken 
 of as Canale and Canaletto, who made views of Venice their 
 specialty, as did also Canaletto's pupil Guardi. Their pict- 
 ures are in Dresden and London, but rare in Venice. Tie- 
 polo and Longhi were popular eighteenth century artists. 
 We must now consider what was doing in the other parts of 
 Italy, while Tintoretto was furiously at work for Venetian 
 buildings, and Veronese banqueting at his brilliant feasts.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 LATER ITALIAN PAINTING. 
 
 WITH the death of Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, 
 Raphael, Correggio, and Titian, ceases the glorious sunshine 
 of Italian art. Henceforth its light was to beam from lesser 
 luminaries, in feebler rays. Yet before we reach the period 
 of its decline, or even before we notice the immediate 
 scholars who cluster like satellites around those mighty 
 artists, we must speak of a painter whom one hesitates to 
 place either in the first or second rank inferior, indeed, to 
 Raphael and Correggio, yet so superior to most of his col- 
 leagues that he was known among his countrymen as " An- 
 drea the Faultless." 
 
 This faultless Andrea, whose story seems rather a satire 
 on such an adjective, was the son of a Florentine tailor, 
 Agnolo Vannucchi, and is called Andrea del Sarto, in allusion 
 to his father's occupation. Born in 1488, and apprenticed 
 when but seven years old to a goldsmith, he proved so stupid 
 in chiseling and so expert in drawing, that he was transferred 
 to the studio of a neighbor, Gian Barile, and afterward rec- 
 ommended to Piero di Cosimo, in whose service he had an 
 opportunity to study the grand cartoons of Michael Angelc
 
 220 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING 
 
 and Leonardo da Vinci, together with the milder creations 
 of Fra Bartolomeo. His friend Francia Bigio, a pupil of 
 Mariotto Albertinelli, soon proposed to him a partnership in 
 which they should live and paint together, refreshing them- 
 selves after the labors of their profession by merry dinners at 
 an artists' club styled the "Company of the Kettle." Their 
 first commission was for frescoes at the Scalzo, Florence, 
 where the " Baptism of Christ " appears to be a joint pro- 
 duction ; but they quickly obtained more important employ- 
 ment from the Brotherhood of the Servi, in the court of the 
 Annunziata, where we still delight to trace out Andrea's 
 charming frescoes. These began with a series from the life 
 of San Filippo Benizzi, and closed with a " Nativity of the 
 Virgin," and "Procession of the Magi," which are among his 
 most admirable remains. With soft, clear tints, and coloring 
 more varied and melting than that of the older Florentines, 
 he secured effects which gave promise of unreached heights 
 of excellence. Michael Angelo thought so well of his talents 
 that he remarked to Raphael, " There is a little fellow in 
 Florence who will bring sweat to your brow if ever he is 
 engaged in great works." Perhaps the prophecy might have 
 been fulfilled if Andrea's eye for beauty could always have 
 been fixed upon the ideal ; unfortunately it fastened upon 
 the real seductiveness of a baker's wife, Lucrezia Fedi, whom 
 he married in haste as soon as she became a widow, and 
 repented at leisure ever after. This lovely but unprincipled 
 woman, to whom he was evidently profoundly attached, 
 served as a model for all his Madonnas. We see her in his 
 masterpiece, the Madonna of the Uffizi, who looks down from 
 ner pedestal upon St. Francis and St. John ; and in all the
 
 LATER ITALIAN PAINTING. 2 2l 
 
 subsequent Virgins of his Annunciations and Holy Families. 
 She slighted his affection, wasted his substance, compelled 
 him to support her relatives, harassed him with jealousy and 
 domestic grievances, and finally persuaded him to an unfaith- 
 fulness which dishonored his life (though later investigations 
 render this doubtful) the embezzlement of funds intrusted 
 to him by Francis I. 
 
 This King of France, so liberal a patron of the arts, had 
 seen a " Madonna," and a " Dead Christ with Angels," exe- 
 cuted by Del Sarto, which induced him to send an invitation 
 to the painter to visit his court. The invitation was accepted, 
 and Andrea was employed on a likeness of the infant Dau- 
 phin, and on the " Charity," now in the Louvre, as well as on 
 other pictures, for which he was lavishly compensated. But 
 his wife could not endure that he should escape her in- 
 fluence, and by persistent letters induced him to return home, 
 after giving the king a solemn promise that he would come 
 back to France, and receiving from him a large sum of 
 money, to be expended in Italy in works of art for the royal 
 collections. This money Lucrezia beguiled him into appro- 
 priating to his own use; she, of course, securing the larger 
 share. Her portrait, which he was never wear)' of repeating, 
 is to be seen at Berlin, Florence, Munich, and Madrid. 
 Browning imagines the painter thus apostrophizing her: 
 
 " But had you, oh, with the same perfect brow, 
 And perfect eyes, and more than perfect mouth, 
 And the low voice my soul hears as a bird 
 The fowler's pipe, and follows to the snare 
 Had you, with these the same, but brought a mind ! " 
 
 After quitting France, Andrea settled permanently in
 
 222 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Florence, and resumed his early engagements with the Broth, 
 erhood of the Scalzo. In 1525 he produced, in the cloisters 
 of the Annunziata, the beautiful lunette fresco of the " Repose 
 of the Holy Family," generally termed the " Madonna del 
 Sacco " (Madonna of the Sack), which is one of the treas- 
 ures of Florence. None should fail to visit his wall-painting 
 of the " Last Supper," in the old and rather remote refectory 
 of San Salvi. Few Cenacolas, except of course Leonardo da 
 Vinci's, can compare with it in vividness of effect and dra- 
 matic grouping. It is only in Florence, where he died of the 
 plague, in 1530 or 1531, that Andrea del Sarto can be satis- 
 factorily studied ; for, though we find his " Charity " at the 
 Louvre, a " Tobit " at Vienna, the "Sacrifice of Isaac " at Dres- 
 den and Madrid, the " St. Agnes with the Lamb " in Pisa, and a 
 " Holy Family " in London all genuine and worthy of praise 
 yet none can equal his " Madonna " in the tribune, and his own 
 portrait in the Gallery of the Uffizi, or the " Dispute on the 
 Trinity," "Madonna in Glory," "Assumption," "Annuncia- 
 tion," " Pieta," " Portrait of Himself and Wife," and seven or 
 eight other works in the Gallery of the Pitti. In both frescoes 
 and oil-paintings his coloring is tender, transparent, and most 
 richly and luminously blended ; with a certain mistiness of 
 outline which melts harmoniously into shadow. His arrange 
 ment of his compositions is striking and picturesque; his 
 figures well-developed and graceful, though sometimes want- 
 ing in refinement ; and he himself just lacking enough noble- 
 ness of soul, and strength of style and character, to keep him 
 hovering on the border-land of immortal fame. He is re- 
 ported to have been so jealous of his pupil, Jacopo Carucci, 
 called, from his birthplace, " Pontormo," that he expelled him
 
 LATER ITALIAN PAINTING. 
 
 223 
 
 from his studio ; but the envy was superfluous, for Pontormo 
 never attained any special excellence, except as a portrait- 
 painter. Some of his pictures remain in the Pitti and Uffizi, 
 but his best effort is the portrait of Cosmo de Medici at 
 Florence. 
 
 Florentine art-records of the sixteenth century may end 
 with a mention of Pontormo's pupil, Angiolo Bronzino (1502- 
 1572), who imitated and occasionally excelled his instructor 
 in portraits, and has left, as his masterpiece, a " Descent into 
 Hades," in the Uflizi ; and of his nephew Alessandro Allori 
 (1535-1607), whose mediocre talents as a portraitist were sur- 
 passed by his more celebrated son, Cristoforo (1577-1621), 
 whose "Judith with the Head of Holofernes," and "Hospi- 
 tality of St. Julian," in the Pitti Palace, are much admired. 
 The " Judith " is said to be a likeness of one of his imperi- 
 ous mistresses, and the head of Holofernes his own portrait. 
 
 We must not, however, forget Giorgio Vasari, of Arezzo 
 (1512-1574), a favorite but feeble follower of Michael Angelo, 
 who, though of little account as a painter, has placed pos- 
 terity under a debt of gratitude for his entertaining " Biog- 
 raphies of Italian Artists," which, spite of inaccuracies, will 
 always rank among standard books. Vasari's ambition was 
 not bounded by literature. He was also an architect, and 
 considered himself an able painter ; saying of his works, " I 
 did them with a conscience and love which render them 
 worthy, if not of praise, at least of indulgence." Neverthe- 
 less, such of his easel-pictures as we meet in Continental cities 
 are very uninteresting, while his frescoes are also but second- 
 rate. The best exist at Rome and Arezzo. 
 
 In truth, the genius of the sixteenth century had conceri-
 
 224 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 trated in Rome, where the pupils of Raphael were striving to 
 perpetuate their master's memory, and gain some share in his 
 renown. There, too, nad worked Gian Antonio Bazzi, or 
 Razzi, called " II Sodoma," the contemporary of Raphael, 
 and the last great representative of the Siennese school. 
 Though born at Vercelli, in 1477, he settled at Sienna, and 
 became the pride of the city. We there see many of his fres- 
 coes in the palace and churches, particularly a series on the 
 life of the Virgin in the oratory of St. Bernard, and another 
 series from the history of St. Catharine of Sienna, in St. Catha- 
 rine's Chapel in San Domenico, containing the often-eng-aved 
 scene of the " Ecstasy of St. Catharine ; " while other trans- 
 ferred frescoes and excellent altar-pieces are now in the 
 Academy, especially the " Christ about to be scourged," of 
 which Hawthorne so enthusiastically speaks ; and a " Descent 
 of Christ into Limbo," where Jarves thinks the figure of Eve 
 the most beautiful form ever painted. 
 
 Sodoma's powers were original and varied. His type of 
 womanhood was always extremely sweet, and his style ear- 
 nest, tender, and inclining to sadness ; but, in strange contra- 
 diction to these qualities, his life and character were so gay 
 and careless, and his domestic habits so absurdly eccentric, 
 that his wife at last deserted him, complaining that he filled the 
 house with a menagerie of magpies, monkeys, and frivolous 
 company, and that she found his pet raven intolerable. In 
 1505 he completed the frescoes on the life of St. Benedict in 
 the convent of Monte Oliveto near Sienna, and was shortly 
 after summoned to Rome by Pope Julius II., who employed 
 him in wall-paintings of the Vatican, which have been mostly 
 effaced. But in the upper story of the Villa Farnesina. the
 
 . LATER ITALIAN PAINTING. 225 
 
 same building adorned by the classical gems of Raphael, are 
 preserved the graceful frescoes of the " Nuptials of Alexan- 
 der and Roxana," and " Alexander in the Tent of Darius," 
 to which visitors are seldom admitted. In these occurs the 
 softly-finished and lovely head of Roxana, with its drooping 
 eyelids and wavy hair, sc suggestive of Leonardo. He has 
 also left a " Madonna " in the Borghese Palace, Rome, and a 
 beautiful " St. Sebastian " in the Uffizi, Florence. But hi? 
 later works must be sought at Sienna, where he died in 1549. 
 The decorations of the Farnesina Villa were continued 
 by Raphael's followers, Giulio Romano and Francesco Penni, 
 from the charming designs of the myths of Psyche. These 
 two artists Raphael considered his most promising pupils, 
 and between them he divided his fortune. Romano's real 
 name was Giulio Pippi, born at Rome (1492-1546). During 
 his apprenticeship he assisted in the ceiling-frescoes of the 
 Loggie of the Vatican, sometimes termed " Raphael's Bible," 
 and in the Stanze of the same palace ; while after his great 
 master's death he had the honor to complete the " Battle of 
 Constantine " and the picture of the "Transfiguration," and 
 then attempted some independent frescoes in the Villa Lanti 
 and Villa Madama. In 1524 the Duke of Mantua appointed 
 him architect of the Palazzo del Te, which he subsequently 
 frescoed with the story of *' Psyche " and the " Overthrow of 
 the Giants," adding an "Allegory of Human Life" in a 
 vaulted chamber in the garden. He also painted scenes from 
 the Trojan War on the walls of the Ducal Palace ; but these 
 Mantuan frescoes, while they display his study of the antique, 
 vigor of drawing, splendor of color, and energy of action, 
 grow eventually coarse and mannered, and show degeneracy
 
 22 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 rather than improvement. Giulio so devoted himself to fres- 
 co that his altar and easel pieces are rare. The best are a 
 " Martyrdom of St. Stephen," in San Stefano, Genoa ; a" Holy 
 Family," at Dresden, often catalogued as the " Madonna of 
 the Pitcher ; " an " Enthroned Madonna " in the church of 
 Santa Maria dell' Anima, at Rome ; and a " Nativity," in the 
 Louvre, together with " Apollo and the Muses," in Florence. 
 He so aided Raphael that Madonnas in Paris and Madrid, 
 once ascribed to Raphael, are now assigned to Giulio Romano. 
 
 Romano's friend, Francesco Penni (1488-1528), surnamed 
 " II Fattore," was less remarkable. He was a good copyist, 
 but survived Raphael only eight years, several of which were 
 spent at Naples, where a few pictures by him yet exist. He, 
 too, aided in Raphael's frescoes. Other Neapolitan paint- 
 ers, such as Andrea da Salerno and Polidoro Caldara (Polidoro 
 da Caravaggio), were also formed in the school of Raphael, 
 but none of them possessed any genius worth mentioning. 
 
 Perino del Vaga (1500-1547), another of Raphael's assist- 
 ants, was a poor Florentine, who had been first aided by 
 Ridolfo Ghirlandajo, and was then taken to Rome into Ra- 
 phael's studio. In after-years he worked with Romano and 
 Penni, executed some frescoes in the Vatican, and then emi- 
 grated to Genoa, where he frescoed the Doria Palace to the 
 great satisfaction of his princely patron. The Bolognese 
 school of Francia also lent its painters to swell the number 
 of Raphael's suite Timoteo della Vite, of Urbino ; Inno- 
 cenzio da Imola, whose imitative handiwork we find at Bo- 
 logna and Berlin ; and the talented Bartolomeo Ramenghi, of 
 Bagnacavallo (1484-1542), whose masterpiece, a large and 
 lovely "Gloiified Madonna," is in the Dresden Gallery.
 
 LATER ITALIAN PAINTING. 22? 
 
 Benvenuto Tisio (1481-1559), the most able artist of 
 Ferrara, called " Garofalo," either from his native village, or 
 from his custom of marking his pictures in the corner with 
 a clove-pink or gilliflower, was equally indebted to the in- 
 fluence of Raphael. Several of his paintings are collected 
 at Ferrara, including a very curious fresco of " The Triumph 
 of the New Testament over the Old." His manner was ele- 
 gant and brilliant, with much delicacy of touch acquired 
 from the admirers of Da Vinci. His " Sibyl before Augus- 
 tus," formerly in the Vatican ; " Entombment," in the Borghese 
 Palace, Rome ; " Salutation," in the Doria Palace ; and some 
 mythological pictures purchased in Modena for Dresden, 
 are large and important works. Many will remember a ten- 
 der and solemn "Adoration of the Child," also in the Dresden 
 Gallery ; while smaller specimens are found both in England 
 and on the Continent. 
 
 Two other contemporary Ferrarese artists, the brothers 
 Dossi, should also be noticed. Their classical frescoes are 
 still among the attractions of the Ducal Palace at Ferrara. 
 The pictures of Dosso Dossi exhibit a rich though fantastic 
 imagination, and almost Venetian vividness of color. Some 
 of the ablest are in the Borghese Gallery, especially the 
 " Circe," an enchantress in purple and gold, reposing in a 
 forest landscape, with her magic circle round her, and the 
 victims of her spells at hand. Several of his altar-pieces 
 adorn the Dresden Gallery, such as " The Four Fathers of 
 the Church." A " Massacre of the Innocents " is in Flor- 
 ence. He spent some time at Rome, but not till after the 
 death of Raphael. 
 
 Yet it was not simply the genius of Raphael which
 
 228 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 modeled the later Roman school. Other painters had left 
 their traditions and their influences. The traces of Michael 
 Angelo's mighty impress upon art did indeed soon pass away, 
 for Michael Angelo was not easy to imitate, and his followers 
 quickly discovered the uselessness of the attempt; but the 
 method of Correggio offered more inducements ; and we con- 
 sequently find the study of light and shade, and of flowing 
 curves of graceful outline, blending largely with the effort after 
 a Raphaelesque style of composition. 
 
 No one displays this so conspicuously as Francesco Maz- 
 zuola, or " Parmagianino," born at Parma, in 1504. When 
 scarcely more than a boy, he had been one of Correggio's 
 assistants on the dome of the Parma Cathedral, and thus 
 caught much of his manner and expression. Coming to 
 Rome in his twentieth year, with considerable talent and 
 more ambition, he applied himself to the imitation of Ra- 
 phael, and succeeded in producing many popular works. It 
 is narrated that during the sack of Rome in 1527, by the 
 army of the Constable de Bourbon, he was so absorbed in 
 his picture of the " Vision of St. Jerome," now in the Na- 
 tional Gallery, London, that he never heard the soldiery 
 enter his studio ; while they were so struck by the beauty of 
 the painting that they left the artist unmolested. But anothei 
 version of the story goes on to tell that upon second thoughts 
 they concluded to demand a ransom, and robbed him of all 
 he had, compelling him to flee in poverty to Bologna, where 
 he resided for four years, painting the altar-piece of "St. 
 Margaret " now shown at Bologna, and a " Madonna " in the 
 Pitti Palace, Florence, familiarly and appropriately spoken oi 
 as the " Madonna del Collo Lungo" (with the long tiffk}. In
 
 LATER ITALIAN PAINTING. 229 
 
 1531 he returned to Parma, and was engaged to execute the 
 frescoes of the church of the Steccata, containing his " Moses 
 with the Tables of the Law," and " Eve plucking the Forbidden 
 Fruit." The fulfillment of this contract seemed so to weary 
 and harass him, that, after many delays and disputes, he fled 
 to Cremona, where he died in 1540. 
 
 Vasari describes Parmagianino as exceedingly handsome, 
 " with rather the face of an angel than that of a man," mel- 
 ancholy in temperament, and fastidiously sensitive in feeling. 
 His pictures are deficient in strength, and often so overdone 
 in elegance as to fall into affectation ; while he appears to 
 have strangely admired long waists, long necks, and long 
 fingers, and to have had a theatrical fondness for attitudiniz- 
 ing. Yet his work is graceful and refined, and his colors are 
 clear and soft, while his portraits rise to higher excellence. 
 One of these fine portraits, sometimes erroneously cata- 
 logued as " Columbus," is in the Museum of Naples, together 
 with another, known as " Parmagianino 's Mistress." The 
 same museum possesses his " Lucretia stabbing herself." A 
 pleasing " Madonna della Rosa " is at Dresden. 
 
 Federigo Baroccio, of Urbino (1528-1612), was another 
 artist of the same type ; more prolific, and more prosperous. 
 He, too, aspired to color like Correggio, and design like Ra 
 phael. His early efforts at Urbino are of little importance, 
 but he was patronized at Rome by Pope Pius IV., and some 
 of his compositions are at present in the Vatican. He can, 
 however, be most easily seen at Florence, where his works 
 have been thought worthy of giving his name to a separate 
 saloon in the Gallery of the Uffizi. The " Madonna del Po- 
 polo," or the Virgin interceding with the Saviour, is regarded
 
 2 3 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 as his masterpiece ; but the " Christ and the Magdalen," ic 
 the Corsini Palace, Rome, equally indicates his peculiarities 
 His figures are frequently strained and mannered, and his 
 style emotional and sensational, with dexterous management 
 of light and shade, but too much redness of tint. During his 
 youth he was so poisoned by a jealous rival that, though his 
 life was preserved, his health was irreparably injured, and he 
 was never again able to paint more than two hours a day. 
 Yet his industry accomplished surprising results during his 
 long career of eighty-four years, at whose close he was honor- 
 ably buried in the church of Santa Francesca at Urbino. His 
 follower, Ludovico Cardi, or "Cigoli" (1559-1613), has some 
 good paintings in the Pitti collection, Florence, and a grace- 
 ful " Flight into Egypt," in the Louvre. 
 
 The brothers Taddeo and Federigo Zuccara, of the 
 Roman school, were also employed by Pope Pius in the 
 Vatican. They won an extensive reputation during their 
 lifetime, which posterity has not indorsed. But their fres- 
 coes and historical pictures are preserved in the Sala Regia 
 and Pauline Chapel of the Vatican, in the cupola of the 
 Duomo at Florence, in the Ducal Palace, Venice, and in the 
 Castle of Caprarola. The " Dead Christ mourned by Angels," 
 in the Borghese Palace, Rome, is really a powerful produc- 
 tion ; but their pictures are usually smooth and insipid. Fe- 
 derigo was president of the Academy of St. Luke in Rome, 
 and left writings on art of no merit. Taddeo died in 1566 
 and was buried near Raphael in the Pantheon. He was suc- 
 ceeded by Giuseppe Cesare, the "Cavalier d'Arpino " (1568- 
 1640), who is also represented in the Borghese, as well as in 
 the ceiling frescoes of the choir of San Sylvestro on Monte Ca-
 
 LATER ITALIAN PAINTING. 
 
 231 
 
 vallo, Rome, and in the colossal mosaics of the " Evangelists " in 
 the dome of St. Peter's, which were executed after his designs. 
 
 It would be needless to enumerate the still feebler paint- 
 el s who flourished, or rather declined, in the waning years 
 of the sixteenth century. Art was flickering and dying, not 
 only at Rome, but throughout all Italy, till a fresh gleam of 
 genius radiated from the city of Bologna, where rose the 
 celebrated school of the Eclectics, whose aim, as their name 
 implies, was to select and combine the beauties of all their 
 predecessors, but who were opposed, and to a certain degree 
 controlled, by the party of the Naturalisti, who insisted that 
 the faithful imitation of Nature, and the rejection of all 
 ideals, should be the motto of progress. 
 
 The founder of this Bolognese reform was Lodovico Car- 
 racci (15551619), a persevering and painstaking but by no 
 means brilliant painter. He had been under the instruction 
 of Tintoretto, but, far from acquiring the rapid method of 
 that eccentric master, became so proverbial among his com- 
 panions for slowness and plodding that he received the nick- 
 name of the " Ox." Yet his meditative turn of mind led him 
 to ponder the faults of his age, and to seek their remedy; 
 and as the fruit of his deliberations he determined to estab- 
 lish a school of his own, which, without aspiring to originality, 
 should exercise the principle of selection, and avail itself of 
 the merits while abandoning the errors of the past. To this 
 end he associated with himself his two young cousins, Agos- 
 tino and Annibale Carracci, sons of a tailor, but full of pre- 
 cocious 'talent, whom he undertook to educate and direct 
 Together they promulgated, under the poetic form of a son- 
 
 net. the new maxims which were to regenerate art : 
 16
 
 23 2 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 " Let him who a good painter would be, 
 Acquire the drawing of Rome ; 
 Venetian action, and Venetian shadow, 
 And the dignified color of Lombardy ; 
 The terrible manner of Michael Angelo, 
 Titian's truth and nature, 
 The sovereign purity of Correggio's style, 
 And the true symmetry of Raphael " 
 
 \vith more advice to the same purport. 
 
 Lodovico was better calculated to enforce than to practise 
 his own theory; yet his pictures, most of which remain at 
 Bologna, display a conscientious striving after the desired 
 effect. About a dozen of his altar or easel pieces hang in the 
 Academy of Bologna, the most conspicuous being a " Ma- 
 donna with Sts. Dominic, Francis, Clara, and Mary Mag- 
 dalene," all portraits of the Bargellini family, who ordered the 
 painting. Other pictures have been transferred to the Louvre, 
 and to Italian and German galleries, such as the large and 
 dramatic " Pieta " in the Corsini collection, Rome. But his 
 reputation soon merged into that of Agostino and Annibale 
 Carracci, born respectively in 1558 and 1560. 
 
 Agostino's special excellence was as a teacher and en- 
 graver. His knowledge of his profession was more solid and 
 accurate, though less practical, than Annibale's; and his 
 paintings, though rare, show much thought and ability. A 
 " Communion of St. Jerome," in the Academy of Bologna, is 
 the original source from which Domenichino afterward drew 
 his famous composition on the same subject. Agostino also 
 assisted in the extensive frescoes of the Farnese Palace, 
 Rome, accomplished by his brother later in life. These fres- 
 coes are Annibale's most elaborate memorial, and are 
 counted among the sights of Rome; but he is more pleas-
 
 LATER ITALIAN PAINTING. 2 ^ 
 
 ingl) known to us by his many oil-paintings, which are uni- 
 versally appreciated ; though his imitation of the artists whom 
 his sonnet recommended is often more ostentatious than per- 
 fect. Still we can perceive that he truly profited by his studies, 
 and are very willing to admire his picturesque renderings of 
 mythical legends, his correct drawing, clear color, and skill- 
 ful handling of chiaro-oscuro. We find him well developed at 
 Bologna, and abundantly represented in Florence and also in 
 the Louvre, where his " Madonna of the Cherries," and " Ma- 
 donna of Silence," who watches the sleeping Infant, with her 
 finger on her lip, are even more popular than his larger 
 " Resurrection," and " Appearance of the Virgin to St. Luke 
 and St. Catharine." His Pietas, Madonnas, and Holy Fam- 
 ilies, may be seen in all countries. The " Three Marys," at 
 Castle Howard, is his best English picture ; while a " Bac- 
 chante," at Naples, though very unlike in theme, exhibits the 
 same vigorous energy. Versatile on principle as well as by 
 talent, he also turned his attention to pastoral and genre 
 scenes, and has left us several landscapes in Rome, Berlin, 
 the Louvre, and London, with a few such small productions 
 as " The Greedy Eater," in the Roman palace of the Colonna. 
 He himself considered the mythological frescoes of the Far- 
 nese as the crowning strokes of his genius, and never re- 
 covered from his disappointment at being so poorly compen- 
 sated and so badly treated by the noble family who paid him 
 little more than would have been due to a journeyman appren- 
 tice. He died in 1609. and was honored, like Taddeo Zuc- 
 caro, by a grave in the Pantheon. 
 
 His rules of composition, however, did not die. They had 
 been adopted by a band of enterprising pupils, all of whom
 
 234 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 worked out the Eclectic method with varied success. Those 
 whom we shall notice had a real foundation of genius, upon 
 which they built as they had been taught, influenced also by 
 an attraction toward Nature and stirring life, and by the 
 dramatic tendencies of the age, which demanded a sensa- 
 tional and emotional style of art, to restore the drooping faith 
 of tne Church, and animate wearied passions. "The piety 
 of that day had become a grand orchestra piety, aiming at 
 conquering the public by dint of excitements." Hence their 
 theatrical Madonnas, spasmodic Magdalenes, passionate Pie- 
 tas, and vivid martyrdoms. But this was not the only fault. 
 From the effort to at once originate and copy, to conceive yet 
 reproduce, frequently resulted the most glaring want of unity; 
 till, as Taine suggests, the expression of the head in many 
 pictures contradicted that of the figures ; u and one saw the 
 airs of the saint, of the devotee, of the fashionable lady, of 
 the young page, on agitated muscles and vigorous bodies." 
 This tendency is visible even in eminent artists, like Guido 
 and Domenichino, though their talents generally held it in 
 check. 
 
 Domenico Zampieri, known as Domenichino, born at 
 Bologna, in 1581, is regarded as the most distinguished of 
 the Eclectics. He had not, indeed, so much self-assertion as 
 his colleague, Guido Reni, nor was he so prolific ; but his 
 compositions, though less beautiful, are on a higher plane of 
 sentiment, as may be perceived from his frescoes of the 
 "Evangelists," in San Andrea della Valle, Rome, and his 
 " Last Communion of St. Jerome," in the Vatican, which, as 
 an altar-piece, stands near to Raphael's " Transfiguration." 
 The idea he borrowed from Agostino Carracci, but the details
 
 CUMJEAN SIBYL \Domenichino}.
 
 LATER ITALIAN PAINTING. 235 
 
 are most nobly and forcibly given, and have been described 
 among the selections of the best pictures. A " Communion 
 of the Magdalene," with angels administering the last sacra- 
 ments, is much feebler in conception and execution. His 
 youthful picture of the " Deliverance of St. Peter " procured 
 him an invitation to Rome, where he devoted himself wholly 
 to his profession. 
 
 We can but briefly allude to his " Martyrdoms," in which 
 he ministered to prevailing fashions. The "Murder of St. 
 Peter of Verona," and the " Martyrdom of St. Agnes," at 
 Bologna, the " Martyrdom of St. Sebastian," in the church of 
 Santa Maria degli Angeli, and the " Scourging of St. An- 
 drew," in the chapel of the Saint on Monte Celio, Rome, are 
 the most notable examples. In the last case Domenichino 
 was commissioned to compete with Guido, who painted " St. 
 Andrew adoring his Cross," on the opposite wall of the 
 chapel, and obtained the preference of the judges. The Bo- 
 lognese Academy contains other Domenichinos, such as the 
 " Madonna of the Rosary ; " but these are not so pleasing as 
 his smaller and more celebrated pictures. His " Cumaean 
 Sibyl," and the head of " St. John the Evangelist," of inspired 
 though somewhat feminine loveliness, have become every- 
 where familiar through engravings. The original of the 
 Sibyl, with her parted lips and her robe of red, must be 
 sought in the Borghese Palace, Rome, while a duplicate exists 
 in the Palace of the Conservatori, in the same city. The 
 " St. John " was also twice painted, and is owned by an Eng- 
 lish nobleman and by a Russian prince. " Diana and her 
 Nymphs " is another gem of the Borghese Palace, and a " St. 
 Cecilia," somewhat original in design, is in the long gallery
 
 236 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 of the Louvre. A " Guardian Angel," at Naples ; a " St. 
 Agnes," in England ; frescoes from the life of the Virgin, in 
 a chapel of the cathedral of Fano ; and other frescoes at 
 Grotto Ferrata from the history of St. Nilus, together with 
 his landscapes in Rome and London, complete the list of 
 Domenichino's most admirable works. 
 
 Doubtless he would have created a still greater reputation 
 had he not been characterized by a constitutional timidity, 
 which, even after a flattering reception at Rome, prevented 
 him from taking full advantage of public patronage, and 
 finally emboldened his enemies to active persecution espe- 
 cially at Naples, where he attempted to fresco the dome of 
 St. Januarius, but was driven off by the fierce Neapolitan 
 artists who, it is thought, poisoned him in 1641. It is stated 
 that for the magnificent painting of " St. Jerome " he was 
 paid but a pitiful sum, not amounting to fifty dollars of our 
 money. 
 
 Guido Reni, or " Guido," as he is commonly called, sug- 
 gests at once the ideal of grace and beauty which his best 
 pictures embodied. He has been extravagantly lauded and 
 unreasonably condemned. An impartial study of his works 
 must convince us that, while far below Raphael and Correggio, 
 he can yet rise above the insipidity and puerility of which 
 he is accused. No fresco is in its design more simply beau- 
 tiful than his "Aurora," nor any portrait more pathetic than 
 the so called " Beatrice Cenci." Whether Guido painted this 
 portrait is uncertain ; but we shall now content ourselves with 
 some details of his life. 
 
 Born at Bologna in 1575, he was at first intended for a 
 musician, but soon quitted his flute to enter the studio of the
 
 LATER ITALIAN PAINTING. 337 
 
 Carracci, where he was educated with Domenichino, to whom 
 he always manifested a spirit of rivalry. In his early practice 
 he blended the precepts of the Eclectics with the maxims of 
 Caravaggio, the chief of the Naturalisti, and so modified both 
 by mingling them with his own ideal, drawn principally from 
 such antiques as the Niobe, that he produced a variety of 
 styles : one, in which he strove to copy the manner of Michael 
 Angelo and the powerful shading of the Neapolitans; an- 
 other, marked by warmth of color, heightened sentiment, and 
 flowing lines of form, which comprises his finest efforts; and 
 a third still later and " silvery " tone, where the picture 
 seems washed in in delicate and airy but feeble grays. 
 
 Soon, like other artists, attracted to Rome, he there made 
 himself a home during many years, winning much favor both 
 from nobles and people. The " Crucifixion of St. Peter," in 
 the Vatican, was painted for Cardinal Borghese, after the 
 example of Caravaggio, so far at least as Guide's refinement 
 could imitate Caravaggio's coarseness. No one now enthu- 
 siastically admires it, though another composition, executed 
 on the same principles, the " Madonna della Pieta," or " Our 
 Lady of Pity," in the Bolognese Museum, was considered 
 grand and successful. This is immense in size, with large, 
 sorrowful figures above, and kneeling saints at the base ; but 
 it is by no means so fine as the " Crucifixion " in the same 
 gallery, where the cross has its usual background of a dark 
 and stormy sky, with St. John in red drapery, and the Virgin 
 in melancholy blue, enveloped in an ashy mantle, grouped 
 mournfully below. Even this is not so impressive as his 
 solemn and solitary " Crucifixion " in the church of San Lo- 
 renzo in Lucina, Rome.
 
 238 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Guide's popularity at Rome was well tested by his quarrel 
 with Paul V. The artist, in a fit of displeasure, abandoned 
 the frescoes which engaged him, and retired to Bologna ; 
 but the pope hastened to apologize, desired his return to the 
 city, and sent an equipage to meet him. The frescoes were 
 completed, as was also the charming" Aurora," on the ceiling 
 of the casino of the Rospigliosi Palace, where the goddess, 
 scattering flowers, precedes the chariot of Phoebus, and the 
 rapidly advancing Hours. Less famous and sadly damaged 
 frescoes will be found in the chapels adjoining the church of 
 St. Gregory, and in the cathedral of Ravenna. The much 
 disputed "Beatrice Cenci" portrait is in the Barberini Palace, 
 Rome; an"Ecce Homo," a subject for which he is noted, 
 hangs in the Corsini Palace ; while others are at Dresden and 
 Vienna. " St. Michael and the Dragon " is the pride of the 
 gloomy Church of the Capuchins, Rome, and is reproduced 
 in mosaic in St. Petei's. For a description of its beauties 
 our readers may refer to Hawthorne's " Marble Faun." The 
 archangel is not so divine as in the Louvre picture, but is 
 exquisitely graceful. 
 
 Among his works at Bologna may yet be mentioned the 
 " Massacre of the Innocents," and " II Pallione," a glorified 
 Madonna with patron saints, once used as a church standard. 
 At Naples, whence he, too, was driven by the jealous Natura- 
 list!, he has left a much-praised " Nativity." The Louvre 
 cannot claim any of his really excellent pictures, though it 
 possesses " Ecce Homo" and such specimens as " The Labors 
 of Hercules." "The Hermits St. Paul and St. Anthony " is 
 at Berlin, " Ninus and Semiramis " at Dresden, and the " As- 
 sumption of the Virgin " at Munich. Many of the smaller
 
 " 
 
 HEROUIADE ( Guido Reni >.
 
 LATER ITALIAN PAINTING. 
 
 2 39 
 
 pieces with which European collections are profusely sup- 
 plied belong to the degenerate years when, spoiled by pros 
 parity, he addicted himself to. gambling, and painted with 
 facile carelessness a host of pictures, high in price but low 
 in merit, which he only valued for the money they furnished 
 him. He boasted of his skill and sentiment in female heads, 
 and used to say he had two hundred different ways of making 
 the eyes look toward heaven as we may perceive in the up- 
 turned gaze of his numerous Madonnas, Magdalenes, Sibyls, 
 and St. Sebastians. His extravagance outran his wealth. At 
 the age of sixty-seven he fell ill with fever, and died at Bo- 
 logna, where he was buried with great honor. 
 
 Francesco Albani (1578-1660), also a native of Bologna, 
 and a pupil of the Carracci, partook of Guide's elegance, 
 but was eminently deficient in depth and strength. The 
 efforts of his brush run mostly in one line, and may be de- 
 scribed as playfully classical. Reposing gods and goddesses, 
 with numberless Cupids dancing round them in Arcadian 
 landscapes, are his favorite themes. Occasionally, indeed, he 
 varies the title of the picture, and calls it a Madonna, or 
 Flight into Egypt, with angels ; but the composition is quite 
 the same. His little Amorini are very graceful, charming, 
 and sportive, and very easily recognized. Examples are not 
 wanting in the Louvre, at Dresden, and throughout Italy. 
 He had twelve beautiful children of his own, who could have 
 served him as models. In his youth he appears to have aimed 
 at religious effect, as is indicated by four large sacred pieces 
 at Bologna, but after settling at Rome he adapted his style to 
 his tastes and ability. He has been termed the Anacreon of 
 painting; but, though gay and light in manner, he was not
 
 2 4 o SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 lacking in ambition or appreciation, and showed such rever- 
 ence for the memory of Raphael that he always uncovered 
 his head at the mention of his name. The frescoes of the 
 Torlonia Palace, and the " Four Seasons " of the Borghese 
 Gallery, are his best productions at Rome ; but he is richly 
 represented at the Louvre by the "Toilet of Venus," and 
 several other pictures. He liked, when religiously disposed, 
 to portray the " Infant Christ asleep upon his Cross," a sub- 
 ject peculiar to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 
 
 Giovanni Francisco Barbieri, surnamed " Guercino " on 
 account of a slight squint, was born at Cento, near Bologna, 
 in 1590. He, too, was a disciple of the Carracci, and a son 
 of poor parents. As he advanced in life he acquired fortune, 
 and delighted to use it for the benefit of young artists whom 
 he constantly sought out and assisted. He never married, 
 but lived in great seclusion and in the practice of constant 
 devotion. The contrast of light and shade is more marked in 
 his pictures than in those of Guido and Domenichino, and 
 he had more solidity and passion, though less grace and 
 sweetness. He followed the advice of Leonardo da Vinci to 
 paint pictures with a broad light from above, and has some- 
 thing of Caravaggio's depth of tone without his exaggerated 
 darkness. This is visible in his excellent frescoes of " Au- 
 rora" and "Fama," in the Roman Villa Ludovisi. The Au- 
 rora is almost identical in conception with Guido's, but totally 
 different in treatment. His most extensive composition is 
 the "Resurrection of St. Petronilla," in the Capitol, Rome; 
 but his most attractive picture is the lovely " Samian Sibyl," 
 in the tribune of the Umzi, Florence. The Pitti Gallery 
 possesses his " St. Sebastian," and " Raising of Tabitha by
 
 LATER ITALIAN PAINTING. 241 
 
 Peter." "Abraham and Hagar," one of his masterpieces, is 
 in the Brera, Milan ; while a number of others are the prop- 
 erty of the Louvre and of the Dresden Gallery. Bologna has 
 of course reserved some good specimens for her Academy. 
 Guercino lived to reach the age of seventy-six, and died 
 while occupied in painting. 
 
 The name of Giovanni Lanfranco, of Parma (15811647), 
 may close the catalogue of able Eclectic masters. Those who 
 succeeded him fell into insipidity, affectation, and manner- 
 ism, with but few redeeming qualities. Even Lanfranco can- 
 not be regarded as a distinguished artist ; yet he possessed a 
 certain boldness and dexterity which pleased his contem- 
 poraries. He was fond of executing colossal frescoes, such as 
 the " Glory of Paradise," in the cupola of San Andrea della 
 Vale, Rome. His easel-pictures are of little importance, but 
 his merits were over-estimated at Rome, where he was 
 knighted by Pope Urban VIII. 
 
 In the preceding pages we have alluded to Caravaggio in 
 opposition to the Carracci. This fiery, impetuous man, Mi- 
 chael Angelo Amerighi da Caravaggio (1569-1609), so called 
 from his birthplace, stood for many years at the head of the 
 party of the Naturalisti, and ruled for a while the taste of the 
 period, both at Rome and Naples. It is difficult for us to 
 realize what qualities could have recommended him to popu- 
 larity so great ; yet his pictures are boldly strong, and are 
 characterized by dark and wild passion and tragical vulgarity, 
 which threw the multitude under a spell of fascination. The 
 Nature which he studied and painted was coarse, brutal, and 
 low. Its scenes were rough and dreary landscapes, fierce 
 camps, or rude drinking-houses ; its heroes assassins, Gypsies,
 
 242 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 lawless soldiery, and most profane saints ; its method, broad 
 masses of glaring light in juxtaposition with deepest black- 
 ness of gloom ; a sort of savage poetry of grouping ; excep- 
 tionally vivid gleams of crimson color, and grandly-flowing 
 draperies. His " Beheading of St. John Baptist," at Malta, 
 and his " Holy Family " of the Borghese Palace, may be taken 
 as illustrations, as may also his " Entombment " at the Vati- 
 can, where the Virgin has been likened to the weird mother 
 of a Gypsy chief. 
 
 In compositions which pretend to nothing more than 
 striking tableaux from low life he is not so disagreeable. The 
 "Gamblers," at the Sciarra Palace, Rome; the "Fortune- 
 Teller," at the Capitol ; a supposed " Medusa-Head," in the 
 Uffizi ; the " Lute Player," at Vienna, and the " Guardsmen " 
 and the " Card-Players," at Dresden, are all forcible produc- 
 tions. But Caravaggio soon abandoned Rome, to seek a more 
 congenial home in Naples, where artists lived like banditti, and 
 treated their rivals to poison and the dagger. The disgrace- 
 ful cabals of the Neapolitan painters have become a matter 
 of history. Genius could not flourish in such a soil, and 
 none of these passionate partisans deserve a biography except 
 "Lo Spagnoletto," Ribera the Spaniard, who, though Nea- 
 politan by residence, will properly be found with the school 
 of Spain ; and his pupil Salvator Rosa, the great landscape- 
 painter of the South, who infused the poetry of his own 
 ardent temperament into his "savage and stormy style," 
 and whose battle and marine pieces are as yet unequaled in 
 Italy. 
 
 Salvator's history reads like a romance. Born near 
 Naples, in 1615, his father's early death left him a whole
 
 LATER ITALIAN PAINTING. 243 
 
 family to support. He had already begun to paint, but his 
 earnings were totally inadequate to his wants, and he became 
 frightfully poor. At this juncture he attracted the notice of 
 Lanfranco, who was at work upon the dome of San Januarius 
 at Naples, and who advised and assisted him to go to Rome. 
 This first visit to Rome was cut short by illness ; but he had 
 advanced in art, and subsequently, returning thither, he con- 
 ceived the plan of circulating satires against Guido, Domeni- 
 chino, Guercino, Claude Lorraine, Poussin, Rubens, and Van- 
 dyck, all of whom were existing favorites. It was the time 
 of the Carnival, and he went masked through the streets, 
 delivering his verses and witty criticisms, which were received 
 with much applause by the people, and created a sudden 
 demand for his pictures. Thus seizing fame he grew rich, 
 and might have long enjoyed luxury and comfort, but could 
 not resist the temptation of joining the Neapolitan insurrec- 
 tion under Masaniello, with whom he fought till he was 
 obliged to flee for his life. His last years were spent at 
 Rome, where he died of dropsy, in 1673. 
 
 His landscapes are wild and grand, with rugged rocks, 
 lonely wastes, gloomy forests, and dens of robbers. We may 
 inspect them at Madrid, in his " St. Jerome in the Desert ; " 
 in the Louvre and at Munich and Florence. Fine battle and 
 marine views are in the Pitti and Corsini Palaces, Florence ; 
 in the Corsini and Colonna Galleries, Rome, and in the Mu- 
 seums of the Louvre and Berlin. " Mercury and the Wood- 
 man," with other unimportant examples, is in London. The 
 figures and portraits of Salvator Rosa were in the same 
 strong, fantastic style. " The Conspiracy of Catiline," in the 
 Pitti, a fierce group in half-length, is thought his masterpiece
 
 244 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 "Samuel's Apparition to Saul," in the Louvre, is bold and 
 dark; while the "Man in Armor," in the Pitti, and "Warrior 
 doing Penance," at Vienna, would do credit to any artist. 
 
 Luca Giordano (1632-1705), a native of Naples, but court- 
 painter of Spain, is classified with the painters of that coun- 
 try, where he so effectually justified his sobriquet of " Fa 
 Presto," or " Make Haste," that he might have served as 
 decorator of the palace of Aladdin. 
 
 But few other names of the seventeenth century remain 
 for our consideration. The Madonnas of Sassoferrato which 
 we occasionally meet, especially in Roman galleries, are 
 pretty and tender, and were done by Giovanni Battista Salvi 
 (16051685), a pupil of Domenichino, born at Sassoferrato. 
 His Infant Christs are usually asleep on the lap of the Virgin. 
 
 The works of Carlo Dolce are much more numerous and 
 popular. He dates from 1616 to 1686, and lived and painted 
 at Florence. His pictures are smoothly and softly finished ; 
 very graceful, very beautiful, though sometimes very affected. 
 Too many of them at once are like a surfeit of sugar-candy ; 
 but, seen singly, they generally please. The best are the " St. 
 Cecilia," and " Daughter of Herodias," at Dresden ; the " Ma- 
 donna and Child," in the Corsini Palace, Rome ; the " Mater 
 Dolorosa;" and the "Magdalene," and "Angel of the An- 
 nunciation," in the Uffizi. Many others are in the Pitti ; but 
 his " Martyrdom of St. Andrew " in that gallery, one of hi? 
 ambitious efforts, is weak and exaggerated in expression. 
 His " Poesy " and " Speranza," so common in photographs, 
 have their originals in the Corsini collection, Florence. He 
 seldom designed any thing more than heads, or single figures 
 reaching down to the knees. Poverty never quenched his
 
 llllllllltlllllllllllHiiu, 
 
 MADONNA AND CHILD (Carlo Dolce).
 
 LATER ITALIAN PAINTING. 
 
 245 
 
 sentimentality, of which significant instances might be quoted, 
 such as his transformation from a bridegroom into a devotee, 
 when, at the hour appointed for his wedding, he failed to 
 appear, and after anxious search was discovered prostrate 
 before a crucifix. His daughter Agnese copied her father's 
 paintings, but possessed little original talent. 
 
 Carlo Maratta, or Maratti, "the last of the Romans" 
 (1625-1713), is of the same general type, but was more pros- 
 perous in his fortunes, though of less repute in our day. The 
 presidency of the Academy of St. Luke, and many profitable 
 orders, were given him in Rome. Successive popes bestowed 
 on him their patronage, and his Madonnas and Holy Families 
 were eagerly purchased. His master, Andrea Sacchi (1598 
 1661), is chiefly known by a picture in the Vatican of St. 
 Romualdo " relating a vision to five brother monks all clothed 
 in white ; " but Sacchi was proud of his pupil, and procured 
 him a commission for a fresco of " Constantine destroying the 
 Idols," in the baptistery of St. John Lateran. His noblest 
 work is the " Baptism of Christ," in the Roman church of 
 Santa Maria degli Angeli, an altar-piece copied in mosaic 
 for the baptismal chapel of St. Peter's. 
 
 Both Maratta and Salvator Rosa are buried in Santa 
 Maria degli Angeli ; and the same church contains paintings 
 of " Mary's First Visit to the Temple," by a contemporary 
 artist, Gianfranco Romanelli (1600-1662), also in mosaic, at 
 St. Peter's, and a "Fall of Simon Magus," by Pompeo Bat- 
 toni, of Lucca (1702-1787), who shares with Raphael Mengs 
 the scanty Italian honors of the eighteenth century. Bat- 
 toni's other altar-pieces at Rome are inferior to his " Prodigal 
 Son " at Vienna, and to his reclining " Magdalene " in the
 
 246 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Dresden Gallery, which is a fair example of eighteenth-cen- 
 tury Magdalenes. 
 
 Thus terminates the reign of painting in its ancient home. 
 Modern Italy has not yet conquered fame ; but she can well 
 afford to rest upon her old laurels. It will be now our task 
 to trace the progress of culture among the nations of the 
 North.
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 EARLY GERMAN AND FLEMISH PAINTING. 
 
 THE history of art in Germany develops itself in its ear. 
 liest growth rather through the medium of architecture than 
 painting. The barbarians of middle Europe, not so soon 
 Christianized as civilized Rome, less sensitive to beauty, 
 and nurtured under colder skies, amid the gloom and grand- 
 eur of primeval forests, found their first religious expression 
 in the grave, aspiring lines of Gothic architecture, and in the 
 sculpture necessary to ornament its columns and portals. 
 Artists of the Byzantine period did, it is true, occasionally 
 migrate into Germany, but found it an uncongenial home, 
 and have left very poor remains. A few faded paintings, 
 attributed to their pupils, have been found in the cathedrals 
 of Worms and Bamberg, and doubtless others exist else- 
 where, hidden under modern plaster, but they are feeble and 
 insignificant. 
 
 Of the MSS. preceding the twelfth century we have al- 
 ready spoken in the chapter on miniature-painting. The 
 Royal Library at Munich contains many which will interest 
 the student. Painting on glass, also, a distinct and beautiful 
 branch of art, was practised in France and Germany in the 
 
 eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, springing, like 
 17
 
 2 4 g SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 sculpture, from the architectural requirements of the Gothic 
 style. Exquisite specimens may still be seen in Cologne and 
 Strasburg and other venerable cathedrals. In such cathe- 
 drals fresco-painting was not needed, and therefore not culti- 
 vated. Even the altar-pieces were at first of carved wood or 
 stone, gorgeously decorated with color and gilding. Kugle 
 mentions, as among the most ancient examples of painting 
 found in any German church, some stone slabs in the church 
 of St. Ursula, Cologne, covered with figures of the apostles, 
 and marked 1224. But Liibke speaks of still earlier wall-dis- 
 tempers of 1151, in the lower church of Schwarz-Rheindorf, 
 near Bonn, where outline sketches are simply laid in green on 
 a dark-blue ground. 
 
 To the Emperor Charles IV., who reigned in 1348, prob- 
 ably belongs the honor of having established in Bohemia the 
 first organized school of German painting. It never attained 
 any particular distinction, having sunk into mediocrity after 
 the death ofthe emperor, and is mentioned only for its priority 
 in point of time. Its most efficient artist seems to have been 
 an Italian, Thomas of Modena, and its worthiest efforts are 
 the wall-paintings of the palace of Karlstein, near Prague, 
 and of the cathedral of that city. A large mosaic on the out- 
 side of the Prague Cathedral, executed by order of Charles 
 IV., representing six of the saints of Bohemia kneeling below 
 our Saviour, is remarkable as being one of the very few relics 
 of mosaic art in Germany. 
 
 Of much greater importance was the school of Cologne, 
 in regard to whose origin history has as yet been silent. A 
 romance of the year 1200 has been consulted, in which the 
 writer alludes to the painters of Cologne and Maastricht as
 
 EARLY GERMAN AND FLEMISH PAINTING. 2 ^ 
 
 the best, in Germany. This little mention, however, is their 
 only fame; and "Meister Wilhelm," of whom accounts are 
 uncertain, but who, as all agree, appeared about 1358, and 
 was settled at Cologne between 1370 and 1380, is now re- 
 garded as the practical founder of the school. There are 
 much naiveti and sweetness in these early German works ; 
 a childlike tenderness of religious feeling, and delicate finish, 
 with the clear, melting tone of color so natural to spirituality 
 of thought. Not much remains to us of the labors of Meis- 
 ter Wilhelm. Some fragments of his frescoes are dimly visi- 
 ble in the town-hall of the city, and a few panel-pictures, 
 usually Madonnas, exist in Cologne, Munich, and Darmstadt 
 Museums, or in private galleries. One of these, a graceful, 
 dove-eyed, but thoroughly German "Virgin, with a sweet-faced 
 Child, is among the late publications of the Arundel Society, 
 and deserves careful examination. His figures are always 
 slender, his female heads pure and refined, his coloring rich, 
 and his conception simple. His pupil Meister Stephan 
 Lochner, or Loethener, born in Constance, but resident at 
 Cologne in 1442, attained a higher celebrity. His master- 
 piece is the great " Dombild " or Triptych, in the Cologne 
 Cathedral, representing the Adoration of the Magi before an 
 Enthroned Virgin. On the wings are the patrons of the 
 city, St. Gereon and St. Ursula, with their knights and vir- 
 gins. Albrecht Diirer, in the record of one of his journeys, 
 mentions having paid two silver pennies for a sight of this 
 altar-piece. It is now excellently engraved. 
 
 The style of Meister Stephan resembles that of Meister 
 Wilhelm, soft in execution, light in color, and pure in expres- 
 sion, but with shorter and stouter figures. Interesting collec-
 
 250 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 tions of his paintings and those of his followers are to be in- 
 spected at the Cologne Museum and the Munich Pinakothek. 
 They exhibit the same characteristics, innocent and gentle 
 faces, with long, flowing hair ; religious earnestness and mild- 
 ness ; abundant sentiment, but not much vigor ; and a great 
 deal of blue and red in the draperies, which are less stiff than 
 is common among antique pictures. This school did not sur- 
 vive beyond the end of the fifteenth century, but merged its 
 individuality into that of the Netherlands. Its expiring gen- 
 ius shone out in an admirable work in eight compartments, 
 representing the " Last Scenes in the Life of Christ." This 
 was formerly ascribed to one Israel von Mekenen, but its 
 unknown author now receives the title of the " Master of the 
 Lyversberg Passion." The picture is preserved in the Mu- 
 seum, together with some portraits from the hand of Bartolo- 
 maus Bruyn, the last well-known artist of Cologne. 
 
 Nuremberg has also her relics of the infancy of German 
 art, though principally in the departments of sculpture and 
 carving. Some old pictures, however, remain in the city col- 
 lections and churches, especially the Imhoff altar-piece of the 
 ' Coronation of the Virgin," in St. Lorenz, which Lubke be- 
 lieves dates about 1361. Yet no very authentic notices of 
 the Nuremberg masters have descended to us till the time 
 of Michael Wohlgemuth, the teacher of Albrecht Durer, of 
 whom we shall hereafter speak. 
 
 The popular interest in German painting usually centrti 
 ir the school of Flanders, of which Hubert and Jan van 
 Eyck are the leaders. Flanders, with its prosperous com- 
 mercial cities, became, in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and six- 
 teenth centuries, almost as renowned as the Italian provinces
 
 EARLY GERMAN AND FLEMISH PAINTING. 
 
 251 
 
 Its art was stimulated by wealth rather than devotion ; for, 
 though individual artists were often deeply pious, no monks 
 put on canvas their saintly ideals or records of mystic visions, 
 but rich churches and burghers gave large commissions for 
 the adornment of their cathedrals and council-rooms; and 
 the trade in pictures became a lucrative branch of business 
 between the Flemish seaports and Italy, France, and Spain. 
 Guilds were formed about 1350, and were liberally patronized. 
 Yet previous to the labors of the Van Eycks our researches 
 are principally confined to the illuminated MSS., of which 
 many rare and beautiful specimens are cherished in French 
 and German libraries. Wall-distempers of the fourteenth 
 century have been discovered at Lie"ge and Ghent, but of 
 their authorship, we are ignorant. Some panels in the Mu- 
 seum at Dijon also appear to have originated in the Nether- 
 lands, but it is only with the reign of the Dukes of Burgundy 
 that we can accurately trace the rise and development of 
 Flemish painting. 
 
 The Van Eyck family, literally a family of painters, had 
 their birthplace in the small town of Maaseyck in the Lim- 
 burg province. Two brothers and a sister, Margaret, de- 
 voted themselves to art. Hubert was born about 1366, and 
 was John's senior by more than twenty years. We cannot 
 tell how or where they were educated. Their early pictures 
 are lost, and their early history is involved in obscurity. In 
 1412 Hubert is reported to have joined the Guild of St. 
 Luke at Ghent. He died in that city in 1426, and is buried 
 in the church of St. Bavon, with this epitaph : 
 
 " Take warning from me, ye who walk over me I was as 
 you are, but am now buried beneath you. Thus it appears
 
 252 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 that neither art nor medicine availed me. Art, honor, wis- 
 dom, power, affluence, are spared not when death comes. 
 
 " I was called Hubert van Eyck ; I am now food for 
 worms. Formerly known and highly honored in painting, 
 this all was shortly turned to nothing. 
 
 " It was in the year of our Lord 1426, on the i8th day of 
 September, that I rendered up my soul to God in suffering. 
 Pray God for me, ye who love art, that I may attain to his 
 sight. Flee sin ; turn to the best ; for ye must follow me at 
 last." 
 
 At this distance of time we cannot point out any pictures 
 that may with positive reliability be ascribed to Hubert, ex- 
 cepting a part of the famous "Adoration of the Lamb." 
 Old panels in Continental galleries are sometimes attributed 
 to him, such as the " St. Jerome and the Lion " at Naples, 
 but on no sufficient authority. He was, however, the instruct- 
 or of his brother John, and should share with him the credit 
 of the great invention of oil-painting which will always hand 
 down the name of Van Eyck to posterity. This invention 
 was not merely mixing colors with oil, for that had before 
 been done on different occasions and in different places, but 
 also the mingling of oil and resin so as to produce a colorless 
 varnish, which would dry without exposure to the sun. Va- 
 sari relates the experiences which led to John van Eyck's 
 discovery : " Now it happened after a time that after having 
 given extreme labor to the completion of a certain picture, 
 and with great diligence brought it to a successful issue, he 
 gave it the varnish, and set it to dry in the sun, as is the cus- 
 tom. But, whether because the heat was too violent, or that 
 the wood was badly joined and insufficiently seasoned, the
 
 EARLY GERMAN AND FLEMISH PAINTING. 
 
 2 53 
 
 picture gave way at the joinings, opening in a very deplora- 
 ble manner. Therefore, Giovanni, perceiving the mischief 
 done, determined to proceed in such a manner that the same 
 thing should never again injure his work ; and, as he was no 
 less embarrassed by his varnishes than by the process of 
 tempera-painting, he turned his thoughts to the discovery of 
 some sort of varnish that would dry in the shadow, to the 
 end that he need not expose his pictures to the sun. Accord- 
 ingly, after having made many experiments on substances 
 pure and mixed, he finally discovered that linseed-oil and 
 oil of nuts dried more readily than any others of all that he 
 had tried. Having boiled these oils, therefore, with other 
 mixtures, he thus obtained the varnish which he, or rather all 
 the painters of the world, had so long desired. He made 
 experiments with many other substances, but finally decided 
 that mixing the colors with these oils gave a degree of firm- 
 ness to the work, which not only secured it against all injury 
 from water when once dried, but also imparted so much life 
 to the colors that they exhibited a sufficient lustre in them- 
 selves without the aid of varnish ; and what appeared to him 
 more extraordinary than all besides was, that the colors thus 
 treated were much more easily blent and united than when in 
 tempera." 
 
 After the death of his brother, John appears to have re- 
 moved to Bruges, wh$re Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy 
 and Count of Flanders, held his court. He entered Philip's 
 service, and in 1428 was sent with the royal embassy to Port- 
 ugal, to paint the portrait of Isabel, Philip's destined wife. 
 The duke was satisfied with both picture and bride, and al- 
 ways continued his princely favors to the painter, even con-
 
 254 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 descending, some years later, to stand godfather to his infant 
 daughter. John died at Bruges, in 1440 or 1441, and was 
 buried in the church of St. Donat, where yearly masses were 
 celebrated for the repose of his soul during more than three 
 centuries afterward. 
 
 In his style of painting John or Jan van Eyck combined 
 all the best qualities ever possessed by the Flemish school. 
 With deep religious feeling he united the most exact realism. 
 The faces, scenes, architecture, and familiar surroundings 
 of his own time are everywhere introduced into his works; 
 yet always with dignity and harmony. His draperies are 
 ornate; his colors are most rich and glowing, having endured 
 in perfect freshness for four hundred years ; his perspective is 
 above all praise ; and he may really be called the father of 
 landscape-painting, excelling equally in foregrounds and dis- 
 tances. His finish is so careful and brilliant as to resemble 
 enamel, and the favorite motto which marks his pictures is 
 the modest " Als ikh kan" "As I can." 
 
 His masterpiece is the " Adoration of the Lamb " a 
 splendid altar-piece, painted on twelve panels, for one of the 
 chapels of the cathedral of Ghent, by order of Jodocus Vydt, 
 an old and wealthy citizen. It was commenced by Hubert, 
 though only the upper part is thought to be from his hand. 
 Six years after his death it was completed by John. On the 
 frame is inscribed, in Latin, " Hubert of Eyck, whom no one 
 surpassed, began it. John, the second brother, with art per- 
 fected it, at the prayer of Jodocus Vydt. This verse invites 
 you to contemplate what was done on the 6th of May, 1432." 
 
 The excellent description here subjoined is from Crowe 
 and Cavaicaselle ; and I quote it, partly for its beauty and
 
 EARLY GERMAN AND FLEMISH PAINTING. 
 
 2 55 
 
 accuracy, partly because everybody should be familiar with 
 this gem of Northern painting, but more especially because 
 the picture has been chromo-lithographed, and may therefore 
 be easily studied at leisure by all who wish to acquaint them- 
 selves with Flemish art : 
 
 " In the centre of this altar-piece, and on a panel which 
 overtops all the others, the noble and dignified figure of 
 Christ sits enthroned in the prime of manhood, with a short 
 black beard, a broad forehead, and black eyes. He holds in 
 his left hand a sceptre of splendid workmanship, and with 
 two fingers of his right he gives his blessing to the world. 
 The gorgeous red mantle which completely enshrouds his 
 form is fastened at the breast by a large, jeweled brooch. 
 The feet rest on a golden pedestal, carpeted with black ; and 
 on the dark ground, which is cut into perspective squares by 
 lines of gold, lies a richly-jeweled, open-worked crown, em- 
 blematic of martyrdom. On the right of Christ the Virgin 
 sits, in her traditional robe of blue ; her long fair hair, bound 
 to the forehead by a diadem, flowing in waves down her 
 shoulders. With most graceful hands she holds a book, and 
 pensively looks, with a placid and untroubled eye, into space. 
 On the left of the Saviour St. John the Baptist rests, long- 
 haired and bearded, austere in expression, splendid in form, 
 and covered with a broad, flowing green drapery. At his 
 right St. Cecilia, in a black brocade, plays on an oaken organ, 
 supported by three or four angels with viols and harps. On 
 the left of the Virgin a similar but less beautiful group of 
 singing choristers stand in front of an oaken desk, the fore- 
 most of them dressed in rich and heavy red brocade. 
 
 "On the right of St. Cecilia once stood the naked figure
 
 256 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 of Eve, now removed to the Brussels Museum ; while counter* 
 part to Eve, and on the left side of the picture, was Adam, 
 equally remarkable for correctness of proportion and natural 
 realism. 
 
 " Christ, by his position, presides over the sacrifice of the 
 Lamb, as represented in the lower panels of the shrine. The 
 scene of the sacrifice is laid in a landscape formed of green 
 hills, receding in varied and pleasing lines from the fore- 
 ground to the extreme distance. A Flemish city, meant, no 
 doubt, to represent Jerusalem, is visible chiefly in the back- 
 ground to the right; but churches and monasteries, built in 
 the style of the early edifices of the Netherlands and Rhine 
 country, boldly raise their domes and towers above every 
 part of the horizon, and are sharply defined on a sky of pale 
 gray, gradually merging into a deeper hue. 
 
 " In the very centre of the picture a square altar is hung 
 with red damask, and covered with a white cloth. Here 
 stands a lamb from whose breast a stream of blood issues 
 into a crystal glass. Angels kneel round the altar, many of 
 them praying with joined hands, others holding aloft the 
 emblems of the passion, two in front waving censers. From 
 a slight depression of the ground to the right, a little behind 
 the altar, a numerous band of female saints is issuing, all in 
 rich and varied costumes, fair hair floating over their shoul- 
 ders, and palms in their hands ; foremost may be noted St. 
 Barbara with the tower, and St. Agnes. From a similar open- 
 ing on the left, popes, cardinals, bishops, monks, and minor 
 clergy advance, some holding crosiers and crosses, others 
 palms. In the centre near the base of the picture a small, 
 octagonal fountain of stone projects a stream into a rill whose
 
 EARLY GERMAN AND FLEMISH PAINTING. 
 
 257 
 
 pebbly bottom is seen through the pellucid water. Two dis- 
 tinct groups are in adoration on each side of the fountain. 
 
 "The faithful, who have thus reached the scene of the 
 sacrifice, are surrounded by a perfect wilderness of flowering 
 shrubs, lilies, and other beautiful plants, and remain in quiet 
 contemplation of the Lamb. Numerous worshipers besides 
 are represented on the wings of the triptych. On the right 
 side of the altar-piece we see a noble band of ascetics, dressed 
 in frock and cowl, with staves and rosaries, moving round 
 the base of a rocky bank. Two female saints, one of them 
 the Magdalene, bring up the rear. In the next panel to the 
 right, and in a similar landscape, St. Christopher, pole in 
 hand, overtops the host of his companions, pilgrims with 
 grim and solemn faces. 
 
 " On the left is a band of crusaders. In the rear of them, 
 and in the last panel to the left, Hubert van Eyck, with long 
 brown hair, in a dark cap, the fur peak of which is turned up, 
 ambles forward on a white pony. He is dressed in blue 
 Felvet, lined with gray fur ; his saddle has long, green hous- 
 ings. In the same line with him two riders are mounted on 
 sorrel nags, and next them again a man in a black turban 
 and dark-brown dress trimmed with fur, whom historians 
 agree in calling John van Eyck. The two groups proceed 
 along a sandy path, on each side of which the view extends 
 to a rich landscape, with towns and churches in the distance 
 on one hand, and a beautiful vista of blue and snow moun- 
 tains on the. other. White, fleecy clouds float in the sky. 
 There is not to be found in the whole Flemish school a 
 single panel in which human figures are grouped, designed, 
 or painted, with so much perfection as in this of the Mystic
 
 258 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Lamb. Nor is it possible to find a more complete or better 
 distributed composition, more natural attitudes, or more dig- 
 nified expression. 
 
 " The altar-piece, when closed, has not the absorbing 
 interest of its principal scenes when open. It is subdivided 
 first into two parts, in the upper portion of which is the An- 
 nunciation ; in the lower the portraits of Jodocus Vydt and 
 his wife, and imitated statues of St. John the Baptist and St. 
 John the Evangelist. In the semicircular projection of the 
 upper central panel are the Sibyls, while half-figures of Zach- 
 ariah and Micah are placed in the semicircles above the an- 
 nunciate Angel and Virgin." 
 
 The original "wings" of the painting, with the exception 
 of " Adam " and " Eve," have been carried to the Berlin 
 Museum, where there is also an admirable old copy of the 
 central part of the piece. 
 
 Among the remaining works of John van Eyck is a re- 
 markable altar-piece, still at Madrid, called the " Fount of 
 Salvation," or " Triumph of Christianity " strongly resem- 
 bling the Ghent" Adoration." The Academy at Bruges pos- 
 sesses, however, more accessible specimens, as does also the 
 National Gallery, London, where a " Turbaned Portrait," and 
 " Jean Arnolfini and Wife, with Joined Hands," are particu- 
 larly valuable. The single picture owned by the Louvre, a 
 " Coronation of the Virgin," or, as it is most commonly called, 
 "The Virgin and Donor," is elaborately beautiful, and no 
 one can fail to notice the wonderful detail of its figures, and 
 the perfect perspective of its background, terminating in a 
 far-off line of snow-mountains. At Dresden is a very small 
 " Madonna and Child," so exouisite in finish that it might be
 
 EARLY GERMAN AND FLEMISH PAINTING. 
 
 259 
 
 scrutinized with a microscope, and treasured like a miniature. 
 Six others are catalogued as Van Eycks in the royal collec- 
 tion at Munich, but their genuineness has been questioned. 
 The Hermitage at St. Petersburg has secured an " Annuncia- 
 tion," while Berlin has a " Head of Christ," and panels of the 
 Ghent altar-piece. 
 
 Of the life of Margaret van Eyck little is definitely 
 known. It is said that her passion for art was so sincere 
 that she always lived unmarried ; but her handiwork has al- 
 most entirely passed into oblivion. A " Madonna and Child " 
 is ascribed to her in the Gallery at London, and a " Repose 
 in Egypt " in the Museum at Antwerp. She also seems to 
 have been successful as a miniaturist. The name of a third 
 brother, Lambert, has lately been discovered in the family 
 records, but tradition tells us nothing of his history, except 
 that he was probably a painter, and may have assisted his 
 brother, or copied his works. 
 
 As might be anticipated, not only from their individual 
 abilities, but from the great enthusiasm everywhere aroused 
 by the discovery and practice of oil-painting, the Van Eyck 
 studios were crowded with pupils. These Flemish artists, in 
 their different degrees of excellence, shared the same spirit. 
 All were religious, earnest, and rather melancholy in feeling 
 but none had overcome a certain rigidity of movement and 
 uniformity of expression. Their saints are Dutch in placid- 
 ity, or Dutch in gloom. Their Infant Saviours are large- 
 headed and meagre ; their Virgins may be lacking in beauty, 
 but are always finely dressed; their angels shine in purple 
 raiment and peacocks' wings; and their main idea of the 
 glory of'God is invariably associated with gold and gorgeous-
 
 260 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 ness, and glittering array contrasted strangely with the per- 
 fectly natural, realistic, and incongruous details painted with 
 unflinching fidelity from every-day life. Justus of Ghent. 
 Hugo van der Goes, Petrus Christus, and Gerard van der 
 Meire, may be mentioned as among John van Eyck's fol- 
 lowers; but his best-known and most able successor was 
 undoubtedly Roger van der Weyden, often spoken of as Roger 
 of Bruges. 
 
 Much confusion has existed among writers in their ac- 
 counts of this artist, who was once reckoned among the 
 pupils of Van Eyck. Later authorities have asserted that 
 the development of his genius owed little to the influence of 
 that master, as he was born in 1400, at Tournai, in the west 
 of Flanders, and educated in the same city. His reputation 
 soon became extended, and in 1436 he was appointed painter 
 in ordinary to the city of Brussels. The contrast of his style 
 may be thus noticed : " The Van Eycks illustrate the splen- 
 dor of the Church militant, or they fondly depict the joys of 
 the Virgin, the smiles of the Infant Christ, or the serene pen- 
 siveness of saints. Van der Weyden likes to dwell on the 
 sombre aspects of sacred history; he prefers the pages in 
 which we read of the agony and pains of the Saviour and 
 the martyrs." This grave and austere treatment he pre- 
 served even after a journey to Italy, where he was received 
 with much consideration, and where he nas left some few 
 pictures in his usual realistic manner, especially a little panel 
 in the Uffizi, representing his favorite subject, called by the 
 Flemings " ung Dieu de pitid" and by the Italians a Pieta. 
 Some critics suppose that it was he, and not Antonella da 
 Messina, who introduced oil-painting into Venice, bat this 
 if unlikely
 
 EARLY GERMAN AND FLEMISH PAINTING. 2 6i 
 
 In the hospital at Beaume, in Burgundy, may still be seen 
 Van der Weyden's most important work, dating about 1447, 
 an altar-piece of the " Last Judgment," the largest produc- 
 tion of the early Flemish school. Smaller triptychs lie pre- 
 served in the Beilin Museum, in heavy architectural frames, 
 especially one of the " Nativity," known as the " Middleburg 
 Altar-piece." Some examples are in the Louvre. A "St. Luke 
 painting the Virgin," and an "Adoration of the Kings," are 
 found in the Munich Gallery, while at the Staedel Museum, 
 Frankfort, is a " Madonna and Child," where two of the at- 
 tending saints are portraits of the children of the Florentine 
 Duke Cosmo de Medici, at whose order it was painted. 
 
 Van der Weyden died at Brussels, June 16, 1464. He 
 was buried " under a blue stone," before the altar of St. 
 Catharine, in the church of St. Gudule. 
 
 The name of another Roger van der Weyden, termed the 
 younger, is frequently met with in chronicles and catalogues ; 
 but it is now inferred that the pictures so attributed are not 
 the work of any one person in particular, but may be assigned 
 to various obscure artists of that period. 
 
 In the latter half of the fifteenth century also flourished 
 the weird Jerome Bosch, who reveled in depicting ghosts, 
 incantation scenes, and the infernal regions. Many of his 
 fantastic compositions were purchased in Spain. 
 
 A pupil of the elder Van der Weyden, Hans Memling, 
 sometimes erroneously written Hemling, divides with Van 
 Eyck the laurels of Flemish art. More poetic, though less 
 powerful, than the early master, he has left behind a greatei 
 number of works. The city of Bruges, near which he was 
 probably born> about the year 1425, has many romantic sto-
 
 2 6 2 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 ries to tell of his career ; but, as nearly as one can ascertain 
 the facts, it seems that he was a simple citizen who, in the 
 intervals of much traveling, resided at that place in a house 
 whose site has recently been discovered ; and eventually died, 
 in 1495. 
 
 In his youth he was a miniaturist, and worked with infi- 
 nite skill upon the pages of the Grimani Breviary, now splen- 
 didly preserved in the Library of St. Mark, Venice. Of 
 more general interest, however, are his two early works of 
 the " Seven Joys " and the " Seven Griefs of Mary," at Mu- 
 nich and Turin. The " Seven Joys " is an originally-man- 
 aged picture, but at first sight so confused and so crowded as 
 to need a close examination in order to appreciate its perfec- 
 tion of detail. " The scene is an immense bird's-eye land- 
 scape, extending over city, sea, and mountain, embracing 
 Egypt, Bethlehem, Jerusalem, Emmaus, Nazareth, the Sea of 
 Galilee, and Chaldea, in glorious disdain of geography ; and 
 traversed in every direction by innumerable winding roads, 
 wiling the eye onward, and enhancing the idea of illimitable 
 distance. The whole of this vast space is filled with de- 
 tached groups of small figures representing the successive 
 incidents of happiness in the life of the Virgin." 
 
 But it is at Bruges that we meet Memling in his glory. 
 All travelers to that ancient city are proudly conducted to 
 the Hospital of St. John, adorned by his masterpieces. The 
 possession of these by such an institution is accounted for by 
 the legend that he came to Bruges, a wounded soldier in 
 1477, after the battle of Nancy, was nursed in the Johannis 
 Hospital, and there remained some time, presenting these 
 treasures, after his recovery, as a tribute of his gratitude It
 
 ST. VERONICA (Memling).
 
 EARLY GERMAN AND FLJLMJSI! PAINTING. 263 
 
 fs a story which does credit both to the good brothers and to 
 Memling himself, but it is unfortunately thought to be with- 
 out foundation. The works, however, are indisputably there; 
 and none can refuse admiration. The most celebrated is the 
 " Shrine of St. Ursula," a gilded chest, only four feet long, 
 shaped like a Gothic chapel, and covered all over the lid 
 and sides with wonderful paintings scarcely larger than min- 
 iatures, but more exquisite than any miniature in the beauty 
 and precision of their finish. They illustrate ti?e popular 
 legend of St. Ursula, the Princess of Brittany, who, with 
 eleven thousand virgins, made a pilgrimage to Rom% re- 
 ceived the blessing of the pope, and, on their return to Ger- 
 many, were martyred by the Huns, just outside the gates of 
 Cologne. On one of the ends of the reliquaiy stands the 
 Madonna, on the other St. Ursula with her maidens under 
 her mantle ; while the six compartments of the side depict 
 the departure of the company, the landing at Basle, the arri- 
 val in Rome, the journey home, the beginning of the martyr- 
 dom, and the death of the saint. These little compartments 
 not only contain about two hundred figures, but also very 
 faithful views of the churches of Cologne and of Rhim 
 scenery. The shrine is said to have been completed in 1486, 
 Equally lovely is the " Marriage of Saint Catharine," an- 
 other gem of the hospital. The Virgin and Child, with 
 hovering angels, are enthroned in the centre; St. Catharine 
 and St. Barbara below. Minute landscape occupies the back 
 ground. On one hand is represented the death of St. John 
 Baptist, and on the other the vision of St. John the Evange 
 list, with all the solemn scenery of the Apocalypse ; the whole 
 in .1 triptych not more than half life-size. 
 il
 
 264 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Still more of Memling's pictures are shown in this same 
 building ; the next most attractive being an altar-piece of the 
 " Adoration of the Magi," and the " Sibyl Zambeth." In the 
 Bruges Academy is a fine "Baptism of Christ." At Munich, 
 not only the "Seven Joys," but "St. John Baptist," "St. 
 Christopher," and an "Adoration of the Kings," continue his 
 renown. The Louvre has a " Madonna and Donors ; " London 
 a " Madonna and Saints ; " while Florence, Vienna, Berlin, 
 and most Continental museums, have added his name to 
 their collections. His largest works are the " Last Judgment," 
 of the Dantzic Cathedral, the most majestic example of the 
 Flemish treatment of this subject ; and an altar-piece of the 
 " Passion," in a chapel of the cathedral of Liibeck, which 
 unfolds, " in about twenty groups dispersed through an im- 
 mense landscape, the whole history of the Passion and the 
 Forty Days, from the Agony in the Garden to the Ascen- 
 sion." 
 
 Memling's superiority lies in the infusion of the poetry of 
 his own nature into the accurate realism which marked the 
 art of Flanders. This it is which gives the charm to his 
 marvelous finish, and blends the grace of the ideal with the 
 details of the real. Schlegd writes of him : " He has all the 
 pathos and German feeling of Diirer, without his caricature 
 or other peculiarities. In spiritual beauty and devotional 
 feeling, as well as in clearness of meaning, he exceeds all 
 painters of the school, and can only be placed on a level with 
 Van Eyck." Viardot speaks even more enthusiastically of 
 his " pictures of sacred history, conceived in the highest style 
 of Fra Angelico, and painted in the finest execution of Ge- 
 rard Dow." If we cannot quite agree in the justice of this
 
 EARLY GERMAN AND FLEMISH PAINTING. 265 
 
 comparison with Fra Angelico, we at least need not fear of 
 giving too high praise to his technical execution. The deli- 
 cacy of his touch has never been surpassed ; his colors are 
 bright and soft, his landscapes glowing, his draperies elegant, 
 and his female faces innocently tender and winning, though 
 of course adhering to the Teutonic type, with broad, un- 
 covered foreheads, faintly-marked eyebrows, drooping lids, 
 and long, golden hair. 
 
 No subsequent master has been able to approach his 
 genius; and from the time of Memling till that of Rubens 
 Flemish painting furnished no shining lights. The fame of 
 Raphael and his colleagues led many lesser artists to journey 
 into Italy, where they attempted to combine Italian sentiment 
 with the manner of the Netherlands. The result was disas- 
 trous to both styles. 
 
 Jan Gossnert, or Mabuse, so named from Mauberge, his 
 native place, was the first to inaugurate such a movement. 
 He prided himself upon having two methods, in one of which 
 he imitated Memling, in the other Michael Angelo. In his 
 youth he worked with true Flemish industry ; and as he pos- 
 sessed excellent natural abilities, and was a good colorist, he 
 gave promise of a prosperous career. It was long supposed 
 that he visited England previous to his residence in Italy, as 
 there existed at Hampton Court a fine picture called the 
 " Children of Henry VII. ; " but it has been discovered that 
 they are in reality the children of the King of Denmark, and 
 that Mabuse was probably not in England at all. Be that as 
 it may, he certainly went to Rome about 1513, and became 
 devoted to the nude and the allegorical. Neither did the 
 tour improve his morals, for he obtained upon his return the
 
 2 66 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 reputation of a spendthrift and a debauchee, and after an 
 improvident life died at Antwerp in 1532. 
 
 A number of his paintings, together with fine portraits, 
 are found in London, Paris, Brussels, Berlin, Munich, and 
 Antwerp. The more Flemish specimens are at Antwerp, es- 
 pecially " The Maries coming from the Tomb of Christ ; " 
 while his Italian method is seen to best advantage in his 
 " Danae in the Golden Shower," at Munich. When one 
 reads that, in his classical efforts, he endeavored to unite the 
 muscles of Michael Angelo with the smile of Leonardo da 
 Vinci, one is certainly prepared for most singular effects. 
 
 Bernard van Orley and Michael Coxie were of the same 
 period and the same stamp ; Flemish by birth, but more or 
 less Italianized in style, and with few remains to mark their 
 memory. Coxie traveled to Spain, where his services were 
 much valued. In Germany he is best known as the author 
 of the Berlin copy of Van Eyck's " Adoration of the Lamb." 
 
 The rapidly degenerating school of Flanders had, how- 
 ever, before the death of Mabuse, been linked to that of Ant. 
 werp by the genius of Quintin Messys or Matsys, born in 
 Louvain, about 1460. According to some writers, he was a 
 pupil of Van der Weyden, from whom he learned the manner 
 of the Van Eycks, afterward greatly modified by his own 
 originality. But love proved a better master than Van der 
 Weyden. Tradition records that he was brought up a black- 
 smith, but became deeply attached to a daughter of Franz 
 Floris, a painter of Antwerp, who was very popular in his 
 own day, but whose fame did not " survive the century." 
 The young lady objected to her admirer's profession, and he 
 at once exchanged the hammer for the brush ; soon achiev-
 
 EARLY GERMAN AND FLEMISH PAINTING. 267 
 
 ing a success which won his bride, and threw his father-in- 
 law into the shade. A Latin inscription to his memory in the 
 Cathedral of Antwerp still tells us that 
 
 " 'Twas love connubial taught the smith to paint." 
 
 Antwerp knew how to honor such talent, and has retained some 
 of his finest works, particularly his altar piece of the " En- 
 tombment," now hanging in the gallery of that city. But the 
 talent was poorly paid, for he received only one hundred and 
 twenty -five dollars for this large and very powerful picture. 
 A Virgin and " Salvator Mundi " are in London ; several 
 others in Munich ; a " Banker and his Wife " in the Louvre ; 
 while half-length figures of the " Virgin and Child " are found 
 in several museums. 
 
 His reputation in our present generation mainly rests on 
 his often-repeated subject of "The Misers." One of these is 
 at Windsor Castle. It represents two men seated at a table : 
 " One, who counts his gold and sets down the sum in his note- 
 book, appears to be a merchant ; the other, who familiarly 
 lays his hand on his shoulder, and looks with malicious pleas- 
 ure toward the spectator, seems to have just succeeded in out- 
 witting him." The surrounding furniture, the inkstand on 
 the table, and the parrot perched above, are finished with 
 scrupulous fidelity and masterly skill. 
 
 Quintin Matsys died in 1530, leaving a large family. 
 Some of his sons were painters and copyists, but none at' 
 tained to any excellence
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 GERMAN PAINTING IN THE FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH 
 CENTURIES. 
 
 TURNING from Flanders to Upper and Western Germa- 
 ny, we discover that the awakening to a sense of beauty or 
 power, which is a nation's first basis of art, was later and 
 more gradual in the remoter cities of the North than in the 
 fertile Netherlands. Rumors of the artists of Cologne and 
 Bruges had penetrated into the provinces, but no hearty re- 
 sponse was given till the genius of Albrecht Diirer developed, 
 at the close of the fifteenth century, an entirely distinct 
 school of German painting. A few of his predecessors had 
 indeed displayed some of his own characteristics at a little 
 earlier date ; but they are forgotten, and his fame survives. 
 Martin Schongauer anticipated him as an engraver, while 
 Michael Wohlgemuth was his instructor as a painter. 
 
 Schongauer, or Martin Schon, born about 1450, and dying 
 io 1488, was a native of Colniar, in Franconia. His earliest 
 work, a " Death of the Virgin," is in the National Gallery, 
 London ; his best is an altar-piece at Colmar, of the " Virgin 
 and Child seated beneath a Rose -hedge." Some of his pict- 
 ures are also at Munich and Vienna, especially a "Cruci- 
 fixion," where blue angels hover in sorrow round the cross
 
 EARLY GERMAN PAINTING. 269 
 
 He has, too, a figure of " St. Agnes with her Larnb," which is 
 unusually beautiful ; but it is to his prints we must look for 
 the clearest evidence of his talents. These were celebrated, 
 and gained for him the epithet of " Schon" or " beautiful," an 
 adjective by no means applicable to his personal appearance, 
 as his portrait at Munich proves that he was far from hand- 
 some. Yet even the Italians called him "Bel Martina." 
 His engravings were imported into Italy, and a " Temptation 
 of St. Anthony," treated in the same style as Teniers's subse- 
 quent paintings, had the honor of being admired and copied 
 by Michael Angelo in his youth. A collection of these en- 
 gravings may be found in the British Museum. 
 
 The school of Nuremberg, or Niirnberg, now comes prom- 
 inently forward. Sculpture had long nourished in this quaint 
 city, and the noble carvings and statues of its churches and 
 monuments are still the delight of travelers; but painting 
 had advanced with much less rapidity, being comparatively 
 neglected, and partaking more or less of the stiffness and 
 sharpness of wooden or stone figures. Michael Wohlgemuth, 
 born about 1434, became the most important artist of the 
 period, and has been correctly said to stand in the same 
 relation to Albrecht Diirer as Perugino to Raphael. Yet the 
 realistic spirit of Germany, joined to the fantastic element so 
 blended with its art and poetry that it almost seems a love of 
 weirdness and ugliness for its own sake, effectually distin- 
 guishes both teacher and pupil from the great masters of 
 Italy. There is no more real resemblance between Diirer 
 and Raphael than between a ballad of Biirger and a sonnet 
 of Petrarch, while one would smile indeed to contrast the 
 altar-pieces of Perugino and Wohlgemuth. In fact, the altar-
 
 270 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 pieces of the latter are little calculated to raise the spectator's 
 enthusiasm, though it is now charitably supposed that the 
 worst of them were executed by his numerous apprentices, 
 and that the best, which exhibit some beautiful and we)l- 
 coiored heads, with an occasionally tender type of female 
 sainthood, are all that can be positively attributed to his own 
 hand. Among these, the large picture in many compartments, 
 representing the " Life and Death of Christ," painted for the 
 high-altar of St. Mary's Church, Zwickau, is regarded as his 
 masterpiece ; though some prefer the " St. Jerome," at Vienna. 
 Several more are in the Pinakothek, Munich, and in the 
 churches of Nuremberg and Zwickau. When Wohlgemuth 
 had reached the age of eighty-three, Diirer painted his por- 
 trait, now in the Munich Gallery " a pale and worn, but 
 noble, artist-like head, very German, with strong under jaw, 
 Roman nose, and keen gray eye full of unquenched fire, a 
 delicate ear, half hid under the tight black cap ; every vein 
 and wrinkle is given, yet with a freedom and ease that admit 
 of nothing painful or disagreeable." 
 
 Albrecht or Albert Durer, born in 1471, was the son ot a 
 goldsmith of Nuremberg, in whose large family of nineteen 
 children Albrecht appears as the only genius. Apprenticed 
 at first to his father's trade, the bent of his genius was so 
 decided that he was transferred to the tuition of Michael 
 Wohlgemuth, and, after three years' study, started out in 
 1490 upon the delightful Wanderjahre, or wandering years of 
 travel, so congenial to every young German heart. No ac- 
 count of these years can be discovered, but they were doubt- 
 less far more of an education than the limited influences of a 
 Nuremberg studic. Returning in 1494, he married in a few
 
 EARLY GERMAN PAINTING. 
 
 271 
 
 months the pretty but shrewish and miserly Agnes Frey, who 
 proved a Northern Xantippe, and embittered all his days 
 with her temper and her tongue. The match was made by 
 the respective fathers, but Speaks little for the sagacity of the 
 artist's family. Diirer was eminently uncomfortable during 
 his wedded life, and certainly not from his own faults, for all 
 contemporaries grow eloquent in praise of his virtues. He 
 was, we are told, a man of stately figure and gentle bearing, 
 of melodious voice, dignified address, and cordial benignity. 
 Yet his wife never appreciated the matrimonial prize which 
 had fallen to her share, even though he paid her the compli- 
 ment of occasionally painting her face in his pictures, and 
 left her at his death a sum of several thousand florins. 
 
 For ten years after his marriage, Dttrer remained at Nu- 
 remberg, developing with peculiar originality the qualities 
 which make him the representative German painter. Noth- 
 ing in his surroundings was calculated to kindle the fire of 
 genius. It was fed from his own spirit, and burned with 
 steady yet increasing brightness. His earliest known works 
 are the portraits of himself and of his father, in Madrid, 
 Florence, and also at Munich. These were painted between 
 1497 and 1500. His own likeness is very interesting. He 
 looks like a Christian knight as he stands, in half-length, at a 
 window, in a pointed cap and brown mantle, his hair falling 
 in long ringlets around a grave and noble face. A few other 
 portraits were, soon after, executed, marked either with his 
 name or the mocnogram of a small D in a large A ; as well as a 
 series of remarkable woodcuts of the Apocalypse; but his 
 labors were happily interrupted by a journey to the north of 
 Italy in 1505, where, judging from his letters, he must have
 
 2-72 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 found the most unclouded enjoyment, heightened by warm 
 appreciation and friendship. The visit of Albrecht Diirer to 
 the Venetian studio of Gian Bellini is a subject picturesquely 
 rendered by arti?ts of more modern date. The charm of his 
 person as well as of his talents strongly attracted the sus- 
 ceptible Italians, and their admiration of his engravings and 
 pictures was all the more grateful to him because contrasted 
 with the apathy or measured praise of his fellow-citizens. 
 He writes to Pirkheimer : " Here I am a gentleman, while at 
 home I am only a parasite. Oh, how I shall freeze after this 
 sunshine ! " But the friendships then formed continued a 
 source of pleasure to the close of his life. The painters of 
 Venice always held him in remembrance, and even Raphael 
 afterward exchanged portraits and drawings with him in 
 token of his regard. 
 
 Yet the influences of Italian art, deeply as they must have 
 stirred a temperament like Durer's, led him to no imitation 
 of a foreign style. To the classic school he never showed 
 the least inclination. Even his pictures now in Italy, most 
 of which were painted during his residence in Venice, or a 
 year or two afterward, are full of strong individuality. In- 
 deed, the "Christ among the Doctors," in the Barberini 
 Palace, Rome, is disagreeably German, with its realistic, re- 
 pulsive Pharisees and full-faced Saviour whose eyes look out 
 from a true Teutonic profusion of hair. He is said to have 
 executed it in five days. The " Adoration of the Magi," in 
 the tribune of the Uffizi, Florence, is much, more pleasing, 
 brilliant in color, and carefully finished. The picture of the 
 "Feast of Roses," hanging in the monastery of Strahof, 
 Prague, was painted by him in Venice at this time, at the
 
 EARLY GERMAN PAINTING. 
 
 273 
 
 order of a German guild. It is about four feet high, and 
 represents the Emperor Maximilian, a pope, and several saints 
 and merchants, kneeling before the Virgin and Child, and 
 crowned by them with rose-garlands, while an angel under- 
 neath is playing on the lute. To the same epoch belongs the 
 very small but very exquisite " Crucifixion " of the Dresden 
 Gallery. 
 
 The end of the year 1506 brought Diirer home with re- 
 newed energy for his labors. His style now began to display 
 matured vigor and intensity, rich in ideas, often profound or 
 grotesque in expression, and poetic with a poetry that lay 
 deep at the root of thought, and did not waste itself in little 
 graces of manner. Realistic, and even ugly in details, sub- 
 lime in invention, beautiful in pathos, yet full of sins against 
 good taste, " he links together the holiest and the homeliest 
 images, the loftiest and the most ludicrous, with an unfettered 
 fearlessness, an unconscious simplicity which disarms criti- 
 cism." We shall apprehend the truth of this as we proceed 
 to study his pictures. 
 
 Two which have been preserved at Vienna are very 
 characteristic. The earliest portrays, on a panel not more 
 than three feet long, the " Martyrdom of Ten Thousand Saints 
 at Alexandria under Adrian." The coloring is dark yet 
 glowing, the finish of miniature fineness, and the draperies 
 easy and unbroken. In the centre of the composition are 
 painted Diirer and his friend Pirkheimer, robed in black 
 and clasping a little flag. The second picture is called " The 
 Trinity," and is generally considered the artist's masterpiece. 
 It was designed for one of the churches of Nuremberg. 
 " God the Father, seated on a rainbow, is holding forth the
 
 274 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Son crucified, while the dove hovers over them ; angels float 
 above, carrying the instruments of the Passion ; the host of 
 saints and martyrs attend to the right and left ; and below 
 are assembled a countless company of the doctors, bishops, 
 and pillars of the Church. The female heads are very Ger- 
 man, but the male saints are often singularly noble ; still a few 
 occur of very extraordinary aspect, describable only by the 
 epithet ' queer,' if not positive caricatures. The whole of 
 this vast scene is laid in the sky ; a landscape appears below, 
 with the figure of Albrecht Diirer himself, holding a tablet 
 with an inscription." The Vienna Gallery contains other 
 pictures and portraits, while at Frankfort-on-the-Main is an 
 excellent copy of one of his finest works, a " Coronation of 
 the Virgin," painted in 1509 for the Frankfort merchant, 
 Jacob Heller, but unfortunately burned two centuries ago. 
 This has, however, been engraved and photographed, and we 
 must smile to see the ponderous German proportions of the 
 Madonna and Child, to say nothing of the weight of the up- 
 lifted crown. 
 
 Seventeen pictures, principally portraits, ascribed to him 
 at Munich, exhibit great variety of power. But most striking 
 and admirable of all are two panels, depicting, in life-size, 
 St. John and St. Peter, St. Paul and St. Mark, as " The Four 
 Pillars of the Church." These grand figures, so different yet 
 so expressive, are usually termed "The Four Temperaments." 
 They are his last and most thoughtful work, and are equally 
 remarkable for sublimity and simplicity. He gave them to 
 his native city, but the municipal authorities afterward pre- 
 sented them to the Elector Maximilian, retaining only copies 
 in the town-hall of Nuremberg.
 
 EARLY GERMAN PAINTING. 275 
 
 Famous as a painter, Albrecht Diirer was no less great as 
 an engraver. He was also an architect, sculptor, and writer 
 not only upon artistic but scientific subjects geometry, for- 
 tifications, and proportion. Nowhere are his poetic ideas so 
 freely yet so singularly rendered as in the woodcuts and en- 
 gravings which he and his immediate predecessors and follow- 
 ers introduced into Germany. The "Apocalypse," which we 
 have already mentioned as completed before his journey to 
 Venice, was succeeded in 15 1 1 by the series of the " Life of the 
 Virgin," and the " Greater " and " Lesser Passion of Christ." 
 These are familiar to all, the " Passion of Christ " being still 
 published among our modern gift-books. His conception 
 of the Saviour is often powerfully repulsive, yet most weird, 
 pathetic, and wonderful. One strange and touching piece 
 represents him as the " Man of Sorrows," seated all alone, 
 with his thorn-crowned head bowed upon his hands, and the 
 nail-prints in his feet ; in another he sinks upon his knee be- 
 neath the weight of the cross. 
 
 In 1513-1514 appeared his celebrated engravings of "The 
 Knight, the Devil, and Death," and " Melancolia." Well 
 may Charles Blanc say of these : " They are impregnated by 
 the most misty spiritualism, and at the same time character- 
 ized by a patient and minute execution brought to the very 
 highest finish." Fouque"'s "Sintram" is founded upon the 
 first of these pictures ; and I would recommend the perusal 
 of its closing chapters to all who would truly wish to enter 
 into the spirit of the artist. The print itself represents a soli- 
 tary knight riding through a dark and skull-strewed valley. 
 Death rises up beside him on a lame h6rse, with hour-glass 
 and passing-bell; and a hideous devil comes behind, with
 
 276 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 frightful, boar-like face, and sickle-shaped weapon ; but still 
 he rides on to victory, "without fear and without reproach." 
 " Let death and the devil attack me," says the knight, " I will 
 conquer both the devil and death." 
 
 The " Melancolia " is quite as remarkable, though not so 
 generally interesting. " A grand, winged woman sits ab- 
 sorbed in sorrowful thought, while surrounded by all the ap- 
 pliances of philosophy, science, art, mechanics, all the dis- 
 coveries made before and in Albrecht Durer's day, in the 
 book, the chart, the lever, the crystal, the crucible, the plane, 
 the hammer. The intention of this picture has been dis- 
 puted, but the best explanation of it is that which regards 
 the woman as pondering on the humanly unsolved and in- 
 soluble mystery of the sin and trouble of life." We can 
 almost fancy we hear her saying : " In much wisdom is much 
 grief; and he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow." 
 
 It was impossible that such works as these should be 
 given to the world without exciting, even in his own time, an 
 intense admiration for the genius of the author. Durer's 
 reputation soon widened, and he received many flattering 
 offers to settle himself in other countries or provinces, all of 
 which he declined. In 1520, however, we find him on a visit 
 to the Netherlands, in company with his wife; everywhere 
 received with the highest applause and esteem, and justly 
 honored among all ranks, from the Emperor Charles V. to the 
 humblest burghers of Flanders. His own journal of this 
 time has been translated into English by Mrs. Heaton, in her 
 "Life of Albrecht Durer." A story is current of his inter- 
 view with the Emperor Maximilian and one of his courtiers, 
 during which the courtier declined to demean himself to hold
 
 EARLY GERMAN PAINTING. 
 
 277 
 
 & step-ladder for the artist, and was reproved by the mon- 
 arch, with the remark that the king could at any time make 
 a nobleman, but that only God could make such a painter. 
 The greatest minds in Germany were drawn to him by natu- 
 ral congeniality. Living amid the early struggles of the Ref- 
 ormation, he was the friend of Luther, of Melanchthon, and 
 of Erasmus ; and, though it 'does not appear that he openly 
 professed their doctrines, yet it is evident that he was pro- 
 foundly affected by the agitating questions of the day, and in 
 entire sympathy with all that was pure, elevated, and true. 
 Kugler calls his last painting of the " Four Pillars of the 
 Church " the " first complete work of art produced by Prot- 
 estantism." But though we cannot positively infer that any 
 directly Protestant teaching was intended, yet it is certain 
 that the inscriptions on these pictures, selected by Diirer him- 
 self, were such as not to be agreeable to a Roman Catholic 
 prince, and were consequently cut off before the removal of 
 the panels to Munich. 
 
 As Nuremberg was Diirer's birthplace, so it is also his 
 memorial and his tomb. After a successful, yet not a happy 
 life, he died in his native city, in the year 1528. Sensitive 
 and inclined to melancholy in temperament, his unfortunate 
 domestic surroundings were a weight upon his spirit ; neither 
 was there about him that atmosphere of friendly appreciation 
 which a gifted heart must always crave. Pecuniary injustice, 
 too, was sometimes added to the burden, for he speaks of hi-; 
 circumstances as " lamentable and shameful," and alludes to 
 the insufficient compensation he received for his home labors. 
 Could his talents have expanded under the generous patron- 
 age of a Medici family, or a Pope Leo, his career would
 
 278 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 doubtless have been more brilliant and prosperous, yet his 
 individual works could scarcely have been more powerful. 
 No traveler can wander through the streets and churches of 
 gray old Nuremberg without echoing the words of Long, 
 fellow : 
 
 " Here, when art was still religion, with a simple, reverent heart, 
 Lived and labored Albrecht Diirer, the evangelist of art ; 
 
 " Hence in silence and in sorrow, toiling still with busy hand, 
 Like an emigrant he wandered, seeking for the better land. 
 
 " Emigravit is the inscription on the tombstone where he lies ; 
 Dead he is not, but departed, for the artist never dies." 
 
 None of Diirer's scholars achieved any celebrity. The 
 most renowned was Albert Altdorfer, who, without the 
 strength of his master, had yet a romantic and poetic tempera- 
 ment, taste in conception, and tolerably effective execution. 
 His most able pictures are at Munich, especially the " Vic- 
 tory of Alexander the Great over Darius." This was much 
 admired by Napoleon I. It had been removed from Bavaria 
 to Paris, and the emperor ordered it to be taken to the pal- 
 ace of St. Cloud and hung in his bath-room. Other works by 
 Altdorfer are exhibited at Vienna, Berlin, and Nuremberg ; 
 one of the best being the " Recovery of the Body of St. 
 Quirinus," in the St. Maurice Chapel, Nuremberg, where a 
 fine landscape-background shows his talent for impressive 
 coloring. Altdorfer possessed much skill as an engraver, as 
 did also George Pencz, an early pupil of Diirer, whose Ger- 
 man touch was softened and modified by Italian examples. 
 He went to Rome and studied under the successors of Ra- 
 phael. His finest paintings are some portraits in the Berlin 
 Museum ; but his engravings are still more excellent, and
 
 THE CRUCIFIXION (Albrecht Durcr). 
 
 P. 278.
 
 EARLY GERMAN PATNTING. 
 
 279 
 
 were highly valued in Italy. His fellow-students at Nurem- 
 berg, Hans von Kulmbach, Heinrich Aldegrever, Hans 
 Scheuffelin, and Bartholomew and Sebald Beham, are to us 
 little more than names of insignificant artists. 
 
 Mathias Griinewald is somewhat more widely known. 
 Some authorities refer to him as the master of Lucas Cranach, 
 but this is doubtful. Like most of the German painters of 
 this epoch, his works are best seen at Munich and Vienna. 
 Hans Burgkmair (1473-1531) was a more prolific painter, and 
 seems to be the link between the school of Nuremberg and 
 that of Swabia, of which Augsburg was the important centre. 
 Pictures from his hand exist at Augsburg and Nuremberg, as 
 well as in the Pinakothek and the Belvedere, especially a " St. 
 John at Patmos " of considerable merit. He executed re- 
 ligious subjects, portraits, and landscapes, with more than 
 average success, and may be looked upon as the immediate 
 predecessor of Holbein. 
 
 For, while Albrecht Diirer was winning distinction at 
 Nuremberg, the neighboring towns of Ulm and Augsburg 
 were not without their celebrities. About the middle of the 
 fifteenth century, Bartholomew Zeitblom, of Ulm, produced 
 some pleasing works of devotional sentiment and tender col- 
 oring. He was of a gentle nature, and his pictures evince a 
 yearning after beauty, but not much force. They are mostly 
 preserved in the collection of Stuttgart, but a few have found 
 their way into other museums, particularly a graceful compo- 
 sition of the " Handkerchief of St Veronica," held by two 
 angels, and imprinted with the head of Christ. His suc- 
 cessor, Martin Schaffner, born about 1490 or 1500, appears to 
 have possessed more ability and to have been considerably 
 19
 
 2 8o SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 modified by his study of Italian art. His best paintings are 
 four panels, dating 1524, in the Pinakothek, Munich, repre- 
 senting the " Annunciation," the " Scene in the Temple," the 
 "Outpouring of the Spirit," and the "Death of Mary." 
 Others are preserved at Berlin. 
 
 The Holbein family, of Augsburg, furnished, during the 
 fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, many remarkable additions 
 to the history of German painting. The family was, artisti- 
 cally speaking, an extensive one, beginning with a grand- 
 father whose existence has been questioned, but who is pop- 
 ularly believed to be the author of some old pictures in the 
 Museum of Augsburg, signed " Hans Holbein, C. A.," and 
 dated 1459. Following him we find Hans Holbein, usually 
 termed " the Elder," born about 1459, and resident during 
 the earlier part of his life at Augsburg, where his works 
 are shown in the cathedral and gallery. He removed 
 with his children to Basle, and seems to have labored with 
 care and diligence, though with somewhat of the grotesque 
 and fantastic manner fashionable at that period. Kugler 
 alludes to a pale, Mephistopheles-like figure, with a sharp, 
 pinched, Italian physiognomy, in a green hunting-suit and 
 hat adorned with a cock's-feather, which often appeared in 
 his pictures. His faces are hard, but life-like. Sixteen pan- 
 els are attributed to him at Munich, while other pictures are 
 exhibited in the chapel of St. Maurice, Nuremberg, and at 
 Basle and Frankfort. Two more painters, Sigmund and 
 Ambrose Holbein, by some authorities supposed to be broth- 
 ers, by some sons, of Hans the Elder, are also mentioned at 
 Augsburg. A portrait in the London Gallery, of a lady hold- 
 ing a sprig of forget-me-not, with a fly upon her cap, has been
 
 EARLY GERMAN PAINTING. 2 8l 
 
 ascribed to Sigmund ; but it was upon the son, Hans Hol- 
 bein the Younger, called Holbein par excellence, that the true 
 mantle of all the family genius descended ; and his biogra- 
 phy must be given more at length. 
 
 Born at Augsburg, 1495 or X 497> he displayed a precocity 
 of talent very unusual in the North. According to Liibke, 
 he was an able painter at the age of fourteen. He practised 
 sketching and etching, and illustrated Erasmus's celebrated 
 satire, " The Praise of Folly." Some interesting portraits, 
 dating about 1516, now exist. Portraits of his father and 
 mother, taken at nearly the same epoch, are probably not 
 genuine. In 1517 we find him working at Lucerne, and in 
 1521 at Basle and in the cathedral of Freiburg. The eight 
 pictures of the " Passion, "at Basle, exhibit his masterly power, 
 but, though admirable in technical treatment, they are, like 
 most German renderings of this subject, very unattractive to 
 the ordinary spectator. The mural paintings which -he exe- 
 cuted at this time for the town-hall of Basle are now so in- 
 jured as to be scarcely visible, but his smaller works are still 
 preserved in the collections of that city, especially a study 
 for a" Dead Christ," and graphic pictures of his children and 
 of his wife. While residing at Basle, Holbein married Eliza- 
 beth Schmid, about whose personal appearance critics de- 
 cidedly differ, though all form their opinion from the portrait 
 painted by her husband ; some describing her as " mild and 
 pathetic,"some as "cross and red-eyed, "and others as "mys- 
 terious and unpleasant." He was evidently not devoted to 
 her, as the greater part of his wedded life was passed in Eng- 
 land, while she remained in Germany ; but, though he has 
 been accused of dissipation and extravagance, the charges 
 seem to rest upon slight foundation.
 
 282 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 His industry and ability recommended him not only to 
 native but to foreign patronage. In 1526 he visited England, 
 and was received into the family of Sir Thomas More, to 
 whom he brought a letter of introduction from their mutual 
 friend, the learned Erasmus, who has been so frequently 
 painted, not only by Holbein, but by Diirer and other of 
 his countrymen. Holbein's picture of the More family, often 
 repeated, was one of the famous family pictures of England ; 
 and, as he soon made himself a wonderful reputation for accu- 
 rate and vivid likenesses, he was appointed painter to King 
 Henry VIII., and his portraits, at Windsor and at Hampton 
 Court, have become to us most interesting and faithful memo- 
 rials of the reign of that powerful monarch. Of course Henry 
 VIII. employed him to paint his numerous wives, though not 
 all the representations of those royal ladies now ascribed to 
 him are genuine. It is stated that he was sent to execute the 
 portrait of Anne of Cleves, and so flattered the likeness that 
 Henry proposed marriage, but was bitterly disappointed at 
 the actual appearance of the lady. Certainly one would not 
 think that this picture, now preserved in the Louvre, could 
 have raised the king's expectations to a very high pitch. Hol- 
 bein's portraits have always great vigor and individuality. 
 They do not evince the least imagination or soul; yet his 
 realism is so correct, his expression so natural, and his heads 
 so simply yet thoroughly and forcibly finished, that he ranks 
 in this respect with the most renowned artists of any age or 
 country. His likeness of the goldsmith Morett, in the Dres- 
 den Gallery, was long attributed to Leonardo da Vinci. 
 
 Among Holbein's best works are the " Meyer Madonna " 
 and the designs for the " Dance of Death." The former
 
 ERASMUS {Holbein). 
 
 P. 282.
 
 EARLY GERMAN PAINTING. 283 
 
 of these is carefully treasured in the Dresden Gallery, in a 
 room set apart for its honor, and every German will earnestly 
 strive to convince you that it is at least equal, if not superior, 
 to the Sistine. Schlegel says : " Humility and holiness are 
 here so beautifully combined that I think it corresponds 
 better with the ideal of the divine mother than the Madonna 
 of Raphael in the same collection." But this is a national 
 delusion. The original, or a repetition of the painting, is 
 owned by the Princess of Hesse, at Darmstadt, and the cities 
 of Darmstadt and Dresden have held over it a fierce and un- 
 settled contention. In the Darmstadt exhibition of 1871 it 
 was not only said that the Darmstadt picture was first com- 
 pleted, but that the Virgin at Dresden was only a copy. 
 This was confirmed, and admitted in 1872. The painting 
 represents a " Virgin and Infant," with the family of the Bur- 
 gomaster Meyer kneeling before her in gratitude for the recov- 
 ery of their child. The figures are all incomparably Dutch, 
 while each minute detail, down to the folds of the rich 
 Turkey carpet, is most marvelously given. There has been 
 a controversy of opinion as to the babe, which rests on the 
 Madonna's bosom and stretches forth his left hand toward 
 the beholder. It has a puny and sickly air ; and some critics, 
 Ruskin among the number, insist that the Virgin has put 
 down the Christ-child among the family group, and taken 
 up their suffering infant into her healing arms. Others, with 
 more technical truth, assert it to be a " Madonna and Child," 
 arranged according to the usual tradition, and that the little 
 one standing on the floor is the burgomaster's son. 
 
 The "Dance of Death " is no single picture, but a series 
 of fifty-three woodcuts. This strange, weird subject was a
 
 284 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 favorite one at that period, and was portrayed by artists of 
 all grades, in paintings or etchings, particularly on the wall 
 of the Dominican convent at Basle, and upon the arches of 
 bridges. Holbein's designs, published in 1538 and widely 
 copied and circulated, are grimly ironical and grotesque. His 
 fantastic, triumphal " March of Death " has in it something 
 at once facetious, malicious, and terrible. " Here he strikes 
 with his wand the tambourine before the wedding proces- 
 sion ; there he takes the rdle of a chambermaid, and clasps 
 around the neck of a pretty countess a necklace of bones. 
 Farther on, he stops the peddler, loaded with his basket, or 
 pulls off the hat of a cardinal selling indulgences. Sinister 
 in his carnival disguises, sometimes he puts on the accoutre- 
 ments of folly to mislead a queen ; sometimes an unexpected 
 guest, in the guise of a cup-bearer, he pours the deadly 
 beverage for a king. Now he puts on the deacon's stole to 
 interrupt the sermon of the preacher ; now that of the sac- 
 ristan, with bell and lantern, to guide the convoy of the priest 
 himself, bearing the viaticum to the dying ; or he takes the 
 place of the dog of the blind man who, groping toward the 
 tomb, trembles lest he should make a false step. Here Death 
 has not the horrible grin; he is serious, pitiful. See the 
 resigned sadness of the poor husbandman who, pushing the 
 plough before him, is suddenly assisted by a ploughboy who 
 is Death ! How touching is the scene which Nature frames 
 with such naive grace, lighted by the sun sinking to the hori- 
 zon behind the tower of the village church ! " 
 
 Holbein's last years were spent in London, where he died 
 of the plague in 1543. He left no distinguished followers, 
 unless we may except Christopher Amberger, a pupil of the
 
 EARLY GERMAN PAINTING. 285 
 
 elder Holbein, but an imitator of the younger. His portraits 
 resemble those of his contemporary, but are softer and more 
 feeble. A head of Charles V. at Berlin, and of Henry VIII. 
 at Augsburg, are ascribed to him, while an " Herodias," at 
 Vienna, reminds us of Luini's delicate finish. Most of his 
 pictures, however, are at or near Amberg. 
 
 Protestant Saxony also brings before us in this century 
 an artist who may be considered its painter of the Reforma- 
 tion. Lucas Cranach, really named Lucas Sunder, was born 
 at Cranach, in Franconia, in 1472, and died at Weimar, in 
 1553. He was for a long time court-painter to the various 
 Electors of Saxony, and was prolific, not only in portraits, but 
 in sacred, historical, mythological, and hunting scenes, as 
 well as in prints and engravings. He is humorous, realistic, 
 fanciful, and intensely national and Protestant. Not many 
 good examples of his style exist out of Germany, but his 
 works are liberally scattered throughout that empire. His 
 portraits of Luther and of Melanchthon are familiar to all 
 travelers. A large upper room in the Dresden Gallery is 
 filled with his altar-pieces and pictures. All are very smooth- 
 ly finished, well-colored, quaint, and pleasing. Among the 
 best is " Christ blessing Little Children," a subject which he 
 frequently painted. The children are genuine German babies; 
 while on the other side of the apartment you may contem- 
 plate Solomon followed by a train of equally German wives. 
 His hunting-pieces are excellently done, but we cannot say 
 EU much for the nude Venuses, and " Adam and Eve," in 
 which he sometimes indulged. In one of these Eve offers 
 the fruit, while Adam looks at it and reflectively scratches 
 his head ! Munich possesses his " Woman taken in Adultery,'
 
 286 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 " Lot and his Daughters," a " Crucifixion," and several cabi- 
 net specimens, together with some portraits of the Electors 
 of Saxony, and the inevitable Luther and Melanchthon. In 
 St. Maurice's Chapel, Nuremberg, are two representations of 
 " Death and Redemption." At Weimar is a large altar-piece 
 of " Christ on the Cross," and in the parish church of Witten 
 berg is another altar-piece of the " Last Supper," with the 
 Reformers preaching below. In the National Gallery, Eng- 
 land, we find the portrait of a young girl, with an enormous 
 head-dress ; and at Berlin is the grotesque picture by him or 
 his son, "The Fountain of Youth." "A great pool or tank, 
 fed by the miraculous Fount, adorned with statues of Venus 
 and Cupid, appears in the centre of the composition. Num- 
 bers of old women, horrid hags, are splashing about in it. 
 Some are seen undressing; others are brought up in litters, 
 or on their husbands' backs, from the left : they enter the 
 water and cross to the opposite bank, gradually regaining 
 youth and beauty as they approach it; and are received, as 
 they come out, by gallant cavaliers, who conduct them to a 
 feast spread under the trees, and thence to the dance. The 
 gradation from ugliness to what Cranach conceived of beauty 
 is admirably expressed, and the naiveti of the whole com- 
 position is most striking." 
 
 A son of Cranach, called Lucas Cranach the Younger 
 survived till 1586. His works are shown in the churches of 
 Wittenberg, and in some public galleries ; but they are only 
 faint reflections of his father's method. The stirring times of 
 the Reformation were not favorable to the progress of paint- 
 ing; while over-zealous partisans were so eager to destroy 
 the pictures and images associated with the old religion, that
 
 EARLY GERMAN PAINTING. 287 
 
 we cannot cease to be thankful for the masterpieces which 
 escaped their hands. After the ferment of the sixteenth 
 century, a new era in art, with an entire change in style, was, 
 we shall soon see, to be expected in dermany, Flanders, and 
 Holland.
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 LATER FLEMISH AND GERMAN PAINTING. 
 
 THE artistic records of Flanders and Germany, from the 
 death of Quentin Matsys and Albrecht Diirer to the age of 
 Rubens, remind us much of the season of famine which in 
 ancient Egypt followed the seven years of plenty. A crowd 
 of painters of little reputation and less ability are noticed in 
 the catalogues referring to thi's intervening period ; but it 
 will only be necessary to specify a few of those best known, 
 whose works will be found sprinkled through Northern gal- 
 leries, filling up the spaces between more famous pictures. 
 
 Among the Flemish imitators of Italian excellence who 
 survived Matsys, we must first refer to Lambert Sustermann, 
 or Lambert Lombard, born at Lie"ge, 1506, and a disciple of 
 Andrea del Sarto at Florence, whose style he endeavored to 
 introduce into the school for artists which he subsequently 
 established at Lie*ge, after his return to that city, where he 
 died, about 1560. He was accomplished and talented, but 
 unable to reach his ideal. Not many of his works remain. 
 A " Madonna " is in the Berlin Museum. His pupil, Franz 
 Floris, or rather Franz de Vriendt, was more industrious. He 
 was born at Antwerp, in 1520, and became celebrated and 
 rich, building himself a splendid house, and having one hun- 
 dred and twenty young painters in his studio. It is he whom
 
 LATER FLEMISH AND GERMAN PAINTING. 289 
 
 Liibke mentions as the father-in-law of Quentin Matsys ; but 
 dates apparently contradict the statement. His pictures dis- 
 play many Italian mannerisms of drawing and expression, 
 but are generally tame and tasteless. Kugler speaks of " Lot 
 and his Daughters " as an *' insufferable production." Berlin 
 and Antwerp contain most of his paintings, the " Fall of 
 the Angels " being in the Antwerp Museum. Floris's best 
 pupils were Martin de Vos and the elder Pourbus. De Vos 
 afterward studied in Venice, and acquired considerable skill 
 in coloring, following Tintoretto as his model. The Pour- 
 bus family, father and son, born respectively in 1540 and 
 1570, were clever portrait-painters, and their pictures are 
 still valued. 
 
 The first half of the sixteenth century witnessed the birth 
 of landscape-painting in the Netherlands. The delineation 
 of figures had previously been considered in all countries as 
 the chief end of art ; the more the figures, the higher the ait ! 
 But in Joachim Patinier (1490-1545), and his contemporary 
 Henri de Bles, the scenery of the backgrounds rose into im- 
 portance, till copies of Nature, with men and women only as 
 accessories, became novel and admired additions to the pict- 
 ures of the period. Patinier's landscapes are crude and often 
 gaudy in color, gay tints contrasted with blue-green meadows 
 and fantastic rocks. Those of De Bles are more subdued in 
 tone, but equally crowded with details. He was called by 
 the Italians " Civetta," or " The Owl," from the monogram 
 which he adopted. Specimens of the works of these artists 
 are preserved at Antwerp, Munich, Vienna, and Berlin. 
 
 Matthew and Paul Bril, born at Antwerp in 1554 and 
 1556, continued the same line of painting; but soon left the
 
 2 9 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Netherlands for Rome, where they were popular and patron- 
 ized. Matthew died early, but Paul survived till 1626, and 
 may be regarded as the precursor of Claude Lorraine. He 
 was fond of representing ruins, or quiet and melancholy 
 scenes. To our present criticism his coloring is cold, and 
 his foliage conventional; but to eyes unaccustomed to the 
 oeauties of landscape-art he possessed a charm which made 
 him a favorite among Roman popes and nobles. His works 
 are mostly in Italian galleries, but a few may be seen at 
 Dresden and Berlin, particularly a curious " Building of the 
 Tower of Babel." 
 
 Not only landscape but genre painting began to be now 
 developed. This term genre, so often used, especially in the 
 Flemish and Dutch schools, applies to small-sized represen- 
 tations of common life, which may be pleasing or vulgar, ac- 
 cording to the taste of the artist and his choice of a subject. 
 Its earlier masters devoted themselves chiefly to depicting the 
 every-day existence of the lower classes, elaborating all de- 
 tails with the care and relish so characteristic of the country. 
 
 Peter Brueghel, born about 1530, may be said to have 
 fathered this branch of art. He is usually called " Peasant 
 Brueghel," from his coarse yet graphic sketches of peasants 
 dancing, rioting, or quarreling, Such may be inspected at 
 Berlin, Dresden, or Vienna. In the latter gallery is a com- 
 position of wild humor, called the " Fight between Carnival 
 and Lent," in which the thin are attacking the fat ! He 
 treated sacred subjects in the same fantastic spirit ; as, for 
 example, his " Procession to Calvary," in the Berlin Museum, 
 where the Saviour bears his cross, but the two thieves are 
 seated ruefully in a cart, with their hands tied behind them,
 
 LATER FLEMISH AND GERMAN PAINTING. 291 
 
 and a friar, on the bench opposite, exhorting them to repent- 
 ance." 
 
 The younger Peter Brueghel, son of the preceding, 
 painted like a goblin. He gained the title of " Hell Breu- 
 ghel," from his fancy for representing the infernal regions. 
 One of these fiery pictures is at Dresden. The " Burning of 
 Sodom " was another congenial theme. Forked flames and 
 demons are finished with the most scrupulous fidelity. 
 
 By far the most renowned, however, of this strange family 
 was the second son, Jan, called " Velvet Breughel " or 
 " Flower Breughel," born at Antwerp, 1568, and flourishing 
 till 1625. His gifts were very varied, but he excelled es- 
 pecially in landscapes, and acquired the sobriquet of " Vel- 
 vet " from the softness and smoothness of his style. Yet in 
 spite of such softness his clouds and foliage have a woolly 
 aspect which is often unpleasing. He delighted in depicting 
 " Paradise," into which he introduced all sorts of plants, 
 trees, and animals. As a flower-painter he was also cele- 
 brated. One of his pieces at Munich is a bouquet around 
 which are buzzing numbers of bees, bugs, and butterflies. A 
 great many of his landscapes are at Dresden, Munich, and 
 Berlin. His pupils are unimportant. Daniel Seghers is 
 thought to have equaled him in flowers; while his follower 
 Roland Savery, occasionally mentioned as a pupil of Bril, has 
 similar but fewer pictures at Berlin. 
 
 While approaching the great revival of Flemish art at the 
 beginning of the seventeenth century, we have seen to hov/ 
 low an ebb the genius of the Netherlands had fallen. It was 
 again to rise in Peter Paul Rubens, born in Siegen, a town 
 of Westphalia, on the festival of Sts. Peter and Paul, June 29,
 
 292 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING, 
 
 1577. That Antwerp and Cologne have both been claimed 
 as his birthplace is accounted for by the fact that his father 
 was a citizen of Antwerp who had only left his residence 
 because of the religious disturbances of the Netherlands. 
 When the child became a year old, the family settled in Co- 
 logne, but ten years afterward removed back to Antwerp 
 where the young painter was placed under the instruction 
 of Adam van Noort and Otto van Veen, neither of whom had 
 much artistic knowledge to impart. At the age of twenty- 
 three he found a favorable opportunity for a journey to Italy, 
 being recommended by the Governor of the Netherlands to 
 the patronage of the Duke of Mantua. There he studied 
 the classic frescoes of Andrea Mantegna in the Palazzo del 
 Te; went to Venice, and immediately applied himself to 
 copying Titian and Paul Veronese, whose splendor of color 
 so well accorded with his ardent temperament, and was 
 transfused successfully into his own glowing style. He was 
 also employed by the duke to copy pictures in Rome, and, 
 it is thought, was even sent by him on a mission to Spain, 
 as his letters from that country have lately been discovered. 
 Enthusiastically attached to Italy, he was only recalled to 
 Flanders by the death of his mother, in 1608. As he deter- 
 mined to make Antwerp his future home, he built himself a 
 superb house which he ornamented in Southern style, col- 
 lecting in it all his Italian treasures, and living in great 
 elegance, enjoying both material and intellectual pleasures. 
 Here he painted assiduously, charmed and benefited his 
 numerous puplis, sumptuously entertained his friends, a..d 
 conversed with them in the seven languages which he spoke 
 with fluency. Here, too, he married his first wife, Elizabeth
 
 LATER FLEMISH AND GERMAN PAINTING. 293 
 
 or Isabella Brandt, and was appointed painter to the court. 
 At this period he completed the " Descent from the Cross," 
 his famous picture in the cathedral of Antwerp. It was exe- 
 cuted for a company of archers, and was originally designed 
 to honor their patron, St. Christopher, or the " Christ-Bearer : " 
 thus Rubens conceived the idea of representing in it all 
 those who had ever borne Christ in their arms from the 
 aged Simeon, who first held the Infant Saviour in the Temple, 
 :o the disciples who took down his body from the cross. This 
 'Descent " forms the centre of the altar-piece, and is remark- 
 able for the vivid action of its figures, and the body of Jesus 
 lifted midway down, with the white winding-sheet drawn 
 behind it. A full description of the painting will be found 
 in the chapter entitled "World-Pictures." 
 
 The same cathedral contains the " Elevation of the 
 Cross," large and powerful, but repulsive; also an altar-piece 
 of the " Assumption of the Virgin ; " while in the church of 
 St.-Jacques, not far off, is the tomb of Rubens, together 
 with his " Holy Family," a varied and singular group, where 
 sacred personages are represented by different members of 
 the artist's family through several generations. In the year 
 1620 Rubens was called to France by Marie de Medici, 
 widow of Henry IV. To her orders we owe the immense 
 allegorical series of pictures portraying her history which 
 now meet our astonished gaze in the Gallery of the Louvre 
 She intended them to adorn the Palace of the Luxembourg, 
 where she was then residing. Twenty-one vast pieces of can- 
 vas record the events of her life birth, education, marriage, 
 coronation, etc., terminating in the " Triumph of Truth." She 
 is subsequently depicted as Bellona, Goddess of War, holding
 
 294 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 in her hand the statue of Victory, while she is being crowned 
 with laurels." The crowd of innumerable figures, rosy faces, 
 rosier, undraped and animated forms, the gorgeous coloring, 
 royal robes, kingly crowns, and wild confusion of magnificence, 
 must be seen to be appreciated, and cannot be described. 
 More than twenty of Rubens's other paintings are in the 
 Louvre, but we are so confounded by the contemplation of 
 the history of Marie de Medici that we quite forget to notice 
 the others. 
 
 After the death of his wife, in 1626, Rubens was employed 
 in diplomatic missions, and was sent to the court of Spain, 
 where some of his finest efforts are still preserved. The 
 "Brazen Serpent," and the "Adoration of the Kings," at 
 Madrid, are splendid examples of force and coloring. His 
 journey to Spain was followed by a similar embassy to Eng- 
 land ; and biographers relate that on one of these occasions 
 a courtier, who found him at his easel, inquired, " Does the 
 embassador of his Catholic Majesty sometimes amuse him- 
 self with painting ? " " I amuse myself sometimes with being 
 an embassador," was Rubens's composed reply. Such was 
 the admiration evoked by his genius, the charm of his man- 
 ners, and the grace and gallantry of his person, that he 
 received the honor of knighthood from both Philip of Spain 
 and the English King Charles I. His pictures are highly 
 prized in England, especially by wealthy noblemen, and are 
 to be seen in the Dulwich Gallery, at Blenheim. Chatsworth, 
 Warwick Castle, and in other private and royal collections. 
 Among the most celebrated is his " Portraits of the Arundel 
 Family," one of the great English family pictures. " The 
 Earl and Countess of Arundel are under a portico with
 
 THE FLIGHT INTO EGVIT (Rubens).
 
 LATER FLEMISH AND GERMAN PAINTING, 295 
 
 twisted columns; a rich curtain and a landscape are seen 
 beyond. The countess is seated in a chair of state, with one 
 hand on the head of a white greyhound. The earl stands 
 behind, with a hand on her chair. There is a little boy, Earl 
 Thomas's grandson, afterward Cardinal Howard, in crimson 
 velvet, trimmed with gold lace ; and a dwarf on the other 
 side of the dog, with one hand on its back." The National 
 Gallery, London, has no particularly fine specimens of this 
 master, except the " Judgment of Paris," and portraits, espe- 
 cially the " Lady in a Straw Hat," believed to be the portrait 
 of a noted Flemish beauty. 
 
 In 1630 Rubens married the lovely Helena Fourment, 
 whom he has immortalized in so many portraits ; for he was 
 much given to painting the likenesses of both his wives, as 
 well as of himself and of his children. Helena was but six- 
 teen years old, and he fifty-three ; yet they seem to have lived 
 very happily together. They were apparently blessed with 
 all that could make life desirable. Rubens had long since 
 attained universal reputation ; as a colorist he was unequaled. 
 except by the Venetians. The magnificence of his style, 
 which occasionally degenerates into coarseness and sensu- 
 ality, and is specially fond of nudity and ruddy flesh-tints, 
 was enthusiastically applauded. He had more orders than 
 he could fill ; and covered acres of canvas with an ease and 
 brilliancy that threw all other artists in the shade. Wealth 
 and luxury, mental cultivation, domestic comfort, appreciative 
 friends, and world-wide honor, attended his declining years, 
 which were only embittered by repeated attacks of gout. He 
 died in 1640, and was buried in a chapel of the church of 
 St.- Jacques, Antwerp.
 
 296 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Few artists, except Raphael, have had so successful a 
 career; and the success was enhanced by the fact that 
 Rubens was eminently calculated for such prosperity. His 
 animal nature was strong and buoyant; his instincts gay and 
 healthy, but quite unspiritual. His pictures reveal the man : 
 no depth of thought, but lavish richness of fancy, superb 
 harmony of color, fertility, brilliancy, kindliness, and careless 
 and absolute enjoyment of all the good things of this world. 
 His conceptions of sacred scenes were, as might be expected, 
 thoroughly materialistic, and the characters uncompromis- 
 ingly real. "Robust boatmen, blacksmiths, and Flemish 
 peasants, will now ever live on his canvas as representatives 
 of apostles, saints, martyrs, or executioners." One author 
 complains that his Dutch Magdalenes " wring their hands like 
 repentant washer-women." Yet all are full of animation and 
 dramatic vigor. His mythological scenes seem splendidly 
 inexhaustible ; while his groups of children are most natural 
 and charming, as may be perceived in the Museum of Berlin, 
 and in the Munich Pinakothek, where they are carrying 
 festoons and garlands of fruit. 
 
 We begin to realize Rubens's amazing productiveness 
 when we learn that he accomplished with his pupils between 
 three and four thousand works, profusely distributed through 
 all the countries of Europe. Many of them were immensely 
 large. According to a German authority, eight paintings, 
 now at Malines, were completed in eighteen days. In addi- 
 tion to those already spoken of in Flanders and England, are 
 sixty-two pictures at Madrid, more than forty both at Paris 
 and Vienna, sixty at St. Petersburg, about ninety at Munich, 
 a great number at Dresden, Berlin, and Brussels, and an
 
 LA TER FLEMISH AND GERMAN PAINTING. 297 
 
 interesting collection in the Museum of Antwerp. The finest 
 among this vast assemblage are the " Descent from the 
 Cross," and "Elevation of the Cross," in the Antwerp Cathe- 
 dral ; the " Incredulity of St. Thomas," and "Crucifixion and 
 Adoration," in the Academy of that city; as well as the 
 " Holy Family," previously alluded to, in the church of St.- 
 Jacques ; the Portraits of himself and of both wives ; the 
 " Last Judgment," " Battle of the Amazons," " Virgin and 
 Serpent," " Procession of Children," " Susannah and the El- 
 ders," and the " Fall of the Damned," in the Munich Gallery; 
 the "Brazen Serpent," "Holy Family," and "Garden of 
 Love," at Madrid ; " Lady in Straw Hat," in the Gallery of 
 London ; the " Marie de Medici Series," of the Louvre ; 
 the " Flight into Egypt," at Nantes ; the " Four Quarters of 
 the Globe," "Appearance of the Virgin to St. Ildefonso," the 
 " Deluge in Phrygia," and " Portrait of Helena Fourment," 
 at Vienna ; the " Raising of Lazarus," at Berlin ; the " St. 
 Jerome," at Dresden ; and the " Four Philosophers " and 
 " Holy Family " in the Pitti Palace, Florence. 
 
 Even as an animal-painter Rubens displayed unusual 
 ability, as is proved by his " Daniel in the Lions' Den," in 
 Hamilton Palace, England a subject chosen for the sake of 
 the lions, and not of Daniel. Yet, as the versatile artist was 
 more partial to other themes, it is said that when his pictures 
 required the presence of animals they were generally painted 
 in by his friend and fellow-citizen Franz Snyders, who has 
 left us " Boar-Hunts " in nearly every Continental gallery. 
 He excelled not only in wild beasts, but in peaceful vege- 
 tables, and is celebrated both for his culinary and hunting 
 scenes. His successor, Jan Fyt, of Antwerp (1609-1661),
 
 29 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING, 
 
 is the only one who can compete with him in animals 01 
 birds. 
 
 Among all Rubens's pupils, Vandyck occupies of course 
 the foremost place; but Jacob Jordaens also deserves honor- 
 able mention. Jordaens was born at Antwerp, in 1593, studied 
 a while with Adam van Noort, whose daughter he married, 
 and then became the assistant and pupil of Rubens, whom 
 he survived thirty-eight years. He was a clever genre painter, 
 and aspired to fill large canvases in the heroic style. He 
 acquired something of his masters' touch, but' his deep 
 shadows and fiery lights exaggerate even Rubens's coloring. 
 Viardot considers his chef-d'oeuvre to be an allegorical autum- 
 nal picture in the Brussels Museum. The same building 
 contains his " Miracle of St. Martin." Near the Hague are 
 excellent historical scenes, founded upon incidents in the 
 life of Prince Frederick Henry of Orange ; while several more 
 are at Paris and Vienna ; especially the Vienna " Beau-Feast." 
 An "Adoration of the Shepherds " is in Antwerp Museum. 
 
 The name of Anton or Anthony Vandyck has become 
 so familiar to us from his long residence in England, and his 
 portraits painted in that country, that we scarcely think of 
 him as a Flemish artist. He was, however, born at Antweip, 
 in 1599, and was instructed by Rubens, who took great pride 
 in his evident talents, but advised him to confine himself to 
 portraits, for which his genius was peculiarly adapted. As 
 his father was a merchant in good circumstances, many ad- 
 vantages of education were given him, and before he was 
 twenty years old he was admitted as a member of the Guild 
 of St. Luke. In 1620 Vandyck seems to have paid a visit 
 to England, but he soon returned to Antwerp, whence, aftei
 
 LATER FLEMISH AND GERMAN PAINTING. 299 
 
 further practice in Rubens-'s studio, he proceeded to Italy in 
 1623. From three to five years were spent in studying the 
 Italian masters, especially Titian and Giorgione. While in 
 Rome, he painted the portrait of the Cardinal Bentiviglio, 
 now in the Pitti Palace, Florence, and the " Entombment " 
 of the Borghese Gallery. The Flemish artists resident in 
 Rome did not fraternize kindly with the new-comer. Their 
 coarse, rude habits were uncongenial to him, while the extrav- 
 agance and fastidiousness of his tastes caused him to be 
 called the " Cavalier Painter." In Genoa he was flatteringly 
 received. In the latter city he made the acquaintance of a 
 blind and aged lady, .Sofonisba Anguisciola, who had been 
 in her day the most celebrated of female portrait-painters, 
 having been invited in her youth to the court of Spain, and 
 married by Philip II. to a nobleman. Vandyck always spoke 
 of her with enthusiasm, and declared that he " owed more to 
 her conversation than to the teaching of all the schools." 
 
 The prevalence of the plague brought the artist back to 
 Flanders, with ambition stimulated and powers perfected. 
 There he painted the large " Crucifixion," which is thought 
 his masterpiece ; and an altar-piece of " St. Augustine in Ec- 
 stasy," for the church of the Augustinians. Indeed, Van- 
 dyck has left us many sacred pictures, which, if they do not 
 rank so high as his portraits, and are inferior in energy and 
 brilliancy to the works of Rubens, yet possess a delicacy and 
 dignity which are very attractive. The subjects are quiet or 
 pathetic. Such are his "Crucifixion" at Mechlin; his "Cru- 
 cifixions," his " Deposition from the Cross," and " Entomb- 
 ment," at Antwerp ; a " Pieta," at Munich ; a " Vision of the 
 Blessed Hermann Joseph," and " Enthroned Madonna with
 
 300 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Saints," at Vienna ; a " Mourning over the Body of the Sav- 
 iour," the "Three Penitents," and " Ecce Homo," at Berlin; 
 a " Madonna with Partridges," at St. Petersburg ; a " Ma- 
 donna and Child " and " St. Jerome," at Dresden ; a " Be- 
 trayal of Christ," at Madrid ; and a " Virgin and Donors," 
 in the Louvre. 
 
 But a restlessness of disposition, and a love of luxury and 
 splendor too inordinate for his means, rendered Vandyck 
 discontented in his native land. He complained of being 
 unable to live from the proceeds of his brush, though he was 
 constantly employed, both in Flanders and in Holland. 
 About 1630 he determined to try his fortunes in England ; 
 but as he failed of an introduction to the king and the lead- 
 ing nobility, the journey appeared fruitless, and he returned 
 home much disappointed. This was, however, mentioned to 
 Charles I., who quickly invited him to come back, gave him 
 suitable apartments, installed him as his own painter with a 
 pension of two hundred pounds a year, and eventually 
 knighted him. His refined and agreeable manners made 
 him a favorite at court, and especially endeared him to the 
 king, with whom his name is always associated, from the fre- 
 quent portraits of the ill-fated monarch and his family which 
 were executed by his hand. Every one knows Charles I. 
 through the likenesses of Vandyck. Besides his equestrian 
 and full-length portraits in England, there is a picture of 
 the king, in cavalier costume, at the Louvre, which, it is said, 
 used to torment the equally unfortunate Louis XVI. with 
 dismal forebodings ; a full-length figure at Dresden, and 
 other portraits at Vienna and the Hermitage. Queen Hen- 
 rietta Maria is almost as often repeated, as well as several
 
 LATER FLEMISH AND GERMAN PAINTING. 
 
 301 
 
 family groups. The picture catalogued as " The Children of 
 Charles I. " is very beautiful. It is seen in Berlin and Turin, 
 though found in other galleries. The quaint little princes 
 and princess stand demurely and pathetically before the 
 spectator, while a King Charles spaniel is beside the young 
 Charles II. 
 
 The nobles of England were also eager to patronize the 
 illustrious Fleming, and he painted many single figures or 
 family pictures which are held as inestimable relics to the 
 present day. Among them are various likenesses of the 
 Arundels, of the Ladies Percy, the Earl of Northumberland, 
 and the Duke of Buckingham; the Pembroke or Wilton fam- 
 ily picture, which includes ten admirable figures, even to 
 three angels who float in the clouds above and are meant for 
 three daughters who died in their babyhood ; and the splen- 
 did portrait of Lady Venetia Digby at Windsor Castle, and 
 elsewhere. These are more silvery in tone, and not so rich 
 and glowing as his youthful works, but their coloring, though 
 more delicate, is equally harmonious, and wonderfully natural. 
 
 Vandyck's usual prices were forty pounds for a half and 
 sixty pounds for a whole-length picture. He took infinite 
 pains with his sitters, and always succeeded in imparting an 
 expression of elegance, stateliness, and dignity. His own 
 refinement idealized his faces to a certain point, and the 
 graceful costume of the times lent an added charm. Yet, 
 even with liberal orders and payments, his extravagance more 
 than kept pace with his wealth. He led a gay and restless 
 life, and often occupied himself, and dissipated much of his 
 fortune, in the pursuit of alchemy and the philosopher's stone. 
 In his thirty-ninth year he was married, by favor of the king,
 
 302 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 to Marie Ruthven, a relative of the Earl of Gowrie ; but the 
 wife looked down upon the husband, and the husband neg- 
 lected the wife, and both parties regretted the ill-assorted 
 match. 
 
 With the exception of a tour to Flanders and to France, 
 in the hope of obtaining a commission to paint for the Gal- 
 lery of the Louvre, Vandyck continued to reside in England 
 till his death in the winter of 1641. The events of the Civil 
 War, added to repeated attacks of gout, so shattered his 
 health that he did not survive his forty-second year. He 
 was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. Young as he was, the 
 list of his works surprises us. We cannot believe in all the 
 forty pictures at St. Petersburg, forty-one at Munich, nine- 
 teen at Dresden, twenty-two at Windsor, thirty or more at 
 Vienna, besides those in Madrid, Paris, Berlin, Brussels, and 
 other public and private collections. Among the portraits 
 which we must yet notice are " A Burgomaster of Antwerp 
 and his Wife," in the Pinakothek, Munich; a " Bishop," at 
 Antwerp; "Mrs. Margaret Lemon," at Windsor; a "Gen- 
 eral," supposed to be Wallenstein, at Vienna ; a " Countess," 
 at Madrid ; " Head of Van der Geest (GeVartius)," in London, 
 and " Francisco de Moncada on Horseback," in the Louvre ; 
 " Jean de Montfort " and " Cardinal Bentiviglio," in Flor- 
 ence ; also magnificent portraits at Windsor and Hampton 
 Court. His own likeness, a fair, refined, though somewhat 
 weak face, with gray eyes, brown hair, and pointed beard, 
 hangs in the Louvre. He is dressed in green, and his per- 
 son is slender and graceful. 
 
 Contemporary with Vandyck, among the artists of Bel- 
 gium, we find a painter of very different method and tempera-
 
 LATER FLEMISH AND GERMAN PAINTING. 
 
 303 
 
 ment. David Tenieis the younger, born at Antwerp in 1610, 
 was as renowned for genre scenes as his countryman for por- 
 traits. His father had been an artist of considerable repute in 
 the same class of subjects, as is seen by his pictures in many 
 German galleries, particularly those of Vienna and Dresden. 
 The elder Teniers died in Antwerp in 1649, after having 
 carefully instructed his son, who was also so much influenced 
 by Rubens that he is commonly considered his follower, 
 though not his pupil. David Teniers married into the 
 Brueghel family, and shared the taste of his brothers-in-law 
 for delineations of low life, peasant-groups, merry-makings, 
 guard-rooms, tavern-interiors, and the like ; but he is distin- 
 guished above all other genre painters for the perfect truth 
 and force of his details, the marvelous accuracy of his exe- 
 cution, his graphic and satirical touch, and his brilliant, solid, 
 and well-balanced coloring. There was not an atom of 
 poetry in his nature ; but he was keenly realistic, and none 
 could more powerfully depict the homely or humorous side 
 of life. Such artists always address an appreciative public ; 
 and we therefore need not wonder at the growth of Teniers's 
 reputation, nor at his enjoying the continued patronage of 
 the Regent of the Netherlands and the Archduke of Austria, 
 until his death in 1690. 
 
 His acquaintance was everywhere courted ; the crowned 
 heads of Europe were eager to secure his works ; he accumu- 
 lated great wealth, and established himself handsomely in the 
 castle of Troi's Tours, between Antwerp and Mechlin. There 
 he labored with so much ease that he often completed a pict- 
 ure between dinner and bedtime ! His paintings are gener- 
 ally of small or medium size, and frequently crowded with
 
 304 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 figures ; though he occasionally attempted a subject of larger 
 dimensions. But he is most noted for fairs, peasant festi- 
 vals, weddings, and drinking-scenes. He boasted that two 
 leagues of galleries would be required to contain all his pict- 
 ures. Viardot enumerates twenty-three at Vienna, twenty- 
 three at Dresden, sixty at Madrid, forty-seven at St. Peters- 
 burg, fifteen in the Louvre, and fourteen at Munich. An 
 " Alchemist's Laboratory " and the " Temptation of St. An- 
 thony " were two of his favorite themes. The " St. An- 
 thony " he repeated many times, but the best example is at 
 Berlin. " The poor saint kneels, full of anxiety, before his 
 stone altar, the corners of which are just shooting out into 
 heads of monstrous beasts. Beside him stands a devil, in the 
 shape of a Brabant beauty, holding a goblet of wine. All 
 kinds of imps, some in the shape of goats, others like apes or 
 fishes, are twitching at his garments ; others, again, form a 
 circle, and appear to make the most horrible uproar by sing- 
 ing, screaming, or croaking! In the air above, all is wild 
 tumult. There are two knights, who ride on fishes, and tilt 
 with one another ; one is a bird, cased in an earthen mug for 
 a coat of armor, and with a candlestick, with a burning light 
 in it, stuck in his head instead of a helmet. He pierces the 
 other combatant with a long hop-pole through the neck ; and 
 this knight, who resembles a dried frog, seems to set up a 
 fearful scream, as he tosses his arms aloft. All sorts of rep- 
 tiles are flying and creeping about. It would be difficult to 
 mutch the mad conceits and the wild genius of this picture." 
 It is only approached in kind, though not in degree, by some 
 of his grotesque incantation-scenes. 
 
 To the admirers of his style we may commend his " Play-
 
 LA TER FLEMISH AND GERMAN PAINTING. 305 
 
 ers at Backgammon " and " Dives, ou le Mauvais Riche," 
 in the London Gallery; "Alchemist and Dentist," at Dres- 
 den ; " Prodigal Son," in the Louvre ; " Peasant Wedding," at 
 Vienna ; " Fair," and " Feast of Masked Monkeys," at Mu- 
 nich ; the " Fair, with Portraits," at Vienna ; some " Village 
 Festivals," at Madrid ; and the "Archers of Antwerp " and 
 a "Kitchen Scene," at St. Petersburg. "Peter's Denial," 
 with Tenier's own portrait among the soldiers, is also in the 
 Louvre. 
 
 The talents of Teniers were never transmitted either to 
 his children or pupils. His name practically closes the art- 
 history of the Netherlands ; though the same genre subjects, 
 monotonously, carelessly, or vulgarly treated, long prevailed, 
 and are still popular. Two other artists of the seventeenth 
 century, Philippe de Champagne (1602-1674) and Anton 
 Franz van der Meulen (1634-1690), are frequently classed 
 with the French school ; for, though both were born in Brus- 
 sels, both resided most of their years in France, and have 
 left their principal works in the Louvre. Philippe de Cham- 
 pagne, who became attached to the Jansenist party of Paris, 
 was an ardent Port Royalist and a good portrait-painter. 
 We may also examine in the Louvre some of his historical 
 and sacred pieces, such as the "Last Supper," " Pieta," or 
 " St. Mary of Egypt ; " but he is more celebrated for his like- 
 nesses of the Arnauld family and his portraits of the nuns of 
 Port Royal. Van der Meulen, who married the niece of the 
 French court painter Le Brun, was highly esteemed by Louis 
 XIV., whom he accompanied in his campaigns, and whose 
 conquests, including his Flemish victories, he has perpetu- 
 ated on canvas. These representations, which combine land-
 
 306 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 scapes, portraits, pageantries, and battles, are preserved in 
 twenty-three pictures in the Louvre. " The Entrance of 
 Louis XIV. and Marie The'rese into Arras " is decidedly the 
 finest. Four others, still illustrating the exploits of Louis 
 XIV., may be found at Munich. 
 
 Germany furnished through the eighteenth century but 
 short records of any notable painters. Balthasar Denner, of 
 Hamburg (1685-1749), should be mentioned, not so much for 
 original genius as for his excessively patient, toilsome, and 
 accurate finish. His works can bear inspection with a mi- 
 croscope ; for he " copies with scrupulous fidelity every un- 
 dulation, every tint, even the slightest down on the skin ; he 
 makes a hair seem round, and gives the perspective of the 
 slightest wrinkle." He confined himself usually to busts or 
 heads of aged people; though he has also left a very few 
 family groups and miniatures, both in oil and water-colors. 
 One of his critics explains the venerable and almost de- 
 crepit appearance of his heads by the supposition that, how- 
 ever young may have been his sitters when he began their 
 portraits, they must certainly have grown gray and infirm 
 before the labo.ious task could be concluded! Curious ex- 
 amples of his busts may be studied at Dresden, Munich, Vi- 
 enna, Berlin, and Hampton Court. 
 
 Christian Dietrich, born at Weimar, in 1712, bears no com- 
 parison with his predecessors; but he was a clever imitator, 
 a versatile and rapid painter, and became skillful and popular. 
 His " Wandering Musicians " is in the London Gallery, and 
 a "View of Tivoli " at Berlin; but the greater part of his 
 works, numbering about fifty, will be found at Dresden. 
 Among these are a small but pleasing "Madonna and Child,
 
 TATER FLEMISH AND GERMAN PAINTING. 
 
 37 
 
 a " Shepherd and Shepherdess," and " Convent Scenes " of 
 an old capuchin and a prior examining a letter. His etch- 
 ings are admirable but rare. He received the appointment 
 of painter to .he court of Saxony, and died in 1774. 
 
 Anton Raphael Mengs, so highly praised by Winckel- 
 mann, so over-estimated in life, and so honored in death, was 
 born at Aussig, in Bohemia, 1728. His father painted on 
 enamel, and was so determined that his son should be a gen- 
 ius that he named him after Correggio and Raphael, gave 
 him no other plaything than a pencil, and forced him to draw 
 sixteen hours a day. At twelve years of age he took him to 
 Rome, and shut him up week after week, in the Vatican, to 
 study the old masters, with only a loaf of bread and a pitcher 
 of water for his meals. It certainly indicated great talent, as 
 well as great amiability of disposition, that, after this severe 
 training, the young Raphael did not abhor the very mention 
 of art; but, on the contrary, he attained such proficiency 
 that orders and honors were lavished upon him from the 
 courts of Rome, Poland, Spain, and Germany. He was soon 
 made painter to Augustus III. of Saxony ; an office which he 
 only accepted on condition of being permitted to continue 
 his residence in Italy. He executed allegorical frescoes in 
 Rome, on the ceilings of the pope's apartments, and the ceil- 
 ing of the Villa Albani, representing " Apollo en Parnassus 
 with the Muses ; " and was given the title of " Knight of the 
 Golden Spur." His style is classical, but cold. A royal and 
 most flattering invitation brought him to Madrid, where he 
 remained a long time, and left some excellent works. He 
 painted but slowly, as he devoted much time and labor to 
 drawing from models and studies from the antique. His
 
 3o8 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 learning was profound, and he composed valuable treatises 
 on painting in various languages. When his death occurred, 
 in Rome, in 1779, elaborate monuments were ordered for 
 him by the embassador of Spain and the Empress of Russia. 
 A few of his works exist in the Louvre, and at Florence. 
 Munich, and Berlin. The Dresden Gallery holds only three 
 of his paintings, but has several admirable pastels, particu- 
 larly the " Cupid sharpening his Arrow," and the portraits of 
 Mengs and his father. 
 
 His beautiful pupil, Angelica Kaufmann, is claimed by 
 the English school on account of her reception and employ- 
 ment in Great Britain, where she was made a member of the 
 Royal Academy, and requested to assist in a proposed deco- 
 ration of St. Paul's Cathedral. Born at Chur, in 1741, and 
 educated by an artist-father, she was highly accomplished in 
 painting, music, and the languages, and early attracted notice 
 by her loveliness and her talents. The father and daughter 
 wandered through Italy, from Naples to Rome, and from 
 Bologna to Venice, and came in 1766 to England, where she 
 lived for seventeen years, and was admired by Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds, yet made a most unfortunate marriage with a per- 
 son purporting to be a Swedish nobleman, but who, after 
 securing his bride, was proved to be merely a valet who had 
 stolen his master's letters, and introduced himself into society 
 as the real Count Horn. She separated from the impostor, 
 but after his death married a Venetian painter named Anto- 
 nio Zucchi, and her subsequent life was passed in Rome, 
 where she was greatly beloved and appreciated. She died in 
 1807, and was buried with a public procession of the nobility 
 the literati, and the young girls of the city. She painted not
 
 LA TER FLEMISH AND GERMAN PAINTING. 
 
 39 
 
 only portraits, but large historical or allegorical subjects, such 
 as "Religion attended by the Virtues," in the National Gal- 
 lery, London. " Leonardo da Vinci dying in the Arms of 
 Francis I." is one of her masterpieces. But her most charm- 
 ing pictures are the " Vestal Virgin " and " Sibyl," at Dres- 
 den, and her own portrait in the Uffizi, Florence. She lacks 
 force and correctness, and her likenesses are often suggestive 
 of studies in pastel ; but she is graceful and poetic in senti- 
 ment, and an agreeable colorist. 
 
 Reaching thus the limits of the eighteenth century, we 
 shall contemplate a brilliant revival of German art in the 
 works of Cornelius, Overbeck, and Kaulbach ; but these im- 
 portant masters, so familiar to the lovers of contemporary 
 painting, we reserve for a more modern chapter.
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 PAINTING IN HOLLAND. 
 
 ALL Dutch painting may of course be regarded as an off- 
 shoot from the early Flemish school, though the talent which 
 vitalized the slowly-growing art of Holland was of much 
 later date than the time of the Van Eycks. The practical 
 and peaceful burghers of this little country were not startled 
 by any extraordinary burst of genius till the advent of the 
 seventeenth century, when Rembrandt suddenly made them 
 famous. His predecessors may be easily counted. Albert 
 van Cutwater, of whom we have no pictures, but who resided 
 at Haarlem in the fifteenth century, was the founder of the 
 Dutch school ; while his pupil, Gerard van Haarlem, who 
 died early, has left two panels of the " Mourning of Christ," 
 and the " Remains of St. John," now in the Belvedere, Vi- 
 enna, as well as two or three others at Munich. Dierick 
 Bouts or Stuerbout, also of Haarlem, thought to be the im- 
 mediate follower of Hubert van Eyck, furnishes examples of 
 greater excellence. His coloring is soft and glowing ; his 
 figures stiff, yet correct and solemn, and his landcsape back- 
 grounds admirable. Some of his altar-pieces are at Berlin, 
 Bruges, and Munich, such as " The Gathering of Manna,
 
 PAINTING IN HOLLAND. 3 H 
 
 and " Meeting of Abraham and Melchizedek," in the Pina- 
 kothek. 
 
 Cornells Engelbrechtsen, born at Leyden, in 1468, was 
 less attractive. The Town-House of Leyden still possesses 
 from his hand a large altar-piece with wings, of poor execu- 
 tion, representing the "Crucifixion," with its symbolical 
 types. He is remembered, however, as the master of Lucas 
 of Leyden, who was not only the first distinguished Dutch 
 painter, but the successful introducer of engraving into Hol- 
 land, and the valued friend of Albrecht Durer and of Holbein. 
 
 Luc Jacobez, commonly called Lucas of Leyden, was 
 born at Leyden, in 1494, painted well at the age of twelve, 
 and engraved on copper at fourteen. His prints, which 
 number one hundred and seventy-four, have rendered him 
 celebrated ; some are now very scarce and expensive, par- 
 ticularly the " Eulenspiegel," which immortalized a popular 
 clown of a past century. " The Sleeping Monk killed by Mo- 
 hammed," and the " Dance of the Magdalene," are also won- 
 derfully fine and rare. There is a fantastic and whimsical 
 element in many of these engravings, characteristic both of 
 the man and the period, which is almost equally visible in his 
 panels, and shows us frequent contrasts of serious simplicity 
 and strange buffoonery. His life was short but fertile. Not 
 many of his genuine paintings can be discovered, though cata- 
 logue-makers find it convenient to assign early Dutch works 
 to his authorship. A large but unpleasant " Last Judgment " 
 adorns the Town-Hall of Leyden, smaller pictures are at 
 Munich, and a portrait of the Emperor Maximilian hangs in 
 the Belvedere, Vienna. A " Pieta," in the tribune of Uffizi, 
 Florence, and a " Deposition from the Cross," at Paris, are
 
 312 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 noticeable as specimens of his graver style. Their yellowish 
 lights and deep-brown shadows may be effective, but not 
 beautiful. With all his industry, Lucas had a keen apprecia- 
 tion of the pleasures of the world, and his biographers givt 
 graphic accounts of a brilliant tour through the Netherlands 
 in company with the Flemish painter Mabuse. The journey 
 was made in a splendid barge, and enlivened by banquetings 
 and revels. Many fellow-artists welcomed and envied the 
 gay travelers ; yet it has been supposed that Lucas was then 
 poisoned by some jealous rival ; for on his return home he 
 was seized with a severe illness, from which he never wholly 
 recovered, but, after lingering six years upon a sick-bed, died 
 at the age of thirty-nine. 
 
 Hans Schoreel, a pupil of Mabuse, born in 1495, was at 
 this time winning reputation at Haarlem. He had fallen in 
 love during his early years with the beautiful young daughter 
 of a painter, and, to render himself worthy of her, went to 
 study under Michael Angelo. But he staid so many years 
 in Italy that, on revisiting his native land, he found the lady 
 married, and was obliged to console himself with his profes- 
 sion. He settled at Utrecht, and, with the exception of his 
 matrimonial disappointment, led a prosperous and happy life, 
 dying of gout in 1567. The zeal of the Reformers destroyed 
 most of his pictures, but a " Virgin and Child " is in the 
 Town-Hall of Utrecht. 
 
 His pupil Martin Hemskerk, or Martin van Veen, another 
 most unsuccessful imitator of Michael Angelo, was once a 
 favorite in Holland, and still has pictures at Delft and Haar- 
 lem. But the name of Van Veen reminds us rather of Otto 
 van Veen, the instructor of Rubens, born at Leyden, 1558,
 
 PAINTING IN HOLLAND. 313 
 
 He was a very learned and accomplished man, though a very 
 feeble painter. Six of his allegorical pictures, representing 
 the " Triumph of the Catholic Church," are in a cabinet of 
 the Munich Gallery, while others are shown at Antwerp. 
 
 The close of the sixteenth century, and opening of the 
 seventeenth, bring us fairly into the departments of land- 
 scape and portrait painting, in which the Dutch were soon to 
 rival every other nation. We will notice a few of these early 
 artists before we attempt a sketch of Rembrandt, who proved 
 himself a master in all branches. 
 
 Abraham Bloemart, who was born at Gorcum, 1567, and 
 died at Utrecht, 1647, painted history, landscape, and animals, 
 with tolerable fidelity and force ; but was excelled by Jan van 
 Goyen and Jan Wynants, both born about 1600, and sharing 
 the honors of being considered the pioneers of Dutch land- 
 scape-painting. Both were eminently truthful in their copies 
 of Nature, but Van Goyen's pieces are somewhat sad and 
 desolate, while the coloring of Wynants is greener and fairer. 
 A marvelous advance is seen in the works of Albert Cuyp 
 (1620-1691), who still holds his rank among the most charm- 
 ing of all landscape-painters. His father, born, like himself, 
 at Dort, had been an artist of some note, and a pupil of Bloe- 
 mart ; but the son gained and merited the title of the Dutch 
 Claude, and pleases all critics by his lovely effects of light 
 and atmosphere. Sunny mornings and misty evenings fasci- 
 nate us upon his canvas. Often he introduces figures who 
 ride along through the clear, bright fields, with a life-like en- 
 joyment which the spectator shares, as for example in " The 
 Cavalier " of the Dresden Gallery. The English profoundly 
 admire Cuyp, and have secured many of his pictures, some
 
 314 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 of which may be seen in the National Gallery and in the 
 Dulwich Collection. " The Departure " and " The Return " 
 are in the Louvre; and others, scarcely less fine, in Munich. 
 Only a few are left in Holland, as other nations have been 
 more appreciative than his own countrymen. Cuyp some- 
 times attempted flower, fruit, " still-life " pieces, and " inte- 
 riors ; " but his peculiar forte is so decidedly landscape that 
 we need not pause to think of the versatility of his talents. 
 
 The brothers Jan and Andries Both, of Utrecht, born 
 about 1608 and 1610, were also eminent for their rural 
 scenes, and have bathed their pictures in the same rich and 
 melting sunshine. Their coloring is usually deeper than that 
 of Cuyp, but not more luminous. Most of their life was 
 passed in Italy, though their best paintings are in the Louvre, 
 London, Dresden, Munich, and German galleries. Andries 
 was drowned at Venice, in 1654, and Jan died at Utrecht 
 five years afterward. 
 
 The faithful imitation of Nature, which the Dutch have 
 always and everywhere required as the first element of suc- 
 cess, was peculiarly developed in the portraits which at this 
 epoch came greatly into demand. We shall see in Dutch and 
 German collections, especially at Dresden, many curiously 
 realistic and interesting faces, dating from 1600 to 1640, to 
 which we find the name of Mierevelt attached. They seem 
 of a more cultivated and intellectual type than most of the 
 sitters of Holbein or Pourbus ; and we feel a strong desire to 
 hear something of the history of these men and women, gen- 
 erally past middle age, who look at us with such life-like in- 
 tensity from the canvas. Few painters are more vivid than 
 Mierevelt; extremely realistic, yet not commonplace or dis-
 
 ENTRANCE TO A WOOD (Both).
 
 PAINTING IN HOLLAND. $*$ 
 
 agreeable. Little is known of him personally, except that he 
 was born at Delft, in 1567, and is said to have executed five 
 thousand portraits. His son Peter imitated his style. 
 
 Of Frank Hals (1584-1666) and his pupil Adrian Brau- 
 wer we have more definite accounts. Hals is now recog- 
 nized as one of the most vigorous of Dutch portraitists, and 
 also the founder of genre painting. Among his best remains 
 are portraits in the Louvre and in London. A large "Arch- 
 er's Guild " is in Amsterdam Museum. He often carried his 
 free and generous living to dissipation and excess, and so 
 ill-treated his pupil Brauwer that he ran away and went 
 to Amsterdam and Antwerp, where he attracted the notice 
 of Rubens, who would gladly have assisted and patronized 
 him had not intemperance ruined him. Works by Hals and 
 Mierevelt exist in New York, Chicago, and Boston. 
 
 Gerard Honthorst, born at Utrecht in 1590, first opened 
 the way in Holland for those peculiar and masterly effects of 
 night-light and shadow in which Rembrandt was soon to 
 excel. He went to Rome, where he acquired the surname 
 Gherardo " della Notte" Gerard of the Night. After spend- 
 ing some years in Italy, he paid a short visit to England, and 
 then returned home to become the painter of the Prince of 
 Orange. His pictures are numerous and forcible. Several 
 specimens are in Munich and Berlin, such as " Cimon nour- 
 ished by his Daughter," and the " Revels of the Prodigal 
 Son." His "Deliverance of St. Peter by an Angel" is also 
 extremely effective. He was the originator of a favorite sub- 
 ject among Dutch artists a dentist extracting a tooth from a 
 roaring patient. In Honthorst's large composition at Dres- 
 den the dentist operates upon his victim by candle.-light.
 
 31 6 SCHOOLS, AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Rembrandt van Ryn, the pride of his fatherland, and the 
 'Shakespeare of Painting," was born at Leyden, in 1607. 
 In him the genius of Holland culminated. The tendencies 
 of the age conspired most fortunately to develop his charac- 
 ter. With a realistic feeling uncommonly strong, even for the 
 North, he combined a romantic depth of conception which 
 seized not upon form, or superficial charm, or external beau 
 ty, but upon the innermost nature of the subject to be por- 
 trayed ; so that he gives us at once the rudest prose and the 
 most profound poetry but a poetry which would never have 
 produced an adequate result had it revolved within the 
 sphere of Italian sentiment. So, too, the Protestant element 
 of the Netherlands, which often turned away its artists from 
 the lovely yet conventional representations of the old reli- 
 gion, and stripped the halo of sacredness from all inferior 
 merit, often leaving it stranded among the lowest haunts of 
 the people, worked its homely enfranchisement in truth and 
 power upon the earnest soul ; and then directed its attention 
 to the essential poetry which lies at the root of holy things, 
 and can only be discerned by the eyes of the individual 
 mind, without the aid of traditional spectacles. What a man 
 sees thus he will paint or speak with emphasis, if not with 
 grace, as did Rembrandt. 
 
 The events of his life appear to have been imperfectly 
 understood by most biographers. He is often spoken of as 
 having been born in an old mill, married to a peasant-girl, 
 the victim of poverty, obscurity, and avarice, with the dark 
 shadows of his style reflected in his life, and not much light 
 in his death: whereas facts really show us that his parents 
 svere citizens of Leyden, in easy circumstances, who were
 
 PAINTING IN HOLLAND. 3 J 7 
 
 able to send him to a Latin school, and educate him in art ; 
 that his wife " Saskia " was a handsome young lady of good 
 fortune, and of a noble Friesland family, by whom he had 
 the son named Titus ; and that he lived comfortably, and 
 even opulently, at Amsterdam, having gathered around him 
 a fine collection of pictures, casts, and antiquities, which were 
 indeed sold and dispersed, owing to his pecuniary difficulties, 
 after Saskia's death, when he had reached the age of forty- 
 eight or forty-nine. He supposably married again, and though 
 his later years were spent in neglect and retirement, and de- 
 voted to painting, with ever-failing eyesight, he retained his 
 artistic reputation ; and, dying at Amsterdam, was buried in 
 the Westerkerk. A statue has been raised to him, not very 
 far from the small house which is said to have been his last 
 habitation. 
 
 Not only the Dutch and Germans, but foreign judges 
 of all nations, have ever held his works in the most flattering 
 estimation. French critics vie with each other in his praise, 
 in language which often sounds extravagant; and English 
 writers exhaust their eulogies upon his lights and shadows. 
 This point of chiaro-oscuro is his strongest side. In this 
 respect his paintings and etchings, for he was as wonderful 
 an engraver as a painter, will always be unsurpassed. Its 
 peculiarity consisted in a concentrated mass of light in one 
 part of his pictures, and an overwhelming and effective depth 
 of shadow in another. Thus we find at the present day per- 
 sons who profess to take what they call Rembrandt photo- 
 graphs that is, photographs in which one side of the face is 
 brought out in very brilliant high light, while the remainder 
 melts into unusually dark shade. The management of this
 
 3 i8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 peculiarity was with Rembrandt entirely different from that 
 of the later Italian " Tenebrosi." In the first case it was 
 attractive and mystical, in the second repulsive and vulgar. 
 In his earlier works it does not appear so fully developed as 
 in the maturity of his genius. Many of these works may be 
 studied at the Hague, in whose museum hangs one of his 
 most youthful authentic pictures, dated 1631, and entitled 
 " The Presentation in the Temple." There, too, is preserved 
 one of his greatest, though not most agreeable, compositions 
 the " Lesson in Anatomy," which shows the dissection of 
 a corpse by Professor Tulp, who lectures and explains to 
 seven other figures grouped around. The power of this piece 
 is in its graphic portraiture and its natural expressions and 
 attitudes. His portraits are everywhere marvels in art. They 
 unite utter realism with a look as if the soul of the sitter had 
 risen for a moment to the surface, and was just about to tell 
 its history from the speaking eyes and lips yet after all had 
 suddenly retreated, and left you in doubt as to what it had 
 meant to say. This curious suggestiveness is a feature in all 
 Rembrandt's best efforts. He presents to us his own portrait 
 twenty-seven times, in all phases and ages ; and also that of 
 Saskia, whom he loves to adorn with rich dresses, jewels, and 
 drooping chains, as we see her in the Dresden Gallery, hold- 
 ing in her hand a flower ; but strongly-marked faces, like the 
 " Mathematician " and " Burgomaster Six," and wrinkled old 
 men and women, were frequent subjects of his skill. One such 
 old woman in every collection is almost invariably catalogued 
 as his "Mother." His flesh- tints were transparent, yet very 
 yellow, and his shadows intensely brown. " He occasionally 
 finished the hair and beard with the handle of the brush. If
 
 THE RAISING OF LAZARUS (Rembrandt). 
 
 p. 318.
 
 PAINTING IN HOLLAND. 3 ! 9 
 
 any one wished to examine closely his bold juxtapositions of 
 color and thickly-laid high lights, he would push him back, 
 saying that ' paint was unwholesome, and not to be smelled 
 at.'" 
 
 But it is at Amsterdam that we find Rembrandt's mas- 
 terpieces in the " Syndics of the Cloth Hall " and " The 
 Night-Watch." This famous piece is really a day scene, 
 though the strong shadows and vivid illumination produce 
 the illusion of artificial light. Twenty-three life-size figures, 
 in civic armor, are marching through the streets, while a 
 young girl is in the midst of them, with a fowl suspended 
 from her belt. Standards, colors, arms, and drapery balance 
 each other in brilliant and harmonious disorder, and their 
 glow and gloom make this pictured band of soldiers the 
 greatest attraction of the Museum. 
 
 Sacred themes, as well as his fine portraits, afford the 
 clearest evidence of Rembrandt's singular power. He was 
 very fond of Old Testament scenes, with their Oriental cos- 
 tumes, romantic localities, and significant attitudes. The per- 
 sonages and the accessories he copied indeed from the most 
 real and homely models, not caring in the least for beauty or 
 ordinary sentiment, but rendering them with a sort of wild 
 invention, fantastic and original. Such are his " Sacrifice of 
 Isaac," at St. Petersburg; his "Angel Raphael leaving the 
 Family of Tobit, and soaring upward into a Shining Celestial 
 Atmosphere ; " his " Saul and the Witch of Endor ; " his 
 " Blinding of Samson," at Cassel ; his " Sacrifice of Manoah," 
 at Dresden ; and another picture in the same gallery, former- 
 iy known as " The Banquet of Ahasuerus," but now believed 
 to be " Samson among the Philistines." Yet his characteris-
 
 3 20 
 
 SCHOOLS AND M 'ASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 tics are stronger in paintings or etchings from New Testa- 
 ment history. The " Resurrection of Lazarus ; " the " Descent 
 from the Cross," at Munich ; a " Crucifixion," in dark and 
 stormy weather; an "Entombment," in the obscurity of a 
 deep vault; a "Nativity," illuminated by the pale glow of a 
 lamp; a "Resurrection," lit by one single ray in the darkness 
 of the night; and an "Ascension," where Christ lights up 
 the whole scene with the brilliancy emanating from himself, 
 are all examples of his method. But nothing more strikingly 
 illustrates the working of his mind than the sketch in bistre 
 for a " Supper at Emmaus," which is instanced by Charles 
 Blanc a common room; a small, rude table; ordinary 
 chairs for seats ; the two disciples no way above the level of 
 average Dutch peasants. But the figure of Christ has dis- 
 appeared; his vacant chair is filled with dazzling, unutter- 
 able radiance; and the disciples are seized with a sublime 
 terror ; " for in the spot where they had just heard his voice 
 and broken bread with him, they see a supernatural light 
 which has replaced the vanished God." The artist has left 
 us a similar picture in the Louvre, yet with a different con- 
 ception. In the painting " the Lord is there, with a space of 
 light before him; but in the etching he is gone." 
 
 In contrast to these it must be acknowledged that his 
 mythological compositions, such as the " Rape of Ganymede," 
 are often grotesque and coarse, while no one could be very 
 agreeably impressed with the well-executed painting in the 
 Dresden Gallery representing himself seated, and holding a 
 drinking- glass, with his wife upon his knee. Saskia's like- 
 ness may also be discerned in the celebrated " Jewish Bride." 
 In the Louvre are "The Carpenter's Family" and portraits
 
 PAINTING IN HOLLAND. 
 
 321 
 
 of himself, one exceedingly handsome ; with several other very 
 valuable pictures. A few excellent portraits from his hand 
 are now found in the United States. The National Gallery, 
 London, owns a splendid portrait of a Rabbi, an " Adoration 
 of the Shepherds," the " Woman taken in Adultery," an " Old 
 Lady in Cap and Ruff," and others. The New York Mu- 
 seum has the admirable " Gilder " and " Burgomaster." Rem- 
 brandt's numerous etchings and drawings display the same 
 mysterious effects of light and shade as his paintings, and 
 are now rare and costly. Many of them may be examined 
 in the British and Amsterdam Museums. 
 
 Though none of Rembrandt's pupils could reproduce his 
 style, yet he instructed some clever artists who did credit to 
 his training. Govaert Flinck (1615-1660), who also imitated 
 Murillo, not only succeeded in portraits, but executed an 
 " Assembly of the Civic Guard " for the Amsterdam Gallery ; 
 an " Expulsion of Hagar," for Berlin ; and a "Guard-Room," 
 and " Isaac blessing Jacob," for Munich. Gerbrandt van der 
 Eckhout (1621-1674) aspired to compose and color like his 
 master, selecting, like him, from the history of the Bible ; 
 while Ferdinand Bol, of Dordrecht (1611-1681), often rises 
 into independent vigor. Both his portraits and historical 
 pieces are worthy of commendation, especially the " Regents 
 of Hospital," in Amsterdam, and " David's Letter concern- 
 ing Uriah," at Dresden. Solomon Konincx (1609-1668) may 
 not have been in Rembrandt's studio, but was one of his 
 most able followers. His wrinkled faces and aged heads are 
 very powerful ; while his " Reading Hermit," at Dresden, who 
 sits holding an open book, might be attributed to a far more 
 celebrated hand.
 
 322 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 But of all the pupils or successors of Rembrandt none has 
 become so famous as Gerard Dow, or Dou. He, too, was a 
 native of Leyden, born in 1613. His father, who was a 
 glazier, placed him at the age of fifteen with Rembrandt, from 
 whom he learned the management of light and shade, and 
 harmonious blending of colors. His practical and unpoetic 
 nature made no fantastic uses of this knowledge, but turned 
 it to the delineation of quiet and sober scenes, full of homely 
 but never vulgar realism, and minute details. So patient, so 
 laborious, yet so facile and pleasing in coloring, he is truly a 
 marvel of application and skill. A friend once complimented 
 the execution of a broomstick in one of his pictures, but the 
 indefatigable artist answered that he had yet three days' work 
 to do upon it. So particular was he that no speck of dust 
 should ever defile his painting that he is said to have pur- 
 posely worked in a studio which opened upon a ditch. He 
 left two hundred pictures, which are now exceedingly valu- 
 able. All are small in size, and contain but few figures. 
 They are to be found in nearly every extensive gallery. His 
 masterpiece is " The Woman with the Dropsy " (" La Femmt 
 hydropique"}, in the Louvre. A sick lady sits in an arm- 
 chair ; her daughter kneels before her, weeping and kissing 
 her hand. A servant gives her medicine ; and somewhat in 
 front stands the physician who turns to the window and ex- 
 amines a bottle. Next to this may be ranked the " Reading 
 of the Bible," in Paris ; " Poulterer's Shop," in London; and 
 " Evening School," in the Amsterdam Museum, with gleam- 
 ing candle-light upon the faces of the children. In the same 
 Museum he is further represented by some excellent por- 
 traits. His old women are true to the life. He frequently
 
 PAINTING IN HOLLAND. 
 
 3 2 3 
 
 painted his own likeness, as at Brussels, Dresden, Florence, 
 Paris, and London. He lived till 1675 or 1680, and time 
 by no means lessened but rather matured and polished his 
 artistic powers. 
 
 Gerard Terburg (1617-1681) was another cheerful genre 
 painter, who introduces us to comfortable and pleasant apart- 
 ments, where well-dressed ladies fill their elegant domestic 
 sphere. No one ever quite equaled him in the finishing of 
 silk, satin, and velvet. His finest picture is the " Paternal 
 Admonition," at Amsterdam, repeated by himself in the Mu- 
 seum of Berlin. It is better known as " The Satin Gown," 
 from the white and glistening robe of the somewhat portly 
 daughter who stands, with her back toward the spectator, to 
 listen to her father's rnild rebuke. Terburg's works are not 
 so numerous as those of Dow, and are almost as highly 
 prized. " The Guitar Lesson," in London ; " The Lady 
 washing her Hands," in Dresden; "The Music-Lesson," 
 " The Gallant Officer," and other pictures in the Louvre, are 
 good illustrations of his style. 
 
 Bartholomew van der Heist was a very different and most 
 vigorous artist. He was born at Amsterdam, 1613, and died 
 in the same city, 1670. It is there he must be studied, for his 
 best works have never been removed to other collections. 
 Many critics consider him the ablest portrait-painter of Hol- 
 land. His most remarkable production is the " Banquet of 
 the Civic Guard of Amsterdam, on the Solemnization of the 
 Peace of Westphalia." Twenty-five figures, the size of life, 
 each a portrait, are seated at a long table, in careless, easy 
 attitudes, with* splendid accessories of gay banners, glittering 
 armor, and rich drinking-vessels. Sir Joshua Reynolds re-
 
 3 24 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 marked of it, "This is perhaps the finest portrait-picture 
 which exists." There is another celebrated scene in the 
 Amsterdam Museum, called " The Distribution of Archery 
 Prizes," which is repeated, in much smaller dimensions, in 
 the Louvre. 
 
 Following the course of the seventeenth century, we come 
 to a number of Dutch genre painters whom we can but 
 briefly notice. All whom we shall mention are more or less 
 famous in their peculiar line ; all are highly appreciated by 
 those who delight in faithful and simple representations of 
 ordinary life, and rendering of minute details ; all can bear 
 the closest scrutiny, and are sometimes even improved by a 
 microscope; while all have left us pictures wonderfully fin- 
 ished ; though the marvel is, that many of them should ever 
 have been begun ! 
 
 Adrian van Ostade, born at Liibeck in 1610, but settled at 
 Amsterdam, is very favorably known, both in Holland and 
 England. He was fond of peasantry, interiors, rural con- 
 certs, taverns, and vine-wreathed cottages ; and painted 
 nearly four hundred genre scenes, including the " School- 
 master," in the Louvre, and " Alchemist," in London. His 
 brother, Isaac van Ostade, who is less in merit, gives us simi- 
 lar subjects, and also made a specialty of winter-scenes, and 
 the frozen canals of Holland. 
 
 Gabriel Metzu, born in Leyden, 1630, sometimes attempt- 
 ed allegorical and historical compositions, but was far more 
 successful in genre, in which he showed himself one of the 
 most pleasing masters. His coloring is pure and rich, and 
 his execution delicate yet free. His pictures command high 
 prices in England and Germany. Eight are in the Louvre,
 
 PAINTING IN HOLLAND. 325 
 
 among them " The Vegetable Market at Amsterdam," and a 
 " Music-Lesson ; " seven at Dresden, especially " The Poul- 
 terers '' and "The Lace-Maker ; " while Berlin, Munich, and 
 Florence also possess his works. " The Duet " and other 
 examples are found in London. The date of his death is 
 uncertain probably not till after 1667. 
 
 His friend Jan Steen, a gay and able artist, born at Ley- 
 den, 1626, principally devoted himself to portraying the pleas- 
 ures of eating and drinking, in pictures distinguished by easy 
 and rapid touch, attractive coloring, and unusual dramatic 
 effect. He so delighted in wine that he himself kept a tav- 
 ern, and has left behind him an unenviable reputation for 
 drunkenness and riot. Yet he must have been slandered ; for 
 before his death, in 1679, he had certainly painted more than 
 two hundred pictures, which required some soberness and 
 industry. The best of these is " The Representation of Hu- 
 man Life," at the Hague, which apparently makes the whole 
 business of man to consist in opening and eating oysters, an 
 occupation which all the twenty figures, dispersed in various 
 positions over the canvas, are eagerly pursuing. At the 
 Louvre he has only a " Fete " and " Flemish Festival," larger 
 than most genre scenes; at Munich, a "Physician visiting a 
 Lady;" at London, "The Music-Master;" a remarkable 
 " Alchemist " in a private Venetian gallery ; the " Feast of 
 St. Nicholas," and " Lady and Parrot," at Amsterdam ; with 
 numberless " Peasant Groups " in Holland, a " Family Feast " 
 in Florence, and other scenes in German galleries. 
 
 Frans van Mieris (1635-1681) was a less clever but more 
 aristocratic painter. He was a native of Delft, and a pupil 
 of Gerard Dow, who complimented him by calling him the
 
 326 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 prince of his pupils. His finish is as exquisite as a minia- 
 ture, and many of his pictures are kept under glass. He 
 preferred small subjects from high life, especially elegant la- 
 dies, the texture of whose resplendent dresses he gives with 
 the utmost fidelity and delicacy. Several of his works are in 
 the Uffizi, Florence ; fifteen at Dresden, including a " Tink- 
 er," a " Young Girl playing the Lute," and " The Painter's 
 Studio and Portrait ; " fourteen at Munich, particularly the 
 " Lady fainting " and " Woman with a Parrot ; " and four at 
 the Louvre, of somewhat less merit. His son William, best 
 represented at Dresden, imitated his father, but could not 
 equal him in talent. 
 
 Gottfried Schalken (1643-1706), another pupil of Gerard 
 Dow, and a resident of Dort, was especially noted for small 
 candle-light scenes. His masterpiece is "The Ten Virgins," 
 at Munich. " They are seen by night, hurrying to the door 
 of a palace. On the side of the foolish virgins the only 
 light is from a waning moon. The other side of the picture 
 is lighted by the procession of the wise virgins with their 
 flaming lamps." 
 
 Caspar Netscher, who was born at Heidelberg, 1639, and 
 died at the Hague in 1684, was a master of genre, and 
 is well represented in London, and in the Dresden Gallery, 
 where we may find, among other works, " A Young Man 
 writing a Letter," which is thought to be his own portrait ; 
 and " The Music-Lesson," a subject dear to Dutch fancy 
 which he has repeated at the Louvre. A description of the 
 latter picture will serve as an illustration of the general treat- 
 ment adopted for such a scene : " A young girl, in white 
 fatin, is seated near a table covered with a rich cloth, taking
 
 FAINTING IN HOLLAND. 
 
 3 2 7 
 
 a lesson of a music-master who is smitten with her beauty. 
 He presents a sheet of music to his pupil, and, while pointing 
 out with his finger the words of the song, declares his love, 
 but is interrupted by a little page who noiselessly advances, 
 holding a violin." Peter van Hooghe, of about the same 
 date, was a fine painter of sunny interiors and courtyards. 
 His pictures are prized in England. 
 
 Jan van der Meer, of Delft (1632-1695), was a charming 
 genre as well as landscape painter. A masterpiece from his 
 brush, called " The Love Letter," is in Dresden ; the " Milk- 
 maid," in Amsterdam ; and " Young Musician," in London. 
 Nicholas Maes, his contemporary, has also excellent genre 
 scenes and portraits in English collections. 
 
 Adrian van der Werff, born in a village near Rotterdam, 
 in 1659, may be considered as the last of this class of artists. 
 His works are severely criticised, but have been successful in 
 pleasing the popular taste, and belong to all large galleries. 
 He was partial to classical and sacred subjects, which he exe- 
 cuted with some affectation, but with the utmost delicacy and 
 ivory-like polish. His technical merits are great, but he 
 lacks expression. An entire cabinet is devoted to him in the 
 Munich Pinakothek, and he may also be studied at Amster- 
 dam, Dresden, Berlin, St. Petersburg, and the Louvre. 
 Among his best pictures are " Abraham sending away Ha- 
 gar," " The Penitent Magdalene," and the " Adoration of the 
 Shepherds." He died at Rotterdam, in 1722, after a long 
 aud prosperous career. 
 
 The landscape-painters of Holland, who succeeded Cuyp 
 and have given such deserved reputation to Dutch art, now 
 claim consideration. Thtir name is legion, hut a judicious
 
 328 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 selection can be made of the most able and widely known. 
 At the head of these stand indisputably the two Ruysdaels. 
 Solomon, the elder, born at Haarlem, in 1600 or 1610, was an 
 accurate imitator of Nature, but it was the Nature of his own 
 fatherland straight canals and peaceful rivers, bordered by 
 quiet houses and orderly trees ; his nephew Jacob, many years 
 his junior, looked upon the same scenery, rendered the same 
 landscapes, but threw over them a mystic and melancholy 
 
 grace 
 
 " The light that never was on sea or shore, 
 The consecration, and the poet's dream." 
 
 With masterly truth of delineation he could portray a forest- 
 glade, sombre and solemn with its dark-green foliage, its 
 silent pool, or overflowing stream ; or a wide twilight plain, 
 across whose solitary road has fallen a dead and withered 
 tree; or a wild and deep ravine down whose rocky sides 
 leaps a water-fall, while a lonely, ruined castle frowns above it 
 on the height. Every stroke is simple, yet every touch effec- 
 tive. No accessories are employed, and none are needed. 
 We feel, but cannot define, the pathos. It is not enough to 
 say that his outlines are firm and correct, his sunshine and 
 shadows powerfully blended, and his masses of foliage rich, 
 broad, and admirably arranged ; but we must admit that 
 there is an inner sentiment which transfigures these details 
 into poetry. Each picture is an elegy. His works are com- 
 paratively numerous ; over one hundred of them having been 
 purchased in England, mostly by private collectors, though 
 a few are in the London Gallery. Dresden, however, owns 
 his most celebrated pieces the desolate " Monastery " over- 
 looking a shadowy river; the "Chase," or stag-hunt, in a
 
 PAINTING IN HOLLAND. 329 
 
 beech-forest; and the "Cemetery of the Jews," of which 
 Charles Blanc says : " Three or four tombs, composed of large 
 stones, hewn in rough and simple style, lie scattered in dis- 
 order at the foot of a great elm-tree. The unequal and stony 
 soil, rarely pressed by the foot of man, is covered with grass 
 and wild plants. In the background is seen a mass of tufted 
 trees surmounted by the spire of a church. The sky is dark ; 
 but a splendid and glowing sunbeam breaks between two 
 clouds, and falls upon this field of death. The scene might 
 be designated 'Life and Death,' but the splendor of this light 
 has in it something cold and wan which it is impossible to 
 define." 
 
 Holland has allowed most of Ruysdael's best landscapes 
 to pass into foreign countries; though Amsterdam has pre- 
 served a memorable " Water-fall," and a " View of Bentheim 
 Castle," one of the artist's favorite studies. The Hermitage 
 at St. Petersburg has fifteen, and Munich nine excellent pict- 
 ures ; some quite large in size. In the Louvre he is not well 
 represented, except by a " Storm at Sea," where the wind 
 sweeps passionately from an angry sky along the Dutch 
 coast, and lashes the dark waves into foam. Vienna possesses 
 one of his largest and most extraordinary landscapes, called 
 " The Forest." Only " a calm sky crossed by fleeting clouds ; 
 a clump of high trees on a flat, barren country, through which 
 a pathway winds, cut off in the foreground by a stream, and 
 losing itself in the distant horizon " yet none but Claude 
 Lorraine has equaled its simple vividness and suggestive 
 charm. 
 
 Before the death of Ruysdael, in 1682, his friend, or possi- 
 bly his pupil, Meindert Hobbema, was industriously pursuing
 
 330 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 the same style. His treatment of foliage and the arrangement 
 of his foregrounds may equal Ruysdael's ; but the poetic 
 sentiment is wanting, though his coloring is more brilliant 
 and cheerful. Modern judgments are kinder to him than the 
 opinions of his own time; for, though his landscapes were 
 long neglected, they are now very valuable, and sell for four 
 thousand guineas. England has secured his happiest efforts, 
 which are usually warm, sunny, and peaceful; but good spe- 
 cimens may be found at Berlin, and in the Belvedere, Vienna. 
 
 Artus van der Neer (1603-1677), a landscapist of the 
 same period, also succeeded, though in a much more limited 
 range, in combining Dutch monotony and romantic mystery. 
 He is the painter of moonlight, twilight and night-light, 1 pale 
 mists and fantastic fires. In the London Gallery he is rep- 
 resented by an " Evening Scene," and a " River Scene by 
 Moonlight ; " in the Louvre by " Moonlight Views ; " and in 
 Berlin by a "Conflagration at a Dutch Seaport." 
 
 Nicholas Berchem, or Berghem, of Haarlem (1620-1683), 
 began to paint at ten years old, but soon found it necessary 
 to draw inspiration from the landscapes of Italy instead of 
 the scenery of Holland. His pastoral pieces in the German 
 galleries are generally Southern in character, and he loved to 
 introduce " red rocks, blue distances, and festooned terraces." 
 He has executed in the Louvre a "View of Nice," and the 
 " Port of Genoa ; " but his " Crossing the Ford," " Milking a 
 Goat," and "Landscapes with Cattle," better exemplify his 
 style. Sometimes in his oil-paintings or etchings he passes 
 to quite other themes, as in his " Boaz and Ruth," at Amster- 
 dam ; or " A Turk talking to a Woman," at the Hague. 
 
 Another Italianized Dutchman was Hermann van Swane-
 
 PAINTING IN HOLLAND. 33 1 
 
 velt, a native of Woerden, but a pupil of Claude Lorraine. 
 He did not profit much by his advantages, for his coloring 
 remained cold and his manner artificial ; but he is highly 
 praised as an etcher and designer of Roman views. 
 
 Philip Wouvermans, born at Haarlem, in 1619, was a more 
 picturesque and prolific artist. Between seven and eight hun- 
 dred spirited paintings are ascribed to him, though all can- 
 not be genuine. Many are battle and hunting scenes filled 
 with cavaliers, dogs, and horses. His masterpieces are in 
 Buckingham Palace, and National Gallery, London ; a "Hawk- 
 ing Party," at Amsterdam ; also the " Milk-Can," in Dresden. 
 Thirteen of his works are in the Louvre ; forty-nine at St. 
 Petersburg, including "The Burning Mill; " a "Stag-Hunt," 
 and sixteen others, are at Munich; "The Hay-Cart," at the 
 Hague ; and sixty-four at Dresden. It is said that he invari- 
 ably placed a white horse in every picture, as may be seen 
 even in an " Annunciation to the Shepherds," where the steed 
 and his rider watch the angelic messengers from an adjacent 
 hill. Time and study greatly improved his tone and touch ; 
 but he died before attaining his fiftieth year. 
 
 The mention of Paul Potter recalls at once the animals 
 and pastures for which he is famous. Few Dutch painters 
 enjoy more general and practical renown. He was born at 
 Enkhuysen, in 1625, passed his youth at the Hague, and 
 finally removed to Amsterdam, where he died in 1654. Sheep 
 and cattle, grassy meadows, and calm pools, all reposing in 
 -pleasant atmosphere, are his most congenial subjects. He 
 loved animals, not cmly on canvas, but in farms and fields ; 
 familiarized himself with their habits, and carefully copied 
 their traits, down to the falling of a hair, or the point of a
 
 33 2 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 horn, with the most effective coloring, and the most entire 
 accuracy. He might represent them gigantic in size, but he 
 never slighted their finish. The " Young Bull," of the Hague, 
 painted at twenty-two, immediately established his reputa- 
 tion. This immense creature, perfectly portrayed, stands 
 proudly in the foreground, while a shepherd, three sheep, and 
 a cow, complete the group. A " Bear-Hunt," of exaggerated 
 proportions, is shown in the Amsterdam Museum ; and smaller 
 and milder pieces from his hand are tolerably plentiful in 
 England and Germany. The Hermitage at St. Petersburg 
 contains nine of his best pictures, especially " The Condem- 
 nation of Man by a Tribunal of Animals," his famous cow, 
 and a landscape, in which a barn-yard appears to have been 
 let loose, and mixed in sunny confusion with goats and asses, 
 wayfarers and horses. 
 
 The same department of art is further illustrated by 
 Adrian van de Velde, of Amsterdam (1635-1672). Like Pot- 
 ter, he scarcely lived to reach the prime of manhood, yet 
 left nearly two hundred paintings and twenty-six engravings. 
 His animals and landscapes were excellent ; his human figures 
 correctly drawn; and the tone of his pictures clear, bright, 
 and calm, with fine aerial perspective. His large Brabant 
 landscape, in the neighborhood of Antwerp, contains his own 
 and his wife's portrait. Good specimens of his ability exist 
 in Dresden and in the Louvre ; but the name of Van de 
 Velde is better known through Willem, the unrivaled marine 
 painter 
 
 These brothers Van de Velde were the sons of an earlier 
 artist of Leyden, who also made a specialty of marine paint- 
 ing, and was patronized and pensioned in England, but
 
 PAINTING IN HOLLAND. 
 
 333 
 
 vhose memory is now merged in that of his children, Willem 
 and Adrian. Willem was born in Amsterdam, in 1633. He 
 soon displayed his partiality for the sea, and followed his 
 father to England, where there was a constant demand for 
 their pictures, which even now bring enormous prices. Every 
 phase of the ocean has been represented by his brush tem- 
 pest and quiet ; clouds and sunshine ; full-rigged vessels, 
 and shining cities on receding coasts. He also excelled in 
 sea-fights ; and exhibited, with cool impartiality, the naval 
 victories of the English over the Dutch quite as vividly as 
 those of the Dutch over the English. In the National Gal- 
 lery, London, hang nine of his works. The Louvre has a 
 " Calm," small, but very fine in perspective and finish ; the 
 Hague and Amsterdam possess several, including a well- 
 chosen view of the latter city; and a " Storm " and " Calm " 
 are in one of the cabinets of the Munich Gallery. He died 
 in 1707, while his rival, Ludolf Backhuysen, born at Embden, 
 in 1631, was also winning fame at Amsterdam. 
 
 Backhuysen is said to have commenced his career as a 
 writing-master, and to have subsequently given lessons in 
 marine drawing to Peter the Great of Russia. He delighted 
 in shipping, and introduces frigates and fleets into most of 
 his compositions. His coloring is generally opaque and 
 dark, as he preferred rough seas and gloomy skies to serener 
 and transparent air. His pictures, as well as those of Van 
 de Velde, adorn the most important public and private gal- 
 leries of England ; while the " Return of William of Orange," 
 at the Hague ; the " Embarkation of Jan de Witt," at Am- 
 sterdam ; a " View of the Port of Amsterdam," at Vienna ; 
 and the " Seaport of Antwerp." at Munich, may be specially
 
 334 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 enumerated among the variety of his works. His death, al 
 Amsterdam, in 1709, closes the list of Dutch marine masters, 
 and brings us to a brief notice of the delineators of archi- 
 tecture and still-life. 
 
 As painters of buildings, we may therefore first mention the 
 two Hendricks van Steenwyck, father and son, who were pe 
 culiarly successful in depicting interiors of churches, with van- 
 ishing perspective and rich ornamental accessories, as may 
 be observed at Vienna and in the Louvre. Peter Neefs 
 (1578-1656) continued the same architectural style, some- 
 times adding a torchlight illumination to increase the effect. 
 He, too, is represented in the Louvre, though he may be 
 more favorably judged by a " Night Interior," at Munich, and 
 a " Gothic Church," at Vienna. But the most picturesque of 
 these " little masters " is doubtless Jan van der Heyden 
 (1637-1712), who devoted himself to "exteriors" in which he 
 sets before our eyes " every stone in a wall, every tile on a 
 roof, every paving-stone in a street, every leaf on a tree ! " 
 Thus his works, which number about one hundred and 
 sixty, and are dispersed through Holland, Germany, and 
 England, give us most faithful views of many Dutch towns, 
 market-places, and gardens, pleasing in color, and miniature- 
 like in finish. 
 
 Another father and son, Jan Baptist Weenix (1621-1660) 
 and Jan Weenix the younger (1644-1719), both of Amster- 
 dam, are celebrated for their birds and animals, living and 
 dead. The elder Weenix also rendered larger subjects, as 
 in his " Knife-Grinder " and " Young Girl asleep," at Mu- 
 nich; but the younger is known by his cocks, partridges, hares, 
 and other game, especially the " Pheasant " at the Hague.
 
 PAINTING IN HOLLAND. 335 
 
 Both have pictures in Holland, Dresden, Munich, and the 
 Louvre. 
 
 Their pupil, Melchior Hondekoeter, of Utrecht (1636- 
 1695), may be called the painter of the poultry-yard. Though 
 descended from the Marquis of Waterloo, his artistic ambi- 
 tion did not soar above hens and ducks, except possibly to 
 rise on rare occasions to a peacock. He is of course highly 
 esteemed in his native land, and an occasional swan or turkey 
 of his creation has strayed as far as Paris and St. Petersburg. 
 Willem Kalf, of Amsterdam (1630-1693), was an enthusiast for 
 kitchen-scenes, into which he infused as much poetry as the 
 nature of the case would permit. Pots, pans, vases, vegeta- 
 bles, and crockery, attest his skill. 
 
 Among the more modest but more interesting painters of 
 flowers and fruit, David de Heem, of Utrecht (1600-1674), 
 occupies the first rank. His plants, blossoms, fruit, and in- 
 sects, are familiar to travelers in Northern Europe ; while his 
 plates, and glass or crystal vessels, are remarkably well done. 
 Cornelis de Heem, his son, imitated him in the same genre, 
 as did afterward Jan van Huysum, of Amsterdam (1682- 
 1749), whose pictures of bouquets, vases, and birds'-nests, 
 are particularly pretty, and are eagerly purchased for large 
 sums. Rachel Ruysch, daughter of an anatomical professor 
 of Amsterdam, has almost equal reputation for flower-paint- 
 ing, and drew and colored with a precision and fidelity 
 which would put the modern proficients in this branch of art 
 '.o the blush. Bidding farewell to her floral beauties, we 
 Abandon Protestant Holland for fervent Spain.
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 
 
 THE Spanish school of painting, so restricted both in 
 its artistic and geographical limits, so intense in its expres- 
 sion, and so peculiar and national in its characteristics, 
 ranks next to the Italian and German in point of time, 
 and vies with the German in importance. Fortunately foi 
 the public, the only two of its painters extensively known are 
 the very two who give us the essence of Spanish genius ; so 
 that Murillo and Velasquez can well interpret to those who 
 have never visited Madrid or Seville the art of a country 
 where romance and asceticism meet in a strange embrace. 
 No school of painting is so distinctly recognizable, because 
 so uniform, as that of Spain. Its grand features are religious 
 enthusiasm and passionate sensuousness, combined with a 
 singular realism. As Taine observes : " The Spanish paint- 
 ers put before our eyes the type of their race ; a dry, ner- 
 vous animal, with firmly-knit muscles, hardened by his burn- 
 ing suns, and the north wind of his sierras ; dark, austere ; 
 boiling with suppressed passions, and ardent with interior 
 fire." 
 
 Classic art has ever been a stranger in the land. Studies 
 from real life, either in the portraits of its grandees or its
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 
 
 337 
 
 picturesque peasantry, have been almost the only variations 
 from severe or poetic religious representations. The Church 
 has held full sway over the art of Spain, and her power has 
 been exercised with a rigorous hand. Nor could this power 
 have left such universal impress, had not the hearts of the 
 people seconded its authority. Most of the painters were 
 fervent to fanaticism. A state of inspired ecstasy was their 
 highest personal aspiration, as well as a fitting subject for the 
 brush. Their pictures are suggestive ol" auto-da-fts, and still 
 exhale an aroma of the Inquisition. For the Inquisition, 
 which regulated the domestic as well as the public concerns 
 of the Spaniards, had its own idea of the mission and limits 
 of art, and most actively took it upon itself to see that such 
 mission should be fulfilled. The proper instruction of the 
 masses was considered its first object. " For the learned and 
 the lettered," says an author in the reign of Philip IV., 
 " written knowledge may suffice ; but for the ignorant what 
 master is like painting ? They may read their duty in a pict- 
 ure, although they cannot search for it in books." For this 
 reason scenes from the life of Christ and of the saints, but 
 more especially of the Virgin, were multiplied. Praying and 
 ecstatic monks, in every stage of devotion and rapture, were 
 displayed in sombre yet glowing colors to popular admiration. 
 All this was to be done with the most rigid decorum and 
 modesty. No loosely-robed Madonnas or unclad Magda- 
 lenes were ever allowed to profane the public eye. Every 
 scrap of nudity was strictly forbidden. Even the feet of the 
 Virgin could not be naked ; and Murillo himself dared not 
 sin against such a rule. While avoiding the unpoetical 
 attribute of shoes, he has always contrived to conceal the
 
 33 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 feet in clouds or drapery. The penalty for disobedience in 
 such matters was excommunication, a fine of fifteen hundred 
 ducats, and a year's exile ; though a slighter punishment was 
 inflicted upon an indiscreet student who had depicted the 
 Virgin in a wide-hooped petticoat! As may be inferred ftom 
 such restrictions, the knowledge of anatomy was limited in 
 the extreme, but a special grace and facility in painting dra- 
 pery became a characteristic of the school. Numerous ar- 
 tistic questions were gravely considered by the Inquisition, 
 pondered by the painter, and finally decided by a celestial 
 communication to some artist or saint. The problem, for in- 
 stance, whether the devil should be represented with horns, 
 could only be settled on the authority of a vision of St. 
 Teresa! A tail was allowed him, on the theory of general 
 probabilities. Sometimes the Virgin herself appeared, and 
 directed in what dress she should be painted. The blue and 
 white which have become her traditional colors, through the 
 usage of Murillo and painters of similar subjects, were re- 
 vealed as her own chosen robes to Donna Beatrice de Silva, 
 a Portuguese nun, who founded the Order of the Immaculate 
 Conception. 
 
 The early art of Spain shows us no such clear and gradual 
 dawn as we may trace in Italy. Up to the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, only a very few MSS. reward the search of the investi- 
 gator. One of these, a missal of the tenth century, is in the 
 Library of Madrid, "adorned with illuminations and rude 
 portraits of ancient kings." Another, preserved in England, 
 and dating from the twelfth century, is an illumination of 
 some of the writings of St. Jerome. On one of its pages is 
 a representation of the rich man Dives, holding two cornu-
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 
 
 339 
 
 topias as symbols of abundance. A blue Beelzebub, spotted 
 with green, and another violet-colored demon, are harpooning 
 him, while two serpents bite his arms, and two toads his feet. 
 Mention is made of some ancient wall-paintings, said to have 
 existed in 1600, in the church of St. Peter, in the city of Cor- 
 dova, and supposed to have been executed before the inva- 
 sion of the country by the Mohammedans. In a convent of 
 Seville is preserved a portrait of St. Ferdinand III., of the 
 early part of the thirteenth century, "dark and dingy in 
 color, and ornamented with gilding." About the middle of 
 that century, a Spanish painter, named Pedro, appears to 
 have migrated to England, where he attached himself to the 
 court of Henry III., at the moderate wages of sixpence a 
 day; while in the year 1291 a certain Rodrigo Este'ban is 
 recorded as painter to King Sancho IV. 
 
 From this time to the sixteenth century, Cean Bermudez, 
 the Spanish art historian, gives a list of twenty-five painters, 
 the most skillful of whom, however, was an Italian named 
 Stamina, born in 1354, and a pupil of Antonio Veneziano. 
 About 1390 the Archbishop of Toledo caused the cathedral 
 cloisters " to be painted in the style of Giotto," with groups 
 of burning heretics particularly specified among the subjects. 
 But these were all effaced a hundred years ago, to make room 
 for modern frescoes. 
 
 In the fifteenth century distinct schools of painting began 
 to be known in Spain. Toledo took the lead ; then followed 
 Seville, Madrid, and Valencia. But the school of Toledo 
 was afterward merged in that of Madrid, and Valencia in 
 that of 'Seville. At Seville appeared, in 1454, Sanchez de Cas- 
 tro, who painted a gigantic " St. Christopher," in the church
 
 34 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 of St. Julian ; and, in a convent near Seville, an " Annuncia- 
 tion," where the Virgin held in her hand a rosary and a pair 
 of spectacles. But his works may be considered as extinct. 
 The sixteenth century was the heroic age of Spain. The 
 reign of Charles V. opened both Italy and Flanders to his 
 subjects, and the wonderful creations of Leonardo da Vinci, 
 Michael Angelo, and Raphael, were to be seen in primeval 
 freshness. Spanish artists flocked to Rome to study under 
 its eminent masters ; and painters from Italy and the Nether- 
 lands, attracted by tales of royal munificence, brought their 
 pictures and their pencils to the Spanish court. Among 
 them was Pedro Campana, a Fleming, whose " Descent from 
 the Cross," at Seville, so impressed Murillo that he desired 
 to be buried before it. 
 
 At this time, the native schools began to assume charac- 
 ter and importance. Luis de Vargas, born about 1502, in Se- 
 ville, was the first artist of merit in that city of whose labors 
 posterity is able to judge. He was peculiarly austere and 
 devout in his life, and kept by his bedside a coffin in which 
 he was wont to lie down and meditate on death. Being of 
 this disposition, it naturally followed that he gave his entire 
 attention to sacred subjects. He spent twenty- eight years in 
 Italy, and has the credit of being one of the first to teach his 
 countrymen the true method of oil and fresco painting; but 
 his knowledge of such artistic secrets could not have been 
 very thorough, for the frescoes which he executed with great 
 industry, and which gained him at the time much reputation, 
 were so little able to withstand the attacks of decay that 
 they are now almost entirely obliterated. His few remaining 
 works must be studied in the cathedral of Seville. The
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 
 
 341 
 
 finest is entitled " The Temporal Generation of our Lord." 
 The holy Child lies in the lap of his mother; a procession of 
 his ancestors throng around in adoration. Adam is kneeling 
 conspicuously in the foreground, and one of his legs is so 
 well painted that from it the picture has been called " La 
 Gamba." 
 
 Vicente de Joanes, or Vicente Juan Macip, often called 
 Juan Joanes, was born near the beautiful city of Valencia, in 
 1523, and may be regarded as the founder of the Valencian 
 school. Like other artists of that day he dedicated his pen- 
 cil wholly to the service of the Church, and prepared himself 
 for his work by fasting, confession, and the reception of the 
 Eucharist. But in talent he was far superior to his prede- 
 cessors or contemporaries. The influence of the locality in 
 which he lived, with its sunny climate, soft fields, and brill- 
 iant skies, so different from the colder landscapes of Castile, 
 blended with his own pure taste to produce warmth and 
 splendor of color with vivid expression and grace of design. 
 The Spaniards are fond of calling him their Raphael ; but 
 though he had the opportunity to study Raphael's master- 
 pieces in Italy, he is thought to have been himself the pupil 
 of Giulio Romano. His works are rare, except in Valencia 
 and Madrid. As a portrait-painter he excelled ; and one of 
 his finest existing efforts is a most admirable portrait of Don 
 Luis de Castelvy, in the Madrid Gallery. At Madrid is also 
 to be found a series of six pictures on the " Life and Martyr- 
 dom of St. Stephen," with a particularly good figure of Saul 
 the persecutor a subject which could certainly have been 
 studied from real life in Spain. At Valencia he painted a very 
 celebrated picture for the Jesuits, called " La Purissima,"
 
 342 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 modeled upon a vision of his confessor, which was endowed 
 with miraculous powers, and widely engraved. But, accord- 
 ing to Stirling, it utterly disappeared during the War of 
 Independence. In the cathedral still remains a " Baptism of 
 Christ ; " and in the sacristy is a " Good Shepherd," with the 
 lamb upon his shoulder a subject entirely neglected in pre- 
 vious art since the days of the Catacombs. Indeed, the great 
 merit of Joanes is the beautiful and touching conception of 
 Christ which he embodied, particularly in his frequently- 
 repeated pictures of " The Last Supper," the best of which is 
 in the church of St. Nicholas, Valencia. It is small in size, 
 only four feet wide by two high, but is exquisite in detail. 
 Joanes died at Bocairente, leaving behind him an artist son, 
 Juan. 
 
 While Joanes was pursuing his pious labors, far from the 
 atmosphere of the court, Alonzo Berruguete, a native of 
 Castile, born in 1480, was obtaining great celebrity as archi- 
 tect, painter, and sculptor, to Charles V. He had visited Rome 
 with Michael Angelo in 1504, and after an absence of fifteen 
 or sixteen years returned to his own land, to be called by his 
 countrymen the Michael Angelo of Spain. This title must 
 have referred to the variety rather than to the brilliancy of 
 his acquirements. The remains which he has left behind him 
 are principally in decorative architecture and statuary, some 
 of which may be seen at Toledo. He died rich, and was 
 magnificently buried at the king's expense. 
 
 One of the chief merits of Charles V. was his liberal 
 patronage of Titian, many of whose works he added to his 
 tieasures. The emperor, in his enthusiasm for the artist, once 
 remarked that Titian was worthy of being served by Caesar,
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 343 
 
 It is now ascertained that the great Venetian did not himself 
 visit Spain, but was present at Charles's court at Augsburg, 
 and on other occasions in Italy, where he painted the cele- 
 brated portraits which now adorn the Royal Gallery. The 
 ]-ictures thus brought to Madrid aroused boundless admira- 
 tion and delight, and furnished, especially in their glowing 
 color, models for imitation of which the Spaniards gladly 
 availed themselves. Many journeyed across the sierras to 
 study in the same school ; while those at home generally 
 adopted more or less of his style. Philip II. was equally ap- 
 preciative of Titian, and secured his services for the Escurial, 
 that superb palace monastery whose erection was the passion 
 of his reign. Flemish and Italian artists, among whom were 
 Michael Coxie and the eccentric Domenico Theotocopuli, 
 known as " El Greco," labored with assiduity at the pictures 
 and frescoes upon its walls ; but the first native genius sum- 
 moned to assist in the undertaking was Luis Morales, born 
 at Badajoz about 1510, and usually surnamed "The Divine" 
 why, it is difficult to conjecture, unless for the very devout 
 nature of his subjects; certainly not from his treatment of 
 them. He expresses the extreme of religious woe, and the 
 depth of doleful desolation. Crucifixions, Ecce Homos, and 
 Mater Dolorosas, were his chosen themes. No cheerful line 
 was ever drawn by his pencil. But he succeeded in suggest- 
 ing the sorrowful soul beneath the worn and haggard features, 
 and his coloring somet'mes attained a sober richness. He 
 always painted on panel or copper, and finished his pictures 
 with exceeding care and minuteness. They are now scarce, 
 and highly prized. The principal are at Madrid, especially a 
 14 Christ crowned with Thorns," and " The Saviour's Circura- 
 23
 
 344 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 cision," remarkable for the fine heads of the taper-bearing 
 maidens. To him is ascribed in the Louvre a picture of 
 " Christ fainting beneath the Cross," whose authenticity has, 
 however, been questioned. Morales died in 1586, at Badajoz, 
 M here the street in which he lived is named in his honor. 
 
 Alonzo Sanchez Coeilo may be styled the first great 
 Spanish portrait-painter. He was court-painter to Philip II. 
 about 1570, and was much beloved by his royal master. His 
 paintings, mostly portraits, are in the Gallery of Madrid. 
 
 King Philip's favor was shared by Juan Fernandez Nava- 
 rette, commonly called " El Mudo," " the dumb painter." He 
 was born at Logrono, in 1526, and became deaf, after a severe 
 illness, at three years of age, in consequence of which he 
 never learned to speak. His family were wealthy, and gave 
 him a liberal education. He was sent to study art in Italy, 
 and on his return to Spain was commended to the king as 
 one of the painters for the Escurial, where his brilliancy of 
 color caused him to be complimented as the Spanish Titian. 
 Especially worthy of notice is his " Nativity," which contains 
 so fine a pastoral group that the picture is known as " The 
 Beautiful Shepherds." Navarette died at Toledo, in 1579. 
 
 " Pablo de Cespedes, painter, sculptor, and architect ; 
 poet, scholar, and divine ; and equally an ornament of the 
 arts and literature of Spain, was born at Cordova, in 1538." 
 After such a preamble, the reader will eagerly inquire where 
 the works of so distinguished an artist may be studied, and it 
 is melancholy to inform him that scarcely a trace of all this 
 remains, except a very large but very faded " Last Supper," 
 in the cathedral of Cordova. His works are supposed to 
 have been carried away, lost, or destroyed. Yet in his day
 
 PAINTING IN SPATN. 345 
 
 and generation he possessed a most enviable reputation. 
 He had all the advantages of a long residence in Rome, was 
 perfectly versed in modern and ancient languages, and could 
 even converse in Hebrew and Arabic. A fragment of his 
 'Poem on Painting" has been preserved to us. It is esteemed 
 as a classic by all Castilian critics, and a few of its quaint 
 lines may possibly he interesting : 
 
 " His pencils first demand the painter's care, 
 
 Of various size, for various use designed, 
 And formed of quills in which the silken hair 
 
 Of sylvan creatures he must closely bind. 
 The surly wild-boar's stubborn back is rough 
 With store of bristles, wiry, long, and tough. 
 
 " Next from the sweet-pear's variegated stock 
 
 Your palette shape, with surface smooth and shining; 
 
 Pierce then a hole in front, in which to lock 
 Your thumb, the tablet to its place confining, 
 
 While on its polished plane the paints you fix, 
 
 And various shades in nice gradation mix." 
 
 To him succeeded a master who has left not so much fame, 
 but a great many more pictures Juan de las Roelas, born at 
 Seville, in 1558 or 1560. He was the son of a noble family, 
 probably studied at Venice, and finally received the appoint- 
 ment of prebendary to the church of Olivarez, a town north- 
 west of Seville. His coloring was warm and harmonious, his 
 outlines grand, and his style suggestive of Tintoretto. He 
 was peculiarly successful in his delineation of Spanish friars. 
 Sir Edmund Head remarks : " The Carthusians of Zurbaran 
 and the Jesuits of Roelas give us the very essence of those 
 orders," He has only one painting in the Museum of Madrid, 
 "Moses striking the Rock," sometimes called "The Gala-
 
 346 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Dash," from a woman near the foreground who is drinking 
 from a gourd. But in the churches of Seville many of his 
 compositions are still found, among them his masterpiece, 
 ' The Transit of St. Isidore." For the Convent of Mercy he 
 painted a "St. Anne teaching the Virgin to read." "The 
 Virgin kneels before her mother, reading in a missal. She is 
 thirteen or fourteen years old, with a rose-colored tunic and 
 a blue mantle spotted with stars, and with an imperial crown 
 on her head. At her side St. Anne has a buffet with refresh- 
 ments; underneath it are a little cat and dog; close to the 
 Virgin stand a work-basket and some playthings." This 
 picture incurred the severe censure of the Inquisition ; partly 
 on account of the buffet and sweetmeats, but more especially 
 for the reason that it was profanity to suppose the Virgin 
 ignorant of any thing; "for," as one of their authorities de- 
 clares, " if she did not talk from the time of her birth, it was 
 not because she was unable, but because she did not choose 
 to do so." 
 
 But the name of Roelas is more easily held in remembrance 
 as having been the master of Francisco Zurbaran, born in 
 Estremadura, in the year 1598. He ranks next to Murillo 
 and Velasquez, and, excepting them and perhaps Ribera, is 
 more generally known than any artist of Spain. All his char- 
 acteristics are intensely Spanish his deep coloring, impas- 
 sioned vigor, dignified drapery, and fanatic monks. " Sacred 
 rapture, contrition, and enthusiastic ardor, prevail in his 
 paintings." A slight exception must, however, be made in 
 regard to a few of his female saints, who may be allowed to 
 be somewhat tinged with worldliness for example, a " St. 
 Cecilia," who stands playing upon the organ in full court-
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 347 
 
 dress, with spangled apron, hoops, and unmistakable indi- 
 cations of rouge upon her cheeks. 
 
 From his labors at Seville Zurbaran was summoned to 
 Madrid, where he became court-painter, and died in 1662. 
 Philip IV. one day saluted him as " painter to the king, and 
 the king of painters." Critics have called him the Spanish 
 Caravaggio ; but he presents one of the few instances where 
 the Spanish master surpasses his Italian rival. He has Cara- 
 vaggio 's power, without his vulgarity; his effectiveness of 
 light and shade, without' his exaggeration and coarseness. 
 
 Zurbaran's most famous picture is his " St. Thomas of 
 Aquinas," now in the Museum of Seville. At the top of the 
 composition sit the Virgin and Child in glory, with St. Paul 
 and St. Dominic ; and below are fine and almost colossal 
 figures of Thomas Aquinas and other adoring saints and 
 doctors. A beautiful " Infant Christ," asleep with a crown 
 of thorns beside him, is at Madrid ; and a number of his 
 other works may be inspected in the galleries of that city and 
 of Seville The Louvre formerly claimed to possess eighty- 
 two of his pictures, but the collection is now dispersed. An 
 impressive " Franciscan Monk " is in the London Gallery. 
 Others are at St. Petersburg, while at Munich is a " St. John 
 leading Home the Virgin after the Crucifixion," very sugges- 
 tive of the treatment of the same subject by modern artists. 
 Zurbaran's own portrait, taken in youth, represents him mild 
 and handsome, but with intense and serious eyes, and a pro- 
 fusion of long black hair. 
 
 Francisco de Herrara the Elder, born in 1576, was an- 
 other, though much less renowned, painter of Seville. He 
 was remarkable both for his violent style and his violenl
 
 34 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 temper, and distinguished for his free and bold execution, so 
 bold that he would occasionally dash in his colors with a 
 broom ! A large picture of " St. Hermenegild," now in the 
 Museum of Seville, gained him much praise. His "St. Basil 
 Teaching" is in the Louvre. He died at Madrid, in 1650. 
 
 Francisco Pacheco, born at Seville, about 1571? has a 
 wider reputation as an author than an artist. His paintings 
 were commonplace, though most industriously multiplied. 
 He left not less than one hundred and fifty portraits, several 
 altar-pieces, and much decorative work. His largest compo- 
 sition was a " Last Judgment," with a concourse of figures, 
 for the nunnery of St. Isabel. He also executed a full-length 
 portrait of Ignatius Loyola. In his house at Seville he es- 
 tablished a school of art which grew to be extremely popular. 
 Alonzo Cano and Velasquez were his pupils, and Velasquez 
 afterward became his son-in-law. 
 
 His volume on the " Art of Painting " is his most inter- 
 esting memorial. He begins in " chaos and eternal night," 
 winds slowly down antiquity to the Christian era, discourses 
 largely upon the artistic merits of St. Luke, and finally de- 
 scribes with great minuteness his own pictures and those of 
 his contemporaries. One part is especially devoted to a code 
 of rules for representing sacred subjects in the most orthodox 
 manner. This must have been eagerly studied by his coun- 
 trymen from the fact that he was appointed Familiar of the 
 Inquisition in 1618, and authorized to report to the Holy 
 Office all objectionable paintings. His horror at the least 
 indecorum is most strongly expressed. Draperies to the 
 throat are of course a necessity. Ungloved hands may be 
 permitted, but unshod feet are severely condemned. " In the
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 349 
 
 Last Judgment,' the nakedness of the risen souls greatly 
 perplexes his mind ; it being correct from an aesthetic point 
 of view, but inadmissible from an orthodox." He adds spe- 
 cific directions for the mode of treating the " Nativity," the 
 " Crucifixion," and other divine mysteries. 
 
 Aionzo Cano, born at Granada, in 1601, never attained to 
 the greatness of his fellow-pupil Velasquez, yet in the annals 
 of Spain he is deservedly famous. He was not only a painter, 
 but an architect, and an excellent sculptor, coloring his carved 
 figures in a manner then held by public taste to be exceed- 
 ingly charming. By some authors he has been compared to 
 Michael Angelo ; by others, less complimentary, to Albano. 
 which would certainly imply a wide range of qualities ! But 
 we have seen that the Spaniards possess a genius for compari- 
 son. Cano's merits were entirely the result of native devel- 
 opment, for he was never in Italy. His style is both forcible 
 and tender ; vigorous, yet soft in outline, pure in sentiment, 
 and natural in expression. His pictures are chiefly religious, 
 though he also excelled in portraits, and gave particular at- 
 tention to the hands and feet, which in his figures are always 
 accurate and finely formed. 
 
 Though kind and charitable toward the poor, Cano had 
 an impetuous and uncontrolled temper, which sadly marred 
 his life. While at the height of youthful success in Seville, 
 he fought a duel, in which he wounded his adversary, and 
 was obliged to fly to Madrid, where the presence and protec- 
 tion of Velasquez secured him a favorable reception. Some 
 years later he was accused of the assassination of his wife, 
 and to escape arrest retreated to Valencia, where he has left 
 some pictures as a record of his stay. But, incautiously re-
 
 350 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 turning to the capital, he was seized and put to the torture. 
 In consideration of his great abilities as an artist, the king 
 directed that, whatever other punishment should be inflicted, 
 his right hand should not be injured. He never confessed 
 his crime, nor has it ever been ascertained whether he were 
 really guilty. Evidently Philip IV. believed in his inno 
 cence, for he soon afterward appointed him canon of the ca- 
 thedral of Granada, and commissioned him to adorn it with 
 pictures. In spite of much opposition from the associated 
 clergy, he finally retained the position, and remained in Gra- 
 nada till his death, in 1667. 
 
 Spanish art-historians delight to dwell upon Cano's eccen- 
 tricities. His violent temper and hatred of the Jews gave 
 rise to many amusing anecdotes. These ruling passions were 
 so strong in death that he would not receive the last sacra- 
 ments from the hand of a priest who was in the habit of con- 
 fessing penitent Jews; nor would he be consoled with a 
 badly-carved crucifix, which, he complained, disturbed his 
 contemplations, and provoked him beyond endurance. It 
 was exchanged for a simple cross; whereupon his biogra- 
 phers relate that " he died in the most exemplary manner, 
 edifying the by-standers with his piety." 
 
 The largest collection of his paintings is in Madrid ; among 
 them a "Christ wept over by Angels," a meditating "St. 
 Jerome," and " Christ at the Column." Some of his altar- 
 pieces are preserved in Granada and Valencia. In a chapel 
 of the cathedral of Seville is " Our Lady of Bethlehem," and 
 in the church of Monte Sion, in that city, is a striking paint- 
 ing of " Purgatory," with flames of fire running off the heads 
 Most of the royal galleries of Germany and France possess
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 35 r 
 
 one or more specimens of Cano. His portrait may be seen in 
 the Hermitage at St. Petersburg. 
 
 Before passing to Velasquez and Murillo, we must return 
 for a few moments to the school of Valencia, where Juan 
 Joanes was followed, in the middle of the sixteenth century, 
 by Francisco Ribalta, born at Castellon de la Plana, a small 
 town to the north of Valencia. The youthful Ribalta found 
 at first little honor in his own country, for, falling in love with 
 the daughter of his painting-master, the unappreciative father 
 refused to listen to the suit of a pupil whom he considered 
 without either talents or prospects. The wretched lover de- 
 parted for Italy, studied with diligence, and at the end of a 
 few years returned to claim his faithful bride. Coming to her 
 house, which was of course unchanged, and finding his mas- 
 ter conveniently absent, he employed himself, in the intervals 
 of conversation, by finishing a picture which stood upon the 
 easel. The father on discovering it was as pleased and sur- 
 prised as the most ardent novelist could desire, and ex- 
 claimed that the artist " should be his son-in-law, instead of 
 that bungler Ribalta." The happy denotement can be easily im- 
 agined. A success so romantically begun was continued by 
 universal patronage. The archbishop gave him an order for 
 an altar-piece in the college of Corpus Christi, an admirable 
 "Last Supper," which is still left to perpetuate his fame. 
 Other pictures exist in the same college, and in the Museum 
 and churches of Valencia ; many of which are, however, the 
 work of his son Juan, who inherited all his father's abilities. 
 Hare describes them as generally of the " black agony 
 school," except Juan's impressive "Nailing to the Cross," in 
 (1 e Valencia Museum, representing " the Saviour seated upon
 
 35 2 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 the slightly-inclined cross on which he is being fastened, 
 and looking up to heaven in rapt contemplation, while one 
 of the thieves, standing near, with his hands bound, watches 
 tvith intense interest the preparation of the cross to which he 
 is to be fixed." 
 
 The style of the two Ribaltas is so similar that it is almost 
 impossible to distinguish between their paintings. Both re- 
 semble and frequently surpass Sebastian del Piombo. Both 
 died in Valencia, in 1628 the son surviving the father but a 
 very few months. The pictures in the Madrid Gallery are 
 ascribed to Juan. Among them is a "St. Francis of Assisi 
 wakened at Midnight by Angelic Music." In the chapel of 
 Magdalene College, Oxford, hangs an altar-piece formerly 
 described as a Morales, but now believed to be from the 
 hand of one of the Ribaltas. It portrays the Saviour bearing 
 his cross, and, dark in its original coloring, has grown still 
 darker by age. It was captured in a Spanish vessel in the 
 reign of Queen Anne, and, after being for a long time private 
 property, was presented to the college. 
 
 The Ribaltas were succeeded by Josef de Ribera, usually 
 termed Lo Spagnoletto, born at Xativa, near Valencia, in 
 1588. He was a pupil of Francisco Ribalta, but left him at 
 a very early age, and found his way to Rome, where he 
 worked with great diligence but in deep poverty. A benev- 
 olent cardinal, driving through the streets of the city, saw a 
 young man copying a fresco from the fa$ade of a palace, 
 stopped to question him, became interested in the youth, and 
 finally received him into his own family. But his/ntf</ was 
 not happy in his new abode, and soon quitted it to return to 
 his former occupation. The band of artists among whom he
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 
 
 353 
 
 labored called him " Lo Spagnoletto," or " The Little Span- 
 iard," in allusion to his birth and his diminutive height. He 
 was always very proud of his nationality, and, in spite of his 
 life-long residence in Italy, considered himself as belonging 
 to Spain. His favorite models while at Rome were the fres- 
 coes of Annibale Carracci, in the Farnese Palace, and the 
 pictures of Caravaggio, whose daring effects of shadow, and 
 vehemence of attitude and expression, he admired and imi- 
 tated. A short course of study of Correggio at Parma added 
 a little grace and softness to his savage style, and its effects 
 are traceable in a few of his works, as for instance in his 
 "Jacob's Dream," a painting where the main interest centres 
 in the sleeping Jacob in the foreground, and but small ac- 
 count is made of the angelic messengers, or the ladder of 
 glory. 
 
 Leaving Rome for Naples, he was fortunate enough to 
 form the acquaintance of a Neapolitan picture- dealer whose 
 first kindness was to offer him his daughter in marriage, and 
 his second, to exhibit his paintings. Ribera accepted both 
 favors, and soon executed a large and frightful " Martyrdom 
 of St. Bartholomew," which delighted the public, and secured 
 him the lasting patronage of the viceroy. Riches and honor 
 poured in upon him. He bought a magnificent house, rode 
 in his own coach, and lived in splendor. Having reached 
 this position, he was by no means disposed to allow other 
 artists to share the liberality of the court. He headed the 
 disgraceful factions which drove Guido Reni and his col- 
 leagues from Naples, and are thought to have occasioned the 
 death of Domenichino. Many stories are told of his jealousy 
 and evil disposition. In the convent of San Martino, where
 
 354 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 he executed his masterpiece, " The Descent from the Cross," 
 the same subject had been repeated by an artist named 
 Stanzioni. Ribera persuaded the monks that this needed 
 cleaning, "and by mixing corrosive substances with the var- 
 nish he spoiled all the delicate parts of Stanzioni's picture." 
 
 Philip IV. was one of Ribera's devoted patrons, and 
 bought a number of his works for his own palaces and col- 
 lections. Many of his pictures and portraits are still at Ma- 
 drid most of them in the dark and terrible style so con- 
 genial to his temper. His execution was rapid, but his paint 
 often lies upon the surface in thick lines and blotches. Power 
 and vividness were the characteristics at which he aimed, 
 and he pursued them with all a Spaniard's realism, and with 
 the aid of those intense contrasts of light and shadow pecul- 
 iar to the school of the Tenebrosi. His " Martyrdom of St. 
 Bartholomew," " Cato tearing out his Entrails," and " Ixion 
 on the Wheel," may give some idea of his usual manner. His 
 works are also found at Naples, St. Petersburg, and Dresden. 
 In the latter gallery a " St. Mary of Egypt " is one of the 
 few beautiful faces ever created by his brush. An " Adoration 
 of the Shepherds " hangs in the Louvre. Ribera died near 
 Naples, about 1656. 
 
 VeKsquez and Murillo, the great representatives of Span- 
 ish art, must now engage our attention. Diego Rodriguez de 
 Silva y Velasquez, the surname descending, according to An- 
 dalusivn custom, from his mother's and not from his father's 
 family, was born at Seville, in 1599. He was the son of a 
 lawyer, but his pedigree boasted the " blue blood " of Spain. 
 His parents gave him an excellent education, affording him 
 all scholastic advantages, and instilling into him " the milk
 
 DEPOSITION OF CHRIST
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 
 
 355 
 
 of the fear of God " a moral training whose effect he after- 
 ward exhibited in the benevolence of his disposition and his 
 kindness to fellow-artists. Francisco Herrara, of whom we 
 have already spoken, was his first instructor in painting, but 
 his fierceness of style and temper was so repugnant to the 
 young Velasquez that he exchanged his studio for that of the 
 amiable but less vigorous Pacheco. The pupil soon surpassed 
 the master, yet he turned the connection to romantic account 
 by marrying Pacheco 's daughter, and by securing for himself 
 the profound and unalterable attachment of his father-in-law. 
 Meanwhile he studied diligently, resolving to copy every 
 thing from Nature, from man to fishes. In this scrupulous 
 fidelity lay the germ of all his future success as a portrait, his- 
 torical, and genre painter. Pacheco relates that he long kept 
 a peasant-lad who served him as a model in every variety of 
 pose and expression. He was fond, too, of selecting subjects 
 from the ordinary life of the streets, and has left in his 
 famous " Water-Carrier of Seville," often photographed, a 
 striking example of this period of his career. It is a simple 
 piece only a seller of water, with a strongly Spanish physiog- 
 nomy, stopping to supply two thirsty and tattered boys from 
 his glass and jar. 
 
 Soon after his marriage he was called to Madrid through 
 the influence of a courtier friend, and thexe painted as his 
 first picture the portrait of Philip IV., which so enraptured 
 the king that he declared his intention of destroying all other 
 likenesses which had previously been taken of him. But a 
 love of their own representations was so hereditary a passion 
 among Spanish monarchs that it is uncertain whether the 
 intention was ever actually consummated. If it were, the
 
 35 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 losses were soon supplied, for he was ordered to continue 
 painting the king in all situations and positions. " Philip IV. 
 on Horseback " was his chef-d'oeuvre in this branch of art, 
 and was not only applauded by its owner, but by later and 
 more disinterested observers. As a portrait-painter Velas- 
 quez was unrivalled in his realism ; yet he always secured 
 more or less of a noble and dignified expression without in 
 the least sacrificing the resemblance. Such was the royal 
 favor that the court-painter with difficulty obtained permis- 
 sion to visit Italy, a desire which he had always cherished, 
 but which had grown still stronger in his mind since his 
 friendship with Rubens, who came to Madrid as embassador 
 in 1628. At last the king consented to an absence of two 
 years, and Velasquez departed for Venice and Rome. While 
 at Rome he applied himself to copying some of the best fres- 
 coes of Michael Angelo and Raphael, but also produced " The 
 Forge of Vulcan," and " Joseph's Coat," which he carried 
 back to Spain, and which are still among his most valued 
 works at Madrid. Having resumed his residence at the 
 court, he naturally resumed his portraits, for which the royal 
 family seemed to offer an inexhaustible field. He also per- 
 petuated the faces and figures of the strange little dwarfs 
 who were at that time the pets of the Spanish nobility. 
 
 Until the appearance of Velasquez, landscape art may be 
 said to have been unknown in Spain. With him it became 
 not only a background for other subjects, but a truthful re- 
 production of the beauty of Nature. His skies, indeed, are 
 sometimes cold, and the tone of his pictures may fall below 
 our present key ; but his delineations are harmonious, often 
 brilliant, and always most faithful ; and his tints so graduated
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 357 
 
 that he "knew how to paint the air." He was accustomed 
 to introduce groups of figures which added animation to his 
 views without lessening their scenic effect. His " Gardens of 
 Aranjuez " and " Prospect of Pardo " are among his finest 
 landscapes in the Spanish Gallery, and his " Hermits of the 
 Desert " is very striking. Some of his historical pieces are 
 equally remarkable, especially the " Surrender of Breda," 
 painted about 1626, and known as the " Picture of the 
 Lances," from a line of soldiers who stand with their pikes 
 relieved against the sky. The same museum possesses his 
 " Topers," a most natural and national drinking-scene. In 
 sacred subjects Velasquez was sever at home. He had too 
 little imagination and too intense realism. He studied Na- 
 ture, and left religion to Murillo. Yet he has given us one 
 wonderful example of his ability even in that direction in his 
 conception of the " Crucifixion," at Madrid. The dead Sav- 
 iour hangs upon the cross ; his head droops upon his breast* 
 and the long hair so falls over his brow as to hide the face. 
 
 In 1648 Velasquez made another journey into Italy, being 
 deputed by the king to purchase gems of art for his royal 
 galleries. This was accomplished to Velasquez's delight and 
 Philip's satisfaction ; and the artist on his return found him- 
 self more popular than ever. It was after this visit that he 
 executed his masterpiece called in Spain " Las Meninas," 01 
 the " Maids of Honor." It represents most vividly, but with- 
 out any charm of color, the " Infanta Margarita who is tried 
 to be amused by her page, while her two dwarfs worry a 
 patient dog which is painted finer than a Snyders. One of 
 the ladies offers a cup of water to the Infanta, who is mealy- 
 faced and uninteresting. In the background are a mirror and
 
 358 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 an open door which admits the light ; while on the left stands 
 Velasquez at his easel. . . . You see on his breast a sprawling 
 red cross, painted evidently by an unskillful hand. It was 
 the gracious answer made by Philip IV. when the artist asked 
 him if any thing was wanting to the picture. This decoration, 
 daubed by royalty, was the accolade of the knighthood of 
 Santiago an honor beyond the dreams of an artist of that 
 day." 
 
 Another celebrated picture, also at Madrid, is entitled 
 " Las Hilanderas," or " The Spinners." " It shows the interior 
 of a manufactory, an immense room, dimly lighted, in the 
 brightest time of the day. Work-women, half naked, are oc- 
 cupied with the different employments of their trade ; while 
 some ladies are being shown some of the completed work." 
 The effects of light and color are here considered very won- 
 derful. 
 
 Most of Velasquez's other works, about sixty in number, 
 are now collected at Madrid. Few, excepting portraits, have 
 been taken out of Spain. At Vienna is, however, a most ex- 
 cellent and characteristic painting, in the same style as " Las 
 Meninas," called " The Family of Velasquez," and exhibiting 
 himself and his wife in an apartment, surrounded by their 
 children, with the portrait of Philip IV. hanging upon the 
 wall, and the artist before his easel. A " Christ at the Col- 
 umn " and fine portraits are in the National Gallery, London. 
 
 The honors of the court, which the favored painter had 
 always so richly enjoyed, proved at last the cause of his 
 death. The duties of his office compelled him to take an 
 active and responsible part in the direction of the festivities 
 held at the Isle of Pheasants in 1660, on the occasion of the
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 359 
 
 conference between the Kings of France and Spain, at the 
 marriage of the Infanta Maria Theresa with Louis XIV. Ex- 
 citement and fatigue consequent upon his labors produced a 
 fatal illness, and he died at Madrid, on the 7th of August, 1660. 
 
 Meanwhile his brilliant contemporary Murillo had at- 
 tained the zenith of popularity. It is pleasant to read of 
 the lives of these two artists, both gifted, happy, and success- 
 ful. They differed much, however, in their early circum- 
 stances. Bartolom6 Esteban Murillo was born at Seville 
 at the opening of the year 1618. His parents were in humble 
 condition, and he himself endured in his youth all the strug- 
 gles of poverty and obscurity. He displayed when very 
 young a talent for painting ; and a relation of the family, 
 Juan del Castillo, was kind enough to instruct him. But 
 Juan soon removed to Cadiz, and left Murillo to pursue his 
 vocation, with the streets and' the market-place for his studio. 
 Meeting a fellow-pupil, Pedro de Moya, who had been 
 abroad, and carefully imitated the works of Vandyck, Mu- 
 rillo was so struck by his improvement, and so seized with 
 longing to make a similar journey, that he at once began to 
 plan for t*he means of travel. His parents were dead, and he 
 had no money ; but the city was continually visited by Ameri- 
 can traders, who were willing to purchase little pictures of 
 saints and Madonnas for the newly-converted inhabitants of 
 Mexico and Peru. He bought a roll of canvas, cut it into 
 squares, industriously covered them with such attractive sub- 
 jects, and sold them all, cheaply but profitably, to the cap- 
 tains of the ships. 
 
 With the funds so procured he started for Madrid, where 
 
 he introduced himself to Velasquez. The amiable painter 
 24
 
 360 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 saw the genius of his young countryman, and advised him to 
 postpone for a while his foreign tour, and to copy at Madrid 
 the works of Vandyck and Rubens, procuring him at the 
 same time admission to the Escurial and to all the royal pal- 
 aces. After nearly three years' study at the court, Murillo 
 relinquished his desire to visit Italy, and returned to Seville. 
 The monks of the Franciscan convent, an order for which 
 many of his best pictures have been painted, desired to orna- 
 ment their cloisters, and selected him for the work. He exe- 
 cuted for them eleven appropriate scenes, which excited the 
 admiration of the whole city, and immediately established his 
 reputation. Most of these were carried off by Marshal Soult ; 
 and one entitled " La Cuisine Celeste," or the " Angels' 
 Kitchen," is now in the Louvre, but dreadfully retouched and 
 restored. It shows us a Franciscan monk, who has been 
 somewhat inconveniently seized with heavenly ecstasy while 
 cooking the convent dinner. He is rapturously suspended 
 near the kitchen ceiling. Several ministering angels conde- 
 scendingly approach the stove, and perform his labors ; while 
 a few astonished brethren adoringly look on. 
 
 From this time Murillo was secure of patronage, and in 
 1648 he married a wealthy and well-born wife from a neigh- 
 boring town. There is a pretty little story of his having first 
 met the lady while painting an altar-piece for a church at 
 Pilas, where, struck by her beauty, he introduced her as an 
 angel into the picture. They lived harmoniously together, and 
 left three children, two of whom were sons. Gabriel went to 
 the Indies; but Caspar took priest's orders, painted occa- 
 sionally in imitation of his father, and died in 1709. The 
 daughter, Francesca, became a nun.
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 361 
 
 Murillo continued to reside in Seville, and enriched the 
 city with his works. He died on. the 3d of April, 1682, in 
 consequence of a fall from a high scaffolding, while engaged 
 in painting a large " Marriage of St. Catharine." Over the 
 gate of the pleasant house in the Calle de Barrabas, which 
 was once his home, a marble tablet has been erected, bearing 
 his name. His reputation during his lifetime was as envi- 
 able as after death. All critics agree in his praise. One of 
 them remarked, in allusion to an " Immaculate Conception," 
 that those who did not know it had been painted by the 
 great artist of Seville would suppose that it had had its birth 
 in heaven. This subject was peculiarly dear to Murillo. He 
 is said to have repeated it twenty-five times, and has been 
 frequently called " the Painter of the Conception." The best 
 of these pictures are at Seville, Madrid, and Paris. His 
 daughter Francesca often served him as a model. Indeed, the 
 innovation of representing the Virgin with dark hair and 
 eyes is entirely of Spanish origin. All other artists held to 
 the locks of gold or brown belonging to the traditional type. 
 In many of his " Holy Families " Murillo has given us the 
 entranced and ethereal Madonna, but oftener still a simple 
 domestic scene, with homely accessories ; or a beautiful 
 Spanish mother and her babe, with earnest eyes, but no spe- 
 cially divine element in her maternity. Such may be found 
 in the gallery at Dresden, at Vienna, and in the Corsini 
 Palace, Rome. 
 
 We are perpetually struck by the variety and .range of 
 Murillo's genius. He succeeded in every thing " the heav- 
 ens, the earth, tatters, and cherubim." As Charles Blanc ob- 
 serves, " he could paint the sacred fervor of the devotee, or
 
 362 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 the ecstasy of the monkish enthusiast, as well as the ragged, 
 ness of the mendicant, or. the abject suffering of Job." He 
 had three styles the cold, the warm, and the aerial. The 
 first of these may be illustrated by his "Beggar -Boys," 
 " Flower-Girls," and abundant studies of peasant-life ; though 
 even here the coloring is generally varied and glowing. 
 The " warm " style characterized his " Visions " and " Ec- 
 stasies," and blended into the "aerial" in those wonderful 
 effects of luminous perspective where we see the heavenly 
 radiance of an angel, or the glory of an " Annunciation " or 
 "Assumption." 
 
 His best series of works was executed for the Hospital of 
 Charity at Seville. Five of these, " Moses striking the Rock " 
 (usually known as "La Sed "), "The Miracle of the Loaves 
 and Fishes," " The Charity of Saint Juan de Dios," " The 
 Infant Saviour," and " The Infant St. John," still remain in 
 their places. The others were captured by the French army. 
 But the masterpiece of all, "St. Elizabeth of Hungary," was 
 returned from the Louvre, and is now placed in the Academy 
 of San Fernando at Madrid. It represents St. Elizabeth, 
 wearing her royal crown, yet with the veil of a nun, standing 
 in a palace-court, ministering to the distressed and poor. 
 Her attendants, in rich robes, hold cloths and pitchers ; 
 beggars cluster round her, and in the foreground bends a boy 
 whose scald-head she is washing. " Her white hands seem to 
 refuse the work which her heart commends. Her mouth 
 trembles with horror, and her eyes fill with tears ; but pity 
 conquers even disgust, and religion triumphs." In the same 
 academy are two other large and celebrated paintings, in- 
 tended to illustrate the founding of the church of Santa Maria
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 
 
 363 
 
 Maggiore, Rome, which owed its origin to a vision of the 
 Virgin, who indicated by a miraculous fall of snow the spot 
 where the basilica was to be built. 
 
 Forty-five of Murillo's remaining works are at Madrid, 
 including an " Immaculate Conception," " Adoration of Shep- 
 herds," and "Vision of St. Augustine." But it is at Seville 
 that he appears to the best advantage. In the cathedral of 
 that city is the famous "St. Anthony of Padua." "Kneeling 
 near a table, the shaven, brown-frocked saint is surprised by 
 a visit from the infant Jesus, a charming naked babe, who 
 descends in a golden air of glory, walking the bright air as if 
 it were the earth, while around him floats and hovers a com- 
 pany of cherubs in a rich garland of graceful forms and 
 lovely faces. Gazing up in rapture at this dazzling vision, 
 the saint kneels, with arms outstretched, to receive the ap- 
 proaching Saviour. On the table at his side there is a vase 
 of white lilies, painted with such skill that birds wandering 
 among the aisles have been seen attempting to perch on it, 
 and peck the flowers ; while at the left an arch discloses the 
 perspective of the cloister." The same cathedral contains 
 the beautiful " Guardian Angel," leading by the hand a little 
 child. The Museum possesses seventeen of his pictures, 
 among them the "Conception," usually called "The Pearl of 
 Conceptions ; " a fine " Nativity ; " a " St. Francis embracing 
 the Crucified Saviour; " " Saints Rufina and Justa," the patron 
 saints of Seville ; the " Charity of St. Thomas of Villanueva," 
 Murillo's own favorite ; and the curious " Virgen de la Ser- 
 viletta," of which they tell the tradition that it was painted 
 for the cook of a Capuchin convent on a dinner-napkin. It 
 is a Madonna with the Infant leaning forward out of her
 
 364 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 arms, very small in size but brilliant in golden coloring, and 
 has been well engraved at Madrid. 
 
 The galleries of Europe can fortunately boast a number of 
 " Murillos." The most popular are the lovely " Conception " 
 of the Louvre, where the Virgin is borne upward on clouds, 
 bathed in celestial light, and surrounded by vast drapery, her 
 longing glance seeking to precede her ascent heavenward ; a 
 " Holy Family," also in the Louvre, sometimes called a "Trin- 
 ity," from the figure of God the Father who bends above 
 " Conceptions " and " Madonnas " at St. Petersburg and 
 Florence ; a repetition of the " St. Anthony of Padua," in 
 the Museum of Berlin ; the series of " Beggar-Boys," in the 
 Pinakothek, Munich ; the well-known " Flower-Girl " of the 
 Dulwich Collection, England ; and the " Divine Shepherd," 
 in the National Gallery, London. 
 
 Before his death it was Murillo's great desire to establish 
 an academy of art at Seville. This he accomplished in 1658, 
 with the cooperation of Valde"s Leal, of whom we shall pres- 
 ently speak. But the academy, so auspiciously begun, soon 
 languished, and in less than fifty years became extinct. 
 
 Juan de Valde"s Leal, born at Cordova, in 1630, regarded 
 himself as a rival of Murillo, though posterity has never ap- 
 peared to pay much attention to the competition. Yet he was 
 an artist of no little merit, and has left many works at Seville, 
 one of the finest being a " Baptism of St. Dominic," in the 
 Museum. For the Hospital of Charity in that city he painted 
 two curious and still existing pictures illustrative of the vanity 
 of worldly grandeur. "One represents a table heaped with 
 tiaras, crowns, badges of knighthood, and other gewgaws of 
 state, with a taper beside them, which Death, carrying a coffin
 
 MADONNA AND CHILD (Murtllo). 
 
 P- 364-
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 365 
 
 under one arm, extinguishes with the bony fingers of the 
 other hand. Round the flame of the taper are the words, '/ 
 ictu oculi.' On the floor is an open coffin, with its velvet and 
 ornaments tattered and broken, and revealing a crowned and 
 grinning corpse within. The companion-piece represents a 
 hand holding a pair of scales, in which the sins of the world 
 in the form of bats, peacocks, serpents, and other symbolical 
 creatures, are weighed against the nails, reed, and the rest of 
 the emblems of the Cross and Passion of our Lord, and 
 found wanting." 
 
 Leal died of palsy, in 1691. He was the last distinguished 
 artist of the school of Seville. His pupil, Palomino y Velasco, 
 has indeed acquired considerable reputation, but rather as 
 an art-historian than a painter. His frescoes are but feeble, 
 and his talents second rate. Yet- his biographies of the paint- 
 ers, which he calls the " Picturesque Laureled Spanish Par- 
 nassus," are so interesting that he is frequently styled " The 
 Vasari of Spain." His associate, Claudio Coello, stands in 
 the same relation to the Spanish as Carlo Maratti to the 
 Italian school. His best altar-piece is in the Escurial, but he 
 is also represented in the Madrid Gallery. 
 
 After this period the annals of Spanish art furnish litle 
 more than a succession of empty names. The house of 
 Austria left no legacies of genius to the unfortunate Bour- 
 bons. But before closing the records of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, we must not omit a sketch of a painter who, though of 
 foreigr. origin, deluged Madrid with his works, and obtained 
 in his day almost as great a share of royal favor as Titian 
 himself. Luca Giordano, born in Naples, 1632, was so mar- 
 velously precocious as to give promise 'f a career more brill-
 
 366 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 iant than Raphael's. At eight years of age he painted two 
 cherubs in fresco on one of the Neapolitan churches, with a 
 grace and ability which at once secured him an education 
 under the patronage of the viceroy. Unfortunately, however, 
 his future efforts ran rather in the line of quantity than qual- 
 ity. He studied in the school of Ribera with furious energy 
 went to Rome, and copied nearly every thing which came in 
 his way, acquiring for himself the sobriquet of " Fa Presto " 
 ("Make Haste"). After multiplied labors in Italy he was 
 summoned by Charles II. to the court of Spain, and reached 
 Madrid in 1692. The king was charmed with the new-comer, 
 and for ten years lavished upon him every mark of honor. 
 He was employed to decorate the Escurial, beginning with 
 the staircase, on whose vaulted roof he represented " The 
 Most Holy Tru-ity, the Heavens, and all the Powers therein." 
 The royal chapel of the Alcazar, and many churches and 
 palaces, were also adorned by his frescoes. He may be said 
 to have painted almost at the rate of "a mile a minute." In 
 three hours he completed a large composition of " St. Michael 
 overcoming the Dragon." His habits were necessarily in- 
 dustrious, and he became enormously rich. He painted 
 regularly every morning from eight o'clock till noon, and 
 again from two till five. A dashing cleverness, grandeur of 
 conception, suppleness of form, and breadth of coloring, 
 characterize his works, whi.ch abound not only in Madrid, 
 but in other European galleries. One of his critics well re- 
 marks that he has left " nothing absolutely bad, and nothing' 
 perfectly good." His " Fall of the Rebel Angels" is one of 
 his most remarkable productions. Fifty-five of his pictures 
 are in the Gallery of Madrid. After the accession of Philip
 
 PAINTING IN SPAIN. 367 
 
 V. he returned to Naples, and died in 1705, aged seventy- 
 three. 
 
 Another highly-appreciated foreign painter of a later date 
 was Anton Raphael Mengs, a native of Bohemia, born in 
 1728. Though he is claimed by both Germans and Romans, 
 as court- painter to the King of Saxony and a long resident 
 at Rome, yet he also entered the service of Charles III. of 
 Spain, and has left in that country some of his finest pictures. 
 He was commissioned by the king to fresco his new palace 
 at Madrid, and afterward painted "The Descent from the 
 Cross; '' a " Nativity," or "Adoration of the Shepherds; " and 
 a ''''Noli me tangere" or "Christ and Mary Magdalene after 
 the Resurrection ; " as well as other frescoes and altar-pieces. 
 
 Through the government of the Bourbons no native 
 master appeared to redeem the decline of Spanish art, unless 
 we except Francisco Goya, born in Aragon, in 1746. He 
 was court-painter to Charles IV., but his style differed widely 
 from that of his predecessors. The religious element in his 
 nature was so utterly wanting that his sacred pictures would 
 have transfixed Pacheco and his contemporaries with horror 
 and dismay. In portraits he was more successful, but his 
 peculiar forte was as a caricaturist of monks and ecclesiastical 
 abuses. Stirling calls him " the Spanish Hogarth ; " though 
 much coarseness was mixed with his satire. He smeared his 
 colors over the canvas in blots and splashes, and was quite as 
 likely to paint with a stick, or with a palette-knife, as with a 
 brush. But his local fame rested principally upon his etch- 
 ings, of which he published a great number. The most cele- 
 brated were " a series of eighty illustrations of Spanish life 
 and proverbial philosophy which he entitled Caprichos, 01
 
 368 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Whims." During this eighteenth century also appeared a 
 pretty conceit of painting the Virgin Mary as the divine 
 Shepherdess, " seated beneath a tree, and feeding lambs on 
 roses." Such an example, by Tobar, may be seen in the 
 Madrid Gallery. 
 
 In closing this sketch of the painters of Spain it may be 
 observed that the War of Independence, though apparently 
 destructive to many treasures of the past, greatly extended 
 the fame of the nation. The masterpieces scattered through 
 Europe roused the deserved appreciation of the genius which 
 Spain had piously hid. We must admire the pictorial gems 
 unblushingly stolen by Marshal Soult and other officers, 
 though we condemn the mode of their acquisition ; and in 
 these days, when engravings and photographs have brought 
 within our view so many of the best designs of great artists, 
 we are, or should be, as familiar with Velasquez and Murillo 
 as with Correggio and Raphael.
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 PAINTING IN FRANCE. 
 
 THE beautiful illuminated manuscripts in the Royal Li- 
 brary of Paris, which we have noticed in the early chapter on 
 " Byzantine and Miniature Painting," form the foundation of 
 subsequent French art. A grace and delicacy of touch, char- 
 acteristic of the nation, is already observable in such manu- 
 scripts as mark the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth cen- 
 turies, especially in the " Psalters " and " Romaunts " of the 
 period. Yet no famous names are attached to such illumi- 
 nations until the time of Jehan Foucquet, of Tours, born 
 about 1415, court-painter to Louis XI., who has left us many 
 miniatures in the. " Josephus " and other parchments pre- 
 served at Paris, as well as in a " Boccaccio," at Munich, and 
 a "Book of Hours, "at Frankfort. We have no panels from 
 him except possibly two in the Louvre, and a " Virgin and 
 Child," attributed to him in the Museum at Antwerp. This 
 is really a portrait of Agnes Sorel, mistress of Charles VII., 
 in the garb of the Virgin Mary, surrounded by angels with 
 red wings. It is a pale, unpleasant picture, in the Flemish 
 style, but without Flemish merits. 
 
 Although very few ancient frescoes now exist in France, 
 apart from the interesting works of Simone Martini, or
 
 370 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Memmi, and other Italians, at Avignon, yet national critics 
 persistently assert that in the time of Charlemagne it was 
 customary to cover whole walls of churches with mural deco- 
 rations, for the instruction of the people ; and that many 
 monks and prelates were accomplished artists. However 
 this may be, we know that glass-painting was practised at an 
 early date, and carried to great perfection by the fourteenth 
 century, as the old cathedrals abundantly testify. 
 
 The good King Rene 1 of Anjou, 1408, patron of minstrels 
 and lover of every form of idealism, also figures in tradition 
 as the executor of several altar-pieces, especially a " Moses 
 and the Burning Bush," in the cathedral of Aix. The authen- 
 ticity of these, as well as of his " Preaching of the Magdalene " 
 to a listening crowd, among whom sit himself and wife, still 
 shown in the Hdtel de Cluny, Paris, is not unquestioned ; 
 though he was without doubt something of a proficient in art, 
 and derived much consolation from it. " He was painting a 
 partridge when the loss of the kingdom of Naples was an- 
 nounced to him, and did not even take his hand from the 
 picture." 
 
 But it is with Jean Cousin that the history of the French 
 school really opens. .The time of his birth has not been 
 accurately fixed, neither are we acquainted with the details 
 of his life, except that he began his career, early in the 
 fifteenth century, as a painter on glass ; completed the beauti- 
 ful windows of the cathedral of Sens, was thrice married, and 
 reached advanced age. His only well-known composition is 
 the " Last Judgment," of the Louvre ; a confused but pow- 
 erful production, where the nude figures of the risen dead 
 strangely mingle with a landscape background of temple,
 
 PAINTING IN FRANCE. 
 
 371 
 
 tower, bridges, and ruins. Cousin was also an able sculptor 
 and engraver, and was versed in literature and mathematics. 
 
 Jean and Francois Clouet, painters to Francis I., were the 
 first eminent French portrait-painters. Their pictures are 
 quite hard and Flemish in truth and precision, yet have an air 
 of French esprit and grace. The Clouet family is supposed to 
 have originated in Flanders, and thence migrated to Tours. 
 Several others of its members were painters. The Louvre 
 attributes to Francois only two authentic likenesses those 
 of King Charles IX., and his wife, Elizabeth of Austria. 
 Many other portraits, either painted by his son, grandson, or 
 pupils, or perhaps copies from lost originals, have frequently 
 been ascribed to him, and are of great value in French his- 
 tory. Clouet portraits also exist in Italy and England. 
 
 The era of Francis I., the royal patron of Leonardo da 
 Vinci and Andrea del Sarto, was particularly marked by the 
 adornment of Fontainebleau, his favorite palace, with large 
 and elaborate frescoes, executed chiefly by Italian artists 
 whom he summoned to his court. These artists and their 
 French followers constituted a separate band, usually spoken 
 of as " the school of Fontainebleau." Most of the frescoes 
 have perished, and none were of any great value as works of 
 high art. They were begun under the direction of Rosso di 
 Rossi, called Maitre Roux. But, as he killed himself in 1541, 
 a Bolognese, Francesco Primaticcio, was sent by the Duke of 
 Mantua to complete the gallery. He was assisted by Nic- 
 colo dell' Abbate. Primaticcio had been the pupil of Giulio 
 Romano, and, though brilliant in coloring, was mannered in 
 design. 
 
 Simon Vouet, born in Paris, in 1590, brings us down to the
 
 372 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 reign of Louis XIII. Vouet's talents were early visible. At 
 the age of fourteen he was a facile portrait-painter, and after- 
 ward cultivated his abilities by travel and foreign study. He 
 accompanied the French embassy to Constantinople, and 
 subsequently spent fourteen years in Italy, where he was 
 made president of the Academy of Rome, and imitated the 
 diverse styles of Caravaggio, Guido, and the Venetians. Re- 
 called to France, he was appointed painter to Louis XIII., 
 whose portrait he has left us. The king and Cardinal Riche- 
 lieu employed him in the adornment of their palaces, as well 
 as in designing the royal tapestries ; and his pictures and 
 decorations became the prevailing Parisian fashion. Le 
 Brun, Mignard, and Le Sueur, were among the pupils who 
 thronged his studio. Several of his paintings, such as the 
 " Presentation in the Temple," and " Roman Charity," are in 
 the Louvre ; while his frescoes still ornament some churches. 
 They display fertility of invention and some picturesque 
 effect, but his too rapid work is marked by the usual faults of 
 weakness of color and want of finish. He died, rich and 
 honored, in 1649. 
 
 Jacques Callot, son of a noble family of Nancy (1592- 
 1635) is rather an engraver than a painter, but his etchings 
 were so universally appreciated that he should take a promi- 
 nent place among the artists of his country. He produced 
 over fifteen hundred prints and drawings, among which his 
 beggar-scenes, his " Miseries of War," and " Temptation of 
 St. Anthony," are regarded as the best. The composition of 
 his works is marked by endless variety. "No corner is un- 
 occupied, and no figure without its meaning." His engrav- 
 ings include a set of national battles and sieges, ordered b>
 
 PAINTING IN FRANCE. 373 
 
 Louis XIII. Viardot ascribes to him only two small paint- 
 ings on copper" The Military Execution," at Dresden, and 
 the " Village Fair," at Vienna. 
 
 Contemporary with Callot, we may now record a sketch 
 of the two artists who were long the pride of the old French 
 school, the great landscape-painters Nicolas Poussin and 
 Claude Lorraine. Of Poussin's antecedents we can say but 
 little. He was born at Andely, in Normandy, in 1593. 
 Though his parents were not rich, they were able to afford 
 him good painting-masters, and many advantages of educa- 
 tion ; but he did not succeed in gaining popularity in Paris 
 during his early life, and at thirty years of age he decided 
 upon a removal to Rome, where he arrived, after a trying 
 journey, poor and comparatively unknown. During his 
 sojourn in Italy, he not only studied painting under Sacchi 
 and Domenichino, but made himself familiar with classic 
 models in every form of art, and became thoroughly versed 
 in anatomy, logic, philosophy, and history. Such themes 
 were congenial to his profound and meditative mind, and, 
 while they yielded him food for reflection, were all reproduced 
 in his pictures. Hence his style, though sometimes cold, is 
 always extremely thoughtful; and he has been termed the 
 painter of intellect no less than the first delineator of heroic 
 landscape. More justly esteemed abroad than at home, he 
 found influential patrons among the Roman nobility, and 
 painted for Cardinal Barberini the " Death of Germanicus " 
 and the " Capture of Jerusalem." Hearing of his reputation, 
 Louis XIII. sent for him to return to France, offered him 
 apartments in the Tuileries for himself and wife, and remu- 
 nerative and honorable employment ; but a short stay at
 
 374 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 court sufficed to weary him, and he went back to his beloved 
 Rome, where he remained till his death in 1665, leading a 
 solitary and studious but contented and industrious life. 
 
 Some of his productions are still kept in Rome, princi- 
 pally in private palaces ; but the majority have been secured 
 by different national galleries. His own prices for his works 
 were very moderate, and he neither obtained nor desired a 
 large fortune ; but they were constantly in demand, and every 
 year increased their value. His preference for the antique, 
 and for the introduction of classic figures among his forests, 
 ruins, and grottoes, somewhat removes him from modern 
 sympathies, and gives a serious and often austere expression 
 to his rural scenes. The large-sized mythological subjects 
 on which he expended so much care are now his least pleasing 
 compositions. We tire of his sculpturesque groups with their 
 studied attitudes and mannered action ; neither is his color- 
 ing genial or glowing, but he is correct, truthful, and sug- 
 gestive to a degree very unusual among French artists ; 
 and his touch is like his character, " manly, noble, and 
 expressively simple." Sometimes he displayed much grace 
 and feeling, especially in his sacred pieces and ideal land- 
 scapes. The Louvre, of course, possesses many of his best 
 works, such as " Diogenes throwing away his Cup,'' " Eleazar 
 and Rebecca," "Judgment of Solomon," "The Triumph of 
 Flora," and the " Israelites receiving Manna;" but none is 
 more beautiful, thoughtful, and poetic than his compara- 
 tively small and sober landscape entitled "The Arcadian 
 Shepherds," of which we will quote Charles Blanc's descrip- 
 tion : 
 
 " In a wild, woody country, the sojourn of the happiness
 
 PAINTING IN FRANCE. 
 
 375 
 
 sung by the poets, shepherds walking with their loves have 
 discovered under a thicket of trees a tomb, with this half- 
 effaced inscription, ' Et in Arcadia ego ! ' (' And I too am in 
 Arcadia!'). These words issuing from the tomb sadden 
 their faces, and the smiles die upon their lips. A young 
 woman, nonchalantly leaning upon the shoulder of her lover, 
 remains mute and pensive, and seems to listen to this saluta- 
 tion from the dead. The idea of death has also plunged into, 
 a reverie a youth who leans over {he tomb with bowed head, 
 while the oldest shepherd points out with his finger the in- 
 scription he has just discovered. The landscape that com- 
 pletes this quiet and silent picture shows reddened leaves 
 upon the arid rocks, hillocks that are lost in the vague hori- 
 zon, and afar off something ill-defined is perceived, that re- 
 sembles the sea." This composition may be as agreeably 
 studied in its widely-known engraving as in the original 
 painting, which at first sight is apt to disappoint the spectator. 
 The Hermitage at St. Petersburg owns many of Poussin's 
 works, but mostly on classical themes ; as are also the few 
 at Munich, among which may be noticed " King Midas beg- 
 ging the Revocation of his Gift of turning every Thing to Gold." 
 The National Collection of London contains an animated 
 " Bacchanalian Dance," " Phocion," and a few other good 
 examples ; but many others are owned by private individuals. 
 The Duke of Rutland possesses the series of the " Seven 
 Sacraments," while " Moses striking the Rock " is in the 
 Bridgewater Gallery. It is interesting to glance at Poussin's 
 portrait of himself in the Louvre, at the age of fifty-six, and 
 notice how the calm, serious, handsome, though somewhat 
 severe face expresses both his temper and style. Another 
 25
 
 37 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Poussin is frequently spoken of in biographies, who should 
 properly be called Caspar Dughet, as his only right to the 
 appellation of Poussin proceeds from his having been the 
 brother-in-law and pupil of Nicolas. He treated landscapes 
 in a manner similar to his master, but with far less ability; 
 and the tone of his backgrounds and foliage has .grown dark 
 and disagreeable by age. A number of his works are in the 
 Doria Palace, Rome ; some at Florence ; and some at Dresden. 
 But of all landscape-painters in any country, none has 
 been so universally appreciated as Claude Gele"e, commonly 
 known as Claude Lorraine. His very name has become 
 synonymous with sunshine and serenity, and it has been hap- 
 pily said that his pictures recall the Golden Age. Ruskin has 
 indeed labored to dispel his charm; but, however plausible 
 may be a theory, few travelers are proof against opposing 
 facts. Tender, glowing light bathes his quiet foregrounds, 
 and even gleams and glimmers in his shadows ; it shines over 
 his rippling seas, and sleeps upon the misty hills; it is the life 
 and joy of his every landscape, and smiles upon the beholder 
 like the blessing of peace. No artist has so excelled in at- 
 mospheric effects ; his aerial perspective makes us feel as if 
 we were gazing from a window upon the scene itself. Yet 
 his pictures are quite ideal in the points of combination and 
 arrangement. He did not pretend to copy Nature accu- 
 rately, but gave his imagination full play among the beauties 
 of forests, meadows, and sea-coasts ; selecting and distribut- 
 ing according to his own will. His light, shade, and color, 
 were most masterly; but he was deficient in a feeling foi 
 form, and in technical correctness. The figures in his land- 
 scapes were usually executed by friendly fellow- artists, his
 
 PAINTING IN FRANCE. 377 
 
 own skill being unequal to the task. He even found it diffi- 
 cult to draw his cows and sheep. The distinction between 
 the leading landscapists of the seventeenth century has been 
 well expressed in Thomson's couplet : 
 
 " Whate'er Lorraine light-touched with softening hue, 
 Or savage Rosa dashed, or learned Poussin drew." 
 
 Although the style of Claude is thus poetic, the opening 
 of his career was prosaic in the extreme. He was born in 
 1600, at Champagne, in Lorraine. Being of very obscure 
 parentage, it was only through the kindness of an elder 
 brother that he was taught to draw, and sent with a lace- 
 merchant to Italy. Modern authorities reject the story of 
 his apprenticeship to a pastry-cook ; but the necessities of 
 his early life in Rome forced him- to enter the service of 
 Augustin Tassi, a rich and popular artist, whose manage 
 he superintended, and in whose studio he was instructed^ 
 Aided not only by his master but by his own irrepressible 
 genius, he distinguished himself at the age of thirty by his 
 attractive etchings and landscapes, and proved his true voca- 
 tion. He was an enthusiastic and patient though ideal stu- 
 dent of Nature. After a brief visit to France he passed his 
 remaining years in Rome, where he died in 1682, leaving be- 
 hind him many works. Among these was a most valuable 
 volume of two hundred drawings, now in the possession of 
 the Duke of Devonshire. He himself entitled it " Libel 1 
 Veritatis," or " Book of Truth," because it was intended to 
 include a sketch of every thing which he had accomplished 
 during his life, and thus to guard against the imitators who 
 would have stolen his laurels by selling their counterfeits 
 as genuine "Claudes."
 
 37 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Singularly enough, very few of his pictures are now to be 
 found in Italy ; the best of those being in the Doria Palace. 
 He is largely represented in England, not only by the " Em- 
 barkation of the Queen of Sheba," the " Marriage of Isaac 
 and Rebekah," the " Narcissus," the marine pieces, and other 
 specimens in the National Gallery, but by many beautiful 
 works in the houses of the nobility, especially the "Worship 
 of the Golden Calf," and the " Sermon on the Mount," owned 
 by the Marquis of Westminster. The Dresden Gallery has 
 two fine examples of his style. The Hermitage at St. Peters- 
 burg prides itself upon a choice collection, particularly the 
 four pendants described under the titles of " Morning," 
 "Noon," " Evening," and "Night." Madrid has several of 
 equal excellence ; while the Louvre boasts some Italian and 
 classical landscapes, and some exquisite marine views in his 
 own peculiar manner " the sea in the distance, shut in in the 
 foreground by palaces and gardens which form a port in per- 
 spective, and the sun beyond, low on the horizon, illuminat- 
 ing by its nre the surface of the waves which are agitated by 
 the breeze." 
 
 If Claude has been called the Raphael of landscape- 
 painting, another of his contemporaries claims the surname 
 of " the French Raphael " in classical art. We may not 
 think the title appropriate in either case, but we will not 
 quarrel with critics. Paris is proud of Eustache Le Sueur, 
 who was born in that capital in 1616, never left France, and 
 died in his native city in 1655. He was the son of an arti- 
 san, but his genius soon gave him deserved eminence. Like 
 all painters of his time, he was required to fresco the ceilings 
 and walls of the fashionable churches and mansions of the
 
 PAINTING IN FRANCE. 379 
 
 nobility. Thus his skill was tested in both sacred and myth- 
 ological scenes ; but he had evidently an enthusiastic spirit 
 which preferred fervent monastic representations, such as his 
 famous series of the " History of St. Bruno," his masterpiece 
 in the Louvre. St. Bruno was the founder of the Carthusian 
 Order, and his legend can be nowhere so interestingly studied 
 as in these twenty-two large pictures. One sees him listening 
 to the preaching of Raymond, the hypocritical canon of 
 Notre-Dame ; afterward assisting at Raymond's death and 
 burial ; teaching theology ; quitting the world ; dreaming of 
 his vocation, and of the seven stars which guide him to the 
 site of the Chartreuse; distributing his goods to the poor; 
 toiling upward to the desert heights; founding his monastery; 
 welcoming novices ; summoned by the pope ; arriving at 
 Rome ; refusing an archbishopric ; praying in his cell ; meet- 
 ing Count Roger ; and finally dying and ascending to heaven. 
 Among these we should particularly notice " The Funeral of 
 Raymond," who raises himself from his coffin during the 
 mass ; the " Vocation of St. Bruno ; " his " Reception of 
 Novices," which forms an expressive and dignified group ; his 
 '* Rejection of the Mitre," which is considered to be the best 
 in color of the set ; his desolate " Journey to the Chartreuse; " 
 and, lastly, his " Death," which is dark in tone, but pathetic 
 and powerful. Twenty-three other authentic pictures hang 
 in the Louvre, especially a " Martyrdom of St. Lawrence," 
 a " Preaching of St. Paul at Ephesus," and the figures of the 
 Muses. The six paintings which portray the " History of 
 Love " are his last works. They have been removed to tho 
 Louvre from the Hdtel Lambert, for which they were origi- 
 nally executed.
 
 380 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 But Le Sueur, though well patronized, was not without 
 rivals. Charles Le Brun was jealous of his merits, and he 
 was no favorite with Colbert, the influential minister of Louis 
 XIV. Le Brun, who was born in 1619, was educated for a 
 painter, having not only Vouet for a master, but studying at 
 Fontainebleau and in Italy. He was presented by Mazarin 
 to the king, and quickly received into favor. The most 
 important labors were intrusted to his taste. The great 
 gallery of Versailles, and a hall in the Louvre, were dec- 
 orated entirely from his designs, and partly by his own. 
 hand. He was also constituted Director of the Gobelin 
 Tapestries, and head of the new French Academy of Paint 
 ing, which was founded in 1648 by Louis XIV. at his solici 
 tation. The Louvre possesses twenty-six of his works, in 
 eluding the series of the " Battles of Alexander ; " these art 
 comprised in five pictures, of which the finest is " The Familj 
 of Darius." Le Brun also attempted many sacred subjects 
 the earliest of which is a " Crucifixion," painted from a drean> 
 of Anne of Austria, and long kept by her in her oratory. 
 Hosts of lamenting angels surround the cross, at whose base 
 lies (inimitably national !) the crown of France on a blue 
 velvet cushion. Other celebrated specimens in the Louvrt 
 are the Holy Family known as the " Benedicite," because tht 
 figures are near a table spread for a frugal meal, while the 
 infant Saviour folds his hands to ask a blessing; and the 
 " Repentant Magdalene," generally supposed to be the por- 
 Jrait of Madame de la Valliere when she had taken refuge in 
 a Carmelite convent. " She looks up to heaven with tearful 
 eyes, and is in the act of tearing off a rich mantle ; a casket 
 of jewels falls overturned at her feet." Mrs. Jameson, bow.
 
 THE HOLY FAMILY (Le Brun). 
 
 p. 380
 
 PAINTING IN FRANCE. 381 
 
 fcvcr, believes that Le Brun's real portrait of Madame de la 
 Valliere is at Munich. 
 
 The style of Le Brun is florid, and eminently French. 
 He has always an eye for scenic effect and theatrical pathos. 
 An able critic remarks that his pictures " bear the same 
 relation to true and simple grandeur in art as Louis XIV., 
 when he made war in his coach-and-six, bore as a general to 
 Julius Caesar." But few of his paintings exist outside of 
 Paris, though a life-like group of the " Jabach Family " is to be 
 found in the Museum of Berlin. As he advanced in age his 
 court popularity somewhat declined ; and before his death, 
 which occurred in 1690, he had the mortification of seeing 
 himself supplanted by Pierre Mignard in the regard of the 
 king. 
 
 Mignard, born at Troyes, in 1610, was another artist to 
 whom we are indebted for some of the most vivid portraits 
 of the reign of the Grand Monarch. Like Le Brun he was 
 instructed by Vouet and at Fontainebleau, and had the 
 further advantage of twenty-two years of Italian practice. 
 Most of these years were spent at Rome, where he copied the 
 frescoes of the Farnese Palace, and thus acquired the manner 
 of Annibale Caracci. Many " Virgins " which he completed 
 at that time are still known as " Mignards." But his sum- 
 mons to Paris by the royal order was followed by the usual 
 agreeable results. He had learned one important secret of 
 portrait-painting the pleasant combination of flattery with 
 truth ; and the king and all the dignitaries of the court were 
 anxious to be immortalized by his brush. We must regret 
 lhat more of these portraits are not placed in the Louvre; 
 but among the few there preserved, that of Madame de Main-
 
 382 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 tenon is of much historic interest. In the same gallery are 
 such sacred pictures as " St. Cecilia," " St. Luke painting the 
 Virgin," and "The Madonna of the Grapes." The fine por- 
 trait of Maria Mancini, niece of Mazarin, has been removed 
 to Berlin. He decorated the Palace of St. Cloud, destroyed 
 in the last war, was created a noble by the king, and at last 
 succeeded Le Brun in his office. His largest work was on 
 the cupola of Val-de-Grace, where he represented a colossal 
 " Paradise," with figures three times the size of life. His 
 pictures are soft, and rather too highly colored; graceful, 
 vivacious, and exaggerated. He died in Paris, at the age of 
 eighty-five. His elder brother Nicolas was also a portrait- 
 painter, while his nephew Pierre was a favorite of Maria 
 Theresa. 
 
 Of the portraits of Hyacinth Rigaud (1659-1743) we have 
 better opportunities of judging. It is true that out of some 
 hundreds of his pictures the Louvre only gives us eleven; 
 but these are most interesting and characteristic. Best of all 
 is his full-length portrait of Bossuet, of which Waagen ob- 
 serves : " The very opposite of Fe"nelon, he stands there with 
 the full consciousness of his own superior intellect ; the light 
 is strong; the painting warm and careful, and the effect 
 powerful, though somewhat spotty." Rigaud has been en- 
 titled the French Vandyck, from the dignified and noble 
 expression which he imparts to his figures; but the ample 
 robes and flowing wigs of the period had doubtless a little to 
 do with this impoaing aspect. Some of his works are owned 
 in England, as may be seen in the Dulwich collection. 
 
 But genre painting, so universal in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury in Germany and Holland, found also its representative
 
 PAINTING IN FRANCE. 3 8 3 
 
 at the court of France. Louis XIV. had no admiration foi 
 low life. When he saw the scenes of Teniers and Ostade in 
 his gallery, he exclaimed, " Otez-moi de lei ces magols ! " It 
 was therefore an elegant and fastidious variety of genre which 
 French taste required, and which was so exactly supplied by 
 Antoine Watteau that it was subsequently called the " Pom- 
 padour genre." He brings before us rural fetes, concerts, and 
 Arcadian pastorals, where all the shepherds are courtiers, and 
 the shepherdesses coquetting maids of honor. They dance 
 beneath the trees, with their powdered wigs and head- 
 dresses ; their enormous fans, hoops, and parasols ; their silks 
 and laces, and ribbons of pink and blue. Nature is a trim, 
 gay park, and life a picnic ! Yet his brilliant paintings are 
 excellent in technique, and his color bright and sunny, for he 
 was a lover of Rubens and Paul Veronese. In the Louvre 
 is "Embarking for Cythera," and other representative pictures. 
 His life was far less cheerful than his works. He was born 
 at Valenciennes, in 1684, of a humble family, struggled into 
 notice through poverty and hard study, and died of con- 
 sumption before he was thirty-seven. His works are com- 
 paratively rare in Paris, but are found in most Continental 
 collections, and in private English galleries. Chardin was 
 more domestic and commonplace in still-life and genre. His 
 best work is " Grace before Meat," in the Louvre. 
 
 Of a very different type was Claude Joseph Vernet (1/14- 
 1789), the eminent marine painter of the reign of Louis XV. 
 He delighted in large sea-pieces, and shows us the ocean " in 
 sun and moon, in calm and tempest, in fog and fire." Charles 
 Blanc says of him : " Without knowing it, Vernet resolved so 
 well the various problems presented by marine subjects that
 
 384 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 an entire book has been composed from the observations 
 suggested by his versatile talent." The Louvre devotes an 
 apartment to his paintings, foremost among which are the 
 different "Views of the Principal French Seaports," exe- 
 cuted by command of the king. Vernet was an amiable and 
 accomplished man, and an intimate friend of the musical 
 composer Pergolesi. As an artist he certainly appreciated 
 his own abilities, for in speaking of Claude, Ruysdael, Cuyp, 
 and Backhuysen, he modestly remarks, " Inferior to each of 
 the great painters in one part, I surpass them in all the 
 others." 
 
 Jean Baptiste Greuze, born in Burgundy, in 1725, though 
 denied admission to the Royal Academy during his lifetime, 
 has always been one of the most admired of French painters. 
 His figures of young girls and female heads are particularly 
 popular. They may be often affected and sentimental ; but 
 they are fair and delicate in their flesh-tints, expressive in 
 their features, and beautiful in their finish. His moral tone 
 is purer and simpler than that of the other artists of his gen- 
 eration. The first work which he gave to the public was 
 " The Father of a Family explaining the Bible to his Chil- 
 dren " a most unusual subject at that day. " The Broken 
 Pitcher," "The Marriage Contract," and "The Paternal 
 Curse," may be considered his masterpieces in the Louvre. 
 Others are in London. He died in 1805. 
 
 With Joseph Marie Vien (1716-1809) begins a reform in 
 French art, brilliantly completed by his pupil David. Vien's 
 own abilities were not great, as may be seen by his four pict- 
 ures in the Louvre, the best of which is " The Sleeping Her- 
 mit ; " but he was enterprising and far-sighted, and taught
 
 PAINTING IN FRANCE. 
 
 385 
 
 his pupils what ought to be done, even though he himself 
 could not do it. This success was reserved for David. 
 
 Jacques Louis David, regarded as the founder of the 
 later French school, was born in Paris, in 1748. He was the 
 son of a tradesman, but was educated by his uncle, and placed 
 under the tuition of Vien. There he evinced his passion for 
 the antique and the classical a passion which lay at the 
 root of all his efforts in art, and entirely influenced his choice 
 and treatment of subjects. This taste was soon strengthened 
 by five years' practice in Rome, during which he industri- 
 ously studied ruins, statuary, and the best Greek models. On 
 his return to France he was, in 1783, after exhibiting his 
 " Belisarius," admitted to the Academy, which had before 
 refused him its honors, and nominated painter to the king. 
 " The Oath of the Horatii," now in the Louvre, was painted 
 for Louis XVI. in 1784, and produced a profound sensation 
 m Paris. It was soon followed by " Brutus receiving the 
 Bodies of his Sons." At the outbreak of the Revolution 
 David became a fierce republican, and was the friend of 
 Marat and Robespierre. He painted " Marat's Assassination 
 by Charlotte Corday," and we have still preserved to us his 
 very large sketch for an oil-painting, intending to represent 
 the revolutionary meeting at the Jeu de Paume, Versailles. 
 Four life-sized heads in the picture are. finished. One of 
 these is the portrait of Mirabeau. 
 
 Released from the imprisonment into which he had been 
 thrown at the death of Robespierre, David painted " The 
 Sabine Women," which is regarded as one of the gems of the 
 French department of the Louvre. Napoleon, upon his ac- 
 cession to power, recognized the genius of the artist, and
 
 3 86 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 made him painter to the empire. He is distinguished for his 
 two famous pictures of this period, the very large "Coro- 
 nation of Josephine," for which he was paid an amount 
 equivalent to twenty-one thousand dollars ; and the spirited 
 " Napoleon crossing the Alps," so often engraved and photo- 
 graphed. Of this last, one of his critics says : " It is ideal in 
 more ways than one ; for we know that the First Consul, in- 
 stead of prancing on a charger at the edge of a precipice, 
 really rode over on a donkey." The " Leonidas at Thermop- 
 ylae " was David's last composition in Paris ; for at the resto- 
 ration of the Bourbons he was exiled, and died at Brussels 
 in December, 1825. 
 
 His classic style has been condemned for its lack of 
 warmth, and the studied attitudes of its sculpturesque figures, 
 while his coloring is often cold and opaque ; but his drawing 
 is energetic and masterly, and he displays great simplicity, 
 correctness, and dignity of form. He was also a good por- 
 trait-painter, as may be realized by an inspection of his own 
 likeness, and those of Pope Pius VII. and Madame Recamier, 
 in the Louvre. 
 
 A band of excellent pupils continued David's fame. 
 Among them are mentioned Girodet de Roucy Trioson (1767- 
 1824), whose " Deluge " is extravagant and ridiculous, but 
 whose " Interment of Atala " is effective in color among the 
 French pictures; and Jean Antoine Gros (1771-1835), who 
 was life-like and forcible, and less fond of the antique. The 
 Louvre has his " Battle of Eylau " and " Napoleon visiting 
 the Plague Hospital at Jaffa." Jean Auguste Ingres (1780- 
 1867) inherited the classic tastes of his master. A number 
 of his works once in the Luxembourg Gallery have been
 
 PAINTING IN FRANCE. 
 
 387 
 
 lately removed to the Louvre. " The Apotheosis of Homer," 
 formerly a ceiling decoration ; " Christ delivering the Keys 
 to Peter ; " " Stratonice," and " The Spring," in the Louvre, 
 especially deserve notice. Though Ingres was not a colorist, 
 many of his portraits are masterpieces. Francois Gerard, 
 another of David's pupils, born in 1770, was also a fine por- 
 trait as well as historical painter, and executed the portraits 
 of Napoleon and his family, including the young King of 
 Rome. Subsequently he also painted Louis XVIII. and 
 many of his court. In recognition of his services the king 
 created him a baron. His most celebrated compositions are 
 the " Entry of Henry IV. into Paris," and " Cupid and 
 Psyche," in the Louvre. He died in 1837. 
 
 Pierre Prud'hon (17601823) abandoned the fashionable 
 classicism to return to sacred subjects. His "Crucifixion" 
 and " Assumption of the Virgin " are entirely in mediaeval 
 style, though imbued with French sentiment. But his most 
 able work is " Justice and Vengeance pursuing Crime," hung, 
 like the masterpieces of most French artists, in the Louvre. 
 Prud'hon was the friend of Canova, and the instructor of 
 Constance Mayer. 
 
 Madame Elisabeth Louise Vige"e Lebrun (1755-1842) is 
 familiar to us through her beautiful and vivacious portrait of 
 herself, seated at her easel, in the Ufiizi Gallery, Florence 
 Another likeness of herself and daughter, in the Louvre, is a 
 very pleasing picture. Her maiden name was Vige'e, but she 
 married a Monsieur Lebrun at a very early age. She trav- 
 eled through all parts of Europe, and was everywhere re- 
 ceived with distinction. She was a member of the Academies 
 of Rome, Parma, St. Petersburg, Berlin, Geneva, Rouen, and
 
 388 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Paris ; and is said to have painted six hundred and sixty-two 
 portraits or fancy pieces, and more than one hundred and 
 fifty landscapes. 
 
 Jean Baptiste Isabey, of Nancy (1767-1855), is known as 
 a miniature-painter of the empire, who obtained fashion and 
 celebrity. He began by adorning " lids of snuff-boxes and 
 coat-buttons ; " but developed higher talents at the court of 
 Louis XVI., and especially under Napoleon, of whom he 
 executed more than two hundred miniatures. The works of 
 his son, who became a graphic marine painter, are to be seen 
 in the Luxembourg. 
 
 Francois Marie Granet (1775-1849), a clever delineator 
 of " interiors," belongs to the same epoch. The " Crypt of 
 the Church of St. Francis of Assisi," in the Louvre, is his 
 most powerful picture. 
 
 Horace Vernet, who was born in Paris in 1789, and died 
 in the same city in 1863, was a grandson of Claude Joseph 
 Vernet, and a rapid, brilliant, and prolific artist, whose abili- 
 ties were enhanced by Italian study and Eastern travel. He 
 was a favorite with Napoleon I., who presented him in 1814 
 with the cross of the Legion of Honor, as a reward for his 
 bravery at the Barriere de Clichy. He afterward painted 
 "The Defense of Clichy," and is famous for his huge battle- 
 scenes, most of which are collected at Versailles. The Lux- 
 embourg also contained his " Massacre of the Mamelukes," 
 now in the Louvre, and " The Meeting of Michael Angelo 
 and Raphael at the Entrance of the Vatican," where Michael 
 Angelo is reported to have exclaimed to his rival, "You 
 march surrounded with a suite, like a general ! " and Raphael 
 retorted, "You go alone, like a hangman. 1 ' Vernet's treat-
 
 PAINTING IN FRANCE. 389 
 
 ment of his subjects is naturally broad and striking, without 
 great elaboration ; his coloring is vivid, but not durable ; his 
 grouping dexterous and effective, and his horses spirited and 
 life-like. He occasionally undertook marine views, but with- 
 out his grandfather's success ; and it is said he once per- 
 suaded a devoted younger brother to allow himself to be tied 
 to a pole, and " plentifully watered at intervals from a water- 
 ing-can," in order that the artist might faithfully represent 
 the drenched and wretched condition of a shipwrecked sailoi, 
 clinging to a spar. 
 
 Jean Louis Gericault, born at Rouen, 1791, was educated 
 in the strictly classic taste which characterized the followers 
 of David ; but his originality burst such imposed fetters, and 
 forcibly portrayed the real and actual. Yet, as reality in the 
 minds of his countrymen is always viewed through the 
 medium of French imagination, we need not wonder that his 
 conception of what is true to Nature differs so widely from 
 that of his Dutch contemporaries. The change to romantic 
 principles which he announced was warmly received by the 
 public ; but his own life was too short to fully demonstrate 
 its success. He died at the age of thirty-three. " The Raft 
 of the Medusa," in the Louvre, may give some idea of his 
 striking talents. It is a large picture, representing the crew 
 of the shipwrecked vessel Me"duse floating on an immense 
 raft which nearly fills the entire canvas. The dead and dy- 
 ing lie upon the raft in heart-rending attitudes of exhaus- 
 tion and despair; but the survivors in frantic joy perceive a 
 distant sail; and it is this moment just preceding their 
 deliverance which the painter has chosen for his terrible and 
 thrilling composition.
 
 390 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 With the protest of Ge"ricault classic art lost its last ex- 
 piring hold upon the favor of France. A more natural and 
 modern style thenceforth filled its place. Among the artists 
 born at this epoch we may here mention Leopold Robert 
 (1794-1835), sometimes called the rival of Gericault, whose 
 " Return from Pilgrimage," and "The Reapers of the Cam- 
 pagna," are much admired ; but the great masters Delarocha 
 and Delacroix we shall number among the painters of the 
 nineteenth century.
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER by chapter we have been advancing from the 
 dim, religious twilight of early art to the common light of 
 day in which our modern pictures are painted. English 
 painting knows no past, but rejoices in the present, and as- 
 pires to the future. None of the Continental galleries, ex- 
 cepting those in Paris and St. Petersburg, has properly rec- 
 ognized the English school ; yet there is no modern coun- 
 try where the growth of a hundred years has developed such 
 true genius. 
 
 Previous to the seventeenth century the few pictures in 
 the British Isles were all of foreign origin, either purchased 
 abroad by monarchs or noblemen, or executed by strangers 
 whom offers of patronage attracted to the English court. 
 Such works still remain in royal palaces, or among the family 
 portraits and collections of old and wealthy houses. The 
 reign of Henry VIII. brought over Holbein, and artists of 
 lesser note, who found a wide field and ready compensation 
 for the exercise of portraiture. Queen Elizabeth and Queen 
 Mary gladly welcomed painters of Flanders, Holland, and 
 Spain, to their shores, and also recognized the talents of two 
 
 English citizens, Nicholas Hilliard and Isaac Oliver, who 
 26
 
 39 2 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 in the first half of the seventeenth century became quite re- 
 nowned for their miniatures. Indeed, national admiration 
 appeared restricted to portraits till the accession of Charles I., 
 who had a profound appreciation of art, and was himself a 
 good drawer and designer. He desired to form a large gal- 
 lery of noble compositions, and was censured for extrava 
 gance by a populace who could not understand the practical 
 value of a fresco by Raphael, or a cartoon by Michael An- 
 gelo. Yet King Charles improved his brief opportunity by 
 paying eighty thousand pounds for the Duke of Mantua's 
 famous collection, including Mantegna's " Triumph of Julius 
 Csesar," now at Hampton Court; and also bought a number of 
 originals and copies of Titian's and Veronese's works, seven- 
 teen of Tintoretto's, and many of other Venetian artists, as 
 well as specimens of Raphael and Correggio. He gave lib- 
 eral commissions to Rubens, induced him to spend a year in 
 England, and finally persuaded Vandyck to accept the posi- 
 tion of court-painter, which so identified him with that par- 
 ticular epoch of history that we think of him even more 
 naturally as an English artist than as a Fleming. Family 
 pieces were then the prevailing fashion, and we can well com- 
 prehend the enthusiasm excited by Vandyck's splendid group 
 of the " Wilton Family," which shares with the " Arundel 
 Family " and Holbein's " More Family " a world-wide re- 
 nown. Something over five hundred pounds was the cus- 
 tomary price paid for these large and most interesting com- 
 positions, which often include as many as ten figures, with 
 Highly-finished accessories. Neither did the passion for por- 
 traits die with the Cavaliers. Even Cromwell desired to sit 
 to Robert Walker, whose picture of him exists at Warwick
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 393 
 
 Castle. Another Cromwell portrait was completed by Sir 
 Peter Lely, afterward court-painter to Charles II. He was 
 specially famous for his success in transferring female beauty 
 to canvas, and no lady of the period was content till Lely 
 had immortalized her charms. A native of Westphalia, and 
 emigrating from Haarlem at the age of twenty-three or twen- 
 ty-four, with no rightful title but that of Van der Faes, Peter 
 Lely took up his residence in England, was knighted by 
 Charles II., and accumulated an immense fortune as the re- 
 sult of his aristocratic labors. Godfrey Kneller, the son of 
 an architect of Liibeck, followed his example, and acquired 
 even greater reputation in the same line ; the duration of his 
 favor continuing through the reigns of Charles II., James II., 
 William and Mary, and George I., who made him a baronet 
 in 1715. He could say that he had been called upon to paint 
 nine kings and queens Louis XIV. of France, Charles VI. 
 of Spain, and Peter the Czar of Russia, having been added 
 to the list of English royalty. Great Britain owes another 
 debt of gratitude to Kneller for his instrumentality in the 
 preservation of the cartoons of Raphael now in Kensington 
 Museum. They had been among the acquisitions of Charles 
 I., but in the changes of the kingdom were neglected and 
 forgotten, till, through Kneller's influence, William was in- 
 duced to mount them properly in Hampton Court. 
 
 Artistic tastes, so slowly cultivated, began, under the gov- 
 ernment of the Georges, to act in new directions. A sudden 
 demand for the importation of foreign pictures flooded the 
 country with third-rate compositions of the declining Italian 
 schools, or with worthless imitations of older masters. Red- 
 grave quotes from a popular magazine which complained that
 
 394 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 " monster Parmagianos, horrific Sebastian del Piombos, hid- 
 ecus Domenichinos, appalling Rubenses, spectre Guides, assas- 
 sin-like Caravaggios, and dismal Rembrandts, were knocked 
 down at five hundred guineas a head," and that " questions 
 of paternity in art were as difficult as in law." The canons 
 of criticism justified the public standard. The blacker the 
 painting, the higher the price. " A good picture," said Sir 
 George Beaumont, " like a good fiddle, should be brown." 
 The aspirations of British-born artists were also uplifted far 
 above the portrait-style, and palace walls and ceilings were 
 ambitiously decorated with " acres of allegory " of the most 
 metaphorical, though scarcely classical, description. The 
 ocean, for example, was represented " as a surly old fellow, 
 with a black beard, long and uncombed locks, quite naked, 
 save girt about the middle with a ship's sail ; laying his leg 
 over a dolphin's back ; in his hand the stern of a ship, anchor, 
 oar, or the like." Yet even into the midst of such absurd 
 efforts a spark of genius dropped, and Sir James Thornhill, 
 the predecessor of Hogarth and Reynolds, began to teach his 
 countrymen something of the true theory of art. 
 
 Thornhill's precepts were better than his practice. He 
 covered cupolas and ceilings, as may still be observed in the 
 hall of Greenwich Hospital, with a mixture of history and 
 mythology, very complimentary to the English sovereigns, but 
 not particularly conducive to the progress of painting. He 
 opened, however, an art-academy, which educated many 
 promising students, among them the youthful Hogarth, who 
 became Thornhill's son-in-law, much against the latter's will. 
 
 William Hogarth, the first great English painter, born in 
 London, in 1697, passed his early years as apprentice to a
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 
 
 395 
 
 silversmith, but on reaching the age of twenty-one changed 
 his profession to that of an engraver on copper for booksell- 
 ers, which he long found hard work and poor pay. It was 
 not till eight years afterward that his illustrations for Butler's 
 " Hudibras " brought him favorably into notice ; but, mean- 
 while, other projects occupied his mind : he entered Thorn- 
 hill's academy, only intending to cultivate his talents as a 
 portrait-painter, but displayed such peculiar power in genre 
 subjects that Thornhill, after his marriage with his daughter, 
 advised him to support her with such efforts of his brush. 
 This advice bore fruit in the series of " The Harlot's Prog- 
 ress," brought out in 1734, and succeeded the following 
 year by the celebrated set of pictures known as " The Rake's 
 Progress," which Hogarth subsequently engraved in eight 
 admirable plates. Ten years elapsed before the appearance 
 of the still more excellent series of " Manage a la Mode," 
 which is preserved in the London Gallery, and constitutes 
 his surest title to fame. This depicts the union of a profli- 
 gate husband with a fashionable and faithless wife, from the 
 signing of the wedding contract to the violent death of the 
 earl and the suicide of the countess. All Hogarth's best 
 points are here concentrated : his bitter wit, the terrible 
 strength of his irony, his perfect truth of detail, and the ex- 
 ceeding accuracy of finish, in which he rivals even Teniers. 
 Yet the whole six compositions brought him little more than 
 a hundred pounds ; though every interior and every group of 
 figures is a study worthy of the ablest Flemish artists, and an 
 exquisite satire upon the vices and follies of the day. The 
 breakfast-parlor, with last night's card-tables in the distance ; 
 the countess's dressing-room, prepared for her morning levee
 
 396 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 the earl's bedroom, with its blazing fire; and the father's 
 fine apartments, hung with caricatures of the popular foreign 
 paintings which Hogarth used to call " the works of the black 
 masters," are all like pages from some graphic novel of Field- 
 ing or Thackeray, who delineated in words the society which 
 the artist shows us in color. This was ever the bent of Ho- 
 garth's genius. He might fail as a painter of history, but 
 never as a painter of life. He loved to " point a moral " as 
 well as " adorn a tale ; " and the moral was always a dra- 
 matic warning against vice. Such are his " Gin Lane " and 
 " Idle and Industrious Apprentices," while his hearty enjoy- 
 ment of fun finds expression in his " Election Scenes," his 
 " Distressed Poet," " Dancing Academy," and other humor- 
 ous compositions. Though comparatively few may have ac- 
 cess to the original pictures, yet the engravings of his works, 
 many of which were etched by himself, can give pleasure to 
 all. His own portrait will be seen in the National Gallery, 
 London, sitting with a volume of Swift in his hand, and his 
 dog Trump beside him. Toward the close of his life he 
 attempted authorship, and wrote a treatise entitled " The 
 Analysis of Beauty ; " but his pen, as might have been ex- 
 pected, proved inferior to his pencil. He died in London 
 in 1764, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, leaving neither 
 children nor pupils. 
 
 Though the distinctive art-history of Great Britain really 
 begins with Hogarth, it is Sir Joshua Reynolds, born in 1723, 
 who is popularly considered the founder of the English school 
 of painting, as he was certainly its most characteristic repre- 
 sentative. Hogarth is strictly individual, but Sir Joshua is 
 undoubtedly suggestive of the typical Englishman. His
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 
 
 397 
 
 father was master of the grammar-school in Plympton, Dev- 
 onshire, and wished his son to study medicine ; but yielded 
 to the boy's unconquerable preferences, and placed him un- 
 der the instruction of an artist named Hudson, to acquire all 
 possible skill in portraiture. Hudson was but a poor imitator 
 of Sir Godfrey Kneller, and Reynolds remained with him 
 only two years, returning to Devonshire, where he exercised 
 his profession with but moderate success, till his father's 
 death, in 1746. He then settled in London, till a Devon- 
 shire naval friend, in command of a vessel, took him, in 1749, 
 to Italy, where he traveled three years, and learned to color 
 and design with brilliancy and grace. Thus improved, he 
 revisited London, gave public proof of his remarkable genius, 
 won reputation and fortune, made friends with Dr. Johnson, 
 Goldsmith, Garrick, and other celebrities, whom he enter- 
 tained at his delightful house in Leicester Square, where his 
 sister and his pretty nieces long acted as hostesses ; and was 
 at last, in 1768, appointed President of the Royal academy 
 of Painting, and knighted by George III. His " Fifteen Dis- 
 courses," delivered before the students of this academy, are 
 still appreciated, both for their literary and artistic merits, as 
 is also his " Tour through Flanders and Holland," in which 
 he gives an able criticism and analysis of Rubens's style and 
 works. His admiration for Michael Angelo was excessive, 
 though he wisely forebore to copy him as a model. Indeed, 
 his abilities did not lie in the historical or sacred line ; for, 
 though his " Holy Family " is very fine from an English 
 stand-point, and his scenes of history and mythology were not 
 only lauded by the nation, but purchased by the Empress 
 Catharine of Russia, yet they could never be so popular
 
 39 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 as his " Heads of Angels," " Little Mob-Cap," " Pickaback," 
 " Snake in the Grass," " Age of Innocence," and " Puck ; " or 
 his wonderful portraits, of which England is so justly proud. 
 He had, like Vandyck, the faculty of catching the best ex- 
 pression of his sitters, making them all " fair women and 
 brave men." His industry was surprising ; he could finish 
 an ordinary likeness in four hours, and sent, during his Lon- 
 don residence, two hundred and forty- five works to the 
 Royal Academy. These have been generally retained in 
 England, though some are now owned by American collect- 
 ors. Many of the most valuable are in the London Gal- 
 lery especially the "Banished Lord," the "Infant Samuel," 
 others mentioned above, and portraits of Lord Heathfield, 
 Dr. Johnson, and Admiral Keppel. His magnificent portrait 
 of Mrs. Siddons as the " Tragic Muse " was the subject of a 
 pleasant little anecdote which tells us that the actress, on 
 examining the picture, smiled to see his name painted on the 
 border of her robe. "Sir Joshua bowed, and said, 'I could 
 not resist the opoortunity of sending my name down to pos- 
 terity on the hem of your garment.' " 
 
 As a colorist, Sir Joshua has seldom been surpassed, ex- 
 cept by Titian and the later Venetians. His tints have not 
 been so enduring as theirs, for time has faded the bloom of 
 his carnation cheeks, confused his shadows, and dealt unkind- 
 ly with his varnishes. But the reputation so justly earned will 
 endure the test of centuries ; and those who stand beside his 
 tomb, in the crypt of St. Paul's Cathedral, where he was 
 buried in 1792, will be ready to say, with Goldsmith : 
 
 " Here Reynolds is laid, and to tell you my mind, 
 He has not left a wiser nor better behind.
 
 MRS. SIDDONS (Joshua Reynolds 
 
 p. 308.
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 399 
 
 His pencil was striking, resistless, and grand ; 
 His manners were gentle, complying, and bland. 
 Still born to improve us in every part 
 His pencil our faces, his manners our heart." 
 
 That Reynolds should have had a rival is of itself the 
 best indication of the improvement in English art during the 
 eighteenth century. It is true that Thomas Gainsborough, 
 of Sudbury, in Suffolk (1727-1788), is more often thought of 
 as a landscape than as a portrait painter ; yet his charming 
 portraits of Mrs. Siddons, in a huge though most becoming 
 bonnet, now hanging in the National Gallery, and of Mrs. 
 Graham, at Edinburgh, prove that he could have competed 
 with Sir Joshua on his own ground. His early efforts in Lon- 
 don were not very successful, but he eventually located him- 
 self at Bath, where he so rose into favor that he was chosen 
 one of the first members of the Royal Academy. In 1774 he 
 removed again to London, where he set himself in opposition 
 to Reynolds, even painting his celebrated " Blue Boy," which 
 is merely the portrait of a son of Mr. Buttall, dressed entirely 
 in blue, to contradict Reynolds's theory that blue was not a 
 proper color to use broadly in a picture. He was an enthu- 
 siastic, ardent, somewhat rough, but very honest-hearted man, 
 who thought more of his portraits than of his landscapes or 
 fancy compositions, and did not anticipate that posterity 
 would so favorably regard them. He painted his own home 
 scenery with a truth and purity of color, a depth of aerial 
 perspective, and a grace and simplicity of style, which mark 
 him as the first and best of English landscapists. He also 
 excelled in genre subjects, as is evident in his " Cottage 
 Door " and '' Shepherd Boy in a Storm." London Gallery
 
 4 oo SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 and Kensington Museum contain a number of his cleverest 
 works, among which may be noticed the portrait of Mrs. 
 Siddons, "Musidora bathing her Feet," "The Market-Cart," 
 and the portraits of Ralph Schomberg and a parish clerk. 
 His contemporary, Richard Wilson, was doomed to a strug- 
 gling and obscure career, but our own generation has formed 
 a more correct estimate of his talents, and his fine Italian 
 views are prized. He was the forerunner of Constable. 
 
 Another younger and less eminent genre painter, George 
 Romney, of Lancashire (1734-1802), somewhat troubled the 
 serenity of Sir Joshua, who used to speak of him as " the man 
 in Cavendish Square." Romney's character was selfish and 
 unattractive, and his abilities overrated ; yet he became very 
 fashionable in his day, and some of his female portraits were 
 even preferred to those of Reynolds. His most famous works 
 are the portraits of Lady Hamilton, " Milton dictating to his 
 Daughters," and the " Infant Shakespeare surrounded by the 
 Passions." His biography, by Hayley, includes Flaxman's 
 very favorable criticisms. 
 
 The same epoch which witnessed the triumphs of Rey- 
 nolds and Gainsborough crowned an American with the lau- 
 rels of art. Benjamin West had even the honor of succeeding 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds as President of the Royal Academy of 
 England, while his historical compositions, which, to modern 
 eyes, appear feeble and overstrained, once roused a wild en- 
 thusiasm, not only in the American but in the British public. 
 Born in Pennsylvania, in 1738, and educated among the Qua- 
 kers, many amusing stories have been circulated in regard to 
 his childish exercise cf his gifts. Some authorities have 
 gravely asserted that the Indians taught him how to mix their
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 
 
 401 
 
 war-paint, while he plundered the domestic cat for hairs for 
 his brushes ! Others tell us of the benevolent Philadelphia 
 merchant's present of a paint-box, and of the Quaker council 
 assembled to consider the boy's vocation, when "the men 
 laid their hands on his head in dedication, and the women 
 rose and kissed him." After this traditional event he entered 
 the studio of an artist in Philadelphia, named Williams, and 
 in 1760 left America for three years' travel and study in Italy. 
 On his return he stopped in England, where the profitable 
 oatronage of George III. decided him to remain. He there 
 inaugurated what Haydon calls " high art," and was ex- 
 travagantly praised as an " English Raphael." But these 
 ambitious pictures, the largest of which were executed in his 
 later years, are more mannered and academic than original 
 in conception. His most noteworthy composition is " The 
 Death of General Wolfe," owned by the Marquis of West- 
 minster, but duplicated at Hampton Court, in which old 
 classic costumes are for the first time abandoned, and the 
 characters appear in the dress of their own century. Rey- 
 nolds declared that this picture would occasion a revolution 
 in art. 
 
 West's large religious works, such as " Christ healing the 
 Sick," " Death on the Pale Horse," and " Christ rejected," 
 have grown familiar through exhibitions and engravings. 
 They are divided between England and America, but are 
 no longer considered of much artistic significance. West 
 died in 1820, and was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. 
 
 His fellow-countryman, John Singleton Copley, of Boston 
 (1737-1815), was a portrait-painter in that city, but at the 
 age of thirty-seven emigrated to England, where he essayed
 
 402 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 historical painting, in which he achieved decided success. 
 His first great London production, " The Death (or rather 
 Fainting) of Lord Chatham in the House of Lords," was pre- 
 sented by the Earl of Liverpool to the National Gallery, 
 which it still adorns, together with the " Death of Major Pier- 
 son " and " Siege of Gibraltar," which teem with portraits 
 " Charles I. signing Stafford's Death-Warrant," " The Com. 
 mons arrested by Charles I.," and "Offer of the Crown to 
 Lady Jane Grey," are dignified and expressive pieces. He also 
 attempted a few religious themes. Many of his pictures re- 
 main in America. Good portraits are in the Boston Museum 
 of Fine Arts. His life has been written by A. T. Perkins. 
 
 Henry Fuseli (1741-1825), by birth a Swiss, was more 
 able as a critic than as an artist, yet his original and fantastic 
 compositions had their own brilliancy, and were the reflec- 
 tion of his ardent and versatile temperament. He executed 
 a whole " Milton Gallery " of designs from Milton's works, 
 after contributing to the " Shakespeare Gallery " which it was 
 Alderman Boydell's ambition to create. His " Nightmare " 
 was a very curious and entertaining picture, painted the 
 morning after a pork-supper. Such extraordinary choice of 
 subjects caused him to be termed " painter in ordinary to the 
 devil," but did not bring him much pecuniary profit. Yet he 
 was a favorite with Sir Joshua Reynolds, who procured him 
 a professorship in the Academy, where he distinguished him- 
 self by his lectures. 
 
 James Barry (1741-1806) was, like Fuseli, very imagina- 
 tive in character and style, and fairly earned the title of 
 " the wild Irishman," not only by his Cork pedigree, but by 
 his eccentric career. His father was a poor innkeeper, but
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 4 o 3 
 
 young Barry painted, while still a mere boy, an Irish scene 
 which so interested Edmund Burke in his education that he 
 sent him abroad to study and travel. His patron's hopes of 
 him were apparently justified by the " Adam and Eve," and 
 "Venus rising from the Sea," which he exhibited on his 
 return from Italy to London, and which procured his admis- 
 sion into the Royal Academy, only to be subsequently ex- 
 pelled on account of his quarrelsome and intolerant dis- 
 position. But Barry had overrated his own powers, and was 
 deficient both in design and color. His most remarkable 
 pictures, which he termed his " Elysium " a set of six clas- 
 sical paintings illustrating the civilization of man were gra- 
 tuitously presented to the Society of Arts at the Adelphi. 
 Barry died in loneliness, poverty, and neglect ; yet his body 
 was laid in state in the rooms of the Adelphi, and he was 
 interred in St. Paul's. 
 
 The less ideal though still historical James Northcote 
 (1746-1831), a pupil of Reynolds, was more fortunate in life, 
 if not so honored in death. He first applied himself to por- 
 traits, but advanced to such compositions as " The Presenta- 
 tion of British Officers to Pope Pius VI.," and similar large 
 subjects. He also became a pleasing author, and his biogra- 
 phies of Titian and of Sir Joshua Reynolds will long remain 
 as standard works 
 
 The same historical style was attempted by John Opie 
 (1761-1807), of humble origin, but much natural cleverness. 
 He began by taking portraits for two dollars a head, but, by 
 being well puffed as " the Cornish wonder " grew rich and 
 fashionable, studied diligently, became professor at the Acad- 
 emy, wonderfully improved his portraits, and extended his
 
 404 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 ambition to high art, where his best effort is " The Assassina- 
 tion of Rizzio." To him belongs that often-quoted anecdote 
 of the painter who, when asked with what he mixed his col- 
 ors, replied, " With brains, sir ! " His academical lectures, 
 which he left unfinished, were edited by his authoress wife, 
 the pretty and popular Mrs. Opie, once a lioness in London 
 society. The portrait of William Siddons, in the National 
 Collection, exemplifies his skill. 
 
 A sketch of English art would be incomplete without the 
 mention of John Flaxman (1755-1826), though he was, cor- 
 rectly speaking, a sculptor, and no painter. But his designs 
 from Homer, ^Eschylus, and Dante, are so universally known 
 and admired that they far outrank many elaborate pictures ; 
 while his models and bass-reliefs may vie with Canova's. He 
 was the first Professor of Sculpture in the Royal Academy, 
 and D'Anvers asserts that his lectures on sculpture are still 
 the best in the English language. 
 
 His friend, the poet-painter William Blake (1757-1827), 
 must be judged by the quality rather than the quantity of his 
 productions. His strange genius always trembled on the 
 verge of insanity, and occasionally lost its foothold, but he 
 showed wild flashes of an inspiration such as seldom visits 
 mortal artists; and his dreams and visions, his incoherent 
 poetry, and mystical music, were a source of unbounded de 
 light during many adverse years. Gilchrist's " Life of Blake " 
 is one of the most interesting of biographies, and no one can 
 rise from its perusal without an intense desire to see all the 
 works, of every kind, left by this most gifted and incompre- 
 hensible man. But the work is always fragmentary, and rarely 
 amounts to more than a hint of the labors of his brain. The
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 4 o 5 
 
 1 Songs of Innocence and Experience," which truly " might 
 have been written by an inspired child," are his chief literary 
 memorials. Some of these he illustrated with his own artistic 
 designs, and also illustrated Young's " Night Thoughts," and 
 other books. He then sought to embody his weird and mar- 
 velous conceptions in such sketches as the pictures for the 
 " Book of Job," the " Gates of Paradise," " Urizen," and "Je- 
 rusalem," many of which are brilliantly and exquisitely col- 
 ored. Even his pen-and-ink or pencil jottings are amazingly 
 expressive and characteristic. Many readers will recall his 
 " Ghost of a Flea," or the tiny design, " What is Man ? " 
 where a butterfly chrysalis, with a child's head, reposes on a 
 fading leaf. He lived for nearly seventy-two years, always 
 poor, always enthusiastic, and always happy ; and lay upon 
 his death-bed singing extemporaneous songs. 
 
 Blake's contemporary, the more prosaic but much more 
 prolific Thomas Stothard (1755-1834), was also a book-illus- 
 trator, as may be seen by " Bell's British Poets," " Ossian," 
 " Pilgrim's Progress," and the designs intended as companions 
 to the Turner engravings in Rogers's " Italy." Almost two 
 thousand engravings from Stothard may be inspected in the 
 British Museum. Yet his reputation did not rest on these 
 fine drawings only, but on his tasteful and richly-colored 
 paintings, both in oil and water-colors. Some of these are 
 gathered in the Kensington Museum and London Gallery, 
 where we find the original sketch of his " Intemperance," ex- 
 ecuted in large size on the staircase of the Marquis of Exe- 
 ter's country-seat. The " Procession of the Canterbury Pil- 
 grims " is another of Stothard's popular compositions. 
 
 D'Anvers remarks that George Morland (1763-1804), <i
 
 40 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 landscape and animal painter, did for English peasants what 
 the Dutch masters had done for the lower classes of Holland. 
 Yet the rustic scenes in which he excels were usually very 
 hastily and carelessly finished ; and, were it not for his light 
 touch, and simple fidelity to Nature, would have passed into 
 oblivion. He was a " prodigal son " among artists, ran an 
 extravagant and profligate course, and earned the epitaph 
 which he himself dictated : " Here lies a drunken dog ! " His 
 " Farmyards " were his most successful efforts ; while all au- 
 thorities agree in witnessing to his peculiar proficiency in the 
 painting of pigs. 
 
 Before touching upon Turner, the prince of English land- 
 scapists, some words are due to Raeburn and Lawrence, two 
 prominent portrait-painters of the close of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. Henry Raeburn (1756-1823), son of a Scotch clergy- 
 man, was as highly esteemed in Edinburgh as Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds had been in London. He was overwhelmed with 
 sitters, and has left much of the fruit of his labor in the Edin- 
 burgh Academy, which has preserved his portraits of Sir 
 Walter Scott, Dugald Stewart, Francis Jeffrey, and many other 
 eminent Scotchmen. His style was manly, broad, and for- 
 cible, and his merits were so justly appreciated that he was 
 knighted by George IV., and appointed royal painter. 
 
 Sir Thomas Lawrence, who was born at Bristol, in 1769, 
 and died in London, 1830, won even more fashionable noto- 
 riety. He commenced to work in crayon at ten years of age, 
 and many accounts are given of his extraordinary precocity. 
 In maturer life he became a favorite, not only at the English 
 court, but with all the sovereigns of Europe. While at Rome 
 he was chosen President of the Academy of St. Luke, and
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. ^ 
 
 executed his celebrated portraits of Pius VII. and Cardinal 
 Gonsalvi. At home, he secured the homage of all England, 
 and was paid at the rate of two or three thousand dollars for 
 his likenesses. As an artist he was distinguished by facile 
 grace, agreeable color, and sweet but not animated expression. 
 His beautiful women are more renowned than his men. Opie 
 said Lawrence made coxcombs of his sitters, and his sitters 
 made a coxcomb of Lawrence. But he has many noble mas- 
 culine figures at Windsor Castle, including the portrait of the 
 Emperor Francis, and the series of heroes known as the 
 Waterloo Gallery, " headed by the Duke of Wellington, in 
 the dress which he wore, and on the horse which he rode, on 
 the field of Waterloo." Lawrence was not only an accom- 
 plished painter, but an attractive and extravagant man of 
 the world. He never married, yet was very handsome in per- 
 son, bland in manner, and very devoted to ladies. Redgrave 
 quotes from a fair authority, who states that he was so dan- 
 gerously gallant that his common answers to dinner invita- 
 tions assumed the form of billets-doux. 
 
 Joseph William Mallord Turner (1775-1851) boasted no 
 such fascinations. Artistically he was a lion, but socially a 
 bear. His father's barber-shop and the London lanes whe.e 
 he spent his childhood were not schools of high-breeding ; 
 but his solitary print-coloring and his long and lonely rambles 
 fostered more genius than the atmosphere of courts. Innu- 
 merable water-color sketches from Nature, particularly studies 
 of skies and sunsets, were his youthful labors of love. His 
 first oil-painting, a " Moonlight View of the Thames," was 
 completed in 1797, when he was nearly twenty-two years old, 
 and was followed by " Eneas with the Sibyl," the " Tenth 
 27 -
 
 40 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Plague of Egypt," " Jason in Search of the Golden Fleece," 
 and " Calais Pier." Soon after the exhibition of the " Plague 
 of Egypt " he was elected to the Academy, and in 1807 was 
 chosen professor of perspective. This was the period when 
 he began his imitation of Claude, publishing a volume of 
 studies which he called " Liber Studiorum," in allusion to 
 Claude's sketch-book " Liber Veritatis ; " and turning in oil- 
 painting to the same model, as we may discover in the " Sun- 
 rise through a Mist," " Crossing the Brook," " Dido building 
 Carthage," the " Search of Apuleia," and other works of his 
 middle epoch. 
 
 Turner made extensive sketching-tours through England t 
 Wales, France, and Switzerland, but did not travel in Italy 
 till 1819. Yet this journey, together with the two subsequent 
 visits about ten and twenty years later, materially influenced 
 his style, and resulted in such magnificent pictures as " Childe 
 Harold's Pilgrimage," the " Bay of Baiae," " Lake Avernus," 
 various " Views of Venice," the " Garden of Boccaccio," 
 "Caligula's Palace," and the "Landing of Agrippina." With 
 advancing life his genius became yet more vivid and original, 
 flashing forth in such brilliant and remarkable works as 
 " Ulysses deriding Polyphemus," " Phryne going to the 
 Bath," the " Burial of Wilkie," and the " Fighting Temeraire." 
 But his final style was apt to run into blurred and fiery 
 masses of fantastic color, so strange and inexplicable that 
 modern critics have even started the theory of defect in his 
 eyesight. His countrymen were by no means insensible to 
 his merits, but he shunned all intercourse with the world ; 
 and, though he acquired sufficient fortune to build himself a 
 house and gallery in Queen Anne Street, and to purchase a
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 409 
 
 villa at Twickenham, yet he would steal away, time after 
 time, to obscure lodgings, where, estranged from all society 
 except his favorite cats, he would devote himself to solitary 
 industry. In such a retired cottage, near Cremorne, Chelsea, 
 he died, under a feigned name, at the age of seventy-six ; and 
 was buried, as he requested, by the side of Sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds. His large collection of his own pictures he be- 
 queathed to the nation, and they now constitute one of the 
 greatest treasures of the London Gallery. 
 
 The descriptions of Turner's appearance are far from 
 flattering. He was stout, and rather under the medium 
 height, with restless eyes, and a ruddy complexion. His 
 dress was the reverse of neat, and his hands, according to 
 Thornbury, were " the smallest and dirtiest on record." But 
 those hands produced the most wonderful results, with a 
 brush that seemed dipped in the very colors of Nature itself. 
 Since the days of Claude no landscapist has reached to Tur- 
 ner's level. He indeed considered himself Claude's superior, 
 and expressly directed that his " Dido building Carthage " 
 and " Sun in a Mist " should be hung between two superb 
 Claudes in order that his own preeminence should be mani- 
 fest. The result in the mind of the spectator is not always 
 just what Turner would have wished; but no other artist 
 could ever have dreamed of challenging such a comparison. 
 The student should apply himself to the volumes of " Mod- 
 ern Painters," if he wishes to gain a profound appreciation of 
 Turner's characteristics. They have given rise to the prov- 
 erb " There is but one artist, and Ruskin is his prophet ; " 
 but their gorgeous word-painting will feast the taste, even if 
 it should not in every case convince the judgment; and,
 
 4IO SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 whatever the exaggeration, posterity cannot fail to recognize 
 the deep foundation of truth. 
 
 The management of light and shade in Turner's mere 
 designs for illustrations, such as those of Rogers "s "Italy," is, 
 in its way, almost as marvelous as the tints of his pictures, 
 while such beautiful series of water-colors as the rivers of 
 England and France are beyond all praise. He was very 
 careless in regard to the use and durability of his materials, 
 so that time must deplorably injure his compositions. His 
 painting of the "Slave-Ship," eloquently described by Rus- 
 kin, may be found in Boston. Those who cannot see his 
 other originals will find an endless fund of pleasure in the 
 excellent engravings of his numerous works. 
 
 The landscapes of John Constable (1776-1837) are in 
 quite a different manner. His predilection was for scenes of 
 cultivated Nature, and effects of dew and clouds. As all his 
 sympathies were decidedly English, so his affection included 
 the English atmosphere, which he introduced so generally 
 into art that Fuseli used jokingly to say : " Bring me my um- 
 brella; I am going to see Constable's pictures." When he 
 represented fine weather he attempted no peculiar effects 
 of sunsets or sunrises, but put his sun directly overhead, 
 shedding broad, unshadowed light over the view. The most 
 comprehensive and best arranged collection of his paintings 
 is in the South Kensington Museum. The simplicity of his 
 style reminds us of Gainsborough, though his range of mo- 
 tives was more limited, and his coloring less brown : his usual 
 tones being green and gray. His artistic success was slow. 
 Though his father, a wealthy miller of Suffolk, gave him all 
 necessary advantages of education, yet his work was not cor-
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 
 
 411 
 
 dially received till he had reached middle life ; nor was he 
 admitted to the Academy till the age of forty-three. But, 
 once attained, the permanence of his position has never been 
 questioned. 
 
 Sir Augustus Calcott, of Kensington (1779-1844), once a 
 choir-boy, but eventually knighted by the queen, produced a 
 number of small, pleasing landscapes of ideal type. Old 
 Crome (1769-1821), the leader of a band of painters who 
 gathered together at Norwich, was a realist, whose style, 
 though strong and original, and almost Dutch in accuracy, 
 was nevertheless hard and mannered. Yet he was popular 
 as the leader of the Norwich School, and had some able fol- 
 lowers, among whom Cotman may be specially mentioned. 
 
 William Collins, of London (1788-1847), is also among 
 the host of English landscape-artists. He was a pupil of 
 Morland, and based his style upon his instructions, often 
 treating rustic genre scenes and coast-views. Some fine Ital- 
 ian landscapes, executed during his tours abroad, have been 
 much praised. But he loved far better the rural life of home. 
 " Happy as a King " and " The Prawn-Catchers," in the Lon- 
 don Gallery, are among his characteristic pictures ; while 
 such other favorites as " The Sale of the Pet Lamb," " Sun- 
 day Morning," " Hop-Gatherers," " Fetching the Doctor,' 
 and " Fishermen on the Lookout," have been purchased by 
 private collectors. The French Exhibition of 1824 awarded 
 a gold medal to his " Hay-Wain." His later religious paint- 
 ings, " Our Saviour with the Doctors in the Temple," and the 
 " Two Disciples at Emmaus," failed to secure the same popu- 
 larity. 
 
 But the day of " High Art " was at hand. Benjamin
 
 4I2 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Robert Haydon (1786-1 846), .the son of a Plymouth book- 
 seller, felt it to be his mission to raise the standard of na- 
 tional taste. If confidence in a mission could insure success, 
 his fate would have been exalted ; but his autobiography, 
 very copiously published, suggests a stage tragedy. An en- 
 thusiastic and self-conceited though really talented youth, he 
 imagined himself endowed with the combined genius of Ra- 
 phael, Titian, and Michael Angelo; dreamed of glorifying 
 history and religion by the triumphs of his brush, and of 
 dictating the course of British art from his pinnacle of fame. 
 He had no sooner entered the Academy as a student than he 
 began to plan out his first great picture, no modest portrait 
 or little landscape, but a " Flight into Egypt " which should 
 rival the old masters. His need of money, however, forced 
 him to a temporary practice of portrait-painting, which he 
 found remunerative, but which he gladly abandoned when 
 given a commission by Lord Mulready to represent the 
 " Murder of Dentatus," the Roman tribune. For this he 
 received two hundred guineas, and was so dissatisfied with 
 the place assigned to it in the Academy that he quarreled 
 with the directors of the institution. The " Dentatus " could 
 not be considered a very brilliant achievement ; but, with un- 
 quenchable ardor, he commenced in 1814 his "Judgment of 
 Solomon," which sold for six hundred guineas. Part of the 
 money so procured was expended in an art-journey to the 
 Louvre with Wilkie. When his purse was exhausted he pre- 
 pared his canvas for another colossal work, the " Entry of 
 Christ into Jerusalem," which was exhibited both in England 
 and America, and brought him fifteen thousand dollars. Im- 
 provident and impulsive as ever, his funds were soon spent
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 
 
 413 
 
 and thenceforth his career became only a variation of pov- 
 erty, ambition, reckless fits of industry, temporary prodi- 
 gality, and arrests for debt. In the midst of all, he kept on 
 painting picture after picture, sometimes of immense size, 
 such as " The Raising of Lazarus," where twenty-five figures 
 are grouped upon a canvas nearly twenty feet long ; dramatic 
 " Napoleons," or " Scenes from Roman History." He also 
 published two volumes of lectures ; but his hopes were dis- 
 appointed, his exhibitions often failed, and he sank deeper 
 and deeper into difficulties. The public officers, to whom 
 he appealed for patronage, took no notice of his claims; 
 the commissions which he solicited were refused ; his abili- 
 ties were utterly unrecognized ; and, harassed into despair 
 and brain-disease, he committed suicide in his London stu- 
 dio, where his large painting of " Alfred the Great and the 
 First English Jury " was still upon the easel. 
 
 His friend David Wilkie, the cautious Scotchman (1785- 
 1841), was more moderate in his expectations and more for- 
 tunate in his experience. Brought up in a manse of Fife- 
 shire, it was thought very wild and reckless for the minister's 
 son to yearn after the vagabond profession of painting. But 
 he was at last permitted to enter the Trustees' Academy at 
 Edinburgh, where he justified his calling by winning the 
 prize for the best picture. Returning to Fifeshire, he pro- 
 duced, to the surprise of his family and townspeople, his 
 graphic and original painting of the "Pitlessie Fair," whose 
 multitudinous figures were genuine portraits taken from the 
 fanners, school-masters, and peasantry, of the neighborhood. 
 No further objection was made to his trying his fortune in 
 London, where, after a year's hard study, he suddenly rose
 
 414 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 into notice by the exhibition of the "Village Politicians." 
 From that time his vocation as a delineator of simple, fa- 
 miliar, and often humorous subjects, dramatically and pow- 
 erfully treated, was successfully fixed. Few English genre 
 painters, except Hogarth, have ever equaled his " Blind Fid- 
 dler," " Rent-Day," " Village Festival," " Blindman's Buff," 
 " Distraining for Rent," " Letter of Recommendation," 
 " Reading of the Will," " Parish Beadle," " Chelsea Pension- 
 ers," and other admirable works. They are genial and kindly 
 in tone, without Hogarth's bitter satire ; picturesque in ar- 
 rangement ; vivid in action ; careful in finish ; and fine, if 
 not rich, in color. The " Reading of the Will " was ordered 
 by the King of Bavaria, and still hangs in the Munich Gal- 
 lery. If its gifted author had but been blessed with health 
 proportionate to his talents, the highest triumphs would have 
 been possible to his skill ; but he was of delicate constitu- 
 tion, gaunt and lean as became a Scotchman, and his labors 
 were interrupted by frequent fits of sickness. Even repeated 
 foreign journeys did not restore him to strength, though they 
 greatly altered his style and method. An art-tour in Spain 
 appeared specially to impress him. He desired to imitate 
 the coloring of Velasquez, Titian, and Correggio, and to con- 
 centrate his efforts on a more elevated class of subjects. But 
 the " Preaching of John Knox," " Wellington the Night be- 
 fore Waterloo," and " Benvenuto Cellini and the Pope," all 
 examples of his change of manner, are more pretentious and 
 less forcible than his sympathetic genre pieces. 
 
 Wilkie received in 1830 the appointment of court-painfer 
 in ordinary, and was knighted by King William IV.; but 
 such honors in no degree diverted his mind from his profes*
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 4^ 
 
 sion. He was seized with the desire to study the scenery of 
 the Holy Land, and determined to embark for Palestine. 
 The voyage was begun ; but an attack of illness proved fatal, 
 and he died on shipboard, near Malta, on the ist of June, 
 1841. His burial at sea is the theme of one of Turner's 
 striking pictures. 
 
 A few other painters must yet be mentioned, born near 
 the expiration of the century. Patrick Nasmyth (1786-1831), 
 spoken of as the English Hobbema, has been commended by 
 connoisseurs for his Scotch views and realistic rustic scenes, 
 which are rather too small and dark to suit more popular 
 taste. An accident of his boyhood compelled him to paint 
 with his left hand, which renders his pictures marvels of 
 technical execution ; but he is insignificant compared with 
 William Mulready (1786-18*63), who followed Wilkie in genre, 
 and showed himself a master in that department. He was a 
 native of County Clare, Ireland, but was of a more reserved 
 and less buoyant disposition than is generally an Irishman's 
 heritage. Coming to London to study, he fell in love with 
 the sister of his teacher, but regretted through life the hasty 
 and unhappy marriage which ensued. His first important 
 painting was accomplished in 1809, and called " Returning 
 from the Ale-House ; " but the " Punch," and " Idle Boys," 
 which he exhibited three or four years after, found universal 
 favor, and before the age of thirty he was honorably asso- 
 ciated with the Royal Academicians. His compositions, 
 which are usually of cabinet size, are distinguished for their 
 excellent drawing ; their fidelity of detail, in which he com- 
 peted with the Dutch school ; and their richness and depth 
 of color, which, however, as he advanced toward old age,
 
 4I 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 grew powerfully and unpleasantly purple in tone. His sub- 
 jects are taken from childhood and every-day life, and are 
 agreeably but by no means imaginatively rendered. He 
 never went abroad, but prided himself on his exclusively 
 English culture. Many of his works are in the South 
 Kensington Museum and London Gallery, especially " The 
 Last in," " Giving a Bite," " The Fight interrupted," " First 
 Love," " Fair Time," " Crossing the Ford," " Seven Ages of 
 Man," " Toy-Seller," and "Choosing the Wedding Gown." 
 The latter is one of his best pieces, taken from his " Vicar of 
 Wakefield Series," which were first executed as woodcuts in 
 1840, and subsequently developed into paintings. He was 
 tolerably skillful in landscapes, but still happier in his chalk 
 life-studies, some of which are also preserved at Kensington. 
 William Etty, "the great English colorist " (1787-1849), 
 born at York, and early apprenticed to a printer, is an in- 
 stance of the patience of genius and the reward of persever- 
 ance. His uncle, who was a man of some means, took pity 
 on his artistic aspirations, released him from printer's drudg- 
 ery, brought him up to London, and even placed him under 
 the instruction of Sir Thomas Lawrence. But Etty was slow 
 and plodding, and did not seem destined to be a favorite 
 of Fortune. His efforts for prize medals utterly failed ; 
 his pictures were refused admission to the Academy, 01, 
 when exhibited, were quite neglected ; he made no money ; 
 and was repeatedly disappointed in love. Yet he did not 
 succumb beneath these misfortunes, but painted bravely on, 
 till his "Coral-Builders" and "Cleopatra," in 1820 and 1821, 
 established his reputation, and he "woke to find himself 
 famous." The next year he visited Italy, and studied en.
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 
 
 417 
 
 thusiastically at Venice, where his passionate fondness for 
 color was intensified. He was one of the few English artists 
 who have ever successfully treated, or even attempted, nude 
 figures; and his flesh-tints were brilliant, powerful, and some- 
 times exaggerated. But this sensuous tendency was com- 
 bined with true purity of mind and most elevated intentions. 
 He executed nine large pictures, in all of which he aimed to 
 " paint some great moral on the heart " a triptych from the 
 history of " Joan of Arc," meant to illustrate religion, loyalty, 
 and patriotism ; " Ulysses and the Sirens," showing the 
 danger of sensual delights ; " The Combat," or the beauty of 
 mercy ; " Benaiah," or the virtue of valor, and three " Scenes 
 from the Life of Judith," particularly the " Judith and Holo- 
 fernes," of which Redgrave has written a glowing description. 
 Most of these are owned by the Royal Scottish Academy. 
 The London collection also possesses some of his valuable 
 works, the most characteristic of which are his " Female 
 Bathers " and " Youth on the Prow and Pleasure at the 
 Helm." He is buried in his native York. 
 
 Sir Charles Eastlake (1793-1865), a fellow-townsman and 
 pupil of Haydon, was by profession a painter, but proved 
 himself a master in literature. His youthful pictures of 
 " Christ raising the Daughter of Jairus " and " Brutus exhort- 
 ing the Romans to revenge the Death of Lucre'ia" were ap- 
 proved by critics ; but his travels through Italj and Greece 
 furnished him with more unusual and popular subjects. He 
 had also a peculiar talent for lovely and expressive female 
 heads, as may be observed in his bust of " Haide"e," in the 
 Vernon collection. The same collection contains his " Christ 
 blessing Little Children." In 1850 he was knighted, and
 
 4 i8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 became President of the Academy. We are indebted to him 
 for the translation of Kugler's " Schools of Italian Painting," 
 and Goethe's " Theory of Colors; " while his own " Materials 
 for a History of Oil-Painting " finds its place in every large 
 art-library. 
 
 Another American is now added to the list of painters 
 Charles Robert Leslie, born in Clerkenwell, October 19, 1794, 
 of American parents. The family left England about five 
 years afterward, and the boy was apprenticed to a Phila- 
 delphia bookseller; but was finally sent, when seventeen 
 years old, to London, where he was kindly received by West 
 and Washington Allston. He also became the friend of 
 Washington Irving, whose " Sketch-Book " he illustrated. 
 Leslie first tried his talents at portrait-painting ; then took a 
 short flight into high art ; but soon discovered that his chief 
 abilities lay in the line of the higher genre, where his refine- 
 ment of execution, love for rich costumes, beautiful female 
 faces, and graceful action, found full play. The " Sir Roger 
 de Coverley going to Church," finished in 1819, and designed 
 for an American merchant, was enthusiastically approved by 
 the public. His subsequent cheerful pictures, such as " May- 
 Day in the Reign of Queen Elizabeth," " Merry Wives of 
 Windsor," "Dinner at Page's House," "Sancho Panza," and 
 " Uncle Toby and the Widow," many of which are owned and 
 exhibited in England, obtained a large circle of admirers. 
 Their main deficiency is chalkiness of color. Leslie married 
 a beautiful English lady, Miss Stone, one of six sisters who 
 were all so pretty that they were spoken of in society as " the 
 six precious stones." In 1833 ^ e spent a few months in 
 America as Professor of Drawing in the Military Academy of
 
 PAINTING IN ENGLAND. 4 ! 9 
 
 West Point, but soon returned to England, where he had 
 many commissions from the nobility and royal family. In 
 1838 he painted " The Coronation of the Queen." In 1848 
 he accepted the appointment of Professor of Painting in the 
 Royal Academy, and died in London in 1859. His "Auto- 
 biographical Recollections " are full of interest. 
 
 Clarkson Stanfield (1793-1867) and David Roberts (1796- 
 1864) both opened their careers as theatrical scene-painters. 
 Though such an occupation is not conducive to fineness of 
 finish, it certainly develops breadth of treatment ; and Stan- 
 field found its advantages in his subsequent landscape and 
 marine pictures. In these marine pictures he is peculiarly 
 distinguished. A series of forty views in the British Channel 
 and on the French coast have been well engraved under the 
 title of " Stanfield's Coast Scenery." His *' Battle of Tra- 
 falgar," " Mount St. Michael," " Castle of Ischia," " Isola 
 Bella," " Scenes in Venice," and " Beilstein on the Moselle," 
 are very celebrated. He is considered the leader of English 
 realists, and has been compared to Vandjevelde ; but his Na- 
 ture, though eminently faithful, is unpoetical ; and his calm 
 seas, which Ruskin calls " true, salt, and serviceable," are 
 usually cold in color. 
 
 Roberts particularly devoted himself to architecture, and 
 Spanish and Eastern views ; having gained materials for 
 painting in his tours through France, Germany, Belgium, 
 Holland, Spain, Morocco, Egypt, and Syria. The sketches 
 there made were either lithographed or completed in oil or 
 water-colors, and thus acquired deserved reputation. His 
 interiors of Burgos Cathedral, and St. Paul's, Antwerp, hang 
 in the National Gallery ; but his lithographs and sketches
 
 4 20 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 better exemplify his style. His series of " Views of London 
 from the River Thames " was abruptly closed by his death, 
 from apoplexy. 
 
 The water- colors of Roberts, Stanfield, Calcott, Turner, 
 and Blake, naturally suggest the school of water-color paint- 
 ing which English art is now fostering, and in which it stands 
 unrivaled. It is yet too young to possess a history, but it 
 promises a brilliant record for the future. With the foregoing 
 celebrated names must be included those of David Cox, 
 whose idyllic landscapes charm us with their shifting light 
 and shade, their transparent color, and breezy foliage ; of 
 William Henry Hunt, with his exquisite fruit, birds, and flow- 
 ers ; and of Samuel Prout, who, like Roberts, was a lover of 
 architecture, and whose views are equally famous. 
 
 The English artists who follow, born after the year 1800, 
 take their places in the succeeding pages.
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 THE subject of painting in the nineteenth century prop- 
 erly demands a volume, and defies compression into the lim- 
 its of a single chapter. But the slight sketch here at- 
 tempted is the result, not only of personal investigation, 
 but of reference to the constant reports of foreign exhi- 
 bitions, and to the excellent works on modern art pub- 
 lished within the last twenty years, to most of which I am 
 indebted. The preceding account of the English school 
 has already encroached on the limits of modern painting ; 
 but, before continuing the art-history of England, it will 
 be advisable to consider the representatives of the present 
 schools of Germany and France. 
 
 Few are thoroughly aware how intense in effort and 
 how powerful in result was the art-revival in Germany at 
 the beginning of the century. The works of Cornelius, 
 Overbeck, and Kaulbach are not mere easel-pictures, to be 
 criticised hair by hair, or leaf by leaf, and valued at so 
 much an inch ; but vast frescoes, rivaling in extent and 
 design mediaeval wall-paintings broad, thoughtful, and vig- 
 orous aiming to unite ancient idealism with modern cult- 
 ure. The German nation lives, breathes, and works by
 
 422 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 theory ; and it is therefore not surprising to learn that four 
 young students, who had left the Fatherland to seek inspi- 
 ration in Rome, met together, about 1810, to consult upon 
 the principles of art, and the laws by which it should be 
 governed ; and determined to devote their lives to the de- 
 velopment of a theory of painting which they constructed, 
 whose purpose was to reanimate their souls with the old 
 faith and devotion ; renouncing sensual beauty on the one 
 hand, and empty formalism on the other ; laboring with 
 pure hearts, ascetic and consecrated spirits, truth and fidel- 
 ity of execution, and lofty though chastened ideality. 
 This German conception corresponded in methods, though 
 not in religious spirit, with what was afterward known as 
 the pre-Raphaelite movement in England. 
 
 The four men thus associated Peter von Cornelius, of 
 Dlisseldorf (1783-1867) ; Friederich Overbeck, of Liibeck 
 (1789-1869); Philip Veit, of Frankfort; and William Scha- 
 dow, of Berlin remained for some years at Rome, attract- 
 ing other followers. They first thought to bring their lives 
 into harmony with their profession, and worked conscien- 
 tiously and enthusiastically in accordance with their theory, 
 executing frescoes in the house of the Prussian consul on 
 Monte Pincio, in the Church of S. Trinita, and in the Villa 
 Massimi. But, in 1820, Cornelius was called back to Diis- 
 seldorf, as director of its academy, and in 1825 was sum- 
 moned by King Ludwig of Bavaria to decorate the national 
 buildings erected at Munich. There was his golden opportu- 
 nity, which he well improved. The genius of Cornelius was 
 broader than that of Overbeck; and therefore, while his 
 theories were firmly grounded, he extended his sympathies
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 423 
 
 to antique and historical as well as to sacred motives, only 
 stipulating that all should be treated in the same lofty and 
 severe manner. We behold the result in the Glyptothek, 
 or Munich Museum of Statuary, where two spacious halls 
 take their names of " Hall of the Gods " and " Hall of the 
 Heroes," from his mighty mural paintings ; in his " History 
 of Painting " in the Pinakothek, and in his colossal frescoes 
 in the Ludwig-Kirche, whose subjects range from man's 
 creation to the Last Judgment. Magnificent later frescoes 
 were designed for. the Royal Mausoleum and Campo Santo 
 at Berlin, where we find the "Four Riders of the Apoca- 
 lypse," which is regarded as his masterpiece. All these 
 vast compositions impress us by their grandeur of inven- 
 tion, yet we are puzzled to understand why they and other 
 splendid monumental works, by Schnorr, Hess, and the 
 leaders of the early Munich school, should so generally 
 fail to excite our interest even when they secure our 
 admiration. This may partly be explained by their cold 
 and deficient coloring, which suggests a certain element 
 of petrifaction, and partly by their appeal to the merely 
 intellectual and not the emotional side of our nature. 
 
 The influence of Overbeck, though not so widely ex- 
 tended as that of Cornelius, was singular and deep. He 
 became President of the Academy of St. Luke, joined the 
 Romish Church, made his home in the haunts of the 
 mediaeval masters, and strove by reproducing their forms 
 to awaken their spirit. His own tastes were intensely re- 
 ligious, and he longed to transform himself into a modern 
 Fra Angelico ; but the style of holiness which was natural, 
 simple, and hearty in the monk of San Marco, grows 
 28
 
 424 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 strained and chill in our present atmosphere. Yet Over- 
 beck's reverence was very real, and none can examine the 
 scenes from the life of our Lord in his " Holy Gospels," 
 and the charming design of the " Boy Christ among the 
 Doctors," without being struck by his spiritual purity. The 
 large pictures of " Christ entering Jerusalem " in the Mari- 
 en-Kirche, Ltibeck, and " Triumph of Religion " in Frank- 
 fort, are among his principal works, while he has left us 
 several " Holy Families " very suggestive of Perugino and 
 Raphael. . 
 
 William Schadow, the friend of Overbeck, succeeded 
 Cornelius as Director of the Diisseldorf Academy, and con- 
 tributed to form the style of some of the best modern 
 painters of Germany. This Diisseldorf school, which has 
 had many vicissitudes, appeared in its youth exceedingly 
 promising, and instructed such powerful artists as Lessing, 
 the special painter of Luther and Huss ; Bendemann, de- 
 signer of the frescoes in the Dresden Palace ; Julius Hiib- 
 ner, lately the Director of the Dresden Gallery ; the broth- 
 ers Andreas and Oswald Achenbach, famous for their Ger- 
 man and Norwegian landscapes and seas ; Franz Ittenbach, 
 truly noble in his altar-pieces ; Ludwig Knaus, the famous 
 genre painter; Camphausen and Bleibtreu, battle-painters; 
 Hoffmann, lately conspicuous by his "Christ in the Temple," 
 and similar sacred pictures ; and Carl Miiller (1818-1893), 
 whose " Annunciation " and " Holy Family " have been so 
 popular. Jean Georges Meyer, commonly called Meyer von 
 Bremen, because of his birth at Bremen, about 1813, was 
 also a pupil of this school. He is pre-eminently the painter 
 of children sweet and pure in sentiment and color not
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 425 
 
 attempting to rise into strength ; and has long commanded 
 high prices among amateur collectors. 
 
 Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1805-1874), a pupil of Corne- 
 lius, was, however, the morning-star of contemporary Ger- 
 man art. He has been described as " a very thin man, 
 with long, scanty, glossy black hair, smoothed over his 
 forehead, and deep, tender, shining, humorous eyes; his 
 manner a mixture of simplicity, ardor, friendliness, and fun." 
 His father was an engraver of Westphalia, but gave his 
 son a Diisseldorf education. Kaulbach followed Cornelius 
 to Munich, where King Ludwig encouraged him by prince- 
 ly commissions bidding him adorn his new building of 
 the Odeon with frescoes of "Apollo and the Muses," his 
 garden arcades with designs in allegory, and his throne-hall 
 and other palace-rooms with scenes from Klopstock and 
 Goethe. King and people united to praise these works, 
 which were not only executed with the thoughtfulness and 
 grandeur of Cornelius, but with the charm of a sympa- 
 thetic nature and versatile imagination. The appointment 
 of court-painter was offered and accepted, and we must, 
 therefore, make a pilgrimage to Munich to study Kaulbach 
 thoroughly ; though Berlin possesses his vigorous colossal 
 frescoes on the staircase of its museum, beginning with the 
 " Dispersion of the Nations at Babel," and proceeding 
 through " Homer and the Greeks," the " Destruction of 
 Jerusalem," the " Battle of the Huns," and " The Crusad- 
 ers," down to the age of the Reformation. The " Battle of 
 the Huns " is usually preferred by critics, and is often called 
 the specter-battle, because of its embodying the old legend 
 of the fierce barbarian combat continued in the air by the
 
 426 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 ghosts of the dead. But the " Destruction of Jerusalem " 
 is equally weird and sublime. Four solemn prophets look 
 down from the clouds upon the fated city to which aveng- 
 ing angels are descending. Below we see the horrors of the 
 conquest, and the entrance of the Roman legions. The 
 high-priest is about to slay himself ; the wandering Jew flies 
 forth, pursued by the Furies ; while a Christian family, pro- 
 tected by angelic guardians, departs in peace. This "De- 
 struction of Jerusalem " was also completed in oils for the 
 King of Bavaria. All should examine for themselves the 
 photographs of these designs, as well as the minor but popu- 
 lar illustrations from Shakespeare and Goethe, and the 
 studies of beasts ; for photography and engraving are un- 
 usually favorable to Kaulbach, whose excellence lies in form 
 and composition rather than in color. His son, Hermann 
 Kaulbach, now works at Munich, as does also his grand- 
 nephew Friedrich. 
 
 Every student of the history of enthusiasm will under- 
 stand that a reaction in the Munich School of Art, from the 
 subjective to the objective, ere long became inevitable. 
 This reaction was healthfully accomplished under its third 
 director, Carl Theodor von Piloty (1826-1886), who, of un- 
 doubted genius himself, found it his vocation to direct the 
 genius of others. He had no wish to violently rend away 
 the traditions of the past, to discourage scientific treatment 
 or correctness of drawing, but he felt the need of that touch 
 of nature by which art is made kin to all humanity. With 
 an impressive personality, well suited to his position, he 
 taught and illustrated his own principles with fervor and 
 force. He has been accused of over-boldness and sensa-
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 437 
 
 tionalism ; but he was discretion and moderation itself, as 
 compared with the novel practices of younger " impression- 
 ists." He is indeed " Piloty the Realist " ; but he desires 
 his realism to express a thought rather than to merely stere- 
 otype an effect. A journey to Italy increased his natural 
 taste for a broad and graphic style, color, and the dramatic 
 side of art, as may be seen in his " Triumph of Germanicus." 
 The pictures which will best perpetuate his name are " Nero 
 walking among the Ruins of Rome," " Mary, Queen of 
 Scots receiving her Sentence," and " The Death of VVallen- 
 stein." The latter is so wonderful in all its details that 
 every critic's eye must be arrested by the furniture of the 
 room and the gleam of the diamond on Wallenstein's dead 
 hand ; yet the astrologer's noble figure and the whole senti- 
 ment of the scene are full of the true ideal spirit. " Galileo 
 in Prison " is also fine and serious work ; but our admira- 
 tion abates as we turn toward the allegorical history of Mu- 
 nich, which has been the subject of Piloty 's later labors, and 
 which is more interesting to Bavaria than to the world at 
 large. 
 
 The growing popularity of the Munich school brought 
 the usual evils as well as the benefits of prosperity. Many 
 of its young and talented members were so deluged with 
 orders that absurdly small pictures, with cumbersome, fan- 
 tastic frames, came in fashion. One clever satirist executed 
 a painting no larger than an ordinary match-box, had it 
 heavily framed, and sold it to his satisfaction. In contrast 
 with this extreme, more ambitious workers selected canvases 
 and subjects of enormous size and range, for to the German 
 mind time and space are only accidents of art and existence,
 
 42 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 and seem but trifling obstacles to industry and fertile con- 
 ception. Impatience of ordinary rules and methods, inven- 
 tions for rapidity and inventions for color-effect, dash and 
 splash, and extravagance of fancy, an excessive love of lux- 
 ury art for the artist's sake became the dangers which the 
 more thoughtful and conscientious men were forced to com- 
 bat. Even Piloty's realism fell behind the age, and other 
 leaders are taking his place. 
 
 Among these are Friedrich Kaulbach ; Franz von De- 
 fregger, celebrated in genre and for Tyrolean scenes, as 
 well as for two striking Madonnas ; Leibl, coarse but power- 
 ful ; Franz Lenbach, portraitist of Bismarck and the Emper- 
 or; his weird young artist friend, Franz Stuck ; the younger 
 portraitists Papperitz and Wimmer ; Wilhelm Diez, genre, his- 
 torical and animal painter; Karl Raupp; Lietzen Mayer, the 
 romantic Hungarian ; Braun and Lindenschmidt, historical 
 painters ; Ludwig Lofftz ; Alexander Wagner, whose " Char- 
 iot-Race " we recall ; Plockhorst and Bodenhausen, sacred 
 painters; and naturalistic Max Liebermann, with his ''Flax- 
 spinners " and " Munich Beer Garden." Interesting sketches 
 might be made of these and others, but at present we will 
 only mention Gabriel Max, so highly appreciated both in his 
 country and in ours. The son of a sculptor of Prague, and 
 born in 1840, he first studied with his father before beginning 
 his career at Munich, where his genius soon became appar- 
 ent, for he is a spiritualistic, hypnotic painter, uniting tech- 
 nical skill with rare imaginative power. His face is most 
 intellectual and pleasing, with keen, deep-set, almost mes- 
 meric eyes, that betoken a sensitive and somewhat morbid 
 nature which finds expression in " The Anatomist," in his
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 4,9 
 
 " Head of Christ," and " Crucifixion," under the wan light of 
 a partial eclipse, and in the pale, ghostly, and thrilling figure 
 of " Margaret on Walpurgis Night." Many have seen his 
 picture of the " Maiden Martyr in the Arena," with the 
 tigers ready to spring upon her, her eyes upturned to the fall- 
 ing rose flung to her over the wall. " The Lion's Bride," 
 suggested by a poem of Uhland, is still more widely known. 
 
 Passing from Munich to the later Berlin school, we may 
 observe the zealous efforts of the royal family to make this 
 capital an art-center worthy of the empire. Ludwig Knaus, 
 born at Wiesbaden in 1829, and called the foremost genre 
 painter in Germany, was summoned from Diisseldorf to Ber- 
 lin, where the Art Academy was reorganized. Adolf von 
 Menzel, masterly in characterization, as in the " Rolling- 
 Mill," was to German art what Lessing was to German let- 
 ters. Anton von Werner exhibits grand style, good drawing, 
 and correct color. His large " Proclamation of the Ger- 
 man Empire at Versailles " contains two hundred actual por- 
 traits ; yet such pictures must properly be considered as im- 
 posing representations rather than truly artistic works. The 
 same remark applies to Adolph Menzel's paintings illustra- 
 tive of the reign of Frederick the Great. Carl Schorn and 
 Julius Schrader are remarkable for historical work, genre, and 
 portraits, and Gentz for Eastern scenes. Brendel is famed 
 for animals, especially sheep, and young Herr Friese for 
 wild beasts of the desert. 
 
 Carl Becker and Gustav Richter, born in Berlin, the one 
 in 1820, the other in 1822, became professors in the Art 
 Academy of that city. Both are favorably known in Eng- 
 land and America. Indeed, the name of Becker is also fa-
 
 43 o SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 miliar, from Ernst Becker, the painter of cows, often called 
 " Kuh, or Q. Becker." Carl Becker particularly depicts 
 ths magnificence of the Venetian or German Renaissance, 
 as in "Charles V. at the House of Jacob Fugger," and 
 " Albrecht Diirer in Venice." Richter charms by rich Orien- 
 tal scenes, but is still better known by such admirable por- 
 traits as that of Queen Louisa of Prussia. These portraits 
 are treated with the same ideality as his other subjects. This 
 is exceptional in the Berlin school, which has curiously com- 
 bined the mannerism of the day with strong national feeling, 
 and with much of the serio-grotesque spirit of the old North- 
 German masters. The latter characteristics are specially no- 
 ticeable in the melancholy but powerful pictures of Alfred 
 Rethel (1816-1859), wno nas * eft us frescoes from the life 
 of Charlemagne, and the remarkable companion paintings, 
 " Death as a Friend " and " Death as an Avenger," the last 
 symbolizing the demon Cholera at a masked ball in Paris. 
 The mystic but peculiarly original themes of Arnold von 
 Bocklin, lately of Munich, have a like fascination. On the 
 other hand, Karl Hoff represents modern realism in such 
 compositions as " A Christening Scene " and " The Last Sac- 
 rament." Fritz von Uhde, born in Saxony in 1844, but a 
 student of Munich and Paris, is, however, the present North- 
 German apostle of realism ; his sacred pictures being simply 
 strong and truthful landscapes, with their personages literally 
 taken from ordinary peasantry. His triptych of " The Na- 
 tivity " and " Christ blessing Little (German) Children," are 
 popular examples. 
 
 Rethel is the connecting link between the art of North- 
 ern and Middle Germany, his residence having been fixed at
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 43! 
 
 Frankfort, where the Stadel Institute, founded by a rich 
 banker about 1816, is most valuable as a means of art de- 
 velopment. It was put under the direction of Philip Veit, of 
 the Overbeck fraternity. Veit was finally succeeded by 
 Eduard Steinle, conservative in methods, deep and true in 
 religious feeling, yet broad in study and in sympathies. He 
 is also interesting as the master of Sir Frederick Leighton, 
 who became President of the Royal Academy of England. 
 
 Another famous pupil of the Stadel Institute is Adolf 
 Schreyer, born in Frankfort, 1828, whose spirited equestrian 
 pictures are everywhere in demand. He has studied the 
 horse in all semi-barbarous localities. His treatment is 
 highly dramatic, original, and free. His Wallachian and 
 Arabian scenes are so engraved as to render much of the 
 fiery action, though not of the powerful yet finely-graded 
 color of the paintings, whose skies " move with the wind and 
 melt into rain." 
 
 Although Vienna is geographically Austrian, yet artisti- 
 cally she must be classed as belonging to the German Con- 
 federation. The moral atmosphere of the city has had 
 much to do with the character of her culture. Religious or 
 severely truthful art found but stony soil amid the gayety 
 and splendor of her social life, and in her massive and luxu- 
 rious buildings, ornamented by such excellent decorators as 
 Moritz von Schwind, who, though working at Munich, is 
 Viennese by birth, and is represented everywhere in Ger- 
 many by most attractive illustrations and frescoes. The 
 Academy at Vienna secured all possible native talent, nota- 
 bly that of Carl Mayer (1810-1876), genre, historical, and 
 landscape painter, and also invited from Munich such
 
 432 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 learned professors as Anton Feuerbach, of Speyer (1829-1880), 
 whose temperament inclined him to romantic or classic sub- 
 jects, as " Dante with the Women of Ravenna," " Iphigenia 
 in Auli:," or "The Banquet of Plato." His coloring was 
 cool and reserved in tone, and his taste poetic ; but his 
 " Battle of the Amazons," with its many nude figures, proved 
 his mastery of realistic methods. He died of heart-disease 
 while sleeping, and his body was borne in a gondola through 
 Venice, and carried to Nuremberg, where he is buried 
 beside Albrecht Diirer. 
 
 He, however, was not the man of the times. The artist, 
 of all others, whom Vienna delighted to honor was Hans 
 Makart, who, in 1868, brought out his celebrated painting 
 of "The Pest in Florence." Makart was born, in 1840, at 
 Salzburg, in the Tyrol, of humble burgher parents. His 
 early efforts for an art education were unsuccessful. He 
 was even pronounced devoid of talent, and returned home 
 disconsolate; but his genius developed under the later tui- 
 tion of Piloty and the stimulus of Italian travel. " The 
 Plague in Florence " took the public by storm. Even ad- 
 verse criticism only increased its popularity. It was a 
 revel of sin, of beauty, and of death. All its great defects 
 of drawing were forgotten in its picturesque composition, 
 intense color, and sensuous charm. This passionate power 
 cost Makart no strain or affectation. It was the natural 
 outcome of his character, equally expressed in private life 
 when he established his sumptuous studio in Vienna, and 
 surrounded himself with luxury, pageants, and theatrical 
 effects. Yet he was of a sensitive, melancholy, and even 
 morbid spirit. He fell short of his own standard because
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 433 
 
 he had no knowledge of anatomy nor purity of drawing. 
 Even his coloring is unhealthy ; especially in his flesh-tints, 
 which he would make livid white, dull red, or olive-yellow, 
 if those particular tones happened to be needed in certain 
 parts of his paintings. In his portraits he was quite as 
 capricious. His large picture of "Catharine Cornaro re- 
 ceiving the Homage of the Venetian Nobles," now in the 
 Berlin Gallery, was exhibited in Philadelphia in 1876. His 
 admirers gave him the title of " The Veronese of Vienna." 
 His last great picture was "The Entry of Charles V. into 
 Antwerp " a triumphal procession of bold, rich figures, 
 male and female, nude, or gayly costumed, or glittering with 
 armor and lustrous draperies, set in the midst of festive 
 accessories, on a canvas thirty feet long. But his splen- 
 dor is wanting in dignity and refinement, as well as in cor- 
 rectness of form. Frail in health, and incessant in work, 
 he died in October, 1884, at the early age of forty-four 
 years. His funeral in Vienna was almost regal in mag- 
 nificence ; and his influence will be deep and lasting 
 throughout all Germany and Russia. 
 
 Another favorite of Vienna is the painter of "Christ 
 before Pilate," which has been widely exhibited, and finally 
 sold in America, as one of the best examples of modern 
 German art. It is an impressive picture ; and the life of 
 the artist reads like a romance. Michael Lieb, commonly 
 called Michael Munkdcsy, was born in 1844 in the fortress 
 of Munkacs, Hungary. Both parents died in his infancy, 
 during the massacres that followed the Russian war. His 
 uncle, poor himself, apprenticed the child to a furniture- 
 maker. A traveling portrait-painter awakened his desire
 
 434 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 for art ; he began to study from him, and in the intervals 
 of work attempted portraits himself. He first wandered to 
 Pesth, where his youthful endeavors promised success, un- 
 til a sudden disease of the eyes threatened total blindness. 
 Cured and undismayed, he set out for Munich, and reached 
 that city with but twenty florins in his pocket. But at 
 Munich and at Diisseldorf he found the instruction and 
 the opportunities which he needed. In 1870 appeared his 
 remarkable painting of "The Last Day of a Condemned 
 Man." This subject, treated pictorially by Munkacsy, as 
 it has been treated dramatically by Victor Hugo, appealed 
 strongly to the public mind. It evidenced more power and 
 much more terrible simplicity, but the same direction of 
 thought and style as another early work, " Vagrants of the 
 Night," whose gloomy forms and shadowy vistas are sug- 
 gestive of both Caravaggio and Rembrandt. From this 
 point the artist's fame was assured. Fortune smiled upon 
 him. He continued the scenes of national life in which he 
 had so well succeeded ; married and settled in Paris, where 
 his superb studio has been often described. He is a tall, 
 sinewy, silent man, with fierce gray hair and beard, and Tar- 
 tar eyes. Some of his best works have found their home in 
 this country. The " Milton dictating to his Daughters," now 
 in the Lenox Library, New York, gained the medal of honor 
 in 1878. It is finely composed, and carried out with unusual 
 depth and force of color, especially in the dark blues, grays, 
 browns, and blacks, which from most palettes are so dull and 
 meaningless. Critics, however, complain that Munkdcsy's 
 pigments are not durable, and that Milton's daughters have 
 a plebeian air not befitting the children of such a poet.
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 435 
 
 The "Christ before Pilate" is familiar to most lovers of 
 art. Whatever opinion may be held as to its central and 
 most important Figure, the composition of the picture and 
 its technique command the admiration of all. Its tone is 
 deep and warm, its colors glowing, and most skillfully 
 balanced and blended. As a vivid scene on canvas it can 
 scarcely be surpassed. Forty actors in the world's most 
 thrilling drama so impress themselves upon the memory as 
 never to be forgotten. Accusers and spectators mass in 
 one agitated throng. The high light concentrates upon the 
 Christ, who stands, an embodiment of absolute repose, amid 
 the mad excitement. Pilate, the judge, also in high light, 
 has not the dignity of a Roman patrician, nor the air of a 
 man who could be interested in asking, "What is truth?" 
 The beautiful young mother and her child in the back- 
 ground is the intrusion of mere idealism into a thoroughly and 
 intensely realistic representation ; the architecture and acces- 
 sories are not true to the age, but are splendidly executed 
 and most effective, as is also the far sky's rich green-blue. 
 
 Munkdcsy has painted a " Christ on Calvary " as com- 
 panion and sequel to "Christ before Pilate." Perhaps the 
 truest criticism is to say that while both of these are so 
 wonderfully and startlingly natural, they yet miss the super- 
 natural. A still later work is entitled "The Rehearsal of 
 Mozart's Requiem in Mozart's Death-Chamber," where the 
 great composer, reclining in an arm-chair, listens to the 
 picturesque singers inspired by his own music. The room 
 and groupings are most happily arranged ; the coloring har- 
 monious ; the costumes artistic ; and the whole treatment 
 strong, serious, and simple.
 
 43 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Vacslav Brozik, Bohemian pupil of Munkdcsy and Pilo- 
 ty, shares, to some extent, his master's reputation. He has 
 forcibly portrayed various episodes in the history of Bohemia ; 
 and his excellent picture of " Columbus with Ferdinand and 
 Isabella" has been presented to the New York Museum. 
 Rahl and Krafft are painters of history ; Waldmuller of rural 
 genre. Brenner's, Heffner's, and Jettel's landscapes, Miiller's 
 Eastern subjects, Von Angeli's, Horowitz's, Tilgner's, and 
 Canon's portraits, Pettenkofer's market-scenes, and Charle- 
 mont's small figures, may also be noticed in Viennese art. 
 
 Jaroslav Czermak, Bohemian, and Matejko, of Cracow, 
 are able and spirited historical painters ; while Alfred Ko- 
 walski, of Poland, has distinguished himself for national 
 genre ; as did also the Polish Brandt, pupil of the more 
 famous Franz Adam, the late battle-painter of Munich. 
 
 The progress so evident in the aspirations and art of 
 Germany showed itself likewise in impressible France. It 
 is most interesting to compare and contrast the spirit of 
 the two countries, and to observe how the fine product of 
 modern technique and materialism, known as the latest French 
 art, has been evolved. 
 
 The reaction of this century from the classicism of 
 David was not only to the vehement naturalism of Ge>i- 
 cault, but to the sentimental and the picturesque. One critic 
 even asserts, "Art should be a window opening on dream- 
 land." Realism finally triumphed, but the sentimental and 
 the ideal first had their day. In this connection the life 
 of Ary Scheffer (1795-1858), born at Dort, of Dutch and 
 German parents, but French by education and residence, 
 links the school of Overbeck and his German associates with
 
 the departing French mysticism of past religious days. The 
 mother of Scheffer, left a widow in needy circumstances, re- 
 moved to Paris with her family, of whom Ary was the eld- 
 est, and the one to whom they naturally looked for support. 
 This burden of responsibility doubtless helped to sadden his 
 already melancholy spirit. But the warmest affection ex- 
 isted between him and this devoted mother, whom he has 
 so tenderly commemorated in his picture of "St. Monica 
 and St. Augustine." Gaining some money and celebrity by 
 the sale of domestic genre scenes, which were his first efforts, 
 he obtained a commission to paint the portrait of La- 
 fayette, through whose political teachings he became an Or- 
 leanist. An interesting account of his long connection with 
 the Orleans family will be found in Mrs. Crete's biogra- 
 phy of the artist. His retiring nature shrank from publicity 
 and praise ; and when separated from his royal friends, he 
 led a semi-secluded life in his Parisian house and studio, 
 Rue Chaptal, where he painted those devotional and dreamy 
 pictures which for the most part passed into the hands of 
 private individuals, or into the possession of his only daugh- 
 ter not, however, before they had been photographed and 
 engraved. 
 
 All these works, both in form and color, are open to se- 
 vere criticism ; yet their poetry keeps its hold upon the heart. 
 Anatomy would stand aghast . at Scheffer's lanky shapes, 
 whose length from the waist downward is something marvel- 
 ous to contemplate. His coloring was based upon the theory 
 that spiritual emotions were only to be expressed by dull, 
 faded, and ashy tones, and he therefore affected the cloudy 
 gray, pale red, and salmon-pink, so prominently displayed in
 
 43 g SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 his " Temptation of Christ " and in thv, well-known " Dante 
 and Beatrice." " Christus Consolator " and "Christus Re- 
 munerator " have all his faults and merits ; while another 
 painting, called "The Groanings," or " Les Douleurs de la 
 Terre," is a wonderful instance of the power and beauty of 
 his conceptions. It is meant to show the rise of the soul 
 through the griefs of earth to heaven, and consists of figures 
 grouped together, those nearest the earth bowed down and 
 overwhelmed with the most crushing and hopeless sorrow ; 
 above them are those who are beginning to look upward, and 
 the sorrow in their faces is subsiding into anxious inquiry. 
 Still above them are some who, having caught a gleam of the 
 sources of consolation, express a solemn calmness ; and still 
 higher, rising in the air, figures with clasped hands and ab- 
 sorbed, upward gaze, to whose eyes the mystery has been 
 unveiled, the enigma solved, and sorrow glorified. At Ver- 
 sailles Ary Scheffer is seen in quite a new character, appear- 
 ing, with a less talented brother, Henri, as an historical 
 painter. These, and other pictures of that description, belong 
 to his earlier years, when his style was best exemplified by 
 " Gaston de Foix found Dead at Ravenna." 
 
 Jean Hippolyte Flandrin (1809-1864), a pupil of Ingres, 
 devoted himself chiefly to religious art in its more historical 
 aspect. His painted saints and martyrs are suggestive of. 
 Andrea del Sarto, especially in the frescoes of St. Germain 
 des Pres and St. Vincent de Paul, Paris. His portraits were 
 highly valued, as are those of his pupil, Jules Delaunay. 
 
 Francois Edouard Picot (1786-1868) was associated with 
 Flandrin in his labors upon the Church of St. Vincent de 
 Paul, and decorated ceilings still more effectively in the
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 439 
 
 Louvre and at Versailles. Picot is also remembered as being 
 the master of Bouguereau ; of Pils, the Eastern and military 
 painter, whose widest reputation rests on his " Battle of the 
 Alma" and on his Opera-House frescoes; of Cabanel ; of 
 Leloir; of Gustave Moreau; of Emile LeVy ; of Le"on Per- 
 rault ; and of Hector Leroux, painter of "Vestal Virgins." 
 
 Joseph Nicolas Robert Fleury, and his pupil Comte, per- 
 petuated the historical style. Gleyre (1806-1874) became 
 still more renowned as a classic and historic painter. Delort, 
 of Nimes, known in the United States by his " Carnival at 
 Antwerp," was pupil of Gleyre and Gerdme. 
 
 The manner of Paul Delaroche (1797-1856) is somewhat 
 allied to that of Ary Scheffer, though Scheffer was more 
 transcendentally German, and Delaroche more essentially 
 French. Educated by the classic Gros, he nevertheless had 
 little sympathy with the antique, but preferred to work on 
 scenes of modern history or religious sentiment. " Joas res- 
 cued by Josabeth " was his first exhibited picture ; but it is 
 slightly known in comparison with the " Young Princes in 
 the Tower," and " Cromwell looking upon Charles I. in his 
 Coffin," executed between the years 1824 and 1832. Dela- 
 roche was equally ready to illustrate the romantic incidents 
 of English as well as of French history, as is seen in his 
 " Execution of Lady Jane Grey " and " Death of Queen 
 Elizabeth." These are all simply yet powerfully treated, 
 though somewhat heavy in color. His religious pieces verge 
 toward the melodramatic, but generally subside into such in- 
 tensity of feeling as is visible in his " Virgin led home by St. 
 John after the Crucifixion," " Christ in Gethsemane," and 
 
 the effective series on the events of Good- Friday. Of a less 
 zg
 
 440 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 tragic nature is the lovely little " Moses in the Bulrushes/' 
 owned by Baron Rothschild. As the works of all great de- 
 ceased French masters are, within a certain period after their 
 death, removed from the Luxembourg to the Louvre, the best 
 pictures of Delaroche, Delacroix, and other distinguished 
 modern artists, have been so transferred. 
 
 The large fresco called the " Hemicycle," in the School 
 of the Fine Arts, Paris, was Delaroche's most ambitious pro- 
 duction, occupying him enthusiastically for four years, but 
 receiving such injury from fire, in 1855, that we now see it 
 only in its restored condition. It represents the arts of dif- 
 ferent nations and different centuries, with varied groups of 
 over seventy architects, sculptors, and painters. It is said 
 that the figure emblematic of Gothic architecture is the por- 
 trait of Delaroche's wife, the daughter of Horace Vernet, 
 whom her father had previously painted as a peasant-girl in 
 his " Meeting of Michael Angelo and Raphael." 
 
 In character, Paul Delaroche was grave and introspect- 
 ive, very studious and painstaking, passionately attached to 
 his art, but caring more for the quality than for the quantity 
 of his compositions. His keen sensibilities, repressed through 
 a quiet life, found perpetual expression in his pictures. 
 
 Many eminent painters look back gratefully to their in- 
 struction in the atelier of Paul Delaroche. Some inherited 
 his spirit rather than his technical merits, as did Charles 
 Franois Jalabert, who has achieved most success in portrait- 
 ures. Edouard Frere, on leaving the studio, immediately 
 became popular for his unconventional and lovely child- 
 figures ; and Charles Landelle for his Moors and Fellah- 
 women. Another poetic pupil of Delaroche was Jean Louis
 
 THE FINDING OF MOSES (Paul Delaroche } .
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 441 
 
 Hamon (1821-1874), whose tender, graceful works have been 
 well engraved. These pictures, of which " Aurora drinking 
 the Morning Dew," and " Autumn extinguishing the Flow- 
 ers," are examples, are painted in cool harmonies of color, 
 with almost classic elegance of form. Although Antoine He- 
 bert, born in Grenoble in 1817, was not among the number 
 of Delaroche's direct scholars, yet he was greatly under his 
 influence. He gained the Prix de Rome, the highest object 
 of every French artist's ambition, went to Italy, and sent 
 home his remarkable picture called " La Malaria," a boat 
 on the Pontine Marshes, laden with a fever-stricken family. 
 This gave him the title of " The Painter of Fever," a sarcasm 
 occasionally deserved by his livid flesh-tints. His manner is 
 earnest, but monotonous. The dreamy, deep-eyed Italian 
 women whom he studied he idealized in his " Madonna Ado- 
 rata." 
 
 To return to the beginning of the century, Le"on Cogniet, 
 born in Paris in 1794, and himself educated by Gue>in, di- 
 rected the genius of many rising artists. Cogniet assisted in 
 the decorations of the Madeleine and the Louvre, painted 
 "Marius on the Ruins of Carthage," and "Tintoretto with his 
 Dead Daughter." He gathered round him a band of excel- 
 lent young artists, including Charles Louis Muller, with his 
 admirable " Roll-Call of the Condemned in the Reign of Ter- 
 ror"; Jules Lefebvre, whose "Nymph and Bacchus" is in the 
 Luxembourg ; Hugues Merle, whose romantic style is illus- 
 trated by the "Charlotte Corday" now in Washington ; Henri 
 Emmanuel Philippoteaux, the battle-painter ; Felix Barrias ; 
 T. Robert Fleury ; Meissonier ; and Leon Joseph Florentin 
 Bonnat, born in 1833, who enjoys great present popularity,
 
 44 2 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 and is better appreciated in his remarkable portraits and 
 Italian scenes than in his more pretentious sacred pieces, of 
 which " Samson slaying the Lion " is a fair example. 
 
 Eugene Delacroix (1799-1863) is bold, romantic, and 
 spirited in style, but more intense and theatrical than Dela- 
 roche. His earliest inspiration was drawn from the " In- 
 ferno," in his " Dante and Virgil in the Bark of Phlegyas," 
 and was vivid with all a Frenchman's imagination. He may 
 be considered the Victor Hugo of Parisian painting, depict- 
 ing on his canvas grand effects of passion, terror, or pathos, 
 richly and strongly colored. " The Massacre of Scio," " Sar- 
 danapalus," " Algerian Women," and " A Jewish Wedding," 
 are among his best oil-paintings ; while the number of what 
 Ltibke calls his " monumental works," in the dome of the 
 Luxembourg, Church of St. Sulpice, and Apollo Gallery of 
 the Louvre, justify the title which has been bestowed on him 
 of "a French Rubens of the nineteenth century." Gustave 
 Brion made Delacroix's " Dante and Virgil " his first model, 
 but abandoned it for compositions representing occupations 
 and costumes of the French provinces. Bida, the water- 
 colorist, was among Delacroix's pupils ; as was Louis Lam- 
 bert, whose specialty is the painting of cats and kittens, in 
 which he is rivaled only by the Dutch Henriette Ronner. 
 
 This curious contrast between master and scholar is also 
 noticeable in Blaise Desgoffe, the renowned " still-life " art- 
 ist, perfect with microscopic perfection and beauty in his 
 department, but difficult to recognize as pupil of Flandrin. 
 Bonvin and Mettling give elaborate interiors ; but Vollon is 
 most successful in eccentric still-life pictures. 
 
 Thomas Couture (1815-1879), whose style was formed
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 443 
 
 under Gros and Delaroche, displayed the realism soon to be 
 so prominent in French art, but controlled in his case by 
 intellect and aesthetic feeling. His masterpiece is " The Ro- 
 mans of the Decadence," a large picture in which allegory 
 blends with history. His " Day-Dreams " is in the New York 
 Museum. History may also be studied in works of Laurens, 
 born 1838, a strong but somber colorist, tragic in tempera- 
 ment, to whose " Death of Morceau " and " Pope Formosa " 
 is now added the large " Death of St. Genevieve " on the wall 
 of the French Pantheon. Had Henri Regnault (1843-1871) 
 not been early killed in battle, he might have outranked any 
 modern historical master. He obtained the Prix de Rome 
 at the age of twenty-three, and his " Execution at Granada " 
 and " Portrait of General Prim " remain to bear witness to 
 his unusual promise. 
 
 Alexandre Gabriel Decamps (1803-1860) is most familiar 
 through his original and striking Oriental views. From an 
 artistic standpoint he may be considered as the discoverer of 
 the East. His lights and shadows are most picturesquely 
 disposed ; and, though he is often incorrect and impetuous 
 in drawing, his color has a deep poetic charm. He il- 
 lustrated many Biblical subjects, and many incidents of 
 foreign and domestic life, sometimes condescending even to 
 turtles and monkeys. His Oriental tastes were shared by 
 Marilhat and by Eugene Fromentin (1820-1876), who re- 
 vealed the fascinations of Arab life and of Algerian land- 
 scapes. Fromentin was also an accomplished writer. L6on 
 Belly (1827-1877), Prosper Marilhat, and Charles Theodore 
 Frere, are likewise distinguished Orientalists. 
 
 The Eastern field has, however, been more thoroughly
 
 444 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 worked by Jean Leon Ge>6me. We enter with him not only 
 into its mere scenery, but into its varied scenes of action and 
 passion. This, indeed, gives but one phase of Ger6me's gen- 
 ius. He is equally at home in the higher departments of genre 
 and in illustrative history, where he combines almost classic 
 precision with strength and suppleness of form, and with great 
 ingenuity of composition. Everything has an air of perfect 
 finish, and yet his dramatic instinct never sacrifices power to 
 details. He is the son of a goldsmith, born in Vesoul, 1824, 
 was a pupil of Paul Delaroche, and gained his first medal in 
 1847 by "The Cock-Fight," which, though unpromising in 
 sound, was Grecian in setting. This was followed by " The 
 Age of Augustus." Among his best paintings are "The 
 Death of Caesar," " King Candaules," " Leaving the Masked 
 Ball," " L'Eminence Grise," " Gladiators before Caesar," and 
 ''Napoleon before the Sphinx." He has also completed a 
 masterly picture called " The Hour of Prayer in a Mosque 
 in Cairo." Gr6me's life has been one long and brilliant 
 success. He has lately even acquired a reputation for sculp- 
 ture and mural decoration. 
 
 Gustave Boulanger, also from the atelier of Delaroche, 
 somewhat resembles Gerdme in style, though he is inferior 
 in execution. He gives us such classic historic subjects as 
 "The Gynecia," or "The Appian Way in the Time of Au- 
 gustus." This leads us to speak of Benjamin Constant, 
 whose gorgeous painting, " Justinian and his Council," adorned 
 a Paris exhibition. Constant's Morocco scenes are admira- 
 ble, and his portraits very excellent. Georges Rochegrosse, 
 pupil of Boulanger, pursues his master's grand historical 
 style. Another young artist, Albert Maignan, shows great
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 445 
 
 imaginative skill in poetic and historical themes. Fernand 
 Cormon's picture of the " Victors of Salamis " established his 
 reputation in 1887. Greater than these, however, is the 
 mural painter, Puvis de Chavannes (1824-1898), born at 
 Lyons, whose symbolic historic decorations, full of large 
 idealized figures, pale but truthful in color, may be studied 
 in the Pantheon, Sorbonne, and Hotel de Ville, Paris ; also 
 in nine panels in the Public Library, Boston. Francois Fla- 
 meng, historical and genre painter, aided in the Sorbonne. 
 
 The master of Constant and of Cormon, Alexandre 
 Cabanel (1823-1889), is well known by his frescoes, by his 
 popularity as an instructor, by his fascinating portraits, by 
 his aristocratic and imaginative type of female beauty, and 
 by his success in the nude. He was awarded the Prix 
 de Rome for a "Christ before Pilate," and has given un- 
 wearied labor to the mural paintings in the Pantheon on the 
 life of Louis IX. ; but none of these so appealed to the pub- 
 lic at large as his " Birth of Venus." The study of the nude 
 is in France a passion. Treated scientifically, it is a gain to 
 art ; treated sensually, it is a disgrace to the nation. Jules 
 Lefebvre makes it his chief object ; but it is seldom found 
 in more popular style than in the works of William Adolphe 
 Bouguereau, born at La Rochelle, 1825. His flesh-tints are 
 simple, delicate, and healthy, excellent in quality though 
 superabundant in quantity. His women and children are 
 discoverable in every gallery. But his mythological subjects, 
 though greatly admired in Paris, are not so common in 
 America, nor is it everywhere known that his reputation was 
 first made in the field of sacred art. His earliest picture was 
 "The Angel of Death," eclipsed in 1854 by his ''Body of
 
 446 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 St. Cecilia brought into the Catacombs," which, with " La 
 Vierge Consolatrice," has found a place in the Luxembourg. 
 Bouguereau is also a successful decorator. 
 
 The nymphs and Magdalens of Jean Jacques Henner are 
 likewise the fashion of the day. These are generally placed 
 near dark tree-masses, in idyllic bits of landscape, where 
 they shine by contrast with a pale, silvery gleam, exquisitely 
 given, but morbid in tone. The soft, vaporous head of 
 " Fabiola " is particularly charming. Paris idolizes Henner. 
 
 The undraped figures of Paul Baudry (1828-1886) are on 
 a much bolder scale. Baudry was a celebrated portraitist, 
 and an experienced though florid decorator in the grand 
 style. He won the Prix de Rome in 1850, and has painted 
 many easel-pieces, as " The Wave and the Pearl, "sold in New 
 York in 1898. His mythological scenes on the ceiling of 
 the foyer of the Paris Opera- House are exceedingly rich and 
 laborious, but have been so injured by the gas that it was 
 proposed to replace them in mosaic. 
 
 The varying opinions expressed of Paul Gustave Dore 
 (1833-1883) render it quite uncertain what place he will 
 occupy in the estimation of posterity. Incorrect form and 
 crudeness of color are his technical defects. Fantastic, im- 
 aginative, and sensational in a degree possible only to a 
 Frenchman, he has produced many remarkable works, of 
 which the most interesting are his designs for " The 
 Wandering Jew," Dante's " Inferno," Tennyson's poems, 
 and other standard books. His management of light and 
 shade in black-and-white is broad and admirable, but he 
 loses by color. Dor was born at Strasbourg, but studied in 
 Paris, where he had two studios, and labored with amazing
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 447 
 
 rapidity upon very large and popular compositions, such as 
 "Dante and Virgil in the Frozen Hell," "Christ leaving 
 the Praetorium," and "The Dream of Pilate's Wife." 
 
 Jean Louis Ernest Meissonier, of Lyons (died 1891), about 
 twenty years Dora's senior, devotes more time to a quarter- 
 inch of canvas than Dore" to a square yard. His pictures 
 are usually small, and worth their weight in gold. They are 
 so finished that it seems as if every stroke must have been 
 executed under a microscope. He confines himself gener- 
 ally to such military and genre groups or figures as " The 
 Chess-Players," "The Smoker," "A Reading at Diderot's," 
 or "Napoleon III. and his Officers." In the latter painting 
 the face of every officer, though not the size of a pea, is an 
 excellent likeness. His largest work, called " Friedland, 
 1807," secured by Mr. Stewart, of New York, for 300,000 
 francs, and lately given to the Metropolitan Museum, repre- 
 sents the review of 18,000 troops before Napoleon. Meisso- 
 nier followed this picture by another of Napoleon on horse- 
 back, entitled " 1814." Charles Blanc tells us that the great 
 artist practices such excessive care in the choice and purity 
 of his materials that his paintings will be as enduring as 
 the masterpieces of the fifteenth century. His son, Jean 
 Charles, is also becoming a painter of note. 
 
 Edouard Detaille, Meissonier's pupil, shares his genius in 
 the same direction, and has the same qualities of precision 
 and finish. His war-scenes or soldier-figures are found in all 
 large collections. " The Retreat," " The Conquered," " Le 
 Reve," and "The Passing Regiment," are his most conspicu- 
 ous works. Alphonse de Neuville (1836-1885), bolder in 
 style than Detaille or Meissonier, was a military painter of ex-
 
 44 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 traordinary ability, developed by the Franco-Prussian War. 
 Aime" Nicolas Morot has apparently inherited his power of 
 movement and dramatic force. Berne Bellecour, another spir- 
 ited artist, commemorated " Solferino " ; Alexandre Bloch, the 
 " Barricade of Bagneux." Dumaresq, pupil of Couture, paints 
 American battle-fields. All these phases of military art differ 
 in technique from the battle-pieces of Pils, Protais, and Phil- 
 ippoteaux, or the more comprehensive Joseph Bellange". 
 
 The landscape-art of France, though we can but briefly 
 touch upon it, is a subject of deepest interest to the student. 
 Its patient truthfulness, on the one hand, and perpetual sug- 
 gestiveness, on the other, make it almost exhaustive in its own 
 range. But its best examples have a reminiscence of Paris, 
 and deal with a nature not too wild or far away. From its 
 decline, after the days of Poussin and his imitators, it was 
 revived by Flers, Cabat, Paul Flandrin, and Paul Huet 
 (1804-1869), who began a new style of romantic treatment, 
 in which he was succeeded by Jules Dupre", born at Nantes, 
 1812. died 1889, and Theodore Rousseau (1812-1867). Du- 
 pre" is original, powerful, and brilliant, but he has not the 
 pensive charm of Rousseau, whose thoroughness was com- 
 bined with intensity and breadth, as we see in " Forest of Fon- 
 tainebleau," in the Louvre. mile Lambinet, though less able 
 is pleasing in lowland scenes ; Pelouse in excellent views of 
 Finisterre ; and Le Camus in views of Southern France. 
 Henri Harpignies is most successful in poetic interpretation, 
 as in his "Evening on the Campagna" and "Twilight." 
 
 Charles Francois Daubigny (1817-1878), of wide reputa- 
 tion, has left really noble pictures, as in " Return of the 
 Flock" and "The Grape-Gathering in Burgundy," now in the
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 449 
 
 Louvre. He is famed for river-scenes, yet some of them 
 show a spotty vagueness, occasionally observable in French 
 landscape-art. But the favorite master in this department 
 is Jean Baptiste Camille Corot (1796-1875), born in Paris, 
 and comparatively unappreciated in his early years, but 
 soon forcing recognition. His painting owes nothing to 
 sensationalism ; his coloring is low in tone ; his subjects 
 quiet, almost to monotony. They give the contemplative 
 aspect of Nature, usually early morning, or the calm ap- 
 proach of evening. But their simplicity enhances their 
 poetry. All is so well done and so harmonious that the eye 
 wanders by his waters and through the silvery light of his 
 forests as through paths of peace. This can not be said, 
 however, of all the pictures ascribed to him, some of which 
 are spurious ; some of such indifferent quality and so evi- 
 dently finished for sale that they are known as " the Corots 
 of commerce." Corot never married, but died in a ripe old 
 age, modest, yet in the zenith of his fame. His last words 
 were, as he gazed unconsciously into vacancy : " Look, how 
 beautiful it is ! I have never seen such lovely landscapes ! " 
 
 His pupil, Antoine Chintreuil (1816-1873), ^ s noted for 
 effects of light, in which he is, however, surpassed by the 
 modern and still more poetic and famous Cazin. Fran- 
 cois Franfais distinguished himself by views of environs of 
 Paris. Pointelin, Japy, Noyal, Binet, Lepere, and Billotte 
 follow varying landscape styles. Charles Yon, Boudin, and 
 Montenard are river and marine painters. Brun also paints 
 marines. Camille Dufour renders excellent coast scenes. 
 
 Narciso Virgilio de la Pena Diaz (1808-1876), though 
 commanding large prices, both in genre and landscape sub-
 
 450 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 jects, is at his best in landscapes. He was of Spanish 
 parentage, but resided in France from his childhood. His 
 coloring is rich and inclined to heaviness, his greens and 
 browns being full and deep. Yet in this ardent color and 
 skillfully-blended composition his defects of drawing have 
 been overlooked. He often introduces nymphs or other 
 figures into his smaller pictures, whose flesh-tints or dra- 
 peries contrast with the profound shadows of his forest 
 glades. Diaz was eminently a patrician painter. 
 
 Fe"lix Ziem, born about 1822, though very different in 
 motive from the foregoing landscape-artists, must not be 
 forgotten for the glowing Venetian views, architectural and 
 marine, which we owe to his brush. His tastes are all Ori- 
 ental, though he has painted a splendid " View of Antwerp " 
 as well as a "View of Constantinople." 
 
 Passing on from landscape to animal painters, the name 
 of Rosa Bonheur first suggests itself. Born at Bordeaux in 
 1822 (died 1899), she became famous for life-like representa- 
 tions of cattle, a specialty in which she shares, but surpasses, 
 the talents of all her family. Hamerton insists that it is the 
 English love for horses and not for art which has made her 
 " Horse-Fair" so renowned ; but it needs no such explanation 
 to comprehend its popularity. Her " Plowing in the Niver- 
 nois " is of equal vigor and celebrity. Many stories are told 
 of her fondness for animals, including the pet sheep which 
 she kept in her Parisian apartment ; and accounts of visits to 
 her studio-farm have often informed the public of her em- 
 ployments and habits. 
 
 Constantine Troyon (1810-1865), though born in Sevres, 
 and trained in its manufactory, could not remain a designer
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 451 
 
 upon porcelain. His love for Nature developed into a pas- 
 sion, and gave his animal pictures much of Cuyp's tender 
 sentiment. He was particularly partial to oxen, which he 
 liked to set in cool, sober-toned landscapes. His pupil, 
 Van Marcke, is also distinguished for cattle. Charles mile 
 Jacques (1813-1890), less happy in color, is the painter of 
 sheep, so lovingly done that an admiring critic predicts pos- 
 terity always repeating, " Revenous d, nos moutons ! " Jadin 
 excels in dogs; Veyrassat in horses ; Jules Didier in cattle ; 
 while Jacques Bracassat was the specially laborious yet truly 
 poetic delineator of bulls and cows. 
 
 Yet another variation of rustic art is seen in the pastoral 
 pictures of Millet and Breton. Jean Franfois Millet, born 
 in 1814, died in 1875, in the little town of Barbison, near 
 Fontainebleau, before he realized his own fame. Though 
 always poor, he had the advantage of study and association 
 with the best artists. He has been described as large, mild, 
 and austere, something between a peasant and a Quaker, 
 with deep blue but not bright eyes, and a blended sadness 
 and piety which pervaded all his works. He painted from 
 memory rather than from Nature or models, yet with literal 
 and pathetic truthfulness. Among his best pictures are " The 
 Gleaners," "The Sower," "Bathers," "The Sheep-Fold," 
 and the familiar " Angelus," sold by himself for about $600, 
 but lately purchased in Paris for $150,000, after exhibition 
 in America. He is now to be studied in the Louvre. Fine 
 works are also in the United States. 
 
 Jules Adolphe Breton, born at Courrieres, 1827, shows us 
 more joyous rural life. His picture of " The Blessing of the 
 Harvest " is a pastoral poem. The priest goes, with the Host,
 
 452 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 to bless the standing corn. A train of acolytes, maidens, 
 and villagers follows him. The sunlight on the grain is 
 resplendent, and all the figures are said to be portraits. 
 The " Song of the Skylark " and the " Last Sunbeam," 
 morning and evening pieces, are, in feeling and finish, all 
 that their titles indicate. Processions of young girl commu- 
 nicants are now among Breton's favorite and most profitable 
 subjects. " Les Glaneuses " is a twilight view, and " The 
 Pardon " an effective scene in Brittany. 
 
 His brother, Emile Breton, is a good landscapist, espe- 
 cially illustrating moonlight and winter. His friend, Pierre 
 Billet, and his pupil, M. E. Adan, follow in his own line. 
 Gustave Brion and Emile Re"nouf portray lively, every-day 
 occupations of the people. R^nouf's boats and fishermen 
 are often exhibited. Lhermitte, best known in black and 
 white, has also given us realistic peasants. 
 
 In this direction of art many have regarded the self- 
 cultured Gustave Courbet (1819-1878) as pioneer. With a 
 sincere affection for Nature and entire honesty of purpose, he 
 united great vanity and great eccentricities. He proclaimed 
 himself not only a lover of contemporary folk-life, but an 
 apostle of realism, and a worshiper of ugliness, because ugli- 
 ness is forcible fact. As a member of the Paris Commune, 
 he had ample opportunity for such a cult. Among his most 
 celebrated works are "A Burial at Ornans," "Woman with 
 a Parrot," and "Stone-Cutters," characterized by hard, 
 strong outlines, massive, muscular figures, and low, severe 
 color. Though it would seem difficult to exaggerate Cour- 
 bet's principles, yet it has been done by the new "impres- 
 sionists," who reiterate his deification of "The Real." This
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 453 
 
 has become what is called moderniti in many novels and 
 pictures ; but such writers and painters do not notice that 
 sunshine and beauty and health are quite as real as mud and 
 misery and malaria, and even more common. In the intel- 
 lectual as well as in the moral world the affinities of the 
 soul assert themselves, and the artist reveals himself by his 
 choice. 
 
 Still, as a school, the impressionists can not rightfully 
 claim Courbet as founder. Edouard Manet (1833-1883) was- 
 the chief exponent of their views. Manet is described as 
 fine-looking and agreeable, having been in person all that his 
 pictures are not. His adopted motto was " manet et manebit" 
 He would sacrifice perspective, place figures " in full light," 
 gain effects by rapid patches of contrasting color, and fix 
 the sensation of the moment. Being refused entrance into 
 the Salon, he made a separate exhibition of his works, most 
 remarkable of which are "The Man drinking Absinthe," 
 " The Breakfast on the Grass," " Olympia," and " Nana." 
 Jules Bastien Lepage, a talented artist, who died at thirty- 
 eight, modified impressionist methods by the blended ideal- 
 ity and realism of his "Joan of Arc." Dagnan-Bouveret 
 may be judged by his Bretonnes and famous " Blessing the 
 Bread," exhibited in New York. Degas, Duez, Gervex, Roll, 
 Renoir, Raffaelli, Besnard, and Jean Beraud (painters of the 
 streets of Paris), Friant, and Pisarro, with the landscapists 
 Claude Monet and Sisley, variously represent the teachings 
 of this school, which reach an extreme in so-called sacred 
 pictures by Beraud, Duez, and Blanche. 
 
 It now remains to name a few of the numerous genre 
 painters who have made a brilliant dtbut in French art.
 
 454 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 These give us pictures, generally small in dimensions, which 
 amuse or interest by vividly portraying some character or 
 incident. Prominent among such artists are Jean Georges 
 Vibert, born at Paris, 1840, and Auguste Toulmouche. 
 Vibert, it is true, may be ranked higher than a genre painter, 
 as, in addition to his usual easel-pictures, he has produced 
 a symbolic apotheosis of Thiers, .descriptive of the varied 
 career of that statesman. But he has lately found a more 
 fruitful field for his genius in depicting the little episodes 
 with which cardinals may diversify their lives ; until " cardi- 
 nal-red " seems to flow naturally from his brush. These 
 works are executed in finely-balanced color, and with rare 
 and accurate finish ; yet with all their careful polish and 
 elegant accessories there is vulgarity underneath. His high 
 dignitaries are spiritually of the lowest society, and their 
 tone permeates the paintings. 
 
 Toulmouche, deceased 1890, directed his talents exclu- 
 sively to genre. His specialty is elaborate "interiors," where 
 blooming women pose in costumes of velvet or satin. In- 
 deed, the painting of costumes is one of the chief accom- 
 plishments of these artists. With them " the body " is not 
 "more than raiment." Tissot, once renowned for fine 
 ladies and fine drawing-rooms, is now famous for his 
 wonderful series of the Life of Christ, and " Prodigal Son." 
 Jean Aubert, Compte-Calix, Duran, Courtois, Flameng, Le- 
 loir, Lerolle, Roybet, Charles Bargue, Jules Worms, and 
 numerous others, have gained celebrity in various pictures, 
 and medals of honor. Several excel in portraiture. Caro- 
 lus Duran, Chaplin, Chartran, and Dubufe are noted for 
 female portraits; Duran 's being most attractive in color;
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 455 
 
 while Henri Lehman, German by birth but French by natu- 
 ralization, was renowned for noble likenesses of distinguished 
 men and women. Ribot's portraits are also most expressive. 
 
 Mariano Fortuny (1838-1874) has till now been omitted, 
 because he joins the French with the modern Spanish school. 
 Born in the province of Tarragona, but left an orphan and 
 poor, he studied in the Barcelona Academy, where he won 
 the prize which took him to Rome. His personal appear- 
 ance was striking a well-built figure, fine Spanish head, and 
 lofty carriage. In 1860 he was sent to Morocco to illustrate 
 the scenes of the war ; but it was Morocco itself, with its 
 novel views and picturesque characters, that fired his enthu- 
 siasm. Quitting the East for Paris and Madrid, he married 
 the daughter of Madrazo, and in 1869 painted "The Span- 
 ish Wedding," suggested, it is said, by his own wedding. 
 This created a furore in Paris. Frequent journeys to Gra- 
 nada, Madrid, and Tangiers gave variety to his subjects. 
 He left some admirable pictures of the Alhambra. His 
 studio, most effectively arranged and furnished, was fixed at 
 Rome, where he died, after a brief life of only thirty-six 
 years. Gerome said, " There is genius in his touch." His 
 eccentric style, combined with dash and dexterity, and with 
 much splendid color, made him a fascinating artist, and se- 
 cured him a crowd of imitators, who tried to copy his pecul- 
 iarities without his perfect technique. Among his best re- 
 mains are "The Snake-Charmer," "Tribunal of a Cadi," 
 " Carnival of Last Century," " Beach at Portici," and "Choice 
 of a Model," purchased in America. His son, educated in 
 Madrid, followed in his father's footsteps. 
 
 In Spanish art the names of Madrazo, Casado, Resales, 
 30
 
 45 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Palmaroli, Pradilla, Alvarez, Domingo, Ribera, Escosura, 
 Gallegas, Martin Rico, Reyna, Jiminez Aranda, Barbudo, 
 Valles, Villegas, and Zamacois are renowned. Many of 
 these delight in Spanish history. Madrazo (died 1894) was 
 court-painter at Madrid. His family still continue to be re- 
 nowned in portraiture. Escosura rendered finished interi- 
 ors ; while Zamacois, pupil of Meissonier, had a sardonic 
 element in his nature, expressed in his clerical subjects, espe- 
 cially "A Good Pastor" and "The Entrance to the Con- 
 vent," where a monk is tugging at a rebellious ass. Zama- 
 cois is characterized by intense and sparkling color, and 
 excessive detail and polish. His " Education of a Prince " 
 and " Favorite of a King " have been much admired. 
 
 Italian art rests upon its past laurels, being slow to spring 
 up in a second growth. Ussi, Ciceri, Pasini, Conconi, Mus- 
 sini, Boldini, Cassioli, Rossi, Fattore, Simonetti, Morelli, 
 Michetti, Segantini, Tito, and Sani are able modern artists. 
 
 The art of Russia dates theoretically from the reign of 
 Peter the Great, though it is practically of much later de- 
 velopment. Its first efforts were royal portraits of little 
 merit, or ambitious designs for decorations of palaces and 
 churches. Karl Briilloff (1800-1852), with his immense 
 picture of the " Last Day of Pompeii," and Antonovich 
 Bruni, Director of the St. Petersburg Imperial Academy in 
 1849, may be considered as the practical heads of the Rus- 
 sian school. Timothee Neff, court and portrait painter, 
 Ivanoff, and Flavitsky have produced large and startling 
 works. Neff's " Nymphs " adorn the Hermitage, while 
 Ivanoff's religious masterpieces are at Moscow. These con- 
 trast strangely with the present popular and venerated
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 457 
 
 " Madonna and Child " of modern Russia, now in Kieff, by 
 V. M. Vasnetzoff. The love of the peasantry for highly- 
 colored religious prints makes sacred art most profitable. 
 But coarseness of style and color are defects from which few 
 pictures are free. Elias Re'pine is the best native artist, and 
 he is essentially Russian. Repine is famed not only for great 
 historic and dramatic works, but for portraits. Sourikoff 
 paints history, and Kramskoi is a painter of the poor. 
 
 Military art has, of course, many followers. The French 
 Yvon, with his tragic representations of Napoleon's retreat 
 from Moscow, and the battles of the Crimea, gave an impe- 
 tus in this direction. Alexander von Kotzebue is the ac- 
 cepted Russian battle-painter, thoroughly trained in artistic 
 technique, as well as in the practical education of a soldier. 
 But he is now less widely known than the sensational Vas- 
 sili Verestchagin, who exhibited terrible and colossal scenes 
 of warfare in most realistic style, as well as extremely beau- 
 tiful interiors of Indian mosques, Indian landscapes, % and 
 sketches. The late Czar was a munificent patron of art, and 
 particularly admired Siemiradzki, Russia's Alma-Tadema, 
 whose celebrated picture of " Phryne at Eleusis " he pur- 
 chased. Tatkeleff's Crimean war-views deserve mention. 
 Among landscape and marine painters, Ivan Ayvazovski, 
 born 1817, and Alexis Bogoluboff are oldest and most promi- 
 nent. Mestsherski delights in winter scenes, Orlovski in 
 sunshine, Klever in forests, and Miasoiekoff in the harvest. 
 
 The capabilities of genre stretch far and wide into Rus- 
 sian life, and in this direction the national art indicates suc- 
 cess. Zichy, French by birth, who has been called the For- 
 tuny of Russia, turned his versatile talents to all brilliant de-
 
 458 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 partments of genre, but does not depict Troutovski's popular 
 subjects. Makowski has exhibited " Choice of the Bride " 
 and " Russian Wedding Feast." Chelmonski is a fine color- 
 ist and successful illustrator. Swertchkoff and Sokoloff have 
 explored Little Russia and the Caucasus ; while in Peroff 
 and in Fedotoff we see the beginning of powerful realistic 
 painting, based upon the rude yet dramatic materials which 
 daily life can furnish in the wild villages and solitudes of 
 the North. 
 
 The art of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden is chiefly 
 landscape and marine. The coasts of Scandinavia offer 
 endless and picturesque variety to the painter. Denmark's 
 naval battles and marine views are well represented by Niels 
 Simonsen and Sorensen. Dalsgaard has given studies of 
 peasant-life. Theude Gronland was one of the best European 
 fruit-painters ; Skovgaard's landscapes, Hansen's interiors, 
 and the portraits of Edelfelt, of Finland, are justly praised. 
 
 Anders Zorn, the powerful realist, with portraits and ani- 
 mated figures so full of vitality that they seem to breathe, 
 heads the Swedish school. Wahlberg and Rydberg are land- 
 scapists of note, though Kreiiger and Thegerstrom are more 
 modern in style. Hugo Salmson has studied in Paris, and 
 renders genre scenes from history and the occupations of the 
 people. Cederstrom's "Body of Charles XII. carried over 
 the Norwegian Frontier " promises a development of his- 
 torical art. Kronburg has become professor; while Hag- 
 borg, another Swede, student of Stockholm, resides in Paris, 
 and has brought the fisher-wives and fisher-daughters of the 
 fiords into French repute. 
 
 Norway, since the establishment of her art-center at
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 459 
 
 Christiania, is advancing in culture. Adolf Tidemand, her 
 court-painter, is an adept in historic and popular genre sub- 
 jects, such as "A Norwegian Funeral." His scenes in the 
 life of a Norwegian peasant from birth to death have often 
 been engraved. Historical themes are still forcibly treated, 
 as in Krogh's " Leif Eriksson's Discovery of America." 
 Nils Gude, Peterson, and Werenskiold are the best-known 
 Norwegian portrait-painters ; Hans Gude, Normann, Mliller, 
 Dahl, Skredsvig, and Thaulow are effective landscapists ; 
 while the vocation of Otto Sinding is to vividly delineate 
 the rock-bound coast beaten by restless sea. A fine field 
 for artists lies yet nearer the pole, and such pictures are now 
 increasing in merit and value. Even Boe, whose favorite 
 department is still-life, exhibited in London a picture brill- 
 iant in color, called "Birds by the Light of the Midnight 
 Sun." The figure-painting of Norway is " draped, dark, and 
 decent," but not yet interesting. 
 
 The modern school of Belgium bears an intimate relation 
 to that of France ; many of its artists having had the same 
 instruction, and possessing the same characteristics. 
 
 After the decay of art in Flanders came the influences of 
 the classic David, felt far beyond Paris ; and again the re- 
 viving breath of Nature, which woke the love of truth and 
 sincerity among the students of Germany and France, visited 
 the landscape and marine painters of Antwerp, and soon be- 
 gan to inspire her entire Academy. Louis Gallait, whose works 
 are much prized, was a member of this Academy, as were 
 also Francois Navez and Gustaf Wappers, the romantic court- 
 painter to Leopold I. Nicaise de Keyser, once a shepherd- 
 boy, pupil of Van Bree, became President of this Academy,
 
 4 6o SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 while De Biefve grew famous at Brussels. But the popular 
 revival of Belgic art will always be more closely associated 
 with Baron Henri Leys, who seemed to divide his life-inter- 
 ests between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries, and gave 
 new meaning and vividness to the mediaeval annals of his 
 native land. 
 
 Leys was born at Antwerp in 1815, and was originally in- 
 tended for the Church, but was led instead to study under 
 his brother-in-law, Ferdinand de Braekeleer, a genre painter. 
 He outstripped his teacher, and devoted himself to historical 
 and national subjects, which he treated with fine intellectual 
 appreciation. He entered into the very heart of by-gone 
 ages, and painted as an actual spectator of the past. His 
 quaintness is most carefully studied . and true to nature. 
 Even his ordinary burghers are souls of other times, not 
 modern men dressed in ancient clothes. He decorated the 
 great hall of the H6tel-de-Ville of Antwerp with frescoes il- 
 lustrating the city's history, and so loved the theme that he 
 adorned his own private dining-room with a procession of 
 Antwerp citizens going to a sixteenth-century dinner. His 
 coloring is rich, but restrained by severe taste ; and in spite 
 of some mannerisms, his pictures are deeply interesting. 
 Among the best are " Luther singing in the Streets of 
 Eisenach," " Bertal de Haye," and "The Golden Fleece." 
 Honors crowded upon him. He was made baron in 1862, 
 but died in August, 1869. His body lay in state with his 
 favorite work, " Margaret of Austria receiving the Homage 
 of the Archers of Antwerp," hung above his head. 
 
 Jean Franpois Portaels, a contemporary of Leys, chose 
 chiefly Oriental subjects, in which, as well as in portraits, he
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 461 
 
 gained celebrity. Ferdinand Pauwels, Wouters, and Albrecht 
 de Vriendt are distinguished for historical pictures. 
 
 Many names of Belgian genre painters are found in art 
 collections. Among the most conspicuous are De Jonghe, 
 pupil of F. J. Navez, Joseph Dyckmans, Coomans, Florent 
 Willems, with his blonde, satin draped women, contrasting 
 with the later Jan Van Beer's analytic figures and portraits, 
 Madou, Charles de Groux, and Alfred Stevens, born in Brus- 
 sels, 1828. Stevens's scenes from modern drawing-room life 
 have much realistic power and fine color-effect, but strength 
 is wasted on costume and details. 
 
 His brother, Joseph Stevens, is known as an animal 
 painter. This is a department in which Belgium excels. 
 We have but to mention the cattle of De Haas, the sheep 
 and shepherd-dogs of Charles Verlat, the herds of Tschag- 
 geny, and the generally admired pictures of Eugene Ver- 
 boeckhoven (1799-1880), who painted all quadrupeds, spe- 
 cially sheep. Verboeckhoven's work, however, has of late 
 years been sharply criticised. The landscapes of Cesar de 
 Cock are fresh, poetic, and original ; those of Franz Cour- 
 tens show marked ability. P. J. Clays, Jacobs, and Francois 
 Musin have won high reputation as marine painters, and the 
 architectural views of Van Moer are masterpieces. 
 
 Anton Wiertz's talent (1806-1865) is so eccentric that he 
 can scarcely be classed with other artists. Most travelers 
 through Brussels will recall the singular Musee Wiertz, with 
 its strange pictures, "The Triumph of Christ," "Reunion in 
 Heaven," "Napoleon in Hell," "A Corpse bursting its 
 Coffin," "Portraits of Two Young Girls," one of whom is a 
 skeleton ; and other fantastic yet memorable frescoes, exe-
 
 462 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 cuted upon the walls in a kind of distemper which Wiertz 
 himself invented. 
 
 Notable art- work is yet done in Holland. Josef Israels' 
 fine genre pictures of peasant-life, usually sad in theme and 
 somber in tone, place him in the first rank. Bosboom's 
 interiors, Van Schendel's firelight or lamplight scenes, Mes- 
 dag's marines, landscapes of Koekkoek, Anton Mauve, 
 the brothers Maris, and Louis Apol, with the best genre 
 pieces of Neuhuys, Blommers, Artz, and Vos, display the 
 genuine Dutch spirit. Holland leads us on to the English 
 school through Laurens Alma-Tadema, born in 1836, in West 
 Friesland, but for many years past resident in London. As 
 a notary's son, he was destined for the law; but the bent 
 of his infant genius could not be thwarted. The only study 
 of his childhood in which he took real interest was Roman 
 history, of which he has since made excellent use. He was 
 a pupil of Wappers and Leys, choosing subjects from the 
 reigns of Merovingian kings, the early Egyptians, and the 
 Romans. His first great success was the " Education of the 
 Children of Clovis." Since that time he has exhibited more 
 than two hundred pictures, including "The Egyptians Three 
 Thousand Years ago," "The Mummy," " Tarquinius Su- 
 perbus in his Garden," "Pheidias and the Elgin Marbles," 
 the small but remarkable " Pyrrhic Dance," upon which 
 Ruskin has given a still more remarkable criticism, "The 
 Vintage Festival," a procession entering a temple, " The 
 Death of the First-Born," "A Roman Emperor," "The 
 Picture-Gallery," "The Sculpture-Gallery," "A Reading 
 from Homer," " Sappho," and " Cleopatra." Most of these 
 are interiors, finished with a wealth of detail ; but occasion-
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 463 
 
 ally we meet delicious scenes of open air, as in "Sappho," 
 "A Question," and ''The Improvisatore," saturated with 
 sunshine and the illusions of light. 
 
 Alma-Tadema has -made learning and science minister to 
 art, is most graphic and truthful in every archaeological fact, 
 lavish in color, cheerful, yet correct in taste, highly imagi- 
 native, but not spiritual. Notwithstanding the perfection of 
 his accessories, he is -often unpleasing from a mannerism of 
 outline and attitudes, and hardness of flesh-tints. Indeed, 
 it has been sweepingly said that "his stone is good, his 
 silver less good, his gold bad, and his flesh worst." 
 
 The wife of Alma-Tadema is also an accomplished artist, 
 and has her own charming studio. Even a young daughter 
 shares the family talent. 
 
 The individuality and freedom of English art express 
 themselves in so many directions that it is difficult to make a 
 rapid survey of its field. Beginning with Hogarth in genre, 
 Reynolds in portraiture, Wilson, Gainsborough, Crome, and 
 Constable in landscape, it has expanded into variety fairly 
 bewildering to the student. 
 
 Reverting to the opening of the century, the name of 
 Edwin Landseer (1802-1873) forms a well-known starting- 
 point. His popularity as an animal-painter will outlast criti- 
 cism ; for, great as may be the superiority of later technique, 
 the sentiment, sympathy, and grace of his paintings are 
 ever attractive. Dogs were his first love, though he after- 
 ward delineated deer with the same affection and accuracy. 
 "High Life and Low Life" is a canine novel. "The Hunted 
 Stag" has almost the pathos of a human death-scene, while 
 " The Old Shepherd's Chief Mourner " is fidelity and grief
 
 464 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 itself. Only genius could so accomplish its purpose, and we 
 are not astonished to hear that even in Landseer's baby- 
 hood there were indications of his vocation. He began to 
 sketch at five years old, and at the age of thirteen obtained 
 a prize medal for his drawing of an Alpine mastiff. 
 
 A visit to the Highlands in 1826 procured him the long- 
 desired opportunity of studying the deer in his native haunts, 
 to which we owe " Seeking Sanctuary," " The Monarch of 
 the Glen," "Children of the Mist," "Night," "Morning," 
 and other landscape-pieces. His drawing was free, though 
 not faultless; his touch vigorous, yet delicate, and nothing 
 can surpass his imitation of fur, feathers, horns, and hair. 
 It is true that his human beings are far inferior to his ani- 
 mals ; yet he has displayed fine, vivacious figure-painting in 
 his " Bolton Abbey in the Olden Time " and " Return from 
 Hunting." 
 
 A large collection of Landseer's works can be viewed 
 at the London and Kensington Galleries. Many others 
 have been secured by English noblemen ; but the finest are 
 so excellently engraved by himself or his brother Charles, 
 who was also a painter, that no one need be ignorant of 
 their beauties. He was made a baronet by the queen in 
 1850, died in 1873, and was publicly buried in St. Paul's 
 Cathedral. 
 
 No other Englishman has achieved equal reputation in 
 the same line'; though among animal-painters may be special- 
 ly noticed James Ward, the robust and vigorous artist of the 
 farm-yard and the fields ; Thomas Cooper, a friend of Ver- 
 boeckhoven's ; John F. Herring ; Peter Graham, excellent in 
 Scottish landscapes and herds ; Edwin Douglas, with his Jer-
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 465 
 
 sey cattle ; Richard Ansdell, Royal Academician ; Bouverie 
 Goddard, now deceased ; John M. Swan, and Briton Riviere, 
 born 1840, who represents the dramatic element of animal 
 life, and whose " Circe," " Persepolis," " Daniel in the Lion's 
 Den," and "Sympathy," are deservedly popular. 
 
 The name of Richard Bonington (1801-1828) is not so 
 well remembered in the century's art annals; but his con- 
 temporary influence was great, especially upon French land- 
 scape-art. Precocious as a child, he entered, at the age of 
 eighteen, the atelier of Gros in Paris. His classical studies, 
 however, could not extinguish his passion for landscape and 
 marine painting, though he has left some beautiful pictures, 
 both in oils and water-colors, from the history of Francis I. 
 and Henry III. 
 
 His Italian views and limpid, luminous landscapes were 
 more valued in France than in England, and his early death 
 more deeply regretted. Charles Blanc enthusiastically says, 
 "He combined the fidelity of the Dutch, the vigor of the 
 Venetians, the science of the Romans, and the good sense of 
 the English." 
 
 Augustus Egg, born in London in 1816, selected genre 
 subjects from works and characters of celebrated authors. 
 After years of wretched health, he died in Algiers in 1863. 
 His contemporary, John Phillip, of Aberdeen (1817-1867) 
 has left some good Scottish pictures, but gained more celeb- 
 rity by his glowing, effective Spanish views. The landscapes 
 of Thomas Creswick (1811-1869) mav a ^ so be referred to 
 this period. 
 
 The next step in British art education was the encour- 
 agement offered to competition for designs to be employed
 
 466 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 in decorating the new Houses of Parliament. Prominent 
 among such competitors was William Dyce, who ornamented 
 the queen's robing-room with the legend of King Arthur ; 
 but the colors, spread upon wet plaster in the ordinary fres- 
 co method, grew so miserably dim and weak that Dyce's 
 efforts were a failure, and he died a mortified and disap- 
 pointed man. The stereo-chromatic process of colors mixed 
 with water-glass, adopted by Maclise, has better served its 
 purpose. 
 
 Maclise was a native of Cork, but of Scotch descent. He 
 came to London, applied himself assiduously to his profes- 
 sion, and was elected Academician in 1840. His "Banquet 
 Scene in Macbeth " and " Merry Christmas at the Baron's 
 Hall " were cordially received by the public. Macready 
 considered his figure of Lady Macbeth the very ideal of the 
 character from a dramatic standpoint. His coloring and 
 grouping have been criticised, but his designs are full of 
 spirit. The large " Meeting of Wellington and Blucher after 
 Waterloo," and " Death of Nelson," executed for the Parlia- 
 ment Houses, are eulogized by William Scott as the noblest 
 historical pictures in England. Charles Cope and Herbert 
 also added similar mural works in the same building. 
 
 The natural influence of these frescoes, called for by the 
 nation, was largely to promote historical painting, even in 
 easel-pieces. Such preference is still visible in the pictures 
 of many of the older Academicians Sir John Gilbert, Alfred 
 Elmore, Pickersgill, and Poole. Doubtless the wide range of 
 this class of subjects will always afford scope to able artists, 
 whose specialties may be elsewhere, as we see in Sir Noel 
 Paton's " Home from the Crimea," Marcus Stone's " Return
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 467 
 
 from Waterloo," and Elizabeth Thompson Butler's " Return 
 from Inkerman." There is no sharp line defining the prov- 
 inces of history and the higher genre, and we find them often 
 commingling. 
 
 English battle-fields have as yet had better warriors than 
 painters ; but we may mention Andrew C. Gow, with his 
 historic events and figures ; Ernest Crofts ; and Woodville. 
 Elizabeth Thompson Butler has been singularly skillful and 
 fortunate in military art, and her " Roll-Call," " Quatre 
 Bras," and " Balaklava," as well as such single groups as 
 "Missing," are already famous. 
 
 In sacred art Armitage may be considered as the veteran. 
 Frederic Goodall, John Herbert, Edwin Long, and William 
 Dobson are familiar through pictures and engravings whose 
 originals we frequently meet in the National Gallery. Of 
 Holman Hunt's more striking work we shall soon speak. 
 While the ordinary Scriptural subjects of England avoid 
 French exaggeration and the startling realism of Germany, 
 they are apt to fall into a dead level of commonplace. 
 Their action lapses into the mechanical, their holy characters 
 look like members of Parliament, and their effect becomes 
 limited and tame. Yet, on the other hand, there are many 
 sacred themes, especially those of a restful and poetic nature, 
 which have never been more reverently and beautifully 
 treated than by British artists. Among these may be par- 
 ticularized the pleasing Eastern scenes of Goodall and 
 Long. 
 
 The most conspicuous feature of English art in the nine- 
 teenth century was, however, the birth, development, and 
 permanent results of pre-Raphaelitism. This movement, so
 
 468 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 often spoken of but so seldom denned, began, as in Ger- 
 many, with a few young painters, but was not animated by 
 the religious fervor of Cornelius and Overbeck. The faith- 
 ful imitation of Nature, down to its minutest details, was 
 the main English principle. Embellishments were to be re- 
 jected, and ideas materialized. Its originators did not pro- 
 fess to admire the idealism, but only the purism, of such 
 Italian masters as preceded Raphael, and adhered rather to 
 the realism of Masaccio and Ghirlandajo than to the un- 
 worldliness of Fra Angelico. " They espoused fidelity to 
 Nature as St. Francis espoused poverty." With William Hoi- 
 man Hunt, Millais, and Rossetti for leaders, and Ruskin for 
 critic, they can not complain of having been either neglected 
 or unsuccessful. 
 
 Holman Hunt, the son of a London warehouseman, was 
 born in Cheapside in 1827, and in 1846 exhibited his first 
 picture, a little girl holding a watch to her ear, entitled 
 " Hark ! " His pre-Raphaelite style developed itself about 
 1850 in the " British Family sheltering a Christian Mission- 
 ary from the Persecution of the Druids," and " Rienzi vow- 
 ing to revenge the Death of his Brother." "Claudio and 
 Isabella," " Isabella with the Pot of Basil," " The Strayed 
 Sheep," and " The Hireling Shepherd," were executed in 
 accordance with the same artistic rules. The " Light of the 
 World," dating 1854, one of his best paintings, representing 
 the Saviour, who stands by night, bearing a lantern, and 
 knocking at a closed, vine-grown gate, has been presented to 
 Keble College, Oxford. " The Scapegoat," a most expres- 
 sive piece, was completed in Palestine, whither the author 
 journeyed " for the sole purpose of painting a real Eastern
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 469 
 
 goat in a real Eastern wilderness." In 1860 appeared his 
 " Christ in the Temple," which has been extravagantly 
 praised, and was at the time considered " the culminating 
 and representative pre-Raphaelite figure-picture." 
 
 These remarkable works began a new era in sacred art. 
 They raised it from the domain of the conventional and the 
 picturesque into an atmosphere of truthfulness and earnest- 
 ness. Their spirit, indeed, impresses us more than their 
 "outward visible sign;" for in such elaborate studies as 
 " The Shadow of the Cross " (now placed in the Manchester 
 Gallery) there is much that jars upon the taste ; but they 
 make us feel that the story which they tell is human no less 
 than divine fact. Hunt's large religious painting of " The 
 Triumph of the Innocents " depicts the Holy Family cross- 
 ing a twilight plain, beyond which beacon-fires are burning. 
 The figures shine by some unseen light. Joseph leads in 
 front ; a massive and matronly Virgin, seated on the ass, 
 holds the infant Jesus, whose attention is occupied by the 
 spirits of the slain innocents, accompanying them in trium- 
 phal procession. Some of these march gleefully before, en- 
 twined with garlands and wearing crowns ; others hover in 
 the background. These children are fairly resplendent with 
 glory, but yet a trifle too fat. He has lately completed a 
 new picture, " The Miracle of the Sacred Fire," which is 
 kindled at Jerusalem. 
 
 John Everett Millais, born 1829, died 1897, has liberally 
 shared with Hunt pre-Raphaelite laurels. He gained his 
 first medal at the Society of Arts when only nine years old. 
 The severe art-creed of his youth expressed itself particu- 
 larly in " Christ in the House of his Parents, or the Young
 
 470 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PARTING. 
 
 Jesus in the Carpenter's Shop uplifting his Wounded Hand." 
 This was marked by dry, hard, careful workmanship, labori- 
 ous detail, and reticent color. Millais's tastes, however, soon 
 led him to more romantic subjects, among which " The 
 Huguenot Lovers" and " Boy Princes in the Tower" will 
 be long remembered. Fine landscape genius developed in 
 " Chill October " and " Over the Hills and Far Away." 
 
 Millais briefly succeeded Leighton as President of the 
 Royal Academy, but did not long survive to enjoy his 
 honors. No English artist was more practically appreci- 
 ated by his countrymen. Besides his historical and figure 
 pieces, he placed himself easily in the front rank in land- 
 scape and portraiture. His splendid portrait of Mr. Glad- 
 stone is now of extreme interest. He always excelled in 
 portraits of celebrated men and of blooming children. His 
 fondness for strong color and brilliant flesh tints is in 
 singular contrast with the practice of his pre-Raphael- 
 ite years. He has given us large compositions, as " The 
 Ornithologist," and also sequels to some of his earlier pic- 
 tures, a " No " to follow his " Yes or No ? " and a " Mercy," 
 or another scene from the Eve of St. Bartholomew, in which 
 a young Roman Catholic noble rushes forth to join in the 
 massacre, but is held back by a Sister of Charity. Yet this 
 is in no way equal to "The Huguenot Lovers." 
 
 Ford Madox Brown (1821-1893) nas proved a faithful 
 pre-Raphaelite worker, though not strictly of that brother- 
 hood. His foreign studies were in Belgium, France, and 
 Italy. But his own intensity and individuality were a bet- 
 ter passport to success. His ideal qualities are exemplified 
 in his sacred pictures; but he is more at home in such
 
 YES OR No
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 471 
 
 strong historical or contemporary subjects as "Wickliff 
 reading his Bible," " Work," or "The Last of England." 
 He was long occupied with admirable frescoes for the 
 Town-Hall of Manchester. 
 
 Arthur Hughes, born in 1832, though not one of the 
 original pre-Raphaelite brotherhood, has been a sympa- 
 thetic follower of a more graceful type. His scenes of do- 
 mestic and rural life have proved his happiest themes. 
 
 But as the flower bursts from the dry seed, so it is to 
 the recent development of pre-Raphaelite methods that we 
 owe some of our most interesting modern painters. Dante 
 Gabriel Rossetti (1828-1882) whose very name seemed to 
 indicate a vocation one of the enthusiastic originators of 
 the movement, was the first to inspire its materialism with 
 mysticism and romance. So different in every quality from 
 his talented and more evenly balanced associates, it is curious 
 to notice how earnestly Rossetti strove to acquire thorough 
 technique, and to compress his ideas within the limits of 
 ascetic principles. He never succeeded. The meaning of 
 his pictures always outran the technique ; but we may see in 
 his " Girlhood of the Virgin " and "^Annunciation " the sincere 
 efforts of his first style. -Poetry and painting went hand in 
 hand. His devotion to Dante was expressed, not only in verse, 
 but in his many Dante color-studies, especially "Beata Bea- 
 trix," and the famous " Dante's Vision," now in Liverpool. 
 Numbers of beautiful chalk-drawings of these subjects exist, 
 as well as the oil-paintings. They show his many defects of 
 form exaggerated throats, necks, and hands; thick lips; 
 deep, yearning eyes, and heavy hair. Yet, because of his 
 powers of expression, these defects seldom repel, and the 
 31
 
 472 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 mystic spirituality of his works, their sentiment, their symbol- 
 ism, and rich, gem-like color, are exceedingly fascinating. He 
 lived in an unreal, mediaeval atmosphere, and saw his world 
 through stained glass. " Proserpina," " The Blessed Datno- 
 sel," " Sibylla Palmifera," and "Vision of Fiammetta," with 
 their glowing tints and strange beauty of design, illustrate his 
 treatment. Rossetti was very averse to exhibitions, and it is 
 only since his death that his works are accessible to the public. 
 
 Edward Burne-Jones, his disciple, a like devotee of beau- 
 ty, though less intense than Rossetti, was equally steeped in 
 the mediaeval spirit. His recent death (1898) has given his 
 pictures a double interest. All have a weird, bewitching 
 loveliness, exquisite in design, yet lacking vigor and vitality. 
 At first intended for the Church, Burne-Jones' imaginative 
 genius led him, with rare success, to art. Subtle and intri- 
 cate meanings, fine taste, passionate yet restrained color, 
 characterize all his works, of which the most popular are 
 "The Venus Mirror," or nymphs grouped by a reflecting 
 pool, "The Golden Stairs," " Flamma Vestalis," " King Co- 
 phetua," and the series from "Song of Solomon," "Sleep- 
 ing Beauty," and " Romaunt of the Rose." Walter Crane, 
 Spencer Stanhope, Albert Moore, who painted beauty for 
 beauty's sake, and J. M. Strudwick, with his "St. Cecilia " 
 and " Ramparts of God's House," belong to the same school. 
 
 Standing in contrast with excessive realism or mysticism, 
 we find other artists with a more easy and natural, though 
 still ideal, style. Sir Frederick Leighton, who well repre- 
 sented these (1830-1896), and who was long President of 
 the Royal Academy, was educated abroad, where he gained 
 the refined charm of his manner. He never lost his love
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 473 
 
 for Italy, but his success at home has been all he could de- 
 sire. High culture, poetic treatment, careful finish, and soft 
 color, suggestive of Correggio, are his attractions. His early 
 picture of " Cimabue's Madonna carried in Triumph through 
 Florence " was bought by the queen in 1855. This was fol- 
 lowed by "The Odalisque," " Michael Angelo with his Dy- 
 ing Servant," and many Eastern and classic themes, down 
 to the "Perseus and Andromeda," " Rizpah," "Garden of 
 the Hesperides," "Persephone," and "Bath of Psyche." 
 Portraits, mural works, and sculpture also display his skill. 
 
 His friend Edward J. Poynter, born 1836, pursues a 
 similar direction, and is noted for archaeological exact- 
 ness. " Atalanta's Race " and " Under the Sea- Wall " are 
 among his best examples. Poynter was an admirable art- 
 instructor, and directed the South Kensington schools. He 
 now succeeds Leighton and Millais as President of the Royal 
 Academy. 
 
 The name of George F. Watts, born 1818, has become 
 familiar to all art-lovers on both sides of the Atlantic, most 
 of whom have had opportunity to study his pictures. Widely 
 various in style, but principally allegoric and poetic, they all 
 have deep significance. Appropriately presented to the na- 
 tion, they will remain one of the most valuable and typical 
 collections of English art. Among them we specify " Fata- 
 Morgana," " Love and Death," " Love and Life," " Paolo and 
 Francesca," " The Riders of the Apocalyptic Vision," and his 
 fine figure of " Hope," in dreamy blue, seated, blindfold, on 
 a floating sphere, listening to the sounds of her broken lyre. 
 
 As a portrait-painter, Watts is even more celebrated. 
 He has exhibited between two and three hundred portraits,
 
 474 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 many of which are not only wonderful likenesses, but most 
 interesting and successful experiments in color. Nearly all 
 the great men of the day have been thus immortalized by 
 some of the many excellent portraitists for which Great Brit- 
 ain is famous. Among such artists may be mentioned Henry 
 Pickersgill, D. MacNee, Sir Francis Grant, George Reid, 
 Lavery, Knight, Sant, Leighton, Poynter, Millais, and his 
 pupil Walter Ouless, James Guthrie, the late Frank Roll, Hu- 
 bert Herkomer, Richmond, Gregory, Sargent, Long, Leslie, 
 Wells, Moscheles, Shannon, and James A. McN. Whistler, 
 born in America, but resident in London and Paris, with 
 his eccentric portrait " Arrangements," " Harmonies," and 
 " Nocturns." Most of these painters are proficients in other 
 branches of art, especially in the higher genre. 
 
 Landscape has been peculiarly open to pre-Raphaelite in- 
 fluences ; and many of the elder artists owe much to its 
 teachings. Inchbold painted patiently upon " The common 
 Grass;" Brett, with his much criticised "Stone-Breaker," 
 has overcome opposition. Alfred Hunt and McCallum are of 
 the same type. But, diverging into other ways, George Mason 
 has left poetic, tender scenery, Vicat Cole and David Mur- 
 ray give us broad mists and sunshine, Peter Graham High- 
 land floods and foamy seas, Henry W. Davis calm land and 
 water, or " Rough Pasturage " for quiet herds. The Lin- 
 nells are a family of landscapists. Millais is a master here 
 as elsewhere. Keeley Halswelle was long occupied with views 
 of the Thames and other English rivers ; Cecil Lawson, with 
 pastorals and gardens. MacWhirter depicts lonely Scotch 
 forests, as in his " Three Witches " ; Benjamin W. Leader is 
 most happy in his rural sunsets and evenings ; W. L. Wyllie
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 475 
 
 equally so in sunsets on water ; while Alfred Parsons, Alfred 
 East, and Ernest Waterlow are prominent among younger 
 painters. The landscape art of England is less careful in 
 technique than that of France ; but it is more genuine and 
 simple ; and it recognizes more fully the fact that a good 
 landscape should reflect, not so much the abilities and pecul- 
 iarities of the artist, as the restfulness and uplifting above 
 worldly cares which is Nature's true voice to the soul. 
 
 Marine art has noteworthy followers. Brett's picture of 
 a sunlit sea, called "Britannia's Realm," shows his own su- 
 premacy over the realm of Ocean ; Wyllie's and Hamilton 
 Macallum's coast-scenes are effective, and diffei widely from 
 the earlier coast-scenes of Edward Cooke ; Colin Hunter, 
 vigorous and self-taught, has done exceptionally striking 
 work, as in his "Herring-Market at Sea;" James Hook 
 excels in breezy expanse, and in such marine genre as " The 
 Samphire-Gatherers," or " Luff, Boys, luff! " Henry Moore 
 renders truthfully all phases of calm or storm. Harry Tuke 
 finds great favor with such pictures as the " Diver." 
 
 Linking such transcripts of the outer world with daily 
 human interests, we may touch upon a class of subjects cor- 
 responding to the studies of French and German rustic life. 
 Most idyllic are Mason's pictures, and also " Vagrants," " The 
 Plough," or "The Old Gate," by the late Frederic Walker. 
 Erskine Nicol's works, Macbeth's " Potato- Harvest in the 
 Fens," Stanhope Forbes's " By Order of the Court," Bartlett's 
 " Irish Funeral," and Dudley Hardy's "London Dock Strike," 
 illustrate social problems. A few such artists, painting at 
 Newlyn, among whom are Forbes, Frank Bramley, Hall, 
 Tuke, and Stokes, are known as " The Newlyn Brotherhood."
 
 47 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 George W. Boughton, born in England in 1834, but edu- 
 cated in America, suggests Millet, both in motive and quiet 
 color. " Puritans going to Church " is one of his most popu- 
 lar works. Others, more pathetic, are " Bearers of the Bur- 
 den," and "Weeders of the Pavement," a group of kneeling 
 Holland girls, in white caps, against a pale, silvery sky, up- 
 rooting the grass from a stony little quay. In a more cheer- 
 ful vein is " Dancing down the Hay on an Orkney Island 
 Farm." His late winter-scenes include interesting studies of 
 landscapes and figures in Brabant. 
 
 Hubert Herkomer, born in Bavaria in 1849, but now es- 
 tablished in Ingland, and elected Slade Professor at Oxford, 
 has had a brilliant career. His youthful pictures were simple 
 genre scenes of the Bavarian highlands. During subsequent 
 travels in Germany and America his art-lectures became 
 popular. His "Last Muster," or "Chelsea Pensioners," 
 when exhibited at the London Academy, was received with 
 acclamation, and his success has since been assured. " Even- 
 tide " and " The Chapel of the Charterhouse " exhibit all his 
 realistic force and strong color. He is also one of the best 
 of etchers and of portrait-painters. 
 
 Frank Roll, born in London, 1845, and lately deceased 
 in 1890, became rapidly eminent for portraits. His domestic 
 themes, as "Her First-Born," were truthful and pathetic. 
 He delighted in biblical titles for his pictures. 
 
 The number of British genre painters may be said to be 
 legion. Indeed, there is danger that art may too persistently 
 run to the mere level of passing events, or to the fair but 
 fugitive beauties of water-colors. William Frith, of York- 
 shire, with such animated, familiar, and telling subjects as
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 477 
 
 "The Derby Day," "The Railway Station," "Road to Ruin," 
 and " The Race for Wealth," now combines art with litera- 
 ture, as in his late autobiographical reminiscences ; while 
 Thomas Faed pleases by fresh and touching Scottish scenes, 
 as " The Mitherless Bairn " and " First Break in the Fam- 
 ily." The engravings of " Scott and his Friends at Abbots- 
 ford," and "Shakespeare and his Contemporaries," which 
 have long been favorites with collectors, are from paintings 
 exhibited by Faed in 1849. 
 
 William Yearnes, of Russian birth and foreign training, 
 but English traits, prefers historical themes. Seymour Lucas 
 and Andrew Gow are winning fame in a similar line. John 
 Pettie, of Edinburgh (1839-1893), gives us subjects like 
 " The Traitor," " A State Secret," or " Monmouth pleading 
 for Life," as well as groups from Scott's romances. 
 
 Marcus Stone has inherited his father's skill in genre, 
 developed with far greater historical ability and freedom. 
 Henry Stacy Marks illustrates both mediaeval and modern 
 life in quaint, sprightly, and elaborate style. Frank Dick- 
 see's " Passing of Arthur " and " Funeral of a Viking " are 
 romantic and pleasing. Valentine Prinsep renders many a 
 variety ot genre, as well as such larger dramatic scenes as *' A 
 Versailles." George Leslie is facile in his refined composi- 
 tions, Blair Leighton more forcible and passionate. Charles 
 Edward Perugini, and Mrs. Perugini, a daughter of Charles 
 Dickens, chiefly devote themselves to graceful little pictures 
 of polite society. Luke Fildes and his artist wife have 
 more power, comprehensiveness, and originality. Fildes' 
 " Applicants for admission to a Poor-house " tells in color 
 the same vivid tale which Dickens so often told in words-
 
 478 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 In another line Fildes' studies of Venice are most charm- 
 ing. 
 
 Robert Barrett Browning, whose name is his fame, has 
 exhibited some landscapes, faithful representations of still- 
 life or open-air sketches in Flanders, particularly " A Worker 
 in Brass," and " Tan Garden." These unite careful touch 
 with breadth of handling. A bronze statue and two busts, 
 lately in the Grosvenor Gallery, suggest Mr. Browning's 
 varied gifts and possibilities in other directions. 
 
 Among the popular artists of society, with somewhat of 
 Hogarth's insight, but with far different technique, W. Q. 
 Orchardson stands pre-eminent. His treatment is entirely 
 modern, his color-harmonies forcible, his drawing-room 
 scenes and portraits most truthfully studied. His pictorial 
 series of "Mariage de Convenance " is a painted drama. 
 
 Henry Woods, Luke Fildes, Logsdail, and Clara Montal- 
 ba, may be remembered as the specialists of" Venetian genre 
 scenes. John B. Burgess is renowned for Spanish themes. 
 Calderon was successful in Eastern subjects, as well as in 
 historical and home genre. His son, Frank Calderon, is 
 already established as an artist. John F. Lewis painted 
 brilliant Eastern scenes in oils, and exquisite water-colors. 
 The Eastern field, particularly India, still lies open to Brit- 
 ish genius. Some admirers of Alma-Tadema display much 
 talent and cleverness in Oriental details, as in Weguelin's 
 " Obsequies of an Egyptian Cat." 
 
 The classical and historical pictures of William B. Rich- 
 mond, no less than his valuable portraits, are favorites with 
 the London public ; though more prominent names in late 
 English art are those of J. W. Waterhouse, Arthur Hacker, and
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 479 
 
 Solomon J. Solomon. Waterhouse chooses striking points of 
 history, where his active imagination, contrasts, and grada- 
 tion of color and dramatic arrangements, may produce origi- 
 nal and unexpected effects. This is very observable in his 
 " Herod and Mariamne," from the story of Josephus, in 
 which his management of white is specially to be admired. 
 Solomon is even broader in style, though his color system is 
 substantially the same, as is evidenced by his " Cassandra," 
 "Samson," " Niobe," and "Laus Deo." Arthur Hacker 
 treats the nude, and renders with power such scenes as 
 " The Annunciation," or " Christ with the Magdalene." 
 
 Book illustrating has become a separate and prolific 
 branch of art. The charm of our best novels and poems 
 is now enhanced by the addition of designs from our best 
 painters. Many of the names just recorded might be put 
 upon the list of these contributors to the pleasure of the 
 reading public, not omitting Harding, Browne, Cattermole, 
 Stone, the brothers Dalziel, Caldecott, Walter Crane, Ten- 
 niel, Doyle, Linton, Cruikshank, Leech, and Du Maurier. 
 
 Upon the water-colorists, who include many artists pre- 
 viously noticed and already famous in oils, as well as such 
 distinguished men as Copley Fielding, fine alike in marine 
 and landscape views ; Birket Foster, whose designs are so 
 dear to every lover of Nature ; Oswald Brierly, Marine 
 Painter to her Majesty ; Sir John Gilbert, Hayes, Langley, 
 Tayler, Fripp, Naftel, Prout, Wimperis, Carl Haag, and yet 
 younger and promising painters, I shall not now touch. A 
 few words upon American art may fitly close these pages. 
 
 We have seen, by the biographies of West, Copley, and 
 Leslie, how American genius was guided by English culture.
 
 4 g SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Their contemporary, Washington Allston, who was born in 
 South Carolina in 1779, and died of heart-disease in Cam- 
 bridge, Massachusetts, in 1843, is more intimately associated 
 with American history. His studies were pursued in Eng- 
 land, France, and Italy. During his residence in London 
 he found many friends and patrons, to whom he sold his 
 pictures of " Uriel in the Sun," and " Jacob's Dream." 
 Returning to his native country, he settled first in Boston, 
 and afterward in Cambridge, where his remaining works 
 were painted. He had a strong liking for sacred and super- 
 natural subjects, as in his " Prophet Jeremiah," " Belshaz- 
 zar's Feast," "St. Peter liberated by the Angel," and " Spa- 
 latro, or the Bloody Hand." The beauty of such ideal 
 heads as " Beatrice " and " Rosalie " has been no less de- 
 servedly commended. Allston was handsome and engaging 
 in person, refined as an artist, and acquired some additional 
 reputation as a poet and novelist. 
 
 Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828), chiefly remarkable for his 
 likenesses of Washington, was a native of Rhode Island, who, 
 after studying in Scotland and London, became a resident 
 of Boston, and long exercised the profession of portrait- 
 painting. His pupil Vanderlyn (1776-1852), unsuccessful in 
 life, is remembered by his picture of the " Landing of Co- 
 lumbus." Charles Peale left fourteen portraits of Wash- 
 ington. His son, Rembrandt Peale (1787-1860), is better 
 known for his many likenesses of celebrated men, and for 
 literary work. Edward Malbone (1777-1807), of Rhode 
 Island, was renowned for his miniatures, which are preserved 
 in many families ; as are the graceful portraits of Thomas 
 Sully, and the deep, Venetian-toned heads of William Page,
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 481 
 
 who made many novel experiments in color. Portraiture has 
 also been followed by John Trumbull, Henry Inman, Ches- 
 ter Harding, Charles Elliott, George Healy, Thomas Hicks, 
 Peters Gray, Baker, George Fuller, F. Duveneck, John S. 
 Sargent, Benjamin C. Porter, William Chase, Kenyon Cox, 
 Carroll Beckwith, Dewing, Dannat, Fowler, Johnson, Story ; 
 by Abbott Thayer, who is also known by his " Virgin " and 
 " Caritas ; " and by J. W. Champney both in pastels and oils. 
 
 Daniel Huntington, of New York, the veteran painter, 
 gives us historic and allegorical compositions, and highly- 
 finished portraits. His " Republican Court," with its many 
 figures, will have lasting value in our national art. 
 
 The work of the United States through the past century 
 has been to create the materials for history, leaving pos- 
 terity to perpetuate it on canvas. Therefore we have as 
 yet but little historical painting except in Trumbull's pict- 
 ures of the Revolution, and in the few subjects by Robert 
 Weir, Emanuel Leutze, and others, which adorn the Capi- 
 tol, or illustrate the life of Washington. Indeed, what may 
 be called the American school of art is in process of forma- 
 tion; and it would be such an ungracious task to criticise 
 the abilities of our own recent or living artists, that I only 
 refer to a few representative names to indicate the lines 
 upon which our culture is developing. We are here with- 
 out Government patronage or Government art-schools, and 
 need above all things the appreciation of an intelligent pub- 
 lic. Our field for landscape is unequaled. Thomas Cole 
 and Durand were pioneers of the Hudson River school. 
 Cole's allegorical pieces were famous. Church's " Niagara," 
 "Cotopaxi," and "Heart of the Andes," and Bierstadt's Rocky
 
 4 g 2 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Mountain or California views are well and broadly treated. 
 George Inness (1825-1894), a master in art and a strong col- 
 orist, fills his canvas with air and light. Kensett and Gifford 
 excel in aerial perspective and tender tones. Samuel Col- 
 man and Hopkinson Smith are specialists of Venice. Crop- 
 sey, Wyant, Whittredge, Martin, Thompson, Picknell, Coffin, 
 Minor, Jones, Davis, Knight, and Tryon reveal the secrets of 
 forest and sea. Weir, Twachtman, and Childe Hassam em- 
 ploy more or less the methods of Monet. Moonlights and 
 sunsets of De Haas, and the morning and evening effects of 
 Arthur Quartley, have been our popular marines. Richards's 
 and Bristol's sea-views and landscapes are finely truthful. 
 Moran's Yellowstone studies, Bradford's icebergs, and Cat- 
 lin's Indians are of national interest. 
 
 Many younger names of artists resident abroad are known 
 as rising stars on the horizon of our future. They have 
 shone in both American and European exhibitions ; as in 
 the works of Mark Fisher and Ernest Parton, London ; of 
 Jules Stewart, Gari Melchers, J. W. Alexander, Mosler, and 
 Frazier, Paris ; of Charles Ulrich, Munich ; and in excellent 
 paintings of Walter Gay in Paris and in the United States. 
 
 The striking pictures of Elihu Vedder are happily Ameri- 
 can, though their pure idealism is quite independent of race 
 or country. They personify in a singular degree the spirit 
 of this century, its introspection, restlessness, and doubt. 
 Born in New York in 1836, Vedder studied in Paris under 
 Picot, where a tendency to classicism and sculpturesque out- 
 line blended itself with his weird, poetic tastes. His long 
 residence in Rome is evidenced by his love of Italian color 
 and types. He is a better drawer than colorist, but has
 
 PAINTING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 483 
 
 great command of all the means of expression, and a deep 
 sense of the subtile value of curves. His earlier paintings, 
 "The Lair of the Sea Serpent," " Questioner of the Sphinx," 
 "Cumaean Sibyl," and "Young Medusa," have much of that 
 intense meaning which is more strongly accentuated in his 
 late remarkable designs for the "Rubaiyat." Several of 
 these designs "The Last Man," "The Cup of Love," and 
 " The Cup of Death," he has since painted on a large scale. 
 
 William Morris Hunt (1824-1879), ideal by temperament, 
 though adopting many realistic methods from his master. 
 Couture, has left a variety of subjects, from broad, symbolic 
 fresco to delicate charcoal-drawings. Best of these are his 
 faithful portraits, and his mural allegorical decorations in 
 the Capitol of the State of New York. 
 
 Frederick Bridgman, of Alabama, a pupil of Ger6me, has 
 followed his master in many Egyptian and Algerian scenes. 
 J. Alden Weir, another of Gerdme's pupils, has been success- 
 ful in Breton women and portraits, as well as in landscape. 
 His brother, John Weir, works skillfully in landscape and 
 the higher genre. Admirable figure-pieces are executed by 
 Eastman Johnson, J. E. Freeman, J. G. Brown, F. D. Mil- 
 ler, Tarbell, Walker, Vonnoh, and Volk. The animal studies 
 of F. T. Church are popular. Beaufain Irving excelled in 
 grouping and detail. Toby Rosenthal, born in New Haven, 
 but painting in Munich, is known by such large pictures as 
 " The Burial of Elaine " and " Trial of Constance de Bever- 
 ley." Constant Mayer, though American by long residence, is 
 French by birth and tastes. His portraits and figure-pieces 
 combine many of the characteristic excellences of the French 
 school with unusual directness and simplicity.
 
 484 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 In the lighter genre, William Mount, of Long Island 
 (1807-1868), is the earliest example. Nowhere is advance 
 more marked than in the department of genre, as was abun- 
 dantly proved by the Columbian Exposition of 1893. Our 
 artists are learning to unite the fidelity of modern technique 
 with that higher invention and greater freedom of handling 
 which the genius of our country ought eventually to supply. 
 Let them resist the prevailing tendency to abolish thought 
 in painting. The bold coast and war scenes of Winslow 
 Homer, the strong yet simple style of William Chase, Ke*n- 
 yon Cox, Wyatt Eaton, and Walter Shirlaw, the religious 
 and impressively-colored pictures of John La Farge, the im- 
 aginative figures and genre of Dewing, the scenes from Brit- 
 tany by Henry Mosler, especially the " Wedding Feast " and 
 " Prodigal Son," the fine compositions of Low and Blashfield, 
 character sketches of Smedley, and the Morocco and Hindoo 
 views of Weeks, indicate what may yet be accomplished. 
 E. A. Abbey's paintings and drawings, especially his " Legend 
 of the Holy Grail " and " Richard of Gloucester and Lady 
 Anne," are everywhere familiar; while a vivid sensation in 
 American art abroad is found in such landscapes as " Twi- 
 light" and " In Arcady " by Alexander Harrison, and in the 
 landscapes of George Hitchcock, with realistic figures ideally 
 treated, " Tulip Culture in Holland," u The Annunciation," 
 and " Maternity." We must also remember that J. McN. 
 Whistler, with his portraits, " Arrangements," and " Sympho- 
 nies," is a native of Baltimore ; and that John S. Sargent, a 
 pupil of Carolus Duran, who has not only outstripped his 
 master, but become one of the great portrait-painters of the 
 world, is American by birth.
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 To the reader interested in systematizing his knowledge 
 of art, a few pages in review of our whole subject, with a 
 classification of the various schools of painting, will be both 
 convenient and useful. These schools well illustrate the prog- 
 ress of culture among all nations and in all provinces ; the 
 rise and decline of genius ; the tendency of different centu- 
 ries to further or check its development; and its natural laws 
 of growth and decay. For such a comprehensive backward 
 glance it will likewise be necessary to remember that the art 
 of every period of the world's history is always the expression 
 of the life, thoughts, and general aspirations of that period ; 
 and that it is impossible to shape it, except in very rare and 
 individual instances, in any other direction. We perceive, 
 for example, that in the days when faith and tradition domi- 
 nated society, they also dominated art ; that when the revival 
 of classical literature and the study of the antique wrought its 
 revolution in the state, in the universities, in religion, and 
 customs and manners, it set, with the same power, its impress 
 upon painting ; that when freedom, spirituality, and philoso- 
 phy, degenerated into servility, luxury, and carelessness, art 
 degenerated with them ; that when the Reformation pro-
 
 486 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 claimed its liberty, and asserted the sanctity of home and do- 
 mestic life, artists also sought the real and true, often to the 
 temporary neglect of beauty and grace, and painted the Na- 
 ture which men had learned to love, and the ordinary scenes 
 which were their sphere of action. Thus we see that every 
 age, every climate, and every country, must have its own 
 voice, and can speak with no other. Germany, in the seven- 
 teenth century, could no more have produced a Ghirlandajo 
 than the Florence of 1450 could have given birth to a Rem- 
 brandt 
 
 The technical phrase, " a school of painting," is first ap- 
 plied to Byzantine art, when established at Constantinople. 
 The names of those primitive painters have perished, or are 
 at best but empty sounds to us, but the characteristics of the 
 Byzantine school itself are marked and familiar. All have 
 seen or heard of its grand, colossal mosaics ; of its stiff, con- 
 ventional figures, with their heavy, gold embroidered dra- 
 peries, their monotonous expression, and gilded backgrounds ; 
 of its black-faced, gorgeously-appareled Virgins ; of its rigid, 
 staring, and splendid forms ; of its dark, emaciated, and re- 
 pulsive saints, and its blood-bathed crucifixes. We have 
 traced its course through the East, and its migration into 
 Italy ; and have likewise seen how the opposing spirit of 
 Italian civilization began to struggle with its influence, and 
 finally emancipated itself through the teachings and example 
 of Cimabue and Giotto. These records carry us to the thir- 
 teenth century, when we find the political and social divisions 
 of Italy naturally giving rise to such divisions in art as cre- 
 ated rival schools of painting, which took their names from 
 the various prominent cities where artists of genius lived and
 
 SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 487 
 
 labored. These men banded themselves into " guilds," as a 
 means of encouragement and support in their profession ; 
 while the cities vied with each other in ordering large and 
 expensive works for the adornment of their public buildings 
 and cathedrals. Thus artists became a recognized and im- 
 portant class in the community, and enjoyed both civil and 
 private patronage. 
 
 Sienna has the honor of ranking first among Italian schools. 
 Her glory was not permanent, but it heralded the sunrise. 
 In her churches and academy we may study the dawn of na- 
 tional art. Guido da Siena's " Enthroned Madonna and 
 Child," of 1221, in the church of San Domenico, is older than 
 Cimabue, and suggests the new law of progress more fully 
 developed by Duccio, Cimabue 's contemporary, and by Si- 
 mone Martini, or Memmi, of the fourteenth century. These 
 early Siennese impress us by their calmness and devotion, their 
 longing after purity and beauty, and their native and simple 
 grace. Delicate ornament and rich color replaced for them 
 the semi-barbarism of the Byzantines ; but their style had so 
 slight a foundation of strength that only a few such names as 
 the Lorenzetti, Taddeo Bartolo, and Matteo de Siena may 
 survive through the fifteenth century, at whose close the art 
 of Sienna merged into that of Umbria, with one marked 
 exception in the person of Gian Antonio Bazzi, or Razzi 
 (Sodoma), who flourished till 1549. 
 
 The school of Pisa ran an even briefer career. Its renown 
 was only founded on the work of Nicola Pisano, the great 
 sculptor of 1206, whose wonderful pulpit still adorns the Pisan 
 Baptistery ; and on the frescoes of its Campo Santo, most of 
 which were, however, executed by stranger hands. Its own 
 32
 
 488 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 painters have sunk into deserved oblivion. But these little 
 lights enhance by contrast the brilliancy of the Tuscan or 
 Florentine school, which, rising with Cimabue, renewed its 
 lustre from century to century for nearly four hundred years. 
 A list of its principal artists is here given for reference. 
 When critics differ as to dates, the authority of the latest 
 investigators, Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Richter, Berenson, 
 Morelli, or Frizzoni, has been followed in these tables : 
 
 Cimabue, 1240-1302. 
 
 Giotto, 1276-1337, and his followers, Taddeo Gaddi and Giottino. 
 
 Andrea Orcagna, 1308 to about 1370. 
 
 Fra Angelico, 1387-1455. 
 
 Masolino, 1383-1447. 
 
 Andrea Castagno, 1390-1457. 
 
 Paolo Uccello, 1397-1475. 
 
 Masaccio, 1401-1428. 
 
 Filippo Lippi, 1406-1469. 
 
 Benozzo Gozzoli, 1420-1498. 
 
 Cosimo Roselli, 1439-1507. 
 
 Andrea Mantegna, 1431-1506. 
 
 Piero di Cosimo, 1462-1521. 
 
 Luca Signorelli, 1441-1523. 
 
 Sandro Botticelli, 1446-1510. 
 
 Domenico Ghirlandajo, 1449-1494. 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci, 1452-1519. 
 
 Lorenzo di Credi, 1459-1537. 
 
 Filippino Lippi, 1457-1504. 
 
 Fra Bartolomeo, about 1475-1517. 
 
 Mariotto Albertinelli, 1474-1515. 
 
 Raffaellino del Garbo, 1466-1524. 
 
 Michael Angelo, 1475-1564. 
 
 Andrea del Sarto, 1488-1530 or 1531. 
 
 Angelo Bronzino, 1502-1572. 
 
 Daniele da Volterra, 1509-1566. 
 
 Giorgio Vasari, 1512-157.+. 
 
 Ludovico Cardi or Cigoli, 1559-1613. 
 
 Cristoforo Allori, 1577-1621. 
 
 Carlo Dolci, 1616-1606.
 
 SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 489 
 
 It will be understood that this and all other lists include 
 only noted painters ; it being impossible to chronicle every ar- 
 tist of every age and country. Even these might fall into sub- 
 ordinate groups, as for instance the group of the Giotteschi, or 
 followers of Giotto ; the Idealists, of whom Fra Angelico is 
 the purest representative ; and the Realists, headed by Ma- 
 saccio, who inaugurated the Renaissance which so strikingly 
 changed the style of painting, as well as of architecture and 
 sculpture. Andrea Mantegna has been classified with the 
 Florentines, because, though he was really of Padua, and the 
 disciple of Squarcione, the school of Padua was so limited in 
 extent, and so quickly absorbed either into that of Florence 
 or that of Venice, that it is hardly worth while to assign it a 
 separate place. So, again, Leonardo da Vinci, Tuscan by 
 birth and association, removed to Milan, and founded the 
 Lombard school, which, with the Ferrarese, is thus arranged : 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci, 1452-1519. 
 Luini, about 1475-1533. 
 Dosso Dossi, about 1479-1542. 
 Gaudenzio Ferrara, 1484-1546. 
 Garofalo, 1481-1559. 
 Correggio, 1494-1534. 
 Parmagiano,~i 504-1 540. 
 Caravaggio, 1569-1609. 
 
 Here, again, occurs another apparent discrepancy. The 
 student of art-history would at first thought imagine that Ca- 
 ravaggio should rightly belong either to the school of Rome 
 or of Naples, as he was constantly identified with those cities. 
 But his native town being near Milan, and his education from 
 Northern masters, he is numbered among the Lombards, 
 though he takes another rank as the foremost of the Natu- 
 ralist!.
 
 490 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING, 
 
 The establishment of the Umbrian school links itself with 
 the traditions of St. Francis of Assisi, and with the deep and 
 fervent piety which his labors inspired in that secluded and 
 romantic district. It displays a strong affection for the beau- 
 tiful and the mystical, and is ideal in all its tendencies. Ode- 
 risio of Gubbio, of whom Dante speaks, apparently opens its 
 annals, though it served in point of fact but as a feeder to the 
 Roman school, in which it soon lost itself. Its somewhat 
 confused documents show us 
 
 Oderisio Gubbio, of the thirteenth century. 
 
 Guido Palmerucci, 1280. 
 
 Ottaviano Nelli, about 1380. 
 
 Gentile da Fabriano, about 1370-1450. 
 
 Nicolo Alunno, about 1430-1502. 
 
 Perugino, 1446-1524. 
 
 Pinturricchio, 1454-1513. 
 
 Giovanni Santi, about 1435 or 1440-1494. 
 
 The Roman school may be said to have been almost en- 
 tirely composed of Raphael and his pupils ; for, though Rome 
 was a centre of study for all artists, comparatively few were 
 born within its precincts or made it a life-long home. But 
 Raphael's renown is all-sufficient for its immortality. We 
 omit his insignificant pupils : 
 
 Raphael, 1483-1520. 
 
 Giulio Romano, 1492-1546. 
 
 Francesco Penni, 1488-1528. 
 
 Perino del Vaga, 1500-1547. 
 
 Bagnacavallo, 1484-1542. 
 
 Baroccio, 1528-1612. 
 
 Taddeo and Federigo Zuccaro, 1529-1609. 
 
 Sassoferrato, 1605-1685. 
 
 Carlo Maratta, 1625-1713. 
 
 Pompeo Battoni, 1708-1787.
 
 SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 49 I 
 
 Powerful and poetic Venice, so magnificent and peculiar 
 in its political and social relations, was no less luxurious and 
 distinct in the character of its art. The development of 
 color was its crowning charm ; while its large and fascinating 
 compositions glow with brightness and joy. Taine remarks : 
 " The sensual lustre of the coloring accords with superb dec- 
 orations, with the liberty and splendor of the life, with the 
 frank energy and high-born nobleness of the heads, with the 
 voluptuous tints of the living flesh, with the lively and easy 
 movement of the groups, and the universal diffusion of hap- 
 piness." Its long line of painters is one of unusual excellence ; 
 but many of the early dates are disputed and uncertain : 
 
 The Vivarini, fifteenth century. 
 Jacopo Bellini, about 1400-1470. 
 jGentile Bellini, 1426-1507. 
 Gian Bellini, 1428-1516. 
 Carlo Crivelli, between 1430 and 1440-1500. 
 Carpaccio, about 14551525. 
 Cima da Conegliano, about 1460-1517. 
 Giorgione, 1477-1511. 
 Titian, 1477-1576. 
 Palma Vecchio, 1475 or 1480-1528. 
 Pordenone, 1483-1540. 
 Sebastian del Piombo, 1485-1547. 
 Lorenzo Lotto, 1477 or 1480-1556. 
 Moretto, 1498-1556. 
 Paris Bordone, 1495-1570. 
 Moroni, 1525-1578. 
 
 Jacopo Bassano and family, 1510-1592. 
 Tintoretto, 1512 or 1518-1594. 
 Paul Veronese, 1528-1588. 
 Canale, 1697-1768. 
 Canaletto, 1720-1780. 
 
 The endeavor to reanimate the declining spirit of art, and 
 to make old principles once more available by uniting them
 
 492 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 into new combinations, was the aim of the Eclectics, or school 
 of the Carracci, which came into being in Bologna at the close 
 of the sixteenth century. They taught the necessity of se- 
 lecting and imitating the greatest merits of the greatest mas- 
 ters, with the view of blending them into one perfect whole 
 Their leaders, whom we note below, did indeed succeed in 
 rendering themselves famous, though we instinctively apply 
 to them a lower standard than existed in the days of Raphael 
 and Michael Angelo : 
 
 Lodovico Carracci, 1555-1619. 
 Agostino Carracci, 1558-1602. 
 Annibale Carracci, 1560-1609. 
 Domenichino, 1581-1641. 
 Guido Reni, 1574-1642. 
 Albani, 1578-1660. 
 Guercino, 1590-1666. 
 Lanfranco, 1581-1647. 
 
 The maxims of the Eclectics were firmly opposed by a 
 band of determined painters known as the Naturalisti. They 
 contended that Nature, and Nature only, should be copied, 
 and that the ideal held no place in legitimate art. But their 
 uncultivated and limited minds were attracted only to the 
 vulgar and gloomy aspects of Nature ; and but a small num- 
 ber among them attained to any eminence, neither have their 
 compositions been generally valued by posterity. Their most 
 celebrated names are 
 
 Caravaggio, 1569-1609. 
 Ribera, 1588-1656. 
 Salvator Rosa, 1615-1673 
 
 who are also spoken of as the " Tenebrosi," from their par- 
 tiality for very black pictures with violently dark shadows
 
 SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 493 
 
 relieved by glittering lights. Salvator Rosa comes familiarly 
 before us as the most striking delineator of Italian landscape. 
 The school of Naples, which is the least brilliant in the South, 
 was chiefly made up of quarrelsome and second-rate artists, 
 who, by forcibly driving off all competitors, kept the patron- 
 age of the city for themselves, but did little to deserve it. 
 Salvator Rosa, Ribera or Lo Spagnoletto, and Luca Gior- 
 dano, are its sole representatives worthy of remembrance. 
 
 Having thus fixed in our recollection the tolerably well- 
 defined Italian schools, we cross the Alps, and consider the 
 progress of painting in the North. 
 
 We here notice that the early Germans preferred archi- 
 tecture to painting. Gothic architecture is their noblest 
 legacy to art. As this did not, like the Roman and Renais- 
 sance churches, require decorations in fresco, there was not 
 the same sphere for the exercise of painting ; neither was the 
 taste for the intellectual and the beautiful so quickly un- 
 folded in such ungenial climate, and amid rougher and 
 prosaic customs. We consequently find them adopting quite 
 a different style ; concentrating into minuteness of finish, on 
 small panels or canvas, the labor which Italians spread over 
 extensive wall-surfaces ; or expressing, through rude, fantas- 
 tic forms, the inherent poetry which in the artists of Italy 
 was softened into grace and sentiment. 
 
 To an Italian, Thomas of Modena, associated with Theo- 
 cloric of Prague, seems to be owing much of the short-lived 
 success of the ancient school, whose fragmentary remains 
 are discoverable at or near Prague. He was called to Ger- 
 many by Charles IV. of Bohemia, who was ambitious of be- 
 ing a patron of painting ; but the death of the emperor ter
 
 494 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING, 
 
 minated all such projects, and his followers soon dispersed. 
 It is not therefore Bohemia, but the cathedral city of Cologne, 
 overlooking the provinces of the Rhine, which we must regard 
 as the true cradle of German culture. We cannot, indeed, 
 satisfactorily investigate its history. Meister Wilhelm and 
 Meister Stephen, renowned at Cologne during the fourteenth 
 century, had doubtless predecessors, whose works, like them- 
 selves, have returned to dust ; but the City Museum and the 
 pictures removed to the Munich Pinakothek unite to testify 
 that the motives of early German, like those of early Italian 
 art, were sacred and ideal. Slender, child-like Madonnas, 
 with fair flowing hair, and gentle though feeble saints, were 
 its usual subjects. Greater purity of color exists in these spe- 
 cimens than is observable in the first efforts of the Italians. 
 This primitive school educated and directed the taste of the 
 Flemings, whose development of oil-painting turned the eyes 
 of all the world toward the artists of the North. 
 
 The little country of Flanders, insignificant as it seems 
 in size, was in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the 
 centre of Northern civilization. Its commerce brought it 
 into communication with the richest lands of Europe, and 
 its merchant-burghers dispensed their wealth like princes. 
 Citizens and court combined to make the towns of Ghent 
 and Bruges as prominent by their art-treasures as by their 
 trade and splendor. Into this varied life, and under these 
 varied influences, were born Hubert and Jan van Eyck, the 
 fathers of the Flemish school, shining out in full lustre from 
 past obscurity, and attaining a sudden perfection in the 
 grand altar-piece of " The Adoration of the Lamb," which, 
 in its peculiar line, has never been surpassed. The inven-
 
 SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 495 
 
 lion, or practical application, of oil-painting by these brothers 
 Van Eyck occasioned a revolution in technical methods 
 which was to affect all subsequent ages. Their successors 
 were distinguished by extreme elaboration and truth of detail, 
 delicacy of execution, richness of ornament, highly-finished 
 accessories of ordinary life, realistic figures, and landscape 
 backgrounds. The later Flemings, headed by Rubens, bloomed 
 into more florid style and color, and then transferred their 
 powers to landscapes, portraits,. and genre scenes, thus allying 
 themselves to the rising school of Holland. The leading 
 masters of the Flemish school rank in the following order 
 
 Hubert and Jan van Eyck, about 1366-1440. 
 
 Roger van der Weyden, 1400-1464. 
 
 Hans Memling, 1425 or 1430-1495. 
 
 Quintin Matsys, about 1460-1530. 
 
 Matthew and Paul Bril, 1554-1626. 
 
 Peter Breughel and sons, 1530-1625 0^1642. 
 
 Rubens, 1577-1640. 
 
 Frans Snyders, 1579-1657. 
 
 Vandyck, 1599-1641. 
 
 Teniers, 1610-1690. 
 
 In Northern and Western Germany we behold a less rapid 
 progress. Flowers of culture were slow to blossom in that 
 haid, Teutonic soil. The seed borne from Cologne to remoter 
 pro winces needed time for growth. German art is most inter- 
 esting from its individuality, its intensity, its strength, and 
 fantasy; and especially from its singular union of the com- 
 monest realities with the wildest poetry. It gives us in Al- 
 brecht Durer its most forcible expression ; but we find the 
 same elements, in modified forms, in all periods and localities, 
 even till our own day :
 
 496 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Martin SchSngauer, about 1450-1488. 
 
 Michael Wohlgemuth, about 1434-1519. 
 
 Albrecht Diirer, 1471-1528. 
 
 Hans Holbein, the Elder, about 1459-1524. 
 
 Hans Holbein, the Younger, 1495 or 1497-1543. 
 
 Lucas Cranach, 1472-1553. 
 
 Balthasar Denner, 1685-1749. 
 
 Christian Dietrich, 1712-1774. 
 
 Raphael Mengs, 1728-1779. 
 
 Angelica Kaufmann, 1741-1807. 
 
 Cornelius, 1783-1867. 
 
 Overbeck, 1789-1869. 
 
 Kaulbach, 1805-1874. 
 
 The records of Holland are more voluminous, and even 
 more significant. The era of the Reformation here shows its 
 most important aesthetic consequences. Narrowing for a sea- 
 son the sphere of painting, it exalted the attractions of truth 
 and the beauties of Nature, directed the attention of men to 
 the virtues and vices of ordinary life, brought out either the 
 poetry or the vulgarity of common things, and did its work 
 with scrupulous fidelity and the utmost patience of finish. 
 From strong minds like Rembrandt's it produced great results ; 
 while limited intellects spent their labors upon artistic " mint 
 and anise and cummin," and swelled the number of the 
 " little masters " of Holland. The list below is classified 
 in lespect to time, and not to merit; though for ease of refer- 
 ence it is grouped in subdivisions : 
 
 Lucas of Leyden, 1494-1533. 
 Rembrandt van Ryn, 1607-1669 or 1674. 
 Ferdinand Bol, 1611-1681. 
 Govaert Flinck, 1615-1660. 
 
 Portrait-Fainter*. 
 Miertvelt, 1567-1641. 
 Frank Hals, 1584-1666. 
 Bartholomew van der Heist, 1613-1670.^
 
 SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 497 
 
 Genre Painters. 
 Frank Hals, 1584-1666. 
 Jan Steen, 1626-1679. 
 Gerard Dow, 1613-1675. 
 Gerard Terburg, 1608-1681. 
 Adrian van Ostade, 1610-1685. 
 Gabriel Metsu, 1630-1667. 
 Franz Mieris, 1635-1681. 
 Caspar Netscher, 1639-1684. 
 Adrian van der Werff, 1659-1722. 
 Jan van der Meer, 1632-1695. 
 
 Landscape, Marine, and Animal Painters. 
 Jan van Goyen, 1596-1656. 
 Albert Cuyp, 1620-1691. 
 Jan Wynants, 1615-1679. 
 Jan Both, 1610-1650. 
 Jacob Ruysdael, about 1625-1682. 
 Hobbema, 1638-1709. 
 Van der Neer, 1603-1677. 
 Berghem, 1620-1683. 
 Wouvermans, 1619-1668. 
 Paul Potter, 1625-1654. 
 Wilhelm van der Velde, 1633-1707. 
 Backhuysen, 1631-1708. 
 
 Interiors, Architecture, and Still- Life. 
 Van Hooghe, about 1630-1681. 
 Van der Heyden, 1637-1712. 
 Peter Neefs, 1578-1656. 
 David de Heem, 1600-1674. 
 Willem Kalf, 1630-1693. 
 
 A very different development may be studied in Roman 
 Catholic Spain, where art preeminently followed the fortunes 
 of the Church, expanded under the smile of the Inquisition, 
 and died with the downfall of faith. Its pictures are glowing, 
 sombre, or aerial in tone ; fervid and intense in expression ; 
 passionately ideal, or passionately austere. Among its host 
 of artists may be chiefly mentioned
 
 49 8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Luis de Vargas, about 1502-1568. 
 
 Juan Joanes, 1523-1579. 
 
 Alonso Berruguete, 1480-1561. 
 
 Morales, 1509-1586. 
 
 Coello, died 1590. 
 
 Navarette, 1526-1579. 
 
 Cespedes, 1538-1608. 
 
 Juan de las Roelas, 1558 or 1560-1625. 
 
 Zurbaran, 1598-1662. 
 
 Alonso Cano, 1601-1667. 
 
 The two Ribaltas, 1551-1628. 
 
 Ribera, 1588-1656. 
 
 Velasquez, 1599-1660. 
 
 Murillo, 1618-1682. 
 
 Valdes Leal, 1630-1691. 
 
 Francisco Goya, 1746-1828. 
 
 The French school, so highly national in feeling and exe- 
 cution, traces its distinct and progressive succession from the 
 age of Francis I. to the present time. The same quality of 
 sentiment, the same tendency to exaggeration and theatrical 
 effect, and yet the same indefinable grace and esprit, are 
 marked throughout. We have not to chronicle its decline, for 
 its present painters share with the English the widest mod- 
 ern celebrity, having led the art of the nineteenth century. 
 In enumerating the artists of these schools only the most 
 prominent are mentioned, while all still living are omitted : 
 
 Jehan Foucquet, about 1416-1480. 
 Jean Cousin, about 1501-1590. 
 Fran?ois Clouet, 1500-1572. 
 Simon Vouet, 1590-1649. 
 Jacques Callot, 1592-1635. 
 Poussin, 1593-1665. 
 Claude Lorraine, 1600-1682. 
 Le Sueur, 1617-1655. 
 Charles Le Brun, 1619-1690. 
 Mignard, 1610-1695.
 
 SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 499 
 
 Rigaud, 1659-1743. 
 
 Watteau, 1684-1721. 
 
 Claude Vernet, 1714-1789. 
 
 Greuze, 1725-1805. 
 
 David, 1748-1825. 
 
 Gros, 1771-1835. 
 
 Ingres, Jean Auguste, 1780-1867. 
 
 Isabey, 1767-1855. 
 
 Horace Vernet, 1789-1863. 
 
 Gericault, 1791-1824. 
 
 Ary Scheffer, 1797-1858. 
 
 Paul Delaroche, 1797-1856. 
 
 Eugene Delacroix, 1799-1863. 
 
 Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot, 1796-1875. 
 
 Alexandra Gabriel Decamps, 1803-1860. 
 
 Constant Troyon, 1810-1865. 
 
 Jean-Francois Millet, 1814-1875. 
 
 Thomas Couture, 1815-1879. 
 
 Theodore Rousseau, 1812-1867. 
 
 The art of England may be called entirely modern, with 
 all the vigor of youth, and the brightness of ascending fame. 
 For this reason it is to many more interesting than any study 
 of the past ; while its subjects also adapt themselves to pre- 
 vailing tastes. Its special excellence lies in the departments 
 of landscape, portrait, and genre painting. A selection of its 
 most meritorious artists is attended with no little difficulty, 
 as so many are still actively at work, but the names affixed 
 can be added to at pleasure : 
 
 William Hogarth, 1697-1764. 
 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1723-1792. 
 
 Gainsborough, 1727-1788. 
 
 Romney, 1734-1802. 
 
 Benjamin West, 1738-1820. 
 
 Copley, 1737-1815. 
 
 Barry, 1741-1806. 
 
 Fuseli, 1741-1825. 
 
 Northcote, 1746-1831. 
 
 Stothard, 1755-1834.
 
 5 oo SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Blake, 1757-1827. 
 Raeburn, 1756-1823. 
 Lawrence, 1769-1830. 
 Turner, 1775-1851. 
 Constable, 1776-1837. 
 Wilkie, 1785-1841. 
 Mulready, 1786-1863. 
 Etty, 1787-1849. 
 Eastlake, 1793-1865. 
 Stan field, 1793-1867. 
 Leslie, 1794-1859. 
 Roberts, 1796-1864. 
 Landseer, 1802-1873. 
 Maclise, 1811-1870. 
 Brown (F. M.), 1821-1893. 
 Rossetti, 1828-1882. 
 Millais, 1829-1896. 
 Holl, 1845-1890. 
 Leighton, 1830-1896. 
 Burne-Jones, 1833-1898. 
 
 West, Copley, and Charles Leslie, though American by 
 birth, have been included in the preceding catalogue, as their 
 English residence and large works left in England entitle 
 them to the assigned place. But David Cox and Samuel 
 Prout are omitted, as the consideration of water-color paint- 
 ing would open too wide a field, and must, together with the 
 embryo American school, be left for the coming historians of 
 the twentieth century. Meanwhile let us hope that our stand- 
 ard of art, both in England and America, may rise at least 
 as high as our standard of literature ; that noble works may 
 grow from noble sentiments; that the painter's hand may 
 interpret upon canvas, not orily the harmony and beauty of 
 outside Nature, but the harmony and beauty of the soul ; and 
 that the conflict between ideality and reality may be recon- 
 ciled, not by any undue exaltation of the one above the 
 other, but by the transformation of the ideal into the real.
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 WORLD-PICTURES. 
 
 UNDER this title we propose to consider twelve of the 
 most popular paintings of celebrated artists, so familiarized 
 by engravings, and so dear to memory or imagination, that 
 the thought of beholding the originals is one of the traveler's 
 pleasantest anticipations. It is not intended to give a list of 
 the most perfectly artistic pictures, nor a representative list of 
 the finest art creations of successive centuries, else the works 
 of Botticelli, Giorgione, Veronese, Velasquez, and Holbein 
 would certainly have been included. But in so difficult a 
 selection it seems wisest to choose those which have stood 
 the test of many a generation, and have touched the hearts 
 and been the genuine delight of the great majority of all 
 classes and conditions of men. We will consequently men- 
 tion only Raphael's " Transfiguration " and " Sistine Madon- 
 na ; " Michael Angelo's " Last Judgment ; " Fra Angelico's 
 Angels and Madonnas ; Leonardo da Vinci's " Mona Lisa ; " 
 Leonardo da Vinci's " Last Supper ; " Titian's " Assumption 
 of the Virgin ;" Correggio's " Santa Notte ; " Guido's "Au- 
 rora ; " Rembrandt's " Night Watch ; " Murillo's " Immacu- 
 late Conception ; " and Rubens's " Descent from the Cross." 
 Each, in its locality, shall be spoken of in turn, adding de- 
 scriptions from standard authors.
 
 5 02 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 The Transfiguration, called the finest picture in the world, 
 was Raphael's last composition. It is now the chief attrac- 
 tion of the Picture Gallery of the Vatican. All are aware 
 that it represents two separate incidents. The actual scene 
 of the transfiguration, in the upper part of the painting, is 
 entirely from Raphael's own hand, and it is the marvelous 
 expression of the face of Christ which constitutes its peculiar 
 charm. The group below was partly executed by Raphael, but 
 completed by Giulio Romano. Charlotte Eaton, in writing of 
 Roman masterpieces, gives utterance to a natural feeling when 
 she says : " It is somewhat strange to see the whole picture 
 of the Transfiguration, including the three prostrate apostles, 
 shading their dazzled senses from the insufferable brightness, 
 occupying only a small part of the top of the canvas, and the 
 principal field filled with a totally distinct and certainly un- 
 equaled picture, that of the demoniac boy whom our Sav- 
 iour cured on coming down from the mount." 
 
 The following description from Kugler explains this ar- 
 rangement : 
 
 " This picture is divided into two parts, the undermost of 
 which, on account of its mass, is the more important and pre- 
 dominant. On one side are nine of the disciples ; on the 
 other a crowd of people pressing toward them, bearing along 
 a boy possessed with a devil. His limbs are fearfully con- 
 vulsed by demoniac power ; he is supported by his father, 
 who appears strenuously to implore assistance by words and 
 looks : two kneeling women beside him point to the sufferer, 
 the one with earnest entreaties ; the other, in front, with an 
 expression of passionate energy. All are crying aloud, be- 
 leeching, and stretching out their arms for aid. .Among the
 
 WORLD-PICTURES. 
 
 503 
 
 disciples, who are disposed in different groups, astonishment, 
 horror, and sympathy, alternate in various degrees. One, 
 whose youthful countenance expresses the deepest sympathy, 
 turns to the unhappy father, plainly intimating his inability 
 to assist him ; another points upward ; a third repeats this 
 gesture. The upper part of the picture is formed by an ele- 
 vation to represent Mount Tabor. There lie prostrate the 
 three disciples who went up with Christ, dazzled by the di- 
 vine light ; above them, surrounded by a miraculous glory, 
 the Saviour floats in air, in serene beatitude, accompanied by 
 Moses and Elias. The twofold action contained in this 
 picture, to which shallow critics have taken exception, is ex- 
 plained historically and satisfactorily merely by the fact that 
 the incident of the possessed boy occurred in the absence of 
 Christ ; but it explains itself in a still higher sense, when we 
 consider the deeper, universal meaning of the picture. For 
 this purpose it is not even necessary to consult the books of 
 the New Testament for the explanation of the particular in- 
 cidents ; the lower portion represents the calamities and mis- 
 eries of human life the rule of demoniac power, the weak- 
 ness even of the faithful when unassisted and points to a 
 superior Power. Above, in the brightness of divine bliss, 
 undisturbed by the suffering of the lower world, we behold 
 the source of consolation and redemption from evil. Even 
 the judicious liberties dictated by the nature of the art, which 
 displease the confined views of many critics, such as the want 
 of elevation in the mountain, the perspective alteration of the 
 horizon and points of sight for the upper group (in which the 
 figures do not appear foreshortened, as seen from beneath, 
 but perfectly developed, as if in a vision), give occasion for 
 new and peculiar beauties." 
 33
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS CF PAINTING. 
 
 The two small devotees, kneeiing in the background upon 
 the mountain, are portraits of the father and uncle of Cardi- 
 nal de Medici, for whom the painting was first intended. A 
 mosaic copy of " The Transfiguration " hangs in the transept 
 of St. Peter's Church, Rome. 
 
 The Sistine Madonna, painted by Raphael, was placed as 
 an altar-piece in the cloister of San Sisto, in Piacenza, Italy. 
 There it remained till 1753, when it was purchased by King 
 Augustus III. of Saxony, for forty thousand Roman scudi 
 (between forty and fifty thousand dollars of our money), and 
 removed to Dresden, whose gallery it still adorns. " In justice 
 to its own merits, and in kindness to the other pictures in the 
 gallery, the Sistine Madonna has a room entirely to itself." 
 Liibke says of it : 
 
 "Who does not know this wondrous figure, which,. veiled 
 by magnificent drapery, floats on the clouds like a heavenly ap- 
 parition, surrounded by a glory of lovely angel-heads ? A veil 
 flows down from her head, which seems as if lost in thought, 
 reflecting on the divine mystery which her arms embrace 
 with maternal fervor; for, enthroned in her arms, in calm 
 majesty, is a boy, in whose childlike features is stamped the 
 sublimity of his mission, and whose eyes, with their power 
 and depth, allow us to forebode his vocation as Redeemer of 
 the world. Pope Sixtus is looking up with reverence, forming 
 by his grand, dignified appearance a splendid contrast to St. 
 Barbara, who, opposite to him, bows her graceful head with 
 humble gesture, and casts her eye downward at the majesty 
 before her. Lastly, the groundwork is finished by two en- 
 chanting boy -angels, resting on the lower breastwork. It is
 
 WORLD-PICTURES. 505 
 
 as if Raphael had wished to combine in this incomparable 
 creation his deepest thoughts, his most sublime ideas, and his 
 most perfect beauty, that it might be and might remain the 
 highest production of all religious art. His Madonnas, and 
 the Sistine Madonna especially, are not created for any defi- 
 nite epoch, or for any special religious views ; they live for 
 all times and for all nations, because they reveal an eternal 
 truth in a form eternally acceptable." 
 
 Viardot also remarks : " We should be mistaken if we 
 were to seek in it a simple Madonna, a representation of the 
 Mother of our Lord, such as the artist imagined her and 
 offered to the piety and admiration of men. There is more 
 here ; it is like a revelation of heaven to earth ; it is an ap- 
 pearance of the Virgin. This word explains the whole ren- 
 dering of the picture : the green curtains drawn aside in the 
 upper part, the balustrade at the bottom, on which the two 
 little angels lean, who seem, by their upturned glance, to 
 point to the celestial vision ; and St. Sixtus and St. Barbara, 
 kneeling on either side of the Virgin, like Moses and Elias 
 on Mount Tabor at the transfiguration. We must also no- 
 tice that the two angels at the bottom, whose presence few 
 people understand, give a third plane to the picture, or, as 
 the Italians say, three orizonti, first these angels, then St. Six- 
 tus and St. Barbara, and, lastly, the Madonna and Child, who 
 are thus placed at a greater distance. 
 
 " When we understand this, we can appreciate all the 
 merits of this composition. What symmetry and variety are 
 to be found in it ! What noble attitudes, in what wonder- 
 fully graceful positions are the Virgin and Child in her arms, 
 and also the two saints in adoration! And what ineffable
 
 506 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 beauty there is in every thing that composes the group, old 
 man, Child, and women ! What could be more thoughtful, 
 pious, and holy, than the venerable head of Sixtus I., 
 crowned by the glory of the saints, the thin golden circle of 
 which shines brightly on the pale-blue background composed 
 of innumerable faces of cherubim ? What could be more 
 noble, more tender, and more graceful, than the holy martyr 
 Barbara, of Nicomedia, who unites every kind of beauty 
 even that creamy complexion so celebrated by the old fathers 
 of the primitive Church ? What could be more astonishing, 
 more superhuman, than that Child with the meditative fore- 
 head, with the serious mouth, with the fixed and penetrating 
 eye, that Child who will become the wrathful Christ of Mi- 
 chael Angelo ? And is not Mary really a radiant and celestial 
 being ? is she not an apparition ? What eye could gaze on 
 her without falling ? None, I am convinced, even of the most 
 ignorant or incredulous. And what strikes us even more 
 than the look, what moves even the depths of our hearts, is 
 not a skillful combination of light and shadow, a prepared 
 effect of chiaro-oscuro, imitating the light of everlasting day; 
 it is the irresistible power of moral beauty which beams in the 
 face of the ^Virgin mother, whose veil is lightly thrown aside 
 as if by the breeze ; it is her deep glance, her noble forehead, 
 her look, at once grave, modest, and sweet ; it is that indefi- 
 nable look of something primitive and wild, which marks the 
 woman brought up far from the world, out of the world, and 
 having never known its pomps or deceitful gayeties." 
 
 The Last Judgment, a fresco by Michael Angelo, over the 
 altar of the Sistine Chapel, Rome, filling a space of sixty feel 
 High and thirty broad, is thus pictured by Grimm :
 
 WORLD-PICTURES. 
 
 57 
 
 " The ' Last Judgment,' when we first look at it, appears 
 like an endless throng, like a stormy sky, with clouds shifting 
 together, gathering restlessly and unequally from all sides. 
 The composition only slowly arranges itself before us. We 
 learn how to follow and apprehend the multitudinous train. 
 We see the angry frown of Christ as the upper centre of the 
 painting, and around him, as a broad cloudy halo encom- 
 passes the shining moon, we see clouds of countless forms ; 
 and around these other multitudes, like a second broadei 
 ring, which below, however, instead of closing, makes a curve 
 and again turns outward, meeting thus the lower edge of the 
 painting, whence on both sides the train of figures rises into 
 the air. 
 
 " For the idea of the composition is this : The whole wall 
 is regarded as the infinite open space of heaven, into which 
 we are looking. Christ forms the centre, with Mary, who is 
 sitting clinging to his knee, and from this centre beaming 
 rays emanate on all sides. An immense circle of saints, each 
 with the insignia of his dignity in his hand, surround him as 
 the chief in heaven. Below this circle, Christ's footstool, as 
 it were, is the angel of judgment, with trumpets directed into 
 the depths below, and from these depths on the left side arise 
 those awakened from the dead, while on the right the con- 
 demned are striving upward and are thrust down by strug- 
 gling angels and devils right and left as regards the spec- 
 tator so that as seen from the picture, the condemned, 
 as they ought, come on the left side. Quite above, however, 
 high above the circle of the elect, are the blessed with the 
 instruments of the death and sufferings of Christ, which they 
 bear, hovering about in triumph. Such are the contents of
 
 508 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 the painting, which not only differs fiom the earlier represen- 
 tations of the last judgment, but also, as regards the artistic 
 work, is such an astonishing production that nothing which 
 has been executed by any painter, before or after, can be 
 compared with it. ... 
 
 " The wall is half as high again as it is broad. Hence 
 the necessity of a higher and lower centre. The judging 
 God rules the upper half; the troop of angels sounding to 
 the judgment, the lower. Both centres are, however, so well 
 united that not a figure could be found which may appear 
 superfluous or unnecessary to the whole train. The unity of 
 the picture, and at the same time the separateness of the dif- 
 ferent groups, is marvelous. The angels strike the trumpets 
 as if the whole world must quake at the sound, and, as St. 
 Matthew says, as if all the tribes of the earth must mourn. 
 Unceasingly, while they blow, men awake to be judged skel- 
 etons, bodies still veiled with palls, naked figures rising, some 
 still half in the ground, from the holes of which they crawl, 
 others already so far advanced that, kneeling and supporting 
 themselves with their arms, they attempt to stand until they 
 begin to soar ; and the higher, the lighter grows the move- 
 ment, up to the highest of those who, completely freed from 
 the sleep of centuries, fly toward the great circle which in 
 wide circumference joins the first circle, surrounding the form 
 of Christ. 
 
 "In the contrast of these rising figures to the ruined ones 
 on the other side of the painting, Michael Angelo has dis- 
 played his greatest art. It is as if we saw masses of cloud? 
 covering the sky, and gigantic figures suddenly climbing up 
 them ; and opposite, on the other side, as if leaden, devilish
 
 WORLD-PICTURES. 509 
 
 powers hung to those pressing upward to the same light, and 
 drew them down into the abyss. We see it not, but an end- 
 less profundity seems to open, over which they desperately 
 contend to the utmost. This contest between the condemned 
 and the devil is world-famed. Things are represented here 
 which are not to be described. And equally awfully below, 
 we see Charon emptying his crowded boat. As if he were 
 emptying a sack of mice, he makes the crowds of the guilty 
 spring down into the flames and smoke. He is standing on 
 the edge of the vessel. With his foot upon the fore part, he 
 brings it to the brink, and with uplifted oar he strikes among 
 the throng who are seeking to cling to it, and tremble at the 
 leap into the abyss. Dante describes how Charon drives 
 them to the boat : we have here the continuance of his poem, 
 the arrival. 
 
 Fra Angelico's Tabernacle Picture of the Madonna and 
 Child with Angels, originally painted for the Guild of Linen- 
 drapers of Florence. This famous picture, known especially 
 by its often-copied angels, has been in the Gallery of the 
 Uffizi at Florence since the year 1777. 
 
 Milanesi tells us : " The model for the Tabernacle was 
 ordered of Ghiberti, and was executed in wood, in 1432, by 
 Jaccpo, called Papero di Fieri. Fra Angelico painted upon 
 it a Madonna and Child, larger than life, with twelve small 
 angels in the borders of the Tabernacle. On the backs of 
 the shutters were the figures of St. Peter and St. Mark, and 
 on the interiors of the same were St. John Baptist, and St. 
 Mark repeated a second time, as the latter was ever the 
 patron saint of the Linen-drapers' Guild.
 
 5 to SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 " This picture was to be painted, in 1433, according to 
 contract, within and without, in the artist's best workman- 
 ship, with brilliant and varied colors, and gold and silver of the 
 finest quality that could be procured. It represents a life- 
 size Madonna, enthroned, holding in her arms the Infant 
 Jesus ; with twelve angels in the cornice, of such great beauty 
 that, according to Vasari and other chroniclers of that day, 
 they seem to have been rained down from heaven. 
 
 "Any one acquainted with Fra Angelico's paintings would 
 admit that his genius most clearly shows itself in his paint- 
 ing of angels. He endows them with the freshness of youth- 
 ful prime, but he never represents them as infants, like the 
 school of Perugino, being of opinion that the age of child- 
 hood could not express the zeal and intelligence properly 
 belonging to messengers and ministers of the Most High.'' 
 
 J. A. Symonds, in his study of the Renaissance, says : 
 " Fra Angelico has a quality so unique that we return again 
 and again to contemplate his visions. He thought it a sin to 
 study or to imitate the naked form ; and his beautiful faces 
 seem copied from angels seen in visions not from sons of 
 men. While artists around him were absorbed in master- 
 ing the laws of geometry and anatomy, he sought to express 
 the inner life of the adoring soul." 
 
 Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, " probably the most 
 famous portrait in the world," is also called La Giocomia. 
 It is in the Louvre, and is the portrait of Lisa di Anton 
 Maria di Noldo Gherardini, married in 1495, as third wife of 
 Francesco Bartolomeo di Zanobi del Giocondo. 
 
 Richter says : " The picture represents a life-size figure,
 
 WORLD-PICTURES. 5 U 
 
 seated in an arm chair, turning to the left, with hands crossed 
 in the lap. Only the upper part of the body is visible ; the 
 costume is simple in the extreme. A far-stretching landscape 
 forms the background. The admiration which this portrait 
 has always created is owing not merely to the beauty of the 
 sitter ; its chief excellencies lie in its conception and ex- 
 pression. The shadows have become much darkened by 
 time, and are now of a heavy tone, though the coloring was 
 originally clear and transparent." 
 
 Vasari tells us : " The eyes have the lustrous brightness 
 and moisture seen in life, and around them are those pale 
 red circles also proper to nature. The nose, with its beauti- 
 ful and delicate nostrils, might be easily believed to be alive. 
 Mona Lisa was exceedingly beautiful; and while Leonardo 
 was painting her portrait he took the precaution of keeping 
 some one constantly near her, to sing and play on instru- 
 ments, or to jest and otherwise amuse her, to the end that 
 she might continue cheerful, and so that her face might not 
 show the melancholy expression often imparted by painters. 
 In this portrait of Leonardo's, on the contrary, there is so 
 pleasing an expression and a smile so sweet that while look- 
 ing at it one thinks it rather divine than human." 
 
 Of this smile, Rose, in " Renaissance Masters," says : " It 
 is seen in its perfection on the lips of the Mona Lisa, that 
 marvelous portrait whose riddle succseding generations have 
 striven in vain to read. In the Louvre she is still sitting, 
 and every passer-by is constrained to stop, lured by that 
 smile as by a siren's song, vainly demanding why she smiles 
 and with what intent. . . . No man has ever penetrated so 
 deeply into woman's heart ; none has ever felt so strongly
 
 SI2 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 the enchantment of the eternal womanly, or transferred it to 
 cjnvas with such skill." 
 
 Walter Pater also observes : " It is beauty wrought out 
 from within upon the flesh by strange thoughts and exquisite 
 passions. Set it for a moment beside the antique Greek god- 
 desses, and how would they be troubled by a beauty into 
 which the soul, with its maladies, has passed ! " 
 
 The Last Supper, by Leonardo da Vinci, is a fresco, with 
 figures larger than life, painted in oil on the refectory wall 
 of the old convent of Santa Maria della Grazie, Milan. " The 
 original fresco," says Dr. Richter, " in spite of the destruc- 
 tion done to it by time and by men, remains the most per- 
 fect composition in the history of painting in all ages." Yet 
 it has so suffered from bad treatment that it is literally fall- 
 ing to pieces. In addition to the ravages of decay, a door 
 was cut through the lower part of it in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury ; and during subsequent wars the apartment was used 
 as a barrack. Many copies have, however, been taken, of 
 which the best is the painting by Marco d'Oggione ; also 
 Raphael Morghen's engraving. 
 
 Goethe, in his essay on this picture, remarks : " What 
 agitates this tranquil company at table are the Master's 
 words, ' There is one among you that betrays me ! ' The 
 words are uttered, and all are thrown into consternation ; 
 but he silently inclines his head, while his attitude repeats 
 his expressions. The figures round him group in threes 
 James, Thomas, and Philip ; then Matthew, Thaddeus, and 
 Simon ; also Bartholomew, Andrew, and James the Less. 
 On Christ's right are John, Judas, and Peter.
 
 WORLD-PICTURES, 
 
 513 
 
 " Peter, as he hears the words of our Lord, suddenly rises 
 from his seat. Judas, terrified, leans across the table. Mean- 
 while Peter seizes John, who is leaning forward, by the right 
 shoulder, and signifies that he should immediately ask who 
 can be the traitor. Thus Peter, in quick movement, acci- 
 dentally touches the side of Judas, who, stooping forward in 
 his guilty alarm, upsets the salt-cellar. This picturesque group 
 may be regarded as the leading one in the composition." 
 
 J. J. Jarves remarks : " The large, simple ' upper room,' 
 the distant view from the windows over the hills of Judca, 
 and the sparse accessories of the holy banquet, are in strict 
 accord with the Gospel story. Jesus is the central figure. 
 His exclamation, ' One of you shall betray me,' fills the conv 
 pany with horror. Some are stunned by the enormity of the 
 charge ; others are vociferous, indulging in violent gestures 
 and powerful emotions : each betrays his appropriate tem- 
 perament in corresponding speech and action, with a wonder- 
 fully varied rendering of individual character. Yet a masterly 
 unity of feeling pervades the whole. The interest of the scene 
 is regularly heightened through all the gradations of vehement 
 passion and deep sorrow until it centres upon the group of 
 the Saviour, meekly obedient to foreordained destiny, and 
 the tender John, overwhelmed by its sudden proximity, his 
 sympathetic, loving anguish and saintly features contrasting 
 with the avaricious, hypocritical countenance of the betrayer. 
 Judas sits next to John. A convulsive start has caused him 
 unconsciously to overturn the ill-omened salt. His mean 
 profile and sinister gaze are turned inquiringly upon his 
 Master, watching for further indications of discovery, while 
 his left hand involuntarily approaches the dish near to the
 
 5 1 4 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 right hand of Jesus, who is about to betray him by those 
 memorable words, in answer to the earnest inquiry of all the 
 others, ' It is one that dippeth with me in the dish.' 
 
 " The lineaments of that unparalleled head of Christ have 
 become as familiar to the world as if he still walked in our 
 midst. Judged by the strictest rules of composition, it is the 
 most successful effort of Christian art. It does not glow with 
 the supernal element of the pietists. But it is the result of 
 profound thought and acute observation ; nature and history, 
 prompted by imagination, supplying the models and motives." 
 
 The Assumption of the Virgin, by Titian, stands in the 
 Academy of the Fine Arts at Venice, in a room named, in 
 its honor, the "Hall of the Assumption." Morelli and later 
 critics unite in declaring that of all the glorious altar-pieces 
 which Christian art has furnished " the most magnificent is 
 ' The Assumption.' " 
 
 Mrs. Heaton tells us : " The magnificent picture of the 
 'Assumption of the Virgin,' now in the Academy at Venice, 
 was painted by Titian, in 1516, for an altar-piece in the 
 church of Santa Maria de Frari, and exhibits the full grand- 
 eur of his developed style. The brothers of Santa Maria, it 
 is said, were at first somewhat scandalized by the bold beauty 
 and life of their altar-piece, used as they had been to the 
 calm conventionalities of religious art ; but they decided to 
 keep their picture when they were offered a much larger sum 
 than they had given for it, by one of the ministers of Charles 
 V. The powerful figure of the Virgin is caught up, as it 
 were, into the sky, where an angel, directed by the Father, 
 waits to place the crown upon her head. Charming groups
 
 WORLD-PICTURES. 5 x 5 
 
 of youthful boy-angels surround her, while below the amazed 
 apostles, who watch her upward flight, exhibit the most 
 varied emotions and longings." 
 
 Liibke also remarks : " Surrounded by a charming group 
 of jubilant angels, the grand figure of the Madonna solemnly 
 rises upward. A wondrous ray of glory bursts from hei 
 divine countenance, which beams with the light of heaven, 
 for above her appears God the Father, with extended arms, 
 on a glory of angels; below, full of passionate longing, are 
 the apostles whom she has left behind on earth, and who 
 feel themselves impelled to follow the glorified one. All this 
 is portrayed freely and boldly in grand touches, and in 
 splendid coloring, and only the somewhat confused and too 
 stormy group of the apostles exhibits a trace of violent 
 delineation." 
 
 Mrs. Jameson adds : " The noble figure of the Virgin, in 
 a flood of golden light, is borne, or rather impelled, upward 
 with such rapidity that her veil and drapery are disturbed by 
 the motion. Her feet are uncovered, a circumstance inad- 
 missible in ancient art, and her drapery, instead of being 
 white, is of the usual blue and crimson, her appropriate 
 colors in life. Her attitude, with outspread arms her face, 
 not indeed a young or lovely face, but something far better, 
 sublime and powerful in the expression of rapture the 
 divinely beautiful and childish, yet devout, unearthly little 
 angels round her the grand apostles below and the splen- 
 dor of color over all render this picture an enchantment 
 at once to the senses and the imagination." 
 
 The Nativity, or Santa Notte, of Correggio, is one of the
 
 SI 6 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 gems of the Dresden Gallery. Its distinguishing beauty is 
 the illumination of the entire scene by the light streaming 
 from the celestial Child. Raphael Mengs, the German art- 
 critic, wrote of it in the last century : 
 
 " This work, done by Correggio for Alberto Pratonieri, 
 and finished in 1527, is one of those paintings which move 
 the heart of him who views them, whether he be intelligent or 
 ignorant. Its composition is simple, but hides the most sin- 
 gular art by showing, in a very small space, a field sufficiently 
 great, with a distance that appears truly as if one saw a mel- 
 ancholy and miserable place, but ornamented with an hori- 
 zon where the dawn of the day enlivens all the rest. In the 
 background are some shepherds, which one scarcely distin- 
 guishes, and among them and the Madonna is St. Joseph in 
 the act of leading the ass, whose figure enlarges the place, 
 showing the distance there is between that and the Virgin, 
 and of the other parts, even to the shepherds. It appears at 
 first sight that the situation of the Virgin might have been 
 better studied, because her head is inclined toward the Child 
 in a manner that one cannot see all the face ; but Correggio 
 inclined that head in order that the light which comes from 
 below should not produce a shade in the parts above, which 
 would have injured the beauty of the countenance. The 
 Child is also placed with particular care, because it is taken 
 obliquely, in a manner that one can scarcely perceive the 
 face, although one sees the hands and the feet ; and these, I 
 believe, were made by Correggio purposely to avoid express- 
 ing the natural form of children just born, which is not very 
 pleasing. So, too, he has almost hidden the face of the old 
 shepherd in the foreground, placing him before another who
 
 WORLD-PICTURES. 517 
 
 is more youthful and beautiful, and who, with a motion full of 
 joy, appears to speak of this success to the old man. A 
 shepherdess, who has two turtle-doves in a little basket, shows 
 that one never tires to see the young Jesus, and that she did 
 not know how to depart, and covered her face with her hand 
 to hide herself from his splendor. In the upper part of the 
 painting, opposite to the Madonna, is a band of angels, illu- 
 minated equal to the Child, where Correggio placed the sec- 
 ond light, but not so perfect as that of the Madonna, and 
 made the shade more soft, as if it were reflected or comprised 
 in a kind of mass of light, perhaps to make known that they 
 are spirits." 
 
 The more mpdern Viardot is no less enthusiastic over the 
 nocturnal radiance : 
 
 "We see here the manger in which the Holy Infant was 
 laid : it is night, and the scene is only rendered visible by a 
 supernatural light, which spreads from the body of the Child 
 lying on the straw. This light illumines the face of the Vir- 
 gin mother as she bends over her first-born, and dazzles a 
 shepherdess who has hastened in on hearing of the ' glad 
 tidings.' It extends to Joseph, who is seen leading the ass to 
 the back of the stable ; it also lights up the angels hovering 
 in the air, who ' seem rather,' as Vasari says, ' to have de- 
 scended from heaven than to have been created by the hand 
 of man.' " 
 
 The Aurora, one of the most purely-beautiful and best- 
 preserved frescoes in Italy, was executed by Guido Reni, on 
 the ceiling of the casino belonging to the Rospigliosi Palace, 
 Rome. It is very easy of access, and its inspection is facili-
 
 5 i8 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 tated by a mirror placed below it, which perfectly reflects 
 the whole picture, so that when we grow tired of straining our 
 gaze toward the ceiling we can behold it equally well in the 
 glass. In Charlotte Eaton's " Rome in the Nineteenth Gen-. 
 tury," we find it vividly described : 
 
 " On the roof of the summer-house of the Palace Rospi- 
 gliosi is painted the celebrated fresco of Guide's ' Aurora.' 
 Its coloring is clear, harmonious, airy, brilliant, unfaded by 
 time; and the enthusiastic admirer of Guido's genius may be 
 permitted to hope that this, his noblest work, will be immor- 
 tal as his fame. 
 
 " Morghen's fine engraving may give you some idea of 
 the design and composition of this beautiful painting; but 
 it cannot convey the soft harmony of the tints, the living 
 touches, the brilliant forms, the realized dream of the imagi- 
 nation that bursts upon you, with all its magic, in the match- 
 less original. It is embodied poetry. The Hours, that hand- 
 in-hand encircle the car of Phoebus, advance with rapid pace. 
 The paler, milder forms of those gentle sisters who rule over 
 declining day, and the glowing glance of those who bask in 
 the meridian blaze, resplendent in the hues of heaven, are of 
 no mortal grace and beauty ; but they are eclipsed by Aurora 
 herself, who sails on the golden clouds before them, shedding 
 showers of roses on the rejoicing earth. Above the heads of 
 the heavenly coursers hovers the morning star, in the form of 
 a youthful cherub, bearing his flaming torch. Nothing is 
 more admirable in this beautiful composition than the motion 
 given to the whole. The smooth and rapid step of the cir- 
 cling Hours as they tread on the fleecy clouds; the fiery steeds ; 
 the whirling wheels of the car; the torch of Lucifer, blown
 
 WORLD-PICTURES. 5 1 g 
 
 back by the velocity of his advance ; and the form of Aurora 
 borne through the ambient air till you almost fear she should 
 float from your sight all realize the illusion. You seem ad- 
 mitted into the world of fancy, and revel in its brightest crea- 
 tions. 
 
 " In the midst of such youth and loveliness, the dusky 
 figure of Phoebus appears to great disadvantage. It is not 
 happily conceived. Yet his air is noble and godlike, and his 
 free, commanding action and conscious ease, as he carelessly 
 guides with one hand the fiery steeds that are harnessed to 
 his flaming car, may perhaps compensate in some degree for 
 his want of beauty ; for he certainly is not handsome ; and I 
 looked in vain for the youthful majesty of the god of day, 
 and thought on the Apollo Belvedere. Had Guido thought 
 of it too, he never could have made this head, which is, I 
 think, the great and only defect of this exquisite painting ; 
 and what makes it of more importance is, that Apollo, not 
 Aurora, is the principal figure, the first that catches the eye, 
 and which, in spite of our dissatisfaction, we are to the last 
 obliged to contemplate. The defects of his Apollo are a new 
 proof of what I have very frequently observed, that Guido 
 succeeded far better in feminine than in masculine beauty." 
 
 The Night- Watch, by Rembrandt, in the Amsterdam Mu- 
 seum. " The scene is laid in front of a large public building, 
 whence twenty-three civic guardsmen and others are issuing, 
 forming a triangular group, whose base rests on the back- 
 ground, while its apex is in the extreme foreground, and con- 
 tains the commanders of the company. The line running to 
 the right is composed of pikemen, sergeant, fusileer, and drum- 
 34
 
 520 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 tner ; on the left are two young girls, a youth, and a few rough 
 arquebusiers ; and between these are other martial figures, 
 with the great standard of the peaceful city. The names and 
 ranks of the sixteen most prominent guardsmen are painted on 
 the picture, and the portrait character of their faces is fully 
 apparent. The two foremost officers are handsome men, and 
 richly clad the first in a black velvet costume with red scarf, 
 and the other in a suit of yellow satin. The soldiers are 
 pouring out pell-mell at the sound of the drum-taps, and the 
 grouping is full of lively gesture. Nothing could be more 
 picturesque than the mixture of costumes and weapons, and 
 the liberty of action among the members of this primitive 
 guard. They are of the homely heroes of the people who 
 saved Holland from the terrible Spanish infantry by their 
 valor. The coloring of the painting is amazingly blended 
 with rich golden tones and vapory chiaroscuro. 
 
 In allusion to this coloring, Charles Blanc remarks con- 
 cerning the figure of the young girl carrying the cock : " The 
 radiance cast on her gives her an appearance of being cov- 
 ered with satin, and garnished with the treasures of the East. 
 But she has no other jewels than her eyes, no other ingots of 
 gold than her ringlets, no other treasure than the splendor 
 of the light around her." 
 
 M The present title of the picture, The Night- Watch, was 
 given by Sir Joshua Reynolds ; while within a century the 
 French called it La Ronde de Nuit. The better name is 
 "The Company of Frans Banning Cock " a fact which be- 
 comes evident when it is seen that there is no 'watch' in 
 the picture, and that the scene is not night. The painting 
 remained in the armory of the company for about threescore
 
 WORLD-PICTURES. 53 1 
 
 years, and then for a century in the City Hall, whence it 
 was transferred to its present permanent resting-place in the 
 Museum of Amsterdam." 
 
 Buxton tells us : " In the Amsterdam Museum is the great- 
 est work of Rembrandt, The Night- Watch. We scarcely 
 understand why this name has been given to a picture repre- 
 senting a daylight scene. A more correct name is the Sortie 
 of the Company of Frans Banning Cock. They are a band of 
 the civic guard starting to patrol the streets of Amsterdam, 
 and possibly to shoot at a mark, the prize being a cock 
 which a gayly-dressed girl holds in her hand. The popular 
 name for this picture probably rose from its luminous and 
 transparent tints, the great effects of light and shade, which 
 seem produced by an artificial light rather than by the sun. 
 It is neither the light of the sun nor of the moon, nor does it 
 rome from torches ; it is rather the light from the genius of 
 Rembrandt. The faces of the guard represent the popular 
 heroes who delivered their country. This picture will pre- 
 serve the remembrance of Dutch liberty perhaps even be- 
 yond the existence of Holland." 
 
 Emile Michel, member of the Institute of France, closes 
 his review of Rembrandt's matchless works as follows : 
 
 " The Night- Watch, whose incident is unquestionably a 
 call to arms of the civic guard, holds a place apart in the 
 history of corporation pictures, alike by virtue of origi- 
 nality of treatment and beauty of execution. The master's 
 predecessors had been content with a convention abso- 
 lutely insignificant from a picturesque standpoint ; the natu- 
 ral method of arrangement seems never to have suggested 
 itself to them. It was reserved for Rembrandt, in a first essay
 
 522 
 
 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 in such genre, to realize the true conditions of this class 
 of pictures. As ten years before, in the Anatomy lesson, 
 and twenty years later, in the Syndics of the Cloth Hall, he 
 now distanced all his rivals on their own ground. Like 
 them, he had been content to express his meaning plainly, 
 without the help of allegory ; but he brushed aside all the 
 conventions in which they had been entangled. Basing his 
 work on the direct study of Nature, he brought the features 
 he considered essentially characteristic into strong relief. 
 His Anatomy Lesson was the glorification of Science itself : 
 in a group of five cloth merchants seated round a table, 
 discussing the affairs of their guild, he summed up, as it 
 were, in a few immortal types, the sincerity of Dutch por- 
 traiture ; in this Sortie of a Company of Musketeers he em- 
 bodied that civic heroism which had compassed Dutch 
 independence. These three works themselves invite us to 
 overstep the limits of actuality on which they are based; 
 they speak of the ideal ; they are not only landmarks in 
 a great career, but evidences of that superiority over his 
 predecessors which we claim for the master." 
 
 The Immaculate Conception of the Virgin is one of the finest 
 of the many pictures on this subject painted by Murillo. It 
 adorns the Salon Carre" of the Louvre, and represents the 
 Virgin Mary, pure, young, and lovely, standing in the clouds 
 and worshiped by little angels, who float in heavenly inno- 
 cence around. Mrs. Jameson says : 
 
 " It is evident that the idea is taken from the woman in 
 the Apocalypse, ' clothed with the sun, having the moon un- 
 der her feet, and on her head a crown of twelve stars.' The
 
 WORLD-PICTURES. 
 
 5 2 3 
 
 Virgin is portrayed in the first spring and bloom of youth ; 
 with grave, sweet eyes ; her hair golden brown ; her features 
 with all the beauty painting can express ; her hands folded 
 on her bosom, or joined in prayer. The sun is expressed by 
 a flood of light around her. Her robe is of spotless white ; 
 her mantle or scarf blue. Round her hover cherubim ; and 
 all is ethereal delicacy, benignity, refinement, repose the 
 very apotheosis of womanhood." 
 
 An early Spanish authority observes : 
 
 " Our Lady is painted in the flower of her age, with sweet 
 eyes, a nose and mouth of the most perfect form, and rosy 
 cheeks. The mantling sun is in bright golden light behind 
 the figure ; the pedestal moon is a crescent with upward- 
 pointing horns. Her celestial attendants are among the love- 
 liest cherubs that ever bloomed on canvas. Hovering in the 
 sunny air, reposing on clouds, or sporting among their silvery 
 folds, these ministering shapes give life and movement to the 
 picture, and relieve the Virgin's statue-like repose." 
 
 The Descent from the Cross, painted by Rubens, in the Ant- 
 werp Cathedral, is the chef-d'oeuvre of Flemish art. Rubens's 
 style can nowhere be seen to such advantage as in this won- 
 derful composition. Charles Blanc thus vividly describes it : 
 
 " The principal subject is composed of nine figures ; two 
 workmen, placed at the top of two ladders, are lowering the 
 body of our Saviour by means of a winding-sheet, which one 
 of them is holding in his teeth, and the other with his left 
 hand. Firmly supported by the arms of the cross, they are 
 leaning over, so that with their other hands they may steady 
 the body, which John, with his foot on the ladder, and his
 
 5 24 SCHOOLS AND MASTERS OF PAINTING. 
 
 back bent in, clasps as tightly as possible. One of the feet 
 of Christ rests on the fine shoulder of the Magdalene, and 
 brushes her golden hair. Joseph of Arimathca and Nicode- 
 mus, placed opposite each other on the middle of the ladders, 
 form, wich the two workmen in the upper part of the picture, 
 a square of robust but vulgar figures. The Virgin is standing 
 at the foot of the cross, and is stretching her arms toward her 
 Son, while Salome, crouched down, is raising her dress. On 
 the ground is seen a scroll, a copper vase, the crown of thorns, 
 and the nails used for the crucifixion. 
 
 " The populace, always delighted with the sight of an ex- 
 ecution, have just departed from Golgotha at the close of day 
 The sky, which is dull and dark solemn grief of Nature for 
 the sacrifice on Mount Calvary is traversed by a light which 
 falls on the shoulder of one of the workmen, whose bold atti- 
 tude reminds you of the ' Descent ' of Volterra." 
 
 The remarkable coloring of the picture is commented on 
 by Sir Joshua Reynolds : 
 
 " The greatest peculiarity of this composition is the con- 
 trivance of the white sheet on which the body of Jesus lies. 
 This circumstance was probably what induced Rubens to 
 adopt the treatment. He well knew what effect white linen, 
 opposed to flesh, must have with his powers of coloring ; a 
 circumstance which was not likely to enter into the mind of 
 an Italian painter, who would have been afraid of the linen's 
 hurting the coloring of the flesh, and have kept it down of a 
 low tint. And the truth is, that none but great colorists can 
 venture to paint pure white linen near flesh ; but such know 
 the advantage of it. His Christ I consider as one of the 
 finest figures that ever were invented; it is most correctly
 
 WORLD-PICTURES. 
 
 5 2 5 
 
 Irawn, and I apprehend in an attitude of the utmost diffi- 
 ulty to execute. The hanging of the head on his shoulder, 
 and the falling of the body on one side, give such an appear- 
 ance of the heaviness of death that nothing can exceed it. 
 
 " Of the three Maries, two of them have more beauty than 
 he generally bestowed on female figures, but no great ele- 
 gance of character. The St. Joseph of Arimathea is the same 
 countenance which he so often introduced into his works ; a 
 smooth, fat face a very unhistorical character. 
 
 " The principal light is formed by the body of Christ and 
 the white sheet ; there is no second light which bears any 
 proportion to the principal. In this respect it has more the 
 manner of Rembrandt's disposition of light than any other of 
 Rubens's works; however, there are many little detached 
 lights, distributed at some distance from the general mass, 
 such as the head and shoulders of the Magdalene, the heads 
 of the two other Maries, the head of St. Joseph, and the back 
 and arm of the figure leaning over the cross ; the whole sur- 
 rounded with a dark sky, except a little light in the horizon 
 and above the cross. 
 
 " The historical anecdote relating to this picture says that 
 it was given in exchange for a piece of ground on which Ru- 
 bens built his house ; and that the agreement was only for a 
 picture of the patron saint Christopher with the infant Christ 
 on his shoulders. Rubens, who wished to create surprise by 
 his generosity, sent five pictures instead of one ; a piece of 
 gallantry on the part of the painter which was undoubtedly 
 well received by the Arquebusers, since it was so much to 
 their advantage, however expensive to the maker of it."
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 THE GALLERIES OF FLORENCE. 
 
 FLORENCE is preeminently the city of painting. Go to Rome for 
 sculpture, to Milan for music, and to Florence for pictures. No gal- 
 lery on the Continent surpasses the famous Uffizi ; few boast of richer 
 treasures than the elegant apartments of the Pitti, and none can be 
 more curious than the quaint and venerable collection of the Acade- 
 mia delle Belle Arti. 
 
 This Academy of the Fine Arts though less interesting to the gen- 
 eral public than the larger galleries is invaluable as a record of the 
 first efforts of Florentine painters. Its rooms are spacious and pleas- 
 ant, but very still and lonely, and you feel yourself centuries back in 
 the dim past as you walk up and down amid the creations of Cimabue 
 and Giotto. At the entrance of Room II. are two " Madonnas " by 
 these masters, whose almond-shaped eyes, impassive faces, and heavy 
 draperies were once thought the ideal of majestic beauty. We can- 
 not understand their popularity till we contemplate an earlier Byzan- 
 tine " Magdalene," standing, like a hideous wooden doll, with ver- 
 milion-daubed cheeks, a gown of reddish-brown, and explanatory 
 scroll. A series of small pictures by Giotto, on the legend of St. 
 Francis, and another series, by the same artist, on the life of Christ, 
 hang on their left. Recent critics suppose them to have been exe- 
 cuted by his pupils rather than by himself, but they excite our atten- 
 tion from the fact that they represent in miniature, and often with 
 great force of expression, scenes which were afterward given in larger 
 proportions by later artists. Thus Giotto's small " Transfiguration " 
 is very like Raphael's, while he vividly depicts the most ancient types 
 of "The Resurrection" and "The Last Supper." "The Presenta- 
 tion in the Temple " is one of the finest of the set.
 
 528 APPENDIX. 
 
 The Botticelli Rooms contain Botticelli's famous " Spring " and 
 admirable " Coronation of the Virgin ; " also Lorenzo di Credi's " Na- 
 tivity " and " Adoration." A " Baptism of Christ " is shown, by Ver- 
 rocchio, the teacher of Leonardo da Vinci. One of the kneeling an- 
 gels is said to have been painted by the youthful genius, to the disgust 
 of his master, who, finding himself excelled by a boy, abandoned his 
 easel, and returned to sculpture. It might soothe the artist's feel- 
 ings to know that at our distance of time no traveler can tell which 
 is his angel and which is Leonardo's, till the guide-books are called 
 in to settle the question. 
 
 In Room III., adjacent, are a few of Perugino's earliest and most 
 pleasing works. Their landscape backgrounds are very primitive, as is 
 seen in the " Mount of Olives," but the (aces of the lamenting women 
 in his " Crucifixion " and " Pieta " are intensely sad and sweet. His 
 "Assumption of the Virgin," brought from the convent of Vallom- 
 brosa, is noted as one of his best efforts. Near these we must not 
 fail to notice Filippo Lippi's " Coronation of Mary " and Ghirlan- 
 dajo's " Madonna with Angels." A singular composition by Mari- 
 otto Albertinelli is entitled a "Trinity." Over the suspended Christ 
 hovers a dove, while, behind and above the cross, God the Father, in 
 a red robe, holds an open book, inscribed with the Alpha and Omega. 
 In Room II. a restored " Annunciation," by the same painter, shows 
 us the Virgin in pale-purple garment, and dark bluish-green mantle, 
 the angel kneeling beside her with a bunch of lilies, God the Father 
 and the Holy Ghost above, streaming down rays of light upon her head. 
 
 Fra Bartolomeo, the friend of Albertinelli, is represented by Ma- 
 donnas and saints, always beautiful and dignified ; but his master- 
 pieces must be sought in the Pitti Palace. We shall, however, be 
 interested in, yet disappointed by, his head of Savonarola. Carlo 
 Dolci has idealized the head of Fra Angelico in an adjoining room. 
 The Academy is the unfortunate possessor of another Carlo Dolci, 
 catalogued as " God the Father." This fully deserves the severe con- 
 demnation passed upon it by Hawthorne in his " Italian Note-book." 
 It is in the painter's worst manner, applied to the most inappropriate 
 subject. Masaccio has left us a Madonna : Pesellino and Fra Lippi 
 fine predellas. Raffaellino del Garbo has a fantastic " Resurrection," 
 where a sculptured sarcophagus stands in the midst of a green 
 meadow. The Saviour, soaring out of it with his red-cross banner, 
 has burst off the lid, which crushes one of the sleeping guards in its
 
 THE GALLERIES OF FLORENCE. 
 
 5 2 9 
 
 fall, and alarms the others, who fly in dismay from the spot. Many 
 of these pictures were completed before the practice of oil-painting 
 became general, and are often executed on wood instead of canvas, 
 but have wonderfully preserved their colors, which are occasionally 
 heightened by the addition of gold-leaf, as in Gentile da Fabriano's 
 arge and splendid " Adoration of the Magi," also remarkable for its 
 rich, antique frame. 
 
 Fra Angelico is chiefly to be studied in the cloisters and cells of 
 the monastery of San Marco, but several examples of his pure, ideal 
 style are here collected. The most interesting are a " Descent from 
 the Cross," a "Christ in Hades," and a "Last Judgment," de- 
 scribed in the chapter upon " Early Italian Painting." The beauty 
 of the angel groups on the right-hand side of the " The Last Judg- 
 ment " displays all the most attractive qualities of the artist monk. 
 Some of his small panel-pictures are likewise very pleasing, especially 
 a little " Coronation of the Virgin," containing only the two figures 
 of Christ and the Madonna, both in pale-purple drapery. The 
 groundwork is gold, shading off to dark blue, and studded with 
 seraph heads in a crimson circle. 
 
 The Academy also includes several rooms of casts, bass-reliefs, 
 designs, and drawings, together with an exhibition of pictures by 
 modern Italian artists ; and the Statue of David, by Michael Angelo. 
 
 The Gallery of the Uffizi, for which we must primarily thank the 
 Medici family, commemorates its origin by the busts of the Medici 
 that adorn its vestibule. This vestibule is reached by a long ascent 
 of stairs, which are the usual purgatory preceding Italy's pictorial 
 paradises. From the first vestibule opens a small chamber contain- 
 ing the stone originals of the famous Florentine " Boar " and " Wolf- 
 dogs," so extensively copied in bronze. Through this chamber we 
 are admitted into the east corridor of the gallery. 
 
 The gallery surrounds three sides of a rectangular court, and is 
 composed of two long and stately parallel corridors, united by a 
 shorter transverse corridor, from whose window we obtain an en- 
 chanting view of the Arno and blue encircling mountains. Many 
 rooms are added along the outer sides of the gallery, filled either 
 with paintings, statues, terra-cottas, drawings, vases, coins, gems, 
 or bronzes ; for the Uffizi is a musee, as well as a collection of pict- 
 ures, and all cultivated tastes may here find gratification. 
 
 Down the well-lighted marble corridor which we first enter the
 
 530 APPENDIX. 
 
 vista is grand and imposing. As far as the eye can reach we behold 
 a file of statues, placed at intervals below the pictures, and gradually 
 fading into perspective. Here and there copyists are seated at their 
 easels, and groups of visitors are passing to and fro. The paintings 
 are chronologically arranged, beginning at the nearer end with a few 
 of the earliest efforts of the Tuscan school, among which the most 
 noteworthy are Cimabue's " St. Cecilia; " a " Christ on the Mount of 
 Olives," ascribed to Giotto; an "Annunciation," by Simone and 
 Lippo Memmi, where the Virgin, on a Gothic throne, seems dread- 
 fully frightened by the angel Gabriel, who holds an olive-branch in- 
 stead of a lily ; and a " Tabernacle," or altar-piece, by Fra Angelico, 
 representing a Madonna and Child surrounded by the celebrated 
 angels with which we are so familiar. This fascinating picture seems 
 quite peripatetic on its easel, for the convenience of copyists who can- 
 not work fast enough to supply the demand for these angels ; but it 
 is now removed to the somewhat distant Sala di Lorenzo Monaco, 
 where we can also see a very charming "Adoration of the Child," 
 by Lorenzo di Credi ; an interesting " Predella," by Fra Angelico ; 
 a "Coronation of the Virgin," by Lorenzo Monaco himself; and a 
 " Madonna," by Botticelli, depicting the Virgin seated in state, and 
 attended by angels holding an ink-horn and an open book in which 
 Mary is writing the " Magnificat." An " Adoration of Magi " and 
 other Botticellis are in rooms of the Tuscan School. A " Birth of Ve- 
 nus," also by Botticelli, is one of the first classical paintings of the Re- 
 naissance ; while a " Betrothal of St. Catharine," by Benozzo Gozzoli, 
 and an " Assemblage of Saints," by Gentile da Fabriano, are good 
 examples of the comparatively rare works of these early painters. 
 
 Somewhat beyond the centre of the corridor a door opens into 
 the Tribune, where many of the most splendid works of art in the 
 world are gathered. This is the home of the "Venus de Medici," 
 and of four other antique statues " The Satyr," "The Wrestlers," 
 " The Grinder," and " The Young Apollo ; " but it is pictures, and 
 not statuary, of which we are now to speak. The apartment is oc- 
 tagonal, and lighted from above. It is only about twenty-five feet in 
 diameter, but its contents are of priceless value. To the left, as we 
 enter, hangs Raphael's " Madonna del Cardinello," framed under 
 glass. His portrait of Pope Julius is beside it, as is likewise a dark-eyed 
 portrait called " The Fornarina." But we do not now receive this 
 Fornarina as Raphael's work, for several authorities agree in assign-
 
 THE GALLERIES OF FLORENCE. 531 
 
 ing it to Sebastian del Piomho. Similar doubts have been expressed 
 as to the " Madonna at the Well," now ascribed to Franciabigio. 
 Another female portrait and a youthful " St. John " also bear, but 
 with no certain evidence, the name of the illustrious master. 
 
 Andrea del Sarto's " Madonna with SS. John and Francis " (re- 
 moved to the second Tuscan Saloon) is an admirable example of his 
 style. The Virgin, who is elevated on a pedestal ornamented with 
 harpies and supported by boy-angels, wears, as usual, the features 
 of his worthless wife ; but the face is lovely, the coloring pure and 
 tender, and the attitudes of all the figures very graceful. Guercino's 
 " Samian Sibyl," in red robe and brown mantle, sits leaning her head 
 upon her hand, less inspired but more profoundly pensive than her 
 Cumaean sister at Rome. Luini has an exquisitely-finished " Daugh- 
 ter of Herodias," with the head of St. John Baptist, long ascribed to 
 Leonardo. Two " Prophets," by Fra Bartolomeo, give no adequate 
 idea of his powers. A " Holy Family," by Michael Angelo the 
 only easel-piece of the great Florentine whose authenticity has not 
 been questioned depicts the Child in the arms of Joseph, with the 
 Virgin seated on the ground below them. It is rigid in outline, and 
 not attractive in expression or arrangement. Correggio's kneeling 
 " Madonna," under glass, gracefully and ecstatically adoring the In- 
 fant, who reposes on her veil before her, is very generally admired. 
 Titian's two figures of " Venus " seem sadly inappropriate com- 
 panions for Madonnas and holy families. One of them lies on a 
 red mantle, caressing Cupid ; the other, and finer form, reclines 
 upon a white sheet, under the shadow of pale-green curtains. The 
 portrait of Cardinal Beccadelli affords more agreeable proof of 
 Titian's genius. Mantegna's Triptych should be carefully regarded. 
 
 Only a few German masters have found admission to this art- 
 sanctum. An " Adoration of the Kings," by Albrecht Diirer, will be 
 seen near the right-hand door. The fair-faced Virgin, with flowing 
 flaxen hair, is very gentle and German in aspect. The Magi, one of 
 whom is a negro, are grouped before her. Rubens has a painting of 
 no great merit entitled " Venus and Minerva contending for a Youth." 
 Why Cranach's nude and awkward "Adam " and "Eve" should be 
 members of this select circle is a question difficult to answer. None, 
 however, will dispute the right of entrance to Vandyck's splendid 
 portrait of the noble cavalier "Jean de Montfort." Portraits by 
 Francia and Baroccio are also of interest.
 
 532 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Passing from the Tribune we reach the saloons of the Tuscan and 
 Lombard schools, where we notice an unfinished " Adoration of the 
 Magi," by Leonardo da Vinci, wholly brown in tint; also a weird 
 and wonderful "Medusa Head," formerly attributed to Leonardo, 
 but in reality a forgery. Luca Signorelli's Holy Family " and Ghir- 
 land;ijo's "Adoration of the Magi " well illustrate their respective 
 styles. Fra Bartolommeo has a " Nativity " and " Presentation," 
 and a very effective "Enthroned Madonna" with patron saints of 
 Florence. Sodoma's " St. Sebastian " is a chef-d'oeuvre. Botticelli's 
 "Calumny" is one of his best classic pieces. Contrast his "Ma- 
 donna with Angels " and Filippo Lippi's charming " Madonna with 
 Angels " with Mantegna's " Madonna of the Rocks." Ridolfo Ghir- 
 landajo's large compositions on the " Miracle and Death of St. Zeno- 
 bius " are curiously full of incidents. Albertinelli's " Salutation," or 
 " Meeting of Mary and Elizabeth," is particularly worthy of atten- 
 tion. The two women, in richly colored draperies, embrace each 
 other under a massive sculptured arch, with a background of blue 
 Italian sky. A sumptuous " Coronation of the Virgin," by Fra An- 
 gelico, painted on a gold ground, with fluttering bands of angels 
 blowing long, slender trumpets, is usually removed from its place 
 upon the wall, and stands on an easel for copying. 
 
 A saloon of the Dutch school has a few good examples of the 
 art of Holland. A cloudy " Landscape," by Ruysdael ; a " Pancake- 
 Woman " and " Schoolmaster," by Gerard Dow ; a " Family Feast," 
 by Jan Steen ; "Lady Drinking," by Terburg ; Schalken's "Seam- 
 stress Sewing ; " " Lute-Player," by Metsu ; and a " Portrait Piece" 
 and " Quack," by Miens, are its chief attractions. The Flemings and 
 Germans have a " Madonna," by Memling; another " Madonna," by 
 Vandyck; a "Venus," by Rubens; a "Portrait of his Father," by 
 Diirer; some " Teniers ; " Cranach's " Luther and Melanchthon ; " 
 two or three portraits by Holbein ; several sacred pictures of the old 
 Nuremberg school; and a most extraordinary German rendering of 
 the " Resurrection of Lazarus." where the lid has been raised from a 
 large stone sarcophagus, while Lazarus, who lay inside, is assisted 
 into a sitting posture. He has the face of a grinning death's-head, 
 and stretches out his hands toward his astonished sisters. One of the 
 figures standing near the sarcophngus turns away and holds his nose. 
 
 The cabinet of the French school contains battle-pieces, a por- 
 trait by Rigaud, and two of Poussin's paintings ; a portrait and auto-
 
 THE GALLERIES OF FLORENCE. 533 
 
 graph of Alfieri ; a portrait of Rousseau ; an equestrian figure of 
 Francis I., ascribed to Clouet ; and a few small works by Mignard, 
 Jouvenet, Horace Vernet, and others. A fine " Marine View," by 
 Claude Lorraine, now hanging among the Flemish and German pict- 
 ures, belongs properly to this chamber. 
 
 Very interesting saloons also open from the west side of the cor- 
 ridor, the most beautiful of which is the " Hall of Niobe." This 
 spacious and splendid room contains the famous statues of the 
 children of Niobe. The paintings are of secondary importance, con- 
 sisting principally of large historical pieces by Rubens and Suster- 
 mans ; a " Hunt," by Snyders ; and occasional portraits by Flemish 
 masters. The neighboring "Saloon of Baroccio " shows us some 
 of the best specimens of that artist, especially the " Madonna del 
 Popolo " and " Christ appearing to Mary Magdalene." We see, too, 
 Carlo Dolci's " Penitent Magdalene " and " Madonna of the Thumb." 
 His " Angel of the Annunciation " is often removed to an easel in the 
 Hall of Niobe for the convenience of copyists. A " Sibyl," by Guido 
 Reni, holding a scroll inscribed " Nascetur de Vtrgine," has the up- 
 turned eyes and closely-draped head so suggestive of Guide's ideal 
 of sentiment : much the same ideal as is expressed in Sassoferrato's 
 " Mater Dolorosa." Rubens gives us portraits of his first and of his 
 second wife, as well as a "Bacchanalian Scene." The portrait of 
 " Philip IV. of Spain " is attributed to Velasquez. Angelo Bronzino 
 has two portraits, and Sustermans a portrait of Galileo. Two fine 
 "Adorations of the Child Jesus," by Gerard Honthorst, are excel- 
 lent examples of that peculiar breadth of light and shadow which 
 gained for him his Italian title " Gherardo della Notte," Gerard of 
 the Night. 
 
 The most celebrated remaining paintings are collected in the 
 Venetian saloons, which shine with ruby and amber coloring. Here 
 Titian is displayed in 'a "Battle Sketch;" a half-draped "Flora," 
 holding flowers, whose features remind us of Violante, the fair 
 creation of Palma Vecchio ; a beautiful " Madonna and Child ; " and 
 some magnificent portra : ts. Gian Bellini has left us the lovely " Ma- 
 donna of the Lake ; " Bassano an interesting " Family Concert ; " 
 and Palma Vecchio a " Geometrician." Giorgione is illustrated by 
 a "Knight of Malta," "Child Moses," and "Solomon." Portraits 
 by Tintoretto, Moroni, and Paris Bordone are characterized by their 
 usual vigor and richness. L. Lotto has a "Holy Family," and Vcro-
 
 534 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 nese an "Esther and Ahasuerus." The "Knight of Malta," or 
 " Venetian Warrior Gattamelata," is probably not by Giorgione. 
 
 Among the most attractive apartments of the gallery may be 
 classed the two '' Saloons of the Painters," filled with portraits of 
 artists, often executed by themselves. This is not the case with 
 that of Leonardo da Vinci. Raphael's familiar and pensive counte- 
 nance has its place of honor, with his master, Perugino, above him, 
 and his pupil, Giulio Romano, below. Michael Angelo and Gian 
 Bellini look down from the wall. Titian, Tintoretto, and Paul Ve- 
 ronese, are speaking and vivid likenesses; while later Italian art is 
 represented by Andrea del Sarto, the Carracci, Guido, Domenichino, 
 Guercino, Carlo Dolce, and many others. Albrecht Dtirer, aged but 
 twenty-seven, stands with flowing hair, and tranquil, elevated expres- 
 sion. Rembrandt, Rubens, Vandyck, and Jordaens, are close to- 
 gether. Gerard Dow is a gentlemanly Dutchman, and resembles 
 his own pictures. Scarcely any Spaniards, except Ribera aud Velas- 
 quez, are included in the collection. The interest is enhanced by 
 some quite modern portraits, such as "Raphael Mengs," "Over- 
 beck," and " Sir Joshua Reynolds ; " and especially by the very 
 charming and fascinating figures of " Angelica Kaufmann " and 
 " Madame Lebrun," both beauties as well as artists. 
 
 Stepping through a side-door and descending a staircase, we pass 
 in little more than ten minutes to the corridor which connects the 
 Uffizi Gallery with the Pitti Palace, and which is in fact a long private 
 bridge, crossing the Arno, formerly used for the convenience of the 
 Medici family. It is still convenient for travelers, and was once lined 
 with valuable drawings from the old masters, numbering in all about 
 twenty-eight thousand. These are now exhibited in other apartments, 
 and changed from time to time by the custodians. It is very inter- 
 esting to find the original studies of Raphael's Madonnas, Fra Bar- 
 tolommeo's Evangelists, Domenichino's Martyrdoms, Andrea del 
 Sarto's Holy Families, and many other renowned works. Sketches 
 and engravings by Claude Lorraine, Albrecht Durer, and German 
 landscapists abound. Heavy pieces of tapestry from the old looms 
 of the Medici were until lately hung along this corridor. These have 
 generally been removed to the Gallery of Tapestries in the Palazzo 
 della Crocetta. The portraits of Florentine and English beauties, 
 and the views of Italian towns which we reach toward the end of the 
 bridge, indicate that we are near the doors of the Pitti Palace.
 
 THE GALLERIES OF FLORENCE. 535 
 
 The Pitti Gallery which we thus enter is not strictly intended as 
 an art-museum, but is the accumulated private collection of the Grand- 
 dukes of Tuscany eminently creditable to their royal tastes. The 
 palace itself was begun in the middle of the fifteenth century, by a 
 Florentine merchant, Luca Pitti, but was afterward sold to the wife 
 of the Grand-duke Cosmo de Medici, under whom it was completed. 
 It is one of the most imposing monumental structures of Europe, 
 built of immense blocks of stone, some of which are as long as five men, 
 
 Its picture-gallery has lately been in process of rearrangement. 
 But this is simply a redistribution of the same five hundred paint- 
 ings through the same fourteen superb saloons. These saloons are 
 adorned with tables and vases, and elegantly decorated with rich 
 ceiling frescoes by Pietro da Cortona and late Italian masters. Their 
 classical subjects are all intended to bear upon the history of the 
 Medici, of whom Taine enthusiastically remarks, " Poisoning and 
 assassination were hereditary in this family, but their tables of mala- 
 chite and mosaic are so beautiful ! " 
 
 The Saloon of the Iliad, so called from the mythological fres- 
 coes, contains some portraits by Titian ; a celebrated " Assumption," 
 by Andrea del Sarto, where the Virgin, arrayed in white, sits amid 
 angels on the clouds, her empty tomb and adoring apostles below 
 her ; a " Madonna with St. Catharine," by Fra Bartolommeo ; an un- 
 known female head, sometimes described as " La Gravida," by Ra- 
 phael ; Giorgione's strongly-painted " Concert of Three Musicians ; " 
 Perugino's "Adoration of the Child," probably repeated from the 
 triptych now in the London Gallery ; Parmagiano's graceful but 
 affected " Madonna," known as the " Madonna of the Long Neck; " 
 and Carlo Dolce's " Martha," " St. John," and " Moses." This room 
 is, however, inferior in interest to the 
 
 Saloon of Saturn, where we find Raphael's early " Madonna del 
 Baldacchino " (doubtful), which resembles the Virgins of Fra Barto- 
 lommeo ; his small but perfectly-finished "Vision of Ezekiel;" and 
 the portraits of " Cardinal Bibbiena " and the learned " Tommaso 
 Inghirami," both probably copies. Here also are his celebrated 
 " Madonna Seggiola," removed from the Saloon of Mars (see page 
 537) ; and his exceedingly beautiful " Madonna del Gran Duca," 
 also removed (see page 538). Fra Bartolommeo's " Risen Christ " 
 is a majestic example of his mature powers. Andrea del Sarto 
 has an " Annunciation " in the open air, before a mediaeval palace, 
 35
 
 536 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 and a renowned picture called a " Dispute or Discussion on the Trin 
 ity," in which "St. Augustine stands in MI attitude of great dignity, 
 expounding the doctrine of the Trinity : St. Francis is meditating, 
 and St. Peter the Dominican consults an open volume. St. Law- 
 rence, St. Sebastian, and St. Mary Magdalene, are listening around." 
 Sebastian del Piombo's powerful "Martyrdom of St. Agatha" por- 
 trays the suffering saint as fat, and not too fair ; Carlo Dolce's little 
 " Dieam of St. John " displays to us the child Baptist asleep upon a 
 cross, while the aged Elizabeth and Zacharias watch beside him. 
 Guido has a royal " Cleopatra," with an asp at her bosom ; Perugino 
 has a solemn "Entombment" (or Pieta) ; Bonifazio a "Finding of 
 Moses," once attributed to Giorgione. Another doubtful picture is 
 a " Nymph and Satyr," also ascribed to Giorgione. Giulio Romano 
 is represented by a gay and graceful " Dance of Apollo and the 
 Muses ; " Van Dyck by picture of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria. 
 
 In the Saloon of 'Jupiter Fra Bartolommeo's colossal " St. Mark " 
 is the largest picture ; but a " Bella," by Titian, superbly dressed 
 in dark blue, and presumably a portrait of the Duchess Eleanor of 
 Urbino, is the most important. Lorenzo Lotto, a Venetian artist, is 
 distinguished by an excellent and typical portrait group known as 
 the " Three Periods of Life," no longer considered a Lotto possibly 
 by Titian or Giorgione himself. Another disputed painting is the 
 celebrated "Parcae," or "Three Fates," ascribed by later critics to 
 followers or pupils of Michael Angelo. Three haggard and sorcer- 
 ess-like female figures pass the thread of life through their skinny 
 fingers : the first unwinds, the second holds, and the third cuts it. A 
 small work by Paul Veronese is more interesting from its subject 
 than from its technical treatment. It delineates the Saviour's last 
 parting from his mother on the night before the crucifixion ; the 
 scene a Venetian balcony, the light a declining sunset. On the 
 next wall hangs Andrea del Sarto's " Madonna with Four Saints," 
 his last Florentine easel-piece ; and a short distance from it we per- 
 ceive his own and his wife's portrait ; also Rubens's " Holy Family." 
 Salvator Rosa has left us a " Battle Landscape." and a " Conspiracy 
 of Catiline." Andrea del Sarto's style is further illustrated by a fine 
 " Annunciation." Garofalo renders a " Sibyl prophesying to Augus- 
 tus the Mystery of the Incarnation." Domenichino depicts a " Mary 
 Magdalene ; " while interesting portraits by Tintoretto, Moroni, and 
 Paris Bordone must not be overlooked.
 
 THE GALLERIES OF FLORENCE. 
 
 S3 1 ? 
 
 The Saloon of Mars is the honored abode of Raphael's " Seggi- 
 ola Madonna," or " Madonna of the Chair," of which every one has 
 seen a copy. The original round picture, carefully treasured undei 
 glass, has Raphael's dreamy eyes and sweetest maternal expression. 
 Tradition says it was first sketched on the top of a cask. Opposite 
 hangs the" Madonna dell' Impannata," so called from the linen cloth 
 which closes the window of its background. Two magnificent por- 
 traits, that of " A Young Man," by Titian, and of "Cardinal Benti- 
 viglio," by Vandyck, are among the gems of this apartment. Andrea 
 del Sarto's " Holy Family," very near the " Seggiola," rivals his mas- 
 terpiece in the Uffizi Tribune. Guide's " Rebecca at the Well " is 
 attractive and pastoral. Guer'cino's " St. Sebastian " is the most youth- 
 fully beautiful saint ever pierced with arrows, and well contrasts 
 with his noble and venerable " Head of Moses." Here, too, is the 
 celebrated Raphael's portrait of "Julius II.;" Luini's "Magdalene," 
 with the vase, is delicately finished in the style of Leonardo, and 
 richly dressed. Rubens's " Mars going forth to War, with Flames and 
 Destruction before Him," is entirely inferior in interest to his excel- 
 lent group known as the " Four Philosophers," but more correctly 
 catalogued as the portraits of himself, his brother, and the scholars 
 Lipsius and Grotius. Nor must we forget to notice Allori's chef- 
 d'oeuvre, an imperious and brilliant " Judith with the Head of Holo- 
 fernes," in which tradition tells us he has drawn the likeness of his 
 capricious mistress named Mazzafirra. The female in the rear, with 
 the bag, is the maiden's mother, while his own face furnished the 
 model for the severed head so disdainfully carried. 
 
 In the Saloon of Apollo we perceive another admirable picture by 
 Allori, entitled the " Hospitality of St. Julian," which, however, we 
 scarcely appreciate, on account of its proximity to more valuable 
 works. Three of Raphael's portraits are sufficient to distract our 
 attention. These immortalize his friends Angiolo and Maddalena 
 Doni, and his patron Pope Leo X., attended by Cardinals de Medici 
 and de Rossi. A copy of Raphael's " Madonna of the Lizard," by 
 Giulio Romano, is also interesting. Turning from it to Titian's 
 " Magdalene," we see a face of supreme beauty, yet bold and con- 
 scious in spite of tearful eyes and luxuriantly falling hair. It is to be 
 feared Titian drew but little moral distinction between his Magdalenes 
 and his Venuses. A " Madonna," by Murillo, is only a serious but 
 lovely Spanish mother with her child. A " Pieti." over the door, bj
 
 53 8 APPENDIX. 
 
 Fra Bartolommeo, istouchingly solemn and tender. It is hung oppo- 
 site an excellent " Descent from the Cross," by Andrea del Sarto, 
 but is superior in beauty. Perugino's " Magdalen " hangs near. Pal- 
 ma Vecchio's " Supper at Emmaus " will be found in this saloon, and 
 also such fine portraits as Titian's " Head of Aretino," and Paul Vero- 
 nese's (not authentic) " Venetian Lady," a well-preserved, ample, and 
 good-natured figure. " She is forty-eight years old, double-chinned, 
 lias the air of a court-dowager and the coiffure of a poodle-dog, and 
 wears a black velvet robe, cut low and square in the neck." 
 
 The adjacent Saloon of Venus has little of any special value ex- 
 cept a " St. Catharine, "ascribed to Titian ; (" La Bella " removed into 
 Saloon of Jupiter) ; the portrait known as " La Monica," once sup- 
 posed to be by Leonardo da Vinci ; a portrait of an " Old Man," by 
 Rembrandt; ' Adam" and " Eve," works by Albrecht Diirer ; land- 
 scapes by Rubens ; and sea-pieces by Salvator Rosa. 
 
 In the remaining saloons of the gallery, which are smaller and less 
 important, but most tastefully arranged, we need but briefly notice 
 a very few celebrated paintings. Raphael's " Madonna del Gran Du- 
 ca," in the Saloon of Education of Jupiter, is particularly charming. 
 She is standing, with the Child in her arms, in a red robe, over which 
 falls a long green veil. " A small diaphanous white veil covers the 
 fine blond hair up to the edge of the brow. Her eyes are lowered ; 
 the complexion of extreme purity, and a delicate tint like that of a 
 wild rose, tinges the cheek. Here we may admire Velasquez's 
 " Philip IV. of Spain," and Raphael's " Donna Velata," of probable 
 authenticity. In the Saloon of Prometheus are an excellent " Ma- 
 donna and Child," by Fra Filippo Lippi, a very representative early 
 Florentine work ; a " Holy Family " and " Death of Lucretia," by 
 Filippino Lippi ; and portrait by Lorenzo Costa, pupil of Francia. 
 Botticelli's lately discovered picture of Pallas is of peculiar interest 
 Pinturicchio's " Adoration of Magi " fascinates us, as does also 
 Ghirlandajo's similar painting in the same apartment. A genuine por- 
 trait of Oliver Cromwell, by Peter Lely, in the Saloon of Justice, seems 
 curiously out of place in a Florentine palace. Vandyck's " Repose 
 during the Flight into Egypt " is distinguished for its graceful and 
 sportive angels ; while a survey of some of Salvator Rosa's landscapes, 
 especially " The Forest of Philosophers," where Diogenes throws 
 away his rlrinking-cup as a superfluity, may fitly close our inspection 
 of the beauties and wonders of this collection of the Pitti.
 
 GALLERIES OF ROME. 
 
 GALLERIES OF ROME. 
 
 STRANGE to say, Rome, the Mistress of Art, is quite destitute of 
 Miy extensive picture-gallery. Its famous paintings, with but few 
 shining exceptions, fresco the walls and adorn the altars of its stately 
 palaces and churches, or are the private property of its nobles and 
 princes. Even the vast old palace of the Vatican, so immense in 
 fize that it is said to embrace several thousand rooms and over 
 two hundred staircases, though rich in antique statuary, fitly shrined 
 in splendid museums, devotes but four comparatively bare and cheer- 
 less apartments to its collection of scarcely more than forty pictures. * 
 The Stanze of Raphael, with their immortal frescoes, form, however, 
 magnificent entrance-chambers to these apartments whose contents 
 are so transcendent in quality though so meagre in quantity. 
 
 Priceless altar-pieces of the old masters, removed from the church 
 of St. Peter, where their places are supplied by mosaic copies, became 
 the nucleus of this present Vatican picture-gallery, whose foundation 
 dates only from the year 1822. After the restoration of the treasures 
 captured by the French, other altar-pieces and gifts to modern popes 
 were added. The world-renowned " Transfiguration " first centres 
 the traveler's attention, and becomes the goal of his art-pilgrimage. 
 This great work, previously described, was, as we know, the last 
 proof of Raphael's genius. Its principal features have long grown 
 dear to us through engravings, but no engraving can adequately ren- 
 der the heavenly expression of the upraised face of the Saviour, and 
 the visitor must avail himself of all possible means, step-ladders in- 
 cluded, to study it closely and in a good light. Only two other pict- 
 ures are thought worthy to share the small chamber which it occu- 
 pies " The Last Communion of St. Jerome," by Domenichino, and 
 Raphael's " Madonna of Foligno," now removed from wood to can- 
 vas, and slightly injured in the transfer. 
 
 In an adjacent room we perceive " The Coronation " and " As- 
 sumption of the Virgin," one executed by Raphael in his youth, the 
 other finished by his pupils. " Here we have the tomb below, filled 
 with flowers, and around it the apostles. St. Thomas, in the back- 
 ground, is holding the girdle. Above is the throne, set in heaven, 
 whereon the Virgin, mild and beautiful, sits beside her divine Son, 
 and, with joined hands and veiled head, bends to receive the golden 
 coronet he is about to place on her brow. Eight seraphim hover
 
 540 APPENDIX. 
 
 above her. On the right a most graceful angel strikes the tam- 
 bourine ; on the left, another sounds the viol ; and, amid a flood of 
 light, hosts of celestial and rejoicing spirits fill up the background." 
 The predella of this composition, with small, finely-wrought scenes 
 of the " Annunciation," the " Adoration of the Magi," and the 
 " Presentation in the Temple," will be found not far off. Another 
 predella, originally painted \\\grisaille\yj Raphael for " The Entomb- 
 ment," now in the Borghese, delineates "Faith, Hope, and Char- 
 ity," but suffers by separation from the altar-piece to which it belongs. 
 Perugino, Raphael's master, is favorably represented by a " Resur- 
 rection," where one of the slumbering guards is said to be the por- 
 trait of his illustrious pupil, and also by a " Group of Saints " and 
 an excellent " Enthroned Madonna attended by the Patron Saints of 
 Perugia." Among the works of other ancient and eminent artists, we 
 may observe Fra Angelico's " Scenes from the Life of St. Nicholas 
 of Bari ; " Bellini's supposed " Pieta ; " a " Madonna with St. Je- 
 rome," by Francia ; the " Crucifixion of Christ," and " Coronation 
 of the Virgin," by Niccolo Alunno, very brown and venerable in 
 appearance, with angels holding their chalices to catch the sacred 
 blood ; a predella, falsely ascribed to Benozzo Gozzoli, of the " Mira- 
 cles of St. Hyacinth," the Dominican saint who walked over Russian 
 rivers as over dry land, with the holy pyx and image of the Virgin ; a 
 sketch of " St. Jerome," by Leonardo da Vinci ; and a " Dead Christ," 
 by Carlo Crivelli. 
 
 A "Christ in Glory," once supposed to be by Correggio, but evi- 
 dently not genuine, is a half-nude figure, with outspread arms, seated 
 between angels, on a rainbow. Titian's " Virgin," enthroned upon 
 the clouds of heaven, usually known as "St. Sebastian," from the 
 arrow-pierced saint who stands below among her votaries, is a su- 
 perb example of strong yet harmonious coloring. His portrait of 
 a Doge of Venice is sometimes ascribed to either Bellini or Tinto- 
 retto. The Venetian school is evidently unappreciated at the Vati- 
 can, though a "Vision of St. Helena," by Paul Veronese, a "Ma- 
 donna with Saints," by Bonifazio, and Moretto's "Madonna with 
 Saints Jerome and Bartholomew," may be added to the paintings 
 by Titian. 
 
 Among the remains of the Bolognese school are a pale but ten- 
 der " Magdalene," a " St. Margaret," and an " Incredulity of St. 
 Thomas," by Guercino, and Guido's "Crucifixion of St. Peter."
 
 GALLERIES OF ROME. 
 
 541 
 
 This composition of only three figures, the apostle and two execu- 
 tioners, painted after the manner of Caravaggio, was much admired 
 in its day, and procured its author the commission for the fresco of 
 " Aurora " in Palazzo Rospigliosi. Caravaggio's own masterpiece-, 
 a powerful but coarse "Entombment," with brigand-like heads, and 
 weird wild Virgin, likewise finds its place in this gallery. A " Vision 
 of St. Roir.ualdo and his Disciples," by Andrea Sacchi, master cf 
 v^irlo Maratta, is devotional and noble in expression, with well-ai- 
 ranged masses of white drapery. Sacchi has also a " Mass of St. 
 Gregory." Melozzo da Forli's fresco of " Pope Sixtus IV.," trans- 
 ferred from the library of the Vatican, is interesting from its portrait 
 figures ; and a " Madonna and Child," by Sassoferrato the moon 
 beneath their feet, the Child wearing what seems to be a red-coral 
 necklace is very sweet and graceful in look and gesture. A " St. 
 Michelina in Ecstasy " is considered by critics the finest work of 
 Baroccio, the leading artist of the Roman decadence, of whose abili- 
 ties we may also judge in an "Annunciation" which has been 
 copied in mosaic. 
 
 France and Spain are represented by the largest works of Valen- 
 tin and Poussin ; " Martyrdoms," which are copied in mosaic for one 
 of the altars of St. Peter's ; and by three paintings of Murillo, known 
 as the " Adoration of the Shepherds," " Marriage of St. Catharine," 
 and " Return of the Prodigal." These were presented to Pope Pius 
 IX. by Queen Isabella of Spain, and are the latest contributions to 
 the pictures of the Vatican. 
 
 The Gallery of the Capitol, so renowned for its busts of the Ro- 
 man emperors, " Dying Gladiator," " Antinous," and other wonderful 
 statues, is very deficient in great paintings. It outnumbers, indeed, 
 the collection of the Vatican, but is infinitely less precious in value. 
 We cannot here seek any masterpieces of the earlier centuries, un- 
 less we count as such a few enthroned Virgins or Madonnas with 
 the Child, ascribed, often without satisfactory evidence, to Peru- 
 gino, Pinturrichio, Botticelli, or Fra Bartolommeo. A " St. Nicholas 
 of Bari," "Holy Family," and two portraits are also attributed to 
 Gian and Gentile Bellini, or their school. 
 
 The chef-d'ceuvre of the gallery is the " Resurrection of St. Pe- 
 tronilla," by Guercino, of Bologna. This is a large and excellent 
 work, varied and grand in detail, and rich though sombre in color- 
 ing. It is divided into two parts. First, we have the earth beneath,
 
 542 APPENDIX. 
 
 where several grave-diggers are exhuming the body of Petronilla, 
 daughter of St. Peter, who has been buried alive by her persecutors. 
 The process is watched by spectators, among whom is her youth- 
 ful lover in cap and plume, and gay and fashionable raiment. Above 
 is the open heaven, where Christ is seated on the clouds, among min- 
 istering angels, in the act of welcoming the ascending saint, to whom 
 a cherub brings a crown. A " Cleopatra before Augustus," a " St. 
 John Baptist," and the beautiful " Persian Sibyl," further display 
 the genius of Guercino, the "Magician of Painting." A " St. Sebas- 
 tian," a " Redeemed Spirit," a " Magdalene," and a portrait of him- 
 self, by Guido Reni, are pleasing but less powerful. " The Cumaean 
 Sibyl," by Domenichino, is a repetition of the fine original in the 
 Borghese Palace, weakened by a second rendering. 
 
 As a repetition, however, nothing could be more agreeable than 
 Paul Veronese's charming " Rape of Europa," whose proper home 
 is in the Ducal Palace, Venice. Europa is magnificently dressed, 
 and of very full proportions ; the white bull proudly bears his bur- 
 den, and the gayety and luxuriance of the whole surrounding scene 
 leave a most cheerful impression upon the mind of the beholder. 
 Palma Vecchio can be studied in a well-rendered " Christ and the 
 Adulteress." To Titian is attributed the " Baptism of Christ," where 
 his own portrait is introduced among the spectators. Tintoretto has 
 also been supposed to have rendered a " Magdalene," which con- 
 trasts with the more sentimental Magdalenes of Guido, Albani, 
 and Carracci. An " Ascension " and " Virgin with Angels," by 
 Veronese, and a "Christ in the House of Simon," by Bassano, are 
 in the first and third apartments ; but these are of doubtful authen- 
 ticity. 
 
 Garofalo, the artist of Ferrara, rightly named Benvenuto Tisio, 
 has several excellent works, soft in finish and of delicate beauty. 
 A "St. Catharine," from his brush, was once attributed to Cor- 
 reggio ; his " Holy Family," " Annunciation," and " St. Lucy " are 
 all deserving of praise. In his " Virgin in Glory " he has some- 
 what varied the conventional treatment by introducing an extended 
 landscape, in which two Franciscan friars are walking. The " For- 
 narina," copied by Giulio Romano; a " St. Cecilia," by Romanelli ; 
 " Madonnas " by Di Credi and Dossi ; a " Holy Family," by Annibale 
 Carracci ; " St. Sebastian," by L. Carracci ; and " Fortune-Teller," by 
 Caravaggio, should likewise be noticed. A portrait of Michael An-
 
 GALLERIES OF ROME. ^ 
 
 gelo, probably taken from life by one of his pupils, brings him before 
 us older and more severe in expression than in the head at Florence. 
 Several compositions by Pietro da Cortona, a mediocre but at one 
 time popular Florentine artist, may end the catalogue of the more 
 celebrated paintings of the Italian schools. 
 
 Very little foreign element will be found either to admire or criti- 
 cise. An " Orpheus " and " Flora " are works of Poussin. A sunny 
 landscape is catalogued as a Claude Lorraine. An unknown portrait 
 is ascribed to Velasquez ; and a few others, more attractive in their 
 traits, are from the brush of Vandyck. A "Romulus and Remus," 
 by Rubens, was doubtless chosen from the appropriateness of the 
 subject. Its best point is the wolf, which may be considered a 
 fitting companion for the ancient wolf of bronze preserved tn the 
 Capitol. 
 
 Private Galleries. Among the noble private collections of Rome, 
 to which the public are readily admitted, may be particularly mentioned 
 the galleries of the Borghese, Corsini, Doria, Sciarra, Barberini. and 
 Colonna Palaces. The catalogues belonging to these palaces cannot 
 always be relied upon, as they generally ignore all doubts of the 
 authenticity of their favorite pictures. But the genuineness of the 
 most important works has been settled by searching criticism. The 
 stranger will be well repaid by a visit to all these edifices. He will 
 find in the Barberini the Fornarina portrait and the supposed 
 " Beatrice Cenci ; " and in the Doria some exquisite landscapes by 
 Claude Lorraine ; the portrait of Andrea Doria, by Sebastian del Pi- 
 ombo ; Pope Innocent X., by Velasquez ; the (doubtful) " Navigero " 
 and " Beazzano," by Raphael ; " Daughter of Herodias," by Titian ; 
 some Madonnas, by Rondinelli ; a " Holy Family," byGarofalo; the 
 same subject, by Lorenzo Costa ; and fine portraits, in Venetian style, 
 by Lorenzo Lotto. In the Colonna palace is Veronese's " Green 
 Man," also the portrait of Vittoria Colonna. The Sciarra Palace has 
 Palma Vecchio's "Bella Donna," Luini's "Vanity and Modesty," a 
 fine " Magdalene," by Guido, and Caravaggio's " Gamblers." Guide's 
 lovely " Aurora " is frescoed on the ceiling of the garden-house 
 belonging to Palace Rospigliosi ; but the most complete assemblage 
 of private pictures in Rome is in the Borghese Gallery (removed to 
 Villa Borghese), containing a collection of several hundred paintings. 
 The most celebrated of these are " The Entombment," by Raphael ; a 
 " Danae," by Correggio ; and " Sacred and Profane Love," by Titian.
 
 544 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 " The Entombment," one of Raphael's most youthful altar-pieces, 
 was executed on wood for the Franciscan church of Perugia. It 15 
 large but not immense in size, and crowded with figures. " On the 
 left, the body of the Saviour is borne to the grave by two men, with 
 great energy of action. Next to the body are Mary Magdalene, Peter, 
 and John, variously expressing the deepest sympathy. On the right, 
 supported by women, the Madonna sinks down fainting." 
 
 Correggio's "Danae" is a slender female form, reclining on a 
 rich couch. " Love, a beautiful youth, sits beside her, and catches ihe 
 golden rain-drops in her drapery. Two amorini in front are em- 
 ployed, with graceful naivete, in sharpening an arrow." These little 
 Cupids are great favorites with copyists, and are often engraved and 
 painted quite separate from the remainder of the picture. 
 
 Titian's "Sacred and Profane Love" has all the glow of Vene- 
 tian coloring, as well as much beauty of attitude and expression. 
 But there seems no particular reason for such an allegorical title, 
 neither is it easy to determine which character is meant to be divine 
 and which earthly. " A fine landscape is bounded on the right by a 
 village and lake, and on the left by a mountain-castle. In the fore- 
 ground is a fountain, near which two female figures are seated, one 
 richly dressed and holding flowers in her gloved hand ; the other, 
 with only a red scarf over her shoulder, with a cup or small drink- 
 ing-vessel in her left hand. Between the two a young Cupid ap- 
 pears to be reaching after some flowers which have dropped into the 
 fountain." 
 
 When our examination of these masterpieces is ended, and we 
 come to study the rooms in detail, we discover that they are arranged 
 in reference to the different schools, beginning with the productions 
 of the pupils and followers of Leonardo da Vinci. These are deli- 
 cately finished, with the smoothness, suppleness, and softness of 
 outline so characteristic of the Lombard school. A " Christ bearing 
 the Cross," by Solario, and "Christ in Blessing," by Marco d'Og- 
 gione, are fine. So are especially the pure and tender " Madonna 
 with the Flower-Glass," by Lorenzo di Credi, and an adjoining " Holy 
 Family." A stiff but sweet little portrait was long catalogued as 
 " Raphael as a Child, by his Fellow-Townsman. Timoteo della Vite 
 of Urbino." Do not overlook Sodoma's " Holy Family " and " Pieta." 
 Pollajuolo's " Nativity " is with early Florentine pictures. 
 
 In the fourth room are a few copies from Raphael, especially
 
 GALLERIES OF ROME. 
 
 545 
 
 "Pope Julius II.," "The Fornarina." "John Baptist in the Desert," 
 and " Madonna di Casa d'Alba." " The Entombment " is placed in 
 this apartment, and may thus be conveniently viewed. Not far from 
 it we see a clever portrait, once catalogued as " Caesar Borgia," by 
 Raphael. Hillard speaks of it as the face of a "handsome, smil- 
 ing, seductive, and unscrupulous man," and Viardot calls it "a 
 young Nero ; " but later disclosures reveal the fact that it is not the 
 likeness of Caesar Borgia, nor was it ever painted by Raphael. Garo- 
 falo is here shown to excellent advantage in the " Dead Christ," his 
 masterpiece. Several other good though small examples by him 
 are in the Ferrara Room. 
 
 Quite a number of pictures attributed to Andrea del Sarto, in the 
 third apartment, please us by their richness of color and grace of 
 attitude, but Crowe and Cavalcaselle assert that they are the work 
 of his pupils, and that he only furnished the designs. " The Scourg- 
 ing of Christ," by Sebastian del Piombo (Room X), is a small copy 
 of his great fresco in the church of San Pietro Montorio. Perino del 
 Vaga renders the portrait of a cardinal. In Room VII Dosso 
 Dossi's " Circe " sits, sumptuously draped, in a woody landscape. 
 " At her feet are a magic circle, a coat of mail, a dog, and two birds. 
 Near her are several little hags bound to a tree ; at a distance are 
 three knights bivouacking on the grass." Carlo Dolce's " Madonna 
 and Child " has the mannered but sweet expression for which he is 
 renowned, while a painting of "The Risen Christ," by Alessandro 
 Allori, a late and inferior artist, was once strangely mistaken for the 
 work of Michael Angelo. 
 
 We shall also meet noteworthy productions of the earlier and 
 more recent Bolognese school, particularly Francia's small but Ad- 
 mirable " St. Stephen Kneeling," Annibale Carracci's " St. Francis," 
 and a few dark and wild efforts of the Naturalist!, as Caravaggio's 
 " Holy Family," and Ribera's " Neptune " and " St. Jerome." Among 
 the most distinguished of the Bolognese pictures are Domenichino's 
 " Cumaean Sibyl," a grand, red-draped figure, with parted lips ex- 
 pressive of rapt inspiration ; and Domenichino's " Diana and her 
 Nymphs," a larger mythological composition, where the goddess 
 stands, with bow and arrow, in the centre of the landscape, watch- 
 ing her attendant maids, who are bathing, shooting, or sporting. 
 Albani has a series of classical landscapes known as " The Four Sea 
 sons ; " his pupil, Francisco Mola. has left a " Liberation of St. Peter.'
 
 546 APPENDIX. 
 
 Guercino's " Mater Dolorosa " and " Return of the Prodigal " are 
 pleasingly and expressively rendered. Several old fresco-pieces have 
 been brought from Raphael's villa. Near them is a group of archers 
 (" The Shooting Gods "), from a design by Michael Angelo. 
 
 Venetian artists give examples or copies of their works, among 
 which are Titian's "Sacred and Profane Love," and "Equipment 
 of Cupid," sometimes styled " The Three Graces." " Venus is bind- 
 ing Cupid's eyes, while another amorino is leaning over her shoulder, 
 and two Graces bring the bow and quiver." A " St. Dominic " and 
 " Samson " are also marked as Titians, and a " Return of the Prodi- 
 gal Son," by Bonifazio, was long believed to be from the brush of 
 the same great master. A " Judith," by some unknown painter, 
 is supposed to be the likeness of Titian's early-lost wife. Some ad- 
 mirable portraits by Dosso Dossi, Moroni, and Lorenzo Lotto repre- 
 sent that department of Venetian excellence. Pordenone's " Family 
 Group " is peculiarly interesting. A " Madonna " executed in the 
 manner of Gian Bellini, and a " Madonna " by Palma Vecchio, 
 with very beautiful and dignified saints, should also be examined ; 
 but it is hardly probable that Paul Veronese ever immortalized 
 " St. Anthony's Sermon to the Fishes," for which he is here made 
 responsible. 
 
 The last apartment contains principally German, Dutch, and 
 Flemish paintings, none of which are of extraordinary worth, except 
 Vanclyck's " Entombment," and the " Crucifixion," in which we per- 
 ceive a serpent twines round the base of the cross. A " Lot and his 
 Daughters," by Honthorst ; portrait by Diirer; " Sea- scene " by 
 Backhuysen ; a genre scene, by Teniers ; and other pieces doubtfully 
 ascribed to Holbein, Potter, Cranach, or obscurer artists, are suffi- 
 cient to convince us that few rays of Northern genius have penetrated 
 south of the Alps. 
 
 Still another large gallery may be visited in the Corsini Palace, 
 whose spacious apartments display a host of pictures tastefully chosen 
 and arranged. None are so valuable as the gems of the Borghese, 
 but many are interesting and above mediocrity. They are not hung 
 in any particular order, but exhibit a mixture of all the schools. A 
 thoughtful but earthly " Madonna and Child," by Murillo ; a " Daugh- 
 ter of Herodias," by Guido Reni ; and a Madonna bending above the 
 sleeping Child, by Carlo Dolce, are among the most celebrated. The 
 latter work is an extremely pleasing and popular composition, and
 
 GALLERIES OF ROME. 547 
 
 stands upon an easel, framed under glass ; as does also a beautiful 
 little "Nativity," by Battoni. An "Ecce Homo," by Cailo Dolce, 
 is far less agreeable, and is inferior to those by Guido and Guercino 
 which hang near it. 
 
 Other Italian pictures deserving special attention may be briefly 
 enumerated as follows: A large "PietV of powerful pathos, by 
 Lodovico Carracci; portrait of "Philip II. of Spain," after Titian; a 
 good copy of Raphael's " Pope Julius II.," and a repetition of 
 the " Fornarina ; " " Christ and Mary Magdalene," by Federigo Ba- 
 roccio ; an "Annunciation," by Carlo Maratta ; a "Holy Family," 
 by Giorgio Vasari, author of " Lives of the Painters ; " a " Holy 
 Family," taken from a drawing of Michael Angelo, by his pupil 
 Venusti ; a portrait of Cardinal Farnese, ascribed to Titian ; three 
 small panels of the " Last Judgment," " Ascension," and " Descent 
 of the Holy Ghost," by Fra Angelico ; a " Contemplation," by Guido 
 Reni; a "St. Jerome," by Guercino, and another by Ribera; a 
 " St. Agnes," and " St. Apollonia," by Carlo Dolce ; a " Jesus in the 
 Temple," by Luca Giordano ; and a " Prometheus " and two " Bat- 
 tle-Scenes," by Salvator Rosa. 
 
 The Dutch and Germans are poorly represented in the Corsini, as 
 in most Italian palaces. It owns, however, a fine sunset land- 
 scape, by Jan Both ; an " Interior," by Teniers ; portrait, after Hol- 
 bein ; " Aged Female Head," after Rembrandt ; a portrait, by Rubens ; 
 other portraits, by Vandyck; and the likeness of a cardinal, once 
 supposed to be from the hand of Albrecht Diirer. 
 
 Landscapes by Nicolas Poussin and Caspar Dughet will also be 
 found in the gallery ; but the works of the latter artist are best appre- 
 ciated in the Doria Palace. The eleven small military scenes attrib- 
 uted to the French Callot are not considered genuine, but are, nev- 
 ertheless, interesting and minutely finished. 
 
 The churches of Rome are full of magnificent frescoes and altar- 
 pieces, descriptions of which may be read in ordinary guide-books. 
 Those which the traveler should by no means fail to see are the 
 ancient mosaics of the great basilicas ; the early Christian frescoes 
 in the old church of San Clemente ; Giotto's fresco of " Pope Boni- 
 face VIII. proclaiming the Jubilee" (remarkable only for its age), in 
 San Giovanni in Laterano ; the mosaic " Navicella " of St. Peter's ; 
 Michael Angelo's "Last Judgment," in the Sistine Chapel; Ra- 
 phael's " Sibyls " in Santa Maria della Pace, together with his
 
 548 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 " Prophet Isaiah," in San Agostino; Sebastian del Piombo's " Scourg- 
 ing of Christ," in San Pietro in Montorio ; and Guido's and Domeni- 
 chino's rival frescoes in the chapel of St. Andrew attached to the old 
 church of San Gregorio. Add to these the frescoed cupola of San 
 Andrea clella Valle ; the altar-piece of the " Archangel Michael," by 
 Guido, in the church of the Capuchins ; Guido's " Crucifixion," in 
 San Lorenzo in Lucina ; Volterra's " Descent from the Cross," in 
 Santa Trinita de Monti ; and Domenichino's " Martyrdom of St. Se- 
 bastian," in Santa Maria degli Angeli. 
 
 St. Peter's Church contains scarcely any paintings, properly so 
 called ; but is richly adorned with colossal mosaic copies of such 
 famous pictures as Raphael's " Transfiguration," Domenichino's 
 " Last Communion of St. Jerome," Guido's " Archangel Michael," 
 Guercino's " Burial of St. Petronilla," and many others so won- 
 derfully executed that they accord far better with the vast propor- 
 tions of the edifice than could any perishable creations of the artist's 
 brush. 
 
 THE GALLERY OF VENICE. 
 
 THE Gallery of Venice is a feast of color, and a dream of artistic 
 beauty. You glide to it in a gondola, with the Grand Canal before 
 you, and the decaying architecture of the Renaissance round : you 
 enter its cloister, ascend its somewhat dingy staircase and corridors, 
 and at last emerge into the long succession of spacious rooms whose 
 grave quiet is in strange contrast with the glowing paintings on the 
 walls, and the vivid figures, with their sumptuous draperies and warm 
 flesh-tints, who gaze upon you from the canvas. Here is the home of 
 Titian, and the luxury which Veronese delighted to honor. Here is 
 magnificence fit for a doge's eye, and splendor enough to soften a 
 critic's heart. 
 
 Not that one sees all this in the visible building, for it is no palace, 
 but an ancient " Scuola delta Carita" yet there is not a gallery in 
 Europe where the pictures are so perfectly in accordance with the 
 whole charm and atmosphere of the place. Venetian artists painted 
 Venice and Venetian life, and you behold the brilliant history spread 
 before you. Venerable doges sit upon their pictured thrones, or are 
 presented by St. Mark to benign virgins ; St. Mark, the patron of 
 the republic, pervades every corner with his presence; gay revelers
 
 THE GALLERY OF VENICE. 549 
 
 look down from their banquets in fadeless loveliness ; saints are calm 
 and dignified, but not austere ; Madonnas are ever tender, and angels 
 ever fair. 
 
 As Titian is the chief personality of Venice, so we seek first 
 his large and graphic "Presentation of the Virgin," painted ex- 
 pressly for the Brotherhood della Carita, and now set in the 
 room opening by a door out of Loggia Palladiana. We gaze and 
 behold a temple, far from Judean in architecture, at whose en- 
 trance the expectant high-priest, a grand, majestic figure, awaits 
 the child- Virgin who ascends the steps, all robed in blue, with 
 ner flaxen hair braided quaintly down her back. The throng of 
 monks and maidens who come behind is quite Italian you might see 
 them any day in the streets of Venice ; the landscape of the back- 
 ground is not less Italian ; while the old woman selling eggs beside 
 the temple-steps has been even said to be the portrait of Titian's 
 mother. Mrs. Jameson observes that the number of portrait-heads 
 greatly adds to the interest. " Titian himself is looking up, and near 
 him stands his friend Andrea di Franceschi, Grand-Chancellor of 
 Venice, dressed as a cavalier of San Marco. In the fine bearded 
 head of the priest who stands behind the high-priest we may recog- 
 nize, I think, Cardinal Bembo." Hawthorne, in his Italian tour, 
 speaks enthusiastically of this picture, and of the pleasure with which 
 he viewed it. 
 
 The " Saints and Virgins " of Pordenone, Titian's rival, which 
 admirably represents this artist, are " Madonna of Carmel " and " Four 
 Stately Saints standing with the Lamb." Paris Bordone's master- 
 piece of the " Fisherman bringing to the Doge the Ring received from 
 St. Mark," is very national in sentiment and dramatic in action. It 
 commemorates a legend which tells us how a great tempest rose, in 
 the fourteenth century, through the malice of angry demons, which 
 was only stilled by the patron saints, Mark, and George, and Nicho- 
 las, who commanded a terrified fisherman to row them across the 
 raging waters that they might instantly calm the storm. When they 
 left his little boat they gave him no reward, but sent him to relate the 
 miracle and to demand payment from the doge. Should the doge 
 and council refuse to listen, he was to show them a sacred ring, usu- 
 ally guarded in a sanctuary, but now intrusted to him by St. Mark in 
 token that he spoke the truth. Bordone has chosen the momem 
 whrn the fisherman kneels in the marble hall of state to present the
 
 55 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 doge with the holy ring. Carpaccio's " Presentation of the Infant 
 Christ to Simeon " is perfectly Venetian in manner, with sumptuous 
 architectural background, and a high-priest so stately, mild, and dig- 
 nified, that you cannot but feel how favorable the air and spirit of 
 Venice must have been to ripe and honored old age. Bonifazio, an 
 artist who here appears at his best, has some fine paintings, espe- 
 cially the very characteristic " Banquet of Dives," who is enjoying a 
 luxurious revel, in magnificence of coloring ; " The Judgment of 
 Solomon ; " and " Massacre of the Innocents." Looking down the 
 vista of the gallery, you are startled by a picture at the end of the 
 next hall, so well placed and so astonishing in perspective that it 
 seems to open before you the splendor of a real palace and a real 
 feast, with its life-like guests and servants, its sunny, transparent at- 
 mosphere, its columns and staircase. This is Paul Veronese's famous 
 '' Feast in the House of Levi," which might have been studied from 
 the home of a Venetian noble. 
 
 Perpetuating historical and legendary art, you find a singular 
 series of immense compositions the Venetians did everything on so 
 broad and ample a scale ! executed in the fifteenth century. On 
 the left are Carpaccio's quaint and entertaining illustrations of the 
 legend of St. Ursula and her eleven thousand virgins. Another pict- 
 ure by Carpaccio of the " Healing of a Sick Man by the True Cross " 
 has a view in its background of the wooden Rialto of three centuries 
 ago. Here is likewise an extraordinarily interesting painting by Gen- 
 tile Bellini, representing the miraculous " Finding of a Piece of the 
 True Cross " which had fallen into the canal. The priests, in full 
 canonicals, are wading about like mermaids ; crowds of spectators, 
 who throng arcades and balconies, watch the proceeding with solemn 
 faces, and hands in the proper attitude of devotion ; at last one of 
 the fathers of the Church has discovered the fragment, all nicely 
 mounted, and is triumphantly swimming ashore. On the right wall 
 Gentile Bellini has also left us a " Grand Procession in the Piazza of 
 San Marco," showing us how all things looked in 1491. These 
 brothers, Gian and Gentile Bellini, inaugurated the triumphs of Vene- 
 tian painting, and examples of their works are therefore of great in- 
 terest. Gian, who was the more celebrated of the two, shares with 
 Titian the supremacy of Venetian art : and we meet, in this academy 
 and in churches of Venice, many of his fair, serene Virgins, whose 
 modest and yet softly brilliant aspect we learn to recognize. All his
 
 THE GALLERY OF VENICE. 55! 
 
 Madonnas here gathered are of inestimable worth, especially the 
 benevolent " Enthroned Madonna," with the Child on her knee and 
 the light on her figure, SS. Sebastian, Dominic, and Louis, with John 
 the Baptist, Job, and St. Francis on her right and left, and three 
 charming " Musical Angels," whom we already know so well 
 through photographs, playing on their instruments on the steps 
 below the throne. A small group from his hand of the " Madonna, 
 Magdalene, and St. Catharine," is exceedingly dignified and sweet. 
 
 But the gem of the gallery, striking the eye even at our first en- 
 trance, is Titian's "Assumption of the Virgin," placed in an ornament- 
 ed saloon, known as the " Hall of the Assumption." This glorious 
 painting, described in the preceding chapter of " World-Pictures," is 
 the culmination of Venetian art both in expression and coloring. It 
 is the one sole instance where the genius of Titian, more at home 
 among earthly Venuses than with holy saints, has worthily rendered 
 the glow of inspiration. This is the more remarkable as the Virgin's 
 face, so far from depending upon sensuous charms, is not even young 
 or fresh. The grand, rapt woman is a matron, no fair maid ; but 
 those upturned features beam with the radiance of heaven itself. 
 The only criticism one is inclined to make relates to the size of the 
 canvas, which seems too small for its large and crowded figures, who 
 appear to need a freer, wider space a singular fault for an artist of a 
 school accustomed to measure canvas by the furlong. It also gave 
 me the effect of having been very lately and very thickly varnished ; 
 the gloss of the red drapery of the Virgin and of the apostle in the 
 foreground being quite startling. Viardot remarks that, though 
 Titian executed this wonderful composition in full youth and vigor, 
 its remembrance was in some way lost, till happily Cicognara discov- 
 ered it, very much smoked with incense, in the Church of the Frari, 
 and exchanged it for another picture. The academy also possesses 
 a "Visitation of St. Elizabeth," called Titian's first picture; and his 
 last " Descent from the Cross " (or Burial of Christ), a grave, sad 
 work, left incomplete by his death, at the age of ninety-nine, but 
 finished by Palma. The noble and expressive head of Jacopo So- 
 ranza is a fine addition to the other examples of his style, and satis- 
 factorily displays his magic skill in portraiture. 
 
 In the Hall of the Assumption we also see a chef-d'ceuvre of 
 Tintoretto" The Miracle of St. Mark " where St. Mark comes 
 down, head foremost and book in hand, in a marvel of foreshorten- 
 36
 
 552 APPENDIX. 
 
 ing, to rescue a slave, his votary, who has been condemned to death. 
 The sudden appearance of the evangelist astounds the executioner 
 and populace, and electrifies the judge, in his red Venetian robe, who 
 starts up from his seat, while the slave lies prostrate with an arrow 
 in his eye. It is "a vast picture, twenty feet square, containing fifty 
 figures of the size of life." Tintoretto's greatest works remain to be 
 studied in a remote part of the city, in the School of San Rocco, his 
 peculiar sanctuary ; but we may here observe some of his best por- 
 traits: the " Temptation of Adam " (from the Scuola della Trinita) ; 
 an " Adoration of the Kings," or, as one might say, of Venetian 
 senators ; a " Madonna," which Ruskin regards with favor, as small, 
 but particularly precious ; and a larger and very effective " Madonna 
 in the Clouds," with SS. Cosmas and Damianus near her, conceived 
 as her respectful and worshipful attendants. 
 
 The rich decorative style and luminous tints of Paul Veronese are 
 not limited to the " Feast in the House of Levi," but shine in con- 
 spicuous beauty through the entire academy. The " Saints " and 
 " Virgins" who come before us as portly, high-born Venetian ladies, 
 in superb brocade, with all accessories in keeping with their appear- 
 ance, but utterly out of keeping with their legends, indicate the naive 
 and wholesale way in which artists of the period translated all his- 
 tory and poetry into the life of the period. Their amber and crimson 
 and gold fairly dazzle us with color. Carlo Crivelli poses before us 
 his dignified groups of saints; and Antonello da Messina shows us 
 some of the earliest specimens of oil-paintings in Venice in his por- 
 traits and " Ecce Homo." Several Venetian artists, who are hardly 
 known elsewhere, seem as if inspired by their native environment, 
 and give us such truly noble works as Rocco Marconi's " Descent 
 from the Cross," with its grand and pathetic figures; and Marco 
 Basaiti's "Christ on the Mount of Olives " and " Calling of the Sons 
 of Zebedee." These are the masterpieces of Basaiti, the pupil of 
 Gian Bellini; but the last of these two paintings is not so interesting 
 as the first, in which the dying light of a beautiful sunset sky falls 
 upon the sleeping disciples, and the sorrowing Christ on the eleva- 
 tion above them, while pictured saints watch upon the canvas in 
 silent worship. The devotional element which is here predominant 
 is much more simple, and less complicated with the usual Venetian 
 motives, th;m in most other surrounding examples of this school. 
 
 Giorgione, strange to say, does not appear to so much advantage
 
 THE GALLERY OF VENICE. 
 
 553 
 
 in his native region as we might reasonably expect. This gallery pos- 
 sesses two compositions which were once ascribed to him a doubtful 
 portrait and a national allegorical sea-storm, entitled " The Tempest," 
 now acknowledged to be of unknown authorship. It is founded on 
 the same legend as Paris Bordone's " Fisherman with the Ring." 
 But here we have the storm itself. " A ship, manned by demons, is 
 seen towering over the waves : the demons are seized with consterna- 
 tion ; some fling themselves headlong over the side of their vessel, 
 others are clinging to the rigging, others sit on the masts, which 
 flame with fire and glare over the murky sky and sea. More in front 
 are two barks, one rowed by four satyr-like demons, splendid figures, 
 admirably painted, literally glowing as if they were red-hot, and full 
 of fierce animation. In the other bark are seen the three saints St. 
 Mark, St. Nicholas, and St. George, rowed by the fisherman. Sea- 
 monsters are sporting amid the waves ; demons bestride them ; the 
 city of Venice is just visible in the far-off distance." 
 
 Cima da Conegliano, a follower of the Bellini, is represented by a 
 "Tobias with the Archangel;" .in "Incredulity of St. Thomas;" 
 a " Deposition from the Cross;" and "Madonna and Saints;" as 
 well as a few other brilliantly finished pictures. Only a small number 
 of the productions of Bassano, the Venetian genre painter, exist in 
 this collection ; his best having been sent to Spain. Bissolo has a 
 " Dead Christ supported by Angels," and a " Madonna and Saints ; " 
 while scarcely any architectural pieces by Canaletto remain to illus- 
 trate his Venetian views. 
 
 All who traverse these rooms will be struck by the many pictures 
 catalogued as a " Madonna with Saints," or a " Holy Conversation." 
 This class of subjects, first introduced by Venetian artists, became 
 extremely popular in mediaeval times. They were not intended as an 
 historical, but as a devotional group, and portray the Virgin sur- 
 rounded by sacred personages, gazing on her, reading in a book, 
 standing or kneeling, but all in sympathy and communion with her. 
 Different saints are selected on different occasions, and in different 
 localities ; the favorite band of Venetian attendants being St. Mark, 
 St. Peter, St. Catharine, St. George, St. Nicholas, and St. Justina, 
 often cut down to half-lengths. This school is also celebrated for 
 what are called " Pastoral Madonnas," where Mary with the Divine 
 Child is seated in a landscape, or reclines under a tree, while others 
 neai her minister or adore. Family and votive Madonnas are some-
 
 554 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 times found, where a whole family, in their best attire, kneel in hum- 
 ble attitudes before the Virgin to implore her favor and intercession. 
 Frequently St. Mark stands graciously commending them to her care. 
 
 Examples of the " Holy Conversations," just described, are espe- 
 cially common among the works of Palma Vecchio, though not to be 
 observed in this gallery. He is a warm, soft colorist, with much 
 of Titian's richness, but less power. His " Christ and Canaanite 
 Woman," early " Assumption," and " St. Peter Enthroned with Six 
 Accompanying Saints," do not as fairly represent him as other com- 
 positions which we shall find elsewhere, yet are considered worthy 
 of praise. But his Venetian masterpiece is the sweet-faced and ma- 
 jestic " St. Barbara," in the church of Santa Maria Formosa. The 
 " Horsemen of the Apocalypse " is by another Palma. 
 
 The room of drawings by the old masters of the Venetian, Lom- 
 bard, and other Italian schools will not be very critically inspected by 
 most visitors, even though they include the (so-called) " Sketch-Book 
 of Raphael," as well as some celebrated caricatures from the hand 
 of Leonardo da Vinci. These are of undeniable artistic value, and 
 show his freedom of style. There are also modern pictures, bronzes, 
 curious carved furniture, and small sculptures ; but the lovers of 
 statuary will be more interested in Canova's group of " Daedalus and 
 Icarus," and in the original model of his " Hercules and Lychas." 
 
 A separate first hall of antique pictures, important as having been 
 painted in the fifteenth century, is filled with specimens of Venetian 
 artists who preceded the Bellini, especially the various members of 
 the Vivarini family. A venerable altar-piece in compartments, some- 
 times termed an Ancona, by Lorenzo Veneziano, may be examined 
 by the curious. Its central panel is occupied by the " Annuncia- 
 tion." We also see an "Enthroned Madonna," by Giovanni and 
 Antonio da Murano, and a " Madonna and Child," by Jacopo Bel- 
 lini, father of Gian. This gallery is peculiarly provincial, and believes 
 Venice to be sufficient for its 'glory ; therefore it does not pretend 
 to hold collections of other schools : an admirable " St. George," in a 
 fine landscape, by Andrea Mantegna; a few productions ascribed to 
 the French Callot, Poussin, and Lebrun ; a " Virgin," by Garafalo ; a 
 " Daniel in the Lions' Den," by Pietro da Cortona ; a " St. Jerome," 
 by Piero della Francesca ; and portraits by Roger van der Weyden 
 and Mierevelt, being the only foreign pictures we shall now note. 
 
 The traveller will depart with but one vivid, profound impression
 
 GALLERY OF MADRID. 
 
 555 
 
 of the magnificence and luxury of Venetian painting in the days of 
 the republic : of splendid, imposing forms, instinct with physical and 
 intellectual life ; of coloring whose deep intensity is yet " saturated 
 with sunbeams ; " of power and breadth and brilliancy which, if 
 they were but combined with spiritual force, would have made Ven- 
 ice queen of art as well as- queen of the sea. Titian fascinates, yet 
 Raphael holds us by firmer bands. Could the merits of Titian and 
 Raphael have beer united, we should have had the perfect harmony 
 of the senses with the soul. 
 
 GALLERY OF MADRID. 
 
 FEW travelers, and still fewer home-lovers of art, have any true 
 idea of the rich treasures which await appreciative eyes in the Royal 
 Gallery of Madrid, in the Palace of the Prado. Even enthusiasm 
 for the painters could hardly overbalance the dangers to life and lib- 
 erty which have lately beset the wanderer in Spain ; and hence, 
 while the galleries of Italy, France, and Germany, are comparatively 
 familiar to the public, the fame of Madrid pictures is almost as shad- 
 owy as that of the Alhambra. But, as this cannot long be so, a short 
 notice of the masterpieces of the museum will not be wasted. 
 
 The founding' of the gallery in its present form may be ascribed 
 to Ferdinand VII. of Spain ; but its glory is justly due to the artistic 
 tastes of the Emperor Charles V., King Philip II., and their success- 
 ors of the house of Austria. Their princely bounty purchased the 
 ihefs-d'ceuvre of Raphael, Titian, Veronese, Rubens, and Vandyck, 
 and made Velasquez court-painter. Where they sowed the Bour- 
 oons reaped. Paintings which had been scattered through the Es- 
 curial, the palaces of the kings, or the cathedrals and convents of 
 'he clergy, are now united in one large collection for the admiration 
 of the world. 
 
 Entering the Museo del Rey, a spacious rotunda, encircled by pil- 
 lars, boasts of nothing grander than the hasty, coarse, yet clever 
 compositions of Luca Giordano, the fast and furious artist of the 
 closing seventeenth century ; or the equestrian portraits of Francisco 
 Goya, of a still later period. This rotunda, however, leads to the 
 saloons of the Spanish and Italian schools, and to the grand central 
 hall of masterpieces, claiming to contain more than sixty-one paint- 
 ings by Velasquez, forty-six by Murillo, fifty-eight by Ribera, eight
 
 556 APPENDIX. 
 
 by Alonzo Cano, fourteen by Zurbaran, ten by Raphael, forty-three 
 by Titian, sixty-two by Rubens, and many by Venetian artists, as 
 Tintoretto's portraits, Veronese's "Jesus with Doctors," and Porde- 
 none's "Virgin." Some of the choicest of these are gathered in a 
 small apartment called the " Isabella Saloon," opening off from the 
 main gallery. Their arrangement may be' occasionally varied, but all 
 traditions would be opposed to any extensive changes. 
 
 The works of early Spanish artists are invariably sacred. Many 
 of them may be best studied in more remote cities, but a few fine 
 specimens of all the native schools can here be inspected. Most at- 
 tractive of these are the compositions of Juan Joanes, a gentle and 
 devout soul, with much genius and sweetness, who has left a " Last 
 Supper," in which the head of Christ is only inferior to that by Leo- 
 nardo da Vinci ; a pathetic " Descent from the Cross ; " a life-like 
 " Portrait ; " several such quaint subjects as the " Visit of Santa Isa- 
 bel to the Virgin," or the " Death of Santa Inez ; " and a more pre- 
 tentious series on the " Life and Death of St. Stephen." Roelas has 
 but one example, a " Moses striking the Rock." The " Divine Mo- 
 rales " does not appear so divine as fancy painted him in his lean 
 and livid " Madonnas " and " Saviours ; " neither will Ribalta's 
 black and harrowing pictures entrance the spectator. A few fine 
 portraits by Coello, especially one of Don Carlos, take us back to 
 the time of Philip II. Zurbaran 's " Kneeling Monk," prostrate be- 
 fore a luminous crucifix, attracts by its ghastly grandeur ; while his 
 " Sleeping Christ," draped in dark purple robes, though less power- 
 ful, is extremely impressive. 
 
 But Velasquez and Murillo are of course the lions of the gallery. 
 Indeed, Velasquez can only be understood and appreciated amid the 
 scenes where he lived and labored. Every day in Spain increases our 
 admiration of his ability and truthfulness. He painted what he saw 
 and what we still see, with absolute fidelity. No ideals troubled 
 his aspiration. No saints or angels came to him with beautiful vi- 
 sions. His " Coronation of Mary" and " Dead Christ " are among 
 his very few sacred subjects. His portraits of the " Imperial Family " 
 were no flattering tributes to royalty. If they were not good-look- 
 ing, that was their misfortune, which he was not bound to remedy. 
 Philip IV., Queen Isabel, his second wife, Maria of Austria, and the 
 fat and vacant-faced Infanta Margarita, might command their like- 
 nesses in all sizes and attitudes, but they could draw no beauty from
 
 GALLERY OF MADRID. 
 
 557 
 
 his too truthful brush. The youthful Don Balthasar was more for- 
 tunate. He is really handsome on his spirited pony. Most famous 
 of these pictures are the standing portraits of King Philip and Don 
 Carlos, and a large and splendid painting known as " Las Meninas," 
 or the " Maids of Honor," representing Velasquez himself before an 
 easel, in a stately room, painting the little Infanta, her maids, her 
 dog, and dwarfs, who stand grouped before him, while the faces of 
 the king and queen are reflected in a mirror on the wall. The won- 
 derful perspective and effects of light, air, and space, conveyed by 
 this celebrated picture, have often been commented on. Just oppo- 
 site hangs a great historical piece, by the same artist, " The Surren- 
 der of Breda." Each general is an animated portrait-figure, and the 
 soldiers' long line of bristling spears has given the composition the 
 Spanish title, " Las Lanzas." Velasquez is said to have introduced his 
 own head, in hat and plume. The background shows his facility in 
 landscape treatment; though this is still further illustrated by his 
 " Views of Aranjuez," and other scenes, often olive-green or cold 
 gray in color, but marvelous in atmosphere, gradation of tone, and 
 lineal correctness. We next notice his " Borrachos" or " Topers," 
 all drunk as Bacchus, honoring one of their number with a mock 
 coronation of ivy-leaves. A last, large canvas, " Las Hilanderas," or 
 the " Spinners," must not be neglected. Workwomen of a manu- 
 factory are exhibiting goods to their lady visitors. The dim interior 
 light, the natural figures, and the shadowy perspective, have been en- 
 thusiastically praised. Here, too, is Velasquez's figure of ^Esop. It 
 may be remarked that this same collection contains a good picture of 
 the " Calling of St. Matthew," executed by Juan de Pareja, once 
 Velasquez's mulatto slave. Pareja has humbly painted himself in 
 the corner with crisp hair, thick lips, and dark complexion. 
 
 The very different style of Murillo is displayed more brilliantly at 
 Seville than at Madrid, though many of his most pleasing works have 
 been secured for the gallery. Two lovely " Conceptions " enchant as 
 by their pure and graceful Virgin, their celestial radiance, and rosy, 
 floating cherubs. "The Death of St. Andrew" is one of his best 
 aerial pictures. "A silvery tint, which seems showered down by 
 angels, who hold out the palm of immortality to the old man who is 
 being crucified, pervades every object, softens the outlines, harmo- 
 nises the tone, and gives the whole scene a cloudy and fantastic ap- 
 pearance which is full of charm." The same may be said of an
 
 558 APPENDIX. 
 
 " Annunciation," where the holy Dove comes straight from the gloij 
 of heaven. An " Adoration of the Shepherds " is admirable, but less 
 unearthly. The glowing brown of its deeper tints is thought to owe 
 its richness to a peculiar color which Murillo produced from the 
 pounded beef-bones of his daily stew. A striking " Conversion of 
 St. Paul " has been destructively restored, as have many others of 
 these Spanish gems. A " Holy Family," perfectly realistic in treat- 
 ment, exhibits the interior of a carpenter's shop ; peasant parents, a 
 sweet, sportive child, a little bird, a dog not at all holy, but very 
 suggestive of calm domestic happiness. A " Vision of St. Augus- 
 tine," where the bishop, in full pontificals, gazes down upon a child 
 on the sea-shore with a shell in his hand, illustrates the old tradition 
 of the apparition which one day warned the saint of his inability to 
 penetrate heavenly secrets. For, as the legend tells us, " while St. 
 Augustine was busied in writing his 'Discourse on the Trinity,' he 
 wandered by the ocean lost in meditation. Suddenly ne perceived a 
 child bringing water from the waves to fill a hole which he had dug 
 in the sand. Augustine inquired what was the object of his task. 
 He replied that he intended to empty into the cavity all the waters 
 of the great deep. ' Impossible ! ' exclaimed Augustine. ' Not more 
 impossible,' replied the child, ' than for thee, O Augustine, to explain 
 the mystery on which thou art now pondering.' " 
 
 Ribera's savage and sombre compositions contrast with Murillo's 
 as a thunder-storm with a sunset. To the intense and fiery nature 
 of a Spaniard he added the wildness of an Italian brigand, and the 
 result is visible in such pictures as his horrible "Prometheus bound," 
 " Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew," or " Ixion at the Wheel." His 
 broad masses of light and shade are nevertheless very artistically 
 managed. " St. James," " St. Roch," and " The Heads of the 
 Twelve Apostles," are forcible but more agreeable efforts, while 
 there is even an imitation of Correggio in his famous painting of 
 "Jacob's Ladder," where Jacob, in the garb of a common monk, lies 
 sleeping in the foreground, and angels are traversing the broad line 
 of golden glory at the right. A strange portrait of an aged Spanish 
 female, nursing a child in her arms, called "Magdalene Ventura," 
 hideously ugly, with a long tlack beard, is another evidence of his 
 singular taste. Alonzo Cano, of the Andalusian school, though pow- 
 erful and national in his characteristics, is dignified in treatment, and 
 deep and ardent in color. His " St. John at Patmos," " Christ at ihf
 
 GALLERY OF MADRID. ^ 
 
 Column," and "Virgin and Dead Christ," are vigorous, impressive 
 pictures. Not many compliments can be made to the remains of 
 Spanish genius left us after the death of Murillo. Those of Valdes 
 Leal, Miguel de Tobar, and Francisco Goya, are alone worthy of 
 mention. Tobar was Murillo's pupil, and painted his master's por- 
 trait ; also a pastoral scene of the Virgin Mary as " The Divine Shep- 
 herdess," feeding her lambs on roses. The modern pictures are 
 generally of no importance. 
 
 A very brief stroll through the gallery suffices to prove that its 
 reputation is not confined to the works of Spaniards. Here is one 
 of the most highly-praised (probably painted by Giulio Romano) of 
 Raphael's " Holy Families," considered by Philip IV. the pearl of his 
 pictures, and ever after called " La Perla." The mild and thought- 
 ful Virgin, the young St. John offering fruit in his panther's skin, 
 and the spiritual gaze of the divine Child, will never be forgotten by 
 the beholder. A second " Madonna " (usually spoken of as " Tobit 
 and the Fish "), where the youthful Tobit, holding a fish in one hand, 
 is presented by the archangel Raphael to an enthroned Virgin, is 
 likewise very admirable in execution, but yellowish and faded in 
 color. The genuineness of some other " Holy Families " attributed 
 to Raphael, is more than doubtful. A " Visitation," and a couple of 
 portraits, are also marked with his name. The grand altar-piece 
 known as " Lo Spasimo di Sicilia " has a world-wide renown and a 
 curious history. It was completed for a Sicilian convent, was ship- 
 wrecked on the passage, floated up to Genoa, was rescued and sent 
 again to Sicily, was afterward carried into Spain by the Viceroy of 
 Naples, then captured by the French, cleaned and restored at Paris, 
 and finally returned to Madrid. Truth compels the confession that 
 scrubbing and repainting have so sunk its tone into a brick-dust 
 brown that the pathos of its procession to Calvary, its fainting Christ 
 and agonized Virgin, are more sincerely felt by inspection of a good 
 engraving than of the original picture. 
 
 Titian, the favorite of Charles V. and Philip II., shines in Madrid 
 with even greater lustre than the divine Raphael. Among his forty- 
 three compositions in the gallery, only a few can be particularized. 
 His imposing equestrian portrait of Charles V. rivals the Philip of 
 Velasquez. Nine or ten other portraits exhibit all his wonted state- 
 finess and force. His own venerable likeness of himself in his de- 
 clining days is very interesting. "EcceHomo," "St. Margaret,'
 
 560 APPENDIX. 
 
 "Christ bearing the Cross," " Adnm and Eve," "The Entomb- 
 ment," " Mater Dolorosa," and " Salome with the Head of St. John 
 Baptist," rank first of his sacred pieces. His daughter Lavinia was 
 the model for Salome. A sp^ndid "Last Supper," painted for the 
 refectory of the Escurial, the finest religious production which Titian 
 ever contributed to Spain, has mouldered and faded into almost en- 
 tire decay. " The Apotheosis of Charles V. and Philip II." forms 
 the link between his biblical and mythological conceptions. It is a 
 holy allegory, in which the Deity welcomes the Spanish monarchs 
 to the celestial court. Prophets, saints, and angels, celebrate their 
 reception, and the blue-robed Virgin gladly awaits her faithful vota- 
 ries. Another allegorical picture of " The Victory of Lepanto," in 
 which a heavenly messenger brings the tidings of conquest and the 
 palm-branch of fame to Philip II. and his youthful son. was executed 
 by the artist of Cadore when over ninety. Plenty of classical pict- 
 ures make up the remainder of his works Venus, Bacchus, and Di- 
 ana, in a variety of legends, and with no superfluous draperies 
 "The Offering to Fecundity," and a "Captive Prometheus," grand 
 and painful, but infinitely less repulsive than Ribera's. 
 
 One or two of Giorgione's rare specimens have found a home 
 in this gallery a " Virgin with Saints," a supposed Portrait, and a 
 "David and Goliath," in the costumes of the fifteenth century. One 
 must speak with trembling of the authenticity of Giorgione's pictures. 
 Veronese has a repetition of "The Marriage at Cana," "Christ and 
 the Centurion," " Christ disputing with the Doctors," "Cain and his 
 Family," "Susanna and the Elders," and several allegorical and 
 classical efforts. Tintoretto is best represented by some excellent 
 portraits, a magnificently-colored "Death of Holofernes," and an 
 original sketch of the great "Paradiso," in the doge's palace. Se- 
 bastian del Piombo has here left us one of his masterpieces, a " De- 
 scent of Christ into Hades ; " and the Bassano family seem to have 
 been eminently successful in selling their marvelous groups of sheep, 
 cattle, and religious and mythological genre pieces, to the Spanish 
 kings. 
 
 No other Italian schools appear in such perfection as the Vene- 
 tian, but we may especially contemplate a doubtful repetition of 
 Leonardo da Vinci's " Mona Lisa ;" a "Christ and the Magdalene," 
 by Correggio; a "Holy Family," "Virgin with Saints," "Sacrifice 
 of Abraham," and portrait of his wife, by Andrea del Sarto ; a " St.
 
 GALLERY OF MADRID. ^ 
 
 Peter in Prison," "Susanna with the Elders," and a "Genius of 
 Painting," in orange - colored drapery, by Guercino ; a "St. Je- 
 rome," by Domenichino ; an "Enthroned Virgin," by Guido; a 
 " Holy Family," by Luini ; a " Crucifixion," by Baroccio ; a portrait 
 and " Holy Family," by Parmagiano ; some landscapes, by Salvator 
 Rosa; and an " Allegory of Peace" and " Holy Family," by Luca 
 Giordano, whose irrepressible industry has contributed about fifty- 
 five works to the museum. 
 
 A rotunda of French pictures, containing some compositions by 
 Poussin, and a number of charming landscapes by Claude Lorraine, 
 will be found an attractive spot. The best of these landscapes are a 
 " Sunset Scene," with figures of Tobit and the angel, probably by 
 Courtois ; and a " Sunrise over the Sea," with St. Paula embarking 
 from the palace on the shore. 
 
 Flemish, Dutch, and German paintings are nearly as abundant 
 as Italian. Rubens is preeminent in this department. The "Brazen 
 Serpent," "St. George and the Dragon," " Perseus delivering Andro- 
 meda," " The Three Graces," "Nymphs and Satyrs," " Diana and 
 Calisto," "The Garden of Love," and "Judgment of Paris," are 
 rendered in his favorite style bold, rosy, ample, and glowing. The 
 largest of all is the immense and superb sacred scene of " The Ado- 
 ration of the Kings," who bow before the queenly Mother and her 
 holy Child. " The light flashes out over the kneeling Magi, the 
 gorgeously- robed attendants, the prodigality of velvet, and jewels, 
 and gold, to fade into the lovely clear obscure of a starry night, peo- 
 pled with dim camels and cattle. On the extreme right is a most 
 graceful and gallant portrait of the artist on horseback." 
 
 Twenty-two Vandycks and twenty-three Snyders still betoken the 
 wealth of this extensive gallery. The Snyders are of the common 
 type wild hunts, dead game, lions, goats, fowls, and fruit ; but the 
 Vandycks are exceedingly fine, including some such memorable por- 
 traits as those of the beautiful Countess of Oxford, an armed knight, 
 a black-robed cavalier, an " Organist of Antwerp," and himself and 
 the Earl of Bristol. There are also two striking sacred pieces, a 
 " Saviour crowned with Thorns," and a " Betrayal of Christ," where 
 he has combined the vivid coloring of Rubens, in the red glare of 
 the torchlight, with his own refinement and delicacy in the finishing 
 of the figures and the flexibility of the attitudes. Portraits by An- 
 tonio Moro are nobly executed and full of interest, particularly 'hose
 
 5 62 APPENDIX. 
 
 of Queen Mary of England and the Emperor Maximilian II. A 
 "Crucifixion," some allegories, and an "Adam and Eve," by Al- 
 brecht Diirer, are not so admirable as his youthful likeness of him- 
 self at the age of twenty-five. His striped costume, pointed cap, fail 
 curling hair, blue eyes, and thin, intelligent face, are very pleasing. 
 Teniers's fifty-two pictures, mostly of rustic festivals, monkeys, drink- 
 ers, hermits, and " Temptations of St. Antony," are elaborately ren- 
 dered and full of details. The largest is " Rinaldo and Armida," 
 but one of the most characteristic is " La Graciosa Fregatriz," in 
 which a jealous old wife watches her gallant husband kissing a pretty 
 kitchen-maid. Breughel's numberless variations of the same class 
 of subjects are far less able, and very tiresome. Jerome Bosch's 
 incantation scenes and goblin revels are grotesque and weird. But 
 all such examples are of trifling interest compared with the remark- 
 able and highly finished altar-piece of the " Triumph of Christianity." 
 or " Fount of Salvation," by Jan van Eyck, which is the earliest speci- 
 men of Flemish genius transported into Spain. 
 
 THE GALLERY OF THE LOUVRE. 
 
 THE Gallery or Muste of the Louvre has existed as a national 
 museum of art for about a century. The building itself is of course 
 ancient, having been transformed at the time of the Renaissance and 
 under Francis I., from a fortress intft a royal palace, which the sub- 
 sequent sovereigns of France delighted to enlarge and adorn. The 
 pictures of its gallery previously graced the cabinets of art-loving 
 kings, and were united in the Louvre by order of the French Re- 
 public in 1793. 
 
 The immense collection of the Louvre comprises not only more 
 than two thousand pictures, but also superb assemblages of ancient 
 and modern statues, an Assyrian, Egyptian, and Etruscan museum, 
 engravings, enamels, porcelain, jewels, antiques, royal and national 
 memorials, and countless objects of general interest. No one could 
 walk through the grand " Hall of Apollo," with its richly- frescoed 
 ceiling, its lofty walls, tapestried with the portraits of French artists, 
 and its magnificent cabinets and curiosities, without feeling that one 
 such saloon alone would be worthy of Paris. But for a description 
 of these beauties we must refer to other writers, and confine our 
 attention simply to the pictures.
 
 THE GALLERY OF THE LOUVRE. 563 
 
 All travellers visiting the great Salon Carre, the artists' chamber 
 of honor, must complain of its deficient light and confused arrange- 
 ment. The paintings (until lately) adorned the walls without spe- 
 cial reference to chronology or country. But, after all, it is only 
 an embarras de richesses that troubles us, and we need not pause 
 to settle the question of precedence between Raphael, Van Eyck, and 
 Murillo. The masterpieces which we shall first seek are the Madon- 
 nas or holy families by Raphael, known as " La Belle Jardiniere," 
 where the Virgin, seated amid blossoming plants, gazes on the stand- 
 ing Child Jesus and the kneeling St. John ; the " Madonna of Francis 
 I.," in which St. Elizabeth, St. John, St. Joseph, and flower-bearing 
 angels are present, while the Infant springs from his cradle into the 
 arms of his mother; and "Madonna of the Veil," or "Vierge au 
 Diacleme," where the sleeping Babe reposes on the ground, and the 
 crowned Virgin lifts the veil which covers him. An " Archangel 
 Michael and the Dragon," by Raphael, shows assistance of pupils ; an 
 "Apollo and Marsyas " was acquired by the Louvre in 1883; while 
 a small " St. Michael " and " St. George " are more youthful works. 
 
 On the same wall with " La Vierge au Voile " hangs Leonardo 
 da Vinci's famous portrait of "Mona Lisa," often entitled "La 
 Joconde." This picture, so exquisitely executed and so praised for 
 its delicate beauty and enchanting smile, has been sadly injured 
 by the ravages of Time, and too generally disappoints the spectator. 
 Nevertheless, it still fascinates. There is also a " Holy Family," 
 by Leonardo, in which the Virgin sits upon the knee of her mother 
 St. Anna, stooping forward to take up the Infant Christ, who ca- 
 resses a lamb. 
 
 Correggio's " Marriage of St. Catharine," larger in size than his 
 rendering of the same subject at Naples, is inimitably graceful, ele- 
 gant, and soft in color : while his " Sleeping Antiope," just opposite, 
 is one of his most celebrated mythological pieces. Titian's "En- 
 tombment," near it, though regarded as one of the finest works 
 ever brought from Venice, is somewhat dark and heavy, and not so 
 pleasing as his portrait of a young woman at her toilet, combing her 
 long, rich hair. This is called "Titian's Mistress," but is more 
 probably the likeness of Laura de Dianti, a beautiful favorite of Al- 
 phonso, Duke of Ferrara. Here, too, is Titian's celebrated "Young 
 Man with Glove," known as "L'Homtne au Cant." 
 
 Paul Veronese's "Marriage at Cana" is in no danger of being
 
 564 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 overlooked, not only from its splendor of detail, .but because it is the 
 largest easel-picture in the world, containing crowds of figures larger 
 than life. Among the guests at the banquet Veronese has painted 
 portrait-figures of King Francis I., Eleanor of Austria, Queen Mary 
 of England, Emperor Charles V., the Sultan of Turkey, and Vittoria 
 Colonna. Christ and the Virgin, placed near the centre, are only 
 distinguishable by aureoles. Another feast by Paul Veronese, the 
 " Repast in the House of Simon the Pharisee," is far less interesting. 
 His "Jupiter with Thunderbolts " was once in the Doge's Palace. 
 
 Murillo's " Immaculate Conception," on the right wall, originally 
 brought from Spain, was purchased by the French in 1852 for a sum 
 exceeding one hundred and twenty thousand dollars. Few more 
 lovely faces or graceful forms exist in painting than this white-robed 
 Virgin, hovering in dazzling glory amid the cherubs. We see a " Holy 
 Family," or " Conception," also by Murillo, where the Madonna holds 
 the standing Christ-child who receives a reed-cross from the little 
 St. John. The aged Elizabeth kneels. This composition is some- 
 times termed a " Trinity," because the Eternal Father is represented 
 in the clouds, and the Dove of the Holy Spirit is likewise present. 
 
 In the paintings just enumerated we have noticed the gems of the 
 gallery. The same saloon, however, boasts of many other remark- 
 able pieces, such as Van Eyck's small but exquisite " Virgin and 
 Donor ; " Gerard Dow's chef-d 'ceuvre, " La Femme Hydropique ; " 
 Giorgione's " Concert Champetre ; " Vandyck's portrait of Charles I., 
 Holbein's " Erasmus " and " Anne of Cleves ; " Rembrandt s " Por- 
 traits ;" Van Ostade's "Schoolmaster;" Terburg's "Officer and 
 Girl;" Poussin's "Diogenes;" Francia's "Young Man in Black," 
 once regarded as the work of Raphael ; Rigaud's full-length portrait 
 of Bossuet; and Philippe de Champagne's portrait of Cardinal Riche- 
 lieu ; or such fine sacred scenes as Perugino's early " Madonna and 
 Child ; " Luini's " Salome with Head of the Baptist ; " Andrea Sola- 
 rio's " Madonna with Cushion ; " Ghirlandajo's and Sebastian del Pi- 
 ombo's "Visitation;" Roger van der Weyden's "Madonna" and 
 Rembrandt's " Holy Family of Nazareth " and " Supper at Emmaus." 
 
 The Salle des Primittfs (once Sept Mitres) and Grande Galerie, 
 which strikes us as endlessly and splendidly long, afford the oppor- 
 tunity of studying art chronologically and geographically. The 
 paintings are ranged in the order of time, with such early Italian 
 pieces as Giotto's " St. Francis," Cimabue's, Lippi's, and Lorenzo 
 di Credi's " Madonnas," Francia's " Christ," Mantegna's " X'irgin of
 
 THE GALLERY OF THE LOUVRE. 565 
 
 Victory," or Gozzoli's " Triumph of St. Thomas of Aquinas," and 
 exhibiting, in colors surprisingly fresh, Fra Angelico's celebrated 
 "Coronation of the Virgin," a marvel of "sweetness and light," 
 whose celestial throngs seem like a vision of paradise. The corona- 
 tion itself takes place in the upper part of the picture, and below is a 
 happy host of angels and saints, among whom we notice not only the 
 Apostles, the Magdalene, and the Virgin Martyrs, but Moses, St. 
 Augustine, King David, and Charlemagne. 
 
 The productions of the Venetian school are of great interest. Here 
 we perceive Bonifazio's " Raising of Lazarus ; " Titian's " Venus del 
 Pardo;" his "Allegory of Alphonso ;" "Crowning with Thorns, "exe- 
 cuted at the age of sixty-six ; " Holy Family "and " Man with a Black 
 Beard " (others noted on page 568), as well as " Portrait of Francis I." 
 and " Madonna and Saints." The most extraordinary of Paul Vero- 
 nese's brilliant works are his " St. Mark " and " Disciples at Emmaus," 
 in which the painter and his family are conspicuously introduced, with 
 two frolicsome little girls playing with a large dog in the foreground. 
 
 The collection of the Bolognese school is more significant in quan- 
 tity than in quality. Among twenty pictures by Guido Reni, some 
 of which are large and pretentious, a tender "Magdalene" and his 
 " Ecce Homo," with his " St. Peter," will be most attractive to the ordi- 
 nary spectator. A " St. Cecilia " is the most popular of Domenichino's 
 thirteen compositions. Guercino has also an inferior " St. Cecilia," but 
 a very excellent " Circe ; " while Albani's twenty-two sacred and clas- 
 sical scenes, where Virgins and Venuses, Cherubs and Cupids, might 
 easily change characters, are sweet as pink sugar, and quite as 
 cloying. His first " Repose in Egypt" is, however, a charming and 
 graceful pastoral, and his " Toilet of Venus " an exquisite bit of 
 mytholog) . Annibale Carracci displays more talent. His " Dead 
 Christ," and " Resurrection," where the guard lies sleeping on top 
 of the closed tomb while the Saviour soars forth above, are elaborate 
 though not very pleasing works. But his small " Madonna of 
 Silence," and " Vierge aux Cerises," are popular through engravings 
 and photographs. In his "Vierge aux Cerises" Joseph is presenting 
 Mary with a bunch of cherries, in accordance with the legend which 
 relates that before the birth of Jesus the Virgin wished to taste of 
 certain cherries which hung on a tree high above her head. She 
 requested Joseph to procure them for her ; and, he reaching to pluck 
 them, the branch bowed down to his hand.
 
 5 66 APPENDIX. 
 
 A few other Italian paintings, such as Vasari's " Angelic Salu- 
 tation," one of the best specimens of the author artist ; Sassoferrato's 
 full-length " Madonna," Pietro da Cortona's " Nativity of the Virgin," 
 Salvator Rosa's landscapes, and Volterra's "David slaying Goliath," 
 demand our notice; and we then pass on to the meagre Spanish 
 school, consisting of few representative pictures. The fine Spanish 
 works belonging to Louis Philippe were sold and dispersed, so that 
 many gems which formerly graced the Louvre must now be sought 
 in different European galleries. Out of the present number, Murillo's 
 grand " Conception " and " Holy Family " hang in the Salon Carrl. 
 Ribera's (or Spagnoletto's) " Adoration of the Shepherds " and " St. 
 Paul " are in the Grande Galerie, as are seven other Murillos, includ- 
 ing another " Immaculate Conception," a large and curious "Birth of 
 the Virgin," the gracious " Madonna of the Rosary," and the droll 
 " Miracle of San Diego," or the " Angel's Kitchen," where the saint, 
 while preparing the convent-dinner, is seized with an ecstasy and 
 floats up through the kitchen ceiling, utterly regardless of pots and 
 pans, leaving his culinary duties to attendant angels, one of whom is 
 shelling peas, and another setting the table. Murillo's colder style 
 is exemplified by a ragged but happy beggar-boy, sitting on the floor 
 with a pitcher and a basket of fruit beside him, engaged in an occu- 
 pation which the French catalogue cleverly renders as " cherchant a 
 detruire ce qui I' incommode." A majestic portrait of Philip IV. of 
 Spain belongs to Velasquez, and a " Christ bearing the Cross " to 
 Morales. Two Zurbarans have been supplied from the collection of 
 Napoleon III. 
 
 Remains of German, Dutch, and Flemish art are much more nu- 
 merous. All spectators will be delighted with the two bright and 
 charming landscapes of Cuyp, and with his " Thunder-Storm at Sea." 
 Ouintin Matsys's " Money-Changer and his Wife," or, as it is often 
 translated, " Banker and his Wife," arrests us by its characteristic 
 faces. Good portraits by Holbein, Rembrandt, Van der Heist, the 
 Pourbus family, Philippe de Champagne, and other artists, are tol- 
 erably abundant. But all are overshadowed by Rubens's stupendous 
 series in commemoration of Marie de Medici, where a vast confu- 
 sion of life-sized figures, either nude and rosy, or robed in splendid 
 drapery and jewels, are boldly grouped upon immense canvases, and 
 illustrate the life and fame of the magnificent queen. Her " Educa- 
 tion," " Marriage," and the " Birth of Louis XIII.," are commonly
 
 THE GALLERY OF THE LOUVRE. 567 
 
 considered as superior to the others. Among these large pictures are 
 the small genre scenes and landscapes on which the Dutch and Ger- 
 mans dote, comprising rural and marine views by Ruysdael, Van 
 der Neer, Paul Potter, Breughel, Berghen, Backhuysen, and Van de 
 Velde; "Victories of Louis XIV.," by Van der Meulen ; and genre 
 scenes by Teniers, Van Ostade, Mieris, Metsu, Netscher, Terburg, 
 Dow, and Van der Werff. Among these may be mentioned Jan Steen's 
 " Feast ; " Tenier's " Peter's Denial," " St. Anthony," and " Tavern 
 Scene;" Metsu's " Vegetable Market at Amsterdam;" Terburg's 
 "Music-Lesson;" Dow's "Reading the Bible," "Woman," and 
 " Dentist ; " Van der Heist's " Guild of Archers ; " Van der Meer's 
 " Lace-Maker ; " and the " Mill," by Hobbema. De Hooch's " Inte- 
 riors," Van Ostade's "Fish Market," and Rubens's " Flemish Fair" 
 should not be forgotten. Rembrandt's portrait of himself, in tones 
 of clear, golden brown, is exceedingly beautiful. Notice the portraits 
 by Hals, Rubens, Holbein, and Vandyck, particularly Vandyck's like- 
 ness of himself, " Children of King Charles I.," the " Duke of Bavaria 
 and Prince Rupert," " Duke of Richmond," and likewise the " Marquis 
 d'Aytona." Another picture by Vandyck, at the extreme end of the 
 gallery, usually overlooked by critics, shows a Madonna and Child 
 adored by two devout grandees, male and female. The expression 
 of worship and rapt consecration in the husband's face is touching to 
 behold ; while the wife kneels in stolid uprightness, patiently waiting 
 the cooling of her partner's fervor. 
 
 Passing once more up the Grande Galerie to assure ourselves 
 that nothing of importance is overlooked, we observe in addition 
 Luini's " Holy Family," Perugino's " Love and Chastity," Lorenzo 
 Lotto's " St. Jerome," and his " Holy Family ; " a " Nativity of Christ " 
 and " Triumph of Titus " by G. Romano ; " Presentation," by Gentile 
 da Fabriano ; Albertinelli's " Madonna and Saints ; " Cesareda Sesto's 
 " Madonna with the Scales;" and Canaletto's "View of the Grand 
 Canal, Venice." Neither must we forget Raphael's fine portrait of 
 the Count Castiglioni, and two portraits, thought to be the artist and 
 his fencing-master ; the fair, spiritual, and blue-eyed " Portrait of a 
 Youth," by Ubertini or Bacchiacca, once believed to be Raphael's 
 portrait; "St. John," by Sebastian del Piombo; "Joan of Aragon," 
 ascribed to Raphael and Romano ; and the lovely " St. Margaret," in 
 robes of celestial blue, with a little red mantle thrown lightly across 
 her shoulder, stepping courageously forward over the prostrate dragon, 
 37
 
 568 APPENDIX. 
 
 with her martyr's palm-branch. This composition has been much 
 injured, and even its authenticity is not so clear as might be desired ; 
 but no face from Raphael's brush, except that of the Sistine Ma- 
 donna, is so preeminently pure and ethereal. 
 
 A "St. John Baptist," attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, is so very 
 suave and smiling as to strangely icsemble a Bacchus. Others ?s- 
 signed to him are almost incurably damaged by time and restorations. 
 The " Vierge aux Rochers," which makes a fascinating photograph, 
 is probably from his own design, but shows the ravages of time or 
 man, being dark and disagreeable in color. Titian has some strong 
 and deep-toned portraits ; a pastoral Holy Family, known as " La 
 Vierge au Lapin " from the white rabbit in the foreground ; and a 
 " Supper at Emmaus," where it has been suggested that the two 
 companion pilgrims are Cardinal Ximenes and the Emperor Charles 
 V., while the page who serves them was studied from the young 
 Philip II. of Spain. Such tradition has no foundation in fact. His 
 portrait of " Francis I." is said to have been painted from a medal, 
 and not from life ; but the medal must have been very animated and 
 expressive. Further admirable examples of the Venetian school are 
 seen in the " Holy Family " ascribed to Gian Bellini, which Morelli 
 credits to Rondinelli ; Veronese's " Esther;" Paris Borclone's " Ver- 
 tumnus and Pomona ; " Palma Vecchio's brilliant " Adoration of the 
 Shepherds ; " and Tintoretto's " Paradise " and " Portrait." 
 
 Their Venetian glow is equaled by Fra Bartolomeo's splendid 
 "Angelic Salutation " and "Virgin with Saints," whose rich inten- 
 sity of color has nothing glaring or harsh. Albertinelli's and Lo- 
 renzo di Credi's " Virgin and Child " are sacred and sweet ; and 
 Andrea del Sarto's " Charity " is interesting, not only for its techni- 
 cal merit, but from the circumstances of his sad story, and its like- 
 ness to his alluring wife. 
 
 Valuable as is this collection of old masters, France cannot be ac- 
 cused of neglecting the works of native artists. A number of saloons, 
 well filled, attest her appreciation of her own painters. Some of 
 these, indeed, are devoted to one single man of genius. Thus, for 
 instance, twenty-two large pictures on the " History of St. Bruno " (in 
 which the " Death of St. Bruno " is most forcible) occupy an entire 
 apartment. The same is true of Joseph Vernet's fifteen graphic 
 marine views of the " Harbors of France," while a smaller, highly- 
 decorated saloon was formerly adorned with a series of " Scenes from
 
 THE GALLERY OF THE LOUVRE. 569 
 
 the Life of Alexander the Great," by Charles Lebrun, court-painter 
 to Louis XIV. They were assigned this honorable position because 
 the victories of Alexander were flatteringly supposed to allegorize 
 the triumphs of the Grand Monarch. 
 
 The early specimens of the French school gathered in the Louvre 
 are curious though not abundant. Probably the most ancient are a 
 " Death of St. Denis " and a " Descent from the Cross " (about 1380). 
 It was formerly in the abbey of St.-Germain-des-Pres, then at St.- 
 Denis. The background represents not only a French landscape, 
 but the towers of the Louvre and adjacent buildings. Some have 
 ascribed it to Van Eyck, some to a Venetian painter, but Villot 
 thinks it was done by a French artist who had been under Flemish 
 tuition. Most interesting historical portraits of the age and school 
 of Clouet, especially "Charles VII.," by Foucquet, are in a bay of 
 the Grande Galerie, as are likewise two singular pictures of court- 
 balls given in the reign of Henri III., where the figures of Catharine 
 de Medici, Margaret of Navarre, the Duke de Mayenne, and other 
 celebrities, are intended as portraits from life. The " Last Judg- 
 ment," by Cousin, is but a Lilliputian version of the great subject, 
 with a superfluity of fifteenth-century architecture ; but it is almost 
 his only remaining oil-painting. Vouet's pictures have a more sol- 
 emn tone. His " Presentation in the Temple " and " Roman Char- 
 ity " are carefully finished and effective. 
 
 Turning to more mcdern times, we enter a lofty and well-lighted 
 hall where the landscapes of Poussin and Claude Lorraine are ad- 
 vantageously displayed. Here are Poussin's tender and mournful 
 "Arcadian Shepherds," and such larger but less pleasing sacred 
 and classical pieces as " Rebecca at the Well," the " Finding of 
 Moses," "Judgment of Solomon," "Triumph of Flora," and the 
 " Four Seasons." The concluding season " Winter," or " The Del- 
 uge " was executed by Poussin at the age of seventy-one, and is 
 the last relic of his genius. 
 
 The serene and sunny landscapes of Claude are a perpetual joy 
 to the beholder. Nowhere do we find such light, such atmosphere, 
 such an insight into the poetry of Nature. Their rocks, perhaps, 
 may not be rugged or sharp enough, nor their foliage botanically 
 veined ; but here are the very skies and fields of Eden, and we may 
 dream ourselves blest inhabitants. His marine views are unsurpassed. 
 Golden sunshine, golden water, and golden mist happy shores be-
 
 570 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 yond and ships that sail into the sunset, enchant us with a beauty 
 ever new because ever suggestive. Near these landscapes hang 
 other large and small French pictures of the period ; among them 
 Le Sueur's " Descent from the Cross" and the "St. Paul at Ephe- 
 sus," which used to be annually exhibited at Notre-Dame every ist 
 of May ; Mignard's " Vierge a la Grappe," a graceful composition re- 
 calling " Virgin of Cherries ; " Mignard's " St. Cecilia ; " Jouvenet's 
 " Raising of Lazarus ; " Lebrun's " Battle of Arbela" and " Crucifix- 
 ion," where the angels lament, and the crown of France reposes on 
 a blue-velvet cushion below the cross ; Lebrun's " Magdalene," seat- 
 ed before a mirror, said to be the penitent Mademoiselle La Valliere , 
 his holy family called the " B6nedicite ; " and a number of excellent 
 portraits, such as Rigaud's " Louis XIV. " and " Philip V. of Spain," 
 Mignard's " Madame de Maintenon," " Louis of France," and " The 
 Grandchildren of Louis XIV.," and Le Brun's portrait of himself in 
 his youth. A whole day might be profitably employed in studying 
 the portraits of the Louvre, for in no museum do we meet such an 
 assemblage of eminent and interesting personages. 
 
 Some spacious saloons are reserved for the exposition of modem 
 French art. In the Salle des Sept Cheminees are placed some 
 large classical works by David " Belisarius demanding Alms," the 
 " Sabine Women throwing themselves between the Roman and Sa- 
 bine Combatants," and " Leonidas at Thermopylae." Classic attitudes, 
 antique costumes, polished armor, .and vehement but mannered ac- 
 tion, would seem to endow these paintings with historic accuracy ; 
 but one must smile to perceive how far the French element outshines 
 the Roman. David highly esteemed his "Contest at Thermopylae," 
 and remarked, waith naive self-conceit, " No other but myself could 
 have conceived such a Leonidas ! " His portraits of Pope Pius VII.. 
 and of Madame Recamier, should not be overlooked. 
 
 More powerful than David's cold memories of antiquity is Gri- 
 cault's painful but impressive " Shipwreck of the Medusa." It is ? 
 raft full of dead and dying men ; the raft filling nearly all the canvas, 
 and the figures of life-size. In the extremity of their despair help has 
 come, and they are just signaling a sail ; but the ghastly horror of 
 the scene is appalling. A f.sry " Hussar," and wounded " Cuiras- 
 sier," by the same artist, hang right and left of the " Shipwreck.'' 
 The other two rides of the room are mainly devoted to the works of 
 David's followers and pupils. Girodet Trioson's " Interment of Ata-
 
 TH2. GALLERY OF THE LOUVRE. 
 
 571 
 
 la," from its wan coloring, tragic treatment, and the pathos of its 
 lifeless form, will be sure to attract the spectator. The sentiment is 
 well carried out, even to the inscription upon the rock : " I have 
 passed away as a flower; I am withered as the grass of the field." 
 From this we may turn to David's " Coronation of Napoleon I.," and 
 to Madame Lebrun's portraits, especially the lovely portrait of her- 
 self and daughter. Guerin's " Hippolytus " and " Clytemnestra and 
 Agamemnon " are his most forcible pictures. In the latter, the hero 
 is sleeping while Clytemnestra approaches, and the scene is lighted 
 by a lamp half concealed behind a red curtain. Gerard's "Psyche 
 receiving the First Kiss of Love " is piquant and pretty, but yields in 
 interest to portraits of Marchesa Visconti and Isabey. Gros's " Gen- 
 eral Fournier," and his "Bonaparte in the Plague-Hospital 1 of Jaffa," 
 are works of historic value, and had, in their day, an immense suc- 
 cess ; though the figure of Napoleon, in the last composition, is not so 
 imposing as was customary in the pictures of that period. Granet's 
 " Lower Church of St. Francis, at Assisi," is not only remarkable for 
 the interest of its locality, but is one of the most satisfactory examples 
 of the method of this talented French painter of interiors ; while 
 Prudhon's "Rape of Psyche" and "Crime pursued by Justice and 
 Vengeance " are in their way equally characteristic specimens of the 
 distinguished artist, who, in practice and principles, was so opposed 
 to David. 
 
 In the Salle Denon hang artists' portraits ; but another gallery 
 and Salle des Etals continue French pictures of the eighteenth and 
 nineteenth centuries. Among them we may enumerate Leopold 
 Robert's rural Roman scenes ; Gros's " Napoleon after the Battle of 
 Eylau ; " Ingres's " Apotheosis ot Homer ; " Delacroix's " Barque of 
 Dante," " Massacre at Scio," and " Crusaders at Constantinople ; " 
 Vernet's " Barrieve de Clichy," and " Raphael and Michael Angelo 
 at the Vatican;" Gleyre's "Evening" and "Lost Illusions;" Ary 
 Scheffer's " Temptation," and " St. Augustine and Monica ; " Bou- 
 cher's Venuses and Pastorals ; Regnault's " General Prim ; " and 
 Paul Delaroche's " Death of Queen Elizabeth of England." 
 
 In contrast to these we have the genre scenes and sweet female 
 figures of Greuze, whose masterpieces are here brought together. 
 Though once refused admission to the French Academy, the Louvre 
 is now proud to exhibit these valuable works, so pure in conception, 
 tender in flesh-tints, and correct in finish. The " Broken Pitcher,"
 
 572 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 the " Paternal Curse," the " Repentant Son," and the " Marriage 
 Contract," are simple but renowned pieces, whose natural grace and 
 attraction exceed those of many classic canvases. The same may be 
 less strongly said of some of Watteau's light and cheerful pictures, 
 especially his " Embarcation ; " and of Chardin's pictures of still-life. 
 Coming still nearer to our own times, we may be interested in 
 recognizing the many beautiful and poetic renderings of Nature 
 visible in the fine landscapes of Corot, Chintreuil, Daubigny, Diaz, 
 and Millet, as well as in Rousseau's " Forest of Fontainebleau " and 
 " Marsh in the Landes." Here, too, are Troyon's " Return to the 
 Farm " and " Bullocks going to their Work ; " examples of Fromen- 
 tin's, Belly's, and Decamps's Oriental scenes ; bulls by Brascassat ; 
 Courbet's " Burial at Ornans ; " Couture's " Romans of the Deca- 
 dence ; " and many others of the noblest pictures of modern masters. 
 Such living artists as secure a sufficient reputation to make their 
 works valuable to the Government are honored with a place in the 
 Luxembourg; and there we must seek many names of celebrity. 
 But as the painters die, their best and most representative works are 
 soon transferred from the Gallery of the Luxembourg to the Louvre. 
 So it will be with De Neuville, Meissonier, Dupre, Cabanel, and all 
 the great men who have lately passed away. Thus the finest French 
 art is always kept before the eyes of the French people. 
 
 THE NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON, 
 
 Apart from its intrinsic merit, is of extreme interest to an American 
 traveler, because it is usually the first foreign collection of pictures 
 which it is his privilege to visit. Here he beholds the creations of 
 Raphael, Titian, and Correggio, and sees before him antique altar- 
 pieces and precious relics of mediaeval art. But, without detracting 
 from the value of these, or from the earnestness with which they 
 should be studied, the stranger must remember that English paint- 
 ings form a peculiar attraction of the English gallery, and that, while 
 he can elsewhere grow familiar with Italian and Flemish master- 
 pieces, he will not find on the Continent the superb landscapes of 
 Turner, the portraits of Sir Joshua Reynolds, or the works of Ho- 
 garth, Gainsborough, and Landseer. Let him, therefore, carefully 
 acquaint himself with their beauties. 
 
 The London National Gallery is accessibly located in Trafalgar 
 Square. From its entrance-hall we descend to the Turner Water-
 
 THE NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON. 573 
 
 Colors, and to the fine drawings of the Arundel Society. Passing 
 back again up the massive staircase and through the vestibule, we 
 enter the splendid Saloons of Paintings. Fourteen hundred foreign 
 and British pictures, including many fine collections donated or be- 
 queathed, are thus exhibited to the people. The new apartments and 
 extensions have been in process of erection and decoration since 1884. 
 The six rooms, completed in 1887, are very well lighted, and well filled 
 with the masterpieces, occasionally changing the arrangement indi- 
 cated in these subsequent pages. The gem of the whole is Raphael's 
 Ansidei Madonna, lately purchased, for which ^70,000 was paid. 
 
 Among old masters of Italian schools, beginning, by first date, 
 with Margaritone of Arezzo, Duccio di Buoninsegna, and with other 
 early artists, several altar-pieces are conspicuous. It is a pity that it 
 was deemed necessary to restore these so extensively, and to varnish 
 them quite so brightly. Andrea Orcagna's " Coronation of the Vir- 
 gin, with Adoring Saints and Angels," painted on wood, in distem- 
 per, not in oil-colors, should be particularly noticed. The attitudes 
 are stiff, as is usual in such mediaeval examples, but the Virgin's 
 head is beautiful, and the draperies rich and ornate. The Venetian 
 Crivelli (in Room VIII) has similar large compositions on wood, all 
 removed, like Orcagna's, from Italian churches. The most pleasing 
 of these is an elaborate altar-piece, in three stages and thirteen com- 
 partments, displaying an enthroned Madonna, surrounded by nearly 
 all the saints in the calendar. In another extraordinary Venetian 
 altar-painting of " The Circumcision," by Marziale, a white poodle- 
 dog, with red collar, is sitting on the ground below the stately Virgin. 
 A sacred " Predella " is ascribed to Fra Angelico, a " Madonna" to 
 Cimabue, and a fragment of " Two Apostles " to Giotto. Filippo 
 Lippi's ." Annunciation," " Seated Saints," and " Madonna," as well 
 as Filippino Lippi's Madonnas and " Adoration of the Magi," are very 
 harmonious and warm in color, and soft and graceful in expression. 
 
 Other admirable specimens of the Tuscan school include two Ma- 
 donnas and an " Adoration " from Lorenzo di Credi ; with another 
 "Adoring Madonna" and " Martyrdom of St. Sebastian," by Polla- 
 juolo ; portraits and " Holy Family," by Andrea del Sarto ; and Botti- 
 celli's inimitable "Nativity," tender, sad Madonnas, and " Mars and 
 Venus." In the Venetian Saloon are the works of Titian and Gian Bel- 
 lini, with a few such Venetian paintings as Paul Veronese's " Adora- 
 tion of the Wise Men," where sixteen life-size figures, with angels,
 
 574 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 cherubs, camels, and horses, are picturesquely gathered among Ro- 
 man ruins, and his " Family of Darius," in which all the chief person- 
 ages are portraits of the Pisani family in splendid Venetian costumes. 
 " The Consecration of St. Nicholas " is less impressive. Sebastian del 
 Piombo's " Resurrection of Lazarus " is also a most important produc- 
 tion. It was originally executed at Rome, in rivalry with Raphael's 
 " Transfiguration," and the bold outlines of its figures were popularly 
 believed to have been the work of Michael Angelo. Titian's " Ma- 
 donna and Saints," his " Bacchus and Ariadne," " Holy Family," and 
 " Noli me tangere," are especially to be noticed ; as are also Tinto- 
 retto's "St. George;" Gian Bellini's ''Doge Loredano " and "Ma- 
 donna," and "Agony in Gethsemane;" Carpaccio's "Virgin and 
 Doge ; " Cima's " Incredulity of St. Thomas : " Crivelli's " Madon- 
 na ; " Moretto's portraits ; Catena's " Warrior adoring the Infant 
 Christ ;" and Moroni's "Tailor," " Lawyer," and "Italian Nobleman." 
 
 Among the Bolognese we come to Francia's pathetic " Pieta "and 
 " Throned Virgin." With the more mystic Umbrians is a very satis- 
 factory example of Perugino's manner, consisting of part of an altar- 
 piece, in three compartments, from a convent in Pavia. In the center 
 we observe the Virgin ecstatically worshiping the Child, who lies 
 before her, while on one compartment is the archangel Michael in 
 armor ; on the other, the guardian archangel Raphael leading the 
 boy Tobias. Mantegna's " Enthroned Madonna adored by St. John 
 Baptist and the Magdalene " is a noble composition, in which the 
 upturned face of the Magdalen is most fair. Pinturicchio's " Grisel- 
 da " series interests us. A " Christ disputing with the Doctors," cata- 
 logued as by Leonardo da Vinci, is by Luini ; but " Virgin of the 
 Rocks " is a genuine Leonardo, similar to that of the Louvre. All the 
 works of Raphael naturally claim our most earnest and admiring at- 
 tention. Foremost among these is the " Madonna degli Ansiclei," 
 where the Virgin, in her symbolic colors, enthroned under a canopy, 
 with the infant Saviour, points to an open missal on her lap. On one 
 side of her is St. John Baptist ; on the other stands St. Nicholas of 
 Bari, clad as a bishop. Landscape and a city are in the distance. 
 Below the throne is written, "SALVE MATER CHRISTI." A replica 
 of " Pope Julius " is also here. 
 
 With " St. Catharine of Alexandria " we are already acquainted 
 by engravings. She stands, leaning on her wheel, with a landscape 
 background. The proportions of the figure are full, the face inno-
 
 THE NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON. 
 
 575 
 
 cent and resigned. A half-length " Virgin and Infant," seated under 
 an arch, the Child holding a flower and the little St. John a cross, is 
 well known as the " Garvagh Madonna." A small panel entitled the 
 " Vision of a Knight " is an interesting relic of Raphael's youthful 
 years. Two unfinished tempera-paintings are attributed to Michael 
 Angelo. He seldom condescended to easel painting in oils; only 
 one example is left in Florence. " The Dream of Human Life," 
 which this gallery also places under the name of the great Florentine 
 master, was doubtless taken from his designs by his favorite, Sebas- 
 tian del Piombo. As a forerunner of Michael Angelo we may study 
 the large compositions of Signorelli, especially his "Circumcision," 
 and formal but fine " Nativity," where angels adore, and shepherds 
 receive the holy message. Correggio's " Holy Family," or " Vierge 
 au Punier," so called from the conspicuous work-basket, is a do- 
 mestic scene of Palestine, with Joseph laboring as a carpenter in the 
 background. There is also a pathetic " Ecce Homo," and a very rich 
 Correggio, entitled " Mercury instructing Cupid in the Presence of 
 Venus," which finely illustrates his mythological manner. The two 
 studies of " Angels' Heads," after Correggio, with their remarkably 
 lovely and innocent childish faces, are considered by some critics as 
 designs once intended for frescoes at Parma. A bust-figure of Christ, 
 " Salvator Mundi," by Antonello da Messina, lustrous in tint, and 
 draped in crimson and blue, was brought to London from Genoa, and 
 shows how early Flemish methods were carried to Italy. 
 
 Among the attractions of the Spanish Saloon are Murillo's " Peas- 
 ant Boy of Spain," in naturalistic style; and also the well-known 
 " Divine Shepherd " or " St. John with the Lamb." The latter is a 
 dark-eyed Spanish boy, charming, but by no means divine, embracing 
 a lamb with one hand and pointing to heaven with the other. Not far 
 distant are Zurbaran's kneeling " Monk," with a skull ; Ribera's 
 "Dead Christ;" Morales's highly finished "Holy Family;" and 
 Velasquez's "Admiral Pareja" and "The Scourging of Christ," 
 or " Christ at the Column," which were purchased for the Na- 
 tional Gallery some forty years since from Louis Philippe's collection 
 in the Louvre. " Philip IV., of Spain, hunting the Wild Boar " is, 
 however, more characteristic of Velasquez, who had little taste for 
 biblical subjects. He delighted in portraits of Philip IV., in all varied 
 positions. This distinguished master is always adequately and viv- 
 idly represented by portraits of Castilian heroes, superbly dressed,
 
 576 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 with sombrero and staff. All the leading national traits are marvel- 
 ously rendered and emphasized. The grandee is before you. 
 
 The adjacent French school has not many masterpieces ; but 
 within its compass we find small portraits by Clouet and by Cham- 
 paigne; a curious "Return of the Ark," by Sebastien Bourdon; a 
 portrait of Cardinal Fleury by Rigaud ; a classic group by Boucher ; 
 classic landscapes by Nicolas Poussin ; Heads by Greuze, and some of 
 the most exquisite Claudes in Europe. Two of the latter, " The Em- 
 barkation of the Queen of Sheba " and " The Meeting of Isaac and 
 Rebecca," hang on either side by Turner's own desire and terms ot 
 his will as pendants to his landscapes of " Dido building Carthage " 
 and " The Sun rising through a Mist." Of course, Turner's object 
 was to prove his superiority to Claude. It is extremely interesting 
 thus to compare their different styles. 
 
 Three spacious apartments are devoted to Dutch, German, and 
 Flemish pictures of varying periods. Though not always chronologic- 
 ally arranged, yet, as they are within comparatively small compass, 
 it will be worth the trouble to study them chronologically, commenc- 
 ing with the earliest, where we discover, among other curious remains, 
 a " Sancta Veronica, or Image of our Lord," by Meister Wilhelm, of 
 Cologne ; a " Group of Saints," on a gold ground, by Meister Stephan, 
 and a little " Madonna and Child," ascribed to Margaret Van Eyck, 
 the artist sister of Hubert and Jan Van Eyck. Her famous brother, 
 Jan, has left a most valuable and authentic composition called " Por- 
 traits of Jean Arnolfini and his Wife," standing, with joined hands, 
 in a room whose wonderfully-finished background displays a bed, a 
 chandelier, a window, and a mirror, with surrounding objects re- 
 flected in the mirror, and miniatures set in its frame. One other real- 
 istic likeness, called "The Turbaned Portrait," may perpetuate his 
 memory. Jan Mabuse has a portrait, and Hans Memling a " Virgin 
 and Infant Enthroned." Fragmentary altar-pieces, by the master of 
 the Lyversberg " Passion," the master of the Cologne " Crucifixion," 
 and the master of Liesborn, are very quaint and full of detail. In one 
 of them St. Peter stands holding in his right hand gold and silver 
 keys, and in his left a pair of spectacles, while St. Dorothea, beside 
 him, bears a basket of roses. Quintin Matsys has bust-figures of 
 "Christ and the Virgin," on a gold ground. Holbein's "Ambassa- 
 dors," a life-size portrait-group, elegantly dressed and curiously and 
 quaintly decorated, represent him to splendid advantage. Martin
 
 THE NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON. 
 
 577 
 
 Schoen's " Death of the Virgin " (ascribed to him) renders tradition of 
 that legend. The " Portrait of a Senator," once assigned to Albrecht 
 Diirer, is calm, powerful, and well robed, but hard and German in 
 outline. Cranach's half-length " Portrait of a Young Lady," gayly 
 dressed, is equally characteristic, and might serve to illustrate the 
 difference between Northern and Southern female types. A " Depo- 
 sition in the Tomb " is attributed to Roger Van der Weyden, and a 
 few portraits, or sacred figures, to that mythical artist Van der Wey- 
 den the Younger. 
 
 Rubens has not been forgotten by the collectors of the English Gal- 
 lery. An allegorical composition of "Peace and War, "painted for King 
 Charles I., is one of his best-preserved efforts, as are also his clnssic 
 " Triumph of Julius Caesar" and "Judgment of Paris." " The Brazen 
 Serpent " is a grand and animated subject, repeated from a similar 
 example in the Museum of Madrid. " The Residence of Rubens " is 
 a bright morning landscape. Other natural and mythological scenes 
 are near, but none are so attractive as the portrait of a lady in black, 
 with crimson sleeves, black hat and white feather, known as " The 
 Straw Hat," or " Chapeau de Paille," lately acquired in the "Peel 
 Collection." Vandyck has his portraits, " Charles I. on Horseback ; " 
 the " Miraculous Draught of Fishes," catalogued as a study for an- 
 other picture ; a " Crucifixion ; " and a noble head of a gray-haired man 
 between fifty and sixty, known as Gevartius. Teniers exhibits to us 
 his " Chateau at Perck," as a companion to " The Residence of Ru- 
 bens," four landscapes of " The Seasons," and several interiors and 
 genre pieces, the best of which are "The Music Party," "The 
 Backgammon Players," " The Misers," and " Dives, or the Rich 
 Man in Hell," frequently termed " Le Mauvais Riche." 
 
 Specimens of the Dutch school are generally moderate in size, but 
 excellent in quality. Landscapes by Cuyp, Ruysdael, Hobbema, and 
 Van der Neer ; marine views by Backhuysen and Van de Velde, and 
 interiors by De Hooghe, are marked by constant fidelity to Nature, 
 depth of tone, and patience of finish. Rembrandt lights and shades 
 the room with his pictures. We notice his own likeness, twice re- 
 peated, first at the age of thirty-two, afterward in advanced years, both 
 with cap on head and coat or cloak wrapped round him ; a still more 
 striking portrait of a Jewish rabbi, and an old lady in cap and ruff. 
 A landscape, with Tobit and the angel ; and a woman wading through 
 a stream, holding up her dress, are of great technical merit. " The
 
 57 8 APPENDIX. 
 
 Adoration of the Shepherds " is supernaturally effective in light and 
 shade, while the " Woman taken in Adultery " is delineated with 
 equal strength and vividness. " The woman, dressed in white, makes 
 the highest light ; the gloom of the temple, with its mysterious high 
 altar, the deepest shadow." The large composition of " Christ bless- 
 ing Little Children " is possibly a copy from the school of Rembrandt. 
 Paul Potter is represented by cattle; Jan Steen by "Music-Master;" 
 Wouverman by " Halt of Officers." Terburg's " Peace of Munster " is 
 a marvelously- painted memorial of the Treaty of 1648 between Spain 
 and the United Provinces. It teems with historic portraits, and sets 
 the whole event before our modern eyes. Gerard Dow's " Poulterer's 
 Shop," Metsu's "Music-Lesson," Mieris's repetition of " The Lady 
 with a Parrot," Netscher's "Maternal Instruction," and " Alchy- 
 mist," by A. Van Ostade, are favorable examples of Dutch genre 
 scenes. Ferdinand Bol, the pupil of Rembrandt, puzzles us with a 
 portrait which may be an " Astronomer," with book and globes. 
 Bartholomew van der Heist has a " Young Lady in Blue," and Ver- 
 meer, of Delft, a remarkable " Young Musician," recently purchased. 
 Before we inspect the treasures of the early modern or British 
 school, we are drawn by irresistible attraction to the well-known 
 Turner collection, dear to readers of Ruskin and to all lovers of the 
 beautiful. These works were willed by the artist to the nation, and 
 splendidly exemplify his varied style through every period of his 
 career. Here is the very shrine of landscape-art, for nowhere in the 
 Old World, can we behold the beauties of Nature so faithfully yet 
 poetically transferred to canvas. The pictures of Claude are the only 
 ones which compare with them in charm ; but they are scattered in 
 small numbers through many a gallery, while Turner's hang in one 
 array of concentrated loveliness. Every traveler has his favorites, 
 but the majority prefer "Crossing the Brook," " Childe Harold's Pil- 
 grimage," " The Building of Carthage," " Caligula's Palace and 
 Bridge," " The Bay of Baiae with Apollo and the Sibyl," or other 
 romantic Southern landscapes. " Calais Pier " and " The Death of 
 Nelson " are colder in tone, but more realistic. Exquisite " Views of 
 Venice " give us the glow and glory of the place ; and numerous in- 
 stances of strange experiments in intense and fantastic color are seen 
 on every side. Among the most celebrated are " Ulysses deriding 
 Polyphemus," where sky and ocean are one brilliant fusion of gold, 
 scarlet, and crimson : Wilkie's " Burial at Sea," lit by miclnighl
 
 THE NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON. 579 
 
 torches, and "The Fighting Temeraire," of which Thackeray writes : 
 " The old Temeraire is dragged to her last home by a little, spiteful, 
 diabolical steamer. A mighty red sun, amid a host of flaring clouds, 
 sinks to rest on one side of the picture, and illuminates a river that 
 seems interminable, and a countless navy that fades away into such 
 wonderful distance as never was painted before. The little demon 
 of a steamer is belching out a volume of foul, lurid, red-hot, malig- 
 nant smoke, paddling furiously, and lashing up the water round about 
 it ; while, behind it, a cold-gray moon, looking down upon it, slow, 
 sad, and majestic, follows the brave old ship, with death, as it were, 
 written on her." 
 
 Other saloons, abundantly filled, contain the works of many other 
 English artists. Sir Joshua Reynolds does not depend for fame upon 
 his portraits alone, but is also represented by " The Banished Lord," 
 a "Holy Family," "The Three Graces," " Infant Samuel," " Snake 
 in the Grass," " Heads of Angels," and " Age of Innocence," all of 
 which, familiar through engravings, we meet as well-remembered 
 friends. Hogarth's admirable series of " Mariage a la Mode " " points 
 a moral and adorns a tale " to the spectator of to-day as aptly as it 
 has ever done to past generations. Lawrence's lady portraits are 
 still beautiful, though too bland and inanimate. Gainsborough's 
 landscapes, especially the " Market Cart " and " Rustic Children," 
 are the ideal of rural England. The " Watering Place " and " Musi- 
 dora" are also attractive, but not equal in interest to his charming 
 portrait of Mrs. Siddons, in striped blue dress, shawl, and muff, her 
 bright eyes smiling out from under an enormous bonnet. 
 
 Landscape or rustic pieces by Constable, Creswick, Calcott, Col- 
 lins, Crome, Nasmyth, and Mulready render charming home scenery 
 or domestic sports. Wilkie's "John Knox" is admirable; his "Blind 
 Fiddler " and " Village Festival " illustrate happy, genial life. Rae- 
 burn's life-size " Portrait of a Lady " justifies his reputation. Under 
 Romney's facile brush Lady Hamilton smiles as a " Bacchante." 
 Leslie's " Uncle Toby and the Widow " and Macjise's " Malvolio and 
 the Countess " are sparkling episodes of humorous genre. Maclise 
 has also a " Scene from Hamlet." We may observe the mirthful 
 " Canterbury Pilgrims " of Stothard, and Etty's " Youth on the Prow 
 and Pleasure at the Helm." Eastlake has left us a carefully-finished 
 sacred piece of " Christ lamenting over Jerusalem," an " Escape of 
 an Italian Family," and the Greek girl " Haidee." Herbert's " Sir
 
 580 APPENDIX. 
 
 Thomas More and Daughter " is thoughtful and suggestive. Cop- 
 ley's " Death of Lord Chatham " is an immense historical picture, 
 with fifty-five portrait-heads. Dante Gabriel Rossetti's mystic hut 
 popular " Annunciation " and his dreamy " Beata Beatrix " are spe- 
 cial gems of the modern school, as are also the " Harbour of Ref- 
 uge " and " Vagrants," left as examples of Frederick Walker. Con- 
 stable's truly English landscapes, with their fine effects of clouds 
 and rain drifting over the broad meadow-lands, are particularly to 
 be noted and admired. They are simple in subject but most forcible 
 in style. Stanfield's marine views, Bonington's coast scenes, Rob- 
 erts's " Interiors," and George Lance's fruit-pieces, are excellent in 
 their departments. Landseer's animals fascinate us by their indi- 
 viduality and human sympathies. None can surpass " The Hunted 
 Stag " in pathos, while, on the other hand, every glance, every stroke, 
 and every hair of " Dignity and Impudence," " Alexander and Di- 
 ogenes," and " Low Life and High Life," are instinct with expressive 
 and good-natured satire. 
 
 Another collection of Landseer's inimitable compositions is on 
 exhibition at Kensington, where many other gems of English artists 
 may be inspected. Indeed, all visits to the gallery in Trafalgar Square 
 should be supplemented by an examination of the South Kensington 
 Museum, Hampton Court, and the royal paintings at Windsor Castle. 
 The traveler should also endeavor to see the National Portrait Gal- 
 lery, all London collections, and galleries of eminent noblemen whose 
 pictures so largely add to the art treasures of Great Britain. 
 
 THE DRESDEN GALLERY, 
 
 Unexcelled by any in Europe, combines Northern comfort with South- 
 ern splendor. It is, of all Continental galleries, the best warmed in 
 Europe, and well furnished with convenient seats, so that mind and 
 body unite to appreciate its treasures. 
 
 The Electors and Kings of Saxony have, indeed, left the public a 
 precious legacy of their taste and munificence. While the reputation 
 of their pictures was ever sufficient to attract all travelers to their king- 
 dom, the present gallery, inaugurated in 1855, has placed these noble 
 paintings in a fitting temple, where their merits may be recognized at 
 a glance, and their beauties studied with never-ceasing delight. 
 
 Ascending a broad staircase, and crossing an outer hall, the vis- 
 itor finds himself in an elevated rotunda, hung with Flemish tapes-
 
 THE DRE'SDEN GALLERY. 5 gi 
 
 tries woven from the designs of Quintin Matsys and the cartoons of 
 Raphael. From this central point the gallery stretches right and 
 left, descending, by a few steps on either hand, to spacious and airy 
 saloons, representing on one side the Italian schools, terminated b) 
 the apartment devoted to the Sistine Madonna ; and on the other the 
 Spanish, Flemish, and Dutch schools, ending with the Holbein Ma- 
 donna-Room. Many well-lighted cabinets, connecting at intervals 
 with these saloons, are filled with the smaller pictures ; while an up- 
 per story of the building accommodates the rest of the collection. 
 
 Beginning our approach to the Sistine Madonna, we pass from 
 the rotunda to the hall of Bolognese Masters, where Annibale Car- 
 racci's immense pictures of the " Assumption of the Virgin," and 
 " St. Roch distributing Alms," are the first to be noticed. The 
 ' Genius of Glory " is but a feeble imitation of Guido Reni's " For- 
 tuna " at Rome. Guido's " Ninus and Semiramis," to the right of 
 the staircase, would be equally comprehensible under its old title of 
 the " Queen of Sheba and Solomon." His religious ideas are 
 strangely illustrated by another composition of the " Risen Saviour " 
 appearing to his astonished mother, attended by the somewhat incon- 
 gruous group of Adam, Eve, and St. Charles Borromeo, who are 
 supposed to be just delivered from Hades. A reposing " Susanna 
 at the Bath " is by Allori, and a fine " Entombment " by Bnroccio. 
 Guercino's " Lot and his Daughters" is boldly colored, strongly exe- 
 cuted, and very disagreeable. Larger classical subjects, such as 
 " Dorinda wounded in the Arms of Linco." or " Venus beholding 
 the Corpse of Adonis," ought to be interesting, but are not. Caravng- 
 gio's " Gypsy " is powerful. His " Young Lasquenet " is a dark, real- 
 istic game at cards. All his pictures of card-players are vivid and 
 intense in expression. Lanfranco's "St. Peter repenting" is one 
 of the best easel-pieces of a mediocre artist; while Franceschini's 
 "Magdalene," surrounded by women who console her, is more hys- 
 terical than penitential. 
 
 The Venetian pictures in the next apartment are exceedingly 
 brilliant and entertaining. Titian's " Holy Virgin with Saints" dis- 
 plays, on a large scale, his ample and benignant ideal of womanhood, 
 especially in the fair young female in the foreground, robed in white, 
 conventionally known as the Magdalene. In a similar composition, 
 a noble family, richly attired, whom some believe to be Lucretia 
 Borgia, the Duke of Ferrara, and their son, are devoutly addressing
 
 S 8 2 APPENDIX. 
 
 their prayers to the Virgin. Several splendid nearly full-length por- 
 traits are in his happiest manner ; a male portrait painted in his 
 eighty-fourth year; a couple of stately Venetian ladies; also a 
 gracious, bright-haired beauty, with plumy fan, said to have been 
 his daughter or mistress ; and his plump, pretty daughter " Lavinia," 
 passed beyond her youthful charms into matronly stoutness. Some 
 graceful nude figures of " Venus," including the Venus of Giorgione, 
 are among the Venetian dames. Giorgione's is the most beautiful. 
 Another reclines upon a couch, having her golden head crowned by 
 Cupid and relieved against a red curtain, with a lover playing the 
 lute beside her. The celebrated picture of " Christ and the Tribute 
 Money " is generally hung in a room a short distance off. Palma 
 Vecchio has a " Holy Family with St. Catharine " and a " Madonna 
 and Saints," in addition to his admirable " Three Sisters," and Paul 
 Veronese a number of specimens, of which the " Adoration of 
 the Magi " is most gorgeous and complete. The King Balthasar is 
 markedly negro, but Caspar is a fine old Venetian noble, with pages 
 to hold his train, and plenty of dogs and horses. A " Marriage at 
 Cana " is comparatively small, and differently treated from the colos- 
 sal " Feast " in the Louvre. A grand votive Madonna group portrays 
 the Concina family, presented by Faith, Hope, and Charity, to the 
 Virgin. Palma Vecchio gives a Venus. His " Meeting of Jacob and 
 Rachel " is a pastoral scene, charmingly managed in light and shade, 
 and a rotund Rachel embraced by a gallant mediaeval shepherd, rich 
 in gamboling lambs and the friskiest of goats. 
 
 The following hall contains a few more Venetian paintings, in- 
 cluding Veronese's and Bonifazio's " Finding of Moses ; " Veronese's 
 " Healing of the Centurion's Servant," deep in color and animated in 
 action, but weak and poor in its figure of Christ ; Cima's majestic, 
 full-length " Saviour in Benediction," holding a book very generally 
 but falsely attributed to Gian Bellini ; Moretto's meek, gray-robed 
 " Madonna " (discredited by Morelli in his criticisms) ; and Paris 
 Bordone's gay " Diana," the goddess of the Chase. Dosso Dossi's 
 " Fathers of the Church," Francia's " Baptism of Christ," Andrea 
 del Sarto's "Sacrifice of Abraham," Garofalo's touching "Adora- 
 tion of the Child," Calvaert's copy of Raphael's " St. Cecilia," and 
 Bagnacavallo's masterly composition of a "Glorified Virgin with 
 Saints," are well worth the admiration of the spectator, but are often 
 slighted for the great attraction of the room the altar-pieces of Cor-
 
 THE DRESDEN GALLEPY. 583 
 
 reggio on the right-hand wall. Here are the three Madonnas of St. 
 George, St. Sebastian, and St. Francis ; so named from the adoring 
 saints upon the canvases. In each the enthroned Virgin and Child 
 look down upon their worshipers with love and tenderness. The Ma- 
 donna of St. George turns her head with a little exaggerated smile 
 and sweetness ; but the whole arrangement of the piece, with the 
 warrior-saint below, and the angelic children who hold his armor, is 
 a marvel of grace and brilliancy. Here, too, is the celebrated " Na- 
 tivity," or " Santa Notte," of Correggio, so wonderful in conception 
 and almost miraculous in execution. " It is night. We have before 
 us the stable in which God was made man. The scene is illumined 
 by the supernatural radiance beaming from the body of the infant 
 Jesus, reclining on the straw. This light glorifies the face of the 
 Virgin Mother, who leans above her Child, and dazzles the shepherds 
 who hasten hither at sound of the glad tidings. It extends to Joseph 
 leading the ass, who would warm with his breath the suffering Saviour 
 now subjected to all the needs of humanity, and to the band of 
 angels singing their gloria in the open heavens above." The main 
 foreground of the picture is in sombre, shadowy brown ; the aerial 
 distance in deep night-blue. All has been much retouched. 
 
 Still gradually nearing Raphael's chef-d'oeuvre, we are led to a 
 small collection of pictures, mostly of the Roman school. On the left 
 of the door is a large and ancient representation of the "Annunciation," 
 with an immense snail one of the principal objects in the foreground. 
 On the other side hang good copies of two or three of Raphael's 
 Madonnas, especially the " Seggiola ; " a " Daughter of Herodias," 
 of the school of Leonardo, probably by Marco d'Oggione, copyist 
 of the " Last Supper ; " another " Herodiade " by Carlo Dolce, with 
 face averted from the sight of the bloody charger ; and a charming 
 " St. Ceciiia," also by Carlo Dolce, whose drooping head and soft, 
 rapt expression, as she plays upon her traditional organ, is sweet with- 
 out vacancy, and pensive without affectation. Just opposite we discover 
 one of Giulio Romano's best works, the " Madonna della Catena," or 
 " Madonna of the Pitcher," where the Christ child stands in a basin, 
 with the young St. John pouring over him the water symbolical of 
 his future baptism. Next this Holy Family are " Madonnas " by 
 Sassoferrato and Carlo Maratta, the latter very suggestive of Correg- 
 gio's Virgin in the " Santa Notte; " and a Virgin and Child, by Par- 
 inagiano, called the " Madonna della Rosa," exhibiting the artist's 
 
 38
 
 Y 
 
 584 APPENDIX. 
 
 ruling passion for length of limbs and fingers. There is a legend 
 that this bright and smiling pair was once a " Venus and Cupid," 
 metamorphosed into a " Madonna" to satisfy the religious instincts 
 of Pope Clement VII. 
 
 Stepping into an adjoining cabinet we find some Venetian paint- 
 ings (generally meaning of the Venetian school) from Tintoretto's 
 canvases to Domenico Feti's miniature parables. It is singular that 
 the fine Venetian painting, " Mary, Queen of Heaven, adored by 
 SS. Barbara and Catharine, two mitred Bishops, and an Acolyte," 
 should be quietly hidden in this secluded spot. It has for companion 
 a " Presentation in the Temple," by Paul Veronese, gay as ever with 
 sportive children and amiable dogs. A romantic " Magdalene," by 
 Battoni, belongs to this part of the gallery, but is sometimes removed 
 to other saloons for copying. She lies upon the ground, a large, full- 
 length figure, in careless robes of blue, her long hair flowing over 
 her shoulders, and her eyelids red with weeping. 
 
 But at last the Sanctum Sanctorum of the Madonna of San Sisto 
 is reached, and we pass into the presence of the genius of the place. 
 At the end of a long, narrow room, lighted at the side, with elabo- 
 rately frescoed ceiling and dark wall-hangings, is erected a kind of 
 altar, inscribed with the name of Raphael, the date, and the place for 
 which the picture was originally painted. Above this altar is placed 
 the matchless composition, in a richly-gilded inlaid frame, pointed at 
 top. No other work of art is near it. Nothing draws the eye from 
 the contemplation of its beauty; and no sound breaks the sacred 
 quiet. People take off their hats and speak in whispers, as in a 
 church. One sees only the light of heaven streaming in at the win- 
 dow, and the light of heaven reflected from the superhuman face of 
 the mother and the divine countenance of the child. They appear in 
 glory ; a misty halo of cherub heads melting into space behind them ; 
 venerable St. Sixtus and mild St. Barbara in ecstatic worship below ; 
 and youthful angels at the base, gazing upward in adoration. A 
 strange sense of indefinable distance creeps over us. The figures do 
 not look at the spectator : they gaze beyond us into the very depths 
 of eternity. This profound intensity of expression seems to lie pecul- 
 iarly in the deep brown eyes of the Virgin, and in the mouth of the 
 child. No copy can convey it. Form, color, and sweetness, may be 
 given ; but the divine element lingers round the creation of Raphael's 
 own hand. It is satisfactory to knc w that this gem is fully appre-
 
 THE DRESDEN GALLERY. 585 
 
 ciated. A special guardian has charge of it, and watches it with 
 jealous and anxious care. The temperature of the apartment is not 
 allowed to vary. No profane dust or too glaring light is ever allowed 
 to fall upon the canvas. Let us hope that the favored official whose 
 daily task is so aesthetic will not meet the fate of the German Miiller 
 who brooded over this celestial loveliness till he lost his life with his 
 reason, and died a sacrifice to his admirable engraving of Raphael's 
 work. 
 
 If the traveler can tear himself away from the Sistine Madonna, 
 and feels that the rest of the gallery must be " done," let him return 
 to the central rotunda and descend its opposite side to the saloon 
 now occupied by Neapolitan and Spanish painters. They will seem 
 tame at first, after Italian masterpieces ; but he will be interested in 
 Murillo's "Virgin and Child," dark-haired, tranquil-eyed, and of 
 peasant-like simplicity. Murillo is further illustrated by the charm- 
 ing " Burial of Santa Clara," with its celestial procession, a late 
 purchase of the gallery ; and by a standing " St. Rodrigue " in an 
 elaborate chasuble. A very ecstatic " St. Celestin refusing the 
 Papal Tiara," by Zurbaran ; a fine, dignified "St. Paul," by Alonso 
 Cano ; a " St. Basco of Portugal," by Valdes Leal ; an " Ecce Homo " 
 ascribed to Morales ; and two or three heads ascribed to Velasquez, 
 are the most noteworthy Spanish pictures. We recognize, in this 
 hall, Ribera's well-known "St. Mary of Egypt," with luxuriant, 
 auburn hair, kneeling on a pavement, before an open tomb ; an angel 
 in the background holding her winding-sheet. This is one of Ribera's 
 most attractive works ; but, like all his other figures, it is marked by 
 a nide splashiness of execution, and by undertones of red which have 
 struck through the overlying flesh-tints. Ribera has also a " Mar- 
 tyrdom of St. Lawrence," a ruffian-like "St. Andrew," and similar 
 sacred subjects. The " Head of Diogenes," in a neighboring hall, 
 thought to be his own portrait, resembles a melancholy demon. Lura 
 Giordano gives us " Hercules and Omphales," " Perseus with the 
 Head of Medusa," and other rapid classical and religious efforts, 
 which, combined with Vaccaro's composition of the " Risen Christ, 
 the Virgin. St. John Baptist, and the Patriarchs," quite satisfy our 
 desire to acquaint ourselves with Neapolitan art. 
 
 Four saloons adjacent two large and two small are rich in 
 Dutch and Flemish paintings. Rubens's genius, however, is but 
 inadequately realized. His principal sacred examples are a " St
 
 5 86 APPENDIX. 
 
 Jerome in Prayer;" and a rosy and buxom " Daughter of Herodias," 
 accompanied by a young girl of thirteen or fourteen. Just behind her 
 a man leans forward, and, scissors in hand, seizes a lock of hair from 
 the Baptist's head. His mythological pictures are more numerous. 
 "Neptune stilling the Waves," a "Drunken Hercules," a "Satyr 
 pressing out the Juice of the Grape," and " Diana returning from the 
 Chase," should be mentioned ; but all yield the palm in fineness of 
 finish to " The Garden of Love." Observe his " Boar Hunt." Some 
 portraits, too, are very graphic and pleasing, particularly those of his 
 two sons and his blond-haired second wife. Vandyck is represented 
 by several of his most excellent portraits. Charles I., his Queen 
 Henrietta Maria, and their quaint little children, are faithfully ren- 
 dered ; as are also the artist, Martin Ryckaert ; the brother of Rubens ; 
 a man in armor; and the Scotch Methuselah, Thomas Parr, whom 
 Vandyck has immortalized at the age of one hundred and fifty-one 
 years. In religious subjects he has not been quite so happy. A " St. 
 Jerome," hung beside the Jerome of Rubens, and a " Madonna," 
 with pearl ear-rings, are the best he offers us. Jordaens's highly- 
 colored sacred scenes repeat his master. The " Prodigal Son " is his 
 best. Sneyders's " Hunts " and " Dead Game " are painted with his 
 customary fidelity. In one of these compositions Rubens and his 
 wife appear as cooks. Another, called the " Terrestrial Paradise," 
 and crowded with all sorts of tame and savage animals, is exceed- 
 ingly curious. 
 
 Rembrandt's style is illustrated by some famous productions, 
 among which the " Sacrifice of Manoah ; " " Ganymede carried off by 
 the Eagle ; " and "Samson at a Feast of the Philistines," often mis- 
 named the " Banquet of Ahasuerus," are largest and most important. 
 But the spectator is apt to turn with more satisfaction to such vivid 
 portraits as those of a gray-bearded old man ; an old woman, weigh- 
 ing gold ; his young and gayly-dressed wife, Saskia, with a pink in 
 her hand ; or the artist himself, drinking champagne, with his wiif^on 
 nis knee. Rembrandt's pupils and followers have here left a few 
 very creditable paintings. Konincx's turbaned " Old Man " and 
 " Reading Hermit " are particularly good ; so is Ferdinand Bol's 
 " Jacob presented to Pharaoh." Honthorst's " Dentist," drawing a 
 tooth by candle-light, makes us shudder with sympathy for his unfor- 
 tunate victim. Realistic and wonderful portraits, by Mierevelt and 
 Van dcr Heist, bring the faces and figures of two centuries ago like
 
 THE DRESDEN GALLERY. 587 
 
 familiar acquaintances before our eyes. Holbein has not only the 
 Morett portrait, but a splendid double portrait in one frame. The 
 microscopically accurate portraits by Balthasar Denner in this gal- 
 lery should also be carefully noticed, as they are rare and valuable. 
 
 The Holbein Madonna- Room resembles in size the Saloon of the 
 Sistine Virgin, but is differently arranged. This " Meyer Madonna" 
 is not nearly so large as Raphael's great picture, and is not left in 
 quite solitary splendor. On the right wall we see a " Christ bearing 
 the Cross," said to be the last work of Albrecht Diirer; a rainbow- 
 spanned " Crucifixion," by Roger van der Weyden ; and a couple of 
 less significant specimens attributed to Holbein. The end of the 
 apartment is ornamented by a carved and gilded screen, in the center 
 of which hangs the Madonna; with Holbein's famous portrait of 
 Morett, the goldsmith (once thought to be by Leonardo da Vinci), 
 over an exquisitely fine little " Virgin and Child " by Van Eyck, on 
 one side, and the original drawing for the Morett portrait, together 
 with a small " Crucifixion " by Albrecht Diirer, on the other. The 
 "Madonna" is a copy of that at Darmstadt. She stands with 
 crowned meekness, robed in very dark green, with red girdle. The 
 infant Jesus in her arms is stretching out his hand. At her feet 
 kneel the Meyer family, consisting of an extremely Dutch burgo- 
 master in black fur-lined gown, with wig black as the plumage of 
 the raven, and a bevy of females with nun-like coiffures, one of whom, 
 clad in white, tells the beads of her red rosary. The recovered child, 
 for whom the votive offering was made, appears nude in the fore- 
 ground. The whole composition, though curiously realistic, is very 
 earnest and devout ; and the gentle Virgin seems intent to bless. 
 Admiring groups are usually seated round the room, from whom 
 one hears such exclamations as " Wunderschon ! " " Allerliebst ' " or 
 "Ac/i, Htmmel! ivie getstreich ! " For, though the Virgin of San 
 Sisto may be the pride of the German nation, the Holbein Madonna 
 is its peculiar pet. 
 
 In alluding to the contents of the twenty-one cabinets which are 
 ranged along the outer sides of the saloons, it is of course impossi- 
 ble to particularize each separate picture. We can only briefly men- 
 tion the most celebrated. The first five of these cabinets are set 
 apart for the Italian schools, beginning with early masters of the fif- 
 teenth century. Perugino is represented by a doubtful fragment ; 
 Francia by a "Virgin and Child," and a very beautiful "Adoration
 
 5 88 APPENDIX. 
 
 of the Magi," small in size, but lovely and perfect in detail. In an 
 adjacent rendering of this subject the Madonna sits under a canopy- 
 like shed, with a star in the apex, receiving the homage of the kings, 
 who have traveled upon camels and elephants in true Eastern style. 
 A " Madonna and Child " on the opposite wall has been attributed to 
 Leonardo da Vinci, but was purchased as the work of Lorenzo di 
 Credi. A singular little half-length " portrait," by Pinturrichio, is 
 sometimes called the likeness of Raphael in his youth. He has a 
 pink dress, blue cap, and long brown hair of most uncompromising 
 straightness. Another odd composition, by Francia Bigio, shows us 
 " Bathsheba " publicly bathing in full view of King David and his 
 courtiers ; while in the background is delineated the whole history of 
 Uriah. Lodovico Carracci's small " Repose in Egypt " is a charming 
 group, in the midst of a very pretty landscape. The Holy Child is 
 sleeping ; an angel is earnestly conversing with Joseph ; but the 
 mother, looking up to heaven, beholds the cross and the sad instru- 
 ments of the Passion. A " Suffering Christ " is attributed to Sebas- 
 tian del Piombo. 
 
 The " Reading Magdalene," once thought a Correggio, is a gem 
 of the second cabinet. She lies leaning on her elbow, her blue dn;- 
 pery contrasting with the deep brown and green background. Her 
 eyes are bent upon her book, and her pale golden hair ripples over 
 bust and shoulder. This little picture, painted on copper, was once 
 inclosed in a heavy frame of silver gilt, set with pearls and turquoises ; 
 but was stolen in 1788. The offer of a large reward eventually re- 
 covered the painting, minus the jewels. Near it hangs the portrait 
 of a " Physician," no longer supposed, as formerly, to have been 
 painted by Correggio. Think of the favored country towns which 
 possessed such physicians and such artists ! 
 
 The Bolognese Cabinet which follows displays Guido's well-known 
 " Ecce Homo " and " Christ crowned with Thorns ; " also a riotous 
 boy " Bacchus " drinking wine from a bottle. Here, too, are several 
 of Albani's classical works, thronged with the customary rosy Cupids ; 
 Annibale Carracci has "The Lute-Player; " and Cignani's "Joseph 
 flying from Potiphar's Wife," in which Joseph's terror and dismay are 
 almost ludicrously rendered. The succeeding room boasts, among 
 its beauties', of the "Graces," or "Three Sisters," painted by Palma 
 Vecchio ; and of Tilian's " Christo della Moneta," or Christ reply- 
 ing to the Pharisees who question him about the tribute-money.
 
 THE DRESDEN GALLERY. 589 
 
 The face of the cunning, malignant Pharisee who represents all his 
 sect is marvelously expressive, while the most distinguished critics 
 have vied in their praises of the head of our Lord. 
 
 Only a few French landscapes are owned by the gallery. Best 
 of these are two by Claude Lorraine, one of which gives us the 
 " Flight of the Holy Family," the other the " Coast of Sicily." Wat- 
 teau has two very pleasing pictures. Plenty of similar German, Dutch, 
 and Flemish compositions are contained in the remaining cabinets. 
 Wouverman's rustic scenes (especially the " Milk Can "), each with the 
 inevitable white horse, are abundant. The elder Teniers, Nicholas 
 Berghem, and Adrian Van de Velde, have also left characteristic 
 specimens. Paul Potter has but two or three pastorals. Jan Both's 
 deep golden sunlight attests his love of Italian atmosphere; and 
 Ruysclael's matchless " Monastery," " Chase," and " Jewish Ceme- 
 tery " bring us to the climax of Northern landscape art. 
 
 Dutch and Flemish genre paintings likewise exist in great perfec- 
 tion. These are frequently preserved under glass. The younger 
 Teniers has many " Rural Fetes," " Peasants," " Interiors," " Incan- 
 tation Scenes," and " Temptation of St. Anthony." Among the 
 works of Gerard Dow we especially notice the " Hermit kneeling 
 before an Open Bible;" a "Young Girl at a Window," holding a 
 candle, and gathering a bunch of grapes ; a " Schoolmaster " mend- 
 ing a pen ; an " Old Woman " looking for the end of her thread ; 
 and the artist's own portraits, drawing in a book, and playing the 
 violin. Gerard Terburg appears here as elsewhere as the " painter 
 of white satin." Jan Steen has a comical little domestic piece of a 
 mother feeding the Dutches! of Dutch babies with a spoon. Frans 
 von Mieris's " Artist's Studio " and " Young Girl listening to an Old 
 Woman " are remarkably well done. Metsu's " By the Fireside " 
 and " Lace Maker " are his best pictures. Netscher's "Portrait of 
 Madame de Montespan " is interesting, and his ladies at their 
 " Music Lesson," almost as richly dressed as Terburg's elegant 
 females. We should here study the masterpieces of Metsu and 
 Frans van Mieris, rarely found in such perfection ; also Van der 
 Meer of Delft, in his charming "Love Letter;" also candlelight 
 scenes by Schalken ; and also the works of Wouverman, a picturesque- 
 painter of his period. Wouverman's works are collected in sever.il 
 cabinets. In one of these cabinets hangs a masterpiece by Van 
 Everdingen, representing a Norwegian lake and hunt.
 
 590 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 In the last cabinet are gathered a number of ancient specimens, 
 including a large and quaint "Adoration of the Kings," by Mabuse, 
 where the figures are grouped among the ruins of a sumptuous tem- 
 ph ; and many portraits, ascribed to Holbein, Cranach, Memling, 
 Diirer, Pourbus, and others. 
 
 In addition to these is a melange of schools, interesting in 
 variety, but of doubtful authenticity. A few small and very old By- 
 zantine and Italian pictures are here preserved, such as a dark and 
 dismal " Madonna and Child," by Giunta Pisano ; an " Assumption," 
 and a " Crucifix," of the Siennese school ; a " Miracle of St. Zeno 
 bius," by Botticelli ; a " Pieta " by Squarcione ; and a " Presentatioi 
 of the Virgin " by Cima da Conegliano. The Germans are more 
 favorably represented. Specimens by Lucas Cranach abound all 
 carefully and brilliantly painted. Several are compartments of an- 
 tique altar-pieces. Others, less grave, are very curiously conceived. 
 There is, for instance, a Dutch " Daughter of Herodias," presenting 
 the head of St. John Baptist to her father, who wears a plume in 
 his cap and looks like Henry VIII. Then an " Ill-Assorted Union," 
 in which a toothless old woman is embracing a young husband ; 
 " King Solomon " enticed to idolatry by a band of North-German 
 wives ; and the Saviour blessing a company of innocent, moon-faced 
 German children. Rooms beyond are supplied with many land- 
 scapes by Poussin, Poelemburg, Swanevelt, Saftleven, Bril, Berghem, 
 and Velvet Breughel. Genre pieces by Breughel are more rare ; but 
 his brother Hollen Breughel gives us a view of the infernal regions, 
 and a " Sodom and Gomorrah," lit by lurid and flaming color. 
 
 Passing to later times we have Angelica Kaufmann's " Vestal 
 Virgin," and less graceful " Sibyl ;" together with a " Magdalene," 
 and a couple of other oil-paintings by Raphael Mengs. But Mengs's 
 most celebrated works his own portraits, that of his father, and 
 " Cupid sharpening his Arrow " must be sought among the pastel 
 pictures on the lower floor. The same collection of pastels possesses 
 Liotard's " Chocolate-Girl," and an excellent series of portraits by 
 the charming Venetian lady, Rosalba Carriera. Near these we find 
 Canale's and Canaletto's views of Venice and of Dresden ; a room 
 entirely devoted to the productions of Christian Dietrich, once court- 
 painter of Augustus III. of Saxony; a small cabinet of miniatures 
 and a large hall of magnificent engravings and drawings.
 
 THE GALLERY OF MUNICH. 
 
 591 
 
 The Dresden Gallery also comprises sections containing excellent 
 pictures of" the modern German school, including a number by Knaus, 
 Defregger, Achenbach, and other famous artists. Additions are an- 
 nually made by purchases and endowments. 
 
 THE GALLERY OF MUNICH. 
 
 MUNICH, which has been called the German Athens, is the special 
 guardian of Northern, as Florence of Southern art. Though its gal- 
 lery is not so extensive or magnificent as that of Dresden, it is a 
 better and clearer exponent of the genius of the Northern schools ; 
 while its unique assemblage of ancient German pictures gives us the 
 very essence of early art-culture in Flanders and in the provinces of 
 the Rhine. 
 
 Of modern pictures in Munich we shall not at present speak, but 
 conrine ourselves to the collection of the Old Pinakothek, which con- 
 tains about fourteen hundred paintings from all parts of Germany, 
 Italy, France, and Spain, most appropriately lodged in the splendid 
 building founded by Ludwig I., and finished in 1836 under the title 
 of the " Royal Pinakothek." The pictures are arranged in twelve 
 large halls and more than twenty cabinets ; and the succession of 
 schools has been quite rigidly observed. 
 
 Passing from the princely portraits of the Hall of the Founders 
 into the first halls and cabinets, we find the greatest part of the 
 ancient " Boisseree Sammlung," a small gallery of primitive Ger- 
 man paintings of the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, 
 gathered from old convents, churches, and castles, by the brothers 
 Boisseree, and now passed from their private ownership into the prop- 
 erty of the nation. These are as curious and fantastic as the most 
 zealous antiquarian could desire. Their subjects are generally sacred 
 and quaintly traditional, and their style suggests the Byzantine ori- 
 gin of mediaeval art. Like Greco-Italian panels, they are executed 
 on wood frequently on a gilt ground and exhibit the old Byzan- 
 tine stiffness and splendor, but with greater preponderance of blue, 
 red, or pale-gleaming green color, and more sweetness and softness 
 of expression. The true German mildness of countenance replaces 
 the severe and repulsive Oriental type. Such as are ascribed to Meis- 
 ter Wilhelm and Meister Stephan, of Cologne, and to the master of the 
 " Lyversberg Passion," are most interesting. Their favorite themes 
 are legendary incidents in the life and death of the Virgin. Many are
 
 592 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 wings or centers of dismembered altar pieces. Among the remains 
 of the Netherlands are a few compositions of the school of Van Eyck ; 
 a rich " Adoration of the Kings," by Van der Weyden ; several fig- 
 ures of " St. Barbara ; " and a celebrated picture by Memling, en- 
 titled " The Seven Joys of the Holy Virgin," which is in fact a num- 
 ber of miniature scenes from the life of Mary, with the landscape 
 of Jerusalem in the center, inclosed in one frame. Its companion- 
 piece, " The Seven Sorrows of the Virgin," is at Turin. A portrait 
 of " Martin Schon " rather contradicts his right to the appellation ot 
 "Bel Martino." Hans Holbein the Elder and the Younger, Michael 
 Wohlgemuth, and Albrecht Diirer, are well represented in the third 
 saloon. Diirer's portrait of himself, " A Young Man," his father, 
 and his teacher, Wohlgemuth, together with his Paumgartner altar- 
 piece and his " Pieta," are specially to be noticed. 
 
 The divided wings of a Bavarian altar-piece, now hung in the 
 same saloon, furnish us with ample specimens of the dry, formal 
 manner of Holbein the Elder. The works of his gifted son are not 
 all authentic. A " Martyrdom of St. Sebastian with Sts. Barbara 
 and Elizabeth " is one of his finest altar paintings, completed while 
 still under his father's tuition. A large composition of the " Adul- 
 teress before Christ " illustrates the method of Lucas Cranach. 
 Michael Wohlgemuth's hard, grotesque figures of the Saviour and 
 saints give little promise of his great pupil's excellence. A very 
 singular panel by Wohlgemuth will be found in the fifth cabinet, un- 
 der the title of the " Twelve Apostles going forth to evangelize the 
 World." The most famous examples by Diirer are the pendants 
 known as "The Four Temperaments." These are two long, narrow 
 pictures, the first portraying "St. John and St. Peter," gazing upon 
 the same book ; the second, " St. Paul and St. Mark," with the sword 
 and the gospel-roll. Their marked and peculiar characteristics caused 
 them to be regarded as types of temperaments. 
 
 Later German and early Dutch paintings are collected in the 
 fourth saloon, especially some naive and rigid compositions by Ge- 
 rard van Haarlem, Engelbrechsten, Martin Schaffner, and Mabuse. 
 This comprehensive apartment, with its adjacent cabinets, also con- 
 tains excellent landscapes by Cuyp, Berchem, Dietrich, and Both, 
 with rich autumnal sunsets ; cattle by Van de Velde ; and cows and 
 goats by Paul Potter. Here, too, are many lifelike faces in the por- 
 traits of Mierevelt and Berchem, the old men of Lievens, the family
 
 THE GALLERY OF MUNICH. 593 
 
 pictures of Franz Hals, and others of De Vries ; Van der Heist's 
 portrait of old " Admiral Van Tromp , " the two likenesses of Covert 
 Flinck and his wife, by Bol; Rembrandt's portrait of himself, and 
 "Sacrifice of Abraham -, " an " Interior of a Cottage," uncommonly 
 broad in treatment, by Terburg ; a full-length " Magdalene " in a 
 grotto, by Van der Werff ; a " Stag-Hunt," by Wouverman ; an im- 
 mense " Kitchen Interior," by Sneyders ; " Dead Game," by Weenix ; 
 "Flowers and Fruit," by De Heem ; and a mettlesome "Cock- 
 Fight " by the poultry-painter, Hondekoeter. 
 
 A whole saloon, with an adjacent cabinet, is appropriated to the 
 memory of Rubens, whose complete nature seems reflected here, 
 from low, coarse sensuality, through all the magnificence and luxuri- 
 ance of color, up to lofty poetry and a boundless wealth of imagery 
 His " Drunken Silenus " and bloody " Massacre of the Innocents ' 
 are gross and glaring ; while his " Fall of the Condemned " and 
 " Rebel Angels " are but a thronging mass of nudities plunging furi- 
 ously into a terrible whirlpool of destruction, His mythological 
 scenes, on the other hand, are less fiery and unrestrained than might 
 have been expected. " Castor and Pollux carrying off the Daughters 
 of Leucippas " is especially full of bold beauty and wild graceful- 
 ness. We can easily imagine Rubens setting classical figures in 
 a perfect festival of lovely and innocent gayety. In the centre of the 
 room is placed his " Last Judgment," heaving with life, brilliancy, 
 majesty, and terror, but devoid of the powerful solemnity of Michael 
 Angelo's genius. Yet he has followed the ancient type of the Judge 
 in dazzling glory, the saved, the lost, the open hell and open heaven. 
 Viardot remarks, in his study of this strange picture : " In the group 
 of the redeemed I recognized with emotion a poor negro, who 
 seemed as much surprised as delighted to find justice at last, and to 
 go to eternal happiness with his white brothers." Not fully certain 
 are a number of other sacred pieces, such as a " Crucified Christ ; " 
 a " Virgin and Child," encircled by flower- wreaths and angels ; the 
 " Martyrdom of St. Lawrence," on a colossal gridiron ; " Susanna 
 surprised at the Bath," in a scene all flooded with sunset light ; and 
 a " Capture of Samson," where Delilah, a blonde, bold siren of the 
 Philistines, laughs behind her floating golden hair, and ironically 
 enjoys the discomfiture of the hero. 
 
 The portraits by Rubens are equally renowned. He delighted to 
 immortalize his domestic felicity by representing himself with both
 
 594 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 his wives. In one composition he is happily seated in a bower of 
 honeysuckles with Elizabeth Brandt ; in another he is taking a gar- 
 den walk with his young bride, Helena Fourment. Pictures of the 
 beautiful Helena alone, or holding her little son, also hang upon the 
 walls. In the finest of these she is richly dressed in black velvet, 
 pearls and glittering jewels on her neck and bosom, and wears a shady 
 hat with wavy white feather. A few good landscapes, the most able 
 of which is the " Hay- Harvest," continue to illustrate the versatility of 
 Rubens's style. His principal works in the neighboring cabinet are 
 the large and animated " Battle of the Amazons," and the sketches for 
 the historical and allegorical series of the life and fortunes of Queen 
 Marie de Medici, completed in gigantic proportions in the Louvre. 
 
 Splendid portraits by Vandyck are among the chief attractions of 
 the adjoining saloon and cabinet. Foremost may be reckoned the 
 " Burgomaster of Antwerp and his Wife," the " Organist Liberti," 
 " Duke Wilhelm," his own youthful figure, and that of his noble bride 
 Marie Ruthven ; " Queen Henrietta Maria of England," the sculptor 
 " Colyn de Nole," and "Jan de Wael and Wife." These and others 
 are in Vandyck's delicate and refined manner, elegant without affecta- 
 tion, dignified, and full of soul. A pensive " Madonna " holding the 
 sleeping Babe, and a " Dead Christ " hanging in profound darkness 
 upon the cross, are his most effective religious pieces. Rembrandt's 
 piercing, strongly shadowed portraits are comparatively forgotten in 
 the fascinations of his singularly-treated sacred scenes in the eighth 
 cabinet. Here we may examine his famous " Descent from the 
 Cross," conventional enough in arrangement, rude and uncouth in its 
 clumsy peasant figures, but surpassingly wonderful in the grandeur of 
 its gloom and the dazzling intensity of its light. One shaft of solemn, 
 blinding radiance falls from heaven, says Charles Blanc, "like the 
 glance of God upon the Divine Victim." Indeed, the whole series of 
 pictures upon the life of Christ, of which this forms a part, is poet- 
 ically remarkable. All are illumined by striking effects of supernatu- 
 ral or artificial light. A panel of " Christ as a Boy teaching in the 
 Temple " is also peculiarly interesting from its deep yet transparent 
 shadow and picturesque grouping. 
 
 In several adjoining saloons we may prolong our study of North- 
 ern masters. The night light, so familiar to Rembrandt, is liberally 
 used by Schalken and Honthorst. Schalken has left us a " Peni- 
 tent Magdalene " sitting in her cave by the glow of a burning lamp;
 
 THE GALLERY OF MUNICH. 595 
 
 and a still better cabinet picture of the "Wise and Foolish Vir- 
 gins," lit by fantastic gleams of moonlight and lamplight. Hon- 
 thorst's " St. Peter delivered from Prison " is a nocturnal Dutch ver- 
 sion of Raphael's conception of the same subject. Two remaining 
 paintings by Honthorst, both well executed, may be mentioned in this 
 connection "Cimon in Prison nourished by his Daughter," some- 
 times called " Roman Charity," and the " Prodigal Son feasting with 
 Wanton Women." An " Italian Fair," by Teniers, is one of his 
 largest and best composed pieces; and the Munich landscapes of 
 Ruysdael, though not equal to those in the Dresden Gallery, are still 
 very celebrated; particularly "The Cascade," which leaps and 
 sparkles like living water across the canvas. 
 
 Time would fail to enumerate all the meritorious works of other 
 Flemish and Dutch artists contained in the middle cabinets. The 
 talents of Teniers are plentifully exemplified by many genre scenes 
 of peasants, card-players, guard-rooms, and festivals. A " Feast 
 of Monkeys," a "Dutch Ale-House," "Cats and Monkeys," and a 
 " Fair," are to be observed. The Breughel family and Adrian Brouwer 
 have their best compositions. Otto van Veen, Rubens's master, has 
 commemorated his faith in six elaborate allegorical pieces, symboliz- 
 ing the triumph of the Catholic Church. 
 
 Holland's genre painters of course abound. Notice amid their 
 ranks Gerard Dow's " Old Woman ; " his " Lady at her Toilet," 
 robed in yellow satin ; the " Quacksalver ; " the " Hermit ; " his 
 own portrait ; Steen's " Physician ; " Metsu's " Bean Festival ; " Van 
 Ostade's "Quarrel;" Netscher's "Lady who is Singing;" and 
 Frans von Mieris's " Lady fainting," and " Lady with a Parrot." 
 Mieris appears to have had a passion for his own portrait, for he has 
 represented himself several times, once in a red cap, once in a break- 
 fast scene, where he serves a lady with oysters, and again in a tavern, 
 where he outrages the neat landlady by laying his boot upon the 
 table. Sixteen equestrian or battle scenes, by Wouverman, are of 
 varying degrees of merit. Van der Werff has an entire cabinet full 
 of graceful, softly-polished, but expressionless sacred and classical 
 pieces. Quitting these for other styles of subject, the traveler should 
 examine a marvelously finished " Public Square," by Van der Hey- 
 den ; the " Night Interior " of Peter Neefs ; the " Dutch Cabin " of 
 Pe Hooghe ; the " Flower- Vases " of De Heem ; and the lovely 
 Baskets " and " Bouquets " of Van Huysum and Rachel Ruysch.
 
 596 APPENDIX, 
 
 Though we have specially considered the pictures of the German 
 and Dutch schools at Munich, it being not so much a cosmopolitan 
 as a representative German gallery, its treasures are by no means thus 
 exhausted. A few excellent Spanish and French paintings are in the 
 eleventh and twelfth rooms, particularly Murillo's famous " Beggar 
 Boys " and " St. Francis healing a Paralytic ; " Zurbaran's " Virgin 
 and St. John returning home after the Crucifixion ; " Cano's " St. 
 Anthony of Padua ; " some strong, dark heads by Ribera ; Velas- 
 quez's male portrait; several landscapes and marine views by Claude 
 Lorraine and Claude Vernet ; "The Park," by Watteau ; "Adora- 
 tion of the Shepherds," and "Entombment," by Nicolas Poussin. 
 
 The collection of Italian schools is choice and brilliant. Three 
 saloons and four cabinets are attractively filled. The early Florentine 
 specimens in the nineteenth cabinet, which head the series chrono- 
 logically, are of no extraordinary artistic value, though three small 
 panels are ascribed to Giotto ; a " Portrait " to Masaccio ; an " An- 
 nunciation " to Filippo Lippi ; panels of Saints Cosmo and Damiani 
 to Fra Angelico ; a " Deposition " to Sandro Botticelli ; a large altar- 
 piece to Ghirlandajo ; a " Virgin adoring the Child Jesus " to Lorenzo 
 di Credi ; and " The Three Archangels " to Piero di Cosimo. A " Holy 
 Family " and fresco studies, by Andrea del Sarto ; with " Virgin " 
 and a " St. Agnes," by Carlo Dolci, follow. Perugino's " Apparition 
 of the Virgin " is in his early tender and devotional manner. Ra- 
 phael's handsome portrait of Bindo Altoviti, with blond hair, a black 
 cap, and face looking over the shoulder at the spectator, suggestive of 
 the "Violin-Player" in the Sciarra Palace, Rome, was long supposed 
 to be his own likeness. Three renowned " Madonnas," by Raphael. 
 may also be counted among the gems of Munich. The " Madonna 
 della Casa Tempi," small in size but extremely sweet in sentiment, 
 with the Virgin caressingly pressing the Child to her cheek ; a larger 
 composition catalogued as the " Holy Family of the House of Canigi- 
 ani in a Landscape," the Virgin and St. Elizabeth sitting opposite 
 each other on the turf, with the holy children between them, and 
 Joseph leaning on a staff; and the much more celebrated " Madonna 
 della Tenda," with its green curtain in the background, and the Vir- 
 gin and Child seated and grouped like the " Seggiola," but with more 
 sharply outlined and less gentle features. A " Virgin and Saints," 
 transferred from wood to canvas, but well preserved in the process, 
 is attributed to Correggio, but without sufficient evidence.
 
 THE GALLERY OF MUNICH. 5 97 
 
 The Bolognese school shows to good advantage both in size and 
 style. Its earliest and most exquisite specimen is the " Madonna " 
 of Francia Raibolini, " adoring the Divine Infant " who lies before 
 her upon blooming roses. Intense purity and brilliancy of color are 
 here united to the most holy and profound sentiment. An " En- 
 tombment," by Lodovico Carracci, attests the reviving power of the 
 Eclectics. Annibale Carracci's " Susanna " and " Eros and Anteros 
 fighting before Venus " are not in his best method. Guido is more 
 famous in an "Assumption of the Virgin," graceful in attitude 
 ethereal in expression, pale and silvery in shadow, painted most prob- 
 ably for a processional banner. His " St. Jerome reading " is warmer 
 and more vigorous in tone. Domenichino's " Susanna at the Bath " 
 is a large, animated, and talented production, though one is heartily 
 weary of the subject. His " St. Jerome writing," executed on 
 copper, is smaller but more fiery and fervent than Guido's. Lan- 
 franco's " Hagar in the Desert " is large enough for a fresco ; while 
 the Carracci family devote their brush to St. Francis. Albani's 
 " Sleeping Venus " is a fair example of his mythological beauties. 
 Guercino's " Christ crowned with Thorns " may be contrasted with 
 Caravaggio's rendering of the same event ; and Salvator Rosa's wild, 
 savage landscapes are sufficient illustrations of the dark, fierce style 
 of the Tenebrosi. 
 
 Among the Venetian pictures only the few best are here briefly 
 noted. The portraits by Titian and by Moroni are, as ever, powerful, 
 splendid, and most life-like. A seated figure of Charles V.. cap on 
 head and glove in hand, is a reminiscence of Titian's visit to the 
 Augsburg imperial court; while a portrait, robed in black, with 
 brown fur collar, once believed to be Aretino, is superbly strong, 
 calm, and noble ; so are Tintoretto's (very doubtful) " Venetian Sena- 
 tor," with one aristocratic hand on his staff of office, the other on 
 his sword-hilt, and the smaller but realistic and forcible " Anatomist," 
 holding compass and bone. Giorgione's or Palma Vecchio's likeness 
 is eminently handsome, ample, and manly. Some uncertainty exists 
 in regard to Titian's sacred and classical paintings ; but his " Christ 
 crowned with Thorns " and " Madonna with St. John Baptist " are 
 probably authentic. The portrait of a young female carrying a fan of 
 ostrich-feathers, copied from an old original by Paris Bordone, shows 
 us the features of Violante, once regarded as Palma Vecchio's daugh- 
 ter. A " Woman holding a Mirror," now catalogued as a Giorgione,
 
 598 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 has been also, hy some critics, attributed to Pordenone. Lorenzo 
 Lotto has a " Marriage of St. Catherine," and Paris Bordone a 
 " Man counting Jewels." The list of masterpieces may end with 
 Moretto's and Paris Bordone's portraits, Canaletto's four Views of 
 Venice, Bassano's " Madonna," and Palma Vecchio's " Virgin with 
 St. Rochus and the Magdalene." 
 
 THE GALLERY OF BERLIN. 
 
 THE Berlin Gallery, unfortunate in being one of the last gleaners 
 in the art-harvests of the past, has yet secured for itself an honorable 
 place among European collections. The ambition of Frederick the 
 Great was not limited to political or military triumphs, but extended 
 to the realm of the fine arts ; and the German emperors have done 
 their best to realize his ideal. Splendid masterpieces have been lately 
 added, and the selections have been so judiciously made that the 
 traveler would not willingly miss his visit to the Gallery of Berlin, 
 which is particularly rich in ancient pictures of Italy and Flanders. 
 The Royal Museum, of which the gallery forms a part, was founded 
 by Frederick William III., about the year 1824. The New Museum, 
 which communicates with the Old, is celebrated for its Egyptian curi- 
 osities, its ethnological collection, and its admirable casts of antique, 
 mediaeval, and modern sculpture. 
 
 Leaving a rotunda adorned with statues and hung with tapestries 
 from the cartoons of Raphael, similar to those at Dresden, we enter 
 the suite of rooms devoted to painting. The pictures, numbering 
 between twelve and thirteen hundred, were originally divided into 
 sections, in the first of which were found specimens of Italian, Span- 
 ish, and French schools, beginning with the Venetians ; in the second, 
 the Dutch and German schools ; and in the third, " Byzantine paint- 
 ing and the first period of the Italian, Dutch, and German schools." 
 But since the alteration of the building in 1884 the arrangement was 
 so changed as to make the last first, and vice versa ; so that now 
 the east half of the gallery is occupied by the Germanic, and the west 
 by the Romanesque school. 
 
 Several early works are ascribed to Bellini, Cima, Carpaccio, 
 Catena, and the Vivarini family, one of the most singular of which is 
 Cima's " Miracle of St. Ananias." There is also a most antique and 
 remarkable " Adoration of the Kings," by Antonio da Murano, dating 
 back to 1440. We may now approach the Tuscans, where a " Last
 
 THE GALLERY OF BERLIN. 
 
 599 
 
 Judgment " is catalogued as the joint work of Fra Angelico and 
 Cosimo Roselli. This is a late and not very strong or distinct work, 
 for it bears but little trace of the blessed Angelico. A small " St. 
 Dominic" and "St. Francis" are also thought genuine. Filippo 
 Lippi, Piero Cosimo, Botticelli, Signorelli, and Raffaellino del Garbo 
 are well represented ; Melozzo da Forli's allegorical work, and Anto- 
 nello da Messina's portraits are valuable. A large " Pieta " is a some- 
 what labored example of Cosimo Roselli ; a " Madonna" and " Pieta " 
 of Francia ; and " Mary in Egypt " of Lorenzo di Credi. An Adoration 
 of the Child, called the " Ancajani Madonna," and long regarded as 
 a genuine Raphael, is now ascribed to Perugino's pupil, Lo Spagna. 
 Andrea Mantegna's " Christ mourned by Angels " is now regarded as 
 by Gian Bellini. Pinturicchio's dramatic "Adoration of the Kings " 
 introduces us to the Umbrian school. The face of Perugino is said 
 to have been given in this " Adoration " to the youngest of the three 
 kings. A " Virgin," by Giovanni Santi (or another Umbrian artist), 
 is interesting not only as showing the purely Umbrian qualities of his 
 style, but because in the figure of the little boy standing near St. John 
 he has left us a childish likeness of his beautiful son. Some youthful 
 Perugian pictures are also here attributed to Raphael himself, as, for 
 instance, an old altar-piece of " The Worship of the Shepherds," paint- 
 ed in distemper upon silk for a chapel at Ferentillo. It is much in- 
 jured by time and dampness. 
 
 More mature specimens by Raphael are found a little farther on 
 especially the "Madonna di Casa Colonna," and other youthful 
 Madonnas, limpid and delicate in color, and graceful, though not 
 always easy, in attitude. Doubts have occasionally been expressed 
 as to whether one or more of them may not have proceeded from the 
 hands of pupils ; but the first, and two or three others, have evidence of 
 their authenticity. Old copies of " Pope Julius," " Joan of Aragon," 
 and others, likewise perpetuate Raphael's memory. An " Ascension 
 of Mary," by Fra Bartolommeo, is a record of his artistic skill in the 
 days when he labored with Mariotto Albertinelli, who assisted in the 
 completion of this present piece. A superb "Virgin and Saints," by 
 Andrea del Sarto, grouping some twelve personages on one canvas, 
 is one of his most splendid pictures outside of Florence. Beltraffio 
 has also left a " St. Barbara," and Lorenzo Costa several paintings 
 of refined sentiment. 
 
 Correggio's pictures are few. The " lo and Jupiter " is a copy. 
 39
 
 600 APPENDIX. 
 
 The " Leda with the Swan " is, however, undoubtedly genuine, and 
 very beautifully executed, with fair, bright landscape, nymphs and 
 Cupids, but not attractive in its mythological subject. A " Head of 
 Christ crowned with Thorns," sometimes called the " Handkerchief 
 of St. Veronica," is ascribed in the ordinary catalogue to Correggio; 
 but critics have never assigned it to his brush. Some suppose that 
 they detect in its firm, decided outlines, and deep, sad eyes, the hand 
 of the Florentine Bronzino, while others regard it as the work of 
 some still earlier German master. 
 
 Returning to the Venetians, we perceive a portrait of two men in 
 one frame, bearing the name of Giorgione, but probably not authen- 
 tic ; a couple of serene and amply proportioned " Madonnas," by 
 Palma Vecchio, with the (so-called) portrait of his daughter ; noble 
 portraits by Lotto, as well as " St. Sebastian and St. Christopher," 
 and the unusual subject of "Christ departing from His Mother;" 
 " Cardinal Scarampo," by Andrea Mantegna; also large " Madonnas 
 with Votaries," and a colossal " Adoration of the Shepherds," by 
 Moretto. Several others are catalogued as Titian's, among which 
 we may distinguish his own aged but expressive portrait, the like- 
 ness of a daughter of the Strozzi, and the famous figure known as 
 " Titian's Daughter," standing with an uplifted basket of fruit above 
 her head, her smiling face thrown back, her brown eyes turned to the 
 spectator, her neck encircled by pearls, and her dress of glistening 
 satin, golden-brown. A group of " Chess-Players " and portrait of 
 " Man in Black " show Paris Bordone to admirable advantage ; but 
 Paul Veronese is not represented, though they assign him various 
 classical pieces. Tintoretto has " St. Mark instructing Three of his 
 Procurators," and some excellent portraits, which are always a spe- 
 cialty of the Venetian school. Sebastian del Piombo has a dark-toned, 
 grand " Dorothea " portrait, a " Dead Christ supported by Joseph of 
 Arimathea," a " Knight," and a " Weeping Magdalene." The latter 
 is effectively painted on slate, and, if genuine, may be considered as 
 belonging to his early Roman period. 
 
 Very few Bolognese pictures of the time of the Carracci exist in Ber- 
 lin. We need only mention Lodovico Carracci's " Feeding of the Five 
 Thousand," and " Punishment of Amor ; " Annibale Carracci's series 
 of " Christ, Mary, St. John Baptist, and Twelve Apostles," in whose 
 completion he was aided by Domenichino and Albani ; Guido Reni's 
 "St. Paul and St. Anthony in the Desert," a " Crucifixion," " Fortuna,"
 
 THE GALLERY OF BERLIN. 6ol 
 
 and "Mary, Queen of Heaven;" "Madonnas," by Guercino ; a 
 "Deluge," by Domenichino ; an "Entombment," "St. Matthew," 
 " Love triumphant over Arts and Sciences," and a " Young Roman 
 Girl," with several other examples, by Caravaggio. 
 
 In the room of Spanish pictures we are particularly attracted by 
 Murillo's "St. Anthony of Padua," recalling the grand composition 
 of Seville. It has the softness, tenderness, and passion of Murillo's 
 most ardent style, with a lovely, graceful Christ-child, and enchant- 
 ing cherubs. Other smaller works assigned to Murillo can not be so 
 praised. The Spanish General Borro "Trampling on the Barberini 
 Banner " represents Velasquez, also Cardinal Azzolini. Zurbaran's 
 " Miracle of the Crucifix " is one of his best characteristic specimens. 
 Cano's " St. Agnes " is a Spanish ideal of womanhood ; and Ribera's 
 " Martyrdom of St. Bartolomeo," so favorite a subject with its author, 
 is as strong and repulsive under cold Prussian skies as in the fervid 
 atmosphere of the South. Both the Spanish and French collections 
 seem very mixed. Poussin's classic scenes and Claude's sunny land- 
 scape are near Watteau's " Festival." Le Brun's celebrated picture 
 of the " Jabach Family of Cologne," Le Sueur's " St. Bruno adoring 
 the Cross," and Mignard's expressive portrait of " Maria Mancini," 
 niece of Cardinal Mazarin, are masterpieces worthy of the Louvre. 
 
 Among the relics of Flemish art none can compare with Van 
 Eyck's renowned altar-piece of the " Adoration of the Lamb." This 
 has been fully described in the chapter on early Flemish and German 
 Painting, but every examination of the work wakens new admiration 
 of its minute and perfect detail. The veritable altar-piece, executed 
 for a chapel of St. Bavon, Ghent, is now divided between Ghent and 
 Berlin. The central panel at Berlin is an ancient copy by Michael 
 Coxie, and represents the Lamb adored by worshiping hosts ; while 
 on the original wings are the angel Gabriel and the Virgin Mary, as 
 well as bands of judges, champions, pilgrims, hermits, chanting an- 
 gels and saints. A " Man with Pinks," and " Head of Christ," by Jan 
 van Eyck, very Byzantine in type, as well as a " Madonna and Child," 
 by Memling, are still other treasures of the gallery. Some altar-pieces 
 of such old Flemings as Roger van der Weyden are authentic and 
 most curious, particularly the " Middleburg Altar-piece," Van der 
 Weyclen's " Adoration of the Kings," and Jerome Bosch's " Day of 
 Judgment " and " Hell." Lucas Cranach is scarcely less singular: 
 Besides his devotional pictures he has the usual Saxon portraits of
 
 602 APPENDIX. 
 
 Luther, Melanchthon, and Luther's wife, Catharine von Bora ; a few 
 classical subjects, in one of which (" Hercules and Omphales ") the 
 hero Hercules is adorned by a grotesque female bonnet ; and, more 
 extraordinary than all, quite a large allegorical composition, entitled 
 the "Fountain of Youth," in which decrepit and dismal old women 
 throng in procession to the famous well, pass through its waters, and 
 trip out on the other side as fair and blooming damsels, ready to 
 dance a measure with their gallant cavaliers. Striking portraits by 
 Holbein, especially that of the merchant Gysen, have likewise their 
 place; with Quintin Matsys's "Virgin and Child," and Albrecht 
 Diirer's celebrated Holzschuher portrait. 
 
 Following this line of art development we notice fat genre paint- 
 ings and landscapes of Breughel, Bril, and Bloemart ; together with 
 several examples by Rubens, the most charming of which is " Proces- 
 sion of Children." There is, too, a " Stag-Hunt," with classical pieces. 
 The much more pretentious " Resurrection of Lazarus " is unfortunate 
 in its figure of the Saviour, but very expressive in its eager Lazarus. 
 "St. Cecilia" is a portly and rubicund Flemish dame, with a heavy 
 organ. Vandyck is more successful than ever with his " Children of 
 Charles I.," and displays additional portraits of the " Infanta Isa- 
 bella " and " Prince of Carignan ; " also a fine " Pieta." A composi- 
 tion of " Penitent Sinners coming to Christ " is here ascribed to him, 
 in which the distinctive heads of King David, the Prodigal Son, and 
 Mary Magdalene are most beautifully and graphically rendered. 
 Teniers's " Temptation of St. Anthony " and " Alchymist in his 
 Laboratory " are among his largest and finest works. Rembrandt 
 appears most forcibly in his portraits of himself and his wife Saskia, 
 and a large picture, variously named, supposed to mean " Samson 
 threatening his Father-in-law." Van der Meer of Delft has a " Court- 
 yard " and a " Boy blowing Bubbles. " Honthorst gives us " Esau sell- 
 ing his Birthright," and "St. Peter delivered by an Angel," with his 
 usual vivid contrasts of light and shade. Gerard Dow has a " Cook " 
 entering a pantry with light in hand, and " Penitent Magdalene," rich- 
 ly clad in velvet and sables, with table before her covered with gold 
 and jewels. Gerard Terburg's " Paternal Instruction," or "White 
 Satin Gown," which is simply a father scolding a daughter who stands 
 before him in glistening robes, is a widely celebrated painting. Mie- 
 ris's own portrait. Metsu's " Dutch Family," ar.d Jan Steen's " Pub- 
 lic Gardjn," are less popular though excellent genre pieces. Van
 
 THE GALLERY OF BERLIN. fo^ 
 
 der Heist's and Denner's portraits lose none of their merit ; and 
 Ruysclael's, Hobbema's, Van der Neer's, Van der Velde's.and Back- 
 huysen's landscapes and marines sustain their reputation; while 
 Franz Hals can be most effectively studied. 
 
 Byzantine and old Italian altar-pieces and panels may be care- 
 fully compared with early examples of the school of Cologne, some- 
 times to the advantage of the latter. A triptych of the " Virgin with 
 Saints," and a painting in thirty-five divisions, from " Scenes in the 
 Life of Christ," both ascribed to Metster Wilhelm, particularly de- 
 serve attention. 
 
 No one should speak, however briefly, of the Gallery of Berln 
 without alluding to the historical frescoes designed by Kaulbach, on 
 the staircase of the New Museum. Though modern works, they are 
 still worthy of the heroic age of the old masters. Six principal frescoes 
 are accompanied by sixteen intermediate paintings, and surrounded 
 by graceful allegorical arabesques. They illustrate the history and 
 culture of the human race, commencing with the " Destruction of 
 the Tower of Babel." Nations are migrating; Nimrod is on his 
 throne ; destroying angels overthrow the tower ; and Jehovah looks 
 down upon its ruin. 
 
 Next is depicted the epoch of " Homer and the Greeks." The 
 blind bard is sailing toward the Grecian coast. Nereids listen to his 
 song ; poets, prophets, and sages, assemble to welcome him ; even 
 the gods descend on a rainbow, and join the expectant throng. Then 
 follows the still finer " Destruction of Jerusalem," with avenging proph- 
 ets and angels in the heavens, and Titus and his legions entering 
 the city, where scenes of riot and bloodshed are enacting. On the 
 left hand rushes out the Wandering Jew, and on the right a band of 
 guardian angels conducts a Christian family who flee in terror from 
 the spot. This is succeeded by the spectral " Battle of the Huns," 
 in which the ghosts of the dead continue the great combat of Chris- 
 tianity with paganism. The " Crusaders before Jerusalem " shows 
 us Geoffrey of Boulogne, King of Jerusalem, offering his crown to 
 Christ, whose crown of thorns he would assume. Choristers and 
 champions lead the army ; Peter of Amiens and his penitents kneel 
 in the foreground ; knights and minstrels advance toward the holy 
 city, which shines beyond the hills. 
 
 Last of all, we behold the interior of a Gothic cathedral, in which 
 are grouped a company of distinguished personages who represent
 
 604 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 the " Age of the Reformation." Luther, on a platform, with 
 beside him, lifts his translation of the Bible. Caivin, on the left, 
 administers the Eucharist to some of his adherents. The Electors 
 of Saxony, King Gustavus Adolphus, William of Orange, and 
 many officers and citizens, mingle with the assemblage. Wycliffe, 
 Huss, Abelard, Savonarola, Waidus, and Melanchthon, are in the 
 background and middle distance, as are also Queen Elizabeth, the Earl 
 of Essex, Sir Francis Drake, Archbishop Cranmer, and Sir Thomas 
 More. In the left chapel are Copernicus, Galileo, Tycho Brahe, and 
 Kepler ; in the right chapel Albrecht Diirer at work, Gutenberg with 
 his printed pages, Peter Vischer the sculptor, Michael Angelo, Leo- 
 nardo da Vinci, and Raphael. On one side of the foreground are 
 gathered Hans Sachs the cobbler poet, Shakespeare, Cervantes, and 
 Petrarch, while not far off the knight Ulrich von Hutten holds a 
 laurel-wreath. On the other side we perceive Columbus with his 
 globe, the navigator Behaim, the physician Harvey, Paracelsus. 
 Leonard Fuchs, and others. All these life-sized and graphic figures, 
 natives of every country, and masters of every science, combine to 
 symbolize the new era of wisdom, art, and progress, which brings 
 the world more light and freedom, and educates the race to its own 
 high standard. To such education painters like Kaulbach may con- 
 tribute, as well as reformers like Luther, or poets like Shakespeare-
 
 INDEX OF ARTISTS. 
 
 Abbey, Edwin A., 484. 
 
 Achenbach, Andreas, 424, 591. 
 
 Adam, Franz, 436. 
 
 Albani, Francesco, 239, 492, 545, 
 565, 588, 597- 
 
 Albertinelli, Mariotto, 68, 120, 123, 
 488. 528, 532. 
 
 Alexander, John W., 482. 
 
 Allegri, Antonio (see Correggio). 
 
 Allori, Alessandro, 223, 545. 
 
 Allori, Cristoforo, 223, 488, 537. 
 
 Allston, Washington, 480. 
 
 Alma-Tadema, Laurens, 462, 463. 
 
 Altdorfer, Albrecht, 278. 
 
 Alunno, Niccolo, 113, 490, 540. 
 
 Alvarez, Luis, 456 
 
 Amberger, Christopher, 284. 
 Amerighi, Michael Angelo (see Ca- 
 
 ravaggio). 
 
 Angeli, Heinrich von, 436. 
 Angelico, Fra, 52-57, 67, 70, 71, 87, 
 488, 509, 529, 530. 532, 547, 565. 
 Angelo, Michael (see Buonarotti). 
 Anguisciola, Sofonisba. 299. 
 Antonellocia Messina, 100, 554,575. 
 Antonio da Murano, 187, 188. 
 Armitage. Edward 467. 
 Armstrong, Thomas, 473. 
 Aubert, Jean, 454. 
 Ayvasovski, Ivan, 457. 
 
 Backhuysen, Ludolf, 333, 497, 603. 
 Bagnacavallo (Bartolommeo Ramen- 
 
 ghi), 226. 490, 582. 
 Bakker-Korff, Alexander Hugo, 462. 
 Barbarelli, Giorgio (see Giorgione). 
 Barbieri, Francesco (see Guercino). 
 Bargue, Charles, 454. 
 Baroccio, Federigo, 229, 490, 533, 
 
 54', 547- 
 
 Barry, James, 402, 499. 
 Bartolo, Taddeo, 70. 
 Bartolommeo, Fra (Baccio della 
 
 Porte), 65, 74, 120, 488, 528, 
 
 53L 535, 537, 568, 599. 
 Basaiti, Marco, 552. 
 Bassano (Jacopo da Ponte), 217, 491, 
 
 542, 553. 560- 
 
 Battoni, Pompeo, 245, 490, 547. 584. 
 Baudry, Paul, 446. 
 Bazzi, or Razzi (see II Sodoma). 
 Becker, Carl, 429, 430. 
 Becker, Ernst, 430. 
 Beckwith, J. Carroll, 481. 
 Bellange, Joseph, 448. 
 Bellini, Gentile, 187, 189, 190, 491, 
 
 550. 
 Bellini, Gian, 187, 190-193, 195, 491, 
 
 533, 546, 550, 552, 574. 575, 598- 
 Bellini, Jacopo, 187-189, 491. 
 Belly, Leon, 443.
 
 6o6 
 
 INDEX OF ARTISTS. 
 
 Bendemann, Eduard, 424. 
 Beraud, Jean, 453. 
 Berghem, Nicolas, 330, 497, 589. 
 Berne-Eellecour, Etienne Prosper, 
 
 448. 
 
 Berruguette, Alonzo, 342, 498. 
 Besnard, Paul Albert, 453. 
 Biefve, Edouard de, 460. 
 Bierbtadt, Albert, 481. 
 Bigio, Francia, 177, 220, 588. 
 Billet, Pierre, 452. 
 Blake, William, 404, 500. 
 Bleibtreu, Georg, 424. 
 files, Henri de, 289. 
 Bloemart, Abraham, 313, 602. 
 Bocklin, Arnold von, 430. 
 Bogoljuboff, Alexis, 457. 
 Bol, Ferdinand, 321, 496, 586. 
 Boldini, Giuseppe, 456. 
 Bonheur, Rosa, 450. 
 Bonifazio Bembi, 210, 491, 540, 546, 
 
 550, 582, 600. 
 Bonington, Richard, 465. 
 Bonnat, Leon Joseph, 441. 
 Bordoni, Paris, 211, 491, 549, 574, 
 
 582, 598, 600. 
 Bosboom, Jan, 462. 
 Bosch, Jerome, 261, 562, 601. 
 Both, Jan, 314, 497, 547, 589, 592. 
 Botticelli, Sandro, 107, 488, 530, 
 
 573. 590- 
 
 Bough ton, George W.,476. 
 Bouguereau, William Adolphe, 445. 
 Boulanger, Gustave, 444. 
 Bouts, Dierick, 310. 
 Bcxall, William, 474. 
 Bradford, William, 482. 
 Bramley, Frank, 475. 
 Brandt, Jozef, 436. 
 Brascassat, Jacques Raymond, 451, 
 
 572. 
 
 Brauwer, Adrian, 315. 
 
 Brendel, Heinrich Albert, 429. 
 
 Brenner, Josef, 436. 
 
 Breton, Jules, 451, 452. 
 
 Brett, John, 474, 475. 
 
 Breughel, Hollen, 291, 590. 
 
 Breughel, Jan, 291, 495, 590, 595, 
 602. 
 
 Breughel, Peasant, 290, 495. 
 
 Bridgman, Frederick, 483. 
 
 Brierly, Oswald W., 479. 
 
 Bril, Paul, 289, 495, 590, 602. 
 
 Brion, Gustave, 442, 452, 572. 
 
 Bristol, John B., 482. 
 
 Bronzino, Angiolo, 223, 488, 532, 
 600. 
 
 Brown, Ford Madox, 470. 
 
 Browning, Robert Barrett, 478. 
 ! Brozik, Vacslav, 436. 
 
 Briillow, Karl, 456. 
 j Brun, Charles Le, 379, 498, 569, 
 570, 601. 
 
 Bruni, Feodor Antonovich, 456. 
 i Buonarotti, Michael Angelo, 83, 135, 
 140-156, 166, 488, 506, 531, 536, 
 575- 
 
 Burgess, John B., 478. 
 
 Burne-Jones, Edward, 472. 
 ; Butler, Elizabeth Thompson, 467. 
 
 Cabanel, Alexnndre, 445. 
 Cagliari, Paolo (see Veronese). 
 Calcott, Augustus, 411, 500, 579. 
 Calderon, Frank, 478. 
 Calderon, Philip H., 478. 
 Callot, Jacques, 372, 498, 547, 554. 
 Camphausen, Wilhelm, 424. 
 Canale, 218, 491, 590. 
 Canaletto, 218, 491, 567. 590. 
 Cano, Alonzo, 349, 498, 556, 558, 
 585, 596, 601.
 
 INDEX OF ARTISTS. 
 
 607 
 
 Canon, Hans, 436. 
 
 Caravaggio (M. Angelo Amcrighi), 
 
 241, 489, 492, 532, 541-543, 545, 
 
 581, 597, 601. 
 
 Caravaggio, Polidoro da, 226. 
 Caipaccio, Vittore, 193, 491, 550, 
 
 574, 598. 
 
 Carracci, Agostino, 232, 492. 
 Carracci, Annibale, 232, 492, 542, 
 
 565, 575. 58r, 588, 597, 600. 
 Carracci, Lodovico, 231, 492, 542, 
 
 547, 588, 597. 600. 
 Castagno, Andrea, 100, 488, 599. 
 Catlin, George, 462. 
 Cattermole, George, 479. 
 Cederstrom, Gustav, 458. 
 Cespedes, Pablo de, 344, 498. 
 Champagne, Philippe de, 305, 564. 
 Champney, John W., 481. 
 Chaplin, Charles Joshua, 454. 
 Chase, William M , 481, 484. 
 Chavannes, Puvis de, 445. 
 Chintreuil, Antoine, 449, 572. 
 Church, Frederick Edwin, 481. 
 Cigoli, Lodovico, 230, 488. 
 Cima da Conegliano, 193, 194, 491, 
 
 553, 582, 590, 598- 
 Cimabue, Giovanni, 33~38, 4, 7, 
 
 488, 527, 530, 564, 573. 
 Clays, Paul Jean, 461. 
 Clouet, Fran9ois, 371, 498, 575. 
 Cock, Cesar de, 461. 
 Coello, Alonzo, 344, 498, 556. 
 Coffin, William A., 482. 
 Cogniet, Lon, 441. 
 Cole, Thomas, 481. 
 Cole, Vicat, 474. 
 Collins, William, 411, 500, 579. 
 Compte-Calix, Fran9ois C., 454. 
 Comte, Pierre Charles, 439. 
 Constable, John, 410, 500, 579. 
 
 Constant, Benjamin, 444. 
 
 Cooke, Edward, 475. 
 
 Coomans, Pierre Joseph, 461. 
 
 Cooper, Thomas, 464. 
 
 Cope, Charles, 466. 
 
 Copley, John, 401, 499, 579. 
 
 Cormon, Fernand, 445. 
 
 Cornelius, Peter von, 422, 423, 496. 
 
 Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille, 449, 
 
 499, 572. 
 Correggio, Antonio Allegri, 84, 89, 
 
 179-186, 489, 515, 531, 544, 
 
 560, 563, 573, 575, 582, 583, 
 
 588, 599, 6co. 
 
 Cortona, Pietro da, 543, 554, 566. 
 Cosimo, Piero di, 119, 219, 488. 
 Costa, Giovanni, 456. 
 Costa, Lorenzo, no. 
 Courbet, Gustave, 452. 
 Cousin, Jean, 370, 498, 569. 
 Couture, Thomas, 442, 443, 499. 
 Cox, David, 420. 
 Cox, Kenyon, 481, 484. 
 Coxie, Michael, 266. 
 Cranach, Lucas, 285, 496, 531, 546, 
 
 576, 590, 601. 
 
 Cranach, Lucas (the Younger), 286. 
 Crane, Walter, 472, 479. 
 Credi, Lorenzo di, 74, 124, 488, 530, 
 
 544- 573- 
 
 Creswick, Thomas, 465. 
 Crivelli, Carlo, 193, 491, 540, 573. 
 Crofts, Ernest, 467. 
 Cropsey, Jasper Francis, 482. 
 Crowe, Eyre, 467. 
 CruikshanK, George, 313, 479. 
 1 Cuyp, Albert, 313, 497. 
 I Czermak, Jaroslav, 436. 
 
 j Uagnan-Bouveret, Pascal Adolphe 
 Jean, 453.
 
 6o8 
 
 INDEX OF ARTISTS. 
 
 Dalsgaard, Christen, 458. 
 Dannat, William T., 484. 
 Daubigny, Charles Fran9ois, 448, 
 
 572. 
 David, Jacques Louis, 385, 499, 571, 
 
 572- 
 
 Davis, Henry William Banks, 474. 
 Decamps, Alexandra Gabriel, 443, 
 
 499. 572. 
 
 De Coninck, Pierre, 454. 
 Defregger, Franz von, 428, 590. 
 Degas, 453. 
 
 De Haas, Johannes Hubertus, 461. 
 De Haas, Mauritz F. H., 482. 
 De Jonghe, Gustave, 461. 
 Delacroix, Eugene, 442, 572. 
 Delaroche, Paul, 439, 440, 572. 
 Delaunay, Jules, 438. 
 Denner, Balthasar, 306, 496, 587, 
 
 603. 
 
 Desgoffe, Blaise, 442. 
 Detaille, Jean Baptiste Edouard, 
 
 447- 
 
 Dewing, Thomas W , 481, 484. 
 Diaz, Narciso Virgilio de la Pena, 
 
 449, 450. 
 
 Dicksee, Frank, 477. 
 Didier, Jules, 451. 
 Dietrich, Christian, 306, 496, 590, 
 
 592- 
 
 Diez, Wilhelm, 428. 
 Dobson, William Charles, 467. 
 Dolce, Carlo, 92, 244, 488, 528, 
 
 533, 536, 537, 545, 546, 583, 
 
 596. 
 Domenichino, 91, 92, 234-236, 492, 
 
 509, 539, 542, 545, 548. 565, 597, 
 
 601. 
 
 Domingo, J., 456. 
 Dore, Paul Gustave, 446, 499. 
 Dossi, Dosso, 227, 489, 545. 
 
 Dow, Gerard, 322, 497, 532, 564, 
 567, 578, 589, 595, 602. 
 
 Dubufe, Edouard, 454. 
 
 Duccio, di Buoninsegna, 39, 40, 75, 
 487. 573- 
 
 Duez, Frnest Ange, 453. 
 
 Dufour, Camille, 449. 
 
 Dughet, Gaspar, 376, 547. 
 
 Dupre", Jules, 448. 
 
 Duran, Carolus, 454. 
 
 Durand, Asher Brown, 481. 
 
 Durer, Albrecht, 82, 192, 270-278, 
 496, 531, 562, 576, 587, 592. 
 
 Dyce, William, 466. 
 
 Eastlake, Charles, 417, 500, 579. 
 
 Eaton, Wyatt, 484. 
 
 Eckhout, Gerbrandt von der, 321, 
 
 543- 
 
 Egg, Augustus, 465. 
 Elliott, Charles, 481. 
 Elmore, Alfred, 466. 
 Engelbrechtsen, Cornelis, 311, 592. 
 Escosura, Leon Y , 456. 
 Etty, William, 416, 500, 579. 
 Eyck, Hubert van, 251, 495. 
 Eyck, Jan van, 251-259, 495, 564, 
 
 576, 587, 601. 
 Eyck, Margaret van, 251, 259, 576. 
 
 Fabriano, Gentile da, in, 188, 490, 
 
 529- 
 
 Faed, Thomas, 477. 
 Feuerbach, Anton, 432. 
 Fildes, Samuel Luke, 477, 478. 
 Filipepi, Sandro (see Botticelli;. 
 Fisher, Mark, 482. 
 Flandrin, Jean Ilippolyte, 438. 
 Flaxman, John, 404. 
 Fleury, Joseph Nicolas Robert, 439. 
 Flinck, Govaert, 321, 496.
 
 INDEX OF ARTISTS. 
 
 609 
 
 Floris, Franz, 288. 
 
 Forbes, Stanhope, 475. 
 
 Forli, Melozzo da, 99, 541. 
 
 Fortuny, Mariano, 455. 
 
 Foster, Birket, 479. 
 
 Foucquet, Jehan, 369, 498. 
 
 Fran9ais, Francois, 449. 
 
 Francia, II, 7-|, 89, 109, 540, 544, 
 
 564, 574, 582, 587, 597. 
 Freeman, James E., 484. 
 Frere, Pierre Edouard, 440. 
 Friant, Emile, 453. 
 Friese, Richard, 429. 
 Fripp, George Arthur, 479. 
 Frith, William, 476. 
 Fromentin, Eugene, 443. 
 Fuseli, Henry, 402, 499. 
 
 Gaddi, Gaddo, 31. 
 
 Gaddi, Taddeo, 46, 66, 67, 72, 488. 
 
 Gainsborough, Thomas, 399, 499, 
 
 579- 
 
 Gallait, Louis, 459. 
 Garbo, Raffaelino del, 124, 488, 528. 
 Garofalo, Benvenuto Tisio, 92, 227, 
 
 489, 542, 545, 573, 582. 
 Gay, Walter, 482. 
 
 Gelee, Claude (see Lorraine, Claude). 
 Gerard, Fran9ois, 387, 499, 571. 
 Gericault, Jean -Louis, 389, 499, 570. 
 Gerome, Jean Leon, 444. 
 Gervex, Henri, 453. 
 Ghirlandajo, Domenico, 64, 66, 68, 
 
 76, 105, 141, 488, 564, 596- 
 Gifford, Sandford Robinson, 482. 
 Gilbert, John, 466, 479. 
 Giordano, Luca, 244, 365, 493, 547, 
 
 554, 555, 56i, 585- 
 Giorgione (Giorgio Barbarelli), 194- 
 
 197, 491, 533, 535, 552, 560, 
 
 582, 597, 600. 
 
 Giotto di Bordone, 34, 38, 41-46, 67, 
 70, 71, 74, 76, 79, Si, 82, 488, 
 527, 530, 547, 596. 
 
 Giunta da Pisano, 32, 33, 38, 71, 
 590- 
 
 Gleyre, Marc Charles Gabriel, 439. 
 
 Goes, Hugo van der, 260. 
 
 Gonsalvo, Perez Pablo, 456. 
 
 Goodall, Frederic, 467. 
 
 Gow, Andrew, 467. 
 
 Goya, Francisco, 367, 498. 
 
 Goyen, Jan van, 313, 497. 
 
 Gozzoli, Benozzo, 98, 488, 540, 565. 
 
 Graham, Peter, 464, 474. 
 
 Granet, Fran9ois, 388, 571. 
 
 Grant, Francis, 474. 
 
 Gray, Henry Peters, 481. 
 
 Greco-Egyptian Panel Portraits, 10. 
 
 Greuze, Jean Baptiste, 384, 499, 
 
 I 571- 
 
 Gronland, Theude, 458. 
 
 Gros, Jeon Antoine, 386, 499, 571. 
 
 Groux, Charles de, 461. 
 
 Grunewald, Matthias, 279. 
 
 Gubbio, Oderisio of, III, 490. 
 
 Gude, Hans, 459. 
 
 Guercino (Francisco Barbieri), 240, 
 492, 531, 537, 540, 542, 546, 547, 
 I 548, 565, 58i, 597, 601. 
 
 Guido Reni, 77, 78, 236-239, 492, 
 j 517, 519, 533, 536, 537, 540, 
 
 542, 543, 546-548, 565, 576, 
 68 1, 588, 597, 600. 
 
 Guido of Sienna, 32, 487. 
 
 | Haag, Carl, 479. 
 
 : Haarlem, Gerard van, 310, 592. 
 
 I Hacker, Arthur, 479. 
 
 ! Hagborg, August, 458. 
 
 Hals, Franz, 315, 496, 603. ,' 
 
 Halswelle, Keeley, 474.
 
 6io 
 
 INDEX OF ARTISTS. 
 
 Hammon, Edouard Jean Conrad, 
 
 461. 
 
 Harnon, Jean Louis, 441. 
 Harding, James D., 479. 
 Harpigines, Henri, 448. 
 Harrison, Alexander, 484. 
 Hart, James McDougal, 482. 
 Hart, William, 482. 
 Haseltine, William Stanley, 482. 
 Haydon, Benjamin Robert, 412, 500, 
 
 579- 
 
 Healy, George Peter Alexander, 481. 
 
 Hebert, Antoine, 441. 
 
 Heem, David de, 335, 497, 589, 593, 
 595- 
 
 Heist, Bartholomew van der, 323, 
 496, 578, 5^6, 592, 603. 
 
 Henner, Jean Jacques, 446. 
 
 Herbert, John Rogers, 467. 
 
 Herkomer, Hubert, 474, 476. 
 
 Herrara, Francisco, 347. 
 
 Herring, John F., 464. 
 
 Hess, Heinrich, 423. 
 
 Heyden, Jan van der, 334. 497, 595. 
 
 Hitchcock, George, 484. 
 
 Hobbema, Mindert. 329, 497, 567. 
 
 Hoffmann, -Heinrich Johann Mi- 
 chael, 424. 
 
 Hogarth, William, 394-396, 499, 
 
 579- 
 
 Holbein, Hans, 280, 496, 5^2. 
 Holbein, Hans (the Younger), 281- 
 
 284, 496, 564, 576, 587, 592, 602. 
 Holl, Frank, 474, 476. 
 Homer, Winslow. 484. 
 Hondekoeter, Melchior, 335, 589, 
 
 593- 
 
 Hooghe, Peter de, 327, 497, 595. 
 Hook, James, 475. 
 Houthorst, Gerard, 315, 497, 533, 
 
 546, 586, 594, 602. 
 
 Hiibner, Rudolf Julius, 424. 
 Huet, Paul, 448. 
 Hughes, Arthur, 471. 
 Hunt, William Holman, 468, 469. 
 Hunt, W T illiatn Morris, 483. 
 Hunter, Colin, 475. 
 Huntington, Daniel, 481. 
 Huysum, Jan van, 335, 567, 589, 
 595- 
 
 Imola, Innocenza da, 226. 
 Induno, Girolamo, 456. 
 Ingres, Jean Auguste, 386. 
 Inman, Henry, 481. 
 Inness, George, 482. 
 Irving, J. Beaufain, 483. 
 Israels, Josef, 462. 
 Ittenbach, Franz, 424 
 Ivanoff, Alexandre, 456. 
 
 Jacobs, Jacobus, 461. 
 Jacques, Charles Emile, 451. 
 Jadin, Emmanuel, 451. 
 Jalabert, Charles Fnu^ois, 440. 
 Japy, Louis Aime, 449. 
 Jernberg, August, 458. 
 Jiminez y Aranda, 456. 
 Joanes, Juan, 341, 498, 556. 
 Johnson, Eastman, 484. 
 Jordaens, Jacob, 298, s6. 
 Justus of Ghent, 260. 
 
 Kalf, Willem, 335, 497. 
 Kaufmann, Angelica, 308, 496, 534, 
 
 580, 590. 
 
 Kaulbach, Friedrich, 426, 428. 
 Kaulbach, Hermann, 426. 
 Kaulbach, Wilhelm von, 425, 426, 
 
 496, 603. 
 
 Kensett, John Frederick, 482. 
 Keyser, Nicaise de, 459.
 
 INDEX OF ARTISTS. 
 
 611 
 
 Knaus, Ludwig, 424, 429, 591. 
 Kneller, Godfrey, 393. 
 Knight, Ridgway, 482. 
 Koekkoek, Barent, 462. 
 Konincx, Solomon, 321. 
 Kotzebue, Alexandra, 457. 
 Kowalski, Alfred, 436. 
 
 La Farge, John, 484. 
 
 Lambert, Louis, 442. 
 
 Lambinet, Emile, 448. 
 
 Landelle, Charles, 440. 
 
 Landseer, Charles, 464. 
 
 Landseer, Edwin, 463, 464, 500, 
 
 580. 
 Lanfranco, Giovanni, 241, 492, 581, 
 
 597- 
 
 Laurens, Jean Paul, 443. 
 Lawrence, Thomas, 406, 500, 579. 
 Lawson, Cecil, 474. 
 Leader, Benjamin Williams, 474. 
 Leal. Juan de Valdes, 364, 498, 559, 
 
 535. 
 
 Lebrun, Elisabeth, 387, 534. 
 Lefebre, Jules, 445. 
 Lehmann, Henri, 455. 
 Leibl, Wilhelm, 428. 
 Leighton, E. Blair, 477. 
 Leighton, Frederick, 472-474. 
 Lely, Sir Peter, 393, 538. 
 Lenbach, Franz, 428. 
 Leonardo da Vinci, 76, 104, 126- 
 
 137, 488, 489, 510, 512, 528, 
 
 532; 56o, 563, 568. 
 Lepage, Jules Bastien, 453 
 Leroux, Hector, 439. 
 Leslie, Charles Robert, 418, 500, 579. 
 Leslie, George D., 474, 477. 
 Lessing, Karl Friedrich, 424. 
 Lesueur, Eustache, 378, 497, 570, 
 
 601. 
 
 Leutze, Emmanuel, 481. 
 Lewis, John Frederick, 478. 
 Leyden, Lucas of, 311, 496. 
 Leys, Jean Auguste Henri, 460. 
 Lhermitte, Leon Augustin, 452. 
 Liebermann, Max, 428. 
 Liezen-Mayer, Alexander, 428. 
 Lindenschmidt, Wilhelm, 428. 
 Lippi, Filippino, 97, 108, 488, 573. 
 Lippi, Fra Filippo, 64, 65, 97, 458, 
 
 573- 
 Lorraine, Claude (Claude Gele'e), 
 
 376-378, 497, 533, 543, 561, 
 
 569, 576, 589, 596, 601. 
 Lotto, Lorenzo, 208. 
 Luini, Bernardino, 64, 77, 86, 89, 
 
 138, 489, 531, 537, 543, 574- 
 
 M<:buse, Gossaert, 265, 590, 592, 602. 
 Macallum, Hamilton, 475. 
 Macbeth, Robert Walker, 475. 
 MacCallum, Andrew, 474. 
 Maclise, Daniel, 466, 500, 579. 
 Macnee, Daniel, 474. 
 Madou, Jean Baptiste, 461. 
 Madrazo, Federigo and Raimundi 
 
 de, 456 
 
 Maignan, Albert, 444. 
 Makart, Hans, 432, 433. 
 Makovski, Konstantin, 458. 
 Malbo/ie, Edward, 480. 
 Manet, douard, 453. 
 Mantegna, Andrea, 86, 101-103, 
 
 179, 189,488, 532, 542, 554, 564, 
 
 574, 599. 
 
 Margaritone of Arezzo, 33, 573. 
 Maris, The brothers, 462. 
 Marks, Henry Stacy, 477. 
 Mnrratta, Carlo, 245, 490. 547, 583. 
 Masaccio, 89, 96. 488, 532, 596. 
 Massjlino, 96, 488.
 
 6l2 
 
 INDEX OF ARTISTS. 
 
 Matsys, Quintin, 266, 495, 543, 566, 
 
 576, 580, 602. 
 Mauva, Anton, 462. 
 Max, Gabriel, 428. 
 Mayer, Carl, 431. 
 Mayer, Constant, 483. 
 McEntee, Jervis, 482. 
 McWhirter, Andrew, 474. 
 Meer, Jan van der, 327. 
 Meissonier, Jean Louis Charles, 447. 
 Meissonier, Jean Louis Frnest,447. 
 Meister, Stephan, 249, 494, 576, 591. 
 Meister, Wilhelm, 249, 494, 576,591, 
 
 603- 
 
 Memling, Hans, 261-265, 495> 59 2 - 
 Memmi, Lippi, 47, 530. 
 Memmi, Simone, 47, ^87, 530. 
 Mengs, Raphael, 307, 367, 496, 590. 
 Menzel, Adolph, 429. 
 Merle, Hugues, 441. 
 Mesdag, Hendrik Willem, 462. 
 Messina, Antonello da, 100, 575. 
 Metsu, Gabriel, 324, 497, 567, 589, 
 
 602. 
 
 Meulen, Anton van der, 305. 
 Meyer, Jean Georges (von Bremen), 
 
 424. 
 
 Michetti, Francesco Paolo, 456. 
 Mierevelt, 314, 496, 586. 
 Miens, Frans, 325, 497, 589, 595, 
 
 602. 
 
 Mignard, Pierre, 381, 498, 570, 6oi. 
 Millais, John Everett, 469, 470, 474. 
 Millet, Jean Fran9ois, 451, 499. 
 Monaco, Lorenzo, 52. 
 Montalba, Clara, 478. 
 Moore, Albert, 472. 
 Moore, Henry, 475. 
 Morales, Luis, 343, 498, 556, 585. 
 Moran, Thomas, 482. 
 Morelli, Domenico, 456. 
 
 Morland, George, 405, 500. 
 I Moroni, Giambatista, 211, 491, 546, 
 
 574- 
 
 Morot, Aim Nicolas, 448. 
 Morretto, II, 92, 211, 491, 540, 574, 
 
 582, 600. 
 
 Moscheles, Felix, 474. 
 Mount, William Sidney, 484. 
 Muller, Carl, 424. 
 Muller, Charles Louis, 441. 
 Muller, Morten, 459. 
 Mulready, William, 41$, 500, 579. 
 Munkacsy, Michael, 433, 435. 
 Murillo, Bartolomeo Esteban, 359- 
 
 364, 498, 522, 537, 541, 546, 
 
 557, 558, 564, 566, 575, 585, 
 
 596, 601. 
 
 Murray, David, 475. 
 Musin, Fran9ois, 461. 
 
 Naftel, Paul J., 479- 
 Nasmyth, Patrick, 415, 500. 
 Navarette, Juan Fernandez (El 
 
 Mudo), 344, 498. 
 Neefs, Peter, 334, 567, 589, 595. 
 Neer, Artus van der, 330, 497, 603. 
 Neff, Timoth^e, 456. 
 Nelli, Ottaviano, III, 490. 
 Netscher, Caspar, 326, 497, 578, 
 
 589- 595- 
 
 Neuvillc, Alphonse de, 447. 
 Nicol, Erskine, 475. 
 Northcote, James, 403, 499. 
 
 Oggione, Marco d', 134, 139, 583. 
 Opie, John, 403, 500. 
 Orcagna, Ar.drea, 48, 49, 488, 573. 
 Orchardson, William Quiller, 478. 
 j Orley, Bernard van, 266. 
 
 IOstade, Adrian van, 324, 497. 
 Ostnde, Isaac van, 324.
 
 INDEX OF ARTISTS. 
 
 Ouless, William Walter, 474. 
 Cutwater, Albert van, 310. 
 Overbeck, Friedrich, 422-424, 496. 
 
 Facheco, Francisco, 348. 
 
 Page, William, 480. 
 
 Palma, Jacopo (see Vecchio, Palma\ 
 
 Palmaroli, Vicente, 456. 
 
 Parmagiano, II (Francesco Mazzu- 
 
 ola), 92, 228, 489, 535, 545, 574, 
 
 583. 
 
 Parsons, Alfred, 475. 
 Paton, Noel, 466, 477. 
 Pauwels, Ferdinand, 461. 
 Peale, Charles, 480. 
 Peale, Rembrandt, 480. 
 Penni. Francisco, 225, 226, 490. 
 Peroff, Basil, 458. 
 Perugini, Charles Edward, 477. 
 Perugino, II (Pietro Vanucci), 67, 74, 
 
 81, 86, 89, 113, 159, 489, 528, 
 
 540, 567, 574, 537, 596. 
 Pettenkofer, August von, 436. 
 Pettie, John, 477- 
 
 Philippoteaux, Felix Emanuel, 448. 
 Phillip, John, 465. 
 Pickersgill, 1 1 enry William, 466, 474 
 Picot, Francois Edouard, 438. 
 Piloty, Carl Theodor von, 426, 427. 
 Pils, Isidore, 439, 448- 
 Pinturicchio, 66, 117, 489, 538, 554, 
 
 588, 599. 
 Piombo, Sebastian del, 155, 172, 
 
 209, 491, 536, 543, 545, 56o, 
 
 574, 575, 598, 600. 
 Pippi, Giulio (see Romano Giulio). 
 Pisano, Giunta da, 32. 33, 38, 71, 
 
 590- 
 
 Pissarro, Camille, 453. 
 Polygnotus, 5. 
 Ponlormo (Jacopo Carucci), 222. 
 
 Poole, Paul Falconer, 466. 
 Pordenone, 208, 491, 546, 549, 582, 
 
 597, 600. 
 
 Portaels, Jean Fran$ois, 460. 
 Porter, Benjamin C., 481. 
 Potter, Paul, 331, 497, 589. 
 Pourbus, Franz, 289. 
 Poussin, Nicolas, 373-376, 498, 541, 
 
 547, 569- 576, 596, 601. 
 Poynter, Edward J., 473, 474. 
 Pradilla, Francesco, 456. 
 Primaticcio, Francesco, 371. 
 Prout, Samuel, 420. 
 Prud'hon, Pierre Paul, 387. 
 
 Raeburn, Henry, 406, 500, 579. 
 
 Raflfaelli, Jean Frangois, 453. 
 
 Raibolini (see Francia, II). 
 
 Ramenghi (see Bagnacavallo). 
 
 Raphael Santi, 67, 68, 75, 77, 79, 82, 
 89, 90, 92, 140, 149, 157-179, 
 490, 501, 504, 530, 535, 537, 
 538, 539, 544, 547, 559, 5^3, 
 567, 573, 574, 584, 596, 599- 
 
 Regnault, Henri, 443, 572. 
 
 Rembrandt van Ryn, 316-321, 496, 
 519, 567, 577, 586, 592, 594, 602. 
 
 Reni, Guido (see Guido). 
 
 Re"nouf, Emile, 452. 
 
 Repine, Elias, 457. 
 
 Rethcl, Alfred, 430. 
 
 Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 396-399, 499, 
 5/8, 579- 
 
 Ribalta, Francisco, 351, 498, 556. 
 
 Ribera, Josef de (Lo Spagnoletto), 
 242, 352, 492, 493, 498, 545, 
 547, 558, 585, 601. 
 
 Ricciarelli, Daniele (see Volterra). 
 
 Richards, William T., 482. 
 
 Richmond, William B., 478. 
 
 Richter, Gustav, 479, 430.
 
 6i 4 
 
 INDEX OF ARTISTS. 
 
 Rico, Martin, 456. 
 Rigaud, Hyacinthe, 382, 499, 564. 
 Riviere, Briton, 465. 
 Robert, Leopold, 390, 572. 
 Roberts, David, 419, 500. 
 Robusti, Jacopo (see Tintoretto). 
 Roelas, Juan de las, 3^5, 498, 556. 
 Roll, Alfred Philippe, ^53. 
 Romano, Giulio, 165, 175, 177, 225, 
 
 490, 536, 542, 573, 583- 
 Romney, George, 400, 499, 579. 
 Ronner, Henriette, 44.2. 
 Rosa, Salvator, 242, 492, 493, 536, 
 
 638, 547, S^i, 576, 597- 
 Resales, 455. 
 
 Roselli, Cosimo, 99, 488, 564, 599. 
 Rosenthal, Toby, 483. 
 Rossetti, Gabriel Charles Dante, 
 
 471, 472, 579. 
 Rossi, Rosso di (Maitre Roux), 
 
 37i- 
 
 Rousseau, Theodore, 448, 572. 
 Roybet, Ferdinand, 454. 
 Rubens, Peter Paul, 291-297, 495, 
 
 523- 531,533,536,537,547,561, 
 566, 577, 585, 595, 602. 
 
 Ruysch, Rachel, 335, 595. 
 
 Ruysdael, Jacob, 328, 497, 589, 
 603. 
 
 Ruysdael, Solomon, 328. 
 
 Sacchi, Andrea, 245, 541. 
 Salaino, Andrea, 139. 
 Salmson, Hugo, 458. 
 Salvator Rosa (see Ro,a). 
 Sant, James, 474. 
 
 Santi, Giovanni, 102, 119, 490, 599. 
 Santi, Raphael (see Raphael). 
 Sargent, John S., 481, 484. 
 Sarto, Andrea del (Andrea Vannu- 
 chi), 66, 76, 91, 219-22:2, 488, 
 
 531, 535, 537, 538, 560, 568, 
 582, 596, 599. 
 
 Sassoferrato (Salvi), 244, 490, 541, 
 566, 583 
 
 Schadow, Wilhelm, 422, 424. 
 Schalken, Gottfried, 326, 567, 589, 
 
 594- 
 
 Scheffer, Ary, 436-438, 579. 
 SchefTer, Henri, 438. 
 Schiavone (Andrea Medola), 212. 
 Schon, Martin, 268, 496, 576. 
 Schreyer, Adolf, 431. 
 Schwind, Moritz von, 431. 
 Siemiradzki, 457. 
 Siena, Guido da, 32, 487. 
 Signorelli, Luca, 76, 104, 488. 
 Simonsen, Niels, 458. 
 Sine ing, Otto, 459. 
 Sisley, Alfred, 453. 
 Smedley, William T., 484. 
 Smith, Hopkinson, 482. 
 Snyders, Franz, 297, 495, 561, 586, 
 
 593- 
 
 Sodoma, II, 77, 224, 487, -32. 
 Solario, Andrea, 139, 564 
 Solomon, Solomon J., 479. 
 Spagnoletto, Lo (see Ribera). 
 Spangenberg, Gustav, 430. 
 Squarcione, Francisco, 101, 189, 590. 
 Stanfield, Clarkson, 419, 500, 580. 
 Stanhope, Spencer, 472. 
 Steen, Jan, 325, 589, 602. 
 Steenwycks, Hendrick van, 334, 589. 
 Steinle, Eduard, 431. 
 Stephan, Meister, 249, .191, 576, 591. 
 Stevens, Alfred, 461. 
 Stevens, Joseph, 461. 
 Stone, Marcus, 466, 477, 479. 
 j Stothard, Thomas, 405, 499. 
 Strudwick, J. M., 472. 
 Stuart, Gilbert, 480.
 
 INDEX OF ARTISTS. 
 
 Stuck, Franz, 428. 
 Sully, Thomas, 480. 
 Sustermann (Lambert Lombard), 
 288, 602. 
 
 Tafi, Andrea, 30. 
 
 Teniers, David, 303. 
 
 Teniers, David (the Younger), 303- 
 
 305, 495, 562, 567,' 577, 589, 
 
 595, 602. 
 Terburg, Gerard, 323, 497, 567, 578, 
 
 589, 593, 595, 602. 
 Thaulow, Fritz, 459. 
 Thayer, Abbott, 481. 
 Thornhill, James, 394. 
 Tidemand, Adolf, 459. 
 Tintoretto, II (Jacopo Robusti), 212- 
 
 215, 490, 542, 551, 552, 584. 
 Tissot, James, 454. 
 Titian (Tiziano Vecellio), 67, 71, 79, 
 
 180, 194, 195, 197-208, 490, 514, 
 
 531, 533, 537, 540, 543, 544, 546, 
 
 549, 551, 559, 563. 565, 568, 574, 
 
 581, 588, 597, 600. 
 Toulmouche, Auguste, 454. 
 Troyon, Constantine, 450, 499, 572. 
 Trumbull, John, 481. 
 T'Schaggeny, Edmond, 461. 
 Turner, Joseph William Mallard, 
 
 407-410, 500, 578. 
 
 Uccello, Paolo, 95, 488. 
 Uhde, Fritz von, 430. 
 Ulrich, Charles F., 482. 
 
 Vaga, Perino del, 226, 490. 
 
 Van Beer, Jan, 459. 
 
 Vanderlyn, John, 480. 
 
 Vandyck, Anton, 298-302, 495, 53L 
 
 537, 538, 546, 5&i, 564, 567, 577, 
 
 586, 592, 594, 602. 
 40 
 
 Van Marcke, Eniile, 451. 
 Van Moer, Jean Baptiste, 461. 
 Vannucci, Pietro (see Perugino). 
 Vannuchi (see Andrea del Sarto), 
 Van Schendel, Petrus, 462. 
 Vargas, Luis de, 340, 498. 
 Vasari, Giorgio, 223, 488, 547, 566, 
 
 596. 
 
 Vasnetzoff, V. M., 457. 
 Vecchio, Palma, 206, 208, 491. 543, 
 
 546, 554, 563, 582, 588, 597. 600. 
 Vecellio, Tiziano (see Titian). 
 Vedder, Elihu, 482, 483. 
 Veen, Otto van, 312, 595. 
 Veit, Philip, 422, 431. 
 Velasquez, Diego, 354-359, 49^, 543, 
 
 556, 557, 566, 575, 601. 
 Velde, Adrian van de, 332, 497. 
 Velde, Willem van de, 332, 497, 577, 
 
 603. 
 
 Veneziano, Domenico, 100. 
 Verboeckhoven, Eugene, 461. 
 Verestchagin, Basil, 457. 
 Verlat, Charles, 4i- 
 Vernet, Claude Joseph, 383, 499, 
 
 568, 596- 
 
 Vernet, Horace, 388, 499, 572. 
 Veronese (Paul Cagliari), 75, 89, 
 
 215-217, 49 1 * 534, 538, 540, 542, 
 
 546, 550, 552, 563, 573, 582, 584, 
 
 597, 600. 
 
 Veyrassat, Jules Jacques, 451. 
 Vibert, Jean Georges, 454. 
 Vien, Joseph Marie, 384. 
 Vinci, Leonardo da (see Leonardo). 
 Vite, Timoteo della, 158. 
 Vivarini, Bartolomeo, 188, 491, 554- 
 Vollon, Antoine, 442. 
 Volterra, Daniele da, 78, 155- 15&, 
 
 488. 
 Vos, Martin, 289.
 
 6i6 
 
 INDEX OF ARTISTS. 
 
 Vouet, Simon, 371, 498, 569. 
 Vriendt, Albrecht de, 461. 
 
 Wagner, Alexander, 428. 
 
 Wahlberg, Alfred, 458. 
 
 Walker, Frederick, 475. 
 
 Wappers, Gustaf, 459. 
 
 Ward, James, 464. 
 
 Waterhouse, John W., 478, 479. 
 
 Waterlow, Ernest, 475. 
 
 Watteau, Antoine, 383, 499. 
 
 Watts, George Frederick, 473, 474. 
 
 Wauters, Charles, 461. 
 
 Weeks, Edwin Lord, 484. 
 
 Weenix, Jan, 334, 497, 589, 593. 
 
 Weguelin, J. R., 478. 
 
 Weir, Robert Walter, 481. 
 
 Weir, John F., 483. 
 
 Werff, Adrian van der, 327, 497, 567, 
 
 589, 593, 595- 
 Werner, Anton von, 429. 
 West, Benjamin, 400, 499, 579. 
 Weyden, Roger van der, 260, 261, 
 
 495. 577. 587, 592, 602. 
 Weyden, Roger van der (the Young- 
 
 er), 261, 577. 
 Whistler, James A., 474. 
 Whittredge, Worthington, 482. 
 Wiertz, Anton, 461. 
 
 Wilhelm, Meister, 249, 494, 576, 
 
 591, 603. 
 
 Wilkie, David, 413, 500, 579. 
 Willems, Florent, 461. 
 Wilson, Richard, 400, 579. 
 Wohlgemuth, Michael, 250, 269, 496, 
 
 592- 
 
 Woods, Henry, 478. 
 Woodville, Caton, 467. 
 Wouvermans, Philip, 331, 497, 593, 
 
 595- 
 
 Wyllie, W. L., 474. 
 Wynants, Jan, 313, 497. 
 
 Yeames, William, 477. 
 Yon, Edmond Charles, 449. 
 Yvon, Adolf, 457. 
 
 Zamacoi's, douard, 456. 
 Zampieri (see Domenichino). 
 Zeitblom, Bartholomew, 279. 
 Zeuxis, 6. 
 
 Zichy, Michael von, 457. 
 Ziem, Felix, 450. 
 Zorn, Anders, 458. 
 Zuccaro, Federigo, 230, 490. 
 Zuccaro, Taddeo, 230, 490. 
 Zurbaran, Francisco, 346, 498, 556, 
 566, 575- 585. 596, 601. 
 
 THE END
 
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 HE ART OF THE WORLD. Reproductions 
 
 in Photogravure and Typogravure of the Masterpieces of Paint- 
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 LIFE OF AN ARTIST. An Autobiography, 
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 4 
 
 ii