Chicano Studies Research Library F 1226 15 M6 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY II N G 000 085 311 9 J. M. BOUTWF' U.S. GE - SURV^ Washington, D. C. jy^ International Bureau of the American Republics, WASHINGTON, D. C. MEXICO. 9 GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH, NATURAL RESOURCES, LAWS, ECONOMIC CONDITIONS, ACTUAL DEVELOPMENT, PROSPECTS OF FUTURE GROWTH. 9 Edited and Compiled by the INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLICS. 1904. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1904. While the utmost care is taken to insure accuracy in the publications of the International Bureau of the American Republics, no responsibility is assumed on account of errors or inaccuracies which may occur therein. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Pfcge Chapter I. — Geographical sketch — Area and population — Topography — Clima- tology — Orography — Hydrography 5 II. — Historical sketch ] 7 III. — Ethnology and archaeology of Mexico, by Prof. (). T. Mason, etc.. 24 IV. — Government and constitutional organization — Citizenship — Rights of foreigners — Guaranties — Army and navy 47 V. — Political divisions — The Valley of Mexico and the Federal Dis- trict — Capital city — Principal buildings — Public institutions... 57 VI. — The States and Territories of the Republic — Brief geographical sketch of each — Resources, means of communication, climate, seasons, population, capital cities, industries 70 VII. — Agriculture — Review of the agricultural wealth of the country — Principal products, their cultivation — Facilities for obtaining ( r« > vernment lands — Lam I laws — Forest pr< iducts 1 66 VIII. —Stock raising 214 IX. — Mines and mining — Mining Laws — Taxes, etc 221 X. — Industries and manufactures 245 XL — Commerce— Domestic and foreign tradt — Statistical data — Ports and customs districts-Tariff 262 XII. — Financial organization — Public debt — Budget 295 X 1 1 1. — Mints — Currency — Banks — Banking laws — Corporations 309 XIV. — Means of communication — Railroads and railroad law — Telegraphs and telephones — Postal service — Steamship lines :;l'7 X V. — Public lands — Colonization and immigration laws 362 XVI. — Education — Religion — Protestant missions 376 XVII. — Patent and trade-marks Jaws 386 XVIII. — Practice of medicine, dentistry, etc.— Cost of living — "Wages to labor — Building, etc 401 XIX. — Miscellaneous — Statistical data — Weights and measures — Cham- bers of commerce — Treaties and conventions 407 XX. — Bibliography and cartography 1-1 3 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. American colony in the City of Mexico 20 Chapultepec forest, City of Mexico 40 American colony, City of Mexico 60 Avenida 18 Poniente and Mexican National Railway station, City of Mexico. . 68 City of Guanajuato, State of < Guanajuato 100 Palace of Guadalajara. State of Jalisco 110 Amacusac Valley, State of Morelos 120 Municipal Palace— Puebla — State of Puebla 126 Port of Veracruz, State of Veracruz 148 " El Zopilote" Mining Works, Territory of Tepic 160 Strawberry picking, Cuernavaca, Morelos 168 Coffee grading 1 7.S San < labile! estate — Sugar factory— Morelos HIS Irrigation dam near Irapuato, Guanajuato 210 Loreto Smelting Plant, Pachuca District, Hidalgo 230 San Rafael Mining Works, Pachuca District, Hidalgo 240 Rio Blanco Cotton Mills, Orizaba, Veracruz 24S ( .'< tatzacoalcos Harbor, Tehuantepec 278 Tampico, state of Tamaulipas 290 "El Or.. - ' Mining Works, State of Mexico 308 Bridge on the Balsas River, Mexican Central and Pacific Railway — Guerrero. 330 Piscquiac bridge — Jalapa and Tecalco Railway 356 Cathedral of Guadalajara, Jalisco 368 Juarez Theater, Guanajuato 402 4 MEXICO CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH — AREA AND POPULATION — TOPOG- RAPHY— CLIMATOLOGY— OROGRAPHY— HYDROGRAPHY GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION. The country called Mexico, or New Spain, by the historians of the last century was situated between 9° and 40° north latitude, and 80° and 5<> west longitude. Its length was 2,100 miles, and its breadth 1,600. The United Mexican States of to-day, according to the latest official data, lie between 14^ 30' 42" and 32° 42' latitude north, and 86° 46' 8" and 117° T 31" longitude west from Greenwich, having a superficial area of about 1,987,201 square kilometers. The northern and eastern boundary of the Republic is the United States of America; the eastern. British Honduras, the Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico; its southern, the Pacific Ocean, Guatemala, and British Hon- duras; and the western, the Pacific Ocean. Its greatest length is about 3,120 and its greatest width L,226 kilometers. The widest part is along its boundary with the United States, and the narrowest the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, where the distance from ocean to ocean is only about 210 kilometers. The coast, line measures 8,830 kilometers, as follows: Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea coast. 2,580; Pacific Ocean and Lower California, 6,250, the latter having :'>,<>i>o kilometers coast line. AREA AND POPULATION. The area and population of the Republic, according to the latest revised figures of the census, October 28, 1900, also the census figures 5 6 MEXICO. of I s '.'."> and the percentage of population per square kilometer in L900, is shown in the following table prepared from Mexican official data: States and territories Area in Bquare kiln- meter-. Population. Bquare kilo- meter. i IN I RAI. STATES. Federal J>i-triet. Aguascalientes. . Durango Guanajuato Bidalgo Mexico Morelos I'llelila Quergtaro San Luis Potosi. . Tlaxcala Zacatecas NORTHERN BT VTI.s. i Ibihuabua. . Coahuila Nuevo Leon. Si mora 1, 7. 109, 28, 22, 28, 7, 81, 11, 62, 4, 68, 198. 7;> 692. 00 196.00 863.00 215.00 185.00 082.25 616.00 638.00 177.(0 132.00 386. 00 i.l II si .1 ES. Campeche . Tabasco Tamaulipas Veracruz. Yucatan ami Territory of Quintans l: < . 223,094.00 165,099.00 61,343.00 L98, 196.00 Af,, 855. oo 26,094.00 M{,.y«7.tKi 75, 863. 00 91. 201. IX) PACIFIC ST \T1 -. Low et California i territorj i Colima i Ibiapafi < ruerrero Jalisco Michoacan < taxaca Sinaloa Tepic i territory) Islands 151, 5, 70, 64, 86, 58, 91, 71. 28, 4, 109.00 ss7.no 524.00 756.00 752.00 .'.'.M.I 1(1 664.00 380.00 371.00 042. 00 Total I, €87,201.00 468,705 102,878 292,649 1,047,517 651,817 887,981 973, 876 224,848 562, 195 168,244 147,265 200, 008 237,815 807,856 189, 158 133,926 203,342 297,088 41,838 55,264 818,780 117,886 1,094,669 887,008 872, 902 266, 858 146,805 541,516 102,416 1,061,724 984, 163 160,115 1,021,188 232,889 575, 182 172,815 162,190 827,784 296,938 327,937 221,682 86,542 159,834 218,948 981,030 314,087 17,624 65, LIS 360,799 179,205 - 930,033 948,633 296,701 150,098 12,491,678 13,605,819 861.25 37. 13 27.28 40.31 22.61 82. 80 20 88 9. 25 41.68 7.29 1.40 1 . 79 5. 34 1.11 1.84 6.12 2. 61 12.86 3.44 .31 11.06 5.11 7.40 13.80 15.87 10.34 I. 15 5. 29 6.&5 a The Territory of Quintana Roo was created by act of December 1 4, 1900, and by act of February 26, 1904, its political and municipal organization was established. Raa and nationality. -Of the total population L9 per cent are of pure or nearly pure white race. V-) per cent of mixed race, and 38 per cent of Indian race. Natives descended from ancient Indian tribes, and speaking little or no Spanish, numbered in L895, 1,908,707. Of the mixed and Indian race only a very small proportion can be regarded as civilized. The foreign population in L900 numbered 57,511. The nationalities most numerously represented were the United States, 1.5,265; Guatemalan, 5,804; other Americans, 3,379; Spanish, 1(5,258; French, .V.fTti: British, 2,845; German, 2, ">•'>">: Italian, 2,564; other European. 1,592; Chinese. 2.834. Baron von Humboldt, who at the beginning of the nineteenth century visited Mexico, in his work " Political Essay on New Spain," cpaotes at length a census made in L810 by Dr. Fernando Navarro y Noriega, according to which the total population of Mexico amounted then to BOUNDARIES. 7 6,122,354 inhabitants, divided as follows: Europeans, including ecclesiastics and nuns, 18 per cent; Indians, GO per cent, and mixed races 22 per cent. In 1875, according to the census, the total popula- tion had increased to 9,495,157 inhabitants, divided as follows: Euro- peans and descendants of the Spaniards, 20 per cent; mixed races, 43 per cent, and native Indian race, 37 per cent. During the sixty -five years elapsed between the two above-men- tioned censuses, deducting from the census of 1810 the inhabitants of Texas, New Mexico, and Upper California (estimated at 58,838 individuals), the increase of the population was 3,431,141, showing an increase in the European element of 1.1 per cent per annum and in the mixed race 3.25, while the native Indian decreased at the rate of 0.58 per cent per annum. VITAL STATISTICS. ( a ) Births. — According to the "Anuario Estadistico"" for 1902, the num- ber of births for the Republic during 1901 was 470,060, of which 224,259 were males and 225,801 females. The total population, as given by the census of 1900, being 13,605,919 inhabitants, the birth rate is 34.50 per 1,000 inhabitants. Deaths. — The total number of deaths during the same } T ear was 444,!»00, of which 231,061 were males and 213,839 females, the death rate being 32.19 per 1,000 inhabitants. Further classification of the deaths shows that there died 393,348 natives and 1,128 foreigners. BOUNDARIES. With the United States. — The boundary with the United States, as fixed by the treaties of February 2, 1848, and December 30, 1853, begins at the mouth of the Rio Grande on the Gulf of Mexico and follows the river for 1,136 miles beyond El Paso, Tex., to the point where it meets parallel 31° 47' latitude north, thence along said paral- lel for a distance of 100 miles; thence south to parallel 31 : 20' north latitude, following this parallel in a westerly direction as far as the one hundred and eleventh meridian of longitude west from Greenwich. Thence it runs in a straight line to a point on the Colorado River 20 miles below the junction of the Gila, thence up the middle of said Colorado River to the intersection with the old line between Upper and Lower California, and thence to a point on the Pacific Ocean dis- tant 1 marine league due south of the southernmost point of the Bay of San Diego, the total distance from El Paso, Tex., to the Pacific being 674 miles. The whole extent of the boundary between the two countries is 1,833 miles. As this boundary line runs from the south- east to the northwest, Mexico has on the Pacific side 6- 34' 20" of lat- itude more than on the Gulf side. Owing to the discovery of mines in the immediate vicinit} T of the («) See tables on pages 410-411, Chapter XIX. 8 KEXIOO. boundary line some years later, difficulties arose regarding the exact location of the line and the destruction of some <>t' the original marks. A convention was then concluded between the two Governments at the city of Washington on the 29th of July, L882, providing for the appointment of an international boundary commission to ascertain the condition of the monuments marking the boundary line, a prelim- inary reconnoissanrc of the same line to be made by both ( rovernments in accordance with the stipulations of the convention. The reconnois- sance was made in 1883 by officers of both Governments, independently, and their respective reports were submitted showing the necessity of a more definite demarcation of the boundary line. The other stipula- tions of this convention were not carried into effect in due time, ami another convention to revive and continue the same was concluded at Washington between the two Governments on the 18th of February, 1889. In compliance with this new convention the officers appointed by the two Governments began the work assigned to them, and pre- sented their joint report dated Washington, August 1-1, L896. a 117/// Guatemala. — The boundary with Guatamala is fixed by the treaties of September 27, 1882, and April 1, 1895. It runs from a point on the Pacific coast, 3 leagues distant from the upper mouth of the river Zuchiate, to the Caribbean Sea, following the course indi- cated by the treaties. The boundary with Belize is defined by a treaty signed at the City of Mexico on July 8, 1893, and ratified by the Mexican Senate on April 19, 1897. This line runs from the mouth of Boca Bacalar Chica — a strait separating Yucatan from Ambergris Ke} T — to the boundary between Mexico and Guatemala, following the demarcation set forth in the treaty. Cessions of territory. — B}- the treaties known as the Guadalupe- Hidalgo treaty, February 2, 1848, and the Gadsden treaty. December 30, 1853, Mexico ceded to the United States 930,5!»<> square mile-, or over one-half of her former territory. The area of each of the Mex- ican cessions to the United States is estimated as follow-: Square mile*. Annexation of Texas 362, 187 By < road&lupe-Hidslgo treaty 522, 568 By < radsden treaty 45, 535 Total 930, 590 TOPOGRAPHY. The country possesses a curious physical formation. Rising rapidly by a succession of terraces from the low sandy coasts on the east and west, it culminates in a central plateau running in a northwesterly and southeasterly direction, and having an elevation varying from "Report of the International Boundary Commission, United States and Mexico, 1891-1896. OROGRAPHY. 9 4,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea. High above this plateau tower the snow-capped crests of several volcanoes, most of which are extinct. The highest peaks are the volcanoes of Popocatepetl, 17,540 feet; the Orizaba or Citlaltepetl, 17,362 feet; the Ixtacihuatl, 16,076; Toluca, 15,019; Coliraa, 11,363, and Ajusco, 13,628 feet, besides several others varying- from 1,000 to 13,000 feet in height." OROGRAPHY. Two cordilleras, or high mountain ranges, traverse Mexico, running almost parallel to the coast, one along the Gulf of Mexico and the other along the Pacific coast. The former runs from 10 to 100 miles from the coast, leaving an imperceptibly inclined plane between the sea and the foot of the mountains, while the cordillera on the Pacific side runs very near the coast, leaving a very narrow strip of land between the mountains and the sea. This range has several branches running in different directions, the most continuous being the Sierra Madre of the Pacific. Parallel to this last-named range is the Sierra de la Giganta in Lower California, which slopes abruptly toward the east like the Atlantic escarpments. Corresponding with the Sierra Madre on the west are the broken eastern scarps of the central plateau. The cordillera of Anahuac, which surrounds the valleys of Teno- chtitlan and Puebla, is the most important orographically and histor- ically of the central cross ridges and is supposed to culminate in Popocatepetl and Ixtacihuatl. It seems, however, that these volcanoes belong to a more recent upheaval, as they are nearly at right angles to the main axis of the central plateau, south of the line formed by the Orizaba or Citlaltepetl, on the coast south of Veracruz, to which cor- respond, on the west, the Jorullo, in Michoacan, Colima, near the coast in Jalisco and the Revillagigedo group on the Pacific. Nearh T parallel to these are the sierras of Guerrero and southeast of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec those of Oaxaca and Chiapas toward the frontier of Guatemala. In the course of time these mountains have become dis- integrated by rain and other natural causes, and the filling up of the spaces between them has formed a series of valleys rich in agricultural resources. These valleys, known as the central plateau, run for about 150 miles east of the Cit} r of Mexico, in a northwesterly direction. The plateau is so level that when there were no wagon roads in Mexico one could travel in a carriage from the City of Mexico to Santa Fe. In contrast with the plains and the at times barren districts of the plateau, the territory is occasionally broken by depressions called " barrancas," having in some instances a depth of 1,000 feet and being several miles in length. These are covered with a luxurious growth of trees and shrubs and watered by small streams running through the middle of the valley. Among the most remarkable are the Barranca «See table on pages 408-409, Chapter XIX. 10 Ml- XI Co. de Bertr&n, on the western slope from Guadalajara to Colima,and the Mochitiltl from Guadalajara to Tepic. Coasts. The eastern OOasI of Mexico, bathed by the Caribbean Sea and the ( hllf of Mexico, is Hat. low, and sandy, except near the month of the Tabasco River, where, at some distance from the coast, appear the heights of San Gabriel, extending northeast and southwest for several miles. The coast on the Pacific side, though generally low. is here and there broken by spurs extending from the cordilleras to the ocean. Gulfs 4<» miles long; the Mescala or Balsas, 426 miles in length; the Yaqui, 390 miles; the Grijalva, 350 miles: the Fuerte, 340 miles; the Usumancita, 330 miles, and several others. The topographical conditions of the country are such as to cause the streams, in their progress toward the sea, to be continually precipitated in the form of cascades, etc.. thus rendering navigation exceedingly difficult on account of their varying depths, GEOLOGY. 11 but greath T facilitating- their availability for motive power. The Rio Grande rises in Colorado (United States of North America), passes through New Mexico, and by the time it reaches Mexican territory is almost dry, as the inhabitants of both States have utilized the greater portion of its waters for irrigation purposes. After passing Presidio del Norte (Ojinaga), the river Conchos and other tributaries supply the Grande with water, thus enlarging its stream, though never to the extent attained before its passage through Colorado and New Mexico. The Mescala or Balsas River rises in the central plateau, near the Valley of Mexico, passes through the State of Puebla to the southwest, and empties into the Pacific at Zacatula. This river is nav- igable for a short distance along its lower reaches; above the bar it is accessible to small craft. The Panuco River rises north of the Valley of Mexico, and under the names of Tula and Montezuma it describes a vast semicircular bend toward the west across the Hidalgo uplands and receives the streams of the Huasteca of Veracruz and Tamaulipas, beyond which it is joined b} 7 the various streams flowing from Quere- taro, and finally empties into the Gulf of Mexico at the port of Tam- pico, which is at present the best harbor on the Gulf coast. The River Lerma, or Santiago, is also a considerable stream. It rises in the mountains southwest of Toluca, passes through the Lake of Chapala, which it leaves under the name of Guadalajara, changing again its name to Tololotlan and Santiago before it empties near San Bias, hav- ing received the waters of many tributaries. The Grijalva and Usu- macinta rivers rise in the State of Chiapas, and, after being joined by many streams coming from Guatemala, empty into the Gulf of Mexico at the city of Frontera, in the State of Tabasco. The Papaloapam rises in the State of Oaxaca, passes through the State of Veracruz, and empties into the Gulf of Mexico at the town of Alvarado, a few miles south of Veracruz. There are also several other rivers more or less important. In all, there are in Mexico 95 streams worthy of mention, their total extent being 32,400 kilometers, 10,000 of which are nav- igable for ships of great draft, 1,800 for canoes and small steamers not exceeding 3 feet in draft, and the remaining 10,600 kilometers are useless for navigation, but suitable for irrigating purposes and in many cases for motive power. GEOLOGY. " The geolog} 7 of Mexico has been but imperfectly studied. In the higher ranges the prevailing formations are granite, which seem also to form the foundations of the plateaus, above which rise the traps, basalts, mineral-bearing porphyries, and more recent lavas. Hence Lyell's theory that Mexico consisted originally of granite ranges with « Coffee and India-rubber culture in Mexico; Matias Romero. New York, 1898, p. 12. 12 m i:\no. intervening valleys subsequently filled up to the level of the plateaus l>y subterranean eruption-, [gneous rock- of every geologic epoch certainly form to a large extent the superstructure of the central plateau. Bui the Mexican table-land seems to consist mainly of meta- morphic formations which have been partly upheaved, partly inter- penetrated and overlaid by igneous masses of all epochs and which are chiefly represented by shales, greywacke, greenstones, silicious Bchists, and especially unfossiliferous lime-tones. All these formations are alike remarkable for the abundance and variety of their metalliferous ore-, such as silver, silver glance, copper, and gold. Gneiss and micaceous -dusts prevail in Oaxaca and on all the southern -lopes facing both ocean-. Hut the highest ranges are formed mainly of plutonic and volcanic rocks, such as granites, syenites, diorites, mineral-bearing trachytes, basalts, porphyries, obsidian, pearlstone. sulphur, pumice, lava.-, tufa, and other recent volcanic discharges. Obsidian (itzli) was the chief material formerly used by the natives in the manufacture of their cutting implements, as shown by the quarries of the Cerro de las Navajas (Knife Cliff), near Real did Monte and Pachuca, in the State of Hidalgo. Vast deposits of pumice and the purest sulphur are found at lluichapam and in many of the crater-. But immeasurably the most valuable rocks are the argentiferous porphyries and schists of the central plateau and of Sinaloa, unless they are destined to be rivaled by the auriferous deposits of Sonora. Horizontal and stratified rocks, of extremely limited extent in the south, are largely developed in the northern States and chalk becomes very prevalent toward the Rio Grande and Rio Gila valleys. To this chalk and to the sandstone are probably due the sandy plains which cover vast tracks in North Mexico, stretching thence far into New Mexico and Texas. Hence, the Bolson de Mapimi. a vast rocky wilder- ness inhabited until recently by wild tribes, occupies a space of per- haps 50,000 square miles in Coahuila and parts of the surrounding State-. "None of the horizontal layers seem to be very rich in ores, which are mainly found in the metamorphic, Paleozoic, and hypogene rocks of Durango, Chihuahua, and the south. Apart from Sinaloa and Sonora, which are now known to contain vast stores of the precious metals, nearly all the historical mines lie on the south central plateau at elevations of from 5,500 to 9,500 feet. A line drawn from the capital to Guanajuato, and thence northward to the mining town of Guadalupe y Calvo of Chihuahua, and southward to Oaxaca, thus cutting the main axis of upheaval at an angle of 45-, will intersect probably the richest known argentiferous region in the whole world. "Of other minerals the most important are copper, found in a pure state near the city of Guanajuato, and associated with gold in Chi- huahua. Sonora. Guerrero. Jalisco. Michoacan, and elsewhere; iron in immense masses in Michoacan and Jalisco and in Durango, where CLIMATOLOGY. 13 the Cerro del Mercado is a solid mountain of magnetic iron ore; lead associated with silver, chiefly in Oaxaca; tin in Michoacan and Jalisco; sulphur in many craters; platinum, recently found in Hidalgo; cinna- bar, also recently found in Morelos and Guerrero; 'steppe salt 1 in the sandy districts of the north; 'bitter salt' at Tepayac and many other places; coal at various points; bismuth in many parts, marble, ala- baster, gypsum, and rock salt in great abundance throughout the plateaus and sierra." CLIMATOLOGY. a The geographical position of Mexico gives it a great diversity of climate. The heat of the torrid zone is experienced on the seacoast and the low. marshy tracts bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, and in the valleys shut in by mountains 3,000 feet above sea level. The night breezes, however, bring compensation for the heat of the da} T , and the rains, which begin usually in June and last until November, are so abundant and fall so regularly that the} 7 " refresh the atmosphere and are the main reliance of the agriculturist. So decided is the effect of the rains on the atmosphere that the seasons are divided into two only, viz, the rainy and the dry season. Trees are never entirely denuded of their foliage, but as each leaf falls through age it is imme- diately replaced b} T another, thus the bare autumnal limbs incident to northern climes are unknown. The differences in climate, dependent upon the different degrees of altitude, are so great in Mexico that the vegetable products of the country embrace all that can be found between the Equator and the Polar Circle. The mean temperature in the hot regions varies from 77° to 82° F., and often rises to 100°, and in some coast localities to 105°. The temperate zone lies between 3,000 and 5,000 feet above sea level. Here the mean temperature is from 62° to 70° F. , the varia- tion during the season being not more than 4° or 5°. This ma} T be called the region of eternal spring. Semitropical productions have their homes here, mingled with the products of both the tropical and cold regions. In this privileged region both extremes of heat and cold are unknown and in it are found several cities, among others Jalapa and Huatusco, in the State of Veracruz, Chilpancingo in Guerrero, and Ameca in Jalisco. There are farms here where wheat and sugar cane grow on the same parcel of ground. Between 7,000 feet above the level of the sea and greater heights lies the cold region, having a main temperature of from 59° to 60° F. Here the rainfall is live times less than in the temperate zone. The changes of temperature are but small from one end of the year to the other, although the diurnal changes between sunrise and sunset are often considerable. « See table on page 410, Chapter XIX. 14 MEXICO. The climatic conditions of Mexico arc undergoing great changes on account of the destruction <>t' the forests. Rains were formerly very abundant and the atmosphere very moist, the country being covered with thick forests, but with the difficulty experienced in transporting the coal of the country, the population has had to depend entirely for their supply of fuel upon charcoal, thus denuding the mountains and changing very materially the climatic conditions of some regions. The case is different, however, in the lowlands, which are sparsely popu- lated and where the country is still so thickly wooded that passage through them is impossible unless a path is made by felling large trees and clearing away the underbrush and weeds. In these regions mahog- any, cedar, rosewood, etc.. abound. The most thickly populated region lies in the central plateau, high above sea level, and so well protected from the winds and storms by mountains that the climate is even, temperate, and delightful. The late "Mr. Romero, from whose work. " Mexico and the United State-."* ■ much valuable data have been procured in the preparation of this work, makes the following remark (p. 37): "The impression prevails in the United States that Mexico, lying to the south and running toward the Equator, must be much warmer than this country, but this is not so. Even in warm places, like the low lands on the coast, we do not have the extreme hot weather that is experienced in summer in the United States. The sea breezes refresh the atmosphere at eight and cool it considerably, making, therefore, a very great contrast with the summer heat in this country. The medium climate of the valley of Mexico, for instance, which is the one that has been best observed and understood, varies comparatively little between summer and winter, its greatest variations being between day and night on the same day." It may be said that the climate of Mexico, if not the most invigor- ating is. without doubt, one of the most delightful in the world. The region of temperate lands and oceanic slopes enjoys a perpetual spring, being exposed neither to the severity of the northern winter season nor to the extreme of summer heat. FLORA. The flora of Mexico is unrivaled. It has been remarked that the most striking characteristic of the Mexican flowers is their rich color. The prevailing hue of the flowers is always rich and brilliant. There can be no more pleasing or extensive field for the botanist than the tropical forests of Mexico, in whose deep shades bloom the most exquisitely tinted flowers and orchids. In the vicinity of Orizaba, a locality almost incomparable as regards the great variety of flowers, orchid collectors may find a paradise. a Published by G. P. Putnam's Sons. New York, 1898. FAUNA. 15 In the valley of Mexico there is no day in the year that finds the markets wanting in beautiful roses and flowers to delight the eye and regale the senses, and the marvelous size the calla lilies, heliotrope, camelias, and poppies attain arrests wondering attention. There are about 50 varieties of lilies blooming in varied garb in this valley. Each belt — the hot, the temperate, and the cold — displays its own peculiar varieties of flowers, and in each has nature spread her most gorgeous colors, her fairest tints, and her sweetest perfumes. The arboreal vegetation of the country embraces 111 different species of building and cabinet woods, among them being the pine, oak, fir, cedar, mahogairy, rosewood, ironwood, etc.; 12 kinds of dyewoods; 8 of resinous trees — the cacao and india rubber, copal, liquid amber, camphor, turpentine, mesquite, dragon's blood, and the mastic. There are IT varieties of oil-bearing trees and plants, among which are the olive, almond, sesame, flax, cocoa, palm, Peruvian balsam, etc. The country is especially rich in medicinal plants, there being no less than 59 classified species of these, and many more still unclassified. Fibrous plants abound and their products form a large proportion of the export trade. The best-known fibers are the heniquen or sisal hemp, the ixtle, pita, maguey, jute, flax, ramie, aloe, and cotton. Of Mexican fruits and tobacco so much has been written that it is only necessary to say that through the diversified climate of that favored land it enjo} r s the fruits of every clime, and that these reach perfection in size and taste. The varieties are infinite. There are no less than twenty kinds of bananas. At the Philadelphia Commercial Museum, Mexico had on exhibition 1,036 samples of her woods, 18 of dyewoods and substances, 68 of gums and resins, 360 of medicinal plants, and 152 of textile fibers. A great quantity of red cedar is ex- ported from the State of Veracruz to the United States for the manu- facture of cigar boxes. There is a sawmill in this State, owned by a German, which is engaged in cutting up red cedar logs for such use, having a capacity of 4,000'tons of lumber a year. At the Tennessee Centennial Exposition there were exhibited some bamboos from the State of Veracruz 10 feet in length. The local name for these giant bamboos is " tarros. FAUNA. The animal kingdom is almost as extensively represented in the ter- ritory of Mexico as the botanical. There are three species of large felida? — the puma, jaguar, and ocelot. Wolves, coyotes, and wildcats are numerous in the northern States. A specie of sloth inhabits the southern forests, which also contain five varieties of monkeys. Other wild animals are beavers, moles, martens, and otters. The armadillo and iguana are very common, and are used by some of the natives as food. Venomous serpents and noxious insects lurk in the forests of the hot lands. The mountains and foothills present a veritable para- Hi MEXICO. dise to the Bportsman dc >r, bare, rabbits, quail, wild pigeons, par- tridges, and an infinite variety of birds and ground game abounding. Horses, cattle, sheep, and goats are found almost everywhere, and are the source of much wealth and industry. The birds of Mexico arc far famed for their brilliant plumage and singing qualities. In the hot lands the birds are more distinguished for beauty of plumage than melody of voice, their coloring being as varied as that of the flowers; but in the colder belts splendid songsters till the air with thrilling notes, A list of the feathered inhabitants of the country includes 353 species. Sperm and grayback whales, seals, and sea lions abound in the western waters of Lower California and in the gulf of that name. The waters of both coasts, as well as the rivers and mountain streams, teem with a great variety of fish." Alligators infest the river mouths of both coasts. Turtles of all kinds are also found in abundance on the coasts. Tortoises exist in the waters of Yucatan and Lower Cali- fornia, as well as on the coasts of Sinaloa. The shell is an important article of export, amounting to about $20,000 a year. Near La Paz, in the Gulf of California, extensive beds of pearl oysters exist. Senor Don Antonio Garcia Cubas* mentions 52 varieties of mammal quadrupeds as existing in the Republic, and 203 varieties of fowls, including domestic fowls, as well as over 50 kinds of humming birds. differing in color and shape and forming a chromatic scale of brilliant tints, running from sea green through bluish green to emerald green, and from the lightest straw 7 color to the deepest scarlet and fiery reel. Of reptiles the authority cited enumerates 43 (lasses, and of batrachians 13 species. Among insects, those claiming attention are the cochineal (Coccus cacti) and the honey bee, because of the excellent materials they pro- duce beneficial to industry and to commerce. The former insect is cultivated in Oaxaca, living on the prickly-pear cactus, and producing a red liquid dye. Winterbotham, one of the last century's historians, in his history of America, relates that the trade in cochineal by the i* the eleventh century. It is aarrated that a noble named Papantzin discovered the method of extracting the juice of the maguey plant, of which it is made, and sent some of the fermented liquid to his chief by the hand of his daughter, the beautiful Xochitl, called the Flower of Tollan (Tula). The chief. enamored both of the drink and the maiden, retained the latter a will- ing prisoner, and she became the mother of his illegitimate son. who afterwards wielded the scepter. This incident inaugurated the troubles of the Toltecs. After the dispersion of the Toltecs. a roving tribe, the Chichimecas, hearing of the former's overthrow, occupied the abandoned country, starting for it from the north in 1117. Other tribes of the original seven successively descended from the north and spread themselves over the valley of Mexico, founding cities and erecting temples and palaces. The last tribe to reach the valley was the Aztec, or Mexican, whose annals claim the greatesl interest in the history of Mexico. This tribe is supposed to have originally come from the north of California, according to the historian Clavijero, their country being called Aztlan. They reached Tula in L196, remaining there nine year-, and spending eleven in other parts of the valley. At the expiration of this time they arrived in Zumpango, 30 miles north of their future capital. Here they were well received, and the chief's son married a daughter of one of the Mexican families. From this marriage sprang the mili- tary chiefs of the Mexicans. After many wanderings they settled on the marshy islands near the western borders of Lake Texcoco, and there, in the year L325, was established the nucleus of the city first called Tenocht it Ian. derived, according to some authorities, from Tenoch. one of their priests and leaders. Other authorities claim that the name comes from Tenuch (prickly-pear cactus), as there is an old legend that the leaders of the tribes of Mexicans, wandering in search of a place of rest, saw an eagle standing upon a cactus strangling a serpent on the site of the City of Mexico. This legend has been generally accepted, and gave Mexico the design for its escutcheon. The present name of the city finds its s,,urce in the name of the Aztec's god of war Mexitli, also known as Iluitzilopochtli. The name of the country demonstrates the hold the maguey plant had upon the ancient tribes. Mexican tradi- tions, as preserved in the most ancient writings, relate that this god Huitzilopochtli was born of a virgin belonging to the noble family of Citli (free and ancestral); that his cradle was the heart of a maguey plant (metl), and hence the name of Mecitli. afterwards changed into Mexitli, and finally into Mexico. Here the Aztecs constituted their first government, which was theo- cratic and military, under Tenoch. who died in the year 1343, Three HISTORICAL SKETCH. 19 years subsequent to his death the form of government changed, and in 1376 the first king was elected. Ten kings followed, during the reign of which the Aztecs devoted themselves to the arts of peace and built a fine city, connecting it with the mainland by four causeways. The last of the Aztec monarch s was Cuauhtemoc, whose conquest by Hernando Cortes brought an end to the Mexican dynasty. Cortes landed on the island of San Juan de Ulua, in Veracruz Har- bor, on the 21st day of April, 1519, and in two years, August 13, 1521, had captured the Cit}' of Mexico and unfurled the flag of Spain over the palace of Moctezuma. Under the name of New Spain, Mexico was ruled from 1521 to 1821 successively by five governors, two roj-al commissioners (audiencias), and sixty-two viceroys, the last of whom, Juan CKDonoju, did not assume control. During the administration of the first viceroy, Don Antonio de Men- doza, who ruled from 1535 to 1550, discoveries were activeh" prosecuted in the north, the first money was coined in Mexico, the University of Mexico and several colleges were founded, and the first printing press in the New World was introduced. The School of Mines, which is still standing, and yearly graduating talented men, was founded by the viceroy the- Marquis of Branciforte. The construction was begun in 1797, and the building was completed in 1813. Its total cost was about $2,000,000. The modern history of Mexico and the commencement of the almost continuous internecine wars may be said to dat-e from the '"grito de Dolores" on the night of the 16th of September, 1810, b}^ the parish priest of Dolores, Don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who gathered about him many trusty followers under his banner to the cry of : "Long live religion! Long live our Most Holy Mother of Guadalupe! Long live America, and death to bad government!" This cry is what is known as u el grito de Dolores." Several efforts to cause a rebellion against the Spanish authorities had been made previous to this date, in fact ever since 17 ( .*S. during the incumbency of the forty-fifth viceroy. Miguel Jose de Azanza, but they were all suppressed. Hidalgo marshaled a considerable force and was victorious in several engagements, but he and his lieutenants — Allende, Aldama, and Jimenez — were captured and put to death in 1811, the first on the 31st of July and the three last-named on June 26. The bullets that crashed through these patriotic breasts terminated the first stage of the war for independence. One of the greatest figures in Mexican history then came to the front. Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon, the parish priest of Caracuaro, who by his audacity, valor, and military sagacity was accorded a posi- tion at the head of the leaders of the cause of independence. After 20 MEXICO. many notable engagements, in which he was almost always notorious, hf captured A.capulco on April L2, L813, thus ending his second cam- paign. On the 14th of September, L813, in the town of Chilpancingo, the first Mexican Congress was installed, which two months later (November 6) issued the declaration of independence and decreed the emancipation of the slaves. The first provisional constitution was adopted October 22, L814. Moivlos was eventually overcome by being betrayed by a deserter from bis ranks named Carranco, was taken to Mexico, tried, and sen- tenced to be shot. The sentence was carried out at San Cristobal Kcatepec on the 22d of December. 1815. But the cause of independence was still sustained by many leaders in different parts of the Republic, among them being Francisco Javier Mina. a Spanish officer, who resolved to do battle for the independ- ence of Mexico. He disembarked at the port of Soto la Marina on April 15, 1817. with 500 men recruited in the United States, and marched rapidly into the interior, gaining many victories. He was apprehended at the ranch called Venadito, and was shot the 11th of November. 1817. Many other patriot chiefs arose to lead the inde- pendent movement, but most of them met the fate of their predeces- sors. Among these was Guerrero, who. after many hazardous exploits and brilliant achievements, finally, on the loth of January. Ls21. held a conference with Agustin de Yturbide, brigadier-general in command of the royalist forces, at Yturbide's request, and the two leaders agreed to proclaim independence. The latter proclaimed what is known as "The Plan of Iguala." on February 24, L821. Yturbide. then assuming command of the forces, marched on Mexico, making Valladolid (now Morelia). Queretaro. and Puebla capitulate on the way. On reaching Mexico the Viceroy A.podaca was deposed July 5, L821. The sixty-second and last viceroy, Juan O'Donojii. arrived at Vera- cruz on the 30th of July. and. upon hearing of the condition of affairs, issued a proclamation and entered into communication with the inde- pendents. Yturbide went to Cordoba, where a conference was held, resulting in the treaty of Cordoba, which, with slight modifications, confirmed t he plan of Iguala. and Spanish domination in Mexico, which had lasted three hundred years, closed forever when, on the 27th of September. 1821, Yturbide made his triumphal entry into the capital. The second Mexican Congress, the first after securing independence, met on February 24, L822, and elected Yturbide Emperor on the 19th of May of the same year. He was crowned and anointed with great pomp and ceremony in the great cathedral of the capital on the 21st of June following as Agustin I, Emperor of Mexico. His reign was short. The people who had been warring so long could not settle 22 MEXICO. Maximilian, berefl of the aid and protection <>t* the French, intrenched himself in Quer£taro, where be was made prisoner by the Republicans and shot, together with the Imperialist ( renerals Mi ran inn and Mexla, at the Cerro de las Campanas, the 19th of June, L867. Benito Juarez, of Indian birth, and possessed of great ability, patri- otism, and energy, was the President of the Republic during the tur- bulent times of the reformation and the war with France. He entered the capital victorious on the L5th of duly. L867, and retained the Pres- idency until his death, in L872, being the only Mexican who has died during an occupancy of that office. His immediate successor was Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, who retained the office until ls7»i. when he was unseated by the revolution of Palo Blanco. Gen. Portirio Diaz succeeded Lerdo de Tejada in May. 1*77, and was followed by (ien. Manuel Gonzales in 1880. In 1884 General Diaz was elected to a second term, and has since continued at the head of the Govern- ment. His administration has been attended with great progress and prosperity. The governments of Mexico since the securing of independence have been as follows: II, //, ncit 8. (1) Composed of Generalisimo Don Agustin de Yturbide, Don Juan O'Donoju, Don Manuel de la Barcena, Don [sidro Yafiez, and Don Manuel Velasquez de Leon, 1821 to L822. (2) Don Agustin de Yturbide, Don Isidro Yafiez, Don Miguel Valentin, Count de Casa de Heras, and Brig. Gen. Don Nicolas Bravo. L822. Empire. Yturbide, with the title of Agustin I. L822 to L823. Provisional Governments. — The council charged with the supreme executive power, composed of Don Nicolas Bravo, Don Guadalupe Victoria, and Don Pedro Negrete, with Don Jose* Maria Michelenaand Don Miguel Dominguez as substitutes, 1823 to 1824. Federal Republic.— Gen. Guadalupe Victoria, 1823 to L829; Gen. Vicente Guerrero, 1829; Don Jose Maria Bocanegra. L829; Don Pedro Velez, President of the Supreme Court of Justice, Gen. Luis Quintanar and Don Lucas Alaman. L829; Gen. Anastacio Bustamante, 1830 to L832; Gen. Melchor Musquiz, 1832; Gen. Manuel Gomez Pedraza, 1832 to L833, Don Valentin Gomez Farias, 1833; Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna, L833; Don Valentin Gomez Farias, 1833 to 1834 ; Geo. Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna, 1834 to 1835; Gen. Miguel Barragan, 1835 to L836; Don Jose Justo Corro, 1836 to 1837. Central Republic.- Gen. Anastacio Bustamante, 1837 to 1839; Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna (substitute), 1839; Gen. Nicolas Bravo (substitute), 1839; Gen. Anastacio Bustamante, 1839 to 1811; Don Javier Echeverria, 1841. Dictatorships. — Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa- Anna, 1841 to ls42: Gen. Nicolas Bravo, 1842 to 1843; Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa- Anna, 1843; Gen. Valentin Canalizo, 1843 to 1844. HISTORICAL SKETCH. 23 Central Republic. — Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa- Anna, 1844; Gen. Valentin Canalizo, 1844; Gen. Jose Ignaeio Herrera, 1844 to 1845; Gen. Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga, 1846; Gen. Nicolas Bravo, 1846. Federal Republic. — Gen. Mariano Salas, 1846; Don Valentin Gomez Farias, 1846 to 1847; Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna, 1847; Gen. Pedro Maria Anaya. 1847; Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna, 1847; Don Manuel de la Pena y Pena, President of the Supreme Court of Justice, L847; Gen. Pedro Maria Anaya, 1847 to 1848; Don Manuel de la Pena y Pena, 1848; Gen. Jose Joaquin de Herrera, 1848 to 1851; Gen. Mariano Arista, 1851 to 1858; Don Juan B. Ceballos, President Supreme Court of Justice, 1853. Dictatorship*. — Gen. Manuel Maria Lombardini, 1853; Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna, 1853 to 1855; Gen. Komulo Diaz de la Vega, L855; Gen. Martin Carrera, 1855; Gen. Juan Alvarez, 1855; Gen. Ignaeio Comonfort, 1855 to 1857. Constitutional Presidents. — Gen. Ignaeio Comonfort, 1857 to 1858; Don Benito Juarez, President of the Supreme Court of Justice, 1858 to 1861. Don Benito Juarez (elected), 1861 to 1872; Don Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, President of the Supreme Court of Justice, 1872; Don Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada (elected), 1872 to 1876; Gen. Porlirio Diaz (provisional), 1876; Gen. Juan N. Mendez (substitute), 1876; Gen. Portirio Diaz (elected), 1877 to 1880; Gen. Manuel Gonzalez, 1880 1<> 1884; Gen. Portirio Diaz, 1884 to 1888; Gen. Portirio Diaz, 1888 (still in office). During the years from 1857 to 1860, in the capital of the Republic, which at the time was in the power of the Conservative party, there governed in the capacity of Presidents the following persons: Gen. Felix Zuloaga, 1857; Gen. Manuel Robles Pezuela, 1858; Don Jose Ignaeio Pavon, 1858; Gen. Miguel Miramon, 1858, Gen. Felix Zuloaga, 1859; Gen. Miguel Miramon, 1859 to 1861. As a result of the French intervention, the Imperial Government was established from 1864 to 1867. While awaiting the arrival of the Archduke Maximilian of Austria, Bishop Juan B. Ormaehea and Generals Juan N. Almonte and Mariano Salas governed as regents. CHAPTER III. ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY OF MEXICO. By Otis T. Mason. Curator of the Division of Ethnology in the United Stales National Museum. No attempt is here made to resolve into its constituent ethnic ele- ments that remarkably composite people which first set eyes on Yuca- tan in 1517. Suffice it to say that Iberian, Semite. Bamite, Goth and Vandal. Roman and Celt had mingled their blood in that stream of brave and adventurous men. From remotest time Spain had been the meeting ground of races, of peoples, of languages, and of religions. One does not know which to admire more — the brilliant recklessness of the soldier or the fiery zeal of the priest. The Mexican of to-day has the blood of more races in his veins than any other American, and as the present Indian population is largely metis, what a compound of racesl u No other portion of the globe," says II. II. Bancroft (1874, ii, 87), "embraces within equal latitudinal limits so great a variety of climate and vegetation as Mexico."' It is also true that within the area of the original territory there were more families of native lan- guages than in all the Western Hemisphere besides; and, to complete the chain, there were more kinds and grades of culture there. The Seri Indians, of Sonora. are as abject as the Fuegians, while the Nahuatl and Maya speaking tribes of the valley of Mexico and of Yucatan occupied the most elevated position for culture in the New World. The origin of the Mexican aborigines is involved in that of the American Indians, since within the present boundaries of that Repub- lic are gathered representatives of every zone, from the Apache, an Athapascan, whose principal home is in Alaska, to the tribes of Oaxaca and Chiapas, who are the children of a torrid clime. There are now in Mexico ten times more Indians than were ever at any time within the United States domain. In the works of Orozco y Berra (1864), Pimentel (1862), and Alfonso L. Herrera (1895) the reader will find complete lists of all tribal names. These include, often, sev- eral titles for the same tribe, to wit, their own name, by which they call themselves; their place name, as we now mark persons by the town where they live; names, often of contempt, by which a tribe is designated among its neighbors, besides titles conferred through mistake b} r ignorant observers. From among all these bewildering designations the following are selected. The linguistic families are 24 LI-NGUISTIC FAMILIES. 25 marked b} T the termination -an, after the example of the Bureau of American Ethnology. In assigning tribes to their stocks frequent references are made to Brinton (1891) and Gatschet (1885). The last- mentioned authority has given most personal study to the Nahuatlan family since Buschmann (1859). Mention must also be made of the linguistic map in Cubas (1876) and to Keane (1878). In the table the family names of Pimentel appear in the order followed by the author. On the right is given the abbre- viated form here adopted. The numbers in the margin are Pimentel's. Following this list of families another will be found, in which the States of the Republic wherein the families chiefly reside accompany the name of each. It is quite possible that these ma}' need emenda- tion, but the information here given is the best at hand. Linguistic families in Mexico. Pimentel's list (1862). Author's list (1900). Census in 1895. 1,750,000 85, 000 2, 500 200 250, 000 60, 000 90, 000 580, 000 5, 000 Mexicana Nahuatlan Sonorense Opata-Pima j Piman Guaieura a y Cochimi-Laimon I Yuman Seri Serian Tarasca Tarascan Zoque-Mixe Zoquean Totonaea Totonacan M i x teeo-Zapoteca Zapotecan Matlalzinga o Pirinda Otomian (not certain) . Mava-Quiche Mayan 400, 000 Chontal (not a family name) Tequistlatecan (?) ! 31, 000 Huave Huavan 3, 800 Apache Athapascan 8, 000 Othomies Otomian 704, 734 Total 63,970,234 "Guaieura may be a separate family. ''These numbers are not accurate, but serve for comparison. LOCATION OF MEXICAN LINGUISTIC FAMILIES. Nahuatlan or Mexican family. — Aguascalientes, Colima, Federal District, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacan, Morelos, Oaxaca, Puebla, Sinaloa, Tabasco, Tlaxcala. Veracruz. Piman family. — Made a subfamily of Nahuatlan by Buschmann (1859), Gatschet (1879), and Brinton (1891); Chihuahua, Durango, Jalisco, Sinaloa, Sonora, Zacatecas. Yuman family.— Northern part of Lower California. Serian family. — Sonora, Tiburon Island. Tarascan family. — Michoacan, a few in Guerrero and Jalisco. Zoquean family. — Oaxaca, chief!} 7 ; also Guerrero and Puebla. Totonacan family . — Northern part of Puebla and Veracruz. Zapotecan family . — Chiefly in Oaxaca; also in Guerrero and Puebla. Mayan family. — Yucatan, Chiapas, and Veracruz. Tequistlatecan family. — Oaxaca (Brinton, 1891, p. 148). Huavan fam ily. — Chiapas. 26 MEXICO. Athapascan family. Chihuahua and Sonora. Apache intruders from United States. Otomian family. Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Quer6taro, San Luis Potosf, Michoacan. The Chontals of Oaxaca and Guerrero are placed by Brinton in a provisional family, which he names Tequistlatecan, and puts the Triquis in the same. The Chontals of Tobasco are Mayan (1891, p. L46). Matlalzinca may be a family. N«>t in Pimentel'a li-t are the Chinantecan family, in Oaxaca: the Chiapanecan family, in Chiapas, and a remnant of the Tafioan family, in Chihuahua. A glance at the table of linguistic families shows their relative importance. The census is from Herrera ( L895), and may be defective, but is correct enough to exhibit the relative importance of these fam- ilies in the past and present history of Mexico. Those that were, in fact, the predominant factors in that culture were, proceeding south- ward from the boundary line of the United States, as follows: Piman, the Opata-Pima of the later Mexican authorities, occupy the western northern States as far south as Guadalajara, lying along the Gulf of California, except where they are cut off by the Seri, but they do not anywhere approach the ocean, being intercepted by the Nahuatlan tribes. Eminent authorities, among them Buschmann (1854:). Gatschet ( 1>>7<;). and Brinton hold the Piman to be a branch of the Nahuatlan family, including the Shoshonean in the United States (Powell, 1891, p. ION), the Sonoran or Opata-Pima (Brinton, L891), and the Nahuatl or southern branch. This stock now occupies the site of the Casas Grandes and other adobe ruins, and it is reasonable to suppose that their ancestors were the builders and inhabitants of many ancient pueblos and cliff sites, both in Arizona and northern Mexico. (Bandolier, 1890.) Nahuatlan. — Following the Bureau <>f American Ethnology in keep- ing the Piman as a separate family leaves the Nahuatlan free to include only Pimentel'a Mexicana. The tribes of this stock are found in almost unbroken continuity from Sinaloa along the Pacific -lope to the border line of Guatemala. In the valley of Mexico they occupied three districts. Tezcuco, Tlacopan, and Tenochtitlan. Tin- family holds the most prominent position in the history of the Conquest (Thomas, L898, 233; Bancroft, L875, ii. L33; Cubas, L876.) Otomian. a widelj spoken language formerly. The tribes were among the earliest in the valley of Mexico, and they spread themselves out over Guanajuato, Hidalgo. Queretaro. San Luis, and Michoacan. Tarascan. inhabitant- of Michoacan. The Tarascos were builders in stone, metal workers, and mos< excellent weavers. (Leon, 1874.) Totonacan. of Veracruz, the first natives encountered by Cortes. (Thomas. L898, 332.) Zapotecan, the Mixteco-Zapoteca, of Pimentel, are in Oaxaca and Guerrero. The ruins of Mitla are within their territory, with their ABOKIGINAL TRIBES. 27 wonderful artificial hills, stone buildings, fretworks in cut stones, columns, and wall paintings. (Holmes, 1807, '2'27, quoting - Charnay and Bandelier.) Zoquean, Zoque-Mixe family are in Chiapas. Oaxaca, and Tabasco, between the Mayan and the Zapotecan tribes. Little is known of their origin, save a tradition of their having come from the South. If their ancestors were ever possessed by the spirit of culture progress, once so exalted here, the pride of former days now sleeps "as though that soul were dead." Mayan family, the advance guard of new world progress. Scholars have consecrated their lives worthily to the Maya civilization. After Bancroft (75, ii, 630-805) consult Holmes (1895, pt. i), Brinton (91, 153-159, with notes), Thomas (1899), Seler (1887), Maudslay (1897), Forstemann (1890), Gunckel (1897). The Ma} T as, excepting a colony of Huastecas, on the Rio Panuco, in Veracruz, lived together in Yucatan, Guatemala, and Honduras (Stoll, 1884, 180 pp.). To them may .be assigned the wonderful ruins of Palenque in Chiapas, of Copan in Honduras, of Uxmal and Chichen- Itza in Yucatan. The following tribal names have been selected out of the man} 1- hundreds of designations before mentioned because it seemed possible to assign these to their linguistic families and locations. The list will at least form a working basis for future inclusions and exclusions: ABORIGINAL TRIBES IN THE REPUBLIC OF MEXICO, TOGETHER WITH THEIR LINGUISTIC FAMILIES AND LOCALITIES. Acaxees (Nahuatlan F. ), Sinaloa, Durango. Acxotecas (Nahuatlan F. ), Mexico, ancient division of Chichimecs. Acolhuas (Nahuatlan F. ), Mexico, ancient ruling tribe, Colhuas. Agualulco (Nahuatlan F. ), Tabasco, also Ahualulco. Ahomaos (Piman F.), Sinaloa, also Ahomes. Aicales (Mayan F. ), Chiapas, dialect of Choi., see Mopanes. Ajoyes (Mayan F. ), Chiapas, dialect of Choi., also Axoyes. Alames (Mayan F. ), Chiapas. Alasapa (Coahuiltecan F. ), Coahuila, N. Leon. Amuchgos (Zapotecan F.), Guerrero, also Amusgos. Apache (Athapascan F. ), Northern boundary; the Apaches of Yuma affinity are all in the United States. Aripas (Yuman F. ), Lower California, branch of Waikuru. Ateacaris (Nahuatlan F. ), Jalisco, Cora proper. Aztecas (Nahuatlan F. ), Mexicans of Anahuac. Seven tribes came from Aztlan in the north, and the Aztecs were one of them. They arrived in the following order: Sochomilcos, Chalcas, Tepanecos, Tescucans, Tlatluicans, Tlascalans, Mexicans or Aztecas. Babiocora (Piman F. ), branch of Teguima, Teguis. Basirora (Piman F. ), Sonora, Sinaloa. Batucari (Piman F. ) Sinaloa. Batucos (Piman F. ), Sonora, division of Teguis. Benixonos (Zapotecan F. ), same as Cahoncos or Nexicha. 28 MEXICO. Biara (Piman F. ), Sinaloa, dialed ofTehuea. Cahita (Piman F. ),s ra, Sinaloa, include Yaquis, Mayos, Tehuecos, Zuaquee Cajonoe (Zapotecan F. ), sameae Benixonos. C&tuxanoa (Coahniltecan F.), Coah., Tam., also Catuxanoa. Ceris, same aa Sens. Coahniltecan Family, Texas and N. E. Mexico; also Texan. Coahuiltecoa (Coahniltecan F.), Coahnila. Cochimia I Yuman F. ), north and middle California peninsula. Cocomaricopas (Yuman F. i, Maricopas, Pina agency, Ariz. Cocomee (Mayan F.), said to he in Yucatan. Cocopas i Yuman F. >, both sides of Colorado mouth: river and mountain tribes. Coguinachee | Piman F.), Sonora, division of Opata. Cohuixcae (Nahuatlan F.), Guerrero. Colothans (Nahuatlan F.), name of country for Coras, Zac, Jalisco. Comanche (Shoshonean F.), northern border Of Mex., now in Oklahoma. Comitecos ( Mayan F.), Chiapas; Chaflabal of Comitan. Comecrudos (Coahniltecan F. ), Tamaulipas, wrongly Carrisoa Comeyas (Yuman F. ), southern California, probably Dieguefioe. Comoporis (Piman F.), Sinaloa. Comoyei (Yuman F.), between Colorado River and ocean; Comeya, Quemaya. Comuripas (Piman F. i, Sonora. Conchos (Yuman F.), California, branch of Guaicuru. Conchoa (Coahniltecan F. ), Chihuahua. Corarns (Nahuatlan F. ), Jalisco. Coras ( Nahuatlan F. ), Jalisco, in Sierra t of seven original Mexican cave-dwelling tribes. Soltecos (Zapotecan F. I, Oaxaca Sonoras I Piman F. |, Sonora; Opatas. Supis (Yuman F.), Chihuahua. The llava su-Pai, also of Arizona. These are Yuman. 'ABORIGINAL TRIBES. 31 Tanoan family, on the Rio Grande and its tributaries. (Bivell.) Tantoyoe (Mayan F. ), dialect of Huaxtee. Tapaneeos (Nahuatlan F. ), original Mexican tribe. Tapijulapanes (Zoquean F. ), Tehuan tepee. Tarahurnaras (Piman F. ), Chihuahua. Tarascos (Tarascan F. ), Michoacan; also Guerrero, Guanajuato, Jalisco. Tarelepa (Mayan F. ), southern Mexico. Tatimoles (Totonacan F. ), Veracruz. Teacualitzistis (Nahuatlan F. ), branch of Cora del Nayarit. Teatas (Piman F. ), Sonora; also Tehatas. Tebacas (Nahuatlan F. ), branch of Acaxees. Tecojines (Zoquean F. ), Jalisco, Tlapanecos. Tecoripas (Piman F. ), Sonora. Tecos (Nahuatlan F. ), Michoacan, for Cuitlatecos. Tecualmes (Piman F. ?), Jalisco; see Coras. Teguimas (Piman F. ), Sonora; Opata, Teguis. Tehua (Tanoan F. ), near El Paso de Texas. Tehuecos (Piman F. ), Sinaloa, dial, of Cahita. Tejanos, same as Coahuiltecan, Texan os. Tektikilhatis (Totonacan F. ), Veracruz. Tenimes (Zoquean F. ), Puebla; see Yopes. Teotenancas, first Chichimecs in valley of Mexico. Tepanecos, third Nahuan tribe to arrive in Mexico and one of three confederated tribes at time of conquest; capital, Tlatopan. Tepeguana (Piman F. ), Durango, Buschman's Aztec-Sonora. Tepozcolula (Zapotecan F. ), Oaxaca, dialect of Mixtec. Tequis (Piman F. ), Division of Opata. Tequistlatecan family, in Oaxaca, see Chontal, Triquis. Texanos (Coahuiltecan F. ), Texas and N. E. Mex., family name. Texones (Coahuiltecan F. ), Tamaul, "raccoons," also Tejones, dialect of Pakawa (Gatschet), "tattooed," same as Coahuiltecan. Tewan, see Tanoan family. Tezcucos (Nahutlan F. ), Mex., see Acolhuas, fourth Nahuatlan tribe to arrive in Anahuac. Tlacopan, now Tacuba, suburb of the City of Mexico. Tlahuicos (Nahuatlan F. ), one of seven original Mexican tribes. Tlapanec (Zapotecan F. ), Guerrero (dialect of Mixe, according to Brinton). Tlascalans (Nahuatlan F. ), sixth in order of seven orig. Mex. tribes. Tlatluicans (Nahuatlan F. ), fifth Nahuatlan tribe in Anahuac. Toltecas, people of Tula, or Toltecs, Brinton, '94:129; Thomas, '99:235. Tontos (Yuman F. ), Sonora, now in'Arizona. Totonacos (Totonacan F. ), Veracruz, first natives. seen by Cortes. Triquis (Zapotecan F. ), according to Belmar; Tequistlatecan F., Brinton, Oax. Tzentals (Mayan F. ), Tobasco and Chiapas, many spellings. Tzotzils (Mayan F. ), Chiapas, dialect of Quelene. Uchitaa (Yuman F. ), branch of Waikuru. Varogios (Piman F. ), Chih., br. of Taruhamara. Vebetlateca (Mayan F. ), Chiapas, the orthography of Don Palacio, xvi. century. Xicalancas, preceded Toltecs in valley of Mexico. Valentini thought they were Mayas. Xicayan (Zapotecan F. ), Guerrero and Puebla. Xiximes (Nahuatlan F. ), classed with Acaxees. Yaquis (Nahuatlan F. ), R. Yaqui, Sonora. Yavapais (Yuman F.), eight bands, various spelling. Yopes (Zoquean F.), Puebla, dialect of Mixe (Brinton). 32 MEXICO. Zapotecoe (Zapotecan F.), Oaxaca, many tribes. Zoqueaxi Eamily, Tabasco, Chiapas, Oaxaca. Zoaqaes (Piman), Sinaloa, branch ofCahita. These tribes and their ancestors developed their civilization as best they could under the skies and with the natural resources of the country. In the matter of food, which is the most important consideration oi all. the southern Mexicans were happily situated. Since the grade of a people's culture IS measured by the amount and variety of artificiality in their daily lives, agriculture is a higher art than fishing or hunting or herding. How fortunate, then, were the Mexicans of old in that their attention was not distracted by the presence, of large herds of buf- falo or immense schools of fishes. There was in their dietary enough of meat and of fish, hut they had the most economic grain in the world —maize— in some places yielding three crops a year. Besides, Mexican soil is congenial to all sorts of pulse, most nitrogenous of plant foods; to cacao; to the banana, most economic of fruits, and to a variety of vegetal productions not known in the temperate zone. There were no plows or agricultural machinery: but there was ahun- dance of water supply and ample means of utilizing it through irriga- tion canals. Could the ancient regime be restored, an interesting picture would be afforded of premanganic or premechanical thrift. There were farmers in those days such as one might see in busy Japan fifty years ago or yet in many pails of China, where teeming popula- tions are daily fed on ample though not varied fare, the product of human hands alone. The miller — generally the woman — ground the maize on a nictate, or slab of lava, with a niuller. rather than with a pestle, and cooked her cakes and bread on griddles and in the hot ashes, not differently from the ways of our own ancestors a few gener- ations removed. It was the acme, the apotheosis, of the hand epoch, where there were fewer comforts, perhaps, but less misery. ( Bancroft . 1875, ii, 242-56:2.) The serving of food was. like all other activities, conditioned on the social organization. Failing to recognize this, authors have read the most refined aristology into the rude but hearty feasting of the Mexican rulers in ante-Columbian times. For a gor- geous account of Montezuma's dinner the reader may consult Bancroft (1875, ii, 174-178), and as an antidote to this, Morgan (1881, 237-248), the truth doubtless lying somewhere between. The next anxiety of a people after appeasing hunger is to clothe the body artificially against heat and cold, against rain and drought, and against damage from without. The ancient Mexicans wore san- dals, which, because they had no rawhide for the soles, were woven or plaited ingeniously from vegetable fibers and fastened to the feet differently from the Egyptian type now worn. On the feet of gods and of great persons the sandals are highly decorated. The limbs were bare. Men wore the breech clout and women short kilts or petticoats. The upper part of the body was protected by means of a ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY. 33 shawl or robe fastened on the left shoulder. leaving the right hand free. Sleeved garments were not known. The head ordinarily was bare. In the wilder tribes men and women dressed scantily in gar- ments made of skins. The more advanced tribes substituted clothing of bark cloth, like the Hawaiian tapa, of nequen fiber, and of cotton. Among the most cultured tribes barbaric splendor was the rule in dress. Every part of the bod}* was decked with jewelry, feather work, and embroidery. Of the priests and persons in authority, as one may see from the codices and sculptures, it may be truly said that Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these. (Bancroft, 1875, 303-377.) After clothing comes the habitation. Indeed, a house is a suit of clothing or costume for a family, a clan, a royal establishment, a reli- gious sect. Morgan (1881) holds that the great stone structures of Mexico now in ruins were communal houses, built on the models of those belonging tp Indian tribes farther north. In this he is com- bated by those who look at them after studying the religious edifices of the Orient. No doubt these imposing remains are only a small fragment of what they stand for. As a stone arrowhead picked up on some field was once united to shaft and foreshaft and feathering, and was painted with significant markings, so these stone remains are only insignificant relics of their former selves. Wooden buildings with thatched roofs and with sides plaited into diaper patterns, painted screens,- gardens, furniture, and household utensijs are all gone. The ancient people lived doubtless very much as the native Mexicans do in our day. Making allowance for intrusions by way of Spain from North Africa and Egypt, and by way of Manila from the Orient, one may be helped greatly in restoring the former times by a study of modern buildings, not forgetting that the clan or gentile system of living prevailed in Mexico as in all other parts of America. The tools of the ancient stone workers were chief!}' of stone. If there were any mason's tools of metal, they were inconsiderable. The Mexican lapidaries could chip, saw, bore, and polish obsidian, nephrite, and other gem stones, and inlay. They were also fond of and skillful in mosaic work, effected by carving masks and other objects in wood or shell, covering the surface with gum and overlaying with scraps of green and other colored stones. (Oppel, 1896, 4.) Excellent examples of this work have been dug from ancient pueblos in Arizona. (Fewkes, L898, pi. 35.) The ancient Mexican stonemasons used the pick, the hushing hammer, and the abrader, all of stone. They also employed wood for skids, levers, wedges, handles to stone tools, and for burning lime. To these primitive utensils must be added that manual dexter- ity which comes only through generations of practice and emulation. The tools of fellow-craftsmen were of the same primitive character, and yet with these they also produced astonishing results in wood, shell, gold, silver, and copper. 509a— 04 3 34 MEXICO. The Mexican engineer had n<> helpful beasts of burden, hence his countrymen became famous in the use of their backs', an art not yet passed away. Ho had the best <>!' ropes, the inclined plane the lever, the wedge, Hit 1 parbuckle, and a primitive tackle without pulleys. In certain erections a false core was built up to sustain the masonry, and removed when all was finished. As for his line, -plummet, foot rule, square, and numerical standards, nothing is known; only, if his metric system resembled his calendar, he used a decimal scale. Among metrical appliances, time measures afford an excellent gauge of a people's progress to mark definite portions of time, as with the sandglass; to tell the time of day. t<. note the proper day. furnish materials for the chronograph, the chronometer, and the chronologist. The more savage tribes of Mexico marked the length of an interval by the fading of leaves set up ill the path and the width of the angle traversed by a shadow. Time of day was not registered artificially among the wilder tribes, hut in the more cultured there were devices that operated on the principle of the dial. Hut the calendar of the Nahuatlan, Zapotecan, Totonacan, and Mayan families was quite up to that of the conquerors. The year consisted of three hundred and sixty-five days, in two parts; three hundred and sixty days, divided into eighteen months of twenty days each, and five intercalary day-. Each day of the month had a proper name and a graphic symbol. The interpretation of these symbols has taxed the ingenuity of ^lexi- cologists from the beginning. (Thomas. 1898; Seler, 1888.) In this connection, for rating the culture status of the Mexican- must not be overlooked the harnessing of nature's forces for work. The Mexicans, originally, did not use the wind for power unless it may have been to waft the rudest kind of craft and to winnow their harvests. Hut water was dammed up for agriculture and for fish ponds, floating gardens were known, canals were dug for irrigation and transportation, and, most wonderful of all, in Yucatan were innumerable water caves. The soft, porous limestone, broken up by earthquakes, acted like a sieve for the surface waters, which dissolved for themselves subterranean channels. There arc no surface springs, but the roofs of the underground streams, breaking in, formed cistern- like pits, with abundance of water at the bottom. Theseare approached by trails and ladders, and they have been improved artificially. (Holmes, 1895; Mercer. L897; Thompson, 1897.) The woodman was not in evidence to such degree as he became on the north Pacific coast, but all tribes knew tin 1 plant world well, and within the limits of the Republic there was a great variety of economic species for aliment, drink and medicines, for woods, for liber. Tim- ber was cut down with stone axes, split with wooden wedges, held toe-ether with wooden pees and lashings. It was shaped roughly with adzes, and there was no lack of tools for creditable wood carving, as the architectural features of that substance bear witness, but drums ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY. 35 and furniture were also skillfully carved. The reed lent itself handily to a thousand clever arts. The textile art was well advanced in Mexico. Its coarsest products were the roofs of the dwellings, their. ornamental walls and screens, and fences. Next came matting- of reeds, yucca, aud palm strips. By varying the plant, the dye, and the pattern, the most pleasing effects were brought about. Articles of dress and utensils of housekeeping without number were plaited from abundant and varied material. Basketry, through failure of tough roots and other material, was not equal to that farther north; but in place of it skillful fingers reveled in feather work, for which nature furnished with lavish hand not only abundant fiber for network, but plumage birds without stint for the gaudy covering. The Mexican women could spin both with the fingers without mechanical help and by means of spindles, upon the manufacture of which much artistic skill was bestowed. They wove just as the Pima women of Arizona, their kindred, do even to this da} T , namely, sitting on the ground with warp almost horizontal, one end of it fastened to a stationary object, the other to a belt around their waists. By sway- ing their bodies they governed the tension. The} T could do plain weav- ing, in which the weft of different colors passes back and forth; they could manage diaper effects by counting warp threads at each excursion of the rude shuttle, or they could produce gobelin effects by weaving in the patterns separately. On the surface of these textiles lace work was effected also skillfully. It is an open question, however, whether the beautiful modern drawn work was of native development or imported from Manila in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Tailoring, also, in the modern sense was unknown, garments being made out of the whole piece. The question whether Mexican aboriginal culture is original or derived has been hotly debated by those who should have known that it is both. The problem of native culture is tike those of the geologist and the chemist. In order to ascribe a phenomenon to certain layers or substances, these first exclude foreign intrusions. In the same way those arts which were developed on the soil of Mexico will be more clearly understood by the elimination of intrusions. From the crown of his head to the sole of his foot — literally, from headdress to sandal — the modern Mexican is Hispano-Egyptian through northern Africa, with an overlapping of the Orient through three hundred years of contact with the Philippines. There was no potter's wheel; all vessels were being built up by the well-known processes of coiling, modeling, molding, and malleating or beating into shape with paddles. The art of covering with slip, paint- ing, adding ornaments, and burning were well understood, but glazed pottery in ancient Mexico was not known. In the South the ware was far more refined in quality and ornament, that of the central region 3f> MEXICO. being overloaded with modeled work. Indeed, in the ware of to-day a school of potters, instead of modeling as the sculptor does, molds the parts of an intricate piece and then lutes them together. Among ceramic treasures are to be noted the musical instruments. Gold, silver, copper, and perhaps tin were known to the cultured provinces. These metals are still found in the Republic abundantly, but to recount me! the workshops of the goldsmith or the silversmith is no easy task. Astonishing effects may be produced in these metals, cold or iii open fire, in the hands of clever workmen. Those who on a priori ground assert the knowledge of the blowpipe, the bellows, or the knowledge of fluxes do not remember how extremely handy many peoples are without them. Literature concerning the metallurgists, their shops, their tools, their processes, and their handiwork, is most meager. (Penafiel, L890.) In commerce and transportation the apotheosis of human hacks and limbs was to be seen in Mexico of old. and in this day they compete successfully against beasts of burden and the iron horse. Mothers bore their children in their garments, the climate being too hot for the cradle board of the North. Passengers were carried on human backs in frames. Loads were [lacked and held in place both with headbands and breastbands. The commonest picture in some of the paintings is of the burden bearer, and the artist has not despised the carrying strap as a ground for pleasing designs. Runnerswere common, and relays, so that messages and perishable goods could be delivered quickly. The Mexicans were not skilled on the water. In their almost harborless and riverless country necessity for elaborate water craft did not exist. What little flotation was demanded rafts of reed and logs and dugout canoes supplied. In the more thriving States organized transportation, centers of distribution, and standards of value were established, hut the nearest approach to money was in the shape of cacao beans, quills filled with gold dust, and small sheets of copper stamped with simple design. (Bancroft, 1875*378 399.) For the communication and record of ideas the tribes of Mexico exhibit an interesting progression. The Sonoran branch of the Nahuatlan family were in this regard Indians pure and simple, with their spoken dialects, gesture speech, telephonic messages, painted robes, rock carvings, and symbolism. But the Southern families were far beyond that. They had not. forsooth, spelling books and printing presses, but they had gotten as far along as the rudest hieroglyphs of Egypt and Mesopotamia; certainly were as skillful as the Chinese. They had books much like those of eastern Asia, written on parch- ment or native paper in narrow pages and folded like a Japanese screen, and they engraved their thoughts on stone. The literature of the cultured Mexican tribes — that is. the artistic writing — has nearly all perished, but there was a professional class of scribes, and after the conquest they copied for their rulers many old documents and prepared CODICES. 37 new ones, some of which remain unto this da\ T . To the decipherment of these and of the intricate calendar s}^stem able scholarship has been devoted, and there is room here merel} r to refer to their researches. (Bancroft, 1875, ii, 508.) Selersays "The supposed differences between Aztec hieroglyphics and Maya manuscripts do not exist.' 1 (Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. in Science, 1889, xiii, 295.) Among these preserved picture writings are a number of sufficient importance to have absorbed the attention of eminent and enthusiastic scholars. They are called "codices," and they have been named from their discoverers, from their present locations, and from some histori- cal fact connected with them. (Bancroft, 1875, ii, 529; 1870, v. 192.) The word codex, or codice, is somewhat confusing in this connection, being made to cover also old documents in the Spanish language as well as paintings relating soleh r to the conquest. Since the appear- ance of Lord Kingsborough's work and others mentioned by Bancroft the Mexican Geographic Societ} T , Due de Loubat, Thomas, and others have given to the world entire codices or parts in excellent form. Governments and institutions have liberally aided. Besides, the codices were mural inscriptions, calculiform characters on altars, monoliths, cartouches on ornaments, paintings on pottery, and glyphs on hard wood. (Starr.) The list of efforts at their decipherment would transcend the limit of this publication. The names of most of them will be associated with the works of Brinton, Rau, Seler, Forsteman, Maudslay, Gunckel, Thomas, Saville, Goodman, etc. Mexican and Maya codices, their locations and publishers. Berlin Baranda . Bodleian. Bologna Borbonieus Borgia Boturini Campos . Colombino Cospianus Corlesianusl Mayan) . Dehesa , Del Rios (3738) Dresden (Mayan) Fejervary Fernandez Leal Lienzo de Tlaxcala Mendoza Peresianus or Mexicanus II I Mayan). Porfirio Diaz Ramirez Telleriano Remensis Relievo de Chiapas Troano (Mayan) Vaticanus Vienna Location. Royal Library Museo Nacional de Mexico Facsimile in Bodleian Library, Oxford. Library of Scientific Distitute Palais Bourbon, Paris College of the Propaganda, Rome. Boturini Collection San Juan de Cuauhtlantzinco, Puebla. Museo Nacional de Mexico Royal Museum, Madrid Museo Nacional de Mexico. Vatican Library Royal Library, Dresden Possession of M. F., Hungary. Mexico Museo Nacional de Mexico. . . Bodleian Library, Oxford National Library, Paris Museo Nacional de Mexico. National Library, Paris Museo Nacional de Mexico. Madrid Vatican Library, Rome Imperial Library . Published in- Kingsborough, ii. Chavero, 1892. Kingsborough, i, ii. Kingsborough, ii: Due de Loubat. Due de Loubat. Kingsborough, iii, 66; Due de Lou- bat. Kingsborough, i. Starr, 1898. Antigiiedades Mexicanas. Due de Loubat. Madrid. Antigiiedades Mexicanas. Due de Loubat. Kingsborough, iii; Forstemann, 1880. Kingsborough, iii. Pefiafiel. Antigiiedades Mexicanas. Kingsborough, i, v, vi. Archives Paleographiques, Paris, 1869, i. Antigiiedades Mexicanas. Kingsborough, i, v, vi; Due de Loubat . Antigiiedades Mexicanas. Brasseur, 1869; Thomas, 18S2. Kingsborough, ii, iii, v, vi; Due de Loubat. Kingsborough, ii. 38 MEXICO. The social organization of the aboriginals in Mexico i- one of the most excellent fields of research on account of the perspective which it presents. Here, in tin-; limited area, which one may traverse in a summer vacation, are to be seen every grade and variety of the gentile system. On one extreme is the well-known mother rule, where descent is in the female line and there is little of private property or privilege; on the other is the picture of a great military confederacy of tribes, wherein father-right prevailed, where officers were elective, and a council of delegates from each tribe was charged with all affairs of state. Into this truly American social order it was easy for the early Spanish authors to read their own system and to use such terms as king, prince, general, and so on, but to the careful student the organization and functioning of society are explicable through a wider study of various peoples on the Western Hemisphere. Besides, there were, as has been pointed out. several linguistic families in Mexico, who were as wide apart as Aryans and Magyars in Austria-Hungary; but even these had their agreements and treaties according to the plan of democracies. (Bandelier, 1880, with rich addition of footnote-.) Confirmatory of the thoroughly American gentile system of govern- ment and social order in Mexico are the facts relating to the holding of real estate. It is not necessary to appeal to the tribes north of the Tropic of Cancer; in the more highly cultured tribes, as Bandelier shows with great erudition (1878), no man owned any real estate, no office owned land, all government land was independent of the rulers, conquest was never followed by partition of land, the notion of owner- ship in fee, of sale, barter, conveyance, or alienation was undreamed of. The Southern Confederacies had not literally beaten their swords into plowshares, hut they had converted the hunting implements, weapons, and devices, with many improvements, into the apparatus of war. The organization of the army was not different essentially from that of their civil government. A- in the Old World so in the New. there were storm centers where clouds of war met and spent their fury. The valley of Mexico was one of these; hence the Dalmatian tribes attained the highest point of military discipline of the New- World. Hut their weapon- were only hows and arrows, darts, throw- ing sticks (atlatl), javelins, and spears, lor piercing; slings and clubs for striking; and the most murderous (did), lined on either side with spalls of volcanic glass, for slashing. For defense they had shields, cotton armor, and wooden helmets, like those of the Thlinkit warriors in recent times. As is customary among the northern Indians, the Mexican soldiers decked their military equipments with gorgeous featherwork. The organization of the army, the tactics, the strategy, the military engineering, the fortified places of the more civilized tribes, doubt- ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY. 39 less were of a higher order than the guerilla methods of the United States tribes of two hundred years ago. On the other hand, they err who would read into these the vocabulary of European war meth- ods of the times. Bandelier says (1877, 161): "The Mexicans were not subject to a despotical power, but organized after the principles of a barbarous but free military democracy.*' In the comparative sense, religion consists in what men think of a spirit world and what they do in consequence; the former is their creed, the latter their cult or worship. Creed has to do chiefly with the personnel and physiography of the spirit world, and it will be noted that in some measure that world is the reflection of this. Its supernal beings are organized as a societj', and their motives as well as their conduct have reference to human beings. In Cult, human society is organized, buildings are erected, costumes are worn, food is eaten, days are observed, and certain austerities practiced, all with reference to beings unseen to mortal eyes, but cog- nizable by a special sense. The most refined art and music and the best of everything go to the gods. On this definition the Mexican religion had its creed and its cult, its heaven and its pantheon, as well as its temples, altars, and priest- hood; its mythology and worship. The northern or pueblo tribes of Mexico must be studied in the light of the pueblo tribes of Arizona, worked out by members of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Its wild tribes lived near to their unseen world like their brethren of the north. We are here concerned with the religion of the southern families. Bancroft (1875, iii) devotes five hundred pages to the religion of the Pacific coast tribes; the larger part is given to the topic here considered. On every monument, sculptured slab, decorated wall or vase, the spirit world is manifested. 1 t is a Mexican Pantheon. The warrior god is supreme; the priests are ministers in a church militant. Sacrifice, incense, pomp in worship, revolting rites, prolonged rituals, obtrude themselves and override industry and art. The aesthetic side of Mexican life in aboriginal times covered a wide area, but nowhere reached an enlightened stage. There were public fetes and games, but there was no drama per se. There were social rules or fine art of behavior — in the open, in the family, at the feast, every one had a place; but behavior where there was so little furniture scarcely rose to etiquette. There was fine art of dress and its acces- sories, but not far above that of the Mandan Indians. Vocal music was singing in unison, and there are those who say that the Mexicans had a scale of notes which can be reproduced on an organ with fixed pipes, but this is denied. The musical instruments of the Mexicans were flageolets and flutes of wood, bone, and pottery. Whistles of grotesque shapes, reed instruments of unique form, drums of wood, 40 Ml XICO. (teponaztli), and with heads of membrane (huehuetl), rattles (ajacaxtli), and bells (yotl), but the existence of stringed instruments is doubtful, [n some of the sculptures students see representations of this class, but others as clearly witness the notched rattle. (Seler, L898.) As for the graphic and glyphic art, sculpture, and architecture, the student can not fail to note everywhere the Bense of the beautiful struggling to help symbolism and to disengage itself from its more childish forms. Unity, proportion, symmetry are all there, and some of tin' world's standard tonus have been reached. One well qualified to judge has said: "Most of the motives employed in embellishment have their origin in religion; their use was first significant and second aesthetic. * * * All the sculptor's art is crude as compared with civilized art, but it is virile and full of promise of higher achievement. * * * There is lack of perspective and a mixing up of sizea, and the general style of presentation is suggestive of that of the ancient Egyptians." (Holmes, 1895, 52.) No other part of the Western Hemisphere has such abundance and variety of attractions for the archaeologist as the territory of the Republic of Mexico. In order to comprehend thisareaone must study the pyramidal mounds of the Mississippi Valley: the immense log buildings, sculptures, and totem posts of the north Pacific coast: the massive walls and composite arrangement of the pueblos; the infinite variety of geometric patterns and designs on basketry; not neglect ing, finally, the full-costumed Crow warrior of Montana, wearing his decorated breech clout and moccasins, and gorgeous headdress of eagle plumes, which spans his head like a huge rainbow and descends to the ground in a Long train. It is not necessary to maintain that the sculptors of southern Mexico were the immediate blood kindred and colinguists of all these widely scattered tribes. Only they use the same alphabet and art motive-. The Mexicans were mound builders, totem carvers, pueblo designers, fretwork weaver-, and costumers in Btone, the material which, more than all others combined, evoked the virile qualities of early races. Regarding the antiquities of Mexico, the present territory may be further subdivided into (1) the Mayan province, east from Tehuan- fcepec, including Yucatan, belonging, perhaps, to Central America; (2) the Nahuan-Zapotecan province, reaching from Quemada, in Zaca- tecas. southward to Tehuantepec, revealing an advanced and some- what mixed culture: (3) the Pueblo province, with its compound. Btoried houses and smooth, coiled pottery, which is not bounded northward by the boundary line, hut reaches far into the United State-: (4) the wild province, home of cliff dwellers and devoid of architecture and pottery. The antiquities of Mexico do not end with the boundaries of the Republic. At the north, the Casas Grandes, in western Chihuahua, on Casas Grandes River, is an immense adobe ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY. 41 structure, allying itself with the present and ancient pueblos of Ari- zona and New Mexico. Moreover, there were throughout the same region and southward natural and artificial cave dwellings. (Lumholtz, 1898.) At the southeast, Mexico passes insensibly from the Mayan culture of Yucatan and Chiapas into the antiquities of Guatemala. The mural remains of the Republic are comprised within narrow limits, extending from the sixteenth to the twenty-second parallel, from Soconusco to Quemada. Yet in this contracted area are to be found more structures of stone than in all America besides. Of this architecture there are held to have been several schools. Indeed, this should be looked for, since, in addition to the natural gates or opportunities opened b} r the several environments, there were on this territory, in rivalry, several linguistic families. In Yucatan and Tabasco was the Mayan family, with an outlying branch in northern Veracruz. Next to them, westward, were the Zapotecan and the Zoquean family, and in a circle about the City of Mexico were Nahuatlan, Totonacan, Otomian, and Tarascan tribes. (Brinton, 1891, 128-162.) Every variety of material enters into the permanent building, to wit, the plain dirt heap, the modeled dirt heap or mass; even mountains were remodeled; sun-dried clay, either as bricks or in larger masses; stone and clay or other bonding material, mixed in rubble, used in vast quantities; walls faced with uncut stone, which in some localities was supplied by nature in good form; cut stone in walls laid up without adhesive material; stone walls laid in clay, mortar, and cement; carved architectural features; relief carvings; sculptures in the round. As for the adhesive substances, besides clay and other natural cements, lime mortar has been mentioned and the possibility of its existence denied, but caustic lime was not beyond the Mexican builders, since burnt shells occur universally as a degraissant in American pottery. There was no lack of durable wood to serve as lintels to doors and to support ceilings. This material, doubtless, was used for doors, parti- tions, screens, and interior decorations, and was cut, hewn, and carved with great skill. (Holmes, 1895, 25.) The architecture was oversolid, and consisted of rough masses of dirt and rude masonry, faced with smoothed cut stone. L^vvard encountered just this combination in excavating Nineveh. A recent investigator calls attention to the lack of the best elements of construction. (Holmes, 1895, 27-30.) The arch and the dome were unknown. Long pen- tagonal openings, with horizontal bases, called false arches, were the best that the architects could do. On this overmassive structure there was an equally barbaric excess of decoration — false fronts, roof combs, cornices, mosaic and stucco work. One imposing feature is the terrace and stairway presented in endless variety, affording not only access to superior structures, but sitting room or grand stand for the laity. The two central features about which all plazas, paved ways, banks 42 MEXICO. of earth, and walls <>r parapets cluster arc tin* pyramid and the squared structure, the mound and the log house made in stone. Of the former, the function is largely outside; of the latter, owing to the solidity of the walls, it is only partly inside. The pyramid may have additions interior and inferior, but its attractive part- are exterior and superior. The built-up and squared structure lends all its parts, indeed, to the architect, the modeler, and the sculptor, hut it also was to be gazed at from without. The pyramid was divided into stories by placing a series of truncated pyramids one above another and by cutting out terraces from a single form. In the most important remains there is such evident relationship between structure and structure a- to prove that one purpose runs through the whole. And while some great buildings give evidence of accretions, other-, says Holmes (1895, 23) — for example, the palace ;it Uxmal and the castillo at Chichen show that when the building began the whole plan, to the niinute-t detail, had been thought out. Very few of the buildings are accurately oriented, as that term is commonly understood. Certainly the modern style of laying off cities in rectangles wasas little known in .Mexico as among the European contemporaries. Their purposes are easily harmonized with the environment, the kin- ship system, and the culture system of the peoples. Some of them are forts, to defend whatever was in them. Some of them were religious, with their court of the women, court of the laity, and the other socie- ties, court of the society and pathway of the priests to a kind of shrine or holy of holies, [f only on some bright, sunny day the pageant could return, what a picturesque sight one of those temple structures would afford, having every terrace and stairway tilled with gay cos- tumes, to which goldand silver and precious stones, the efflorescence of tlie fields, ami the plumage of birds lent their willing service. For the first time the sites of archaeological remains in Mexico are here codified in the alphabetic order of States. Such a provisional li>t will serve future investigators as a starting point for additions and correction-. A distinction should he made between relics and remains. The former are movable and personal, and can not always he relied on for location-, but remains are stationary and are useful on the -not. They should he guarded with the greatest care both by the Govern- ment and by public spirit against destruction or removal. ANCIENT REM ains I \ MBS I' ". Aguascalientes: No remains reported. Baja California: Rock paintings and inscriptions. Campeche: Paved n.a'l-. or calzadas; terra-cotta idols, etc. Chiapas: nque, ancienl city of vast extent, Charnay, L887; Holmes, L895; Mamlslay, L897. Lorittard City, ruins resembling Palenque, Charnay, L887. ingo, groups of ruins, sculpture.-, hieroglyphs. ANCIENT REMAINS. 43 Chihuahua: Rio des Casas, adobe pueblos, Casas Grandes, Thomas, 1899. Coahuila: San Lorenzo, rock paintings, mummies, relics. San Martin, ruins and pottery. Colima: No remains reported. Durango: BoUun, rock paintings and carvings, mummies. La Brena, caves yielding relics; between Suchil Valley and Chalchihuites, Cbichimec remains. Guanajuato: Only cave dwellings and relics. Guerrero: Foundations, remains of settlements. Vina, ruins and burial places. Tlapa, tombs called Teteles. Hidalgo: Tula, pyramid, sculptures, idols, relics, Charnay, 1887; Penafiel, 1890. Jalisco: Artificialized hills. L. Chapala, vestiges of ancient settlements and pottery, Starr, 1897. Mexico: Actopan, pottery relics. Ahuehuepa, statue bearing hieroglyphics. Lj. Chalco, causeways across the lake; traces of ancient city on Xico Island; sculptures on Misquique Island; sculptures at Xochimilco; carved cylindrical stones at Tlahuac; ancient town of Culhuacan; idols, heads, fallen pyramids at Tlalmanalco. Chapultepec, carvings on cliffs. Malinalco, ancient wood carvings. Mixico City, or Tenochtitlan. In the city all temples, etc., have been razed; calendar stone, sacrificial stone, statue of Coatlicue, sculptures at Tlatelulco; ruins of fortified hill at Tenango, Penafiel, 1890; Holmes, 1897. Mecamecan, rock pyramid, carved. Navajas, obsidian mines. Ozumba, carved blocks of stone. Remedios, terraced, stone-faced hill. Taenia, ruins, pyramids of sun-dried bricks. Tezcuco, causeway at Chapingo; idols, pottery, relics at Contador; terraced hill and aqueduct at Tetzcutzinco (Reyes, 1888); stone wall in mortar at Huejutla; ruins of ancient city at Teotihuacan, immense pyramids and paved way, Charnay, 1887; Holmes, 1897; Penafiel, 1899. Otumba, ruins at Tulacingo and San Miguel. Xonacatepec, stone masks, carved circular stone. Yahualua, tombs with stone images, northward. Tyupilco, buildings of thin blocks of stone. Zacualpan, stone masks and relics. Michoacan: Opals and other gems, and remains at Jiquilpan; small mounds at Irimbo; rock carvings on Aniche Island; ancient capital of Tarascos at Zint- zuntzan, L. Patzcuaro, Leon, 1888-1890. Mokelos: Xochicalco, terraced hill, paved roads, galleries, hill covered with masonry, sum- mit platform, fine sculptures, Penafiel, 1890, ch. viii. Cuernavaca, figures carved on bowlders; temple pyramid. Tepoztlan, Saville, 1896; Seler, 1898. Nueva Leon: No antiquities reported. Oajaca: Tehuantepec, pyramids with stairs, fortresses, ruins, underground tombs, pottery, Estrada, 1892; ruins of Quiengola, 1890. 44 MEXICO. ( >a.i.\i \ ( iontinued. Magdalena, statue of Zapotec prophet, Wixepecocha. / / .'. caves with painted walls. LoaUaga, mound and hieroglyphics. ( 'hihuittan, ancient bridge Guatulco, ruins of ancient city. Tlacolula, mound of earth. Quiyi chapa, ruined fortn EUa, underground tombs, images. Petioles, skull preserved by lime; pyramid at Tepantepec, tombs al Teotitlan. Quilapan, mounds everywhere. Monte Albdn, fortified boly place, subterranean chambers, pyramid, hieroglyphics, etc., Holmes, L897. Zachila, mounds, burnl bricks, walls, statues; Tombs of Xoxo (Saville, 1899 . Mitla, finest ruin in the State and one of the grandest in Mexico, Charnay, 1867; Pefiafiel, L890; Holmes, 1897. Quietepec, hill covered with ruins, platforms, terrace walls, pyramid; at Tuxtepec, mound 63 feet high. Hualmapam, sculptures in low relief, pottery, i_r« » 1 * 1 objects. Yanghiltan, sculptured human figures. Poebla: Tehuacan, ruins of stone structures. child, pyramid of hewn stone, cement covering, stairway. Tepiaca, sculptured head and slabs. Tepixe, Btoried pyramid, hewn stone, lime mortar. Oristdbal, storied pyramid, stairway, graded way. Cholula, storied pyramid, 1,440 feet square, 200 feet high. Chalchicomula, storied pyramid with stairs. Quatulhguelchula, relief; ruins at San Pablo. Quer&tabo: Queretaro City, fortified hills, pyramids, works. Pueblita, stone walls, sculptures, mounds. Ranas, forts, pyramids with stairs, burial mounds. Toluquilla, ancient city and fort Reyes, 1881. San Juan, mound containing idols. San Luis Porosi: No remains reported. Binaloa: Vestiges of ruins a1 Mazatlan. Sonora: Ruins at Babiacori; grottos at Sohuaripa. Tamaulipas: Encarnacidn, stone idol. Cramelote Greek, mounds, dressed stone, images, pottery. Salt Lab, pyramidal mounds, stone faced, with step.-. Zopila, mounds laced with stone, carved stones, pottery. Tampico, idols of basalt, carvings, pottery. Ti.am ai.a: Malinche, walls, pyramid-, stone images. San Pablo, kneeling figure in stone Natividad, terraced hill, ruins, standing stones, relic-. Cacaxtlan, fort, ditches, underground ways. Tlaxcala, sculptures, pottery, stone bridges, brick parapets, obelisk at Pueblo de los Reyes, wall on frontier of State. Jlzatlan, ruins, called Xicotencatl. Veracruz: Veracruz City, ports, pyramids, foundations, <:™ vt 's west of the city, in abun- dance. ANCIENT REMAINS. 45 Veracruz — Continued. Sacrifitios I, temple, sepulcher, relics. Caxapa, ruined city, colossal head. Orizaba-, sculptured yokes, carvings, grotto. Jalapa, serpent carved in rock. I'm utr National, storied pyramid, with stairs. Cordoba, line of forts. Ceutla, terraced pyramid faced with hewn stone, forts. Huatusco, pyramid with broad stairway, forts. Mirador, baths and rock inscriptions. Zacuap&n, pyramid, plaza, terraced walls. TUtcotepec, forts and aqueduct. ConsoquiUa, fort, plastered pyramids, idols, relics. Calcahnalco, forts, pyramids, columns. Misantla, pyramids of hewn stone pavements, ruins. Jaiancingo, walls of hewn stone, subterranean shrines. Papantla, terraced storied pyramid; other pyramids at Mapilca ranch. Tusapan, pyramid with stairs, building on top. MeUaltoyuca, pyramids of hewn stone, pavements. Panuco, statues and relics. San Nicolas, oven-like chamber, ruins. Yucatan: Uxmal, immense Maya ruins; also pyramids, sculptures, and statues near Uxmai, at Senuisacal, lluna, Sacbe, Nohcacab, Xcoch, Nohpat. Charnay, 1887; Holmes, 1895. Kabah, group of 16 structures, storied buildings, sculptures, arches; southeast from Kabah, ruins at Sanacte, Xampon, Chack, Sabacehe. Zayi and Labnd, Charnay, 1887; Thompson, 1897b. Kenrick, XHchmook, and Xul, ruined cities and paintings. Thompson, 1898. Tekax, ruins at Sacacal, Ticum, Santa Maria, and Chacchob. LoUun, caves, underground water supply. Mercer, 1897; Thompson, 1897a. AMI and Manx, remains of cities. Chicken Itza, ruined city and forts, sculptures; near-by ruins at Tinum, Espita, Xocen, Sitax, Coba. Charnay, 1887; Holmes, 1895; Mandslay, 1897. Ticul, pyramidal mounds, ruins. Charnay, 1887. Mayapan, mounds, sculptures, remains of ancient Maya capital. MSrida, on ruins of ancient city of Tahoo. Ake, ruins of rude architecture. Charnay, 1887. Izamal, pyramids, sculptures. Charnay, 1887; Holmes, 1895. Bolonchin wells (cenotes), sculptures. Labphak, grand Maya ruin. Iturbide, mound of ruins, ancient town, remains near Noyaxche, Macoba, Man- keesh, Jalal, Yakatzib, Becanchen. Tuloora, walled town. Holmes, 1895. Cozumel, buildings and cisterns. Holmes, 1895. Ruins also at Point Nisuc, mouth of Petampich River, Kancune Island, Mujeres Island. Cayo Ratones, Cape Catoche, Yalahao, Emal, Monte Cuyo, Rio Lagartos, Port Silan. Ma.n-ani'i, mounds with galleries, ruins, senotes [underground water supplies). Owing to the geological formation there are no water courses on the surface. ■ Zacatecas: Quemada. Immense ruins on mesa, roads, mounds, dressed stone, terraces, but no inscriptions or architectural decorations. At Quemada, coming southward, begin those monuments in stone that mark the virile cultureof southern Mex- ico as against the femina! arts in clay farther north. 4C) MEXICO. In oidrr to make this brief summary valuable as ;i guide t<> students in Mexican archaeology and ethnology, a list of modern works is appended which have beeo printed since II. II. Bancroft's Native Races of the Pacific State- (1874 75) and Justin Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of America (1889) appeared. For earlier author- ities the reader can not overlook Bandelier's footnotes and that won- derful result of patience and accuracy. Sabin's catalogue of works relating to America. In the text of this article the titles here given are referred to by dates, following the plan of Dr. C. S. Minot. See < baptej XX, page 423, tor list. CHAPTER IV. GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTIONAL ORGANIZATION— CITIZEN- SHIP— RIGHTS OF FOREIGNERS— GUARANTEES— ARMY AND NAVY. Government. — The Constitution now in force in Mexico, originally promulgated February 5, 1857, and subsequently amended, declares that the Mexican Republic is established under the representative, democratic, and federal form of government, composed of States free and sovereign in everything relating to their internal administration, but united in one single federation in accordance with the principles set forth in said Constitution. The Supreme Government is divided into three coordinate branches, viz, Legislative, Executive, and Judicial. Legislative poicer. — The legislative power of the nation is vested in a general Congress, consisting of two Chambers, the Deputies and the Senate. The Chamber of Deputies is composed of representatives of the nation elected every two } T ears by the Mexican citizens and in the proportion of one Deputy for every -10,000 inhabitants, or fraction over 20,000, the term of service being two years, an alternate number being elected for each Deputy. The requisite qualifications to be a Deputy are: To be a Mexican citizen in the full exercise of his rights, 25 } T ears of age, a resident of the State or Territory where chosen, and not to belong to the eccle- siastical state. In 1897 there were 227 members in the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate consists of two Senators for each State and the Federal District, chosen in the same manner as Deputies, and subject to the same limitations as to citizenship, residence, and civil status, but the age limit is 30 years, and the term of service four, half the Senate being renewed every two years. Federal officeholders receiving a salary are ineligible for election to either Chamber. Congress. — The Congress has two ordinary sessions annually — the first, which may be extended thirty days, beginning on September 16 and ending on December 15, and the second may be prorogued for fifteen days, convening on the 1st of April and adjourning on the last day of May. During the recesses of Congress a permanent committee, with limited legislative functions, sits, composed of 29 members, 15 being 47 4s mi: xi i o. Deputies and 14 Senator-, appointed by the respective Chambers on the eve of adjournment. The duties of this committee are: T<> give assent to tin- calling oul of the National Guard Tor use beyond the limits of their respective States and Territories; to call, on their own motion or at the instance of the President, extra sessions of either or both Chambers; to confirm certain Executive nominations; to admin- ister the oath to the President and Justices of the Supreme Court: to report on all matter- unacted on by the previous Congress, so that the next may have business to take up immediately upon convening. Executive power. — The Executive power is lodged in a single indi- vidual, known as the "President of the United Mexican States." The President is elected indirectly by electors chosen by the people. His term of office is four years, commencing on the 1st day of Decem- ber after election. By an amendment to the Constitution, under date of December '20, 1890, he may be reelected indefinitely. Temporary vacancies in the Presidency are tilled by the person serving as Sec- retary of State, while in case of death or permanent disability a pro- visional President is elected by Congress, who discharges the ollice until one is elected by the people. Following are the qualifications requisite for President: (1) To be a native-born Mexican citizen, in the full exercise of his rights. (2) To be :;.". years of age. (3) To not belong to any ecclesiastical order. (4) To be a resident of the country at the time of election. Cabinet. — The President i> assisted in the discharge of his duties by a Cabinet, consisting of seven Secretaries, heads of the Departments of Foreign Relations; Finance and Public Credit; Communications and Public Works: Promotion, Colonization, and Industry; Interior; Justice and Public Instruction: War and the Navy. Cabinet officers must be native-born Mexican citizens, and at least •_'.". year- of age. All Executive regulations, decrees, and orders must he countersigned by the head of the department to which they refer, otherwise they are inoperative. Salaries. The salary of the President is |50, » per annum, and of the Cabinet officers $15,000. Judicial power. The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court of dust ice and the district and circuit courts. There are three circuit and thirty-two district courts. The Supreme Court of .Justice is com- posed of eleven "ministros," or justices, four alternate justices, an Attorney-General, and a public prosecutor. Their term of oftice is six years, and they are elected by the people indirectly, in the same manner as Deputies and Senator-. The qualifications required are to be learned in the law. in the judgment of the electors; to heat least 36 years of age, and to be Mexican citizens in the full exercise of their rights. state's government. 49 Federal courts have jurisdiction — (1) In all cases arising- from the enforcement and application of Fed- eral laws, save when such application affects only private interests, in which case the ordinary courts of the States, Federal District, and Territories shall be competent to assume jurisdiction. (2) In admiralty cases. (3) In cases to which the Federation is a part3 T . (4) In cases arising- between two or more States. (5) In cases arising between a State and one or more citizens of another, or between two or more States. (6) In civil or criminal cases arising from treaties concluded with foreign powers. (7) In cases affecting diplomatic and consular agents. The Supreme Court of Justice has original jurisdiction in all cases arising between two States, and in those wherein the Union is a party. This court must also settle all controversies arising among the Federal courts, between these and the State Courts, or between the courts of two States. The Supreme Court is also the court of last resort in all other cases here mentioned. The jurisdiction of the Federal courts extends also to all cases grow- ing out of (1) laws or acts of any authority infringing on individual rights; (2) laws or acts of the Federal authority violating or limiting the sovereignty of the States; (3) laws or acts of the latter encroaching on the Federal authority. The salary of Supreme Court justices is $5,000 and of circuit and district judges $i,000 a year. State's government. — As provided by the Federal Constitution, the interior government of the States is republican, representative, and popular, and is divided into the same branches as the General Govern- ment. 1. The legislative power in the large majority of the States is vested in a single representative body called a congress, the members of which are called deputies, and are in most States elected indirectly by the people, serving two years. 2. The executive power is lodged in a governor, elected, almost without exception, by indirect vote of the people, and serving for four years. 3. The judicial power in the greater number of States resides in a supreme court of justice and inferior courts and judges. The States are divided politically, as a rule, into districts governed by &jefe politico, or a prefect. The minor divisions are municipalities, the local authority being an ayuntamiento, corresponding to the town council in the United States of America. Each State is bound to deliver, without delay, criminals from other States to the authority demanding them. 509a— 04 4 50 MEXICO. Limitations. By the Federal Constitution the States are prohibited from (1) Concluding any alliance, treaty, or league with another State or foreign powers, except the league which may be formed between frontier Stales for offensive or defensive warfare against savages. (2) Issuing letters of marque or reprisal. (3) Coining money, issuing paper money, stamps, or stamped paper. (4) Obstructing the transit of person- or goods crossing its territory. (5) Prohibiting or molesting, either directly or indirectly, the entrance or exit to or from its territory of national or foreign merchandise. ((!) Obstructing the circulation or consumption of national or for- eign goods by means of imports or taxes that may be exacted through local custom-houses, by requiring the inspector of registration of packages, or by requiring the documentation t<> accompany the merchandise. (7) Decreeing or maintaining in force law- or fiscal decrees which may cause differences of taxes or requisites, by reason of the source of national or foreign merchandise, whether these differences be estab lished in regard to a like production in that locality or on account of like production from different sources. Nor can they, without the consent of the Congress of the Union (1) Establish tonnage or any other port dues, nor impose burdens or duties upon imports or exports. (2) Maintain at any time a standing army or ships of war. (?>) Make war by themselves on any foreign power, save in cases of invasion or of danger so imminent as to admit of no delay, in which cases they must immediately report to the President of the Republic Powers of the Federation. — Itis the exclusive faculty of the federa- tion to obstruct merchandise, imported or exported, or which passes in transit through the national territory, likewise to regulate at all times, and even to prohibit for reasons of policy and security, the cir- culation within the Republic of all merchandise from whatever source; but the said federation can not establish or decree in the District or Federal Territories the taxes and laws expressed as regard the States. The Federal District and the Territories are, as in the United States of America, under the control and jurisdiction of the Federal Govern- ment, although the local authorities are elected by the people, a- are Deputies and Senators to the National Congress. The population necessary to entitle a Territory to statehood is L20,000 inhabitant- at least. CONSTITUTION . The Mexican Constitution recognizes that the rights of man are the foundation and the end of social institutions, and consequently every- one is bound to respect and give support to the guarantees granted by PROHIBITIONS. 51 it; that the national sovereignty is essentially and originally vested in the people; that all public authority emanates from the people and has been instituted for the good of the people; that the people have, at any time, the inalienable right of altering or modifying the form of government; and exercises its sovereignty through the national and State governments as prescribed by the Federal Constitution and the constitutions of the several States, the latter constitutions in no case whatever being allowed to obstruct the provisions of the Federal compact. ( bnstitutional rights. — All persons born within the territory of the Republic are free, and slaves become free, and are under the protection of the law upon entering the country. Education is free, except as regards the exercise of certain professions regulated by the laws. Free- dom to exercise the liberal professions, freedom of thought and of the press, are guaranteed, the latter with the restrictions imposed by the rights of others, peace and public morality. The rights of petition and of peaceful organization are recognized. The right to own and carry arms for lawful self-defense and protection is also recognized, subject, however, to the restrictions of the law; also the right to freely enter, leave, and travel over the Republic and to change one's residence, without passport or any similar document, subject, however, to the judicial or administrative authority in cases of criminal or civil respon- sibility. The inviolability of correspondence circulating through the mails is recognized, the infractors being severely punished. Private property can not be occupied without the consent of its owner, except in cases of need for public service, an indemnification having been previously paid, as prescribed by law. The quartering of soldiers, in time of peace, upon the propert} 1 - of individuals is forbidden, as well as in time of war, save under the regulations established by law. Prohibitions. — Titles of nobility, hereditary honors, and preroga- tives are not recognized, nor is the authority or judgment of special laws or privileged courts. Ex post facto laws and the conclusion of treaties for the extradition of political offenders, also such treaties or agreements as shall in any manner alter the rights and guarantees accorded to men and citizens by the Constitution are expressly pro- hibited, as well as the right of search without a warrant issued by competent authority. Imprisonment for debt of a purely civil nature is abolished. Vio- lent measures in the support of individual rights are prohibited, as the administration of justice by the courts is done gratuitously. Arrest, except for offenses meriting corporal punishment, is prohibited, as is also detention without trial for a longer period than three days, unless justified as prescribed by law. The authorities are empowered to punish severely any ill treatment inflicted upon prisoners, either at the 52 MEXICO. time of arrest or while imprisoned, as well as any other abuses. The rights tit' the accused are guaranteed, the application of penalties other than those purely correctional being limited exclusively to the judicial authority. Mutilation, branding, whipping, clubbing, torture, exces- sive fines, confiscation of property, and any other form of infamous punishment is prohibited. The death penalty is limited to the crimes of high treason during a foreign war, highway robbery, arson, parri- cide, willful murder, high military crimes, and piracy, as provided by law. No eivil or ecclesiastical corporations of any description are per- mitted to acquire or manage landed estates, with the exception of the buildings directly devoted to the service <>r objects of the institution, nor are religious institutions permitted to acquire landed estates or the capital invested thereon, except as prescribed by law. Monopolies of all descriptions, under pretext of industrial protec- tion, are prohibited, excepting the Government monopolies of coinage and the postal service, and the limited privileges granted bj law to patentees of any useful invention. Suspension of the constitutional guarantees. — The President, with the concurrence of his ( labinet and the approval of Congress, or. during it- recess, the Congressional Permanent Committee, may suspend all constitutional guarantees in ease of invasion, grave internal disorder. or serious disturbance endangering the State, but only for a limited period and by means of general orders: such suspension, however, according to the law. not to affect individuals. CITIZENSHIP. Section II of the ('(institution declares that Mexican citizens are (1) all person- born in the country, or abroad, of Mexican parent.-; (-2) all foreigners naturalized under the laws of the federation: (3) all foreigners acquiring real estate in the Republic or begetting children by Mexican mothers, unless distinct claim of citizenship elsewhere is avowed in Ayw legal form. It is the duty of every Mexican to defend the independence, territory, honor, rights, and interests of the country, ami to contribute to the general expense-, both of the federation and of the State where he resides, as prescribed by law. Rights of citizens. — Citizens of the Republic are those who. besides being Mexican-, are over L8 years of age, if married, or 21, if unmar- ried, and possess honest mean- of Livelihood. Their prerogatives are. the right to vote in the popular elections; to he elected by vote to all the charges, posts, and commissions for which they are legally quali- fied; to organize for the purpose of treating of the political affairs of the country: to enter either the general army or the national guard, in order to defend the Republic and its institutions, and to exercise the right of petition in all matter-. ALIENS. 53 Duties. — The duties of the Mexican citizen are, to be inscribed in the register of his municipality, stating- the amount of property he holds, or the trade, profession, or industry he is engaged in; to enlist in the national guard; to vote in the elections of his district; and to faithfully discharge the duties pertaining to an}' post to which he may be elected in the Federation. Forfeiture of citizenship. — Citizenship is forfeited, (1) through natu- ralization in a foreign country; (2) by serving, in an official capacity. the government of another country, or by accepting from a foreign government decorations, titles, or charges — other than literary, scientific, or humanitarian — without previous consent of the Fed- eral Congress. The law determines the cases and form entailing the loss or suspension of the rights of citizenship and the manner of rehabilitation. ALIENS. Under date of May 28, 1886, a law was passed by the Mexican Government governing aliens and their naturalization, which is, in substance, as follows: Rights of aliens. — Aliens enjoy in the Republic the civil rights belonging to Mexicans and the guarantees granted by section 1 of title 1 of the Constitution, without prejudice to the Government's right to expel a pernicious alien. For the acquisition of waste or public lands, real estate, and ships, aliens are not required to reside in the Republic, but they are subject to the restrictions imposed by existing laws; in the understanding, nevertheless, that every lease of real estate to an alien for a period exceeding ten years shall be deemed a full conveyance. The Federal law alone can modify or abridge the civil rights enjoyed by aliens, in consequence of the principles of international reciprocity, and in order that the aliens may therein* be subject in the Republic to the same disqualifications as the laws of their own country impose on Mexicans residing there; hence the provisions of the civil code and of the code of civil procedure of the Federal District on this subject have a federal character, and shall be obligatory throughout the whole Union. Aliens may be domiciled in the Republic for all legal purposes with- out losing their nationality. The acquisition, change, or loss of domicile are governed by the laws of Mexico. When the suspension of individual guarantees is declared under the provisions of article 29 of the Constitution, aliens, as well as Mexicans, are subject to the provisions of the laws decreeing the suspension, without prejudice to the stipulations of treaties. Limitations. — Aliens are bound to contribute to the public expenses in the manner prescribed by the laws, and to obey and respect the institutions, laws, and authority of the country, subjecting themselves 54 mi: xi co. to the judgments and decisions of the courts, and having no right to have recourse to other measures than those which the law grants to Mexicans. They may appeal to the diplomatic channel only in the case of denial of justice or intentional delay in its administration, after exhausting in vain the ordinary means created by the laws, and in the manner prescribed by international law. Aliens can not enjoy any of the political rights of .Mexican citizens. Aliens are exempt from mili- tary -ei-vice. Domiciled alien- are hound, however, to perform police service when the security of property or the maintenance of order in the locality in which they are residing is involved. Aliens taking pari in the civil dissensions of the country may be expelled from its territory as pernicious aliens, and are subject to the laws of the Republic asto the offenses which they may commit against it. without prejudice to the regulations of their rights and obligations during a stale of war. by international law and treaties. Citizenship. — The laws ordering the registration of aliens are repealed. The Ministry of Foreign Relations alone can issue certifi- cates of any given nationality in favor of the person requesting them. These certificates constitute legal presumption of foreign citizen-hip. but do not exclude proof to the contrary. The final proof of any given nationality is made before the competent courts, and by the means prescribed by the laws and treaties. Aliens who have acquired real estate and who have had children horn to them in Mexico, or who have held any public office are bound to declare within six months after the promulgation of this law. if they have not done so previously, before the civil authorities of their place of residence, whether they wish to acquire Mexican citizenship or retain their own. In the former case they must immediately ask for their certificate of naturalization. If they fail to make the declara- tion in question they shall be considered Mexicans, except in those cases where there has been an official declaration to this end. Colonists in Mexico come under the provisions of this last article. GENERAL PROVISIONS. The following are among the general provisions of the Constitution: In time of peace no military authority can exercise any other functions than those intimately connected with military discipline. The state and the church are independent of each other, it being the exclusive right <»f the Federal Executive to exercise, in the matter of religious worship and external discipline, the intervention prescribed by law. Marriage is a civil contract, which, like any other act of the civil state of individuals, falls under the exclusive jurisdiction of the civil officials and authorities, as prescribed by law and having only the force and validity that law accords it. The Constitution is inviolable. ARMY AND NAVY. 55 ARMY AND NAVY. At the close of the protracted period of wars and revolutions which had distracted the Republic the Mexican army lacked, in general terms, the technical instruction and organization impossible to attain in the midst of active warfare. Since the establishment of peace the Govern- ment has taken two steps of prime importance toward the improve- ment of the army and navy of the countiy — one the complete reorgan- ization of both branches of the service, and the other the reduction of the standing army. To this end the Military School, which has fur- nished many intelligent officers and engineers, has been reorganized. There is also a Naval Academy for the training of officers, a school of marksmanship, a school for the training of military bands and, dis- tributed throughout the country, are 187 academies for the instruction of citizens who desire to enter the second reserve of the army. The old infantry armament has been replaced by the latest improved arms; the most modern ordnance has been substituted for the obsolete artil- lery pieces; the national arms and powder factories have been equipped with the most improved machinery, and, in short, everything has been done to place the army of the Republic on a footing with the general progress of the nation. All Mexicans capable of bearing arms are obliged to serve either in the regular army or the national guard. The army is composed of regular and auxiliary troops of the reserve. The strength of the reg- ular army is fixed by law at 30,000 men, that of the reserve at 28,000 men. and that of the second reserve at 150,000 men. The troops are not formed into army corps except in case of mobilization. Shortly after the restoration of the He public, in 1867, the army con- sisted of 37,103 privates, officered by 11 major-generals, 73 brigadier- generals, 1,011 colonels, lieutenant-colonels, and majors, and 2,335 commissioned officers. At present the regular army establishment is made up as follows: Infantry. — Twenty -eight battalions, 1 skeleton battalions, 2 com- panies of District troops, 1 section of scouts, the auxiliary troops of Sonora (18 officers and 219 men), and the Yucatan guard (21 officers and 101 men). Cavalry. — Fourteen regiments and 1 skeleton regiments, Federal Auxiliaiw Corps (15 officers and 298 men), and the Sonora Auxiliaries (62 men). Artillery. — Two regiments of mounted, 1 regiment of horse, 1 reg- iment of mountain, 1 troop with rapid-fire guns. 1 train. 1 battery and 3 sections of garrison, 1 company of mitrailleuse. Further there are 1 battalion of sappers and miners, 1 park of engineers, 1 troop of trans- port, 1 signal corps section, 1 hospital corps. Arms. — The infantry is armed with Mauser rifles of the pattern of 1901, 7 mm. caliber. The cavalry with carbines of same pattern. The 56 MEXICO. Artillery have Bange guns of 7.'.' c. m. caliber. The mountain bat- teries have guns of the Gruson pattern. The reserves have the Mauser rifleof l s '- , .">. The machinery forthe manufacture of ammunition was imported from ( lerniany in L902. The strength of the army on peace footing was in L902: Minister of War. stuff, and President's Guard Administration 1 11 fun try Cavalry Artillery Engineers Hospital Service Invalid Corps Officers. Men. 384 1,066 575 161 154 in 101 675 15,796 - 290 3'J 66 19 6, 569 :•■'■.: 19 13 Pack ani- mals. 907 1,024 286 ;.i The effective strength in time of war is given at 3,500 officers and L20, men infantry, 20,000 men cavalry, and 6,000 men artillery. Navy. — The navy consists of the Democraia; gunboat <>l' the first class, 450 tons, 600 horsepower, 4 guns. Libertad, 430 tons. 4in> horse- power, 5 guns. Zaragoza (school-ship), L, 200 tons, L, 300 horsepower, 8 guns. Oaoeaca, transport; Yucatan (sailing ship),' and 2 schooners. Two combined gunboats and transports, Tampico and Veracruz, are under construction at Elizabethport, N. J., and 2 other gunboats are being built in Italy. The personnel of the navy consists of L30 officers and 292 men. CHAPTER V. POLITICAL DIVISION— THE VALLEY OF MEXICO AND THE FED- ERAL DISTRICT— CAPITAL CITY, PRINCIPAL BUILDINGS, PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. Territorial division. — The territory of the United Mexican States (Estados Unidos Mexicanos) is divided into 1 Federal District, 27 States, and 2 Territories, whose organization is almost identical with that of the American Union. The States, as before indicated, are free and sovereign in all matters pertaining to their internal administration, their government being vested in three heads, namely: State govern- ment, State legislature, and State judicial power. The States and Territories are, for convenience, classified as follows, according to their situation: Cut ml States. — Federal District, Aguascalientes, Durango, Gua- najuato, Hidalgo, Mexico, Morelos, Puebla, Queretaro, San Luis Potosi, Tlaxcala, and Zacatecas, with and area of 372,480 square kilometers. Northern States. — Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Sonora, measuring 658,032 square kilometers. Gulf States. — Campeche, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Yucatan, and Territorio de Quintana Roo, 323,610 square kilometers. Pacific States. — Baja California, Colima, Chiapas, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacan, Oaxaca, Sinaloa, and Tepic, whose combined area measures 629,037 square kilometers. The two Territories are Tepic and Baja (Lower) California. The Valley of Mexico. — The picturesque and extensive valley of Mexico comprises an extensive plain, broken occasionally by isolated hills and surrounded by two large mountain chains. Several ranges cross the valley west and south, while on the east rises the great Sierra Nevada, formed by the majestic Popocatepetl and the Ixta- cihuatl, the former rising 3,200 meters above the mean level of the valley and 5,452 meters above sea level and the latter 5,286 meters above the level of the. sea. The northern boundary of the valley has not yet been defined. The area of the valley is given as 4,214 square kilometers, not including the 1,532 square kilometers of the Zumpanga Valley, but both should be considered as forming one single valley, whose combined area is 5,746 square kilometers. 58 MEXICO. The waters of the valley form two distinct watersheds, onr sloping in an easterly direction and the other toward the west, both embracing a number of small streams. Spurs of the lateral mountain ranges close the valley north and south, it- center thus forming a basin when' the waters of the two watersheds collect, forming five lakes, namely: Zum- pango, 2,284 meters above sea level: Kultocan and San Cristobal, in the north, 2,277 meters above sea level; Chalco and Xochimilco, in the south. 2,280 meters and 2,268 meters, respectively, above sea level: and Lake Texcoco, on whose western shore lies the city of Mexico. This last is the largest of all the lakes, being at the present day about 30 square kilometers in extent, though in former times it covered a larger area. As it lie- in the lowest point of the valley all the surplus water of the other lakes drain into it during the rainy season, thus causing frequent inundations in the capital, to prevent which a system of drainage has been established. The " Guia General Descriptiva de la Republics Mexicana," from which the information in regard to the Federal District has been ob- tained, divides the work undertaken for the proper drainage of the valley of Mexico into four epochs. In the year L449, during the rule of Moctezuma, the first dams connecting Tenochtitlan (Mexico) with Tepeyac (Guadalupe) and Xochimilco were constructed. During the Colonial Empire (1553) a curved dam was built to replace those de- stroyed by Cortes during the war. others being built in L604and L708. During the republican regime President Comonfort, in L856, invited the competition of experts, both native and foreign, whose plans for the drainage works should fulfill certain conditions, among them being the stipulation that the waste waters be always used for irrigation purposes. Of the seven projects presented that iA' Engineer Francisco Garay was selected, and the work has lately been finished in accord- ance with his plans. The delay in the completion of the work was due to several disturbances in the country until, in L885, President l>iaz approved an appropriation of $400,000 a year for the continuance of the work until it should be finished, which was successfully effected in 1896 at a cost of $13,000,000. The work on the main canal, which necessitated the removal of 1.0,215,000 cubic meters of earth, kept 3,000 men and 5 dredging machines constantly employed. During the progress of the work upheavals of the soft bed of the canal occurred several times, thus rendering it necessary to commence the work anew. The canal starts at a point east of the city about on a level with Lake Texcoco, 1.30 meters below the mean level of Mexico, crosses the river Guadalupe by means of an aqueduct .")<» centimeters above the mean level of the river, extends for a distance of t8 kilometers, penetrating deeper and deeper into the earth until it enters a tunnel 10 kilometers in length, constructed at a slight incline and furnished with ventholes a Compiled by J. Figueroa Domenech- Araluce, publisher, -Mexico, 1899. FEDERAL DISTRICT. 59 to a depth of 91 meters. The works are provided with a s} r stem of lock gates, which insure control of the waste waters and regulate the level of Lake Texcoco, thus preventing- inundations. The works were formally inaugurated on March 17, 1900. Their entire cost from 1886 to June 30, 1900, when they were finally delivered to the department of communications, is estimated at $15,967,778. a The valley of Mexico has undergone a great modification with the opening of the main canal. The waters, which formerly emptied into the small lakes, and owing to the configuration of the land, had no natural outlets, thus constitut- ing at times centers of infectious diseases, are now drained into Lake Texcoco and can be controlled at will, either allowed to flow out when too abundant, or retained for irrigation purposes in case of need. Climate of the valley. — As the valley is situated within the torrid zone its climate might naturally be expected to be exceedingly hot, but as its altitude above sea level is 2,280 meters, the mean tempera- ture is that of the temperate zone. During the summer the maxi- mum temperature is reached at 2 o'clock in the afternoon in the months of April and May and does not exceed 20° C. (78.80° F.), while the lowest temperature in the morning during the same months is about 10° C. (50° F.), the mean temperature being from 18° to 19° C. (61° to Q6° F.). During the winter the minimum temperature recorded in the mornings of November, December, and January, is about 2° C. (35° F.), wkile the maximum experienced during the same months is from 19° to 20° C. {66° to 68° F.), the mean tempera- ture being, therefore, about 12° C. (53.60 F.). As indicated by these figures the mornings are cool and pleasant all the year and the after- noons temperate. There are only two seasons — the dry season from October to March, and the' rainy season from April to September. The rainfall throughout the 3 T ear is not very heav} T , but as it is all utilized in the valley for irrigation purposes, it equals in its effect a much larger quantity. The winds blow from the northeast, but are never so strong as to become hurricanes. Natural products. — The natural products of the valley are exclu- sively of an agricultural character and in keeping with the aridity of the soil, corn, wheat, and vegetables being the leading products in the order named. The "maguey" grows well, also certain fruits, such as the "zapote," peaches, apples, etc. The abundance of flowers during the whole year throughout the valley is as remarkable as the lack of mineral wealth, so plentiful elsewhere within the Mexican territory. Federal District. — The Federal District/' population 51L516, lies to « Except when otherwise specified, all values from Mexican official statistics are in Mexican silver. ''The population given throughout the hook is according to the latest corrections to the census of 1900. 60 MEXICO. the southeast of the valley, between L9 3' and L9 31' north latitude and L0' 40" east and 11' 45" west of the meridian of Mexico. At its greatest Length the District measures I'.i kilometers from southeast to north, and its extent east and west is 40 kilometers. Official data in regard to the area give it as 1,498.75 square kilometers. Nearly one-half of the rural inhabitants of tin' District an' Indians engaged in agricultural pursuits. Public instruction. The total number of primary government or five schools in the district in L902 was 337, of which L43 were for males, the same number for females, and 51 for both sexes, the total number of students registered being 55, 1 L3. There were also 3 second- ary or preparatory schools, the average attendance for both sexes being 1. •;:'.] ])(■]• annum, and L3 government professional schools, besides 171 educational institutions controlled by private individuals. Vital statistic*. — Demographic statistics for L902 -how that the number of births in the Federal District in L901 was estimated at 1.6,261, of which S.oTl were males and 7. >'.'<> females. The number of deaths for the same period was 29,285, of which L5,265 were males and 1.4,020 females, or 28,985 Mexicans and 300 foreigners. Telegraphs "ml telephones. — According t«. the latest official data (1902) there are in the Federal District 1 < »T kilometers of Federal tele- graph lines, and L,692 of Federal telephones. Political divisions. — The Federal District i> divided into -i.\ pref cturas and one municipality, as follows: Prefecture of Guadalupe- Hidalgo, Atzcapotzalco, Tacubaya, Tladpam, Xochimilco, and Coyoa- can, whose chief towns hear the name of the respective prefecture-. and the municipality of Mexico, capital of the Republic. Prefecture of Guadalupe- Hidalgo. Population, 16,f61; embraces the northern portion of the district, being divided into two munici- palities: Ixtacalco and Guadalupe-Hidalgo. The chief town of the prefecture is in constant communication with the capital by means of tramways. The municipality of Guadalupe is celebrated on account of the temple dedicated to Our Lady of Guadalupe, the patron saint of the Republic, who, according to tradition, appeared on the hill of Tepeyac within the town of Guadalupe. The soil of the prefecture is barren toward the east, hut salt deposits, left through the evapora- tion of Lake Texcoco, are abundant, the main sources of exploitation being chloride of sodium, carbonate of soda, and nitrate of potassium. There is also a petroleum well at Guadalupe, and the surrounding hills yield tine building stones. There is not a great variety of vegetation, it being confined almost exclusively to the western portion of the prefecture, the leading produce being corn, vegetables, and maguey. Prefecturi of Tacubaya. — Population, 37,695; occupies the south- east portion of the Federal District and is formed by four municipalities: Tacubaya, Mixcoac, Santa Fe, and Coaximalpa. The chief town is XOCHIM1LCO. 61 Tacubaya, the principal pleasure resort of the valle} r , and possessing fine buildings and gardens. The National Astronomic Observatory is a handsome building of modern architecture, erected on the highest point of the town, and containing some very fine instruments. The San Miguel and Monte de las Graces mountain peaks form the southern boundary of the prefecture, and several streams originating on their slopes irrigate the land, which is the best agricultural section in the whole district, and supply drinking water for the city of Mexico. As is the case throughout the entire district, corn is the chief agricul- tural product, though in Tacuba3 T a and Mixcoac floriculture is carried on extensively, this industry giving rise to floral expositions and fairs. Fruits may also be cultivated with care. Prefecture of Tlalpam — Population 22,962; embraces five munici- palities. It is situated between Tacuba} T a on the west, Xochimllco on the east, Mexico on the north, and the States of Mexico and Morelos on the south. Tlalpam is also the name of its chief town, which, after Tacubaya, is the principal summer resort for the inhabitants of the capital. Situated on a picturesque spot, where the mountain slopes merge into the plain, it presents the peculiarity of possessing fertile lands in one section and absolutely sterile soil in another. The munici- pality of San Angel is noted on account of the "'Feast of Flowers" held there, when prizes are awarded to cultivators of fruits and flowers. Embellished with innumerable gardens, tilled with the richest flowers, and orchards producing the finest fruits and vegetables, and enriched with palatial dwellings, there are few more charming spots in the world. The southern portion of the prefecture embraces the slope of Mount Ajusco, whose ramifications extend northwardly as far as San Angel and Tlalpam, where the plain commences. The small streams of the localit} T empty into the canal of Xochimilco. Prefecture of Xochimilco — Population 52,025; occupies the eastern and southern portions of the district and contains nine municipalities. Xochimilco, the chief town, is one of the oldest cities of the Anahuac Valley. It lies on the shores of what was formerly Lake Xochimilco, which no longer exists in its original form, the waters having been drained into numerous canals for the advantageous irrigation of the now fertile lands surrounding it. The leading products are the same as in the other prefectures. The topography of this region is varied, and while it is not traversed by a single natural stream, the soil is extremely fertile, as the several canals carrying the waters of the rivers Tlalmanalco and Tenango to the Xochimilco Canal irrigate the lands, and in the mountainous region of the south sufficient moisture is supplied by the frequent rains to maintain a vigorous vegetation, corn being the principal product. The produce of the region is transported to the capital in canal boats. The other munici- palities are Coyoacan and Atzcapotzalco, 23,161 and 20,011 inhabitants, respectively. 62 MEXICO Physical features. From the foregoing it is evidenl that mountains and yalleys arc the main physical features <>t' the Federal District. To the north rise the ramifications of the Sierra de Guadalupe, from 300 to 230 meters above the level of the capital, while the east and center is an extensive plain broken only by the Santa Catarina and Estrella mountains, respectively 200 and L50 meters above the level of the city. Sedimentary soil to a depth of 50 meters is found all over the plain, while the mountain regions are composed of eruptive rocks and granite. The small valleys between the mountains contain abun- dant vegetable matter. Vafoju of property.- -The area of cultivation in the Federal District is about three-fourths its whole extent. The value of property varies according to irrigation facilities and the means of communication. Public lands fluctuate betv ecu is and 20 cents per square meter, while, other lands, in better condition, command as much as 50 cents. 'Within the City of Mexico property in the northern, southern, and eastern sections is quoted at 2 to 6 pesos" the square meter: from 30 to ::;. pesos on the west side, and in the central section as high as 200 pesos pel- square meter. THE CAPITAL CTTr. Municipality of Mexico. — The municipality of Mexico embraces the capital proper and the surrounding country, its maximum radius being s kilometers, with a population of 368,898. Besides the city proper, the other points of interest in the municipality are Chapultepec, Santa Anita, and the Hot Springs of El IVfion. 77n ( 'apital ( 'ity. — The City of Mexico, 2,229 meter- above the sea, population :'>44.7:il . is one of the most ancient cities of this continent, having been successively the capital of the Aztec Empire, of the Span- ish colony of New Mexico, and now of the Republic, being, in addi- tion the child' town of the Federal District. Its foundation dates from L325 or 1327, when the Aztecs, after long wanderings, were directed by the oracle to settle on this -pot where they had seen the auspicious omen of an eagle perched on a nopal (cactus) devouring a snake, which is at present embodied in the coat of arms of the Republic. The original name of the city, Tenochtitlan ("cactus on a -ton.'"). was changed afterwards to Mexico, in honor of the war god Mexitli. The A/tec civilization gave great impetus to the city's development, and in 1450, or about that time, the mud and rush houses of the first inhabitants had been replaced by solid stone structures. It had attained it- highest degree of splendor at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards (1519), the number of dwellings being from 50,000 to 60,000, >One peso is equal t.> |0.461 American gold, as officially estimated <>n January J, 1904, by thedirector of the United States mint. CLIMATE. 63 and the population being estimated at 500,000. The city was then about 12 miles in circumference and was intersected by canals, and, as it had been built in part on piles amid the islets of Lake Texcoco, grouped around the center inclosure of the great Teocalli, it was con- nected with the mainland by six long and solidly constructed cause- ways. Mexico City has been the scene of many stirring events; among others, the destruction in 1692, while under Spanish rule, of all the municipal buildings; several revolutions; capture by the United States Army after the battle of Chapultepec, September 13, 1817, and by the French army under General Forey in 1863. Since the defeat of the French intervention scheme in 1867, and the overthrow of Maximilian, peace has been maintained continually and the city has become a great center of civilization. The limits of the present City of Mexico embrace almost twice the area of the old one, the extension having been in a northwester!}" direc- tion, and the new portion not being so regularly laid out as the old. There are about 900 streets and lanes traversing the city at right angles from north to south and from east to west, and rail connections with Veracruz, 263 miles distant, on the Atlantic; with Acapulco on the Pacific, 290 miles; with Oaxaca, 205 miles; with Matamoras, on the United States frontier, 863 miles, and with El Paso, Tex., a dis- tance of 1,221 miles. Climate. — The climate of the City of Mexico is probably the pleas- antest and healthiest of any large city in the world. Situated in the Tropics, it is generally regarded as having a tropical climate, with intense heat in the summer months; but its altitude of 2,229 meters above sea level offsets its low latitude, tempers its climate, and renders impossible such marked changes in temperature as are experienced at lower altitudes. Its situation in the center of a great valley, some 200 miles in circumference, completely walled in by high mountains, serves as a further protection against sudden changes in temperature and severe storms. The mean annual temperature, in the shade, of the City of Mexico for the period of twenty-five years past has been about 15° centigrade or 59.79° F. The month of May, just preceding the beginning of the rainy season, is the hottest month of the year, with an average temperature of about 18° centigrade or 61.58°; and December, with an average temperature of 12° centigrade or 53.60°, is the coldest. While the temperature varies only a few degrees throughout the year, the daily range is comparatively great, due to the high altitude. There is always a marked difference between sun and shade tempera- tures and between day and night temperatures. The latter is an advantage rather than a drawback to the climate. Thus, while it is quite warm during several hours of each day, it is always cool at night. 64 mi- m« o. Principal buildings.- Among the principal public buildings are the Cathedral, considered the largest and most sumptuous church in America. It is builton the north side of the Plaza de la Constituci6n, which covers L4 acres, and is embellished with shade trees, gardens, marble fountains, and seats. The Cathedral was founded in 1573 by Philip II. nt' Spain, and the work lasted through the reigns of four monarchs, extending nearly a century, and was completed, with the exception of the towers, in L667, at a cosl of 12,000,000. Ii is built on the same site once occupied by the Teocalli, or Aztec Temple, and measures 130 meters from north to south and 60 meters from east to west. The interior belongs to the Doric order of architecture, mingled with reminiscences of the (iothic style, a feature of the Spanish constructions of the sixteenth century. It is divided into ."> naves, decreasing in height from the center to the sides, and includes 14 chapels, while l'<» striate columns support the graceful arches and vaulted roof, forming a latin cross, and the whole is surmounted by a beautiful dome, ornamented with paintings by the celebrated Jimeno. The high altar is supported by marble columns and surrounded by a tumbago balustrade, with i'-l' statues of the same rich gold, siher. and copper alloy serving as candelabra, The elaborately carved choir is also inclosed by tumbago railings weighing 26 tons and valued at $1,500,000. The style of the exterior is Renaissance, with 5 domes and 2 open towers 62 meter- high. Other temples worthy of men- tion are the Profesa, Loreto, Santa Teresa. Santo Domingo, and San Hipolito. all of large proportions and containing artistic relics. The National Palace (Palacio Nacional) i> another of the most remark- able public buildings, as it is intimately connected with the history of the country, having been once the sumptuous abode of Moctezuma II. last hut one of the A/tec Emperor-: also the residence of '< Spanish Governors (from Cortes to Gonzalo de Estrada) of 2 Audiencias, of 63 Viceroys (from Don Antonio de Mendoza to O'Donoju), of 1 Mexi- can Emperor. Yturbide, of 1 foreign Emperor. Maximilian, and of •"'.•". Presidents of the Republic, from General Victoria to General Diaz, the present Chief Magistrate. The architecture of the building i- poor and monotonous, and nothing remains of its former Aztec splendor. The area occupied by the palace measures 40,000 square meters, thus constituting one of the largest public buildings in the world, and include- the following departments: The Presidential suite of reception rooms; the Ambassadors' room; live Executive Depart ments (Interior, Foreign Affairs, Treasury. War. and Justice); the General Archives of the Nation: General Post-office and Engineers' headquarters; the Artillery headquarters; the National Museum and Observatory; the Meteorological Bureau, and others. The Castle of Chapultepec rises from the top of a hill, west of the city, amid century -old trees and beautiful gardens. Both the castle PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. 65 and the location are full of historic memories. The interior of the structure is tastefully and richly decorated, it being the summer home of the President. Its spacious rooms and galleries contain the finest rugs and Gobelin tapestries, beautiful frescoes in the Pompeian style, and artistic furniture of red African marble. The Military School occupies a portion of this building. There are many other tine buildings in the city too numerous to mention separate!}'. Among the public monuments are found the statue of Charles IV, the monument to Columbus, the monument to Cuauhtemoc, all on the "Paseo de la Reforma," the richest and most beautiful park in this city. The principal theaters are the ""Teatro Nacional," or opera house, with a seating capacity of 3,000 persons; the "Teatro Principal," a small building; the " Circo Orrin," and others. There are also two bull rings, a race track, etc. Public institutions. — The School of Mining and Engineering is another remarkable building, constructed entirely of stone, and dating from the last century. Its facade is Doric and of imposing and severe beauty, while the interior, of the same architectural style, is ornamented with several frescoes hy Jimeno. The School of Engineering is now annexed to the School of Mining, and possesses an astronomical and meteorological observatoiy, a library containing over 6,000 volumes, and cabinets of mineralogy, geology, and paleontology. The Depart- ment of Fomento (Promotion) occupies a portion of this building, where it has its own printing establishment. The National Library was originally built for a church, being dedi- cated to St. Augustine in 1692, but in 1807 President Juarez devoted it to its present use. It is a massive stone structure of varied archi- tecture and consists of three sections — the main structure, ornamented with the statues of ancient and modern celebrities, is devoted to the reading room; the library proper, containing over 200,000 volumes, and the whole building is surrounded by gardens and inclosed within an iron railing, with stone columns at regular intervals, upon which are erected 20 busts representing as rnaivy Mexican celebrities, among others being Tezozomoc and Ixtlilxochitl, Aztec chroniclers; Netza- hualcoyotl, the poet king; Clavijero and Alaman, historians, etc. Besides the National Library, the city possesses 32 others, both Federal and private libraries, among which the following may be men- tioned: The School of Jurisprudence, 20,000 volumes; the "Cincode Mayo," 12,000; Preparatory School, 10,000; School of Engineering, 8,0oi ». The National Museum dates from the eighteenth century, and con- tains man}- objects of archaeological, ethnological, anthropological, and historical value. There are other museums, 11 scientific and literary associations, 2 observatories — the National, already mentioned, and the 509a— 04 5 66 MKXICO. one belonging to the School of Engineering — a Conservatory of Music, and several scientific associations. According to the census of L900, there were in Mexico City L5,042 dwelling houses of all classed and 539 in course of construction. .">»; hotels. It; hospitals. .".1 colleges, 1 public jails, 1 penitentiary, 1 house of correction, 17 barracks, 80 Roman Catholic temples, and L3 churches of all other denominations. According to the latest available data, in L902 there were in the City of Mexico 94 daily papers and magazines, reviews, weekly and fortnightly publications entered in the post-office, published in Span- ish, English, French, and German. Means of communication. — The City of Mexico being both the administrative and the commercial center of the Republic is the focus of all the railways from the States, whose tracks are also used for the service of the District. The National Railway, which connects the Republic with the United States, passes through Tacuba and Atzcapot- zalco; the Mexican, connecting the capital with Veracruz, passes through Los Reyes and the Cuernavaca through several other towns. The steam railroads operating solely within the District are the Tacu- baya Railway, connecting with the lines going west to Santa Ke and south to Tizapdn, and the Thilpam Railway, which goes through ChurubuSCO, San Antonio. Santa Ursula, and Hueypulco. Other important railways of the District are the tramways of the capital, leaving the city about every half hour and connecting it with several adjacent towns. These are the Tlanepautla line, which runs through Tacubaya and Atzcapotzalco; the line to Guadalupe; the line to the Hot Springs of El Pefion; the line of Ixtapalapa, connecting several small towns, and the Chapultepec line, with the railroad of Tlalpam. There are besides good wagon roads and the Xochimilco Canal, which is the medium of communication by boat. According tothe"Guia General," there are in the District about 242 kilometers of railroads in operation, as follow-: Standard gauge. l kilometers 325 meters, and narrow gauge, 72 kilometers 566 meters. Of these about 116 kilo- meters are street lines. A tabulated statement published by the same authority shows that from 1873 to December >'>l. L897, the traffic over all lines of the District amounted to 244,637,816 passengers, and the gross earnings of the lines are estimated at $19,828,854 Mexican silver. The report of the directors of the Mexico Electric Tramways Lim- ited, for 1903 a show- that during that year the net profits of the com pany. after paying the H.l per cent guaranteed on the share capital of the company, were $314,566 silver, which, at the rate of exchange of 2". 72d. gives the sum of t'27,157. This sum added to former balances and other revenues from interests on the debentures of the "Compania cle Ferrocarriles del Distrito Federal." controlled by this company, gives a total of 635,728, out of which a dividend of 6 per cent has « South American Journal, June 4, 1904. WATER SUPPLY. 67 been paid on the preference shares, amounting to about £30,000. Four small town lines have been converted to electric service, so that the total distance now operated by electricity by this company is L29 kilometers. New machinery is being erected to cope with the increase of the traffic. The number of passengers carried by these lines during 1903 Avas 36,178,584, against 31,132,030 in 1902, being an increase of over 5,300,000 passengers. The receipts amounted to $2,799,282 in 1903, against $2,400,787 in 1902, or an increase of $398,495. As a commercial center the City of Mexico is the richest in the country, possessing wealth}' banking institutions, important railroads, telephones, telegraphs, electric light and power plants, manufacturing industries, large buildings devoted to stores and warehouses, and. in short, all the comforts and conveniences to be found in any large city. Banks. — The principal banking institutions of the capital are the "Banco Nacional de Mexico," with a capital of $20,000,000; the " Internacional Hipotecario," $5,000,000, and the " Londres y Mexico," $10,000,000; "Banco Central," $7,000,000; " Banco Agricola e Hipo- tecario," $2,000,000. Both the " Nacional " and the "Londres y Mexi- co" have branches in several of the States. The Central Bank, in addition to carrying on the usual banking business, acts in the capacity of a clearing house for a number of banks allied to it in other parts of the Republic. There are also numerous banking houses, bankers, and trust companies doing busi- ness with all commercial centers of the world. There are three cham- bers of commerce at the capital. Industrie*. ■ — The number of manufacturing industries established at the capital is very large, and includes wine and liquor distilleries, fac- tories for pottery, tobacco, carriages, wagons, cardboard and paper, matches (wax and wooden), glue, chocolate, artificial ice, gloves, glass, cotton fabrics, knitted goods, soap, blank books, playing cards, fur- niture, hats, lace, etc., as well as foundries, breweries, and printing establishments. There are also several life and fire insurance com- panies, both foreign and national. The city possesses excellents hotels, restaurants, and cafes. Water supply. — When the City of Mexico was known during the time of the Aztecs as the "NuevaTenoxtitlan, ,, its drinking water was supplied I >y the spring called ' 'Alberca Chica de Chapultepec. " During the. colonial period, in 1576, the Santa Fe springs were purchased, which now produce 6,000 liters of water per minute, and in 1786 water was furnished by the Desierto and Leones springs, which now yield s.i ii it i liters per minute. From that time down to 1888 the city council did not secure any other properties; but in that year it purchased the "Alberca Grande de Chapultepec," which gives 7,0<»<> liters of water per minute. All these acquisitions, however, did not suffice to furnish this necessary element to the city. 68 MEXICO. In 1896 the city council, fearing a water famine, acquired ;i water supply from the Hacienda de los Morales, which gives 9,000 liters per minute, and also a supply of 800 liters per minute from the ( loncesidn Ohousal. Lastly, in l^'. , '. , 1 '.*<><». a supply has been secured from Rfo Hondo, which, united to that from Morales, produces 30,000 liters per minute. According to the statistics of L90] the amount of water received in the city per minute was 40,000 liters, added to which is the supply from L, 088 artesian wells, yielding L 6, 640 liters per minute. < me of the most important municipal undertakings has been the con- struction of a sewage system for the city, which i- regarded as one of the most perfect to he found anywhere. The system adopted is that known as the combined water carriage, and consists of three principal parts -flushing pipes, sewers to collect the house refuse, and collectors to receive this refuse and carry it outside the city. The sewers can be flushed every day by means of the water from the Viga Canal. The total disbursements on account of this sanitation project up to June 30, L901, were $5,714,982.75. The following data is extracted from a report of United States ( lonsul-General Barlow : " ( 'nmim r<; . — The City of Mexico is to the Republic of Mexico, to an even greater degree perhaps, what Paris is to France. Being the capital of the country and the commercial center, with no other city in the Republic approaching it in population, its influence is supreme; being the railroad center, it is the distributing point for the rest of the Republic; being the banking center, the bulk of the financial trans- actions of the Republic pass through it. Much of the agricultural and mining business and some of the manufacturing business of the rest of the Republic are directed from this city. In a word, it is the administrative center of the Republic, commercially as well as politically. From the foregoing it follows that the trade of the city is nearly as general as that of the entire Republic. The most important single line of trade and that which shows the larges amount of imports is in machinery and machinery supplies. This is practically controlled by Americans. The hardware trade, which is a good one. is largely in the hands of the German-, though in the past few years American hardware has been making deep inroads into the German imports in this line. While the large hardware stores are run by Germans, all of them now carry large lines of American hardware. The dry-goods trade, which is next in importance after the machinery trade, was controlled early in the last century by the English and later by the Germans, but is now controlled by the French. Imports of American dry goods are increasing, however, and they are found in most of the large stores. lunnnial Relations of the United States, 1901, Vol. I. MEXICO. 69 "Cost of living. — -The cost of living in Mexico depends largely upon the tastes and adaptability of the person. In a general way, it may be said that if native products are consumed the cost of living is about the same in gold as in the United States; if imported products are used the cost of living is 50 to 100 per cent greater. Rents are extremely high. A six-room house or vivienda (flat) costs from $50 to $150 silver per month, according to location. The same house in a city in the United States, of similar size, would rent from $15 to $25 gold per month. A house that would rent in the United States, according to location and appearance, for $100 gold per month commands $500 silver (or about $250 gold) per month here. Rents of business houses are fully as high in proportion. It may be stated in a general way that private or business houses, rented, are expected to yield 12 to 15 per cent per year on the investment. Rents in the suburbs are almost as high as in the city proper. "Real estate. — Real-estate values have increased enormously in this city in the past few years. Lots in desirable residence sections of the city that were worth a few years ago only a few cents per square meter are now worth from $15 to $25 per square meter. A desirable building lot in a choice location, 50 to 150 feet, costs from $10,000 to $15,000. In outlying sections and in the suburbs, the cost will be about one-half of this. A house that will cost $5,000 to build in the United States will cost from $17,000 to $20,000 Mexican silver to build in this city." CHAPTEB VI THE STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE REPUBLIC— BRIEF GEO- GRAPHICAL SKETCH OF EACH— RESOURCES, MEANS OF COM- MUNICATION-CLIMATE. SEASONS, POPULATION, CAPITAL CITIES, INDUSTRIES. THE STATES The Slates forming the Mexican Republic are 27 in number, besides the Federal District and 2 Territories. LQ\ .\s< \ i.i km es. The State of Aguascalientes, population L02,416, whose capital city, 1,861 meters above the sea. bears the same name, is situated in the Central Plateau, and. though one of the smallest States in the Repub- lic, is also one of the richest. a- it contains within its territory an agricultural region of great promise, and belongs, by reason of its altitude, to the Mexican temperate /one. Boundaries. — It is hounded on the north, west, and northeast by the State of Zacatecas, which almost surrounds Aguascalientes, with the exception of a small section to the south, southeast, and east, where the State of Jalisco joins it. The total area of the State measures 7,692 square kilometer-. S nation. Owing to it- situation on the Central Plateau. Aguasca- lientes occupies a beautiful and fertile region, which is cultivated almost in its entirety, the western and central portions being irrigated by a number of rivers and brooks, while the eastern portion owes its development to the industry of the farming population. The eastern and southeastern portions are occupied by the extensive plains of Tecuan. which, though containing a large number of haciendas (plan- tations) and ranchos (cattle ranches), are lacking in water courses. The fertile valley of Aguascalientes, irrigated by a river of the -nine name, lies to the northeast, while the no less fertile valley of San Jacinto is farther north. CUmate. —The cold regi >f the State lies to the northeast, where the mountain chains of Asientos and Tepezala rise to a height of 2, U4 meters. The remainder of the territory, with the exception of a small section in the southwest belonging to the hot /one. is in the temperate region. Almost all the western and northern portions of - se table on page 407, ( Jbapter XIX. AGUASCALIENTES. 71 the State are mountainous, being traversed b} T the Sierra Fria, and in the southwest are the mountains of the Sierra del Laurel. A num- ber of plateaus and isolated hills and a few chains of mountains rise in the center of the State, so that the mean altitude is from 1,000 to 2,000 meters above sea level, excepting- in the sections occupied by the Sierra Fria and the Sierra del Laurel, where the elevation varies from 2,000 to 3,000 meters. Rainfall. — The rainfall throughout the State is moderate except on the eastern plains. Frost is frequent both in the highest regions and in the Sierras, notably in the Partido de Asientos, while in Calvillo it occurs rarely. The prevailing winds blow from the west, northwest, and north. The climate is rather unhealthy, typhus and malarial fevers and affections of the respiratory organs being the most com- mon ailments. Rivers. — As has been stated, the irrigation of the western and cen- tral portions of the State, by reason of numerous rivers and brooks, is of the finest order, but in the eastern part rain and artesian-well waters are alone available for this purpose. The principal river, the San Pedro, Aguascalientes. or Rio Grande, has its headwaters south of the Zacatecas Mountain chain and enters the State on the north, and after traversing its entire extent from north to south enters the State of Jalisco. Other riyers are the Pabellon, Santiago, Mor- cinique, Chicalote, Labor, Tejas, Calvillo, and Tepezalilla. There are also several lagoons or swamps, which are of little importance. Mineral springs. — Aguascalientes (literally hot waters) derives its name from the several hot springs found within its limits, the princi- pal ones being those in the capital of the State, San Nicolas de la Can- fcera, Ojo Caliente, Ojo Calientillo, and Colonic The temperature of the waters in the several springs varies from 30° to 40.50° C. (86° to 105° F.). Fauna and -flora. — The fauna of Aguascalientes embraces over 27 classes of mammals, 58 species of birds, 9 reptiles, 5 batrachians, 1 fishes, and 71 insects. The flora embraces over 137 species of wild trees, while there are over 18 kinds of fruits; among others, 20 vane-' ties of pears, figs, several kinds of grapes, 11 textile plants, several classes of tanning barks, leaves and roots, oleaginous seeds or berries, dye plants, forage plants, poisonous and aromatic plants, gums and resins, 103 medicinal plants, and numberless ornamental shrubs and flowers. Resources. — The principal industries of the State are agriculture, stock raising, commerce, and mining. Almost its entire extent is under cultivation, the principal products being cereals of all kinds, fruits of every variety, and leguminous plants. Such products as the almond, cotton, citron, sugar cane, mangrove, and other tropical plants and trees would thrive. 72 MEXICO. Sf<, kilometers from San Gil, on the Mexican Central. Calvillo, population 10,592, chief town bearing the same name, 627 kilometers distant from Mexico City and 59 from Aguascalientes. Aguascalientes, population 63,621; its chief town, Aguascalientes, contains 56,211 inhabitants, and is the capital of the State. It is situated on the Mexican Central, 586 kilometers from the City of Mexico. Among the manufacturing industries of these partidos the principal ones are as follows: Cotton mills, tobacco factories, pottery works, tanneries, wagon factories, and wine and liquor distilleries. In the city of Aguascalientes there are two lines of tramways; tele- graph, telephone, and post-offices, schools, hospitals, public libraries, a chamber of commerce, etc., while all the principal towns in the State have similar institutions. CAMPECHE. The State of Campeche, population 86,512, with a capital city of the same name, near the level of the sea, lies to the southeast of the City of Mexico, occupying the western portion of the beautiful and warm peninsula of Yucatan. Boundaries. — Its borders are bathed by the waters of the Gulf of Mexico on the west and northeast, while Yucatan lies to the north and east, the Republic of Guatemala to the southeast and south, and the State of Tabasco to the south and southwest. Situation. — Campeche occupies a large territory, the climate of which is deadly in many sections, especially in the region of the south- ern plains. The area of the State is 16,855 square kilometers. From northwest to southeast the Sierra Alta crosses the territory until it meets the Sierra Baja, extending to the northwest of Yucatan. With the exception of this mountainous section, the State is a plain, occu- pied throughout its greatest extent by forests containing the campeche or logwood and other valuable woods. A portion of the southern region, contiguous to Guatemala, is little known and almost unin- habited, as it contains large savannahs, swampy lands, and impene- trable forests. The richest section of the State is occupied by the Partido del Carmen. It is well irrigated by both large and small streams, which empty into the numerous lakes and lagoons surround- 74 mixico. ing the Lake of T6rminos. The shores of the lakes and rivers arc covered with Forests containing dyewoods, hard woods, palm trees, etc. These waterways are the means of outlet for the trade in woods, which owes its development to the flourishing port of El Carmen or Laguna, opposite Laguna f the State, forming many estuaries, points, bars, and sonic islands. The coast line is low, sheltered, and. in some places, muddy. Coral reefs and other calcareous banks are abundant. This hay. which is an inlet from the Gulf of Mexico, has an area of over 6,000 square miles. The Banks of Yucatan, an enormous shoal extending along the coast of Yucatan opposite the Campeche coast as far a- its Tabasco boundary on the west, have, according to soundings made by "Mexican. American, and English Bailors, a depth of .~> fathoms at a distance of from 5 to 7 miles from the shore; of 1<» fathoms from l j o to 35 miles, and a depth of 20 fathoms as far as a 60-mile limit WNW. off Punta Palmas, and almost an equal distance to the south, and of 30 fathoms for a few miles along the western limit of the sounding-. Beyond this the depth falls abruptly to 40 fathoms. Hydrographic chart- prepared by American and English experts show the main irregularities and dangers to be encountered in the Sound of Campeche. Hydrography. — The northern portion of the State, occupied by the partidosof Eiecelchakan, Campeche, and Bolonchen, lacks water courses, the region being fertilized by the rains, temporary brooks, and wells (called ehenes) used for storing the rain waters. The southern portion of the State is well irrigated, especially the partidosof Carmen and Champoton. The principal river is the Sabancuy, which might prop- erly be called an estuary, being 92.50 kilometers in length and from 400 to TOO meters in width, lying to the northeast of the Partido del Carmen, navigable for small craft and emptying into the Lake of Terminos. The bottom of this river is full of oyster beds. The river Marmantel rises in the Partido Champoton. traverses the Partido del ( 'armen from the southeast to the northwest, and empties into Lake Palao, with a total length of 98 kilometers. It is navigable for a dis- tance of 39 kilometers and passes through forests of dyewoods and valuable timbers and cultivated lands. For a distance of 16 kilometers from its mouth the river measures 258 meters; thence its width is 25 meters up to the twenty-eighth kilometer, gradually narrowing to i meters at Pital and growing smaller and smaller toward its headwaters. The Candelaria, which is the largest river in the State, is supposed to CAMPECHE. 75 have its headwaters in Guatemala, and after traversing the State of Yucatan enters Campeche, irrigating the 8< mthern portion of the Par- tido de Champoton, thence running from east to west, and finally empty- ing into the Lake of Terminos. Its length is about 419 kilometers and its width varies from 125 to 175 meters at a distance of 10 kilometers from its mouth to about 51 or 52 meters, with a depth of from 8 to 60 feet. It is navigable for a short distance only, on account of its pre- cipitous course. The Chumpan, 95 kilometers in length, is navigable for small craft, its width vaiying from 62 to 84 meters and its depth from 12 to 24 meters, according to the season. It is a confluent of Lake Terminos. The Palizada is also one of the largest rivers in the State. It rises in the State of Tabasco, enters the State of Campeche on the southwest, traverses it for a distance of 123 kilometers, from southeast to northwest, and empties into Lake Terminos, forming the Boca Chica Bar. The Palizada is navigable for craft from 15 to 50 tons burden throughout almost its entire course, being 68 feet in depth, and having a mean width of from 60 to G6 meters. The Champoton, another river of importance, is navigable throughout its course, which is a very sinuous one. There are other rivers and streams of lesser importance. The Lake of Terminos is the most important in the State. Its shores are muddy and shallow. It communicates with the sea by means of two channels, the Principal and the Puerto Real. The tides in this lake are very irregular, the greatest height during the syzy- gies being 2 feet. Other small lakes are San Carlos, Laguna Larga, Colorada el Corte, and a few small lagoons. Fiim,,! and flora. — The fauna of the State is rich and varied, though not very well known. There are about 50 species of mammals, 7'> varieties of birds, 40 reptiles, 8 batrachians, 40 fishes, 75 insects, and many varieties of crustaceans, mollusks, etc. The flora embraces over 150 species of wild trees, 50 fruits, 28 textile plants, 20 classes of leaves, roots, and barks for tanning purposes, 16 oleaginous seeds, 24 dyewoods, 10 forage plants, 7 poisonous plants, 21 aromatic and a great number of medicinal plants, several gums and resins, and count- less flowers and ornamental plants. Resources. — The principal industries are the exploitation of cabinet woods, and the campeche or logwood (of first importance), commerce by land and sea, agriculture, stock raising, fisheries, exploitation of the salt deposits, extraction of the heniquen fiber and its manufacture into hammocks, ropes, mats, etc. According to Mexican official statistics, during the } T ear 1901 the State of Campeche produced 22,152,380 kilos logwood, valued at $569,548, while in 1902 the production decreased to 9,300,000 kilos, valued, in round numbers, at $353,000; mahogany was produced in 1901 to the amount of 22,152,380 kilos, valued at $142,674; cedar, in 1902, about 1,500,000 kilos, valued at $70,000. 76 MEXICO. Agricultun is one of the leading industries of the State, which pos a fertile lands well adapted to the cultivation of the fruits of the hot and temperate zones. Rice. BUgar cane, cotton, ami sin: larprod- ucts might be advantageously cultivated in the southern part of the State, which is well irrigated, hut the, inhabitants devote their atten tion mainly to the exploitation of logwood and valuable timbers. Mining.- The principal mineral wealth of the State lies in its salt deposits, extending from the port of Celestum (State of Yucatan) to the port of Campeche. The annual yield is estimated at 40,000 to 50,000 fa/negaa, exported to the States of Tabasco, Veracruz, Tamaul- ipas, Hidalgo, Puebla, and Oaxaca. Trade. The State maintains an active commerce with Europe and the United States, mainly in logwood and cabinet woods, the home trade being restricted to the salt exports (as above noted), shell prod- ucts, palm hats, hammocks, etc.. to the City of Mexico, and the impor- tation of cattle and cereals in limited quantities. When, on account of the lack of rain, there is a scarcity of corn, this grain, as well as other products, is imported from the United States. The principal mercan- tile centers are Canipeche, Carmen, Calkini, llecelehakan. and Holon- chenticul. The cabinet woods of the State arc exported mainly to the United States and to Great Britain, the dyewoods to Great Britain, Germany, the United States, and France. Other export- are rubber, hair, cocoa- nut-, chicle, henequ^n, prepared hides and skins, etc. This commerce may be estimated at about $1,250,000 silver per annum. The imports embrace cotton, wool, silk, and linen fabrics; groceries, hardware. drugs and chemical products, paper, hooks, machinery, tools, agricul- tural implements, arms and ammunition, cereals, cattle, wines and liquors, etc. This trade i- valued at about §500,000 annually. The number of vessels entering the port of Carmen in 1902 was. according to Mexican official data, as follows: L28 steamers, L76 Bailing vessels; total, .".til vessels, of which 225 were 1 Mexican and the balance foreign. The vessels entering the port of Canipeche during the same period were 821, of which 133 were steam and the balance sailing vessels. The total number of vessels leaving both ports is estimated at 833 for Campeche and u's;; for Carmen. Communications. — The development of railroad traffic in Campeche IS \ civ -mall, due to the fact that the rivers are used as a means of communication with the interior and also that the principal towns are all situated on the -eacoast. The railroad between Campeche and Merida is being exploited in sections, and between Campeche and Lenna there is a street railroad 7 kilometers in length, other lines being in operation in the cities of Campeche and Carmen. In the partido of Champot6n there is a railway 40 kilometers in length connecting Ivonchac with Yohaltun. There are also telegraph and CAMPECHE. 77 telephone lines, mail facilities, and fine wagon roads connecting- the principal cities with those of the adjacent States, while steamship lines connect the principal ports with the rest of the world. Divisions. — The State of Campeche is divided into five partidos, which are subdivided into municipalities. The partido of Hecelchakan, population 24,185, has for its chief town a city of the same name, situated on the railway between Cam- peche and Merida, 38 kilometers northeast from Campeche. Campeche, population 23,588, is the smallest, but also the richest, of the five partidos, the chief town of which, Campeche de Baranda, pop- ulation If!, 6-17, is also the capital of the State. It is situated on the Gulf of Mexico, 1,320 kilometers from Mexico City, 930 from Vera- cruz, and 164 from Merida. This city is the second in importance on the peninsula of Yucatan and is one of the richest and most beautiful on the Gulf. The Campeche wharf is 150 feet long-, but owing- to the fact that the depth of the harbor is onty about 10 feet, heavily laden ships can not anchor there. Among the principal buildings are the City Hall, the Government Building, the hospital, a bank, a theater, the market, and several churches. There are also a tine park and public gardens, schools, and colleges, with a public library containing 3,600 volumes and a museum of natural history and an achseological museum. The leading industries of the partidos are commerce, agriculture, fish- eries, the exploitation of the salt deposits, etc. An active commerce is maintained with the Mexican ports of Veracruz, Frontera, Carmen, and Progreso, and also with the ports of Havre, New York, and Santander, the main exports being hemp, dyewoods, salt, etc. In the city of Cam- peche are two street railway lines, measuring 2 kilometers and 2.8 kilo- meters, respectively, and from that point are lines running to Lerma and Merida, the former being 6 kilometers in length and the latter 53 kilometers. The following lines of steamers toueh at Campeche: New York and Cuba Mail Steamship Company, from New York; the Har- rison Line, from Liverpool and New Orleans, and Escalante e Hijo, (Mexican) from home ports. The partido of Champoton, population 7,781, has a town of the same name for its industrial center, situated on the Gulf of Mexico, 60 kilo- meters southwest of Campeche. The partido of El Carmen, population 16,913, with a principal town and port of the same name, situated 1,152 kilometers from Mexico City, and 168 kilometers from Campeche, comprises one of the riches! and most important sections of the State, being celebrated for its dye and precious woods. There are several lakes in the partido, and it is said that the harbor of Carmen is the best on the Mexican Gulf. The commercial movement is estimated at about $1,500. per annum, as it is the port of departure for the exports of forest products for the entire State. 78 MEXICO. Partido of Bolonchen <»r Loa Chenes, population .">.73-f. has for its principal town Bolonchent icul, situated 62 kilometers east of ( Sampeche. The celebrated cavern of Bolonchenticul is found 2 kilometers west of the city. In it are seven wells, from which the people obtain their water supply when the public wells fail, respectively called in the Maya language. < 'Jmr-hn (red water), on account of the color: Puxalfyi (escaping water), because of the ebb and flow of the well, the waters receding at certain periods; Sayab (spring water); Akab-hd (dark waters), because of the obscurity of the place: Ckoco-hd (hot water); Oscil-hd (milk water): and Chimez-hd (insect water), because of the insect chirm i which abounds in great numbers at the well. The cave is entered by means of ladders made of branches of trees, and its depth, to the first well, has been estimated at L,400 feet. CHIAPAS. The State of Chiapas, population 360,799, whose capital is Tuxla Gutierrez, 530 meters above the sea level, population 22,536, lies to the southeast of Mexico City on the Guatemalan boundary. It is one of the tropical sections and has a great future as an agricultural coun- try, the wealth of its flora being little short of marvelous. Boundaries. — The boundaries are the State of Tabasco on the north, Veracruz and Oaxaca on the west, the Pacific Ocean on the south, and the Republic of Guatemala on the east. It- area i- about 70,524 square kilometers. Situation. — The southern portion of the State is traversed by the Sierra Madre Range, which is a continuation of the Andes of South and Central America. To the south of this range extends a narrow strip of land, varying from L0 to :>'.» kilometers in width and reaching to the Pacific Ocean, which forms one of the most fertile regions of the Mexican hot lands, where cacao, coffee, indigo, sugar cane. etc. thrive, and forests of cabinet and dye woods, medicinal plants, palm tree-, mangrove, and timber are abundant. All this section is irri- gated by numerous rivers draining into the Pacific from the slope- of the Sierra Madre. The volcano of Tacana. whose Bnowy peak is 3, '.•'• ,l I meters above the level of the sea, rises in tlii- region, and on its slopes are cultivated potatoes, wheat, and other products of the cold zone. The boundary line between Mexico and Guatemala crosses the top of Tacana. The Pacific < )cean bathes the coasts of Chiapas for a distance of 22<> kilometers, from its Oaxaca boundary line to the bar of the Sachinate River, on the Guatemalan boundary. The coasts are gen- erally low and sandy and well sheltered, and do not present any obsta- cle- to navigation. Climate. Although the entire territory of Chiapas belongs to the torrid zone, the climate varies according to the altitude, being hot on the coast and the land- irrigated by the Chiapas River; humid and CHIAPAS. 79 unhealthy on the low marshy lands, especially at Tonala, cold in the valley of San Cristobal, and in the rest of the State it is generally temperate. Rain is abundant, except in the departments of Comitan, Chiapas, La Libertad, and Tuxla Gutierrez, There are occasional frosts in the valley of San Cristobal, but other sections of the State are rarely if ever visited by them. The winds are very variable. Malarial fevers, typhus, smallpox, and affections of the respiratory and digestive organs are the most common diseases. Topography. —The Andes Range from Central America traverses the State, running almost parallel to the coast, at a distance varying from 8 to 39 kilometers. This range is called the Sierra Madre, and from its main line several branches diverge, encompassing the fertile open valleys of Custepeques, Jiguipilas, Zintalapa, and Chiapas, and the inclosed valley of San Cristobal. In addition to the volcano of Tacana other remarkable mountains are the Tres Picos, north of Tonala, and the Gineta, on the Oaxaca boundary line. There are also the Cungozoe or Plumas and other small ranges. The eastern plains of Chiapas, known as the " Desierto de los Laeandones," have not yet been thorough!}" explored. They are irrigated by the Usumacinta River. To the west of the Chiapas Valley lies that of Zintalapa, which is a desert tract of land, being an extension of the swampy region south of the Chimalapa Mountains in the State of Oaxaca. Hydrography. — Chiapas is one of the least irrigated sections of the Mexican Republic. The principal river is the Chiapa or Mezcalapa, which has its origin on Guatemalan territory. It enters the State of Chiapas near Amatenango, traverses the central part of the State in a northwesterly direction, and finally empties into the Gulf of Mexico in the vicinity of Frontera (State of Tabasco), having in its entire extent a length of 554 kilometers. It is known by several names in the different parts of its course, irrigates the principal sections of the State, and is the boundary between Chiapas, Veracruz and Tabasco. This river receives the waters of numerous affluents and, on account of the strong currents and the large volume of water contributed by its branches, is navigable throughout a great portion of its extent. The Usumacinta River, which irrigates the northwestern section of the State, rises in Guatemala, between which Republic and Chiapas it forms the boundary line. Its mairy branches are navigable through- out, and serve as irrigating streams for the "lacandones" land and the States of Campeche and Tabasco. Its final outlet is into the Gulf of Mexico, after a course of 550 kilometers. The two rivers above named constitute the hydrographic system of the State, the Chiapas traversing it for a distance of 390 kilometers, while the other rivers and streams are of minor importance. The Lake of Chiapas or Tepancuapan, situated 45 kilometers west of the city of Comitan, 1,447 meters above the level of the Pacific Ocean, belongs to the 80 MEXICO. fluvial Bystem of the Usumacinta River. Its extent is ll kilometers east and wot and ."> kilometers north and south. It contains an abun- dance of fish. This is also the case in regard to the Lake of Islotes, which lies in the immediate vicinity. Other lakes, and many of lesser importance, are the Catazaya" and Jumajab. Fauna and Flora. The fauna of the State i-- rich and varied, embracing 60 species of mammals, LOO birds. 4<» reptiles, 9 !>at rachians, 40 fishes, and numberless insects, myriapoda, crustaceans, mollusks, corals, sponges, etc. The cochineal {coccus cacti) is most abundant, as is also the mollusk called Aplisia depUans, used by the Indian- as a dye substance. This is said to be the same dye known to the ancients as lepus marinus, from which they extracted the purple of Tyre, in Asia Minor. The flora is equally rich, comprising over 7" classes of cabinet woods. 50 different kinds of timber, 40 varieties of fruits, 30 textile plants. 22 tanning plants, roots, leaves, and barks. 25 oleagi- nous plants, 36 dyewoods, 1"> forage and L5 poisonous plant-. :'.i> gums and resins, and many varieties of medicinal plants and ornamental flowers. Resources. The main industries of the State are agriculture and commerce, which occupy the lirst rank: forest exploitation, -tuck raising, and the development of the salt deposits of the coast. Among the principal cultivated product- are coffee, cacao, tobacco, sugar cane, and indigo. Mexican official statistics for L902 give the following figures in regard to the production of these articles for the period to which reference is made: Cacao ... Coffee... Tobacco Sugar cane and products Kilograms. 1,551,705 - Value. Indigo -I. 1 13, 182 I, L43.228 14,232 108,963 Koinero.in hi> report on Coffee Culture on the Southern Coast of Chiapas, estimated that a coffee plantation in Soconusco would yield in the fifth year, and every year thereafter, a profit of L35.49 per cent on the capital invested during the four first years. Cacao yields four crops a year in the State, the principal crop being in May and the other three in August, November, and February. It also grows wild at the highest altitudes, where it is known under the name of "wild cacao." It is -fated that the Soconusco cacao is the best variety obtainable. The tobacco of Mapaztepel and Simojovel i-. according to expert-. as good as the product from Tuxla (Veracruz) and Huimanguillo (Tabasco). The indigo from the department of Tonala* is very tine, and is sent abroad almost in it- entirety. The climate and soil are adapted to the cultivation of fruits of all "Coffee and Rubber Culture in Mexico. — New York, 1898. CHIAPAS. 81 kinds, the mulberry tree and the vine. Rubber grows wild throughout the State. Stock raising, although immense facilities are afforded by nature, has not been developed to the extent it deserves. There are, however, herds of cattle of all kinds, and the department of Tuxla Gutierrez is noted for the manufacture of round cheeses equal if not superior to the Edam or Holland cheese. Mining. — The mining wealth of Chiapas has neither been properly explored nor exploited; the most trustworthy data, however, show that gold and copper are found in certain places in the Sierra Madre Range; iron, lead, talcum, and coal in the valle} T of San Cristobal, and asphalt, sulphur, sulphate of sodium, gypsum, alabaster, nitrate of soda, salt, yellow amber, etc., in various sections. The salt deposits of Tonala, Cuztepeques, and Soconusco } r ield an abundant supply of that mineral, many persons being engaged in developing this source of wealth. It is said that the Sierra Madre range also contains silver, lead, and iron mines. The mining production of the State in 1902 is officially valued at $340,000. Trade. — Chiapas exports to other States of the Republic, to Guate- mala, the United States, and Europe. The value of its trade with Guatemala and the States of Tabasco and Oaxaca may be estimated at about $2,000,000 annually, of which about $800,000 is credited to imports and the rest to exports. To Guatemala is sent cattle of all kinds; to Oaxaca, coffee, tobacco, etc.; to Mexico City, cacao, cheese, and tobacco; to San Francisco, Cal., coffee, indigo, woods, and fruits; to Europe, indigo and minerals. The imports of the State are cotton, woolen, silk, and linen goods, wines and liquors, arms and ammuni- tion, petroleum, canned goods, sewing machines, machinery and agri- cultural implements, dyes and medicinal products, paper, books, etc. The principal custom-houses are situated at Soconusco and Tonala. Com/munications. — Three concessions have been granted for the con- struction of railways through the State: One from San Juan Bautista to El Paso de Tamulte, another from the port of San Benito to Tapa- chula, and another from the port of Tonala to Frontera (Tabasco), passing through Tuxla Gutierrez. There are telegraph and telephone lines, an efficient mail service, and fine wagon roads throughout the State. Industries. — The principal manufacturing industries are: The man- ufacture of the products of sugar cane, such as rum, sugar, molasses, etc. ; cheese, hats, mats, cotton and woolen fabrics, cigars, soaps, can- dles, and the tanning of hides. Divisions. — The State is divided politically into 11 departments and 101 municipalities. The departments are: Pichucalco, population, 26,171; chief town, Pichucalco, 11-1 kilo- meters southwest of San Juan Bautista and 357 kilometers southwest of Frontera (Tabasco). 509a— 0-1 6 82 mi M' o. Simojovel, population, 25,562; chief town. Simojovel, L,076 kilo- meters east-southeasi of Mexico City, 84 kilometers northwest of San ( hristobal, and 172 kilometers southeasl of Sun Juan Bautista. Palenque, population, L6,808; chief town. Catazajd, 126 and L24 kilometers northwest and northeast of Frontera (Tabasco) and Carmen or Laguna (Campeche); another important town in the department i- Palenque, 230 kilometer- from San Cristobal and 316 kilometers from Tuxla, its neighborhood being celebrated for the Palenque ruins, which contain remnants of the Maya civilization. Chilon, population, 35,434; chief town. Ocosingo, 100 kilometers northeast of San Cristobal and 188 kilometers northeast of Tuxla ( rutierrez. Comitan. population, 4:;.s7t'>: chief town. Comitan, 1,337 kilometers from Mexico City, 84 kilometers from San Cristobal, 88 kilometers from Tuxla. and 1'.' kilometers from the frontier custom-house of Zapatula; i- on the Rio Blanco, and the commercial center of the State. Soconusco, population, 36,641; chief town. Tapachula, on the Coatan. 1,250 kilometers from .Mexico City. L30 kilometers from Quezaltenango (Guatemala); another important town being the port of Soconusco or San Benito, 35 kilometer- southwest of Tapachula, the principal traffic of which is carried on with Guatemala, Panama, and San Francisco. Cal. Tonala. population, 12,258; chief town. Tonala. one of the best ports on the Pacific coast, 200 kilometers from Tuxla Gutierrez and .">7<> kilometer-, from San Cristobal (it being the natural port for these two citio). 998 kilometers from Mexico City. 508 kilometers from Oaxaca, and 139 kilometers from Tehuantepec The railway from Tonala to Tuxla Gutierrez, San Cristobal, and Frontera -tart- from thi- point. The city also has a maritime custom-house and a number of foreign business houses, mainly American ami German. It carries on an active trade with San Francisco. Cal.. and the ports of Central America. This trade is valued at over $300,000 annually, of which $200,000 i- credited to exports and the remainder to imports. The Pacific Mail connect- the port with other Pacific ports. Tuxla Gutierrez, population 22,558; chief town. Tuxla Gutierrez. This towji is the capital of the State, with (.0,982 inhabitants, and lies ."> kilometer- from the river Sabinas, 220 kilometer- from the port of Tonala* on the Pacific, 17<> kilometer- from San Cristobal. 344 kilome- ter- from San Juan Pauti-ta. 4^7 kilometers from Frontera (Tabasco), and 1.1 L5 kilometers from Mexico ( 'ity. It- climate is temperate and healthy. It is an important commercial and manufacturing center, to he connected with both the Gulf and the Pacific coasts by the Tonala and Frontera Railway. The principal buildings are the Covernment Palace, the theater, the high school, and the hospital. Its main indus- tries are tannine-, the preparation of indigo, the manufacture of round cheeses, and commerce. CHIHUAHUA. 83 Mezcalapa or Progreso, population 12,635, whose chief town, Copai- nala, is 84 kilometers from Tuxla Gutierrez. Chiapa, population 19,014, the chief town, Chiapa de Corzo, being situated 12 kilometers from Tuxla Gutierrez, 85 kilometers from San Cristobal, 232 kilometers from the port of Tonahi, and 1,127 kilome- ters from Mexico City. Libertad, population is, 245; its chief town is San Bartolome de los Llanos, situated in a fertile plain 70 kilometers from the capital of the State and 310 from the port of Tonahi. San Cristobal or El Centra, population 31,783, whose principal town, San Cristobal de las Casas, was until 1S!>2 the capital of the State, and consequently is one of the most important towns in the department. Among its buildings are the Cathedral, the old and new Goyernment palaces, the Institute of Arts and Sciences, the Episcopal Palace, the Seminaiy, the theater, the hospital, and the Public Library, which contains upward of 4,000 volumes. The city is 1,203 kilometers dis- tant from the capital of the Republic, 86 kilometers from the State capital, 370 kilometers from Tonala, 850 kilometers from Veracruz by land, 538 kilometers from San Jose (Guatemala), 736 kilometers from Merida (Yucatan), and 746 kilometers from Oaxaca. Agricul- ture, stock raising, and manual industries are the principal sources of wealth of the city and department. CHIHUAHUA. The State of Chihuahua, whose capital is the city of the same name, at an altitude of 1,516 meters, has a population of 327,784 persons, 8,000 of whom are Indians belonging principally to the Tarahumara race. It is not only the largest of the 27 States of the Republic, but is also one of the richest in natural resources. Its area is 233,094 square kilometers, or about three times that of the State of New York. This vast area is but sparsely populated, containing only 1.15 inhabit- ants to the square kilometer, while the State of Pennsylvania, about one-third its size, has 140.1 inhabitants to the square mile. Boundaries. — Its northern boundaiy is formed by the Rio Grande River, which separates the State from the United States. It is bounded on the east by Coahuila, on the south hy Durango, and on the west by Sinaloa and Sonora. Situation. — The State is situated on an undulating table-land, the elevation of which varies from 3,500 to 7,000 feet above the level of the sea. Mountain peaks abound in the Sierra Madre range, which traverses the State. Some of the principal peaks, situated in that part of the range known as Sierra de Tarahumares, with their elevations above sea level, are Jesus y Maria, 2,511 feet; Mesa de Tabascotes, 2,359 feet, and Bufa de Cerro Prieto, 2,811 feet. Among the plains of greater area lying between the mountain peaks and ranges are the Chilicote, the Gigantes, and Bolson de Mapimi. 84 MEXICO. Climate. —The climate of the entire State is salubrious and health- ful. The summers are long, and for a few months considerable heat is felt in the lower elevations during the middle of the day, bul the nights are always cool ami pleasant. During the short winter-, espe cially in the elevated portions of the table-lands, frosts frequently occur, and sometimes snow falls. Considerable rain falls during the summer, hut in winter the precipitation is very light. Resources, Notwithstanding large portions of this State are already under cultivation, there are still hundreds of thousands of acres of good land that could lie utilized by irrigation and rendered exceedingly productive. Its mountains, rich in ores and mineral wealth, offer an inviting field to the capitalist, prospector, and miner. In a word, capital and labor will find in the rich and progressive State of Chihua- hua unbounded opportunities for profitable investment and employ- ment. Coal exists in various localities, but most of the mines, lacking good transportation facilities, have been hut little developed. Agriculture. — Chihuahua produces corn, wheat, rye. oats, potatoes, beans, vegetables, and most of the fruits of the temperate zone. Cot- ton is grown along the borders of some of the lower rivers with great success. Latest available official statistics for 1901 give the follow- ing, figures for the principal agricultural products of the State: Cereals. $3,506,488, of which over $1,500,000 is represented by wheat to the quantity of 20,000,000 kilos: maguey products, $180,000, and textile fibers, $20,000. The principal source of industry, however, is the raising <)f cattle, sheep, horses, and mules. Haciendas of several hundred square miles, producing as many as 20,000 head of cattle. horses, etc., are common. It is estimated that on some of the large ranches there are branded from 30,000 to 40.1100 calves yearly. Besides mesquite and similar trees, which grow everywhere, cedar is found in the Sierra Madre, while in some parts of the State vast forests of oak and pine cover the mountain slopes. There are several Mormon colonies in Chihuahua, all of which are in a flourishing condition. These colonies are rapidly becoming an important factor in the agri- cultural development of the country. Mining. The mineral riches of Chihuahua are probably not sur- passed by any other State of the Republic. Millions of dollars' worth of gold, silver, copper, ami lead ores are mined annually, and the out- put is constantly increasing. Large quantities of these ores are treated in the smelting and reduction works <>t' the State and elsewhere in the Republic. The number of mining claims registered during the year ending December 31, 1901, is officially given at 2,019 claims, covering an extensii I' 19,759 hectares. For the year ending December 31, 1902, the number of claims registered was 2,550, covering an area of •J7.77:; hectares. The extension of the Rio Grande, Sierre Madre and Pacific Railway and the completion of the Chihuahua and Pacific Kail- way, now in course of construction, together with the utilizing of CHIHUAHUA. 85 newly discovered reduction processes in the treating of ores, will be of great force in the development of the State. Among the numerous known mining districts, all noted for their abundant production of ores, the most noteworthy are Santa Eulalia, Parral, Minas, Nuevas, Palmarejo, Uruapan, Guazapares, Cusihuiriachic, Batopilas, Cerro Colorado, Corralitos, etc. The official estimate of the mining pro- duction of the State for 1902 gives the following data: Number of mines in operation, <>2; total production, 160,293,277 kilograms, valued at $13,617,315. The mines in operation were of gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron. Trade. — Lying directly south of the United States, the State of Chihuahua is exceedingly well situated for the carrying on of inter- national trade. Cattle, sheep, and hogs are exported annually in con- siderable numbers to the United States. Though this industry is as yet in its infancy, under proper conditions and encouragement it could be increased and developed to immense proportions. Communications. — The main line of the Mexican Central Railway extends for a distance of 850 kilometers through the State. A branch line of this road also traverses the important mining district of Parral. The Mexican Northern Railway runs from Escalon to Sierra Mojada, State of Coahuila, connecting that region, rich in low-grade lead ores, with the Mexican Central sj^stem. The Rio Grande, Sierra Madre and Pacific Railway and the Chihuahua and Pacific Railway are now being constructed, and will unite the capital of the State with rich mining and agricultural sections hitherto difficult of access. Good wagon roads abound and connect the different districts with Chihuahua, the capital. Divisions. — The State is divided into ten districts, the names, prin- cipal towns, and population of which are as follows: Principal town. Population of district. Andres del Rio . Arteaga Bravos Camargo Batopilas Chinipas Ciudad Juarez Santa Rosalia . Guerrero ! Ciudad Guerrero. Hidalgo Iturbide Jimenez Mina Ravon Total Hidalgo del Parral Chihuahua (capital of the State) Jimenez de los Santos Guadalupe y Calvo Ocampo 27, 996 9,417 12,233 27, 795 25, 828 48, 744 104, 232 24,543 12,717 16, 761 327, 784 The following are some of the most important towns of the State: Towns. Number of inhab- itants. Towns. Number of inhab- itants. ■M, 405 14, 74.S 8,218 9,318 3,500 3,200 Allende 80 MEXICO. The city of Chihuahua is the metropolis and business center of the entire northwestern section of the Republic, and does a larger business than other Mexican townsof five times its size. Not only does it sup- ply the outfits for the majority of the mining camps and prospecting expeditions of the State, hut it contains a number of banks and com mercial houses engaged in all branches of business. It also has large manufacturing establishments. The Compania Industrial Mexicanais one of the largest iron foundries and machine factories in the Republic. The Chihuahua Brewery, one of the best constructed breweries of the country, has a capital of nearly 500,000 pesos. The woolen factories, Concordia. La Paz, and Rio Florido, produce fine cassimeres, blankets, carpets, cotton goods, etc. Besides these and the Compania Minera, there are a number of other establishments which are favorably known throughout the Republic. A Federal assay office is situated at Chi- huahua, which, according to official figures, during the year L900-1901 assayed silver and gold to the value of $2,520,995 for coining pur- poses and $1,504,098 for export, while the figures for 1901-2 are *2,795,408 and $1,802,640, respectively. COAHUILA. The State of Coahuila, population 290,938 — whose capital isSaltillo. 1,627 meters above the sea. population ^:'».'.* , .m; — is one of the largest, richest, and most fertile regions in the Republic; being also the third largest State. At is northern boundary it connects with the United States, and although its population is at present numerically small it is steadily increasing, owing to the great undeveloped wealth of its territory, which is traversed by five great railroad lines— the Interna- tional, the Central, the Gulf Line, the National Mexican, and the Northern Mexican. Boundaries. — The boundaries of the State are: On the north, the United States of America, from which it is separated by the Rio Bravo; on the east, the State of Nuevo Leon; on the south. San Luis Poto9i and Zacatecas; on the southwest and west. Durango; and on the north- west and west, the State of Chihuahua. Its superficial area, according to the latest available official publication, "Anuario Estadistico, L902," is b;5,099 kilometer-. Situation. — The State, which is very irregular in outline, occupies a territory which, in the north, is a tlat table-land, crossed by small ranges of mountains and hills, becoming more broken toward the south. The numerous branches of the Sierra Madre, in the southern and cen- tral portions, are very rich in minerals and form the beautiful valleys of ParraSj Sobaco, Catarina, San Isidro, San Marcos. Alamo. Santa Rosa, and Hundido. The northern range- are covered with zacate, certain species of the agave plant, and cacti. In tin 1 plains extending from the foot of these mountains northward the heat is intense, owing COAHUILA. 87 to low altitude and the scarcity of rain. These plains form a desert where the rich coal deposits of the State are found. To the southeast lies the beautiful and rich agricultural region known as the Laguna, said to contain the most fertile soil in the world. The valley of Parras, the foremost viticultural section, is situated in the eastern part of the State. The mountainous region is rich in gold, silver, iron, cop- per, lead, and other mineral products. The altitude varies from 700 to 5,800 feet above sea level, and with respect to temperature is divided into the hot lands, embracing the northern portions; the tem- perate region, which includes the southern portions and the valleys; and the cold region, which is the mountainous section. Climate. — The climate is not healthy, the most common diseases being malarial fevers, typhus, rheumatism, and affections of the respir- atory and digestive organs. Winds are veiy variable and rains abun- dant in the districts of Saltillo, Viesca, and Rio Grande; moderate in Parras, and scarce in Monclova and the lowlands. Frost is occasional in the southern portion of the State and very frequent in the Rio Grande section. Topography. — The principal mountain ranges are in the districts of Rio Grande and Monclova. There are also the Sierra del Carmen or Las Cruces, on the boundary line of the two districts named; the Sierra Madre, in the Saltillo district; the Sierra Paila, in Parras; and Sierra Noas, in Viesca, besides numerous ramifications of the original systems, and small ranges and hills running in all directions. The different ranges run in almost parallel lines, and so close together that their slopes form a number of canyons, of which the principal are San Marcos, Santa Rosa, and El Rosario in the south, and Los Arboles and San Rodrigo in the north. Hydrography. — Owing to the vast area of the State of Coahuila and the paucity of rivers irrigating it, the entire extent has been con- sidered as a sterile country. This is true in a general way. as in many places only natural deposits of rain waters are found; but on the other hand, there are extremely fertile sections, such as the "lagunas," thoroughly irrigated by the Nazas and Aguanaval rivers. The prin- cipal water courses are the Rio Bravo, or Rio Grande, forming the boundary line with Texas, which rises in the State of Colorado (United States), enters Mexican territory near Ciudad Juarez, or Paso del Norte, and after traversing a course of over 800 kilometers and receiv- ing many tributaries, finally empties into the Gulf of Mexico. Next in importance is the Sabinas, forming the eastern boundary between the districts of Monclova and Rio Grande, which rises in Sierra del Carmen and passing through San Juan de Salinas and Juarez enters the State of Nuevo Leon opposite the frontier custom-house of Cue rrero, where it forms the Rio Salado. an affluent of the Rio Bravo. Other rivers are the Alamos, Monclova, Patos, Saltillo, Aguanaval. 88 MEXICO. and Nazas, besides their tributaries and a great number of smaller stream-. The principal Lagoons are the Alamo, or Parras, in the < I i - trict of Viesca; the Mayan. or Muerta. larger than the former, in the Parras district; the Agua Verde and the Santa Maria, in the district of Monclova. Wauna and flora. The fauna of the State has not been thoroughly studied on account of the great extent of territory and the scarcity of the population. l>ut there are over 4o species of mammals, TO birds, L6 reptiles. 5 batrachians, 4 fishes, numerous insects, etc. The flora comprises over ''><» varieties of trees indigenous to the cold and tempe rate regions and 50 belonging to the hot lands. The principal fruits number upward of 40 varieties, notably grapes, both white and purple, suitable for the manufacture of wines, alcohol, and raisins; the Parras district is especially famous for their production. Other fruits are pears, apples, peaches, etc. The number of textile plants is estimated at L5; tanning plants, L3; oleaginous seeds, L0; plants for dyeing pur- poses, li»; forage plants, 13; poisonous plants. 17: gums and resins. \-j.\ medicinal plants. TO, and over 100 varieties of ornamental plants and flowers. Agriculture. — Agriculture is the principal industry of the State; cotton, corn, wheat, beans, pease, sugar cane, linseed, and about 30 species of leguminous plants being the most common products. ( irape culture is attaining greater importance daily, and it is claimed that the product of the district of Parras is sweeter and more delicious than that of California, and equal, if not superior, to the Malaga and Granada varieties. Official statistics for 1!»i>l> estimate the amount of grape alcohol produced by the State at L,883 hectoliters, valued at $75,320, and 7,183 hectoliters of wine, valued at $192, <>»>»>; grape-. 1.444.7;;o kil os , valued al $64,496; cotton. 14.o7:;.t;,ii kilos, at s.;,. ;»;<;.- 277; ixtle over 5,250,000 kilos, at $800, »: corn to the value of over $2,000,000, and wheal about $1,500,000. Almost all the plantations in Coahuila are equipped with modern machinery and implements and follow the most advanced systems of cultivation. One of the greatest sources of wealth is cattle raising, the plains affording excellent pas- turage for the stock. Efforts have been made to improve the breeds by crossing the native cattle with tine imported specimens. Several foreign companies have bought lands for cattle breeding. Mining. The mineral wealth of the State remained unrecognized until a few years ago. but its development has since been so steady and rapid that now mining may be said to constitute one of the chief industries. The wealth of Sierra Mojada. Sierra did Carmen, and the valley of Santa Rosa is almost incredible. These mineral regions arc in reality immense silver deposits, which, in conjunction with the coal fields of Piedras Negras and Salina Valley, and the agricultural prod nets of the "Laguna,''' form the foundations of the future wealth of COAHUILA. 89 the State. The registered number of mines in Coahuila on the 31st of December, 1902, according to Mexican official figures, amounted to 551, covering an area of 11,240 hectares, the principal minerals being silver, lead, coal, copper, iron, and gold. The production of these mines in 1902 is officially given at 535,000,000 kilos, valued at $4,236,000. Trade. — Coahuila is one of the most prosperous commercial sections of the Republic, due, mainly, to its railroad system, which affords the necessary facilities for the transportation of the State products, such as cotton, live stock, minerals, wines, etc. The export trade is princi- pally with the United States, the metallic products being forwarded over the Mexican Northern Railwa} T from Sierra Mojada to Escalon, thence on the Mexican Central to Ciudad Juarez. Some coal is exported to the United States through Piedras Negras, the remainder being con- sumed in the county by such railways as use this fuel. Flour is sent to Nuevo Leon, cotton fabrics to the States of Zacatecas, Jalisco, Durango. Mexico, and Monterey: salt, live stock, wool, and skins to several Mexican States and to Texas; raw cotton, table grapes, cereals, etc., to several neighboring States, and ixtle and its various manufac- tures to the United States. The commerce of the State is in the hands of Americans. Spaniards, Germans, and Frenchmen. The leading mar- kets are Ciudad Porfirio Diaz or Piedras Negras, a customs port on the American frontier; Saltillo, San Pedro de la Laguna or Colonia, Torreon, Sierra Mojada, Monclova, Parras, and Viesca. According to the " Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal," the value of the trade through the city of Porfirio Diaz during the fiscal year 1901-2 amounted to $4,810,637 for imports and $5,677,603 for exports. During the first 6 months of the fiscal year 1902-3, according to the same authority, the imports and exports through said city were ^2,745,976 and §3,004,404, respectively. The total trade of the State can be estimated from $11,000,000 to $12,000,000 silver per annum. ( 'ommunications. — The railway system of the State is probably the best in the Republic. It is traversed by five different lines, as follows: The Mexican International, from Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, on the banks of the Rio Bravo del Norte, opposite Eagle Pass (Texas), to the city of Durango, capital of the State of the same name, a distance of 869.51 kilometers. Its main tracks are within the territory of Coahuila as far as Torreon, or a length of 616.55 kilometers. This railway system has several branches open to traffic, and others either in proces- of construction or under survey, namely, from Sabinas to Honda, 19.81 kilometers; from Monclova to Cuatro Cienegas, 67.15 kilometers; from Hornos to San Pedro, 23.37 kilometers; and from Pedricena to Velardena, 9.35 kilometers, this last in the territory of Durango. The Mexican Central, which crosses the southeastern section of the State in the districts of Viesca and Parras, running in the former district over the tracks of the International from Mexico to Ciudad 90 MEXICO. Juarez and in Parraa over its own tracks from Lerdo to San Pedro de la Colon ia (La Laguna line). There are several stations, the line in its course through the State measuring 17s kilometers from Sun tsidro to Torre6n or Nazas. At the latter place the Central connects with the International Railway. From Lerdo (Durango) starts the branch known as the " La Laguna" line, whose terminal station Is San Pedro de la Colonia, the distance between the two points being 63. 4 kilo- meters. The tracks leave the territory of Coahuila after passing the station of Jalisco, and after traversing a section of Durango return to Coahuila beyond the Canon de Picardias. The Northern Mexican Is essentially for the mining district, and covers a distance of 125 kilometers from Kscalon (Chihuahua) to Sierra Mojada. The Monterey and Gulf Railway runs from Monterey to Trevino or Venadito, a distance of L06 kilometers. The National Mexican runs from Ventura to La Mariposa, L52 kilo- meters, passing through Saltillo. In addition there is a line projected to run direct from Monterey (Nuevo Leon) to the city of Porfirio Diaz, and another line is being constructed from Saltillo to ( Soncepci6n del Oro. Besides the railroads there are excellent wagon roads as follows: From Mexico City to Saltillo. 925.64 kilometers; Saltillo to Monterey. L05 kilometers; to Zacatecas, 480 kilometers; to Durango, .">< >T kilo- meters; to Chihuahua. !»<>!» kilometers; to Zaragoza or Rio Grande and the shores of the Rio Bravo, 500 kilometers; to San Antonio, Tex.. 864 kilometers, and from Zaragoza to Sancti Spiritus, Tex., L,032 kilometers. The telegraphic network of the State covers an area of about 2,000 kilometers, while telephone lines extend over more than loo kilo- meters. The mail service is very efficient. Industries.- The principal manufacturing industry is the manufacture of cotton and knitted goods, there being in the State on December 31, 1901, 51,618 spindles and 1.715 looms, the quantity of cotton consumed during the year amounting to 2,082,130 kilograms, the output being estimated at 549,373 pieces of printed goods and 60,000 kilograms twine. Other manufacturing industries are wines, tanned skins and hide-, soap, candles, cheese, shoes, molasses, furniture, pottery, car- riages, wagons, and chocolate. Divisions.— The State of Coahuila is divided into 5 districts, subdi- vided into 33 municipalities. The districts are as follows: Monclova, population 75,133; chief town Monclova, on the river of the same name, is situated in the midst of fertile farm lands, on the line of the International Railroad, 238 kilometers southwest of Ciudad Porfirio Diaz. 370 kilometers from Torreon, 1,514 from Mexico City by rail, and 170 kilometers distant from Saltillo. The other leading COAHUILA. 91 towns in the district are Muzquis, Cuatro Ciengas, Sierra Mojada — an important mining town, 120 kilometers from Saltillo, and one of the terminal stations of the Northern Railway, whose exports of lead and iron ores to the United States are estimated at about $300,000 per annum — and Candela or Romero Rnbio. The International and North- ern Mexican railways traverse the district, the former running in a southeasterly direction and the latter toward the southwest. Rio Grande, population 46,851; its chief town, Ciudad Porfirio Diaz (formerly Piedras Negras), 7,888 inhabitants, is situated 1,752 kilome- ters from Mexico City, 180 kilometers from Saltillo, and 65 kilometers from Zaragoza. This district is on the boundary line between Mexico and the State of Texas, and its capital lies directly opposite Eagle Pass, vuth which it is connected by the great "international bridge" across the Rio Bravo, belonging to the International Railway. It is an iron structure, 539.90 meters in length. The city has five public buildings and is an important customs port. Among the other cities of the district are Zaragoza, on the Rio Grande, 65 kilometers from Porfirio Diaz and 11 kilometers north of Saltillo; Guerrero, 562 kilo- meters from Saltillo and 52 kilometers from Porfirio Diaz; Morelos, Allende, and Nova. Saltillo, or El Centro, population 73,157; chief town Saltillo, or Leona Vicario, 23,996 inhabitants (also the capital of the State), 865 kilometers from Mexico City b} T the wagon road and 971 by rail, and 179 kilometers from Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, on the International Rail- way. It is one of the stations of the Mexican National Railroad and is the principal industrial and commercial center of the State. The prin- cipal buildings are the government palace, the Zaragoza theater, the municipal palace, the Catholic Cathedral, the penitentiary, the hospital, the American consulate, and several others. The State college, called "Ateneo Fuente," has a good museum of natural history, also a small but very fine public library. Saltillo is noted for the manufac- ture of zarapes (shawls), made of wool, and remarkable not only for the fastness of their colors, but also for tasteful combination, artistic design, and fineness of fabric, some of them being worth as much as $200 to $300. Other industries are the manufacture of cotton cloth, knitted goods, and flour. There are several flour mills in the town and cotton mills run by water power. Other leading towns are Ramos Arizpe, 15 kilometers from Saltillo, on the Mexican National Railway, Artega, and Patos. Parras, population 53,672; its principal town, Parras de la Fuente, is situated 126 kilometers from Saltillo and 25 kilometers from the station of Pailas, on the International Railway, with which it is con- nected by a stage line. This town is located in a very fertile valley, noted for its fruit production, particularly grapes. There are cotton and flour mills and a factory devoted to the preparation of grape wine 92 MEXICO. and grape rum. San Pedro de la Colonia is the second town in the district, situated 250 kilometers from Saltillo and L6 kilometers from the railway. In the town are several cotton-seed oil mills, cotton gins, and a large factory for the production of white cotton cloths, colored drills, toweling, etc. The Mexican International Railway traverses the district, stopping at seven stations. Viesca, population 47,825; chic I' town Viesca, situated 224 kilometers from Saltillo, 24 kilometers from Homos, a station on the Interna- tional Railway, with which it is connected by a stage line, and ":-! kilo- meters from Torreon station. Other leading towns are Matamoros Laguna, 28 kilometers from Torre6n station, and Torre6n, an important railway station of the Central ami the International lines, L, 136 kilo- meters from Mexico City. t;iti..v> kilometers from Porfirio Diaz, and 272 kilometers from Saltillo. This town contains a cotton mill and a soap factory. This district is essentially a mining region, and is well supplied with railway facilities, the Mexican Central traversing it from south to northwest, a distance of L.78 kilometer-, and the International covering an extent of 53.29 kilometers from west to east. The former line has 9 stations and the latter 1. ( -ni. IMA. The State of Colima. population 65.115, capital Colhna. 504 meter- altitude, population 20,698 is, with the exception of Tlaxcala, the smallest and least populous of the Mexican States. It is situated in a beautiful tropical region, with a good coast line on the Pacific. Boundaries. The boundaries are the State of Jalisco on tin' north, northeast, and west: the State of Michoacan on the east, and the Pacific Ocean on the south. Its area is estimated at 6,114 square kilometer-, divided as follows: Mainland. 5,928 square kilometers, and the islands of Revillagigedo, L86 square kilometers. Climate. The climate is hot and unhealthy except in the north. where tin snow-crowned peak of the Colima modifies the temperature. Rainfall is abundant, and the winds in general are from the northeast. Malarial fevers are prevalent in almost all sections. Topography. The northern section of the State, occupied by the sl.>pe- of the Colima volcano, constitutes the mountainous part of its territory, the a-cent from the coast rising gradually to a height of 1,200 meters. The literal i- washed by the Pacific for an extent of 160 kilometers. It i- low and sandy and contains rich salt deposits. The Revillagigedo group, composed of four desert islands of volcanic origin, named Socorro. San Benedicto, Rosa Partida, and Clarion, lies u-fo kilometers northwest of Manzanillo. Hydrography. The irrigating stream- are the Armeria and Coahua- yana rivers and their affluents. The former traverses the center of the State from north to south, emptying into the Pacific through the COLIMA. 93 mouth of the Pascuales after a course of 294 kilometers, its navigable extent only reaching- 18 or 20 kilometers from the mouth. The Coa- huayana forms the natural boundary line between the States of Michoa- can and Colima. In addition to the water courses above mentioned there are the lakes of Cuyutlan and Alcuzagiie. Fan n,i n ml flora, — The fauna of the State, although rich and varied, is little known. There are about 50 species of mammals, over 100 birds, 32 reptiles, 7 batrachians, 50 fishes, and numberless insects of all kinds, besides corals and sponges and 12 species of mollusks. The flora embraces over 170 species of trees, 60 fruits, 25 textiles, 20 tan- ning plants, 12 oleaginous seeds, 23 dye plants, about 20 forage plants, 9 poisonous plants, 40 aromatic, 100 medicinal, 22 gums and resins, and a great number of ornamental shrubs and flowers. Resource*. — The principal industries are agriculture, stock raising, and the exploitation of the salt deposits. The fertility of the soil, due to its line natural irrigation, permits the culture of various products, among others coffee, cacao, tobacco, rice, cotton, indigo, sugar cane, cereals, and leguminous plants. The coffee of Colima is regarded in German}^ as the best on the market. Official figures, from Mexican sources, estimate its production in 1902 at 160,850 kilos, valued at $81,257. In the same year cacao was quoted at 2,000 kilos, at $2,000; tobacco, 126,715 kilos, at §11,553; indigo, 3,442 kilos, at $7,426, and cotton, 197,800 kilos, at $25,625. For the development of its agricul- tural wealth the State is greatly in need of colonists. The mineral wealth lies principally in the salt deposits, which extend all along the coast. There are also mines of silver, gold, copper, and sulphur. Trade. — Colima carries on an active trade with the towns south of Jalisco, with Guadalajara, Mazatlan, and other Mexican ports, and with the foreign ports of San Francisco and San Diego (California), also with German}- and the Hawaiian Islands. The maritime trade is conducted through the port of Manzanillo, and consists chiefly of exports of rice, coffee, rubber, fruits, cabinet woods, dye woods, corn, hides and skins, minerals, etc., the imports being woolen, linen, and silk goods, alimentary products, glassware, arms and ammunition, wines and liquors, etc. Overland traffic is carried on by rail from Manzanillo to Colima and to Villa Alvarez; in other instances, by wagon roads. The total travel of the State is estimated at a value of about $2,000,000 per annum. Communications. — The railway of the Compania Constructora Nacional Mexicana (Mexican National Railway) crosses the State over the tracks of the International Line from Colima to Manzanillo, a dis- tance of 95 kilometers. A branch from Colima to Guadalajara is in process of construction. Another railroad runs from Colima to Villa Alvarez, 6,000 meters in length, and a tramway 1,100 meters long- connects Colima with the railroad stations. Telegraph and telephone 94 MEXICO. service are excellent, and the mail service is very efficient. The " Pacific Mail." the " Red Line." i he " [zaguirre," and the Sinaloa and Durango Elailroad ( lompany's steamers connect the port of Manzanillo with foreign and domestic ports, while good wagOD roads run from Colima to Mexico ( it y and the principal towns of the adjacent States. Divisions.- Colima is divided into 3 partidos, subdivided into 7 municipalities, as follows: Partido del Centro, Partido de Villa Alva- rez, and Partido de Medellin. The Partido del Centro. population 41,763, embraces the municipali- ties of Colima, Coquimatlan, and Ixtlahuac&n. The principal town of the municipality of Colima bears the same name, and is the capital <>!' the State. According to the last census the population of the capital was 20,698 inhabitants. It is situated in a beautiful and fertile valley, r>i>4 meters above the sea level, which is irrigated by the Colima River, and is one of the handsomest towns on the Pacific coast. The prin- cipal buildings are the city hall, the theater, the cathedral, a new market house, and the station of the Mexican National Railroad. It is the commercial center of the State, being distant about 915 kilo- meters from the capital of the Republic, and possesses a street-car line and an electric-lighting system. Coquimatlan is the chief town of the municipality of the same name, distant about 12 kilometers from Colima, on the Mexican National Railway. ixtlahuac&n is the principal town of the municipality of that name, and is about 142 kilometers from Colima. The Partido de Villa Alvarez or Almoloyan, population 16,400, embraces a municipality of the same name and that of Comala. Almo- loyan. or Villa Alvarez, is the capital of the former, and is 4- kilometers from Colima. with which it is connected by a railway 6 kilometers in length. The chief town of Comala bears the same name as the munici- pality, and is 12 kilometers from Colima and 1<» from Villa Alvarez. The Partido de Medellin, population 6,996, comprises the munici- palities of Manzanillo and Tecoman. their chief towns bearing the same names. Tecoman is situated 45 kilometers from Colima, on the Mex- ican National Railroad. Manzanillo is one of the leading towns of the State, and is situated 861 kilometers from Mexico City. L22 kilometers from Colima, and :-574 kilometers from Guadalajara. It has a large, sheltered harbor, the town being built on the isthmus which separates the waters of the port from those of Cuvutlan. It "is connected with thr capital by the Mexican National Railway, a distance of 94.5 kilo- meters. Tin 1 foreign trade of the port is estimated at about $450,000, divided equally between imports and exports. Th<' Pacific Mail Steam- ship Company connects it with San Francisco (California) and Panama (Colombia), and the steamers of the " Red" Line, Izaguirre & Co.. and of the Sinaloa and Durango Railroad Company transport merchandise DUKANGO. 95 between Manzanillo and the home ports. The custom-house of the State is located at Manzanillo. DURANGO. The State of Durango, population 370,294, with a capital city 2,100 meters altitude, bearing the same name, is one of the largest and richest States in the Republic. It is situated north of the torrid zone, on the slopes of the Sierra Madre Mountains. Boundaries.- — Its boundaries are Chihuahua on the north, Coahuila on the east and southeast, Zacatecas and the Territory of Tepic on the south, and Sinaloa on the west. The area, according to the "Anuario Estadistico de la Republics Mexicana," 1902, covers 109,495 square kilometers. Climate. — The climatic conditions of the State vary with the respec- tive altitudes of the localities. The western portions, traversed by the Sierra Madre Mountains, are cold; the region of the valleys and plains, extending from the base of the mountains, is temperate, and in some places rather warm, while the Nazas basin is temperate; the pasture lands are exposed to great variations, being extremely cold in winter and very hot in summer. Rainfall is moderate, and frosts are frequent in the mountains. The most common ailments are fevers and affec- tions of the respiratory and digestive organs. Topography. — Owing to the topographical conditions, the products of the hot, temperate, and cold zones can be cultivated. The western and southern portions are mountainous, being traversed by the Sierra Madre Mountains. The mean altitude varies from 2,500 to 3,500 meters, the highest point being the peak of Muinoxa. The crest of the Sierra Madre is formed by the convergence of several high moun- tain ranges which rise in the western part of the State, the principal being Copolquina, Topia, Cavelas, Amacuti, Tominil, Muinora, Gua- naccoi, and San Juan de Camarones. These mountains are all rich in minerals, mainly gold, silver, and lead. Other mountains are the Mesquital, Oso, Inde, Candela, San Francisco, Cuencame, and Noas. The principal isolated peaks are Cerro del Mercado, an inexhaustible iron deposit north of the city of Durango; Cerro del Fraile, an extinct volcano; Pichihuantepec, and Panuco de Avino, which contains an immense silver deposit. The Sierra Madre Mountains are rich in minerals, while the valleys in the eastern section are well irrigated and fertile. Hydrography. — The most important river is the Nazas, in the north- ern part of the State. It rises on the eastern slope of the Sierra Madre and empties into Habas Lake, after a course of 600 kilometers. Its principal affluents are the Santiago and San Juan rivers, the for- mer traversing an extent of 215 kilometers before its junction with the main stream. The Tunal River rises west of the city of Durango, 96 MEXICO. and after a course of L50 kilometers enters the Territory of Tepic. The Suehil. or Nbmbre »l< Dios, an affluent of the Tunal; the Rio Chico, or Alaponeta, and the Aguanaval are the other most important streams. There are also some small lakes, the principal being Colo- rado, ( iuatimape. Ojode Agua, Sanceda. Im.'e. liiencaine. and A t « »t « > ailco. Near the city of Durango there is a fine mineral spring, holding- in solution a large quantity of iron. Fauna mammals, 7" birds, L3 reptiles. 7 batrachians, and a large number of insects. The floral varieties are equally numerous, embracing nearly 80 tree Families, 50 fruits. 13 textiles, li' tanning plants, li' oleaginous plants, 11 dye plants, 10 forage plants. 4 poisonous and L6 aromatic plants, about 20 gums and resins, 30 medicinal plants, and numberless ornamental shrubs and flowers. Resources. — The principal industries of the State are agriculture, mining, stock raising, and commerce. The most important agricultural region is included in the partidos of Mapimi, Durango, San Juan del Rio, and Papasquiaro. the agricultural product- being barley, corn, wheat, cotton, tobacco, fruit-, leguminous plant-, and sugar cane. Mexican official statistics for 1897 estimate the number of plantations or farms at L96, of which 2 are devoted to the culture of sugarcane. L57 to cereals. 7 to maguey (mescal), % 2 to tobacco, and 28 to stock raising. In L902 the production of corn in the Stat<' was estimated at [.,584,226 hectoliters, valued at Sl.i'>04..~>4s: wheat, 14,930,850 kilos, valued at 11,176,220; cotton, 4.880,5o:_' kilos, valued at $1,530,607; ixtle. to the value of s7,n.737: tobacco. 47.7so kilos, valued at $20,000; grapes, 235,105 kilos, valued at $31,380. The grapes of Villa Lerdo and Cuencame are famous. The leading stock-raising sections are the partidos of Durango, El Ojo, Cuencaiiic. Xazas. lude. and Papasquiaro. The number of the -tock i- estimated, approximately, at L,000,000 head. Mining. — The mining dist nets arc the part idos of San Dimas, Tania- zula, Papasquiaro, San Juan del Rio, Durango. and Nombre >\r Dios; gold, copper, and silver being the leading mineral-. According to Mexican official figures, on the 31st of December. L902, there were 2,469 mining claims registered in Durango. covering an area of 22,831 hectares. The (Jerro del Mercado is an inexhaustible iron deposit, 2 kilometers north of Durango. which, according to the opinion of expert-, "could supply all the foundries of England for a period of 330 years." Sulphur, rubies, and other valuable deposit- are also found. The total mining production of the State in 1902 is officially estimated at 349,214,262 kilo-, valued at sio,724,<>12, the number of mines in operation being 107. Trade. — The partidos of Durango and Mapimi are the commercial DURANGO. 97 centers of the State. An active trade is maintained with the States of Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Coahuila; also with the United States and Mexico Cit}\ The principal export trade consists in mineral ores (mainly gold, silver, and iron), cereals, cotton, woods, fruits, live stock, hides and skins, wools, tallow, etc., besides cotton and woolen goods to the States of Chihuahua and Zacatecas. Its prin- cipal imports are groceries, hardware, silk, cotton, wool, and linen goods, machinery, agricultural implements, mining tools, arms and ammunition, etc., the whole trade of the State being estimated at about $10,000,000 per annum. The principal ports of entry for foreign goods are Mazatlan and the customs posts of Ciudad Porfirio Diaz and Paso del Norte, or Ciudad Juarez. Communications. — The Mexican International and the Central rail- roads traverse the State. The former enters through the partido of Mapimi, crosses Cuencame and Durango, and terminates at the State capital, 879 kilometers from Ciudad Porfirio Diaz (Coahuila). In addi- tion to the main line the road lias several branches. The Central Rail- road traverses the State on the tracks of the Mexico and Ciudad Juarez line. There are several concessions for branch lines. The cities of Durango and Villa Lerdo are equipped with street-car systems, and throughout the State are about 300 kilometers of telegraph and 500 kilometers of telephone lines and an efficient mail service. There are also excellent wagon roads leading to the adjacent States and to the City of Mexico. Industries. — The principal manufacturing industries are tanning, the manufacture of Hour, of ixtle carpets, and rope, and the extraction of fibers; there are also good pottery works, soap and candle factories, foundries, distilleries, and several cotton mills representing a value of over $500,000. Divisions. — The State is divided into 13 partidos, subdivided into 49 municipalities. The partidos are as follows: Tamazula, population 32,041; its principal town, bearing the same name, is situated near the Sinaloa boundary, 123 kilometers from Durango. This partido is rich in minerals. Papasquiar©, population 11,580; its chief town, Santiago Papas- quiaro, is 123 kilometers from Durango. Inde, population 17,711, chief town, Inde, situated 316 kilometers from Durango, is rich in gold, silver, and copper mines. Mapimi, population 61,982; its chief town, Villa Lerdo, is the second city in the State, located 203 kilometers from Durango. This is one of the most advanced sections of the State, its agricultural wealth being- developed by the most modern methods and representing a value of about $2,000,000 per annum. It also contains valuable deposits of silver, gold, lead, copper, and sulphur. Villa Lerdo is connected with the station of the Central Railroad by a tramway 1 kilometers 509a— 04 7 98 MEXICO. iii length, and has very fine buildings, including strain Hour mills, a foundry, and several other industrial establishments. Mapimi is the ii. \t town of importance, situated 511 kilometers from Durango and 25 from the Central Railroad station. This town contain- six foun- dries, a cotton and knit-goods mill, and other industrial establishments. Cuencame", population 2S.»>7<>, chief town of the same name. L68 kilometers from Durango and 12 from the Pasaje station of the Inter- national Railway, is an agricultural, stock-raising, and mining district San Juan de Guadalupe, population 11,091; its chief town, bearing the same name, is situated 300 kilometers from Durango. 35 kilo- meter- from San [sidro, and 30 from the Symon station of the Central Railroad. Nombre de Dios, population 25,680, the chief town of which, bear- ing the same name, is situated <;7 kilometers from Durango, and has in its vicinity cotton and woolen mills, using the waters of the Suchil River as motive power. Mezquital, population 9.247: its chief town. Mezquital, is !<>ro, population 1<'>.47!»: its chief town. Real, or Santa Maria del Oro, is situated 311 kilometers from Durango. and is largely interested in the mining of gold, that metal being very abundant in its vicinity. Nazas, population 13,793; its chief town, bearing the same name, is situated 167 kilometers from Durango. San Juan del Rio, population 29,683; its chief town is San Juan del Rio, 104 kilometers from Durango. GUANAJUATO. 99 GUANAJUATO. The State of Guanajuato, population 1,061,724, with a capital of the same name, 2,083 meters above the sea, is one of the most favored regions of the Republic, as it contains immense natural deposits of gold and silver, fertile lands, populous cities, and fine railroads, besides being possessed of a valuable commerce and equipped with almost all the latest improvements of a highly civilized country. Boundaries. — The boundaries are: San Luis Potosi on the north, Queretaro on the east, Michoacan on the south, and Jalisco on the west. Its area is 28,363 square kilometers'. Topography. — The topographical aspect is varied, owing to its situ- ation on the cordillera of the Anahuac, the northeast and central sec- tions being traversed by mountain ranges, while to the west and south extend the rich valleys of San Felipe, San Judas, and Santiago, and the fertile plain of El Bajo. The principal cordilleras traversing the State are the Sierra Gorda, on the northeast, and the Sierra de Guana- juato, in the center, which are formed by the junction of the Codor- nices, the San Antonio, and the Santa Rosa ranges. The highest peaks in the Guanajuato Mountains are the Gigante, 2,316 meters in height, and the Llanitos, 2,815 meters. Smaller ranges extend in various directions, inclosing the fertile valleys and plains of the State. Hydrography. — The principal rivers are the Lerma, the Laja, and the Turbio, the last two being affluents of the former. The Lerma River rises in the State of Mexico, traverses the State of Guanajuato for a distance of 117 kilometers, and empties into the Pacific Ocean near San Bias, in the Territory of Tepic. The Laja rises in the Sierra de Guanajuato, and, after receiving the waters of many affluents and traversing a course of 126 kilometers, empties into the Lerma. The Turbio, or Gomez, waters a territory 113 kilometers in length from its rise in the Sierra de Guanajuato to its junction with the Lerma. This State is also irrigated by the Irapuato Rirer and several smaller streams. The only lake is Yuririapiindaro (lake of blood), which is 97 square kilometers in extent and contains several small islands. Near the valley of Santiago there is a large circular well, known as the Albercas, which is believed to be the crater of an extinct volcano. Its waters are not potable and its depth has never been ascertained. Min- eral springs are abundant. <'l! unit,'. — The climate is temperate and agreeable, except in the higher altitudes of the mountain ranges, the mean temperature being 21° C. (about 70° F.), and the highest 28° C. (82.10° F.) during the hot months. The prevalent diseases are malarial fevers and typhus. Dur- ing the rainy season the rainfall is heavy in the plains and valle}^s and moderate in the mountains. This season extends from the middle of May until the beginning of July. The prevailing winds are from the northeast, changing to southeast at the approach of the rainy season. 100 MEXICO. Fauna and flora.— The fauna <»l* the State is very rich, comprising, in all, 510 species, divided as follows: 41 mammals, 206 birds, -U rep- tiles, r> batrachians, 7 fishes, and 14s insects. The flora is no Less rich, embracing over 23 kinds <>!' wood. 44 fruit tree-, and plants. 32 textiles, 11 tanning plants. I 5 oleaginous plants. 16 dyewoods, about 80 medicinal plants. L2 forage plants, I s aromatic plants. 15 gums and resins, and numberless ornamental flowers and shrubs. Resources. According to the location of tin 1 partidos, the leading industries are raining, agriculture, and cattle raising, the former tak- ing firsl iank in Guanajuato, La Luz, Bietona, and San Felipe, and agricultural and -tod-; raising in the plains and valleys. The principal agricultural products are cereals and leguminous plants of all kinds, fruits, chili, alfalfa, and canary seed, valued at about $21,000,000 per annum, besides which tobacco and zacaton receive considerable atten- tion. According to Mexican official figures, L897, there were in the State 394 plantation- or haciendas, of which 346 were devoted to the culture of cereals. The principal agricultural product- of Guanajuato for L902 are officially given as follows: Corn, to the value of $5,500,000 in round figures; wheat. $2,500,000; tobacco, $18,000. The total value of the stock-raising industry., comprising in all about 1,000,000 head, is estimated at $10,000,000, hogs, sheep, and goats forming the principal (dements. The annual production of wool is calculated at 200,000 kilograms, worth $80,000. Mining. — The State of Guanajuato i- one of the richesl mineral regions in the world. The mining region follow -the line <<\' the angle formed by the Sierra Gorda and Sierra de Guanajuato, there being in all live mining districts, as follows: Sierra Gorda, Allende, Santa- cruz, Guanajuato, and Leon. According to the "Geografia y Esta- distica," by Velasco (1890), there were 273 mines, as follows: :;i silver and gold, 1^1 silver. 44 mercury, or cinnabar, 24 tin. :> iron, 1 lead. Hi argentiferous lead. :: copper. L5 argentiferous copper. :. magistral, or sulphide of copper, 1 bismuth, 7 hematite. 1 sulphur, and 1 plastic (day; and according to the "Anuario Estadistico" there were, on the 31st of December, L901, 625 claims registered, covering an area of 6,891 hectares,. In 1901, '.'2 gold and silver mines in the State, containing 2,051 hec- tares, employing 6,790 hand-, produced 1.20,000,000 kilograms of ore. valued at $2,711,859, and in L902 the total production amounted to 147,680,000 kilograms, valued at $3,162,000, the number of mines in operation being i'>7. Trade. Guanajuato is the most important mercantile center of the Republic, both the Central and Mexican National railways deriving from local traffic greater profits than in any other State. Its total tiade can he estimated at $67,000,000 per annum, divided as follow-: Exports of minerals to Mexico City, the United States, and Europe. GUANAJUATO. 101 $21 >,00< >,< 100; exports of agricultural and other products to home States, $10,000, ; exports of industrial products. $2,000,000; imports from Mexico City, United States, and Europe, $12,000,000; imports from other Mexican States, $3,000,000, the balance being made up by the local trade. The principal exports are mineral and agricultural prod- ucts, live stock and cotton goods, while the imports from Mexico City and the United States and Europe are groceries, ready-made clothing, textiles, hardware, drugs, arms and ammunition, hats, canned goods, agricultural and mining machinery, and tools; and from the Mexican States, mescal tequila, fruits, pulque, coffee, etc. Communications. — The Mexican Central Railroad traverses the State in three directions: First, from east to northwest on the line from Mexico City to Ciudad Juarez, or Paso del Norte (152 kilometers); second, from the center to the southwest on the branch line from Irapuato to Guadalajara (84 kilometers); and third, from the center to the northeast on the branch line from Silao to Guanajuato (23 kilo- meters). The Mexican National Railroad runs from southeast to north on the line from Mexico Cit\- to Nuevo Laredo, a distance of 271 kilo- meters, and the Salamanca and Valle de Santiago Railroad has an extent of 18 to 2<) kilometers in the municipality of Salamanca. The street railway's in the cities of the State measure about 11 kilometers. The State is crossed in all directions by good wagon roads, and there exists an extensive network of telegraph and telephone wires, as well as an efficient postal service. Industries. — Among the nourishing industrial establishments are 350 woolen mills, with a yearly output of 90,000 pieces of cloth; 45,000 yards of carpet and other fabrics; 853 cotton mills producing an aver- age of 2(>0,500 pieces of cotton (manta), 46,600 pieces comboyos. 550,000 rebozos, and 100,000 kilograms of twine, the consumption of these factories being about 815,000 kilograms of wool and 1,000,000 kilograms of cotton annually. There are besides 72 Hour mills (steam and hydraulic power), yielding about 15,000,000 kilograms of flour per annum, linseed mills, saddleries, potteries, powder works, distilleries, tanneries, and foundries. Divisions. — The State is divided into 5 departments, subdivided into 32 partidos. The departments are: Allende. population 46,933 (1 partidos); its principal cities are San Miguel Allende and Dolores Hidalgo, situated 71 and (j6 kilometers, respectively, from Guanajuato. Celava. population 46,408 (11 partidos); its principal city, bearing the same name, is situated at the intersection of the Mexican National and Mexican Central railways. It has a line of street cars 3 kilo- meters in length extending to the railway station. Other towns are: Acambaro, on the Mexican National Railway: Aspaseo, and Salva- tierra. 102 MEXICO. Guanajuato, population 387,718 (9 partidos); its principal city, 2,083 meters above the sea. bears the same name, it being also the capital <>t' the State ami containing 39,404 inhabitants. The city of Guanajuato is situated 406 kilometers by rail from Mexico City, 344 from San Luis Potosi, L60 from Quer6taro, and 212 kilometers from Guadalajara. It is located in a narrow valley on the river Guana- juato. The principal buildings are the State government palace, the Palace of Congress, the mint, the State college, several churches, two theaters, hospitals, a hull ring, the market de la Reforma, the Pan- theon, and the Castle of Granaditas, where the heads of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama, Jimenez, and other patriots were hung on iron hooks during the war of independence. The mineral wealth of Guanajuato has always commanded the atten- tion of the world. From L812 to L896 the combined value of gold. silver, and copper coined by the Guanajuato mint amounted to $309,077,468.25 Mexican silver, the gold coinage being estimated at $21,178,328; silver. $287,884,476.25, and copper, $14,664. The figures from 1896-1901 are, silver, $13,957,746; gold, $599,914.88; and from 1901-1902 are, .silver. $11,868,924, and gold. $488,024. This city is the commercial center of the State, and one of the most important in the Republic. It has a branch road connection with the Central Rail- road, also 10 kilometer- of street railways, electric lighting, and all modern improvements. Other leading towns are Cuitzeo de Ahasolo, Irapuato (an important market on the Central Railroad). La Pa/. Sala- manca. Silao. and Yalle de Santiago, situated in a fertile valley bear- ing the same name. Leon, population L93,932 (4 partidos); its two leading towns are Leon de los Aldamas and San Francisco del Kinc6n, the former r>t; kilo- meters from Guanajuato, and one of the principal manufacturing cen- ters of the Republic, and the latter situated on the Central Railroad. Sierra Gorda, population 93,456 (3 partidos); its principal cities are San Luis de la Paz, 98 kilometers from Guanajuato, San dose de Itur- bide, Xichii, Santa Catarina, and Victoria. GUERRERO. The State of Guerrero, population ITu.l'o;,. its capital Chilpancingo, 1,193 meters altitude, population 7.41*7. i- one of the maritime States of the Republic. It has a promising future, but bo far has been but little explored and has a small population, lacks communication facili- ties, and its territory is mountainous and rough. Boundaru s. — The boundaries are the States of Mexico and Morelos on the north; Puebla on the northeast; Oaxaca on the east and south- east, and the Pacific Ocean on the southwest. The area is given as 61,756 square kilometers. Situation.— The Pacific coast line of the State is 500 kilometers in GUERRERO. 103 extent, the shores being- low, sandy, well sheltered, and possessing excellent ports and harbors. Acapulco, the principal port of the State, is classed among the finest harbors of the world, by reason of its beautiful, well-sheltered bay, measuring 6,285 meters in length by 3,141 in breadth, and having a depth of 81 meters. Other Pacific ports in the State are Petlacala, Sihuatanejo, and Papanoa. Topography. — Guerrero is mountainous throughout almost its entire extent, being traversed by the Sierra Madre del Sur, which reaches its greatest altitude at 2,800 meters. The valleys between the Cordilleras are narrow, and the highest peaks are Tlacotepec and Tiotepec, 2,800 meters high, and Escalera, 2,521 meters in height. Hydrography. — The rivers of the State, on account of the broken surface of the territory, have very rapid currents. The principal is the Mexcala or Balsas, also known as the Ato} T ac or Poblano. Its headwaters are in the Tlaxco Mountains of the State of Tlaxcala, whence it enters Guerrero on the east, dividing the State into two sec- tions, the southern occupied by the Sierra Madre range and the north- ern by the slopes of the mountain chains from the States of Mexico and Morelos. The river is 087 kilometers in length, but is navigable for small craft onl} T . All the waters of the State are tributary to it. The principal lakes are Pazahualco, Chantengo, Nexpa, and San Marcos. Climate. — Climatic conditions vary according to the altitude of the districts, the cold belt beginning beyond 2,000 meters, the temperate lying between 1,000 and 2,000 meters, and the hot lands situated below the 1,000 meters. On the coasts the heat is excessive, from 35° to 36° C. (95° to 96°. 80 F.), and the rain falls in torrents, precipitation being- moderate in the temperate lands only. Frosts are frequent in the high altitudes of the Sierras. Fevers, leprosy, and affections of the respiratory and digestive organs are the prevailing diseases. Fauna and flora. — The fauna of the State, though rich and varied, is not well known. It embraces over 55 species of mammals, over 80 birds, 50 reptiles, 5 batrachians, 10 fishes, and numberless insects. The flora is worthy of note, comprising over 150 trees, 75 fruits, 33 textile plants, 17 tanning plants, 15 oleaginous, 25 d} r e, 10 forage, and an equal number of poisonous plants, 20 aromatic plants, about 10 gums and resins, 200 medicinal plants, and countless ornamental shrubs and flowers. Resources. — The development of the immense agricultural wealth of the State only awaits the establishment of railroad facilities, immi- gration, and better wagon roads, when the cultivation of cotton, coffee, tobacco, rubber, vanilla, etc., may be advantageously under- taken on a large scale. The agricultural production of the State is about $2,200,000 per annum, the leading articles being sesame seed, cereals, leguminous plants, fruits, tobacco, vanilla, coffee, cacao, and 104 MEXICO. textile fibers. Iii L887 the number of plantations estimated as under cultivation was 144, as follows: Cotton. L5; coffee, 1: sugarcane, 72; cereals, 25, and :'.! cattle ranches. Official figures for L902 give the agricultural production of the State as follows: Corn, $1,017,966; sugar-cane products, 3,355,234 kilos, at $391,470; textile fibers, 132,000; coffee, $25,000; tobacco, $25,200. The value of Btock ma\ be estimated at aboul $3,000,000, and dairy industry is under process of development. Mining. — Within the limits of the State lie one of the richest mining regions of the country, although as yet complete development has not been attained. ( rold, silver, mercury, lead, iron, coal, sulphur, granite, and marble are among the principal mineral products; also very fine opals of three varieties. topazes, diamonds, and. according to report, salt. The exploitation of these products has been greatly hampered by lack of communication facilities, Less than two-thirds of the total number of mines being in operation. During the year l'.tirj the min- ing production of the State is reported by the "Anuario Estadistico" at $231,000, the number of mines in operation being 310. Trade. — The commerce of Guerrero is of little importance, due to the lack of railways and to the paucity of the population, which cir- cumstances may be accounted for on the one hand by the topography of the country and by the unhealthy climate on the other. Exports consist of minerals, live stock, cotton, fruits, and woods, sent to Mexico City, and of hides and skins, cotton, rice, tortoise shell, pearl conches, and fruits sent abroad; while the imports include all kinds of manufac- tured products, mainly food products, hardware, dry goods, machinery. agricultural implements, etc. There is a maritime custom-house at Acapulco, its trade being approximately estimated at s; ,000, equally divided between imports and exports. The total trade of the State is lixed at about $5,000,000 in round numbers. Communications. — There are practically no railroads, as the Inter- oceanic Railway, which is destined to connect the port of Acapulco on the Pacific with Veracruz on the Gulf , and with the national capital, is not yet completed, and the same is true of the Mexico, Cuernavaca and Pacific, and of the Michoacan and Pacific lines, which are to traverse cer- tain portions of the State. There are. however, extensive telegraph and telephone lines, as well as an efficient mail service and some wagon road>. especial mention being made of a road connecting Mexico City ami Acapulco. The port of Acapulco connects with foreign countries by means of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company and the "< lompania Mexicans de Vapores del Pacifico y Golfo de California." During 1902, the number of vessels entering the port of Acapulco was 213, of which 167 were steamers, while those sailing from the port were 212, there beino- 107 steamers. GUERRERO. 105 Industries. — The value of the manufacturing industry of the State, estimated at about 13,000,000 annually, is confined to the manufacture of sugar-cane products, mescal wine, palm oil, cotton spinning-, tanning, and the development of apieultural products. Divisions. — The State is divided into fourteen districts, subdivided into fourteen municipalities. The districts are: Aldama, population 54,717, with its chief town bearing the name of La Union, situated 566 kilometers from Chilpancingo. Mina, population 50,926, an important mining section; its principal town, Coyuca de Catalan, is 293 kilometers from Chilpancingo. A-larcon, population 34,164, rich in minerals and remarkable for the cave of Cacahuanilpa, said to be more beautiful than the Mammoth Cave in the United States. The chief town is Taxco de Alarcon, 147 kilometers from Chilpancingo. Hidalgo, population 31,730; its chief town, Iguala de Iturbide, is 135 kilometers from Chilpancingo. Alvarez, population 43,498; chief town, Chilapa de Alvarez, 46 kilo- meters from Chilpancingo. Zaragoza, population 20,604; chief town, Huamuxtithin, 222 kilo- meters from Chilpancingo, situated in a very fertile region. Morelos, population 43,540; chief town, Tlapa or Ciudad Comon- fort, 168 kilometers from Chilpancingo. Abasolo, population 25.471; chief town, Ometepec, 190 kilometers from Chilpancingo. Allende, population 28,282; chief town, Ayutla de los Libres, 151 kilometers from Chilpancingo. Tabares, population 43,136; its chief town, Acapulco de Juarez, population 4,932, is an important seaport, 188 kilometers from Chil- pancingo and 495 kilometers from Mexico City. The bay of Acapulco is the most sheltered of the Mexican ports, and is capable of accom- modating 100 vessels of deep and 200 of lighter draft. The steamers of the Pacific Mail and of the Mexican International Company touch at Acapulco, where there is a custom-house and a beacon light. The exports through Acapulco in 1901-2, as given by the " Boletin de Esta- distica Fiscal" for that period, amount to about $200,000, while the exports are valued at $201,000. Galeana, population 21,297; its principal town, Tecpan de Galeana, located 327 kilometers from Chilpancingo. Chilpancingo, or Bravos, population 33,088; its principal town, Chilpancingo de los Bravos, or Ciudad Bravos, population 7,497, the capital of the State, is a small but important city, 319 kilometers from Mexico City and 178 from the port of Acapulco. There are some fine buildings in the town, which is lighted by electricity. Guerrero, population 28,128; its principal town is Tuxtla de Guer- rero, 13 kilometers from Chilpancingo. 106 MEXICO. HIDALGO; The State of Hidalgo has a population of 605,051. It- capital is the city of Pachuca, 2,447 meters altitude, population 37,487. Boundaries. — The State is bounded on the north by the Stab San Luis Potosi and Veracruz, on the east by Puebla, on the south by Mexico and Tlaxcala, and on the west by Quer£taro, its area measuring 22,215 square kilometers. Topography. — The northern portion of the State is mountainous as compared with the southern, the orographic system being a continua- tion of the Sierra Madre, which receives different names in the various districts traversed, the principal ranges being Tulancingo, Zimap&n, Jacala, Zacuatilpam, Hueyutla, and Pachuca. The highest peak- arc Tapetillan. Creston, Cerro Alto, Cresta de Gallo, Organos, and Cerro (U' Navajas, the latter being 3,212 meters in height. There arc several curious caves in the State. The southern and western portion- are generally flat, the principal plains being the Apan, Mexquital, Tula, and the valleys of Tulancingo and Agua /area, and the Llanura Grande. Hydrography. — There are no large rivers, the principal streams being the Tula and its tributaries, the Amajague and its affluents, and the Metztitlan or Rio Grande and it- branches. There are other rivers of lesser importance and several waterfalls, among them being the Regla cascade, whose water- are used by the Electric Power Company to supply motive power for several reduction works. The largest lake is the Metztitlan, which is 17 kilometers in length. Mineral springs abound. Cli?nate. — The climate is generally mild rather than cold on the uplands and plateaus, and hot or temperate according to the varying altitudes of the lower districts. Fauna and flora. — The fauna and flora are rich and varied, resem- bling in general characteristics those of the other States of the Republic. Resources. — The agricultural products consist in the main of cereals, coffee, sugar cane, cotton, tobacco, maguey, and leguminous vegeta- bles. Mexican official statistics for L897 give the State 208 plantations. divided as follows: Maguey pulque, L29; cereals, 52; sugar cane. 8; tobacco, 1; and 18 cattle ranches. The production of the State for 1902 is estimated thus: Cereals, to the value of $2,750,000; sugar- cane products, 5,478,129 kilograms, valued at $460.00": rum. 17,1"" hectoliters, valued at $197,300; and maguey products to a value of $25,000, pulque alone amounting to 77''-.^'..~> hectoliter-, valued at $1,096,586. Maiing. — Mining is the most important industry, as almost every district is a mining center, the principal being Pachuca and Zimapan, the former containing the regions of Real del Monte, Atotonilco el HIDALGO. 107 Chico, Santa Rosa, Capula, Tepenene, and Potosi, and the latter, Car- donal, Bonanza, Pechuga, Jacala, La Encarnacion, San Jose del Oro, and Verdosas. The chief metals found are gold, in small quantities; silver, mercury, copper, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, manganese, cinna- bar, and plumbago. Other mineral substances are coal, marble, granite, opals, garnets, etc. There are in operation 36 reduction works for the treatment of the finer metals and 6 devoted to the smelting of iron ore. Mexican official statistics for 1902 credit the State with a production of 138,223,000 kilos metal of all kinds, valued at about $5,100,000, the number of mines in operation during the year being 109. Communications. — The railroad lines traversing the State are the "Hidalgo y del Nordeste,''' connecting Pachuca with Mexico Cit} T (109 kilometers); the Mexican Central and the Mexican International, covering, in all, an extent of 371 kilometers. There is a street-car line 8 kilometers in length, in Pachuca, besides several private rail- ways, constructed in connection with the working of the mines. The total length of telegraph wires is estimated at 918 kilometers, with 32 stations. There are also numerous telephone lines and an efficient mail service. The principal industries are the reduction of ores, the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods, and of pulque, bricks and tiles, matches, etc. Divisions. — The State is divided into 15 districts, subdivided into municipalities. The districts and their chief towns are the following: Atotonilco el Grande, population 26,619; chief town of the same name, 32 kilometers from Pachuca, the capital of the State. Actopam, population 17,797; chief town Actopam. 30 kilometers from Pachuca. Apan, population 19,002; chief town Apan, 72 kilometers from Pachuca. Huichapam, population 31,566; chief town of the same name, 140 kilometers from Pachuca. Huejutla, population 76,811; chief town Huejutla, 192 kilometers from Pachuca. Ixmiquilpam, population 16,978, chief town of the same name, 88 kilometers from Pachuca. Jacala de Ledesma, population 30,299, chief town of the same name, 180 kilometers from Pachuca. Metztitlan, population 26,116, chief town Metztitlan, 76 kilometers from Pachuca. Molango, population 37,019, chief town of the same name, 116 kilo- meters from Pachuca. Pachuca, population 99,608; its chief town, Pachuca, population 37,487, is also capital of the State. It is the principal cit}^ of Hidalgo, on account of its commerce, population, and mining industry. It is 108 HEXIOO. connected with Mexico City by the Hidalgo, Mexican, and Central railways. The city contains several fine buildings, ai g othersthe Palace of .Justice, the Scientific and Literary Institute, a Meteorolog- ical ( )l>>ei\ atory, the School of Mining, and a public library. In the district of Pachuca are round the principal mining sections <>f the State. The other district^ are Tula, population 39,572; Tulacingo, popula- tion 48,095; Tenango de Doria,population 25,205; Zacuatilpam, popu- lation 21,259; Zimapan, population 28,805, their chief towns bearing the names of the disl ricts. JALIS4 < ». The State of Jalisco, population, L,153,891; capital city, Guadala- jara, L,566 meters above the sea, population L01,208 inhabitants, is one of the richest mining and agricultural sections of the Republic. The State covers an area of 86,752 square kilometers and has a coast line of 500 kilometers. Boundaries. — One State, which is irregular in shape, is hounded on the north, east, and south by the States of Durango, Zacatecas, Aguas Calientes, San Luis Potosi, Guanajuato, Quere'taro, Michoacan, Colima, and the Territory of Tepic, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. Climate. — Jalisco possesses a great variety of climates. A large portion of the State is traversed by the Sierra Madre range, which gradually slopes to the Pacific, giving rise to nearly every climatic condition known to the temperate and torrid zones. The high table- lands of the eastern portion are cold. In this region cereals, as well as many other products of the temperate zone, can be produced. The valleys between the mountains are well watered and exceedingly fertile. In these favored places flourish, according to the elevation, sugar cane, cotton, vanilla, tobacco, oranges, coffee, etc. Sugar cane grows very rapidly in this State, and once planted it does not have to be renewed for eight or ten years, which is a great advantage over Morelos and other States, where cane only grows by means of artificial irrigation and must he replanted every two years. Topography. — The eastern portion of the State is traversed by the Sierra Madre range, in which occur a number of imposing mountain peaks. The most noted of these are the Tapalpa, Tigre. Nevado, and Colima. The latter is an active volcano, the elevation of which is \.:\~^ meters above the level of the sea. The northern and northeastern portions of the State are very mountainous and form a veritable net- work of spurs and isolated peaks from the Sierra Madre range. Between these are found picturesque and fertile valleys of varying elevations and extent. The State in its entirety possesses a vast territory, watered by numerous lakes and rivers. Hydrography. — The largest and most important stream is the San- tiago, or Lerma, River. This river rises in Lake Chapala in the JALISCO. 109 extreme southeastern portion of the State, and flows in a northwesterly direction through Jalisco and the Territory of Tepic, emptying into the Pacific Ocean at a point north of the port of San Bias. It is about 750 kilometers long, and drains a territory containing - , it is estimated, 25,<)<)<) square kilometers. In its course toward the sea this stream forms beautiful cascades near the village of Juanacatlan in the vicinity of the city of Guadalajara. These arc of such a grand and imposing character that they have been appropriately called the Niagara of Mexico. Their height is about 20 meters. The river at this point is 160 meters wide. The force generated by these celebrated falls is enormous, and a large electric plant has been erected there. This plant supplies electric power to the city of Guadalajara, the capital of the State, 7 kilometers distant. This water power is also utilized by a large number of factories in Guadalajara and vicinity in the opera- tion of their plants, and is fast making that city one of the great manufacturing centers of the Republic. Other important rivers of the State are the Acaponeta and San Pedro, both of which flow into Lake Mexcaltitlan. The Armenia and Ameca rivers are also streams of considerable size and importance. One of the most beautiful lakes of the State, and the largest in the Republic, is Lake Chapala, the surface area of which is 234 square kilometers. The waters of this lake contain a great abundance of edible fish. German carp abound, the Mexican Government having stocked the lake some years ago with this variety of fish. Lake Chapala is also quite a summer resort. Comfortable hotels have been built upon its shores, and hundreds of people from Guadalajara and surrounding country spend the summers there. Fauna and flora. — The fauna and .flora of this State is as rich and varied as that of any other Mexican territory. Resources. — The peculiar topographical conditions of the State, with its variety of climates, make of this region one of the richest agri- cultural sections of the country. Agriculture. — Sugar is one of the leading products, and the cultiva- tion of cotton could be greatly increased, the native product at pres- ent not being sufficient to supply the needs of the cotton industry, which has developed to such an extent in Mexico that nearly 70 per cent of the raw material consumed has to be brought from the United States. Cotton planters would, therefore, be sure to find in the Repub- lic an excellent home market for their product. The lowlands on the coast are hot, and on them thrive a great variety of tropical and sub- tropical products, while the climate, invigorated by tic.' sea bre ze, is not as enervating as that of the eastern coast of Mexico. Cedar, pine, oak, and other valuable trees are found in the mountains, and cabinet woods also abound. If the projected railroad from Aguas Calientes to Chamela, a small port on the Pacific, is built the forest lands will 110 MEXICO. greatly enhance in value. At present, owing to the lack of easy means of transportation, the exploitation Is difficult and timbered Lands in some parts of the State can now be bought for (2 Mexican silver per hectare. The principal agricultural production of the country according to the "Anuario Estadistico" for L902, was, during that year, cereals $10,300,000 in round numbers, corn being the largest item, being represented by $!>,ss5.one. and offers rich rewards to the miner and capitalist. The number of mining claims regis- tered up to December 31, L902, was 719, covering an area of t,880 hectares, while the total mineral production of the State is estimated at about 80,000,000 kilos, valued at over $1,000,000; the number of mines in operation being 87, according to the "Anuario Estadistico," for L902. The Federal assay office in Guadalajara treated during the same period gold to the value of *111.<>M and silver $4,586,134 for coinage, and about sso. i gold and $1,000,000 silver for export Trade. — In the district of Tequila, wesl of Guadalajara, one of the principal products cultivated is the maguey, a plant belonging to the agave family and from the sap of which a Liquor resembling gin is obtained by distillation. This beverage, called "tequila," has an enormous consumption in the northwestern part of Mexico. Lands planted in this variety of maguey bring large prices in Mexico. One farm containing less than L,700 hectares was sold for 600,000 pesos ($300,000). The government of Jalisco is endeavoring to introduce JALISCO. Ill the culture of the Yucatan henequen, the plant of which resembles in appearance the maguey. Agricultural enterprises on a large scale could be successfully carried on in the part of the State comprised in the so- called hot country, where virgin lands cleared of underbrush can be obtained at very low prices. During the last few years large ship- ments of oranges from the La Barca district have been made to the United States. These oranges are of a rich color, delicately flavored, and are sweet and luscious. They come into the market a few weeks before the early California oranges, and are yearly becoming more highly prized in the markets of the United States. Communications. — The main line of the Mexican Central Railway passes through the northeastern portion of the State. A branch line of this road runs from Lagos to La Barca, Guadalajara, and Ameca. This branch will ultimately be extended to the Pacific coast, opening up a region rich in valuable forests and agricultural and mineral wealth. Industries. — The sugar industiy is of great importance, the average annual production reaching 12,000 tons of refined sugar and 10,000 tons of raw sugar, worth, respectively, about $2,500,000 and $1,200,000. The district of Cocula alone, situated in the temperate zone, produces 10,000 tons of sugar, or three times more than the entire State of Veracruz. A "hacienda" situated in this district not far from Santa Ana has realized a profit of $800,000 in one year. Morelos is the only State whose production exceeds that of Jalisco. Cattle raising is also carried on in Jalisco to advantage and profit. This industry is as yet in its infanc} 7 , but is rapidly increasing in value and importance. The number of large ranches or farms in this State is also considerable, many of which constantly employ 500 or 600 laborers and 200 to 300 horses and mules daily in the operation of the same. Divisions. — The State is divided into twelve cantons, the names and populations of which are as follows: Guadalajara 205,66-4 Lagos 104, 135 La Barca , Sayula Ameca Autlan .. Jocotepec 165, 948 87, 065 59, 345 70, 227 52, 399 Colotlan 68,730 Ciudad Guzman 134, 612 Mascota 52, 712 Teocaltiche 94, 439 Ahualulco 58,615 Total 1,153,891 Guadalajara, the capital of the State, with 101,208 inhabitants, is one of the finest cities in the country, and is known as the " Pearl of the West." It contains a large number of government buildings, schools, and educational institutions, a large and handsome cathedral, and the largest theater in the Republic, a Federal assa} 7 office, three banks, and a chamber of commerce. Many magnificent public parks adorn and 112 8CEXI0O. beautify the town. The cotton industry i> one of the principal indus- tries of the city. La Compania Industrial Manufacturera (capital 4,000,000 pesos), lias established a spinning mill and Ton Looms at Juanacatlan, 264 kilometers from Guadalajara. Che machinery is nm by the celebrated waterfalls of Juanacatlan. Manta or unbleached cotton is the principal product. A few kilometers from Guadalajara, but in another direction, the ( lompania Industrial of Guadalajara, with a capital of 2,000,000 yy ( w«, o\\ OS the cottOD factories of Atemajac and Experiencia. Thereare L 64 looms ai Atemajacand L80a< Experiencia, all imported from England. There are also two other cotton factories in the State of Jalisco, those of Escoba and Rio Blanco. but they arc of much less importance. There are do woolen mills, with the excep- tion ^\' a few hand looms. The leather industry is greatly developed. There are in Guadalajara saddleries, shoe factories, and two tanneries; also two breweries, a paper mill, and canning factories. The city is in a very prosperous condition, and many opportunities exist for the establishment of new industries. In addition to Guadalajara, the State of Jalisco contains a number of other important cities, as shown by the following table: , F asr La Karen 7,100 Name. Zacoales. Popula- tion. 6,616 Zapotlanejo 20,270 Autlan r,715 Ciudad Guzman i~. : "" ; Teocaltiche B.881 16,000 Imeca 7,952 savulu 7,883 Cocula The number of public schools in the State exceeded, not including church and private schools. 600 in 1902. These schools had 36,896 pupils enrolled, with an average attendance of 42, 385. The Dumber of scholars attending church and private schools during the same period was 28,108. The State of Jalisco spends more than $300,000 annually in the maintenance of its schools. Guadalajara has a Dumber of schools devoted to higher education, including the College of Medicioe and Pharmacy, the Law School, the Lyceum, and the Normal School. MKXlt o. The Stat" of Mexico, population 934,463; capital, the city of Toluca, 2,671 meters above the sea, population 25,904, is among the mosl important agricultural and industrial sections of the Republic. Its territory is not very Large, but it is fairly well populated and embraces within its limits such valleys as the Toluca Valley and the valley of Mexico, which are classed amoDg the most beautiful and fertile in the world. Boundaries.— Its boundaries are the State of Hidalgo od the north. Tlaxcala and Puebla on the east, Morelos on the south and southeast. MEXICO. 113 Guerrero on the south and southwest, and Michoacan on the west. The Federal District lies to the east of the State. Topography. — -The State occupies one of the most beautiful regions on earth. The northern portion is a plain, intersected by small foot- hills and covered with salt lakes and marshy lands; this is the land of the cactus and agave. The eastern part is occupied by the Popo- catepetl range, fertile lands, snow-covered peaks, smoking volcanoes, and the celebrated valley of Texcoco. The center is the region of forests and mountains, the valley of Toluca occupying the highest plateau. The Sierra Nevada mountain range, with its snow-covered peak of Popocatepetl, the highest in the country, rising 5,400 meters above sea level, traverses the eastern section; to the north is Iztacc- huatl, 4,786 meters in height; and to the south runs the Ajusco range, which marks the limit of the valle}^ of Mexico; its highest peak is Ajusco, 4,153 meters high. The Sierra de Guadalupe lies north of the Federal District, and to the northwest of the Ajusco range is the snow-capped volcano of Toluca or Xinantecatl, 4,476 meters above the level of the sea, in whose crater are two lakes of potable water. The valley of Toluca is a beautiful spot, more than 2,000 meters above sea level, being situated on the highest plateau of the Republic and embracing within its limits the Federal District and the City of Mexico, capital of the Republic. Hydrography. — The State is divided into two hydrographic basins — the valley of Mexico and the basin of the Lerma River, the latter extending to the States of Queretaro, Michoacan. and Guanajuato. The Lerma is b} T far the most important stream of the country, traversing an extent of 452 kilometers from its source to its mouth in the Chapala Lake. Next in importance is the Cuautitlan or Desague River; following, according to rank, the Tula, the Tajo de Nochistango. This valley also contains live important lakes, three of which lie wholly within its boundaries, viz, Zumpango, San Cristobal, and Xaltocan, while the Texcoco and Chalco extend into other States. The Lerma lagoon lies wholly within the State. Climate. — Climatological conditions vary according to altitudes. In the valley of Toluca, 3,176 meters above sea level, it is exceedingh 7 cold, while the valley of Mexico enjoys a temperate and healthy climate, although it is somewhat variable. The rainfall is uncertain — scarce at times and then again falling abundantly. Frost is not frequent. Fauna and flora. — Both fauna and flora are extremely rich, embra- cing as many species as the most favored States. Resources. — The principal agricultural products are cereals, legumi- nous plants, and spices. Besides these there are rice, coffee, sugar cane linseed, tobacco, and the maguey plant. The total production 509a— 04 8 114 MEXICO. varies in value from ten to twelve millions of pesos per annum. Offi- cial statistics for 1902 estimate al 17,697,763 kilos the production of cereals in the State, with a value of $8,716,364; sugar-cane products (direct) 966,000 kilos, at $118,000; sugar-cane nun. $115,000; pulque, 207,50<» hectoliters, at £44o.ooo, and thu-hltjue, another maguey prod- uct, 610,326 hectoliters, valued at $1,062,765. Stock raising Is also one of the principal sources of wealth, with an estimated value of S17.nno.iKio. with the following relative rank: Sheep, cattle, hogs, goats, horses, asses, and mules. Mining.- Many rich mining districts are within the State though their wealth is not yet fully exploited. Gold, silver, and lead are the principal metals. On December 31, 1902, there were registered 375 claims, covering 4,191 hectares, the total production of the mines in operation in the State, 24 in number, being estimated at lst;.r>f>7.257 kilos, valued at *.■>.» >44,!)53. Trade. Annual trade of the State may be safely estimated at about seven to eight millions of pesos, the principal commercial centers being Toluca, Tenancingo, Cuautithin, C'halco, and Amecameca, most of the products going to Mexico City. Communications. — The principal railway lines traversing the State are the Mexican National, the International, and the Interoceanic. The line from Mexico to Salto has an extent of 44 kilometers, the Mexico and Veracruz 60 kilometers, and the Central 66 kilometers. The Interoceanic has two tracks, one from Mexico to Veracruz, and one from Morelos to Acapulco, the first »'>'•♦ kilometers in length and the latter m; kilometers. The several street railways measure 39 kilo- meters in length. Telegraph, telephone, and mail communications are efficient, there being over 400,000 meters of telegraph wires. 900,000 of telephone, and 23 post-offices. The State is crossed in all directions by wagon roads. Industries. The leading industries are the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods, bricks, cheese and butter, wines, glassware, wheat, Hour, sugar, alcohol, pottery, and pulque. Divisions.- Politically the divisions are into 15 districts, subdivided into municipalities. The districts are: Jilotepec de Abasolo, population 72,137; its chief town, Jilotepec, 39 kilometers from Toluca. the capital of the State. Cuautithin. population 33,048, with a chief town bearing the same name. L09 kilometers from Toluca. Zumpango de Victoria, population 28,363; its chief town, Zumpango de la Laguna, is L22 kilometers from Toluca. Otumba de Morelos. population 36,218, the chief town of which, Otumba de G6mez Farias, is 114 kilometers from Toluca. Texcoco de Mora, population 58,921, the chief town of which, Tex- coco, near a lake of the same name, is a line town containing several MICHOACAN. 115 manufacturing- establishments and the repair shops of the Interoceanic Railroad. Chalco de Diaz Covarrubia, population 69,478; its chief town, Chalco, is quite a commercial center, a line of tramways running between it and Tlalmanaco, 21 kilometers in length. Ixtlahuaca de Ra}^6n, population 96,917; its chief town bears the same name, and is situated 78 kilometers from Toluca. Valle de Bravo, population 19,866, the chief town of which bears the same name and is situated 55 kilometers from Toluca. Toluca de Lerdo, population 128,735; its chief town, Toluca, popu- lation 25,901, is also the State capital, and is a very beautiful city, containing many tine public buildings, breweries, ice factories, a chamber of commerce, a bank, cotton mills, oil and flour mills. It is the principal commercial town in the State, and is situated 73 kilo- meters from Mexico City^ (by rail two hours and fifty minutes), 197 kilometers from Veracruz, and is connected by rail with the principal cities of the Republic and of the United States. Tenango de Arista, population 71,966; its chief town, of the same name, 25 kilometers from the capital of the State, has cotton, oil, and flour mills. Lerma, population 46,703; its chief town, Lerma, is 13 kilometers distant from Toluca. Tlalnepantla de Comonf ort, population 61,486; its chief town, Tlalne- pantla, is 12 kilometers from Mexico City, with which it is connected by rail, and 77 kilometers from Toluca. Tenancingo de Degollado, population 66,233; its chief town, Ten- ancingo, is an important commercial town 16 kilometers from Toluca. Temascaltepec, population 18,702; its chief town, bearing the same name, is 25 kilometers from the capital of the State. Sultepec de Alquisiras, population 65,660; its chief town, Sultepec, is 67 kilometers from Toluca. MICHOACAN. The State of Michoacan de Ocampo, population 930.033; its capital, Morelia, 1,950 meters altitude, population 37,278, is one of the richest and most beautiful regions of the Republic. n<>ini(laries.—ltH boundaries are Guanajuato on the north, Mexico and Queretaro on the northeast, Guerrero and Colima on the south east, Jalisco on the west, and the Pacific Ocean on the south. The State measures 55,693 square kilometers. Topography. — The general character of the State is mountainous, and it is immensely rich in vegetation. The coast line, which is gen- erally low, measures 163 kilometers in extent. The Sierra Madre Mountains traverse the State, sloping down, in the southern part, to the basin of the Balsas River, and continuing their course on the farther 1 L6 MEXICO. bank of the river as the Sierra Coalcoman. Other ranges are Ozuma- tlan, Tajimaroa, Zitacuaro, Angangisco, and Tlalpujahua. The highest peaks are Tamtitado, 386 meters; Patamban, 3,750; Chine.'... 3,324; Tarimangacho, 3,104; Zirate, 3,349; San Andres, 3,282; the volcano of Jorullo, L,299, and several others of lesser importance. Hydrography. The principal rivers are the Lerraa, which irrigates the upper region of the State running cast and west, and. after receiv- ing the waters of several affluents, finally empties int<» Lake Chapala; the Duero, flowing from southwest to northwest, and the Balsas, called also Zacatula and Atovac which Hows from east to west, and has sev- eral tributaries. The Lake of Chapala, 1,580 square kilometers in extent. i*> on the Jalisco boundary, one-sixth of it belonging to the State of Michoacan. In the same region are the lagoons of Tacas- cuaro and Magdalena. The Like of Patzcuaro, 36,090 meters long and 31,508 in breadth, contain- live small islands, three of which are inhabited. Other bodies of water lying within the State Limits are Lake Cuitzeo, the lagoon of Zirahuen, and of Zipimeo. Climate.— All varieties of climate are found in the State, the cold in the high altitudes being most intense, while the northern portion is temperate and healthy, the heat increasing toward the south, where fevers are prevalent. Ft'. mines in operation. Trade. Commerce is one of the leading industries, the principal articles of trade being cereals, exported to the neighboring Stales of Guanajuato. San Luis Potosi, Quer^taro, and to Mexico City; coffee MEXICO. " 117 to Germany and the United States and Mexico City; fruits to the United States and to Queretaro and Guanajuato. Foreign trade is carried on through the ports of Veracruz and Manzanillo and the frontier customs ports of Paso del Norte and Nuevo Laredo. The total trade of the State may be estimated at about $30,000,000. The gold and silver mined is sent to the mint at Mexico for coinage. Communications. — The line of the Mexican National Railroad, from Patzcuaro to the City of Mexico, traverses the State for an extent of ■130 kilometers. It is also crossed b\ T the Mexican Central, and con- cessions have been granted for two other roads. Three street-car lines are in operation, while there are good telegraph, telephone, and mail facilities, and some very good wagon roads. A steel steamboat navi- gates Patzcuaro Lake. Indust/ries. — The manufacturing industries are confined mainly to the production of cotton and silk shawls, cotton and woolen goods, palm hats, lace and embroideries, sugar-cane products, pulque mescal, cheese, wax matches, and beer. Sericulture and the culture of olive trees and grapevines are being introduced. Divisions. — The State is divided into 15 districts, subdivided into 75 municipalities, the districts being as follows: Piedad, population 61,936; its chief town, Piedad Cabados, is an important one, situated near the station of the Central Railway, 181 kilometers from Morelia. the capital of the State. Puruandiro, population 92,871; its chief town, Puruandiro de Cal- deron, the third city in the State from an industrial and commercial standpoint, is 86 kilometers from Morelia. Morelia, population 136,760; its chief town, bearing the same name, is also the capital of the State, with 37,278 inhabitants. It has a num- ber of fine public buildings, an aqueduct, several factories, a public library, and a museum. It is situated on a picturesque hill, about 377 kilometers from Mexico City, and has tramway lines connecting it with the station of the Central Railway. Zinapecuaro, population 56, nil: its chief town. Zinapecuaro de Figueroa, is 51 kilometers from Morelia and 7 from Huingo Station, on the Mexican National Railroad. Maravatio, population 53,5s3: its chief town, bearing the same name, is 151 kilometers from Morelia. Zitacuaro, population 65,621; its chief town. Zitacuaro de la Inde- pendencia, is 155 kilometers from Morelia on the line of the Miehoaciin road. Huetamo, population 48,443; its chief town, Huetamo de Nunez, is 252 kilometers from Morelia. Tacambarq, population 1<».i'>'.>7: its chief town, Tacambaro de Coda- llos, is 93 kilometers from Morelia. 118 MEXICO. Arid de Resales, population t2,831; its chief town, bearing the same name, is 88 kilometers from Morelia. Apat/.ingan. population 26,461; its chief town. Apatzing&n de la Constituci6n, is 241 kilometers from Morelia. Coalcoman, population L7,065; its chief town, bearing the Bame name, is 428 kilometers from Morelia. Uruapan. population 80,250; it- chief town. I'ruapan del Progreso, is L25 kilometers from Morelia. Thecoffee from this district is valued very highly l>oth in the Republic and abroad. The production is, how- ever, very small. Jiquilapan, population 59,938; its chief town, bearing the same name, is 24.") kilometers from Morelia. Zamora, population 92,150; its chief town, bearing the same name, is L28 kilometers from Morelia. P&tzcuaro, population 52,403; its chief town, of the same name, lies near the beautiful lake of P&tzcuaro, 62 kilometers from Morelia. MOKELOS. The State of Morelos, population 160,115, capital Cuernavaca, 1,542 meters altitudes, with a population of 9,584, is a small hut rich and progressive State. Boundaries. — Its boundaries are the Federal District to the north: the State of Mexico on the west, northwest, and northeast: Puebla on the east and southeast, and Guerrero on the south and southeast. Its area is 7,082 square kilometers. Topography. — The topograpical conditions are varied, embracing high mountain ranges, snow-capped volcanoes, beautiful valleys, and deep ravines. The northern part is the mountainous section. There rises the lofty Sierra de Ajusco, while the Suitzilac, Tepoctlan. and Santo Domingo ranges extend from west to east until they meet the Tlayacapon mountains. Th(> highest peaks in these ranges are ¥epac, Ololuica, and Ocotecatl. In the northeast are the Popocatepetl and the Ixtacihuatl ranges, while other mountain chains cross the State in all directions. Hydrography. — The State may be said to belong to the basin of the Amacusac River, which traverses it from wist to east. This river is formed by the junction of the San Jeronimo and Chontalcuallan and receives a large Dumber of tributary streams, among them the ( Jhalma, Alpuyeca. Tepalcapa, Yautepec, Jojutla, Tlaquiltenango, and Cuautla rivers. The principal lake i- Lake Tequesquiten, which occupies the site of the old town bearing the same name, and which, by reason of a subsidence of the ground, due to frequent inundations, was engulfed about half a century ago by the waters used in irrigating the land. The church spire may yet be seen in the middle of the lake. Others are the Miacatlan and Queyapan lakes. Mineral hot springs abound. MOKE LOS. * 119 Climate. — The climate is hot in the southern and central regions, cold in the northern or mountainous portions, and temperate on the mountain slopes. Rainfall is moderate throughout the territory with the exception of the slopes of the northern mountains, where it is very abundant. Frosts are of infrequent occurrence. The prevailing- diseases are malarial and typhus fevers and affections of the respira- tory and digestive organs. Fauna and flora. — Both fauna and flora are rich and varied, embracing the same species indigenous to other States of the Republic. Resources. — From an agricultural standpoint, Morelos is one of the richest States in Mexico. The principal products are sugar cane, rice, corn, coffee, wheat, and garden vegetables. The first cane plantation and sugar mill in Mexico was established by Cortes in Tlaltenango, and since that time its culture has advanced steadily and continuously, it being now the leading article of production of the State of Morelos. Rice yields at the rate of 200 kilograms for 1 kilogram of seed; corn, 100 to 200 hectoliters for 1 hectoliter sown, and other products render adequate returns for their culture. The State's agricultural produc- tion, according to official figures for 1902, was as follows: Cereals, $1,000,000; sugar-cane products, except rum, 61,791,000 kilos, valued at $9,035,500; rum, 19,000 hectoliters, at $1,170,250 J maguey products, few $13,000. The extent of coffee culture is indicated by the fact that a years ago 1,000,000 trees were planted. Stock raising does not receive much attention, the total value of all kinds, including beef cattle, sheep, and goats, being $1,250,000. Mining. — Mining occupies an inferior position among the industries of the State, although within its territory are found silver, galena, marble, alabaster, cinnabar, iron, gold, lead, petroleum, and coal. Trade — Morelos is an important mercantile center, not onlv on account of its proximity to the Federal District, but also by reason of its immense sugar-cane interests. The Jnteroceanic Railroad does not suffice for the traffic in these products, the supplementary use of mule paths being also found requisite for their conveyance to Mexico City. About $3,000,000 is the calculated annual export value of cane prod- ucts, such as sugar, rum, and molasses. Fruit exports figure at about $1,000,000, and other products, including corn, coffee, mescal, etc., about $100,000. Imports ma} T be estimated at about $2,000,000, and include alimentary products, furniture, clothing, books, implements, arms and ammunition, and hardware. Communications. — The Interoceanic Railway traverses the State from northeast to southwest, having seven stations in its extent of 76 kilometers. A concession has recently been granted for a line between Toluca and Cuernavaca, and there is a prospect for the Valley Railway being extended to the latter city. Good wagon roads exist and tele- graph, telephone, and mail service is efficient. 120 MKXICO. Industries. — The manufacturing industries, in addition to the devel- opment of cane products, include the preparation of mescal, and the manufacture of beer, flour, chocolate, oils, cigars, bricks, tiles, hair bridles and halters, ixtle bags, and cotton goods. Pottery works and tanneries also make good returns. Divisions. The State of Morelos is divided into 6 districts, subdi- vided into 26 municipalities, as follows: Cuernavaca, population 40,813; its chief town, bearing the same name, is also the capital of the State, on the river Tepeyte, 76 kilo- meters from the City of Mexico. Cuernavaca is a justly celebrated health resort, much visited by natives and tourists on account of its salubrious climate. It is an important commercial center, possessing very line public buildings, among others the Palace of Cortes, where the State Legislature meets, a Meteorological Observatory, and the public library. The population of the capital numbers 9,584 inhab- itants. Yautepec, population 18,336; its chief town, Yautepec de Zaragoza, Is 25 kilometers from Cuernavaca and 161 kilometers from the City of Mexico, with which it is connected by the Interoceanic Railway. Morelos. population 3<>,055; its chief town, Cuautla Morelos, is 44 kilometers from Cuernavaca. and is connected with the capital of the Republic b} r rail. Jonacatepec, population 20,595; its chief town, Jonacatepec de Leandro Valle, is 74 kilometers from Cuernavaca. Juarez, population 20,233: its chief town, dojutla de Juarez, is 50 kilometers from Cuernavaca. and is connected with the City of Mexico by rail. Tetecala, population 24,083; its chief town, Tetecaladc la lieforma, is 48 kilometers from Cuernavaca. M K\ O LEON. The State of NuevoLeon, population 327,037; capital city. Monterey, 495 meters altitude, population 62,266, occupying a very fertile and well-watered region, abounding in minerals. Boundaries. -The boundaries are Coahuila on the north, northwest, and west; San Luis Potosi on the south and southwest, and Tamaulipas on the northeast, east, and southeast. Nuevo Leon, whose area is 01,343 square kilometers, occupies the eastern slope of the central plateau, extending in a northeasterly direction. Topography. — The Sierra Madre Mountains traverse the State at a mean elevation of 1,070 meters above sea level for a distance of 252 kilometers. Among its numerous peaks, the Potosi is the principal, its summit being covered with snow during part of the summer. These mountains come to an abrupt end in the northern part of the NUEVO LEON. 121 State; here another chain starts whose highest peaks are known as the Silla, Mitra, Topo, and Salinas. At the latter point the chain is bifur- cated, forming two new ranges, viz, the Sierra de Gomas on the north and the Sierra de Picachos on the south. Hydrography. — Twelve rivers and 100 smaller streams irrigate the State, besides numberless brooks. None of these water courses, how- ever, are navigable. The principal river is the Salado, its waters abounding in tishes and fine pearl oysters. It receives the waters of man}- tributaries and flows from west to east, emptying in the Rio Bravo. The Santa Catarina, the Ramos, the Pilon, the Rio Grande de San Juan, the Potosi, the Hualahuises, and Pablillo rivers follow in the order mentioned. There are also two lagoons and several hot springs, but no lakes. ( 'limate. — The climate varies according to the altitude, but it is generally temperate and healthy, the extreme of heat being found in the north and east where the land is low, while on the highlands of the south a moderate temperature prevails, varying in the Sierra Madre Mountains according to the altitude. The rainfall is variable, and winds come in general from the east and northeast. Fauna and flora. — The fauna and libra of the State possess the same qualities and extent as other Mexican States. Resources. — Agriculture has been steadily progressing. The Mexi- can Statistical xVnnual for 1902 credits the State with the following production in round figures: Cereals, $1,108,000; sugar-cane products, rum excepted, 8,559,000 kilos, valued at $940,000; rum, $36,250; maguey products, §11,000; ixtle, $31,000. The value of stock in the State is estimated at $6,000,000, the different varieties classed as fol- lows: Goats, sheep, beef cattle, horses, hogs, asses, and mules. Mining. — The mineral wealth of the land has been very slightly developed, although there exist mines of iron, copper, silver, lead, coal, sulphur, marble, etc. On the 31st of December, 1902, the num- ber of registered claims was 509, covering an area of 9,701 hectares, the total output of the State being estimated at 151,112,839 kilos, with a value of $2,427,000, the number of mines in operation being 60. Trade. — Among the exports may be mentioned shipments of cattle to Texas (United States) and to some Mexican States, also agricultural products and a small quantity of cotton and woolen goods. The mer- cantile movement may be estimated at about $15,000,000 per annum. Imports include clothing, textile fabrics, hardware, drugs, paper, wines and liquors, coffee, tea, machineiy, implements, arms, etc., esti- mated at a value of about $8,000,000 per annum. ( Communications. — The Mexican National Railroad crosses the State from west to northeast, having 31 stations in its course of 280 kilo- meters. The Montery and Gulf of Mexico road crosses it from west 122 mix ico. to south on its way to the State of Tamaulipas. A branch of the Mexican National, from Matamoros to Monterey is in process <>l" con- struction. There arc 30 kilometer- of tramways, all starting from Monterey, also fine wagon roads in all direction-. Telegraph, tele- phone, and mail service is efficient. Industries. — In addition to the manufacturing industries connected with the sugar interests, there arc three large cotton mills, also one tor the manufacture of cloth and cassimeres, and several chocolate. rope, beer, and match establishments. Di/oisions. Nuevo Leon is divided into 4^ municipalities, grouped as follow-: Municipalities of the north. 17: of the east, 14; of the south, 13; of the west, :'>. and of the center. 1. The principal cities of tin- municipalities are: Northern group: Lampazos de Naranjo, population 8,586, on the Mexican National Railway. L54 kilometers from Monterey; Villal- dama, population 6,440, on the -ante road. 94 kilometer- from Monte- rey, and Sabinas Hidalgo, population ~.:US. Eastern group: Cadereyta Jimenez, population 18,040, on the Mon- terey and Gulf Line. 42 kilometers from the capital of the State, and Cerralvo, population 6,069, L25 kilometers from Monterey. Southern group: Santiago. 1.2,655 population, 42 kilometers from Monterey; Montemorelos, population is. 44:;. on the Monterey and Gulf Line, 96 kilometers from the capital: Linares, population L9,363, the second city in the State. L80 kilometer- from Monterey, and Doctor Arroyo. 22,350 population. 302 kilometer- from Monterey. Western group: Garcia, population 5,107, which is the only large town in this section, situated on the Mexican National Line. 37 kilo- meters from Monterey. This portioo of the State contains two large cotton mills, one at Garza Garcia, with 17,740 spindles and 72 looms, producing from L5,000 to 20,000 piece- per annum, and another at Santa Catarina, population 4,383, whose output i> estimated at 16,000 piece-. Central municipality, or the municipality of Monterey, population 7l\!M;3. contains the capital of the State. Monterey, with 62,626 inhab- itants, situated 975 kilometer- from the City of Mexico by wagon road and 1,079 by the Mexican National Line. Monterey is a handsome city, possessing very fine public buildings and all the conveniences of civ- ilization. It is the first commercial city of the northern Mexican frontier, and is connected by rail with the principal cities of Mexico and the United States. Among its industrial establishments are a blanket and cassimere factory, breweries, ice factories, foundries, saw- mills, flour mills, chocolate, match, wagon, and carriage factories. There are three tramway-, measuring 13 kilometers in length, that "Only towns of 3,000 inhabitants or over are mentioned. OAXACA. 123 cross the city. It also possesses a bank and chamber of commerce. The Federal assay office during 1902 treated gold for export to the value of $812,715, and silver for over $10,700,000. OAXACA. The State of Oaxaca de Juarez, population 918,633, capital city Oaxaca, 1,516 meters altitude, population 35,019, is one of the most important sections of the Republic. Boundaries. — Its boundaries are the States of Puebla and Veracruz on the north, Veracruz and a portion of Chiapas on the northeast and east, Chiapas and the Pacific Ocean on the south, and the State of Guerrero on the west and northwest. Its area is 91,661 square kilometers. Topography. — Oaxaca occupies a beautiful and fertile region, irri- gated by a number of rivers and lesser streams which traverse the numerous valleys. The Sierre Madre Mountains cross the whole State, their ramifications extending throughout the territory, and forming- such valleys as the Nochitlan or Mixteco, 2,111 meters above sea level. The maritime range, called Sierra del Sur, is composed of high moun- tains whose slopes are covered by virgin forests. The Zempoaltepec, 3,397 meters in height, is the starting point of the several ramifications of the Sierra Madre. The beautiful valley of Oaxaca or Antequera occupies the greater part of the central region, the San Felipe del Agua peak, 3,125 meters above sea level, representing its highest alti- tude. Other mountain tops vary in height from 1,300 to 2,275 meters. The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is traversed by the Tarifa and Chimalpa mountains. Oaxaca is one of the maritime States of Mexico bordering on the Pacific Ocean, and has a coast line of 110 kilometers. These shores are low and sandy. The natural ports are Chacahua, Puerto Escondido, Puerto Angel, San Augustin Huatules, San Diego, La Ventosa. and Salina Cruz, the latter being the starting point of the international railroad that is to connect the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. Salina Cruz is an open port with a deep harbor, where the largest ves- sels may safely anchor. Puerto Angel is a sheltered port, quite deep, but too narrow to permit the passage of large vessels. These are the only ports open to foreign and coastwise traffic. There are numberless bays, bars, roads, and a few islands. The Gulf of Tehuantepec is one of the most important in the Republic, being about 210 kilometers in length from east-southeast to west-northwest, and 55 kilometers from north to south, and affording numerous ports, roads, harbors, and places of anchorage. • Hydrography. — Most of the streams irrigating the State can not be properly called rivers on account of their short courses. The princi- pal ones, all draining into the Pacific, are: The Atoyac, 293 kilometers 124 MEXICO. in length, receiving the waters of numerous tributaries; the Tehuan- tepec, which, with its numerous tributaries, traverses an extent of 2'.'4 kilometers, and the Arena or Pinotepa, the Tonameca, and Copalita. The principal lakes are the Superior and the Inferior, both in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Alotengo, and Chacahua, all communicating with the Pacific Ocean. Climate. The climate i> generally hot and unhealthy on the sea- coast and lowlands adjacent to the State of Veracruz, temperate in the valley of Oaxaca and on the mountain slopes, and cold in the higher altitudes and throughout almost the whole region of the Mixteca Alta. Rainfall is moderate in the State and frosts are of infrequent occur- rence. Fevers and affections of the digestive organs are most preva- lent, yellow fever occurring principally on tin 1 coast. Fauna and flora. The fauna and flora of the State present the same general features as in the other parts of the Republic. Resources. -The principal agricultural products of the State during the year L902 are officially given as follows: Cereals, about $s.ooo.o00; sugar-cane products (direct). 10,666,000 kilos, valued at Sl.8ns.O00; rum. $1,221, i»oo; maguey products. *222,ooo: textile fibers. $100,000; coffee, s:»o:;.000, and tobacco, $60,000. The yearl}- agricultural pro- duction of the State maybe estimated at about $15,000,000. Stock raising represents a value of about $4,000,000, the leading species being sheep, goat-, beef cattle, hogs, and horses. Mini ml. From a mining standpoint Oaxaca is immensely rich, but so far its wealth has not been properly exploited. The principal minerals found are silver, gold, iron, lead, coal, marble, and salt. The number of claims registered during 1902 was 875, covering an area of (i.sso hectares. The Dumber of mines in operation during the same period was 4."). with a total output, according to official figures, of about 15,000,000 kilos, valued at $1,012,271. Trade. — The State maintains an active trade with the States of Vera- cruz. Puebla, and Chiapas, and sends its coffee, hides, cochineal, flour, sugar, minerals, indigo, oils, tobacco, and other products both abroad and to other parts of the Republic. The list of foreign imports em bra. ses about 200 articles, the principal being machinery, agricultural imple- ments, hardware, canned goods, beer, wines and liquors, cotton, woolen and silk goods, etc. The ports of Salina Cruz and Puerto Angel are maritime customs ports, their trade during the fiscal year 1901-2, according to the**Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal," being estimated at $100,000 for imports and $414,000 for exports. The entire trade of the State i- calculated at from 16,000,000 to 18,000,000 pesos. Communications. — The Southern Mexican Railroad runs from Puebla to Oaxaca on its way to the Guatemalan frontier, with a branch line to Puerto Angel. The Interoceanic runs from Salina Cruz on the Pacific to Coatzocoalcos. on the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of 304 kilometers. OAXACA. 125 The city of Oaxaca contains good tramways. The State is also in com- munication with the adjacent States by means of high roads, telegraph, and mail routes, there being also an efficient telephone service. Mari- time communication by the ports of Salina Cruz and Puerto Angel is carried on by the Pacific Mail Steamship Compairy, the Hamburg- American Line, and the Mexican Line ""Pacific and Gulf of California." There is also a line of steamers, owned by a Mexican company, navi- gating the river Papaloapam, and plying between Tlacotalpam (Vera- cruz) and Tuxtepec. Industrie*. — The industries of the State are agriculture and the extraction of the maguey fiber, called pita de Oaxaca, as well as the manufacture of woolen and cotton fabrics, furniture, potteiy, candles, soap, matches, chocolate, and tobacco. Divisions. — The State is divided into 26 districts, subdivided into 463 municipalities, which according to their geographical position are grouped as follows: Northern: Silacayoapam, population, 29,133; Huajuapam, 45,013; Teposcolula, 32,811; Coixtlahuaca, 17,195; Teotitltin, 36,556; Cuica- tlan, 23,864, and Tuxtepec, 37,745; their principal towns being Sila- cayoapam, 277 kilometers from Oaxaca; Huajapan de Leon, 202 kilometers from Oaxaca; Coixtlahuaca, or Villa de Libres, 120 kilome- ters from the capital of the State, and Tuxtepec, 260 kilometers from Oaxaca. Eastern: Villa Alta, population, 44,223; Choapam, 14,128; Tehaun- tepec, 34,948, and Yautepec, 25,245; the principal towns being Villa Alta, Choapam Santiago, Yautepec, and Tehauntepec, population 10,386, the latter being the second citj^ in the state, on the line of the Isthmian Interoceanic road, 294 kilometers from Oaxaca and 21 from the port of Salina Cruz, and is a fine, progressive town. Southern: Juchitan, population, 52,182; Miahuatlan, 42,947; Pochu- tla, 22,847; Juquila, 23,769, and Jamiltepec, 49,304, their principal cities being Juchitan, or Ciudad de Zaragoza, near the Interoceanic road; Miahuatlan, Pochutla, near Puerto Angel; Juquila, and Jamil- tepec. Western: Tlaxiaco, population, 69,460, and Juxtlahuaca, 21,139, with their principal towns Heroica Tlaxiaco, an important industrial town, and Juxtlahuaca or Villa Albino Zertuche. Central: Centro, population 72,024; Nochixtlan, 42,447; Villa Alva- rez or Zimatkin, 48.244; Ejutla, 25,107; Tlacolula, 42,124, and Ocotlan, 34,066, the chief town of which is Oaxaca de Juarez, situated in the Centro district and capital of the State, with 35,049 inhabitants. It is 464 kilometers from Mexico City, 340 from Puebla, and 464 from Veracruz. This is one of the handsomest and most advanced cities in the Republic, containing fine public buildings, tramways, and equipped with all modern conveniences. It is also the leading industrial and 126 MEXICO. commercial center of the State. Other towns are Etla de Santiago, Nochixtlan Asuncion. Villa Alvarez or Zimatlan, Heroica Ejutla Crespo, Tlacolula de Matamoros, and Villa de Morelosor Ocotlaa de Santu Domingo. PUEBIiA. The State of Puebla has a population of L,021,133, its capital city, at an altitude of 2,162 meters, bearing the same name. Boundaries. The State is bounded on the north and east by Vera- cruz, on the south by Oaxaca and Guerrero, and on the west by More- los, Mexico, and Hidalgo, its area being 31,616 square kilometer-. Topography. -The general topographical aspect is. mountainous, the principal peaks being Popocatepetl and Ixtatzihnatl. the volcanoes of San Andres and l'erote, and the mountain ranges Iluauchinango, Zacathin. Zacapoaxtle. Tezuithin. and Mixtecas. The most important plains are San Juan de los Llanos, Chalchicomula. Tecamachalco, Tepeaca, Tepeji, and the principal valleys those of Texuclucan, Atlixco and Puebla. Hydrography. — Among the rivers may be named the Atoyac and its tributaries, the Vinasco, Pantepec, Cazones, Zempoala, and Mecaxa, the latter forming, in the district of Huauchinango, a beautiful cascade 162 meters high. There are four lakes, called Quecholac, Tlachichica, Epatlan, and Tepchuayo. ( limatt .—The climate shows varying degrees of temperature, being temperate on the plains, hot in the south, and cold in the northern districts. Fauna and flora, — The fauna and flora present the same general characteristics peculiar to other States of the Republic. Resources. Agriculture is the leading industry, the chief products being cereals, sugar cane, coffee, vanilla, and delicious fruits of all kinds. Official figures for 1897 credit the State with 483 plantations, divided as follows: Three hundred and twenty-eight devoted to cereals, 67 to sugar cane, 26 to maguey pulque, 14 to coffee, 6 to tobacco, and 42 to cattle raiding. The production for 1902 is given, officially, as follows: Rice. 2,112,625 kilos at Slot*. (Hi); barley. 505,517 hectoliters at 11,328,180; corn to the value of §6,332,746, and wheat i*l.!>12.473; sugar cane products (direct). £3,044.613: rum, $820,000; maguey products. K475.000; textile fibers. *14,0UO; coffee. 8223,000; tobacco, $57,260; vanilla. $21,000. Mining. The principal minerals found are gold, silver, and copper, marble also existing in large quantities. During the year ending December 31, 1902, there were 152 mining claims registered, covering ■an area of 1,967 hectares. The output of 14 mines in operation during the same period is officially given as 47,604,000 kilos, with a value of $600,000. Trade. — The commerce of the State is characterized by the same QUERETARO. 127 features as that of other States of the Republic, the exports consisting principally of agricultural products, and the imports of manufactured articles of common utility. Communications. — In addition to several wagon roads, the means of intercommunication in the State consist of a branch line of the Mexi- can Railroad from Puebla to Apizaco; the Interoceanic, connecting the State capital with the City of Mexico, and the Matamoros line. Telegraph, telephone, and mail services arc efficient. Industries. — The manufacturing industries are similar in the main to those of the other Mexican States. Divisions. — The State is divided into 21 districts, subdivided into municipalities. Geographically the districts may be grouped as follows: Northern group: Embracing Alatriste, population, 32,366; Huauchi- nango, 70,312; Tetela, 34,564; Tezuitlan, 31,017; Tlatlauquitepec, 21,792; Zacapoaxtla. 32,853; and Zacatlan, 65,962; their principal cities are Chiguanapam, Huauchinango, Xicotepec, Tetela, Tequitlan, Tlatlanqui, Zacapaxtle and Zacatlan. Central group: Atlixco, population, 53,304; Cholula, 49,231; Huejot- zingo, 49,325; San Juan de los Llanos, 32,168; Chalchicomula, 70,984; Puebla, 109,432; Tecali, 28,860, and Tepeaca, 42.656. The principal towns are Atlixco, which is an important town on the Matamoros and Puebla Railroad, containing some fine public buildings, cotton mills, and other industrial establishments; San Pedro Cholutla, Huejotzingo, on the Interoceanic line; San Pedro de los Llanos, on the same line; San Andres Chalchicomula, on the Mexican Railway: Tecali, Tepecaca, and Puebla, the capital, containing 93,521 inhabitants. This latter is one of the oldest and most important cities of the State, possessing many handsome buildings, among others the Cathedral and several churches, the State college, containing over 24,000 volumes: the Palace of Justice, the School of Medicine, and the "Palafoxiana" Library, with more than 1.00,000 volumes: the Palace of Congress, the Episco- pal Palace, several hospitals, the Academy of Fine Arts, a chamber of commerce, and branches of the Banco Nacional, Banco Oriental, and the Banco de Londres y Mexico, and three theaters. The city is one of the most important in the Republic by reason of its commerce and industries, possessing several cotton and woolen mills, glass factories. and other establishments. Southern group: Acatlan, population. 46,364; Chiautla, 38,807; Matamoros, 37,573; Tehuacan, 78,129; Tepexi, 47,533, and Tecama- chalco, 47,901; the principal towns of which bear the same names. QUERilTARO. The State of Queretaro-Arteaga, population 232,389, whose capital city is Querctaro. 1;836 meters above the the sea. population 33,152, L28 mexioo. i> one of the smallest in the Mexican Republic, rich in minerals, well irrigated, and prosperous. Boundaries. Its boundaries are San Luis Potosi on the north, Hidalgo on tin" cast and northeast, Mexico to the southeast, Michoa- can on the south, and Guanajuato on the west. The area is estimated at 11,0:58 s(|iiare kilometers. Topography, Topographically the State may be divided into two regions, the northern portion being mountainous, the ranees extend- ing toward the center, while the central and southern sections are occupied by plains and valleys. In the north arc the Sierra Gordo Mountains, running from west to east, these mountains being also known as the Sierra de Querctaro. Among the peaks are the Cerro Alto, Cerro Colgado, Cerro del Campanario, Pildn. Santa Rosa. Cima- tario, Minteji, and the historic Cerro de las Campanas, where Maxi- milian, Mi ram on, and Mexfa were shot. . Hydrography. — Querctaro is irrigated by a large number of rivers and smaller streams, the principal being the Coned or Jalpan, empty- ing into the Ayutla; the Extoraz, the Moctezuma, the Galinda, Querctaro. Juriquilla, and their tributaries. There are several small lakes, the principal being Cerro Grande. Condi, Sancillo, andSaledon; also many swamps and mineral springs. Climate. — Climatic conditions vary with the altitudes. Rainfall and frosts are moderate, and the winds arc variable. The prevailing diseases are malarial and other fevers; also affections of the respira- tory and digestive organs. Fauna and flora.— The fauna and flora possess the same general characteristics as do those of the other Mexican States, being varied and abundant. Resources. The State of Querctaro occupies a very fertile region, producing all kinds of cereals, leguminous plants, fruits, etc., SO that agriculture is the principal industry. Cotton, sugar cane, and wheat are also cultivated, the latter yielding LOO grains to the seed and being considered the best in the Republic. In L897 the number of planta- tions in the State were according to official figures, L95; of which 179 were devoted to the culture of cereals. 9 to maguey mescal. 2 to sugar cane, and 5 to cattle breeding. The yearly product of these industries was estimated in the following values for L902: Cereals, $2,952,165; maguey products. L8,000 hectoliters, at |68,800; ixtb, 41,290 kilo- grams, at $5,294, and tobacco. $1,500. Stock may be estimated at a value of about $2,500,000. Mining. — Minerals abound throughout the entire State. Cadereyta and Tollman being the richest mining regions. The principal products are silver, galena, copper, iron, cinnabar, mercury, coal, and lead, while among the precious stones are opals, garnets, and similar deposit-. There arc 59 mines in the Cadereyta district. 8 in Toliman, QUERETARO. 129 and 35 in Jalpan. There are ov r er 20 establishments for the reduction of ores, all of which, however, are not in operation. Official data for 1902 give the number of claims registered to December 31, at 119, covering an area of 1,877 hectares, while the number of mines in operation at that date was 14, the output being estimated at 4,327,000 kilos with a value of $150,000. Trade. — The trade of the State may be estimated at from 9,000,000 to 10,000,000 pesos per annum. This is carried on principally with the neighboring States, corn, wheat, and other cereals, fruits, jerked beef, etc., being sent thither, and mineral products shipped to the United States. The imports follow the same general line as the imports of the other Mexican States, most of them coming from the United States, Europe, and Mexico Cit} r , and are estimated at a value of about $5,000,000, exports being calculated at $4,000,000. Communications. — The Mexican Central Railroad traverses the State from southeast to west for an extent of 95 kilometers, and has several stations. The various districts also are crossed by tramways, and good wagon roads are abundant, the mail, telegraph, and telephone services being especially efficient. Industries. — In addition to agriculture and mining, such industries as linen, woolen, and cotton-goods manufactories, Hour mills, distill- eries, breweries, paper mills, etc., flourish. Divisions. — The State is divided into 6 districts, subdivided into municipalities. The districts are: Jalpan, population 35,096, which is a rich mining section, and whose principal town is Jalpan, situated 127 kilometers from the capital of the State, Queretaro. Cadereyta, population 26,082, the richest mining district of the entire State; the chief town, Cadereyta Mendez, is 76 kilometers from Queretaro. San Juan del Rio, population 40,517; its chief town, bearing the same name and having a population of 8,224, is situated 59 kilometers from Queretaro, on the Central Railroad, and is the second city of the State. A line of street cars traverses the town. Toliman, population 28,017; its chief town Tollman, or San Pedro de Toliman, 117 kilometers from Queretaro, is noted for its opals. Queretaro, or Distrito del Centro, population 79,385, the chief town of which is Queretaro, 1,836 meters above the sea. also the capital of the State, situated 246 kilometers from the City of Mexico, and con- taining 33,152 inhabitants. Besides its great commercial importance, this city is perhaps the most interesting, historically, in Mexico, hav- ing been the cradle of Mexican independence, the residence of the Executive during the war with the United States, and the place where the peace treaty was signed in 1848; also the last refuge of Maximilian and the place of his execution. The principal buildings are the Fed- 509a— 04 9 L30 MEXICO. end Palace, the Government Palace (both built of basalt), the Muni- cipal Palace, the custom-house, the cathedral and other churches, sev- eral hospitals, the historic " [turbide" Theater, a bank, a chamber of commerce, and the ball ring. An excellent aqueduct, * kilometers in Length, furnishes the supply of water, and several cotton and woolen mills, and other industrial enterprises arc in a flourishing condition. The town next in importance in the district La Hercules, notable on account of the Hercules Mills, the largest textile factory in the Republic. Amealco, population 23,292, with a chief town of the same name situated 67 kilometers from Que n't a ro. SAN LUIS POTOSf. The State of San Luis de Potosi, population 575,432, or 9.25 inhab- itants per square kilometer, the capital of which is the city of the same name, at an altitude of 1,877 meters, and a population of 61,000, is one of the important sections of the country. Boundaries. -The State lies between 22 and 25 c north latitude and is bounded on the north by the State of Coahuila; on the east by the States of Nuevo Leon. Tamaulipas, and Veracruz; on the southeast by the State of Jalisco: on the south by the States of Hidalgo, Queretaro. and Guanajuato, and on the west by the State of Zacatecas. The Tropic of Cancer passes through the northern part of this State at a point about 23 kilometers to the south of the famous mining district of Catorce. ( Inmate. — The climate is mild. It varies somewhat according to the elevation, cool weather occurring in the higher altitudes during the winter months, and warm weather prevailing at all seasons of the year in the lower ones. Topography. — The State is traversed from north to south by the Sierra Madre range and is very mountainous, especially in the eastern portion. The central and western parts consist of the (derated table- land, which extends from north to south through that portion of the Mexican Republic. The greater part of this table-land is exceedingly dry, but where water can be obtained for irrigation purposes the soil proves to be fertile and productive. Hydrography. — The southeastern portion is well watered and con- tains numerous running streams, some of them of considerable volume and importance. The principal rivers are the Tantojon and Tamuin, which flow into the Panuco River. Fauna and flora. — The fauna and flora of the State of San Luis Potosi are in all respects as rich and varied as those of any other Mexican section. Resources. — Agriculture, stock raising, and mining are the principal resources of the State, agricultural products being exceedingly varied. SAN LUIS POTOSI. 131 and, where properly irrigated, the rich soil produces abundant crops. According to Mexican official statistics, San Luis Potosi contained, in 1897, 196 large plantations, 3 of which were devoted exclusively to the cultivation of coffee, 39 to sugar cane, 139 to cereals, and 15 to the products of the century or maguey plant. The "Anuario Estadis- tico" for 1902 credits the State with the following agricultural prod- ucts: Cereals (rice, barley, corn, and wheat) to the value of $5,637,085; sugar cane products, rum excepted, -1,129,816 kilos, valued at $296,210; rum, 36,500 hectoliters, at $643,113; maguey products (mescal and pulque), 51,270 hectoliters, at $556,600; textile fibers (ixtle and cotton), 3,773,992 kilograms, valued at $546,000. Stock raising in San Luis Potosi is in a nourishing and prosperous condition, and some authorities claim that it is the most important industry of the State, exceeding in value the agricultural industry. In addition to the large native herds which the State possesses, thou- sands of cattle are brought in annually from the neighboring States of Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, and Tamaulipas to graze and fatten upon the grassy plains of the table-lands and mountain slopes. When considered to be in a marketable condition, the beef cattle are separated from the herds, driven to the railway stations, and shipped to the Cit} r of Mexico, and other large distributing centers of the Republic. There are some thirty large ranches in the State devoted exclusively to the raising of cattle. Mining. — The mineral wealth of the State is very great. The great mining district of Catorce is famous the world over for its enormous deposits of silver ores. Immense quantities of high and low grade ores are taken from the rich mines of this district annually. Some of these mines have been worked more than fifty years without exhausting the supply of ore, and are still great producers. The argentiferous ores of this district contain a considerable percentage of lead, which adds to their value and desirability for smelting purposes. The immense output is shipped to the smelters at San Luis Potosi, Agnas- calientes, and Monterey for treatment. A large number of other min- erals are mined in different parts of the State. The principal mining districts are: Catorce, Matehuala, Cedral, San Luis Guadalcazar, and Salinas. Silver, lead, and copper ores are found in these districts in great abundance. Cinnabar is mined at Santa Maria del Rio, Gua- dalcazar, and Salinas; copper at Matehuala, and gold at Guadalcazar. The value of the annual silver production of the mines of the State is estimated at $3,000,000 Mexican silver. There are numerous salt deposits in this State, the largest and most important being situated at Pefion Blanco, on the Mexican Central Railway. The works at this place produce thousands of tons of fine salt annually. The number of mining claims registered to December 31, 1902, was 337, covering an area of 7,561 hectares, while the number of mines in operation during 132 MEXICO. the sauie period is officially given at 32, with a total output of 88,018,014 kilos, valued at $3,323,152. During the .same year the Federal assay at San Luis Potosi treated gold and silver t<> the value of $39,000 for coining purposes, and to the value of (5,816,400 for export. Trade. — The principal exports are to the United States, and consist of goatskins, hones for the manufacture of phosphorus, fruits from the Rio Verde regioo shipped to St. Louis, ami cattle which are exported to Cuba. Communications.- A branch of the Mexican Central Railway trav- erses the State from east to west. This branch line connects with the main line of the Mexican Central Railway at a point near the city of Aguascalientes, in the State of the same name. Its total length C <'>7s kilometers, about two-thirds of which is in the State of San Luis Potosi. This branch railway passes through San Luis Potosi, the capital of the State, and terminates at the port of Tampico, in the State of Tamaulipas. The main line of the Mexican National Railway crosses the Slate from north to south, placing both the State and city of San Luis Potosi in direct communication, via Laredo, Tex., with the United States. The Mexican National passes through the impor- tant cities of Monterey, State of Nuevo Leon; Saltillo. State of Coa- huila, and the city of San Luis Potosi. terminating in the City of Mexico, the capital of the Republic. The principal stations of the Mexican National in the State of San Luis Potosi are the city of San Luis Potosi, Venado, and Catorce. The Mexican Central Railway, in addition to passing through the capital of the State, runs through the important mining and commercial centers of Salinas. Guadalcazar, Cerritos, Cardenas, ami Yalle. There are two other railway lines. both short. One extends from Matehuala to La Pa/, a distance of i'l kilometers, while the other is known as the Vanegas, Cedral and Matehuala Railroad, and connects Vanegas, a station of the Mexican National Railway, with Matehuala, the Length of the line being 47 kilometers. These two short railways penetrate one of the richest mining districts of tin 4 Republic, ami transport annually thousands of tons of ore consigned to the different smelters of the State. Gener- ally speaking, the State highways are good, but the roads which cross the mountains are mere trails and in many places are almosl impassible. Industries. — San Luis Potosi contains one of the largest furniture factories in the Republic. This factory is very complete and its prod- ucts are to be found in many of the Mexican cities. Almost all the wood used comes from the United States. This seenls unusual in a country so rich in cabinet woods, but it is owing to the fact that mahogany and the other fine woods of Tabasco and Chiapas can not be worked until thev are seasoned, which takes considerable time. As SAN LUIS POTOSI. 133 the shops of San Luis Potosi do not keep a sufficiently large stock on hand, they prefer to buy the seasoned wood in the United States. Walnut lumber is principally employed for the fine furniture. The other industries of the city are cotton-goods factories, tanneries, breweries, etc. Divisions. — The State of San Luis Potosi is divided into thirteen districts, the name and population of each being as follows: Catorce Cerritos Ciudad del Maiz Guadalcazar . . . . Hidalgo Bio Verde Salinas San Luis Potosi . Popula- tion. 70, 899 30, 792 31,172 30, 263 41,094 41, 517 12,319 144,101 Name. Santa Maria del Rio. . Tamanzunehale Tancanhuitz Valles Venado Total Popula- tion. 38, 267 36, 266 40, 960 22,001 32, 792 575,432 San Luis Potosi, the capital of the State, has a population of 61,019 inhabitants, and is located 1,887 meters above sea level. It is one of the principal smelting and commercial centers of the Republic. Hun- dreds of tons of ore are smelted daily in the large reduction works situated in the suburbs of this city. Thousands of workmen are employed in the handling of ores, and hundreds of thousands of dol- lars are paid out to them annually in the form of wages. The city contains many large and handsome public buildings, churches, and schools, and has one of the finest theaters in the .Republic. It is a healthful community, the climate is salubrious, but little rain falls, and the atmosphere is clear and dry. The water supply is at present somewhat deficient, but steps are being taken for the construction of large reservoirs in the neighboring hills to remedj^ this defect. Con- siderable manufacturing is done at San Luis Potosi, the principal products being soap and candles, pottery wares, hats, paints, cigars and cigarettes, beer, etc. There is a chamber of commerce, a Federal assay office, three large banking institutions, and a Board of Trade. In 11)02 San Luis Potosi had 173 State and 162 municipal schools devoted to primary education. The Government also maintains sev- eral institutions of higher education, the principal school being the Scientific and Literary Institute, located at the capital of the State, which has an able corps of professors and is otherwise well equipped. The other large towns of the State are shown in the following table: Name. Catorce . . . Cedral Matehuala Rio Verde . Name. Santa Maria del Rio. . . Soledad Diez Gutierrez Venado Popula- tion. 8,440 5,730 5,750 134 MEXICO. SINALOA. The State of Sinaloa, population 296,701, whoso capital city is Onlia- ean, 40 meters above the sea level, population 10,380, is one of the rich mining and agricultural sections of the Mexican Republic. Boundaries. — It is bounded on the north by Sonora and Chihuahua, on the east by Chihuahua and Durango, on the south by the Territory of Tepic and the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by the Gulf of Cali- fornia. Its area is about 71,380 square kilometers, and its seacoast measures 510 kilometers. Situation. — The Gulf of California extents along the coast of the State from Agiabampo Bay to the south of Mazatlan, at which point the Pacific coast line begins. Numerous bays and harbors are formed by the waters of the gulf, the principal being the hay of Topolobampo, on which is situated the port of the same name, generally considered to be the best on the Pacific coast by reason of its sheltered location. There are also the bays of Olas Altas, Mazatlan, Agiobampo, San Ignacio, Navachiste, and others indenting the literal of the State, and forming small interior bays, in whose waters appear the Islands of Mero, San Felipe, and Pajaros. Other islands along the coast are Saliaca, Altamura, Lobos, San Ignacio, Guinorama, Macapule, Cluendo, and Cuestion. Topography. — The general topographical condition of the State [s mountainous, the land rising gradually from the gulf coast to the Sierra Madre Mountains, which traverse Sinaloa north and soutb and constitute the principal range of the section. Others are the Sanabari Mountains, the Gacopira, Aguablanca, Cosald, Guadalupe de los Reyes, Tasajera, Navachiste, Cuitaboa, and Tescalama. These systems em))race several peaks and plateaus. Hydrography. — Sinaloa is one of the best irrigated sections of the Republic, many of its rivers, such as the Fuerte and Sinaloa, being navigable. Nearly all the streams rise in the Sierra Madre and empty into the Gulf of California, the principal being the Fuerte, 670 kilo- meters in length; the Sinaloa, 420 kilometers; the Moscorite, 108 kilo- meters; the Culiaean, 252 kilometers; the Quila, L56 kilometers; the Elota, 221 kilometers; the Piaxtle, 203 kilometers; the Presidio or Mazatlan, 107 kilometers; the Chametla or Rosario, 165 kilometers, and the Canoas or Telapan, 152 kilometers. These rivers all have numerous tributaries, and there are in addition over 200 smaller streams traversing the State. Climate. — Climatically the State may be divided into two regions: The western, or hot belt, which is also the maritime section, devoted to agriculture, and the eastern, or cold belt, which is the mountainous district, devoted to mining. Rains are abundant on the coast, and in the mountains the precipitation is excessive, frost also being of frequent occurrence. Winds are variable, the northeastern predominating. SINALOA. 135 Fauna and flora. — The fauna and flora partake of the same char- acteristics as the majority of Mexican States. Resources. — -The principal agricultural products are cereals, cotton, tobacco, sugar cane, coffee, and fruits, their total valuation being about $8,000,000 per annum. According to Mexican official figures, in 1897 there were 121 plantations in the State, divided as follows: Cotton, 9; sugar cane, 20; cereals, 20; maguey mescal, 24; and 48 cattle ranches. The estimated value of these products for 1902 is as follows, in round figures: Cereals, $2,000,000; sugar-cane products (direct), 7,919,225 kilograms, at $1,575,900; mescal, $180,000; tobacco, $32,000; and ixtle, $30,000. Stock raising has an estimated value of about $9,000,000 a year. Mining. — It is claimed that Sinaloa is the richest mining region of Mexico, the standard of its production being higher than that of Guanajuato, Zacatecas, and Pachuca. The mining district lies in the east of the State, gold, silver, copper, iron, and lead being the prin- cipal metals. The number of mining claims registered in 1902 was 711, covering 5,903 hectares, while the total output of the State is estimated at 138,225,108 kilos, valued at $5,159,000. The number of mines in operation was 80. There are also rich salt deposits, mineral springs, etc. Culiacan Rosales contains fine reduction works and a mint. Trade. — An active import and export trade is carried on through the port of Mazatlan, manufactured articles of all kinds being received in return for minerals and other native products. Altata and Ma- zatlan are the two customs ports. Imports in 1901-2 are valued at about $1,760,000, and exports, $7,214,000, while the total trade, including local traffic, amounts to from 18,000,000 to 19,000,000 pesos per annum. Communications. — The Sinaloa and Durango Railway, also called the Western Mexican, has several stations between Altata and Culia- can de Rosales, and the International is constructing a branch line from Villa Lerdo (Durango) to Topolobampo, in addition to the Tepic road, which is to traverse the coast. There are tramways in the city of Mazatlan and many fine wagon roads connecting the principal towns with those of the adjacent States. Coastwise trade is carried on by several steamship lines, while the Pacific Mail and the Mexican International line furnish communication with foreign countries. The telegraphic, telephonic, and mail services are efficient and extensive. Divisions. — The State is politically divided into 10 districts, subdi- vided into directorias, as follows: El Fuerte, population 45,530, with a chief town of the same name, 230 kilometers from Culiacan, the State capital. Sinaloa, population 43,432; its chief town of the same name is 160 kilometers from Culiacan. 136 MEXICO. Mocorito, population 28,628, the chief town of which, bearing the same name, is situated 22 kilometers from Culiacan. Culiacan, population 44,:-J44; its chief town. Culiacan Rosales, is also the capital of the State, containing L0,380 inhabitants and situated 1,478 kilometers from the capital of the Republic. This is an important commercial center, connected with the port of Altata by a railroad 62 kilometers in length, possessing very fine public buildings, among others the Government palace, the Mint, the total coinage of which for 1002 was gold to the value of 1158,496 and silver $8,301,744, and the Cathedral. ( lotton mills and other industrial establishments flour- ish. Next in importance is the city of Altata. a seaport haying a lar^e maritime movement. It is provided with a tine wharf, a power- ful beacon light, and a custom-house. Cosahi. population 21,399; its chief town, bearing the same name, i-. L51 kilometers from Culiacan. San Ignacio, population 13,283, with a chief town of the same name situated 250 kilometers from Culiacan. Mazatlan, population 38,298. The chief ton n, Mazatlan, population L7,852, is the first port of the Republic, situated 246 kilometers from Culiacan and L,185 from the City of Mexico. It is built on a small peninsula opposite the Bay of Olas A Has and contains a weather bureau, a tine custom-house, a chamber of commerce, three banks, and other public buildings, and a system of tramways. It is the fore- most commercial and industrial Mexican town on the Pacific Ocean, the residence of several foreign consuls, and the touching point for the steamship lines above referred to. Rosario, population 27,047; the chief town, bearing the same name. is 322 kilometers from Culiacan. Concordia, population 17. si 7; the chief town, bearing the same name, is 299 kilometers from Culiacan. Badiraguato, population 16,923; its chief town, of the same name, situated 7, the capital city of which is Hermosillo, 253 meters altitude, population 10,613, is one of the most northern of the Mexican States, and is on the United States border. In size it is the second State in the Republic, having an area of 1.98,496 square kilometers. Boundaries. -Its boundaries are: On the north. Arizona and New Mexico (United States); on the east, Chihuahua; on the west, the Gulf of California, and on the south, Sinaloa. Situation.— The State is washed by the Gulf of California for a distance of 860 kilometers, from the mouth of the Colorado River to the port of Agiabampo. This gulf i- L,190 kilometers in length and SONORA. 137 306 in breadth, at its widest point. The Sonora littoral, which is low and arid, extends in a line almost parallel to Lower California, a pecu- liarity of the region being that the rain falls from a cloudless and serene sky. Several islands lie along the coast, among them being San Pedro Nolasco, San Pedro Martin, Tiburon, Patos, San Jorge, and Pelicano; as well as many capes, bays, etc. Guaymas is the principal gulf port of the State. Topography.— In the east Sonora is traversed by the Sierra Madre Mountains, from which extend various ramifications forming beautiful valleys, ravines, and canyons. The principal of these secondary chains are the Sierras Guadalupe, San Luis, Batuco, Alamos, Antimez, Bacatete, and Prietas. The western portion is flat, and the largest valley is that of Guaymas. Hydrography. — The principal rivers, all of which empty into the Gulf of California, are the Altar, also called Asuncion and San Igna- cio, 358 kilometers in length; the Yagui, 838 kilometers; the Mayo, 293 kilometers; the Sonora, 410 kilometers, and the Matope, 234 kilometers. There are other streams of lesser importance, and a lake, called San Rafael. Climate. — The climate varies according to the altitude, is cold in the mountains, temperate on the slopes, and hot and dry near the coast and in the valle} T s. During the summer season the thermometer reaches 98° F. in Hermosillo, and in Guaymas it has gone as high as 119 c . The minimum temperature for the winter months is 45°. Rainfall is moderate, and frost occurs occasionally in some districts, more especially in the Sierra Madre regions. Fauna ami font. — The fauna and flora are remarkable for their wealth and variety, embracing the same species common to the rest of the country. The Gulf of California is noted for its fish and for its pearl oysters, the latter, it is claimed, yielding gems superior to those of the Gulf of Aden, in Asia. Resources. Notwithstanding the fertility of the soil, a lack of ade- quate irrigation facilities, in certain sections, is a drawback to agri- cultural development. The principal products are cereals, tobacco, cotton, sugar cane, fruits, etc. According to the official figures for 1897, the number of plantations in the State was 270, divided into: Sugar cane, 4<>; cereals, 179; fruits, 3; maguey mescal, 8; tobacco, 13, and 27 cattle ranches. The State's production for 1902, according to official figures, was as follows: Cereals to the value of $3,961,906; sugar-cane products, 200,000 kilograms, at $4<>.000; mescal, $710,000; tobacco, 238,557 kilograms, at $58,932. At one time cattle were extensively exported to the United States, but owing to the high duties, almost prohibitory, imposed by that country this branch of commerce has decreased. 138 MEXICO. Wining. — Sonora is classed not only among- the richest mineral- producing section-; of Mexico, but also of the world, the leading prod- ucts being silver, lead. gold, copper, coal, antimony, iron, cinnabar, and graphite. Exports of these minerals to the United States are estimated at a value of from L0,000,000 to L2,000,000 pesos per annum. Although many of the mines are in exploitation, an equal number are lying idle. In the year ending December 31, l!*o-_>. the mining claims registered numbered 2,168, embracing an area of 35,894 hectares, while the total production of the 144 mines in operation during that period was 362,235,748 kilos, valued at $41,144,000. Trade. Owing to its geographical position all the foreign trade of the State is with the adjacent State- aiel Territories of the American Union, while its home trade is carried on with Siualoa, Chihuahua, and Lower California. The principal exports are metals and metallic ores, fruits, hides and skins, woods, etc., to the United States, wheat, flour, and cotton to Sinaloa and Chihuahua, pearls to Europe and the United State-; and the principal imports are machinery and implements for mining and agriculture, silk, cotton, linen and woolen goods, wines and liquors, arms and ammunition, and hardware. The total trade of the State may be estimated as worth from 6,000,000 to 8,000.ooo pesos per annum. Communications. — The only railway traversing the State is the Guaymas and Nogales (Sonora) road, 422,302 kilometers in length. which, in Nogales (Arizona), connects with the Southern Pacific Railroad. The State has one street railway 3 kilometers in length. and the " Inmris Mining Company, Limited," owns another 18 kilo- meters long, and three concessions have been granted. Several line wagon roads connect the different cities and towns with those of the adjacent States. Telegraphic, telephonic, and mail services are effi- cient and extended. Industries. The principal industries are mining, agriculture, and commerce. There are a few manufacturing establishments, such as cotton and woolen mills, soap and candle factories, and distilleries. Divisions.- Sonora is divided into 9 districts, subdivided into munici- palities. The districts and their chief towns are as follows: Altar, population 1.3,229; chief town El Altar, 2.16 kilometer-^ from Hermosillo. This district is rich in mines. Magdalena, population 15,568; the chief town, of the same name, is 150 kilometers from Hermosillo. The second town in importance is Nogales, on the boundary Wna between Mexico and the United States, separated from the American town of the same name by a street only. It is the terminal point of the Sonora Railway and has a customs port. Arizpe, population 18,261, also rich in minerals; its chief town, of the same name, is 219 kilometers distant from Hermosillo. TABASCO. 139 Moctezurna, population 17,606, rich in mines; its chief town, Moc- tezuma or Oposura, is 185 kilometers from Hermosillo. Sahuaripa, population 12,955, a mineral district; the chief town of which, of the same name, is 323 kilometers from Hermosillo. Alamos, population 57,837, a mineral district, with a chief town of the same name, which is the third city in the State and situated 309 kilometers from Hermosillo. Guaymas, population 28,070, also a mineral district, possessing excellent coal beds; the chief town of which, Guaymas, 8,618 inhabi- tants, is one of the most important commercial ports on the Pacific, 151 kilometers from Hermosillo. It is connected by rail with Nogales. Hermosillo, population 32,562, very rich in mines; chief town, Hermosillo, is also the capital of the State, with 10,613 inhabitants, and situated 2,527 kilometers from the City of Mexico, 281 from Nogales, and lH from Guaymas. This city has many fine public buildings, among others the Federal assay office, which in 1902 assa} T ed gold and silver for coining purposes to the value of $70,000 and for export to the value of $370,000, the Cathedral, a library, and the Gov- ernment Palace. It is one of the railroad stations of the Sonora Line. Ures, population 25,591; chief town of the same name 76 kilometers from Hermosillo. TABASCO. The State of Tabasco, population 159,831, whose capital city is San Juan Bautista, rising from 11 to 27 meters altitude, population 10,513. lies in the southeastern part of the Republic. Boundaries. — Its boundaries are the Gulf of Mexico on the north, the State of Campeche on the east, Chiapas on the south, Veracruz on the west, and the Republic of Guatemala on the southeast. Its area is 26,091 square kilometers. Situation. — On the Gulf the coast line of the State extends for 190 kilometers, and is low and healthful, the natural depression of the soil forming several lakes. There are no capes, bays, or sheltered harbors along the coast, but vessels find anchorage in the mouths of the rivers, called bars, the principal of which are the San Pedro and San Pablo, formed by the river bearing that name at the boundary between Tabasco and Campeche; the Tabasco, Frontera, or Principal, formed by the Grijalva, giving access to the port of Frontera and the capital of the State; the Chiltepec, which is the widest and deepest of all, formed by the Gonzalez River, and the Tonala, formed by the river Tancochopa, the boundary between Tabasco and Veracruz. Topography.— The surface of the State is generally a plain, slightly broken by hillocks and river beds, except toward the south and south- east, where a spur of the Sierra Madre rises. The highest mountains 140 MEXICO. are the txtapangajoya, the Oocona, Puyacatengo, Madrigal, Quemado, Tortuguero, Limon, and Chinal. Hydrography. — Of all the State- of Mexico. Tabasco possesses the besl hydrographic Bystem. Two large basins, the Usumacinta and the Grijalva, collect the innumerable streams. The Usumacinta River is formed by the junction of the Pasion and Salina rivers (both entering from Guatemalan territory), and is afterwards joined by the waters of the Chajill, .latate. Lacant&n, Cendales, and others. This river is 800 kilometers in length, and navigable 300 kilometers from it- mouth for good-sized steamers. The Grijalva River is formed by the confluence of the Mexcalapa and the Sierra, or Tacotalpa. The former rise- in the State of Chiapas, and receives throughout its extent more than 30 streams, and is navigable for L25 kilometer-. The Tacotalpa also takes its source in Chiapas, and has numerious tributaries. The Grijalva proper commences with the junction of these two streams, and empties into the Gulf of Mexico, and is navigable from the Frontera bar a- far as Las Palmas, a distance of 280 kilometers. Other rivers are the Ouxcuchopa, navigable for 60 kilometer-, the Soledad, Coc- cohital, Tular, Tortuguero, and Tonala. As has been stated, the gen- eral character of the land being a plain, with little -lope seaward, the rain water- form many lakes. The principal are Mat ilia-. < !hichicastre, Zapote, Viento, Ramon. Bernete, Palo Alio. I >ull< ». Largarten, Encan- tada. Yeladero, Chimal, and Puerto Cabello. Climate. — The climate is hot. tempered, however, by the numerous streams. Rainfall is abundant, and the temperature during the sum- mer months (February to May) is from 27 to 28 ( '. (80 to 82 F.i. and in the coolest month- (December and January) the mean tempera- ture is from IT to L8 C. (62 to 64 F.). The prevalent diseases are malarial fevers and dysentery. Fauna and flora. — The fauna and flora of the State are both rich and varied, including all the specie- found in other parts of the Republic situated in the same zone. Resources. Agriculture, and the industries directly derived from it. constitute- the source of future development; the soil, on account of it> topography, is peculiarly rich in spontaneous vegetation. The work" from which the data referring to the State of Tabasco are obtained -tale- that the agricultural production amounts in value to 8,000,000 pesos annually, of which 6,000,000 represents the home con- sumption and the remainder export values. Throughout the State 20,000 men are engaged in farming, 6,000 of whom are plantation owners. The leading- products are cacao, sugar cane, coffee, tobacco, corn, rice, fruits, rubber, pepper, vanilla, cedar, mahogany, logwood, and other dye and cabinet woods. According to the "Anuario Esta- oResena Econ6mica del Estado de Tabasco. Alberto Correa, 1899. TABASCO. 141 distico" 1 for 1897, the number of plantations in Tabasco was 370, divided as follows: Cacao, 124; coffee, S; sugar cane, 14; cereals, 60; tobacco, 12, and 122 cattle ranches. The production of the State for 1901-2 is officially quoted as follows: Cereals to the value of $1,300,000; sugar cane products, except rum, 2,588,000 kilos, valued at $226,500; rum, 27,616 hectoliters, at $123,354; logwood, 2,329,800 kilos, at $65,000; cacao, $1,551,391; coffee, $120,000; tobacco, $50,000; chicle gum, $280,600. Stock raising, notwithstanding the great facilities offered by nature, is not as flourishing as should be, the number of cattle being esti- mated by Correa at about 150,000 head. Mining. — Mining receives practically no attention, no precious min- erals being found within the limits of the State; but there are indica- tions of deposits of coal, asphaltum, cinnabar, and petroleum. Trade. — Commerce is well developed, there being, according to the authority above cited, 500 commercial houses, representing a capital of $4,000,000, established throughout the State. Foreign trade through the port of Frontera during 1901-2 amounted to $116,000 silver for imports and $271,354 for exports. A large share of the trade in dye and cabinet woods seems to be carried on through the port of Carmen, amounting in value to $1,400,000, which would increase the export trade of the State to over $1,600,000 yearly. The leading articles of export are dye and cabinet woods, hides and skins, coffee, tobacco, and rubber. Coastwise and local trade is estimated at a valuation of $1,500,000 for imports and $1,900,000 for exports. Communications. — Tabasco has no steam railways, but there are three lines of horse cars, one from San Juan Bautista to Carrizal, about 6 kilometers in length; one from Cardenas to Paso de Cardenas on the Grijalva River, 7 kilometers, and one (the Interfluvial) between San Juan Bautista and Boca Nueva, 6 kilometers in length. Other lines are projected, among them one to run from Cardenas to Barra de Dos Bocas, 80 kilometers, and another from Teapa to La Ermita. Wagon roads and mule paths lead to all the principal centers, and there is a daily improving river transit system, 16 steamers being at present employed in this means of communication. Efficient and extended telegraphic, mail, and telephonic service is available. Industries. — The principal manufacturing industries are the develop- ment of sugar-cane products, yielding over $500,000 annually; the manufacture of cigars and cigarettes, and the production of brick, soap, candles, and chocolate. Divisions. — Politically the State is divided into 17 municipalities, subdivided into rural districts ( Vecvndarios luixdes), as follows: Balancan, population, 3,583; Cardenas, 9,649; Comacalco, 11,208; Cunduacan, 10,727; Huimanguillo, 14,117: Jalapa, 9,400; Jalpa de Mendez, 5,870; Jonuta, 3,581; Macuspana, 15,286; Montecristo, 2,591, 142 mixico. Naoajuca, 11,175; Parafso, 5,478; Taeotalpa. 6,065; Toapa. 7.17:.': Tenosique, 3,984, their chief towns bearing the same names; also Fron- tera, population. 8,219, and San Juan Bautista, 31,729, which are the principal municipalities, the former having, as the capital, the port of Frontera and the latter, San Juan Bautista. which i- also the State capital, containing L0,543 inhabitants. This city has tramway lines and many tine buildings, among them the palace of the legislative and executive powers, hospitals, a theater, and three churches. TAMAULIPAS. The State of Tamaulipas. population 218,948, whose capital city is Ciudad Victoria, 449 meters altitude, population L0,086, is a favored land, requiring only more general irrigation and capital to develop it- immense wealth. Boundaries. — The State is hounded on the north by the Rio Bravo, which separates it from the State of Texas (U. S. A.), on the north- west by Coahuila, on the west by Nuevo Leon, on the south by San Luis Potosi. on the southeast by Veracruz, and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. The area of the State is 83,597 square kilometers. Situation. — Tamaulipas occupies one of the most beautiful sections of the Republic. Its coast line stretches from the har of the Rio Bravo on the north to Tampico on the south, an extent of 400 kilometers, being formed by a succession of sand banks. This part of the State is almost uninhabited, as with the exception of two or three unimportant villages the centers of population are from 8 to 12 kilometers inland. There are several bars, the principal being the Jesus Maria, at the junction of the Madre Lake and the Gulf of Mexico, which is 800 meters wide and 15 feet below the level of the water at high tide: the Tampico bar, at a depth of from 8 to 9 feet; the Soto de Marina bar and the bar of the Rio Bravo. The prevailing winds on the Gulf coast are from east, northeast, and southeast, but in winter "northers" are frequent and dangerous. Topography. — The southern and central portions of the State are mountainous, the northern part containing extensive fertile plains, adapted for stock raising. The principal mountain ranges arc the Pamoranes, separated from the San Carlos range by -■< to !"■• kilometers, and the Sierra Madre, which traverses the southwestern, western, and central portions, its principal peaks being Cerro Mocho and Cerro Shigi'ie. The most remarkable valley, by reason of its beauty and fertility, is the Jaumave; other.- are the Rusias and the Santa Barbara de ( Vampo. Hydrography. — Tamaulipas has four large rivers which may be made navigable; also several small lakes and many small streams. The principal river- are the Rio Bravo del Norte, the boundary line between Mexico and the United State-, flowing from northwest to southeast, TAMAULIPAS. 148 and emptying into the Gulf of Mexico; the Conchas, also called the Presas; the Soto de la Marina, navigable for 50 kilometers from its mouth, and the Guayalejo, with their respective tributaries. The most important lakes are on the Gulf coast, and are the Laguna Madre, 210 kilometers in length, containing several small islands; the Pesquerias, or Morales, 34 kilometers long, also containing small islands; the Tordo, San Andres, Chairel, Ckainpayan, and Carpintero. Mineral springs abound. Climate. — The climate of Tamaulipas is generally hot and damp on the coast and in the vicinity of the lakes and rivers; temperate on the slopes of Sierra Madre and in the valleys, and dry and temperate in the Lagrimas Valley. Rainfall is abundant in the sierras and moder- ate in the valleys, and throughout the district watered by the Rio Bravo frost is frequent. The highest temperature experienced in the State is from 32° to 33° C. (89° to 91° F.), and the lowest 15° to 24° C. (59° to 75° F.), the extremes being at noon and midnight. The prevailing diseases are malarial fevers and affections of the respiratory and digestive organs. Fauna and flora. — The fauna and flora are rich and varied and pre- sent the same general features as mark that of other Mexican States. Resources. — Agricultural products are, in the main, such as exist elsewhere in the Republic, cereals, leguminous plants, sugar cane, coffee, tobacco, cotton, and maguey. Official figures for 1897 credit the State with 76 plantations, as follows: Cotton, 3: sugar cane, 28; cereals, 23; and 22 cattle ranches, the valuation of their production for 1901-2 being given at about $1,150,000 for cereals; sugar-cane products, except rum, $75,000; rum, $1,000; cotton, $32,000; coffee, $10,000. JIhiivg. — Although the mineral wealth of the. State is most abun- dant, it has not been developed to any extent. The minerals found are gold, silver, iron, and copper; also salt, marble, and asphalt; the number of mining claims registered to December 31, 1902, amounted to 81, covering 938 hectares, and the total production of the State — 5 mines in operation— was, during the same period, 585,000 kilos, valued at *60,000. Trade. -The commercial future of Tamaulipas is assured by reason of its excellent ports, its close proximity to the United States, its rail- road lines, and natural wealth, its present disadvantages being limited to a lack of population and adequate capital and to restricted means of foreign communication. Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon are the princi pal mercantile centers, the exports of the former town consisting of beef cattle, horses, ixtle, sarsaparilla, woods, fruits, hides and skins, rubber, and asphalt, while the imports are plows, machinery, arms, hardware, alimentary products, wines and liquors, cotton, silk, and 144 MEXICO. woolen goods, etc. The frontier of this Stale bordering on the I Inited Stairs helongs to the Five Zone. Communications. — Three railroad lines traverse the State, theMexi can National, the Monterey and Gulf, and the Mexican Central. The first-mentioned line crosses it twice, first in the northwest, <>n the International Line from Mexico to Nuevo Laredo, and again in the north, on the Matamoros, San Miguel and Monterey Line. The Monterey and Gulf Line crosses it diagonally from west t<> northeast on the Monterey, Tampico and Treviiio road, and the Mexican Central on the line from Tampico to San Luis Potosi. The Central also has a line from Chicalote to Tampico. There are |'<,ur lines of tramways in Matamoros, one in NueVo Laredo, one in Victoria, one in Tampico. and another connecting this port with the capital. Concessions have also been granted for several more lines. Telephone, telegraph, and mail service is efficient and extended. Several steamship line- touch at Tampico, the principal being the Hamburg- American, the Harrison, the West India and Pacific, and the New York ami Cuba Steamship Company. Wagon roads arc numerous, hut their condition leaves much to be desired. Tndust ri> s. Besides manufactured product- directly derived from agriculture, such as sugar, rum. etc.. the State also has beer, soap, and candle manufactories. />,V/.svV>//.v.---Tamaulipas is divided into 4 districts, subdivided into 38 municipalities. The districts and their principal cities are as follows: Distrito del Norte, population 68,727; its chief town is Matamoros, population 8,347, 293 kilometers from Victoria, the State capital. This is a fluvial port, on the Rio Bravo, 50 kilometers from the (lull' coast, and carries on a large trade. It is a tine city, possessing many public buildings, tramway lines, a chamber of commerce, etc. Next in importance comes Nuevo Laredo, population lt>. '><»<>. on the Rio Bravo, opposite the American town of the same name (Texas), with which it is connected by an iron bridge. It ha- a frontier customs port, a chamber of commerce, and is the second customs district of the Republic. It is distant .">47 kilometers from th< City of Mexico by rail and 320 from Matamoros. Other important towns are Gue- rrero and Mier, also frontier customs port-, and Reynosa and ( 'amejo. Foreign trade through tin Laredo custom-house, according to invoice valuation, is officially estimated for 1901-2 at $7,145,17] for imports and St - ,. : I i * T . 7 « ► 1 for exports. Distrito del Centro, population 55,073, whose chief town. Ciudad Victoria, is also the State capital, containing 1.0,086 inhabitants, and distant L .:'.«> 7 kilometers from the City of Mexico by rail: 550 from Nuevo Laredo, and 233 from Tampico. The city posse ses a chamber of commerce, many tine public buildings, tramways, and other modern improvements, and as it lies on the line of the Monterey and Gulf TLAXCALA. 145 Railway, it has a large trade. Other important towns are Soto de la Marina, a fluvial port, 63 kilometers from the Gulf, the river from which it takes its name being navigable for more than 141 kilometers, Villagran, San Carlos,, and Hidalgo. Distrito del Sur, population 42,248; its chief town, Tampico, popu- lation 16,313, a Gulf port, is steadily growing in importance. The foreign trade of Tampico, according to the "Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal' 1 for 1001-2, amounted during that year to $10,279,068 for im- ports and $46,900,360 for exports, according to invoice valuation. Its custom-house receipts up to the end of November, 1899, were larger by a considerable sum than those of the great port of Veracruz. The Panuco River, which flows by it, waters one of the most valuable sec- tions of the territory of the Republic, where agriculture and stock raising offer inducements not equaled elsewhere in the country. The navigation business on this river is constantly increasing. The city possesses several tine public buildings, tramways, a cham- ber of commerce, and all modern conveniences, and is the terminus of two railroad lines, the Montere}' and Gulf and the Mexican Central. Other important towns are Altamira, Aldama, Nuevo Morelos, and Quintero. Cuarto Distrito, population 52,900; its chief town is Tula, popula- tion 6,935, 160 kilometers from Victoria, and one of the principal commercial centers of the State. Other towns are Ocampo, Jaumave, Palmillas, and Bustamante. TLAXCALA. The State of Tlaxcala, population 172,315, with a capital city bear- ing the same name, 2,252 meters above the sea, is the smallest State in the Republic. boundaries. Its boundaries are the State of Puebla on the north, east, and south, ami Mexico on the west, its area measuring 4,132 square kilometers. Topography. -Tlaxcala is situated within the cold region of Mex- ico, and its valleys, though sandy, are fertile. It forms a portion of the Central Plateau, being situated over 2.000 meters above the level of the Gulf. The eastern slopes of the Popocatepetl range rise in the west of the State, while toward the south rises the Malinche range with its snow-capped peaks. Malintzi, 4,107 meters in height, and the Xaltonale, 3,848 meters high. The highest points in the eastern por- tion of the State are Pefion delRosario, 3,359 meters, and Huitintepec, 3,080 meters high. Other elevated points throughout the State range from 2,000 to 2,700 meters in height. The principal valleys are the Huamantla, the Pie Grande, Apam, and Zahuapam. Hydrography. — The principal rivers are the Zahuapam, emptying into the Atovac, and the Atoyac and its few tributaries. There are :,(><• \ — 04 10 1 l''> Ml XICO. also several permanent streams, among them the Negros, Tenexac, Achiachiapam, Tot61ac, and Tequixquiatl. The principal lakes arc the Acuitlapilco, l n "> hectares in extent, Rosario, 252 hectares, Xonecuila, and Santa Clara. Climate.— The climate of the State is cold and healthful, as its mean altitude is between 2,000 and 3,000 meters above sea level. Rainfall is moderate throughout the year and frost is frequent during the win- ter. The prevailing diseases are typhus and malarial fevers and affec- tions of the respiratory organs. y,ni,in and flora.— The fauna and flora embrace t ho usual species indigenous to the Mexican States. /?, sources. - Tlaxcala is essentially an agricultural State, cereals and pulque forming the chief products. Official figures for L897 credit it with 154 plantations, devoted in the following proportions to various cultures: Cereals. 100, and maguey, 48; and 6 cattle ranches. Tneval nations for 1901-2 are officially quoted as follow-: ( !ereals, (2,442,227; pulque, $2,136,746. Mining. — The State has no importance as a mining district, though gold, silver, lead, cinnabar, and a small proportion of coal have been found. Trml,. The value of the annual commerce is estimated at aboul ss. oho. ono, consisting chiefly in the export of pulque to the City i E Mexico and to Puebla and adjacent States; of cereals and other agri- cultural products, paper and cotton from the native mills. Hour, etc., the principal imports being alimentary products, hardware, furniture, machinery, and agricultural implements. Oom/mtmications.- Three railroads cross the State: the Mexican, running on the Mexico and Veracruz line and on the Apizaco and Puebla branch; the Interoceanic, from Acapulco and Veracruz to Mexico, and the Santa Ana and Tlaxcala road, from Chiantempan to Tlaxcala. There are several wagon roads in good condition leading to the adjacent States. Postal, telegraph, and telephone service is good and extended. Industries. The principal manufacturing establishments of the State are its cotton and print mills, a glass factory, and several foundries. Divisions. — The political divisions of the State are 6 districts, sub- divided into municipalities. The districts are: Ocampo, population 20,279; its chief town is Calpuhilpam San Antonio, on the Interoceanic Railroad. 60 kilometers from the State capital. Morelos, population 18,662; its chief town is Tlaxco San Augustin. 42 kilometers from Tlaxcala. Juarez, population 36,056; its chief town. Huamantla, is : J „s kilo- meters from Tlaxcala. VERACRUZ. 147 Zaragoza, population 38,650; its chief town, Zacateco Santa In6s, 12 kilometers from Tlaxcala. Hidalgo, population 39,213, whose chief town, Tlaxcala, the State capital, with 3,000 inhabitants, is also the most important town in the State, possessing many fine buildings, and having rail connection with the City of Mexico. Cuauhtemoc, population 19,455; its chief town is Barron-Escandon, or Apizaco, situated on the line of the Mexican Railroad, 26 kilometers east of Tlaxcala. VERACRUZ. The State of Veracruz-Llave, population 981,030, whose capital city is X:ilapa, or Jalapa, 1,429 meters altitude, population 20,388, is con- sidered one of the richest and most beautiful regions of the globe. Its area is 75,863 square kilometers. Boundaries. — The boundaries are Tamaulipas on the north, San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo, and Puebla on the west, Oaxaca on the south, and the Gulf of Mexico on the east. Topography. — Veracruz occupies a narrow strip of land rising grad- ually from the coast line to the crest of the Sierra Madre Mountains. Almost the entire section is mountainous, the Sierra Madre range occupying the western central portion, running from north to south, and rising to the height of 4,089 meters above sea level in the peak of Nanchampapetl, or Cofre de Perote. To the south is the majestic snow-capped volcano Citatepetl, or Orizaba, 5,295 meters above the level of the sea. Other ranges are the Maltrata, Alcucingo, Jalacingo, Oxocupan, and Zongolica. The eastern literal, bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, is 460 kilometers in extent, stretching from the Tampico Bar to Tonala. The northern section of this coast line is called the Windward coast, while to the south, from Veracruz to the bar of Tonala, is the Leeward coast. The shore line is broken by numerous bars, shoals, islands, capes, etc. Hydrography. — Hydrographically the State may be divided into two basins, the northern extending from the Panuco River to the Rio Blanco, and the southern from the latter stream southward to Tauco- chapa. The rivers susceptible of navigable development are the Panuco, Tiixpam, Vinasco, Yautepec, Tecolutla, Nautla, Blanco, and Papaloapam, all having several tributaries and forming the hydro- graphic basins above mentioned. There are also several lakes, among them the Catemaco, Ostion, Mexcalapa, Tortuguero, and Tecunanapa. Climate. — The climate is very variable, being hot and unhealth}^ in the south and on the coast, yellow fever, dysenteiy, and black vomit prevailing; temperate and, at times, humid at altitudes of more than 1,000 meters; temperate and healthful on the mountain slopes; cold at an altitude of 1,500 meters, and hot in the north. L48 Mexico. Fa/ima and flora. — The fauna and flora of the State are l»oth rich and varied, embracing the species usual in other portions of the Republic. Resources. -The agricultural products include all such as are indige- nous elsewhere to Mexico. Official figures give the State of Veracruz T51 plantations in 1897, divided as follows: Cotton, s.); coffee, 98; sugar cane, 106; cereals, L89; fruits, 3; tobacco, 45; woods, 8; and 279 cattle ranches. There is no available data for the production of Veracruz for L901-2. The "Anuario Estadistico" for L900- L90] credits the State with the following figures: Cereals, $7,094,673: sugar-cane products, rum ex- cepted, 41,137,598 kilograms, at 13,858,284; nun. 1 19,209 hectoliters, at $2,371,160; maguey products. Ssl.-p'O; textile fibers (cotton and ixtle), $223,330; dyewoods, $124,000; tanning barks, $15,000; coffee, 17,765,347 kilos, at $5,880,656; tobacco. 5,394,946 kilos, at $1,740,234; vanilla, 124,000 kilos, at §l,3r>n.oo mines in operation for the same period was s4;..imio. Trade. Veracruz i- one of the most important commercial sections of the Republic, its trade having outlet- not only throughout Mexico but also to the United State-. Europe, the West Indie-, and South America. The chief ports-are Veracruz, Tuxpam, and Coatzacoalcos, devoted to foreign commerce, while the other gulf ports are open to coastwise trade only. Exports from Veracruz cover almost all the articles that Mexico sends abroad, while the imports are of an equally general character. The total trade of the port, both foreign and domestic, amounts to about $100,000,000 per annum. The foreign trade of these three ports i- officially given as follow-. and the "Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal."' for 1901-2: Imports. Exports. ; _ Veracruz S20, 986, 963 126, 191 Tuxpam 57,38] 2*1,868 ( '. >atzac< mirns 176 196, : 1 1 Communications. — The railways include the Mexican line from Vera- cruz to Mexico, the Interocanic the Veracruz and Alvarado, the Cen- tral in the north, the Cordoba and Tuxtepec, and two short lines, one from Veracruz to Antigua and one from Jalapa to Coatepec. Many VERACRUZ. 14V) fine highways also connect with the principal towns of the adjacent States. Maritime communication is effected by means of the several steamship lines touching at Veracruz and other ports, viz: The French Transatlantic, the Hamburg-American, the Royal Mail, the Harri- son, the West India and Pacific, the Morgan, and the Ward lines. Coastwise steamers also ply between home ports. A cable lines runs from Coatzacoalcos to Galveston, with stations at Veracruz and Tam- pico. Telegraph, telephone, and postal communication is efficient and extensive. Industries. — In addition to the industries directly connected with agriculture, mining, and stock raising, the State has many manufac- turing interests, such as cotton, woolen, saw, and paper mills, and establishments for the manufacture of chocolate, wax matches, soap, candles, and cigars, and several foundries. Divisions. — The State is divided into eighteen cantons, subdivided into municipalities. The cantons may be classed in two groups of nine each, called, according to their geographical position, maritime and interior respectively; they are subdivided as follows: Northern maritime, embracing Ozuluama, population 38,990; Tiix- pam, 58,282; and. Papantla, 50,756, their chief towns bearing the same names, respectively, Tuxpam being a seaport open to foreign trade. Central maritime, embracing Misantla, population 21,250, whose chief town bears the same name; Jalapa, 82,669, the chief town of which is Jalapa, also the capital of the State, with 20,388 inhabitants, situated 310 kilometers from the City of Mexico and 118 from Vera- cruz, being the principal town of the State, the center of a fine agri- cultural district, and possessing fine public buildings; and Veracruz, 110,172, whose chief town bears the same name and is the first commer- cial port of the Republic, 121 kilometers from the City of Mexico. The chief public buildings of the city of Veracruz are the municipal palace, the People's Library (containing over 20,000 volumes), a theater, several churches, and the Artillery School. This city is in constant communication with the principal ports of the United States, Europe, and the West Indies by means of a submarine cable and steamship lines. It is the seat of the Chamber of Commerce, has three banks, a consular corps, and is equipped with two light-houses, street railways, and other modern conveniences. Other towns in the canton are Alva- rado and Tlacotalpam, the latter a fluvial port on the Papaloapam River. Southern maritime, embracing Los Tuxtlas, population 43,824, the chief towns being San Andres de Tuxtla and Santiago de Tuxtla; Acayucam, population 38,164, its chief town bearing the same name; and Minatitlan, population 34,490, with its chief town bearing the same name, a railway station. Coatzacoalcos, a gulf port and the third town in the State, is also in the canton of Minantitlan. 150 SCEX1CO. Northern interior, embracing the cantons of Tantoyuca, population 56,179, and Chicontepec, 66,5 1 7. their chief towns bearing the names of the cantons. Central interior, embracing Jalacingo, population < >T.< > 1 «> ; Coatepec, 50,451; Huatusco, 35,534; C6rdoba, T9,130; Orizaba, 85,945; and Zongolica, 29,740; their chief towns bearing the same Dames as their respective cantons. Orizaba, population 32,894, deserves especial mention as the second city in the State. Southern interior, comprising the canton of Cosamalodpam, 32,371, with its chief town bearing the same name. YUCATAN. The State of Yucatan, population 314,087, whose capital city is Merida, about 8 meters altitude, population 43,630, is the greatest henequen-producing region of the world. Boundaries. — It is hounded on the north by the Gulf of Mexico, on the east by the Caribbean Sea, on the south by British Honduras and Guatemala, and on the west by the State of Campeche. It compri-es an area of 91,201 square kilometers. Situation. — The peninsula of Yucatan is an immense plain, which, starting from the coast line, rises gradually toward the interior to a height of from 40 to 60 meters. In the northwest, where Merida is located, the soil is of a calcareous, dry. and rocky formation, and until the culture of hencquen transformed it into one of the richest regions of Mexico it was proverbially sterile. The fertility of the land increases toward the northeast, while the southeast section offers great natural opportunities for wealth, abounding as it does in virgin forests Idled with valuable dye and cabinet woods and in stretches of land suitable for the culture of all the vegetable species. This territory is, however. occupied by rebel Indian tribes and has not been accessible to progress and civilization for more than fifty years." TojxK/rdp/n/.- There are two small mountain ranges in the Slate: the one. called Puc in the Maya tongue, is SO uniform in its extent and at so slight an elevation above sea level that it might more properly be termed an elongated hill. This range, which -tarts near the partido of Macanu, extends toward the east, thence in a southerly direction. after which it turns SSE. for a distance of 120 kilometers, gradually decreasing in altitude until, near Peto, it merges into a savanna or plain. The other range is formed by a series of hills starting near the coast. Several islands lie along the coast, viz, Pajaros and Perez to the north: southwest of these is Arenas, while near Cape Catoche are Halboy. Contoy. and Blanca, and off the western coast are Mujeres, « The territory of Quintans Roe, created by act of December 14, 1900, occupies the main portion of these lands. Several important concessions have been granted for the colonization and development of the new territory. YUCATAN. 151 Cancum, and Cozumel. Small cays, which are dangerous for naviga- tors, abound in the vicinity of Cape Catoche. Mujeres Island, how- ever, possesses a tine harbor, which with the port of Progreso (open to foreign traffic) and the ports of Cozumel, Halboy, Celestun, Telchal, Chicxalub, Chuburna, Santa Clara. Kxilam, Bravo, and Sisal are the principal coast towns. Sisal is at present almost deserted, though it was formerl} T the chief port of the State. The coasts of Yucatan, 990 kilometers in length, are very low, and, judging from the shells found among the rocks and in deep diggings, the entire peninsula was atone time covered by the sea. Hydrography. — There are no rivers, and all drinking water is obtained from natural wells sunk to a greater or less depth. The so-called Lagartos River is in reality a shallow arm of the sea, and is remarkable for the fact that at a distance of about 400 meters inland pools of fresh water spring up amid the salt. These are called "Bocas de Conil," and are supposed by Humboldt to be due to immense hydro- static pressure from the interior of the earth. Such springs are also found on the Windward coast. Throughout the State are man}^ springs called locally mrtenejas, aguadas, and ceiiotes, the first being deposits of rain water among the rocks; the second large reservoir- like pools, some of them having been constructed by the ancient inhab- itants, and the third beautiful caverns where water is found in immense quantities. The only lake is the Chichankanab, SE. of Merida, about 32 kilometers distant from Peto, the peculiar characteristic of which is that the waters, though beautifully clear, are very bitter, and that the bed is composed of crystals closely resembling Epsom salts. Climate. — The climate is generally pleasant, the maximum tem- perature in summer being 32° C. (89° F.) and the minimum in winter 19° C. (66° F.), the summer heat being tempered by cool breezes. Malaria and other fevers are the prevailing diseases. Fauna and flora. — The fauna of the State embraces almost all the species found throughout the Republic, while the flora is no less rich and varied. Resources.- — The principal sources of agricultural w T ealth consists in the cultivation of henequen, but in the northw T est section there are a few sugar-cane plantations, while in the northeast or forest region d}-e and cabinet woods, chicle gum, tobacco, and vanilla are grown. Mex- ican official figures for 1897 give Yucatan 826 plantations, divided as follows: Sugar cane, 94; cereals, 159; henequen, 348; and 225 cattle ranches. The principal products for 1901-2 are estimated as fol- lows: Corn, to the value of $1,209,747; sugar cane products, direct, 3,050,000 kilos, at *24:>.(>00; rum, $270,000; henequen, 51,808.900 kilos, valued at $16,192,029; dye woods, 3,000,000 kilos, $100,000; chicle gum, 848,000; sugar cane, $345,000. In 189S the extent of cultivated lands throughout the State was given officially as 54,564 152 MEXICO. hectares, of which 21,835 were devoted to corn. Stock raising, though carried on to a considerable extent, does not meet the require ments of home consumption, large quantities of cattle being imported from the adjacent State-, especially from Tampico. The "Boletin de Estadfstica," an official publication issued by the State, estimates the yearly importation of beef cattle at 7. <»<»<> head. Mines. There are no mines in the State: it. however, possesses several kinds of building stones, clay, gypsum, etc. Trade. The foreign trade of Yucatan is carried on almosl exclu- sively through the port of Progreso. During 1901 2 the imports were valued at $5,017,566 and the exports at $31,931,877. The exports of henequ&l during the calendar year L903, from Yucatan through the ports of Progreso and Campeche. consisted of 61 L,939 Wales, valued at $36,040,032.32.° The distribution of the hales was as follows: United States 590, 676 Cuba 8,066 England 4, 281 i Canan by means of the New York and Cuba Mail Steamship Company, the Imperial German Mail, the Harrison Line, the West India and Pacific Steamship Company, the Spanish Trans- atlantic Line, two Mexican lines, the Prince Line, the Johnston Line, and others. Telegraphic, telephonic, and mail services are efficient and extended. " "Mexican Herald," January 21, 1904. ZAOATECAS. 153 Industries. — The principal industry of the State is the manufacture of henequen ropes and bags. An American firm has established a factory for the preparation of vegetable pepsin from the papaya (carica, papaya). Division*. — Politically, Yucatan is divided into 17 partidos, subdi- vided into municipalities. The partidos are: Acanceh, population. 22,677; its chief town, Gearing the same name, is situated 25 kilometers by rail from Merida, the State capital. Espita. population 10,489, with a chief town bearing the same name. Hunucma, population L8,656, with a chief town bearing the same name, is 36 kilometers by rail from Merida. the port of Sisal being also one of its towns. Las Islas,' population 3,141, chief town, Isla de Mujeres, a seaport. The two other ports of the partido are Cozumel and Halboy. Izamal, population 21,358; chief town, bearing the same name, is 66 kilometers from Merida. Maxcanu, population 19,(573; its chief town of the same name is 58 kilometers from Merida, the port of the partido being Celestun. Merida, population 60,156, whose chief town, Merida, is also the capital of the State, containing 13,630 inhabitants, according to the official census of 1900. This is one of the richest cities of the Repub- lic, possessing handsome buildings, street-railway lines, a board of trade, three banks, and all modern conveniences. It is also the rail- way center of the State. Motul, population ls,7.">(>, with a chief town of the same name. It; kilometers from Merida. the port of the partido being Telchac. Peto. population 10,636, with a chief town of the same name, is a railway terminus. Progreso. population 8,832, whose chief town, Progreso, population 5,125, is 36 kilometers from Merida. It is the principal port of the State ami tin' second in the Republic for its import trade, the vessels calling there numbering yearly from 5(H) to 550, of which 350 are steamers. The port is not safe, especially in bad weather. Other ports in the partido are Chicxulub and Chuburmi. The other partidos are Sotuta, population 9,855, Tekax, 19,757; Temax. 17,058; Ticul, i\~>,n:>7; Tixkokob, 11,072; Tizimin, 9,171; and Y'alladolid, 21.710, the chief towns of which -bear the same names as their respective partidos. ZACATECAS. The State of Zacatecas, population 162,190, the capital city of which is Zacatecas, 2,196 meters altitude, with 32,856 inhabitants, is one of the important interior States of the Republic. Boundaries. — Its boundaries are: Coahuila on the north, San Luis Potosi on the east, Jalisco and Aguascalientes on the south, and Durango on the west, its total area being 63,386 square kilometers. 1 5 i MEXICO. Situation. — Situated on the high Central Plateau of the Republic, this State is one of the most mountainous regions of the country, and i- formed by the extension of the Sierra Madre range. It- mean alti- tude i- 2,230 meters, the highest point being 3,090 meters and the lowest l.;">73. Topography.- Owing to topographical conditions, agriculture does not prosper throughout its extent. The principal mountains are Mazapil, Tecolotes, Novillos, Calabozal, Pichihualtepec, Pitiquitas, San Pedro, Tetill as, Mesquital, Melilla, Chacuaco, Chapultepec, and the peak of Teyra. Hydrography. The two principal rivers arc the Juchipila and the Nieves, respectively 230 and 225 kilometers in length. Other rivers are the tributaries of those above mentioned and the Jerez, theTlalte- nango, and Teul. There are no large lakes, but pools of (dear, cold water and mineral springs abound. Climate. -The State possesses three climatic regions, the first between L,550 and 2,000 meters above sea level, the second from 2,000 to 2,400 meters, and the third from 2,400 to 3,000 meters, the thermometer ranging from 11 to21 C. (about 52 to To F.), accord ing to the altitude. Rainfall is abundant throughout the State, and the winds from the west are cold, while those from the southeast are warm. Fevers and pneumonia are the most common ailments. Fauna and flora. — Although the fauna of the State is not known very thoroughly, it may be said to embrace such species as are common to other parts of the Republic, the same being applicable to the flora. Resources.— As has been stated, Zacatecas can not be classed among the important agricultural section- of Mexico. Cereals are. however, its best crop, sugar cane and maguey following. Mexican official statistics for 1* ( .»7 give the following data in regard to the State: Number of plantations L89, divided as follow-: Coffee, 4; cereals, 80; maguey, L5; and 90 cattle ranches. The principal agri- cultural products for 1901-2 are officially given as follow-: Cereals, $3,142,146; sugar-cane products, rum excepted, 3,049,300 kilos, at 1245,000; rum. $6,600; mescal, $122,000; other maguey product-. $20,000; ixtle. $6,300; -rape wine, $3,200; tannine- barks, $10,000; tobacco, $8,000. Stock raising forms one of the chief sources of wealth, the Zaca- tecas stock being renowned throughout the Republic, the sheep espe- cially being considered unequaled, both on account of flesh and wool. Foreign stock has been imported to improve the native breeds, and the experiment has been eminently successful. Mining. —From a mineral standpoint this State is one of the richest regions in the world, as it contain- the Sierra de Zacatecas, which has produced fabulous quantities of silver. Other minerals found in ZACATECAS. 155 greater or less quantities are gold, mercury, iron, copper, zinc, lead, coal, bismuth, and salt. During the year ending on December 31, 1902, official statistics give the number of mining claims registered as 1,185, covering 15,293 hectares. The number of mines in operation during the same period were 102, the total output being officially esti- mated at 176,515,185 kilos, valued at $5,221,779. Trade. — Commercially Zacatecas is one of the most important cen- ters of the Republic, its trade being estimated at about $11,000,000 per annum, as follows: Imports, $15,000,000; exports, $19,000,000; local trade, $7,000,000. The United States, Europe, and the City of Mexico receive the mineral exports, the former taking ores and the two latter silver bullion and coin. Other products, consisting chiefly of cereals, live stock, tallow, horns, bones, mescal, etc., go to the adjacent States. Imports from Mexico City, the United States, and Europe comprise groceries, ready-made clothing, hardware, machinery, agricultural implements, arms, and ammunition. Communications. — The Mexican Central and the Mexican National railroads traverse the State, the former from southeast to northwest on the International line from Mexico to Ciudad Juarez and on the Aguascalientes and Tampico line, and the latter on the Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi road. There is also a narrow-gauge road connecting Guadalupe and Zacatecas, as well as several wagon roads. Telegraphic, telephonic, and postal services are efficient and extended. Industries. — The principal manufacturing industries are the produc- tion of sugar, rum, and wine, the reduction of ores, and the manufac- ture of cotton, woolen, and knit goods, carriages, candles, soap, and chocolate. Divisions. — The State is divided into 12 partidos, subdivided into municipalities. The partidos and their principal cities are: Mazapil, population 23,052, an important mining section, the chief town of which bears the same name and is situated 336 kilometers from Zacatecas. Fresnillo, population 53,132, the second agricultural and stock- breeding partido of the State; its chief town, Fresnillo, population 6,309, lies on the Central Railroad, 59 kilometers from Zacatecas. Zacatecas, population 71,591, one of the richest silver-bearing dis- tricts in the world, its chief town bearing the same name, being also the State capital, with 32,856 inhabitants. It is also one of the prin- cipal cities of the Republic, and is situated on the line of the Cen- tral Railway, 706 kilometers from the City of Mexico, 1,130 from the port of Veracruz, 121 from Aguascalientes, nnd 787 from the port of Tampico. The city is equipped with all modern conveniences and possesses many fine public buildings, among others the municipal palace; the mint, which according to official statistics coined in 1901-2 L56 Mexico. silver to the amount of $7,281,000; the [institute of Sciences, the cathedral, and many churches, hospitals, schools, etc. According to old statistics the partido of Zacatecas yielded in the period from L548 to L832 minerals to the value of *■+>".-'► i - "• . i^ '. > '. ♦ pesos. Guadalupe, pop- ulation 8,781, is the second town in the partido, being of considerable commercial importance. ( Ijocaliente, population i:;, s :;<». the chief town of which, bearing the same name, is 34 kilometers from Zacatecas. Pinos, population 45,859; it- chief town, situated L25 kilometers from Zacatecas, bears the same name, and is rich in minerals and produces large quantities of maguey mescal. Villanueva, population 4i>.tih'.. is an agricultural region, the chief town of which, bearing the same name is 50 kilometers from Zacatecas. Juchipila, population 21,378, also an agricultural section, with a chief town of tlic same name, is 251 kilometers from Zacatecas. Nochixtlan. population 20,562, with a chief town of the same name, is 2-tt; kilometers from Zacatecas. Tlaltenango, or Sanchez Roman, population 39,013, is a mining region: its chief town, bearing the same name, is 202 kilometers from Zacatecas. Jerez, population 51,000, is the first agricultural section in the State. its principal town, of the same name (called also Ciudad Garcia), i- situated 50 kilometers from Zacatecas. Sombrerete, population 1T.7<>7. is a line mining region, the chief town of the same name being situated 88 kilometers from Zacatecas, the town of Chalchihuites ranking next in importance. Nieves, population 31,448, the principal towns of which are Nieves, 185 kilometers from Zacatecas. and Rio Grande, or ( i-onzalez ( )rtega, at a distance of L64 kilometers. TERRITORIES. HA.1A CALIFORNIA. The Territory of Baja (Lower) California, population 4T.*i^4. is a peninsula extending from north to south into the Pacific Ocean for a distance of over 1,500 kilometers. Boundaries. Its boundaries are the State of California (United States) on the north, the Gulf of California on the east, and the Pacific Ocean on the west and south. The total area is 151,109 square kilometers. Situation,. — The coast line measures 3,000 kilometers, bordered bya number of islands. The principal bays where the ports open to foreign commerce are found are La Paz and Santa Rosalia on the Gulf of Cali- fornia, and Ensenada Bay on the Pacific. Others worthy of note are San Quintin, San Sebastian, Vizcaino, San Pablo, San Roque, Asuncion. BAJA CALIFORNIA. 157 Magdalena, Ballenas, Pequena, and Almejas on the western or Pacitic side, while on the gulf or eastern coast are San Felipe, San Luis, Reme- dios, Angeles, Animas, San Carlos, Concepcion, San Nicolas, San Basilio, Ventana, Muertos, Palmas, and San Jose. The large islands also have their ports and bays, as follows: Angel de la Guarda Island contains the port of Refugio and Humbug Bay; Carmen Island, ports Lobos and Balandra and the bays of Salinas and Gavilanes, and San Jose Island the Bay of Amortajada, and Cedros Island the Bay del Sur. Other islands on the Pacitic coast belonging to the Republic are Gua- dalupe, which is extremely fertile and rich in cattle; Todos Santos, San Martin, San Geronimo, Sacramento (a reef), Elide, Cedros, Natividad, San Benito, Asuncion, and the large islands of Magdalena, Santa Mar- garita, and Crecientes. On the gulf side are Montague and Gore at the mouth of the Colorado River, Gonzaga (a reef), the San Luis Islands, the large island of Angel de la Guarda, the Mejia Islands, San Marcos, Carmen, Santa Catalina, San Jose, Espiritu Santo, Cerralbo, and several others. Topography. — The peninsula is traversed from end to end by a cordillera running nearer the eastern than the western coast, the descent on the gulf side being extremely abrupt, while on the Pacific side the coast is reached by a succession of low hills. This mountain chain possesses remarkable topographical and geological features, in some places granite, occasionally metalliferous, forming the central portions. Another differential characteristic between the mountains of Upper and Lower California are the rocks of volcanic origin which occupy a large extent of the territory, giving the country a marked aspect of aridity and desolation, this being especially noticeable in the northern part of the territory, which is occupied by the Cupapas chain and the Volcano de las Virgenes. The highest granite peak is the Cerro del Gigante, near Loreto, on the gulf coast, the altitude of which is estimated at 1,300 meters above sea level. Hydrography. — With the exception of the Colorado River in the north and several small streams in the center and south, among which are the Muleje, Todos Santos, San Jose, Miraflores, and Purisima, the peninsula is lacking in means of irrigation. Rrxource*. — Lack of irrigation and scareit}' of rainfall are the causes of the general sterility of the soil and the consequent limitations of agricultural development. Notwithstanding this, however, there are in some portions of the peninsula spontaneous productions of the soil which yield large profits. Principal among these is the archil, or Spanish moss, used for dyeing purposes, which grows profusely throughout an extensive bolt between 23 22' and 26 24' north lati- tude on the west coast. It is not found on the eastern or gulf side. but its growth begins again, though to a limited extent, on the coasts 158 MEXICO. of Sonora and Sinaloa. Heneque"n is found in the central regions of the peninsula and hemp in the north near the Colorado River. Flora and fauna. Flower- and ornamental shrubs of all the trop- ical species grow wild, while cabinet and dye woods are also found. Like the flora, the fauna of the territory is limited, the species known being similar to those of the northern Mexican State-. On the western coast the sperm or oil whale and otter are found. The Gulf of ( lalifornia abounds in shells and pearls from Mulege* to ( 'ape Porfia, while seals are found in the waters of Tiburon, Angel de la Quarda, and San Lorenzo islands. Climate. — The climate is hot and dry in the north and temperate toward the south. Agriculture. -Sugar cane and tropical fruits are successfully culti- vated in the humid sections, and the grape also receives some atten- tion. The "Anuario Estadfstico" for 181*7 estimated the number of plantations in the Territory as 30, divided as follows, according to the principal product: Sugar cane. L0; cereal-. 1."-: maguey (mescal) 1; and cattle ranges. 6. For LHOL-2 the agricultural production of the Territory i-. according to official statistics, as follow.-: Cereal-. sT.V-l'4: sugar-cane products, except rum. L,641,000 kilos, at 1180,000; mescal, $8,350: hemp. $3,000; grape wine. $11,645; tanning barks. *1S,000; me-<|uite wood, $251,340; sugarcane, $30,000. Mining. -The principal mineral products of the peninsula are gold, silver, copper, load, gypsum, and coal. Physically the Territory might be divided into three sections -the northern, or gold-bearing; the southern, or argentiferous, and the central, or copper region. Sil- ver and other minerals are found here. The former name of the Ter- ritory was Real de San Antonio. West of this, in the same cordillera, i- Mineral del Triunfo. the site of very important reduction works. In the municipalities of La Pa/. San Antonio. Santiago. Mulege, Co- mandu, and Ensenada gold is found: silver in San Antonio, La Paz, Todos Santo-. Santiago. San Jose del C'abo, Mulege, and Comandfi. and copper is most abundant in La Paz. San Antonio, Todos Santos, Mulege", I 'omandu. and Santa Rosalia, the latter being the most impor- tant mining region. It is south of La Paz. and its many mines were tir-t worked by the Jesuits in L700. The mines of this section in exploitation yield about 200,000 tons of metal annually. Lead is found in San Antonio and Mulege and coal in Santiago. There are abundant salt deposits, the principal being the "Ojo de Liehre." on the western coast, and those of the islands of Fl Carmen and San Jose* on the east. The number of mining claims registered to December 31, L901, amounted to 507. covering 4.7t>r> hectares, and the total output of the 8 mines then in operation was 260,990,610 kilos, with a valuation of $1,590,642. Tradi . The foreign trade of the Territory is clone through the cus- tom-houses of La Paz, San Jose del Cabo. Santa Rosalia, and Todos TKPIC. Santos. In 1901-2 this trade, according to the distica Fiscal" for that period, was as follows: 159 Boletin de Esta- Imports. Exports. 870, 279 1,452 957, 960 176, 426 $729, 438 16, 342 168, 425 1,206,117 914,205 Communications. — In addition to the several high roads and mule paths, the Territory contains two steam railways, one belonging- to the El Progreso Mining Compan} r and the other to the Boleo Mining- Company, the former in Triunfo and the latter in Santa Rosalia, and measuring 10 and 3.5 kilometers in length, respectively. Several lines of steamers ply between the ports of the peninsula, six Mexican vessels and one American being engaged in this coast trade. Tele- graphic and mail communications are efficient, but telephone service is not very extended. Industries. — Besides the industries directly derived from agriculture and mining, no manufactures of any importance are established in the Territory. Divisions. — Lower California is divided into two districts — the northern, population 7,583, and the southern, with a population of 40,041. This latter is subdivided into two partidos and seven munici- palities; the Partido Sur consisting of the municipalities of La Paz, San Antonio, Santiago, San Jose, and Todos Santos, and the Partido Centro of Mulege and Comondu. The principal city is La Paz, which is the capital of the southern district, containing 5,046 inhabitants. Its principal commerce is done with San Francisco, Mazatlan, Guay- mas, San Bias, and Manzanillo. Ensenada de Todos Santos is the chief town of the northern district, with about 2,000 inhabitants. Other towns of importance are Santa Rosalia and those which bear the names of their respective municipalities. TEPIC. The Territory of Tepic, population 150,098, whose capital city, bear- ing the same name, is 953 meters above the sea level and has a popu- lation of 15,488, has an area of 28,371 square kilometers. Boundaries. — The boundaries of the State are the Pacific Ocean on the west, the States of Sinaloa and Durango on the north, and .Jalisco on the east and south. Situation. — The Territory, which is situated between 20° 40' and 23° 20' north latitude, was formerly a portion of the State of Jalisco, but made a free territory during the administration of President Lerdo de Tejada, in recognition of the services rendered the Republic L60 MEXK 0. of Mexico by the Indian Chief Lozada. The coasl line of the Territory measures 500 kilometers in Length. Climate. -The climate of the lowland- is hot, while that of the higher regions i- temperate and agreeable, son t the high mountain table land- and slopes being cold. Topography. -The Sierra Madre range traverses the Territory from southeast to northeast. The eastern portion «>f Tepic is exceedingly mountainous. Precipitous cliffs and deep barrancas (canons) occur with great frequency. At the bottom of some of these are rapid moun- tain stream-, many of which empty into Santiago River. 'The west- ern part of the Territory is level, and is crossed by numerous -mall rivers and creeks. These streams overflow during the rainy season and flood the plain- through which they pass, enriching the soil and rendering it wonderfully fertile and productive. In the -out hern part of the Territory, in the district of Ahuacathin. the country is almost entirely of volcanic origin. In this part of Tepic i- found the cele- brated volcano Ceboruc, 1. 525 meter- above the level of the sea. In 1870 this volcano was in a state of great activity, and threw out immense quantities of lava and ashes. Not far from Ceboruc i- the celebrated Sangangiiey Peak, which rises to a height of 2,000 meters above the level of the sea. Hydrography. — The principal river that run- through the Territory i- the Lerma, or Santiago, which originates in the tributaries (hat flow into Lake Chapala. in the State of Jalisco. This important river emptie- into the Pacific Ocean just to the north of the port of San Bias. Many smaller streams are found in the Territory, a number of which could easily be n-edfor irrigating the fertile valleys through which they pass. The extension of the maritime coast line i- about 300 kilo- meter-, ainl San Bias is the principal port. Resources. Agriculture, mining, and cattle breeding are the main resources of the Territory. Agriculture. — The agricultural productions of the Territory are numerous and abundant. They are similar in variety and number to the productions of the famous agricultural State- of Veracruz, Puebla, and Oaxaca. The valley of Jala i- famous for its great productive- ly--, the fertility of the soil being such that the planting of one bushel of corn is -aid to yield six hundred fold. Besides cereals, cotton. tobacco, sugar cane, coffee, bean.-, and rice grow luxuriantly. Agri- culture i- the chief industry of Tepic and corn and bean- are raised in considerable quantities all over the Territory. Wheat and other cereals grow in the districts of Ahuacatlan and Tepic: rice in Com- postela. Tepic. Ahuacatlan. and San Bias: cotton in Acaponeta and Santiago Ixcuintle; and coffee, tobacco, and sugar cane in all the dis- tricts of the Territory. According to the "Guia General," Tepic has 48 large plantations. 7 of which are devoted exclusively to the culti- TEPTC. 161 vation of cotton, 4 to coffee, 22 to sugar cane, and 15 to wheat, barley, and other grains. Samples of coffee grown in the Territory of Tepic sent to New York have been pronounced to be of very fine grade, and similar samples sent to Hamburg were valued at a price exceeding not only the Brazilian coffee, but also that of Cordoba and other coffees from the eastern coast of Mexico. The best coffee lands are to be found in the district of Compostela in a zone parallel to the ocean and at an_ elevation of 800 meters. Tobacco is exported to Central America, which consumes about 1,000,000 kilograms annually of this product grown on the west coast of Mexico. This industry is sus- ceptible of great development. Rubber trees grow wild, but up to the present time no attempt has been made to establish plantations. The same can be said of Yucatan henequen. The soil is also suitable to the cultivation of the olive tree. The agricultural production of Tepic for the year 1901-2 is officially given in the "Anuario Estadistico ," for 1902, as follows: Rice, $142,46»>; barley, $15,450; corn, $1,352,936; pease, $406,802; sugar-cane products except rum, 2,452,610 kilos, valued at $446,686; rum, $37,500; maguey products, $25,039; ixtle, $2,096; cotton, $144,080; tanning barks, $5,000; coffee, $159,000; tobacco, $169,872; cedar, $176,028; ocote wood, $152,855; sugar cane, 372,835,200 kilos, at $350,880. Stock raising is carried on throughout the entire Territory. A number of the large plantations have great herds of cattle, sheep, and goats, but the industry is as yet in its infancy, Tepic contains every natural 'condition that could be desired for the profitable raising of live stock, and this industry is constantly developing and growing in importance. Mining. — The territory is rich in mineral wealth. The principal mining regions are as follows: District. Mining camps. Class of ores. Acaponeta Ahuacatlan Compostela Santiago Ixcuintla Tepic Motaje Mojocuantla Teponahuata Minitos La Candelaria San Francisco Montana de Oro Castellana and San Ramon . . Pinolillo San Jose 1 Refugio Buenavista La Yesca La Kondadera Huicicila Espiritu Santo Zopilote San Francisco de Tenamache Aguapan Acuilapila Silver. Do. Do. Do. Silver and gold. Do. Do. Silver. li... Do. Silver and gold. Do. Do. Do. Silver. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Theyj>«fo'oand lixiviation processes are used in treating the ores from many of these mines. A number of the mining regions are difficult 509a— 04 11 162 MKXh o. of access, and many mines are idle due to the lack of favorable trans- portation facilities. Much of this natural wealth must necessarily lie dormant and undeveloped until railroad communication is established. Official figures for the mining production of the Territory in 1901-2 show that the output of fourteen mines then in operation amounted to 51,637,706 kilos, valued at $1,797,984, while the number of mining claims recorded to the 31st of December, 1902, was 277. embracing an area of 1,720 hectares. Trade. — The foreign trade of the Territory is carried on through the port of San Bias, the figures for 1901-2 being officially given at $126,710 for imports and $205,203 for exports. ComTn/wiications. — There are no railroads in the Territory. San Bias is the principal port and does a large maritime business with the entire Pacific coast of North and South America. A great number o'.' steamships and Bailing vessels touch at this port annually. In addi tion to a large international trade, the coastwise trade is oi great importance, and is constantly increasing, San Bias being a great dis- tributing and commercial center. A fairly good wagon road connects San Bias with Tepic Ahuacatlan. and Ixtlan. and then proceeds to Guadalajara in the State of Jalisco. The other highways of Tepic are not good, many of them being little more than mere mountain trails. When constructed, the proposed railway from Tepic to San Bias will be a powerful factor in the development of the entire Territory. Industries. —Considerable manufacturing is carried on in the Terri- tory, and especially in the city of Tepic, where there are in operation large cotton, soap, and other factories, provided with substantial buildings and equipped with modern machinery and appliances. The city also contains a large distillery which produces considerable quan- tities of alcohol and mescal. Division*. — The political divisions of the Territory are as follows: District. p r n la - ! »****■ Popula- tion. 21,850 39, 529 Tepic 46, 4 IS 5, 416 Total San Bias . . . 150,096 The Federal Government maintains Hi primary schools in the Terri- tory, 36 of which are for boys, 26 for girls, and 29 mixed. In 1902 3,019 boys and 3.412 girls attended these schools, and the sum of $86,623, Mexican silver, was paid out by the Government for teachers' salaries and other necessary expenses incurred for educational pur- poses. Statistics show that during the same period there were 12 private schools in operation in the Territory, with an enrollment of over 3,671 pupils of both sexes. CITIES AND TOWNS. 163 The city of Tepic, the capital of the Territory, is situated on the banks of the Tepic River at an elevation of 953 meters above the level of the sea and contains more than 15,488 inhabitants. It has some fine buildings, such as the Calderon theater, the penitentiaiy. the Government palace, a handsome cathedral, and a number of tine churches and other public edifices. The city possesses a Chamber of Commerce and several small but attractive parks, the most noted of which are Hernan Cortes and Hidalgo. Beautiful tropical and sub- tropical flowers and plants adorn the public parks and grow luxuriantly in the private gardens of the city. The climate, though somewhat warm in summer, is salubrious and healthful, and with better trans- portation facilities the city would undoubtedly rapidly increase in population and commercial importance. List of the principal cities and towns of Mexico r uith their population, according to the census of 1900. City or town. Popula- tion. Mexico Guadalajara Puebla Leon Monterrey San Luis Potosi Merida Guanajuato Pachuca Morelia Aguascalientea Oaxaca Queretaro Orizaba Zacatecas Durango Chihuahua Veracruz Toluca ('■•lava Saltillo ( lolima Xalapa Irapuato Tacubaya Mazatl&n i liudad Guzman i (he Tampico Lagos Tepic Silao Parral Matehuala Torreon Salamanca Valle de Santiago Zacapoaxtia Sombrerete I'ortirio Diaz Teziutlan Juchitan Colonia Morelos Zacatlan San Francisco del Rincon. Xochimilco Hermosillo San Miguel Allende San Juan Bautista sal\ atierra Tehuan tepee Culiacan Victoria Real del Monte Federal District Jalisco Puebla Guanajuato Nuevo Leon San Luis Potosi . Yucatan Guanajuato Hidalgo Miehoaean Aguascalientes . . Oaxaca Queretaro Veracruz , Zacatecas Durango Chihuahua Veracruz Mexico Guanajuato Coahuila Colinia Veracruz Guanajuato Federal District . Sinaloa Jalisco Campeche Tamaulipas Jalisco Tepic Guanajuato Chihuahua San Luis Potosi.. Coahuila Guanajuato do "... Puebla Zacatecas Guanajuato Puebla Oaxaca Federal District . Puebla Guanajuato Federal District . Sonora Guanajuato Tabasco Guanajuato Oaxaca Sinaloa Tamaulipas Hidalgo 344, 101, 93, 63, 62, 61, 43, 41, 37, 37, 35, 35, 33, 32, 32, 31, 30, 29, 25, 25, 23, 20, 20, 19, 18, 17, 17, 17, 16, 15, 15, 15, 14, 14, 13, 13, 12, 12, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 721 208 521 263 266 019 630 486 487 278 052 049 152 894 S56 092 405 164 904 565 996 698 388 640 342 852 596 109 313 355 748 205 845 583 660 248 954 751 625 538 059 928 904 712 613 547 543 393 386 3S0 08C 008 164 Ml XIOO. List of (he principal cities and towns of Mexico, with their population, according to ih* sua of 1900 — Continued. City '7 Mexico, enjoying as it does a peculiar geographical situation and orography, may be divided into three agricultural zones or regions, which may be designated, according to their principal productions, as follows: (1) The sugar cane and rubber region in the lowlands. (2) The coffee region in the temperate lands. (3) The region producing the European cereals in the central table- lands. The most fertile region, that which is almost spontaneously pro- ductive, is unquestionably the first, although it is the one which entails the most suffering, owing to the climate and the insects. In this favored locality the soil is marvelously rich. In official reports to the Department of Promotion appear statements which to those unacquainted with that portion of our continent would seem incredible. An agent of that Department, reporting upon the lands in the southern part of the State of Oaxaca, states that on a sugar plantation in the district of Pochutla there have been found stalks of sugar cane 30 feet in height; that the tobacco plant, which grows wild there, has leaves 25 to 30 inches in length; that along the Toltepec River basin, in the same district, the coffee trees reach the height of large trees and produce 12 pounds to the tree. Certain wild rubber trees yield yearly 10 pounds of the dry substance. The vanilla plant grows wild also, and is excellent in quality. Three crops of corn can be taken from the same field in one year. Beans are so abundant that they are often sold in the neighborhood at the rate of 25 cents per 100 pounds. There are 18 species of bananas and many kinds of palms, one of them yielding a much-sought palm oil. One party imbued with great patience counted 5,000 limes on one wild lime tree. Along the river bottoms of this well-watered region are millions of acres of land having a layer of humic soil 13 to 16 feet deep. In this fertile belt are the States of Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tabasco, Cam- peche, Veracruz, and Guerrero, the principal agricultural products of which are cacao, coffee, sugar cane, corn, beans, and rice, which are abundant, and tobacco, rubber, pepper, and achiote, cultivated on a smaller scale. Rubber, vanilla, pepper, and achiote grow wild also. The yucca plant, from which starch is made, is found here in great quantities, as well as indigo. • Forests of precious woods are encountered throughout this region. The temperate belt, although affording greater personal comforts in the way of climate and health-giving elemeuts, is poorly watered, and the lands are not so fertile as in the hot region. The cold zone is less fertile still, due to the absence of streams and the scarcity of rains. A Mexican authority states that the high lands in the Central «Memoria de la Secretaria de Fomento, 1892-1896. Mexico, 1897, page 101, section V. L08 m i:\io.. Plateau can produce all known varieties <>f wheat, inai/c. bean.-, and tubercles, as will as the agave (maguey) and grapes, and arc also adapted to stock raising and the exploitation of forest wood-.. Rice, sugar cane, tropical fruits, cacao, rubber, and cabinet woods can be produced in the hot region, while in the temperate zone (between 500 and 1,000 meters altitude) coffee grows abundantly, and all the fruits of the earth can be cultivated. The same authority continues: "Speaking with regard to special districts, it may be affirmed that ( foxaca and ( niapas have no rival ( Brazil, even, being included) in the production of excellent grades of coffee in unlimited quantities; Vera- cruz and Tabasco, on the Gulf side, and the Territory of Tepic, on the Pacific, are actually capable of replacing Cuba in the quality of its tobacco and the bulk of the product; Michoacan in one section, and Chihuahua. Sonora, Coahuila. and Tamaulipas in another, could sup- ply food for millions of cattle, and Durango, Jalisco. Guanajuato, Puebla, and the State of Mexico are capable of raising corn and wheat in almost unlimited areas, and of supplying foreign market- with a large portion of their articles of consumption from cold and temperate /one-, and also with some products of the Tropic-. Should we add to these the specialties of certain regions, such as Yucatan for henequen or hemp. Tlaxcala and Puebla for maguey (agave), Tamaulipas for ixtle. t loahuila for vines, and Soconusco for cacao, an approximate idea may be obtained of the incalculable importance of Mexico as an agri- cultural country. Notwithstanding this, it may be said that national agriculture, even in the face of its recent progress, is yet in its infancy and that the -oil has only been cultivated on a very limited scale. Neither the proportion between the area now under cultivation and the arable land, the method.-, machinery, and implements now employed in the lields. nor the method.- now in use for the exploitation and prepa- ration of certain agricultural products are. in general term-, -ati-fac tory. Our export trade is almost nihil, save for products as valuable a- coffee and fruits, or as cheaply produced as henequen. or a- near the centers of consumption as cattle: and even those mentioned as exported in the largest quantities are not as extensively cultivated as is desirable. nor a- cheaply a- the country would permit." There are two main cause- for this state of affaire— lack of laborers and of mean- of communication — both restricting consumption to an extent which necessarily limits the variety of production, and giving preference to ordinary products over those which are finer and more valuable. The mountainous and broken formation of the country has always been, ami i- -till to a certain extent, an obstacle to rapid and economic transportation of merchandise, as it hinders the establish- ment of permanent currents of traffic, cither by land or water, and deprives the agriculturist of the advantages of natural irrigation in certain regions, which are for this reason arid and impassable deserts. government's atd. 169 The authority quoted adds that another factor in the slow develop- ment of agriculture in the country has been the ignorance of the farming population in the matter of the preparation of the soil and the use of fertilizers and other improved methods of cultivation. The Government of Mexico has shown a decided interest in improv- ing these conditions, and for several years the Department of Promo- tion has been endeavoring to disseminate among the agricultural classes information tending to educate them, teaching them improved and scientific methods of cultivation, irrigation, fertilization, and drainage of the soil, and calling their attention to those products which could be advantageously cultivated in the different zones of the Republic. With this object in view, the Department issues a monthly bulletin of agriculture, mining, and industries, and publishes from time to time important works on special subjects, which are exten- sively circulated among the agriculturists. The results accomplished by these publications have been most favorable to the agricultural interests of the countiy, so far having occasioned the establishment and development of the culture of the grape and other fruits and of forage plants, and also the introduction of apiculture and sericulture. In order to further the agricultural interests of the Republic, the Department has imported, for gratuitous distribution among the most advanced agriculturists, seeds and plants, and has also encouraged agricultural fairs and expositions. The distribution began with vine shoots and olive-tree slips and other plants, the cultivation of which is giving excellent results. The cultivation of the grape has received especial impetus in the States of Coahuila, Chihuahua, and Guanajuato. President Diaz, in his message to Congress April 1, 1903, refers to agriculture in the following language: "National agriculture continues to receive aid from the federation by means of the free distribution of seeds for new cultures or for the extension of cultures already in exploitation, such as the distribution of slips of the grapevine, which are givenaway with profusion, of seeds of the chaparro sal ado, Sumatran tobacco, giant corn, jute, huayule, and some others. The exploitation of national lands has increased, owing to the grants made, which embrace 419,000 hectares." At the beginning of 1892 there were imported 1,030,000 shoots of the vine (simple) and 11,000 with roots, which were distributed among the States of Coahuila, Chihuahua, and other points on the Central Plateau and the south of the Republic. This was attended with excel- lent results, and toward the end of the liscal year 1893 shoots to the number of 3,500,000 were imported, principally from Lower Califor- nia, together with 72,000 olive slips and 16,000 other fruit-bearing trees. The distribution has continued, the shoots and slips of trees already acclimated being also used for the purpose. 170 MEXICO. In certain localities the cork tree {Quercus &iiber)ha& been intro- duced, as well a> the "( Jhoro-gi " ( Hachys tvbi/fi ra),ati excellent tuber of the potato family indigenous to Germany. Seeds of the fodder plant called Zacat&n cU Guinea have also been imported and distributed* This plant requires but little care and irrigation, and its cultivation on Mexican soil has been very successful. S eds ,»)' the "Riga" Max have been imported and distributed with a view to encouraging the cultivation of the plant and the establishment of the industries derived from its exploitation. For the purpose of establishing the silkworm industry in the coun- try, seeds of the best varieties of the mulberry tree for gratuitous distribution were imported from Italy, the result- so far obtained being satisfactory. Chinese and Japanese cocoons were ordered from San Franeiseo, Cal., but the latter varieties were not obtainable. Cocoons of a good quality have been imported from France and dis- tributed gratis. The results obtained in this branch of industry were shown at the Sericultural Exposition held in Lrapuato in ls<.»;>. when the quantity and quality of the Mexican product attracted great atten- tion. The silk industry may therefore now be regarded as existenl in the country, its development having been noteworthy, and the product remarkable for beauty and finish. Distribution has also been made, among such agriculturists as applied for them, of seeds of Kafir, tobacco, sugar cane, agave, and Max. The efforts of the Department to promote the agricultural interests of the country have not been confined to the importation and distri- bution of seeds and plants. Research and investigation have been extended to various industries, among others the cultivation of sugar cane and the manufacture of its products; also, apiculture and the cultivation of coffee, cotton, sesamum or benne seed, leguminous plants. and tubers have received attention. Frequent studies have been made of the diseases and plagues affecting certain plants, and the results have been published and extensively circulated among interested parties. The preservation of the national forests, their replanting, and method- ical exploitation, have been matters of interest and investigation on the part of the Department of Promotion, as the indiscriminate felling of trees at all seasons w-as gradually destroying the forests; this being especially the case since the advent of railroads and the increased number of industrial establishments using timber instead of iron as constructive material, and wood instead of coal as fuel, the Latter com- bustible not being obtainable at a fair price in sufficient quantities. A law has been enacted on this subject, the regulations stating in detail the duties of the officers appointed by the Government to the care of the forests; the rules and principles to which the exploitation of the forests and their products are subjected; the rules to be followed in making contracts and in cutting down the trees, and also creating a IRRIGATION. 171 S reservation of national lands for forestry, allotting 2,311,445 hectares to the State of Chihuahua and 203,635 to the State of Chiapas. With the same object of fostering- the agricultural interests of the country, several agricultural expositions have been very successfully held and prizes have been awarded to the best exhibitors, and fairs for the exhibition of cattle, implements, machinery, agricultural products in general, flowers, fishes, fruits, etc., have contributed to the same ends. During these fairs the plan of giving lectures on several topics was adopted, viz, on the usefulness of stock raising; the cross-breeding and acclimatization of cattle; the usefulness and value of agricultural machinery; on sericulture, horticulture, and other important subjects. One of the most important problems to be solved affecting the rapid development of agriculture in Mexico is the lack of proper irrigation, which can only be compared in magnitude to the scarcity of labor. Mexican territory, owing to its topograph}-, has no natural irrigation. The land rises abruptly from the coast to a habitable altitude of over 3,000 meters, thus creating a serious and insurmountable obstacle both to the retention and gradual absorption of the rain waters which are precipitated over the rough surface of the land, passing with great rapidit} r over the fields and river beds in their course to the sea, leav- ing behind a deplorable and ruinous drought, and in some places an almost perpetual aridity. An extended rainy season is of especial necessity to the profitable cultivation of the soil in all the central table-land, the cold region, and in a large portion of the temperate region, but when the rainfall is scanty, as is the case in extensive sec- tions of the northern frontier and in other regions, viz, the States of San Luis Potosi and Zacatecas, or when there is any alteration in its period, the crops are lost, the cattle suffer and the consequences are- felt in all other industries. Under these circumstances, the Mexican Government realized that a matter of such vital importance could not be left entirely to private initiative, and therefore framed a law bearing date of June 5, 1888, authorizing the Executive to grant concessions, eithei\to private parties or to companies, for the use of the waters of the Republic for irrigation purposes or as motive power in industries. The privileges granted by these concessions are: (1) Exemption for five years from all Federal taxes, the stamp tax excepted, on all moneys invested in the survey, construction, and repairs of the works mentioned in the concession. (2) The introduction, free of import duties, for the first time only, of the machinery, scientific instruments, and necessary apparatus for the survey, construction, and exploitation of said works. (3) The right to occupy gratuitously the public and national lands for the passage of canals and for the construction of dams or dikes and reservoirs. (4) The right to expropriate for public utility any lands belonging 172 MEXICO. to private parties, indemnification being previously mad i the atne i>:ivj- as that governing railroad concessions. The concessionaires are under tin- following obligations: (1) To make a deposit <>r surety in bonds of the public debt. (l') To submit for the approval <>t' the 1 department of Promotion the plans, outlines, and reports describing the work. (3) To respect the rights. of third parties, submitting any differences to the action of the courts, and to admit and defray the expenses of any inspecting engineer appointed by the Executive. The law also authorizes the Executive to grant tire entry into the country of the machinery and apparatus necessary to the employ of the waters, either for agricultural or industrial purposes, if the concession has hern granted by ;t State, provided the companies give security for the performance of the work in accordance with the rules and limitations established by the Federal Executive. On tin- L8th of September, 1896, this law was regulated by another, which has given excellent results, many of the old concessionaires having taken advan- tage of its provisions. These laws have been framed not only to pro- vide for the irrigation of the lands, hut also for the use of the water as motive power, thus opening :i new and extended future to the industrial progress of the Republic. PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS. Cereals. — Corn, wheat, barley, and rice, in the order given, are the principal cereals cultivated in Mexico. Corn. This product is an eminently Mexican staple, serving as nutriment for man and beast and being the principal article of food for the majority of the inhabitants, who consume it in the form of cakes called tortillas. According to the figures given by the "Anuario Estadlstico" for L901 and 1902, the production of corn from 1897 to 1901, inclusive, was as follows: Year. Production. Value. Year. Production, Value. 1897 Hectoliters. 12, 1 89,238,300 32,927,278 82,671 82, 108,009 71,s07,205 1900 Hectoliti r». 82, 492, 489 32,93l.7">7 187,301,928 1898 1901 103, 159, 0-27 1899 The following figures show the increase in price per hectoliter:" 1897 $2.02 I 1900 $2.65 1898 2. 09 1901 S. 13 1899 2.14 | The total production for the year 1901-2, according to the same authority, amounted to 27,521,808 hectoliters, valued at $78,411,844. WJuat. — At tin 1 time of the conquest, according to the historian Bancroft. '' the only European cereal raised in Mexico to any extent "A hertoliter is equivalent to 2.8.379 bushels. t> History of Mexico, Vol. Ill, Chap. XXIX, p. 611, 1883. WHEAT. 173 was wheat, and although the climatic conditions were propitious, the lack of moisture, which could only be overcome by irrigation, would frequently hinder its cultivation. Notwithstanding this drawback, the yield exceeded the average returns obtained in Europe, being, in some instances, as high as seventy or eighty fold. One of the varieties, which was cultivated chiefly in the neighborhood of Puebla, and called trigo blanquUlo, was remarkable for its abundant yield. In 1677 its cultivation was forbidden by a decree of the Viceroy and "Audiencia" as injurious to health, but it was resumed in 1692. The transportation facilities offered b} T the great American railroad systems has given great impetus to the raising of this grain, and Mexico is becoming a wheat-growing country. Wheat grows on the plateau of Mexico at an elevation of from 6,000 to 9,000 feet above sea level and between the eighteenth and twenty-fourth parallels of latitude. The area best adapted to its cultivation comprises some 52,000 square miles, over one-third of which could be planted in wheat without serious detriment to the other agricultural interests of the country. This land is situated in the States of Michoacan, Jalisco, Guanajuato, Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosi, and Queretaro. The Mexican plan of cultivation makes it possible to take off the land three crops every two years- — one crop of wheat and two crops of corn. The average yield of wheat per acre is about 20 bushels and of corn about 50 bushels on irrigated soils and about 30 to 35 on dry lands. These are considered conservative figures. Were this wheat area cultivated to its fullest capacity, the wheat and corn yield of one- third of the 52,000 square miles of suitable lands would be: Wheat, 110,000,000 bushels, and corn, 440,000,000 bushels per year, according to a conservative estimate made in 1883. This immense yield would all be available for foreign markets, as the home consumption could be always provided for by the outlying lands. Since the date of this estimate, improved machinery and more systematic treatment of the soil have considerably increased the yield of the lands devoted to the cultivation of the cereals mentioned, which are by no means all that could be utilized in this way. Wheat in Mexico is grown entirely in the table-lands and in places where irrigation is possible. Where the haciendas sire irrigated b}^ the more modern method of extensive irrigating canals with small streams, and where the elevation of the local irrigation ditch does not exceed 8 or 10 inches, the reapers pass over these ridges and they do not interfere with the working of the machine. The number of modern flour mills in the Republic is estimated to be about forty. The largest mill using modern machinery is located in Toluca, in the State of Mexico, and has an output of 500 kilos per day. There is under construction in the City of Mexico a mill a with a IT 1 MEXICO. capacity of 600 kilos a day. [n Guadalajara, Torreon, Puebla, Celaya, Guanajuato, Chihuahua, Morelia, and Orizaba are mills using modern machinery with a capacity of from 75 to LOO kilos per day. [ntheciij of Auguascalientes, San Luis Potosi, there are several small mills, with an average capacity of ."> ,, kilos per day. In Monterey there is one mill with a capacity of loo kilo- per day. Mexican wheat is small and hard, and when properly milled makes good flour. Specimen.- of this wheat exhibited at the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in ls7 cents silver per LOO kilos (220 pounds) and the importation from the United States increased in consequence to $731,33*1 in li>()2 and to $951,572 in 1903. Mexican official statistics for L901-2 show that the total produc- tion of wheat for that year amounted to 229,892,752 kilos, valued at $24,522,429. The principal States producing- this grain were as follow-: Kilos. Value. Mlchoac&n Sonoia iiuaimjuato Puebla Coahuila . . . Mexico Durnngo . . . .Talisoo Quer£taro . . 521,640 778,728 581,297 225,517 226,297 930,850 204,823 12,470,219 2,967, 151 2, 198,872 1,912, 173 1,486,079 7,241,541 1,176,220 998,000 858, 170 From 1898 to 1902, inclusive, the production of wheat has been increasing, except in L901, as shown in these figures: Year. Kilos. Value. 1898 239, 186, 186 252, 749, 505 338,263,902 327, 159, 027 329, 892. 752 116,609,735 1899 . . 17.iW7.924 1900 ... 22, 7*71 1901 . 28,800,122 1902 24, 5 COFFEE. 175 Barley. — All the States of the Republic, with the exception of Campeche, Colima, Guerrero, Tabasco, and Yucatan, produce barley, the total production for 1901-2 being- officially given at 2,130,118 kilos, valued at $4,916,523, Puebla and Mexico being the largest producers. Rice. — For the year above mentioned the production of rice amounted to 18,126,070 kilos, with a valuation of $2,510,233, Morelos, Michoacan, and Colima being the largest producers out of 15 States. The following table from the "Anuario Estadistico" for 1902 shows the total cereal production of the country: Rice. Barlev. Kilos. Aguascalientes. . Baja California . < 'ampeche j 45, 300 Coahuila 1,150 Colima 2,075,400 Chiapas 810,727 Distrito Federal Durango Guanajuato Value. 87, 248 172 440, 640 137, 702 Hecto- liters. Value. Corn. Hecto- liters. Value. 1,189 1,352 26, 052 66, 115 Guerrero Hidalgo... Jalisco Mexico Michoacan Morelos j 5,620,447 Nuevo Leon Oaxaca • 36,978 5,582 Puebla 2,112,652] 109,019 Queretaro 467,231 31,329 503, 796 1 60, 000 1 4, 410, 250] 62, 15,5*3 98.2* 9, 000 622,388 769, 450 San Luis Potosi Sinaloa , Sonora Tabasco Tamaulipas Tepic Tlaxcala Yucatan Zacatecas 59, 197 1,053,113 838, 500 12. 1*5 107, 430 112. 160 Total 18,126.070 2,540,233 2,130,118 4,916.523 180 66,414 6,760 42,985 229, 683 52, 149 481,727; 81,132 894 26, 986 17,549 595,517 23, 003 107,070 160 4,219 468 133 1,091 164 56 34 1,328 52 319 21 9,700 4,500 315, 350 35, 547 153, 615 1,354,450 54, 6, 302 80, 980 543,431 2, 631,694, 1, 656,985; 1, 357,794 1, 1,584,226 1. 1,761,125! 5, 570,964 1. 905,680' 2, 4,050,963 9, l,900,739i 6, 1,807,187 4, 289, 218 270, 343 1,978,434 2,224,602 626, 484 1,532,771 955, 225 359, 233 379, 747 404,868' 1, 782,886! 1, 237, 775 171,391 1, 1,096,311 2, 063, 350 22, 912 380, 880 135, 694 141,917 519,796 427, 533 664, 548 449, 805 017, 906 057,087 844, 366 374, 172 864, 796 829,899 032, 128 942, 932 332. 746 041,694 247. 437 653, 087 973, 660 146, 012 146, 763 352, 936 886, 977 209. 747 651,004 Wheat. Kilos. Value 1,767,240 638,550 18, 453, 439 676, 179 3, 436, 610 14,930,850 30,581,297 805 2,701,955 13, 204, 823 15, 255, 297 35,521,640 79, 954 249, 085 7,858,708 22, 225, 517 12, 765, 359 666, 263 225,900 34,778,728 8208, 755 46, 187 1,435,079 14,800 9, 386, 064 4,473,689 27, 521, 808 78, 411, 844 229, 892, 752 24, 522, 429 I 76, 617 613, 789 1,176,220 2, 493, 372 60 193, 525 998, 002 7,241,541 2,470,219 6,949 is, 5*5 498, 905 1,912,473 858, 470 57, 683 25, 442 2, 967, 151 1,184 844, 694 377, 527 Coffee. — Mexican coffee is of excellent qualit}-; that produced in Uruapam (Michoacan) and in the State of Colima has been classed with Mocha. It is claimed that it is possible to so increase the raising of coffee that Mexico can supply more of the aromatic bean to the mar- kets of the world than all other countries combined, save only Brazil. The immense area adapted to its cultivation may be estimated when it is known that it grows both in the hot and temperate belts. Hereto- fore Mexico occupied the fourth place among the countries importing coffee into the United States, which is her best market. Now, it is asserted, she immediately follows Brazil, which stands first. Within the last ten years this Mexican product has risen from the fifth to the third place in point of quality. The Mexican consul in Antwerp, Belgium, in a report states that from the 1st of January, l!M>4. all Belgian duties on Mexican coffee will be abolished, and that the duty on roasted coffee will be 10 francs ] 7<> MKXK'o. per LOO kilograms. The consul adds that Mexican coffee is oomlng rapidly into favor in Belgium. It may he added that requests for Mexican coffee are rapidly increasing i M (Jennany. France, and Eng- land, while in the United States there is a great demand, and a Dumber of concerns are giving their entire attention to the Mexican berry. As a result, coffee raising, which has been somewhat stagnant for the past few years, is enjoying a revival, and a number of old-time planters are preparing lands for setting out new orchards. Coffee is not indigenous to the country, hut it was originally brought from the West Indies about 1790. Still, it was not until 1818 that the plant was properly cultivated, when Don Juan A. Gomez, called the Benefactor of Cordoba, demonstrated that Mexico had the soil and climate essential to the cultivation of coffee. The berry is mostly raised in Colima, Oaxaca, Chiapas. Guerrero, Jalisco, Mexico, Miehoa- can. Morelos. San Luis Potosi. Tabasco, and Veracruz/' ""The coffee plant mostly cultivated in .Mexico is a suhvariety of the Mocha, or Coffea arabica. This is an evergreen, partaking more of the nature of a shrub, which in a state of cultivation varies in height from 5 to 7 feet. The range of this Bpecies is at elevations of from 1,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level, south of latitude 22° north, where the temperature does not fall below 55° F. ; still, the most favorable climate for it would be where the temperature does not fall below 60° nor rise above 80° in the shade. As to humidity, there should be from ?■"> to 150 inches of rain dur- ing the year, and the plant should be irrigated during the dry season, if required. The myrtle kind, which is considered as second in quality, is also extensively culti- vated. It is very similar to the Java, and is distinguished from the Mocha variety by the leaf being larger and the corolla smaller. This plant is hardier than the Mocha kind and will stand higher temperature; it is mostly cultivated in the Cordoba district It will thrive well at an elevation of from 500 to 3,000 feet above sea level. It is the opinion of the writer that Liberian coffee would thrive in the hot climates of Yucatdn, Campeche, Tabasco, and Veracruz. This is the hardiest of all the coffee trees adapted to the climates of Mexico, and will stand a very high temperature. "As the coffee tree has a long taproot, it will thrive better on land where the soil is deep. The best soil in Mexico is a well-drained, loamy one, either of a virgin mountainous composition, or of a volcanic nature, rich in humus. A rocky soil, where the earth is deep between the rocks, is very suitable, and less manuring is then required for the plants, as the rocks are continually adding to the soil by the decomposing action of the air, rain, and other natural forces. The climate most adaptable to coffee in Mexico is that found in the mountainous regions, with a range of temperature from 55° to 86° F. The best coffee is grown at elevations varying from 2,200 to 4,500 feet above the sea, in sections south of Veracruz; but in loca- tions below latitude 21° north, the north limit of the coffee zone on the Gulf side, the climate being cooler, the bush requires lower elevations, ranging from 600 to 3,000 feet. The plant is. however, cultivated by some plantersat much lower levels, and even within a few miles from the seashore — for instance, in Misantla, Acayucan, Minatitlan, and Tuxtla, Veracruz; and in Cardenas, Comalcalco, Cunduacan, Nacayuca, and San Juan Bautista, Tabasco. An extremely wet climate is not favor- able to the coffee plant, and it will not thrive in very exposed situations. If proper a-pect as regards sun and winds can not be obtained, the exposure can nearly always be modified by shelter belts of trees. On the Pacific side the prevailing south winds must be avoided at low elevations, and on tins side the tree can be planted at much COFFEE. 177 Mr. Matias Romero, who for many years devoted his attention to coffee culture, estimated the results of coffee raising as follows: Cost of planting a tree. Annual product of a tree. Expense of cultivating one tree. Net profit. 80. 20i .23 .12 Pounds. 0. 4563 .4563 1 SO. 04 .05 R r cent. 25 49 25 15 90 Romero's averages have been considered too high as regards the cost of cultivation and too low as regards the annual yield. In an official publication 8 appears the statement that in the State of Chiapas, where the land is good, and care and economy have been exercised in the cultivation, the following have been the results: Annual expense of cultivation (one tree) $0.01 Annual yield for each tree pounds. . 10 In the State of Oaxaca on one plantation, 21 months after planting, the trees yielded 3 pounds of dry coffee each. In the District of Choapam. of the same State, the average crop is 6 pounds of coffee for each tree, and there are trees producing 25 pounds of diy coffee a year. Romero takes 1 pound as the average yield of Mexican coffee trees. In arriving at this figure he takes into consideration all kinds of coffee plantations, those laid out in poor localities, in poor seasons, and improperly cultivated; but it appears to be pretty well settled that good lands, cultivated under proper con- ditions, will render crops of from 4 to 10 pounds per tree. Col. E. C. More, late United States Consul-General to Mexico, agrees with Romero in that, under present conditions, the profits of coffee raising are 90 per cent per annum; but that they differ largely in the several belts devoted to the culture of the bean is evidenced b}- the fact that an American coffee expert of Fortin and Cordoba, State of Veracruz, states that the profits reach 150 per cent. The bean sells, according higher elevations, as the range which branches off at Jalisco and joins the Toluca Mountain and the Popocatepetl Peak breaks off the cold north winds ami shelters the regions below it. As to direct sun exposure, when it is desirable to take advan- tage of the heat at high elevations it is always convenient to acquire, as far as pos- sible, a southern exposure; but where the elevation is low and the temperature is high such an exposure would be injurious to the plant, in which case it is better to procure an eastern exposure. Generally, the action of the rains modifies the term perature in the Tropics, and at elevations between 2,000 and 4,500 feet above sea level clouds gather along the mountains almost even* day before the rays of tin' norm sun bear their strong influence in those localities. On the Gulf side the trees that have an eastern sun exposure, so that the sun strikes them during the morning, thrive better and yield more." — (Production of coffee in Mexico, U. S. Consular Reports, Vol. LII, Sept., 1896, pp. 103-121.) a Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, R. de Zayas Enriquez, Mexico, 1893, p. 458. 509a— 04 12 ITS MEXICO. to class, ;ii from $24 t<» $32 per hundredweight, Mexican money. In the Huasteca Potosina section of Veracruz coffee planting during the past three years has increased at the rate of 60 per cent a year. Gen- erally it costs $7 silver to raise, pick, clean, and sack a hundred- weight of coffee. Tin' selling price averages $27 per hundredweight on the ground. The product per acre is from 250 to 500 pounds. The value of the exports to all countries in 1897 was £lo.*;49.119. The first recorded exportation of coffee from Mexico to the United States was in 1825, amounting in value to $216,850. The same coun- try furnished the latter during the fiscal year ending June 30, L898, 34. 721,168 pounds: in 1901, 60,459,865 pounds, and in 1903, 22,207,086 pounds. Latest available Mexican statistics for 1902 show that the exports of coffee to all parts of the world amounted to 22,565,183 kilos, valued at $10,552,313. the United States being the largest con- sumer, with 14,592,755 kilos, valued at $0, 826, 250. Germany occu- pies the next place, with over 3,500,000 kilos, and then follow France, with nearly 2.(ioi).iMi(). and England, with over 1,700,000 kilos. During the first six months of 1902-3 the total exports of this grain is officially given in the Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal at 4,445,615 kilos, with a declared invoice value of 'S-2.o.-)i i.^73. Thenumberof American firms engaged in coffee planting in Mexico is, according to a report of Consul-General Barlow." as follows: Chiapas, 5; Oaxaea. 13; Puebla, 1'.*: Tabasco. 2; Tepic. 1. and Vera- cruz, 15 — in all 55. Many of the American firms ship their coffee to St. Louis, Mo., where it is roasted, ground, and stored for sale. Much of the product of Oaxaea goes directly to London, where it enters into competition with the best grades of the South American product. The "Anuario ^^stadiat^-o^ for liti» 1-2 gives the following figures for the production of coffee in the fiscal year named, viz. 9,983,546 kilos, valued at $2,799,317 — the largest producer being the State of ( Ihiapas, with 4,330,81s kilos, for *1, 143. 228, and the State of Oaxaea next with 1.800,52:-'. kilos, at over s;>oo.ooo. The same authority quotes the following figures for the production of the berry for the calendar years named: Year. Kilos. Value. 1898 . 16,363,230 14,000,680 1899 ... 37, 609, 264 1 1 . 066. 657 1900 21,088,123 27,424,416 9,983,546 6,048,609 1901 8, 733, 778 1902 2, 799, 317 Total 112. 168,578 33,247,911 Tobacco. to Mexico. -The tobacco plant (the yetl of the Aztecs) is indigenous Its cultivation and use soon became known among the "Commercial Relations of the Chited states, L902, Vol. I. TOBACCO. 17U Spaniards and was not seriously restricted for nearly two centuries after the conquest. In 1764 the Crown appropriated the right to the sale and manufacture of the plant, its culture being confined to the districts of Orizaba, Cordoba, Huatusco, and Zongolica, severe penal- ties being fixed for its cultivation elsewhere. The product was pur- chased by the Government at a stipulated price, which in turn sold the leaf at a profit of about 200 per cent. The revenues derived from this monopoly in 1783 amounted to $777,651; in 1792, to $684,109; in 1794, to $773,442, and in 1801-2, about $4,000,000 silver. Under the Spanish regime factories were established in several cities, the principal being situated in Mexico and Queretaro, each employing about 7,000 persons of both sexes, with an aggregate pay roll of more than $700,000 a year. The annual product of these establishments amounted to nearly $7,500,000, about one-half of which belonged to the Crown. In 1868 several foreign cultivators and manufacturers, principally Cuban, went to Mexico, where they began to cultivate the plant on an extensive scale. Not a little of the success attained in this industry is due to Frenchmen, as a French writer, Louis Lejeune, in a pamphlet on the subject, first drew attention to the fact that the tobacco grown in the upper valley of the Papaloapan River produced leaves as tine and silky and even more aromatic than those of the Vuelta Abajo, in Cuba. In his pamphlet Mr. Lejeune made an elaborate comparison of the relative cost of starting a tobacco plantation in Cuba and in Mex- ico, showing that with silver at par, as was the case at the time of his writing, the expenses in Mexico were only about one-half as great as in Cuba, not taking into account the price of land and the cost of transportation. At the Paris Exposition (1889) the Mexican product obtained gold, silver, and bronze medals, being considered equal to, if not the superior, of Habana tobacco. In 1894 and 1895, "La Regie," a department created in France to regulate the importation and traffic of tobacco, began to accept the Mexican product. The Mexican tobacco has a flavor peculiarly its own, and it grows upon one, and where it has been used for any length of time, as upon the western coast of the United States, it is rapidly superseding the Cuban article. Tobacco is raised along the mountain country lying between Victoria, State of Tamaulipas. and Campeche, capital of the State of the same name, also on the Pacitic slope of the States of Chiapas, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Michoacan, Jalisco, Colima, Sonora, and the Territory of Tepic. It is likewise cultivated in the interior districts of Morelos, Michoacan, Oaxaca, Veracruz, Tamaulipas, Tabasco, Guerrero, Jalisco, Colima, and the Territory Last above named. In addition to the parts named, the Government maps show 1 13 different cantons, or small districts, where the weed is now being cultivated. In the virgin ISO MKXK'O. valleys along the rirersof the States on the Pacific slope the plant may find the elements which host meet its requirements. In order to produce an aromatic and mild as well as large and fine leaf it is necessary that the soil should be sandy, well charged with organic vegetable matter in decomposition, and contain oxides of iron and aluminum, and also lime, although this is not an indispensable requisite. This is the soil Mexico provides, and it is so deep that it is not necessary to plant a crop of corn after the tobacco crop, planters instead raising a second or seedling crop of tobacco, which furnishes the small and mild leaf used in cigarette making. The extent of the tobacco region is immense, probably one hundred times that of the same region in Cuba. As a material for " tillers" Mexican tobacco is unexcelled. Practi- cally no wrapper tobacco is grown in Mexico. The finest Mexican cigars go to Habana, where they sell at $l.(i~ per pound. All of the Central American and some of the South American countries buy these cigars, paying an average of $1.05 a pound. Statistics for the tobacco production of Mexico during the fiscal year L902-3, published in the "Economists Mcxicano"" of November 28, 1903, show the following figures: Year. Cigarettes, Cigais, cut. Kilns. L74.627 236, 559 288, 47J 896,610 393,083 Cigars, perilla. Rape. Fine cut, sifted. Kim- ont. iv is y.i . Kilns. 4,916,780 5, 906, 619 6,974,333 6, 203, 966 7,305,079 Kilns. 4:vj. 966 417,981 405 797 426,165 158,02] Kilns. Ill 22 16 9 14 Kilns. si, 828 23, 625 17,656 28,260 23,051 Kilns. Ill 1K99-1900 . IDS 1900 1901 . . 4-'.9 1901-2 1,196 1902-3 3,585 A steady increase is observable in all the various forms of manufac- tured tobacco, except the rape or snuff, which has almost ceased to be made, the demand being in fact almost nominal. The increase in the cigarettes is very considerable, having almost doubled in the live years under review; the homemade cigarettes have gradually driven the Ilabana article from the Mexican market. Mexico having formerly been one of the greatest consumers. The total production of tobacco during 1901-2 is officially given at 3,907,311 kilos, valued at 1758,200, the Territory of Tepic being the largest producer with 1,188,700 kilos, at $169,872, all the States of the Republic having contributed, with the exception of Morelos, Quere'taro, and Tamaulipas. The total production of the country from 1898 to 1902 is officially quoted at 79,718,221 kilos, valued at $12,361,973. Exports of manufactured tobacco during 1902 amounted to 23(5,448 kilos, with a valuation of $650,524, England being the largest importer— 157,679 kilos, at $468,968; the United States being second with 18,549 kilos, at $50,601. The next importing countries were Colombia, with 1.8,500 kilos, in round numbers, at $22,500; Guatemala, 17,800 kilos, COTTON. 181 $25,500, and Germany, 15,300 kilos, at $51,500. For the first half of 1902-3, exports were 123,911 kilos, at $353,780. Exports of leaf tobacco amounted in 1902 to 1,111,326 kilos, at $1,020,179 — Germany, Belgium, and the United States being the largest consumers in the order given, as follows: Country. Kilos. • Value. 495, 341 432, 262 130, 276 8374, 337 448, 326 162, 771 For the first six months of 1902-3 these exports were 195,332, valued at $200,000. Mexican leaf tobacco imports for 1902 are officially given at 1,260,186 kilos, valued at $226,190, the United States being represented by 1,251,767 kilos, at $218,025. Cotton. — Cotton has been cultivated in Mexico from time immemo- rial. Prior to the advent of the Aztecs in the valley of Mexico their predecessors knew and practiced the art of cotton spinning. Although Mexico is so thorough^ adapted b}?- soil and climate to the production of this fiber, and although she has an acreage sufficient to produce it in quantities greater than the United States, she is not only not an exporting nation, but actually imports annually about $2,000,000 worth of the staple to supply the demand of her factories. In 1897-98 she imported 21,216,287 pounds from the United States; in 1898-99, 18,061,891 pounds, and in 1903, 33,253,500 pounds, valued at $3,183,130. It has been said that with direct railroad communica- tion from the Pacific coast to the interior the Yaqui River region in Sonora alone would supply that demand, and more. Cotton is produced on the seaward slopes of both Cordilleras, and also in the interior of the country. The great cotton belt is the Laguna district, in the State of Coahuila, which has a length of about 10 miles, is rather narrow, and follows the Nazas River, being almost entirely under cultivation. It is distant about 700 miles from the City of Mexico, and is in railroad communication therewith. Under fair conditions the annual crop will yield $10,000,000 in value. The principal cotton-producing districts, other than that named above, are: On the Gulf side, the cantons of Cosamaloapam, Tuxtla, Tuxpam, Tantoyuca, and Veracruz, in the State of Veracruz. On the Pacific slope, from Sonora to Chiapas. In Sonora, the valleys of the Yaqui and the Mayo; in Sinaloa, the valley of the Fuerte; in Tepic, the valleys of Tepic and Santiago, the fertility of which is astonishing, and in Jalisco, Michoacan, Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Chiapas the pro- duction is great, and could, at a small cost, be made enormous. In the central part, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, and Nuevo Leon are the principal producers. 182 KEXIOO. On t he coast of the State of Guerrero the fiber measures :;7 mi! I i meters in length; in San Pedro and Lerdo, 35 millimeters; in \ era oruz, 34 millimeters; in Guaymas, 30 millimeters; in Tepic, 31 milli meter-; in Colima and Oaxaca, 32 millimeters. The methods of cultivation employed arc still rather primitive, the plow until very recently being Little used, and nature being left t<> exercise her agencies unaided. With the intelligent use of improved machinery and a knowledge of advanced methods of cultivation Mexico need never import an ounce of cotton. Then' are great advantages in .the cultivation of Mexican cotton, as the plants continue to bear profitable crops without the use of fertilizers on the soil or the renewal of seed, which is necessary each year in the United States. ""The consumption of raw cotton in Mexico" says the " Mexican Economist"— "is estimated to be L00,000 bales annually, 50,000 bales of which are produced in the country, principally in the States of Durango andCoahuila. Active efforts are being made throughout the Republic to increase the acreage of cotton under cultivation, inasmuch as there are other places in the Republic exceedingly well suited to its cultiva- tion, such, for instance, as the coast lands of the States of ( )axaea and Guerrero, and the States of Chiapas, Veracruz, Puebla, and Morelos. The price of raw cotton was £31 silver per quintal in 1903. The fiber of the Mexican cotton is longer and stronger than that of the cotton of the United States, but is thinner, less silky, and not as clean as tin- latter, which fact has given rise to the custom of mixing the American cotton with the Mexican, especially in the manufacture of articles of fine texture." The production of cotton in Mexico for 1901-2 is given a> follows by the "Anuario Estadistico" for that period: 22,529,407 kilos, valued at $8,629,109; Coahuila being credited with the largest amount, viz, L4,073,750 kilos, at $6,6(56,277; then conies Durango with 4,880,500 kilos, at $1,530,600, and the territory of Tepic with 1,485,800 kilos, valued at $144,080. The total production for the last live calendar years is given as follows by the same authority: Year. Kili». Values. 1898 |.\ 625, 767 22, is?.. '.17 21,79 22,864,092 22,;VJ'.i. MW 572,770 1899 4,679,628 1900 6, 1 18, 773 1901 6, 147,880 1902 r--- 8,629,109 Total 134,702,078 82, 77S, 160 Cotton weaving and spinning is one of the most promising growing industries of Mexico. During the fiscal year 1901-2 there were in the country 93 working factories using 595,728 spindles, 18,222 looms, and 33 printing machines, consuming 27,628,366 kilos of cotton for the pro- CACAO. 188 duction of 10,428,532 pieces of woven or printed goods, and 1,879,329 kilos of yarn, the sales-declared being $28,780,000. Imports of raw cotton into Mexico in 1901-2 amounted to 6,175,931 kilos, valued at $1,271,958, as per invoice, and during the first half of 1903 were 9,475,968 kilos, invoiced at $1,816,418. The share of the United States in the raw cotton imports for the calendar year 1902 is represented by 11,879,356 kilos, valued at $2,920,789, according to official Mexican figures. The '"Mexican Investor,'' December 8, 1902, is authority for the state- ment that an attempt has been made to utilize in Yucatan two native delicate fibers to substitute cotton in many of its uses. The plants produce cotton of two classes; the smaller one gives a coffee-colored seed and grows and multiplies without special care all the year round; its fiber is thicker than that of the common cotton. The seed of the other plant is of a light-blue color. This plant requires special culti- vation and irrigation; the fiber is liner than the other, and as fine as the finest cotton. An agriculturist of San Luis Soyatlan, in the State of Jalisco, who first experimented with these two plants, the same authorit} 7 states, has distributed seeds all over the hot lands, for which it is most suited. C {Thedbroma, in Greek — the food of the gods) is another plant indigenous to Mexico. It has been cultivated by the aborigines from remote times, and from its bean they made their drink chocolatl (chocolate), which w r as considered to have great sustaining virtues, and Cortes, speaking of the general adoption of the beverage by his soldiers, in his first letter to Charles V says: " He wdio has drunk his cup of chocolate travels a whole day without taking other food.' 1 Ever since chocolate came into general use in Europe, in the latter part of the seventeenth century, the high-grade cacao has been furnished by the States of Tabasco and Chiapas. The Mexican home consump- tion is very large, yet the production does not meet the demand, which is ever increasing. The cacao requires a warm and moist atmosphere, the best lands lying between sea level and 1,600 feet above, in localities protected from strong air currents. Although there are many districts in Mexico affording the necessary conditions of climate and soil, the cul- tivation of the cacao is almost entirely in the hands of the Indians, who raise it on a small scale and carry their crops to market, where they are bought by merchants, who store them away until a sufficient quantity is collected to ship to the large consuming centers. The plant begins bearing three or four years after planting, and usually gives three crops a year, although in some parts of Chiapas four crops have been garnered in a twelvemonth. 184 Mexico. A Mexican authority thus estimates the cost of establishing and maintaining a cacao plantation for a period of -eight years: Cosl of LOO acres of land .^ ( Hearing same for cacao, staking, planting shade trees, cacao, and corn between the rows of the cacao plants, ran' of corn, and expense of harvesting l. 340 Value of corn crop 1,200 lid year: Cosl "i' maintaining plantation and of planting, cultivating, and harvest- ing coin crop 1,130 Value of corn crop 1,000 Third year: Cosl of maintaining plantation, raising Last Crop of corn, and gathering first crop of cacao 1, tJOO Value of corn and cacao 1, 000 Fourth year: Cosl of maintaining plantation 1, 444 :;oo cargas " of cacao 7, r>oo Fifth year, profits 6,000 Sixth year, profits 8,300 Seventh year, profits 10, 490 Eighth year, profits 21, 000 The plants roach their maximum production the ninth or tenth year, and after the twenty -third year their yield diminishes. The trees are planted about 400 to the acre, and an authority places the average yield of 1,000 trees at 6<>0 pounds. The cacao industry has proven a considerable source of wealth to the State of Tabasco, and it is strange thai investors have not recognized its profitableness. It is asserted by good authority that land well adapted to the raising of cacao plants can he purchased for about $8 an acre, Mexican money, in sections of from 100 to 500 acres. As the bean of the plant is extensively used in the manufacture of chocolate, and it is utilized in the making of salves for medical use, such as cacao butter, its cultivation offers an inviting field for profitable speculation. Consul-General Barlow, in his report before quoted, gives a list of American investors in Mexico, wherein it appears that there are 4 firms growing cacao in Tabasco, 1 in Veracruz, 1 in Oaxaca, and 2 in Chiapas. Mexican official figures relative to the production of cacao during L901-2 give the total production at 3, 428, .".25 kilos, valued at $2,703,628. The principal States producing this bean were Tabasco, L,869,435 kilo^. at $1,551,391, and Chiapas, 1,551,705 kilos, at $1, 143,182. The other States given are Colima, Michoacan, Guerrero, and Oaxaca. For the last five years the total production of the coun- try was a^ follows: «The carga here mentioned is equivalent to about 60 pounds. RUBBER. 185 Year. Kilos. Value. 1898 1,362,543 1,032,437 1,973,352 1, 792, 988 3,428,525 81,385,267 1899 689, 907 1900 1,709,857 1901 . 1,622,844 1902 ... - 2, 703, 628 Total 9, 589, 845 8,111,503 Rubber. — The rubber tree grows wild in many parts of Mexico; it abounds in the warm latitudes of the States of Veracruz, Tamaulipas, Tabasco, Guerrero, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Colima, Michoacan, and the Territory of Tepic. Except in isolated cases, the cultivation of the tree has not been seriously undertaken. The natives, not appreciat- ing- the value of so important an element in the arboreal vegetation of the country, have been accustomed for many }^ears to extract the milk from the tree, boil it, and take the rubber made into balls to the market without an} r further preparation or treatment. The natives also chopped down and destroyed great numbers of these trees. In the Tehuantepec region there are said to be 1,200 square miles of territory susceptible of growing the rubber tree. There it is valu- able not only because of its product but- also for the good results it gives in furnishing shade to coffee and cacao trees. The tree begins to yield when 6 or 7 years old, but it is not considered advisable to tap until it is 9 or 10 years of age. If the tapping is properly done (once a year, in October and November, for instance) it will produce for twenty-five years. It produces 1 pound of gum when 10 years old and 2£ to 3 pounds when 15 years of age. The cost of planting and care for the first year is from 1£ to 5 cents, and li to 1£ cents for cultivation in the subsequent 3 7 ears. On the Isthmus the gum sells for 10 to 60 cents gold per pound, on the plantations. Romero states" that the milk yield of each tree six years after planting is estimated at 6 pounds, which, reduced to rubber, loses about 55 per cent, and he calculates that a plantation of 100,000 trees would produce a net profit at the end of six years, at the prices then prevailing (1871), of $110,880. The best climate for the culture of the rubber tree is the hottest, and the best land the dampest and the nearest to the seashore or on the low-lying banks of rivers. The tree requires but little labor for its cultivation. An economical method of growing it is to plant the trees as shade for coffee and cacao plantations, rubber itself not requiring the shade, but, on the contrary, experience in Mexico has demonstrated that trees growing in the sun are healthier and better than when protected from its influence. The prevailing opinion "Coffee and India Rubber Culture in Mexico, p. 382. New York, 1898. 186 MEXICO. among the agriculturists of Mexico seems to be that - to 2\ meters from tree to tree on every side is the proper spacing in planting rub- ber trees. The hardiness of the plant greatl} simplifies its culture, thus rendering it proportionately cheap. In the low, hot, damp lands most favorable to its growth the fertility of the — < * 1 1 is so great that the necessary labor may be said to consist solely in weeding the plan- tations, and as the rubber plant possesses a vitality superior to that of weeds or of any other kind of vegetation, in proportion as the trees grow Larger the necessity for weeding becomes less imperative. Another point in determining the success of a plantation i^ the method employed in tapping the trees. This operation must be performed very carefully, so as not to injure the woody structure beyond the bark, nor must the hark he separated in two portions, thus isolating the upper and lower sections of the tree and preventing the ascent of the sap. United States Consul W. W. Canada, at Veracruz, under date of January 11. L904, forwarded the following important information, taken from Mexican sources, to the Department of Commerce and Labor of the United State-, which is published in Consular Report No. 18T5, of February 12. 1.1HM: "There are more than L,500 species of rubber plants or trees, and all of them are intertropical plants. The Mexican rubber tree is of the family of CastUloa elastica and is indigenous to the soil. Those desiring to engage in the cultivation of rubber should carefully look into the following points and satisfactorily settle them before investing. "What is the most favorable climate and what qualities should the soil possess to insure the profitable development of the tree) "Unfortunately it is impossible to answer definitely and conclu- sively the greater number of the questions which follow; we can give only the results of our personal experience on a small plantation and such other information as we have collected from various sources. We could answer the preceding question perhaps in this manner: "What is the best method to pursue when commencing a planta- tion — plant direct from the seed, transplant the young trees, or plant slips or cuttings? "The cheapest and most convenient method is to transplant the young trees from a nursery, an indespensable adjunct that should always be proportionate in size to that of a plantation about to be cleared for planting. The young- trees should have a height of at least 31.5 inches before this can be done successfully. Planting the seed where the tree is expected to grow is not advisable on account of the greater labor in keeping the soil clear of other growths and conse- quent expenses incurred. Planting slips or cuttings from trees should never be attempted, as Ho per cent of them will be lost. RUBBER. 187 "Should the plants have sun or shade \ At what distance from each other should trees be set out \ "'These points have been in controversy by all authorities on the subject. Some believe that the rays of the sun are beneficial, others that they are injurious, to the plant. However, the opinion of com- petent persons is that a tree exposed to the rays of the sun develops quickly and produces a larger quantity of rubber, but will also rapidly deteriorate, and it is believed that within three or four years after the tree commences to produce the plantation will be exhausted. Those who maintain that shade is necessary to insure best results claim that the plant will not cease to produce or exhaust itself in less time than from twenty to thirty } T ears. Only practical experience will solve this question, and this has demonstrated the fact that the rays of the sun are necessary for the natural development of the tree, but trees that have already attained a good height give very little product when so exposed. They must have shade, and such as is given by large forest trees left at convenient distances from the rubber trees. Therefore, when clearing the land for a rubber plantation a sufficient number of trees of large growth should not be cut down, but should be left stand- ing at regular distances to secure the necessary shade for the rubber trees. "The proper distance at which trees ought to be set out from each other is another much-disputed point, and there is no general rule for the guidance of the planter. Trees planted at a distance of 10 feet apart become dwarfed; the trunk thickens and some of them are very slow in attaining to the perfection of others that receive air and nour- ishment from the soil in abundance. When trees are planted closer than 25 feet apart the loss to the plantation is equivalent to 50 per cent. Some of the trees develop vigorously, while others remain weak and dwarfed and the foliage turns yellow, influenced, as it were, by the larger plants near them. " What is the nature of the labor to be performed while the trees are growing '. "After the preliminary clearing of the land and also after the young trees- have been set out, great care must be exercised to keep the soil free from weeds and other plants. All these should be carefully removed and the ground raked over several times during the first year and at least once a year afterwards. Some authorities advise cutting off the top of the tree when a height of 32 feet 8 inches has been reached. This is believed to cause the trunk of the tree to thicken, as well as the bark. Nature produces the milk in the bark, and in this the sought-for source of profit is found. The planter must appl} 7 all his intelligence and give all his attention to the plants until they are fully developed, and it should not be lost sight of that the cultivation of the rubber tree is something entirely new to the agricul- L88 mix [(•(». turist. No one 1 1 : » — as vet said the last word on the subject We are yet in l he dark, or in the epoch of studj ami observation, and only i he intelligent planter can possibly discover the secrets <>t" nature. ••After planting, how much time will elapse before a rubber tree will commence to produce 1 "" Here we ha\e another disputed question. Some say twenty years, others fifteen year-, and »till other- ten years, but the majority seem to agree that at the age of eight years the tree will he in a condition of development to permit of its being tapped for the first time, if the soil, the climate, and the growth of the tree have been good; hut if either of these (dements has been unfavorable the probability will be that a longer time must elapse before tapping can take place. And, again, practical persons have assured us that under favorable condi- tions a tree may be fully developed at the age of six years. '"What is the annual production of a tree and what is the best method for extracting the rubber without impoverishing the plant? "This question, no less important than tin' others, is also the cause of much controversy and contradictory opinions. Some agriculturists' believe that a tree may be tapped without injury once every two months, and made to yield at each operation <> pounds of rubber, mak- ing 36 pounds per year for each tree. Meanwhile, others believe that the tree should be tapped only once a year to produce (*> pounds. Still others think it more advantageous to the planter to extract the juice once every two years, believing that the production will be greater than by tapping every two months. Among those who are posted it is agreed that a tree with a trunk of from 15 to 18 inches in diameter will produce at each tapping 6 pounds of rubber. "The milk of the rubber tree contains 56 per cent of water and 44 per cent of rubber. The method of tapping the tree is an important matter, for upon this depends the success of the plantation. We will say nothing about the barbarous practice of cutting down the trees. Generally speaking, there are two ways of extracting the juice. It may be done by making a spiral cut in the bark of the tree to a height of about 30 feet, being very careful not to cut the tree itself, for in that case it will be likely to die. Another method — and it seems to us the most rational one — is to make an incision nearly around and at the foot of the tree; the milk will descend by its own gravity without the bark being injured by much cutting. When the juice has ceased to run. cover the cut very carefully with (day. "The cost of planting rubber varies materially with the methods pursued in setting out the trees. If we accept as correct 25 feet as the distance at which trees should be planted from each other, and this method is to be preferred, 144 trees may be set out to each 2£ acres, approximately. For planting 10,000 trees about 200 acres will be RUBBER. 189 required. One man is said to be able to extract the milk from 20 to 25 trees daily. The month of May is preferred for this operation." Dr. W. S. Cockrell, who for twelve years has been interested in agriculture in tropical Mexico, is authority for the following' informa- tion on matters not fully covered by the preceding abstract: "The conditions pertaining to and methods of planting india rubber — CastUha elastt'ca, the commercial rubber plant of Mexico — are very important features which have received hitherto inadequate attention. It is by no means a complex subject; on the contrary, by observing a few primitive and essential features, this most important industry may be conducted to a most successful and profitable result. "Locality. — As a general rule, with a very few notable exceptions, rubber should be planted south of latitude 20° N. and below an alti- tude of 1,000 feet above sea level, where the annual rainfall exceeds 100 inches and where a large amount of humidity is precipitated as dew during the dry season. "The exceptions are in protected valleys or locations within above- mentioned latitude at elevations of several thousand feet where the surrounding mountains ward off the cold winds and preserve equable climate. Such locations do exist, but are rare and limited in area. " Soil. — This is an all-important factor, and in a great measure con- trols results in direct ratio to its adaptability, fertility, and depth. Rubber will produce a luxuriant tree in almost any soil where the conditions of locality are favorable, but such a tree does not neces- sarily imply a profitable producer. " By adaptability is meant a rich, alluvial, virgin soil, which is always of the requisite fertility. Its value as a rubber soil depends largely upon its depth or the subsoil, which factor gains its essentiality from the fact that the rubber tree is primarily a taproot feeder. The taproot is the perpendicular and principal root which penetrates the ground in relative proportion to the height of the tree. From the collateral or superficial roots sufficient strength may be drawn to maintain a luxuriant tree, but a well-nourished taproot is necessary to yield a bountiful supply of rubber milk, from which commercial rubber is extracted. "Recently, by good fortune, a landslide was observed which dem- onstrated a rubber tree about 7 inches in diameter 3 feet from the surface of the ground with a taproot slightly more than 1£ inches in diameter 18 feet below the surface. It would have been interesting to know how much deeper this root extended, but circumstances were such that it was not feasible to ascertain. This demonstration was only confirmatory of much previous investigation extending over a number of years, all proving beyond a doubt that it is the taproot that furnished the excess supply of rubber which may be annually I'M) MEXICO. extracted without detriment to the tree. Many trees not producing a remunerative quantity have been found invariably to be without a tap- root, and no tree with a normal taproot has been found that did not produce an abundant and profitable supply. To enumerate a great number of instances, amply conclusive, would occupy more apace than allowable and only confirm above deductions. •• Method of planting. No less important than cither of the forego- ing factors is the method of planting. In order to secure a full com- plement of root supply, rubber seeds should be planted, at proper distance, in ground previously staked to indicate where the trees are to grow. From three to five seeds should tie planted at each stake, >«> that if the rains wash any of the seeds out, or if at some stake- all fail to sprout, they may be easily and safely supplied from those where all, or the majority, have sprouted by removing the small plants 2 or 3 inches high, with proper implements, to supply the deficiencies. This may be done without jeopardy to the plants, and after all deficiencies have been supplied all hut one plant should he removed from each place. In this way a very complete stand can nearly always be gotten the first year, and the deficiencies that may occur can be supplied by a repeti- tion of seed planting the second year or by transplanting very -mall plants with roots intact. Transplanting from nursery plants of such a size as would necessitate injury to the taproot is to be carefully avoided, likewise planting from slips or cuttings, either of which may produce a thrifty looking tree of small productive capacity. "There is ample reason for limiting the distance of planting to a maximum of 8 feet from tree to tree, and closer planting has been demonstrated to be successful. The object of close planting is to maintain continuous shade on the trunks of the trees, which is neces- sary to grow a soft bark, through which the milk will easily percolate. and this area will yield ample support to the tree in that the depth of the taproot i- the real source of supply. ••A high state of cultivation, which in tropical countries implies keeping the ground absolutely clean and free from weeds and grass, is necessary, as there is no plant more sensitive or that more manifestly resents an intrusion than rubber." The "India Rubber World*'. February 1. L903, is authority for the following information in regard to the progress made in rubber plant- ing in Mexico by 26 companies: The total number of trees planted by the 26 companies, by years, is as follows: 1897 •">.-'"<» 1901. - 1,101,678 1898 21,700 1902 2,991,000 1899 371 • 1900 952, 742 T< -nil 5, 443, 105 Total acreage, 11,117. RUBBER. 191 The average number of trees planted per acre in 1902 by 13 com- panies was 400, 500. 190. 1,000, 200, 820, 800, 250, 800, 587, 2,000, 600, 611, respectively. These 13 companies report a total planting- of 2,671,000 trees in L902 on 1,113 acres, or an average of 650 trees per acre. The prac- tice is general of close planting, both to allow for failures and with the idea of extracting some rubber from the surplus trees when they have grown so as to make their removal necessary. While some of the companies have tried various methods of planting as regards shade, generally one plan has been adhered to in each case, and further planting, as a rule, will be done under the same method as in the past. The distribution of the total planting to January, 1903, was as follows: How planted. Number of trees. In the open In tlic open and sernishade In sernishade In the shade Not stated Total 3, 202, 920 1,117,000 1,019,185 4,000 100,000 5, 443, 105 Ten companies planted in the open, 2 in the open and sernishade, 11 in sernishade, 1 in shade altogether, and 2 did not report. Nine companies planted from nurseries and at stake, 12 from nurs- eries principally, and 3 at stake alone. In regard to transplanting from nurseries and planting seeds at stake, while the practice of the different companies varies, in most cases the plan adopted in the past will be continued. The total plant- ing has been distributed as follows: How distributed. Number of trees. 2, (T75, 400 1,895,705 372, 000 100,000 Total 4,443,105 To give an idea of the extent of the preparation made for future planting, it may be mentioned that 19 of the 26 companies reported having in nurseries at the end of the season a total of ll.lti2.000 young plants, in numbers ranging from 7.000 to 2,000,000 each. Two com- panies reported no nurseries, having completed planting, and 5 made no report. The report of Consul-General Barlow, bofore mentioned, gives at 45 the number of American firms engaged in rubber planting in Mexico as follows: Chiapas. 12: Oaxaca, l»>: Puebla, 1: Tabasco; 2; Vera- cruz, 19, and Tepic. 1. 192 MEXICO. Mexican official figures give the following total production of rub- ber for the last five years: Year. Kilos. Value. 120. 916 i B99 606, 1 29 1900 197,660 1901 : 187, 062 1902 118, 298 J227.871 272,821 245,316 344, 1 18 279,675 Total 1 , 229. 950 1 . For 1901-2, Chiapas is credited with the largest production, viz. 94,643 kilos, at $257,160, and Tabasco with 17,050 kilos, at 115,451. The other States mentioned are Oaxaca, Puebla, San Luis Potosi, and the Territory of Tepic. Exports of rubber for the year ID02 are officially given by a Mexican authority" at 178,668 kilos, valued at $331,096, the United States being credited with L36,923 kilos, at $254,565; France with 23,764 kilos, at $41,715; Germany, 17.474, at $34,296; and Colombia and Holland with 400 and 107 kilos, respec- tively. Chicle. — One of the principal productions of Mexico is the gum known as chicle, which exudes from the chico-zapote tree, found grow- ing wild along the Coatzacoalcos, Corte, Coachapa, and Uspanapa rivers. The product of this tree is usually gathered l>y the Indians in the forests along these rivers, and no important attempt has been made toward growing the tree as an industry, although the gum forms a very large proportion of the exports of the country. The cultivation is inexpensive, being not greater than l£ cents per tree annually, and it would seem that where one chewing-gum factory in the United States had an output in the year 1896 of 1,000,000,000 pieces of chew- ing gum. all made from the Mexican chicle, the industry would be a remunerative one. The trees should be planted not more than 4oo to the acre, at a cost of 5i cents each. They mature after reaching the age of 8 or 10 years, when they are from 12 to 15 inches in diameter and in a condition to tap. Each tree yields from 5 to 6 pounds of the merchantable gum, at a cost of 8 to 10 cents per pound to extract it, and sells for an average of 50 cents per pound at Minatithin and Coat- zacoalcos, on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. In 1898-99 the United States imported from Mexico chicle gum to the amount of 2,445,001 pounds, valued at $303,051 gold, and in 1903 the importation of this gum amounted to $1)54,389 gold, chiefly from Mexico. The total production of the various gums and resins, except rubber, for the year 1901-2 was as follows, according to the "Anuario Esta- o Importation y Exportation de la Republics Mexieana en 1902. Secretarfa de Fomento, Colonization £ Industria. Mexico, 1903. VANILLA. 193 distico:" Chicle gum, 439,753 kilos, valued at $429,570; "mesquite" gum, 29,687 kilos, at $4,458, and "copal" resin, 54,912 kilos, at $30,752. The production of these gums for the last five years is given by the same authority, as follows: Year. 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 Total Chicle. Kilos. 1,005,648 600, 675 2, 132, 247 1,897,076 439, 753 6, 075, 399 Value. 8685, 397 502, 471 1,432.659 1,106,554 429, 570 4,156,651 Mesquite. Kilos. 15,765 250, 752 25, 316 37,236 29, 687 Value. 86, 014 9,523 9,443 6,355 4,458 358, 756 35, 793 Copal. Kilos. 9,079 247, 868 125, 167 15, 172 54,912 452, 198 Value. 82,185 9,062 27, 196 4,429 30, 752 73,624 Exports of chicle during 1902 are officially quoted at 1,759,578 kilos, valued at $1,270,466, the United States being the only buyer, while "other gums and resins" are given at 29,208 kilos, valued at $9,519, exported to the United States and Germany, the former being credited with 27,073 kilos, worth $9,219. Vanilla. — As far back as the time of the Aztecs the vanilla bean was used to spice the chocolate. The Spaniards, quick to see the value of vanilla as an article of export, began the cultivation of the aromatic pod. For a long time the former province of Veracruz supplied the whole world with vanilla until the Bourbon Islands and Java waged competition against it. France is the leading market for this product; Germany, England, and the United States follow in the order named. Mexico furnishes over two-thirds of the vanilla beans imported by the United States — 140,000 pounds a year, worth $640,000. The vanilla of Mexico is the superior of all other varieties as to aroma, and the pod yields a much larger quantity of essential oils. In the markets of the United States it commands two or three times as high a price as that of other countries. Usually the plant begins to yield thirty-nine months after planting. It thrives best in the damp, not muddy or swampy, lands of the Torrid Zone, shade being a necessity; and yields its product during ten to twelve years. The average yield is from 10 to 20 pods to the vine, artificial fertilization of the flower producing much more. The culti- vation of vanilla has many advantages, among others that corn and similar products may be cultivated in conjunction with it, and on coffee plantations as a secondary product. In Mexico the pods are sold by the thousand. The cost for clearing and planting an acre of ground is estimated at $39, and the cultiva- tion, including the artificial pollenizing of the flower, amounts to about $9 a year for each acre. The expense of gathering, curing, and preparing the pods for market is about $26.50 per thousand. Of recent years green vanilla has been selling at Papautla, a canton of 509a— 04 13 l',>4 MEXICO. the State of Veracruz, where the best quality grows, at prices ranging from $80 upward a thousand pods. In 1896 it sold for $14n' a thousand. Vanilla grows in the States of Veracruz, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tabasco, Michoacan, and Jalisco, also on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, where there an- two .-pecies growing in a wild state. According to Mexican official statistics, the production of the vanilla bean for the last live years i- estimated ai the following figures: Kilos. Value. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 11,794 18,941 14,863 127,681 6,219 81,628,630 B68.967 [,872, 162 Total. 209,498 4,365,014 Exports of vanilla for 1902 are officially estimated by Mexican authorities at 51,492 kilos, valued at $1,145,904, of which amount the United States took 47,642 kilos, with a valuation of $1,027,774, the other exporters being France, Canada, and Italy, in the order given. Consul-General Harlow reports that there are 12 American linn- in the State of Veracruz engaged in the cultivation of the bean. Sugar cane. — The cultivation of sugar cane was among the agricul- tural improvements introduced into Mexico by the Spaniards. It appears that Cortes had two plantations in Izcalpam. and these were followed by others until in 1553 sugar was exported from Mexico to Spain and Peru. The cultivation of the cane was then limited to the k * Intendencias'' of Guanajuato, Guadalajara, Puebla, Mexico, and Veracruz. Toward the end of the eighteenth century the industr} 1 - received a great impetus on account of the poor crops of Santo Domingo and other cane-producing countries. The increase in the development of the industry, however, was not so great as had been anticipated. All the coasts of the Republic, the entire tierra caHentt or hot lands, and a great part of the temperate region are adapted to the cultivation of sugar cane. The cane, especially on the Gulf slope, grows to an enormous size, and does not need regrowing for ten years at least. No plowing or irrigating is needed. Clearing, planting, and cultivation does not cost $45 per acre, and the cane is ready to cut in ten months after plant- ing. The plant produces from 30 to 35 tons of cane per acre, yield- ing 20 to '2.") tons of juice, containing from 15 to 16 per cent of crys- tallizable sugar, and a plantation well cared for will yield for thirty years. The process most in vogue only extracts about 6 per cent of this sugar; it is asserted that by the use of improved machinery an SUGAR CANE. 195 acre could be made to yield 3 tons of refined sugar. At Suchilapam and adjacent places four canes have yielded a gallon of juice. It is claimed a that in the States of Morelos, Puebla, Michoacan, Jalisco, and Colima the yield of cane to the acre may be reasonably counted upon at 45 tons, while in Veracruz, Oaxaca, and Chiapas as much as 60 tons are obtained, the general average in the northern part of Veracruz, Tamaulipas, and Nuevo Leon being 40 tons. The same authoritiy quotes an estimate, which is claimed to be very con- servative, of the results that can be obtained in a 500-acre plantation, the net product of which is estimated at $188,425 per annum, while the approximate cost of machinery, buildings, etc., for a sugar factory to take off the crop in one hundred days is given at from $100,000 to $300,000 Mexican currency. In regard to the sugar production of Mexico, the following extracts are taken from an interesting paper on the subject by Mr. Alfred F. Gray: 6 " Mexico is in many respects an ideal sugar-producing country. In many parts of the Republic the climate and soil are favorable to the growth of the sugar cane, and not only is the cane itself very rich in saccharine matter, but replanting every year is not necessary, as it is in Louisiana; for example, as many as eight or ten crops being gath- ered in Mexico before new seed need be planted. There is no reason, so far as natural conditions are concerned, why Mexico in certain parts should not rank with Cuba as a sugar producer, and that she is not yet an important factor in the world's market as a producer rather than a consumer is due to the fact that production has barely caught up with home consumption. "Though the Mexican sugar plantations best known to the outside world are in the lowlands along the Gulf coast, notabl}^ in Veracruz, sugar is successfully raised in many States of the Republic, including Tabasco, Jalisco, Morelos, Puebla, Sinaloa, Guerrero, Yucatan, Michoa- can, Oaxaca, San Luis Potosi, Colima, and others. These plantations are owned and have been owned for generations by old Mexican fam- ilies who possess immense tracts of land and have had an abundance of cheap peon labor. Their mills were primitive, though the cost of installing them in the inaccessible portions of the interior and unde- veloped States was prohibitive for all except men of wealth, as wealth was reckoned in Mexico some years ago, and this same lack of trans- portation facilities added much to the cost of the product anywhere outside of the local market of each plantation. As a consequence the country's production of sugar has heretofore been far short of the demand. «The Hacendado Mexicano's sugar report, 1899-1900, p. 3. Mexico City. & "The Banker and Miner of Mexico." July 1, 1903. 196 MEXICO. "These conditions, and the further fact that the Government, in pursuance of its general plan of protecting home industries, placed an import tax on sugar of 15 cents (Mexican) per kilo, or 2.67 cent- per pound in our currency, made the BUgar industry a very profitable one. and in the recent awakening of the country to new life and activity much new capital has been invested in sugar plantation-. "A large part of this investment has been made by local capital. Hut there are many Americans who have made investments in Mexican sugar plantations individually and in plantation companies.'' Several Louisiana planters, having got under cultivation practically all the available home territory, have extended their operations into the cheaper Mexican country, and a number of companies for the exploi- tation of sugar plantations have been formed in Ohio, Indiana, and other western States in the past few years and are now beginning to produce. "It appears, however, that there has not yet been established in Mexico what is considered in New York to be a regular sugar refinery. There are many mills and small factories, the primitive concerns of the old plantations in the more remote districts, and there have lately been built a number of modem factories that have cost from $300,000 to $500,000 in United States currency, which produce raw or partially refined sugar from the cane. But a refinery, as we use the word, means a plant to manufacture the many grades of refined sugar out of raw cane. "The increased production due to the new enterprises in this line is having its effect on the Mexican sugar market. Their output has very materially increased the total production of the country. In the season of 1899-1900 this amounted to 78,000 tons of 2,240 pounds each; in 1900-1901 it was 95,000 tons: in 1901-2 it was 103,110tons, and the last crop. 1902-3, is estimated at L15,000 tons. Naturally the price has fallen in consequence of this increased supply, as the consumption has not correspondingly increased. In Mexico the price asked for firsi sugars in carload lots last January was S-2.7r» to S.", Mexican cur- rency, per arroba of 25 pounds, which is equivalent to 4. US cents to 4.70 cents per pound in United States currency, and in May the price had fallen to the equivalent of 3.61 cents United State-, currency, per pound. •'This decline in the Mexican market is the more remarkable because at the same time the prices of sugar in the markets of the world were steady, with advances in some parts. In other words, the production of sugar in Mexico is approaching the point where it will satisfy the a Consul-General Barlow report.* 21 American firms engaged in sugar planting and manufacture, as follows: Chiapas, 1; Yucatan, 1; Lower California, 2; Oaxaca, 2; Tabasco, 2; and Veracruz, 13. SUGAR CANE. 197 needs of the country, while the rest of the world is in need of new •sources of supply. The dividing wall between the two markets is the protective import duty Mexico has set upon imported sugar. But Mexico is beginning to climb over that wall, as is evidenced by the recent shipment of 25,000 bags of sugar from Veracruz to Liverpool and New York. "Mexico must now be classed among the countries which export sugar, and the quantity which she will ship to foreign countries will doubtless steadily increase. The assessment of 2.67 cents (United States currency) per pound duty on any sugar which might be imported is a great protection to the sugar producers and enables them to main- tain a price for sugar sold for local consumption sufficiently high to offset any small loss which might result from the export of part of their crops to foreign countries. For instance, in case their local price should decline to 3 cents per pound, they could well afford to sell 66 pounds of their production at this figure, and accept as low as 1£ cents per pound on 34 pounds shipped out of the country, thus making an average of 2.49 cents per pound net at the factory, which would show a good profit on sugar which cost 1£ to 2 cents per pound to produce. "As labor in Mexico is abundant and cheap, and much land suitable for the cultivation of sugar cane is still available, the sugar industry of the country may be expected to extend to large proportions, and the country offers a desirable field for the conservative investor who possesses abundant capital and the necessary technical knowledge of sugar production." The total production of sugar cane during the year 1901-2, according to the "Anuario Estadistico," amounted to 2,745,686,000 kilos, valued at $22,872,033, the following being the States producing over 20,000,000 kilos: State. Kilos. Value. 20,716,931 ■23, 585, 868 28, 625, 360 41,696,422 73, 303, 803 105, 575, 770 166,294,760 176, 175, 400 238, 340, 187 372, 835, 200 558, 323, 900 $213, 896 269, 409 345, 120 1,272,699 830, 202 599, 130 3, 360, 895 499, 828 2,424,276 350, 880 6, 102, 472 198 MEXICO. The production of sugar and molasses for the same period, accord- ing to the same authority, is shown in the following table: Sl.lt.-. White sugar. Brown sugar (Pano- cha i. Molasses. California i lampeche . .. Coahuila Colima Chiapas I ' u ra 1 1 Guanajuato. Guerrero. ... Iliiliil- Jalisco Mexico Michoacan. . Morelos.. Nuevo Leon . Oaxaca . ... Puebla Quer£taro. . . San Luis J'<>t' Sinaloa Sonora Tabasco Tamaulipas . Tepic Yucatan Zacatecas Kilos. 194,810 30, (WO 553,049 1,106,201 5,000 8,286,200 198, 1 r> 8,953, 146 41, 546,08s 13,900 6,988.771 123,000 5, 150, 000 809,198 10,000 1,556,900 3,318,404 Total *2,307,887 Value. 179, B89 6,000 290, 940 133,716 ■:i>.. 868 2,000 1,795, 133 40,911 1,907,357 8,034,153 2,780 326, 873 1,478,864 31,980 1,175,000 131,839 ■_',TJU0 871,518 1,065,639 KUot. 1,640,140 36.000 8,856,606 95,000 1,659,874 4,993,128 5, 500, 251 150,389 8,748,090 517,500 11,875,425 72,200 4,006,396 2,506,025 139, 689 793,840 931,173 686, 420 3, 528, 700 3, 027, 200 17,103,760 68,046,713 Valxu . 1180,090 10,583 95,976 29,164 370, 108 9,000 137,941 408, 179 623,917 53.109 56,596 900,942 310, 366 7,020 264,168 365, 326 30, 473 62.005 73. 512 66,803 280,296 243,586 KUot. 1,000 1,853,850 30,280 1,926,661 590,159 500,000 2,359,640 318,700 3, 607, 532 22,827,279 113,750 6, 408, 068 3, 596, 600 200,000 420 236,200 600 984,833 209,290 1,841,348 7,141,528 47,210,630 Value. 1160 US, 219 3, 039 20,916 109,030 26,561 50,000 168, 156 944,748 122,192 2,000 12 300 1,828 2,735,940 Rum from sugarcane is given for the same period at 358,185 hecto- liters, estimated at §1,028,616, the total production for the last rive years being, in round numbers, 3,000,000 hectoliters, at $50,000,* >uo. Heniquen. — Chief among the numberless fiber plants produced by Mexico is the heniqiten {Agavt rigida\ also called sisal grass or hemp, the natural home of which is the Peninsula of Yucatan. It belongs to the Maguey {Agave) family, and was called metl by the Aztecs, who from time immemorial used it as an article of food, the leaves being utilized for roofing, the fiber for weaving, and the juice for the prepa- ration of a drink called octli, the pulque of to-day. There are several species of the plant, known by Maya names, and which require little or no cultivation and but small outlay. The production of this fiber in 1901— 2 is officially given as 54,597,500 kilo-, valued at (16,937,809, and for the last five years at the following figures: Year. Kiln-. Value. 1 398 67, 312. 462 118, S7J, 140 >7, 613, 966 81,677,698 54, 597, 500 815,351,233 1899 33, 227, 203 1900 18,262,786 1901 22,041,825 1902 16, 937, 809 Total 410,074,066 105,820,856 The condition of the heniquen industry in Yucatan in 1901-2 is given as follows by United States Consul E. H. Thompson at Progreso, in a report made to the Department of State of the United States: FIBER. 199 The output of the Yucatan fiber for the ten years ended December 31, 1901, was: [Each bale weighs approximately 400 pounds. A bale of hemp at present prices is worth $84 Mexican. The Mexican dollar is worth about 40| cents gold.] Year. Bales. Year. Bales. 1892 Number. 353, 525 355, 123 373, 883 381,504 397, 163 419, 975 1898 Number. 418, 972 445 978 1893 1899 1894 1900 499, 634 517, 519 1895 1901 Total 1897 4, 103, 276 The output for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1902, was: Month. Bales. Weight. Value. Mexican currency. United States currency. 1901. July August September October November December 1902 January February March April May June Total Number. 64, 460 48, 726 44,634 32, 455 40, 328 34,747 45, 998 38, 052 60, 915 61,887 50, 547 41,559 Tons. 10, 319. 7 7, 988. 6 7,271.9 5,295.7 6, 342. 3 5, 515. 1 7. 355. 1 5. 889. 2 9, 712. 7 9,769.8 7, 956. 7 6, 588. 4 81, 960, 737 1,917,277 2, 327, 017 1, 725, 912 2, 377, 077 2, 126, 960 2, 726, 792 2, 334, 179 3, 496, 591 4, 469, 689 3,433,308 2, 662, 344 1841,156 822, 512 998, 290 720, 416 1,019,766 912, 466 1, 169, 794 1,001,363 1,500,038 1,917,497 1,472,909 1, 142, 246 564, 308 90, 005. 3 31,557,888 13, 538, 343 The "Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal" for 1901-2 estimates the total exports of raw henequen at 91,911,355 kilos, with a valuation of $29,209,515, while during the first six months of 1902-3 the same publication for such period gives the following figures: 37,510,881 kilos, at $15,030,217. Ixtle. — The isetle, or maguey manso (Agave ixtle), is another impor- tant fiber, imported into the United States as Tampico fiber, for the manufacture of paper, and other industries. The quantity of ixtle produced by Mexico in 1901-2 is estimated at 12,183,662 kilos, with a valuation of $1,706,892. Coahuila is the largest producer, followed by San Luis Potosi and Oaxaca. The production of this fiber has been on the increase for the last five years, as shown by the follow- ing table: Year. Kilos. Value. 1898 8,263,359 8,354,353 8,474.194 9, 639, 867 12, 483, 662 S693, 189 1899 808, 621 1900 961, 769 1901 • 1,082,617 1902 1,706,892 47,215,435 5, 253, 088 200 MEXICO. The exports of raw ixtle during: 1901-2 are thus estimated by the "Boletin de Estadistica" for the same period, 12,475,361 kilos, at $1,745,077, and for the first half of 1902-3 at the following figures, 8,645,059 kilos, at $1,465,950. Other fibers. — There are many other fiber plants in the country, such as cotton, already mentioned; the angii (Stbiscus esculenfais), which also serves as food; hemp (Canabis indica), both textile and medicinal; the ceibon or cotton-silk tree (JBorribax pentandria); the hunari (Sida romboidecC^ also medicinal; several plants of the Agave f amity; the pita or wild pineapple {Furcrea gigantea); the pitahaya [Cei'vus ri'7 kilos, valued at $1, 468,035. Germany is rep- resented in this export, in round numbers, with 1,670,000 kilos at $730,000; France with 1,308,000 kilos at $182,000, and the United State> 778,000 kilos at $226,000. Oleaginous plants. — Mexico produces several plants yielding oils, both industrial and esculent; but up to the present no great industry has been founded in the country based upon the presence of many rari- ties of trees and plants giving oil-bearing products and the adaptability of much of the soil to the cultivation of these and other species. Among this kind of plants may be mentioned the pinun (Jatropha ewrcas), which yields 16 per cent of an emeto-cathartic oil of great strength. The Palma cforisfi, or castor bean (Riccinus corn muni*), yields 10 per cent of a medicinal oil. As this contains a large proportion of stearin it can be used in the manufacture of candles. This plant grows spon- taneously and in great profusion in the hot and low temperate lands. One acre will produce about 1,600 pounds of oil. The ajonjoM {Sesa- mun indicum), or sesame, gives 33 per cent of a very soft, sweet, and agreeable oil. The nut of the hlcaco ( Chrysohalanus icaco) also produces the same percentage of an esculent oil having the same properties as the almond oil. The peanut (Arachis hypog&a) gives the same amount, This and the last above-named oil are much prized in Marseille. Among the, oleaginous plants may be mentioned the following: Cacao (Theobrorna cacao), cocoanut (Cocos nucifera and Alfonsia Juris oleifera), the chicalote {Argrmonr. im, vicuna and A. grandiflora), the chia {Salvia pol ystiichia), the linseed, and others. The "Anuario Estadistico" for 1901-2 estimates as follows the pro- duction of several oleaginous plants: Sesamun, 17,839 hectoliters, $92,593; peanut, 101,851 hectoliters, $355,739; castor bean, 38,330, $161,619; linseed 53,560 hectoliters, at $268,500. . VUiculture. — The experiment of introducing the vine, olive trees, and the silkworm industry into Mexico dates back as far as the con- quest. •Cortes himself had plantations of mulberry trees at Yautepec and Tetecla. The silkworm industry made fair progress at first, but the competition of Manila and Spain caused its gradual neglect. In 1790 an effort was made to revive it, but without success. "The cultivation of olives and the vine," says Bancroft," "labored under severe restrictions. Admirably adapted as soil and climate were for both purposes, the few plantations of olives were merely "History of Mexico, Vol. Ill, p. 613. VITICULTURE. 203 allowed to exist because they belonged to pious or charitable estab- lishments, while as to the vine, the viceroys were repeatedly instructed not to permit the planting of new cuttings, nor even the replacing of vines in decay (1595). Wine could only be made on condition of paying taxes to the Crown, and it was not until 1796 that a more liberal policy in this respect was adopted." At the beginning of this chapter reference was made to the efforts of the Department of Promotion to encourage the culture of these plants. According to a report made by Senor Don Francisco Mallen to the Department of Promotion on the encouragement given to the propa- gation of vines and fruit trees in the country, Mexico, in 1892, imported 1,053,150 plants, as follows: Vine cuttings, simple, 1,030,000; with roots, 11,000; olive cuttings, 9,250, and fruit trees of different varieties, 3,200. More than half a million of these vine cuttings and 1,000 olive shoots were planted in Parrasand 62,500 cuttings in Viezca, both in the State of Coahuila; 50,000 in Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, and the rest were distributed in the Central Plateau and other regions in the southern part of the Republic. The first trial plantations were very succeesful, and the culture of the fine imported qualities has become more general, the planters having requested renewals of their original orders. The grape thrives best in Parras, which has become the center of viticulture in the countiy. California vines have given better satisfaction in this section than those from Europe. At the time of the above-mentioned report (1892) the Rosario plantation or vineyard (the largest in the Republic) had made a request for 25,000 additional cuttings, being already supplied with 60,000 vine stocks of the European and about 13,000 of the California species, some of the former having been grown from those distributed by the Department of Promotion, while others had been imported directly from Spain, Italy, and France. It has been demonstrated that the California species thrives better. According to the "Anuario Estadistico" for 1901-2 the grape pro- duction of the country during that year amounted to 2,617,871 kilos, at $190,966. Coahuila's production is given at 1,444,730 kilos, valued at $61,196. Lower California, in round numbers, produced 309,000 kilos, at $38^000; Durango 235,000 kilos, $31,000; Agua Calientes 23-1,000 kilos, at $6,200. Grape rum and grape wine are estimated by the same authority, for the same period, at 1,913 hectoliters of rum at $77,100 and 8,111 hectoliters of wine at $226,470. Coahuila's pro- duction of rum was 1,883 hectoliters at $75,320, and 7,183 hectoliters of wine at $192,600. It can not be said that Mexico has yet developed as a wine produc- ing country, but serious efforts in this direction have been made since 1883. The wines now made, as a rule, are too light and acidulous. Table grapes are raised in considerable quantity, however, and their quality is becoming a dangerous rival to the California varieties for local consumption. 204 MEXICO. The land best adapted to viticulture is in the vicinity of the city of Parras, Mate of Coahnila. Since 1890 the industry of the manufacture of wines has been making great strides. Several varieties of vines have been imported t'ii mi abroad, and at the two largest wineries cellars have been constructed and all the latest improvements for vinous fer- mentation introduced, being under the management and direction of foreign experts in the art. In 1897 there were about 4,1100 acres planted in vine- in the locality named, most of the grapes being of the variety known in California as the "Mission" grape, it having been introduced there by the missionary fathers from Spain. In the year noted wine sold on the ground at $1.20 per gallon Mexican money. Olwt 'i ml iinilh, ■/■/■// tree*. — As regards olive and mulberry trees, the only official data available show that in 1S93 there were imported 72,000 olive cuttings, of which 4,000 were planted in Parrss. It is anticipated that the encouragement given this industry by the Depart ment of Promotion will greatly advance its progress. When the late Gen. Carlos Pacheco was Secretary of Promotion he gave new life to the cultivation of the vine and the mulberry tree. The latter, which is so necessary to the silkworm industry, is now receiving attention in many places, principally in the States of Puebla, Jalisco, Michoacan, and Guanajuato. A Mexican planted, in 1896, 152,000 mulberry trees in the State of Guanajuato, pursuant to a contract made with the State legislature, in which contract he binds himself to lay out 2,000,000 trees within two years. FRUITS. Mexico possesses exceptional conditions for the production and trade in fruit owing to her situation and the fertility of her soil. The United States, her principal market, lies at her very doors, and communication by water and land is both rapid and moderate in charges. The most favored Mexican fruits in the United States are the orange, lemon, lime, pineapple, and banana. But the day will come when other tropical fruits will be appreciated and become a large ele- ment of the American imports. Fruits such as the mango (Mangifi ra ittdica), custard apple {Anacardiam occidental is), chirimoya {Anona cherwnolia), mamey (Mammea amerioana), zapote (Achras zapote), the alligator pear (Persea gretfismma), and others which are distinctively tropical, when properly appreciated, will be consumed largely in American market-. Bananas. — The banana grows spontaneously in great abundance near the Mexican coast. On lands near the sea, at an elevation of from 1,900 to 2,400 feet above it, great plantations of banana trees can be laid out at a cost of 5 cents per plant, which includes every expense up to the time of bearing fruit. At the end of the first year FRUITS. 205 the plant produces one bunch, which can be sold in the United States at from $2.50 to $3. A thousand banana trees, costing $50, will bring $1,000 at least in one year. An acre will produce from TOO to 800 bunches, at a cost not exceeding 8 cents a bunch, each of which can be sold on the ground for 40 cents, yielding a net profit of at least $225 per acre. The exportation of this fruit from the West Indies and Central America reaches into the millions every year. The production of bananas in 1901-2 is officially given at 19,057,775 kilograms, estimated at $445,792. The largest production, over 3,500,000 kilos, is credited to Michoacan; next ranks Morelos, with over 2,700,000 kilos; Jalisco, 2,500,000, and Puebla, with 2,335,000 kilos. San Luis Potosi, Sinaloa, Tamaulipas, and Tepic are credited with over 1,000,000 kilos each. Tlaxcala and Aguascalientes are the only States not represented in the Mexican official statistics in reference. Oranges — The orange is the leading member of the aurantiaceous family under the genus citrus. Three kinds grow in Mexico — the sweet, the sour, and the Chinese or mandarin, and another called "lima-orange," which is a variety of the sweet orange. The country affords much better facilities for the cultivation of the aurantiaceous fruits than the southern part of Europe, which suffers the disadvan- tage of lack of rains in the summer, rendering it necessary to irrigate the trees for five months in the year, thereby incurring an increased expense. In Mexico the rains begin in May or June, thus rendering irrigation wholly unnecessary. The California and Florida stock have recently been imported into the country and grafted and budded with the Mexican trees. Many thousand acres of land are being opened up to this cultivation in the Northern States. Many are the uses to which this tree can be put, as witness the following quotation from a report of the United States consulate-general to Mexico." "The orange leaves are the tea of the Indians and of the poor, and in large cities, where they are peddled in the streets and sold in the markets in small bunches for 1 cent apiece, are consumed in large quantities. They are considered the best remed}^ for insomnia and restlessness, and are also highly commended as a night drink for chil- dren. A fine wine is manufactured from the refuse oranges purchased at 20 to 30 cents a hundred, in Cuautla, Morelos, and Guadalajara, which retails at 50 cents a bottle. "There are other valuable products which could be obtained, such as the distilled water of the blossoms, used for toilet purposes, worth $4.50 a gallon; citric acid from the pulp of the sour oranges, worth $1 a pound; a pomade, much used as a cosmetic, worth $2.50 a pound; oil « United States Consular Reports, "Orange Cultivation in Mexico," Vol. LIU, pp. 209-222, 1897. 206 MEXICO. from the Leaves and rind, which constitutes the main odorous ingredj entfi of cologne waters and elixirs, worth $;'>.5<> to $5 a pound, and the essential oils from the blossoms, leaves, and unripe fruit, known as JjfenM pe%ale\ Nercli bigarade, and essence dt petit grain, high odors used by the perfumers, generally worth from $5 to $6 an ounce. The second oil mentioned could be manufactured at a small expense, the (lowers costing not more than 12£ cents a pound, out of the numerous wild groves of sour oranges existing in the greater part of the tropical belt of .Mexico." The orange tree can be cultivated in Mexico on lands at an altitude from 100 to 2,500 feet above sea level. Mexican growers usually propagate the orange from the seed, although it can be reproduced more advantageously by budding, grafting, layering, inarching, and from cuttings. In the latter case the fruit appears in from four to five years, and in the former in from seven to eight years. The flower in the warmer climates appears in the latter part of October, and the season lasts throughout the whole orange territory until May. Daring the months mentioned the blossoms can be collected by placing mats on the ground and gently shaking the trees. Not less than from 10 to 15 pounds of fresh flowers can be obtained from a full-grown tree, and some trees produce as high as from 25 to 30 pounds." A good business can be done by properly drying the blossoms, which reduces their weight to half, and druggists and dealers pay from 75 cents to $1 per pound for these. The fresh blossom brings from 25 to 37£ cents per pound. The yield of the orange trees in Mexico varies considerably, soil, climate, proper irrigation, where needed, pruning, and cultivation being important factors in determining the extent of the crops. In Atlixco, Yautepec, and Taeambaro the trees average 860 oranges each ; but in Atotonilco, Montemorelos, and Hermosillo the average yield is from 1,700 to 2,200 oranges per year, producing one crop a year. With the advantages of climate and soil, the Mexican orange tree should yield from 5,000 to 8,000 oranges. Good orange lands can be procured in Lower California, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Sinaloa, and Durango for from $5 to $25 Mexican currency per acre; in Sonora, Nuevo Leon, Puebla, and San Luis Potosi, from $25 to $50 per acre; in Michoacan, from $5 to $50 an acre; in Morelos, Jalisco, and Veracruz, from $100 to $250 an acre; in Guerrero, Mexico. Tepic, Tamaulipas, Oaxaca, the Isthmus, and Chiapas, from $40 to $60 an acre. These prices are for small tracts running from 100 to 500 acres; larger tracts can be obtained much cheaper. " Sefior Romero (op. at., p. 59) says the production of flowers per tree is from 22 to 55 pounds in the case of sweet oranges, and from 60 to 100 pounds per tree from the bitter variety. OKANGES. 207 The United States yearly consumes about 70,000 carloads or 21,000,000 boxes of oranges; of these, 10,000,000 boxes were formerly furnished by Florida and about 3,000,000 by California. The ship- ment of oranges frdm Mexico for the year 1896 was about 700 car- loads, and during the season 1896-97 the exportation from the Republic was about 1,050 carloads. Notwithstanding the protective duty imposed by the United States up to January, 1899, the agent of the Department of Promotion of Mexico in Kansas City disposed of 41,100 boxes of oranges, the gross proceeds of which were $121,898 gold. During the fiscal year 1897-98 the United States imported Mexican oranges to the value of $134,666; during the ten months ending April 30, 1899, to the value of $137,035, and during the twelve months end- ing with June, 1903, the importations amounted to about 6,000,000, valued at $87,407. The shipments begin about September 1 and end on December 15. It ordinarily takes twelve days, moderately fast freight, to send cars • from shipping points to Chicago or Cincinnati, although some cars have made the trip in eight days. The best shipping oranges are from Hermosillo, in the State of Sonora; Montemorelos, in the State of Nuevo Leon; Rio Verde, La Barca, and Guadalajara, in the State of Jalisco. The next grade is from Yautepec, in the State of Oaxaca; Michoacan and Atlixco, in the State of Puebla. The boxes generally used for shipping are imported from the United States. One or two firms in Mexico have attempted to manufacture orange boxes, but they have not succeeded in turning out a first-class quality. The cost of a box is 31 cents; of the wrapping paper, 15 cents per box (all of which is imported); cost of packing, 36 cents per box; freight and consular costs per box from Kansas City, St. Louis, Chicago, or Cincinnati, $2.04; and United States duties, under the new tariff act, 15 per cent ad valorem. Below is given a table which is taken from the report of the United States consulate-general at Mexico, above referred to, which shows the results that can be obtained from a small tract of land of 11 acres, 10 of which are planted in oranges. Description. Cost in Mexican currency. Land (from 825 to $100 an acre) . . . Houses, one of $350, another of $50 Farming implements Clearing of land Plowing land, 10J acres, first year Garden and seeds, half acre Fencing and outhouses Nursery (3,516 seedlings) $1,100.00 400. 00 35. 00 77.00 21. 50 10.00 60.00 12.30 Two hundred Riverside navel trees, 80 cents each 160.00 Planting Riverside navel orange trees. Seven hundred cuttings, and planting in trench . Transplanting cuttings, second year Transplanting 640 seedlings Replacing, 10 per cent 4.00 14.00 14.00 12.80 1.30 208 MKXICO. Deetinatton. Plowing 120 acres, six years Irrigation, seven years Weeding and cultivating, seven years, 8-10 Planting of com, six years. "> acres Planting of beans, six year-, 5 acres Beed beans, 18, and corn, Si, six years, 6 acres each Harvesting and shelling beans and corn, si\ years . six hundred and forty bods Manuring, six years Total., Production: Six years' crops of corn. 300 cargns, at 83 six veals' crops of beans, 500 cargas, at 86 TWO years' crops Of Riverside navels, 120,000, at 81 per 1,000 . One year's crop from cuttings, 21,000, at 8-1 Total Less expense and cost of Land Net profit at end of seventh year Cost in Mexican currency. 8120. 00 98.00 200.00 15.00 15.00 •Juki 60.00 16.00 30.00 2,579.90 900.00 2,500.00 480.00 840.00 4,720.00 2, 579. 90 2,140.10 From the eighth } T ear on the plantation will average from 576 to 600 oranges per tree, and on the tenth year 1,000 oranges per tree, at a yearly expense of $200 for the 10 acres. Two jpeones (day laborers) can do the general work of the plantation. These can be hired for from §1.50 to $2 per week each. From the tenth year forward a grower can have with all assurance a net income of $6,000 per year out of such size plantations if no plague or pests attack the trees, and in Mexico the tree is not generally subject to any disease nor is it affected by any pests. The production of oranges for 1901-2 is given in the following table from the "Anuario Estadistico " for the period in reference: Kilos. Value. Aguascalientes Baja I ialifomla Campcclie Colima Chiapas Durango Guerrero Hidalgo Jalisco Michoacan Morelos Nuevo Le6n . .. Puebla Quer6taro San Luis Potosi Sinaloa Sonora Tabasco Tamaulipas Tepic -Zacatecas Total 13,800 |800 62,250 3,500 561,050 3,650 496, 450 5,350 252, 266 7. 168 1,045,220 32,400 56,202 1,023 314,336 > 3, 576 8, 638, 971 304,163 1,403,683 24,026 1,794,290 16,980 740,680 31,816 2,015,651 25, 262 16,256 472 S50.562 21,421 895, 700 37, 378 1,785,370 139,060 233, 107 8,125 91,120 7,303 996, 996 13, 448 308,305 7,691 22, 572, 163 723, 597 Some idea of the magnitude of orange growing may be arrived at when it is known that the plantation "La Eugenia" at Montemorelos, in the State of Nuevo Leon, contains 50,000 orange trees in bearing, MEDICINAL PLANTS. 209 and 200,000 have been planted which will yield fruit in a few years. It is estimated that each tree on that plantation will yield two cases of oranges per annum, which will sell for $15 gold. In addition to oranges, fine lemons, grape fruit, and tangerines realize high prices in the New York market. The lime, lemon, and sweet lemon are also much cultivated on the same lands that produce the orange, and they have become a large element in the country's exportations. Pineapples. — The pineapple is also cultivated to a very great extent. It is easily raised and needs hardly any care after planting. It has been said that the cost per plant from the seed until ready for market is not over 5 cents. It has been estimated that 2£ acres planted in pineapples will easily produce 10,000 plants. The crop of corn which is sown among the pineapples will fully meet the expense of the culti- vation of the fruit; thus the 10,000 pineapples, when planted in this way, will cost absolutely nothing. On the ground the fruit sells for about 38 cents per dozen, but exported to the United States they bring a good price, netting about $1,500 per acre under cultivation, and one man can easily cultivate 6 acres. With an outlay of about $1,200 gold a person can at the end of three years .have from 15,000 to 20,000 bearing pineapple plants. The total production in 1901-2 is officially reported at 2,016,119 kilos, estimated at $16,376, Tepic ranking first, Jalisco second, Hidalgo and Puebla coming next. Ten of the States are not listed in the statistics at hand. The list of tropical fruits which Mexico produces is too extensive to be incorporated here. Latest Mexican official statistics give the annual product of 79 different varieties of fruits. Consul-General Barlow in his report before mentioned gives the names of American firms engaged in the fruit industry in Mexico, there being 1 in Chiapas, 1 in Nuevo Leon, 1 in Tamaulipas, 11 in Oaxaca, and 13 in Veracruz. Medicinal plants. — In an official list of the flora of the hot lands of Mexico, prepared by the Government in 1893, a there are enumerated 233 distinct species of medicinal plants, as well as 11 dyewoods. Among the former may be mentioned the jalap root (Ipomsea) and sarsaparilla {Smilax sarsaparilla and Sniilax arenisca), which grow wild, both of which occupied a very prominent place in the trade figures of the country some years ago, but which have recently assumed a secondary position. The total production of these plants in 1901-2, according to Mexican official figures, was as follows: Jalap root, 6,810 kilos, at $817, produced by the State of Hidalgo, the only State given, and sarsaparilla, 690,688 kilos, at $22,873, Oaxaca being credited with the largest production, nearly 607,000 kilos. «Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos: Mexico, 1893. 509a— 04 14 210 MEXICO. ])>/, woods. — Among the dye-producing plants are the Brazil (( 'sesal- pmia crista) and ( Sampeche | Heamatoxylon chianum) woods, dragons' blood (Pterocarpus draco), " Grana" {Rvbia tinctorea), "Zacatlaxcaia" scuta americana), "moral" I Madura tinctorea), and indigo (Jndigo- ferar- two varieties), some of which are exported in considerable quan- tities. It has been estimated that the value of dyewoods exported by Mexico is fasl approaching the sum of $250,000 per month. Official figures for the year L901 2 give the following estimates of the produc- tion of these plants during the year: Indigo, 81,892 kilo>. valued at $168,239; Brazilwood. 3,010.742 kilo-, at Sl's.WT; Campeche or log- wood, 15,092,250 kilos, ai 1515,275, and "moral"wood, 901,550 kilos, at S;>K.14-7. Chiapas is the largest indigo-producing State and Michoa- can the second. Sinaloa and Michoacan produce the largest quantity of Brazil wood; Campeche, Yucatan, and Tabasco, logwood, and Ban Luis Potosl, Tabasco, and Sinaloa. moral wood. Exports of dyewoods during 1902 are quoted at 32,751,754 kilos, estimated at £993.107, the principal consumers being England, 22,254,000 kilos; Russia, 3,400,000 kilos; Germany. 2,000,000 kilos; British Honduras, 1,731,000 kilos; France. L,540,000 kilos, and the United States, 1,371.: kilos. Fodder plants- abound, the principal being the para (Chrysqpagon a r, naci us), guinea grass, alfalfa or lucern, ramdn ( Trophis arm ricana), and the ojitt (JSrosinum alicastrum). There are 445 classified species of graminaceous plants. A profitable crop for the irrigated lands of the plateau country is lucern. Green alfalfa retails in the streets of Mexico City at L5 cents for 25 pounds. From five to nine crops can l>e raised yearly, and under good conditions the yield will he L0 tons per crop to the acre. Woods.- There are immense quantities of building lumber and cabi- net woods, many species of which are yet unknown in foreign market-, although they are classed among the most precious. An official list of the woods in Mexico in 1897" gives 200 varieties. Among the woods used a- constructive material the principal are the "Algarrobo" (Szmenea courbaril), u Almendrillo " {Pomus occiden- tales), "Ceiba" (Eriodendon anfractuosum), "Granadillo" (Byra ebanns), "Guanacastle" (Lignum-vitae), "Guayacan" [Gvayocum ver- ticals), ironwood (j&obmia sp.), "Mezquitilld" (Cassia occidentalis), "Ocote," yellow and white [Prims harborwegii and /'. ayacahuite), white oak (Querous jalapensis), and several other-. ( ahim f woods.— ^ The following are among the principal cabinet woods in the country: Mahogany (Suetenia mahogani), "Caobilla" (Oroion hicidum), cedar ( CedreUa odorata), three varieties, one white and two red; ebony (Dyospiros ebenum), three varieties, one of them called green ebony (Cfhloroxylon)\ "Gateado" (Suetenia sj?.), and rosewood i Ti "iiki mvltiflora). "Anuario Estadlstico de la Republics Mexicana, 1897: Mexico, 1898. TANNING PLANTS. 211 The yearly production of mahogany amounts on an average to about $1,200,000 Mexican silver, Chiapas, Tabasco, Veracruz, and Cam- peche supplying the greatest quantity of this valuable wood. One- half of the mahogany consumed in the United States comes from Mexico. Cedar is found in all parts of the country, but the States of Chihuahua, Tabasco, and Veracruz contain the largest and most desirable forests of this wood, cutting annually cedar logs to the value of more than $1,000,000. With the exception of the State of Nuevo Leon, which cuts yearl} 7 more than 30,000,000 kilos of ebony, this wood is almost unknown commercially in the Republic; some, however, is produced in Tamaulipas, Guerrero, Hidalgo, and Yucatan. Puebla produces a greater quantity of aloe wood than any of the other Mex- ican States; Coahuila the most oak; Nuevo Leon the greatest quantity of walnut; the Territoiy of Lower California, ironwood, while the State of Jalisco is celebrated for its orange wood. The exports of precious woods (mahogan} 7 , ebony, etc.) for the year 1902 is officially estimated at $1,362,731, the United States taking about $1,050,000. Ta/rming plants. — Among the flora of this favored countiy are man} 7 trees, shrubs, etc., yielding tannic acid, among which ma} 7 be men- tioned the cascalote (Rhus carlaria), thnbe (Mimosa sp.), mangrove (Rh'izophora mangle), white mangrove (Avicennla tomentosa), and the canalgre. The first named produces a very excellent tanning material from its, bark. The value of the exportations of this material for the fiscal year 1897-98 was $49,021. The canalgre is a tuber, and resembles the sugar beet in shape, while the leaf is similar to that of the rhubarb or pieplant. It is indigenous to Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Lower California. Of recent years it has been cultivated to a considerable extent in New Mexico and Texas; but not much attention has been paid to the industry in Mexico, although it produces from 25 to 30 per cent of tannic acid. The root can be used not only for common tanning purposes, but also for fine saddlery and fane} 7 leathers. It can be used alone or in con- nection with other materials. It is noted for its quickness and thor- oughness in tanning, as well as for the color, beauty, consistency, and pliability imparted to the leather. Canalgre is a dry-climate plant, but its growth is assisted materially by irrigation. Until quite recently the root had to be gathered by digging the wild plant, but experience has demonstrated that it can be successfully cultivated, and there is no question that it improves in size, quality, yield, and in percentage of tannic acid. The annual } T ield per acre is about the same as that of beets (60 to 80 tons). In New Mexico the cost of cultivation per acre is about $23.50, including irri- gation and water rental; but in Mexico, especially in the central and southern sections of the country, the rains will furnish all the necessary 212 MEXICO. moisture, thereby reducing very materially the expense. This plant has only attracted public attention as a commercial product within the past five years, and it would seem that those employed in agricultural pursuits in the neighboring Republic would do well to add one more item to their production-, for it is evident that the market for canaigrt i> practically unlimited, since the oak and hemlock barks, bo exten sivelv used in the tannic industry of the United States, are becoming very scarce, and the price of tannin is constantly on the increase. According to Mexican official statistics for L90] 2, the production of tanning plants amounted to L6,540,075 kilos, valued at $471,455 silver, the production of "Cascalote" being represented by 2,966,156 kilos for $132,813. olIIK.i: I 'LA NTS. } '<"•,-,/, also called ma/nioca in South America — two varieties, the sweet {Jatropha manioc) and the bitter {Manihot utiliss.) is a shrub about 4 feet in height, with from 6 to 10 tubers to each plant, weighing from 1 to 12 pounds each. It is an important product of the State of ( 'hiapas. It commences to yield, in good soil, one year after planting. The tuber-, besides yielding starch, furnish food to man and cattle. Two and a half acres of land will yield 6,000 pounds of tubers, which will produce 3,000 pounds of starch. Sugar licet. — The States of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Zacatecas, San LuisPotosi, and some others of the northern-central part of Mexico include many districts which are eminently lilted to produce the sugar beet. This industry has not as yet taken any firm root in the country. Ginger {Zemiber officinalis) grows wild in various parts of Mexico. and if properly cultivated ought to yield 4,000 pounds per acre, accord- ing to Romero. The Mexican linaloi (Amyris Hnalot ) is a large tree, the wood being soft and of a very light-yellow color. The bark exudes a resin called " xochiopal." The wood has a very pleasant odor, which is compared to that of a mixture of essence of lemon and essence of jasmine, and upon distillation yields from 6 to 9 percent of a very light-yellow essence. The tree abounds in the southern parts of the State- of Puebla and Guerrero, and it is reported to grow also in the tropical portion of the Pacific slope of Mexico at the same altitude as in its habitat in Puebla and Guerrero. A good deal of the essence is sent to the city of Puebla. which is one of the chief markets in Mexico for the product. It is worth *7.~. silver ($28.78 gold) perarroba (4.263 gallons). The process of distillation is careful, but very primitive and inexpen- sive. Sticks of the linaloe about the length and thickness of medium- sized cord wood, are supplied to the laborer-, each of w horn has a little inclosure contiguous to the still. These laborers reduced the sticks to small, thin chips, and these chips, without further process, are placed NATIVE METHODS. 213 in the still. The linaloe essence is the article exported. The major part goes to Hamburg- and some to Havre, and now and then a ship- ment goes to New York. It is largel} 7 in demand as the base of exquisite perfumes. Native methods. — The modes of cultivation in Mexico in man}^ places still differ but little from those employed by the ancient Egyptians. This, of course, does not refer to large plantations, where in the last few years the proprietors have introduced modern methods and agri- cultural machinery. But among the small landholders and the Indians wooden-beam plows, with a small iron shoe, are still used. These make a furrow 5 inches wide by 5 deep. A hoe is also used, which often weighs from 3 to 5 pounds. A saw-tooth sickle completes the outfit with which the ordinary Mexican crops are raised and gathered. The plow is nothing more than a forked stick, the shorter fork being iron shod and sharpened; the longer is lashed with rawhide thongs to the yoke of oxen that draws this prehistoric implement. It takes about four men and four* yoke of oxen to do the work of one man and one horse. Up to within a very short period (and it is the case at present, except on the largest plantations) all thrashing of grain was done by driving horses or mules around in a ring upon the straw which is on the ground. The winnowing is done by men tossing the grain and chaff in the air with scoop shovels. Mexicans, as a rule, object to thrashing machines because they leave the straw whole, while hx employing their method the constant trampling cuts it up as fine as though run through a feed cutter, and as straw is universally used as feed any further preparation is unnecessary. The grain is transported from the field to the farmhouse or station on ponderous two- wheeled carts, there being 3 pounds of cart to 1 of load for the oxen to pull. Better facilities for communication between the United States and the neighboring Republic have changed some of these methods, as before stated; but there is still one drawback to the general use of improved American agricultural machinery in the coun- try, which, however, is gradually disappearing by the establishment of machine-repairing shops. The machinery, as a rule, is costly and unfamiliar, and should any part of it break, rare is the Mexican black- smith who can repair it, as usually the broken part is of cast iron, and the distance from the manufactory causes long delay and heavy expense. Official statistics give the number of haciendas, or plantations, in the Republic in 1897 at 8,101, devoted to the cultivations following- Cereals, 3,400; sugar cane, 1,395; henequen, 395; coffee, 373; maguey (pulque), 279; cacao, 239; cotton, 135; maguey (mescal), 131; tobacco, 92; cabinet woods, 09; indigo, 29; fruits, 6; grapes, 5; and 1,560 devoted to cattle raising. CHAPTER VIII. STOCK RAISING. The raising of cattle has always been one of the most important industries of Mexico, and one of the least restricted by the Spaniards of the eighteenth century, who. by means of special legislation, gave encouragement to it to the extent of making it the favorite occupation of the. inhabitants of the country. In earlier times cattle were of little value except for their hides, which formed an important item of export; later, however, they were turned to better advantage, the hides being manufactured into leather and the tallow used for the manufac- ture of soap. During the eighteenth century sheep raising also became an Important industry in the northern and central provinces. The State-, of the northern frontier are so well adapted to such pur- poses that they may be said to be immense cattle ranges. The excel lent situation of the lands, as well as their generally well-watered condition, will, as has been said by persons who have given study to the matter, make Mexico a formidable rival of the Argentine Republic. Although the population of the United States has increased surpris- ingly within the past few years, there has been a large falling. off in the number of cattle. Statistics show that there has been a diminu- tion of 8,000,000 head of cattle within that period, so that it can be readily -ecu that cattle raising for the market in the neighboring Republic presents alluring prospects. Considerable interest has been manifested of late in this industry, and the Mexican railroad officials have been endeavoring to build it up. with marked success. Mexican cattle as a rule are small in .size, ranging between 900 and 1,200 pounds in weight. This latter weight is considered in the Eng- lish market as small, and the suggestion has been made by British traders that it would be wise for the Mexican cattle raisers to import English Shorthorn hulls for the purpose of breeding larger cattle. The I department of Promotion has taken a deep interest in this subject, and many reforms have been introduced to the betterment of the stock. Cotton-seed meal i> one of the prominent products of Mexico, and, although it is one of the foods to be relied on chiefly for fattening cattle, nearly the entire output of this article is sent every year to the United States and Europe. 214 CATTLE. 215 It has been estimated that the total cost of fattening a steer is about $15 silver, and as there is an unlimited demand in Europe for choice meats at about 12 cents gold per pound, and no import duties to be paid, it can readily be seen that there are large benefits to be derived from the industry of cattle raising. The States of Durango, Sonora, Chihuahua, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, and Michoacan present admirable fields for the development of this great industry. The rich pasture lands of the latter State feed the thousands of cattle for the sustenance of the resi- dents of the capital of the Mexican Republic. Some of the States are not well provided with water, but it has been demonstrated that with small expense all the necessary water can be obtained by the boring of wells. In the State of Guanajuato a com- pany, under the patronage of the State government, some years since bored wells and began the breeding and fattening of cattle on a large scale. The country around Tampico is wonderfully rich, the grass growing waist high there all the year round. It is deserving of inves- tigation by those contemplating going into the business of cattle raising. In the northern and eastern part of the Republic, lean stock can be bought at from $5 to $15 per head, and sold when fattened at from $20 to $15 per head. San Luis Potosi, southern Tamaulipas, and northern Veracruz are well adapted to cattle raising. The yard grass grows here in abundance. It is evergreen, very nourishing, and is a weed exterminator. It has been estimated that an investment of $30,000 gold in this industry will 3 r ield a net profit of $20,000 in six months. Mexico raises great numbers of cattle for the United States, and does so under better conditions of climate than the latter country, for the stock raisers of this country lose thousands every year, owing to the rigorous winters and severe summers. According to statistics compiled by the United States Bureau of Animal Industry, 63,560 cattle were exported from Mexico to the United States in 1902, against 99,975 in the previous year. Of the 8,868 cattle exported from Mexico to the United States during Decem- ber, 1902, 7,627 were shipped to California for grazing. Mexican cattle are received into the United States at the ports of entry at Eagle Pass, Nogales, El Paso, and San Diego. The exportation of raw hides is a growing trade in Mexico, of which the United States is the greatest consumer. During the fiscal year of 1901-2 the value of the hides exported to the United States amounted to $3,489,647, as compared with $2,668,369 exported to that country in the fiscal year 1900-1901. During the first four months of 1902-3 the declared value of the hides exported was $1,863,707.10, more than one-half of which was consigned to the United States. Cuba is becoming a very important market for Mexican live stock, 216 MEXICO. the following- being- the approximate price (Spanish gold) paid for Mexican cattle at Habana: Per bead, Bulls 4 to 6 years old $30 to $32 Bulls 2 years old 20 to 22 Heifers 2 years old 19 to 21 Sterile cows under 10 years old 25 to 26 Breeding cows 28 to 30 Mares, fat, unbroken 25 to 28 Horses, unbroken 35 to 40 Mules, unbroken, 4 to 6 years 40 to 50 The number of cattle exported from Mexico during the live fiscal years ending- June 30, 1902, is estimated as follows: 1897-98 - 227,000 1898-99 100,000 1899-1900 184,000 1900-1 197,000 1901-2 161,000 Importation of many pure-bred cattle from the United States into Mexico is resulting in marked improvement in the long horn native type. It is the prevailing opinion that a cross between the pure- blooded cattle of the North and the native stock produces a large, healthy, vigorous offspring, with an unusually compact muscular development. A Mexican writer on stock raising is authority for the following data in regard to the facilities offered by Mexico for stock breeding: "In the foothills of both coasts, where pasturage is more luxuriant, and consequently can support many more head per acre than in the northern districts, ranges can be purchased at a much lower figure per head of cattle than in the North. That is to say. sio.ooo judiciously invested in the pasture lands in the foothills of Tepic, Jalisco, M'whoa- can, Guerrero, Veracruz, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosi, or Tamaulipas will maintain more cattle than the same amount invested in pasture lands in Chihuahua, Durango, Coahuila, northern Zacatecas, or Sonora, although the number of acres will be less. "On the Gulf slope of the eastern Cordilleras, in the State of San Luis Potosi, eastern Tamaulipas and northern Veracruz, is a region known as the Huasteca Potosina, lying tributary to the Tamesi and Panuco rivers and to theTempoal and Tamasunehale, tributaries to the latter. The Huasteca begins where the plains which border on the coast end, a succession of valleys separated by verdure-covered ter- races or hills increasing in height as they recede to the westward, rising within a distance of 100 miles from sea level to that of the cen- tral plateau, 6,000 feet above. This slope, with its valleys, receives the moisture of the breezes from the Gulf in the form of rain during the summer months and dew during those of fall and winter, render- ing them practically free from frost, drought, and excessive heat. «Bernabe Collado, in "Modern Mexico," November, 1903, and February, 1904. PASTUEE LANDS. 217 "The natural pasturage lands of the Huasteca foothills are as fine as any in the world. The rains of summer and the heavy dews of autumn and winter, even in the driest months (April and May), are sufficient to prevent any notable deterioration in the quality of pastures. "The South American and African grasses, para and guineo, develop and nourish wonderfully in these foothills and are extensively planted. "The upland pastures of the central table-lands adapted to the breed- ing of stock are not sufficiently fertile to fatten more than a fraction of the cattle that can be raised on them. The large interior markets of Puebla and the City of Mexico, as well as Yucatan, which are the greatest purchasers of cattle raised on the eastern coast of Mexico, and the great mining camps of the Republic, have maintained the price of beef cattle at figures which have made the industry immensely profit- able. The exportation through the port of Tampico by sea is, accord- ing to the latest figures available, 75,000 annually. This, however, does not take into consideration the large numbers shipped north into Texas for fattening and southwest by rail to the interior markets of the Republic. "The ranges of the Pacific slope, through the territory of Tepic, Jalisco, Michoacan, Guerrero, and southern Oaxaca, are quite differ- ent in character from those of the Gulf coast, the dry season on the Pacific slope being more rigorous than on the east. The aggregate amount of rainfall is but little less, but it is not so evenly distributed, so that greater provisions have to be made for water holes, tanks, etc. There is never a scarcity of pasture; but unless pains are taken to provide unfailing suppl}- of water, well distributed over the range, it will sometimes happen that the pasture in the vicinity of the water holes will be all eaten up, as the more broken character of the country in the western slope makes it difficult for cattle to go great distances for water. Although the western ranges are quite as accessible to the home markets as those of the Gulf coast, they are much farther awaj- from foreign markets, as on the Pacific coast of the United States there is a comparativel} 7 small demand for beef, and for ship- ment to Texas, on account of the distance, purchasers prefer to buy on ranches nearer the border. "For these reasons pasture lands are held at lower figures through the Pacific slope of Michoacan, Guerrero, and southern Oaxaca than they are in the Huasteca, making it possible with an equal investment of capital to pasture a larger number of cattle. "At the beginning of the year 1903 there existed in the Republic, according to the returns made by the assessors, 3,424,430 sheep, with a valuation of $6,037,306. The possibilities are, however, that this return does not represent more than 65 or 70 per cent of the sheep actually existing in the Republic, the valuation also being very low. Sheep on the range are worth from $2.75 to $4 per head, according to their quality. 218 MEXICO. ••The principal sheep-raising States of the Republic are Zacatecas, with 827,000 head; San Luis Potosi, with something over 400,000 head: and the following States raising over 100,000 head: Coahuila, Chi- huahua. Durango, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Mexico, Michoacan, Nuevo Leon, Puebla, Tatnaulipas. "With the exception of Tamaulipas, which is in the extreme north- eastern part of the Republic, all of the sheep-raising States are partly or entirely Located in the great central table-land. "Experience has demonstrated that although cattle apparently do better and are more profitable in the rank pasture lands of the coast ranges, thai to be successful with sheep it is necessary to confine one's operations to the arid plains of the high lands. "Experiments have been made with sheep raising in the para* grass regions of the foothills, and although in many instances for the first two or three years the herds are healthy and multiply rapidly, before long some of the epidemics due to overfeeding and damp soil break out. "On the table-lands, however, sheep are apparently exempt from epidemics, and the loss from predatory animals is comparatively insignificant. •• When sheep are ranged over rented pasture, from 8 to 15 cents annually is paid per head, according to the abundance of pasturage. "It has been found by experience that in order to produce a fair quality of wool it is necessary to constantly improve stock by the introduction of graded or pure blood rams from Europe or the United States. Unimproved native stock which has been on the range for a series of years will not average much over the pound of wool per head annually, but graded stock will give from 2 to 8 pounds a head per year, according to age, class of pasture, and the qualit}' of the sires. "It has also been found that the sheep degenerate very fast: in other words, that a flock of sheep that has been graded up so that it will produce 8 pounds per head per annum the first year will gradually decrease in production every yea,v until it is a little above that of the unimproved native stock. "Some of the most intelligent sheep breeders make a practice of importing ever}- year a certain number of Merino rams, which are most generally used for improving the range sheep, with the idea of keeping their flock up to a certain standard. "The breeding ewes average from one and one-quarter to one and one-half lambs per annum. Shepherds who take care of the sheep on the range receive from $6 to $10 a month, and a small ration worth $4 in excess of their monthly wages. The price of sheep purchased for butchering, on the range, varies between $3.75 and $4.50. In Mexico they are worth between $4.50 and $5.50 per head. "The Mexican wool is coarser than the better grades of United States merino wool." Hog raising is said to be one of the most profitable industries in STATISTICS. 219 which the Mexican agriculturist can engage. The native hog is hard to fatten, but by the importation of improved stock this drawback may be promptly overcome. Of recent vears breeders have been doing this, and a marked advance has been made in the industry. The Federal District possesses tine pasture grounds, and the cattle industry is there carried on extensively, a large local trade in dairy products being one of the features of that section. The Mexican Government has given a concession for the privilege of establishing a permanent exposition and market for the sale of cattle to be located within the limits of the Federal District. The conces- sionaire is to invest $300,000, or $135,000 gold. Accommodations are to be provided for 5,000 head of beef cattle, 10,000 hogs, 5,000 sheep and goats and 1,000 head of horses, mules, etc. The construction is to be completed in five years, and the concession is to last for fifty years. The Department of Promotion in Mexico has compiled statistics relative to cattle in the year 1902 containing many details, Xuch as the geographical situation of each zone, elevation above the sea, number and value of cattle, distribution in States, etc. The statistics embrace not only bovine stock, but also horses, mules, asses, sheep, goats, and hogs, and show the estimated number^ind value of each class in the Republic at the beginning of 1903, as follows: Class. Number. Value. Cattle 5,304,165 872, 544 340, 016 298, 416 3, 458, 124 4,240,886 641,074 884,251,275 10, 997, 667 10, 742, 478 2,470,547 6, 096, 088 7, 303, 289 2, 194, 457 Total . . . 15, 115, 225 124,055,801 The States which, according to these statistics, are at the present time the greatest cattle producers are Jalisco, Chihuahua, Guanajuato, Michoacan, Veracruz, Durango, Zacatecas, and Yucatan, as may be noted in the following table, which shows the value of the cattle pro- duced in each State of the Republic: Aguascalientes. Baja California Camp6che Coahuila Colima Chiapas Chihuahua Distrito Federa Durango Guanajuato Guerrero Hidalgo Jalisco Mexico Michoacan Morelos Value. «2, 302, 490 1,042,121 1,225,334 4,124,472 987, 048 3, 310, 807 9, 215, 465 1,137,297 7, 573, 741 8, 840, 537 2, 853, 608 1,136,536 13,333,922 3, 583, 365 8, 548, 954 1,526,045 Nuevo Le6n Oaxaca Puebla Quert'taro San Luis Potosi. Sinaloa Sonora Tabasco Tamaulipas Tepic Tlascala Veracruz Yucatan Zacatecas Total 124,055,801 Value. S3, 393, 625 1,786,439 4,309,904 1,705,097 4,786,411 1,330,078 4,212,861 2,838,422 3,981,152 2,356,696 974,471 8, 239, 375 6,075,239 6,324,289 220 MEXICO. Consul-Genera] Barlow, in his report before mentioned, gives the names of 60 American firms engaged Id cattle breeding in Mexico. The number of Btock slaughtered for consumption in the Republic in the year 1902 is, according to the "Anuario Estadistico," as follows: Stock. Hiii'ls. Weight Value. 1,031,256 778,618 Kilos. 164, » 10,466,263 17,296,711 43,358,934 1(1,976,990 387, 134 Goats 2,986,216 14, l'.'l. 149 Total 8, 321, 42* 236, 087, 462 61,904,788 The consumption in the Federal District alone amounted to 351,101 heads valued at £7,115,015. CHAPTER IX. MINES AND MINING, MINING LAWS, TAXES, ETC. Nature has richly endowed Mexico with resources well-nigh count- less, but in the bestowal of mineral resources she has been most lavish. Beneath the surface of that volcanic ridge raised between two great bodies of water lie buried treasures incomparable, and although innumerable mining enterprises have for nearly four hundred years exploited the metal-bearing regions and have extracted fabulous quan- tities of precious metals, by far the greater part is yet to be laid bare. At the beginning of the last century Humboldt estimated the mines in Mexico to number 3,000. In recent years hardly that many have been worked, but the extension of the railroads and the bringing into closer communication of remote sections of the country have brought about a revival of the interest in this great industry. The great mining region runs from the northwest to the southeast, following the direction of the Sierra Madre cordillera, extending from Sonora to the south of Oaxaca, a distance of about 2,574 kilometers. The immense parallelogram this region forms has a width of about 402 kilometers. The richest mines have been discovered on the western slope of the cordilleras at an elevation of about from 915 to 2,440 meters above sea level. Most of the historical mines are situated here, having been opened up by the Spaniards in 1526 and worked until 1700, with little for- mality and less science. The English first undertook mining operations in 1824, and con- ducted them for ten years with no very profitable results. DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS. In Chihuahua numberless mineral districts are known to exist con- taining copper, lead, mercury, silver, salt, .and coal mines! Other minerals usually accompan}^ the substances named, such as iron, zinc, antimony, arsenic, etc. In the district and near the city of Chihuahua is the celebrated Santa Eulalia mine, one of the oldest in the country, the products of which have left a monument in the very handsome parish church of San Francisco, erected in the city between the j^ears 1717 and 1789 with the proceeds of a tax of 1 real (12i cents) on each 221 222 Mexico. half pound of silver got from the mine. The total sum thus secured is stated to be $800,000. During the early part of the year L897 at the properties of the Gold Hill Mining Company, in the southwestern part of Chihuahua, the result of an experimental run of LOO tons of tailings from the surface ore of the Rosario mine was a 30-ounce bar of gold. So primitive were the methods employed by the original workers of the greater part of the Mexican mines that the Indians often make a fair living by working over the tailings. Sonora is one of the richest as well as most important mining centers. It is noted for its high-class metals, among which are gold, sih er, mer cury, and iron. Here abound the soft or lead ores, which are so easily worked and aid so materially in smelting. There are also other min- erals, such as asbestos, copperas, magnetic iron ore, muriate and car- bonate of soda, and saltpeter. Native silver is found in these districts in considerable quantities, and native iron has also been discovered in the Sierra Madre, Papagueria. and the vicinity of the Colorado River. Sonora has been turning out plenty of gold, the output having increased since the Yaqui Reservation has been thrown open. Rich placers are known to exist there, and it is expected that the influx of prospectors will be great in the near future. Over 200 prospectors went into the Yaqui country in August, 1S97, and it is stated that an Arizona miner came out recently with $80,000, the product of the work of three men during three months. Sinaloa has also more than Too mining districts, the mineral deposits being classified into six formations. Calciferous and quartz ore pre- vail, with silver in a native state or combined with sulphur, antimony, and arsenic, with more or less traces of gold. Veins of gold-bearing quartz exist in some localities, and deposits of iron ore, sulphite of lead. zinc, copper, and silica are to be found. The districts of Durango run mostly to silver, yet many other metals exist, such as talc and iron, the latter being found in inexhaustible quantities in the Cerro del Mercado, which is a solid mass of iron. averaging 66 per cent pure. This deposit was discovered in L562 by Vasquez del Mercado. The cerro, or hill, is 4,800 feet long, 1,100 feet wide, and 640 feet high, and according to calculations, over 300,000,000 tons of solid iron might be extracted from it. Jalisco is another silver-producing region, and furnishes also copper and lead ores and coal. ' Of the 96 districts in Michoacan only 56 were worked in 1!>i>2. due to the very limited population of the State and lack of the necessary capital. The principal deposits are of copper. In 1897 a company was formed in London, with a capital of $400,000, to carry on a gen- eral mining business in the Ario and Morelia districts of Michoacan. Zacatecas is the great silver-producing State. It is estimated that MINERAL WEALTH. 223 in the last three centuries its many mines, which weie first worked b} r the Spaniards in 1540, but which had previously been worked in a rude way by the Indians, have yielded over a thousand million of dollars. Guerrero has always been considered as one of the richest mineral sections of America. Prospectors heretofore have been compelled to abandon rich discoveries on account of a lack of transportation facilities and scarcity of labor. The construction of the Mexico, Cuernavaca and Pacific Railway has opened up this wonderful country, with the result that large American companies have sent experts to investigate the marvelous wealth of this belt, which is comparativel}* unknown. Many natives in the State named make a living by washing out placer gold in the crudest possible manner. Experts announce that there is an 'abundance of gold in this portion of the country, and that the only need is the presence of intelligent prospectors to find it. The gold runs from 10 to 12^ ounces to the ton. Copper is very abundant, and there are also rich carbonate of lead ores. The State of Oaxaca has long been recognized to be rich in gold, and much work has been done b} T the arrastra system, b} r which a good deal of the metal was lost in the tailings. There is the best authority for the statement that some dumps there contain thousands of tons which will assay as high as an ounce to the ton. Guanajuato is another far-famed silver-producing State, and has been and still is the center of great exploitation. The district bearing the name of the State was discovered in 1548, and has been worked almost continuously ever since that date, the output of its mines reaching fabulous figures. Native gold has been discovered in this district, and the late denouncing and registering of mines has dis- closed the presence of other minerals, such as tin and bismuth. Pros- pecting is still going on, and not unfrequently is the news of another rich strike heralded abroad. The estimated annual output of the mines is $6,000,000. In the mineral district of Queretaro are to be found lead metals, cinnabar, and the ever-present silver. The mines are numerous and important. The celebrated San Juan Nepomuceno, or El Doctor mine, is situated here, in the Cadereyta district. It is one of the oldest and richest of Mexico, its production being so great two hundred years ago that it paid the Spanish Government $18,000,000 in taxes. It is in this State that the fine opals, which reflect every prismatic color and are much sought after, are found. Great beds of these stones exist on the celebrated hacienda of La Esperanza. The opals from this place are sold in the City of Mexico by itinerant venders at remark- ably low prices. a The most important deposit of these stones pro- duced some j'ears ago from $80,000 to §100.000 a year. a Large opals can be bought in Queretaro for $2 each, and small ones for 50 cents. 22 I MEXICO. The State of Morelos has but one mineral district worthy the name, thai <>t* Huautlii. which, like most of those "in the country, i- silver producing. Puebla'a districts yield native gold, silver, oxide of manganese, and pyrites, as well as coal and iron ore. Here also exist quarries of beau- tiful onyx and what is known as Puebla marble. This onyx is much used in the United States for decorating houses and in the jeweler's trade In the mountains bordering on the States of Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi. ( toahuila, and Nuevo Leon extensive quarries of onyx and marble of most beautiful colors and varieties, equal in every way to the Puebla product, are being worked. Anions tin- mineral regions in the eastern cordillera. that of Zome- lahuacan, in the State of Veracruz, deserves mention, three class •- of metal being found there — lead, argentiferous cooper, and iron. Gold nuggets have been secured there also, as well as very rich malachite in scattered veins, the mother vein not having been discovered up to date. The State of Mexico is rich in mines of native gold and silver, as well as those of copper, iron, oxide of iron, and manganese. The Territory of Lower California is rich in minerals. The penin- sula is barren and without water. The mountain ridge forming the backbone of the peninsula is a continuation of the coast range of Upper California and is interwoven almost over its entire extent with metallic veins of all descriptions. Near San Jose and Cape St. Lucas there are argentiferous and auriferous outcroppings and in the municipalities of La Paz, El Triunfo, and San Antonio veins of gold. Bilver, iron, and other substances are exhibited on the surface of the mountains. J n the districts of Comondu, Loreto, San Luis, and Muleje, in the northern part of the peninsula, rich copper mines abound. The Boleo initio, situated in this part, have for } r ears been the chief source of the copper supply. There are also other metals, such as mica, iron, tin, and oxides of iron, besides gypsum, enormous piles or hills of which are to be found, marble, alabaster, and sand-tone. Gold was discovered near Santa Gertrudis, north of Mule j 6, about 1*^4. and it is said that the mountains and gulches in that vicinity have rich veins of this metal. In this district there are also solid mountains of iron. The frontier district of Lower California is noted for its gold diggings and ledges, mica, and other mineral substances, such as sulphur, soda, and salt. American capitalists are largely interested in this region. Besides the minerals named, there are in the peninsula plumbago, sulphuret of lead, porphyry, prismatic pyrites, sulphur, oxide of anti- mony and lead, carbonate and phosphate of lead, hydroxide of iron, and hydrosilicate of copper. Near Todos Santos some lime quarries exist. PRECIOUS STONES. 225 The State of Hidalgo deserves more extended mention here, as it was in one of its districts that a miner discovered the patio process for reducing ores — a process which to this day is most in use in Mexico, and one which no miner or mining engineer has been able to super- sede b}^ a more economical one for reducing the peculiar ores in which that country abounds. The great mineral district of this State is situ- ated in the vicinity of Pachuca, the principal mines being the Real del Monte, Atontolico el Chico, and Zimapan. Pachuca, with its rich cluster of mines, lies on a plain about 60 miles from the City of Mexico, and is one of the oldest mining centers in the country, having been worked for more than three and one-half centuries. The district within which it lies now has a population of 100,000, a large proportion of which is Indian miners. It was here that the patio process of amalgamation was discovered by the cele- brated Mexican miner, Bartolome de Medina, in 1557. The very hacienda de benejicio, or reduction works, where this discover}^ was made are still to be seen in the town. Sulphate of silver is the prevailing metal, although native silver mixed with ore is found in some of the mines of this district. Most of these mines, as well as those in other States, are still operated in the primitive Mexican fashion. The metal is brought up in rawhide sacks by means of ropes made of the fiber of the maguey wound about a large malacate (horse or mule windlass), and the peons or laborers carry pieces of ore weighing sometimes between 100 and 200 pounds on their backs from "headings" of the levels to the main shaft. Some foreigners are employed in the mines of Pachuca and elsewhere at good wages, but they generall} r are superintendents, engineers, bosses, etc. There are in the Republic abundant sulphur deposits, particularly those of Popocatapetl, Pico de Orizaba, and Tajimaroa, several deposits of salt, rock crystal, marble, jasper, fine building stone, and the beau- tiful onyx of Tecali. The most celebrated salt deposits of Mexico are those of Penon Blanco, in San Luis Potosi, their product containing from TO to 80 per cent of chloride of sodium. On the coasts of both oceans there are also a great number of salt mines, the most useful being those of Yucatan, whence comes the salt for reducing the product of the mines of Hidalgo. Mexico also has deposits of precious stones, such as the opal, topaz, emerald, agate, amethyst, and garnet. It is related that one of the heroes of Mexican independence, General Guerrero, possessed some diamonds which had been given him by one of his soldiers, who had found them during an expedition in that part of the Sierra Madre running through the State of Guerrero. The field or locality whence came these precious stones, of which the General gave but vague infor- mation, has been vainly sought by various prospectors. 509a— 04 15 226 MEXICO. The most interesting fact in connection with the mining industry <>f Mexico is the recenl increase in her gold output. In L893 the value of the gold produced was only 3| per cent of that of the silver. In 1894 it rose to about L4 per cent; in L901-2 it was 20 per cent. Exports of gold bullion. The exports of gold bullion from Mexico since L888-89, according to Mexican official figures, have been as follows: Vinr. Value Mexican silver i. Year. Value Mexican sih ■ 1*89-90 1890-91 S349, 506 612,618 751,407 357,887 166,954 4.139,645 -96 1896-97 98 15,246,418 - - 6, 36-1, 308 1891-92 1898-49 1899-1900... 1900-1901... 1901-2 7,847,760 7 1893 94.. . 1S94 95 Q 141.9on Matias Romero, when Mexican Minister at Washington, predicted that Mexico is destined to become one of the Largest pro- ducers of gold in the world, basing his prediction on the fact that here- tofore the mining of gold has been merely an incident of the extraction of silver, and that when the amount of yellow metal in silver was small it was not separated; hut since the value of gold has appreciated to so great a degree the mining of the metal has assumed much larger proportions. Silver production. — As regards the production of silver, according to the "International Economist," of Berlin, quoted by the Consul- General of the United States at Frankfort in his report of November 29, L899: " Enormous quantities of silver still come from the chief producing countries Mexico and the United States and Mexico especially seems to be inexhaustible." The figures given for Mexico, in the article quoted, are as follow-: Year °" :i Vear. i fences, flne. 1896 4".. Tin. 982 Exports ofsMvt r bullion. — The exports of silver bullion since ] — -it are as follows: Value Year. Mexican -il- Vear. Value (Mexican silver). ■ S6, 629, 260 1895-96. . 186,846, 160 id, 966 ; 1890-91 6,761,217 36,721,276 : 6, 559, 668 40, 429, 954 62,116,284 53,036,016 48,021,133 1899 1900 3, 130, 823 1900-1901 1901-2 1894-95 18, 803, 867 MINING PROPERTIES. 227 Min< ml j i roil action. — Data collected from official and other sources for the mineral production during the fiscal year 1902-3 show the following- condition of the mining industn r in the Republic. The extent of mining properties under operation for the fiscal 3'ear ending June 30, 1903, together with the classification of the ores, was as follows: Ores. Number of prop- erties. Hectares. Gold Gold and silver Silver Gold, silver, and copper. Gold, silver, and lead Gold and copper Silver and copper Silver, copper, and lead . Silver, lead Silver, manganese Silver, mercury Antimony Sulphur Copper Copper, iron Copper, lead Tin Iron Manganese Mercury Nickel, cobalt Opal Lead Sal gem Tellurium Turquoise Zinc 1,298 4,345 4,904 720 712 218 624 255 2,723 4 6 47 94 765 151 22 30 265 13 146 1 17 61 4 1 1 1 17,497 41,674 42, 182 13, 212 8,363 3,894 9, 780 3, 624 28, 792 55 65 2,008 2, 975 22, 483 2, 570 568 727 7, 392 237 4,720 3 43 696 110 4 3 15 Total 17,428 213,701 Distribution. — The distribution by States of these mining properties is shown in the following table: Number of prop- erties. Hectares. Ares. CENTRAL STATES. 188 2,558 764 542 376 55 143 125 349 3 1,612 997 22, 924 9,478 4,116 4,980 680 1,826 1 , 954 7,484 30 15, 825 13 49 62 93 18 34 88 48 76 9 86 Total 6, 615 70, 299 67 NORTHERN STATES. 519 2,814 494 2,299 10, 239 30, 853 9,636 40, 528 69 68 32 84 Total 6, 126 91,258 53 GULF STATES. 89 51 2,021 778 32 60 Total 140 2, 799 92 228 MEXICO. Number of prop- erties. Hectares. PACIFK STATES, Lower California Territory. Colima Chiapas Guerrero Jalisco Uichoacan Oazaca Sinaloa Tepic Territory Total Central States .. Northern States Gulf Btati Pacific States . . Total REC.AI'ITt 1 Alios. 656 26 18 585 851 H9 1,082 786 215 4,547 6, 615 6, 126 140 4,517 17,428 5,867 171 •J7I 6,149 11,900 S.VJO 6,638 1,566 49,343 70,299 91,268 2,799 19,848 213, 701 39 Number of mining properties with respective titles on June 30,1903 17,428 Number on June 80, 1902 14,639 Increase 2, 889 Extension of the properties held — Hectares. axes. 218,701 172,696 :.i 80 41,005 71 \'uhh of mineral production. — The value in round numbers of the mineral production of Mexico in the fiscal year L902-3 wits us follows: Silver $82, 300, 000 Gold 32, 500, 000 Copper and copper ores 19,600, 000 Lead and lead ores - 5, 670, 000 Antimony, antimony oree 1, 139, 000 Asphalt and coal 35, 000 Other minerals 150, 000 Marbles 200,000 Total production in L902-3 141 . 594, 000 Mineral production fiscal year 1901-2 113, 057, 000 Increase 28, 537, 000 The figures relating to gold and silver embrace the amounts exported and used for coinage in mints, exclusive of the minerals applied to home commercial consumption, such as quicksilver, iron, copper, lead, etc., and also the gold and silver used in the home industries. ( 'Lt i ins. — The number of mining claims registered during the cal- endar year 1902 was 16,430, covering 196,225 hectares, and embracing the following mineral substances: EXPORTS. 22V) Mineral substances. Mining properties. Area, hectares. Gold Gold and silver Gold, silver, and copper Gold, silver, and lead . . . Gold and copper Silver Silver and copper Silver, copper, and lead. silver and lead Silver and manganese . . Silver and mercury Copper Copper and lead Copper and iron Lead Iron Tin Mercury Zinc . . ." Antimony Manganese Sulphur Tellurium Turquoise Opal Sal gem Total 1,195 3,892 642 630 194 4,882 615 224 2,616 3 5 745 25 126 61 227 25 146 1 53 9 90 1 1 18 4 16,430 13,881 35, 255 12, 618 7,403 2,641 41, 744 9,470 3, 339 27,985 35 49 22, 193 545 2, 350 714 5, 692 501 4,776 15 2,119 95 2, 657 3 4 45 110 196, 250 It is stated upon reliable authority that while Mexico has produced a fabulous amount of the precious metals during the past four hundred years, there are still many sections of the country where the ground has not even been broken. Easports. — The exports of copper and copper ores per month in the tiscal year 1902-3 were as follows: July August September . October November December.. 1902. Copper. Quantity. January . February March . . . April May June Kilos. 1,861,411 5, 762, 546 5,243,069 3,922,427 4, 669, 625 6,714,599 3, 752, 157 4,572,117 5,361), IM 4,626,100 1,463,923 6, 712, 594 Total 54, 660, 749 Value. $485, 360. 25 1,933,001.16 1,723,956.54 1,317,681.92 1,523,176.49 2, 195, 060. 32 1,534,221.50 1,345,832.56 2, 045, 049. 95 1,438,635.07 683, 307. 68 2, 128, 653. 71 18, 353, 943. 15 Copper ores. Quantity. Kilos. 1,253 414 917, 947 214, 143 525 2,042,757 4,911,305 Value. $105. 00 25.00 9, 300. 00 2, 160. 00 53.00 587,794.40 661,. si 1.67 1,261,249.27 Year. Copper exports. Value. 1902-3 Tons. 54,660 40, 312 $18,353,943 1901-2 .. 12,466, 431 14, 348 5. 887. 496 230 M1-.A1CO. The exports <>!' other mineral products in L902— 3 compared with 1901-2 were: VllllH- 1902-3. llMPl--.'. Li'in 1 . 98,9 U t< >ns $5,668,228.00 ! 2.909 15,722,046.69 Lead orea Antimony 828,996.00 Antimony orea 816,118.00 281.69 Asphalt and eoaj 86,127.00 19,041.76 Marbles 150,6k;. ih.i 98, 660. 00 Total 6, 996, 023. 95 i 6. l'J3, 91s. *x To the foregoing must be added the value of small lots of mineral products exported during the fiscal year L902-3, which did not exceed 1200,000. MINI \«. METHODS. There arc five processes for the reduction of ore in use in Mexico — the patio, tonal, lixiviation, fuago, and pan, the patio and li.rlridtion being those most in vogue. Patio process. The patio process, invented, as before stated, by Bartolome de Medina, consists <>f amalgamation with quicksilver. This system of treating ore is a^ follows: The ore is brought from the mine in large pieces and carried to a covered box, where it is pounded to pieces by immense wooden crush- ers, provided at the end with heavy iron pestles, and working on arms connected with an axle, operated by horsepower. The iron pestles reduce the ore to pieces, which fall upon a sieve made of hide, tin smaller fragments passing through it, while the larger are placed back in the box to be crushed again. There are generally several of these crushers in a straight line, working alternately. After the ore has been crushed in the mortars (morteros) it passes to the mill (tahones), which consists of a round vat placed on a level with the floor. Here the ore is ground up into tine dust by means of three heavy and hard granite stones, oblong j n shape and connected with a revolving shaft operated by horsepower. By the gradual addition of water during this process of pulverization a muddy mass i> formed, which at the proper time is thrown out into the patio (yard), which has a floor made of hard cement or stone where the mud is treated by the addition of quicksilver and strong brine called caldo. It i^ thus left in the open ail-, exposed to the heat of the sun, for some twenty or thirty days, being stirred every day by men and horses tramping over it until the quicksilver and the salt are well incorporated to the ore. This substance is called torta d\ lama (cake of mud), and when the process of mixing is completed the mud is carried to the hi r,ni, ,■<• (washing place) and placed in vats, where it is SILVER ORES. 231 washed, leaving - in the vats what is called platapina (amalgamated sil- ver), containing quicksilver. This amalgam is then placed into stout canvas bags and submitted to a heavy pressure to extract the mercury, and when this operation is completed it is placed in the oven, where the silver is purified. An additional process connected with this system in the reduction of certain kinds of ores is employed after the mineral has been exposed to the sun in the path, or yard, when it is transferred to the jplanillo, which is an inclined plane in the open air, having a solid stone floor some 60 feet long and 20 feet wide. The workmen are engaged all along this inclined plane in throwing small quantities of water on the lama, so that the mud runs off to a ditch, while the silver remains at the foot of the plane. This method requires skill, as the w r ater must be added graduall}'. The silver and the remaining muddy mass is carried to a large iron boiler where it is heated and stirred until the evaporation of the liquid is accomplished. At the proper stage of this operation the remaining substance is taken to the amalgamating room, where the quicksilver is added, which unites with the silver. The mass resulting is then washed again, only the amalgam of silver and mercury remaining, which is further purified in a furnace and the silver run into molds. Lixiviation process. — In the method of lixiviation, which is adopted in several of the States, the rock is crushed dry and passed through screens of twenty to thirty meshes to the inch. It is then roasted in reverberator}' furnaces with salt. The roasted ore is then subjected to the water process, being kept in large tanks or tubs, constantly covered and run over by clear water during a number of hours, after which the water is drawn off and a cold solution of hj'posulphate of soda is made to pass through the ore until it is ascertained that the solution carries no more silver. The silver carried by the hyposul- phate solution is precipitated by the addition to that solution of another solution of quicklime and sulphur, known as calcium sulphide, which is made by boiling lime and sulphur. After the precipitation and the running off of the precipitating liquid the silver appears as a sulphide, is put into canvas filters, dried, roasted in reverberatory furnaces to carry off the sulphur, and then melted into bars. If the operation is carefully performed the bullion resulting will be from 900 to 1,000 fine. The solution is pumped back into the tanks to be used again. Sliver c/res. — There are several kinds of silver ore taken from the mines. Some of the principal varieties areplata hlanca (white silver), which is the rarest and best; plata verde (green silver), united with copper; bronces (bronzes), united with iron; plomosos (lead), united with lead, a very soft ore; caliches (chalk), united with a chalky sub- stance very greatly resembling the common white limestone, but w T hich is rich in silver and easily worked. Previous to the passage of the 232 IfEXlOO. tariff bill of L890, generally known as the McKinley bill, and the buc- ceeding tariff lulls, silver-bearing lead ore was brought from Mexico to the United States for reduction. These bills pul a heavy duty on such ores, and have caused companies t<> form in the latter country to establish smelting works in different parts of Mexico. Millions of dollar- have been invested by American capitalists in this industry. Wages for miners. — Wages Eor miners range all the way from 374 cents to $1.50 per day. the workmen being mostly peones (day laborers). Superintendents, ore treaters, etc., are generally American-. Swedes, or ( rermans. mimm; di:\ ELOPMENT. President Diaz in his message to ( !ongress September 16, 1903, refers to the development of mining in the following language: " Mining continue 1 s to progress, in spite of the depreciation and fluc- tuation in the price of silver, which is mining's chief product. During the last fiscal year 4,132 title deeds to mining properties were issued, embracing an area of 61,396 hectares, which is an increase of 524 title deeds and 736 hectare- as compared with the previous year. •"In the period that has elapsed since my last message three contracts have been entered into for the exploitation of all kinds of minerals in Jalisco, Lower California, and Zacatecas, and another for the estab- lishment of reduction work-, while the contract for the exploitation of sulphur in the mining camp of Cerritos was amended. ••The exploitation of ore-, other than those containing gold, silver, lead, copper, and iron, is being undertaken, for recently various title deeds have been issued for mines of cobalt, nickel, tin. bismuth, and principally antimony. Of the latter metal alone 5,351 tons of ore. yielding 2,150 tons of antimony, were treated in the Wadley smelter at San Luis Potosi alone." Consul-General Barlow, in his report of < >ctober29, 1902,° referring to the amount of American capital invested in Mexico, says the follow- ing, relating to mining: ••Next in importance to the railroads, from the standpoint of Amer- ican capital invested, i- the mining industry. Since the time of Cortes mining has been the principal source of Mexico'- wealth. The amount invested by Americans in mining in Mexico may be stated, in round ngures, at $80,000,000. "This is a comparatively small percentage of the total amount of capital invested in Mexican mining properties, yet a large amount of this $80,000,000 is invested in up-to-date mining machinery, which is competently handled: and Mexico's mineral wealth has been greatly increased by this American investment. Mines that were given up years ago and mines that could not be worked at all on account of the «"United states enterprises in Mexico," Commercial Relations of the United States, 1902, Vol. I, p. 433. COAL AND PETROLEUM. 238 low grade of the ores can now be profitabl} T worked by the newer methods, for which Mexico is mostly indebted to Americans. The increased output of Mexican mines, as well as the opening up of new mining districts, is largely due to Americans, both through the improved mining methods and through the development of the coun- try b}- railroads built b} T our capital. Thus, taken on the whole, American capital is a stronger factor in Mexico's principal industry than the amount invested indicates on the surface. "From the analysis it is seen that Sonora has the largest amount of capital invested in any one State of Mexico — $27,800,000. For the purpose of these comparisons, a rough estimate is made of the value of the capital in cases where it is left blank in the tables. From data obtainable this general statement ma} r be held to be reliable. "Chihuahua comes next, with $21,000,000. The amount— $6,000,- 000 — credited to the Federal District does not represent the amount invested within the Federal District, for that is practically nothing, but represents the capital invested in all parts of the Republic b\ T various mining companies having main offices in the City of Mexico. Therefore the State of Durango ranks third in importance with regard to the amount of American capital invested in its mining industry, with $6,500,000. Coahuila is next, with an even $6,000,000 of Amer- ican capital invested." The number of American firms engaged in mining, according to the same report, is 290. All the States are represented, the principal, as regards the number of firms, being Sonora 62, Chihuahua 45, Sinaloa 30, Federal District 24, Durango 23, Oaxaca 17, Jalisco 16, Nuevo Leon and Zacatecas 11 each. COAL, PETROLEUM, ETC. Mexican geologists affirmed for many years that no mineral coal existed in their country. About the year 1881, however, reports from several parts of the country claimed that anthracite coal had been dis- covered, and many specimens of what was supposed to be this mineral were sent to the National College of Engineers to lie assayed. Much enthusiasm was aroused by these reports, and the Department of Pro- motion appointed scientific commissions to visit the alleged coal local- ities and report thereon. The labors of these commissions proved that coal did exist, assaying from 11 to 92 per cent, the latter in the State of Sonora. It was to this coal that General Rosecrans gave the name of black gold. The commissions discovered and reported on anthra- cite deposits in Sonora, Michoacan, Veracruz, Guerrero, Oaxaca, Puebla, and other States. The excitement and enthusiasm thus created led to the formation of many coal companies, and many persons looked forward to the amass- ing of fortunes out of collieries, but the results were not great. This 234 MIX Mo. enthusiasm was succeeded by a state of depression and inactivity by the discovery thai the seams of coal brought to light were poor, and that the reports and rumors were exaggerated. Want of means of communication between the deposits and the markets also had much to do with the quiescent state. The depression continued until profitable coal deposits were unearthed inCoahuila. These deposits occur, geo- logically speaking, in the Cretaceous formation, and arc divided into two beds, the Upper and the Lower. The product of these fields bas been used to supply coke for the use of smelters in several Mexican States, and some coal has been -hipped to the Tinted States through the port of Piedras Negras. Throughout this region the coal measures are considerably disturbed by faults and foldings, and the seams are irregular in width, having many barren areas between them. Alonu' the Gulf of California, extending north to the Arizona line. in the State of Sonora, coal was found and used by local silver -inciters as early as the year ls7<>. In L890 an English company secured a concession of 4,000,000 acre- of land in this belt. Through failure to carry out the terms of the concession it was forfeited, and a Mexican company was organized to carry on the proposed work, but has done little of importance. The coal is anthracite and -ciniant hracite. containing from 8 to L5 per cent ash and sulphur, according to reported analyses. Up to L890 some .v.* coal mines had been opened up in the State of Puebla, but poor facilities for transportation, difficulties encountered in mining, and the rather poor quality of the coal conspired to prevent great activity being shown, despite the desire of the State government to foster and advance the industry. It i> reported that during the fall of L897 fairly good coal fields had been discovered near Colombia, State of Nuevo Leon, and that they were to be worked, a concession having been already requested to build a short railway line to the Gelds. According to Mexican official publications there are in the State of Oaxaca several known deposits of coal, which is also to be found in the State- of Veracruz, Puebla, Hidalgo, Michoacan, Tlaxcala, Sonora, Tamaulipas, Chihuahua, Morelos, Quer6taro, Jalisco, and Coahuila. Peat i- found in Sonora. Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Puebla. and elsewhere. It abounds on the banks of the Tololotlan River near Lake Chapala. and in the valley of Mexico. Lignite, or brown coal, is found in Puebla. Tlaxcala. Veracruz, Hidalgo, Chihuahua. Guerrero, Morelos, Queretaro. Jalisco, ami Coahuila. Petroleum and asphaltum. The territory of Mexico abounds in deposits of asphaltum and Liquid petroleum. These deposits have not been, until recently, worked to any !' the war of independence, terminating in 1821, the mining industry was partially paralyzed. ^\' 1 1< ■ i l national autonomy was finally established all minerals were declared to belong to the nation, but tbe ancient rulings continued in force with all their inconveniences, taxes were increased, and consequently mining developed on even a smaller scale than in the colonial period. jWhen tbe Federal Republic was established in l s -~>7 the definite political constitution was formed, and according to it each State could legislate in regard to mining freely and independently of each other. This state of affairs was discoura- ging and consequently the working of the mines ceased to a great extent. A few years prior to L884 the country began to experience trouble through the fall of silver, and on December 15, L883, ( longress author- ized the Executive to issue a mining code for the Republic. This code was promulgated in L884, and although it was based upon the principle of the former rulings, still it gave greater freedom to the working of the mines. In 1887 the mining industry felt the effect of the monetary situation above referred to and the law of June 6 of that year was enacted, exempting iron, quicksilver, and coal mines from taxation, certain necessary articles were relieved of import duties, and the Executive was authorized to execute special contracts. The monetary crisis having become acute, the law of June 4. L892, was enacted with a view of facilitating the working and increasing and cheapening the production of the silver mines. This law is -till in force. The following tattle shows the relative exportation and production of ores, bullion, and Mexican coin during the several periods: Legislation <>f tli.' stat.- (fr 1880-81 to 1884-85) $126,771,390 Miningcode, L884 (1885to 1889-90) 167,993,780 Law of L892 in force (1893 to 1901-2) 556, 992', 617 Mining law. The mining law now in force in Mexico was promul- gated on June 4. ls'.t' the land. the injuries immediately accruing to it, and the easements attachable thereto. Mining properties and adjoining lands shad enjoy and sutler, as tin- ease may be, the easements of way. water rights, drainage, and venti- lation, the courts being guided in the matter of adjudication and indem- nity by the lex loci, where the same does not conflicl with the rules which are laid down in this law. Every inhabitant of the Republic may freely explore the national territory for the purpose of discovering mineral deposits, hut should excavations he made in lieu of borings, the former shall not exceed 10 Dieters in length or depth. No permit is necessary, hut previous notice mii-t he given to the proper authority. No prospecting may be done on private property without leave of the owner or his representative. In ease permission is not obtainable, it may he asked of the proper executive officer, who may grant the same pursuant to the regulations, bond being previously furnished by the prospector to answer for all damages, such bond to be to the satis- faction of the officer after hearing the owner of the land or his repre- sentative. No prospecting may be carried on within private buildings or their appurtenances except by leave of the owner; neither shall mining explorations be conducted within the limits of towns or cities, nor within or in the neighborhood of public buildings and fortifications. The unit of concession, or mining claim, shall hereafter consist of a prismatic body of indefinite depth, forming on the surface a horizontal square having side- LOO meters in length, and bounded below the sur- face by the four corresponding vertical planes. The mining claim is indivisible in all contract- affecting mining grants or ownership thereof. Unless the original prospector shall petition therefor within three months, mining grants shall be made to the first applicant and shall embrace, wherever there is sufficient unoccupied ground, the number of claims petitioned by the interested party, who should always clearly specify, in accordance with the regulations, the actual location of the claims constituting his grant. Should a space less than the unit of concession lie between the newly granted claims and others previously conveyed, such space shall also be granted in fee to the first applicant. Applications for mining grants should be tiled with the special agents appointed in the States, Territories, and Federal District hy the Depart- ment of Promotion. These agents are authorized to collect the fees prescribed in the Department schedule. MINING LAWS. 239 The agents shall receive the applications, immediately recording the day and hour of tiling. The}' shall then publish the application, cause the claims to be surveyed by the engineer or expert by them desig- nated, and should no objection be filed, they shall forward a copy of the record and plan to the Department of Promotion for approval and issuance of the patent. The record having been approved and the patent issued, the grantee enters at once upon the mining claims without further formality. The agents are prohibited from suspending the record in its regular course for any reason whatever, except in the event of objection; and the periods established by the regulations having expired, they are bound to transmit at once a copy of the record, in whatever stage it may be, to the department, so that, after examination, it may dismiss the application for want of diligence should it so find, or hold the agent responsible should the delay be attributable to him. Negligent appli- cants can not twice solicit the same grant. Should objection to the granting of an application or to the proper surveys be filed by the owner of the land, alleging the nonexistence of the deposit, the agent shall dismiss the objection should there be any indications of a deposit on the land or any boring or prospecting work on said deposit. In case no such indications, borings, or works exist, proceedings similar to those hereinbefore mentioned shall be instituted, the court deciding whether or not the grant shall be made, his decision being appealable in either case. The judgment is to be communicated to the Department of Promotion. The agents shall suspend proceedings in case an objection is filed, and forward the record to the local court of the first instance for the insti- tution of the proper judicial inquiry. The court shall make known its decision to the Department of Promotion. Working of mineral substances, either conveyable pursuant to this law or belonging to the owner of the surface ground, is subject to the regulations; but, by observing these, mine owners shall be allowed full liberty of action to work as may seem best to them, pushing, delaying, or suspending for a greater or less time their work, employing therein the number of laborers they may see fit and wherever ma}- best serve their purpose. Mine owners, however, shall be liable for accidents that may occur in the mines due to poor workmanship, and to indem- nify the damages occasioned other property through lack of drainage or through any other cause affecting the interests of others. When, in order to push the works of a mine in any locality, drain- age tunnels may become necessary, the execution of such works shall be the subject of contract between the parties interested. Associations or companies formed to operate mines shall be governed bv the commercial code. 240 MIX I en. The contract !'<>r advances {//•;<>). so called, up to this time, shall hereafter be considered either a> a partnership -in which case it shall be governed by the commercial code— or a mortgage. A mining mortgage may be freely constituted in accordance with the civil code of the Federal District, bearing in mind the indivisibility of the claim hereinbefore mentioned, and. as regards recording, observing the pro- visions of the commercial code, to which end a special hook shall be kept for mining operations. The mortgagee shall, always have the righl to pay the Federal tax hereinbefore mentioned, and shall thereby acquire a preferred right with respect to the owner of the mine and his own mortgage. Mortgages may he divided into bonds, assignable or payable to bearer, either by the terms of the original mortgage di-rd or by sub- sequent instrument. In eveiy case it shall contain provisions consti- tuting a common representative of the bondholders. These provisions, as well as those relating to the aggregate of the debt, the conditions thereof, and of the security, shall be printed in the bonds. Bondholders may only proceed against the mortgagor or the mort- gaged property through the common representative, whose acts with respect to said right shall be binding on all. Failure to pay the property tax. pursuant to the provisions of and procedure under the law establishing the same, shall be. from and after the date hereof, the sole cause for forfeiture of mining property, which property so forfeited shall be free of all burdens and may be granted to tin 1 first applicant. All matters relative to the establishment and working of smelting and reduction works and assay offices shall be governed by the general laws, and in so far as regards taxation by the law of June ('». 1887. Parts of tunnels located outside of claims, when intended solely for ventilation, drainage, and extraction of metals not taken from the said tunnels, are exempted from taxation. Denouncements of mines or surplus ground in the course of adjudi- cation when this law goes into effect shall be decided in accordance therewith. Surplus ground and vacant spaces between adjoining or abutting mining properties not denounced when this law goes into effect shall belong and be granted to the first applicant. The law went into effect on the 1st of July, 1892. MIXING TAXES. On June 6, 1892, the President promulgated, through the Finance Department, a mining-tax law, the principal provisions of which are as follows: Pursuant to the new mining law, a Federal mining-property tax is MINING TAXES. 241 established. It is dual in its application — one to be paid but once in stamps to be affixed to every title or patent, and the other to be paid annually for each claim which a grant covers. Every fraction of a claim exceeding the half of a full claim shall pay the same as the latter. Smaller fractions are exempt. The stamps shall be of the denomination of $10. and are to be affixed to the title or patent at the rate of one stamp for every claim of 10,000 square meters. Fractions are to be paid for as above. Every mine owner or occupant is bound to pa} 7 the sum of $10 per year for every claim composing his grant. This annual tax is to be paid quarterly in advance, payment to be made during the first month of the quarter, without notice. Any concealment of the number of claims owned shall be punished with a fine in double the amount of the stamps the patent or title should bear for the claim concealed; and further, a fine in double the amount of the annual tax for the whole if it shall not have been paid, without prejudice to civil and criminal liability. Default in the payment of the annual tax within the first month of the quarter will subject the mine owner to a fine equal to 50 per cent of the tax, if paid during the second month. Should payment be deferred until the third month, the fine shall be equal to the full amount of the tax. Upon the expiration of this term without payment of the tax and accumulated fines the mine is forfeited without appeal. Upon the sale of a mine the grantor shall give notice of the same for record, and the deed shall have affixed the stamps required by the law. In case any person or company shall find it inadvisable to continue the working of a mine or mines, notice must be sent to the proper office of the Treasury Department in order to settle the tax up to the date of notice and make the necessary entry in the record. On July 1, 1897, another mining-tax law went into effect. Its pro- visions are as follows: Art. 1. Silver and gold are subject, in accordance with the pro- visions of this law, to the payment of the following taxes and charges: I. Interior stamp tax, at the rate of 3 per cent on the value of said metals. II. Coinage charges, at the rate of 2 per cent on the value of the same metals. III. Assaying charges, in conformity with the tariff which the Department of the Treasury may publish. IV. Charges for smelting, refining, and separating in accordance with the respective tariffs which ma} r be published by the same Department. Art. 2. In order to liquidate the stamp tax and coinage charges, the basis for estimating the value of the precious metals shall be the value which the monetary laws of the countiy assign to the said metals, i.e., 509a— 04 16 242 kexioo. the kilogram <>f silver being ai present 140.915 and the kilogram of gold $675. 1 L6. Akt. :;. The cost of the respective operations will be taken into account iii connection with the tariff which clauses III am! IV of article 1 establish tor the collection of the charges. Akt. i. Not merely gold and silver in mixed bars, or consisting of one of these metals, but also sulphides of silver, argentiferous copper and lead, mineral in a natural state, or concentrated, or which may have been to a certain extent treated, and generally any other oie or substance which contains silver or gold, are subject to the payment of the taxes and charges established by article 1. Ai:t. .'>. The stamp tax and coinage and assay charges shall be paid in all cases, whether it he that the substance is presented for coinage or for exportation. The smelting charge shall only be collected on the substances which are not homogeneous and therefore require to he smelted in order to effect the assay valuation and liquidation of same: and the charges for refining and separating .-.hall only apply to the substances intended for coinage. Foreign money is not liable to the burdens imposed by this law. but it shall be subject when introduced to a mint — for purposes of recoin- age — to the payment of the coinage charges, and also in proper cases to the charges established in sections III and IV of said article. Akt. •'-. The payment of the respective taxes and charges shall be made at the mints or in the special assaying offices, whether the metal- be introduced for coinage or for the purpose of exportation, and in each case the requisites established by the regulation- must be com- plied with. The taxpayers who can not prove that they have paid the taxes in the establishments mentioned, and who may wish to ship gold or silver, or any substance which contains these metals, to a foreign country, shall be allowed to make the payment at the custom-houses upon the terms and requirements of the -aid Regulations. Akt. 7. The payment shall be made in current money of Mexican coinage, but as regards the stamp tax the collecting offices shall affix to and cancel on the respective documents which they shall deliver to the taxpayers the corresponding -tamp for the amount of -aid tax. These documents shall he made out in the form which the regulation- shall provide, specifying the value of the metal and the amount of the tax and charges. Akt. N. When the minerals destined for a foreign country come from any State in which they have been taxed in conformity with the law of the 6th June, 1887, the coinage charges and -tamp tax may tie liquidated, taking as a basis — always provided that the Department of the Treasury has so authorized — the value which has been given to the minerals in the assaying office or in that of the collector of taxes. MINING TAXES. 243 Art. 9. The metallurgical establishments, which by express stipula- tion in force at the date of this law enjoy the privilege, shall continue to enjoy the privilege of exemption from the payment of the coinage tax upon the silver which they may export direct, provided always that the proportion of silver in the argentiferous leads does not exceed seven one-thousandths and that of the argentiferous copper twenty one-thousandths; but if the proportion of silver exceeds these limits, the said establishments shall pa} r the coinage tax upon the excess. This exemption applies only to those products which originally pro- ceed from the establishments enjoying the franchise, and not to those products purchased from other concerns. Art. 10. The coinage and stamp tax on gold, according to the law, shall be estimated upon the intrinsic value of the precious metal con- tained in the minerals which are exported, with only such exceptions as are contained in the following articles. Art. 11. The mineral substances which contain less than 250 grams of silver or 10 grams of gold per ton are exempted from the payment of the tax and charges imposed by this law, the proportion between the one and the other limit to be taken into account in case of a combina- tion of both metals. Art. 12. The mineral substances of gold or of silver which may be exported in their.natural state, or after mechanical concentration, shall be liable to the coinage charge and also the stamp tax upon the gold and silver which they contain, 10 per cent being deducted. Art. 13. Should the Department of the Treasury see proper it may grant special concessions to the concerns which are in the habit of exporting ores in large quantities, provided that such concerns satis- factorily prove by means of their books and other documents the weight and proportion of metal of the ores which they wish to export, and that they admit, for this purpose, the unconditional investigation of the Treasury agents. This concession may be extended to arranging with the exporters for the payment of a fixed sum as remuneration of the Government for the cost of the assay and inspection of said mineral substances; but in no case shall it allow of an exemption from or rebate on the stamp tax and coinage charges established b}' this law. Art. 11. The Regulations shall fix the penalties which violators of this law shall incur and the mode of making the same effective, placing clandestine exportation on a level with contraband, and punishing it with the penalties which for this offense are imposed by the general custom-house ordinances and other relative laws. Art. 15. The producers of silver which contains gold are at liberty to separate the same in their own private establishments; and in case that they introduce silver mixed (with other metal) to any Federal Government office, they shall have the right to separate the gold to the extent that they may desire, paying the respective tax or charge per 1244 MEXICO. kilogram, in accordance with the tariff. If the producers do not fix the extent, the separation shall be made on their account, when the pro- portion of gold is equal to or greater than two one-thousandths. ART. lt>. The rates fixed in the general stamp law for the •'accounts" issued by the mints and for the "metals of gold and silver" are repealed: the laws and provisions at present existing with reference to the Federal taxes and charges on gold and silver are also repealed. The State- can continue collecting the local taxes authorized by the law of the 6th dune. L887, which shall he Liable to the Federal contri- bution mentioned in the stamp law. The total product of mining taxi'- and other dues for the fiscal year 1901-2, amounted to $3,847,375.26, a- shown in the following figures from Mexican official sources: Metals for coining: Mint (stamp, mint, and other dues) $1,035,469.68 Federal assay offices (stamp, mint, and cither dues) 439, 7~t>. 7*i 1, 475, 196. 44 Metals for export: Mint charges 268, 113. 61 Federal assay charges 1, 270, 151 . 97 Custom dues 833,913.24 2,372,178.82 CHAPTER X. INDUSTRIES AND MANUFACTURES. Mexico is not a manufacturing country. Such articles as the mass of the people require are, however, generally produced in sufficient quantities to meet the demand. She is, since the great depreciation of silver, beginning to learn that it is cheaper to make than to bu} T , and within the past three or four years very large amounts of capital have been invested in manufactories and industries. Mexico will hardly become, for very many years at least, a manufacturer of articles beyond those of which she produces the raw materials; but this would furnish a held for the investment of almost limitless capital, for hardly any nation on earth furnishes raw materials in so great abundance. Manufactures will spring up with the increased production of raw materials, but the country's agricultural resources are so great it is destined to become, still more than at present, a great exporter of raw material. The natural products of the soil are so varied, so certain, and so sure of good markets, that capital is diverted to agricultural and mineral development rather than into manufacturing enterpises on a large scale. The Indian, who forms the largest portion of the laboring popula- tion, is not progressive. He is loth to lay aside the rude implements of his forefathers and take up methods of modern invention and advancement. His needs are few, and he is not inspired with a desire to improve his condition. Having inherited nothing but tradition and the meager physical means to provide for his sustenance, he zealousl} 7 guards the one and utilizes the other to the same extent as his forebears, leaving his children onh r what he himself received. The three centu- ries of Spanish domination have left their imprint upon his character, and everything he does is executed in a perfunctory manner. He goes to his daily toil earty and returns to his frugal meal and rest late. Ambition within him is dead. He is satisfied with his lot and cares little what the morrow may bring forth. But the Indian is losing ground. The white races are surpassing him, and with increasing transporta- tion facilities, a progressive government fostering industrial interests, the disappearance of internecine strife, the influx of foreign capital and enterprising men, his successors will, in the not very distant future, either join the ranks of the progressive people, as in the thickly 245 24C> MEXICO. populated portions of the Republic they have already begun t«> <1«>. or die off, to be replaced l>y a more energetic and ambitious class. Time was when Mexico was regarded by Datives and foreigners as a land of mineral wealth only, and her many other natural resources writ' hut little noticed or developed. The building of great railway systems, affording better means of communication, has, however, brought to the notice of the world at large the great possibilities for wealth earning which the country affords. Brantz Mayer, writing of Mexico and a portion of the territoiT of thai country which but a few years before had been annexed to the United States, said: "California has at least illustrated one great moral truth which the avaricious world required to be taught. When men were starv- ing, though weighed down with gold — when ail the necessaries of life rose to twice, thrice, tenfold, and even fifty or a hundred times their value in the Atlantic States that distant province demonstrated the intrinsic worthlessness of the coveted ore and the permanent value of everything produced by genuine industry and labor." Spurred on to a recognition of this truth by exchange, which has acted as a protective tariff, the country, which knew practically ik till- ing but mines, began, a few years since, to manufacture, and to-day the whistle of the mill and the sound of the hammer are beginning to be heard throughout the land. Many articles which five or six years ago brought the Government millions in duties are now not imported, the people having gone into the manufacture of these articles, which thus produce revenue to the Government through other channels at the same time that they add to the wealth of the people. Cotton mills. — The principal manufacturing industry of the Republic is the making of cotton cloth, mostly manta, a coarse, unbleached cot- ton fabric. It has been estimated that the mills of the country con- sume annually about 40, 000, (too pounds of cotton, quite a large portion of which is imported from the United States. The industry gives work and support in the field and mills to more than 80,000 families. A- a rule the mills are provided with old style machinery, but recently a number of them have set up American and English machinery of modern type. The ordinary cotton cloth {intuitu), which is about the only material for clothing used by two-thirds of the inhabitants of the country, is usually made up in pieces of 30 yards 4 inches in length by 34. L2 inches in width. The price of the piece varies from $2.88 to &4. In the year ls;»5-96 there were 100 cotton and print mills in the country; in 1897 they had increased to 111, and the development of this industry since then is shown in the following table: "Mexico, Aztec, Spanish, and Republican, 1852. COTTON MANUFACTURE. 247 Factories. Spindles. Looms. Printing Year. Working. Idle. Old style. Modern. Old style. Modern. chines, modern. 1898-99 1899-1900 112 134 6 10 19 31 274, 959 273, 219 188, 364 162, 359 194, 588 315, 255 408, 452 433, 369 8, 992 8,427 6,987 5,647 5,052 9,642 11,746 12, 575 27 36 1900-1901 1901-2 134 124 33 33 Year. 1898-99 . . 1899-1900 1900-1901 1901-2 ... Cotton con- sumed. Kilos. 27, 594, 260 28, 985, 254 30,252,319 27, 628, 366 Pieces woven or printed. 10, 753, 764 11, 525, 952 11,581,523 10, 428, 532 Yarn pro- duced. Kilos. 1,931,422 1,884,401 1,873,302 1,879,329 Sales declared. 829, 926, 568. 18 35, 458, 577. 78 33, 877, 214. 87 28, 779, 999. 49 Industrial taxes paid by the 114 cotton mills in operation in the Republic for the half year from January to June, 1903, amounted in the aggregate to $812,399.70. The largest item is $149,543.90, assigned to the " Compania Industrial de Orizaba," the principal cotton mills in Mexico; then follow the " Compania Industrial de San Anto- nio,'"' with $43,455.20; the "Compania Industrial Veracruzana," with $68,683.35; the u Compania Industrial Manufacturer, " with $35,000; the other mills vary from $16,000 downward. The assessment for the six months mentioned exceeds that paid in the half year from July to December, 1902, by $2,886.60, and the number of mills assessed was 124, being 10 more than the number above quoted. The number of hands employed in the cotton factories of Mexico in 1902 was 50,632. The distribution of this industry, by States, was during the fiscal year 1901-2, as follows: CENTRAL STATES. State. Factories. eg CD 03 a S-S - 1 ? B S3 - - -■ p '- " " — a. Distrito Federal Durango Guanajuato Hidalgo Mexico Puebla Quer<5taro San Luis Potosi . Tlaxcala Total Coahuila Chihuahua Nuevo Leon Sonora Total Kilos. 1, 975, 992 1,214,619 1,739,234 226, 999 1, 499, 145 3,953,417 1, 151, 385 189, 798 2,081,586 1,565,322 288,011 280, 768 46, 798 630, 364 1,933,088 527, 667 46, 938 892, 939 Kilos 296, 215 59,878 202, 162 98, 071 181,093 111,926 227,596 9, 246 50, 810 14,032,175 0,211,89;" 1,236,997 S3, 165, 991, 1,200, 217, 1,875, 4,625, 1,229, 148, 2, 064, 417.95 999. 85 219. 63 931.08 675. 79 149. 90 747. 05 976. 61 734. 98 71,484 30,680 44,980 9.117: 79, 261) 176,846 51,820 10, 240 81,596 1,714 1,322 1,207 312 2,646 6, US 1.412 300 2, 633 15, 519, 852. 84 555, 978 17,658 20 3, 624 1,956 2. 6 18 393 3, 178 6,560 2, -190 500 3,255 21, '.NM NORTHERN STATES. 19 11 2,214,582 595,585 4 539, 984 128, 957 4 912.072 271,526 1 212. 032 49, 214 21) 2K.9S2 655 1,375 3,878.670 1.04.V2.S2 I 31,012 ,635,117.17 108,566 3,551 624,157.44 15,228' 590 854,744.89 36,334 1,152 264, 996. 16 5, 588 190 3,379,015.66 165, 716, 5,483 1 4,236 ..[ 873 .. 1,577 336 1, 7,022 248 Ml- XI en. GULF STATES. Factories. con l. oi en ed •6 h | 2 ': = E State. -.1 a a g : = '£ — DO ■ = •- — z. ~ = 1 ~ p « >3 5 i - ■- - --. i -r c r- o o 2 6 = i c ■3 = — c - Oh ]53 Kilns. Kilos. 10 2 1" 5,513,967 2,036,688 - 17,016,1 - 7. L68 2ffll0,022 PACIFK STATE8 Colima pas Guerrero Jalisco Michoacan ca Sinaloa itory i. Total 2 1 1 1 1 I 4 4 1 3 1 3 1 22 8 62, 102. L91, l. 151, 772, ■Jt',:,. 667, - 8, 34, L75, 225, 71, 172. 674 900 946 576 240 427 486 :,7:: 23, 902 140,774 154, 108 25,438 6,385 32 J39,764.01 126,261.68 98,913. 19 614,261.80 491,359.88 590, P7.02 326, 107.82 577,931.70 2,084 3,600 5,196 87, 836 25,808 35, 736 11,604 24,352 l.i:U.722 :;.".ii.'.r.l 2, 805,076. 40 196,710 18 182 202 1,110 178 71v 161 260 32 1 8, Ill 1. lln 7-7 1,180 ■ • Besides the cotton cloth and prints, a considerable amount of cotton yarn is used in the manufacture of rebozos (an article serving as a shawl and scarf for women), blankets, and coarse napkins. The best rebozos are made in the town of Tenancingo. The articles named are als > manufactured of silk and linen. There are in the City of Mexico several factories devoted to the manufacture, by hand, of zarapes, rebozos, mantas, and other cotton stuffs. The manufacture of knit goods, such as hosiery, underwear, etc., has increased considerably, and has resulted in making a very notice- able reduction in the amount of imported goods of this character. The cloth made is of a fair quality, and sells at from $1.62 to $2.62 per vara; carpets being from $1 to $1.30 per vara. Ajs demonstrative of the profits to be made in the manufacture of ■otton textiles, it has been Mated upon good authority that one of the large corporations in Orizaba paid its shareholders in the year 1896 L6 per cent. In the Federal District another company divided, during the same year, among its shareholders a profit of 15 per cent. The thread factories and cotton goods manufactories owned by individuals are rid to make annually between 30 and 40 per cent on their capital. Woolen mills. Mexican industry also produces woolen blankets and blankets of a mixture of wool and cotton, cassimeres, which, although they have not the body and fineness of texture of those of European manufacturi . liave, on the other hand, great resistance, and are cheap. The zarapes constitute, perhaps, the most profitable industry. These multicolored woolen cloaks or blankets are well made, those of Saltillo and San Miguel being celebrated for their fine texture, brilliant colors, good finish, and excellent wearing qualities. They have achieved con- " A vara is 34.12 inches. PAPEK MANUFACTURE. 249 siderable fame abroad, and some grades have been sold for more than $100 each. The principal woolen mills are in Aguascalientes, Durango, Guana- juato, Hidalgo, and Puebla. San Luis Potosi, Zaeatecas, Mexico, and Nuevo Leon also have woolen mills which produce a fair quality of goods. It is not generally known that wool spinning has been going on in Mexico for more than three centuries, } T et such is the well-authenticated fact. In the year 1541 the tirst viceroy introduced Merino sheep into the country and established manufactories of woolen cloth. Silk industry. — Silk weaving can hardly be said to be a great indus- try at present, but it is increasing rapidly. Silk was cultivated and sold in the markets of Mexico as far back as the time of Charles V, Cortes speaking of the fact in his letters to that monarch, and there are still preserved pictures done by the ancient Mexicans upon a paper made of silk. The culture of the silkworm and weaving of its product were prohibited by the Spanish Crown in its American possessions during the vice-regal administrations as stated elsewhere. The indus- try gradually died out, and it is only of late years that it has been revived. The climate of Mexico is unexcelled b} T any in the world for the rais- ing and developing of cocoons. The silkworms at the present time are mostly raised in Oaxaca, in the State of the same name; Tetela, in the State of Puebla; Ixmiquiltam in Hidalgo, and in the States of Jalisco, Oaxaca, Tlaxcala, Michoacan, Queretaro, Veracruz, Chihuahua,' and Zaeatecas. The white and black mulberry leaves grow well in these States and in the Federal District. In 1886 there were-iour silk fac- tories, which could be considered to be fairly well equipped. They had plants of machinery imported from France, and, although small, were in the hands of enterprising men, and it was thought at the time that these factories and others, which it was said would be established, would manufacture more silk than could be consumed b} x the people of Mexico. Statistics do not show that the outcome of this undertak- ing has been as successful as was expected. Although several of the State governments in the year 1886, prior to that time, and since then, offered inducements to those persons who should devote themselves to the growing of mulberry trees and the establishment of silk facto- ries, success does not seem to have attended any of the efforts in this line. There is now one silk factory in the City of Mexico, which is pronounced to be producing a very fair grade of goods. There is a colony devoted to the raising of silkworms. Paper mills. — Considering the great quantity and variety of fibrous plants and other material for paper making with which Mexico is endowed, and that this industry has been protected for many years by the tariff, it seems strange that throughout the entire territory there 250 Ml Xh 0. arc onlj a few paper mills, which manufacture comparatively little writing paper, but a considerable quantity of wrapping and printing paper, envelopes, etc. The oldest mill is that at Cocolapan, in Orizaba, which produces a straw and printing paper of a low grade. ruder date of June •">. 1>>!>'.>. the legislature of the State of Mexico granted the joint stock company know n a- " El Progreso Industrial," engaged in the manufacture of paper from the "maguey "fiber, exemp- tion from all State taxes and contributions for the term of ten years. The company's mills are situated in the districts of Tlalnepantla and Cuautitlan. About 1,600 men were engaged in erecting tin 1 buildings. The engines will be moved by hydraulic power of 1,500 horsepower. The mills will be able to produce in large quantities all kinds of paper, especially those of superior quality. Sugar mills. — Save in the State of Morelos and some districts in the States of Puehla, Veracruz, Miehoacan, and Jalisco, and the Territory of Lower California, the sugar industry is very backward. In most of the sugar mills the juice of the cane is extracted by wooden cylin- ders, and boiled down to the necessary consistency to form small tab- lets or cakes (called pandas or piloncMlos) of a dark brown saccharine substance called panocha. Except in rare cases, the use of steam and modern machinery is unknown. That this is a profitable industry is shown by the fact that the sugar mills of Tenango, Santa (Mara, and San [gnacio, in the State of Morelos, paid back to their owners the total of their investment within four years. Spirits. Distilleries are to be found all over the country, yet very few of them have modern plants. These distilleries are chiefly engaged in distilling the liquor mescal, which has been described in another part of this book. Another liquor made in Mexico is distilled from the sugar cane and is called aguardiente (burning water). It is one of the strongest liquors known. A very fair native wine and brandy are made of the grapes, but this industry is not a prominent one and does not supply the home demand. Beer and pale ale of an excellent quality are produced. Official figures t'<>r L901- -J. show that there were then in the country 1,969 establishments devoted to the manufacture of spirits, from sugar cane, maguey, grapes, grains, etc.. which produced during that year 33,288,853 liters of spirits, tin- principal production being from the sugar cane, 20,4:74.474 liters; from the maguey, 9,133,755 liters, and 2,930,554 liters of grain spirits, besides 135,249 liters of various spirits. The number of Mill- in use amounted to 2,439, with a capacity of 1,335,589 liters. Tobacco. — The tobacco-utilizing industry is extensive, nearly every town and hamlet having its cigarette factory. The largest manufac- tories of cigars and cigarettes are in the Federal District, Puebla, and Veracruz. Cigarettes are very cheap, 700 to 800 selling for a dollar. IRON AND STEEL. 251 Good brands of cigars may be purchased at from $35 to $80 per thou- sand, Mexican currency. This industry is a profitable one, as it has been stated that a cigarette manufacturing company started operations the 1st of January, 1891, with a nominal capital of $1,000,000, intro- ducing the most perfect methods for the manufacture of that product. The first year the company paid dividends of 11 per cent, in the second 15 per cent, and 17 per cent in the year 1896. This result is the more notable, inasmuch as frhe company at the time of its formation into a corporation had placed its capital at double the value of that which the business really represented. During the fiscal year 1901-2 the number of tobacco factories in the country was 701, consuming 7,0-19,220 kilograms of the raw product in the manufacture of cigars, cigarettes, snuff, and cut tobacco. No chewing tobacco is manufactured, according to statistics. Flour mills. — Although there are many flour mills in the country they do not by any means supply the local demand. Nearly all these are supplied with millstones from France, and the machinery in the majority of them is not up to the standard. There are over 50 good merchant mills in Mexico, ranging in flour-making capacity from 10 to 250 barrels a day. At least 150 smaller and crude establishments are scattered throughout the Republic. None of these mills, however, can be said to be properly equipped, all being in need of wheat wash- ing and scouring plants. Iron and steel. — Iron foundries are numerous, the excellent quality of the Mexican minerals and their abundance making it possible for them to turn out good work. In most of these foundries the work is limited to the manufacture of smaller agricultural implements and ordinary marketable iron, although some large pieces have been man- ufactured in the way of sugar-making machinery and other heavy work. There is little doubt that at no very distant day this industry will be exploited to a much larger extent than it is at present. The Government maintains a large arsenal and gun foundry in the City of Mexico, where arms and munitions of war have been produced which speak highly for the skill and dexterity of the operatives in the establishment. There is also a large type foundry located in the same city, which turns out excellent work. The iron made is almost exclusively charcoal iron of very high grade, as many of the deposits run from 50 to 70 per cent iron and contain a very low percentage of phosphorus and silica. The limit to the supply is set not by the stores of ore, which are practically limitless, but by the supply of wood for charcoal. Probably the chief disadvantage with which the iron industry in Mexico has to contend at the present time is the lack of transportation facilities to the shipping point from those mines which are well supplied with timber and charcoal. There are plenty of iron mines in the 252 mi xieo. Republic which arc favorably Located in heavily wooded regions, hut the expense of packing machinery <>n muleback to the furnaces and thru transporting the product by the same method to the nearest rail- road point counteracts the benefits of favoring legislation. The cost of producing pig iron is set down as averaging, roughly. $9 gold and bars ^i'" 1 gold to the ton. Prices for this producl may be said to be about $30 gold per ton. £70 for bars, and $100 for castings. It is well known (hat the Aztecs used iron implements he fore the coming of the Spaniard, and in the sixteenth century the famous Cerro del Mercado — a mountain 4,800 feet long, 1,100 feet wide, and 640 feet high, containing more than 300,000,000 tons of ore, of which 70 per '••tit is iron— was discovered. An authority" states that the iron plants in operation are of limited capacity, being principally foundries, which turn out castings for mines, smelters, and haciendas, and machine shops, whose equipment for the most part is neither modern nor extensive. The largest and most important of the iron and steel plants in the north part of Mexico now in operation, says the same authority, is that of the "Mexican National Iron and Steel Company." in the State of Durango, which was built some ten years ago. and is within a stone's throw of the Cerro del Mercado, estimated to lie the largest continuous deposit of hematite ore upon the American continent and one of the most exten sive known in the world. There is also in Durango a small foundry and machine shop, situated about t> miles from the city, and run by water power. There is also a foundry in the city of Guadalajara, in the State of , Jalisco. The same authority continues: "These and sundry other plants scattered about the country all occupy places of minor importance in comparison with the modern steel works of large capacity which an 1 now aearing completion in Montere}', in the State of Nuevo Leon. This may be regarded as the first works of primary importance established in Mexico. The com- pany which initiated this enterprise and has carried on the construc- tion to the present nearly complete stage was organized, in L900, under the title of "LaCompania Fundidora de Hierro y Acerode Montere}'," with a capital of Sl<>, n i 10,1100 Mexican silver. This capital is nearly all paid up and the principal stockholders are United States and Mexi- can capitalists. The blast-furnace house is 200 by 50 feet; blast-fur* nace casting house, ISO by 50 feet; blast-furnace blowing-engine house. 130 by 50 feet; blast-furnace boiler house, 135 by 50 feet: open-hearth building, 204 by loo feet; mill building. 1.l>s4 by LOOfeet; mill-boiler building, 200 by 50 feet; rail-finishing building. L96 by50feet; foundry, 225 by 120 feet: power plant. 156 by 56 feet; forge building, 100 by 50 feet; storehouse building. 60 by 60 feet; oil house, 60 by 30 feet; "John James Davis, in tin- 'Iron Trade Review." March 19, 1903. POTTERY WORKS. 253 laboratory, 35 by 45 feet. All the latest labor-saving- and patented devices applicable to iron and steel manufacture are embraced in the equipment of the various departments. The yearly capacit}" is given as 128,000 tons, as follows: Rails, 40,000 tons; beams and shapes, 40,000 tons; billets and bars, 10,000 tons; pig iron, 30,000 tons; cast- ings, 8,000 tons. The blast furnace and some of the shops are already in operation. Workmen said to be experienced in this line of labor have been imported from nearly all the countries of Europe." Of works projected only one of an ambitious character is reported. This is also a steel plant, whose proposed point of location is the town of Tepeyahualco, in the State of Puebla. According to the terms of a concession recently granted the plant is to be a complete one for the manufacture of rails, beams, columns, etc. Ihtnuiux-k manufacture. — Figuring among the prominent industries of the Republic is hammock making. This is principally carried on in the State of Yucatan, where hammocks have been articles of use and barter from time immemorial, which fact has been demonstrated by the discovery in buried cities of hammock beams and hooks. Yucatan exports more hammocks than any other province in the world. These articles are made from the fiber of the henequm, and are woven entirely by hand with the aid of a very few primitive instruments. All that is necessary to make a hammock is a couple of straight poles and shuttles, a thin slat of zapoli wood, and a pile of henequen leaves. With these articles at hand a Yucatan native is pre- pared to accept contracts for hammocks by the piece, dozen, or hun- dred. The great hammock-making district, whence comes the best make and which produces more than all the other districts combined, is Texcoco. Almost the entire exportation of these articles is con- sumed by the New York market. The Indian women are those princi- pally engaged in the industry. Pottery works. — Pottery is classed as a third-rate manufacture of the country. It is carried on everywhere. The cities of Guadalajara, Zacatecas, Guanajuato, and Puebla maj 7 be said to be the centers of the industry. The pottery and crockery of the various localities or districts where manufactured 'has its peculiar distinctive features of quality, design, and color. The Guadalajara ware is gray, as a rule soft baked, polished, and often very elaborately decorated in colors, gold, and silver. The Zacatecas ware is red, hard baked, glazed, and decorated rudely with splashes of underglaze color. The Guanajuato article is in dark brown or dark green, with ornamentation of figures, and with a soft, rich glaze. In Puebla a coarse porcelain with a thick tin glaze is manufactured. Very tine glazed tiles, multiformed and vari-colored, are made in this city, specimens of these ornamenting the exterior and interior of the churches, which abound in the city named and 25 4 ITEXIOO. other cities and towns of this historic State. In some parts of the Republic a curious iridescent ware is made which has a copper glaze. The crockery for table use is generally heavy and in whifr and blue. In many places the Indians are adepts in the manufacture of earthen- ware, and the Mexicans generally are skillful in the making of wax. (lay. and rag figures, which is one of their profitable industries. In Guadalajara, tin' capital of Jalisco, and Tepic, in the Territory of that name. vast numbers of (day images, well molded and painted, are made. Foreigners are amazed at the perfect accuracy displayed by the humble artists in reproducing costumes and portraits from life or photographs. The rapidity with which the modelers perform their task is wonderful. Some of the (day and wax work manufactured by the deft fingers of the natives has been deemed worthy to rank with works of sculpture. The specimens of Mexican handiwork in wax which adorn the numerous churches do the artists great honor. No city in the Republic of any pretension is without the vender of rag, baked day. and wax images, crying his wares. Pearl fishing. — Ever since Cortes placed his foot upon the soil of the New World pearl fishing has been carried on in the Gulf of Cali- fornia, which, in the early days, bore his name. The industry was pursued for many years in a desultory way. the only persons engaged in it being a few Indians, who dived for the shells without having apparatus or modern appliances for diving. The Government has granted an English company a concession which is practically a monopoly of the pearl fishing in the Gulf of California. This com- pany has provided its divers with all the modern appliances, thus enabling them to reach greater depths than were possible under the old system. In L896the value of the pearls collected in Lower California was only $300. Besides this, however, there were exported 5,000 tons of pearl shell valued at $1,250,000. The headquarters of the natives engaged in this industry is La Paz, one of the capitals of the Territory named. The business is, of course, one depending considerably upon chance, but the natives arc very fond of it. The large majority of the shells contain no pearl and are wdiat is known as seed pearls. The largest pearl ever found, in the waters of the gulf was about three-fourths of an inch in diameter and was sold in Paris to the Emperor of Austria for the sum of Sl»».ooo. A number of black pearls have been found in these waters, and they bring very high prices. In 1902 fine pearls were exported to the value of $45,000. Other products. — Sponges, mother-of-pearl, abalone, and other shells are also found and constitute, together with tortoise fishing, a consid- erable industry. The Government has been anxious for some }-ears to develop these marine branches of industry and production, and will make liberal concessions to companies desirous of engaging in them. OTHER INDUSTRIES. 255 In comparison to the returns, the capital necessary to exploit them is small. The exportations of pearl shell for the year 1901-2 were 227,228 kilograms, valued at $67,700; other shells, $10,000. Cotton-seed mills. — There are a number of cotton-seed oil mills in the Republic, the largest being located at Lerdo, Durango. Consider- able American capital is invested in the enterprise. The mill was established in 1887, and has a capital of $1,000,000. Its capacity is 100 tons a day. The meal is shipped all over Mexico and to Rotter- dam and Hamburg. The oil is used in the manufacture of soap, which is another considerable industry. This company has since 1892 sold between 10,000,000 and 11,000,000 pounds of soap a year. Unix and skins. — Another noteworthy industry is the collecting and exporting of hides and skins. Mexico occupies the fourth rank among the nations of the earth in this particular branch. In the year 1901-2 that country exported hides, skins, and leather to the value of $6,286,577 Mexican silver, as follows: Hides Sheepskins Goatskins Deerskins Boar skins Alligator skins Other skins . . . Kilos. 5, S31, 110 $2, 603, 367 703 268 2, 657, 703 3,283,983 321,517 291, 189 16,444 8,627 225, 948 95, 627 7,388 3,516 Values. The kid exported through the Matamoros custom-house is much esteemed for the manufacture of strong shoes, its dimensions and weight ranking high. This kid brings from 45 to 50 cents per pound. The Veracruz goatskins are more sought after and bring 2 cents more a pound, while those from Oaxaca are lighter and bring about 39 cents per pound. These kids are considered among the best in the world for women's and children's shoes. Tanneries — Tanneries are to be found at inany places, and a very fair leather is turned out. Mexicans are artists in leather work, and in the making of saddles the}^ excel. Saddles manufactured in the country have sold for more than $800, being profusely ornamented with silver and finely stamped leather. The center of the leather- working industry is the city of Leon. Glassware. — Glassware is manufactured to some extent, but not to that warranted by the abundance of the raw material suitable to glass making. The industry is almost limited to the making of window panes and ordinaiy bottles and goblets, at prices so high that the poor are almost denied their use. Other industries. — There are but few manufactories of jewelry and trinkets in the country, notwithstanding the Mexican love of display 256 Mi:xi< o. in this line. The importations of jewelry and trinkets is made from France, England, and the United States. The silver and gold smiths of the country excel in the execution of filigree work, it being BOUght after in all parts of the civilized world. The manufacture of acids and chemical compounds^ which would undoubtedly be a profitable industry, has about thirteen establishments devoted to it, and of these not more than five manufacture acid- — bo necessary to the mining industry. Sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids are manufactured at great profits. Another quite prominent industry is the manufacture of chocolate, several Large factories being devoted to the converting of the cocoa bean into this article. The Mexican chocolate when ground with cin- namon is highly valued. Hardwart is also manufactured, there being in the City of Mexico and other large centers a number of foundries where are manufactured a considerable amount of iron and galvanized-iron balconies, girder-, columns, and other building material. Felt Imts are made in all the large cities, and straw hats everywhere. The manufacture of wooden and wax matches is extensively carried on in the country, there being several match factories in the City of Mexico and a large number in Puebla. A huge business is done, although nowhere upon an extensive scale, in the manufacture of dulces (sweetmeats) and confections. This busi ness presents a good opening for enterprise. Imported American candies sell in Mexico City for $1.65 per pound, silver. Gunpowder is also manufactured to quite an extent. In 1897 the Department of Promotion entered into a contract with a capitalist to establish one or two fulminate factories to manufacture the article for mines and smokeless powder for sporting and military purposes. Among the distinctively Mexican industries are the beautiful drawn work a and feather work, in the making of which, as well as in the pinning of horsehair riatas, or lassos, which every Mexican charro carries on the pommel of his saddle, the natives of the countiy are unexcelled. Even the peon's wife has a piece of drawn work with which to cover her husband's dinner basket. Mexican lace is also far famed. Despite the fact that Mexico is a large producer of cabinet woods, the manufacture of furniture is but little developed. The rich and well-to-do classes import nearly if not all of their furniture, upon which heavy duties are levied, and the poorer classes need but little, and that of the most humble description. «In Silao, Guanajuato, a resident owns a beautiful tablecloth of drawn work and embroidery. It is pure linen, 13 feet long by '>j wide. It took 30 Mexican women three years to complete it, and cost $10,000. It was exhibited at the Paris Expo- sition in 1900. AMERICAN CAPITAL. 257 There are many brick, artificial stone, tile, lime, soap, varnish, paint, starch, musical instrument, harness, blank-book, and other manufactories. New industries. — Since the first edition of the Handbook of Mexico was issued the country has made great strides in the industrial and manu- facturing field. A progressive Government has done all in its power to foster home manufacture, and has offered great inducements to those who wish to establish upon Mexican soil enterprises which will utilize within its borders those articles which its fecund soil produces. Smelt- ing and reduction works, waterworks, electric plants, etc., are spring- ing up throughout the country, and the columns of the Government Official Gazette are daily filled with applications for patents, waste lands, water privileges, railroad franchises, etc., all of which indicate that an era of prosperity has dawned. A contract has been entered into for the establishment and operation of a stock yard as a permanent exposition and market in the Federal District, to be completed and ready for operation within five years. The cattle market or stock yard shall cover an extent of ground sufficient for the corrals, yards, sheds, stalls, etc., that may be neces- sary for 5,000 cattle, 10,000 hogs, 5,000 sheep and goats, and 1,000 horses, and the buildings for offices, dwellings for employees, and rooms that may be used by purchasers and dealers. The concession- aire is expressly authorized to construct rail connections from the stock yard to the existing railroads and to establish telegraph and telephone lines for the service. American capital.— Consul-General Barlow, in his report before men- tioned, states that " the amount of United States capital invested in Mexico by 1,117 United States companies, firms, and individuals, is, in round numbers, $500,000,000 gold. This amount has practically all been invested in the past quarter of a century, and about one-half of it has been invested within the past five years. "The impetus given to Mexico's industries by this enormous aug- mentation of the nation's working capital accounts in no small degree for the great industrial progress which it has made during the past twenty-five years. With Mexico buying 58 per cey| of all her imports from the United States and selling 80 per cent of all her exports to the United States, and with this enormous investment of United States capital in Mexico, the commercial bond between the sister Republics is one that hardly can be broken, and is constantly growing in strength. The flow of United States capital into this Republic has apparently only begun, as each year Mexico buys more from and sells more to the United States." The following information is extracted from the same source: More United States capital is invested in the railroads of Mexico than in any other single line— about 70 per cent of the total. The 509a— 04 17 258 Mexico. Mexican Central Railroad represents the largest single United States interest in Mexico. The amount of $158,999,979.45, given as the capi tnl employed, represents what has actually been paid out up to the present time for the construction and equipment of the road. The Mexican National is the next strongest, with a capital invested of $107,350,000. Next in importance to the railroads, from the standpoint of United Statc> capital invested, is the niiuing industry. The amount invested by United States capitalists in mining in Mexico may he stated, in found figures, at $80,000,000. A large amount of this $80,000,000 i- invested in up-to-date mining machinery, which is competently han- dled, and Mexico's mineral wealth has been greatly increased by this I nited States investment. Agriculture conn- alter mining in the amount of United State- capital invested with $28,000,000. Next to railroads, mining, and agriculture, the largest United States interest in Mexico i- in manu- facturing, in which 1 nited States capital is only beginning to assume importance. A number of important manufacturing enterprises, in which United States capital is heavily interested, are just starting or have plants in course of construction, as the large iron and steel works in Monterey. Sinaloa leads the list of Mexican States in regard to the amount of Tinted State capital invested in manufacturing enterprises. Most of this is engaged in a few large sugar refineries. The Federal District comes next, with a variety of large and small manufacturing enter- prises. Nuevo Leon, whose capital, Monterey. i- one of the principal manufacturing center- in the Republic, follows, with *L\r>oo.000 of United States capital invested in her enterprises. (nited States capital is also beginning to assume importance in the banking of Mexico, and this interest is one that is growing rapidly. Next after hanks, in the order of the amount of United States capital invested, come assay offices and chemical laboratories, ore buyers, ore testers, smelters, and refiners, all closely allied to the mining interest. All of Mexico's large smelters are operated by United States capital. United States firms have of late been building many electric light and power plants, gas plants, waterworks plants, telephone system.-, and similar plants. The .Mexican Telephone Company, operating the telephone system of Mexico City, and the Mexican Telegraph Com- pany, with a line to Veracruz from Mexico City and a cable from Veracruz to Galveston, are the largest enterprises of this sort. In addition to building plants for their own operation. United States firms are building most of the telegraph and telephone lines and laying most of the cables for native and other foreign companies. Many of Mexico's cities have recently undertaken or are now planning exten- sive municipal improvements, and in all of these the United States contractor is a conspicuous figure. ENCOURAGEMENT TO INDUSTRY. 259 A recapitulation by States shows the Federal District, which prac- tically means the City of Mexico, to be credited with $320,800,000 of United States capital invested. Of this amount $281,800,000 is cred- ited to the railways having their main offices in this city. The State showing- the largest amount of United States capital invested is Coa- huila, with $48,700,000; but of this amount $37, 800,000 is credited to the Mexican International Railroad, which is not confined to the limits of that State. The next State in the order of United States capital invested is Sonora, with $37,500,000, of which $27,800,000 is claimed to be interested in mining enterprises. Of the total amount of $31,900,000 credited to Chihuahua $21,300,000 is in mining enterprises. Oaxaca and Nuevo Leon follow with $13,600,000 and $11,400,000, respectively. ENCOURAGEMENT TO NEW INDUSTRIES. In December. 1903. the Mexican Congress passed an act authorizing the Executive to grant concessions for establishing industrial enter- prises new to the country, and without the intervention of Congress, for five years. This means the extension of act December 14, 1898, which is as follows: "Article 1. The Executive is authorized for five years, counted from the date of the promulgation of the present law. to enter into contracts granting franchises and concessions, without prejudice to third parties, to concerns guaranteeing the investment of capital in the implantation and development of industries that are entirely new in the Republic on the following basis: "I. The duration of the franchises and concessions shall be from five to ten years, according to the importance of the industry and the capital invested therein. "II. The minimum capital to be invested in the introduction and exploitation of the industry shall not be less than $100,000, and it shall carry with it the minimum of franchises. "III. That same capital shall be exempted from all direct Federal taxes for the entire duration of the contract. "IV. The concessionaire ma} T import on a single occasion free from customs duties the machinery, apparatus, utensils, and building mate- rials necessary for the establishment of the industry and the erection of the buildings, subject to the revision of the list of importations by the Department of Promotion, and also giving a bond for each case of importation, said bond to be canceled as soon as the machinery has been set up and the use of the apparatus, utensils, or material has been proven. "V. The concessionaires shall guarantee the performance of their contract obligations by means of a deposit in public -debt securities which shall be fixed by the Department of Promotion and which shall be made when the contract is signed. 260 MK.Miu. "Art. 2. The importation privilege granted by this law shall be regulated by the Departments of Finance and Promotion." " Under this act applications have already been filed for concessions to erect a plant for the manufacture <>f ' butterine and lard compound;' a factory tor the manufacture of 'buttons, knife handles, and other articles of mother-of-pearl:' a •hammer, pick, hoe. and ax handle fac- tory:* and a ho a "starch factory.'" New concessions. ■ -Among the new concessions granted by the Mex- ican Government to foster the industrial development of the country, the following are the most important: Manufacture of incandescent lamps within the Republic, with a capital of $100,000 and a daily output of 1,000 lamps, to he increased in accordance with the demand. Exploitation of all the guano deposits on the islands off the wesi coast of Mexico, between Manzanillo and Mazatl&n, including the islands known as Las [sabelaa, Tres Marias. San Juanito, Las Marietas, Los Angeles, Isla de Af uera, Isla de Perlas, and the Isla del Medio. The object of the concessionaire is to dispose of the guano to the agri- culturists of southern California for fertilizing their lands, and par- ticularly the orange groves. The deposits are made by aquatic birds, such as cormorants and pelicans, millions of which make these islands their home during the breeding season, which occurs in April, May, and June of each year. As soon as the breeding season is over the birds desert the islands, migrating north, thereby leaving the nine months from July to March in which to collect and ship the guano. In April they return, and the deposits are renewed, thus making the supply continuous. The guano found on the islands in the Pacitic Ocean off the west coast of Mexico is considered to be of first quality, and contains about L2 per cent ammonia, 10 per cent phosphoric acid, and 3 per cent potash. According to the terms of the concession the concessionaire must pay to the Government 75 cents per ton for all the guano shipped from the islands. To guarantee the complete fulfill- ment of the obligations imposed on the concessionaire by the provisions of the concession, a deposit of $3,000 has been made. A concession to exploit an extension of 70,500 hectares, equal to 174,206 acres, of heavily timbered land in the Territory of Quintans Roo, on the eastern part of the Yucatan Peninsula, for a term of ten years from December 28, L903, the date of the promulgation of the concession in the ''Diario Oficial." The concessionaire obliges himself not to cut mahogany or cedar trees measuring less than two meters in circumference at the base, and agrees to pay $1.50 for each tree over that measurement. A regular tariff, with quotas for each class of tree, is established. For dyewood logs the quota is $2 per ton: for chicle, $18 per ton: for rubber, S24 per ton, both of which are pro- duced by trees growing wild in the forest. The concessionaire agrees NEW CONCESSIONS. 261 to exploit during the first two years at least 7,000 hectares, equal to L8,000 acres; during the next two following- years at least 34,600 acres; and during the six following years at least 19,770 acres. A concession to exploit for ten years a tract of national land meas- uring 247,777 hectares, equal to 602,257 acres, situated in the province of Balancan, in the State of Tabasco. The land is covered with mahogany, cedar, log or dj^e wood, and many varieties of construction timber; it also produces much chicle and resins. The concessionaire agrees to pay stipulated prices for the various kinds of trees he ma} r cut; the general terms of the concession are as usual. The guarantee deposit in the national bank is $3,000 in bonds of the 3 per cent con- solidated silver debt. A concession for the purpose of breeding the common and the carey turtle in Lake Paso de Colombia, island of Cuzumel. The island is about 12 miles from the eastern coast of Yucatan, and is about 40 miles long by about 15 wide. The lease is for ten years, at $100 per annum. The guarantee deposit in the national bank is $1,000 in the usual bond of the 3 per cent consolidated silver debt. The North American Beef Company has been granted a concession to build and operate two meat-packing establishments, one in the city of Uruapan, State of Michoacan, and the other at a point near the line of the Ferrocarril Veracruz al Pacifico. The company is also author- ized to establish two plants for the manufacture of pepsin, margarin, oleomargarine, refined animal oils, etc., and for the utilization of all by-products in the manufacture of felts, brushes, combs, buttons, and fertilizers, as well as to build and operate a refrigerating plant and cold-storage warehouses in the City of Mexico for the preservation of meat and other fresh-food products. A concession for the extraction of dye woods and cutting mahogany and other timbers, and to gather crude rubber and other resinous sub- stances from the forests comprised in 161,224 hectares of public lands situated in the District of Peto, State of Yucatan. As a consideration for this privilege, the concessionaire binds himself to pa.y to the Gov- ernment the following amounts in Mexican silver: $1.50 for each mahogany or cedar tree cut or proposed to be cut; 50 cents for each tree cut for construction timbers; $1 for each ton of wood; $2 for each ton of d} T ewoods; $18 for each ton of chicle gum extracted; $24 for each ton of crude rubber extracted; $1 annually for each hectare of land cultivated; 50 cents annually for each head of cattle pastured in the zone; 10 cents for each hectare of land exploited. The duration of the contract is ten years, and the concessionaire agrees to exploit at least 17,000 hectares during the first two years, 34,000 during the two following years, and 22,000 hectares of land yearly during the remaining six years. CHAPTER XI. COMMERCE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN— STATISTICAL, DATA— PORTS AND CUSTOMS DISTRICTS TARIFF. The history of the commercial development of Mexico is too Long to 1>«' followed step by step. The natives of the Western Hemisphere, even before its discovery and conquest, maintained a rudimentary commerce, and in Mexico, among the Aztecs, such as were interested in international trade were highly honored, and were designated as Pohtecas. Instead of coins, copper pieces in T shape, grains or nug- gets of gold, cacao nuts. etc.. were used. True commerce, which nec- essarily entailed the use <>|' metal coin-, did not exist until the conquest, and it was not until the Spaniards found that gold and silver were becoming scarce that they thought of creating a trade l>etweenthe new possessions and the mother country. As a consequence Spanish ves- sels leaded with merchandise began t<> arrive at the ports of Veracruz and Campeche, taking on their return trips immense cargoes of hides, indigo, tobacco, dyewoods, and other products. This trade increased with the foundation of the mint in Mexico, which was the first to he established in the New World, hut it was hampered to a great extent by the difficulties encountered between Spain, and Mexico and the English and French pirates who infested I lie ocean. The port of Acapulco was open to the products of the Philippine Islands, which were so valuable that it was claimed that each vessel freighted at Manila had onboard merchandise worth 2,000,000 pesos. Trade then sprang up with China. Japan, and Peru, so that Mexico, in the sixteenth century. was the greatest commercial center of the then known world. During the seventeen! Ii and eighteenth centuries domestic trade began to be developed, and foreign commerce fell oil', owing to the constant wars between Spain and the various European State-. At the beginning of the nineteenth century the foreign trade of the Republic revived, reaching, it i^ claimed, the sum of 25,000,000 |>e><>- for imports and over L6,000,000 for exports. Until about thirty years ago, however, the unsettled condition of the country was a Berious impediment to this line of development; but peace being then estab- lished, railroads were constructed, bringing with them increased activity in commerce, industries, and the arts — in short, of every branch of public prosperity and wealth. 262 FOREIGN TRADE. 263 Domestic trade. The domestic trade of the country is made up of the interchange of natural products and the products of native industry for .such as are not indigenous to the country, or, it' so. arc produced on too small a scale to meet the requirements of native consumption: hence the necessity for importing such goods as are required to make up the balance of trade. Foreign trade. — The principal exports of Mexico are precious metals, henequen, coffee, cattle, etc., while the principal imports arc machinery, cotton textiles, iron and steel, wines and liquors, wood and paper and manufactures thereof, and textile fibers. Don Salvador Echegaray. director of the Bureau of Statistics of Mexico, in a paper read before the International Commercial Congress in Philadelphia, October, 1899, made in substance the following state- ments in regard to Mexican trade development: ''During the last twenty-five years the Republic of Mexico, under President Diaz's government, has enjoyed peace; the construction of 10,000 miles of railroads, the improvement of some of the ports, the general development of the country, and increase of public wealth have been made possible. "Imports which in the fiscal year of 1871-75 did not reach 19,000,000 Mexican dollars, in the last fiscal year (1898-99 ) amounted to 1 1 >6,285,3< »7 dollars silver, an increase of nearly 600 per cent. Exports in 1875 were 27,318,788 in Mexican dollars, and in the last year 138,478,137 Mexican dollars, an increase of 500 per cent. "The foreign commerce of Mexico in the last seven fiscal years has been as follows: Importation (declared value in gold). Exportation (declared value in silver). Year. From United States. From other ~, nta , countries. 10ta1, To United Toother Tnt . States. countries l ' 1892-93 826, 235, 963 14, 351 . 785 15, 130, 367 20, 145, 763 22, 593, 869 21,490,604 24, 164, 687 817,177,168 843, 413,131 15,936,704 30,287,489 18,870.1)7:: 34,000,440 22,108,175 12,253,938 19, 610, 235 12,204,095 863,791,741 823,717,466 887,509,207 1S93-94 60,660,243 18,683,044 79,343,287 1894-95 67,322,986 23,531,967 90,854,953 1895-96 79,051,695 25,365,207 105,016,902 1896-97 86.742.951 "!.i;o:].513 111.346.494 1897-98 22,112,888 43,603,492 94,974,616 33,998,133 128,972,749 1898-99 26,701,5(17 50,869,194 103,553,486 34,924,651 138,478,137 Total 144, 113, 029 142,518,750 1 286,631,779 556,697,718 184,824,011 741,521,729 1 Referring to the general condition of trade, the same authority stated that the greater demands for cotton goods in Mexico, due to the increase of public welfare and population, produces scarcely any effect in the increase of imports of foreign cottons, because the new demand has been supplied b}^ the native factories, of which there are a large number equipped with every modern improvement. Foreign beer has practically disappeared from Mexican markets, its place being filled by excellent domestic beer. "The low price of silver has produced an entirely different effect on the silver production in Mexico than it did in the United States. When 264 MEXICO. the price of this metal reached a certain point in that country several mines had to be closed, while in Mexico veins were daily opened, the cost of production remaining almost the same, its extraction, labor, and transportation being paid as formerly. " Mexico's industrial awakening can not be credited solely to the depreciation of silver. The construction of railroad lines and the intro- duction of foreign capital, attracted by the facilities granted by the Government, are factors which have contributed to the flourishing con- ditions of the country. The profitable exportation of some products increases their prices for home consumption, but staple products, such as corn and beans, have suffered no alteration." Referring to the commercial methods of Mexico, the same authority makes the following statement: •• The report of the American consul-general -for the year L899 says: 'As the terms of our American merchants are often very rigid, it is hard to reach an agreement, and much trade which by the exercise of a little tact and judgment could be handled by American merchants goes elsewhere.' Mexican merchants are noted for their integrity. The quoted report about commerce and industries in Mexico says: "There are very few concerns here doing business that have not ample capital to carry out all contracts into which they may enter. Failures are very rare, indeed, and when they do occur are carefully invest] gated by the authorities in the interest of creditors, and any attempts todefraudare severely punished. Book entries are regarded as sacred. All books kept by business houses are known and small stamp taxes paid on them, and thus a sort of surveillance is kept over them by the Government authorities.' " The growing prosperity of foreign commerce gives the measure of the progress of the country, but what confirms even more the opti- mistic opinions about the future of Mexico is the figures showing the constant increase in the public revenue, due only to a greater return from the productive sources and not to new or higher taxes." The foreign trade of the Republic since ls'.is-'.t'.t. the latest figure* quoted above has been as follows: Importation (declared value in gold). Exportation (declared value in silver). From United Kr " , l n ''" T , , ntotjM other Total. '■"' countriea ftwg-H "Si? 1 Total. ' • countriea 1899-1900 131,026,415 130,291,760 (ft., 818, 175 29,893, 198 65,088,463 39,016,(579 27,212,308 66,228,987 •116,102,285 133,954,075 1150,056,361 U7,228,99] 31,430,011 148,659,002 130,323,347 29,579,976 159,903,323 1900-1901 1901-2 Total 105,233,049 87,897,566 192, 631, 615 363,654,633 94,964,062 458,618,685 EXPORTS. Exports from Mexico for the month of June. 1903, and for the fiscal year 1902-3 are shown in the following figures issued l>\ the Mexican EXPORTS. 265 Government; the corresponding valuations for the preceding fiscal year being also given for purposes of comparison: EXPORTS. [Silver valuation.] .lime — Twelve months ending June— 1903. 1902. 1903. 1902. 16,102,512.39 $4, 880, 980. 16 11, 945, 074. 11 8, 564, 817. 95 $91,763,481.31 105, 965, 487. 46 $68, 947, 728. 17 90, 955, 595. 49 Total 18,347,586.50 13, 445, 798. 11 197, 728, 968. 77 159, 903, 323. 66 The details of the export trade for the periods under comparison show the following classification and figures: June — Twelve months ending June— 1903. 1902. Mexican gold coin. . Foreign gold coin. . . Gold in bars Gold in other forms. $450. 00 $1,481.00 1,414, 90S. Ml 104, 976. 33 696, 605. 18 50, 457. 79 $106, 630. 00 9, 329. 00 13, 264, 275. 67 828, 553. 60 $95, 720. 00 78, 243. 00 8, 698, 822. 57 442, 470. 94 Total gold. 1,520,335.14 748, 543. 97 14,21 3.27 9, 315, 256. 51 Mexican silver coin. . Foreign silver coin . . . Silvei in bars Silver in other forms. 132, 375. 00 3, 616, 4*0. 06 1,133,322.19 52, 000. 00 39,357.00 3, 537, 167. 60 503,911.59 21,098.739.00 85, 540. 67 46,357,391.36 10,013,022.01 11,351,765.00 259, 573. 98 41,037,963.17 6, 983, 169. 51 Total silver 4,882,177.25 4,132,436.19 i 77,554,693.04 59, 632, 471. 66 Copper Lead Other mineral products. . . Coffee Henequen in fiber Woods Dyewoods Leaf tobacco Other vegetable products. Cattle Raw hides Other animal products Henequen, manufactured Tobacco, manufactured... Other manufactures Miscellaneous 2, 790, 395, 184, 651, 3,284, 134, 147, 55, 1,251, 866, 377, 89, 646, 55, 965, 50, 465. 38 529. 16 146.00 866. 50 042. 00 940.00 414.00 403.00 355. 60 293. 00 029. 72 217. 00 140.00 022. 00 959. 50 261. 25 1,294,&54.00 488,670.00 137, 917. 00 718,871.65 3, 314, 183. 00 85,204.22 140, 626. 08 127, 957. 00 871,076.20 634,462.00 427, 848. 55 72, 318. 00 63,040.00 56,442.00 84, 455. 80 47, 392. 45 20, 122, 5, 669, 1, 181, 9,021, 32, 620, 1,837, 964, 1, 383, 12, 022, 7, 000, 7, 466, 795, 1,355, 654, 3, 123, 745, 338. 42 070. 21 786. 95 .501.09 579. 50 736. 50 015. 46 301.36 783.00 676. 50 481. 50 672. 99 653. 00 229. 09 783. 94 877. 95 16, 849, 5, 730, 546, 10, 228, 29, 209, 1,708, 1,288, 975, 8, 534, 5, 033, 6, 286, 615, 1,4&5, 626, 1,359, 474, 834. 87 845. 30 771. 25 858.31 515.00 770. 78 771.84 878. 32 683. 79 958. 36 577. 92 418.04 184.00 462. 08 442. 31 623. 32 Following is a resume of the valuations of Mexican exports during the periods under comparison with reference to their countries of destination: June — Twelvemonth •i ending June — 1903. 1902. 1903. 1902. $5, 456, 014. 07 $1,634,046.58 $47, 407, 134. 08 30,000.00 143, 771, 108. 36 359, 042. 52 58,251.81 6, 103, 432. 00 $23,957,099.32 500. 00 12,232,757.43 13, 700. 00 3, 369. 00 641, 746. 00 11,104,026.78 90, 897. 75 2,794.00 614,033.00 130,344,432.29 851,865.16 60,484.89 4,688,942.00 Export valuations to the United States in 1902-3 aggregated 1143,759,758, as compared with $130,323,347 in the preceding fiscal year. •jc.i; MEXICO. Exports during the first quarter of the fiscal year L903 4. a- com pared with figures of the corresponding period in the preceding year, were as follows: I Declared BUvei values.] 1903 I MIM i: \ I. PRODI I I* Mexican gold coin . Foreign gold coin . .. Gold in bars Gold in other forms , 810,782.00 1,683, ii7.ii: 197,292. 12 - 021.00 2,158.00 2,283,912.47 96,727.68 [ncreas ..r decrease (-) 1903 I. - 124,239.00 i 2,899 100 Total gold exports | 4, 892,343. 19 Mexican Bilver coin 2,723, 163.00 Foreign silver coin 10,526.00 Silver in bars 11,725, 113.47 Silver in other forms '-'. 9.T7, WC>. 62 T( ital silver exports 17, -117,013.09 Total ko1«1 and silver — Copper Lead Other mineral products 22,309,356.28 B.604, as. 11 1,370,848.66 324,648.84 Total mineral products 29,609, 167.09 I VEGETABLE PP.onri Ts. Coffee 669, 267. 80 Henlquen 6,774,476.00 Woods ;is-, 015. 00 Dye woods 249, 439. 00 Lea Etobacco 102,988. 00 Other vegetable products 3,907,662.70 Total vegeta ble pn (ducts 12, 080, 748. 50 animal produi ra. ■1. 117,819.00 2, 174,524. 19 10,751.00 28,916.00 10,106, 101.37 884,660.62 16,746,077.99 - 2,064,61 i.OO is. 165 00 • 1,619,012, 10 • 2,073 ■ 19, 163,896.99 1,668,881.96 1,814,702 00 150,683 87 :;. 1 15, 189.29 945,631. 16 66 178,864 '•■ •J.VJss.l.il.sl 896,312.60 6,586,991.00 lis. U2.90 236,032.37 119,245.00 2,746,842.23 - 4,321 - 287,1 + 187. - 61, 197.90 4- 1 1 1-. - 1. 160,810. I. 11,032,986.00 + 1,047,812.51 Cattle Raw hides Other animal products. 1.111,132.00 1,497,461.60 386 1,372,796.87 1,281,789.10 8,792.23 168,069.00 162,881.00 819.00 Total animal products MANUFACTURED PRODI CT8, 2,637, 128.87 3,031,931.60 394,812.73 Beniquen rope, bagging, etc Tobacco, manufactured i )ihcr manufactured products Total manufactured products Miscellaneous 847,205.00 99, 193.24 1.182,007.50 377,883.00 152,613.00 290, 160.25 30,178.00 63,319.76 891,857.25 1,628, 106. 74 820,046.26 808,359. 19 316, 360. 13 172,070.07 SUMMARY OF EXPORTS. $22,309,356.28 23,790,293.98 119,163,896.99 21,826,441.80 IS, 1 16,459.29 - 2,464,862.18 Total 46,099,660.26 40, 489, 33s. 79 + 6,610,311.47 The value of the merchandise exported is stated in silver currency, as declared by the exporters in the custom-houses, at current commer- cial prices; to the value of the gold is added the difference between the prices calculated at the conventional rate of £*>75.416 per kilogram and the commercial price as declared by the exporters; the value of the silver exported is calculated at the conventional rate of $40,915 per kilogram. HENIQUEN EXPORTS. 267 This rectification makes the general statement of the exports in the two periods under comparison as follows: Exports, first quarter — 1903-4 $52, 480, 932. 22 1902-3 43,938,721.84 Increase, 1903-4 _ 8, 542, 210. 38 equal to an increase of 19.44 per cent in the trade of the first three months of the current fiscal year 1903-4 as compared with the corre- sponding period of 1902-3. Agricultural 'products. — The following tables show the returns of exportations in the fiscal years of 1890-91 to 1901-2 on heniquen, rub- ber, chicle gum. cabinet woods, and dyewoods: Heniquen, Fiscal year. unmanufac- tured. Cordage. Dyewoods. Woods. Ordinary. Cabinet. Kilos. 1890-91 53,531,119 Kilos. 150,630 234, 440 10, 921 17,911 13, 435 12, 729 6,162 61,047 656, 650 3, 386, 693 2, 275, 932 3,762,530 Kilos. Kilos. 92 150 n7 '?'>•! Kilos. 32, 287, 105 23, 186, 127 33,263,061 48, 110, 614 68, 399, 335 108, 896, 408 72.867,009 54,1 509. 702 37, 350, 459 47,493,811 42, 169, 692 40, 626, 944 Cu. meters. 1,008 .4, 604 2,483 960 533 662 826 323 944 24,719 19, 160 12, 692 Cu. meters. 53, 576 54, 077 39,666 44, 135 118,667 56. 271 65, 699 71, 518 75. 663 50, 629 69, 692 52. 272 1891-92 56,103,279 64, 183 53, 481 76, 830 85, 986 82, 943 64, 843 87, 420 191,588 260, 175 189, 048 180, 364 1, 133, 717 799, 006 1,202,601 758, 471 1, 448, 805 2, 122, 337 891, 612 968,406 845, 386 1, 173, 700 1,804,153 1892-93 r ■ 60,413,136 1893-94 56,507,450 1895-96 ! 59, 329, 309 1896-97 71,085,535 1897-98 ! 75,183,816 1898-99 70,998,509 1899-1900 79, 432, 207 1900-1901 75,840,465 1901-2 91, 944, 355 Total 817,513,053 Average. | 68,126.088 10, 589, 080 882, 423 1,431,111 119,259 14,265,418 1,188,784 618, 160, 307 51,513,358 68, 914 5, 742 751,865 62, 656 Heniquen exports. — The figures referring to heniquen, of which the production has steadily risen, are the most t} r pical, and at the same time the rate of exchange and the gold price of the fiber on the New York market have also advanced. The following table, embracing the same number of years as the fore- going, shows the exportation of unmanufactured heniquen, expressed in kilograms, its value in silver and in gold, and, moreover, the mean rate of exchange: 1882-83 . . 1883-84 .. 1884-85 .. 1885-86 . . . 1886-87 . . . 1887-88 ... lss.s-.sy .. L889-90... 1890-91 . . 1891-92 . . . 1892-93 . . 1893-94 . . 1894-95 . . 1895-96 . . 1896-97 . . . 1897-98 . . . 1898-99 . . . 1899-1900 . 1900-1901 . 1901-2 . . . . Average Unmanu- Va ue. Mean rate factured heniquen. Silver. Gold. change. h'i/ns. Per cent. 28, 763, 307 S3, 073, 960 82, 748, 120 0.894 45,180,421 3, 923, 673 3, 460, 689 .882 45,549,367 3, 905, 898 3,417,660 .875 39,474,732 2,844,355 2, 457, 522 .864 38,987,930 3, 799, 396 3, 100, 307 .816 36,450,676 6, 160, 164 4,866,529 .790 38, 159,067 6, 818, 658 5, 175, 361 .759 39,174,525 7, 356, 479 5, 435, 537 .739 53,531,119 7,021,306 5,617,044 .080 56, 103,279 6, 3-58, 220 4,514,336 .071 60, 413, 136 8, 889, 845 5,318,382 . 632 56, 507, 740 6, 712, 733 3, 389, 930 .505 67,143,583 7, 720, 068 3,962,459 .513 59,329,309 7, 763, 821 3, 625, 408 .536 71,085,535 7,431,852 2, 750, 517 .506 75,183,816 11,564,619 5, ISO. 905 .448 70, 99S, 509 IS, 711, 325 8, 813, 034 .471 79, 432, 207 26,099,388 12.423,309 .476 75, 840, 465 16,402,316 8, 004, 330 .488 91,944,355 29, 209, 515 12,881,396 .441 68,126,088 •JCs M I- \ K'n. Exports of henequen during the calendar year L903, from Yucatan through the porta of Progreso and Campeche, consisted <>t' 611,939 bales, valued at 136,040,032.32. The distribution of the bales was as follows: United Btatee 596,676 Cuba 8,066 England t, 286 Canada [,200 France', Spain, < rermany, Belgium 1,711 Tntiil 611,939 The exports of henequt'n during the last five years were 1899 445, 978 1900 499, 626 1901 617,619 1902 628, _ I'. 1903 611, 939 ('up',, exports. The quantity of coffee exported by Mexico in VM^l was 22,566,013 kilograms, or 49,735,493 pounds. This amount was produced by the following States and Territories: Kilnv Lower California 60 Coahnila 1,632 Colima 9,760 Chiapas 2, 134,313 Chihuahua 112, 249 Oaxaca 676, 165 Sinaloa 82,381 Kiloe. 90 19,558 85,152 26,615 Veracruz 19,285,608 Sonora Tabasco. . . Tamaulipae Tepic Total 22,666,013 The value declared in the invoices presented at the custom-houses amounted to $10,614,759 Mexiean currency. The distribution of the coffee exported was as follows: Kilnv Germany 3, 532, 782 56, 070 12,261 32, 480 51,893 4, 130 Spain 1 H3, 428 Austria . Belgium Canada . Cuba ... Chile. .. Kill >v. United States 15,029,797 France 1,945,748 Holland 42,986 Great Britain 1,694,167 Italy 264 Total 22,666,013 General export trade. -For the fiscal year- L900-1901 and L901-2. Mexican exports to the rest of the world are estimated by the "Anuario Estadistico Fiscal." 1901-2, at the following figures, showing an increase of $11,244,322 in favor of the latter year: SILVKK AND GOLD VALUES. 269 1900-1901. 1901-2. 825,731,057 823, 957, 009 500 117,229,711 504, 091 47, 626 5, 146, 515 130,344,432 851,865 60,484 4, 688, 942 T( ital 148,659,000 159, 903, 322 The principal countries where Mexico sent its products during said two fiscal years were the following-: Increase crease ( - - orde- ) 1902. United States Great Britain Cuba Germany Belgium France Guatemala British Honduras. 8117,228,991.15 8130,323,347.29 12, 033, 076. 81 5,146,515.00 5,018,464.02 4, 422, 728. 41 2, 824, 303. 13 366, 388. 60 109, 055. 00 10, 572, 484. 29 4,688,942.00 4,813,313.54 5, 485, 793. 50 2, 215, 306. 60 473, 288. 64 88, 160. 00 +13, 091, 356. 14 - 1,460,592.52 - 457, 573. 00 - 205, 150. 48 + 1,063,065.09 608, 996. 53 106, 900. 04 20, 895. 00 + Silver and gold values. — "El Economists Mexicano" of August 8, 1903, publishes the following very interesting statement showing the amount, in Mexican silver dollars, of Mexico's export trade during each fiscal year from 1881-82 to 1901-2, the average value of the Mexican silver dollar in New York during each year of that period, and these annual amounts reduced from silver to gold at the corre- sponding yearly average value of the Mexican silver dollar in New York: Exports, silver value. 1881-82 829, 1882-83 41, 1883-84 46, 1884-85 46, 1885-86 43, 1886-87 49, 1887-88 40, 1888-89 60, 1889-90 62, 1890-91 63, 1891-92 75, 1892-93 88, 1893-94 80, 1S94-95 • 95, 1 895-96 110, 1 S96-97 117, 1897-98 138, 1898-99 148, 1899-1900 158, 1900-1901 | 158, 1901-2 168, 206, 772 919, 182 Mil. 117 811,958 797, 249 329, 915 078, 717 380, 287 680, 539 425, 746 660,880 044, 624 083, 944 020, 326 022, 356 784, 092 068, 504 453, 834 247, 933 009, 437 041,272 It is apparent from these figures that while the silver value of Mex- ico's exports in this period of twenty-one years has increased very •J 7. 44 were tree of duty, while the dutiable goods amounted to £51.450.2*7. The leading among the free articles imported were railroad material, $2,372,746; coal. $2,123,869; coke, $2,088,670; lumber and timber. $1,875,347; mineral substances, SI. 728. <»77: railway cars and coaches and repairs, $780,677. Among the dutiable goods the largest imports were as shown below: Animals and animal products: Live stock (all kinds) $567, 506 Wool 192, 7' 17 I taw skins and hides 81,102 Canned meats, lish. butter, etc 516, 472 Butter 119, 558 Condensed milk ". 71,543 Lard 766, 757 Cheese 181, 078 Stearin 244, 610 Furs and skins, and manufactures of 524, 880 Boots and shoes 705, 000 Manufactured animal products 355, 439 Vegetable substances: Ginned cotton 1,271. 968 Other fibers 1 26, 112 ( iacao (all kinds) 165, 834 Dried fruits 165, 215 Wheat and other cereals 1, 439, 400 Almonds (all kinds) , shelled 168, 664 Freeh fruits, etc 350, 639 Virginia leaf tobacco 203, 976 Olive oil 124,986 ( ntton-seed oil (crude) 904, 167 Lumber and timber 217,326 Manufactures of wood 386, 803 Bags and bagging 30s. 2 1 3 Furniture (all kinds) 62H. 910 Mineral substances: Gold, silver, and platinum, and manufactures of 191, 020 Copper and alloys, in bars and plates 127, 709 Copper and alloys, manufactures of 807, 731 Manufactures of tin, lead, and zinc 206, 311 Iron wire for fences - 362, 95<> Plows and plowshares ,,,-.- - - 79, 039 IMPORTS. 273 Mineral substances — Continued. Iron pipes (all sizes) $1, 040 Agricultural implements 237 Iron hands 210 Iron sheets for roofing (all kinds) 662 Tin plates 237 Iron girders and beams 470 Manufactures of tin, galvanized iron, etc 291 Manufactures of iron, enameled, etc 145 Manufactures of iron, not specified 506 Nails, tacks, screws, etc 343 Lime, Portland cement, etc 410 Mineral oils (crude) 654 Paraffin 289 Glass bottles 300 China and earthen ware 325 Crystal and glassware, n. e. s 470 Textiles, and manufactures of: Cotton thread, on spools 703 Cotton thread, in balls and skeins 236 Lace of all kinds, and manufactures of, n. e. s 225 Cottons, not more than 30 threads per square of 5 millimeters 622 The same, over 30 threads 1 27 ( otton prints, not exceeding 30 threads per square of 5 millimeters. . . 578 The same, exceeding 30 threads 126 Cotton cloth, openwork or embroidered 26 Stockinet and manufactures of, n. e. s 351 Cotton braids, trimmings, etc 137 Elastic webbing 22 Cotton edgings, insertions, etc., embroidered with cotton, linen, wool, or silk 147 Cloth, linen, hemp, or other like fibers, white, drab, or colored, plain woven, over 12 threads per square of 5 millimeters 204 Woolen cloths (all weavings and kinds) 1, 297 Silk fabrics (all weavings and kinds) 301 Articles and manufactures of silk, n. e. s 292 Cloth of silk warp, and cotton, linen, or wool filling, or vice versa... 412 Articles of silk, with mixture of cotton, linen, or wool, all kinds 285 Chemical and pharmaceutical products: Drugs and medicines of all kinds 289 Colors, powdered, in crystals, or prepared 421 Caustic soda and potash 287 Sulphate of copper, iron, and ammonia 268 Spirituous, fermented, and natural beverages: Rum, in glass 700 Rum, in casks 166 Beer and cider, in ijlass 161 White and red wine, in the wood . . ! 1, 060 White and red wine, in the glass. 388 Sparkling wines 166 Paper and its manufactures: Wrapping paper 192 Cigarette paper 351 Cardboard, manufactures of, n. <•. s 131 509a— 04 IS •J 7 4 Mi:.\i« «>. Machinery and apparatus: • I'um] >s and turbines $161, 420 Hardware of all kinds for tradee 491,529 Musical instruments (all kinds 368,097 stcai ii engines, and parts of r 2, 190 Machinery and apparatus of all kind.-, n. e. s., for power other than band or foot 3,636,063 The Bame, for fool or hand power Printing and lithographic riea .' 168,700 Vehicles: ( 'art-, wagons, and cars w it limit Bprings, for freight 106 Wheelbarrows, one or two \\ heels 187,721 ( ferriages, all kinds, n. e. s 1 ~ s . 423 Arms and explosives: Breech-loading firearms, of all kind-, and accessories 211, 855 Loaded and empty si id Is for firearms 135, 608 Dynamite and other explosives, n. e. s "13, 101 I'm-.- and detonators for mining 96, 816 Miscellaneous: Lubricating nils 171,620 Manufactures of gutta-percha a; I celluloid, n. e. s 200,345 Hat-, all kinds, and accessories '■'• : > i '. 971 Rubber belts for machinery 100, 267 Rubber hose " 114,119 Iron, steel, and wood buildings. - 283, 776 Perfumery 205,818 TRADE WITH THE UNITED STATES. Figures issued by the Bureau of Statistics of the Treasury Depart- ment of the United State- -how that the trade of Mexico with the United States has grown more rapidly than that with any other pari of the world. The exports from theiUnited Kingdom to Mexico grew from $8,000, in 1831 to $10,250,000 in L900; those from France to • Mexico fell from $9,000,000 in L881 to $7,000,000 in L899; those from Germany grew from $700,000 in L881 to $5,000,000 in L899, and those from Spain from $871,000 in 1881 to a little less than $2, ,000 in L900; while from the United States the exports to Mexico grew from $11,000,000 in 1881 to $35,000,000 in 1900 and over $40,000,000 in L902. Imports of Mexican goods by the United State- have expanded in the same period from $28,000,000 to $41,000,000. It will thus be seen that Mexico occupies a unique position in the ranks of the nations with which the United States transacts a considerable exchange, as it i- with this country alone that a balance between exports and imports is preserved. From the West Indies the United States imports are nearly twice as large a- it- exports. To Canada the United State- sell- twice a- much as she buys; from South America the receipts are three times as great as the exportation values, while Europe takes from the United States threefold what she finds a market for in the latter country. TRADE WITH THE UNITED STATES. 275 Contiguity, quick rail communication, and the presence of large United States interests in Mexico are the principal causes of the rapid gains which the United States is making over her rivals in the trade of Mexico. Over 9,000 miles of railroad are now in operation in Mex- ico, bringing all parts of that country into direct communication with the United States, and according to the statement before quoted fur- nished to the State Department by the United States consul in Mex- ico, fully 1400,000,000 of capital from the United States is invested in that country, and many citizens of the United States are located tem- porarily or otherwise in Mexico. Mexico is the one country south of the United States to which her exports show an appreciable growth. To the Central American States United States exports in 1890 were $5,296,478, and in 1902 they were $6,322,685; to South America in 1890 United States exports were represented by $33,752,648, and in 1902 they were $38,043,617; to the West Indies they were $33,197,222 in 1890, and $43,632,951 in 1902, while to Mexico they were $13,285,287 in 1890, and advanced to $39,873,606 in 1902 (fiscal }^ear), while for the calendar year 1902 they are estimated at more than $40,000,000. The most important exports from the United States to Mexico con- sist of manufactures of iron and steel, machineiw, unmanufactured cotton, lumber, manufactured wood, manufactures of cotton, and gun- powder. Mexico's exports to the United States are chiefly textile fibers, especially sisal or henequen, coffee, hides, cattle, lead, copper, and tobacco, and in addition to these there are large quantities of sil- ver in ore and considerable gold which are not included in the figures given for exports of merchandise. In the year ended June 30, 1903, the value of goods imported from Mexico amounted to $41,313,711, while on the other hand, she pur- chased from United States merchants $42,257,106 worth. According to the latest available Mexican statistics, about 60 per cent of the total value of goods imported by that country in the fiscal } r ear 1902 came from the United States, as compared with a little over 55 per cent in 1890. Of the goods exported from Mexico the United States took about 80 per cent in 1902 and about 68 per cent in 1890. The following table shows the value of United States exports to and imports from Mexico at decennial periods from 1850 to 1900, and annually from that date: Year. Exports. Imports. "i ear. Exports. Imports. 1850 1860 1870 82,012,827 5,324,713 5, 859, 700 7,866,493 13, 285, 287 8575, 200 1,903,431 2,715,665 7,209,593 22, 690, 915 1900 1901 1902 1903 $34. 974, 961 36", 475, 350 39, 873, 606 42,257,106 828, 646, 053 28,851,635 40 382,5% 1880 1890 41,313,711 276 Mexico. This table shows that while United States commerce with Mexico varies considerably, the trade in both directions has more than main tained its satisfactory volume. Copper and vegetable fibers form the largest individual items of United States imports from Mexico, and iron and steel products con- stitute the largest exports to that country from the United States. In L902 United States imports of copper ore and regulus were almost 110,000,000, as compared with less than 1100,000 in 1892; import- of pigs, bars, ingots, etc., of copper increased in the same time from $84,00o to nearly $3,750,000. In 1892 no copper ore was exported to Mexico, but in 1902 nearly $700,000 worth was so exported. Of unmanufactured vegetable fibers (mainly sisal grass or henequen), United States imports increased from $5,500,000 to over $12,1 ,000, while of the manufactures of these materials, imports increased from $6,000 to nearly $650,000, and the exports from $58,000 to $228,000. Hides and skins were imported to the value of nearly $3,500,000 in li»i»i> — more than double the 1S!»2 value — while of leather and its manu- factures the value of exports increased from $61,000 to $818, ono. Im- ports of coffee fell off during tin 1 decade from over $1,000,000 to less than $3,000,0oit. Exports of iron and steel not only constitute the largest item of trade between Mexico and the United States, hut show the largest growth in the last ten year-, export- of machinery al i increasing from about Sl.50o.ooo to «, V er S7.noo.o0o. Other items which sho* large gains are bread. -tuffs, vehicles, chemicals, coal and coke, copper ore, vegetable oils, and lumber. The following table shows the values of some of the principal articles which made up United States trade with Mexico in 1902: IMPORTS. Cattle $768, MW Chicle 419, 243 Vanilla Leans 390, 344 ( \ >ffee 2, 836, 614 ( '. >pper i >re 9, 934, 1 »7 Copper pigs, bars, ingots, etc .">, 71 <>, 749 sisal grass or henequen 11, 609,087 Other unmanufactured vegetable fibers 582,466 Hides and skins 3, 489, 647 Lead in ere and base 1 ml lien 3,622, 03»> Mahogany 44o, 37-1 EXPORTS. Agricultural implements ,.-- 230,324 Cattle 225, 138 Breadstuffa 1 , 722, 915 Cars, carriages, etc 1,220,189 Chemicals, dyes, etc 1,088, 547 TRADE WITH THE EXITED SPATES. 277 Coal and coke $2, 687, 169 Copper ore - 699, 677 Unmanufactured cotton 1, 275, 200 Cotton manufactures 661, 721 Glass and glassware 379, 105 Gunpowder and other explosives 979, 233 Leather, and manufactures of 818, 212 Iron and steel manufactures: Builders' hardware 685, 025 Sewing machines 356, 434 Machinery 7, 094, 112 Steam engines : '. : 918, 222 All other 5, 129, 157 Mineral oils 760, 202 Vegetable oils 1 , 143, 020 Lard 702, 082 Timber 648, 416 Lumber 2, 000, 119 Wood manufactures 1, 073, 677 The United States Treasury Bureau of Statistics has published a table .showing the rapid growth in United States exports to Mexico in the fifteen years from 1887 to 1901, a result due to the increased facili- ties for transportation since the opening of the Mexican Central and Mexican National railways. Till then the trade of Mexico was carried on by British houses, but now the British trade is conducted by a few agencies, which, by means of samples and catalogues, procure orders for goods, for there is in Mexico to-day no important British com- mercial establishment. For the fifteen years, the exports of merchan- dise from the United States, United Kingdom, France, German} 7 , and Spain were as follows (in millions of dollars): Year. United States. United Kingdom. France. Ger- many. Spain. 1887 1888 7.9 9.9 11.5 13.2 14.9 11.3 19.6 12.8 15.0 19.5 23. 4 21.2 25.5 34.9 36.5 5.8 5.7 7.9 9.8 9.5 7.2 6.1 6.4 8.1 S.2 8.4 9.3 10.7 7.6 8.5 10.8 10.7 8.8 6.8 5.4 5.8 7.5 6.4 5.1 5.8 .1 1.1 1.6 3.5 3.5 3.4 2.9 2.9 2.7 4.0 3.7 4.3 4.9 5.1 1.3 1.3 1889 1890 1.6 1.8 1891 1.5 1892 1.4 1893 1.3 1894 1.3 1895 1.5 1896 1.7 1897 1.5 1898 2.1 1899... 2.9 1 1)00 1901 Figures for 11)02 and 1903 are 39.8 and 42.2, respectively, for the United States. Exports from Mexico to the United States declared through the United States consulate-general in Mexico City and five of the consu- lar agencies — Guadalajara, Guanajuato. Oaxaca, Puebla, and Zaca- 278 M l-.XK'o. tecas subordinate to it. show thai during the fiscal year ending June 30, L903, such exports amounted to the following figures in gold: City of M6xico 12,895,860.55 Guadalajara 145,296. 18 Guanajuato L32, 460. 51 • tacaca 200, 404. 70 Puel »la 511, 274. 95 Zacatecae 316, 963. 42 Total 4. 2H2. 261 1. 61 The principal articles were, in round numbers: Gold bullion. $2,334,600; silver bullion, 1348,160; gold dust. $4,250; silver ore, $142.01X1: lead ore, $43,4o<>; gold ore, $10, : coffee, $87,000; broom root or zaeaton, $:->s.,774 tons from that country, 34,025 from Great Britain, and a trifling quantity from Belgium. COAL TRADE. 279 "■The coal from the United States was drawn for the most part from the State of West Virginia, whereas the stocks received from Great Britain consisted entirely of briquets, or patent fuel, shipped from Cardiff and district, and were for the use of the Mexican Railway Company. The average rate for charters at Veracruz is from 200 to 400 tons delivery per day, Sundays and holidays excepted. The cur- rent rate of stevedoring is 35 cents per ton (Mexican currency) for patent fuel, and for ordinary coal 15 cents. "The average selling price of coal during the period under review was from $11.50 to $13 per ton f . o. b. railway companies' cars. From this must be deducted $1.75 for dock dues and other charges, which, calculated at the average rate of exchange during the six months of the present year, left a net price to the importer of from 18s. to 21s. Owing to the closing of a large number of mines in the United States, due to the coal strike, sterling prices advanced considerably. " Progreso. — The average amount of coal consumed at the port of Progreso ranges from 800 to 1,000 tons per month, and is practically all of United States origin. The average price for coal ranged from $20 to $22 currency. This high price is mainly due to the fact that ocean rates rule much higher to Progreso than to Veracruz, prin- cipally owing to the facilities for discharging vessels being of the most indifferent maimer. " Coatzacoalcos. The importations of coal have been limited to some few thousand tons introduced for the use of the National Railway of Tehuantepec and the harbor improvements being carried out at the two terminals of this line, Salina Cruz and Coatzacoalcos. respectively. Now that the railway has been repaired and put into such condition that the handling of public merchandise can be effected, the estimated coal consumption in order to meet the requirements of dredges, rail- way and coast steamers, connected with same, will probably amount to about 3,ooi) tons per month and upward." Tampico — The coal and coke imported into Tampico during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1903, according to figures forwarded by United States Consul Magi 11. at Tampico, to the Department of Com- merce and Labor of the United States, was as follows: Coal: Tons. Tons. United States 280, 906 English 31,620 Ti »tal 312, 526 Coke: German 1 42, 404 United States 29, 860 English 5, 216 Total 177, 570 Total coal and coke 490, 096 280 MEXICO. The greater part of the United States coal was from Pensacola, Fla.. under contract for the Mexican Central Railway, and was fur- nished by the Louisville and Nashville Railroad, which has excellenl facilities for loading coal into vessels at Pensacola. The ( rerman coke was from Westphalia, Germany, and waa shipped from the ports <>t' Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and Antwerp. A new dock for the discharge of coal and coke, under construction by the Mexican Central Railway, is to he provided with modern machinery for quick discharge of coal cargoes. Paper trade. — The Norwegian consul-general in Mexico, reporting on the paper trade of the Republic, states that Norwegian goods are recognized as the best that are imported into Mexico. Straw pulp is imported, as well as bleached sulphite pulp. Mechanical pulp is scarcely consumed. The material is imported to Mexico free <>f duty, provided it is perforated, the holes being- pi centimeters from each other in all directions. Wood pulp (chemical as well as mechanical) must be shipped thoroughly dry in order to be salable. The pulp is forwarded in rolls or bales of loo kilograms. The packing consists of coarse linen cloth, paper, or thick wrapping paper fastened by iron hoops or steel wire. Tying by means of cord is considered objection- able. Low and medium grades of wrapping paper are manufactured in Mexico, where the raw material is partly imported from abroad. Gray and blue wrapping paper for sugar packing i< sold from lo to 25 cents (Mexican currency) per kilogram; manila paper in rolls or reams, from 25 to .".."> cents per kilogram. Cheap cellulose and chemical pulp paper are imported from Norway. The prices range from 80 cents to £1 per ream. Cheap manila paper is imported from the United States and is quoted at '2\ cents (gold) per pound. Better grades are imported, but in lesser quantities. The duty is h' cents per kilogram (legal weight). Tissue papers formerly were chiefly imported from England, but the cheaper grade that is now imported from Germany has diminished the English imports. There is no considerable business in this article. The quotations vary, the color being the foundation for their fixation. Assorted tissue papers are sold in very great quantities in Mexico. Each firm has a different assortment. The duty is lo cents per kilogram (legal weight). Envelopes come chiefly from the United States and Germany. English goods are of very fair and elegant quality, but during recent years the Mexican manufactories have made good progress in the making of envelope papers, and the home goods compete strongly with the foreign. The duty is 25 cents per kilogram (legal weight). PORTS AM) CUSTOMS DISTRICTS. The ports of Mexico open to foreign commerce are divided into Gulf and Pacific ports, as follows: Ghdf ports. — Campeche. Coatzacoalcos, Chetumal, Frontera. Isladel TRADE MOVEMENT. 28] Carmen, Islade Mujeres, Progreso, Puerto Morelos, Tampico, Tiixpam, and Veracruz. Pacific ports. — Acapulco, Altata, Bahia de la Magdalena, Guayuias, La Paz, Manzanillo, Mazatlan, Puerto Angel, Salina Cruz, San Bias, San Jose del Cabo, Santa Rosalia, Todos Santos, and Tonala. The ports through which the coast trade is carried on on the Gulf side are Alvarado, Campeche, Celestun. Coatzacoalcos, Champoton, Chetumal, Frontera, Isla Aguada, Isla del Carmen. Nautla, Palizada, Progreso, Puerto Morelos, Tampico, Tecolutla, Tlacotalpam, Tiixpam, and Veracruz; and on the Pacific side, Acapulco, Agiabampo, Altata, Bahia de la Magdalena, Chacagua, Guaymas, Isla del Carmen, Isla Maria Madre, La Paz, Las Penas, Loreto, Manzanillo, Mazatlan, Muleje, Perihuete, Puerto Angel, Salina Cruz, San Bias, San Jose del Cabo, San Quintin, Todos Santos, Santa Rosalia, Santo Domingo, Soconusco, Teconapa, Tonala, Topolobampo, and Zihuatanejo. The frontier custom-houses are Ciudad Juarez, Ciudad Portirio Diaz, Laredo, and Nogales. By a decree of March 31, 1903, a new custom-house was established at a point called Las Vacas, on the Rio Grande frontier and within the limits of the State of Coahuila. It is known as the u Aduana Fron- teriza de Las Vacas,'- the jurisdiction of which commences at a point 25 kilometers north from Colombia, in Nuevo Leon, and continues for 25 kilometers north of Las Vacas, where the jurisdiction of the Ciudad Portirio Diaz custom-house ends. The domestic trade of the Republic is carried on mainly by means of the railways and coastwise vessels, while the foreign trade with the United States is maintained by railroads and ocean steamers, and with the other nations of the world by steam and sailing vessels. The "Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal^ for 1901-2 estimates the for- eign trade movement as follows: The number of incoming vessels direct from abroad, at the Gulf ports and Pacific ports, was 906 steamers with a cargo of 906,999 met- ric tons of 1,000 kilograms, and 553 sailing vessels with a cargo of 187,701 metric tons, or a total of 1,159 vessels with a total cargo of 1,091,700 metric tons, divided as follows: Gulf ports, 671 steamers and 420 sailing vessels; and Pacific ports, 235 steamers and 133 sail; 1,091 vessels for the Gulf and 368 for the Pacific ports, under the flags of the following nationalities: German, 92; American, 120; English, 183; Norwegian, 301; French, 11; Spanish, 68; Cuban, 9; Mexican, 11; Russian, 9; Chilean. IS; Italian, 7; Danish, 9; Uruguayan, 1; Dutch, 6; Swedish, 5, sailing from the following countries: United States, England, Germany, Belgium, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Spain, France, and from other countries. The outgoing foreign direct trade was carried in 1,123 vessels, with a total cargo of 312,557 metric tons, the Gulf ports being credited with o go mi xieo. I .« m, 4 vessels, the cargo of which amounted t<> 305,429 metric tons, and the Pacific ports with 359 vessels, and a total cargo of 7,128 metric tons. The principal nationalities of the vessels were as follows: Eng- lish, 466; American, 4<>4: Norwegian, 309; German, 89; French. 14: Spanish, 67; Chilean. L9, and Cuban, 11: their destination being, the United States, England, Colombia, Spain, Germany, Cuba, France, Chile, and others going to Belgium, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Haiti, Holland, Italy, Russia, and Salvador. The indirect foreign trad'' was as follow-. 955 incoming vessels with L78,811 metric tons of merchandise, and 708 outgoing vessels with 89,418 met ric tons, of which 544 were from the United States and 44s to that country . from and to < lolombia, to Germany, England, France. Italy, Belgium, and other count ric-. Internal trade was represented by 7. lot; incoming vessels with a total cargo of 208,000 metric tons, and 7 . 1 n< > outgoing vessels with 193,188 metric tons cargo. This trade was carried on through 18 Gulf and 27 Pacific ports, the incoming vessels engaged comprising 6,358 Mexican. 323 American, and '274 English, while the outgoing vessels comprised 6,337 Mexican. 366 American, and 315 English. The total navigation for L901-2 was as follow-: Steamers Sail Number, Tonnage Number roni 5,70" 1,9 5,497 17 - - ■ 116,968 11,197 1 .711. 149 7,634 362,925 The total tonnage was: Imports. . . . Exports Coastwise. . Total Steamers - 333,744 300,168 1,714,449 Sail vessels. 192, 974 101,020 Total. 1,273,511 101,975 401,188 2,076,674 A re-nine of the freight carried on the railways of the northern frontier, in the trade between Mexico and the United State-, shows the following: Imports. Exports. Total. Frontier custom-fa Number T olcars ' "" • Number Di care. Tons. Number of cars. Tons. 7,729 123,664 9,182 1 18, I 26,914 2,506 - - 1,304 1,934 10,276 23, 236 15, 749 30,015 10,235 17,568 19,442 4,192 163, 940 161,607 Nogales 244,549 56. 929 Total 37.307 517,749 14,130 109, 276 51,437 027, 025 TARIFF. 283 The custom-house receipts growing out of this trade show an increase of $291,696.78, as compared with the corresponding period of the pre- ceding year, as follows: 1900-1901. Import duties |26, 255, 087. 89 $26, 391, 048. 78 Export duties 779, 819. 39 863, 855. 71 All other dues I 1, 070, 967. 98 1 1, 142, 667. 55 T< ital 28, 105, 875. 26 28,397,572.04 TARIFF. The tariff law now in force in Mexico was promulgated on June 12, 1891, and went into effect on November 1, following, several amend- ments having since been made. A synopsis of the General Regulations of the Tariff Law of the Mexican United States (Tarifa de la Ordenanza General de Aduanas de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos), in so far as it treats of the obligations of shippers, passengers, etc., is given below/' The import tariff contains over 900 different articles, .divided into gen- eral heads, these again being subdivided into classes. The latest modifications and amplifications, under date of February 1. 1901, have been published by the International Union of American Republics, 6 together with the official explanatory notes which both facilitate the clear understanding of the subject and fix more exactly the character of the merchandise coming under the several classifications. The fol- lowing notes are of interest and self-explanatory: " Note 153. — By ' tissues of smooth texture'' must be understood tis- sues composed of single thread, in which the woof threads, in crossing from one side to the other, pass above the pair threads and below the odd threads of the warp one by one, said threads crossing each other in a contrary direction to return to the point of departure — that is to say, passing above the odd threads and below the pair threads. "Tissues obtained by any other process of weaving, as well as those woven in the above manner, but which, instead of being composed of a single thread, comprise either two or more parallel threads, entwin- ing at the same time the woof or warp threads, or threads of several ends, shall not be considered as tissues of smooth texture. "Open-work tissues, or drawn work, either of cotton or linen, shall not be considered tissues of smooth texture. "To ascertain the number of threads composing a tissue of smooth texture, a lens shall be used known by the name of 'thread counter,' having a space of one centimeter side. The warp and woof threads «The International Bureau of the American Republics will furnish any further information in this regard upon application. & Monthly Bulletin of the International Bureau of the American Republics, March, 1904, page 709. 284 Mexico. found in this space are added together, ignoring fractions of threads, and if the total can be exactly divided by two, the quotient shall be considered as the number of threads that the tissue contains in a half square centimeter per side; t»ut if the Bum is n<>t exactly divisible by two, the fraction of a thread resulting in the quotient shall be consid- ered a> an entire thread and added as a unit to those obtained in the quotient. In this operation care should be taken that the edge of the square or -pace to be examined by the thread counter corresponds as nearly as possible with the space separating one thread from another. ••No account shall he taken of a difference of two or three threads when, in any pari whatever of the tissue, the number of threads tallies with the declaration of the importer. •\Y< ■/, ;.'.'. This section includes machinery and apparatuses of all kinds not specified, moved by motive power, windlass, pedal, or lever, provided they are intended for use in agriculture, mining, industries. or arts. "By machinery is understood a collection of pieces or parts for gen- erating or transmitting power, or for performing any other operation, operating always by regular movements and periods. ■•The machinery <>r apparatuses which are not intended for the industries, agriculture, mining, or the arts are not included in this section, and are dutiable according to their material and kind. In this class are included typewriters and adding machines, and. in general, all apparatuses and small machines for domestic use. ".Mechanical tools, provided always they operate with regular and periodic movements, are embraced in this section. Those which are not covered by these conditions pay the quota provided for in sec- tion 793. "Loose parts and pieces of machine-, included in section 800, are all those which can not he put to other uses, inasmuch as those which are capable of being employed for other purposes shall pay duty in con- formity with the tariff according to material and class or kind." Shipping regulations. The following are the principal regulations governing the shipping of merchandise: I. Shippers of goods to Mexican ports must supply an invoice of the goods shipped, even when such goods are for the public service of the Nation, or the State-, owing to a special concession, or are free from import duties. Separate invoices, in triplicate or quadruplicate, as the law may require, must be made out for each consignee. II. Shippers of goods may include in one package several bale-. boxes, mat-, rolls, or any other container inclosing goods of a like nature, provided the consular invoice expresses the number of pack- ages contained in each outer covering, bale, or box. Should this not be done, or the failure not corrected within ninety-six hours after the entry of the vessel at the receiving custom-house, a tine not exceeding $50 will tie imposed. SHIPPING REGULATIONS. 285 From this rule are excepted: First. Heavy goods, which are usually tied together, such as iron and steel bars, pipes, metal sheets, boards for packing boxes and roofs, buckets and pails of wood or metal, parts of machinery, all similar goods, and free articles. Second. Cans or immediate wrappings or containers of goods packed in each package. Third. Piece goods in bales or cases; bottles, jars, or flasks containing elementary substances, drugs, perfumery, etc.; and, in general, small parcels, bags, boxes, or an}^ other kind of packages put up in a strong outer container. III. Consular invoices must declare separately the gross, net, and legal a weights, as the law may require, of packages which, while of the same article, come in different parcels. Packages containing cotton, linen, wool or silk textures, or goods may be declared collectively with their joint weights or measures in cas y . the goods are of a like tariff class, and their difference in weight does not exceed 10 kilograms. Any infraction of this provision is punishable b} r a tine of $50, though the consignee is allowed until the inspector is named to dis- patch the goods in which to correct errors. IV. Interlineations, scratching^, erasures, or corrections causing a want of uniformity in the several copies of a consular invoice are pro- hibited. Should the want of uniformity affect elements essential to the determination of the duties, the latter will be regulated by the declaration " carrying the highest rate among the disagreeing invoices.''' Such faults are tolerated in the cases following: First. When they have been rectified by written explanations on the margin of the documents before taking out the consular certificate. « By net weight is understood the real weight of the merchandise, without the immediate coverings (almas), packages, or wrappings. By legal weight is understood the weight of the goods, including only the imme- diate coverings, wrappings, vessel, cardboard, wood, or tin in which they may come inside of the outer box, which serves as the general receptacle. When goods taxed on the legal weight have no immediate covering, but come loose in an outside box, the intrinsic weight of the goods shall be considered the legal weight. In ascertain- ing the legal weight no account must be taken of the straw or shavings with which the packages may be packed in the outside case, nor of the weight of the latter. By gross weight is understood the weight of the merchandise with all its cases and wrappings inside and outside, without allowance for fillings, nettings, or hoops. When a package contains several articles taxed on the gross weight, the custom- house will apportion the tax among them according to their respective legal weights. Articles taxed on the gross weight shall pay on the total weight of the merchandise when they come without wrappings or packings, or contained in cases which are accessible. When fabrics having fringes are dutiable on the square meter, the measurement shall include such fringes. If they an- dutiable according to weight, the weight must include thai of the fringes. 286 Mexico. Second. When, notwithstanding the corrections, the several copies of the same document agree. Third. When the interlineations, erasures, etc., relate to points h:i\ ing no bearing upon the question of duties. V. When the same package contains goods paying different duties, including some paying on the gross weight, shippers must declare in the invoice, aside from the total weight <»t' the package, the legal weight of each article contained therein, in order to arrive at the proper distribution of the gross weight. The declaring of the legal weight must be done without prejudice to the legal weight, piece, pair. thousand, or measures of the other goods not taxed on the gross weight. VI. Invoices of packages containing only samples do not need con sular certification. The invoices need only declare the vessel on which they are shipped, name of consignee, port of destination, mark, num- ber, quantity, and class of packages, gross weight of each, and generic designation of the kind of samples. Failure to comply with the foregoing will incur a tine not exceeding s;> for each package. VII. Shippers of goods must present for certification, before the sailing of the vessel, four copies of each invoice to the Mexican con- sul, consular or commercial agent residing in the place of shipment or in the port where the vessel is loading. Three copies must he left in the consulate, and the copy with certificate and receipt attached, which the Mexican official will deliver, is to be retained. This copy with the consular receipt attached shippers must transmit to the consignees of the goods. VIII. In localities where there is no Mexican consul or consular agent, shippers will only make out invoices in triplicate, conforming otherwise with the foregoing provisions, transmitting on the same day. by registered mail, one copy to the Department of the Treasury and another to the collector of customs at the port of destination. Shippers must require from the postmaster the necessary receipts, which must be forwarded to the consignee at the port of destination. There is no deviation from this requirement, and in default of an invoice with consular certificate or registered mail receipt, which must be presented by the consignee at the custom-house, is punishable by a tine in double the amount of duties on the goods imported. IX. Invoices should be written in Spanish; but they will he admitted if written in any other well-known tongue when shippers are unac- quainted with the official language of the Republic. X. Consignees of imported merchandise are responsible before the law for any infractions of the regulations by the carriers or shippers thereof. XI. Packages should have only one mark and number. Should SHIPPING REGULATIONS. 287 packages have marks or numbers other than tho.se shown by the con- sular invoice and manifest the consignee will he lined $1 for each package so marked or numbered. Firm names or factory addresses uniformly stamped on packages will not be considered as violative of this regulation, provided such initials, figures, and numbers are those by which each package may be distinguished from the rest. XII. Live stock " shipments to Mexico must be governed by the provisions following: First. The shipper must appear before the Mexican consul stationed at the point from which the shipment is to be made expressing his intention to make the same. Second. The consul must secure a veterinary expert who, at the expense of the shipper, must examine the live stock in question and issue the proper health certificate. Third. This certificate will be viseed by the said consul and should accompany the consular invoice to be presented at the custom-house of entry. Fourth. On the live stock being entered at the custom-house the collector will designate an expert veterinary to examine the stock at the expense of the shipper and issue his certificate. Sixth. If the stock is in a healthy condition it will be dispatched and delivered. If, on the other hand, it is diseased and the form of ail- ment is sufficient!}' proved the collector will decline to dispatch the stock and will notify the proper authority in order that the stock may be immediately sent out of the country, in which case no duties will be levied. XIII. Fresh-meat shipments to Mexico will be regulated by the same provisions as apply to live-stock importations save that the vet- erinary expert must examine the beeves before and after killing, and the meat must be shipped in refrigerators or so preserved physically or chemically that there will be no change in its condition. The meats on their introduction are subject to inspection by the Board of Health, at the expense of the importer. Small shipments of fresh meat intended for the frontier settlements need not be shipped in refrigerators or otherwise preserved, should the collectors of customs deem it unnecessary. XIV. For the certification of the documents which masters of vessels and shippers of goods must present, consuls will charge as follows: 1. For certifying .ship's manifest conveying goods to the Repuhlic $10. 00 2. For certifying manifest of ship in ballast 4. 00 3. For certifying each set of invoices: If the value of the goods declared in the invoice does not exceed SUM). . . 1. 00 If the value exceeds $100, but not $1 ,000 4. 00 For every excess of $500 or fraction thereof 1. 00 « Horses, sheep, goats, mules, and asses pay duty per head; cattle and hogs by weight. 288 Mexico. 4. Fur certificates of any kind to masters or shippers $2. no r>. When said last-named certificates are requested in duplicate, triplicate, etc., tor each extra copy 1 . tin 6. For certifying ti> errors in invoices, each set 2. no 7. For certifying t<> each set of permits to import through frontier custom- houses 28 Consuls or consular agents before issuing the certificate will require the affirmation or oath, according t<> the law of the country where made, of the manufacturer or seller to the effect that the value given the goods in the invoice is the true value. This oath must be sub- scribed on the margin of a copy of the invoice of sale. XV. Samples intended to make known the goods they represent are entitled to certain privileges, as follows: Pieces of cloth fabrics not exceeding 20 centimeters (71 inches) in length, and which may include the whole width of the cloth, and all articled which by reason of not being complete are useless I'm- sale are admitted free. Samples of complete articles, such as manufactures of any kind. hardware, dry goods, handkerchiefs, shawls, hoisery, shirts, etc., must either pay the corresponding duties or be rendered unsalable by cut- tings or perforations. When dry goods or hardware sample cases contain complete articles paying different duties, and the weight of each class can not be deter mined, the whole case will pay the rate attachable to the highest duty paying article contained therein. Samples of complete articles an importer may be interested in pre- serving for reexporting may be admitted duty free, provided the collector is satisfied he can identify the articles when exported; hut the collector will require a bond in double the amount of the duties. giving the party in interest up to six months time within which to reexport the articles through the same custom-house. If the interested party shall present himself within the time men- tioned to pay the duties corresponding to the articles, they will be received; but if these are not reexported within said term the bond will be forfeited. The owner of samples desiring to export them through a custom- house other than that of entry must secure the permission of the Department of the Treasury. XVI. Passengers landing at Mexican ports must show their baggage to the custom-house officer having its inspection in charge, and should they bring small quantities of articles for gifts or personal use which are dutiable they must make the fact known to the officer before tin baggage is opened. XVII. Passengers bringing with them, either in their baggage or separately, merchandise the duties on which exceed $100 are bound to declare them in a consular invoice, conforming to the regulations for SHIPPING REGULATIONS. 289 imports of merchandise. All articles which because of their class or quantity are not deemed to be of personal use are considered as merchandise. XVIII. The following are considered as passengers' baggage and are duty free: First. Personal apparel, if not excessive, the collectors being judges of the amount in view of the passengers' circumstances. Second. Articles worn or of personal use, such as jewelry, watch, chain, cane, etc., and one or two firearms, with their accessories and up to 100 cartridges. Third. Instruments and tools the most necessary and indispensable for the exercise of a profession or trade, if the passengers are profes- sors, artists, or artisans, in the understanding that pianos, organs, or .barrel organs, and materials and accessories for the installation of laboratories, studios, or offices are excluded. Fourth. Ninety-nine cigars, 40 packages of cigarettes, and half a kilogram of snuff or chewing tobacco, if the passengers are adults. XIX. Should the passengers be artists of an opera, dramatic, circus, or other company, besides the foregoing articles they may introduce free the costumes and scenery which form part of their baggage, being bound to reexport the same within one year. XX. Passengers bringing with them any household furniture will be allowed a rebate of dut}^ corresponding to the depreciation of value in consequence of its use. XXI. Should passengers declare that their baggage includes nothing but articles of personal use, and the inspection show that they bring dutiable merchandise, such merchandise shall pay double duties. XXII. Most of the maritime custom-houses have warehouses attached, where goods may be left on deposit, which is limited to one month if the goods are perishable, or not longer than six months if otherwise. If not withdrawn within fifteen da}-s after the expiration of the six months, the goods are sold at public auction. Shippers should bear in mind that the weights and measurements of articles should be given in the metric system; that articles should be packed in cases or containers, according to the class of weight upon which duties are assessed — that is, goods upon which duties are charged on the gross w r eight should not be packed with goods paving by net or legal weight, or vice versa. By treaty provisions between the United States and Mexico, vessels of the former country are on the same footing in Mexican ports as Mexican vessels as regards tonnage, harbor, and light dues, pilotage/' salvage, and all local charges. The coasting trade is. however, reserved by either nation for its own vessels. United States vessels may import a Pilotage is not obligatory under the laws of Mexico. 509 a— 04 19 290 MEXICO. into Mexican ]><>rt> merchandise the growth <>r manufacture of the United State- on the same terms as if they were imported in Mexican bottoms. The duties are to be no higher or other than those levied on similar merchandise the growth or manufacture of the most favored nation. In United States porta Mexican vessels and merchandise are accorded the same privileges enjoyed by American vessels and mer- chandise in Mexican ports. Where there are oo Mexican vessels to carry <>n the coastwise trade foreign sailing and steam vessels are permitted to engage in such trade. When the quantity of merchandise prepared for shipment from one port to another of the Republic is so small that it would not suffice to till a Mexican vessel its shipment upon a foreign vessel is allowed. On May I, L896, the .Mexican Constitution was amended so as to abolish the alcabdla or interstate customs duties, which it inherited. from Spain, and which had for so many years acted as a stumbling block to the internal trade of the country. N( "• iui]>nrt duties. — The new import duties collected in the Repub- lic are regulated by the following provisions contained in a decree bearing date of November 25, L902: On and after the 1st day of January, L903, the laws of November 30, 1888, and May 12, 1896, creating respectively the '1 per cent port- works tax and the 7 per cent stamp tax on import duties shall be abolished. On and after the same date, import duties on foreign merchandise brought into the Republic shall continue to be adjusted in accordance with the rale- sel forth in the import schedule, but the sum payable according to that adjustment will be reduced by .*><> per cent, and the amount thus found multiplied by the sum fixed by the department of Finance for the settlement of duties during the month in question, which in no case will be less than 220 per cent. The product represents the amount of import duties to be paid by the importer. In order to determine every month the rate of settlement referred to, the Department of Finance will take the average of the rates at which the banks of Mexico City have sold sight drafts on New York on each of the days comprised between the 1st and 25th of the month in which the announcement of the rate is to be made, making a reduc- tion of 30 percent, or less if the liabilities of the nation payable in foreign coin increase in future, on the difference between the fixed exchange rate of 'i'l" per cent and the average in question. Said department, any day between the 25th and 28th of the respective month, shall inform the custom-houses, through the General Custoni- House Bureau, of the rate adopted at which duties are to be settled during the following month, said rate being published in the ' Diario Oficial.' The rate of settlement for import duties adopted for each month shall be applied to merchandise carried in ships anchoring in their ports TRAVELING AGENTS. 291 of destination, or brought in over the frontiers after 12 o'clock on the night of the last clay of the previous month and before the same hour of the last da} r of the current month, even though in either case the adjustment of clearance formalities be effected at a date subsequent to the last day of the month during which the rate of settlement was in force. Goods imported through the mails will be subject to the rate for the settlement of duties in force on the day of their arrival in the country. The stamp tax payable by alcoholic beverages and foreign cards at the time of their importation, as well as the' additional duty for the benefit of the municipalities of the towns where the custom-houses are situated, is estimated on the basis of the import duties calculated according to the foregoing rules. The fines provided b} T the General Custom-House Regulations to punish infringements of the ordinances are computed in the same manner when such penalties are based on a percentage of the import duties. Merchandise imported for consumption in the Free Zone, with the exception provided by article 676 of the General Custom-House Regu- lations, shall pay only 10 per cent of the duties estimated as before stated, but the tax for the benefit of the municipalities, as well as the stamp tax pa} T able by alcoholic beverages and foreign cards imported for use in said zone, is estimated and paid on the basis of the full duties. Merchandise imported for the Free Zone and similar merchandise produced in that region and forwarded farther inland, according to the provisions of Section IV, Chapter XXII, of the General Custom- House Regulations, pay duties at the rate of liquidation in force at the date when permission for forwarding the goods is solicited, and from the total of said duties the 10 per cent above mentioned will be deducted, even though the merchandise may have been imported at any prior date. Duties on foreign goods shipped from point to point in the zone are estimated in the same manner, either to collect them according to law, or to impose the penalties provided for infringements of the law, as the case may be. Another important decree went into effect on November 1, 1902, amending articles 468 and -169 of the General Customs Tariff, provid- ing that the importation of small quantities of foreign merchandise intended for consumption in the frontier towns, and coming from places bordering on the Republic may be made through the passes or fords indicated by the custom-houses for international traffic, without the necessit}^ of presenting a consular invoice or any other document, provided that the value of said merchandise shall not exceed $10. Commercial travelers. — According to a special consular report issued by the Department of Commerce and Labor of the United States, trav- eling agents in Mexico who confine their activity to the City of Mexico, 292 mexioo. or the surrounding Federal District, are free of all taxes. In the interior the tax imposed varies in accordance with the Dumber of com- modities handled by the agent. After the payment of this tax the agent i- free to conduct business with merchants, as well a- with pri- vate individuals. Samples possessing a value are subject to the reg- ular duty. l>ut when a declaration is made by the agent, in importing thorn, to the effect that it is his intention to reexport them within a certain time, the duty is refunded if such reexportation is made within the declared time. FREE ZONE. The Mexican Free Zone, according to an official description fur- nished by the Mexican authorities," is as follow.-: ••There is understood by the term 'Free Zone" a -trip of national territory which, covering all the northern frontier of the Republic in the States of Tamaulipas. Coahuila, Chihuahua. Sonora, and the Ter- ritory of Lower California, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, extends in a latitudinal direction 20 kilometers (12.42 miles) from the frontier border toward the interior. "It was established in the beginning from Matamoros to Monterey, Laredo (to-day Laredo of Tamaulipas) by Col. Ramon Guerra, gov- ernor of the State of Tamaulipas, by means of a decree dated the 17th of March, 1858, which was sanctioned by President Juarez the 30th of July. L861. "The tariff of the Lst of January, L872, left it in existence, and the tariff of 1S85 caused its extension to all the frontier. The general ordinance of custom-houses of lss7. as well as that of 1891, which is now in force, preserved it. although with modifications of importance, especially as regards collection of duties. "The franchise granted the Free Zone consisted, in the beginning, in not levying any duty upon imported articles; afterwards, however, some small duties, purely local, were established, and the ordinance of IssT established a- a fixed l>a>is :•', per cent on the value of the duties according to tariff — a basis which was raised to 10 per cent by the ordinance of 1891. By subsequent decree's the duties were raised 1£ per cent for the municipality and 7 per cent for stamps for internal revenue, the result of all this being that the merchandise introduced into the FT-ee Zone from abroad now paid 18£ per cent upon the importation duties according to tariff. "For the better comprehension of this explanation, there is here given an example of the duties paid by a certain article, according to its destination, either to the interior of the country or to the Free Zone. "Let us suppose a bale of cotton weighs 100 kilograms (220.46 « Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance of the United States, No. 12, series 1898-99, Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department, 1899, p. 3182. FKEE ZONE. 293 pounds). If destined for the interior of the country, it will pay duties as follows: Description. Duties. Mexican currency. United States currency. 100 kilograms (220.46 pounds), at 7 cents (3 cents) 2 per cent for harbor works 1£ per cent (municipal) 7 per cent (revenue stamps) Total $7.00 .14 .10 .49 a S3. 10 .04 .22 7.73 3.42 a The reductions in this report are made on the basis of the valuation of the Mexican dollar given April 1, 1898, by the Director of the United States Mint— i. e., SI Mexican=44.4 cents. "If that bale is destined to the Free Zone, it must pay- Description. Mexican currency. Duties. United States currency. 10 per cent on $7 1£ per cent on 87 (municipal) 7 per cent on |7 (stamps) Total SO. 70 .10 .49 SO. 30 .05 .32 "If this same bale, after having been imported to the Free Zone, is shipped to the interior of the country, it must pay, in addition to the above — Description. Mexican currency. Duties. United States currency. 90 per cent on $7 (13.10) 2 per cent for harbor works Total S6,30 .14 2.79 .06 2.85 which is equal to the amount charged for importation of the bale directly to the interior ($7.73 =$3.42). "It must be noticed that not all the merchandise that enters through the custom-houses of the north is destined for the Free Zone, and that much that is primarily imported for consumption there is after- wards shipped to the interior. "The greater part of the merchandise that enters through Laredo, Tamaulipas, Poriirio Diaz (Eagle Pass), city of Juarez (El Paso, Tex.), and Nogales, Sonora, pays at once the entire duties and is forwarded immediately to the interior. "The custom-house of Matamoros has little importation, and those of Guerrero, Camargo, Mier, Boquillas, Lasabe, Tiguana, and La Morita have practically none. 294 Mixico. "The greater part of the goods imported by these last is consumed by the inhabitants of the towns named and their jurisdictions, and all arc United States goods, such as hams, potatoes, lard, butter, beer, matches, coarse cloth material, etc. "The principal cities found in the Free Zone are Matamoros, Oamargo, Mier, Guerrero, Laredo City, Porfirio Diaz (Piedras Negras), City of Juarez (Paso del Norte), and Nogales. The others arc small towns which have little commercial importance. The total population of the Free Zone could hardly be estimated to be 80,< or Km. (hio people. •• In the Free Zone there are no industries worth mentioning, nor i> it possible to establish any. for the general ordinance of the custom- house permits the introduction to the interior of the country of indus- trial products manufactured in the Free Zone only on payment of the regular duties, which are equal to those levied on foreign goods of the same kind. Exportation to the United State- of America would he difficult on account of its protective tariff, and the consumption in the Free Zone would not be sufficient to sustain industrial establish- ments of any importance, especially as not a single railroad exists, and transportation of merchandise is carried on in certain parts over difficult roads by means of the rudimentary system of ox carts." CHAPTER XII. FINANCIAL ORGANIZATION— PUBLIC DEBT— BUDGET. The financial question in Mexico has been one of the most perplex- ing- problems that ever presented itself to the statesman's mind. From the moment the country emerged from its centuries of colonial rule it was confronted with the gravest economic difficulties. The tributary system, based upon monopoly and exclusive privileges, which had prevailed before the separation from Spain, could not be continued under the conditions obtaining among an emancipated and autonomic people. Without any previous experience, they were compelled to change, improvise, and try new systems. The many revolutions and consequent changes in the administrations served but to add to the perplexity of the situation, and it has required a high order of ability to bring the finances of the country to their present condition. In 1823 the Mexican Government issued paper money, with results so deplorable that no administration has since ventured to repeat the experiment. The many difficulties which have beset the other Ameri- can Republics through depreciated paper money have thus been avoided by Mexico. REVENUES. The revenues of the Republic are divided into four groups or classes, which in 1901-2 yielded as follows:" /. Foreign-commerce taxes. Import duties • $26, 391, 048. 78 Export duties 864, 021. 12 2 per cent for port improvements 523, 085. 84 Special port taxes 519, 521. 86 Sailing licenses 928. 00 Pilots' and harbor masters' dues 16, 698. 94 Health office receipts 82, 267. 50 Consular dues 334, 607. 62 Consular and diplomatic certificates abroad 355. 00 Total 28, 732, 534. 66 a Boletfn de Estadfstica Fiscal, ano fiscal de 1901-2, No. 240. 295 296 MEXICO. II. I at: rior Federal taxes. Stamp tax $26,936,788.41 Embracing — Regular stamps $9,956,698.93 Federal tax 7, 092, 060. 38 7 per ('■nt mi imports 2,012,364.40 Mining tax 1 , 275, 714. 02 :; per cent on gold and silver 2,466,809.10 Manufactured tobacco 1,603,088.09 Spirits 864, 722. 83 Cut tun yarn and fabrics 1,578, 788. 65 Miscellaneous, fines, etc 12.01 Mintage dues and charges 1,435,467. 18 Patent and trade-mark dues •">•'!, 4so. on Total 28, 405, 735. 59 ///. In!' rior, district and U rritorial taxes. Direct taxes on real estate, professions, license tax, flour, and pulque. . $3,233,904. 17 Successions and donations 178,950. 68 Other taxes 422. 21 Total 3,413,276.96 I]'. Public service and oQu r sources. Postal service $2, 367, 957. 22 Telegrapl I service 1 , 203, 710. 55 Lottery, fines, etc - - - 2,023, 833. 74 Total 5, 595, 501. 51 These figures show a grand total of *<*><;. 147. o-hs. 72 for the period under consideration. A summary of the revenues of tin' Republic from L897-98 to 1901-2 gives the following figures: Group. 1897 1898-99. 1899-1900. 1900-1901. 1901-2. First 1,989.17 702.8] ; 168. ii 2 334.66 • ml 16 . 434. 64 712.71 .793.04 26,201 3,280,1 4,883,246.80 128, l:U,366.13 is. 162,781.83 3,281,976.02 1 -J'.i. 680. 65 2,634.66 Second Third Fourth 28, i" 3,413,276.96 "..501.51 Total 62,697,984.55 60,139,212.84 • 64,261,076.89 62, 998, 804. 63 66, 147, 048. 72 The financial condition of the country in L902-3 is shown in the following extracts from the report of the Secretary of Finance for Mexico to tlie Federal Congress, under date December 14, 1903: •"The revenue account shows the following receipts from normal sources: In cash *76, 023, 4 16. 1 1 In i ml 'lie debt securities 575, 277. 96 In nominal receipts 21, 904. 91 T. .tal ii' irmal revenue 76, 620, 598. 98 REVENUES. 297 "The expenditure in cash under ordinary budget appropriations amounted, during the year 1902-3, to $68,222,522.20. "A comparison between revenue and expenditure in cash on normal accounts shows the following results: Revenue from normal sources $76, 023, 416. 11 Expenditure for normal purposes 68, 222, 522. 20 Excess 7, 800, 892. 91 Extraordinary receipts in cash « 1, 212. 00 Nominal receipts & 4,686,301.95 Total 4, 687, 513. 95 "The following figures refer only to ordinary revenue and expendi- ture in cash, and also show the percentages which the annual surpluses bear to the ordinary expenditures of the several years: Fiscal year. Ordinary revenue in cash. Ordinary ex- penditure in cash. Excess of revenue. Percent- age. 1895-96 $50,521,470.42 51,500,628.75 52,697,984.55 60, 139, 212. 84 64,261,076.39 62, 998, 804. 63 66, 147, 048. 72 76, 023, 416. 11 $45, 070, 123. 13 48, 330, 505. 25 51,815,285.66 53, 499, 541. 94 57, 944, 687. 85 59, 423, 005. 75 63,081,513.73 68,222,522.20 $5,451,347.29 3, 170, 123. 50 882, 698. 89 6. 639. 670. 90 6, 316, 388. 54 3,575,798.88 3,065,534.99 7. 800. 893. 91 12. 11 1896-97 6.25 1897-98 1.70 1898-99 12.41 1899-1900 10.90 1900-1901 6.02 1901-2 4.86 1902-3 11.43 "The increase in ordinary receipts as compared with the previous year was $9,876,367.39, a substantial gain which no other year has equaled. The ordinary expenditures increased only by $5,14-1,008.47. "The following table shows the comparison of estimates with ordi- nary receipts collected in 1902-3: Estimates of the Department of Finance accepted by the Budget Com- mittee. Collections ef- fected. Difference be- tween estimates and collections. $29, 228, 200. 00 27,019,000.00 3, 443, 000. 00 5,133,400.00 $34, 784, 080. 55 31,508,038.42 3,616,224.69 6, 115, 072. 45 + $5,555,880.55 Interior taxes paid throughout the Federation . Interior taxes paid in the Federal district and + 4, 489, 038. 42 + 173, 224. 69 + 981,672.45 Total 64,823,600.00 76, 023, 416. 11 + 11,199,816.11 "Among the sources of revenue of which the yield greatly surpassed the estimates are import duties, common stamps, stamps of the Federal tax, taxes on mining property, and on the precious metals. The reve- a Payments made by persons who, on receiving from the treasury 5 per cent bonds without being entitled to the full coupon, have advanced money for the matured interest in order to receive said coupon. 6 Receipts taken from the treasury reserves and included in the revenue account, as provided by various laws which appropriated a part of said reserves to certain works of public utility. 298 MEXICO. line referred t<> is thai collected in cash and from normal budget sources during the last five years, which was as follows: - 99. 1-99-1900. 1900-1 901. 101-2, 1902-3. i foreign commerce. Interior taxes paid through out the Federation interior taxes paid in the Federal district and i er 128,788, 180. IS 134.64 ..... ni 8,846,742.74 798.04 26,201, W6.14 I 630.91 1,833,246.30 J28, 134 781.88 3,281,976.02 1,829 28, 105 ::. U8.276.96 6,695,601.61 134,784 31,50s 224.69 Public services and miner 6,116,072. (5 Total 60,139,212.84 64, 261, 076. 39 62. 988. 804. 63 66,147,048.72 76,028,416.11 INCREASE IN 1902 3 A- COMPARED WITH 1'.mj1-_>. Taxes on foreign commerce 16,061,545.89 Interior taxes paid throughout tin- Federation 3,102 Interior taxes paid in the Federal district and Territories 202,947.73 Public services and minor sources 519,570.94 T( >tal 9, 876, 367. 39 " Oustom-housi revenue. -The revenue from this source is derived from import and export duties and the various forms of port and sani- tary dues. On the other hand, the expenses of the service include those of the staff of the general custom-house bureau and of the fiscal gendarmerie. "The proportion of expenses to collections has been as follows: Fiscal year. Collections. 1894-95 S 1 '■'. i'.M . 679. 32 1 895 96 23, 433,1 188. 36 1896 97 23, 103,893. 16 ls-MT '.is 23, 047, 021. 72 1 28, 469, N97. 05 1899 19(H) 29, 686, 297. OS 1900-1901 28,104,627.26 1901-2 28,397,672.04 34,435,901.55 Expenses. 1,828,286.27 1 . 87! 1,911. 121.20 1 , 958, 732. 91 1,981,800.84 2,058,401.80 2, 130, Hi;. 17 2,192,085.08 Percent- age. 9. 163 7. 780 8.017 8. 423 C.689 7.824 7.7>02 6.358 '•'Hi, st,iini> tax. For the computation of the cost of collection of this source of revenue all the amounts collected by the stamp offices, including the geperal administration, are taken into consideration. "The comparative table since 1894-95 is as follows: 1 year. lions. Exp Percent- age. 1894-96 .989.50 18,066, 180. 16 19,948,271.29 21,621,246. IS 23,215,698.77 24,849,618.78 25,1 19,650.73 26,961,933.28 29,750,265.83 «1, 233, 119.74 1,317,:;7:>. 18 1,816,280.79 I. 103,636. 19 1. 170,656.75 1, 179,570.57 1,469.976.02 1,551,194.24 1,645,179.92 7.93 : 7. 29 6.60 1 897 98 6.49 6.33 5.95 19(19-1901 5. 8 I "). 75 1902-3 5.52 "The percentage of the cost of collection of this form of revenue has steadily decreased, owing to the fact that the yield of the tax has EXPENDITURES. 299 constantly increased. The increase in expenditure was more than com- pensated by the increase in collections. ll JReV( n a r from direct taxation. — The cost of collection of this branch of revenue is estimated on the basis of the total collections of the direct taxation office not only for the Federation but for each of the municipalities of the Federal District. Fiscal year. Collections. Expenses. Percent- age. 1896-97 $3,378,545.98 3,534,324.96 3,743,314.53 3,991,118.37 4, 165, 963. 53 4, 396, 829. 91 4,595,591.95 1168,664.38 172, 770. 68 173, 887. 03 175, 388. 76 178, 507. 08 188,035.45 192,441.11 1897-98 1898-99 1899-1900 4 395 1900-1901 '. 1901-2 1902-3 4 187 EXPENDITURES. The expenditures for 1901-2 were as follows: Legislative power $1, 191, 149. 42 Executive power 159, 165. 99 Judicial power 503, 549. 81 Department of Foreign Relations 1, 019, 080. 34 Department of Government 4, 909, 918. 72 Department of Justice and Public Instruction 3, 134, 159. 13 Department of Promotion, Colonization, and Industry 968, 788. 64 Department of Communications and Public Works 9, 366, 331. 45 Department of Treasury and Public Credit 27, 603, 622. 05 Department of War and Navy 14, 325, 748. 18 Total 63,081,513.73 This was the amount actually disbursed during- the fiscal year in question, as there remained at the Treasury an unpaid balance of $229,711.17 for claims uncollected at the close of the fiscal year. The balance remaining- to the credit of the Government at the end of 1901-2 was, therefore, as follows: Revenues, as stated $66, 147, 048. 72 Net expenditures 62, 851, 772. 26 Balance 3, 295, 276. 46 Taking as a basis the year 1891-95, which was the first to show a surplus after the financial crisis of 1891, the following figures show, in round numbers, the state of the Treasury up to and including the vcar 1901-2: Year. Receipts. Expendi- tures. Surplus. 1894 95. . 843,946,000 50,521,000 50,501,000 52,698,000 60, 139, 000 64,261,000 63, 000, 000 66,000,000 141,372,000 1 >, 1)70,000 48, 330, 000 51,815,000 63, 499, 000 58, 310, 000 59, 400, 000 63, 000, 000 82, 573, 000 1895-96 5,454,000 1896-97. . . 3,170,(100 1897-98.. 883,000 1898-99. . 6, 640, 000 1899-1900 . 5,951,000 1900-1901 ... 4, 400, 000 1901-2 3, 000, 000 300 MEXICO. For the year L902-3 the expenditures were, according to the report above mentioned, as follows: " The following tables for L898 L903 show the increase in the total expenditure of each year as compared with the year immediately pre- ceding, and the percentage of the disbursements effected on account of each division of the budget, as compared with the total disburse- ments for the year: Percent- 1899-1900. Percent- age. 1900-1901. Percent age. itnre Executive Judiciary Department of Foreign Relations Department of tin- Inte- rior Department of ;imi Public Instruction . Department of Promotion, Colonization, and In- dustry Department of Commu- nications ami Public Works lii partment of Finance ami Public Credit: Administrative serv- Public debt Department of War ami Navy 1972,435.73 74,249. 12 433, 985. 51 r.ts,245.38 187.83 2, 450, 065. 58 736,512.68 1.818 .138 .933 6. 763 1.579 1.376 6,079,206.44 11.363 784.39 20,058, 11.949 37. ii':; 12,185,031.43 JJ. 77C 74,137.65 •143,771.01 857. 17 3,916,299.23 2,880,066.76 1, 156,276.94 6,737,069.92 6,586,140.32 21,612,126.05 13, Ml. 964. 38 1.668 .127 .760 .911 6.716 4.939 1 . 982 11.295 37.065 '-"J. ','s 1 1981,210.72 122,004.28 899,937.13 4, 437, 550. 98 2,897,693.46 1,103,866.14 7,944,490.32 6,601,315.30 20, 165, 1 12. .'.'.i 13,773,002.45 1.651 .'J07 .886 1.614 7.468 1.876 1.857 13.370 11. 109 33.935 Total :>3, 199,541.94 Increase in total of dis- bursements effected as compared with year im- mediately preceding — 58, 309, 933. 68 .1105.75 Legislature Executive Judiciary Department of Foreign Relations Department of the interior Department of Justice and Public Instruction Department of Promotion, Colonization, ami In- dustry Department of Communications ami Public Wi >rks , Department of Finance ami Public Credit: Administrative srrvh es Public debt Department of War ami Navy 1 19. 12 169, 165.99 549.81 1,019,080.34 4, 909,'.' I s. 72 3,134,159.13 968,788.64 ,831. l"' 7,036,665.13 1 1,325,748. 1* Total 63. 081, 513. 73 ae in total of disbursements effected as compared with year immediately pr< ceding rereent- age. 1.730 . s>-: . 798 1.616 7. 7M 1.968 1.636 14.848 11.155 32.604 22.710 Percent- age. SI, 103, 911. 23 278, 401. 860, 175. 45 5,014,208.67 3, 883, 979. 32 1,063,536.06 8,814, 128. r. 7,520,241.95 14,992,499.26 .Vi'J.L'O 1.618 .409 .586 1.262 7. :;:;>; 5.696 1.556 12.928 11.029 21.979 7.535 "" In the year under review the budget voted by the Chamber of Deputies amounted to **>■>, 429. sSO. (54; but this appropriation was increased during the course of the fiscal year to §7,499,207.31. by virtue of certain provisions contained in the budget itself. "JEToldings in cash. — At the termination of the fiscal } T ear ending June 30, 1903, the Federal Government had in its vaults and in the hands of its agents or correspondents in cash the sum of §30,917,018.35. PUBLIC DEBT. 301 "This sum compared with the holdings at the beginning of the fiscal year in question — on June 30, 1902 — show the following increase: Holdings in cash at the end of 1901-2 (gold and silver, not reckoning the premium on the gold) $30, 635, 422. 82 Holdings in cash at the end of 1902-3 (gold and silver, not reckoning the premium on the gold ) 30, 917, 018. 35 Increase 281, 595. 53 "The holdings were divided between gold and silver dollars as follows: Held on June 30— 1902. 1903. 84,401,539.97 26, 233, 882. 85 $2, 708, 785. 67 28,208,232.68 Total .- 30,635,422.82 30, 917, 01S. 35 "In the course of the fiscal year 1902-3 the holdings in gold decreased by $1,692,754.30, and the holdings in silver increased by 11,974,349.83. "balance of debtor and creditor ACCOUNTS. Total assets , $69, 480, 554. 60 Total liabilities, the public debt excepted 25, 232, 943. 89 Difference in favor of the nation 44, 247, 610. 71 PUBLIC DEBT. The public debt of Mexico is represented by bonds of differing rates of interest and payable in gold or silver, according to designation. According to Romero/' the history of the Mexican foreign debt begins in 1825, very soon after the independence of the country was estab- lished, when two loans were contracted in London, both for £10,000,000, the interest on which, owing to the disturbed conditions prevailing in the Republic, was not promptly paid, the bonds consequently falling to a low nominal price. In 1851, after the war with the United States, that debt was refunded into a new bond issue, the interest on which was reduced from 5 to 3 per cent. The internal affairs of the country not permitting the payment of the interest on these bonds, in 1888 a new adjustment was made, by which gold-bearing bonds at 6 per cent were issued, the interest on which has since been paid promptly, the bonds reaching par. From 1849 to 1856 bonds were issued to pay claims of English, French, and Spanish subjects, under certain conventions, and such bonds were subsequently exchanged at differing rates for the 6 per cent gold bonds of the foreign debt. « "Mexico and the United States," New York, 1898, p. 129. 302 MEXICO. Iii L888 another loan was negotiated in London for 63,000,000, at 5 per cent, for the construction of the Tehuantepec Railroad. The sub- sidies granted to railway companies were payable in silver with a per- centage of the import duties, but a^ they amounted to a considerable sum and were a heavy drain on tin- national treasury, the Government, in L890, contracted another loan in London, on a gold basis, at 6 per cent interest, to be applied to the subsidies due most of the railway companies up to that date. In L850 a domestic or interior debt was contracted, covered by bond- bearing interest payable in silver at .". ami 5 per cent. There was. besides, other indebtedness of various kinds, growing out of loans and other obligations entered into at a time when the Government revenues were not sufficient for its expenditures. All these debts have been consolidated into new bonds, bearing interest at :; and 5 per cent, pay- able in silver, and the railway subsidies remaining unpaid from the proceeds of the lean of L890 have been met by bonds at 5 per cent. both interest and principal being paid in silver. Romero" states that "it is very onerous to Mexico, when it is on a silver basis, to pay in gold the interest of its foreign debt, because we have to buy gold at current prices, and it costs us now double it- cur- rent price. When silver was about 50 cents on the dollar, as compared with gold, 6 per cerfl interest of our foreign debt cost us L2 per cent, and of course the further silver is depreciated the greater will he the cost of paying the interest of our gold debt." President Diaz gives, in his report of November 30, 1806, the following data about the cost to the Mexican treasury of buying exchange to place in London the funds to pay the gold interest on the foreign debt: Fiscal year: L898 99 $729, 17s. 17 1890-91 2, 314, 477. 77 1891-92 3,225,246. 77 1 892 93 5, 101, 223. 57 The total amount of the Mexican debt on the 30th of June. 1896, was $203,225,067.34, as follows: Sterling Mexican debt $11 1,675,895. L9 Payable in silver 88, 549, 1 1 1. 80 In 189&-97 a third division of the debt was introduced under the name of Floating Debt, 6 and which, at the close of the fiscal year named, stood as follows: Debt payable in foreign coin atthe rate of $5 per pound sterling... $108,865,528.00 Bonded det>1 payable in silver 91,951,573.21 Floating debt 1 , 47:;. 696. 70 T( »tal - 202, 290, 797. 91 oOpus cit., p. 130. &The filiating debt consists of credits and other certificates not presented for con- version, uncollected interest and unpaid balances of previous estimates. PUBLIC DEBT. 303 At the end of the fiscal years 1897-98, and 1898-99, the public debt, including uncollected interests, stood as follows: Foreign debt (gold) .. Mexican debt (silver) Floating debt Total. 1897-98. B109,509,544.00 103,997,703.23 1,401,808.63 214, 809, 055. 86 $108, 945, 084. 00 114,542,647.93 953,619.21 224,441,351.14 At the end of the fiscal year 1901-2 the debt stood as follows: Foreign debt (gold) $113, 513, 980. 50 Mexican debt (silver) 147, 097, 930. 57 Floating debt 1, 342, 403. 50 Total i 261, 954, 314. 57 The floating 1 debt is a noninterest-bearing debt, while the Mexican bonded and the foreign debt are interest bearing. The debt proper — that is, not including the uncollected interest — for 1901-2 amounts to ),409,153.50, as follows: Foreign debt $112, 053, 800. 00 Mexican bonded 146, 012, 350. 00 Floating debt 1, 342, 403. 50 The debt payable in foreign gold is represented by the value it would attain should the foreign rate of exchange be at par, the sup-, posed value of $5 per pound sterling being the most approximate valuation. The floating debt is made up of credits which the parties interested have not collected or converted into other bonds according to the laws governing the public debt. The Federal treasury has not among its floating debt a single "short-time" bond, either interest bearing or not, issued since July, 1894, in payment of any claims. As to the uncollected or unclaimed interest on either the gold or silver debt, the respective amounts are deposited in the banks and banking houses in charge of said debts, those of the silver debt being placed in the National Bank, and those of the gold bonds of 1888, 1890, and 1893 with the firm of S. Bleichroeder, of Berlin. In June, 1899, negotiations were entered into, conducted by the Secretary of the Treasury in person, having for their object the con- version of the foreign gold debt, which culminated in the signing of a contract in Berlin, whereby J. P. Morgan & Co., of New York, J. S. Morgan & Co., of London, S. Bleichroeder, the Deutsche Bank, and the Dresden Bank of Berlin undertook the conversion of the entire foreign debt of the Republic of Mexico, viz: Six per cent loans of 1888, 1890, and 1893, and the 5 per cent Tehuantepec loan, heretofore issued in London and Berlin, into a 5 per cent consolidated external gold loan due within forty-five years at par by semiannual drawings, which may be increased after the year 1909, the first one to take place 304 MEXICO. in June, L900, <>r by purchase in the market if same can be made under par. Principal and interest of the bonds payable in gold in < rermany, London, Amsterdam, Berlin, or New York, in the last city at the rate of s i.v> per pound sterling. Bonds to be issued in denominations of from £20 to 61,000, at the option of the subscriber. The bonds are secured by a special hypothecation of 62 per cent of the import and export duties of the Republic of Mexico. The annual interest and sinking-fund requirement for the entire external debt of Mexico, as consolidated, is about Kt>,20<>,000 gold, the total amount of the issue being 622,700,* »<><), of which f5. <><)<>,< too are reserved for allotment in the United States and in Holland. ( lommenting upon this operation " Kl Mundo,"" a Mexican journal, says: "The Mexican Government, with 6 per cent gold securities, quoted at L02 and L03, and 5 per cent silver at !»'.» and 99$, has succeeded in placing, on the best markets of Europe, a 5 per eent loan, over one- half of it (£13,000,000) at i»<; flat and the balance at 97J. According to this arrangement the Mexican Government will receive: I". ir the £1 .'.,000,000, at 96 £12,480,000 For the £9,700,000, al 97} optional 9,423,250 T« .tal 21 ,!>i:<,250 Less I per cent commission on 622,700,000 227,000 Balance 21,686,250 "This, being estimated at the rate of s;. gold per pound sterling, i- equivalent to $108,431,250 gold, but as our debt, including the mort- gage loan on the Isthmus Railroad, amounts at present to *lt>7.2><',. loo gold, there will be a surplus of $1,145,150 gold, to meet the necessary expenses connected with the loan and the further necessities of the Treasury." On the 5th of July, L899, President Diaz issued a decree for the conversion of the Mexican public gold debt, in accordance with the terms of the contract signed at Berlin, from the 1st of September following. The report of the Secretary of Finance before mentioned gives the following information in regard to the condition of the public debt of Mexico in 1902-3: •• Gi /" ml status of the public '/< ot. — The public debt of the nation at the close of the fiscal year 1902-3 consisted of the following securities and amounts: a"Los Eetados Unidos Mexicanos — Bus progresos en veinte anos de paz — 1877- 1897" — R. de Zaya^ Enriqnez — New York, p. 252. REDEMPTION DEBT. 305 Principal. Uncollected interest. Total. Debt payable in foreign coin at $5 per £1. Bonds of the 1888 loan 823, 200. 00 2, 700. 00 1,100.00 111,281,800.00 82, 439. 00 898. 50 237. 00 1,455,405.00 23.75 $25, 639. 00 3, 598. 50 Bonds of the 1*90 loan Bonds of the 1893 loan 112,737,205.00 23 75 Mortgage bonds of the Tehuantepec National Rail way . 5, 200. 00 5, 200. 00 Total , 111,314,000.00 1,459,003.25 112,773,003.25 Debt payable in silver coin. 48, 476, 975. 00 19, 595, 700. 00 19, 525, 700. 00 19. 712, 900. 00 19, 839, 800. 00 16, 842, 500. 00 25. 00 2, 000. 00 9, 260, 000. 00 5,939,500.00 858, 837. 45 118, 062. 00 127,965.00 96,270.00 107,092.50 1,250.00 49,335,812.45 19,713,762.00 19. 653, 665. 00 19,809,170.00 19.946,892.50 16 843 750 00 Bonds of the 5 per cent interior redeemable debt: Provisional certificates of the 5 per cent interior re- 25 00 Bonds of the Monterey and Mexican Railway 240. 00 2. 211). (Ml 9,260,000.00 5, 946, 685. 00 7, 185. 00 Total 159, 195, 100. 00 1,316,901.95 160,512,001.95 Noninterest-bearing debt (floating debt). 143, 967. 25 2,785.45 969, 969. 84 153, 110. 92 Uncollected balances of budgets prior to July 1, 1895, redeemable at so much per cent, according to de- cree of Oct. 31, 1895 Uncollected balances that are payable in full in cash appertaining to the budgets of from 1896-97 to 1902-3 Sundry balances awaiting collection, according to Total 1,269,833.46 RESUME. ' Debt payable in foreign coin at the rate of 85 per pound sterling 8112, 773, 003. 25 Debt payable in Mexican money, interest-bearing securities 160, 512, 001. 95 Debt payable in Mexican money, uncollected balances and floating debt 1, 269, S33. 46 T< ital of debt 274, 554, 838. 66 " Redemption of 'the debt. — The following table sets forth the amount of securities redeemed in each class of the public debt during the year 1902-3: Securities of tin: public debt thai slum' a decrease on June SO, 1903, as company! with flic same date in 1902. Debt payable in foreign money at $5 per A 1 (principal) Bonds of the 1888 loan Bonds of the 1890 loan Five per cents, 1899 Mortgage bonds of the Tehuantepec National Rail way Total Securities of the debt, payable in silver (principal). Bonds of the 3 per cent consolidated debt Bonds of the 5 per cent interior redeemable debt : First series Second series Third series Fourth series Bonds of the Monterey and Mexican Gulf Railway. . Total 509a— 04 20 June 30, 1902. June 30, 1903. j^ e ™%™ 829,400.00 4, 800. 00 112, 012, 500. 00 6, 000. 00 112, 052, 700. 00 48, 972, 425. 00 19,653,000.00 19, 590, 800. 00 19,772,100.00 19, 898, 000. 00 3, 000. 00 127, 889, 325. 00 823, 200. 00 2, 700. 00 111,281,800.00 5, 200. 00 111,312,900.00 48, 476, 975. 00 19, 595, 700. 00 19, 525, 700. 00 19,712,900.00 19, 839. 800. 00 2, 000. 00 127,153,075.00 86, 200. 00 2, 100. 00 730, 700. 00 800.00 739. 800. 00 495, 450. 00 57, 300. 00 65, 100. 00 59, 200. 00 58, 200. 00 1,000.00 736. 250. 00 306 MEXICO. Securities of the public debt that show a deer east cm June SO, 1903, as compared with tht same date in 1908 — Continued. June 80, 1902. June 80, 1908. Decrease on June 80, 1908. Nonintt rest-bearing debt \ footing debt i. Certificates of arreare, claims not presented for con- 11,342,408.60 •70.04 1,842,408.60 1,209,888.46 72,670.04 RESUME. Debt payable in foreign money Debt payable in silver money Debt not bearing interest I Boating debl Total. 2 O.OO 72,670.04 1,689,620.04 "The total amount of the debt redeemed in L902-3 was $1,539,620.04, against $1,269,250, which was the amount redeemed in the preceding year. •'In the noninterest-bearing floating debt there has been a decrease of $72,570.04, owing to the redemption of certificates of arrears. "Increase of tht debt. — The following table shows the classes <>t' the percent redeemable debt, and bonds of the Veracruz and Pacific Railway. The amount of both classes of securities issued during the year under review is considerable, par- ticularly the amount of certificates of the fifth series of the 5 per cent redeemable debt, and both have entered into circulation by virtue of the respective contracts.'* BUDGET. 1903-Jf.. — The budget for the fiscal year commencing July 1. L903, and terminating June 30, L904, as approved by the House of Deputies, amounts to $74,838,268.77 Mexican silver, distributed as follows: Legislative %1, 155, 801. 20 Executive 267, 300. 86 Judicial 450, 803. 40 Fi ireign "Relations 782, 576. 75 6 See tables on pages 412-413, Chapter XIX. BUDGET. 3U7 Department of Interior: Personnel and expenses of the department $3, 173, 549. 70 Political and municipal government of the Federal District 5, 731, 203. 55 Political and municipal government of the Federal territories 357, 143. 10 Department of Justice 968, 969. 70 Assistant Secretary < >f Public Instruction 3, 123, 598. 03 Department of Public Works 1, 145, 718. 30 Department of Communications 9, 743, 723. 83 Treasury: Administration 7, 681, 740. 65 Public debt 24, 542, 543. 99 Department of War 15, 713, 595. 71 Total 74, 838, 268. 77 WOJf.-o. — On December 11, 1903, the Mexican Secretary of the Treas- ury presented to the Federal Congress the budget for the fiscal } T ear 1904—5, from which the following data are collected: "The forecast of the revenue which will be collected in the coining fiscal year, and a minute examination of the expenses of all the services of the public administration during- the same period of time, afford a basis for the presentation of the budget bill for the year in question, subject to the following showing: Estimate of normal revenue $79, 965, 000. 00 Expenditure proposed 79, 862, 157. 39 Excess of revenue over expenditure 102, 842. 61 "The recapitulation of the estimates of revenue during the fiscal year 1904—5 shows the following results: Taxes on foreign commerce. Import duties $31, 350, 000 Export duties 862, 000 Sundry port dues 650, 000 Guard and storage dues 44, 000 Pilotage dues 19, 000 Sanitary dues 88, 000 Consular fees 364, 000 Other minor taxes on foreign commerce 1, 000 Total taxes on foreign commerce 33, 378, 000 Interior taxes payable throughout the Federation. Stamp revenues: Sales of common stamps $12, 000, 000 Federal contribution 7, 050, 000 Taxes on mining property 1 , 840, 000 Three per cent on gold and silver 2, 980, 000 Tax on tobacco 2, 555, 000 Tax on alcohol 1 , 250, 000 Tax on cotton, yarn, and cloth 1, 840, 000 Trade-mark and patent dues 35, 000 Sundry income under the stamp law 90, 000 Total yield of the stamp revenue 29, 640, 000 308 MKXK (>. Other Federal internal taxes: Faxes on coinage, assay, smelting, separation, and refinement Total interior taxes payable thronghoul the Federation Taxes payable in tht Federal District and territories. Direcl taxes on real estate, business license.-, professional tax, taxes on Hour and pnlque, and in general all local taxes and receipts Snccessiiins and donations Public registry of property Total Special taxes of the Federal District and territories Public ft rvices. Earnings < >f post-office .. Earnings of telegraph office Earnings of certain < Jovernmenl establishments Total revenue from public services Proceeds from the Xctinn's roil estate. From sundry operations therein Profits "ml minor sources. National lottery Minor sources $1,800,000 31,600,000 18,359,000 200,000 60,000 8,609,1 $2, 980, 000 1,655, 38, I 4, 573, 000 * 140, 000 $360, 000 1 , 405, 000 Total lottery and minor sources L, 765, 000 RESUME. First group s;;:;,:;:s, oiKi Second -roup 31, 500, 000 Third group 8,609,000 Fourth group 4,573,000 Fifth group 1 40, 000 sixth group 1,765,000 Total estimated revenue for 1904-5 79,965,000 Departmental appropriations for 1904-5 79, 862, 157 •'A comparison between the departmental appropriations of the budget for L903-4 and those of the proposed budget for 1904-6 shows the following differences: Department. Budget for 1903-4. Budget for 1904-5. Legislature Executive Judiciary Department of Foreign Relations Department of the Interior Department of Justice Public Instruction Department of Fomento Department of Communications and Public Works Department of Finance and Public Credit: Administrative services Public debt Department of War and Navy 156,801.20 267, S00. 86 (49,803. lo 788, 189.26 261,774.85 968,969.70 136,698.48 1 [5,718.80 743, 723. 83 681, 740. 68 542, 643. 99 713,596.31 Total 74,850,060.27 155,801.20 282,341.11 450, 423. 90 773,034.14 112,816.98 520, 050. 56 536, 106.66 089, 605. 21 884,138,45 236,043.99 689,200 B5 79,862,157.39 CHAPTER XIII. MINTS, CURRENCY, BANKS, BANKING LAWS— CORPORATIONS. Since the enactment of the law of June 6, 1887, the production of gold and silver has greatly increased in the Republic, and it is due to this law that the latter metal has attained its present enormous output. The main objects of the law in reference were: The reduction of the cost of metal production ; to relieve the mining industry as much as possible of the onerous taxes and obstacles which retarded its free development; to lower the cost of the principal raw materials required in the industry, and also to attract capital. Further legislation on June 6, 1892, gave a new impetus to mine production^ the output of silver from 1886 to 1891 being valued at $199,208,204, while from 1891 to 1896 it aggregated $267,122,118. By the law of June 4, 1891, the executive was authorized to grant concessions under certain condi- tions to those engaged in the exploitation of gold mines, this industry having increased its production from $920,702 in 1890-91 to $4,744,- 512 in 1894-95, and to $6,054,078 in 1895-96. This calculation is made on the basis of $20 silver per ounce of gold, which is the standard used in the Mexican statistical tables. It is claimed that these figures do not cover the true production of the gold districts, as almost all the exports of this metal are shipped clandestinely. 3 Mints were established in Mexico in 1537, the custom being some- times followed of renting them to private individuals, who collected a mintage charge of nearly 4£ per cent upon the amount of bullion coined. Until within eight years ago there were thirteen mints in the Republic, but as increased facilities of transportation have reduced the difficulties attendant upon the carriage of the bullion from mine to mint, this number has been decreased to three, one being in the City of Mexico, one in Zacatecas, and one in Culiacan. Besides these mints there are Federal Assay Offices situated at Aguascalientes, Alamos, Chihuahua, Durango, El Paso (Texas), Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Her- mosillo, Monterey, Oaxaca, San Luis Potosi, Tezuithin, and Zacatecas. «"Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, etc.," Kafael de Zayas Euriquez, New York, p. 20. 309 310 MEXICO. Coinage. — From colonial times to June ::<», 1902. the total coinage of the Republic is represented by the following figures: From — Gold. Silver. Copper. Total. 1587 to 1821 968,778,411.00 59, 868, 278. 50 12,082,260,657.44 1,887,676,274.28 s93. 37 ,894.86 -J, 161,681,961.81 1822 to L902 l. 154, 129, W2.14 Total . 128, 646, 684. 60 3, 469, 935, 981. 72 7,128,787.73 3,605,711,403.95 During the presidency of Gen. Manuel Gonzalez nickel to the value of $4, ,000 was coined, but this was subsequently withdrawn from circulation. From December 1899 to June 30, L902, bronze was coined to the value of $65,150, thus bringing the total coinage to $1,458,194,572.14, giving a yearly average of $9,876,269. l>4 since 1 537. During the fiscal year ending June HO, 1903, money was coined to the value of $27, 200.534, as compared with a coinage of K2.">.31.">,332 during the fiscal year L901-2, or an increase of si.ss;,.-n-_> i„ L902 3. The coinage during the fiscal year 1902-3 was as follows: Silver $26, 4:;s. 350 (i.,1,1 713,146 Copper 19, 038 According to statistics for the fiscal year L902— 3, silver coin was exported to the value of $21,098, 33!», and gold coin valued at $106,598, showing that of the coinage of the year referred to there remained in the country in circulation $5,340,011 in silver coins and $606,548 in gold coin. The receipts of precious metals at the mints and Federal assay offices in L901-2 were as follows: (,,,1.1. Silver. Total Kilos. Value. Kil,,-. Value. value. Minis 4,875 4,590 $:;, 292, hi:. 3. 100,21)0 566,016 890,904 122,749,897 86, 151,355 126,042,042 39,551,656 Total 9,465 6,392,815 1,146,920 59, 200, 752 66, 593, 597 The disposition of these meta Is was as follows: For coin- age. For ex- port. Total value. Gold 27,961,766 •5,626,962 31,238,98(5 $6,392,845 Silver 59,200,762 Total 28.727.628 36, 865, 968 65, 593, 597 Exports of specie. — In a report to the Mexican Monetary Commis- sion the following information is found with regard to the annual " See table on page 417, Chapter XIX. TAXES. 311 export of silver dollars from the Republic, which is stated to be one of the most interesting- phenomena in international currency problems. "The average annual exportation of silver dollars is estimated at $15,000,000, though in 1902 it rose to $17,621,700. Out of the said amount barely 10 per cent of the pesos exported to London are melted down, while the balance of the London shipments and all those sent to the United States are reexported to India, the Straits Settlements, and the Chinese Empire. The pesos which reach India are melted down, whereas in other oriental countries to which they are shipped Mexi- can dollars are used as currency, though British dollars also circulate in the Straits Settlements and American dollars in the Philippines. " In regard to the volume of the demand for Mexican dollars in the Far East in former times and the present demand for same, it is stated that the Spanish dollar coined in Mexico during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the Spanish dollar and Mexican dollar in the nineteenth century was, par excellence, the dollar of commerce, because it served as the money of almost all the nations of eastern Asia and even of the British possessions in North America, the Span- ish West Indies, and other countries; and it was also the money of the United States at the time of the declaration of their independence. During the second half of the nineteenth century its use as money has gradually been reduced, and at the present time it circulates only in the Straits Settlements, in the Malay States, the Philippine Islands, and the Chinese Empire, all of them countries of the Far East of Asia. It will soon cease to circulate as legal money in the first three coun- tries, a and while it will continue to be used as a trade dollar in the Straits Settlements and in the federated Malay States, it will retain its role as monej 7 in the Chinese Empire only." Taxes. — Under date March 27, 1897, the President issued a decree (No. 42) whereby gold and silver are subject to the following taxation: (1) Interior stamp tax at the rate of 3 per cent on the value of said metals. (2) Mintage dues at the rate of 2 per cent on the value of said metals. (3) Assay dues, in conformity with the tariff that the Department of the Treasury may promulgate. (4) Smelting, refining, and other dues as they may be decreed by the Treasury Department. A subsequent decree, November 26, 1902, provides that on and after the 1st day of January, 1903, the assessment of the 3 per cent stamp tax and the 2 per cent coinage tax provided for by the law of March 27, 1897, shall be made, in so far as gold is concerned, according to the « Since January 1, 1904, the Mexican dollar has ceased to circulate in the Philip- pines, being superseded by the "Conant" dollar, worth 50 cents American gold. 312 MKXKO. commercial value of said metal expressed in silver, which value shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of the following article: "Akt. _. The commercial value of gold expressed in silver shall be fixed each month, taking as a basis the value of $675,416 thai the monetary law assigns to a kilogram of gold,.which value shall be reduced to silver dollars according to the average rate of exchange on New York daring the lir>i t wenty-five days of t he previous month." The Department of Finance, on any of the days between the 26th and 28th of each month, shall notify the director- of the mints and the custom-house collectors said rate of exchange, so that it may tie used in the liquidation of the dues on the precious metal- presented for coinage or exportation from the first to the last day of the Follow- ing mqnth. The commercial value of the kilogram of gold, in silver coin, on which to hase the estimates d urine- the month of March. L904, the 3 per cent for the stamp tax and the 2 per cent for the coinage tax in conformity with the decree of November 26, L902, was fixed at $1,460.32. The stamp and mintage due- a- well a- the assay dues will always he paid, whether the pieces are to he coined or whether the metal- or substances are to he exported. The smelting dues are to he collected upon such pieces that, not being homogeneous, must be smelted in order to assay them and estimate upon their value. The refining and other due- apply only to pieces to he coined. Foreign coin- are exempted from the provisions of section L, above mentioned, and will only he subject to the payment of coinage dues, a- provided in sect ions 3 and 4, above mentioned, when they are introduced into the mint- to be coined. « IURENCY. The present monetary system of Mexico i- regulated by the law of November 28, L867, which introduced the decimal monetary system in the country. The preamble of this law states its object to he to establish a uniform system of currency without making an y essential modifications in the value of the monetary unit, which -hall remain the silver dollar (peso). 'Phis dollar is to weigh 27.073281 grams, and he of a fineness of 0.902 plus(0.777 of 0.001). The weight of this dol- lar is, expressed in grains troy, 417.79. The amount of pure silver in the dollar is 377.139 grains troy. The variation allowed at the mints in the weight is 750 grains either way for each $l,0<>u. and the maximum for each dollar is U grains. o Leyee y disposicionee ivlativas ;i la Moneda Nacional — 1821-1899 — Secretarfa de Estado y del Despaeho de Hacienda y Credito Publico— Mexico — 1900. SPECIE. 313 The weights of all the silver coins are given below: Silver coins, a Weight in grams. Equivalent in grains. 81 27. 073281 13. 536 6.768 2.707 1.352 417.79 208. 90 104. 45 41.77 20. 865 a By a law passed in December, 1897, the mints commenced, in January, 1898, to coin a new peso and a 20-centavo piece. The peso is of the same weight and fineness, but bears different inscriptions from those on the old S-real peso. A bronze centavo was created by decree of December 21, 1899, con- taining 95 parts of copper, 4 parts of tin, and 1 part of zinc. The fineness of gold coins is 0.875. are given in the following table: The denominations and weights Gold coins. Weight. 820 Grams. 33. 841 $10 16. 920 $5 8 460 12.50 4. 230 81 1.692 The ratio is 16 to 1. Specie. -'- — The first monetary census of Mexico, made in 1903, shows the following figures: Gold. Silver. Copper. Specie. Pesos. Fractional coin. Total. 8173, 512 250, 578 5,929 52, 866 848, 295, 726 6,707,917 2, 443, 793 697,686 81,677,283.10 860, 839. 50 354,487.70 79, 200. 30 82, 428. 59 36, 758. 88 18, 709. 29 3, 793. 88 850,14S,919.69 7,856,093.38 2, 822, 918. 99 833 546 18 In the public treasuries Total 482, 885 58, 145, 122 2,971,810.60 61,690.64 61 661 508 24 In his report to the Federal Congress relative to the financial situ- ation of Mexico during the fiscal year 1901-02, the Secretary of the Treasury made the following statements: The amount of specie held in the various banks of the country dur- ing the year in reference, was: Date. Banks of the capital. State banks. Total. 1901 July August September October November December 1902 January February March April May June 8 43, 345, 808. 12 43, 860, 996. 68 41,491,876.47 39, 656, 535. 44 38,351,931.10 • 36,902,382.54 37, 798, 926. 39 38, 326, 160. 42 38, 395, 875. 43 39, 682, 396. 04 41,062,694.76 43, 520, 749. 33 815, 383, 589. 73 16, 033, 210. 59 16,225,377.66 16, 224, 866. 80 16,456,892.45 16, 996, 500. 49 17, 184, 936. 58 17,978,057.59 18, 375, 728. 63 18, 625, 472. 58 18,968,060.85 19,399,385.99 858, 729, 397. 85 69, 894, 207. 27 57,720,254.03 55.881,402.24 54,808,823.55 53,898,882.96 i4. 983, 862. 99 56,304,218.03 56,771,604.06 58,307,868.62 60, 030, 755. 61 62, 920, 135. 32 "See table on page 416, Chapter XIX. 314 MEXICO. In the preceding fiscal year, L900 L901, the minimum holding of specie was 146,155,002 in the month of January, L901; in the fiscal year 1 '.»< > l •_' the minimum \\a> 153,898,000 in December, L901, as is shown in tlir foregoing statement; the maximum holding in the former year was $58,220,000 in June, L901, and in the latter year the maximum was 162,920,000 in June, L902. The oote circulation advanced from 163,778,000 to $77,467,000; bills discounted rose from $91,865,000 to $108,794,000, and loan- on collat- erals and mortgages increased in equal proportion. The capital stock of the banks rose from $78,300, to $83,300,000, and the unpaid pari of this capita] was $5,040,000 in dune. L901, and $4,850,000 in June, L902. Tin' reserve funds were increased by *2.i>h0o, and the emer- gency funds by $438,000. BANKS. Al the end of the calendar year L902 there were in the Republic 24 banks of issue, 2 mortgage banks. 4 " refaccionarios," or loan banks, and 1 trust company. The paper of the banks of issue is noi legal tender, it being covered by large deposits of coin. The Government issues no paper money, and as a rule does not retain any specie in the Treasury vaults, the National Bank, which acts as depository. paying all warrants, etc. On June 30, L902, the leading banking institutions of the country held in cash $69,528,374.32, while the amount of bills in circulation was $77,466,988.25, the authorized capital of these institutions, including the Trust ( lompany, being $85,300,000 and the unsubscribed capital $5,850,000. The general condition of these institutions on the date in reference is shown as follows: Assets. [Jnsubscribed capital $5, 850, (ion. en ( 'ash 69, 528, 374. 32 Bills receivable 108,794,411.70 I. nans 'in personal property 42, 862, 303.00 Hypi ithecary loans 12, 057, 085. 06 Loans on real estate - 4, 005, t>t>4. 22 Public funds held by the banks 5,571,865. 27 Current debtor accounts - 67,513,817. 18 Furniture and fixtures -, 546, 022. 56 T< »tal 318, 730, 143. 31 Liabilities. Authorized capital $85, 300, 000. 00 Bills in circulate >n 77, 466, 988. 25 Mortgage and ether bonds in circulation - 12, 734, 300. 00 Sight deposits 7,460,105.62 Other dep< .sits 7, 421 , 535. 61 a By order of the Treasury Department, 1897, hanks were forbidden to count as cash on hand note- of their own or other hanks, so that the term "cash on hand" represents actual specie. BANKS OF ISSUE. 315 Current credit accounts $111, 975, 877. 77 Reserve fund 12, 480, 293. 19 Surplus fund 3, 891, 042. 87 Total 318, 730, 134. 31 New h de Hidalgo 500, 000 These additions raised the number of chartered banks to 30 at the end of the }-ear 1902. Five banks during 1902 increased the capital with which they were organized under the original charters, the increase being made with the approval of the Treasury Department and forming an aggregate of $4,750,000, as follows: Banco Yucateco $1, 500, 000 Banco de Jalisco 1, 500, 000 Banco Mercantil de Yucatan 1, 000, 000 Banco de Nuevo Leon 500, 000 Banco de Guanajuato 250, 000 Jin til's of issue. — The following table shows the banks of issue of the Republic on December 31, 1902, their capital, unsubscribed capital, cash on hand, and bills in circulation, as given in the "Anuario Esta- distico, r for 1903: Authorized capital. Unsub- scribed capital. Cash on hand. Bills in circulation. Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Banco Nacional de Mexico de Londres y Mexico ... Minero de Chihuahua . . Yucateco Mercantil f bonds of the national public debt, whose nominal par value shall he at lea-t equal to 20 per cent of the sum which the hank i- to have in cash in order to begin operation-. 2. The minimum capital subscribed shall be $500,000, of which :it least half shall be paid in cash before the hank begins operation-. 3. The ca-h balance in cadi hank -hall never be reduced to less than half the amount of its circulation notes and the amount of deposits payable on demand, or at three day.-' sight or less. •L No hank shall he authorized to issue circulation note- for a sum greater than three time- the amount of its paid-up capital. .">. The hank notes may be accepted as currency and shall not be of a lower denomination than *.">. i'». Exemptions or rebates from taxes shall only he allowed to the hank first established in any of the State- or Federal Territories of the Republic. All other banks shall pay the taxes imposed by the general laws. and. furthermore, a special tax to the Federation of 2 percent per annum upon the amount of their paid-up capital. For the purposes of this section, first hanks -hall he considered such as are now established, provided they subject themselves to the provisions of the general law. BANKING LAW. 319 7. Banks established in a State shall not have beyond the same branch offices for the conversion of their notes, save by special per- mission from the Executive, who will grant the same only when close business interests bind several States, but never for the establishment of said branch offices in the City of Mexico or in the Federal District. 8. The Federal Executive shall have at the banks an interventor, whose duties shall be specified and who, at the revision of the annual balances, shall have the same authority granted b} r law to the commis- saries of corporations. 9. Banks shall publish a monthly balance sheet, which shall show, besides the balances of accounts required by law, the cash on hand, amount of bank notes in circulation, and amount of deposits payable on demand or at three days' sight or less. 10. No concessions shall be granted by the Executive of the Union until after the promulgation of the general banking law and in con- formity with its provisions. The Executive is likewise authorized: 1. To enter into agreements with the National Bank of Mexico, pursuant to which, and through such compensation as may be deemed equitable, all variances between the concession of said bank and the promulgation of the general law referred to in the foregoing article shall be removed. 2. To enter into agreements with banks already existing pursuant to special concessions, provided that State banks, in order to enjoy the benefits of the general law, shall relinquish the concessions under which they were established. 3. The authority granted the Executive by the present article to enter into agreements with the State banks shall cease six months after the publication of the general law, and that granted for other pur- poses shall terminate on the 15th of next September. The regulations which are to govern all other institutions of credit may be the subject of the said law or of other special laws that the Executive may issue as he may deem best. 4. The Executive will report to Congress, with respect to his action under the authority conferred upon him by this law, at the session next following the publication of the decree or decrees in the premises. Pursuant to the authorit}^ in him vested by this law, the President on March 19, 1897, promulgated the " General Law relating to institu- tions of credit." The main features of this law are as follows: For the purposes of the law the following onl} T are considered as institutions of credit: Banks of issue, mortgage banks, and loan (refaccionar ios) banks. Banks of issue are such as issue notes of a given value, payable at par, at sight, and to bearer. 320 MEXICO. Mortgage banks are such as make loan- secured by mortgage on urban or suburban real estate, and issue bonds secured in Like manner, bearing interest :m and I of this law. ■*Akt. »'>. Any action growing out of (In 1 violation of the provisions of this law, either by the improper use of the word 'bank,' or by failure to add the words 'without concession,' when they are required to l»' used, shall be brought ex officio by the prosecutor before the Federal courts, and shall l>c punished by a fine of the second class, [f the offender is a company, Its managers or administrators shall pay the penalty." CHAPTER XIV. MEANS OF COMMUNICATION— RAILROADS AND RAILROAD LAW— TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE LINES— POSTAL SERV- ICE—STEAMSHIP LINES. Notwithstanding- earnest endeavors to foster railroad construction in Mexico, for many years the topographical conditions of the country rendered such enterprises both difficult and expensive. Means of communication were limited to a few wagon roads, over which twenty - four regular lines of diligences were operated under one management, supplemented by a few bridle paths, leading from the Central Plateau over the Sierras to points on the Pacific and Gulf coasts. RAILWAYS. In 1854 the first section (about 1 kilometers in length) of what after- wards became the Mexican Railway was finished, connecting the City of Mexico with Guadalupe, and, with another line about 19 kilometers long, between Veracruz and Tejeria, constituted the railways of the Republic until 1861. The French army, during the war of interven- tion in 1862, carried the Tejeria section as far as Paso del Macho, at the foot of the mountains, a distance of about 56 kilometers. About the same time an English syndicate, which had a concession from the Government to build a road from the capital to Veracruz, extended the Guadalupe road to Puebla, the entire line to Veracruz being com- pleted in 1873. It is from this period that the era of railroad develop- ment in Mexico dates, new impetus being given to this branch of public service by the installation of General Diaz as President, in 1876. From 1877 to 1882 Mexico built more miles of railroad than any other Latin-American country, the average yearly construction during that period being 680 kilometers/' In his message to Congress, April 1, 1897, President Diaz, in refer- ring to the extent of railway development in the Republic, stated that in 1875 there were 578 kilometers 285 meters of road; in 1886, 5,915; in November, 1888, 7,910; in June, 1892, 10,233, or, including the tramways and other local private lines, 11,067 kilometers; in Septem- «Informe del C. General Porfirio Diaz, Presidente de los Estados Unidos Mexica- nos, & sus compatriotas, 1896. 327 328 MEXICO. ber, 1S94, 11,100, and in April, 1897, the total extent amounted to 11,469 kilometers. The same document also gives the following figures in regard to traffic: Number of passengers . Freight handled i t<>ns> i [rose receipts 1876. 4,281,327 132,915 12,564,870 1890. 2,734, 130 8-21,019,960 22,781,848 3,798,860 126,121,624 1895. 24,269,895 128,758, 150 It is also stated that the subsidies paid for railroads up to December, 1892, averaged $8,935 per kilometer built and in operation at thai date, and up to June 30, 1896, the total amount paid in subsidies reached $107,74:3,660.25, distributed as follows: Paid in cash... $46,896,«.«U. 95 Certificates of construction (convertible into 5 per cent bonds) 21, 711,513.92 Paid in bonds 31, 127,000.00 Balance, payable either in cash or bonds 8, 008, 244. 38 Taking into consideration that in the $31,127,000 paid in bonds, $13,500,000 are included, which were paid in gold to the contractors of the Tehuantepec Railway at 100 per cent premium, such sum mu>t be regarded as $27,000,000 silver, thus increasing the former total to $121,343,660.35 silver." In his message to Congress, September 16, 1903, the same authority makes the following statement: "The increase of the railway system from the 1st of January, 1903, to the date of the message has been 432 kilometers, of which 180 kilo- meters have to be credited to the National Railway of Mexico on its new line between Huehuetoca and Gonzalez Junction; 70tothe Kansas City, Mexico and Orient line; 78 to the Central, on its Panuco and San Pedro to Paredon divisions; 14 to the Interoceanic, which has com- pleted its line from Cuautla to Chietla, and the remainder to the other lines. The railways of the Republic now aggregate 15,918 kilometers, and if railways subject to the jurisdiction of the States and private branches be added, the total is 18,197 kilometers. I may add that the National Railway of Mexico only lacks 92 kilometers to complete the standardizing of its gauge between the capital city and Laredo.'" 1 Most of the railways built in Mexico have obtained large subsidies from the Government, ranging from §6,000 to $10,000 per kilometer, according to the difficulties of the work, these subsidies having con tributed very largely to the prosperous condition of the roads. a> tin- proceeds have been used not only to build the line, but in some cases to pay the interest on bonds. At present the railroad system of the Republic connects the capital with the principal centers of population, commerce, and production; « " Los Estados Unidoe Mexicanos, bus projiresos en veinte anofi de paz, 1877-1897." Kafael de Zayas Enriquez, New York, p. L95. RAILROADS. 329 also with some of the more important seaports of the Republic and with the United States. The Tehuantepec road, formerly owned and operated by the Government, is the only line connecting the Pacific and Gulf coasts. Lines traversing the central plateau as far as the United States frontier connect the City of Mexico with the capitals of Queretaro, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, Zacatecas, Chihuahua, and San Luis Potosi, over the Central Railroad, while the International road connects it with Dnrango; the National line with Mexico (Toluca), Guanajuato, Michoacan, San Luis Potosi, Coahuila, and Nuevo Leon; the Mexican International with Puebla and Veracruz (via Orizaba and Jalapa), and the Southern Mexican with Puebla, Tlaxcala, and Oaxaca. The port of Manzanillo is connected with the capital of Colima; the port of Matamoros with Reynosa and San Miguel, in Tamaulipas; Tampico with San Luis Potosi and Monterey, and the Tehuantepec line connects Coatzacoalcos on the Gulf with Salina Cruz on the Pacific. The International in its southern extension passes near Cuernavaca (Morelos), and the Cuernavaca and Pacific road runstolguala (Guerrero) and will soon connect with Acapulco on the Pacific. Merida on the Yucatan Peninsula is connected by rail with Progreso and Campeche. The slopes on the Pacific side of the great central table-land present much greater engineering difficulties than those on the east or Gulf side, hence the slow development of means of communication in the former section. According to the latest available statistics from Mexico, the number of kilometers of railroad on Decmber 31, 1902, was as follows: Meters. Railroads under Federal grants 15, 137, 505 Tramways 502, 332 Suburban lines under State grants 1, 498, 054 Portable railways, Decauville system , 2, 299, 329 Total 19,437,220 The following table shows the name of the railroads, date of con- cession, and the total earnings for all the roads operating under Fed- eral grants on December 31, 1902, the latest available Mexican official data:« Name of railroad. Ferrocarril Mexieano Ferroea rri 1 del I )ist ri to Federal Ferrocarril Naeional de Mexico Ferrocarril de Souora Ferrocarril Interoceanico Ferrocarril Central Mexieano. Ferrocarril de Cuernavaca y Pacifico i> Ferrocarril de Tehuacana Esperanza Ferrocarril Occidental de Mexico (Sinaloa and Durango). Ferrocarril de Tlalmanalco k Chalco c Ferrocarril Internaeional Mexieano Date of concession. Nov, Dec. Sept. Sept. Apr. Sept. Dec. Nov. Aug. Feb. June 27, 1867 25,1877 13, 1880 14,1880 16, 1878 S, |, SSI) 31,1896 28, 1883 16, 1880 3, 1881 7. 1881 aAnuario Estadistico, 1902. bData included in figures representing earnings of the Central Mexieano. cNow called " Xico a San Rafael." (See table.) Total earn- ings. 1902. $5,100,828.10 2,251,479.74 8,818,778.23 1,216,124.27 t, 625, 248. 32 21,132,226.98 85, 676. 58 69,583.95 6,497,491. 380 MEXICO. Name ■•!' railroad. Date "i" concession. Total earn Ferrocarril de Santa Ana a, Tlaxcal Ferrocarril de Toluca 6 s. Juan de las Huertaa Ferrocarril de Vanegas, Cedral, Matehuala > Rio Verdea ocarril Mineral de Chihuahua Ferrocarril Mexicano del 8ur Ferrocai ril de Monterej al Golfo« Ferrocai ril de< lordoba a Tuxtepec* Ferrocarril de Mich ;in al Pacifico" Ferrocarril de Monte Alto icarril Industrial de Puebla i ■ i. mm nil Mexicano del Norte Ferrocarril de Campeche a Lerma i lompania Constructora Nacional Mexicana Ferrocarril de Toluca 6 Tenango Ferrocarril de Rio < Irande, sierra Madre y Pacifico ocarril de Lerdo 6 Torreon Ferrocarril de Torres :i Minas Prietaa Ferrocarril de Esperanza &Xuchil Ferrocarril de Xicoa Ban Rafael Ferrocarril de Jalapa 6 T lo . t Ferrocarril de Veracruz al Pacifico Ferrocarril de Cazadero a- Solis Ferrocarril re. ."..170 107,540 13,340 4,000 4,000 47,000 Mi ti re, Meters. 12,054 225,000 27,926 7,000 M1I1 is. 5,170 3,540 Mi ii re. 94,000 1,650 4,000 47,000 10,303 9,000 1,303 CAP IT A L INVESTED. 331 Total length of line. Length of city lines. Length of suburban linos. Length of portable r-ulw r, s. Power. State. Horse. Steam. Elec- tricity. Durango Meters. 57, 400 156, 809 6, 252 21,612 113,111 9,050 32, 506 51,972 85, 937 1,500 369, 559 38, 240 70, 150 6,175 28, 338 64, 311 19, 971 47, 142 1,000 38, 421 118,884 2, 546, 372 67, 950 Meters. 7,000 38, 248 M( it rs. 50, 400 89, 404 Mt h rs. Mtlt rs. 7, 000 156,809 6, 252 21,612 90, 056 9, 050 32, 506 51,972 41,937 1,500 360, 809 38, 240 54, 650 6,175 7,338 64,311 Meters. 50, 400 Meters. Guanajuato 29, 157 6,262 Hidalgo 21, 612 66, 189 9, 050 10, 151 2, 602 30, 937 1,500 51,350 11,240 33, 650 4, 042 7,338 18, 211 16, 623 46, 922 23, 055 Michoacan 22, 355 8,870 55, 000 ""40,566" Morelos Nuevo Leon 44, 000 Puebla 266, 509 27, 000 32, 500 2,133 21,000 3,000 3,348 47, 142 51,700 8,750 San Luis Potosi 4,000 15,500 Sinai oa Sonora 21, 000 Tabasco 43, 100 Tamaulipas 19, 971 Territory of Lower 47,142 1,000 1,000 38, 421 97, 034 2, 484, 372 26, 950 38, 421 43, 310 510,690 49, 000 Veracruz 46, 574 35, 712 18, 950 29, 000 1,999,970 21, 850 62,000 42, 000 Yucatan Total 4, 299, 715 502, 332 1, 498, 054 2, 299, 329 3,897,945 400, 407 1 363 On the 31st of December, 1903, the number of kilometers of railways in operation in Mexico was 16,471:, divided into five groups as follows: Kilometers. Steam traction 15, 953. 956 Electric traction 12. 749 Animal traction 240. 271 Electric, steam, and animal traction 241. 428 Animal and steam traction 25. 500 The first group consists of the various lines which constitute the general steam railway system of Mexico. The second group consists of the 10.817 kilometers from Lerdo to Torreon, and 1.932 kilometers of the Ciudad de Juarez tramways, which use solely electric traction. The third group embraces the 17 side lines of varying lengths from stations on the main steam lines, which use traction by mules or horses, and may be called local feeders. The fourth group consists of the tramways in the Federal District which radiate from the Zocalo or Central Square in front of the National Palace to all parts of the city, and to all the suburbs; these use electric traction on all the principal lines, steam on one outside freight line, and animal traction on various minor lines which have not yet been changed from the primitive construction. The fifth is the line from Esperanza to Xuchil which uses steam on one part and mules on the other. Capital invested. — The total amouut of foreign capital invested in Mexican railways in 1903, less the sum paid in subsidies, was $767,151,849 Mexican currency, according to "The Mexican Journal 332 Mexico. of Commerce," April 1. l'.to4. The amount involved in the several roads are as follows: Mexican 982,421,653 Mexican Central (entire system ) 361,510, 194 National (not including controlled line) 169,797,304 I nternational 83, 688, 4 W I men tceanic 54, 983, B5 1 Mexican Southern 24,000,000 Chihuahua and Pacific 16,511, L45 Mexican National ( '(instruction Company 1, 7t>0, 000 Kansas City, Mexico and Orient 1, 522, 206 Mexican Northern 3,652,000 Chihuahua Mineral 682, 864 Naoozari to the border 1, 650, 000 Nac< . to ( 'ananea 2, 500, 000 I'arral and Durango 2, 200, 000 Sierra Madre 6, 840, 000 S. >ni >ra 15, 035, 1 25 Tlacotepec and Huajuapam 1 , 000, 000 Tultenango and Yondese 754, 287 Veracruz and Alvarado ' 1, 000, 000 Veracruz to Pacific 22, 000, 000 The amounts above are figured at an exchange of '2'2o. The number of roads constructed with Mexican capital alone is .V). a total mileage of something in the neighborhood of 4,<>. given as the capital employed, represents what has actually been paid out up to the present time for the construction and equipment of the road. The Mexican National is the next strongest, with a capital invested <>!' $107,350,000. This entire amount has not been actually spent on the construction and equipment of the road up to date, hut it will be within the next year. * * * The Mexico. Cuernavaca and Pacific Kail- way has recently been sold to tin 1 Mexican Central, but since the transfer has not as yet been made officially, the road is considered in this report as a separate road." Intercontinental Railway. The report submitted to the Secretary of State of the United States by Mi-. ( JharleS M. Pepper. ( oniinissioner to carry out the resolution of the Second International Conference of American States, held in the City of Mexico in the winter L901 2, con- tains most valuable data in regard to the progress made by the inter- continental railway in Mexico. The following information is taken from that important document: "Under authority of the general railway law the franchise was granted for the line known by its corporate title as the Pan-American Railway, which should start from a point on the National Tchuantepec Kail road and should continue through Tonala to the border of Guate- mala. The point selected was the station of San Geroninio. which is a few miles northeast of tin 1 town of Tehuan tepee. The route surveyed to the border of Guatemala was 260 miles (418 kilometers). On .Janu- ary 1, L904, 88 miles i L41.5 kilometers) were constructed, leaving 1 7^ miles (276.5 kilometers) to be built. By the terms of the concession the subsidy is granted in bonds to the amount of $12,000 Mexican silver, bearing 5 per cent interest, for each kilometer constructed, or §3,816,000 for the whole line, and 80 kilometers are required to he built each twelve months. The entire system must be finished by September 11. 1907, but your Commissioner was informed there is a probability that the earnest desire of the Mexican Government for its earlier completion will be gratified. This railway is to be of standard gauge, 4 feet vl inches. "In view of the termination of the Veracruz to the Pacific Kail- road, which has placed the City of Mexico in direct communication with the Isthmus of Tchuantepec. including the Pan-American junc- tion point of San Ger6nimo, the branch running southeasl from «" Pan-American Railway,'" Senate Document No. 206, 58th Congress, -' miles (15,685 kilometers). The existing concessions include 2,235 miles (:'>.. v.»7 kilometers) of subsi- dized construction and 3,843 miles (6,188 kilometers) of unsubsidized construction, or in all t>,078 miles (l'.7s:» kilometers). The total amount of subsidies granted by the Government in cash and bonds for the lines now under construction or making extensions is $30,522,000 Mexican silver. A few of the bonds bear interest at 6 per cent, but the larger portion are 5 per cent. In addition to the cash guaranties public lands to the value of $5, 136,000 have been granted. Principal railroads. — The Ferrocarril Mexico/no (Mexican Railway) was the first steam road built in the Republic. Its construction w;is begun in 1S.">7. and portions of the line were opened to the public at different times. The Puebla branch was inaugurated in 1869, the main branch being opened for its entire length in 1873 and the Ometusco-Fachuca extension in December, 1S90. The total length of the line is 516 kilometers 500 meters, as follows: Mexico to Veracruz, 423 kilometers 750 meters: Apizaco to Puebla, 47 kilometers, and from Ometusco to Pachuca, 45 kilometers 750 meters. It is a standard- gauge road, and runs through the States of Veracruz, Puebla, Hidalgo, and Mexico, starting at the city of Veracruz and passing through the towns of Cordova, Orizaba. Puebla. and Pachuca. its terminal point being the City of Mexico. It is considered one of the most beautiful and picturesque railway lines in the world, passing as it does from tropical vegetation of the valleys to the eternal snows on the summits of extinct volcanoes. From Veracruz to Orizaba the grade of ascent is gradual, skirting the mountains and traversing valleys and canyons. At the latter point the tropical landscapes come to an end and are suc- ceeded by those of the temperate zone, the altitude being 1,200 meters above sea level. The line continues its ascent, climbing the mountains overbeds of volcanic formation at dizzy heights, through tunnels, etc., until the semicircular viaduct of "El Intiernillo" is reached, which is MEXICAN CENTRAL RAILWAY. 337 considered one of the boldest and most remarkable engineering- feats of modern times. At this point the altitude reached is 2,450 meters above sea level, the line passing into the cold zone, and after a few hours 1 run the traveler enters the Central Plateau. The rapid descent of Maltrata, the grade being 1 per cent, necessitates the use of double locomotives of the Farlie system for the safety of the trains. From 1893 to December 31, 1902, the Mexican Railway carried 7,877,113 passengers and 7,002,103 tons of freight, the total earnings of the line being $39,058, 626.« Ferrocarril Central Mexlcano. — The Mexican Central Railway is the result of the amalgamation of different Government concessions granted originally either to the compan} r now in control of the line or to others. Work on the main line, from Mexico to Paso del Norte, was commenced on May 25, 1880, and completed March 8, 1881, the total extent being 1,970 kilometers, which indicates a per diem labor rate of 1,500 meters. The expenses of construction are estimated at $35,500,000, of which amount the Government contributed $18,620,000. This is the longest and most important road in the Republic, having connections with the United States and thereby facilitating trade, while at the same time it protects the States of Chihuahua and Sonora from the depreciations of certain Indian tribes and assists in the devel- opment of the mineral wealth of the '"'Sierra." The total length in working condition was, on December 31, 1902, 3,731 kilometers 183 meters. The road was opened to regular passenger traffic on the 10th of April, 1881. The Guadalajara division was opened May 21, 1888, and the Tampico division was finished March 30, 1890, thereby bringing the line to the Gulf of Mexico at Tampico. The railway is standard gauge, and traverses the Federal District, the States of Mexico, Hidalgo, Queretaro, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, Zacatecas, Coahuila, Durango, and Chihuahua. It affords an outlet to the agri- cultural centers of San Juan del Rio, Penjamo, Silao, the extensive territory called El Bajio, and Lagos; to such manufacturing cities as Queretaro, Cela}*a, and Leon; to the rich mining districts of Pachuca, Zimapan, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Sombrerete, Sierra Mojada, and Chi- «The Mexican Railway connects in Mexico City with the Mexican Central and Mexican National for northern and western points and with the Interoceanic Rail- road for Morales; in Puebla, with the Mexican Southern for Oaxaca, Puerto, Angel, and Tehuantepec, and with the Interoceanic for Izucar de Matamoros; in San Marcos, with the Nautla Railroad for San Juan de los Llanos; in Esperanza, with the Tehuan- tepec Railroad; in Cordova, with the Agricola Railroad for Motzorongo and Tuxtepec; and in Veracruz, with the Alvarado Radroad for Tlacotalpam, San Andres, Tuxtla, Co^amaloapan, and Playa Vicente, and with steamship lines for Mexican Gulf ports, namely, Progreso, Campeche, Carmen, Frontera, Coatzacoalcos, Tuxpam, and Tam- pico, and for Habana, and American, English, Spanish, French, and German ports. 509a— 04 22 MEXICO. huahua; to the cotton country in the valleys of the rivers Na/.a- and ( Jonchos, and to the commercial centers of Mexico, < ruadalajara, Aguas- calientes, San Luis Potosi, and Tampico. a From L893to December, L902, the Mexican Central carried L5,594,405 passengers, the receiptsfromthisbranchoftheservicebeing$37,44:5,265; also L6,064,885 ton- of freight, which produced |J L0,040,099, or a total for the period under consideration of *147.4s;>.354. Ferroearril Tnterocednico. — The Interoceanic Railway is the result of a concession to build a road connecting Veracruz and Acapulco (hence it- name Interoceanic), which was granted by the Mexican Government in April, 1878. In L902 the length of the line was 778 kilometer-. From 1893 to December 31. L902, the earnings of the road were as follow-: Passengers, 9,856,388, which produced 16,103,408; freight, :..lM.77t> tons, producing $25,525,993, or a total of $31,629,401.* /•; rroca ,-r'tl National Mexicano.- The Mexican National Railroad was inaugurated on November 1. L888, but it- construction had been under consideration since'1857. It is the shortest route between Mexico and the United States. This road traverses United States territory for a distance of 260 kilometers 700 meters from Laredo "The Mexican Central connects at El Paso with the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe; for all points northeast and west with the Texas and Pacific; with the Southern Pacific for points north and east: with Southern Pacific Company and the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe for points north and west in the United States: at ( rallego, with Btage for Ascencion, Casas Grandee, and Corralitos; at Chihuahua, with stage for Cusihuiriachic, Guerrero, and Rosario; at Jimenez, with Btage for Allende and Par- ral; at Escalon, with Mexican Northern Railway for sierra Mojada; at Torreon, with the Mexican International for DurangO, Monterey, and Tampico, via the Mexican Gulf Railway; at Fresnilfo, with stage for Somhrerete; atZacatecas, with Sullivan Construction Railway for Ojo Caliente, with tramway for Guadalupe, and with Btage for Jerez; at San Luis PotosX, with the Mexican National for Catorce Mines, Saltillo, Monterey, and San Miguel Allende: at Tampico, with steamer- for Galveston, New Orleans, Mobile, New York, and European ports; at Celaya, with Mexican National for points north and south of that road: at Negrete, La Barca, and La Piedad, with stage for Zamora; at Guadalajara, with stage for Mazatlah, Tepic, and Zapotlan; at El Castilo, with tramway for the falls of Juanacatlan; at Atequiza, with Btage for LakeChapala; at the City of Mexico, with the Mexican Railway and Interoceanic Railway for Puebla, Cholula, Orizaba, Veracruz, Jalapa, Cuautla, Oaxaca via Mexi- can Southern; with the Hidalgo Railway for Tulancingo; at Huachinango, with the Mexican National for Toluca, Morelia, and Lake Patzcuaro, ami with sta>;e for ' hiernavaca. ''This line connects at the City of Mexico with Mexican Central and Mexican National railroads for points north and west; at Otumha, with Mexican Railway; at Irolo, with Hidalgo Railway for Pachuca; at Puebla, with Mexican Southern for Oaxaca. with Mexican Railway for Tlaxcala, and with Industrial Road (animal traction) for Cholula and San Marcos with the Nautla Railroad and Mexican Rail- way; at Jalapa, with tramway forCbatepec; at Veracruz, with Mexican Railway for Alvarado, and with steamers for Gulf ports. Eiabana, United States, and Europe; at Compafiia, with tramway for Chalco; at Yautepec, with private conveyance for Cuernavaca; at Jojutla, with stage for principal towns in the State of Guerrero. MEXICAN NATIONAL RAILWAY. 339 (Texas) to Corpus Christi, the terminus of the line. From 1893 to 1902 the total earnings of the road were as follows: $11,337,559 for passengers, and freight, $49,145,767, a total of $60,183,326; the num- ber of passengers being 8,513,991 and the freight weighing 8,901,851 tons. a A report of this road dated March 27, 1903, gives the following data for 1902: The gross earnings from all sources for the year 1902, in Mexican currenc}% were $9,262,859.61; the total expenses of oper- ating were $6,018,681.07, leaving the net earnings $3,211,175.51, which, reduced to gold at the average price of the Mexican dollar for the year (11.3311 cents), gives $1,329,428.38. The gross earnings per mile of road operated were $6,862.70, as compared with $5,837.23 in 1901, the percentage of increase being 17.57. The operating expenses per mile of road operated were $4,481.37, as compared with $3,628.25 in 1901. the percentage of increase being 23.51. .The net earnings per mile of road operated were $2,381.33, as compared with $2,208.98 in 1901, the percentage of increase being 7.80. Average miles operated in 1902 were 1,349.74, as compared with 1,323.32 in the preceding year. Upon the completion of the new line between Huehuetoca and Gon- zalez the track mileage will be as follows: Texas Mexican Railway, con- trolled by ownership of all its securities, Corpus Christi to Laredo, 161.620; International line from Laredo to Santiago station, City of Mexico, 802.311; City of Mexico, Colonia station, to Tacuba, three- rail track, 2.979; Cintura line, three-rait track, 3.293, making a total of standard gauge of 970. 203 miles. The trackage of the narrow-gauge system is as follows: City of Mexico to Uruapan, 320.826 miles; Acambaro to Gonzalez, 54.959; Vanegas, Cedral, and Matehuala, 37.282; Guanajuato, San Luis de la Paz, and Pozos, 31.441; Michoacan and Pacific (leased line), 56.927, making a total of narrow-gauge line aggregating 501.435 miles. The total mileage, both standard and nar- row gauge, is 1,471.638, not including the narrow-gauge line from Matamoros to San Miguel de Tamaulipas (75 miles) and the Browns- ville and Gulf line of 1 mile. The company has a very favorable con- cession from the Mexican Government for building the line from San Miguel to Monterey, which it is proposed to construct standard gauge, and in connection therewith to broaden the gauge of the existing line " The connections of the Mexican National are at Laredo, for points north and east in the United States; at Matamoros, with the Mexican Gulf Railway for Venadito. Montemorelos, and Tarnpico; at Vanegas, with Vanegas, Cedral and Rio Verde Railroad for Cedral and Matehuala: at San Luis Potosi with Mexican Central for Aguascalientes and Tarnpico; at Celaya, with same road for Guanajuato and Guada- lajara; at Maravati'o, with Michoacan and Pacific Uailroad for Angangueo; atToluca, with San Juan Railroad for Valle; at Mexico City, with the Hidalgo, the Inter- oceanic, and the Mexican for Pachuca, Pnebla, Veracruz, Jalapa, Orizaba, and Cuautla Morelos, and other lines recently acquired. 340 MEXICO. between Matamoros and San Miguel, which will make the total distance from Matamoros to Monterey approximately 232 miles. The mileage above noted does not include t hat of t he Mexican International Railroad (880 miles), control of which was acquired by obtaining $15,786,100 of the capital stock out of a total issue of $20,708,200 and the total issue of income bonds. $4,449,000, which was paid for by the issue of $7,000,000 preferred stock and s7.noo.0110 } percent consolidated bonds of the new company, as provided for in the readjustment plan. The following concession has been granted the National Railroad Company: "Duringa period of twenty years, from October 31, l ( .">-'5. the Gov- ernment will not grant to any person or corporation other than the National Railway Company of Mexico. its assignees, successors, or lessees any right, privilege, or concession to construct, maintain, or operate any railway line of any kind whatever in a zone extending alongthe northeastern frontier of Mexico and the United States, said zone being bounded on the northeast by the Bravo River (Rio Grande del Noite) and on the southwest by a line drawn at a distance of 50 kilometer- from said river and parallel thereto in that part of its course which is comprised between the Gulf of Mexico and a meridian passing through a point situated upon said Bravo River loo kilometers, measured along the bed of the river, t«> the northwest of Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, in the State of Coahuila." The concession to which the foregoing refers is granted subject to the following conditions: The company will complete, construct, and equip its line from Monterey to Matamoros within three years from January 1, 1 !*< >4. If on January 1. L907, said line is not completed, constructed, and equipped, the concession will be forfeited. Other concessions may be granted within the said zone, provided that the lines to be constructed and operated are only branches or local routes connecting solely with the main lines of the National Railway Company of Mexico. At the request of the National Railway Company the Government will consent to the consolidation, both as to control and operation, of the National. Lnteroceanic, and International railway systems. Ferrocarril Tntemadonal M<.i!<. -The Mexican International Railway is a standard-gauge railway, an extension of the Southern Pacific. It is the only trunk line built in Mexico with United States capital without a subsidy. Believing that a road from the Rio Grande toward the Pacific Ocean would cross a section of the Republic of Mexico susceptible of great development, this company obtained cer- tain concessions in L881, modified in 1882 and 1883, and work was im- mediately commenced at Ciudad Porfirio Diaz and the Lampazos branch, thereby reaching the coal fields of San Felipe. The track of MEXICO, CUERNAVACA AND PACIFIC RAILWAY 341 the main line to Torreon was completed January 12, 1888, and the opera- tion of the road was commenced two months later. The San Pedro branch was built in 1890, and the main line was completed October 1, 1892, to Durango, the capital of the State of Durango. This road traverses the States of Coahuila and Durango, and will extend through Sinaloa to reach Mazatlan, on the Pacific coast. It touches Eagle Pass. Allende, Sal/mas, Monclova, Trevino, Jaral, Paila, Torreon, Durango, and other points. From 1893 to 1902 the total earnings of this road amounted to $37,852,435, divided as follows: Passengers (1,552,274), $4,320,692, and freight (5,517,129 tons), $33,531,743. The total length in opera- tion in 1902 was 1,41(5 kilometers 680 meters/' F< rt'ocarril de Monterey al Golfo Mexicano. — The Monterey and Mexican Gulf Railway is the property of the National Railway Com- pany, but the original grant of November 10, 1887, was made to an American company, which built the line. It extends from Trevino (formerly Venadito), in the State of Coahuila, on the International line, as far as Tampico, on the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of 624 kilo- meters 640 meters, passing through Monterey, the capital of Nuevo Leon, and Ciudad Victoria, in Tamaulipas. This road connects at Trevino with the International for Torreon, Durango, and points north; at Monterey with the Mexican National for points north and south on that line; at Tampico with the Mexican Central for San Luis Potosi and Aguascalientes, and with steamers for Gulf ports, the United States, Cuba, and Europe. The earnings of the road since 1893, up to December 31, 1901, were $10,555,190, divided as follows: Passengers (1,073,608), $1,315,445, and freight (2,024,230 tons), $9,239,745/ Ferrocarril de Mexico a Cuema/oacCb y el Pacifico. — The Mexico, Cuernavaea and Pacitic Railway has a total operating length of 292.50 kilometers, the concession for its construction dating Ma} 7 30, 1890. The first division, from the capital to Cuernavaea, a distance of 119 kilometers, was opened to traffic on December 12, 1897. Beyond Cuernavaea there is a branch line, 40 kilometers long, connecting Puente de Ixtala. lguala, and Mexcala. From 1895 to 1901' the move- "Connections: At Eagle Pass, with the Southern Pacific Company for all points in the Tinted States; at Allende, with stage for Zaragoza; at Sabinas, with stage for San Juan de Sabinas; at Felipe, with stage for Juarez and Progreso; at Berroteran, with stage for Villa de Musquiz (Sapta Rosa); at Monclova, with stage for Cuatro Cienegaa and Sierra Mojada; at Trevino, with the Mexican Gulf Railway for Monte- rey, Tampico, and points on the National; at Jaral, with stage forSaltillo, the capital of the State of Coahuila; at Paila, with stage for Parras; at Homos, with stage for Viesca; at Torreon, with the Mexican Central Railway for all points on that line and its connections. ft Data for 1902 included in report for the National Railway. ''Data for 1902 included in report for the Mexican Central. 342 MEXICO. iin'iit of the line is represented by 331,266 passengers and 701,663 tons <>f freight, the total earnings being estimated at $2,214,869, of which $425,454 is for passengers and $1,789,414 for freight. Ferrocarril National Tnterocednico percent on whatever investment is made in the work, the excess over this percentage reverting to the Govern- ment. The firm is to exploit the harbors for its own benefit. At the expiration of the fifty years the line, together with the harhors. will again become the property of the Government. Ferrocarril del Rio annul* Sierra Madreyel Paeifico. — The Rio Grande, Sierra Madre and Pacific Railroad is a new road built entirely by New York capital under a grant bearing date of March _!4. L896. It runs from Ciudad Juarez (Chiahuahua) to the southeast part of the Republic. Ground was broken for the inception of the line on August 1.'.. L896, and the first passenger train ran over the completed line to Casas Grandes, a distance of 250 kilometers, on June 27, 1897. The cost of construction was $8,400 per English mile, and other expenses, "The road traverses the States of Veracruz and Oaxaca, touching Coatzacoalcos, Minatitlan. Suchil, Tehuantepec. and Salina Cruz. At Coatzacoalcos it connects with steamers for Gulf ports. Hahana, United States, and Europe; at Tehuantepec with private conveyance for Oaxaca, Miahuthtn, and Pachutla, and at Salina Cruz with strainers for Tonala, San Benito, and other Pacific coast ports. RAILROAD TRAFFIC. 343 such as right of way, equipment, telegraph lines, etc., amounted to about $2,475 more. The total length of the line measures 256 kilo- meters 575 meters. The earnings of the road from 1897 to 1902 were $1,474,869, of which $242,163 were for passengers and $1,232,705 for freight. The "Anuario Estadistico" for 1902 gives a list of 90 railways, including those already mentioned, whose combined length is 15,137 kilometers 505 meters. There are besides rnanj' other minor lines, too numerous to mention, and new concessions are being granted ever}' day. Federal District. — The railways in the Federal District show earn- ings to the amount of $17,195,144 for the period between 1893 and 1902, divided as follows: Passengers (220,163,684), $14,621,954, and $2,573,189 from other sources. There are two systems of traction used in the district, animal and electrical, representing the city, suburban and other lines, with a total length of 239 kilometers 883 meters. The report of the Mexico Electric Tramways (Limited) for 1902 shows that the total distance operated on by electricity under the compan} T 's system is 116 kilometers. During the year 311,132,030 passengers were carried, as against 26,709,225 passengers during the previous year (1901), being an increase of 4,422,805 passengers, and the receipts amounted to $2,400,787.83, as against $2,103,174.87 in 1901, showing an increase of $297,612.96. The increase in prices of material and rise in wages as a consequence of the lower exchange during the past year as against the previous year may be taken, at a moderate estimate, at about 20 per cent. Traffic receipts since the beginning of January, 1 '.»<):}, have shown a steady increase. Railroad traffic with the United States. — According to statistics issued by the Treasury Department of the Republic of Mexico, the railway traffic across the Rio Grande between Mexico and the United States during the fiscal year 1902-3, as compared with 1901-2, was as follows: United States to Mexico. Mexico to United States. Total traffic. Freight cars. Merchan- dise. Freight cars. Merchan- dise. Fi eight cars. Merchan- dise. 1901-2 37, 307 37, 379 Tons. 517,749 704,958 14, 130 18,737 Tons. 199, 276 207,514 51,437 56, 116 Tom. 1902-3 72 187, 209 4 007 us ->:ts The distribution of this traffic at the points where the railways cross the Rio Grande on the frontier line was: Ciudad Juarez. — 7,729 cars, with 1*5,664 tons of merchandise, from the United States into Mexico: 2,506 cars, with 40,276 tons of mer- chandise, from Mexico into the United States, making a total traffic of 10,235 cars, with 163,940 tons of merchandise. 344 mix ico. ( 'iudad Porjirio Diaz.— 9,182 cars, with 138,371 tons of merchandise, from the United States into Mexico; 8,386 cars, with 23,236 tons of merchandise, from Mexico into the United States; total traffic, L7,235 cars, with 161,607 tone of nirrchandi.se. Laredo. — 18,138 cars, with 228,800 tons of merchandise, from the United States into Mexico; 1. 304 cars, with ir>,74!» tons of merchan- dise, from Mexico into the United States; total traffic, ID, 442 cars, with 244,549 tons of merchandise. Nbgales. 2,258 cars, with 26,914 tons of merchandise, from the United States into Mexico; 1,934 cars, with 30,015 tons of merchandise, from Mexico into the United States; total traffic, 4,192 cars, with 56,929 tons of merchandise. The railway traffic across the frontier in the three fiscal years from 1898-99 to 1900-1901 is shown in the following statement: 1898-99.— Cars from the United States into Mexico. 32,305, with 4f;7.s:;'.i tons of merchandise: cars from Mexico into the United States, 15,506, with 288,412 tons of merchandise: total traffic, 47,811 cars. with 756,251 tons of merchandise. 1899-1900.— Cars from the United States into Mexico, 47,529, with 645,953 tons of merchandise; cars from Mexico into the United States, 24,471, with 242,550 tons of merchandise; total traffic. 72,063 cars, with 888,503 tons of merchandise. 1900-1901.— -Cars from the United States into Mexico, 38,629, with 535,640 tons of merchandise; cars from Mexico into the United State-. 20,368, with 223,720 tons of merchandise; total traffic, 58,997 cars, with 759,360 tons of merchandise. RAILROAD LAW. The general railroad law of the Republic," whereby those of Decem- ber 2.'), ls77. and December 1»'>. 1881— with the exception of those clauses relating to the acquirement of telegraph and telephone lines by the Government — are repealed, was promulgated April 29, 1899. The law, which is one of considerable length and containing hi chap- ters and 187 articles, is intended to cover everything connected with the granting of concessions, each concession having formerly been the occasion of a special law. This general law will hereafter apply both to new concessions and to those previously granted, the terms of which shall not conflict with the law. It also increases the difficulties of obtaining subsidized concessions and emphasizes the control exercised by the Government over companies. <* For the convenience of persons wishing to familiarize themselves with the full text of the law, it is kept on file, both in Bpaihish and English, at the Columbus .Memorial Library, International Bureau of the American Republics. RATLROAD LAW. 845 Chapter I of the new law is devoted to the classification of railroads subject to the Federation, which are divided into two classes, viz: I. General routes of communication. II. Routes of local interest in the Federal District and in the Territories. III. Routes of local interest in the State. To the first class belong those connecting two or more States or connecting the Federal District or a Territory with one or more States; those touching at a port or at some point on the coast of the Republic or at some point on the border line with a foreign State, and those running wholly or in part within a zone of 100 kilometers from the dividing line with a foreign State. To the second class belong the railroad lines connecting two or more towns of the Federal District or of a territory with one another, and those which, while not connecting two or more towns by entering to their center, have one of their terminals on the outskirts of a town. Railroads built or projected within the territory of a State, whether under a State concession or not, shall be classed as routes of local interest subject to the Federation, providing that the concession has been granted by the Federation, or that a subsidy, exemption from duties, release from taxation, or any other aid has been granted by the Federation. General routes of communication are subdivided into lines of prime and secondary importance, the lines of prime importance being: I. A line connecting the city of Chihuahua with a port on the coast of Sonora or the north of Sinaloa. II. A line connecting the City of Mexico with a port in the State of Guerrero. III. A line connecting the Mexican Railway between Orizaba and Veracruz with the Tehuantepec Railroad. IV. A line from Guadalajara to Tepic Mazatlan. V. A line from Guadalajara or some other point and the Mexican Central to Colima and Manzanillo. VI. A line connecting the Tehuantepec National Railroad with the frontier of Guatemala. VII. A line connecting the Tehuantepec Railroad with the States of Tabasco and Campeche. VIII. Any other line which, in the opinion of the Department of Communications and Public Works, is of general interest and its con- struction an urgent necessit}', provided the requirements of the law are complied with. The construction of railroads subject to the Federation shall be car- ried out by corporations or private individuals under concessions to be granted by the Executive of the Union, subject to the provisions of the 346 mexioo. law. Private persons tow hom concessions are granted are empowered to form companies, the same rule being applicable to corporations. In order to obtain a concession for the construction of a railroad the petition must be made to the Department of Communications and Public Works, Betting forth the following points: I. The terminals of the road and the intermediate points at which it touches, cither directly or by mofins of branches. II. The period within which the survey of the road is to begin. III. The minimum number of kilometers to he built annually. IV. The period within which the road is to be completed. Y\ The schedule of maximum rates to be charged for the transpor- tation of passengers and merchandise, for express and baggage, for telegraph service, and for the use of the track by other line-. VI. Any other facts that may be deemed expedient. After the proposition has been accepted, with the modifications deemed proper by the Department and the terms of the contract have been agreed upon, the applicant shall make a deposit in the general Treasury of the Federation at the rate of $150 per kilometer in securi- ties of the consolidated public debt. If tins provision is not complied with, the application shall be regarded as having been withdrawn and a declaration to that effect shall be made by the Department of Com- munications and Public Works, without subsequent appeal. After the deposit has been made the contract will be signed and made public in the " Diario Oficial," the date of publication being the point of reekoning for all periods named in the document, unless other- wise specified. Concessions for the lines of prime importance which have not been granted, or which having been granted shall lapse in the future, can only be granted to the companies which, besides the requirements already expressed, shall present proof covering the following points: I. The existence of the company and its organization in conformity with the laws of the country whence the document in regard to its organization proceeds. This proof, if the company has been organ- ized in the Republic, shall be furnished by means of a certified copy of the draft (minuta) of the articles of association, which shall be raised to the rank of a public instrument in case the concession is granted; and if the company has Ween organized abroad, by the presentation of the documents required by article 24 of the Code of Commerce" and "Article L'4 of the Code of Commerce provides that "foreign companies desirous <>f establishing themselves or their branch unices in the Republic shall present and tile in the register's office, besides the proofs of the protocolization of their statutes, contracts, ami other documents referring to their organization, their inventory or last balance sheets, it" they have any, and a certificate showing that such companies have heel) duly organized and authorized in accordance with the laws of their respective countries. This certificate must he L'iveii by the Mexican minister residing at the respective places, and in his absence, by the Mexican consul. RAILROAD LAW. 347 in case the concession is granted such documents need only to be pro- tocolized, registered, and stamped. II. That the company has, either on hand or assured, the subscrip- tion and payment of the capital necessary for the survey of the land, the [(reparation of plans, and the fulfillment of the obligations set forth in the law. If the proposition is accepted, the procedure shall be as stated above, but the deposits shall be at the rate of $200 per kilometer in securities of thetonsolidated public debt. The construction of other lines shall be subject to bids, as provided by law. Railroad concessions carry with them the following rights: I. The right to construct the railroad. II. The right to build a telegraph and telephone line. III. The right to exploit the railroad and the telegraph or telephone line for the entire period of the concession. The telegraph or telephone line built under the concession can only be exploited for the service of the road, of passengers traveling thereon, and of shippers or consignees of freight on matters connected with their business with the road. The telegraph line can not be oper- ated in any other manner nor on other service, except with the authori- zation of the Department of Communications and Public Works, which at all times shall have the right to revoke the authorization granted. The system of traction to be used shall be set forth in the concession. Railroads constructed within the territory of a State and not com- ing under either of the classes mentioned shall, from the moment they join or connect with a road under the Federation, become subject to all Federal laws and regulations, as provided b} T law. The deposit that is made guarantees the performance of the obliga- tions contracted by the concessionaire, and shall be returned to him when all the works covered by the concession have been completed. Until such time as the deposit is returned, and unless it has been for- feited, the interest coupons shall belong and shall be delivered to the concessionaire. Concessions may be transferred wholly or in part to other companies or individuals, with the consent of the Department of Communications and Public Works, according to the provisions of the law. Under no circumstances can the company transfer, mortgage, or in any other manner dispose of a concession or any of the rights which it carries, or of any of the property or belongings connected with said line, to a foreign Government or State, and any sale, assignment, trans- fer, or mortgage infringing this rule shall be null and void. A com- pany may not allow a foreign Government or State to become a part- ner, and any agreement infringing this rule shall likewise be null and void. All shares, securities, or bonds issued by the company and 348 MEXICO. acquired by a foreign Government or State shall, from the moment of such acquisition, be deprived <>f all force and value for their holder who shall forfeit to the nation all the rights attached to such shares, securities, or bonds. Concessions for railroad Lines shall not be granted lor a term exceed- ing ninety-nine years. At the close of thi> period the railroad, with all its appurtenances, shall pass, in good condition and free from all incumbrance, into the control of the nation; but the Government must purchase the rolling stock, appliances, chattels, and equipment that may lie necessary to continue the operation of the road, paying in cash the price of valuation by appraisers appointed as provided by the law. The Government shall be entitled to the earnings of the railroad dur- ing the five years preceding the date of the reversion, to he employed for the benefit of the road in case the company fails to comply with the provisions regarding its transfer in good condition. No railroad concession implies a monopoly for the benefit of the concessionaire, but a stipulation may be introduced into concessions to the effect that within ten years no other concession shall be granted for a line parallel to the former, wholly or in part within a territory of a width to be determined on both sides of the road, or that no sub- sidy, exemption from taxes, or other franchises shall be allowed to lines for the construction of which within said territory a concession may be granted. The Executive of the Union, in compliance with this law. may at all times and in concert or under an agreement with the companies, add t<». modify, or rescind existing railroad concessions. A concession shall lapse for any of the following reasons: I. Failure to commence the surveys within the time specilied. II. Failure to construct, in a year, the number of kilometers required by the concession, or to complete the line within the period allowed by said concession. III. The total or partial interruption of the public service of the road, save in the case of fortuitous or unforeseen circumstances, as defined by law. IV. The sale of the concession or of any of the rights granted by it to a company or individual, without the previous consent of the Department of Communications and Public Works. V. The transfer, sale, or mortgage of the concession, or of any of the rights com eyed, or any of the properties attached thereto, to a foreign Government or State, or the admission of such a partner in the enterprise. In order that the circumstance may be declared to be fortuitous, the company must present to the Department of Communications and Pub- lic Works, within three months from the occurrence, a written state- ment, detailing the event and showing proof thereof, as provided by RAILROAD LAW. 349 the law. The Department of Communications and Public Works, in view of the company's statement, shall decide whether or not the con- cession is thereby forfeited. If the decision rendered is in favor of the company, an extension of time, at the discretion of the Govern- ment, shall be allowed in which the company may fulfill the obligations entailed by the concession. The concessionaires are entitled to enter into contracts with other individuals or companies for the construction of the road, but these contracts shall have no recognition from the nation until they are sub- mitted to the examination and approval of the Department of Com- munications and Public Works. Failure to comply with this does not entail a forfeiture of the concession, but the constructing com- pany and the concessionaire shall be considered as one and the same for all legal purposes connected with the nation; and for all such pur- poses, as well as for all business appertaining to the construction of the road and the concession in which the nation has an interest, only the original concessionaire shall be recognized. Whenever a concession if forfeited, the concessionaire shall lose his deposit, which reverts to the nation. When the concession is for- feited for any of the causes mentioned in Paragraphs I and II, above, the company shall preserve the right of ownership of the buildings it may have erected, the portion of the railroad and telepragh line it may have built, and to the materials, machinery, and utensils employed in the operation of the road, according to the law. In the event of the public service of a railroad being interrupted, wholly or partially, the Department of Communications and Public Works shall, at once and at the expense of the company, take steps to assure its continuance provisionally, as provided by this law. In the event of forfeiture for the cause mentioned in Paragraph IV, the com- pany shall lose the right to operate the railroad, telegraph, and tele- phone line, the Government succeeding to that right and entering into possession of the line and its appurtenances, a receiver being appointed, as provided by the Code of Commerce, and the operation of the line continued under Government auspices. The next step will be the judicial sale, at public auction, of the property mentioned, and the Executive shall determine the conditions under which the sale is to take place. In the case of forfeiture for the cause mentioned in Paragraph V, the company shall forfeit to the nation the portion of the road already constructed, but the nation will be liable for the mortgage and other debts contracted prior to the declaration of forfeiture, to an extent proportionate to the value of the property. Within six months from the time that the Executive takes possession of the property, it shall decide whether the nation shall assume the responsibility mentioned and undertake the administration of the road. 850 MEXICO. The declaration <>t' forfeiture shall be made through the administra- tive channel by the Executive, after the company lias been heard, for which purpose it shall be allowed a specific period to give such expla- nation as may be deemed pertinent. At the expiration of this period, the Executive shall, if deemed necessary, make further inquiries and announce its decision. A> soon as the concession <»!' a railroad is declared to have been forfeited all the privileges and exemptions granted by the concessions shall cease. A declaration of forfeiture can only he contested before the courts for one of the following reasons: I. That the reason adduced does not constitute a legal ground for a declaration of forfeiture. II. That the fact or omission adduced as a reason for forfeiture is not as stated. If the declaration of forfeiture is not contested before a competent court within the period of one month from its communication to the company, it will he assumed that the company acquiesces in the deci- sion of forfeiture, and no further action will be taken. Railroads may, in the concessions, be divided into several section-, so that the forfeiture of some will not affect the continuance of others, and each section between its terminal points must be considered as a separate line, to he operated independently. In eases where there is no ground for a declaration of forfeiture, hut where there i- sufficient ground for annulment of the concession, the deposit above mentioned shall be forfeited, but during the suit, and until the final sentence of annulment is rendered, the company shall continue to enjoy all the rights appertaining to it under the con- cession, without detriment to provisional and precautionary measures, when, according to law. there is occasion for them. A- regards the nationality and legal status of companies, those whose object is to construct or to operate, or to construct and operate a rail- road, may be organized in the Mexican Republic or abroad; but under all circumstances such companies shall lie regarded as Mexican, even though the entire organization is foreign. Said companies shall he subject to the courts of the Republic, whether Federal or local, in all matters coming under the jurisdiction of the courts, and foreigners and their successors who shall be interested either as shareholders. employees, or in any other capacity, shall in all cases be regarded as Mexicans in so far as the companies' affairs are concerned. On no pretext whatever may right- as foreigners be urged with respect to titles (tittdos) and affairs connected with the companies, and only such rights and the means of enforcing them shall be enjoyed as are granted by the Mexican law to citizens of the Republic; consequently foreign diplomatic agents may not interfere in any way. Companies shall have <>ne or more attorneys in the capital of the RAILROAD LAW. 351 Republic, who shall be empowered to deal with the Federal authori- ties and other public officers in all matters relating to the concessions, but the headquarters of all companies shall be at the town named in the concessions, this, however, not preventing the establishment of agencies in different parts of the country or abroad. In cases when the board of directors of railroad companies reside abroad, a local board, resident at the* headquarters of the company within the Republic, or at such place as shall be designated in the concession, shall be appointed, which board shall be regarded as part of the board of directors. For the issuance of shares and bonds, the following rules shall be observed: I. After the plans and profiles have been drawn up, an estimate shall be made on the cost of the entire work. II. On the basis of that estimate and of the rights of the concession- aire, the capital in shares and bonds shall be determined with the approval of the Government. III. The provisions of the foregoing paragraph do not prevent, pending the preparation of the estimates, the issuance of shares and bonds or the acquisition of funds b} T any other means for the construc- tion of the road. IV. The amount of the capital in shares and bonds may be increased, even after the preparation of the estimate and after the capital has been fixed, provided that the necessities of construction or operation require it. V. The right to issue shares and bonds does not imply that b} r these means alone the company may obtain funds, as to that end all legal methods ma} r be employed. VI. The company is obliged to inform the Department of Com- munications and Public Works of all the steps taken and all the contracts entered into pursuant to the rights conferred on it by this article. All contracts entered into abroad are subject to the laws of the Republic, as provided by this law. Contracts for the acquisition of material for the equipment of the railroad and rolling stock are subject to special regulations. Railroads, being works of public utility, are in consequence entitled to condemn (expropriate) land and construction material belonging to private individuals which may be necessary for the establishment and repair of the road and its appurtenances, stations, and other annexes. This, however, does not include the right of condemnation of water rights, without special authorization in each case by the Executive. The process of condemnation is subject to certain regulations, as prescribed by the law. In the matter of franchise's and exemptions granted to concession- :;.v_' mexii o. aires, the law provides that foreign capital employed in the construc- tion and operation of railways, and the loans contracted for that pur- pose, be placed under the guardianship of the nation and arc exempt from reprisal, confiscations, and attachment- in case <>f war. The capital and property of a railroad company shall be exempt from all Federal and local taxation save the stamp tax, provided they are applied directly to the purposes set forth in the concession. The -tamp tax applies only to the documents, acts, contracts, and transactions to which the company is a party. The general routes of communication. their appurtenances, the capital, shares, bonds, etc. employed, shall at no time be taxable b} T the States of the Federation. A company may import, free of all import and custom due-, all fixed material for the line, rolling stock, telegraphic material-, car-, etc.. necessary in the construction and operation of the line, also for maintenance and repair- of the railroad and telegraph line, for a period not exceeding live years, said articles also being exempt from all taxes, whether Federal or local, for a like period. If any of these materials shall be sold or applied to other use-, the Department of Finance shall exact the payment of the duties, subject to the provisions of the law. The lines of prime importance may be subsidized; and in certain cases, a- provided by law. other lines also. Subsidies shall be subject to the following ride-: I. No subsidies for the construction of railroads shall be granted when the payment of -aid subsidies can not be covered by the budget appropriations available for that purpose, except in the cases pro- vided by law. II. The subsidy .-hall be paid witli respect to sections of at least LOO kilometers, constructed and accepted by the Department of Com- munications and Public Works, in the amount and according to the conditions to be determined in each particular case, except that if when the line is completed it- last section measures less than LOO kilometers the amount appertaining to that section shall be paid upon it- completion. III. The subsidy -hall lie paid in bonds of the public debt, the Executive reserving the right of deciding in each case in which of the two following forms payment is to be effected: ( district- {zonas\ each under the immediate supervision of an inspector, the total number of offices being 2N0 and the extent of lines 29,305 kilometers. About the same time the Government purchased the Jalisco line, 2,514 kilometers in extent, making a total of 31,819 kilometers. On December 31, L902, according to the latest available official data. Mexico had 21 Federal telegraphic belts besides the Federal District, with 405 offices and a total length of line measuring 50,125 kilometers, the entire telegraph system at that time being as follows: Ellometera. Federal lines 60, 125. 000 State lines 5, 70S. 968 Private lines 3, 942. 725 Railroad lines 12, 036. 000 Total 71, 812. 693 These figures also embrace 13 Federal telephone lines, measuring 326.22 kilometers. There are 710 kilometers of Federal cable. In his message to the Mexican Congress, President Diaz, under date April 1, 1903, makes the following statement in regard to telegraphic development: ■•Telegraphic correspondence has continued to increase daily with very favorable pecuniary results. In the first half of the present fiscal year not only was the progressive increase in earnings main- tained, but it exceeded expectations in a very gratifying manner. This increase in business has led to the adoption of certain special measures by the Executive, chief among which may be mentioned the laying of a federal submarine cable in the Gulf of Mexico. Six new telegraph offices have been opened and l.'ll kilometers of new line strung, one of which was erected for the purpose of placing the impor- tant mining camp of Cananea in rapid communication with the rest of the country. The question of wireless telegraphy has also received serious attention. Two stations of the system that so far has produced TELEGRAPH LINES. 155 the best results in Europe were purchased, one being erected near Gruaymas, Sonora, and the other at Santa Rosalia, Lower California. Sufficiently satisfactory experiments have been made with them. In order to facilitate telegraphic communication with foreign countries, the Mexican system has been connected with that of the United States at Eagle Pass, thus giving four telegraphic connections along the northern border of the Republic. In the interior the use of the long- distance telephone has been encouraged and developed, and for this purpose contracts have been made for the operation of this service in combination with private concerns." In a similar document of later date, September 16, 1903, the same authority states: "With respect to the overhead telegraphs, 600 kilo- meters of new lines in various directions have been strung and four new offices have been opened. "The experiments in wireless telegraphy between Guaymas and Santa Rosalia produced results which, though inferior to those obtained by ordinary systems, were sufficiently acceptable to induce the Gov- ernment to utilize the new method of communication for a portion of its official service and even to throw it open to the public on trial. " The telegrams dispatched during last fiscal } T ear exceeded 3,000,000, and the cash returns from this source were 20 per cent more than those of the preceding period." State lines.- — The State telegraph lines in 1902 were as follows, according to Mexican official data: Total length (kilometers). Chihuahua Durango Guerrero Hidalgo Mexico Michoacan Morelos Oaxaca San Luis Potosi Sinaloa Sonora Tamaulipas Territory of Lower California Yucatan Zacatecas Total 200.000 50.400 16. 760 1,003.000 293. 800 1,190.030 195. 845 266. 000 217. 000 134. 080 50.000 332.000 153. 000 140. 000 1,467.053 5, 708. 968 /'/■/' r*/f<- lines. — The number of private lines for the same period was 22, with 28 offices, measuring in all 1,018 kilometers 393 meters, while the cable lines comprised 2,925 kilometers 832 meters, as follows: Submarine cable: Meters. Tampico to Galveston 791, 783 Tampieo to Veracruz 395, 891 Veracruz to Coatzacoalcos 207, 601 SalinaCruz to La Libertad 698,442 2, 093, 717 356 MEXICO. Land line: m. -^ Mexico i" Veracrcus 42w, 687 Coatzacoalcos to Salina Cruz 402, 328 ©2,015 T( .tal 2. 925, 832 The railroad telegraph lines were divided a-> follow-: Kilometers. Ferrocarri] Mexicano de Veracruz 517 Ferrocarri] Nacional de Mexico 1,441 Ferrocarri] Central Mexicano 4, ">74 Ferrocanil [nternaciona] Mexicano 1,441 Ferrocarril Mexicano 00,000 pieces, against 74,000,000 pieces during the same period of the previous year. The interior postal drafts issued totaled $19,000,000, against $16,000,000 in the corresponding period of the previous } T ear. The service of international drafts with the United States totaled $457,000 Mexican. Drafts collected and paid to publishers amounted to §213,000, against $21 L,000 during the corresponding period of the preceding year. The general earnings of the post-of live were £l,32o,ooo, against Si. 15*5,000 during the corre- sponding period of the previous year." The operations of the mail service dining the fiscal year L902 3, compared with the preceding fiscal year 1901-2, are reported by the Postmaster-General of Mexico to have been as follows: Sale of postage stamp- Rent of postal boxes Pines and forfeitures Premiums on post-office money orders: Interior International Premiums on editors' drafts Total .".63.08 7( (3.00 33. '.'1 J. Is •200,912.55 n n 30. 995. 12 1901-2. 12, 068, 593. 29 60,604.00 26, 169. 31 219,390.31 3,687.01 30, 716. 39 2,718,464.38 2,394,159.31 Mexico was a party signatory to the Universal Postal Convention of Paris on June 1. 1878, and ha- since entered into conventions and parcel-post agreements with several nations, among others the United States, Germany. France. Great Britain, and Ireland. STEAMSHIP LINES. Prior to 1877 Mexico mav lie -aid to have been isolated so far as activity in maritime commerce or communication was concerned, but since that time the Mexican Government has given great impetus to sea transportation by granting subsidies and special concession- to companies and individuals. STEAMSHIP LINES. 359 * Up to 1896, 21 steamship lines had contracts with the Government for carrying the mails, of which 10 were Mexican, 1 American, 1 Eng- lish, 1 Spanish, 1 French, and 1 German. Eight of these lines enjoy subsidies ranging from $75 to $2,000 for the round trip, or from $6,600 to $15,000 per annum. The other lines enjoy certain privileges and exemptions. Latest official statistics (1902) report the following steamship lines as under contract with the Government to perform postal service: The New York and Cuba Steamship Company {American). — This company has no subvention, but enjoys special exemptions. The steamers are required, under the terms of the contract, to make 52 regular trips to and from Progreso, New York, Veracruz, Tuxpam, Tampico, Frontera, Alvarado, Campeche, Coatzacoalcos, and Laguna. The German Imperial Mail {German). —This line enjoys special exemptions and is required to make at least 2 monthly trips to and from Hamburg, Havre, Veracruz, Tampico, Progreso, and other ports. Harrison Line {English). — This line enjoys special exemptions and is required to make at least 2 trips per month to and from Liverpool and Veracruz, with the privilege of stopping, on either trip, at Tam- pico, Tuxpam, Frontera, Campeche, and Progreso; also, at Barbados, St. Thomas, Trinidad, La Guaira, Puerto Cabello, Curacao, Santa Marta, Sabanilla, Cartagena, Port au Prince, Kingston, Colon, and New Orleans. Munson Line {American). — This line enjoys special exemptions and is required to make at least 2 round trips per month to and from New York, Philadelphia, or any other port of the United States on the Atlantic coast, and Tampico, Veracruz, and Progreso, with stops on either trip at other Mexican ports. West India and Pacific Steamship Company {English). — This line enjoys special exemptions, making 2 trips per month with the same itinerary as the Harrison Line. Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Steamship) Company {American). — This line enjoys special exemptions, and is required to make at least 2 trips per month to and from either Mobile or Pensacola and Mexican Gulf ports. Compania de Navegacion en los Bios Grijalva, Usumacinta and Pali- zada {Mexican). — This line has a subsidy of $9,000 per annum and is required to make 36 trips per year on the rivers named. Compania Mexicana de Navegacion, S. A. {Mexican). — This line enjoys special exemptions and makes several trips per month between Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Frontera, Laguna, Campeche, Progreso, and to Tampico and intermediate points. Compania Industrial de Transportes {Mexican). — This line receives a subsidy of $6,000 per annum, and is under obligation to make 6 monthly trips on the rivers Gonzalez and Mezcalapa. 360 MEXICO. Pacific Mail Steamship Company (American). — This line enjoys special exemptions and is required t<> make 3 monthly trips, [t con- nects all tin 1 ports of the Pacific coast of Mexico with San Francisco on the north, with Central American ports on the south, and also con- nects with a New York service via Colon. Compania de Navegacion del Pacifico (Mexican). — This line receives a subsidy of $3,500 per round trip, being required to make L8 tripe pearly between Guaymas, La Paz. Altata, Mazatlan, San Bias, Man- zanillo, Acapulco, Puerto Angel, Salina Cruz. Tonala. San Benito, and other service. Lower California Development Cdtnpany (Mexican). — This line receives a subsidy of §150 per round trip during the continuance of the contract and is required to make 7'2 trips per year between San Diego, Todos Santos, and San Quintin. Pacific Coast Steamship Company (American). This line also enjoys special exemptions, the service required being at least 1 monthly trip between San Francisco, Cal., and Guaymas, touching at Ensenada de Todos Santos. Bahia de la Magdalena, San -lose del Cabo. Mazatlan, and La Paz. Compania Ndviera del Pacifico (Mexican). — This company consists of three different lines, one required to make 48 trips per annum between Guaymas, La Paz, and Emeka and intermediate points, receiv- ing for this service a subsidy of $18,000 per annum; another line receiving a yearly subsidy amounting to $5,857 for 4 round monthly trips between Mazatlan, Altata. and Topolobampo, and another line making 36 trips per year between Guaymas, Santa Rosalia, Mulege, Loreto, and La Paz, receiving for this service $7,200 per annum. Compania Tnglesa de Navegacidn por vapores en el Pacifico y Sud- Americana d\ Vapores (English and Chilean). -Receives a subsidy of $20,000 per annum, being required to touch at certain ports at least once or twice a month, as agreed. Compafiia d< Nia/oegaci&n >n los rios Grijalva, Chilapa y TuHija (Mexican). This line is required to make 3 monthly trips between Frontera, Tepetitan. and Pavo Real, receiving for this service a subsidy of Si_'.S,so per annum. Mexican- American (American)^ from New Orleans to Veracruz, and Tampico. This line Is required to make 24 trips a year, enjoying for the service special exemptions. Kosmos Line (German). This line enjoys special exemptions, the service required being 12 yearly trips from Hamburg and other Euro- pean and South and Central American ports. Compania Idmitada d> /'« F< rr<><4 between Alva- STEAMSHIP LINES. 361 rado and San Juan Evangelista, and 156 between Alvarado and Alonso Lazarro, touching at intermediate ports. There are, besides, other important lines which ply in Mexican waters, but enjoy no privileges whatever. Among* these lines are the Morgan Line (American), the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company (English), the Hamburg-American Packet Company (German), and Spanish and French lines. A great number of concessions have been granted by the -Govern- ment to companies purposing to establish new steamship lines on both coasts, all of which promise to add greatly to the efficiency of the service between the ports on their respective itineraries. CHAPTER XV PUBLIC LANDS— COLONIZATION AND IMMIGRATION LAWS. Mexico may be divided into throe regions, which the "Mexican Financial Review " calls, respectively, the hacienda country, the pueblo country, and the free country. The first-named or farming country comprises the greater part of the central plateau, many of the temperate valleys situated on the slopes or terraces of this plateau, nearly all of the Gulf coast, and many point- on the Pacific. The pueblo or community holdings lie toward the southern part of the country. The free country or public lands, so called because of the fact that few if any haciendas or pueblos exist there, is situated in the north of the Republic. A- regards the central plateau, it is really marvelous that its lands retain their fertility, considering their great productiveness for hun- dreds of years. The only way this can he accounted for is that the system of irrigation there in vogue yearly resupplies the soil with natural fertilizing matter. Previous to the conquest this very land had to provide food for at least twice the existing population of the country, and was producing for more than six centuries unceasingly and without fertilizers. Strange, indeed, then, that it has not become sterile. Hut it is said that the day is fast approaching when the fecundity of this soil will vanish. Dryness and barrenness are already becoming evident in cer- tain portions of the table-lands; hut irrigation companies are being organized steadily, and will undoubtedly prevent this undesirable tendency. The almost virgin land, and that which invites the energetic arm of the careful husbandman, lies on the east and on the west, toward the coasts, and when railroads shall have united one and the other points many fertile valleys will be in a position to yield two and three crops a year. The free or public lands are situated mostly in parts of the States of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango. Sinaloa, and Sonora. Immense tracts are here almost uninhabited, and in the western Sierra Madre 362 PUBLIC LANDS. 363 the plains reach down to the Tropics. These lands were formerly set- tled upon by religious orders, or were held by officers of the Spanish Crown. After the war of independence and the escheating to the State of ecclesiastical holdings they became public lands, and are what are now called terrenos ftaldios. The nation, under laws to that effect enacted on July 20, 1863, and March 26, 1894, is having these lands surveyed and measured, giving to the companies doing the surveying one-third of the land surveyed, and disposing of the rest, some gratui- tously to towns as commons, and to private parties and companies at fixed rates. Some 28,211,607 acres have thus been disposed of since 1867 up to December 31, 1895, and the Government still retains in the neighborhood of 25,000.000 acres. For the lands sold the public treas- ury has received $2,508,819.01 up to the date mentioned. From July 1 to December 31, 1897, there were public lands sold in eight States, under the two law r s referred to, to the extent of 90,858.67 acres, producing $30,755.13. The following table from Mexican official statistics shows extent, value, and number of titles of public lands issued by the Government from 1898 to 1902: Number of titles issued. Hectares. Ares Value. Grants of public lands Sale of national lands Titles issued to colonists Titles issued under certain agreements As compensation for surveying expenses Gratuitous grants to townships, etc Grants covering cxeedenciax, demasias, etc Gratuitous grants, as provided in act Nov. 27, 1896 Subsidies granted to railway companies Total 668 556 283 56 40 4,350 69 253 1 579, 628 1,231,595 5, 526 408, 753 173,611 48, 827 497, 825 47, 041 71, 591 6,276 3,064,401 8365, 880. 20 1, 308, 508. 90 19,120.09 141,943.66 1,835,452.85 The following statement shows the extent of Government lands sold and the price from January 1 to June 30, 1903: Land sold. Price. Coahuila . . . Chiapas Chihuahua. Durango ... Sinaloa Tabasco Tamaulipas Yucatan ... Zacatecas . . Total. 1I< chins. 1,912 450 2,804 15,357 77 2,855 I 2, 691 2,725 35 8637. 64 150. 27 224. 34 11, 262. 08 51.77 3, 428. 06 2, 048. 03 2, 306. 11 52. 04 28, 934 20, 160. 34 3<>4 MEXICO. LAND LAW. The general land law of Mexico was originally promulgated on March 26, L894, the regulations governing it- application bearing date of .June .""> and ( tetober 1 of the same year. Under this law Government lands are divided into four classes, as follows: 1. Terrenos haldios (public lands) are all hinds in the Republic not devoted to public use by the proper authorities, nor by them con- veyed, gratuitously or otherwise, to private individuals or corpora- tions, according to law. 2. Demands (excess holdings) are the lands in possession of private individuals in excess of the area determined by the boundaries estab- lished by the original grant, when such holdings lie within said bound- aries, 'icing a pari of the whole grant. 3. h'.rrnl, Hi-ins (outside possessions) are lands possessed by private individuals for .twenty or more years, lying beyond the boundaries established by the original grant, but adjoining the land under such grant. ■i. Terrenos Rationales (national lands) are the unallotted public or vacant lands surveyed by official commissions or by duly authorized corporations, or public lands denounced by private individuals who have subsequently abandoned their claims, or when such claims have not been granted, provided the land has been actually surveyed. In general terms the law provides that all residents in the Republic of legal age and contractural capacity have the right to denounce or preempt public land in any part thereof to an unlimited extent, except natives or naturalized citizens of bordering nation-, who can not through any title acquire land in any State or Territory bordering on their country. The privilege hereby granted in nowise repeal- the limitations of laws now or hereafter to be enacted relating to the acquisition of real estate by aliens. The Executive shall establish, by decree to be published in January of each year, the schedule of price- of public lands in each State, the Federal District, and the Territories. This schedule shall remain in force during the fiscal year next succeeding its publication. The following Ian 1- can not be alienated through any title whatsoever: 1. The seashore. 2. The shore lines extending 20 meters back of high-water mark along the coasts of the mainland and islands. 3. A strip L0 meters wide along each bank of navigable rivers and 5 meters wide along the banks of smaller streams capable of floating any marketable substance. 4. Lands having monumental ruins, together with the ground that may be declared necessary for their care and preservation. LAND LAW. 365 The Department of Promotion (Fomento) is authorized to enter into contracts for the exploitation of public lands or to lease said lands while no claims or denouncements are pending, and to issue proper rules and regulations for the cutting of timber or the development of such land products, establishing penalties for the violation of said rules and regulations. Lessees or contractors for public lands may be granted the right to acquire said lands at a certain rate, in case third parties should file claims for grants covering the lands in question. This right is to be enforced within thirty days after the denouncement or claim is filed, the lessees or contractors being under obligation, should they acquire the land, to reimburse the claimant for all surveying and other expenses connected with the filing of the denouncement. Licenses granted for the exploitation of public lands expire upon the final grant of the land to a denouncer or claimant. The denouncing of public lands must be made before the agent of the Department of Promotion within whose jurisdiction the land is situated. Within fifteen days after the filing of the necessary petition, the agent must investigate whether the land has been surveyed or is reserved for forests, colonies, or settlement of Indians, or otherwise. Eveiy denouncement must be published in the office of the agent, the official paper of the State, District, or Territory where the land is situated, at the expense of the denouncer, at whose expense also the survey of the land is to be made by an expert engineer to be named by him with the approval of the agent. The survey and the plat of the land having been made and no pro- test having been filed, the agent will make copies of the record and plat and transmit the same to the Department of Promotion, through the governor of the State in question, for inspection. Should the Department find the record, plat, etc., unobjectionable, it will adjudicate the land in favor of the denouncer and notify him to pay the price thereof. This price is that fixed by the schedule in force at the time the denouncement is made, and must be paid within two months after notification. If this term should expire without proof of the pajmient having been received at the Department, the denouncer loses the rights he may have acquired; otherwise the patent will be delivered to him. Should any protest be interposed, the matter will be carried to the court of the district within whose jurisdiction the land is situated, to try the issues. In such suits the district attorney will represent the Government. Suits of this character act as a stay of all administrative action until final judgment is delivered. Under the law, as given in substance above, the Secretary of Pro- motion publishes every year the prices at which Government lands 366 MEXICO. may be purchased. In pursuance thereof the prices for such lands for the year L904-5 have been published. The following table gives the price per hectare (2.471 acres): State or Territory. Price. Aguascalientes S_. _'o Campeche Chiapas Chihuahua - Coahuila Colima Durango Guanajuato Guerrero Bidalgo Jalisco Mexico M ichoac&n Mi ireloa Nuevo Leon Oaxaca r Territory. 2. 25 3.00 L.20 1.10 1.10 1.20 -'.'JO 1.20 2.50 2.20 2. 75 1. in 3.00 1.10 1.20 Puebla Qnergtaro Sun Luis Potosi Binaloa Sonora Tabasco Taniaulipa.s Tlazcala Veracruz Yucatan Zacatecas Federal District Territory of Tepic Territory of Lower California . Territory of Quintans. Eoo Price. 2.20 1.20 1.30 3.60 L20 2.20 2. :•'. 2.20 2.20 0.10 j. :ki .70 .50 The price is not payable in cash but in bonds of the national debt, the value <»f which varies from time to time, the tendency for the past three years being decidedly upward. COLONIZATION. Mexico has made sacrifices to induce people to its shores, but its efforts in this behalf have not caused any considerable influx of for- eigners to the country. Mexicans attribute this state of things to two causes, viz. the fact that free land is situated at a considerable distance from means of communication, and that the country is not so devoid of native population as is generally supposed. The Indian lives on very little and can therefore afford to work for such paltry wages that foreign immigrants can not compete with him. When the general state of the country shall be such as to create a voluntary current of immigration, it is confidently believed that the Republic will reap the reward of its sacrifices, for it is a country where the immigrant. under the colonization laws, has the smallest amount of taxes to pay. The first steps taken in the direction of inducing aliens to seek Mexico's fertile fields date back to L827. In the year L821 a law was enacted entitled " Prosperidad General" (general prosperity), in which special reference is made to the rapid growth of the foreign colony in the State of Texas. In the year L846 the then Minister of Foreign Affairs, Jose" M. Lafragua, presented a plan for legislation to Congress in which, inter 8, and Sefior Kiva Palacio in 1877: hut up to L88l> no really serious practical efforts were made to attract immigration, and the results obtained up to the pre>- ent are comparatively insignificant. LEGISLATION. 367 COLONIZATION LAW. The colonization law now in force was enacted and promulgated on the 15th day of December, 1883. It comprises four chapters and thirty- one articles, the former being- entitled, respectively, "Of the survey of lands; 1 ' "Of colonists;" "Of companies;" "General provisions." The provisions of this law are, in substance, as follows: For the purpose of securing lands suitable to the establishment of colonies, the Executive will cause the waste or Government lands in the Republic to be surveyed, measured, subdivided, and appraised, appointing to this end the corps of engineers he ma}^ deem necessaiy, and determining the methods to be followed. No subdivision shall in any case exceed 2,500 hectares (about 6,177 acres) in extent, this being the greatest amount of land which shall be conveyed to aiy one individual of lawful age and legal capacity. The lands surveyed, measured, subdivided, and appraised may be conveyed to foreign immigrants and inhabitants of the Republic who may desire to establish themselves thereon as colonists, under the following conditions: (1) Ity purchase, at the price set by the engineers and approved by the Department of .Promotion, payable in ten years in equal install- ments, the first becoming due two years after the establishment of the colony. (2) By purchase, the price being paid on entry, or in installments on shorter time than that provided in the preceding section. (3) By gratuitous concession, when requested b}' the colonist; but in this case no cession shall exceed 100 hectares (about 247 acres), and the colonist shall receive no title to the same until he shall have shown that he has retained the land in his possession, and has wholly culti- vated it, or to an extent not less than one-tenth of the whole for five consecutive } T ears. So soon as there shall be lands suitable for colonization under the conditions herein provided, the Executive shall determine which should be settled -at once, publishing the plats thereof and the prices at which they shall be sold, endeavoring in every case that the sale or gratui- tous conveyance shall be of alternate sections. The remaining sec- tions shall be reserved to be sold under the conditions prescribed by the law when they shall be sought, or when the Executive shall so determine, the Executive being empowered to mortgage them for the purpose of raising funds which, added to the proceeds of the sale of sections of land, shall be exclusively destined to the carrying out of colonization. To be considered as a colonist and to be entitled to the privileges conferred bj r this law it is necessary that the colonist, in case he is a foreigner, shall come to the Republic provided with the certificate of 868 mexioo. the consular <>r immigration agent, issued at the request of the said immigrant, or of the company or corporation authorized by tin* Executive t<> bring colonists to the Republic Should the petitioner reside in the Republic, he must apply to the Department of Promotion, or to the agents authorized by the said I department to admit colonists to the colonies, which shall be established in the Republic. In every case petitioners must present certificates of the proper authorities setting forth their good character and their occupation previous to petitioning for admission as colonists. Colonist- settling in the Republic shall enjoy for the period of ten years, counting from the date of their establishment, the following privileges: (1) Exemption from military service. (2) Exemption from all taxes except municipal. (3) Exemption from all import or domestic duties on articles of consumption not produced in the country, agricultural implements, tools, machines, outfits, building materials, household furniture, and animals for breeding purposes, and thoroughbreds for the use of the colonies. (4) Exemption, personal and nontransferable, from export duties on the products of cultivation. (5) Premiums on praiseworthy productions, and prizes and special protection for the introduction of new agricultural interests or industries. (6) Exemption from fees for the certification of signatures and issu- ing of passports delivered by consular agents to parties coming to the Republic as colonists by virtue of contracts entered into between the Government and any company or companies. The Department of Promotion shall determine the number and kind of articles which in each case shall he admitted free of duties, and the Finance Department shall regulate the manner of admission to prevent fraud ami smuggling, but without retarding the prompt dispatch of the said article-. Colonists settling on lands barren of tree-;, and who shall prove, two years previous to the lapse of the period of exemption, that on a por- tion of their section, which shall not lie less than one-tenth thereof, they have laid out trees to a number proportionate to the land planted on, shall be exempt from taxes on the whole land for one year longer, and. in general, shall have exemption for one year further for each tenth part of their land so laid out. The colonies shall be established under the municipal jurisdiction, subject, as regards the election of their authorities and the levying of taxes, to the general laws of the Republic and the laws of the State wherein they are established. The Department of Promotion may. COLONIZATION LAW. 369 however, appoint agents in said colonies for the purpose of better directing- their labors and exacting- the payment of the amounts which ma}' be due to the Federation for any titles conveyed. Colonists are required to carry out their contracts with the Federal Government, or with the individuals or companies transporting- or establishing- them in the Republic. Every alien immigrant settling- in a colony shall, at the time of such settlement, declare before the Federal colonization agent, notary, or proper judicial officer, whether he proposes to retain hi.s nationality, or desires to embrace Mexican citizenship, conceded him by the third section of article 30 of the Constitution of the Republic. Colonists shall be vested with all the rights and obligations which to Mexican and foreigners, under like circumstances, are conceded and imposed by the Federal Constitution, besides the temporary exemp- tions conceded by this law; but all questions arising, of whatever character, shall be subject to the decisions of the courts of the Repub- lic, to the absolute exclusion of all foreign intervention. Colonists abandoning, without due cause, for more than a year, the lands which shall have been sold them shall forfeit the right to said lands and the amounts they may have paid therefor. The right to a gratuitous title shall be forfeited by abandonment of the land or failure to cultivate it for more than six months without good cause. One section shall be ceded without cost, in localities designed by the Federal Government for new settlements, to Mexican or foreign colonists desiring to found the same; but they shall not acquire the title to said section until they shall show that within two years from the foundation of the settlement they have erected thereon a house, forfeiting the right to said title in case of failure to so build. It is the purpose to cede such sections alternately. The Executive is empowered to aid colonists or immigrants, within the appropriations to that effect made, whenever he shall deem it advisable, by furnishing them expenses of transportation for them- selves and their baggage by sea and in the interior to the terminus of the railroad lines; he ma}' further furnish them with free subsistence for fifteen days, and no more, in the localities he ma}' approve, and also with tools, seeds, building materials, and animals for work and breeding; these latter advances, however, shall be repaid in the same manner as the price of the lands. The Executive may authorize companies to open up (hahilitar) waste lands by measuring, surveying, subdividing into sections, appraising and describing the same, and to transport colonists and establish them on said lands. For the purpose of obtaining the necessary authorization, companies shall designate the waste lands they propose to occupy, their approxi- 509a— 04 24 'MU MEXICO. mate extent, and tin- number of colonists t<> I >e settled upon them within a given time. The proceedings incident to the demarcation or Burvey shall be authorized by the district judge within whose jurisdiction the waste land to be surveyed is situated, which done, and there being no adverse claimant, the record will be delivered to the company to be presented to the Department of Promotion, where the other formalities demanded by this law must he complied with. Should an adverse claimant present himself the case will he tried as hereinafter provided, the representa- tive of the Federal Treasury being a party thereto. In return for the expenses incurred by the companies in opening up waste lands, the Executive may cede them not more than one-third of the land thus opened up, or its value in nione}', but under the express conditions that they are not to convey such lands so conceded to foreigners not authorized to acquire them, nor in greater quantities than 2,500 hectares, under pain of losing, in each case, the portions of land so conveyed in violation of said conditions, which portions shall at once become the property of the nation. Lands surveyed by the companies, excepting such as may be ceded to the same in return for expenses incurred in opening them up. shall be conveyed to colonists, or he reserved under the conditions hefon mentioned. Any authority conferred by the Executive for opening 14) waste lands shall he void and nonextendihle whenever work thereon shall not have been commenced within the term of three months. The Executive may contract with companies or corporations for the introduction into the Republic and the establishment therein of foreign colonists or immigrants under the following conditions: (1) The companies shall fix the exact time within which ihey will introduce a determined number of colonists. (2) The colonists or immigrants shall fulfill the conditions hereinbe- fore prescribed. (3) The bases of the contracts the companies may make with the colonies shall conform to the provisions of this law, and shall he sub- mitted for approval to the Department pf Promotion. (4) The companies must guarantee to the satisfaction of the Execu- tive the carrying out of the obligations assumed in their contracts, which contracts must name the causes in which forfeiture and tines shall he imposed. Companies contracting with the Executive for the transportation to the Republic and settling therein of foreign colonists shall enjoy. foi a term not to exceed twenty years, the privileges and exemptions following: (1) The sale on long time and at low price of waste or Government lands for the exclusive purpose of colonizing the same. COLONIZATION LAW. 371 (2) Exemption from taxation, except the stamp tax on capital invested in the enterprise. (3) Exemption from port dues, except such as are set aside for har- bor improvements, to all vessels that, on the compan} r, s account, shall carry ten families, at least, of colonists to the Republic. (4) Exemption from import duties on tools, machines, building materials, and animals for work and breeding which shall be exclu- sively destined for an agricultural, mining, or industrial colony whose establishment shall have been authorized by the Executive. (5) Premiums for each family established, and a second premium for each family disembarked; premiums for each Mexican family established in a foreign colony. (6) Transportation of colonists at the expense of the Government on subsidized steamship and railroad lines. Foreign colonization companies shall be considered as Mexican, being required to have a legal domicile in one of the cities of the Republic, without prejudice to their having one or more abroad, and they are bound to have at all times a local board of directors, and one or more attorneys de facto, fully empowered to treat with the Executive. All questions arising between the Government and the companies shall be decided b} T the courts of the Republic and according to its laws, without any intervention whatever on the part of foreign diplo- matic agents. Private parties setting aside any portion of their lands for the pur- pose of colonizing them with not less than ten families of foreign immigrants are entitled to have the same, enjoy equal privileges and exemptions with the colonies established by the Federal Government whenever they shall conform to the conditions imposed b}^ the Execu- tive to assure the success of the colony, and whenever among said conditions shall be one requiring said colonists to acquire, b} r purchase or cession, one section of land for cultivation. The Executive may provide private parties with foreign colonists by stipulating with them the conditions under which they are to be established, and may aid them by furnishing the expenses of transpor- tation of said colonists. The colonizing of the islands in both oceans shall be done by the Executive, subject to the provisions of this law, the Government reserving on each island 50 hectares of land for public use. In case the island should not have the superficial area necessaiy for the reser- vation herein specified, no sale of land shall be made thereon, and said land ma} T only be rented on short terms. Colonies established on islands shall always include Mexican families to a number not less than one-half of the total colonist families. The Executive is authorized to acquire, by purchase or cession, 372 Ml XIOO. private land-, whenever he shall deem it expedient to establish colo- nics thereon, subject, however, to the appropriations t<> be made for this purpose. Local legislation. The question of inducing aliens t<> settle in Mex- ico ha- awakened not only the interest trict 346 Municipality of Mexico no 112 Lower California 210 1,218 San Pablo Hidalgo 208 128 278 40 208 do do 128 do .lc > 278 40 Total 2. 867 1,059 3, 926 In 1900, the latest available statistics on the subject show that the colonies of Manuel Gonzalez, in Veracruz; Fernandez Leal, in Puebla, and La Ascension, in Chihuahua, had been created townships (jiueblos), NEW CONCESSION'S. 373 passing under control of the respective States, while Sericicultora, in Mexico, devoted to the cultivation of the silk worm, had been aban- doned by the colonists. The total number of colonists in the remain- ing 9 colonies founded by the Government is officially given in 1900 at 2,818, there being 1,991 Mexicans and 196 foreigners, the largest colo- nies being Jiscao, with 142 colonists; Diez Gutierrez, with 329; Por- firio Diaz, with 280; San Rafael Zaragoza, with 278, and San Pablo Hidalgo, with 208. The colonies founded by authorized companies were 20 in 1900, as follows: Founded by authorized persons. Colony. Location. Number of colo- nists. Total. District, etc. State. Mexican. Foreign- ers. Japonesa de Excuintla . . . 58 120 344 39 678 603 206 711 112 98 326 69 12 18 100 58 [Eastern Coast Moctezuma . Huauchinango 120 344 39 ( 678 Diaz 37 640 J Guerrero do Ensenada Todos San- tos. do Dublan I 59 770 112 ....do... 98 Carlos Pacheeo Lower California do 54 4 380 70 12 Tlahualillo 18 Monclova Distrito Norte 100 6 32 6 6 Cafetera de Simojovel Chiapas do 32 31 37 Total 198 3,525 3,723 The number of titles issued by the Government to colonists in the Federal colonies, from January 1, 1897, to December 31, 1901, was, according to official figures, 103, covering an area of 5,421 hectares, amounting to $21,173. New concessions. — The latest important concession made by the Gov- ernment for the purpose of colonization was granted to the Blalock Colony Company, by which this organization is authorized, to establish on the land it owns, under the name of " El Chamal," in the municipality of Santa Barbara, State of Tamaulipas, an agricultural and industrial colony. According to the terms of the concession the company binds itself to settle upon the Chamal estate within two years from the date of the promulgation of the concession, at least 100 families of colonists, whose members in the aggregate shall not be less than 250 persons. These colonists shall settle upon alternate lots, leaving a lot of 10 hec- tares between settlers, so that the Mexican Government may on its own account establish in the intervening lots colonists of Mexican nationality, who will be entitled to acquire land at tne same price 'MA MEXICO. charged to the company's colonists, the only condition being thai the persons thus settled shall be peaceable and law-abiding people. For purposes <>t' colonization a " family" will be understood to be: ••A husband and wife, with or without children. ■"A father or mother, with one or more descendents, subject to parental authority. "Brothers and sisters, one being of age and the other or others minors." The company binds itself to sell or give to each family our or more of the plots for cultivation. n> well as a site for a residence, the plot to be of a minimum area of 10 hectares, and the residence site will have a minimum area of 2,000 meters. The company hinds itself to deliver to the head of each family a provisional title deed to the plot of land for cultivation and the house site assigned to him, said head of a family being obliged to cultivate the former for five years in order to obtain the title deed in fee simple. In the event of the colo- nist preferring to pay to the company the price of the land, the company may at once execute the deed of sale without the limitation above referred to. For each of the families required to he established by the concession, and which the company fails to so establish, the com- pany will pay a fine of l" 11 pesos in bonds of the public debt. In accordance with the provisions of article 7 of the law of coloniza- tion in force, the colonists settled by the concessionaire companj will enjoy for ten years, counted from the date of the settlement of each family, the following franchises: Exemption from military service; exemption from all kinds of taxes, with the exception of municipal taxes and the stamp tax: personal and untransferable exemption from import duties on agricultural imple- ments, tools and fixtures, machinery, building materials for houses, furniture in use. animals for draft and breeding purposes, all destined for the colony, the importation of the animals being subject to the provisions contained in the circulars of the Department of Promotion, dune '.». L893; persona] and untransferable exemption from export duties on product^ raised by the colonists, and exemption from the fees on the legalization of signatures, and the issuance of passports made out by consular agents to individuals coining to Mexico to join the colony. The duration of the concession will be ten years from the date of it- promulgation. Another important contract has been made by the "East Coast of Yucatan Colonization Company," for the establishment in the Terri- tory of Quintana Boo, from 60 to 150 families. For the purposes of the contract, a ''family" will he considered to be a household in which there is at least one able-bodied male worker. The company will grant to the colonists free passage to the lands, an advance of from $10 to $20 gold, a dwelling, agricultural implements, NEW CONCESSIONS. 375 a team of oxen, and other domestic animals and fowls, as specified. The colonists will also be furnished with articles of general consump- tion at equitable prices, and firewood may be cut from the forests, reservation, however, being made in the case of cabinet woods. Free medicine will also be supplied in case of illness on the part of the colonists. The colonists will engage in tropical agriculture, but, in addition to cultivating and improving their own tracts, they may also work for the company for wages that can not be less than $1 (Mexican) per da}^. Contracts have been made during the first half of the fiscal year 1903-4, for colonization in land in the State of Chihuahua, and the settlement of Boer families. Efforts are being made to settle Porto Rican families in Tabasco and on the Gulf coast, according to President Diaz's message to Congress, April 1, 1904. CHAPTER XVI. EDUCATION— RELIGION— PROTESTANT MISSIONS. Education in Mexico has been for many year.- the subject of serious consideration <>n the part of the Government, on account of the diffi- culty experienced in combating the conservative ideas prevailing in the Republic. The main obstacles have, however, been overcome, and the country to-day enjoys the benefit of a liberal system of education. which is administered under three brandies — gratuitous, lay, and obli- gatory. Laws have been enacted, normal schools for both sexes have been established, and in order to still further extend the benefits to be derived from a uniform educational system throughout the whole country, the Government convoked the various States for a National Congress of Education. The labors of this congress resulted in the grading of educational facilities from primary or children's schools to higher grades and special institution- of learning; the preparation of general plans of study for all grades; the division of the subjects taught into annual courses: also provided for the unrestricted select ion of the latest and most improved methods of instruction suitable to each grade; and, in short, for the examination and choice of whatever sys- tems, either technical or administrative, which might be deemed suita- ble to the ends for which the congress was convened. The Executive at that time laid before Congress the plan of a reform of the law of March 21, L891, placing elemental tuition under the care of municipalities and obliging them to establish at least one school for each 4,000 inhabitants. This law obtained the approval of Congress, and by virtue thereof the municipal schools of the Federal district and of the Territories came under Federal jurisdiction. The superior board of primary education (Direccion Superior de Instruecion Pri- maria) was also created for the reorganization, superintendence, and management of said institutions. Legislation. — The law making education compulsory was promul- gated March 23, 1888, but its enforcement was not decreed at that time, and the first Congress of Public Education was convened for the purpose of adopting such measures as should tend to establish an efficient and uniform system of education. This congress met on December 1, 1889, and closed its sessions on March .31, 1890, after having passed on and approved 121 questions, the principal being the establishment of a national system of popular education based on the uniformity of obli- gatory, gratuitous, and laical primary education, children from 6 to 12 376 LAW OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 377 years of age to be given an elementary primary education embracing four courses or scholastic years. The general programme for elemental primary obligatory education embraces practical morals, civic or laical instruction, the national language (including writing and reading), object lessons, arithmetic, the principles of physical and natural sci- ences, geography, history of the country, practical notions of geometiy, drawing, singing, gymnastics, and for girls, sewing, etc. Resolu- tions were passed relating to rural schools, itinerant teachers, kinder- gartens, etc., and it was declared indispensable that education for adults should be provided for in cases where persons had been unable to receive instruction during childhood. Education was also declared compulsory in soldiers' barracks, jails, penitentiaries, and institutions of correction. Superior primary education was declared compulsory for students desiring to enter preparatory and professional schools which did not exact a secondaiy education, the period required for this branch being two years. Several other measures of similar import were also passed. A second congress was convened on December 1, 1890, which solved certain problems on compulsoiy elemental educatiou, fixed the methods to be followed in the schools of superior primary education, -and set- tled matters pertaining to normal schools, preparatory education, and special schools. As a result of this congress, the law of March 21, 1891, was enacted, regulating compulsory education in the Federal district and the Territories of Tepic and lower California, which law became effective on Januaiy 17, 1892. The primary schools previously supported by the Government were those which were under the care of the Compania Lancasteriana, which, since 1822, had been working earnestl} r and unceasingly for gratuitous public education. The methods employed, though formerly excellent, had become obsolete, and by the act of March 29, 1890, the Govern- ment resolved to bring these schools directly under the protection and jurisdiction of the nation. They were consequently placed under the supervision of the Department of Justice and Public Education, the Treasuiy being ordered to take charge of all buildings and moneys used in the maintenance of the institutions, as they were in reality the property of the Republic. Law of public instruction. — On Ma} r 19, 1896, the law of public education was promulgated, its salient points being as follows: Official primary elemental education in the Federal district and Federal Territories was placed under the exclusive control of the Executive; primary superior education was organized as an interme- diate educational s} r stem between elementary and preparatory instruc- tion. A general board of primary education was created, charged to develop and maintain the same under a scientific and administrative plan. Preparatorv education was decreed to be uniform for all pro- 378 Ml \!< <>. Sessions, its extent being limited to the study of such matters as are necessary to the development of the physical and intellectual faculties and tin' morals of youth, it being further directed that professional education be reorganized, limiting it to technical matters which per tain to the profession or professions to which each particular school is devoted. By virtue of this law public education ceased to lie in charge of the hoard of aldermen (ayuntamientos) of the above-mentioned sections. At the time of its promulgation the municipality of Mexico contained 113 schools supported by the hoard of aldermen. 1.4,246 students being entered on the rolls with an average attendance of 9,798. Each State defrays the expenses of public education, either with funds specially appropriated for that purpose or with the municipal funds. Institutions. - In L876 there were throughout the country 8,165 primary schools, with 368,754 students of both sexes. Id L895 Gov- ernment schools reached the number of 4,056, of which 2,189 were for males, 1,119 for females, and 74s for both sexes; municipal schools numbered 3,3!»4 for males. 1,754; females. 932; both sexes. 708. These comprised 7,380 primary, 32 secondary, and 35 professional schools, the number of students enrolled being 310,496 males and 181,484 females (a total of 491,980), and the mean attendance 338,066. The total cost to the Government and the municipalities for the main- tenance of these institution- w:i» *•">.'.' 7 H. 738. In the same year private schools to the number of L.816 were being conducted, 659 for males, 460 for females, and the remainder under a coeducational system. In addition. 276 were supported by the clergy and 146 by associations, the total number of students enrolled being ''> v . s 7'.i, of which 40,135 were males and l's.744 females. The total number of private schools was accordingly 2,238, of which 2,193 were devoted to primary edu- cation. 34 to secondary instruction, and 11 to professions. The total number of schools in 1900 and L901 and the average attend- ance are shown in the following table: Schools. 1900. Total. !'■ dt ral and municipal institutions. Primary 9, 363 Secondary and preparatory 41 Professional | 60 Private institutio Supported by the clergy 493 Supported b'v associations 152 Private schools 2, 068 Grand total 12,177 \\ evage attend- ance. 479, 785 5,405 5,337 117,543 Total. 9,491 42 62 | 477 \ 173 I 1,995 Average attend- ance. '■. 184 6,024 124,257 608,070 12,240 I 613,951 INSTITUTIONS. 379 Official figures for 1902 show the following' data: Shools. Male. Female. Mixed. Total. Average attend- ance. Federal, Slate, and municipal institutions. Primary Secondary and preparatory Professional Private institutions. Supported by the clergy... Supported by associations. Private schools 4,856 30 30 346 56 618 2,499 11 11 256 64 413 1,924 5 12 103 56 278 9, 279 46 63 702 176 1,579 498,616 5,808 4,672 122,161 Total 5,936 3, 254 2,378 11,835 631,257 The State of Mexico is not represented in the ''Anuario Estadistico' , for 1902, used in the compilation of the above table, but for statistical purposes the figures corresponding to the year 1901 have been added. The number of students enrolled in the Federal, State, and municipal schools was, for the primary schools, 115,197 males and 211,162 females, or a total of 659,359; secondary and preparatory schools, 5,014 males, 2,303 females, total, 7,317; and in the professional insti- tutions, 6,610 males and 2,131 females, giving a total of 9,071, making a grand total of 675,780 scholars for the Government schools. Those enrolled in the private institutions were 83,830 males and 66,117 females, or a total of 119,917, thus showing that the total number of scholars enrolled in all the educational institutions of the country in 1902 amounted to 825,727. The expenses connected with the branch of the Government service during the same year amounted to $6,595,000, in round numbers, there being 15,229 emplo3 T ees, including superintendents, principals, and teachers of both sexes. In addition to the normal and primary schools, the Government also supports many other institutions, among which the principal are the following: School of jurisprudence, school of medicine, school of agri- culture and veterinary instruction, school of engineers, school of fine arts, school of arts and trades for men, and a similar institution for women; school of commerce and administration, National conservatory of music, preparatory school, schools for the blind, for deaf-mutes, reform schools, naval and military schools, etc., besides 22 museums and 61 libraries, containing from 500 to 180,000 volumes. In his last message to Congress, April 1, 1901, President Diaz makes the following statements with reference to education: "The last school census, taken at the end of 1902, shows that in the Federal District there were 51,052 children of school age, and 15,700 in the Territories. The Government has at present 198 schools, of which 337 are in the Federal District, 103 in the Territory of Tepic, 15 in Lower California, and 13 in Quintana Roo. 880 MKXK'o. u The Government makes constant efforts to improve the standard of education and to enforce the piece])! of compulsory education. Last year 8,000 parents or guardians were fined for neglect, after being admonished once to send t<> school the minors for whose educa- tion they are responsible." The Government has sent to New York, to study the best systems of manual training, a special commissioner to gather information and all necessary data to develop manual training in Mexico. A dental faculty has been created for the first time. .I///*, urns. — There are throughout the couutry 37 museums. 8 devoted to archaeology and antiquities. 8 to natural history: 3 medical museums, one each devoted to physical science, geology and mineralogy, agri- culture, industries, and commerce, and 13 to miscellaneous object-. Libraries. — The total number of libraries is 124, the principal being the Biblioteca Nacional in Mexico City, with 180,000 volumes; Biblio- teca Publica de Guadalajara, State of Jalisco, 53,000; Biblioteca del Seminario, Morelia, Michoac&n, 32,000; Biblioteca Palafoxiana, Puebla, 27,000; Biblioteca Lafragua, Puebla, 24,000, and Biblioteca del Colegio del Estado, Guanajuato, 21,000. Scientific and Zitentr// Associations. — The number of these institu- tions on December 31, 1902, was 44. of which 15 were supported by the Government. Publications. — Official statistics show that there are 4TT newspapers printed in the Republic, as follows: In the Federal District. L46; in Jalisco, 44; in Miehoacan, :»L; in Tamaulipas, 23; in Veracruz, 23; in Chihuahua. 21; in Puebla. L8; in Guanajuato, L8; in Yucatan, L6; in Coahuila. L6; in Sonora, 14; in Sinaloa, 11; in Durango, 11; in San Luis Potosi, '.'; in Nuevo Leon. 9; in Colima, 8; in Zacatecas, 7: in the State of Mexico, 6; in Oaxaca, 6; in Aguascalientes, ■>: in Lower California. .">; in Hidalgo, 4; in Tlascala, •"': in Campeche, '■'>: in Gue- rrero. 3; in Morelos, 3; and in Chiapas, 1. This gives a measure of the progress attained by the different States of the Republic. Of these only L39 are considered first-class publications, as follows: In the Federal District. 57; in Jalisco, .">; in Miehoacan. 3; in Tamaulipas. 2; in Veracruz, 5; in Chihuahua, 7: in Puebla, 2; in Guanajuato, 1; in Yucatan. 8; in Coahuila. »'.; in Sonora. 7; in Sinaloa, 7; in Durango, 3; in Aguascalientes, 1: in Hidalgo. 1; in Guerrero, 1: in Tabasco, 1; in Campeche. 1; in Guerrero, 1: and in Morelos. 1. The Dumber of publications entered in the Mexican post-office dur- ing L902 was 273, divided as follows: Two hundred and sixty printed in Spanish, 7 in English. 4 English and Spanish, and 2 Italian. There were 20 daily papers, 147 weeklies. 39 monthlies, 35 fortnightly, 9 biweekly, 1 quarterly, and 22 published at different times. As regards the character of these publications the division is as follows: Three RELIGION. 381 official, 61 political, 21 religious, 26 scientific. 53 literary, 61 general information, 12 commercial, 22 artistic, 4 musical, and 9 miscellaneous. RELIGION. Roman Catholic Church. — The prevailing* religion in Mexico is the Roman Catholic, the church being governed by a number of arch- bishops and bishops. The foundation of the church in the country ma}' be said to date back to 1517, in which year Yucatan was discovered by Don Francisco Hernandez de CordoAa, a rich Cuban merchant. Cor- dova, with 110 Spaniards, reached Cape Catoche during April of 1517, and soon gave battle to the inhabitants, killing 15 and capturing 2. The invaders were accompanied by a priest named Alonzo Gonzales, a native of Santo Domingo, who during the engagement carried from a heathen temple the idols therein preserved and, the tight ended, made the temple a Christian church, dedicating it under the invocation of Nuestra Senora de los Remedios (Our Lady of Succor), the patron saint of the Spaniards. The two captives, named Melchor and Julian, were purged of their sins, baptized, and made Christians, becoming the first converts of the New World. Pope Leo X, by bull of January 27, 1518, created the bishopric of Yucatan, appointing to the see the Dominican Fray Julian Garces, at the time bishop of Cuba, but he never entered his diocese, owing to the Spanish conquest extending at the time into Mexico, and operations in Yucatan being abandoned. On October 13, 1525, Pope Clement VII appointed Garces to the newly created see of Puebla, under the official title of bishop of Puebla, Yucatan, Chiapas, and Oaxaca. The first bishop of Mexico, with the title of bishop-elect and pro- tector of the Indians, was Fray Juan de Zumarraga. This functionary destroyed many of the ancient picture writings of the Aztecs. He arrived in Veracruz in December, 1528, and was made bishop of Mexico, suffragan to the archbishop of Seville, by bull of September 2, 1530. In 1545 the Mexican bishopric was made independent, and by bull of January 31, 1545, it was erected into an archbishopric, with bishop Zumarraga as archbishop. In the year 1571 the archbishop of Mexico was made primate of New Spain, and on March 16, 1863, Pius IX divided the Mexican church into three archdioceses. These were the eastern, or that of Mexico; the central, or that of Michoacan; and the western, or that of Guadalajara. The various bishoprics of Mexico are suffragan to these archbishoprics. The Holy Office of the Inquisition founded its first tribunal in the City of Mexico in the year 1571, with Don Pedro Moya de Contreras as Inquisitor-general of New Spain, Guatemala, and the Philippine Islands. The first burning place in the City of Mexico was situated near the church of San Diego, upon land now included in the Ala- :\*>2 MEXICO. meda. The first auto-darfe took place in 1574, when twenty-one per- sona were incinerated for the cause of religion. On May 31, 1820, the inquisition was suppressed forever in Mexico. The last auto-da-fe took place on November i't',, 1S15, the accused being the patriot Morelos, who, having beeD turned over to the secu- lar authorities, was shot on December 22, 1815. The finest edifices in the Republic were erected by the Roman Catho- lics, and it is estimated that up to 1859 one-third of the real and per- gonal property was owned by the church. The cathedral- and churches, convents and monasteries, were solidly, massively built, and the inte- riors of the cathedrals and churches were magnificently decorated. gold and silver being lavishly employed in embelishing them. The three orders of the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits were the most prominent in firmly fixing the power of Spain in Mexico and fostering learning in the land, but the absorption of so considerable a portion of the wealth of the colony and the blocking of the channels of trade consequent on the locking up of capital brought about the suppression of religious orders in the Republic The Jesuits were finally expelled from the country in LS5«>, and all the remaining orders had been abolished on Mexican territory by December ~2~. 1860, through the efforts of the liberal forces headed by Juarez. The laws of reform incorporated into the Federal constitution December 14. 1*74, suppressed the last remaining female religious establishments — the Sisters of Charity. The number of vicarages and parishes. Roman Catholic churches and chapels in Mexico in is'.iT. i- given in the following table: Diocese. Archbishopric oi Mexico Bishi i]i Chiapas Bishopric oi Yucatan Bishopric of Tabasco Bishopric of Tulanclngo Bishopric of Veracruz Bishopric of Chilapa Bishopric of Tamaulipas Archbishopric <>f Michoacan Bishopric of San Luis Potosi Bishopric ol Quere'taro Bishopric of Leon Bishopric of Zamora Archbishopric of Guadalajara Bishopric of iMirango Bishopric of Linares Bishopric of Bonora Bishopric of Zacatecas Vicarage Apostolic of Lower California Total Mexico Puebla < texaca San Cristobal Merida San Juan Bautista . Tulancingo Jalapa Chilapa Ciudad Victoria... Morelia San Luis Quere'taro Leon Zamora Guadalajara Durango Monterey Culiacan Zacatecas Vicarages and par- ishes. 203 1ST 134 40 84 12 70 fit 76 39 58 53 29 23 36 106 45 36 65 20 1,3)9 Churches and chapels. Total. 1,654 2,518 1,000 500 234 100 400 100 879 11 300 171 107 100 100 878 2.50 186 200 100 1 . 857 2,700 1,134 540 318 112 470 164 451 K0 358 204 136 123 136 182 295 171 256 120 10,112 OTIIEK RELIGIONS. Independence of thought in religion may be said to have had its beginning in Mexico as far back as the year 1770, when Bishop Fabian, CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 383 of Puebla, under the auspices of Archbishop (afterwards Cardinal) Lorenzana, published his " Missa Gothica seu Mozarabica," which was a liturgy used in Spain by the Gothic Christians prior to the adoption of the Roman liturgy. Liberal ideas grew very slowly, but received considerable impulse when, in 1824, Mexico gained her independence from the mother country. Juarez and the "laws of reform" further invigorated these ideas, which grew more and more until about 1860, when the first Protestant missionary, Miss Matilde Rankin, commenced her labors in the Mexican field, which resulted in a short time in the formation of 11 Protestant congregations. Christian Church. — The first movement toward the formation of a Christian Church distinct from the Roman Catholic which came to a successful issue was begun in the country in 1868, when aid was asked of Protestants in the United States. The aid being* afforded, there was organized in 1869 in the City of Mexico what was called "The Church of Jesus in Mexico," which, however, was not the result of missionary work so much as "a spontaneous movement originating among members of the Roman Catholic Church " in the country who desired " a greater liberty of conscience, a purer worship, and a better church organization." The Rev. Henry C. Riley, a clergymen of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States, went to Mexico, in 1869, and entered heartily into the work of "The Church of Jesus." In the same year the great Church of San Francisco, as well as the chapel of Balvanera, were purchased by the Protestants, and services were conducted therein in Spanish and English. These buildings, formerly Roman Catholic churches, were purchased at an expense of $50,000, and in addition to this, during the five years that the society continued in charge of the work, more than $83,000 were expended in the support of missionaries. More than 3,000 per- sons connected themselves with the movement, and in 1873 the society deemed it expedient to transfer the work to the board of missions of the Protestant Episcopal Church. Subsequent to this the Reverend Doctor Riley was consecrated bishop of the Valley of Mexico; but in April, 1881, after Bishop Riley's resignation, the American bishops recognized the Cuerpo Eclesidstico, composed of the clergy and readers, as the ecclesiastical authority of the Mexican Church. The Church of San Francisco is a historic building. It was dedi- cated December 8, 1716, but the original monastery and church, whose site this edifice occupied, was built about 1607 on lands which had formerby been the garden and wild-beast house of the kings of Tenoch- titlan. Cortes provided funds for the building of the first church, and material was secured in the hewn stone from the steps of the great Teocalli (the Aztec temple). In this church Cortes heard masses, and for a time his bones found a resting place. Here the Spanish viceroys, 384 Mexico. through the centuries, took pari in the great festivals of the church. The ft Deum in celebration of Mexican independence was first echoed by its walls. Here the liberator, Agustin de Yturbide, worshipped, and here bis funeral services were held when he died: and here, to-day, Protestant services are held. Three churches now stand on portions of the land covered by what were known formerly as the seven churches of San Francisco. They are the Church of Jesus; Christ Church, where the Bervices of the Church of England are held, and the Methodist Episcopal Church of the Trinity. In 1891 the Mexican Church elected the presiding bishop of the American Church as the provisional bishop of the former, and took as its name "The Mexican Episcopal Church of Jesus.** The general convention has commended the church work in Mexico, and since then the Mexican Church has reorganized itself, substituting for the Ouerpo Edesidstico a synod composed of the clergy and lav representatives from the congregations. It has adopted a body of canons for its gov- ernment and has also officers for the administration of baptism, con- firmation, and communion, for marriage and burial, for daily morning and evening prayer, etc. Two men have been ordained to the priest- hood and seven to the deaconate. The Mexican Episcopal Church is no longer an American mission, although the contributions of American church people are supporting the work. The church has stations in several States and the Federal District, having a large membership. Pr/t, r'um Chin'fh. The missionary work of the Presbyterian Church in Mexico began in 1*74 and to-day is in a flourishing condi- tion, having both foreign and native preachers, missionaries, churches, Sunday, boarding and day schools, and a large number of commu- nicants, adherents, native workers and pupils in the schools. Methodist Episcopal Church. — The Methodist Episcopal Church South laid its foundation in the City of Mexico in 1873. There are now three mission conferences in Mexico, representing the fruits of unceasing toil and heroic devotion. This church claims that a Mexican. S6>tenes Juarez, was the first man who held Protestant services in Mexico. That in 1865 a band of seven met in a room on the ( Salle San Jose Real, in the City of Mexico, and organized the first Protestant Church in Mexico. It was called The Society of Christian Friends. Data kindly furnished by the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church show a very tlourishing condition of affairs. This organization has in Mexico 111 congregations. 15 churches, 38 parson- ages. 1 theological school. 6 high schools, and ">1 day schools. It employs 31 missionaries, 53 native preachers, and 65 teachers in its PROTESTANT WORK. 385 various schools. There are 2,908 church members, over 12,000 adher- ents and probationers, TO Sunday schools with 2,000 scholars, while in the other schools there are 3,300 students. The value of the church property, parsonage, and other buildings is about $706,000. The society also maintains a publishing house which during 1002 published Sunday school lesson papers, hymnals, tracts, etc., to the number of 5,153,200 pages. Two distinct missionary organizations of the Baptists of the United States are prosecuting missionary work in Mexico independently of each other, although the best of relations exist between them. These are the American Baptist Home Missionary Society and the Foreign Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention. Statistics of the Protestant work in Mexico for 1000, kindly fur- nished by the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church,' show that during the year in reference there were 210 foreign mission- aries, of which 130 were women; 517 native workers of both sexes; 20,760 communicants; 17 adherents, not communicants, making a total of 37,760 native constituency. There were 434: substations, lis day schools with 7,073 pupils, 18 higher institutions with 2,217 students, and 4 hospitals or dispensaries. 509a— 04 25 CII A PT E R XVII. PATENT AND TRADE-MARK LAWS. The Bret patent law of Mexico was trained and issued in 1S32, but it was not until lNNt; that any remarkable activity was noted in this branch of development, as in the years intervening between L832 and Is;,.", not a single patent was granted. From 1854 to L875 the entire number issued was only 41; from 1*7(1 to lss:> there were :-J*»0; 102 in 1886, and from that time until L889 the patent grants numbered 406. The patent law of June 7. L890, amended dune 6, L896, has been repealed by law of August 25, 1903, now in force. PATENT LAW. The new patent law of the Republic, promulgated August 25, 1903, contains li^l articles. The salient points of the law are the following: a Anyone who has made any new invention of an industrial character may acquire the exclusive right, by virtue of the provisions of articles 28 and 85 of the Constitution, to exploit or work said invention for his benefit, during a certain term, under the rules and conditions pre scribed by law. In order to acquire this right it is necessary to obtain a patent of invention. The following are patentable: I. New industrial product-. II. The application of new means in order to obtain an industrial product or result. III. The new application of known means in order to obtain an industrial product or result. The following are not patentable: I. A. discovery or invention that simply consists in making known or rendering evident something which had already existed in nature, although it had been unknown to man before the invention. II. Every scientific principle or discovery of a purely speculative character. III. Every invention or discovery, the exploitation of which ma}- be contrary to the laws prohibiting same, to public safety or health, and to good customs or morals. IV. Chemical products; but the new processes to obtain said prod- ucts, or their new industrial application, shall be patentable. "The full English text of tin- patent law and regulations was published in the Monthly Bulletin of this Bureau for December, 1903. 386 PATENT LAW. 387 An invention shall not be considered as new whenever it has been put in use, in the country or abroad, before the application of the patent, for a commercial or industrial purpose, or when it has been so extensive^ published as to become of use, as in such cases it shall be regarded as public property. In the following cases the foregoing provisions shall not apply to the author of the invention nor to the owner of the patent obtained abroad : I. When the publicit}*- is derived from the exhibition of the inven- tion in a local, State, or international exposition, official^ or unoffi- cially recognized, provided that before its exhibition the document prescribed by the regulations shall be deposited in the Patent Office and the proper application filed in said office within three months after the official closing of the exposition. II. When the owner of a foreign patent shall file his application for a Mexican patent to be issued within a period of three months from the date on which, in accordance with the law of the country in which the foreign patent was issued, the invention shall be made public. In case there are two or more foreign patents, the term of three months shall be reckoned from the date of the patent which was first published. III. Whenever the application shall be filed within the terms speci- fied by the international treaties relating to the matter, or within the twelve months to which article 12 of the law refers. The owner 6f a patent shall have the exclusive right: I. To exploit or work the same, for his benefit, during the time fixed by law, either by himself or through other persons with his consent. II. To prosecute before the courts those who infringe his patent rights, either because of the industrial manufacture of the patented article, or by the industrial employment or use of the patented process or method, or because they may keep in their possession or offer for sale, sell, or introduce for a commercial purpose in the national terri- tory, without his consent, one or more manufactured articles. In the case of industrial manufacture the intent to defraud shall not be necessary to incur in a penal offense, although said fraudulent intent must exist in the other cases provided for in Section II. The patent shall produce no effect whatever. I. Against similar articles that ma} r , in transit, pass through the national territory or tarry in its territorial waters. II. Against a third party who was already exploiting the same patented article in the country prior to the date on which the applica- tion for the patent was filed or on which he had made the necessary arrangements to exploit it. III. Against a third party who, for the purpose of making experi- MEXICO. menta or investigations, should construct an article or put in use a process equal, <»r substantially equal, to the patented one. A patent may be granted to two or more persons jointly should it be jointly applied for. Those desiring to obtain a patent shall file at the Patent Office an application, accompanied with the following documents: I. A specification. II. A set of claims. III. A drawing or drawings, should the case require it, at the dis- cretion of the inventor. IV . Two copiesof the above documents. The Patent Office shall make an official examination of the docu- ments tiled in order to determine if they are complete and whether they comply with the requisites prescribed by the proper regulations concerning the form thereof. If upon examination the Patent Office finds that said documents do not comply with the requirements, or that the article or thing sought to be patented is not patentable, it shall dismiss the petition and so notify the interested party. If this is not satisfactory, he may appeal to the courts in accordance with the provisions of Chapter XII of the law. Should the Patent Office he satisfied with the documents filed, it shall so notify the interested party. The legal date of a patent is that of the legal filing in the Patent Office of the application and documents which constitute the same; and from that date the patent is supposed to be granted and produce- its legal effects, except as specified above. The legal date of a patent solicited in Mexico, and which has already been applied for by the same person in one or more foreign countries, -hall be that which corresponds to the foreign patent first solicited, provided that it he applied for in Mexico within twelve months from the date of the first application abroad, if it is a patent of invention. and within four months from tin 1 same date if the application is by means of an industrial design or model, and provided also that the foreign country in which it was first applied for grants this same right to Mexican citizens. Patent- shall be granted without prejudice to third parties and without guaranteeing their novelty or utility. The concession thereof only gives a presumption of said qualities and of the rights of the owner until the contrary is proven. Anv person other than the author of an invention applying for a patent must prove hi- authority a- representative or attorney of the inventor by means of a letter of authorization, signed by the inventor or author of the invention and two witnesses. The Patent Office, however, reserves the right to demand the ratification of the signa- tures whenever it should deem it convenient to do so. PATENT LAW. 389 Patents of invention are granted for a term of twenty years from their legal date. This term is divided into two terms, the first con- sisting of one year and the second of nineteen years. The tax for the tirst period, or one-} r ear, term is 5 pesos, and for the second term 35 pesos. The regulations shall tix the Government fees for issuing copies, certified copies, renewal of title deeds, etc. The term of twenty years may be extended five years longer at the discretion of the Chief Executive after the payment of the proper additional fees. To obtain this extension an application must be filed with the Patent Office within the first six months of the last year of the ordinary term of twenty years, as required by law. The exploitation of a patent is not obligatory, but if after three years from the legal date thereof said patent should not be industrially exploited within the national territory, or if after these three years the exploitation of the same shall have been suspended for more than three consecutive months, the Patent Office shall have the right to grant to third parties a license to make said exploitation. The owner of a patent has the right to prosecute before the courts as an usurper of his patent rights or as an illegal exploiter thereof the owner of a license granted by the Patent Office who had not commenced the exploitation within the term of two months fixed by law, or who had suspended the exploitation during a period exceeding two con- secutive months, and who, notwithstanding said fact, had been exploit- ing said patent, except when said suspension of the exploitation had been caused by accident or by main force. All the products protected by a patent shall bear a mark to indicate the fact that the article is patented, as well as the number and the date of the patent. Patents shall be issued by the Patent Office in the name of the Presi- dent of the Republic and be signed by the Secretary of Fomento. Patents shall state: The number of the patent, The name of the person or persons to whom the same is granted; The term of the patent; The article for which it has been granted; Its legal date and the date of its issuance; And to the patents shall be affixed the special seal of the Patent Office. The patent, together with a copy of the specification, the claims, and drawings, should there be any, shall constitute the title deed which shall prove the rights of the patentee. The patent protects only what is contained in the claims, the speci- fications and drawings, if any, serving only to explain what said claims contain. The Patent Office shall publish in the "Gaceta Oficial de Patentes y Marcas" (Official Gazette of Patents and Trade-Marks), at least every 390 MEXICO. two months, a list of the patents granted, and at least annually a special hook containing the claims and one or more draw ings of each patent. The Patent Office shall., upon request of the interested parties con- cerning the novelty of a patent applied for, make an examination without guaranty, and report in writing the result of this examina- tion, which may also be made upon the request of any person, for the purpose of ascertaining whether the article sought to be patented has already been patented, or whether it has become public property in Mexico. The rights acquired by virtue of a patent may be transferred, in whole or in part, by any of the legal means established by law, as*in the case of any other right, providing it does not injure the rights of a third party. A patent of invention may be expropriated by the Federal Executive, on the ground of public utility, by causing the respective invention to become at once public property, after due indemnification, subject to the same requisites established by the law r for the expropriation of real estate. In the case of invention of a new weapon, instrument of war, explosive, or, in general, of any improvement in machines or munitions of war which may be applied to the national defense, and which, in the opinion of the Chief Executive, should be kept as a secret of war. and therefore only be used by the National Government, said expropri- ation shall embrace not only the patent but also the invention, even though it may not have yet been patented. In this case said invention, as well as the respective patent, shall not be made public, but it becomes tin' exclusive property of the Government. Patents shall be considered void — I. At the expiration of the first term, one } T ear, if the fees of the second payment have not been paid. II. Upon the expiration of the second term. III. Upon the expiration of the term of extension, when an exten- sion has been granted. Patents are void — I. Whenever they are in contravention of the provisions of law. II. When the claims are not sufficiently clear and explicit, thereby rendering it difficult or impossible to determine what is claimed as new. III. When there is not sufficient clearness and precision in the speci- fication and drawings so that, in the opinion of the expert, said speci- fication and drawings are not sufficient, taken as a whole, to construct or produce what they purport to describe. IV. Whenever the object attained by virtue of the patent differs from that sought to be obtained. PATENT REGULATIONS. 391 V. Whenever another like patent has been previously granted, in the country or abroad, though the same has been declared void. A patent can only be annulled by judicial authority, and then only by reason of any of the causes enumerated. The penal and civil responsibility of infringers, and the procedure to be observed both in criminal and civil actions, embrace 52 articles of the new patent law, the matter being exhaustively treated. In regard to patents by industrial samples or drawings, is patentable every new form of an industrial product, piece of machinery, tool, statue, bust, high or low relief, which, either by its new artistic arrangement or by the new arrangement of the material, constitute a new and original industrial product. Any new drawings used for the purpose of industrial ornamentation, in any substance, and arranged thereon by printing, painting, embroidering, knitting, sewing, mold- ing, casting, engraving, mosaic, inlaying, embossing, discoloration, or any mechanical, physical, or chemical means, in such manner as to give to the industrial products used in the drawings a peculiar and becoming appearance, shall also be patentable. Whenever a patent is applied for by means of an industrial sample or drawing, a sample or model shall be sent to the Patent Office, in addition to the papers or documents specified in the law and regula- tions. In case the drawing or drawings illustrating the drawing or model sought to be patented are difficult to cop.y, tbe Patent Office may accept photo-engravings or photographs. It shall also dispense with the model or sample when the execution of the same is difficult, and when the drawings are sufficient to give an accurate and precise idea of the invention. Patents applied for by means of industrial drawings and models shall be granted for a term of five or ten years at the option of the applicant. These terms can not be extended. The fees charged for patents applied for by means of industrial drawings or models are the following: I. For five years, 5 pesos. II. For ten years, 10 pesos. The above fees shall be paid in Federal revenue stamps in the man- ner prescribed by the regulations. Patents applied for by means of industrial drawings or models lapse when the term for which they were granted expires. All the pro- visions relating to patents of invention are applicable to those of industrial models and drawings, except as provided by law. This law went into force on the 1st of October, 1903. Regulations. — The regulations, consisting of 38 articles, were pro- mulgated by Executive decree of September 21, 1903, and in general terms provide that whoever desires to obtain a patent shall file person ■ ally, or by means of an attorney, in the Patent Office, an application 892 Mexico. accompanied by the following documents: I. A description; II. A claim; III. A drawing or drawings, if the same require it; and IV. Two copies df these documents. A receipt shall be given to the applicant of the documents presented stating the date and hour in which they were riled, their serial num- ber, and the term within which the interested party shall appear or present bimself in the Patent Office to be notified of the result of the examination and when to pay the required fiscal fees. Should the interested party fail to comply with the terms and requirements sel forth in this receipt, the ease shall he considered as abandoned. The application shall he made according to the models annexed to the regulations. When a patent is jointly applied for by several per- sons, there must l>e stated in the respective application, in the first place, the name of the person who represents the others, and it must so be set forth in the specifications. The specification must begin with the name of the inventor or inventors, profession, if he or they have any. nationality, domicile, ami address in the City of Mexico for receiving notifications; the name, nature, and object of the invention, with an enumeration of the drawings. After this the invention must be described in a complete, clear, and exact manner and as concisely as possible, avoiding all kinds of digressions and adhering strictly to the object thereof. Under no pretext shall an attempt be made to give a demonstration of a mathe- matical, philosophical, or of any other nature whatever, concerning what is described or affirmed. At the end of the specification the claim must be added signed by the inventor or his representative. The models provided for by the regulations must be strictly followed. The claim must define and express clearly and with all exactness the process, combination, or product which constitutes the invention or the organ or piece that forms the essential part of the invention, indi- cating at the same time the relation which it may have to another or other organs or elements which are not the direct object of the patent. The drawings must be made on white paper of the thickness of three-sheet Bristol board having a smooth and compressed surface approximately 380 millimeters in height by 254 millimeters in width. A heavy line 25 millimeters from the od^r of the paper shall forma frame or body within which the drawing must be made. In the upper part which the name or title refers, inasmuch as the essential requisite, in order that a title or name may serve as a trade-mark, is that it be capable <»t' indicating (-1- distinguishing the articles thus protected from other article- of precisely the same description or kind. II. Anything that is contrary to morals, good customs, or to the laws of the country, and everything that may tend to ridicule ideas, persons, of articles worthy of consideration. III. The national coat of arms, escutcheon, and emblems. IV. Weapons, escutcheons, and emblems of the States of the Fed eration. national or foreign cities, foreign nations and states, etc., without their respective consent. V. The names, signatures, seals, ami pictures of private persons, without their consent. The registration of a trade-mark shall he renewed every twenty years. Delay in making said renewal shall not result in the loss of the rights to the exclusive use of the trade-mark, but the party thereby incurs an increase in the Government fees in accordance with the pro- visions of the regulations, and until the renewal takes place the inter- ested party has no right to bring a criminal action against or prosecute those who should improperly use or counterfeit the trade-mark. The registrstion of a trade-mark shall commence to he in force from the date on which the respective application and documents shall have been duly tiled with the Patent and Trade-mark Office. A trade-mark, the registration of which is applied for in Mexico within four months after having been applied for in one or several foreign countries, shall be regarded as having been registered on the same date in which it was registered in the first foreign country where it may have been previously registered, provided that country grants the same right to Mexican citizens. Hence every trade-mark regis- tered in Mexico under these conditions shall have exactly the same powerand shall produce the samceflfeel as if it had been registered en the same day and hour in which it was registered in the first foreign country. Registered trade-marks shall bear visible inscriptions, as follows: Those used by manufacturers, merchants, agriculturists, etc. "Registered Trade-mark." or the same words written in abbreviation, together with the number and date of the registration. Those used by merchants shall read "Registered Commercial Trade-mark," or the same words written in abbreviation, together with the number and date of the registration. TRADE-MARK LAW. 397 Whenever the trade-mark consists of names, titles, inscriptions, monograms, or abbreviations, etc. , or when consisting- of signs which arc not letters, should bear the names, titles, etc., or monograms or abbreviations, the trade-mark shall necessarily bear in a conspicuous or visible manner the name of the owner of the industry or trade, the name of the business, manufactory, etc., should he have any, and the place where the latter is situated. The registration of a trade-mark shall be made without an examina- tion as to its novelty under the exclusive responsibility of the applicant. and without prejudice to third parties, and such registration shall be void whenever the same has been made in contravention of the pro- visions of the law and the regulations, or when it had been previously registered by somebod} r else, if more than two years have elapsed since registration, or the two years not having yet elapsed, another had made the registration with a better right. The certificate of registration of a trade-mark shall be issued b}" the Patent and Trade-mark Office. This certificate duly legalized, together with the documents attached thereto, constitutes the title which proves the right to the exclusive use of the trade-mark. Registered trade-marks can be transferred and sold or disposed of like any other right, as provided by law. The transfer shall be regis- tered in the Patent and Trade-mark Office, and without this requisite it shall have no effect against a third party. The transfer of a trade- mark implies or carries with it the right of industrial or commercial exploitation of the industrial product or commercial articles protected by said trade-mark. Civil and criminal actions growing out of the infringement of the trade-mark law and the penalties attached thereto are fully set down in the act in question. The fees for registration and publication of trade-marks are as fol- lows: A fee of 5 pesos for the registration or extension of time of a trade-mark; a fee of one peso for the publication of a commercial name. The following fees shall be charged for the registration of a com- mercial advertisement: Two pesos for a five years' registration; 1 pesos for a ten years' registration; 4 pesos for each extension of time cf five years. These fees shall be paid in internal-revenue stamps, in the form and manner prescribed by the regulations of this law. Said regulations fix the fees which the Patent and Trade-mark Office shall charge for other services, such as registration of transfers, change of place, renewals of the certificates of registration, etc., which fees are also paid in internal-revenue stamps. This law went into effect on the 1st of October, 1903. 398 m ix ico. Regulations. — The regulations promulgated on September 24. 1903, provide in general terms that the registration of trade-marks :me made, a separate application shall he made. according to the model, provided by law. The Patent and Trade-Mark Office shall issue a receipt for the doc- uments and cliche* to the interested party, stating the day and hour in which they were delivered and the respective serial number. The Patent and Trade-Mark Office shall make an official examination of the documents in accordance with the law. If the result of the official examination is satisfactory the interested party shall present to the Patent and Trade-Mark Office, within the term stated in the receipt for the documents, the stamp with the restamp " Marcas" (Marks) cor- responding to the payment of the fees, said stamp to he canceled on the document. If the applicant fails to do so within the term fixed in tlir receipt issued for the documents, it shall be understood that the case has been abandoned. If the Patent and Trade-Mark Office finds that the documents pre- sented arc not prepared in due form, it shall make known the fact in writing to the interested party, so that he may renew them or proceed in the manner indicated in article 30. Chapter III. of the law. The descriptions of the trade-mark, the registration of which is solicited, must be authorized by the signature of the interested party or that of his attorney, and in case said description consists of several pages or folios, each folio or page must be signed on the margin. All applications and other documents presented for the registration of a trade-mark or notice -hall be typewritten on one side of the paper only, in indelible black, blue, or dark violet ink. The paper used must be 33<> millimeters in length. 215 millimeters wide, and have a margin of .M millimeters on the left side. The length or width of the cliche for a trade-mark or notice shall be no less than 15 millimeters and no more than 100 millimeters, and the height thereof must be 24 milli- meters. When a trade-mark i- formed by several separated parts one cliche shall be sent for each of said part-. The colors shall lie indi- cated in the cliche a- far ;i- may bo possible. The copies of the original trade-mark law shall be free from erasure-, corrections, or modifications. "The article in reference reads as follows: •• Akt. 39. Whenever the interested parties should not be satisfied with the admin- istrative decisions or decrees of the Department of Promotion or with those of the Patent and Trade-Mark Office they may appeal within fifteen days after being advised of the decision to any of the District Judges of the City of Mexico, setting forth the reason of their nonconformity." TRADE-MARK REGULATIONS. 399 When metal objects or other substances constitute a trade-mark or a part thereof, there shall be sent, in addition, twelve copies of its illus- tration, printed on paper, as well as when the trade-mark is to be fixed by means of lead seals, by fire, or by any other process. The certificate of registration of a trade-mark, besides the provisions of the law, must contain the following: I. Ordinal number of the trade-mark. II. Date and hour in which the application and annexed documents were presented. III. The name of the owner of the trade-mark. IV. The seal of the Patent and Trade-Mark Office. V. A facsimile of the registered trade-mark. VI. A description of said trade-mark. In case the certificate of registration should be lost or destroyed it may be renewed at the expense of the owner of the trade-mark. In order to do this he shall present a petition and three pesos' worth of stamps with the restainp "Marcas" (Marks), which he shall affix to the document indicated to him and shall cancel them thereon. In the new certificate shall be stated that it is a duplicate. To solicit the registration of the transfer of a trade-mark, a petition shall be made to the Patent and Trade-Mark Office, stating: I. The number of the registered trade-mark. II. The name of the former owner. III. The name of the trade-mark, should it have one. IV. The products protected b} T it. V. The name of the new owner. This application shall be accompanied by stamps to the value of 3 pesos with the restamp "Marcas" (Marks), to be canceled on the docu- ment. With .said petition shall be sent a facsimile of said trade-mark. In order to justify the acquisition of a trade-mark or notice, the origi- nal and a copy of the respective deed shall be sent. The original to be returned to the interested party, and the copy shall be kept as a part of the proceedings. To obtain the registration of a commercial notice, there shall be presented at the Patent and Trade-Mark Office a petition, accompanied by the following: I. A cliche of the notice. II. Twelve copies of the notice or advertisement just as it is going to be used. III. Twelve copies of the same notice printed on paper, when said notice is going to circulate, made in crystal (glass), sheet (plate), leather, pasteboard, etc. The petition shall be made in accordance with the model, and 3 pesos' worth of stamps, with the restamp "Marcas" (Marks), shall beaccom- 40(1 MEXICO. panied, if the registration is for five years, and I pesos in stamps, it' the registration is for ten years. These -tamp- the interested party or his representative shall cancel on the document thai may be indi- cated to him. The dimensions of the cliche* of a commercial notice shall be the same as those fixed for the trade-mark. Anv document that does not fulfil] the requirements <>t' the law and the regulations shall be renewed at the expense of the Interested party. Under no pretext whatever shall documents, drawings, stamps, cliche^ or samples, which, for the purpose of obtaining the registration of a trade-mark or notice, may have been delivered to the Patent and Trade- Mark Office, be returned. The public may examine the registered trade-marks and notices (advertisements) at the hours fixed for that purpose by the Patent and Trade-Mark Office. The number of patents issued and trade-marks registered by the Department of Promotion, from L890 to the end of 1902, is officially given as follows: Year. Patents Issued. Trade- marks regis- tered. !-'»!» 63 168 168 122 125 164 ISO 203 282 279 278 399 488 97 1891 112 L892 161 1893 ins 1894 79 1895 91 L896 101 1897 'JOT 1893 1899 267 1900 286 1«K>1 272 1902 867 Total 2,814 2, 32:5 CHAPTER XVIII. PRACTICE OF MEDICINE, DENTISTRY, ETC. -COST OF DIVING- WAGES TO DABOR— BUIDDING, ETC. Practice of medicine, dentistry, etc. — No person, whether a native or a foreigner, is allowed to practice in Mexico medicine, pharmacy, obstet- rics, or dentistry without positive proof that he or she is a graduate of a duly authorized college or university. Studies in Mexico must be made at one of the schools, hospitals, or other institutions author- ized by law, and when made in a foreign country the} T must be validated before the proper Mexican authorities, upon application to the Secre- tary of Justice and Public Instruction, and the proof, by the proper certificate, that they have been made in accordance with the provisions of the Mexican law. Validation thus granted exempts the candidate from the necessity of being examined. The medical professions, as classified by the decree of January 11, 1902, providing for a "Plan of Studies for the National School of Medicine," are four, as follows: I. Medicine and surgery; II. Pharmacy; III. Obstetrics; IV. Dental surgery. Medicine. — The course in medicine, covering a period of six years, embraces: Descriptive anatomy, with practical dissection exercises; general and histological anatomy, theoretical and practical, with the proper practical exercises; topographic anatomy, with practical exer- cises, and pathological anatomy; physiology, with experimental dem- onstrations; biological chemistry; galenic pharmacy; bacteriology; pathology, medical, surgical, and general; therapeutics, medical and surgical; theoretical obstetrics; clinics, internal, external, propedeuti- cal, and surgical; medical pediatrical clinic; surgical gynecological clinics; clinic of ophthalmology; clinic of psychiatrics; legal medicine and deontology. Pharmacy. — The course in pharmacy, covering a period of three years, embraces: Pharmacy; posology; pharmaceutical econonry; legal pharmacy; deontology; chemical and pharmaceutical manipulations; practical management of the physical and chemical instruments and apparatuses used in pharmacy; natural history of the simple drugs 509a— 04 26 401 402 HEXIOO. used in Mexico; chemical analysis, general and applied to medicines; toxicology; and the examination of food and beverages, and of the principal physiological and pathological products. Practice in the Charity Central Dispensary or in the drug store of the Government hospital shall also be required as a condition for graduation. Obstetrics. The course in obstetrics, covering a period of two years, embraces: Anatomy and physiology of the feminine sexual appara- tus, including the study of the pelvis; elements of embryology and fetal anatomy; pregnancy, labor, and puerperal conditions, physiolog- ically considered; care required by the mother of the newly born child; obstetrical antisepsis; obstetrical hygienics; obstetrical thera- peutics: obstetrical operations, with exercises on the manikin; and clinic, obstetrical and propedeutical. I>< niist/ry. — The course in dental surgery, covering a period of three years, embraces: Descriptive anatomy, with dissection exercises; topo- graphical anatomy of the head, and especially of the mouth; histology, with special reference to the elements constituting the mouth; physi- ology; dental pathology; morbous processes in general; dental thera- peutics; dental materia medica; dental surgery: dental operations; dental prosthesis; dental metallurgy; bacterioscopy. Article 22 of the decree provides that the studies above described, whether purely preparatory or professional, made in a foreign coun- try, may be validated by the secretary of justice and public inst na- tion, upon such conditions as he may require. Article 28, translated into English, reads as follows: "Abt. 28. Persons holding diplomas from official schools of the Republic, different from those designated by this decree, or from for- eign universities, who may desire to obtain the same from the schools and institutions named in article 1 of this decree, for the practice of any of the medical professions established by this plan, shall subject themselves to examination, in the National Preparatory School or in the National School of Medicine, in every one of the matters or branches above described for each profession; and if approved they shall have to pass also the respective professional examination. But if the can- didate should prove by a competent certificate to have studied some matters in conformity with the provisions of the Mexican plan, the said studies shall be validated and he shall be exempted from exami- nation in the -nine. It shall not be necessary to take up the different subjects of examination in regular order." Cost of liming. — It maybe said in a general way that the cost of liv- ing in Mexico is not great, although, of course, it varies in different localities. In the interior towns and villages the common necessaries of life, such as beef, vegetables, etc.. are cheap. Coffee ami tea. the latter being very seldom used or seen in the interior, are expensive. Imported goods are also expensive, as to their cost in gold must be COST OF LIVING. 403 added the import duties and the merchants' profits. The native food is rich and highly seasoned. Meals may be had at the hotels in the interior for about 50 cents each; board and lodging at these hotels range from $2 to $2.50 per day. In the City of Mexico, living is more expensive. Hotels charge from $2.50 to $10 silver per day. Good meals may be procured at any first- class restaurant for $1. Ready-made clothing, such as is to be found in the Unitetl States, is not much in vogue, but imported English and French cloth is made up into suits at about the same cost as in the United States. The large dry-goods establishments, millinery stores, etc., are as well stocked as those of the larger cities of the United States, and for imported goods the prices vary very little from those prevailing in the latter country. Rents in the City of Mexico, however, are very high. This is due to the cost of house building, the municipal tax of 12 per cent on the annual rental, pavement, drainage, water, and stamp taxes. The expense in taxes on a house costing $10,000 to build, and renting for $75 per month, is $13.08 per month, or about 17£ per cent of the receipts. There is not much money to be saved by hiring private lodgings unless it is proposed to take them for a protracted period. Furnished rooms in desirable localities cost nearly as much as hotel apartments. Although unfurnished rooms may be secured, the cost for furnishing them is very considerable; still they rent for about one-half the amount charged for furnished rooms. Casas de huespedes, corresponding to the American boarding house, abound, but as a rule the meals served are not of the best. Their charges are relatively moderate. The hotels generally, in the smaller cities and towns, are not provided with baths, but in the City of Mexico, as everywhere else, there are excellent public baths. The prices at these establishments are, usually, for cold baths, 1 real (12i cents); for warm baths, 2 reales (25 cents). a Street tramways in the Cit}*- of Mexico general^ charge 6i cents. Hackney coaches are divided into four classes, distinguished by tin flags painted in different colors, indicating the charge per hour for each, as follows: White flag, 50 cents per hour; red flag, $1 per hour; blue flag, $1.50 per hour. Good livery stables abound, and saddle horses may be secured at the rate of $3 for a morning's ride, or $4 for an entire afternoon. A tourist intending to take a short trip to Mex- ico would do well to calculate his expenses at $10 per day, including traveling expenses. Labor is abundant in Mexico; in some places the supply is greater than the demand, and as the laboring classes can live on such frugal diet and need so little clothing, wages, except for imported skilled labor, are small. « Mexican currency. 4<»4 MEXICO. The /""•' miiihis, as the large landowners arc called, own immense bracts of land, and the kacienda, or manor, is a congregation of build- ings, forming at time- quite a settlement. The haoenda&o usually works hi- possessions in accordance with the traditions handed down from the time of the Spanish conquest, and he is not only a land- owner hut he is a dealer in provisions, clothing, etc. His ''peones,"" as the laborers and the tillers of his soil arc called, are generally descended ?from those his father had before him, and they are paid, live, and work as their progenitors, and receive generally from 20 to cents a day. Wages. — With respect to the rates of wages paid in the Republic, the United States Minister to Mexico, under date of September 26, 1896, a reported to the Department of State that the amount of wages paid varies throughout the Republic, being higher in some sections than in others, and in certain mining districts lower than they were ten to tifteen years ago. This i- generally owing to local causes. As a matter of course, owing to the construction and management of 7,0<»0 miles of railroads, the introduction of electricity, and the placing of new and improved machinery in many of the mines and in some of the agri- cultural districts, there has been an increase in the number of skilled laborers, and some increase in the demand for the same, but it is true that with the great mass of the Mexican laborers there has been but little, if any. change in the amount of wages paid. A- might naturally be expected, there are some instances where laborers receive more than they did ten years ago, but these are the exceptions. There are also many instance- where less IS received. The daily wage paid to the farm laborer hired by the day does not exceed 30 cents, taking into account the whole laboring agricultural population. There are instances where the day laborer receives 50 cents per day: but again there are also instances where he only receives 15 to 20 cents. The Secretary of the Treasury of Mexico estimates the daily wage of farm laborers at •_'.'. cents. To obtain a correct idea of the daily wages paid to the agricultural laborer it i> well to divide the Republic into three districts: First. The tropical or hot country, where labor is scarcer than on the table-lands and there is not the same necessity to work. Here, on the coffee plantation-, the laborers receive from 37 to 50 cents per day. Second. The central plateau, or table lands, which constitute the greater portion of Mexico as regards wealth, population, etc. Here the wages vary from l:i.l to 50 cents per day, the average being from 18 to 35 cent-. "Tinted States Consular Reports, special report, "Money and Prices in Foreign Countries," Vol. XII, Parti, p. 16. BUILDING. 405 Third. The northern portion. Here labor is scarce, the influence of American customs is felt to some extent, and wages are higher than in the central portion. A large portion of the farming in Mexico is carried on under the "share system." The Government reports show that in many instances rations of corn are furnished to the hired laborer. In some cases we find that he is allowed a small amount per day for his board, in addi- tion to wages; again, he is furnished b} r the landlord with a small piece of land to cultivate for his own benefit. The wages of unskilled laborers in the fields, on the farms, in shops, and all other places where such labor is employed, are from 25 to 30 cents a day for men, and for women and boys from a third to a half less, the only rations ever furnished being corn and beans. In the mines the wages of the same class of labor are from 40 to 60 and to 80 cents a day and no rations. In the factories the wages of this same class are from 18 to 25 and 37 to 62 cents a day, without rations. The wages of a higher class of operatives in the factories vary from 45 to 75 cents per day and no rations. A day's labor in Mexico is from nine to thirteen hours. Building. — The prevailing st}de of architecture throughout Mexico, so far as regards what may be termed modern buildings as contradis- tinguished from the ruined temples and palaces of the Republic, is the Spanish renaissance. The cathedrals and churches are all built in this style. Arabesque work and stone carvings ornament the facades of nearly all religious edifices. Governmental buildings and those devoted to public uses are generally imposing and commodious. The National Palace in Mexico has a frontage of 675 feet and is two stories high. Private houses are always substantially built, generally in a rec- tangular form around a courtyard. It is rare, except at the capital, to see a private residence over two stories high. The roofs are flat, with a wall running entirely around them. The roof is called the asotea, and in the warmer region is often utilized by the residents for sleeping purposes during the dry season. Growing plants and shrubs are often to be seen on the azotea and in the court} r ard. The windows of the houses are generally barred with railings of iron. The larger residences are constructed of igneous rock, such as porous anrygdaloid, porphyry, or trachyte. Dwellings are made usually of brick and tejpetate (a kind of clay thickly sprinkled with sand and pebbles, which is soft when taken out of the deposit, but on exposure becomes exceed- ingly hard) and are stuccoed. Some very fine examples of modern architecture ma}^ now be seen along the Paseo de la Reforma in the capital, where the wealthy class have erected several imposing residences with every comfort incident to those of more northern climes. 406 MEXICO. ( )n the table-lands houses in the smaller towns and Tillages are con structed of adobe, a sun-dried brick made of dark clay mixed with straw. The peons in the warm, well wooded regions build of wood, palm leaves, and stalks; in the table-lands, of adobe, the houses having Hat roofs of stamped (lay supported bv beams. In the Indian villages the rudesl possible habitations are to be seen, often being mere frameworks of limbs of trees, witli the bark on. and thatched in on all sides with grass, palm leaves, or stalks. This, of course, does not apply to the City of Mexico, which is to-day a mod- ern citv of the first class. CHAPTER XIX. MISCELLANEOUS STATISTICAL DATA.— WEIGHTS AND MEAS- URES.— CHAMBERS OF COMMERCE.— TREATIES AND CONVEN- TIONS. Area of the Slates and Territories of Mexico. CENTRAL STATES. Federal District Aguascalientes . Durango Guanajuato Hidalgo Mexico Morelos Puebla Queretaro San Luis Potosi. Tlaxcala Zacatecas NORTHERN STATES. Chihuahua.. Coahuila Nuevo Leon. Sonora Myriares. a 1,498.75 7,692 109, 495 28, 363 22, 215 23, 185 7, 082. 25 31,616 11,638 62, 177 4,132 63, 386 233, 094 165, 099 61,343 198, 496 GULF STATES. Campeche Tabasco Tamaulipas Veracruz Yucatan and Quintana Roo Myriares. 46, 855 26, 094 83, 597 75, 863 91,201 STATES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. Lower California (Territory Coliina Chiapas Guerrero Jalisco Michoaciin Oaxaca Sinaloa Tepic ( Territor y ) . 151,109 5,887 70, 524 64,756 86, 752 58, 594 91,664 71, 380 28, 371 Total 1,983,159 Area of the islands. Guadalupe (Pacific Ocean)... Cedros ( Pacific Ocean) Santa Margarita (Pacific Ocean) Creciente (Pacific Ocean) Revillagigedo (Pacific Ocean) . Tres Marfas (Pacific Ocean).. Tiburon (Gulf of California) . . Angel de la Guarda (Pacific Ocean) Montague (Pacific Ocean) San Esteban (Pacific Ocean) .. San Lorenzo (Pacific Ocean) . San Jose" (Pacific Ocean) Cerralvo (Pacific Ocean) Santa Catalina (Pacific Ocean) a One myriare is equal to 1,000,000 Myriares. 208 343 171 32 186 232 963 636 47 41 49 190 113 66 Grandtotal 1,987,201 sauare meters, or 1,196,000 square yards, or 247,105 acres. 407 Monserrate (Pacific Ocean) .. Carmen (Pacific Ocean) San Marcos . . Partida ( Pacific Ocean ) Cozumel (.Caribbean Sea) Mujeres (Canal of Yucatan).. Espiritu Santo (Gulf of Cali- fornia) Other small islands Total Myriares. 18 134 24 1 406 4 96 82 4,042 Total area of the States and Territories 1,983,159 Total area of the islands 4, 042 408 MKXICO. ■S e -■ d S : 5? ^. o § it? t? e u s c "5,8 >. c > : 6 a 3 - t- 1 t»i - -c E r. o — r < - t J8 . z - - t: ■50 £5 — — - B a - i ■a . _ ™ £ ;— bog ' all "= - = £ odd :' a d-ffl o d si To S d d-h 1 § •o'S 5 j; s ci d "3 g ij QPPOQQ-gQQ? : -5 - - 0d ^— - = - « "_ 'J — ". ~ < S oo 6 .oeic v. - — r — Kc;» , :r:i:i:ic NNioaait: / poo«ocpc ^^ r. .- — -. — .-■ - ~ 3C S — — -tirii- — r — - 1 r. — = = ■- — — r — ■-: . - jefcV — ' 1 1* — r i ? i" 1 1* r i* — r i _'_- _-:-c £ — .' ^_* _' _.' < g =' j = . c - ^ ^ c. z • ; -7 ■c -r 1 >, i o — s •— 01 v — ; - : = : '— -r •7 ^ w^b 5^ o' I .r i •~ .t: u — - ^ gj ■ a fl v= V. 2 "B < u go •eg be b< - 5 g bog S"8 _• : c • 3 ■ : ■ \ >■>. 3 N - ^ a -j^ « - «2 z s - • ' - = : — = . = a _■- kOl ; : - u __ ■ 5 S ill- 3 ■ c ■ • = = ; - 1 E - ? u ^ = : ?'r— =- E-O CS B . ej ■ bj . - '- - ij ;C < :--. O&tO fa fa i-3 O O O > >> ? !» ? H ^ — ? ^: ? ;?'iSii ^i^is?i^i;i?^ii. : ui i •a % HtOUt — X S ti -r OOOJt /•- = = =: iC X e C C X !- — ~ :-. \^ [- C .-:' — c to fc d 3) I -' iri ?i -c ^ — — = T ri — 1^ -i -\ 1^ — cr to c--i'^:ic 9 ~ >~ n r- IC — TI r n ?i = = :- ::":- — :: — : i n. ?i >- a a HOC - l~ IC DG M Mffltoa - go 1-1 00 04 ec — :: x r : 1 - :: r) .- - C! T" — -""CT1TI3 :::i." ~ 9 — ti :: ■=•-: — 0»MC :- O lOMt- :::i-c; OOO- — — — c : 1 ic j oa — x 1 C -r — r 1 3 ? 1 .: r»oh or- toor-ooeoioc :i:r.oooc oouMir:ot- t* to r i r i r NMOtnpHHH c ?< ?«) - 1 : 1 — . 71 ?i n ri ?i — — . •a - c : : : k - 1 j i : : ^; § : m _ c . - si - \ - - E Z 71 — r j r= = •Z = : I Ail 3P< a " -- — p, C ■^ 2 - is _ 2H z % u - 3 z 5 - c c a 5 ^ = : - = - ^ - s I O > z 5 c r :- - r c r 6> a a 5 a s b 5 - ^ ? S £ - 2 c K - - > a 1 - -; z - - J. ■_ 'E c a -. | "5 e 1- k- = 5< _' T • I j e -.— 5U ALTITUDE OF MOUNTS, ETC. Altitude of some mount*, valleys, ... in.. I'... October. July. September. July. September. July. Do. September. o - . = ~ - ■- = >- — 9 - Clouds. Winds. Rainfall. Average evaporation. Place. = 1 ~ s >. - E.r ■g;gj -: - - - Hi 5> . o _Z - = c - I L a — 3 - — — t • 'i.liina 66 46 55 50 60 74 7ii 66 64 62 69 64 64 55 4.7 5.0 5.8 2.8 6.2 ::. I 5.3 5. :: 4.6 4.9 3.3 4.3 :s.o 3.7 NE. amis. NE. 6 ENE. NW. 8.2 16.0 1.6 679. 1 7 1 467. •"> 91 804-8 44.8 13.0 58.0 .v,.ii Chihuahua Guadalajara Guanajuato B. 1 16. 1 18.0 7.;» 12.4 12.5 12.0 7.3 1 1. 6 \:\. \ 12.:. 1.3 1.9 1.0 0.7 ' '2.*9 1.7 2.3 2. 6 63 Hil Leon i Guanajuato) . 572. 7 Mazatlan w. NE. NE. NE. SE. SE. SW. S.auilSW. NE. K. K. E. 6.7 2.7 Menda 69 819, : 131 451.4 42.2 ;i7 :.'.C. :: is. u 77 674.7 14. u t'.'.l 1 ''J? fi "I.". II Mexico 6.2 2.6 Monterrey 8.8 Pachuca I'm i. in 110 79 86 915. 3 ;.s7. i 481.1 74.6 64.0 28. 7 5.0 Queretero Zacatecas n Centigrade. Vital statistics for tiu year 1901, and population in 1900. Aguascalientes . < lampecbe Coahuila Colima Chiapas Chihuahua Federal District Durango Guanajuato Guerrero Hidalgo Jalisco Mexico Michoaoan Morelos Nuevo Le6n Oaxaea Male. 4.731 i . .;:.7 4,110 1.036 6, 185 5, 326 8,371 5, 373 12,078 9,489 9, 135 26, 966 14,261 24, 690 3, 305 7.106 19,385 Female. 4,462 1 . 566 3,731 873 5, 737 5,113 7,890 5,022 11,319 8,840 s.J.M 24, 467 12,834 22.160 3,096 6,455 18,062 a Birth rate, 34.54 per 1,000 inhabitants. Total. 9,193 3,222 7,841 1,909 11,922 10, 439 16, 261 10, 395 23,397 18,329 17,389 50,423 27,085 16,860 6,401 13, 561 37, 437 Legiti- mate. 7, 608 2, 423 7, 021 1,130 3,133 6,223 7,080 11,594 6,388 44,821 Js.i.js 2,952 12,183 13,055 Illegiti- mate. 1,690 799 820 779 8,789 10,038 3,315 11,803 11,001 5,602 9,057 3,449 1,378 24, 382 VITAL STATISTICS. 411 Vital statistics for the year 1901, and population in 1900 — Continued. - Births. State. Male. Female. Total. Legiti- mate. Illegiti- mate. 12, 869 1,903 11,077 4,275 2, 328 3,618 2, 842 3,150 14,453 8, 260 10, 503 6,180 617 11,934 1,091 10, 220 4,023 2, 026 3,390 2, 457 3,038 13,185 7,759 9,870 5, 751 587 24, 803 3,594 21,297 8,298 4,354 7, 008 5, 299 6, 1S8 27,638 16,019 20, 373 11,931 1,204 13, 449 2, 887 15, 932 2,422 2, 264 3,592 3,634 4,876 11,306 13, 166 17, 208 3,980 618 11,354 707 5,365 5,876 2,090 3,416 1,665 1,312 16, 332 2,853 3, 105 7, 951 586 Total 244, 259 225, 801 470, 060 238,868 155, 574 Aguascalientes. . . Lower California Campeche Coabuila Colima Chiapas Chihuahua Durango Federal District. . Guanajuato Guerrero Hidalgo Jalisco Mexico Michoacan Morelos Nuevo Leon Oaxaca Puebla Quer6taro San Luis Potosf .. Sinaloa Sonora Tabasco Tamaulipas Tlaxcala Veracruz Yucatan Zacatecas Topic Total. Deaths, a Mexi- cans. 4, 303 1,210 2, 617 7, 369 2, 590 8,706 10, 491 2S, 9*5 35, 994 19,868 39, 151 30, 716 6, 897 8, 875 31, 582 36, 512 7, 510 17,088 7, 375 4,447 5,723 4,891 5, 461 26, 552 17, 892 14,198 6, 225 393, 348 Foreign. Male. Female. Total 31 300 6 204 91 7 1,128 2,263 681 1,288 3,831 1,473 4,617 3,398 5,491 15, 265 18,269 8,439 10, 264 20, 059 16, 012 14,116 3,615 4,528 16, 828 18, 877 3,757 8,690 3,869 2, 446 2, 965 2,540 2,837 14, 279 9,820 7, 272 3,272 231,061 2, 107 545 1,354 3,671 1,122 4,149 3,139 5,031 14, 020 17, 731 7,982 9,621 19,116 14,723 13, 350 3, 292 4,384 14, 774 17, 665 3,755 8,457 3,527 2,083 2,798 2,385 2, 624 12, 477 8,163 6,933 2,961 213, 839 4,370 1 , 220 2,642 7,402 2, 595 8,766 6, 537 10, 522 29, 285 36, 000 16, 421 19,885 39,175 30, 735 27, 466 6,907 8, 912 31,602 36,542 7, 512 17,147 7,396 4, 529 5, 763 4,925 5,461 26, 756 17, 983 14, 205 6, 233 444, 900 Popula- tion, cen- sus 1900. 102, 416 47, 624 86, 542 296, 938 65, 115 360, 799 327, 784 370,294 541,516 1,001,724 479, 205 605, 051 1,153,891 934, 463 930, 033 160, 115 327, 937 948, 633 1,021,133 232, 389 575, 432 290, 701 221,082 159,834 218, 948 172, 315 981,030 314,087 462, 190 150, 098 13, 005, 919 "Death rate, 32.29 per 1,000 inhabitants. 412 MEXICO. Estimated value of the city and suburban property in Mexico on December SI, 1902. [Values in Mexican silver.] Aguascalientes . Campeche i !oahuila Colima Chiapas Chihuahua Duraugo Federal < 1 i>t ric-t . Guanajuato Guerrero Hidalgo Jalisco Lower California, Low er California, Mexico MichoacAn Morelos Nuevo Lt'i'iu Oaxaca Puebla Queretaro San Luis PotOSi . . Sinaloa Sonora Tabasco i amaulipas Territory of Tepic Tlazcala Veracruz Yucatan Zacatecaa lorthern district outhern ilisirii i Total 961.77 691.00 400.00 129.00 572.67 915.00 293.17 940.08 936.00 77:;.:;;: 222.00 172.66 038 72 63 i 96 195. 00 023.34 045. 13 107.51 880.04 075.00 545.00 75s. 20 167. B5 007. l(i 963.21 52s. I II I 406.05 180.72 125. 51 451.82 6,874, 6, 562, 1, no, 6,048, 6,219, 168, 127, 11,804, 1,280, 8,690, 37,779, 215, 1,084, 11,794, 9,670, 1,901, 8, 292, 23, 110, 1,868, 10,839, 1,966, 6,458, 5,654, 5, 987, 2. 797, 878, 38,618, 14,044, 9.481, 000.00 280.00 975.00 120. 16 1/90.00 976, II 648.12 234.00 264. 13 948.00 107.00 421.40 133.07 309.00 076.89 157.86 166.09 080.00 259.00 891.25 272. 07 172.69 981.28 664.24 535.08 550. in 878. 69 172.64 Total. ST. IV.), 11,666, 14,976, 1,261, JT. 1 17. 22, I 16, 201,967, 14,961, 8,982, 27,217, 1,178, 8,742, 38,283, 84,761, 9, is:}, 16, 178, 21,718, 66, 77:!. 14,511, 25, 786, 11. 105, 11,201, 13,817, 12,382, 6,689, B, i::i. 92,654, 29, 136, 25,068, 961.77 971.00 14LO0 376.00 717.00 992. S3 006.00 269.61 588.20 L69.00 037.76 170.00 879. 66 160.12 069.08 50^1.00 100.23 325. 1 5 566. 37 346. 18 L66.00 .SOI. 00 649. 15 729. 92 17'.' 86 884. ii 192. 2 I 940. 13 730.82 004. 18 628.96 170,986,854.43 428,588,987.67 899,525,842.10 Revenues and expenditures of the States in 1900, 1901, into palmofl or cuartas. 1 palmo or cuarta =0.209500 meter =0.687394 foot =8.248728 inches. SUPERFICIAL OB SQUARE HBASURB. 1 square legua =1,755.61 hectares = 4,339.4 acres. 1 square vara =0.702244 square meter = 7.559000 square feet. 1 square pie" =0.078027 square meter = 0.839888 square foot 1 square palmo =0.043890 square meter =68.03094 square inches. 1 square polgada =0.000542 square meter = 0.84012 square inch. Land or agrarian measures. Spanish name. Hacienda Sitiode ganado mayor Sitio de ganado menor Fundo legal para pueblo Labor CabaUeria 'M ml for l fa- nega of corn. site for a house, mill, or inn. Length Breadth i varas). ( varas i. 25.000 5,000 5,000 5,000 3.333J 3, 333j 1,200 1,200 1,000 1,000 1,104 552 276 184 60 50 Hectares. 8,778.0500000 1,755.6100000 780.2711111 101. 1231860 70. 2244000 42.7963111 8.5662759 .1755610 Acres. 21,f,97.000 4,839. 400 1,928. 183 244. 140 175.532 106.751 B.813 . 184 H V I )Ko.M BTBIC H BASURB. This was used for measuring and distributing water for irrigation and domestic uses: 1 buey ( ox ) =48 surcos. 1 gurco | turn iw) = 3 naranjas. 1 naranja (orange) = 8 reales or Ivnumu. 1 real (bit) or limfrn i lemon) = 2 dedot. 1 ih do | finger) = 9 pajas (straws i. According to the old ordinances of lands and waters established in Spanish times, the buey of water was as much as would flow through an aperture 1 vara (0.838 meter) square, no head or pressure being mentioned. By a law of the Mexican Republic, of August 2, 1863, 1 gurco was made equal to •'»•' liters per second for rural measures, and thepoja was made equal to 0.45 liters per minute for town measure- ments. This distinction was intended to make the surco a unit for irrigation, while the paja was made the unit for distributing water to houses, etc., in towns. WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES. 415 CUBIC MEASURES. Cubic meter. Cubic yard. 1 cubic vara = 0.588480 = 0.769734 lcubicjwe.... = 0.021795 = 0.769484 \ cxxhic palmo = 0.009195 = 0.324634 DRY MEASURES. Liters. Bushels. 1 carga=2 fanegas - =181. 629775 = 5. 154357 1 /,m«7« = 12almudes =90.814888 = 2.577178 Pecks. 1 almud=4 cuartillos = 7. 567907 = 0. 859109 Dry quarts. 1 cuartillo (quart) = 1.891977 = 1.718122 OIL MEASURE. Liter. U. S. liquid quart. lcuartiUo = 0.506162 = 0.534870 AVINE MEASURE. Liter. U. S. liquid quart. Icuarlillo = 0.456264 = 0.482140 COMMERCIAL WEIGHTS. Kilogrammes. U. S. pounds avoirdupois. 1 quh>tal=4 arrobas =46. 024634 =101 . 444 1 arroba=25 lihras = 11. 506159 = 25. 361 1 libra ( pound) =16 onzas = 0. 460246 = 1 . 01444 Ounces avoirdupois. 1 onzn (ounce) =16 adarmes = 0.028765 = 1.0148 I adarme (dram ) =36 grano* = 0.001798 = 0.06343 Grains. 1 grano (grain) = 0.0000499 = 0.77160 In commerce there was used the following relation between the kilo- gramme and the pound (libra) different from the ratio as fixed by Government, viz: 1 kilogramme - =2. 1 733 pounds (libras) There is also a weight called carga, used in commerce, in freighting, and in minirrg: 1 co rn" ooc CO* Or _ cococ TC5iOX«2Mt^cOOt CICCti- iCCM o x re :o cc i- r-. i^ co cc co — i-- x co © ■■* oi oi t co w x o ic oi ■— o as to o i * a. -o i - ~7 m -T o"i> t^tHHh- j as lo co as to tr9SQ^^pwwwcjwoir-iQtp^rtDi>-coiNC-iQ'^ Too ii WH n rH — * -HO. Oi(NiCCOHOCOOOOOW c^aiXXHC 1 ! 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CO OS 01 CO rn CO rH - «r* tOHO^t^ ■ — < ci co- io -r r- — - OS co r- O O rH O CO CO iO CO CO CO co CO »o Ol CO Ol tt Ol rHOrHCOUO «* X CO O CO co ■ X OI-CliOOiO 03 Cj «>-s c g C55aCrZ ppoWr^ggg^ofti 5 , 5'^: 3 o S 3-= M MHciHHr^^N 509a— 04 27 418 MEXICO. i i;i: \ ri i - \m» < <»n\ in tions. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. Treaty of compulsory arbitration, January '-.), 19(12. HKl.oir.M. Convention for the extradition of criminals, May 12, 1881. Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, June 7, 1895. BOLIVIA. Treaty of compulsory arbitration, January 29, 1902. chin \. Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, December 14, 1899. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, March 29, 1890. Treaty of compulsory arbitration, January 29, 1902. ECUADOR. Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, April 24, 1893. FRANCE. Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, November 27, 1886. Parcels-post convention, December 10, 1891. Regulations governing the same, January 22, 1892. Trade-marks convention, April 10, 1899. GERMANY. Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, December 5, 1882. Parcels-post convention, May 24, L892. Amendment to paragraph 1, article 4 ofBaid convention, November 21, 1894. Convention amending article 4 of the parcels-post convention of May 24, 1892, Feb- ruary 25, 1897. Treaty for the protection of trade-marks, August L6, 1898. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. Preliminary to the resumption of diplomatic relations, August 0, 1884. Treaty for the extradition of criminals, September 7, 1886. Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, November 27, 1888. Parcels-post convention, February 15, 1889. Regulations governing same, March 12, 1890. Regulations governing fiscal officers in connection with postal authorities, in fulfill- ment of the above-mentioned postal treaty, March 12, 1890. Treaty of boundaries between Yucatan and Belize (British Honduras), July 8, 1893. GUATEMALA. Preliminary convention on boundaries, December 7, 1877. Act extending the period fixed in article 8 of said convention, May 3, 1879. Convention for the prorogation of the periods named in articles 7 and 8 of said convention, March 3, 1879. Treaty of boundaries, September 27, 1882. TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS. 419 Convention extending for one year the period fixed by the above-mentioned treaty, June 8, 1885/ Convention extending the period fixed for the conclusion of th^, work of the joint commission on boundaries, October 6, 1886. Convention for the same purpose, October 20, 1890. Claims convention, January 26, 1888. Convention extending the period for the conclusion of the work of the boundary commission, October 22, 1888. Convention for the same purpose, October 20, 1890. Claims convention, December 22, 1891. Convention for the extradition of criminals, May 19, 1894. Convention on boundaries, July 10, 1894. Adjustment of the difficulties arising from the exercise of acts of sovereignty in Mexican territory, April 1, 1895. Convention extending the period within which the boundary line must be drawn, March 16, 1896. Convention for the same purpose, October 6, 1897. Treaty of compulsory arbitration, January 29, 1902. Convention to determine the nationality of Mexicans born in Italy and Italians born in Mexico, August 20, 1888. Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, April 24, 1893. Treaty for extradition of criminals, May 22, 1899. Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, April 24, 1893. NETHERLANDS. Treaty of amity and commerce, September 22, 1897. NICARAGUA. Treaty of amity and commerce, November 6, 1900. PARAGUAY. Treaty of compulsory arbitration, January 29, 1902. PERSIA. Treaty of amity and commerce, May 14, 1902. PERU. Treaty of compulsory arbitration, January 29, 1902. SALVADOR. Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, April 24, 1903. Convention for the exchange of publications, July 29, 1895. Treaty of compulsory arbitration, January 29, 1902. Treaty for the extradition of criminals, November 17, 1881. Convention for the authentication of signatures, October 11, 1901. Treaty of arbitration, January 11, 1902. Treaty on literary and artistic copyrights, March 26, 1903. 4 "J 1 1 MEXICO. SWEHKN \M> KOKWAT. Treaty of amity, commerce, ami navigation, July 29, 1S85. INI 1 1 D 8TATB8 01 \mi:i:i<\\. Treat; of limits, concluded January L2, 1828, proclaimed April 5, 1832. Treaty of limits, concluded April 5, 1831, proclaimed April 5, 1832. Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, concluded April 5, 1831, proclaimed April 5, 1832. Treaty <>f limit.-, concluded April :;. 1835, proclaimed April 21, 1836. Claims convention, concluded April 11, 1839, proclaimed April s, 1840. Claims convention, concluded January 30, 1843, proclaimed March 31, 1843. Treaty uf peace, friendship, limits, ami settlement (treaty <>f Guadalupe Hidalgo), concluded February 2, 1848, proclaimed July 4, 1848. Treaty of boundary, cession of territory, transit of Isthmus of Tehuantepee. etc (Gadsden treaty), concluded December 30, ls">:'>, proclaimed June 30, 1854. Extradition treaty, concluded December 11, 1861, proclaimed June 30, 1862. Claims convention, concluded July 4, 1868, proclaimed February 1, 1869. Naturalization convention, concluded July 10, 1868, proclaimed February 1, 1869. Claims convention, concluded April 19, 1871, proclaimed Februarys, 1872. Claims convention, concluded November 27, 1872, proclaimed July 24, 1873. Claims convention, concluded November 20, 1874, proclaimed January 28, 1875. Claims convention, concluded April 1".', 1S76, proclaimed June 20, 1876. Boundary convention, concluded July 29, 1882, proclaimed March 5, 1883. Commercial reciprocity convention, concluded January 20, 1883, proclaimed June 2, 1884. Boundary convention, Rio I rrande and Rio Colorado, concluded November 12, 1884, proclaimed September 14, 1886. Reciprocity convention, concluded February 25, 1885, proclaimed May 4, 1886. Boundary convention, concluded December 5, 188n, proclaimed June 28, 1887. Reciprocity convention, concluded May 14, 1886, proclaimed February 1, L887. Boundary convention, concluded February 18, 1889, proclaimed October 14, 1889. Boundary convention, concluded March 1, 1889, proclaimed December 26, 1890. Boundary convention, concluded August 24, 1894, proclaimed October, 18, 1894. Boundary convention, concluded October 1, 1895, proclaimed December 21, 1895. Boundary convention, concluded Nbvember6, 1896, proclaimed December 23, 1896.. Boundary convention, concluded October 29, 1 s'.*7, proclaimed December 21, 1897. Boundary convention, concluded December 2, 1898, proclaimed February 3, 1899. Treaty for the extradition of criminals, concluded February 22, 1899, promulgated April 24, 1899. Postal money-order convention, concluded September 2, 1899, promulgated October 2, 1899. Convention extending indefinitely the time fixed by the boundary convention of March 1, 1899, concluded November 21, 1900, promulgated January 12, 1901. Additional convention to the extradition treaty of February 22, 1899, concluded July 25, 1902, promulgated March 28, 1903. OBUGUAY. Treaty of compulsory arbitration, January 29, 1902. CHAPTER XX. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY. The following brief list of works on Mexico is given here for the benefit of those who desire to have a better knowledge of the country, and merely as an index to the literature on the subject: OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS. Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico. Mexico. Anuario Estadistico de la Republica Mexicana. Ministerio de Fomento, Mexico. Boletin de Agricultura, Mineria e Industrias. Mexico. Boletin Comercial de la Secretaria de Hacienda. Mexico. Boletin Demografico. Ministerio de Fomento, Mexico. Boletin de Estadi'stica Fiscal. Secretaria de Hacienda y Credito Publico, Mexico. Boletin Oficial de la Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores. Mexico. Censo General de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (1895). Ministerio de Fomento, Mexico. Commercial Relations of the United States. Department of State, Washington. Diario Oficial. Organo del Supremo Gobierno, Mexico. Estadi'stica General de la Republica Mexicana. Ministerio de Fomento, Mexico. Guia Postal de la Republica Mexicana. Mexico. Informes y Mensajes del Ciudadano General Porfirio Diaz, Presidente de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Mexico. Iniciativas de Presupuestos. Secretaria de Hacienda y Credito Publico, Mexico. Informes y Memorias de la Secretaria de Comunicaciones y Obras Piiblicas. Mexico. Informes y Memorias de la Secretaria de Hacienda y Credito Publico. Mexico. Informes y Memorias de la Secretaria de Fomento, Colonization e Industrias. Mexico. Informes y Memorias de la Secretaria de la Gobernacion. Mexico. Informes y Memorias del Ministerio de Guerra y Marina. Mexico. Publications of the Bureau of Statistics. Treasury Department, Washington. United States Consular Reports. Department of State, Washington. UNOFFICIAL WORKS. Abbott, Gorham D. Mexico and the United States. New York, 1869. Aguilera (Jose G.) y Ordonez (Ezequiel). Datos para la Geologia de Mexico. 1893. Araluee, Ramon deS. N. (editor). Guia General de la Republica Mexicana. Mexico. 1899. Barrett, Robert S.' Standard Guide to the City of Mexico and Vicinity. Mexico. 1900. Baedeker, Carl (editor). The United States with an Excursion into Mexico. Leip- zig, 1899. 421 422 MEXICO. Bancroft, Hubert Hour. A Popular History of the Mexican People. London, 1887. Resources and Development of Mexico. Bail Francisco, 1893. BedoUQre, Emile G. de la. Histoire de la Guerre du Mezique. Pari-. 1866. Berristain >/ Seuza, Josl Mariano. Biblioteca Eiispano-Americana Betentrional. Mexico, 1883. linn, ami, J. Le Mexiqne. Pari.-. 1899. Brocliehurt, T. U. Mexico To-day. London, 1883. Boissiere, Tli de. L' Empire Mexieain, etc. Paris, 1863. Busto, Ehniliano. La Administraci6n Publica en Mexico. Pan's, 1899. Oattonnet des Fosses II. Les Origines du Peuple Mexieain. Angers, 1897. Castro, Lorenzo. The Republic of Mexico in 1882. New York, 1882. Charnay, D. Ancient Cities of the New "World. London. Chevalier, Michel. Le Mexique Ancien et Moderne. Paris, 1886. Commercial Directory of the American Repuhlies, Vol. II. Mexico. Bureau of the American Republics, Washington, 1898. Coney, A. K. and Qodoy, Jos,' /•' Legal and Mercantile BTandl k of Mexico. Chicago, 1892. Congling, Howard. Mexico and the Mexican-. New York, Dahlgreen, Chas. B. Minas Historical de la Repiiblica Mexicana, 1887. Dados Salinas, Adolfo. The Riches of Mexico and its Institution-. St. Louis, Mo., 1893. Egloffstein, Baron F. W. Contributions to the Geology and Physical Geography of Mexico. New York, 1864. Garcia Cubas, Antonio. Mexico, its Trade, Industries, and Resources, translated by William Thompson. Mexico, 1893. Etude Geographique, Statistique, Descriptive el Historique des Ptats-I'nis Mexicains. Mexico, 1889. G 'loner, Prosper. Les Finances des Etats-Unis Mexicains. Bruxelles, 1895. Hamilton, Leonidas. Border States of Mexico. Chicago, 1882. Hesse Wartegg, Ernst von. Mexico, Land und Leute. Vienna, 1.890, Kessler, H. Prof. Notizen fiber Mexico. Berlin, 1898. Kozhevar, E. Report on the Republic of Mexico. London, 1880. Lemeke, Heinrich. Mexico: das Land und seine Leute. Berlin, 1900. Lummis, Chas. F. The Awakening of a Nation. New York, 1898. Memorias y Revista de la Sociedad Cientffica "Antonio Alzate." Mexico. Monthly Bulletin of the Bureau of American Republics. Washington. Noll, Arthur Howard. A short History of Mexico. Chicago, 1890. Ober, F. A. Travels in Mexico. Boston, 1884. Orozco y Berra, Manuel. Apuntes para la Geograffa en Mexico. Mexico, 1881. Materiales para una Cartografi'a Mexicana. Mexico, 1871. Prescolt, W. H. History of the Conquest of Mexico. London. Ramirez, Santiago. Noticia Historica de la RiquezaMinerade Mexico. Mexico, 1884. Ratzel, Fried. Aus Mexico: Reiseskizzen aus den Jahren 1874-75. Breslau, 1878. Bxoa Palacio, Vicente. Mexico a T raves de los Siglos. Mexico, 1887-1889. Romero, Matias. Geographical and Statistical Notes on Mexico. New Y T ork, 1898. La Conferencia Internacional Americana. Mexico, 1890. Mexico and the United States. New York, 1898. Roulier, G. Le Mexique de nos Jours. Paris, 1895. Sehmitz, Otto. Die Finanzen Mexikos. Leipzig, 1894. Schroeder, Seaton. The fall of Maximilian's Empire as seen from a United States gunboat. New York, 1887. Scobel, A. Die Verkehrswege Mexico und ihre wirtschaitliche Bedeutung. (In Deutsche Geographische Blatter, Band X, Heft I.) Bremen, 1887. BIBLIOGRAPHY 423 Seler, E. Mexico and Guatemala. Berlin, 1896. Sobato, Jose G. Estudio sobre las aguas medicinales de la Repiiblica. Mexico, 1884. Starr, Frederick. Indians of Southern Mexico. Chicago, 1899. Statesman's Yearbook. London. Valentini, Philipp J. J. The Mexican Calendar Stone (compiled and arranged from the German by S. Salisbury, jr.). Worcester, 1879. Zayas Enriquez, Rafael de. Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, sus condiciones de paz, etc. Mexico, 1893. Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, sus progresos en veinteanos, 1877-1897. New York. (No date; about 1899. ) Les Etats Unis Mexicains — leurs ressources naturelles, leur progres, leur situa- tion actuelle. Mexico, 1899. ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY. LIST OF AUTHORITIES SINCE 1876. Prepared by Prof. O. T. Mason, U. S. National Museum. Anales del Museo Michoacano, Morelia, 1888-1890. Redactor, N. Leon. Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico. Mexico, 1877-1897. Antigiiedades Mexicanas. Mexico, 1892, La Junta Colombiana de Mexico (por Alfredo Chavero). Text and plates in folio. Bancroft, H. H. The Native Races of the Pacific States. New York, 1874-1876. 5 vols. (Vol. I, 1874; Vol. II, 1875; Vol. Ill, 1875; Vol. IV, 1875; Vol. V, 1876.) Bandelier, A. F. The art of war of the ancient Mexicans. 10th An. Rep. Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 1877, pp. 95-161. Distribution and tenureof lands, etc., among the ancient Americans. 11th An. Rep. Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 1878, pp. 385-448. On the social organization and mode of government of the ancient Mexicans. 12th An. Rep. Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 1880, pp. 559-699. Report on an archaeological tour in Mexico, 1881. Papers Archaeol. Inst, of America, Am. Series, II. Investigations among the Indians of the Southwestern United States. Archaeol. Inst, of America, Am. Series, III, Cambridge, 1890, 319 pp., ill., bibliographic notes. Bastian, A. Die Culturlander des alten Amerika. Berlin, 1888. 3 vols. Batres, Leopoldo. Cuadro arqueologico y etnografieo de la Repiiblica Mexicana. Mexico, n. d. Also, Teotihuacan, Mexico, 1889, colored plates and plans; and IV Tlalpilli; Ciclo de 13 anos, Mexico, 1888, water colors. Belmar, Francisco. Ligero estudio sobre la lengua Mazateca. Oaxaca, 1892. Blake, W. \V. Catalogue of the Historical and Archaeological Collections of the National Museum of Mexico. Mexico, 1884, 119 pp. Also description of Father Fischer's collection, Chicago, 1886, 4 pp., and The Antiquities of Mexico, New York, 1891, 92 pp. Boban, E. Documents pour servir k 1'histoire du Mexique. Paris, 1891. 2 vols, and atlas. Boletin de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica. 1. epoca, 12 vols., 1850- 1866; 2. epoca, 4 vols., 1869-1872; 3. epoca, 1873-1894. Bowditch, Charles P. The Lords of the night and the Tonalamatl of the Codex Borbonicus. Am. Anthropologist, n. s., II, pp. 145-154. Brinton, Daniel G. The American Race. New York, 1891, Hodges, 392 pp. 12°. [Bibliography of author's writings.] 4 -J 4 MEXICO. Brinton, Daniel G. Ancienl phonetic alphabets of Yucatan. New York, 1870. A. primer of Maya hieroglyphics. Boston, 1895, < Jinn, 152 pp. 8°. Buschmann, J. C. Bpuren der Aztekischen Bprache im nordlichen and hoberen Norden, L854, Trans. Roy. [Russian Acad., 1859, 819 pp. Catalogo de la Seccion de Mexico en la Espoaici6n Historico- Americana de Madrid. Madriil, 1893. Charencey, Hyacinthe de. Recherches sur le Codex Troano. Paris, lsTti, E. Leronz. 16 pp. 8 . Melanges de philologie et de paleographie amencaines. Paris, 1883, Leroux. 195 pp. y . < Ihrestomathie .Maya d'apres la Chronique de < !hac-Xnlub-< 'hen. Paris, 1892, Klineaieek. Chavers, Alfredo. Antigiiedades Mexieanas. Mexico, 1892, Junta Colombiana. 4° and atlas. Also Mexico a traves de los siglos. Mexico, 1886. Vol. 1,928 pp.; many figures. Cronau, Rudolf. America. Leipzig, 1892. 2 vols. Charnay, Desire'. The Ancient Cities of the New World. [Translation.] New York, 1887, 514 pp., illustrated. (French edition. Lea Anciennee Villee du Nouveau Monde Paris, 1885.) Estrada, Aureliano. Cerro de Quiengola, in Tehuantepec Mem. Soc. Cient Antonio Al/.ate. Mex., L892. Fewkes,J. W. The god "D" in the Codex Cortesianus. Am. Anthropologist, July, 1895. Pueblo ruins near Winslow, Arizona. Smithsonian Report, 1896, Wash., 1898, 517-838. pi. xxvii-liii. Forstemann, E. Die Zeitperioden der Mayas. Globus, lxiii, Braunschweig, 1893. Die Maya-Handschrift der Konigl. Oeffentl. Bibliothek zu Dresden, 74 Chro- moliths, Leipzig, 1880; 2d ed. Dresden, 1891. Erlauternngen zur Maya-Handschrift der Koniglichen Oeffehtlichen Biblio- thek bu Dresden. Dresden, 1886. Zur Maya-Chronologie. Zeitschr. f. Ethnol., Leipzig, 1891, Jahrgang 23. Zur Entzifferung der Maya-Handschriften. Dresden, parts 1-vii, different dates, L891-1898. Neue Maya-Forechungen. Globus, Braunschweig, 1896, 37-39. Die Kreuzenschrift von Palenque. Globus, Braunschweig, 1897. < iatschet, Albeit S. Der Yuma-Sprachstamni. Zeitschr. f. Ethnol., Berlin, 1877, vol. ix, pp. 341-350, 365-418. Zwolf Sprachen aus Sudwesten Nordamerikas, Weimar. 1876, 150 pp. 8°. [Author's bibliography in Filling's Bibliography, Washington, 1885, (lov't print.] Classification of Western Indian dialects, etc. Rep. U. S. Geog. Survey W. of 100th meridian, by G. M. Wheeler, Vol. VII. Washington, 1879, pp. 399-485. [Makes Piman the northern branch of the Nahuatlan family.] GarcfaCubas, Antonio. The Republic of Mexico, 1876. Mexico, 1876, LaEnseflanza, 130 pp. 8°. [With linguistic map.] Cuadrogeografieo, etc.de los Estados Qnidos Mexicanos. Mexico, 1884, xxxi, 474 pp. Gracida, Martinez. Catalogo de los nombres de las poblaciones de Oaxaca. Bol. S. ><■. deGeograha, Mex., 1889, Vol. I. G bnan, J. T. Archaic Maya inscriptions. Biologia Central ia- Americana (archse- ology), appendix, pp. 1-xii, 1-150. < iuinkel, Lewis W. The study of American hieroglyphics. Am. Antiquarian, 1897. xix, 40 pp. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 425 Gunckel, Lewis W. The direction in which Mayan inscriptions should be read. Am. Anthropologist, Washington, 1897, x, 146-162. Analysis of the deities of the Mayan inscriptions. Am. Anthropologist, Wash- ington, 1897, x, 397-412. The symbol of the hand. Am. Antiquarian, Good Hope, 111., 1897, 260-271. Hamy, E. T. Mission Scientifique au Mexiqueet dans PAmeriqueCentrale, Anthro- pologic du Mexique. Paris, 1884, Imprim. nationale. 4°. Herrera, Alfonso L., y Ricardo, E. Cicero. Catalogo de la coleccion de antropologfa del Museo Nacional. No. 4. Mexico, 1895, Impr. del Mus. Nac. 164 pp. [Lists of families and tribes.] Holden, Edwin S. Studies in Central American picture writing. First An. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., Washington, 1889. Holmes, Wm. H. Eccentric figures [engraved shells and coppers] from Southern mounds. Science, 1884, iii, 436 [note by Thomas, id., 779-785]. Archaeological studies among the ancient cities of Mexico. Chicago, Pt. I, 1895; Pt. II, 1897, 338 pp., 57 pi., 12 figs., 8°. [This work is an excellent text- book for Mexican archaeology. ] Icazbalceta, J. G. Nueva Coleccion de documentos para la historia de Mexico. Mexico, Vol. I, 1886; II, 1889; III, 1891; IV and V, 2 vols., 1892. Keane, A. H. Ethnography and philology of America. Standford's compendium, Central America, West Indies, and South America. London, 1878, pp. 443-561. Kohler, Professor. Das Recht der Azteken. Stuttgart, 1892. Leon, Nicolas (editor). Anales del Museo Michoacano, Morelia, 1888-1890. Loubat, Due de. Codex 3773; Codex 3778 (the Del Rios), Library of the Vatican; Codex Borgia, Library of the Propaganda, Rome; Codex Bologna, Scientific Institute, Bologna; Telleriano Remensis, and the Tonalamatl Aubin, National Library, Paris. All reproduced in colors under the patronage of Due de Loubat. Lumholtz, Carl. The Huichol Indians of Mexico. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York, 1898, vol. 4, pp. 1-14, 2 pi., 8°. Maler, Theobert. Neue Entdeckung von Ruinen-Stadten in Mittel- America. Globus, Braunschweig, Globus, 1896, lxx, 149-150. See also vol. lxviii, 145 and ♦277. Marimon, Sebastian. Relacion de la villa de Valladolid de Yucatan. Found in the archives of the Indies and published by him. Madrid, 1884, Fortanet. Maudslay, A. P. Biologia Centralia-Americana. Archaeology, London, 1897, R. H. Porter. [A rich contribution to Mexican archaeology. [Also Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc, Lond., vol. viii, 1886. Mercer, Henry C. The hill caves of Yucatan. Philadelphia, 1896. Cave hunting in Yucatan. Technological Quarterly, Boston, 1897, 20 pp., 6 figs. Morgan, Lewis H. Houses and house life of the American aborigines. Contribu- tions to N. A. Ethnology, Washington, 1881, Vol. Ill, 282 p., 56 figs. Nuttall, Zelia. On ancient Mexican shields. Leiden, 1892, Trap, 20 pp. , 3 pi. ( From Internat. Archiv f. Ethnog., V.) Atlatl, or spear-thrower of the ancient Mexicans. Cambridge, Mass., 1891, 36 pp. On the ancient Mexican Calendar System, Stockholm, 1894. Oppel, A. — Die altmexikanischen Mosaiken. Globus, Braunschweig, 1896, 4-13, 75 figs. Payne, Edward John. — History of the New World, called America. Oxford, Claren- don Press, Vol. I, 1892; Vol. II, 1899. [A valuable study in Mexican history.] Penafiel, Antonio. — Nombres geograficos de Mexico. Mexico, 1885. Govt, print. 262 pp. 4°. 426 Mexico. Pefiafiel, Antonio. Mapas. — Tlotzin, Qninatzin, and Tepechpan, 3 maps from the Aul'in collection, 1889. Codice Fernandez Leal. Mexico. 24 colored plates. Monument) is- del arte mexicano antigao. 0rnamentaci6n, mitologfa, tributos y monumentos. Berlin, L890, A. Aaher & Co. 1 vol. of text in Spanish, French, and English; 2 vols, plates, folio. [A work ofgreal merit.] Pigorini, Luigi. (Jli antdchi oggetto messicani iucroetati < 1 i mosaico. EieaJe Acad. dei Lincei. Rome. ISSa. Also (ilolms, lxx, pp. 8. Pilling, James C. Proof sheets of a bibliography of the languages of the North American Indians. Washington, 1885, Bureau of Ethnology, 1135 pp. Portillo, Estelian. Apuntas para la historia antigua de Coahuila y Texas. Baltillo, 1886. 8°. Powell, J. W. Indian linguistic families north of Mexico; 7th An. Rep. Bur. Am. Ethnol., Washington, 1891, Govt, print. [Gives linguistic families of Mexican northern tribes.] Rada y Delgado, Juan de Dios >le la. Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan. [Published by Brasseur, 1860 and 1864.] Translation of Rosny essay into Spanish. Madrid, 1884. Rau, Charles. The Palenque tablet in the U. B. National .Museum, Washington, 1879. 2 pi., 17 figs., 4°. [Smithsonian Contributions, 331.] Reyes .lose M. Breve resefia histories, etc. Boletfu Sociedad p., 42 pi., 4°. Rovirosa, J. N. Diccionario etimologico Tabasquefio-Chiapaneco. BoL Boc. de Geograffa, etc., Mex., 1889, vol. i. Ensayo historico sohre el Rfo Grijalva. Mexico, 1897. [Identifies tribes of Cortez. ] Sapper, Carl. Das nordliche Mittel-Amerika; uebsl einem Ausflug nach den I loch- land von Anahuac. Braunschweig, 1897, Vieweg, 436 pp. Saville, Marshall H. Ceremonial year of the Maya Codex Cortesianus. Proc. A. A. A. s., Salem. Mass., L895, vol. 4:;. A comparative study of the graven glyphs of Copan and Quirigua. Proc. Am. Assoc, for the Advancement of Science, 1895. The temple of Tepoztlan. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York. Nov. L896. Schellhas, P. Die Gottergestalten der Maya-Handschrif ten. Zt>chr. f. Ethnol., Ber- lin, 1892, vol. 24, p. 101-121. Also Dresden, L897, Bertiing, :'.4 pp. Seler, Edward K. Das konjugationssystem der Maya-Sprachen. Leipzig, 1887. Das Tonalamatl der Aubin'schen Sammlung? Comptes Rendus, < k>ngree Inter- national des Aniericanistc.-, 7th session, Berlin, 1888, 217 pp., 172 figs., 8°. Der Character der aztekischen und Maya-Handschriften. Zeitschrift fi'ir Ethnologic, Berlin, 1888, 97 pp., 76 figs., 3 pi.. 8°. [The files of this journal must he consulted for many papers by this author.] Altmexikanische Studien, Berlin. VeWiffentlichen des Konigliehen Museum fur Volkskunde, 1890, Band I, Hefte 4, 1890; Band VI, Heft 2-4, 1899. Die mexikanischen Bildcrliandschriften Alexander von Humboldt's in der Konigliehen Bibliothek zu Berlin. Berlin, 1893. The wall paintings of Mitla, Berlin, 1895, Asher folio, 12 pi. Die Nenus-Periode in den Bilderschriften der C'odex-P.orLria-Gruppe. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., xxx, 1898, 346-.SSM pp. Altmexikanische Knockenrasseln. Globus, Braunschweig, 1SHS, lxxvi, pp. 85-93. CARTOGRAPHY. 427 Simeon, Remi. Dictionnaire de la Langiie Nahuatl on Mexicaine; Paris, 1885, 785 pp., 4°. Molina Solis, Juan Francisco. Historia del descubrimiento y conquista de. Yucatan, Merida, 1896. 911 pp. Starr, Frederick. Notes on Mexican Archaeology. Chicago, 1894. 16 p. Maya writing. Science, 1895, pp. 326. A shell gorget from Mexico. Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sc, Davenport, 1896, Vol. VI, 173-178. Ethnographic notes on Southern Mexico. Proc. Davenport Acad. Nat. Sc, Davenport, Iowa. Vol. VI. Pottery objects from Lake Chapala, Mex. Chicago, 1897, University press. Bull, ii, Anthrop. Mapa de Cuauhtlantzinco or C6dice Campos. Chicago, 1898. Dept. of Anthropolgy, Bulletin III. Strebel, Hermann. Alt-Mexico. Hamburg, 1885. 143 pp.; plates. Ruinen von Comprallan im Staate Vera Cruz, Hamburg, 1884; Archaeol. und Ethnol. Mit, theil. aus Mexico, Hamburg, 1899. 10 pp., 2 plates. Thomas, Cyrus. A study of the Manuscript Troano. Cont. to N. A. Ethnology. Washington, 1882. Vol.5. [Introduction by Brinton.] Review of Codex Cortesianus, Science. New York, 1884. Vol. 3, 458. Maya day symbols. 16th An. Rep. Bur. Am. Ethnol., Washington, 1897. pp. 199-266; 6 pi. Notes on Certain Maya and Mexican Manuscripts. Washington, 1885. 65 pp., 4 pi., 10 figs. ■ — — The Maya Year. Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of Am. Ethnol., Wash- ington, 1894. Govt, print. 64 p., 1 pi., 8°. Thompson, Edward H. The Cave of Loltum, Yucatan. Mem. Peabody Museum. Cambridge, Mass., 1897. Vol. 1, No. 2. 22 p., 8 pi., 20 figs., 4. The Chul- tunes of Labna, id., No. 3. Valentini, Philip J. J. The Landa Alphabet. Proc. Am. Antiquar. Soc, Worces- ter, Mass., ]880. 35 p. The Olmecas and the Tultecas. Proc. Am. Antiquarian Soc, Worcester, Mass., 1882. No. 1, vol. 2. 193-230. Analysis of the pictorial text inscribed on two Palenque tablets. Proc. Am. Antiquar. Soc, Worcester, Mass., 1895. 24 pp. The Toltecs in fable and in history. Ztschr. f. Ethnologie, Berlin, 1896. Winsor, Justin. — Narrative and critical history of America. Boston, 1889. Hough- ton & Co. Vol. I, p. 133-208. 8°. CARTOGRAPHY. « LIST OF MAPS OF MEXICO FROM 1858 TO 1898. By P. Lee Phillips, Chief of Maps and Charts Division, Library of Congress. Tricoechea (Ezequiel). Mapoteca Colombiana. Coleccion de los titulos de todos los mapas, pianos, vistas, etc., relativos a la America Espaiiola, Brasil 6 islas adyacentes. xvi, 215 pp. 12°. Londres, Triibner & Cia., 1860. Note.— Pages 35-53 contain a list of maps of Mexico to 1860. L. C. Orozco y Berra (Manuel). Materiales para una cartograffa mexicana. Edition de la Sociedad de Geografia y Estadfstica. xii, 337 pp. 1 1. 8°. Mexico, Imprenta del gobierno, 1871. L. C. « The initials L. C. stand for Library of Congress, Washington. 4118 MEXICO. L86& \tln- geogr&fico, estadfstico e" historicode la Republics Mexicans, formado por Anto- oio Garcia Cabas. Sp.l. 31 maps. 2pl. 4,18pp. 11. toL Mexico, J. M. Fernandez de Lara, I sss - IJM iij amps. carta i. Carta general TCducida. 1. Sonora. 3. Chihuahua. 4. Coahtrila. 5. Nuevo Le6n. 6. Tumaulipas. 7. San Luis Potosi. 8. Zacatecas. 9. AguascaMentes, 10. Durangn. 1 1. Sinaloa. 12. Jalisco. 13. Guanajuato. 11. Michoacan. 16. Queretaro. lti. Mexico. 17. Valle de MeXioo. is. Puebla. 19. Veracruz. 20. Guerrero. 21. Oaxaca. 22. Chiapas. 23. Tabasco. 24. Yucatan. 25. Baja California. 26. Sierra Gorda. 27. Colima. 28. Tlaxcala. 29. Tehuantepec. 30. Territorios de Sierragorda e isla del Carmen. 31. Carta general de la Republics Mexieana. Cuadro 1. Cuadro histtirico-gcroglifico de la penegrinaeion de las tribus Aztecas. 2. Cuadro liistorico-geroglifico de la peregrinacii'in de las tribua Aztecas que publaron el valle de Mexico. L. C. 1858. II. Kiepert's karte des nordlichen tropischen America. A new map of tropical America north of the equator, comprising the West Indies, Central America, Mexico, New Granada, and Venezuela, col. 38 x 63, fold. obi. 4°. Berlin, D. Reimer, 1858. L. C. 1859. Map of the United States and Mexico. Published by Johnson & Browning under the direction of Col. Carlos Butterfield. Dec., 1859. col. fold. 30x36. [New York, 1859.] L. C. 1861. Carta general de la Repiiblica Mexieana. lOJx lt>. [In Garcia Cuban (Antonio). < ompendio de geograf fa. 16°. Mexico, 1861.] L. C. 1861. Memoria para servir a la carta general de la Repiiblica Mexieana Publicada por Antonio Garcia Cubas. 168 pp. 11. 1 fold. map. 8°. Mexico, Andrade ique Centrale. Dressee par A. Vuillemin . . . (Details des Environs de M. et de la Vera-Cruz. La Guadeloupe. La Martinique. ) J. Barthelemier: Paris, 1862. British Museum. 430 KEXICO. 1862. Plan do Mexico et de ses environs dans nn rayon de liuit kilometres, draw die/. Erhard. 16Jxll. [In X ouvel leg annates dee voyages. 6 me ee>ie. 8°. Paris, 1863, v. 33, p. 5.] Note.— Inset: " Ks<|tiissi- <1.- Pitineraire de la Vera-Cru* a Mexico d'apres II. Kiepert." L. C. L862. Umgebung von Mexico bis Veracruz nach den von A. v. Humboldt, v. Gerolt, Heller, Smith and tier Bociedad Mejicana de Geograffa y Eatadfstica veroffentlichten Karten and « serie. 33-34. 1863. L. C. 1863. Carte de la Sonora, avec l'indication de ses mines d'apres la carte de A. Garcia ( ul>as et les cartes americaines par V.-A. Malte-Brun. Grave" chez Erhard. 9X x 7,. [In Nouvelles annales des voyages. 6°>« s£rie. 8°. Paris, 1863, v. 84, p. 129. J I.. ('. 1st;:;-.' Mexico und die RepuMiken von Central-America. Bearbeitet von C. Graf. (Tehu- antepec Eisenbahn-Project. Bearbeitel von Barnard, 1851. Honduras. Eisen- Kalm-Project. Bearbeitet von E. G. Sqoier u. W. N. Jeffers, L853. I Weimar, [1863?] British Museum. 1863. Plan de Mexico et des environs dans on rayon de huit kilometres. [Also] Esquisse de l'itine>aire de la Vera-Cruz a Mexico d'apres II Kiepert. 16', x 11. [In Nouvelles annales des voyages. 177-178. 6™ stfrie. 33-34. 8°. Paris, A. Bertrand, 1863.] Note. — This map also found in " Revue maritime eolouiale," 1863, v. 7, p. 692. L. C. 1864. Essai d'une carte ethnographique du Mexique d'apres les travaux de C'lavigero, de Humboldt, de Beltrami, de Stephens, de Duflot de Mofras et de Brasseur de Bourbourg, par V.-A. Malte-Brun, 1864. Echelles au 1:7000000. Grave chez Erhard. 13 x 18|. [In Nouvelles annales des voyages. 6"" serie. 8°. Paris, 1864, v. 39, p. 5.] Note.— Inset: " Vallee de Mexico." L. C. CARTOGRAPHY. 431 1864. Geological map and profiles of some of the principal mining districts of Mexico. Scale of 12 miles to 1 inch or 1 : 760320. 2 maps, each 28 x 28. [In Egloffstein (F. W.) Contributions to the geology and the physical geography of Mexico. 8°. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1864, at end.] Note. — "Egloffstein is only the editor. The true author of the geological map, profiles, and descriptions is Baron Frederick von Gerolt, formerly Prussian minister at Mexico and afterwards at Washington." 1865. Carta general del Imperio Mexicano. Formada y corregida con presenciade los ulti- mos datos y el auxilio de las autoridades mas competentes. Decaen y Dehray, editores. Col. fold., 31 x 45. Mexico, Decaen & Debray, 1865. L. C. 1865. Itineraire de Mexico a Durango, dessine par E. Picard d'apres les croquisde route de l'abbe Domenech. 1865. 12 x 17. [In Societe de geographie. Bulletin. 5<* serie. 8°. Paris, 1866, v. 12, p. 272.] L. C. 1865. Schonberg's map of Mexico. Fold. 14 x 23. [New York, Schonberg & Co., 1865.] L. C. 1867. Johnson's Mexico. Col. 11 J x 17. New York, A. J. Johnson, [1867]. L. C. 1867. Nouvelle carte du Mexique, du Texas et d'une partie des Etats limitrophes . . . par H. Brue . . . Revue etaugmentee par A. Vuillemin. ( Details des environs de Mexico et de la Yera-Cruz. Complement de la carte, donnant le Yucatan et une partie des provinces unies de l'Amerique Centrale. ) Paris, 1867. British Museum. 1867. Piano de la Ciudad de Mexico. Levantado de orden del Ministerio de Fomento por sus ingenieros. 1867. 28 x 39£. Mexico, E. M. Sagredo, [1867]. L. C. 1867. Traveling and military map of Sonora. From private field notes by Cummings & James Cherry. 27 x 30. [Pittsburg, Cummings & J. Cherry, 1867.] L. C. 1868. Map of Lower California. From special surveys of coast and interior, made for the Lower California Company in 1866-67. By the company's engineers, under direc- tion of J. Ross Browne. Drawn by Joseph Goldsheider, civil engineer and topographer, January, 1868. 17| x 14|. [New York, N. Y. Lith. and Printing Co.], 1868. L. C. 1868. Originalkarte der californischen Halbinsel nach den Aufnahmen der fur die Lower California Company ausgefuhrten Expedition unter J. Ross Browne, AY. M. Gabb und F. Loehs [etc.]. 13 x 9. Gotha, J. Perthes, 1868. [In Petermann (A.) Mittheilungen. 4°. Gotha, J. Perthes, 1868, pi. 14, p. 272.] L. C, 482 MEXICO. |*8& Piano corogratico de una parte del Estado de Campeche, que oomprende todo el niargen derecho del rfo Usuinaeinta hasta sus confines, en el que eshi incluso el partido del Carmen. Formado por el agrimensor geometra V. R. Shiels, 1868. 25 x 21. [in Booledad de GeogxaBa y Batadiatica de la Republics Mexicana. Boletln. Begunda epoca. 4°. Mexico, .T. M. Sandoval, isto, v. 2, at end.] L C. 1X89. Carta general de la Repdblica Mexicana. 15 z 20. [In Garcia Cubas (Antonio). Cuno elemental degeografia universal. 8°. Mexico, 1869.] L. C. 1869. Carta general de la Repiiblica Mexicana. 19J x 26J< [In Mexico v mis alrededores. Fol. Mexico, V. Debray, 1869.1 L. C. 1869. Piano general de la Ciudad de Mexico. 1869. Escalas de 1,000 va'ras castellanas. 24 x 32. [In Mexico y sus alrededores. Nueva edld6n aunientada. Fol. Mexico, V. Debray, 1869.] L. C. 1870. Carta general de la Repiiblica Mexicana. Formada y corregida en vista de Ins dlthnoa datos. Kscala de leguas mexicanas de 2(> y \ al grado. 20 x 26J. [In Mexico y sns alrededores. Nueva edition aumentada. Fol. Mexico, V. Debay, I860.] L. C. 1871. Carte du chemin de fer interoceaniqne de Mexico (la grande ligne naturelle entre 1' Europe et l'Asie) et du cbemin de fer Lnterameriqae I la grande ligne naturelle entre l'Amerique du Nord et l'Amerique du Sud). Leon, auteur, constructeur et proprietaire. 22 x 28*. [New York, G. W. & C. B. Colton & Co., 1871.] L. C. 1873. Carte du Mexiijue. Dressee an Depot de la guerre, par Mr. Niox. capitaine d'etat- major. D'apree les leves dee otiiciers du corps expeditionnaire et lea renseigne- inents recueillis par le Bureau topographique. Ecbelle=l : 3000000. Paris, 1873. Published by authority of the honorable Secretary of War in the office of the Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army. 27J by 41 J. [Washington] , 1881. 1873. Carta geografica y administrativa de los Estados Unidos Mexicanas, formada con presencia de los datos my G. F. Cram. 49 x 80. Chicago, G. F. (rain, 1881. L. C. 1881. Map of Mexico, Central America, and Isthmus of Panama, showing railroads, proposed railroads, etc. 37J x 56|. New York, G. "Watson, L881. L. C. 1881. Map of the Mexican National Railway, showing the lines granted by the Mexican Government to the Mexican National ( kmstraction Company, i Palmer-Sullivan concession.) From the map of Captain Nioux [Niox], published in the office of the Chief of Engineers, U. S. A. 1881. Scale, 1:3000000. 27f x 41 J. Wash- ington, 1881. Note. — Inset: " Map showing the political ilivisions." L. C. 1881. Nuevo mapa de los Estados de Sonora, Chihuahua, Binaloa, Durango y territorios de la Baja California. Formada por G. de Fleury. 24x34. San Francisco, pub- lished by A. Gensoul, revised by W. Bolt, 1881. L. C. 1881-1882. Official map of southern Arizona and of the States of Sonora, Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Durango. Prepared especially for the mining record. Compiled from surveys, reconnoissances, and other sources, by Guillermo Rose. 1882. 26x34. New York, J. Bien, photo., [1881]. L. C. 1882. "Commercial Herald." The southwestern railroad system. United States and Mexico. Supplement to the "Commercial Herald" and "Market Review." Jan., 1882. 22 x 34. San Francisco, H. S. Crocker & Co., [1882]. L. C. 1882. Karteder Yereinigten Staaten von Nord-Amerikanebst Mexico . . . Entworfen von Dr. J. M. Ziegler. Gezeichnet von T. von Bomsdorff. 1882. British Museum. CARTOGRAPHY. 435 1882. Map of Sinaloa, with statistical and geological notes. By Frederick G. Weidner. 1 pi. 19 pp. 1 map, 35£ x 29, fold. 8°. San Francisco, Francis Valentine & Co., [1882]. L. C. 1882. Map of the Republic of Mexico. Revised and corrected by Lorenzo Castro, drawn by Theodore Gentilz. 30 x 44. New York, Thompson & Moreau, [1882]. [In Castro (Lorenzo). The Republic of Mexico in 1882. 12°. New York, 1882.] L. C. 1882. Nuevo mapa estadistico y ferrocarillero de Mexico y la frontera del norte. — New statistical and railroad map of Mexico and the northern frontier. Showing the products of the different zones [etc.], by A. K. Owen and Albert von Motz. 1882. col. 44 x 60. Philadelphia, J. L. Smith, 1882. L. C. 1883. Dahlgren (Charles Bunker). Historic mines of Mexico. 1 p. 1., 220 pp. 2 portraits. 20 maps. 8?. New York, for the author, 1883. List of maps. Hypsometric map of the Republic of Mexico. Production map. Map of Central Mexico (Guanajuato, Zacatecas, and San Luis Potosi). Map of Guanajuato and Veta Madre. Section of Valenciana. Map of Veta Grande (Zacatecas), Deseubridora, and Quebradilla. Map of Pinos. Map of Fresnillo. Map of Sombrerete. Map of Catorce. Map of Northwestern Mexico (Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Durango). Map of Guadalupe de los Reyes. Map of Rosario. Map of Batopilas. Map of Parral. Map of Cusihuiriachic. Map of San Dimas. Map of Southern Mexico. Map of Tlalpujahua. Map of Pachuca and Real del Monte. 1883. El Corazon del Anahuac y sus ferrocarriles. 1:250000. 1883. Published by the Major & Knapp Eng. and Mfg. and Lith. Co., N. Y. U. S. War Dept. lib. 1883. Map of the Texas, Topolobampo and Pacific R. R. and Tel. Co., from Chihuahua and Parral to Topolobampo Harbor. 1 :5280 (about 12 miles to the inch ) . Albert von Motz. Published by T. T. & P. R. R. Tel. Co., 1883. U. S. War Dept. lib. 1883. Steamship line and railroad map of the Merchants' and Tourists' Guide to Mexico. 13 x 19. Chicago, C. W. Laremba, 1883. L. C. 436 HEXIOO. Watson's ouevo mapa de Mexico y la frontera del Norte, America (Vntral, Isttno de I'anam.i. Cuba, Jamaica, and Bahama [elands, 38 x 55. Nueva York, G. Wat- son. 1883. L. C. 1883-1 ss4. Memoria presentada al Congreso de la Union i»>r el Secretario de Estado y del Des- pacho 'If Foment o. Colonization, [nduatria yComerciodela Repdbliea ISexicana, General Carlos Pacheco. Corresponded !os anos traseurridos de enero de 1883 :i 1885. v. »;. Atlas. 2 p. 1. 48 maps. Fol. Mexico, Oficina tipografica de la Becretarfa de fomento, 1887. Conk "'•-'. Carta general telegraflea de Ins Estadoe Dnidoe Mexicano?, comprendiendo lo construido y en explotatita en las dlversas tineas hasta jnnio de 1885. Sheet 1. Diagrama que manifiesta el estado de las hojas de publicaci6n a la 100,000 en jnrtio 30 de ls&x Regi6n del norte. 2. Cm! operacionea topograflcas ejecutadaa hasta junio 30 de 1886. Regi6n del norte. (Fraction superior 3. Canevasde las operacionea topogr&flcaa ejecutadaa hasta junio 30 de 1885. Regi6n del norte. (Fraeci6n inferior.) 4. Diagrama que manifiesta el estado de las hojas de publication * la 100,000* en junio 30 de 18*5. Region central y de oriente. 5. Canev&s de las operaciones topograflcas ejecutadas hasta junio 30 de 1885. Region central y de oriente. (Fraeeion superior. | 6. Canevas de las operacionea topogM&flcas ejecutadaa hasta junio 30 de 1886. Region central yde oriente. I Fraction inferior.) CartageneraldelaRepublicaMexicana. 7. Territorio de la Baja California. Carta de la 1» fracci6n de la zona. 8. Territorio de la Baja California. Carta de la pardon la 1\ 2» fraeci6n de la zona. 9. Territorio de la Baja California. Carta de la portion 2* de 1*, '> fraeeion de la zona. 10. Territorio de la Baja California. Carta de la portion 1« de la S» fraction de la zona. 11. Territorio de la Baja California. Carta i\<- la portion -* de la > fraeci6n de la zona. 12. Piano de la triangulacion practicada entre Campo Astronomico y Cabo Haro, en el puerto de Qnaymas. 13. Piano del puerto de Guaymas, con on proyecto pan el mejoramiento de sus condi- tionee sanitaria-, li. Mapa del canton Meoqnl Estado de Chihnahna. IB. Mapa del canton Kallcza. Estado de chihuahua. 16. Mapa del cant6n Jimenez. Estado de Chihuahua. 17. Mapa del cantdn Camargo. Estado de Chihuahua. 18. Puente para el rio Atoyac. Directi6n del eamino de TehuaeAn a Puerto Angel por Oaxaea. Piano mini. 1. 19. Ferrocarril Hidalgo. Proyecto para el ensanche de la estaden de Pachuca y allneamiento del eamino que conduce :i Mexico. 20. Ferrocarril de Merida a Calkini. Proyecto de cstaci6n en 1'man. 21. Ferrocarril de Puebla a Izt'icar de Matamoros. Becci6n !■ de Puebla :i Cholnla. Proyecto del Puente de la Dni6n aobre el rio Atoyac. 22. Ferrocarril de Puebla 6 [zdcar de Matamoros. Becci6n 2» de Cholnla a Athzco. tramo. Puente de Teyecatl. 23. Ferrocarril de Puebla a Iziiear de Matamoros. > Becti6n de cholnla A Atllxco. Puente de Tejaluca en el kil6metro IS. 24. Piano topografico del rio Chubiacai en una zona de 2 kilc'iinctros .i cada lado de la linea del puente del Ferrocarril central mezicano. j. r i. Ferrocarril central mexicano. Piano de ansae las trabasdel puente aobre ei rio Grande del Norte 26. Ferrocarril central mexicano. Piano de la fondation estacada y de loa apoyos del puente sobre el rio Grande del Norte. 27. Piano topograflco del rio Conchos en una zona de 2 kil6metros a cada lado de la linea del puente del Ferrocarril central mexicano. 28. Piano general del puente sohre cl rio Conchos. 29. Puente sobre el rio Salto. Ferrocarril central. Division de Ban Luis Potosi a Tam- pico. 30. Detalles del puente sobre el rio Salto. Ferrocarril central mexicano. CARTOGRAPHY. 437 Sheet 31. Ferrocarril central. Division de San Luis Potosi a Tampieo. Pilares del centro y del este del puente sobre el rio Salto, en Santa Rosa. 32. Ferrocarril central. Divisi6n de San Luis Potosi a Tampieo. Estribo oeste del puente sobre el rio Salto, en Santa Rosa. 33. Ferrocarril central. Division de San Luis Potosi a Tampieo. Piano y detalles del puente provisional, sobre tin agujero en el kilometro 118. 34. Ferrocarril central. Division de San Luis Potosi a Tampieo. Piano y detalles del puente de Palastro proyectado sobre un agujero en la est. 4,715, kil6metro 118. 35. Ferrocarril central. Mamposteria y cimientos para el puente sobre el rio Tamasopo. 36. Ferrocarril central mexicano. Division de Tampieo. Puente sobre el rio Choy. 37. Ferrocarril central mexicano. Linea del Pacifico. Divisi6n oriental. Lineas y reconocimientos entre Guadalajara y Lagos. 38. Ferrocarril de Puebla a San Marcos y Villa de Libres. Puente en la barranca de Xalcartl. Terceraseccidn. 39. Rada de Salina Cruz. 40. Proyecto de muelle para el puerto de Salina Cruz. 41. Canal n. del Chijol. Proyecto de trazo final para someterio a la aprobaci6n del Supremo Gobierno. 42. Faro y torre para el puerto de Guaymas, establecidos por la Compafiia del ferrocarril de Sonorn. 43. Piano de una parte del Estado de Colima. Proyecto da saneamiento para el puerto de Manzanillo. 44. Muelle para el puerto de Manzanillo. 45. Muelle para el puerto de Manzanillo. 46. Muelle para el puerto de Manzanillo. 47. Proyecto de monumento a la memoria de Sor. Juana In£s de la Cruz. L. C. 1884. Carta ferrocarrilera de Mexico, con los'datos mas recientes acerca de unas y otras linear. Expresamente formada por ingenieros de la Secretarfa de Fomento del Gobierno Federal para el primer almanaque historico, artistico y monumental de la Republica Mexicana. Publicado por Manuel Caballero, editor de "El Noti- cioso," Mexico. Scale: 1 : 3800000. 23| x 35 h New York, G. W. & C. B. Colton &Co., [1884]. L. C. 1884. Carta topografica general de los alrededores de Puebla, formada por la Comision geognifico-exploradora. 1:50000. Published by Mexican Government, 1884. 3d serie 6\ A. P. U. S. War Dept. lib. 1884. Der Staat Sinaloa in Mexico. Nach eigenen Aufnahmen und Rekognoscirungen von Friedrich G. Weidner. 16$ x 13$. Gotha, J. Perthes, 1884. [In Petermann (J.) Mittheilungen. 4°. Gotha, 1884. v. 30, pi. 1.] L. C. 1884. General map of the Republic of Mexico, showing railroads, steamships, and telegraph communications. 1:2217600. Published by Rand & McNally, Chicago, 1884. Corrected to 1884. In four sheets. U. S. War Dept. lib. 1884. Carta topografica general de los alrededores de Puebla. Formada por la Comision geognifico-exploradora. Secretarfa de Estado y del Despacho de Guerra y Marina. Comision geogr&fica de fomento y guerra. Bajo la direccion del ing. Al. Diaz. Levantamiento: varios individuos de la comision. Construccion: cap. 1° E. M. — Beltran. Dibujo y escrituras: Ing. C. T. Alvarez. Edition de 1884. 3* serie. Letra A. P. 19 J x 25 J. Escala de 1 : 50000— I mm =50 metros. L. C. 438 MEXICO. L884. Mapade la reel telegr&fica y de los itinerarios geneiales de la Reptiblica Mexicana. Formado segrin datoe oficialee por F. A. Labadie. _l', x27J. Ban Francisco, Cal.. Gregoire, Tansy y Ca., [1884]. Notx.— Another copy, traced on linen, in the library. I., c. L884. Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies. Drawn and engraved expressly for the Encyclopaedia Britannica, American reprint. Scale, 95 miles — one inch. 19x27. Philadelphia, .!. M. Btoddart Co., [1884]. Note.— Copyright In 1884 by Roger Sherman. L C. 1884. Mexico. Mapa de las lfneas del ferrocarril central y conecciones. Eseala del mapa 1:6000000. 14ix20i. Buffalo, N. Y., Matthews, Northnip & Co., L884. Note. — Copyrighted by the Mexlcarj Central Railway Co., Limited 1884. 1SS4. Mexique. Echelle, 1:5000000. [In Vivien de si. Martin (Louis). Atlas universe! de geographic Fbl. Paris, Eachette, 1884. Pt. 73.] L. C. 1884. Poole Bros. Railway map of Mexico. 14] s 20}. [Chicago, Poole Bros.. 1884.] L. C. 1884. Watson's nuevo mapa de Mexico y la frontera del norte, America Central, Istmo de Panama, Cuha, Jamaica y islas de Bahama. .'!7 x 54. Nueva York, <1. Watson, 1884. L. C. 1884-1889. International (water) Boundary Commission. United States and Mexico. Treaties of 1884 and 1889. Brownsville and Matamoras jetties, report of Col. Anson Mills, 3d U. S. Cav. Maps by engineers of commission and Capt. M. M. Men- diola, Mexican engineer. Washington. 1!», 5 pi., 5 sheets of maps. No. 1. reference map, BhOWing Rio I i ramie and vicinity of Brownsville, with river as located by the commission of 1888. Scale, 1:5000. No. 2, Rio Grande sections and cross-sections at Fortin Paredes and Freeport Bcale, 1:1000. No. 8, Rio Grande, jetties and cross-sections in the vicinity of Brownsville, Texas and Matamoras. Tamanlipas, Dec., 1894. Bcale, 1:1000. No. 4, Bends of the Rio Grande at Casa Uatar and artillery quarters. Bcale, 1:1000. No. 5, comparative map of river and jetties in the vicinity of Brownsville, Fort Brown] and Santa Crnz Point, showing the surveys of 1853, 18C9, 187".. 1N77, lssO-82, 1N1M. Scale, 1:2000. I". S. War Kept, lib. 1 885. Atlas Mexicano, por Antonio Garcfa Cubas. 31 sheets inch Carta general, fbl. Mexico, Debray, suc's, 1885. Contents. Carta 1. Sonora. Eseala 1 : 2000000. 2. Chihuahua. Eseala 1:2000000. 3. Coahuila. Eseala 1 : 2000000. 4. Nuevo Leon. Eseala 1:1200000. 5. Tamaulipas. Eseala 1:1500000. CARTOGRAPHY. 439 Carta 6. Veracruz. Escala 1:1200000. 7. Tabasco. Escala 1:1200000. 8. Campeche. Escala 1 : 1200000. 9. Yucatan. Escala 1:1200000. 10. Sinaloa. Escala 1:1500000. 11. Jalisco. Escala 1:1500000. 12. Colima. Escala 1:500000. 13. Michoacan. Escala 1:1000000. 14. Guerrero. Escala 1:1000000. 15. Oaxaca. Escala 1:100000. 16. Chiapas. Escala 1:1200000. 17. Durango. Escala 1:1200000. 18. Zacatecas. Escala 1 : 1200000. 19. Aguascalientes. Escala 1:300000. 20. San Luis Potosi. Escala 1: 1325000. 21. Guanajuato. Escala 1:600000. 22. Quer6taro. Escala 1:480000. 23. Hidalgo. Escala 1 : 6000000. 24. Mexico. Escala 1:500000. 25. Morelos. Escala 1 : 250000. 26. Puebla. Escala 1:900000. 27. Tlaxcala. Escala 1:230000. 28. Baja California. Escala 1:3000000. 29. Distrito Federal. Escala 1:245000. 30. Territorio de Tepic. 1885. Map of the City of Mexico, authorized for publication with the Mexican guide, by General Carlos Pacheco, Minister of Public Works. 1885. 17 x 24. [In Janvier (Thomas A. ) The Mexican guide. 5th ed. 16°. New York, C. Scribner's Sons, 1890, at end.] L. C. 1885. Map of the United States and Territories, with adjacent parts of Canada and Mexico; also part of the West Indies. 1 : 2534400. ( 40 miles to the inch. ) IT. S. General Land Office. U. S. War Dept. Lib. 1885. Mapa general de Mexico. Ferrocarril Central, Mexico. 1885. (Blue print, 1 sheet. ) U. S. War Dept. Lib. 1885. Official map of the State of Sonora. 1885. By Chas. E. Herbert. 23 x 27. 1 sheet fold. 18°. [n. p., 1885.] Note. — On cover, date 1884. Title in Spanish and English. L. C. 1886. Map of the environs of the City of Mexico. Authorized for publication with the Mexican Guide, by General Carlos Pacheco, Minister of Public Works. 1886. 11£ x 18J. [In Janvier (Thomas A.) The Mexican Guide. 5th ed. 16°. New York, C. Scribner's sons, 1890. at end.] L. C. 1886. Mexico. 16£ x 23. [In Janvier (Thomas A.) The Mexican Guide. 5th ed. 16°. New York, C. Scribner's sons, 1890. at end.] Note. — Map copyrighted in 1886, by W. M. Bradley & bro. 440 MEXICO. 1886. Outline map of field operations against hostile Chihuahua Indians, 1:950,400 (15 miles to the inch i. By Lieut. E. J. Spencer, < '. of IS., engr. officer, department of Arizona. 1886. V. s. War Dept. Lib. 1887. (ana telegr&fica y ferrocarrilera de la Republica Mexicana. Direccion general de .-ta.hsti.ii. Becretaria de fomento, 1887. Escala de 1:3000000. 27$ x 37}. I., c. lsss. Carta general de la Republica .1.- Mejico y de los Estados Unidos del Norte, con relaci.'ni ;i las propiedades de laCompafifa minera de fierro mejicana. Scale: 1:3800000. 32j x 44}. New York, (i. W. & C. B. Colton & co. [1888]. L. C. 1889. Bancroft's map of the mineral districts of northern Lower California. Designed by Fred J. Engelhardt, March 1, 1889. Compiled from official authentic maps and sketches [on record] from special investigation in person and assisted by the oldest and most expert Mexican prospectors, 1888-1889. 16A x 19. San Fran - cisco, The Bancroft company, 1889. L. C. 1889. Bosquejo de una carta geologica de la Republica Mexicana. Formadapordisposici6u del Secretario de Fomento, Gral. Carlos Pacheco, por una comisi6u especia] hajo la direcci6n del profesor Antonio del Castillo, 1889. Escala de 3,800,000°. 29 x 41}. Paris, Erhard hermanos, [1889]. L. C. 1889. Cartes commercials — Etats-Unis du Mexique (1st pt., north Mexico; 2d pt., south Mexico), 1:3000000. F. Bianconi, Paris, 1889. (Forms 7th series, nos. 4 and 5, of geographical memoirs published by Chaix, Paris). V. S. War Dept. Lib. 1888. Memoria para la carta general geografica de la Republica Mexicana. Anode 1889. 27 pp., 1 1. 8°. Mexico, Oficina tip. de la Secretarfa de Fomento, 1890. L. C. 1889. Mexico. 1 : 1435200. (70 miles to inch. ) Bradley & co., Phil., 1889. F. S. War Dept. Lib. L889. Piano geologico del Heal de S. Antonio y el Triunfo de la Baja California: Fonnado por Antonio del Castillo, ingeniero de minas. Revisado en 1889. 25£ x 21}. Mexico, E. M. Moreau y ho. [1889]. Note. — Ins.'t: " Estremidad but de la peninsula de la Baja California. Bosquejo geol6gico." L. C. 1889. United states with adjacent portions of Mexico. 1885. Corrected to 1889. Scale, 1:5000000. 4 sheets. U. S. War Dept. Lib. CARTOGRAPHY. 441 1890. Carta general de la Republica Mexicana. Formada en el Ministerio de Fomento con los datos mds recientes, por disposition del secretario del rarao, General Carlos Pacheco, 1890. Escala de 1:2000000. 44i x 68. Paris, Erhard hermanos, [1890]. L. C. 1890. Carta de los ferrocarriles de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Secretaria de Fomento, section tercera. Escala: 1:2000000. 44i x 66. Paris, Erhard hermanos, 1890. L. C. [1890?] Carta minera de la Republica Mexicana. Formada por disposition del Secretario de Fomento, Gral. Carlos Castillo. Escala de 3,000,000. 29 x 41 J. Paris, Erhard hermanos, [1890?] 1891. Map of Mexico, prepared under the direction of Captain Daniel M. Taylor, Ord- nance Department, and 1st Lieutenant George P. Scriven, Signal Corps, in the military information division, Adjutant-General's Office, War Department; William N. Peck, chief of division, by Charles H. Ourand, draughtsman. 1891. 30| x 40 h. L. C. 1891. Rand, McNally & co.'s indexed Atlas of the World. Map of Mexico. Statute miles, 69.16—1 degree. Kilometers, 111.307—1 degree. 19 x 26. Chicago, Rand, McNally & co., 1891. Note. — Inset of " Valley of Mexico on an enlarged scale." L. C. 1891. Reduction del piano oficial de la ciudad de Mexico. Levantado de orden del H. Ayuntamiento por la Comision de saneamiento y desagiie en 1889 y 1890 deta- llado ampliamente y publicado por la antigua y acreditada casa C. Montauriol y ca., 1891. 29x38|. L. C. 1891-1892. Carta de la Republica. 1:100000. 1 Bl. 18. I. M. Mexico.— N. Tetzmeloccan.— O. Huamantla. — S. Popocatepetl. — T. Puebla. — 11. K. Lanos. — P. Chalchico- mola. — U. Tlacoyalco. — V. Orizaba. — lv. A. Tehuacan. Mexico, Secretaria de Fomento. Carte des Etats-Unis du Mexique dress£e par tes soins de la Society de geographie de Lille d'apres les plus regents documents officiels. B. S. gebgr. Lille 18. Diaz, A. Carta topognifica general de los alrededores de Puebla, formada por la Comision Geogr&fica Exploradora. Edition de 1884. (3 e s£rie.) 1:50000. Paris, impr. Erhard. Jaccottey, P., et M. Mabyre. Carte des services maritimes posteaux des Antilles et du Mexique. Paris, Delagrave, £dit. Rand, McNally & co.'s indexed (pocket) map of Mexico. New York and Chicago, el. Taken from "Bibliotheca geographlca," 1891 and 1892. 1891-1893. Bosquejo de una carta geologica de la Republica Mexicana. Formada por disposition del Secretario de Fomento por una comision especial bajo la direction de Antonio de Castillo. Reformada con nuevos datos en 1891, 1892 y 1893. Escala: 1:10000000. IOJxLU. Mexico, E. M. Moreau, [1893]. L. C. 44 "J MEXICO, 1891-1896. Report uf the international boundary commission. United States and Mexico. L891 L896. Mape title. 26 maps. toL Washington, Government Printing office, 1898. Liet of maps, Imiix map of the boundary. California line. Colorado River section of the boundary (In colon). Arizona— Sonora oblong line. Parallel 31°20' north latitude. Meridian section. Parallel :;i°47' north latitude. Profile of the boundary. 1.. C 1892. Carta de los ferrocarriles f commerce in .Mexico 416 < hiapas, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.) 78-83 ( 'hide, cultivation of 192 exports of 192 Chihuahua, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.)... s:;-si; Chocolate, manufacture of 256 Churches 381-385 Cities and towns (principal), population of 163 Citizenship 52 Climate 13 Coahuila, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc. ) 86-92 Coal 221, 224. 233 trade '. 27s Coasts 10 Coffee: American firms engaged in planting 178 Cultivation of 1 75 Exports of -'tis Production of 1 7S Coinage 310 Colima, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.) 92-95 Colonies 372 Colonics: Contracts for introduction of foreign '.'>7'.'> Government aid to 371 Colonization 366 Law 367 State legislation concerning 372 Commerce 262 Commercial travelers in Mexico 291 Concessions for establishment of new industries 2ti0 Constitution 50 General provisions of 54 Copper 221-224 and copper ores, exports of 229 Corn 172 Cotton: Cultivation of 181 (Raw) imports of, into Mexico 183 Industry 182, .Mil Production of 182 Cotton-seed mills 255 Cultivation, native methods 213 Currency 312 Custom-houses 281 revenue of 298 Debt, public 301-305 Dentistry, regulations for practice of 402 Diaz, Porfirio 22 Drawn work 256 Durango, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.) 95-99 INDEX. 449 Dyewoods 210 Education: Compulsory 376 Law of public instruction 377 Statistics concerning 379 Educational institutions 378 Ethnological and archaelogical works on Mexico 423 Ethnology 24 Executive power 48 Expenditures 297, 299 Exports 264-270 Export trade (general) 268 Eauna 15 Feather work 256 Federal district (general description, political divisions, etc. ) 59 Value of property in 62 Federal Government 50 Fiber plants ' 198-200 Financial organization 295 Flora 14 Flour mills 251, 173 production 174 Forests, national 1 70 Free zone 292 Fruits 204 Furniture, manufacture of 256 Geographical position 5 Geology 11 Ginger 212 Glassware, manufacture of 255 Gold bullion, exports of 226 production 226 and silver, taxes on 311 Government 47 Grape production ., 203 Guadalupe Hidalgo, prefecture of 60 Guanajuato, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.). 99-102 Guerrero, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.) .. 102-105 Gulf States 57 Area of 407 Gulfs and bays 10 Gunpowder, manufacture of 256 Haciendas or plantations, number of 213 Hammocks, manufacture of 253 Hardware, manufacture of 256 Hat industry 256 Henequen: Exports of 199, 267 Production of 198 Hidalgo, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.) 106-108 Hides, exports of 215 and skins 255 Historical sketch 17 509 a— 04 29 450 INDKX. '■ ■'»'•' Hydrography 10 [mmigration ;;ii,i Import duties (nem I -"■' ,l Imp .rt> 271 1-274 I ndust ries 245-261 American capital invested in 257 i new i < rovernmenl :ii 259 Miscellaneous 257 I mlus! fia 1 development, < iovernment aid to 259 [ron 222,224 ami st eel imports 278 works 251 I rrigation 171 Islands 10 Area of 4i>7 Ixtle: 1 'n duction of 1!'!' Exports of , 200 Judicial power 48 Jalisco, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc) 108-112 Jewelry 256 Labor in .Mexico, cost of -103 Lakes 10 Land law 364 Lam Is, public 362 Laws: Banking 318 Colonization 367 Land 364 Mining 236 Latent '. 386 Public instruction 377 Railn tad 344 Tan ff 283 Trade -mark 395 Legislative power 47 Lead mines 221-224 Libraries 380 Liqui irs 250 Living, cost of 402 Live stock, export of, to Cuba 270 Maguey, cultivation of 200 Manganese, oxide of 224 Marble 224, 225 E x i >orts of 230 Matches, manufacture of 256 •Manufactures 245 Manufacturing enterprises, American capital invested in 258 Measures 413 Medicinal plants 209 Medicine, regulations for practice of 401 Mercury 221,222 Meteorological data 410 INDEX. 451 Page. Mexico, city of 62-69 Mexico, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.) 112-115 Mezcal 201 Michoacitn, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.). 115-118 Mineral production 227 products, exports of 230 resources 221 Miners, wages of 232 Mining: American capital invested in 233, 258 Claims 228 Development 232 Districts 221 Law 236 Legislation 235 Taxes 240 Methods- Patio process 225, 230 Lixiviation process 231 Mints 309 Molasses, production of 198 Monetary census 417 Morelos, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc. ) 118-120 Mountain ranges 9 Museums 380 Mulberry trees 204 Navigation 281 Navy 56 Newspapers 380 Northern States 57 Area of 407 Nuevo Leon, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.). 120-123 Oaxaca, State of (general description, resources, trade, industrie, etc.) 123-126 Oleaginous plants 202 Olive trees 204 Onyx 224, 225 Opals 223 Oranges: Cultivation of 206 Exports of 207 Production of -208 Orography 9 Pacific Coast States, area of 407 Paper: Manufacture of 240 Trade - 280 Patent law 386 regulations 391 Patents, number of, issued 400 Pearl fishing 254 shell 255 Petroleum and asphaltum 234 Pharmacy, regulations for practice of 401 1 •") 2 I N I > B X . Pipeapples, cultivation and production of 209 Plantations or haciendas, number of 213 Plants: Fiber L98 Fodder 210 Dye-producing 210 Mr. Licinal 209 ( Oleaginous 202 Other 212 Tanning 211 Political divisions 57 I 'el dilation 5 Principal cities and towns 168 Porta of entry 280 Postal Service :;.">7 conventii >ns 358 Pottery works 253 Prefectures: Guadalupe-Hidalgo 60 Tacubaya 60 Tlalpam 61 Xochimilco 61 Property, estimated value of city and suburban 412 Precious metals, production of 229 stones 225 Pul »licati< >ns 380 Public debt 301-806 instruction, law of 377 lands 362 Puebla, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc. i 126-127 Puli | ue, production of 200 Oueretaro. State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.).. 127-130 Railroad law 344 traffic with the United States 343 Railways :;27 American capital invested in 257, '133 Foreign capital i total | invested in 331 Religion .">4, 3s l , 382 Revenues 295 Pice 175 Rivew 10 Rubber: Cultivation of 185 1 'p iducti* »n Pt2 Exports of 102 American firms engaged in planting = 101 Sal t 22 1 . 22a San Puis Pot osi. State of , general description, resources, trade, industries, etc. ). 130-133 Silkworm industry 170, 204. 240 Silver Pul lion, exports of 226 ores 231 product i. »n 221-226 and gold, taxes on 311 Sinaloa, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc. ) 134-130 INDEX. 453 Page. Skins and hides 255 Sonora, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.) 136-139 Specie, exports of 310 Sponges 254 States: Aguascalientes 70 Campeche 73 Chiapas 78 Chihuahua 83 Coahuila 86 ( '< >lima 92 Durango 95 Guanajuato 99 Guerrero 102 Hidalgo 106 Jalisco 108 Mexico 112 Michoacan 115 Morelos 118 Nuevo Leon 120 Oaxaca 123 Puebla 126 Queretaro 127 San Luis Potosi 130 Sinaloa 134 Sonora 136 Tabasco 139 Tainaulipas 142 Tlaxcala 145 Veracruz 147 Yucatan 150 Zacatecas 153 Area of 6, 407 Census of 6 Government of 49 Position and altitude of capital cities 408 Revenues and expenditures of 412 Steel and iron works 251 Steamship lines 358 concessions 361 Stock raising 214 Sugar: Beet 212 Cane — Cultivation of 194 Production of 197 Exports of 197 Mills 250 Planting, American firms engaged in 196 Production 195-198 Sulphur deposits 222, 224, 225 Tabasco, State of (general description, resources, trade, etc. ) 139-142 Tacubaya, prefecture of 60 454 INDEX. Tamaulipas, State of (general description, resources, trade, etc) 142-1 4-"> Tanneries 255 Tanning plants 211 Tari ff Telegraph lines 354 Telephone Bervice :'i">7 Tepic, territory of i general description, resources, trade, etc) 169- 163 Te,,uila 20] Territorial division ">7 Territories: Area of 407 I'.aja California 156 Tepic 159 Tlachique 201 Tlalpam, prefecture of til Tlaxcala, State of (general description, resources, trade, etc) 145-147 Tobacco: Cultivation of 1 17s Exports of 181 Industry 250 Production of 180 Tonnage 281 Topography s Trade, domestic and foreign 281, with the United states 274-278 Trade-mark law 395 regulations , 398 Trade-marks, number of registered 400 Treaties and convention- with other countries 41 S Valley of Mexico (general description, natural products, drainage, etc > ">7 Vanilla: Cultivation of 193 Exports of 194 Veracruz, State of I general description, resources, trade, etc) 147-150 Vine: Cultivation of 169,202 I 'n tductii hi < if 203 Vital statistics 7, 410 Wages in Mexico 404 Weights and measures 413 W heat 1 72 Wines 203, 250 Woolen g Is, manufacture of 248 W Is 210 Cabinet ". 210 Xochimilco, prefecture of 61 Yucatan, state of general description, resources, trade, etc) 160-153 Yucca 212 Zacatecas, State of (general description, resources, trade, etc) L53-156 Zacaton, production of 201 Zinc 222,227 o Date D