Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/enlighteneddespoOOschorich THE EITLIOHTEITED DESPOTISM OP THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY CH/J^LES III III SPAIN. THESIS PRESENTED TO THE PACUIiTY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES CORNELL UNIVERSITY FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS BY HEl-IRY SCHOEIiLBIOPF ITHACA, N. Y. 1902. CHAPTER I. PREPARATIOII ?'0R CrOVRRI":i.^;!TT M11731 ii BIBLICCfRAPHY, COITTENTS Page iil CHAPTER II. NARRATIVE 0? HIS REIGH 14 CHATTER III. Ar^MIlTISTRATION AJTD LEGISLATION 27 CHAPTER IV. INDUSTRIES AND AXrRICULTURE. 43 CHAPTER V. PUBLIC WORKS 60 CHAPTER VI. FINAITCE AITD TA.XATION 69 CHAJ'TER VII. COIUIERCE AND COLONIES 84 CHAPTER VIII. EDUCATIONAL RE?ORNS A'^-^ ONApiTIES 96 CHAPTER IX. THE JESUITS AND THE INQUISITION 11^ CHAPTER X. PERSONAL CHARACTER 07 CHAPLES III 130 i ;« lit riBLIOGRAPJ-TY. Becattini, Abbe Franeesoo . Storia del regno di Carlo III di Borbone, Re di Spagna. Venice ; 1790. Contains a good account of Charles' rule in Italy. Cited as Becattini. Bourgoing, Jean Francois. Tableau de l*Espagne moderne . 4th edition. Paris : 1806. 3 vols. An excellent account of the conditions in Spain during and after Charles* reign. Cited as Bourg. Carayon, P. Auguste. Charles III et les je suites c.e ses etats. Paris ; 1866. An exceedingly bitter denuncia* tion of the expulsion of the Jesuits, by one of their number. Cited as Carayon. Clarke, The F.ev . Edward. Letters concerning the Spanish na- tion. London : 1763. Written by chaplain of Lord Bristol's embassy from 1760-61. Interesting general account of conditions in Spain at that time. Colmeiro Manuel. Historia de la Bconomica politica en Espana Vol. III. Madrid : 1866. Contains some matter i^ dealing with the econo.^ic conditions of the time. Of no especial importance. Colletta, General Pietro. The Kingdom of Naples, 1754-1825. Translated by Susan Horner. London : 1858. The best authority for Charles* rule in Naples. Coxe, Filliam. I.Iemoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon. 2nd edition. 5 volumes. London : 1815. Excellent nari^ative account of this reign. Pifth volume contains Statement of Florida Blanca and a sta- tistical account of the army and navy. Dalrymple, TIajor Filliam. Travels through Spain in 1774. London : 1777. A rather prejudiced account of the conditions in Spain. Not of much value. Danvila y Collado, Manuel. Reinado de Carlos III, published under the direction of Canovas del Castillo. Madrid : 1893. 6 volumes. A complete account of this reign, v/ith nearly evelry decree and edict of importance either quoted or referred to. Covers practically everything contained in the other v.-orks of this period. Cited as D. y C. VI Diercks, Dr. Gustav. Gesohiohte J^paniens von der frflhesten Zeiten bis zur Cregenwalrt. 2 volu7!ies. Perlin : 1895, Vol. II contains an excellent account of the reign of Charles III. Best short narrative I have seen. Ferrer del Fio, Antonio. Kistoria del reinado de Carlos III. 4 volumes. 1856. Moderately useful, but not always reliable . Lafuente, D. Modesto. Historia general Espana. Madrid : 1869. 15 voliimes. Vols. X and ZI deal with reign of Charles III. Mainly narrative. Muriel, D. Andres. Translation of Coxe's Bourbon Kings, with excellent additional chapters on the naterial improve- ment due to Charles. Paris : 1827. Gobierno del Senor Fey Don Carlos by sane author. T^adrid : 1839. Contains "Instructions" for Junta at time of its establishment. Quite useful. Tov^-nshend, Joseph. A. journey through Spain in the years 1786 and 1787. 3 volumes. 2nd edition. London : 1792. An excellent account of agricultural, commercial and industrial conditions of those times. vl White, Joseph Blanco. Pseud., Don Leucedio Doblado . Letters from Spain. London : 1822. Contains a very good accoimt of the abuses of the edAicational system. Cited as Dohlado. W3 e p i t u e . i u ud S?>€i n i f • " t' «i 1 1 ^^rn CHAPTER I . tnfi 1!: ^^ Of PREPARA.TIOIT Ti'OR GOVRRITI lENT . leer- +-. h ^ '.1 e C *r»**'i^ >.■ f ' ' ' * The influence of Elizabeth Parnese on the career of her son Charles can easily be traced through all the period of his Italian rule. He^ v/arlike spirit impressed itself on her son^s character and this accounts for his somewhat inconsistent attitude in later years when, as King of Spain, he turned aside from the path of reform and plunged into disastrous wars against' the greatest sea power of his time, only to gratify a desire for mi lit airy glory or to uphold a family tradition. His Italian dominions v/ere won by the sword and had therefore to be defended ; but Spain's salvation lay in peace and the regeneration of its people, who had been riained by wars and the victorv o ^r \ conquest. Charles of Bourbon, as he was known in his Italian dominions, was born in the year 1716, being the first-born r *■ .-. ■■ • of Philip's second marriage v/ith Elizabeth Parnese. His mother, who was intensely ambitious for her own sons, in- trigued and plotted to obtain for them independent kingdoms. •-.riiards She succeeded in obtaining for Charles the ducal crowns of Tuscany and Parma and when the War of the Polish Succession began in 1735, Elizabeth seized this pretext to invade Austrian dominions and' to obtain Naples for her elder son. Charles . noi:*- 1 .y<\'-i^ .nt^ -riifirt n$sd bp. a-^ ■iX'xes nii i ■31 sane** was placed at the head of the combined Spanish and Italian^^^ army, though under the direction of the Count de Montemar.-r- In this contest for the crowns af Maples and Sicily, the imperial troops were [generally worsted and on June 15th of 't"h'e' year 1734 the Infant Cherles published the decree of Philip V, whereby the latter ceded his "ancient and newly re- covered rights to the Sicilies, united into one independent kln'gfom, to his son Charles, born of his happy nuptials vfith --■: •''•- 1 "Elizabeth Parnese." The new king caused himself to be pro- claimed, Charles, by the grace of God, King of the Two Sicilies and Jerusalem, Infant of Spain, Duke o" "Parma, Piacenza and -t Castro, and heredetary Grand Prince of Tuscan^/. He also is- sued an edict, summoning all the barond of the kingdom to 'sisrear allegiance' to the government, within a given time, threat- ening defaiflters with punishjnent i. "'But the two kingdoms for which Charles had been striving had not yet been won, though , the victory of Bitorito by Montemar, on May 26, 1734, had . caused the Austrians to abandon all hope of regaining Naples. Various fortresses surrendered to the Spaniards and by the Vattle of 'Parrik' in Italy waf^ ^'IHost totally destroyed so that Charles could now turn his attention to SicilJ^,. . For its conquest Charles sent over a vSpanish army of fourteen thousand 'men under the command of the Duke de ''ontemar. The Spaniards Vere v/ell received by the Sicilian peoples and after hearing 'l. Colletta, Vol. I, p. 43. rteilec^T LniaqS ;3V/ xO rl^dX en; :i »r'T TB'^f?; r*oV «>'"''■♦' V-Stttq" OO .1 the news of the "Einpire's losses in Naples, Lombardy and Oer- many, they submitted to an inevitable fate, and the dominion ^ of Charles was immediately universally established. Charles was officially crowned at Palermo on June 3, 1735, and acoora^qv. panied with all the ceremonies and grandeur of former coro- - ,g nations, he received the homage and oath of fealty from the people. The feasting and distributing of presents was more lavish than it had ever been before and it was thus that Charles of Bourbon, even at the beginning of his reign, endeared him- ,. self to his Neapolitan subjects. * n';,,rTpr-;' "^♦^^i.m i'aif.n The conditions of the kingdom 6f the Two Sicilies at the time of Charles* accession is best described in the words of the Italian author, Golletta. He says : "At the time of the arrival of King Charles of Bourbon, the Apostolic See clained supremacy over kings and kingdoms, as arrogantly as in the times of Crregory VII, but as its moral influence had diminished, this was only supported by the number of ecclesiastics and by their inordinate wealth. The temporal power of the Chi^rch was as strong as ever ; religious faith as great or greater than formerly, but faith in the ministers of religion and the pontiff weakened ; the feudal sF.stem entire, but the feudal system contemptible in the eyes of the people ; there was no army and the civil administration was fraudulent and full of errors .^. the finances were exhausted, poor at the present moment, and 1, Colletta, Vol. I, p. 47. X -mojj£- .Dili? tCc • no Of .xjiiio a^v/ 9di mot^ ^c*JBe1: "^o rft^o f^hb Tjrrao/i erf? firvteu^ t3noi:tBn snow. ai<\u «.?n9as' 'jhs ^fiid'afc-; . • . Jf^rfO ^Bfi^t gjyrd:' ins lOtdd s^»d "£€>▼» bi»; SitvBl -tnirr b5-.*tB9r.n9 ^r^nien ?. tr' Jo Hrttnrrt??ocf 6ir(:t :?J3 fte'/B ,ao^i?.rorT to u- 2ot:?afjie?^I«Ju9 lo ' nail': ';{jiaftaa .lu^fi'Q'i;^ f'.^" i:-i4i ,feijiui§' < sb ; 3-i©TT9 to liift j^nfs >nt»lr 9«w uoi .1 with ^he prospeot of becoming still poorer ; the codes of law were confused, and the tribunals filled with a vast assemblage of intrtgiil'ftg'and corrupt lav/yers ; though the Neapolitans - were slaves to many prejudices, they were opposed to the fallen government and desirous; of better. Therefore, necessity, the opinions" and' defelres of the people, a hew dynasty, and the • - interests of the new king, as v.^ell as the genius of the age, all invited reforms." ^ '"' The above summary furnishes an excellent * idea of the conditions existing at the commencement of Charles* Italian reign and vill help to give the reader a just appreciation of the great difficulties he and his ministers overcame in their efforts to inaugurate needed reforms. enc, «rroi: Charles* first act of s6vereign power was the ap- pointment of Tanucci as Ilinister of justice and it was said ' ' that this wise choice was made because on one occasion, when a Spanish soldier had committed a crime and had sought refuge in a church, Tanucci, who v/as then a professor at Pisa, sup- ported the royal authority against the claims of the Tuscan clergy. 2 '-^^^ ' " in^^-'^eTv Tanvicci, who had had an excellent legal training, was the man best fitted for the undertaking of instituting reforms in the newly ac luired kingdom. The chief disorders of the State were due to the defects in the codes and tribu- 1. Colletta, Vol, I, p. 28. 2. Beccatini, Vol. II, p. 1(?51. I'l -^ »:.•' r ffiff< ^ i p «.» 4 • Its It ^J <\B as r •j5«?iXnpEff/> "tc f o r«< r- r»< O r, i« *Va». Ro •* f tr n&XI' ■;.: ' ■"•f -' 'ff rtsfn «ff-:^ ri^'w '•IfeW ^* .Ic'^I .V ,h; nals, but owing to the sj^'Stem of absolutism by which law;s were tift it wtto t'i ''^%9 reB'c j> -■- ^-'- ■ ^ '"'-" made in forms of decrees and pragmatics, instead of drawing 1 up a regular Code no regular system v/as adopted. Colletta says : "The civil jurisprudence underwent no change. .Altera- tions were made in the cri^ninal lav/s, bu"*" • dictated f:>r special occasions, and in a spirit of indignation aroused by the fre-^ quency or barbarity of crimes. A due proportion between the act and the punishment was not preserved, so that an equitable and judicious scale of punishment v/as wanting. Trials for civil causes were slightly imp.roy^edy: but the discussion was always confused, and it wax necessary for the solution of doubtful points to refer to the authority of the Sovereign ; while all the arbitrary acts of the Viceriagal Crovernment, the appointments of Ministri Aggiunti and rimedii legalii were continued. The supreme Council of State was abolished, while the other tribunals remained ^s before, because the king haxi , promised that they shouls not be changed. The system of trial for criminal offences was in no- way improved, while the Inquisitorial system, the Scivani, tsrture, paid proofs, ar- --t CO'- • J ■.r.if^c; bitrarir sentences and the interference of the prince 2 still continued." These facts vs given by the Italian au- thor seem quite accurate for ev^n as great a worshipper of of vnarl.or' cif>.v>i \>? ^^^iii^y^^: o Charles III es Danvila can only say this much for Charles' a reforms in legislation : "The penal system was about the same ••••>.^«> — — — -• — — -.>.••••._ — _ — ••— • i^ally re-:, iS'HrrjQ i-*"- -'^ *' 1. Colle'ta, Vol. I, p. 52. 2. Ibid, Vol. I, 52. 3. D. y C, Vol. I, p. 142. ij'-lVf/ av/iiJ. i;J t&Ifiri ■ ■of) -j'lsc-i.'i .9: ' : ii^i-^-a •:i f f 01 B n ■■ : i V E -T Ti x hr ' 'ii'.O JC> 9l . i>e tl»evn&aeio J rTr>X?>f9VO' ""'••', { •'X)Jfci ,-ir»i f J.I'' ainT0l:8T •-• » as it was in the rest of "Europe. Torture, although hot pro- scribed by the law of 1731, was not amplified and v/hen it was abolished in 1789 it existed in the Whole of Europe with the exception of England. The judldial dual disappeared before it did in France, and the judiciary colleges, and the Supreme Tribunal of revision were founded in ITaples." The mitigation cr*-. . of the la s in Naples v/as undoubtedly retarded by the criminal tendencies of the people ; for it had been found necessary be- cause of the frequency of murders with the aid of poisonsi,* to establish a Junta of Poisons '^o try such cases. i The reforms instituted for the 'development of trade and industries were of the most enlightened and beneficial nature. Charles made peace with the Ottoman Empire by means of which his commerce was free from' the attacks of the Barbary pirates ; he concluded treaties of commerce and navigation with Sweden, Denmark and Holland, while renewing the old ones with ^'^rance, England and Spain. He appointed consuls, wherev- he ^v all-j^r^ '-in:/ pr«j ^o iate- ^.' -'v >hf ■r.-»Avi-.is er he thought that there might be openings for trade and drew up a code for their jurisdiction. He also appointed a commer- cial tribunal which decided all questions of commerce. A sanitary commission and bankruptcy regulations were' other fruits of Charles* desire for the welfare of his people. Colletta, says : "Had those legislative enactments, which now exist in a variety of ^instructions and pragmatic sanctions, been meth- odically registered in one book, we should have a full and «om- plete coinmercial code, and mi<-^ht have boasted of having been i, Vol. I, -0*Tq tort sm9"ic f^'- lqijli riexiode 8*x©w fioislvei !<; imii/diiT » ;-■■ 7. o ;,' ^ ■ oi '#en.o?,l"0€f lo hts s*rf^ n-'-iw . ■^. ''•iR'-- J ^O'fR Jfe i J : ■ ^ n 8 cf tjfus h& :. Inm ? s c v^STb rjiic oslr. s f? -' ' '':>.r J oft , e i ^!'.n«l oalldd '-■ In spite of the religious nature of Charles, however, he did not allow any prejudices to interfere with the reforms of ecclesiastical matters in his kingdom. The quarrel t-ith the papacy which began during the war «gainst Austria was eagerly pressed. By promises and threats Charles persuaded- Clement to read the Bull of Investitut^e by which he proclaimed the king as Charles VII, a name which was never adopted. In 1739 Charles proposed a concordat to the Pope ; but Clement died shortly afterwards, leaving this new demand to the care o^,M/«r... '-^^^^-f T,. r.- -jietto:- .-_,,-- - - .- - - - - - - - - 1. Colletta, Vol. I, p. 53. aasailvi*?; Sri bfid Oifw \jcf beiqofef? na • H"n --- •vr,'^-a-- ;«?i-.-c,4. r-.ci r'.i • t i-p -" ■" • ■ cj r T C4 rr 'I t>.-f.r- fjr:u''{' Ti?/^t5 yCVi rT of his successor, Benedict XIV. The new concordat was finally gran^.ed in 1741 and gave to Charles the right to subject the ancient possessions of the Church to a tax :of one half thard amount paid by the laity, and all later acquisitions were to pay the whole. The census of the state Y/as "-o separate the lay property, which had either been intentionally or by mis-d taJke confounded with the patrimony of the clergy. The number of the franchises was reduced and the permanent exemption, grant- ed to privileged persons, revoked. The right of asylum was limited to the churches, and even then only in the case ofin«d slight and trivial offences. The ecclesiastical state having been defined, and personal immunities reduced, the right of episcopal jurisdiction was circumscribed, the secular juris- diction proportionablg extended, and in order to limit the ^d number of priests, the difficulties of ordination and the dis- cipline of the clergy were increased. A tribunal v/as formed called the Misto, because composed of both ecclesiastical and lay judges, to decide those disputes arising from the Concor-n dat. With' the Concordat as a basis, Charles checked and, in some instances, destroyed the preponderant influence of the clergy and, in order to ascertain the taxable property belong- ing to the clergy, he took a census which, .though deficient^-ds because of fraud, was a step toward equity in the levying of taxes. sTir.dii wns miilt far tne ^o*^ it«xfts "Elizabeth Farnese, desiring to obtain a kingdom or sovereignty for her second Son, Don Philip, encouraged her [linn tX #Bw $B Irto (MOi^ '^ f '.. - . \9o srfT . ©1( '^ .> I', --X i : iJ . Q t-»ci 1 o r ©bio ni hna ,fe9i>ne-*x.9 ijJriRnc jif) ,r-+ r, r.. noii"enxbto to ae '^ '■'■•' r"''^ Arir»ttr^ ^ns iB J£rf8RlX8<^i OJH rfC^Odt© b^fiOqfWOU '^PfJBO^<^ tO^P.t^^ ©i^"* fSflllBJ lo niobjniJl b nifi^c ifjl'iiiJ»h , }' A V ft ♦ reri be^ijiyjojns fqiIlrfnil * bne ar3xea rfttdrf to •sooq ^'•'' -' ' ^ n^-«f-'= iijjsn ©ri? It) ^iO' «i(i is4Kpf «i#8B» i^nau. . *Iii/d oH .altodblw 10 1 1 Caserta and placed there an equestrian statue of himself. To water the gardens around this palace Charles huilt an aqueduct twentv-seven ipiles long, crossing the mountains of Tifative and the three wide valleys, and flowing in canals cut in the P^oi'le ttno t':u w vj tfto iaiag. rocks or carried over high and massive bridges. Colletta inter says : "If the inscriptions on the stones and the memory of war did not tell a different tale, this work, from its gradd- ^t6U I, its f'tlVageci. '•' iu TImhI tO;-.;; v,s>-^ 6i eur and bold conception, might he attributed to the Roman perioa . " The most renowned of Charles of Bourbon's achieve- Olifist^lla, t':«? i- .h"'S eeineo ' mente were the excavations which he began at Pompeii and Her- culaneum. An academy v/as founded for the antiquities found in the buried cities. The colleges and Umlversities were reformed in several respects, though the ecclesiastical semi- naries were left under the control of the clergy. Though Charles tried hard to promote learning and the arts in his kingdom, the opposition of the clergy prevented/-his reforms from being general. The fondness which Charles had for tfee Chase led him to enact laws against poaching v/hich were too severe ; he instituted lotteries and lieenced gaming, though he abolished it later. He proscribed the society of free masons ^t ^he instigation of France and drove out the J< Sk'.iU i Ti C- fck > Wet.- r k' .L i- vi '^^ '■ <» 'i '' V ^:,ti : ^3 i .'■■ u ; " •'■■ei«' ^'JTt! #t*^ 1;^ tr* ews though he had invited them into his kingdom seven years ear- r.e lier. /This last step was due to the enmity which the people •'Mi.', ij n(j HI 'it 1. Colletta, Vol. I, p. 86. 01 o' ' Qim tml' ! O - ' 8^001 'ifcW T9jnoi> ftlorf f>rte tfire r s-^-:* 101. filled aelifi/fO sioidv i^^&mhrj-'^ ^^"^ —fu© BtBe"^ no^na fBofe^yriiH »irf q:' o r "Y (i n a« mtrf fSfSl Ba^r 15 ' '''rip- t JOffF *^f^ la displayed against that race, as well as the intrigues of a - Jesuit confessor J (An abortive attempt to introduce the In- quisition was frustrated by the tiirbuient opposition of the ^^ people and the wisdom of the fcing. .-an., •...;■- „w .,-■-: aa': ixi^a powerful The war v/hich had begun in 1740, had been waged inter- mittently until 1748, thoUf.;h the kingdom of Naples was not. the much affected by its ravages. The final treaty was signed at Aix-la-Chapelle and by it the second son of Elizabeth Farner:e, Don Philip, received the duchies of Parma, Biacenza and Guastella, the Spanish Queen Mother having thus gained her end.^0strlt,tion c >wf>r of tae pop* ♦ r a f'.tfHip Tamicci*s reforms of the feudal system were mostly in the v/ay of diminishing the judicial rights v/ithout touching the revenue, lands or other rights of the barons. The baro- nial courts were made subject to appeals and by diminishing the number of armed retainers, and laying down the rules for their punishment, Tanucci diiiiinished the baronial privileges. It was also decreed that the power of criminal jurisdiction - was never again to be granted upon renewal of investitures of- fiefs and that the rights of the community were inalienable by tdime. Charles tried to attract the feudal lords to his court and in that way relieve their vassals of their presence. In this, way the power of the nobles' was gradually weakened because of the extravagance incidental to court life. The third es- tate, which had until the time of Charles* arrival been oppresse by the clergy and the nobles, grew strong and it v^as from this 11 ' v>>- JJV srfj 1o no I ^i-VflT a on si^v/ 8 9iqBM 'to moftgnJ::^ e ic^isijjp 'O^ft!^ Vi ii.tn*f xi*ns:*.^im ■sl'^.ii.jr B-i&w nis;?avs Xj?bw©'3: 9/\:t Jo snnolsi a'iooi/ffeT :inimi -ryns sieeqqs ot .tj9(,a5; i{1 Tftw s^tiuoo! lokn >«io«b oalB a*sw *I ['iBci'J . 9fn&i ■■.7 ^Q&bS 12 bodyi mostly compose^ .pf merchants and lawyers, that Charles drew his councillors. Of these Tanucci was the most famous, and his influence on the policy of Charles, both while h^, was in Italy and afterv/ards in Spain, v/as constant and ^ powerful at all times. A Spanish author says of this minis- ter : "This man of such exceptional abilities, who presa^jed the unity of Italy, yearned for since the time of Dante, and an^ nounced it a century before it was realized by the count of Cavour, and who understood the tv;o great necessities of his country, which consisted in the destruction of feudalism and:. d the restriction of the centralizing power of the pope, making a /oreign rule acceptable and planting the^j>Qwer ot Spain on Italian soil, was Bernardo Tanucci, who, as an Italian author truly said, does not represent the biography of a man, but rather the c§ftte|:^jora^p,jus i^ist;Qry^^,f,^.ta;Ly gi)d symbpl^izes the tj^n-. 2 dency of the eighteenth century." ,j..^j *-^^ ueci^'e^ w^^re The correspondence of Tanucci with Charles after he becaine king of Spain ^ives an adequate idea of the Tuscan law- yer's influence and ought therefore to be wol^thy of considera-a tion. , he The correspondence carried ^pn between the minister and his master was weekly and the letters were always writtin in Tanucci 's own handwriting^ The style was precise and short and of laconic eloquence. The councils embodied in his letters 1 1. Di B.. Tantcci. Duca di Lauria. 2. D. y C., Vol. I, 138. J fcll/fw ffrod f /.iff lo asi 'ieis ■ , --'^ . i IS were clear and exhaustive and his form severe and respectful ; and what is most singular is the total absence of any correc- tions in any of his letters, giving proof of a clear under- t 1 . 1 standing and easy comprehension of Y/hat he was -writing. There was nothing in Tanucci's letters which did not hear upon some iiTiportant matter ; nothing which did not come directly '"■y th»? d^ath o^ '-^rr''! fs-,^''^ >'" '•'■.i ''';'' o>jt i ',p.'-iiv^, *-^?> u"^o*ai to the point, and no thought v/hich did not inspire convic'-ion. "Each letter began by giving an account of the state of health enjoyed by the royal family ; then gave an account of all Don "^^nW^-- .. ■.. et^Ai'--^ <:^ P.-n ^M } I ■ * •? \y.--u....\-\ , "->il- !"^or the questions brought up in the vcouncil of regency and nearly ' ' ' ■ . always ended by giving a surmary of the discoveries made in '•pail ' . Pompeii and Herculaneum. There was no detail which happened at the -^leapolitan court that": was not embodied in the letters and Tanucci was often compelled to seek the protection of 0-:. tor Eharles because of his well known opposition to the Apostolic See and his report of the indiscretions of Ferdinand's life. All the difficult questions which Charles had to decide were submitted to Tanucci and no treferms v^ere ever instituted \vithotkt e" ■ "j : •; ■■ first consulting him. The experience which Charles had had in Italy helped I'e . -.e ! -'•♦^ •■■' ■ him to avoid many mistakes in Spain, while ^he reputation he had while ruler of T^aples preceded him Cto Spain, making him beloved by the people even before his arrival there. WHS (/;■ irt ^o^'f'" «' j* 1. D. y e.. Vol. I, p. 142. ■^e* Ibid, Vol. I, p. 142. . ^f , I ftoqii 'iBS^^ '-■'■'' ' ff #1 JB ed It o ■» « 4 'V o :in>. .. JAb 'to &£fiJtj^oa» f!« ^^ve3 ^6^l^t ; /J ;0"t ©rii ^d bevotiiJ^ sts^tsi V' tv»ifeoffftt* df^of! »«ir -'d*di . 8^1X R*?>nf?n4fw»** 1:o 8^toi:^©•r>>^il>fJl m^ •*'Toq9*t Ri/< brre es^ e'isv, .V .^^..^ v., ■'' aeiiBfiO ' , ; r-r.- bsc^y^i^^etti *x9vt) ©-isv/ amteteft on iyfiB iuawflBT oi bsi^^imdwa mid. js^nMi^m tHifiqB ocfif ml 3lii1,v b.-:f 14 ■'■'■ re ■- ve 071 CHAPTER II. 5 retpn li^ FAPRATIVK 0? HIS R?)iaN. ^•?' in churat' :s :::! p~ By the death of Ferdinand VI v/lthout issue, the crown of Spain devolved upon his half hrother, Charles of Naples. Charles abdicated his Italian throne in favor of his third son, Don Ferdinand, because of Don Philip's imbecility, while Don ^ Charles, the second son, became heir apparent to his father's Spanish dominions. After niakinp, these arrangements for his succession in Italy, Charles embarked for Barcelona, landing there in October, 1759. His reforms in Italy had given hiB the reputa- tion of being one of the foremest advocates of the ideas of enlightened despotism and his i^eception at Barcelona was one ^ of intense enthuslaam. The royal party m.ade its triumphal entry into T!adrid on the thirteenth of July, 1760 and the attitude of the Spanish people, even at this early date of th^**" reign, indicated the love and admiration which they felt for '-"• their sovereign. Charles was in the prj ^me of li fe when he cane to the Spanish throng, being in his forty-fifth year. He was of medium height, robust in constitution ; his skin was tanned by exposure to the wind and weather and his frugal habits were those of a bourgeois of his state. His joviality and good nature attracted every one toward him. In 1760 he jtoa b^l'-^^ Htfi to •? ^•fe p.^ .>0 "^feok^r^t ,rf^, t9'i 6rl O&Ti nl .'llfcr t^ ■>.:?"?. a in la sivi^ w 003 ftn* 16 lost his wife, Maria Ajnalia of Saxony, who had given him thir- t^efeti children. Charles refused to marry again and during this long period between his wife*s death and the end of his reign he led a truly puritan life. He v/as firm and tenacious in character, and some of his m.inisters complained of his ♦» stubbornness. He was not ^ver-brilliant, but capable of discerning the good or the evil in a man. He was a very re- ligious man ; but also possessed a broad, liberal spirit. His desire was to free the Spanish people of ecclesiastic influence and th destroy in the adr-'inistrative, economic and social or- ganization of Spain the dees seated abuses, sacred to the Spaniard because of their long duration. ^eii • Charles retained most of his brother's ministers, though h€^ stccepted the resignation of Alva, allowing him to retain all his honors and rewards. ns"^: VTall, a talented and conscientious Irishman, was made the head of his ministry and, Squilac' , a low born Sicilian, shared the responsibility in the first stepd taken towards t the much needed reforms. The duke of Losada did not interfere much with foreign politics, hut confined himself to administra- tive duties. This ministry was mainly backed up by the "go- lilla** party, which was not so strong in nuj>ibers as in the high average tof intelligence of its members. The celebrated Cam- pomanes and Moruno, v/ho later became chief minister, were the leaders of this party. Orimaldi, a Genoese nobleman of re- markable diplomatic ability, was sent to Paris and there al "•ttdi arirf nsvts ^^^ ^^^ »vm :, ol 3 if' "io fens 9ff^ bnf: -. . . . . ■ ^ , . .. :■ &i.^ ; ffer- «;,^i:iv/uj u;-Au: <:i^aj-:-i ia-Tii &ri- u achieved the famous Facte (ffe Pamille. He sfcoeeded Wall in 1763 and marked his policy with a decided leaning toward ^ut prance. One English envoy described him as being "more French ^than the French ^m^assadpr .'^ce^ty w«'S '-^,-n ir -rp^.^.j^ ji The renewal or affirmation of the Facte de Famille w€».s api:>arently aimed against England, though Charles expressly declare^ it to be an "pj'faijrf de coeyr, not an affaire poli- tiffue."!; oJ^t vas to be a defensi-e and offensive alliance be- tween the two Boulrbon houses, but it is herd to see how Spain could gain anything by such an agreement with France. Choi- seul*s joy at having achieved the treaty caused him to publish its contents before Spain was ready for it and Pitt promptly deolareg wiar against Spain. Wall, who was the only conti- nental statesman who seems to have had a true conception of o England's strength, strenuously opposed any conflict with that nation. JPrance*i premature step disgusted him. and only the impending crisis of a foreign war induced him ■'■o rem.ain in office. Portugal was asked to join the Bourbons as against England, but declared herrelf neutral. An invasion of allied troops under Aranda followed. England sent ten thousand men under Count Lippe to aid Portugal and these forces and the ap- proaching winter compelled Aranda to retire without having accomplished anything. The English under Admiral Porock - captured all of Spain's Y/est India possessions, taking Havana ^ after a desperate siege. Manilla in the Philippines was also taken by the English, but ransomed for four million dollars, SI 4las9'£cix9 a^IierfO ifawoff"* tbcisl^rr^ jaa^c^x ©emife ^x^ii^- tr^':. -'tioq siisHfl jwi :^on ^Tueoo 9£> e'^iB'tl^is* ne ad o^ ^l !iftrr«Ia': j -srf sanfiilf» ^TtarfS-f^^O' fyns ii'ianf?1r»b b erf c asw .*l "♦9;/pi' nlBct?. wof{ :--j-c.o urt ln^jfT ax Ji; ''^"'' ,ri9BjJorl £iO(^itisoE or:* '>^^ ^'- •^■* ^i^qmoT'i t^i^bps Jt.iot Tjb8©T jjjsvr niaqf?- stolid airiio.iiu. -^tinoo vino dri't e«w orfw ,Iifj" . :ifiq8 c^aniBas ti? ijsjb 10 nottqa^UQU ©wf^ /? barf svar^ a:^ armsa orfw nBiaa8^fl.^8 Xatnea 9f{* ^Irro l>n« m iff bs-'sriaeib <|«^s ©ta^BCi©* '' jftfii^ .n'oJtc^sn boillB 'io norasvni rtA .la^xfifen 'tXefttarf be^^A^e'h ;*ji^ « c? -qe 9r(+ bne ae^io't f»aerfi bfiB la^tr^f'^o ^ uif. 3nt VBff •*worf:?'iw afi:f€»t ot dbnaiA bsIXaqnc. >30tq ylooTO*? IsfimM T9bfiff iieiij^n^ ^^^'^^ . -royae osCb 3«w 2 9niqqtltrf^ ©ff:f ni slllrt^ . i^ s it>-:tlB »sfsIXof» notlllrn •itjol tcrt b9?fto«n :9jLc . *■ 16 only two million Qf which were ever paid. Spain attaoked the Portuguese colonies in South America and too> Sacramento, but was ready to listen to Lord Bute's overtures of peace at the end of the year 1762. A treaty was made in London in Pebru-^ ary, 1763, hy which England got most of ■trance's Asiatic pos- sessions, also those in America and Africa. Spain returned Minorca, surrendered Florida, gave up logging rights on the coast of Campeachy and fishing rights on the coast of New- foundland. ilKgla^id -gave up Havana and 'Manilla. i^f+er Thus Charles* first war against England ended de- cidedly in the latter;!^* favor and justified Wall's apprehen- sions of such an encounter. After the treaty between the three pov,ers had been signed, Y^all obtained his release from office b:/ feigning partial blindness. Grimaldi was chosen to succeed him and directed the department of foreign affairs until 1776. Squillaci was his rival for influence with the king and it was he who drew up the reforms for the domestic administration of Spain and devided a means for checking the -j . corruption and dishonesty rampant in the colonies. The ap- pointment of Grimalci encouraged Choiseul, and perhaps right- fully so, to boast of his powerful influence in Spain for the Italian had been one of his disciples while in Paris. l Squilaci as Minister oftthe Interior began his re- forms at h(^me by issuing an edict against the prevalent custom of v/earing large slouch hats and long black cloaks in such a manner as to conceal the features of the wearer, thus making 31 srf;f no •tlw f :-£ lol Isvit aiif fiif¥ IroBlI is the deteotion of armed oriminals.;a difficul*-. task. The cler- gy v/as against hin because of his v/ell known anti -clerical sentiments and the nobility because of his attempt to teduce the numoer of large landed estates. This foreigner was made the scapegoat for every evil that had arisen and on March 23, 1766, Madrid broke out in open revolt. Everybody v/ore the objectionable garb and the populace demanded the death of Squilaci . His house was sacked and he went into hiding. The "V^alloon Guards bravely defended the royal residence and * after 'three days the rebellion was put down. Ananda had been called upon to restore order and Squilaci was sent to Venice as Spanish ambassador. Aranda had an enormous amount of in- fluence with the Tapani sh people and had distinguished himself both as a soldier and as a statesman. He had been sent to Portugal and to Italy on martial errands and was a true repre- sehtative of a proud race. He was nade president of Castile and secured the obedience of the people so that Charles con- sented to return from Aranjuez, whither he had fled, to I'adrid. Araricta was as original in character as he Vvas in appearance. He was dark skinned, had a large, hooked nose and steel gray eyes ; a toothless mouth completed his homely but not repulsive appear'ance. 'T(e was a non-believing philosopher and Epicurean In tendency. The king upon one occasion declared that he vms more stubborn than an Aragonese mule. The year after the so-calle ,_i », .■. >-. ,^ planned and executed the suppression of the Jesuit order in The year after the so-called Squilaci riots, Aranda 81 iisji'isi j-iziiij rr- : o ' i - > --^ ^)T> ?^ r{5 l-u no i " ^nnts J. n 19 Spain. This novenent against the Souif»ty began . inrPortugal and France, nut up to the tine of the rio's, Charles had given no evidence of any enmity against an; religious order. I*: r.^r seems that the events of 1766 changed his politics in this respect and his growing suspicion of the followers of Loyola was being skilfully fostered by the school of anti-clerical reformers. No efforts were spared by these to brii;g on >1flro downfall of this h^i^ed order. Evidence of a vast conspir- acy against the Bourbon faT^ily was produced, or rather nanufac- • tured, and the rebellion of the previous ^ear was declared to "have been "-he worh of the Jesuits. In sfi^e uf the strenuous iremons trance of Clenent XIII Charles signed the decree which banished every Jesuit from his lands. Arhnda was ready to carry out his knig*s wishes and arr?tnged natters so skilfully cthat::'tlie people knew nothing about the expulsion of the Society until It had been accomplished. All Jesuit property was con- fiscated by the state, and they were sent to the papal doain- ions, only to be turned away and compelled to endure untold, miseries and hardships, sailing from port to port in order th find some place where they might be allowed to land. While Spain was thus Ov^cupied with its affairs at home, Prance tried its best to draw Charles into another con- flict with England. Choiseul cedec Louisiana to Spain in 176" and urged Aranda to sieze the Falkland Islands. 3uca- rell, the governor of ?uenos Ayres, carried out this attack and drove the Enrlish from those barren lands in 1770. Another :iBvly^ b«fn' H'^lnai^O baa ^. ll'. ^ ill '. .Cilfiff'-J W0 13 ff-v r •ftaAT -t irrarro J P. hr^* to IlBlnwob J*^"^ <-. r4»v « .-w\ ^t't^ '^/>jl:ri>{« 03 «T«»-*+fj! s»i a in mun ,IW ;.,ro Ufrasl J.iA -niftoh iB'iJSi arl;? o:f ^nsa eiew "^©rl^ />n** ,' d* •• •■)' 'to'i ow ^'iU I ni ntijqS o^ sfustaftroJ ^'*'o«>j Mr^^ l ■ffBO ■'^.■^P-J»1*T >f( cile-J war with England was nov/ immanent, but the downfall of Choi- seul caused the withdrav/al of Prance, leaving Spain to face England alone. Aranda saw ^.he hopelessness of such a con-. flicfc and apologized for the act of war committed by one of his governors. As a result of this fiasco, Aranda was com- pelled to resign and Canpomanes succeeded him, while he was made ambassador to Prance. In the mean time Monino, after- wards the Count Florida Branca, had persuafled Clement XIV to issue ^-he bull abolishing the Jesuit order. This was a r,i^ee.t diplomatic victory and Monina was eventually chosen to succeed Grimaldi as foreign minister. During the term of his admin- istration, Aranda had made great changes in social and economic conditions. , He had diminished the powers of the clergy and especially those of the Inquisition. He established the first census in 1768 by which Spain was said to have 9,152,992 in- Habit^ts., With his encouragement Don Fable Antonia Olavide established his settlements of Bavarian peasants in the Sierra Morena in 1767. These colonists, brought over by one Colonel T;hLurri,egel had been entirely assimilated by the native popula- tion as early as 1834. Campo' anes v;ho was next in rank to Grimaldi continued tjie domestic reforms of Aranda and earned for himself a repu- tition in Spain similar to that held by Adam Smith in England and by Turgot in Prance. He was respected for his integrity, the breadth of his views and for his superior intelligence. The reorganization of the army instituted by Aranda 02 • to I 0^ jt OS fiiaits io o^ VIX > uoO *»r^t »f)T««w vs>e^7} ^ 8J?W Si{;?r ,-iiib-ii ■ > •.>.'>; o-ji.1'.^ il0(f« X.'WCJ i^D.. f^Mbrtj. oLriuuQoQ htie is^jOB nt a©3H«wfo tfien^ ebfim barf fib:"TB*xA , -- - :?8*tM mid i»6fl«xJffe:*3e -'H .fft)i:^ir:xi;i^0l ®.ii ^ .rl;* ^iilBij&qe© IwtoIoO -Mtc' '' "••.-0 -^••'■}A.f0^d ,8;tsiiiMi L..> -«.. r*:,-- ,^ ^^^^^ I 8/3 'Cif!^e 8. :^"r s tl^&tnid tot b^nifje &n« t '^.Q*i jI&h 21 was soon put to a test in a small v/ar in Africa v/ith Moors in 1775. A peace was made favorable to the Spaniards, but the next year another expedition off 22,000 wen under an Irishman, O'Reilly, was disastrously beaten. O'Reilly was nearly mobbed when he returned to Spain, and Grimaldi was allov/ed to resign hie position as Secretary of State and named Florida Blanca as his successor. Monino,who was an adherent of Grimald^'jhad been the head of the "golilla" party. He was the son. of a notary and had worked* his v/ay up in the admini rtratife and political hierarchies, finally securing the ambassadojyship to Rome. There he distinguished himself as a most astute diplomat. He was of a cold and reserved temperament ; of a methodical mind and possessed of a cautious, though c'espotic nature. His enemies called him "the old fox/" He inaugurated an indepen- dent foreign policy and refused to follow Prance blindly ad Orimaldi seems to have done. He profited by the American war by regaining Florida and Minorca ; though he failed to secure ? r V, e ;:; r : Gibraltar. He allied Spain v/ith Portugal, made an advantageeus cOEmercial treaty with England and put an end to the raids of *< the Barbary Corsairs. He rei^ignized the ability and v/orth of Campomanes, though he disliked him personally, thereby show- ing himself to be a truly great man. Wlien Florida Blanca became Secretary of State, the great Pombal was occupied with the extension of Portuguese ter- ritory in America, and this at Spain*s expense. He invaded '■1 n r.''! Si f .r;-r^r- -noqfo.TJ. Mr: 5n.t »K " . xol Mo s.^''*'' mlrf ftsXIsj 89ime/i9 ■f)"f.Cf^ ^urxC*^'' WOflO*!: 0^ f>4?.j, prevent, this by pointing out the evil effects a suv^cessful gi rebellion in the English colonies would have in the adjaceht ^Y Spanish colonies of America. Aranda, who was then ambassador ^. to Prance, v/as for war ; the king did not li]fo the English and j_^ wished to regain Gibraltar ; but Florida Blanca was cautious and in 1779 he offered to mediate between France and England. :2 bsri uffw asm sjIj lol -ja on i)sr( c ^eup wen -(nx Jdvji-! an J nsfso sv:-r; o:^ ;.^jafij;-- s.ox'iQJ.'-i ^ stqw -IcV hnxj l£iX-Sa-aoi: to snx'iw e^:- =iO'l ii.oxvi^lO uo z-loq:j::m awos,:. '^ -Ixjitn a/5V/ :*jLf^ asi + ln'^ir-.n J vnsn •'ininsttfre 'iR^'^r-* ■♦r'Ttnoai-frrrr t o^t :^nBi3n?r v^cf 'tjBv/ "ro nor •^B-rfi.f job tc 9Sf;ej pr'* need *>Brf 8VYI ni ^ This offer was soornfullj^ rejected by the latter power and Charles followed with a declat'ation of war. The true reasons for this step were a deep-seated feeling of resentment on the part of the - Spanish people ; dissatisfaction with the treaty of London in 1763, and because of the affair of the Falkland Islands in 1770. £. The Spanish and French fleets were united at Cadiz for an invasion of England and though nearly twice as atrong as Rod- ney's Channel Fleet they did not dare ctttack him and at length sickness ano storms compelled them to seek shelter in Brest. There were also a number of schemes advanced to bring about an uprising in Ireland, but these also failed. The siege of Gibral- tar was raised by Rodney in January, 1780, by defeating and cap- turing the fleet of Longard. The Spaniards, on the other hand, had captured Florida, Campeachy and Mobile in America. Lord North now made overtures of peace with the cession of Gibraltar as a basis, but demanding Porto Rico, Oran, and Oman in return. ' These terms were not acceptable to Spain, hostilities were con- tinued vigor, a fleet under Cordova and Gaston capturing a fleet of richly laden transports off the Azores. Charles also sent aid in money and supplies to the American insurgents ; while Florida Blanca formulated the doctrine embodied in the armed neutrality, by which England practically stood alone against continental Europe. The idea propounded was the right of neutral s^ips to enter belligernet ports while no effective blockade is being main- tained and when they are not carrying contraband of wnr. Eng- land was not inclined to the arrangement which was clearly aimed ss 3i f.:? tot. artose^i siin^-eiiS . tbw *^o ff^t+t^tef j ><»woIIo1 sr^;t Jo f^Bq 9fi^ no ^ndci^rtdeb. •^n.:s^z,a~^->■^ ■ *^. ni notnod Tlq v, tBxrp , insqB -boH as gncxc^B »«e soiw:> •:.r*t.r T ^o roiaavnt ns .mix'^S'i ni nB«!0 bni? eHBtO tOaiH otio^ gnll^ffBRi&f) -"ut : 3B ij ^Iteslo f On 80W hnBi 24 against her supremacy on the sea. The Spaniards then attacked Minorca which v/as "Heins defended by General Murray with a small, but determined body of men, CFteheral Cullen, a very able sol- dier, conducted the sie£;e and finally gained possession of the ^CfMb'fl^ "of Saint Philip In February, 1783, granting to Murray and his brave men the privilege of marching out with all the honors of war. Rodney defeated De Orasse in the Eadt Indies, "1i1ie¥'eby pii^^in^'t^idse Spanish' possessions once" more at the" mercy of the English. «as :n Spain and France had agreed to stand together in "friaking a treaty of peace, but before the failure of the great ' siege at Gibraltar France entered into degdJtiations with Eng- land contrary to her agreement. Spain then on her own account began to make overtures for peace to England, but her demands were exorbitant. Charles wantef^ Minorca, Florida, the Babama Islands, evacuation of all the British settlements oiS the Gulf of i^exico, a share in the fisheries of Newfoundland, and final- ly the cession of Gibraltar, but this was while the great attack was being prepared. In return he offered Oran and a vague promise to favor England's tvade in Spain. The English min- istry said that they v/ould not consider any proposal comprising the cession of Gibraltar as the people were deterfcined to re- tain it at all costs, because of Elliot's glorious defence. Aranda carried on the negotiations and Franklin supported him in his demand for Gibraltar. The crafty American diplomat declared that England had no more right to the possession of •*s its "^.stitaqB srfT I Htm ts t^&iw vfiiTW>/[ Ir ,i?uO ; «; !ii : ts J s? "lot elcfe x**^^ 6 ,H$J '3*«i,l0r JOB nwo "i^rf fl© nsrit nisqS . tnemoBigB i8ff oj* ^•ja*t#aoa bnel •i if?r{ turf tfonel^ftS &^ 9jBeti xqJ. Bsnfif^tte^v. cf -^ fit 11^ bn« t onfiltowol^/BK "to a.^ .eatetsb e.f/oli^Gl'il ':»*^0Jt.rM "^^ mm bacttoqq.cj:^ ail. tit ■ iff tlif Bfxjlosb 25 Gibraltar than did . Spain to Portsmouth. The two countries finally came to terms and a definite treaty was signed , at, . Paris in January, 17o3. This vras, for Spain, the most advan- tageous treaty since that of St. Quentin. By this treaty of Paris or Versailles Charles received Florida aiid Minorca, ,^ while all other conquests v/ere restored. The Bourbons were jubilant, but while Prance was aliaost insolvent, Spain had added 3520,000,000 ta^^lts public debt on account of this war. of his While the war against England was beinr: carried on a rebelliori, headed by an Inoa chieftain, had broken out in-,.- Peru. These tumults were suppressed at a great cost, bu"^ ^vere never formidable. The English pointed to these troubles as the natural sequence bt Spain's attitude toward the "English colonies in Anerica, but the Spaniards declared that the trou-., ble began before^.th^-^ Airier icans had obtained their independence. ;, 'c f,r.,. Florida Blanca attempted to encourage commerce by treaties and in 1782 sent a "Frenchman, onee Buiigny, to Con- stantinople to negotiate a favorable treaty with the Sultan. The Algerian and Tunisian pirates were brought to time by means of well conducted punitive expeditions and a treaty was made by which piracy in the Mediterranean vas stopped so that the coasts of Valencia again became populated and prosperous. By the marriage of his eldest daughter to John, the heir ap- parent to the Portuguese throne, Charles secured a family union by which he hoped to insupe peace in the Peninsula. Toward the end of his reign the Facte de Famille becai^e troublesome :oaiM afet^ol^ b«viBo»:i a»i*iaffD aelliBaieV *iq eiis«I .:ti.-:! nit::o t. xu-'ViuSiix vSOi^aife ^ijA' t.jn&i^ 8lxnV w«d e-ttisj^iiiwc .•saw aiifd^ %a :?nwGoa« no :^rfftf) oilcfuq ati or^ 000,000t0S5 bsbbs ii. tuo a^:>loi£f Jb«xi tnJ:&JT:»irfa BoaS ix» x^ ifsbfiarf ,Jioiiiaa9i b ..i,.irr }. b':fe**"Ow *.i>Xf*x^ ^'^ , * '^^fi*lS "td fajaaiipear Ist -xioO Q^ i^n^iliwEC ttijo tOBrnffonf rsa SQVi ai h&x^bbi^ •:aiia;« id feiitti- uct Jil^ifiu'cd &':8^ ss^&'iX^ iiiix;:xn.;x' .>ae iisi'ie^XA i>iiX' :cf sJbfcsm 3.8W. '^iBs-^tcf 6 0fi6 Bflo i:;t ibscfx® ©y.f -qj lisw to liotnxj ^'liniBl r b^^Ttijaa ael'if^riO ^sno'irfcf dE' tnencB^ Dl^WOi .BlUt^iUiXi^ iXi. 9^X5Siq '^^li"^: iwxa=v ^^^1 3moadXd«oi? 6; (B^ed sXiiauiM ^ irflo 26 to Charles. Prance, disturbed by internal troubles, tried to direct public attention at home by aggression abroad and natur- ally looJ^ed *-o Spain as her ally. Charles tiPied to avoid ail foreign entanglements and refused to join France, Austria and Prussia. His latter days v/ere embittered by the intrigues against his interest carried on by his son, the king of Na- ples, with Catherine of Russia«r<;k, in tri-* Various changes for the bettering of the condition of his people marked the end of Charles* reign. Aranda was beginning to intrigue against Florida Blanca and with the aid of O'Reilly and the nobles he finally brought about his resig- nation in the subsequent reign. :■ :'••• l."F-r. * In ■ 1788 the king's health v^as beginning to fail and the death of his daughter-in-law in childbirth closely followed by that of his favorite son, Don Gabriel, hurried on the good king's end. He died, after a short illness, on December fourteenth at the age of seventy-three »«^uii,. <: eentv •^.-'•rol skfr.pert-: ■', to • .T,<;n' ^. M -i^j^tsn fone hBt oieee s«u3iifni ft/ft ^4 fedTceifttrfmo :' tsl siH . F jo'tfi vllBnili erf a»ldoa *jff^t hn 'sJI'O 1:0 locfm^udG a. alii tT ^ idilii t.D&i '^ni-i 27 , , CHAPTER III. 4v,^j,.*«f4*. ADMINISTRATION AND LEGISLATION. "The absolute and unlimited possession of power con- centrated without reserve or check, in the hands of a single man, no matter whether the use he puts it to is for good or for evil, is despotism." Montesquieu calls a country free v/hen the legislative, judicial and executive rodies are distinct, ,J^fL .these are confused there is despotism. The government of England was considered, by him, to be a popular one. The' barriers to despotism are the^ laws and customs of .the state, which is a moral barrier, and also the privileged classes, and finally religion. With the exception of England, the Protest- ant Netherlands and, the cantons of Switzerland,., ^11 the coun- tries of Christendom were ruled despotically during the eight- eenth century. The right of absolute control asserted by these ,sovereigns was almost Invariably based upon the divine princi- pie and this was found to be the most convenient argument on which to base such claim.6 . The genesis, of Spanish political institutions has bean one almost exactly the reverse to that of England, where repre- sentative government was the outcome of long struggles against the absolutism of the rulers, while in Spain the control passed from the people into "he hands of the king. Under the Roman ■liR B ■:' efft ft: 3o ant Off f nam ( orjB max :i»xii -rr/' ; ■ ■■ 28 "Empire independent municipal governments existed all over the Peninsula. The Goths introduced elective national councils and from these were developed the Cortex, The clergy, though^' Ir influential, had no special privileges in these councils, and the municipalities, by means of deputies, really controlled fr- these legislative bodies. After the battle of Oaudelet in 714 the Moors held sv.'a> in the Peninsula for 778 years and each province made its own laws and ran its own affairs during that period of ^subjugation . It was at this period that the <- clergy began to control the Cortes because of the martial occu- pation of the lay population and this ascendancy has continued 1(,p.J:^e cJiar act eristic ot Spanish £;overnment since those days of- Mohammedan rule "n the Peninsula. The king had no influence whatever in the election of deputies and no one in the pay of I'PXalty was allowed tQ represent the people for fear that they might not act in the interest of their constituents. The bodies of the deputies were inviolable and troops could hot approachthe pl^pe .of .meeting of the Cortes. The oath of of- fice was sworn to the people and not to the king. Up to the time of the Austrian dynasty tlis was an effective check upon royal prerogative and Spain could boast of a truly represen- - . tative government. The Justicia -mayor of those times was a sort of supreme court which defined the king's prerogative and acted as an intermediary between the people and the crov/n. "Thus the first period of Spanish history is that of popular control and all a*- tempts to usurp the power were repressed. 1 . t> ''"* *I*r''0 i i c.j. ^ ^iii.i t. o - ;J ::* ■ X O . i J^ U i -)0d 'ftvid'. s>iqo»q 9ft^ "^ frf* fv* rrTJ . ' ^! ir '•.-^■^ of fo J ■. X V U ojj y ' P.+ 29 The crown, s^rrong and respected, generally knew how *-o respect national institutions and how to submit to the wishes of the i.- people. The kings did not believe that they compromised their dignity by a noble deference to the wi£h€t of the people and understood that the freedom of the deputies was the best safe- guard for the throne." ,»-.... .... r.^? r. throne . The second period begins v/ith the conquest of the Moors and contrary to the accepted opinion v/as not one of prosperity. There were three teasons for this, namely^: the Inquisition, the v/ars of Charles V and the riches of America. pv,,. - . From the conquest of Granada to the war of independ- ence absolutism reigned in Spain. The house of Bourbon accen- tuated the policy of concent -ation and modelled the Spanish after the French form of governemnt. The kings concentrated all power in their hands and cut it off from the nobles and the people by relying on their fanaticism and the influence of the clergy. The kings believed that they held their crown by right divine and assumed all powers of governm.ent independently of all social elements. They exercised legislative faculties either directly or by means of organisms created by them, by rueans of pragmatics, decrees or edicts. Justice was directly administered or delegated to corregidors. Alcaldes, courts, chanceries or audiences. The executive functions v/ere exer- cised by corporations or funct ionsried named by the king, who often assigned judicial as v/ell as administrative duties to the 1. Marliani, Hist., Introduction. drfi lO 88/13 tw 91^' -Ji:) ■: bse Lnot^im'. bib ar^R brfQ el^oeq e' e^ab eid^^ to e.i;^ to -TOO e: - f boi- tojf^a i^ldon ^ii'S mitt tlo #1 t^e i^ftjl abaB/( L'b ti . ''^fli 0rf^ oris (delcJttiSim^l ttfii** fto '--fft!!*^' - it3.\y *^'tt».v ci^«j'^-i vSi^iUi ^ vVJt '■UJ«3/C^' • ' 30 same body. When Charles III oar:ie to throne the influence of the ultra-montane party had already been partially ci^rbed and he made i"- his task to bring the clerical population under the absolute control of the crovn. At that time the Spanish tLei^le h ad two vene rated dogma s,— religion and the t hr one, a nd his policj^ v/as to strengthen ^he throne and to difect it toward the prosperity of the people at the expense of Rome. 5:ili eir Charles* early efforts v. ere principally directed towQrd the curtailment of those ecclesiastic powers and influ- e ences and he directed his corregidors to be on the lookout that the clergy should not usurp the royal jurisdiction. By . decrees and proclamations Charles confined the powers of the Pope to purely ecclesiastic, that is to say, spiritual matters. Absolutists declared that al3 temporal questions were to be decioed by the kin^^ alone, while the ultra-montanfe party upheld the supremacy of Rom.e . These tv/o parties struggled against each other until the triumph of the absolu'^ists was signalized by the expulsion of the Je suite. The Cortes was no longer ealled to assemble ex- honor ccnn"t cepting to swear the oath of allegiance when a new riler came to the throne. This, hov/ever, v as only a formality and the only other recognition vvhich this body received from royalty was in the somewhat absurd custom of attachin.p: a clause to 1. Bourg., Vol. I, Chapter III. fit'-'" O.* Zi^.''^ P.tf lf?fTT ui3 ii — ^tftrtev o b*T£. : £ •tu©" fine 9rf: rT9T-*"n o* syTv^ \5jtfo~ 3irf * !g»*i»ir anoi\tiji>up Ir r rloacfA .'7. -^•* fvrtF. vt ^ [Rrrtr!*^ «? •'ylrtn e ." . ffiri to mo i^w 51 royal decrees and pragmatics which declared that "they would have the same force as if they had hper published b^ the assem- bly of the Cortes." Up to the time of the death of Charles III the Cortes had been convol- ed on only ^bo occasione during that century and then the letters of conve>cation were sent to all the grandees and all the titulos of Castile ; all the prel- ates and all ^he cities which had the right to a seat in that body. The two first classes represented the nobles ; the third all the clergy, and the cities v/ere represented by their sheriffs. The Cortes of the entire kingdom had not been as- sembled since 1713 when Philip V convoked them in order to have troii/^-L* '*to<^rr ^n^ ■ ' p^)er3i of -^ them ratify his pragmatic sanction. The Cortes of the sepa- rate kingdoms and principali'^ies were sometiries consulted when the question of naturalij^.ing a foreigner came up, but even w<^' ;■ ; str-- then their members communicated only be letter, without assem- bling. There was, hov^ever, a sort of standing committee which was called the "Deputies of tlie Kingdom" v/hose original duty it had been to watch the administration of a tax known as millones and who were eight in number i; but Alberoni had tal:en away this function so that nothing remained but the titular honor connected wit|i the position. These deputies of the king- dom were elected every six years ; Castile being represented by six v/hile Catalonia and !^ajorca,and Valencia and Aragon had one deputy between them. The king used this committee to an- nounce a new tax whiwh he chose to impose and in t?iis way the nation seemed "^ o possess what looked like a shadow of a Gortes, Li: a'-^I^Sf[!) to i-tBe r I a0 »oT fta.r(* '^nr r< ? ■ !■? « '"^ .n ow.-* 9ffT . rbod 9-^- :9f)to nl O' ^ V qillrf^f rrsriw ^XVX ejrrls b'^Xdrnae r.9V9 -^Jid ,qfj smflj isn^ietoT: ,«s <\nfsXXfiHj;tan lo tofbrf 3^. but fell even short of that. f ir: u!.e ata.''n!cr.t ci r : .s The three provinces of Biscay, Navarre, under the :^n name of kingdom, and the principality of the Asturias were ^t separate states which had neither eastom houses nor intendants. All the rest of the monarchy was divided into twenty-six prov- inces, twenty-two being of the crown of Castile, e.nd four of*er the crown of Aragon, Each of these twenty-six provinces, ~iw. differing widely in area, had their intendant. There was .^ still .another division of the Peninsula for military purposes. There were thirteen governments, of which twelve v/ere con- ' ' trolled by officers with the title: of captains-general of the province ; but the commander of Navarre was called Vice-roy. The divisions by which the deputies of the kingdom were chosen were the most important administrative units, though the mod6s« of .^^administration employed in the kingdoms of Castile afid Aragon differed wictely. This lack of uniform.ity dated from, the time of the j union of those two kingdoms. is lowered 5 5'rom this it can be seen that there v/as practically no check to the king's authority. The councils were the or- gans of his will and his ministers to the agents. Until the formation of a regular cabinet by Florida Blanca in 1787, the -- king worked aepalrately with each minister, though under diffi- G-.ulit circumstances he would unite in council in order to secure ■y^^^p combined advice. The achievement v/hich Florida Blanca ^i considered to be one of the greatest of his administration was this founding o-"" a regular cabinet and he devotes considerable. 9T9W syixuuaA 9ii:f Ig v;.;' £IJ3qiaiIi'£^i 9riu briB ,no.b^iji to dman "iu 'xuo't bn--^ t^lliafeO 'to tied owc?-^i-tfiew't ,aBjni. -fTOj 9t9W 9vl' crfw to , ^.■*n.<»mrrt9vo:q rtd© ' *=»W 9t9rfT .T^Oi-9oi¥ b&IIiiu 3rjw jir^iBva?! to 'XQufiisitiLioj ©nl J"iid i a^iUvotq moit bate 5 ■^tir-nolxa?; to ^loel afrfT .vl^filw hj^tatttb fto^BiA .aniofogni:' -10 erft 919W eXfjnwoj &rfT . l-i ml 9rf;f e'^SVX .71 fijrfaX.^i fibtioX«=r -aidej tnliSc\&^ a to noXc^^iiif'iot 33 space to enumerating its advantages in the Statement of his administration. A ra'^her significant paragraph is the one in which the great r^inister defende feis creation against its most ahgerous calumnlat6rs. ' He sa\^s, "According to malicious' cen- sors the junta is nothing but an invention to control the free choice of the sovereign and a contrivance by which the -minister of state may appropriate th^ authority or every department and dictate to his colleagues. Will not your Majesty have more persons of merit, from whom, to riake your choice, should some ® candidate be recomm.ended by the Junta who' di^ not occur to the Secretary ? Will rot your Majesty acquire more certain in- formation, by hearing the opinion of different ministers, Whether against some of the candidates there rr-ay be any objec- r ■ tion, or v^hether there may be nore aptitude and ability in some than in others ? Sire, let ue undeceive ourselves. ThAse who diminish their authority by this investigation, are we,' ■^'*^' the ministers and out dependents, and in proportion as.-^burs is lowered, that of your Majesty rises. This is tlie truth and the rest is a mere pretenee of the ambitious, to facilitate their ov/n views, by communicating with a single person, or '^» with the subaltern, v;hom they may deceive or gairtv^^-^'The minis- ter of state remains under control, as well as the affairs which are pointed out by the royal decree ; and thus, far from augmenting his authority, as is pretended by unjust censurers,*- he diminishes it." This article shows better than anything else how jealously the prerogative of the king was guarded and 9:; -^Of! %il> od^ 8 tint, eil 'ebl^mia ,t r v^ G 9 vfti at f?-:t i^'f ''l^t"!: -''^ >b^ 3^.7 .o^.uoriT ,3.:_'!XTf-. s'n Ieqijm:jr. si,^ £l3 Vij na.oxaatq; -/iifiisasa 9 t- nTi^ u&^iierii) eis^w aiiiijiflo aeon: ■ ^oid "duty of administering justice and were entrusted wit'' the care of -^he general interests of the nation and particularly those of the people. Thete existed nevertheless a great deal Of confusion of pov/ers and attributes, but the range of duties was so wide that it gave all control and annulled all local 1 power, which had lest vill Its importance." Charles III did, however, grant special privileges to the ^municipalities in the decree of March 5, 1766. Following, partially, the advice of Campomanes and Osirio, he created two offices for deputies elected by t'-e people and also one syndic. This change was. said to have \/6rked *-o the greatest advantage of the various towns and villages, because of the zeal of "^hose chosen for thpir merit alone. The increased interest shown in municipal eribellishments and improvements marked this change in the mode of administration and though Charles had acted only on the ad- vlfe Of his ministers and not upon his own convidtions he soon saw the advantages derived from popular interest in public affairs.^ For purposes of judicial administration, Spain was divided into two chanceries, that of Granada and that of Vala-~ dolid, having exclusive jurisdiction in certain matters in these districts. Appeals from judgments of these chanceries were only made when the appellant wished to incur the risk of Op ihr'. J^M^l^J-dt^ ' "J •■ ^. •_ J. ^i-1^ 1. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 9:^. 1^. JBbid, Vol. VI, p. 99. v/ d I t,f>ib III a»J ".e$H3t*^ ieof ^^ ■ asjitl!^© owt oscfsQty e/i tOitiaO \bnii aisriBntoqfriBO to tOt ti98 0i^j fmod^ to I a OS M:f to ^msa^^sd ,6933X1 Iv brm anwo:t iL-^ijtnjtw ftt i.VffOJi& cf8'i^&^'^'^i b9af?!&^4»^rt e -T « 'mols .titf>m tt«r^.* nooe ari anox*iikivao^^ itv/o s. delYdi.i*W' a art* , ^-rubej oalB ba0«»XBninaii'jj aiuilj lis 'to t s^"^ .29l;*ij :^«eTv: nodwd'scl aeaae j.^:f jTonsvifau!? 8b (twoaji ,a«i:^:^■c^Ofl to i. .'ita&fto.ialo fcflB ':.?ljfc*78T to; 40 The Spanish magistracy had a sort of hierarchy, at the head of which v/as :he Cajnara. Descending from this were graded the members of the Council, of the chanceries and the audiences, the Alcaldes de corte, the corregidors and finally the Alcaldes majores, in the order named. The Alcaldes ordi- nario tried petty cases and were euen robbed of this function when there was a corregidor or alcalde mag or in the village. He then became an alcalde pedanio who had arrests to make and had to carry out the orders of the corregidor. The nomina- . ^ai tion of the functionaries differed in different localities, but generally they were elected by the municijial bodies, though they might be chosen by lot or by the hidalgo, though the j. Council of Castile could exercise its right of nominating him if it chose. The corregidors and alcaldes majores were nomi- nated by the king through the Gamara. Camporaanes instituted reforms for this class of magistrates which increased their efficiency by increasing: their rewards. The corregidors in Madrid were appointed for life and were but officers of police and never lav/yers." "But in spi-^e of this complicated system of magistracy in Madrid, which frequently gave rise to conflicts of Jurisdiction, it nust be admitted that there are few capi- tals in Europe where the police are better organized, where there is more security of where crime escapes less often the severity of t]ie laws." ^-;:,-- - njr '^■:' r hirtrTt- "i>r"" ------ ^.yrt ^ :,^' '. " " Yli^ r Bourg., Tome I, p. 350. 0^ 9^ffW cii:..? !^uiv a$a«e/ . -iBme'' axjw p. . ■. • - r r . r-, - 41. Oharlea v It is hard, to say which oode of lav/s v;as follo-vved in Spain during Charles* reign. According to old decrees the use of the RomaTi code we.s ri£,^orously forhidden and yet many lawyers consulted it in order to be enlightened in different cases. Procedure was practiced according to Roman law, byt the only authentic laws were those embodied in codes published by ancient kings. The one in general use v/as the one knov/s as '^^ La ITovissima Recopilacion, published in 1567, which vms a col- lection of diverse ordinances of the kings of Spain issued from the earliest times to the time of Charles. The alleged at- tempt of Charles to drav- up a criminal code was only a propo- sition made by tbe Council of Castile to i»eform and revise the ancient criminal laws, some of v/hich v/ere objectionable, and this task had been assigned to a comm.ittee presided over by Campomanes. Torture had not been entirely abolished and one Castro wrote a book in its defence but was met with violent opposition. Canon lav^r ruled all ecclesiastic questions, but all a*-tfempts to bring temporal matters under i^s jurisdiction v/ere repressed. Aranda comm.anded all bishops and archbishops to prevent the publication of any and all papal bulls in Spanish without the apl^roval of the king. The Holy Office of the In- quisition was still pov^erful when Charles came to the throne and in 176S he issued a decree by which all the acts of this tribunal were subject to the revision of the king and also provided for ^he hearing of an author before his boo^ should be condemhed. But through the influence of his confessor. Ik to > * ft :", 'f ■♦ IT £3 ^ ■: -^ 9 9 '1 9 f) bi no ,i i^A .' ■■•'t^ *9'! ^"^'.r .•.i;^r;o'; as ?:wQr!. ■ ;w 9s.m- iiSiona^ ■• ^sit ' rtl eXItfrf laqaq Ilfi hrrs ';'nB ^o jlldisq : wetq o:t ^3ir{-* "^O Si OS 9rf-t III? t '^icj 2irl to tonswllnl erf ^ Charles was persuaded to repeal this salutary law shortly af- terwards, and it was not until 1770 ^hat a second decree was issued by which the jurisdiction of the Inquisition v/as limited to crimes of heresy and apostasy and it was also provided that no subject of the king could be imprisoned by the Holy Office without his guilt being proven. , .,, In summing up the characteristics of the legislative and judicial institutions, it is apparent that the salient and predominant one is absolute and entire lack of system. Even the prench system, before the Revolution, presented no such complications as did that of Spain. This was due not only to the peculiar development of government iri the fenin- sula, but also tb' the fact that a number of kingdoms were u- nited under one. crovm, all of which had different institutions and, naturally, impressed some of their characteristics upon the national government. Charles* broad plan was to exercise his absolute pov/er to rid Spain of Church control and to destroy social, economic and administrative abuses v;hich had taken deep root in that country. He and his ministers believed that the wel- fare of the nation lay in abstblutism and Florida Blanca said : "No matter hov^ pressing the need, be careful not to call the Cortes for they would soon be our masters." '^'..r -'':(■ c\>] ^ 1-. ' tu ''i.> - '--^ -'r 1. Bourg., Tome I, p. 205. on a; » ■ t ■. . ' ' V " -t [ t If -:5 •? i .rf t Kf o ii t i w -rtlne^ ari-t az tnerr;m9vo-^ to Ineniqolsvab Tr'iif;j^..7 erf? ot '^f'!0 fVallBd 8-j«t«irti{ii air: X ^ CHAPTER IV. IMi^USTRIES Kl^D AGRICULTURE. The reforms so generally instituted by Charled III for t'he benefit of industry and agriculture had begun during the peaceful reign of his half -"brother, Perdlnand' VI ; though the changes made v/ere not nearly as sv/eeping or as beneficial as those made by the younger brother. The increase of the na- tion-^s Y/ealth, especially with respect to agriculture, was one of the constant aims of Charles, and he tried both by substan- tial works and by a splendid example to encourage and foster a love for 'af^rfcultural pursuits. ' The "gardeBs which he, the Prince of the Asturias, and the Infant had planted and cared for with their own hands is a good example of the particular interest he tbblc in agriculture. Tn his famous Statement, Florida Blanca declares that agriculture is the first and m.ost secure source of subsistence of man and of the real prosperity and wealth of the people and that the works of the would as- tonish and surprise posterity. Spain, constantly exposed to droughts, could not hope to become agricultural until irriga- tion had been introduced in those province^ where the Infrequent rains made it impossible for the cultivator to reap the fruit of his labors. The minister then continues to enumerate the Ill fesinfiifO ^ff betwtt.tsni '^IXBi6»ft9a c olst I ^'0 'jco 8jr 5.t3nOv 'to t yi'^ni u;'. -*■ 'i'i',' fvv o Ki '! J. vui'\i ^^■'' '■ 44 great irrigation v/orks undertaken during his ministry, but as they are all either described or mentioned in the chapter on public v/d)rks it .ill suffice to say that they were considered to be the the greatest works of their kind and in some instances comparable to those of the old Romans. Charles III did not confine his activities to the building of public works for the benefit of agriculture, b^it seeing that his people needed in- struction in the art of cultivating the soil so as to produce more abundantly, he established a school of agriculture at the royal residence of Aranjuez and according to Florida Blanca the good results were plainly visible, at the time he was writing his Statement. He says : "We see arid lands, to-day, covered with several million olive trees, other lands, which are m.ore fertile are set aside for the raising of cereals, and those which are situated on a low level, and therefore damp, are transformed into orchards or fields bearing mulberry trees, flax, hemp and all possible kinds of fruits and vegetables." After enum.erating many other advantages and improvements made at the royal agricultural college, he continues : "The great works which Your Majesty ordered me to execute in order to attain the highest degree of perfection and utility with respect to agri- culture, are and always will be an eternal monument of your solicitude for the progress and amelioration of the farms. Perfectly constructed wine and oil presses are used for the 1. F. B., Statement. 6#ii>«i ^«eia ton f>: ^IdB'f ia erf:* tlfjfi<^ -it>v&e It «^i TB 9-:ttij 45 manufacture of those products, and they are stored in icimense barrels and vessels holding many thousand arrobas. All this is only a model, or rather a practical school of agriculture, where Your Majesty, as the first cultivator as well as the most experienced farmer in the agricultural industry, instructs your subjects in the profession, v/hich is without a question, the most necessary to the prosperity of the kingdom." If the above extracts se^m to be animated by self-interest or de- sire to flatter, it is easily seen from the decrees and edicts issued by Charles III that he did try to achieve these ends which his rninister said resulte.d b,e,cau^e, of^his reforms. The Most Catholic Kings fortified the liberty and proprietary rights of the peasants, but did not remove the crave obstacles which the Middle Ages had placed in the way of agricultural progress. In 1490 the people of Granada were forbidden to enclose their lands, nol'vwere they allowed to take the grass or. natural fruits, withoutv a , special permit from the J, I' .-• via. •. i. i king. All cattle and sheep were allowed to roam over the agricultural lands and the rights of the cultivator v/ere to- tally disregarded. Such was the state of affairs v/hen Charles III came to the throne and with him began the emancipation of agriculture from that destructive cu-rse, the Mesta. The Mesta was a guild or society composed of large landed ]?^,ppr4etors, monasteries or rich individuals who had banded themselves to- .1. F. B. »s Statement. [vr O'-'.e 9ff ^ 'iT^V- 4^ together for the purpose of protecting their distructive pas- ture-rights granted them during the Middle Ages. The right to drive their cattle or sheep through the country without ~ regard *"0 proprietary rights remained undisputed .until Campo- Aan^s and Floriaa''Biiftc^" a^taci^d this'gf§at evil. - -- ■ • ■ -' In the years 1766 and '67 the Council of Castile is- sued a statement of the causes of the decadence of agriculture and sugges^'ed' remedies for its betterment. Campomanes al'^6 drew up plans for the improvement of the condition of the peas- antry and his first step was to limit the power of the Mesta. 'feourgoing in' spealtihg' of this institution s4ys ": "This abuse does not only benefit the rich and powerful, but also promotes idleness and the short-sighted interest which causes the pas- turing of sheep to be preferred ^o the progresv? of agricul- ture." The unhappy province of Estremadura, which could easily support two million people, had only about one hundred thousand, this scarcity of inhabitants being attributed entire- 2 ly to the privileges which -^he Mesta enjoyed in "^his region. In 1778 decrees were issued to the people of the new settle- ments In the Sierra Morena permitting them to fence in their farms "so that the new settlements would not have to experience the evils which afflicted the rest of the kingdom. By the de- cree of April 29, 1788, the rights the fence in homestead lan(^s on which v/ere planted olive trees or vines v;as granted ^o the 1 . Bourg . , I , p . 95 . 2. Ibid, Vol. I, p. 95. Sil^ii erix .se. jfe-'flB .liVS J'j^'X i f. . ^iJHi^Ki fiji/XtOi ia 8«» u al iBi t>fc5©iciemoi-I ai e^fi^l &d^ 47 ovmers. Forests and trees were also to "be protected and the proprietor was to be allov/ed to enclose his land without hav- ing to obtain this privilege as a special concession. Al- though these reforms v/-pre not general In their resul-^s and men like Bourgolng and Townsend still perceived the bad effects of the pastoral privileges, a Spanish aut' or days : "Campomanes sts well as Florida Blanca and Jovellanos, Feallzed the good economic doctrine in this respect, and no one can deny that Ms good effect was initiated and proclaimed during the reign off Charles III." "The proprietary rights of the peas ant,*" i'-*^ if not established during the reign of Charles were at least recognized." -*'** vices r jp ^^^g year 17611 Charles abolished the octroi taxes ^d''a^' to' afford greater : facility for t lie' "'nlarke ting of products His decree abolishing the tax on grain when transportf^d from one province to another was issued in 1766. JBanvila says that during tYiid'irei^n ''the'-p)riii(llLple of ffV6 tr¥(i^'in all the products of the soil was established '■^^•tfhe principle of ru- ral proprietary rights, and it had also been recognized that cultivation of the soil should be Bestricted only in so far as 3 1^ should be required for the public good." By these restric- tions the author meant such as *:he one made in the decree of February 13, 1785, "63^' which the Lake of Llano-Quarte was riot yr'' JT/ «"/*<:* i\ Vol. VI, p. 221. 2. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. 224. 3. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. 223. T^ -JA .fioJtaafjj! Ill nsr. bn» a^IweeT «w atniolQ^ ea^dt flQuorl^ l>©og >exiifi©w ,«onBll^vc ijbitoll ee :tai©i tfi 9*iew B&I*itifiO to n^,l9T or(:t nrfiiwfe be/fail'-fBtsn ■♦or? tt' . . fbOT-T to "ml"* -ot Y^-tiloBt> lef'^of^ bTOf* ?^s oa ' 8VBS ftIJ:vnfl6(L .edV ^f/eai ft«w Ter^tons ot eaaivofq eao - u ' : ■ ' 1 i J ii X -f , L' 6 Its i: J. as r 2 ^ r; ii v/ v. 7 jwi.^u*iq 'i^ tBt 08 'nl vino be.tjli*G9« '^>d Mttor^:i lion f)fft to r!Ci:*i?*r!*Iuj to 99ij0f5 dtit Gi 9b©n sno ofioi* tort «BW ^;ftBwO-ociJBlJ to ajfaJ 9rf:f rf;>trfw 'id ,a itsincfe'? .Xi=: 46 allowed to spread over the adjoining territories for purposes of irrigation as that had caused severe epidemics of fevers^n i.atural n;< The public graneries, where seed for sowing was s distributed, had been founded in the sixteenth century and ;b- Charles III, recognizing the value of these institutions, is- sued various decrees from 1761 *o 1788 to purify their admin- istration and in the last year of his reign conferred their c supervision on the corregidors. No land banks were estab-- lished, however, as was the case in most of the other European countries at this time. The protection of the rural districts was in the hands of a. sort of brotherhood, known as the Her- nanidad, v/hich was founded by the Cathdlic kings. The ser- , vices rendered by this body were of great value to the peop4.e and in order to increase their powers Charles issued a decree in 1762 limiting each '^OMn to one judge, one commissioner and one tax collector, so as to diminish the preponderant influence of the magistracy. The duties of these officers v/ere, the " prosecution of wrong-doers, the pretection of the rights of ,'~ peasants and the supervision of the collection of royal reven- ues. proprietor in order to remedy the decrease of the population in Spain, Charles ordered that a census be taiien by the various bishops and archbishops. The result of this first census, made in 1768, showed a popula-rion of 9,152,099 inhabit?:.nts, - and iPlorida Blanca, doubting the accuracy of this couriit, caused another to be taken in 1778 showing that there were 10,268,150 i^ .::oso ituq to ''*'* ^')9"^.> My .. 'T^fOiJ ^/^ { i sJi'V T7- a'-T . o^iii 1 jlf ©iif / ij'.' ,8i,r8£[©j taiX r to r^iiJBi*" jqS hMB ^xfOffsM 49 inhabitants. Even previous to the firs"^ census, Charles had begun ^0 adopt means to increase his population by bther than natural nethocffs. The colonization of the Sierra Morena, a district which had hit?ierto been the haunt of thieves and rob- bers, had been the most notable of these attempts to increase - the population. By a royal decree of April 2, 1767, a Bava- rian colonel named Thurriegel v/as authorized to collect a lar£^e number of G-erman Catholics to settle in the ^ove named dis- trictv.'.jjln this way more than six thousand colonists of both sexes were brought into Spain and the wilderness was changed into (cultivated fields. Many Greek colonists came into Spain and the intendants and corregidors were told to report on the depopulated places of their districts and to suggest nieans by wh i ch t he evil m ight b e reined led * ns t e Vi * 9 i I f^ - ** ^ ■ - ^' Of the many impediments apposed to the development of agriculture, the tenure of land in mortmain was one of the mqst serious. There was aicivil and an ecclesiastic form of mor-tmain, the former being the result of inheritance by major- ats which corresponds to the practice of entail, and the latter by simrle ecclesiastic tenure. In the entailed lands the proprietors neglected to cultivate their fields, caring little whether or not tliey improved them ; while the Church property ^- w^ of nQ econQ;nic benefit to the kingdom. Headed by Campo- maties a- movement against this system of land tenure was inau- gurated and the question was brought up for discussion before the Council of Castile. Aft.er considering the question at ^^ eeiiflfiO ^BUsaQo tail inl -cfoi jafi.fi a^v^i Uiil 584 n 4^ i . it^^aii) ■ '/ aesma^XJl"* e>dl janij at-' ^w e&K93 .hQih9m»t 9^^ 1 Itv9 sMc^ rfalriw ^cf on:* '10 eao i^om un^i ' 50 some length, it was decided by this body that since the lands of the clergy were the best cultivated and since the propri- etors of papal lands always treated their tenants iwi'^h crre'at kindness, "^he decadence of agriculture could ho' be traced to the ecclesiastical and feudal institutibon of land tenure. As f eiarly as 1760, however, Charles I'ssiie'd a deeYee by which he • defined the taxable lands of the clergy and in 1763 he forbadd^g 1 the further acqu-isition of land by the Church. On September 25, 1770, a roual decree of the Council was I'sg'u^d, 't)i*ohIbltlng the city of Cordova from either selling or giving any property to a religious order and forbidding the notaries to transfer real 'estate tb' the Church, under pain of deprivation of office. The Icing also created societies, to which he offered prized s- to the author of the best essay against entails. All these — ??ieasMres prepared the way for the final abolition of this «^ evil ?i'n_(3 it v/as only six months after Charles died that his son, Charles IV, forbade the founda^-ion of entails or the perpetuation of titles to real estate without the lisenne of • the king. tnis bo The industries of Spain had been the subject of many attempts at amelioration since the accession of the first '-^^'-^^ J Bourbon but the methods adopted, though well intentioned, were not, as a rule, successful. Louis XIV sent a large number of skilled workmen to Spain so as to introduce the industries 1. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 284. 2. Ibid, Voi. VI, p. 285. 0€ iz. ' bod Pi: , : sb»cfi©t t#i t:Jq©b« eboii^ noriiwoS a&i-s^si;ii> fi sxf;* Vv); vT•■ ■ )'1B 9 tew •II hffi-: v.i i»i £9:b'Xo a-* iJrfUi 3v*' :fi ta«jay iw &•. ic<^ A 8.i^ 8dVX r . .1^ %© its «fi v>n "^afim I ".jit'::. >:»fi£i n'iU^XiP^ttQa lo bHA-usbomiBljo%q -exrf ri,3xj:^q8 ©dj' to ■?n&Ke|^;fs ,^*ii.>^^»w« -le^ljBt atisf.t "^r- a-^f- ,-yT be;f3B0cr 3iiW to sjciQ^alxQ er(^ ^rfaoh ^tfrf flsiil ^OfiriJSo =j* asito^t towjst 5a4iXs *ri^ OJ bvb^ a^Iip'-''^ ^'^'~ >" -'' . >c.o-f:, .'.,■ hf.>.,f -p^q i: iXI&a '^ £>aoIivi'i<^ #wia4/X-> .'-«MI aiiS to . bi-ibiiM bxiiJonEfi baij, ax a«*i/fcfi^X. vtnsv ib 62 privileges as against the private manufacturers. Many benefi- cial reforms were maGe, howev r, and there can he no doubt that manufactures flourished as they never had before. In a decree of December 27, 1772, all manufactures of wool, flax or he) p were declared free of btll internal customs duties and an export of only tv/o and a half percent \.as to be charged, while raw end *' rf chir i material was to be charged with the full tax of fifteen per cent Another decree of April 6, 1775, permitted the free importa- tion of hemp and flax as well as the machines and tools for the spinning and weaving 'of these materials. By a royal decree of December 24, 1786, all the sales of hemp and flax libe- -•' -i--' in the province of Castile were freed from the alcabalas.and nh!-!rl<=" rpi'Hii' ;;On^:rc' the cientos. The decree of 1756, by which oaly the finest wool cloth was exempted from taxes, v/as so chcmged in 1777 as to include all the grades of manufacture. The manufacture of paper received substantial encouragement by concessions made in 1780. More privileges were granted to the cloth manu- facturers in 1781 and in 1786 roost of the Alcabalas and Cientos taxes on these products were abolished. "If all the protec- tive measures adopted by Charles were enumerated, the catalogue;.- would be very large, for it would be difficult to encounter an industry which did not merit the attention of the monarch; but those indicated will sufice for an understanding of the spirit and tendency of the measures adopted f4r the promotion 1.. D. y €., Vol. VI, p. 237 2. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. S3 - - --- ^ /-* r- *C^ ^. I*,' ■ ■ - ^ 6 ;' u 'i'^i ?«;.'. u. j. , 1 1 " , i>'ai» gi i i y y :;? o i vv- DUi^Oi; ^vBTvJ ?.Si-?B;' qo|>S 8.e*XJJ8B90l Svict 53 1 and protection of the national industries." Besides the ■■• fV I' > ■ concessions made to private indiistries, Charles III tried, by his example, to teach the people new arts or new methods. He spent large sums in founding royal manufactures, such as the the lij:-?r- " -is cotton factory of Avila, the glass factory of San Idlefonso, and the china manufacture at Buen Retire. This last industry consumed large sums, but its products, though good enough for the royal palaces, did not prevent the importation of foreign ware. Danvila says in closing his chapter on the industries, "Charles III gave to the Spanish industry the protection and liberty which it needed to live, flourish and progress." Charles III was the first Spanish monarch to authorize and protect the use of a trade mark;-.. By a royal resolution of February 18, \111 ^ and by decrees issued by the Junta of Com- merce in the fallowing year, the affixing of labels on foreign goods and on those manufactured in Spain v/as provided for. In 1786 Charles decreed the adoption of trade marks by differ- ent firms, so thfet the quality might be known by the purchaser C sr and all those using false or misleading marks should be de- nounced to tjie justices so as to punish and correct this fraud. Colmeiro, in speaking of the industrial conditions under Charles HI I, says : "The principle of controlling in- 4 dustry gave v/ay to that o^f freedom as developed by Adam Smith"; -1. D. y C ., Vol. p. 238. 2. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. 240. 3. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. 242. , 4. Colmeiro, Vol. II, p. 356. T T T ■-> -, r ' , ^i '^ 8 6 rf^cra , J0l:t;rf <■■•''■ c •'t/fjnoj ^irie 9sx\ ot rfotfinon rielnBqR JtB-xit srt:^ sew . Irrr TO e *Bgv* . i ,ioV , . 54 l^j^l^^.he continues at, another point that since the time of Philip V there had not been a single writer of note who advocated free trade. Colbert was the model statesman for the Spaniards of the eighteenth century and their great aim was to follow the lines of his policy. r'-'i <■ The regulation of mines \7as another task undertaken by Charles. In the year 1783 the Junta general de Commercio, Modeda y Minas, upon an application for a license to discover mines, made by a citizen of Valencia, issued a decree by which it was made a law not to grant licenses of that kind to indi- viduals, because of the abuses v/hich arose therefrom. By a royal decree of August 15, 1765, in recognition of the growing importance of coal, variois advantages were granted to the ^ owners of the coal mine of Villanenva del Rio. "The ordi- nances for mines, the considerable reduction of the price of quicksilver and the propagation of the natural sciences in Spain to such a degree, that when hardly a year had passed af- ter^ the death of Charles III, his august successor was able to declare the products of the coal mines to be free and also to emancipate its traffic both by land and by sea, affirming the ^ fundamental principles on which was to rest all modern legisla- C tion." :;Rtini/es, ' r/riv I'Tt^ The influence of the gremios, which were guilds or corporations formed for the protection of various trades or ~ii.""ain<.e~t (•?» v©f,.*.-: - - - <-'-r --------- 1. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 520. 2. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. 522. G I." .jiitaixtla ,«»» ^cf bns brtei tod alltstcf 8*1: #isqJt;)n8m9 .0 55 industries, v/as greatly weakened during the reign of Charles III. These institutions v/ere a great . hindrance to all material development and naturally drew upon themselves the attacks of all enlightened men of thcbse times. All trades were tinder the absolute control of their respective guilds and the most stringent rules governed the members. The marquis of "Ensenada had attempted to reform tlie gremios bpt public opinion was against this. The Count of Campomanes attacked guild organizations, and although other authors defended them, they could not prevent Jovellanos from censuring them and proclaiming the liberty of arts and trades, which prevailed in the end, following the example of countries which were the bec^iustp or trteir nvper: •, , incjCESe th-^ most enlightened and progressive. The most important guild in Spain was the one in Madrid, known as the Ginco Gremios mayores, which besides having many monopolies, did nearly all to tnci^f , .p.s. Tm^ *^ir.«.t potj . unded i*-- npajii of the banking business before the foundation of the Bank of §an Carlos. Instead of promoting the industries and procur- ing work for the Spaniards in the factories, the Cinco OrFmios mayores. constituted a large commercial association, which only cared for its own interests, disturbing with its large capital 2 both the foreign and internal comjnerce." The Spanish author u r *: ■ . e ! ' ft V -in e 5^ c i v^ then continues, "As soon as Charles decreed the liberty of agriculture and industrial pursuits, the guilds lost their raison d'etre , and the spirit of control and monopoly, charac- teristic since the beginning of their legal existence, gave way to the principles of economic liberty, which has contributed so 1. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 245. 2. Ibid, Vo] .V.I, p. 243. X-j 0.' ■■..> itf'iin; c. . . r. TI a ' - tit bsnuc^ : ila« Xi^ ^o a^Hi^^^Q bfia abXiu^ 9\rt^a9qa8i tidff^t to loi^nou »twXo8(fa ^ :!3\f >ialjg&iO oofiiO d/f-t 8b nwoini t'>-t'«^«M nl eno ©r(;t ai^w r^tQqP^ cii 56 much to the prosperity of' the nation. This result was solely • to ^- e r 1 ve t! '« *;rt» a t « i> v ' • e r i' ni . '■ - - *- due to the econoinio policy initiated during the reign with which v;e are dealing." As characteristics of the changes wrought hy Charles Ill and his ministers may be taken the founding of the numerous economic societies in nearly all the larger cities of the king- dom. These societies were composed of the best and most en- The royj. • lightened subjects of the kingdom, whether laymen oi* ecclesi- astics. The encouragement given these creations of liberalism by the government is a good proof of the sincerity of Charles entlrdlv v.ith tn^ ■ wf i, ."pref^d III in his desire for the welfare of his people. The clergy because of their superior talents did. much to increase the usefulness of these societies, though the nobility having been aroused from their long period of idleness gave great prestige to those institutions. The first society founded in Spain was that known as the Sociedad Bascongada, being composed of ■jn of C^. '^e I ecjpjc .vnc ?(.■ c! Blnii- people of that province. Iti August of the year 1765, this society received the;, approbation of the king and Peha Florida who had shov/n great zeal in the promotion of this enterpi'ise port art re^, ^icn t*.^ t>\at of Jul:' 9, IV ■ the was nominated its ftrst president. In 1766 he published an essay of the Basque Society, dedicated to the king, in which he enum.erated the , objects of the society. Besides dwelling tier.. The or<-^Mii»Tf •••* , 1779, v/'.\':..h fcrhade the Ir- on the necessity of encouraging agriculture and on the facili- ties offered by the Basque provinces, '^he author discoursed on various agricultural topics, as pell as the planting of i. , VI, trees. His second memoir deals with commerce and industry 3 a fsi <'.r It r-i • afn^i xnw '. i i 'liii-J\ 9A^ -^ ^auv"; »f{;t to ftoltsffo'i as bsfl.'iiioi;^ en cjcjVI nl djiffvr ni »^ii bs:fejll>«b ,^2t9too8 ©upaBft aft;t lo ^jaaas j« '- t-f; ; no Dii :;j3B^ (3 'J sn: .1. ji y. y u'i'^ lUiiU J 57 and the necessity of uniting the latter with agriculture in or- der to derive the greatest benefit. The third memoir deals with public sanitation and the ravages of small-pox at Azcoitia Jn the years 1762 and 1763 ; and lastly Florida Pena wrote on domestic econony and incidentally described a pnuematic machine for the preservation of meat. The Improvements wrought by'"' this society in the educational system are described in another chapter. The royal ordinance authorizing the establishment of this society, dated April 8, 1765,decl8t?ed expressly : "that the purpose of these meetings v/as very laudable, conforming"' entirely with the maxime which the king is trying to spread among his subjects for the progress of arts and sciences. His Majesty would even like to see that the example set by the no- bles of the Basque province would be imitated by those of en- other provinces of the kingdom, by causing to be established 2 societies which v/oulc be equally useful to the state." At the suggestion of Campomanes the people of Madrid founded a simi- lar society in 1776 and as all the princes of the royal family became members it soon possessed, great influence. Many im- : e portant measures, such as that of July 9, 1778, forbidding the importation of hats, gloves, stockings or sashes for men and other manufactured articles v/ere proposed by the vadrid socie- ties. The ordinance of March 24, 1779, v/hlch forbade the im- portation of all kinds of wearing apparel, etc., as well as 1. Muriel, Vol. VI, p. 105. 2. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. 106. Iseig 9"fu 9vln»b o«t 19 b va 3l»9i) tlofrten; inirrt ^^ .tt"t«n ^ntiiv»Bm jJt;fsmdJjfW| s be -Vi^T- to 9;:. •lit -A '' . *afc»i3a ^iiiJ o:f Iyl98w /li ,^iji©ij08 -imis s b#bn«ot bttbsM "^o ^Iqosq 9ff.t RarremoqmB.O lo noltaft-^^i/a -'i .doatj-wlliii -'A>^'*ri> be&a^^soq ffooci ,tl ^-iwrimwht 9ii}fi;>ed erl^ ..'l*xol ,BVVI ,6 ^iXUt *to tarf? a® rfons ee9i>iaiJ9ifr trtfiiioq fvf^. y....-, -*.'\ ,^er{3kf'. %o a;'^'*': t ■ t ■••f^ * . -nti 9ri:f 9bJ8cfnot ^^\A^ t^'^^"'^ t*'S rf^'fr -bio srfT ,-::ei.:f Is If 56 that of March 18, 1763, declaring the trade of a tanner, black- smith, tailor, shoe-maker, etc., compatible with nobility, were suggested by the patriotic societies. The Council charged these bodies v/ith examination of the regulations and corpo- rations of the merchants and of the hospitals. In the memoirs of the Madrid society every topic of agriculture, industry and commerce was discussed ard prizes v/ere given to those who offered the best solutions for the various problems. Care was taken to introduce all the best economic works of foreign countries and all sorts of weaving and spinning machines were t imported. The government and the individuals of the society contributed large sums of money to found a loan bank where poor wome-n mit^ht obtain the means to buy raw materials for this spinning and weaving. The societies founded by the most en- lightened women of the nation were mainly active in educational branches, though by their resolution to wear nothing that was manufactured outside of Spain they are entitled to credit as having aided the industries. The pairriotic society of Madrid had imitators in nearly every large town and in 1787 there v/ere as many as fifty-four. In conclusion it might he said that these economic societies ought not to be judged so much by what they did (which was by no means insignificant) , hut rather by the tendency of the times v/hich they indicated. For it showed that Charles III saw that after all the welfare of the 1. D. y C, Voi. VI, p. 108. -ocjiuw one ^iiGxd-«34.:jj^s-i i^i :ox;:6aini^.c;;> .iJi^ esxjOOcJ saynr aTXoiJSfn srfi ill . iIa:^itiQQii ©rft t<^ ^a «|j!Bff;n«R! aiii to a«ojfe*Bi btia v'l.tafibnt , ,9*iiitI'Jjl*i^B to jigo* ^^T9V9 vtstjoM fet^'^sM erf:* 1o •w- Y;),«ijoa 9x1) tfO aleu&ivibeii ©/fit knn Jarniat&voisi Bd'i .bstioqml tool 9'i9r{v/ Tirfsj^f ffGol B firtaoT ut vqnom to Sftma e^lfll bectir'^tTcfaoj lijnii "^3 j»rh9 •" t «^.vt-*".53 'l/iiara -'-"raw rfo c^an ^rf+ lo nefffo^? h9n?>:^^f'■JtI oa .^tbeia o^ feelti:tns dts ^©niit nit )ta:fjJO bQt^cfa':Jljjnfln ©low 9tdfii. ti:>TX at biija nwuj s^isx i*xs^va a ni a-ionti^^iri r^/i *Sffw >^d rio.iriv< (jR &S3bjLr{> sd o.t ♦on: fn'^rro r.^oM '^i^op. jf^cnoj^ 989rft ■ ;' , (;*lt8ji'txn.;§i3al 3.i«idir. ^. jx,iV/; i>XD ywU .3( 59 people lay in their own efforts and that he could only direct them into the right channels. PUBiaC \90RKB. ^.one c"t,',er -' - p,Tve.leBt ev..- ' "^ra^'-i J=^i'- etv:..:.4.. - - ; t- ^ne the eral leek oi tr tsti^n teciliti^s *fhiih mad* ir ter- {;rovinclal tr^oe elr^^- The r'^ re so Vad it* 1760 • "her tooo rr&ducte voux.. it .riij:? ported tr^^vei by carria, es vivr &li»!OSJt r.own. Evt/f f f» .lt*'"P aa I7br fr>^/.*r ^ovlrxiiil ti v-«i V r^riOV'ed i; Ai^h. t,yju that vf.e cc:i>.::^'S oa irec t-ri^'je ccvxci cd untiJ ru«^d^ had beer pu^ into cordltion fit fijr wagon *rvr,fc^ort. Charj.-fc> ill fruiij :.t.e re.yiLrai^ii C'3' i.i^ leigr. ^>tuwiaci . .'■ defect ar:(' has e«,riivr inirUt5*-.^rs, r;ot&t)i. .. il^M Li a-id C-rimti'^ri, -Mp^-rfd tc improve ^he corcitiortr t:! r */ . tLavicuG una rgr t^ived "'le entire rev*^^ue derivcc. i'ro' i.«il tax- T..i& wo\ to ■^en 1 Ar c « r f* V v i. e r c 1 1^ - Fver: *h**«p "$ portiL>'; , ea rto hj 60 r »' » • CHAP i&R V. f Fj{ jU-'^'tn'!' n uf i^art, yl tl PUBLIC WORKS. ,, j,; Cau: ^, ^^i.. ixa^rv, the Bf to th« ^Isc^. . Next to the oppressive system of taxation and cus- .tome duties the greexest evil of Spanish economic life was the general lack of transportation facilities which made inter- o?- provincial trade^ almost irnpossibla. The roads were so bad. in 1760 that grain and other food products could be transported only by beasts of burden and travel by carriages was almost unknown. "HJyen as late as 176^ j^hen the prpyinc,4.al #ouanes were removed it was said that the benefi*:s of free trade could not be appreciated until the roads had been put into condition fit for wagon, tjrai^sporj..^ ......yv ei -' ^..- ..... -®re ©r^ Charles III from the beginning of his reign studied to remedy this defect and his earlier ministers, notably Sq^j^llg^^^j and, Crr^malc.i, att«Bipted to improye^the conditions of internal communications and for this purpose received the entire revenue derived from the salt tax. This amounted to about 150, 000 ^OUQds annually and in h^s Memorial Florida Blanea points oi^t that in the nineteen years prior to his administra- tion "only ten leagues were completed of the road betv/een Aranjuez and Valencia, the same nuriber in that of Barcelona, about three from Corunna, and less than one in the road to An- dalusia. Fven these scanty portions, those of the royal OS Jbsd o« fttsw a.(:>aoi en'T . slfixseoqmi taomla ©b*^' ' r • : .,< rr-^-r-^r ba^ioqacatt arJ ^Isjoa a^taaboiq i>ool T9ff.:fo hna aiai^ ^axj^ G^VI fix taomls ?5»w se !ijJtii»j )jrf l^rati hns nebiJjtf to a:taa©€j x^ \;Xno 8f>rteiiOB Isi^filvotq sfK't nmiw <5dVI 8a s^al sf? iiev:! . rnvorrXnir oi^joa afMiitf- esft 1o Q'ttQnsd 9dt ifasi^ biaa saw cfl b«vofa©i ataw noitibaoo o^ni -^uq need feerf 3i)60i »r(^ liin.y bactaijatqqe ad *0n . j-ioqanai^ nogaw toI ■^r'^ Jbeibw^a n^l^i aid to 3.atanx§ed adc^ moit Til asIteriO 3noitit>KOj erfc*' svotqpii o^ ba:?q(fia^^s ti-^^&f^^tO b«a x^^jb i" ^ '■"^^'^ ar{i beviej-Hi Qsoqatrq elri^f lot beta anoxia oinumiHO^i lantejai 0? "^etfiwonia airiT .xait d'lao tdt l»&viTa& ©wnavat aii^na 30n>jXH J3oiTLOl'S latiomsM aid nl bne iJLl$ucui& abnuoq nnn^n?,r wro's -/i^.t«i.'ilfBbB aid o;t *ioi'iq aia©^ naatsitin edi' nx ^a^i ^.vaioq nea fcTed biio-i 0d:t to ba^0l» f?r '^ . rid:rfjsi'if>baw aevlea '*#* ♦tew OOS as'''t ^lofi O'lr , -^'^^c^iH^tp -c^w bdoi «9l bfiB. 3 «jri >tjjfi ^ e^*«B i , e d^a s^ f roK - vt ; rrnf •• , - ! « -bXli/cf btiCii 10 9«iX 9ff v^Mjb tesitffftt^ sff? tiiont b»oi Fj . !ti»0 i brtO «b H^ti^is^ J3 &2 Antiquera to Malaga, and the road to Oalicia from Astorga." The road through the Sierra !!orena v/as said to be admired by i ' >-out d^:. '." hur all foreigners who tr^^velled over it because of its breadth"^ and solidity. Florida Blanca thinks it worth mentioning in his Statement that a diligence had been established between Cadiz and the capital as a proof of the improvement of the roads of the kingdom. A regular stage line was also estab- lished between Bayonne and Madrid, with inns at regular inter- vals of a day's journey. The expense of these undertakings in the way of road building amounted to upward of 1, 078,125 pounds and since the tax on f^alt only produced 348,000 pounds in nine year^, upv/ards of 650,000 pounds had to be raised by some other means than crown taxes. Various ecclesiastics and econom^ic societies as v-ell as generous individuals contributed largely to this rreat v;ork both in money and in labor. After the postal service had been made to prodiice revenue, Florida Blanca used the profits to maintain the ways of transportation, though he was greatly censured for putting this money to that lase since the public debt or rather the debts of the crown still remained unpaid.^ Against this charge the minister urges the comparative benefits of good roads as against the pay- ment of debts acquired in former reigns. Florida Blanca claims to have reduced the cost of building a league of roed from 50,000 pounds to about 17,000 1. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 515. 2. F. B. »s Statement. :2d eril 16 .:* o-iqmi eds to lot ' iqsu erit bus sibeO. : -J : . i. i r- X I < .; > r» i . c> rt: .' :1- . jbari 8bHi/oq 000, Odi Jo abiav/qsj ,^1*38^^ ©nin r^q 9jff ^8filB3fl 8s ab^ot booa 10 e;f|t8n9ff evitstsqmo asartu 'to cfaoj Brlc b^;)i'.fl>iii 8Vr. n 000, VX ^twocfa o.t abm/oq 000, Oo feo^^ a^c b6 pounds ani says that this is due to "the extraordinary activity and intelligence of zealous r^agistrates and their dependents, or to that of certain worthy patriots, who, without any o*:her pay or reward than what they expect from heaven, quit ^li^ir own business, Ihe pleasure and comforts of their families, to Expose themselves to the fatigue and the rigors of the seasons, in order to superintend, the execution of the works." _ Charles III believed not only in the hecessity of good roads for the advancement of industries but also tried to develop canals for purposes of irrigation as ^^ell as navigation. "Spain, "says Florida Blanca in his Statement , "always exposed to drought, cannot become agricultural, unless irrigation be sub- stituted to sujiply the rain which is v;anting in most of the provinces.^ that the peasant may obtain the fruit of his il-eborsf The canal of Aragon, a tremendous v.'ork, was begun in the reign of Charles I but the difficulties were too great foir the engineers of those days and Charles III was the firs', ruler to resume work on approxima^^ely the same plan as it had been begun in the sixteenth century. A royal decree of February Er 28, 1788 authorized the Frenchman D. Augmstin Badin to continue the canal as far as Quinto. Various difficulties compelled the company which had undertaken the work to give it up in 1772, and in 1778 a junta was created for the purpose of continuing this work and £>. Ramon Pignatelli, canon of Saragossa, v;as i. ., Vo: 1. F. B., Statement. 58 ^e^ti- tSnoaBSa 9fft ^o to a:to'iiiio fxd III ?s$i-ifijr(0 'ao<|x» e^jswA -»m9^6:fc^ «i: :;;neIH »i)jt-ioI'5 a^ise" ,niJ8qB" :t[Oc»*X I airi lo ;5>>' « . -i^;!/;-: -o t 8EW III 8»Ii:i -fOW '^ si/nxinoj ot nib«$I ni^at^jjA .G >!dSX'!Sl. has iitov 64 placed at the heac? of this new corporation with full povrer to direct all its dete^ils. Muriel says "that this undertaking 2 reminds one of the greatness of those of the Romans** and the idea was to establish water comunication hetv/een the Atlantic and the T^editerrancan "by usin£: the river Ubro . At the time of Charles' -death in I:7»88 navigation ^'as possible as fy.r as Valc'egurriana. The canal was not finished until 1790 and it Yras then navigable for barges of 100 tons burden an'" ii*rigated 5^8,342 'acres of laricT so thalf 'its^ prfce rose fron 2 pounds to 70 pounds an acre and in years of famine in Castile grain could be sent from Aragon where formerly there was hardl^^ enough for home oorisump^^on . Th'(f ca'rial of 1ffaust-f^%gts a tributary to that of Aragon formed by building a mole diagonally across the river Ebro . It watered 16,695 acres of land and was placed untfer^'the care of ^he CroWn W tne'^^eS'fte 'of Tausti in 1780. The canal of Tortosa v/as under governrnent care and was built to the port of Los Alfaques in order to avoid a trip on the sea It also served to irrigate lands v;hich until then had been arid because of the lack of rain. The canal of Urgel was begun in the reign of Charles I "^ut liad since been neglected. '' Florida Blanca issuect an ordinance in 1786 for its improvement. The canal of Mazanares was a very old project and v/as planned to unite Madrid with 1. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 510. 2. Muriel, Vol. VI, p. 147. eri;* Dan "aiiiicu:! - i9it;Jii9t3 er' ' ;ai(a9T 3t» list 84J 9j.ai35oq «9w noicT • i3i;^,i '.u : ' . ti bns 0'-' . infii'^ OJ a.L->iijjaq ^ i.\Qi't ii^oi 9^iiq aJi JBri.;? o<^ "'to ss-xja Sii-^,cS 4"ilt;>'l -'.c-v/ ■in.'^ '-)-r*i> iffoniii'. oiioT to iBftBJ srfT nbe?Xi i£6»o* lij-ajy iii>i.'l¥ atiaaX ©v^s^xtii u* l>avi©a o: 1IJ3 beua&i fiandl?! Box'ioi" . • n&^d 3jiii ^ .01 65 Guadalquivir, establishing in that v/ay communioation by v/ater betv/een Madrid and SevilJe and was begun with the funds fur- nished by the Bank of San Carlos. The canal of Castile was first thought of in the reign of Ferdinanr' VI and had as its object irrigation of the arid districts of that province. It was never finished, howevey, and no direct benefits resulted, from it. wr • t The storage of v/ater for the purpose of irrigation was practiced as early as the sixteenth century and the reser- voir of Tibi, constructed by the celebrated Herrera, ferti- lized 9250 acres of orchard land in the vicinity off Alicanti. In the reigh of Charles III Florida Blanca was struck by the ; advantages of this work and began the building of two great reservoirs in the fertile territory of Lorca in the kingdom of Murcia. The thickness of the oikes was 150 feet and the height v/as planned to be 210 feet, holding 72 millions of cubic feet of v^ater. More than eight million reals were expended on these works, andiLlauSado declared ''^^hat these so-called res- ervoirs of Puantes were the greatest v/orks of their kind in "Europe. In 1802 the dikes of these reservoirs broke, causing the death of 608 and damage amounting to about one million 2 t)ounds. The districts benefited by the irrigation supplied by the reservoirs produced dne hundred times as much as before. Charles also built a ^oad and aqueduct to Aguilas and estab-, 1. P. B., Statement. 2. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 514. 3. Muriel, Vol. V.I, p. 288. aa '^t oar 3S.7 ri^,>ah ^>r:t to r^ap^n^jf-^^ ?ifT .Bij-rrjM 66 lished a tovz-n of 400 people constructing the houses, building 1 churches and the necessary public buildings. Ke also built the town of Almuradiel in the Campo Nuevo of Andalusia and turned the surroundinr country of arid waste into a fertile gardeW.. Florida Blance in his Statement, in closing his paragrajih on canals and irrigation, calls the king's attention tbv the fact that all the expenses of his undertaicings were derived from other sources than the regular revenues of the crown. «cr* * The fact that Charles III, or rather Plorida Blanca, could find the means to carry on these great works of public utility is all the more remarkable when we consider that the treasury was burdened hot only with debts of preceding reigns but that Charles w&s also engaged in most expensive wars, twice against Great Britain, against Portugal and finally against Alge^irfi and that these wars were a burden sufficient in themselves to lay the entire resourced of a kingdom like Spain. But Charles did not confine his im.provements to works of only economic value for m.unicipal v/orks were zealously car- ried on both by the government and the citizens of the various towns themselves. Madrid, naturally, became the first object of experiment in more modern ideas of cleanliness and beauty. Considerable sums were devoted to the broadening and paving of the greatly dilapidated streets. "The spacious and hand- i.scme entrances, roads, end walks, of the great gate of Alcala, 1. P. B., Statement. dd I os'i .00^ lo fiw^. II r->^*-^'^ *?b|<10i.'^ -rSd^l to tii:I 301 ..:w ..i;.. , J«il > oi 3Jt*f©w +fi«ts o>jer:d' no '\ittBa o^ s Mwoo Itiviiq baa ; ^oti '/«i> .^13^ er LcfsieMenoO - baaui ha d a jjo i j ej ix« oiH ' . a t » »•- i qr 1 li) : I i q di^ /«rftf . Xo ftiX8s>I.A lo etis^i taf^r^a ^' t^^arii^T*'*-'^ ;H 67 that of the bridge of Segovia, thki of AntOcha, f-6#^fds Valen- cia* the oommunications betv/een these f:ates and that of Toledo, have been formed, to the, inmieasurable benefit of the oapital, with the funds Y/hich your^riajesty has ordered me to employ *to this end." A rather remarkable though ;:' undoubtedly a most useful institution was the founding of a washing-place in Madrid, for the v/asher- women, who were until then exposed to the extreme rigor,- of the seasons. This shelter provided for more thali five hundi-ed places so that it was lar; e enough for all the washer-women of the oapi*al. The botanical gardens of Madrid were founded both for purposed of instruction as well as for beautifying the city. In Toledo the government granted considerable aids for the iriprovement of the streets, entrances, roads and walks. The citizens formed beautiful terraces, repaired the ancient walls and bridges and erected ~ statues presented by the king. Burgos received statues of '■- the most celebrated rulers of Castile and in Saragossa a rike v/as built in order to prevent the overflowing of the rivers. In Malaga, the works of the river Guadal Medina ^ prevented the flooding. of t>.at i^ltir. This port was also cleaned and houses, walks e.nd ornaments were built, as were also the two roa7n9a«i%q aeiJi^'i^^s s,U a aaac csi briJ» dXttaeQ tc j9ia^'f0X««> ^faofiiaiS? '.aTovit e/i* to :antwolt'«^vo ©jrfdt ^i^tevf^-tq . o;J* n^li'jo -^f ^ritr- nc>;/ exit bs^nsvetq teai?^0H Xsr^ajj© t^vXt mii to a>Cio I ,3aayoii baa harmeij a^ia sis* tioq airiH . , ij t«f(f to.salJbooXt toeli^ox awt ssii oaXe eiaw ajis ,txiv^'' «»^ > r i;+$f9n«n^o bff« ai^flaw ^BJ•^£l'< ttijlipXH . j^ibSK/p^ st-UOfiiL- iHiii s9j;^V bftjft fiieapetnA ■ 9/il tSLi^dt&^d oyfi arit o .-j i^js ^ tneme "fir*'3 airf ni .S 68 Malaga, who labored v^-ith unspeakable zeal and activity to rromote these undertakings, to find means for executing them, and to encourage industry, commerce and agriculture. In Barcelona v^ere erected various v/orks to ornament the streets and also to widen them. Pampeluna was improved by the pa- triotism and zeal of its inhabitants, while in Segovia the bishop 'and fill 6co^6ii^lc ^^odiety carried on most of the public improveri'ents, ei'vays, of course, encouraged by the king. In Mure i a great walls were erected to prevent floods and the Iflrig greatly ai'Ted in the building of other usefttl works: The streets were paved and widened in Vdladolid, Palencia, ^ Toro, Zamora, Seville and other cities through the aid fur- nished by the ci^bisrri V ' ' ^ • ' . ^«^^ ^*'-l74V .. This brief summary will furnish a fair idea of the magnitude of Charles* work in the im.provement of public prop- erty and , according' to a great Spanish author, it is impossiDle to visit a single province without encountering proofs of the king's interest in public prosperity. 1. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 5:^3. «jallf. ttttt tc V- / ^ i n) in thft wny t" X. -3<| ©jd,' aew jl; . lerr^ n a^. pels i)rtJ3 jiXd; '.on ai;>. o^i.^tlLej \it&xjoa jinsufiojs ns J3n^- qonBid . cj-.-I'M'.: iifldajj *ieii^o Ic; i^ax.oiiiJa pnz ai os: Xi^ ^CXJiisia anx^i ,siyct3Xfl3. t ti i)9nQl)iw bna foavsq stew atee-x^a erfT -tUi hie 9^:* rfr.jjotrfct jjet-'-lj '?9ri:^o ftna ollivsa efiiotns^'? eO-foT .xwQ^j axil '4 a .fianaxn -qoicf oildu'i to .t!-i3fKe^/oiq?iii Qdt rii :>(iow 'salisrfD to shis^ inr.si'A sX-ii^i^Qfica ax ii ,-ic/ii:!jj)i Xi3|.aijqt. v*39i^ « or ^uxJo-roa^StDaa 'c^ia 69 tT"S f".c 1 V?' • ^^ 5 . CKAFTKR VI. *-.i.^(^r<^Pr^ rrr-n* FINANCE AND TAXATION. ,000 : c-OPT> {:■:<. The finances of Spain were under the control of a council knows as Conseco Real de Hacienda. This council of finance was divided into different chambers as vas the Coun- cil of Castile. The sala de govierno, sala de justitia, the sala de nillones and the sala de la unica contribucion v/~ere the four divisions during the reign of Charles III. There were three directors general who controlled all the customs officials and tax collectors, for after 1747 -taxes were no longer farmed ou"*-, excepting in a few special cases of which mention v/ill be made at another pomnt . .^oih r rri'^'he sala de unica contribuccion was founded in 1749 for the rmrpose of administ.ering a single tax which was to take the place of the various provinaial taxes. It was said that rjiore than thirty thousand people were employed in this chamber. Bourgoing says that no definite results had been achieved by this body, though Florida Blanca in his statement calls attention to various reforms made during his adrini stra- ti on in the way of simplifying the system of taxation, cc- The revenues were generally divided into two classes: 1. Mostly taken from Bourgoing, Vol. II. 2. Bourg., Vol. II, p. 5. .1 B Iq ionisiQa mil' ^9&iI^ 9T. -jitfiai. '^o r.f. ji!?oj ai.-^T .sbnaii^aH - r.. .tt -i^s^naO 3i3 awoctJi li^nwQu exit |,si:U^8;jt ,»i> »i&^ ^^ntBl^o^ »t>j|La^ s^fT .#I1^««0 lo I-t^ y-^ .III ri^lT'j.r.) to, n;^is» anoiaivtij xi#ol> arr* -J. I ^ .9w e9xe:fi VI^TI taits tot ,a-ro:*u9l^Os^ x«^ iwis aX^etjitto ■ /{•^ ta a^BBo^ iiii;>'jqa w«l « nt : 'i-;>;c« v.r'*!/© b^tTiBt ts^noX bXa« 5,':?. -'I .aaxB.-? X/2ti»x;ivofxq ^^u^aXi^y 94:" ^;0 %^M «ri;* 2 i rf r fi i > 9 ^4QXqai^ . §»•< ©w sl'io o q iiiiaa iXQii cf ^^ 1 1 irf d aarf t -- '^^ ' • -• 3 a99rf i}fiii 2*XwaeT s^tnlidi:) on &&dt a^i^^ 3nXoai*|oS irt^miiiB^Q eiri ni BjftijI^ fj&XtoXt rf^ttiO/ft I'iood aXrtt ^d b9V9iriu« .not^fiXfi:^ lo L:8J3^i3 eii:t^ax^lXX^iaia xo ^ifcs^ ^di ai noli 3£*3fJBlj ow? o:tni bebkvih ^XXaisna^ s-xew asuiidvei srfT .11 .lov ,3ni.>S' .X YU namely the general and provinoial revenues. The first v-ere those derived from import and export duties and the inoome derived from monopolies of the crown. These general taxes increased from 960,000 pounds in 1785 to 1,200,000 pounds !»:•::; 172!^, an increase due principally to the impetus given to commerce by ^he policy of so-called free trade. There were also special taxes on wool, cocoa, sug&.r and paper ^hichifr*:.-^?'. were considered to he general taxes. The salt monopoly gener- ally produced about 160,000 pounds, but was no*^ as oppressive or as bitterly opposed as vas the gabelle in Prance, for in- stance. The tobacco: monopoly was one of the greatest sources of income v/hich *-he crown possessed, for no other brand of tobacco could be "brought into the kingdom than that manufac- tured by the government. In spite of very strict la\/s, con- traband tobacco was constantly imported and sold at a much higher price than the regular brand. In 1776 this monopoly produced 870,000 pounds of revenue ; in 1776 more than 850,000; in 1784 730,000 pounds and in 1787 it rose to 1,290,000 because of the introduction of tobacco which had previously been sold only clandestinely. Other objects v/bich had been made govern- ment monopolies were lead, powder, playing cards, sealing-wax and stamped paper. ^- '^-•^•'^'^<. .^ *,,-..^»... <•; The provincial rents wei'e the most oppressive and ■complicated in Europe, and though Charles made various attempts 1. Rourg., Vol. II, p. 8. A 0? nJt Bjbmjoq 000, 0'. :';uuu.i 000, OS-; : :on .oe^natjni r-fj.*-'- i^'i'^'i i;//; 'i83Wa ,lsJu.j.u«? ,iug// ;jy sexs:? IjEfij.sqa OaXs e-'TtriPi^y '■:*t -^or ae^v t'r- ^ : iffO'l C' ijorfs b-^o.^totT vIIb Trf- :«)rf'*o on "?o1: ♦boaee-^^-^T rrvoTj 3ff"* 'fjt'fw ^^rrooni ^o -JB' jnsr.1 $usi7. :iiinj mo»^i-'i ;yh: jJiii. rii^,gjju la srj jyxj'ju:" '^Ioqo:iorj aid* dVVI nl , :'::ij'::: Miiiy^Q-: anr aunj t>ji*:-: -^ynjiii ;000,oa3 ^jiirii S'jom avvi nl ; ;ii®T0« 1® abnuoq OOOfOtS fef^uwrbo"5cq -at9\ro3 sbj3ff! n©9€f bsff ffotrfw a;ts^0itfO tSifrtO . ^^Xaai^adbxifsla ^Ifio :-csvr-3niIiJ98 jab'iso ?fri-^'slq'' ,*t%fcvroq ,bsel snsw sfDifo^OrtOfr* •♦ri^-i 7i to improve the system he did. not achieve any sweeping reforms in this respect. The mi Hones v/epe a tax levied on wine, oil, meat, vinegar, candlea, etc. This tax was either levied di- rectly oy by taxing communities whic'p sold these articles from a general store-house. In order to compel people to buy at these places very stringent and offensive rules were adopted. The second provlntlal tax was known as the alcabala and cientos levied on all sales of personal or real property and amounting to fourteen per cent as a rule, but differing widely according to the tffiv/n or district. According to Ustarez the average amount of the tax ¥/as seven per cent. The alcabala was an exceedingly detrimental imposition for both comm.erce and in- dustry and was modified somewhat during the reign of Charles M p r- "■^ III. The tercias reales were taxes levied on ecclesiastical estates and though they produced 60,000 pounds it was thought ^■ that they would produce considerably more if less faith were con?' placed in the declaration of the ecclesiastic bureaus. A J. ». ^ tax on the commoners of the kingdom known as ordinary and extraordinary service v/as a substitute cfor the alcabala and was assessed by the courts. Lastly there v/ere the entry du- ties into Madrid which were a part of the crown revenue but l-'i r i77i, vniie ir J. Vc-^: vO^trx. were farmed out to the gremios. The provinces of the crown of Aragon were exempt from the alcabala but instead were to pay a fixed amount which was divided among the different cities and "^ov-ns who assessed their inhabitants according to the a- mount they were -required to pay. Aragon had the tercias reales IV r u r « a *f .Ci f n J?;>t1S 3^ni f "♦• -\ c»»«r ^el9s ilB no beivel > . t^ «r ^^ i J^ (a or r/t,. JDS i>*sew f^IUT 8vrx?: .^iV91 * 079W ^^i.^-! ««l^*t9^ '91'. ~ ' ■ ' ^ 89 j^teistae .■■mi msn^'^st i^wota ©rft to #i«»<| s r '■> ,-) r» •■' F» -f « 72 as well as the millones e.nr- all the provinces v/ere subject to the cruzada, a tax originally levied for the crusades, ana accepted in payment for indulgence^.. The pope lad granted the income from ^his source to -^he Most Catholic Kings and in 1753 it was made a perpetual tax. The price of this bull tics *"'V" •''-'MJI'^e *-? ^': y'l^*^ •"■O"'" • (^ "ilk'.-?- 1 if <"-r*r was fixed at tv/enty«>one quartos and in 1776 its revenue am.ount- ed ^0 about 240,000 pounds. Ho Spanish Catholic could avoid pu.rchasing this dispensation without being susjiected of heresy and besides "^hat it gave him the right to eat eggs and drink milk on the days of fasting and during Lent, v/ith the permis- sion of his physician and confessor. The clergy was subject to two other taxes known as the subsidio and the excusado which v/ere farmed out to the gremios of Madrid and therefore produced mLTch less revenue than they might have done otherwise. One source of revenue which ought to have been very considerable and was only moderate, was the income from. America; but for a long time the expenses of governjnent absorbed nearly all the revenue and it was not until Oalvey's ministry that Mexico brought any returns as a result of t'le tobacco monopol^- . All the revenues of the kingdom amounted to 4,400,000 pounds in 1776, while in 1784 they v/ere 6,r50,680 pounds. In the statement made by Serena, the minister 6f finance, the 3 revenues had failed to 6,162,950 pounds in 1767, though it is 1. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 270. 2. Bourg., Vol. II, p. 20. 3. Ibid, Vol. II, p. 24. f,d(.fa d"' !" ' ^-'-^ -^ r ■■'■ -:'ti«ociii ^un^vd*! sti BVVi ni ban aoo'iawp enu^f^i 'rt^sw:? ta- bexil ■ ■■■"■)■ ■• .'/^ •■"» obB^iS^xQ »:i"*" /:»n« oxbxadu^B 9xf7 a« rrvrocx esxecf isn'cfo ow? oi ^•t^v n©»'f 9VBff o? 7ri3{/o ri^isiw ^jltitsv-st iu ©jitroa enO . :/o\ ;- . to ■* ' nl .aonuoq 06b, 03 ^^^ .9T9w 'Ar :^6Vi ni 4>iinV ,3VVi nl abnwoq .OJ f- 73 np-t safe to accept these statements since prior to 1787 no regular budget had been issued. and wSerena was the first to issue a statement. .e€r.'_..- .^^'hgn Philip V died he left a debt of 7,500,CCC pounds and Ferdinand VI assembled a body of niinisters end ecclesias^,^ tics to decide as to whether he was liable for the debts of his father. ., This ■'was decided negatively, and i± jvas no until Charles came to the throng that any attempt to reimpurse the creditors was made. In 1762 he paid six per cent on the debts of Philip V and did so for five consecutive years. In. 1767 the six per cent was reduced to four and the following year the king distributed 600,000 pounds among the crown's creditors ; but cifter 1769 the disastrous \ ar against England caused the cessation of all further payments. Toward the end of Charles* reign ^^he bills v,^ei*e offered for sale at twenty percent of their original value, though they were accepted in lieu of taxes at one time. Charles also attempted in 1785 to make a loan of 180 million reals and agreed to take the debts of Philip V at their par value ; but ijp, spite of this apparent induceijient he could raise only tv^elve. million reals in two years. ,^^_ ^ *, , The gremios of Madrid were the bankers of the govern- ment up to the time of the founding of the National Bank of San Carlos, received the constant support of the government and jiegotiated ItB-" loans in times of distress. But toward the end of the second war v/ith England it was so difficult to obtain eaaat on veVI c^ - iniijui U00,00r. to stff*< d^'-ixi afyw 8*5 ©!>i;)9b c- ■' ^ '■'-... ■ Qci Die DIl^J ' grtons 3b^tF;orT 000, OOa Ss-^^tj-dtTtatb '^nl:>r erf-" lins 9rf:f biewoT .atn^mXQq '^©rfiJtJj'l lis to nol^Bit89;i ©n ::'n3w-* ;t« 9lB2 tot oBtelto 9TSW f;IIl ' asIisffO to S8VI o«Ia 39XtJ»rfD .§mlt dfio itja aaxisi- tl 3i:ic: iQ s'Ji-iri nx tU',; ; 'so aldet at'iliim 9vl«=?\yt Yino eata^i bXwoa erf :fa95P9;j netaqiie .siB^: owt hi — msvo^i '::!-.■: . ;; ^. ,/' ^xi:r s'l; to ?Ia£?H laao xTJifl aif:f t- b.iy cfnanintevo^ e {SoItpO rtpR 74 nieriey from the Genoese and Dutch that Charles accepted the sug- gestion of several merchants and issued notes to the valse of 19,800,000 pounds drawing four per cent interest and later re- deemable in specie up(I>n presentation at the national bank of ^' San Carlos. The first issue of these treasury notes was made in 1780 followed by similar issues in 1781 and 1782. All the issues combined drew an interest of 3,599,244 pounds and this being promptly paid at all times, the notes took the place of paper currency-. In 1785 and 1788 bonds were issued for the ■ construction of the canal of Tausti and the completion of the Aragon canal. The total value of the bond 6 i^suedrduring the reign of Charles III was 5,489,055 pounds, drawing en annual^!"' 1 interest of 219,562 pounds, usually four per cent. ^^^ '^ To maintain the value of this currency Charles III decreed the establishment of the Bank of St. Charles or San ; Carlos in the year 1782. Its other objects v/ere to facilitate the construction of public works ; to discount foreign letters of exchange ; to pay the obligations incurred by ^he Spanish coutt e.t other courts and fimally to underta|te contracts for 2 the supply of the arm.y and navy. Desiring that the people should become interested in so useful an enterprise, they were invited to subscribe in shares of 20 pounds each. In this way 145,140 pounds were raised out of the 3 m.illions of pounds which represented the bank's capital. The lj:ing and his chil- 1. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 267. 2. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. 272. ^■\ •■. r r. .• , ■ I i-»C»V V/ . * fens al)n.uc j«?€6, o^stA 3-., *-c. r r;>? I<^*r0'^ JSt^ ^ >0 f!Oi■ axri:f ni . a brill 75 dren subscribed liberally to the new enterprise as did many religious corporations and guilds. Hov/ever, in spite of the general enthusiasm manifested for this creation of the French- man Cabarrus, the bank had many detractors, among v/hom Mirabeau yf&s the nost relentless. He made it his special business to crvstallize a sentiment against this institution, but the first dividend of seven per cent, declared! in 1784, ^silenced even the loudest opponents. Whatever the evils of this bank may have been from the point of viev of the political economists, there can be no question about the services it rendered in saving the nation from financial ruin and the funds furnished by it for the various public works constituted a service v/hich would have justified such an undertaking. Its intim.ate con- nection with tTje crown was ':.he defect 'v^iach i-eully bsou^hl about its failure in the „ sub sequent, reign., But it could hardly be expected that it v/ould be otherv/ise under a rule of absolutism. In 1786 the shares paid seven per cent interest in specie and ::. in 1787 and 1789 f iy^, p^r. cent in the same currency. Florida Blanca, in his ptatement, defends the es- tablishment of the bank and. tries to show hov/ its foundation had prevented financial ruin. A.?ter reciting %lQ.e Repressing effect exercised by the repeated issues of bonds on the na- tion's credit, he says : "This was the situation of the mon- archy and these were the imminent risks of a national bank- ruptcy, v/hen I resolved to propose to Your Majesty tlie founda- tion of a hank, which while it obviated the total ruin of our el5^dt8irv?0'^5;irj feaf^iro' c»!':^ "^o 'aI, v "^o crtloc/^K'*- rrro'tT: rf9n"f fivp.rf rfulfiW t^iitv^f^P. 'A h».*:: 1 1 •tft'tO^; ?»-ft(>w jiicf-ff-" ?, ff "i t'/f^V ^ifT* "ToT" "^i: V;^ f^.B »lj8q ej leq iii&v«« blaq «9igria »ri^ d8^X Sl aolittsbnuoJ bH v/orf wqf)^ o. a^l^i bn.8 >(aad a* -fin €n\t uo , a ■. -^o Eftjj'i^fjX bsii»eq^^ ^rif X'i i>fesx^'i©XG «^8ll8 76 credit, might facilitate conimercial operations in general, particularly those of Spain, as is done in England, Holland and other countries conscious of their own interest." -'■To procure the increase in revenue Charles III ini- tiated the following reforms : he began by reducing public expenditures and salaries in Spain and America .y he exacted a payment of eight per cent on all monastic incomes ; he also requested gifts from the Church and borrowed money from the archbishops and bishops. Charles also made loans in foreign countries and issued the bonds mentioned above. The sale of gold in bars to Holland and the establishment of the royal lottery in America and Spain v/ere also sources of considerable revenue . The. tobacco revenue in Mexico and Peru and the tax on civil incomes v/ere methods by which the colonies were made to bring some returns. Fortunes Dt-ought from America to Spain were taxed heavily and to pay the debts of his fa*-her, Charles set aside the revenues from various ecclesiastic benefices and also those from the crown estates:. Florida Blanca, in ?iis Statement, describes at some length the evils of the tax known as the bolla and the plomos de Ramos,' which was a very high ta5C levied on all cloth sold in Catalonia. It took the place of the alcabala of Castile and was absurd in its complicated method of administration. r«V*?lll^«fj3 siM^fi i* V,.. -:,!,» V- /• • ,.•.....,.,.,♦.,; . „ , ^, when a merchant or a manufacturer sold a piece of cloth, no 1. n. y C, Vol. VT, p. 270. bntsllo^ f'-,nr. :^ Jo 9r. .:■ • ,.'■•• ■ TI af^ l«xBrfO mmBvei rri ; jooiq oT^ o:a^ ^ . .ie Ic : ..^ fs- ..-^ c,,-^* t, 'i^'1^fp.f> c.;-'- ':?".-! "'fit' bl"o'?5 S-lds'iSlJiofioj To 8s^'iu02 cslii 8'i9ii'' fU&q - jbnB jujii^fiiA rii ^t'^^'-^- 'J^ ; b£m Dot nsv'^^c o !'" . euns-vsi .soTid.:ra9 i'lwo'Xj Qi:i>: moil seoi * ceXe hIo5 ritoi^ lie no b&lvbi x£.? .'-^jt*'! ^'xov b ^£\i rvjiri^f ,30f'ifi.4 9r> Gfi , Tirol J TO 9J&X1 ^ oioa 'loinj jBluner .orijinn e risiiw « V \ 77 matter how small, he v/as compelled to call a tax collector who stamped or sealed the remaining roll of cloth and thenw- collected fifteen per cent on the price of sale. To replace this irritating tax Florida Blanca regulated the customs du- ties so that all the provinces had the saine tariff and made it so as to afford protedtion to domestic industries, wijtrhdraw- ing the favors which certain nations, especially England and Holland, enjoyed. By these changes Florida Blanca claimed that not only the industries and agriculture greatly benefited but al60 that the customs revenues had risen from 600,000 . . pounds to 1,300,000 pounce's. The eame chapter of the Statement also contains a reference to a change in the tariff for ex- port, but nc^hing seems to have been done in this respect. The first step taken toward the diminution of the Alcabala and cientos was the removal of this imposition on manufactures sold at the factory and a reduction of two per cent on all other sales made in f^adrid, though Florida Blanca de- sired Charles to extend this change to the entire kingdom. In the places where the poor were accustomed to buy their pro- visions, ^he alcabala was reduced from fourteen per cent to eight percent in Andalusia and to five per cent in Castile. Florida tjiought that this reduction would not only greatly j benefit the industries and commerce, but also increase the revenues since it would not exasperate the people to such a 1. F. B., Statement. vv -.nob nse4 ^visri gr iiiaeaa jifiiri^'O' -:- bMioI'^ ilaworft ti^-i^ f^i »^ il^ no 78 degree that they would buy as little as they could get along with. He also proposed an equivalent tax as had been advo- cated in the reign of Perdtinand VI. The alcabala for the • o«, *;t Vrse '^; iniA ..;f t • '■ r iviHi v';s*r 'le r o\- peasants was reduced to two, th' ee or four per cen'^ according to the qualify of their provisions and the alcabala on v/heat was removed entirely. The taxes known as millones also re- P r V • 5? V' T' J f %.. t \ *■ h «? fi ' i 1 1 c '"■ I lei ♦ ">■ v* - ^ .-' >■ ; g - ceived a considerable reduction, so that wine, meat, ainegar and oil became considerably cheaper. Special reductions were made in the tax on oil since it Vvas used very generally as a inciOin":-F, which neither '^'-:e z 3% v^yin"? of '^ h*i rror^r vlsn^it'-f staple food and because it was necessary to the manufacturers. To compensate for these reductions made for the benefit of the poorer classes, a tax was levied on private incom.es and though cent, wc^ijlr* lrc".-f^'.^f« > o' t ' vrv^. - e llkr amou6ting to only five per cent it excited the opposition of the proprietary wh6 seemed previously to hhve escaped the exactions of the alcabala tax. The argur ent used against this imposition was that it was new, but Florida Blanca de- clared that it was only a step toward the unica contribucion which had been projected during the reign of his brother and ■ *o hv5ve f; rif- ■•t *: "■ c?e::'.r^:-r' Ps '^t:1'j sev$n. fi.'"ht, nl''"-'-; that it was practically like the equivalent tax of Catalonia, although the octroi and the reduced bolla still existed there. The octrois of Barcelona, C-ironna and Valencia were fixed at ». Ci ;- r.nd t'.t* ^-:.ch f^cc r -sSj-^c *■ ive n^-ei^:^ ** eight per cent. The king had a ri^ht to impose the alcabala and cientos which amounted to fourteen per cent on all sales and also the millones and the income tax was only a shifting of the burden from the poor to the wealthier classes. Florida Blanca says on the subject of this revenue tax : "There ws'.s no -bvba nsad berf ae x©^ .^fn&lBvt/jpe na beeoqotiT osXs *«H .:{tiw 2Hibiojoi3 ^nsj 'x-^q Ttjol ^o 9»^n^ tO'*- o:? r>^j>Jb9T saw o'nBajJsq ;fB9ffw no filscffijl0 ©rf:* bns aefolairoff ilsrTrt td ^^ *il8fjp «rif of -<5-i osIb 3^'nGlilji! as nMrorrA 8 0:«c! dhb bool slqBJa -■aniB3i5 Jbssjj i^n^^iw^giB ©rJT . xb.^ slBdBolB '^^.t Td ^ftf^r•^"'* ii'^vV' -"9b soriBl3 Bfoltoi^ ^vd ,W9n BftW -fi .terf* b««^ «oi*iao »ml ai/l;f noiof/rfiitnou Bjinir fitl^ frtB^ot qsifi b vXno bb^ ti ^Bdt betslo bn& TiM^oid aiii 1:o n^isi 9fi;t snitifb bs^usto^"' '"^"^'^ '^f<^* r^iif'v tflifiolB^fiO to XB>^ j'neisvtupe sriJ^ 93ili -vjiiBot^oB-iq aaw ?x crartJ^ .sterit Jbo^aixs liicfa Bllod beji/bd-s bAS ttiB latoo sKt ji^gwoK^Xe •*B bextl ©'few BionaX^V bus. amio^f-n ,..af»o^«^:)-ferT -^o atoftfjo e'"^? sXi^dfiaXs erit Bsoqwi ot :tri|li b JbBfl sni-i 8-1T .ra^jj I's j ir.axs 39lB8 IXs no ^ns;* -iftq ixes^^irol v rt»iri^/ ^^o^nsiu brts anit^lrfe s ^Xno sbw XB:^ <5mo;jfTl ©f(:*" bne s^irrontn pfr'tt osJb tins ibiiol'? .aeaselj teirf^lBs^v sr.T oj "ioo< yni.^r '' " on 3SW si^riT" : xa* sxxnevei atrf^ to taetd - svbr bowbJ P proprietor of & civil income who did not have to contribute, either directly or indirectly, to the above named alcabalas and cientos, at the time of their imposition, when he bought'^" merchandise in the markets. If then the proprietors of the civil revenues do not pay the nine per cent from v/hich ''•he provisions, subject to the m.illones, were exempted in the Cas- tiles and Andalusia, how could they have been burdened by the establishment of an equivalent tax of five per cent on the incomes, which neither the tax payers of the poorer classes Aiy^the consumers possess ? In the same way the alcabala on manufactures h^a^ing; been reduced to two, ^hree or four per cent, would increase the revenue of the proprietor in a like ratio because of the consequent chea|!>ness of the manufactures and agricultural products.'* In his Statement Florida Planca Ghows how the taxes had really been diminished even for the proprietors, for, sai'^s he, : "Is there a new tax when instead of the fourteen per cent of the alcahala which your majesty wotild have a right to demand imposes anly seven, eight, nine or ten by distributing this'tax bfetveen the peasants and the proprietors ; between the sellers and the purchasers ; between the poor and th»>rich according; to their respective means ? And yet all the complaints are -founded on *-hat fact. The ob- jection is only raised- ^.'*ainst this tax ■on' account 'of ^i'?J n6w- ftess. v^ince this five percent has been added to the two, three, four, five and even seven per cent, wi*th which some sales eT o x^ i .-? . J H w» 4. ij M^uod 9fi neriw ,noxti8oqftii 9r.t to a*!ofoi '.IS -3»y 9ri:f nx bstqmexB ©tsw ,s9nollxiT! srf^ oc* ta^t^^J® ,anoiBivotq ^•ttjd nssd f . 'tP.Ul'.: .0 Kss ' j?\7 e- ? r:S9 3?5 0^ s- • on 3 9'I : *Drft to S3 9n$ser{j ^n©rrp9?3no.j ^-^fJBJ v9 feSffB X a £cn lb 1199 d rllBBt berf S'5X»;t ©rf^t worf 8W(; n29v;-&.::! ; s'lBatJi'i jiu'-i 9"i: ^ anfiom 9v*J::fi>6qp8i its -;/3n sv .:^xIL'OoJii no xa ■ ,owt sfii oi bebl>fi nesrf aj&rf *n » m o a rr J t rfw .Hit. i ./ , .•: •1 ■> j '■': ':.> t n 9 v ■ o >r{i tOB ^ooq ♦©lit :jO ©r"* lit- jhA vj 3 1 noi*u©{, 9jnlfi .0 9-t.'^.t" 80 sales, which are very few, are char^fed, that tax has never risen to fourteen per cent which your majer^ty would generally have a right to impose. For most of the proclucts of manufac- ture and agricultare this contribution does not rise above six, or at the most above seven pei^tdnt, divided, as I have Said, among the proprietors, the peasants, '^he rich and the poor, although the latter are not so heavily burdened because they possess little property and because they contribute every- thing from their labor." The tax on those proprietors who '.live on ^heir estates, instead of living at the capitals, was reduced to two and one half per ce^t i^a order tO;. encourage in- dustry with that class. "I ; "" l-.st y^ur ■- From the Statement made by Florida Blanca ik can be feasily seen that the proprietors had until the establishment of the income tax escaped the oppressive alcabala and »:ii Hones •end that their opposition to the lower income tax was because of the shifting of the biirden onto their shoulders. The peas- ^ants and poorer citizens were compelled to buy their provisions *t the public market and therefore could not escape the tax, "while the v;ealthy proprietor either pi'oduced his own necessaries ior' traded with his tenants who were quite as eager as he was i"to escape the exactions of the tax collectors. The cost of maintaining the Consejo de Ha^cianda was ^Ortnous and "^he single sala de unlca contribuoion, though it had achieved no definite results, consumed 600,000 pounds an- Oo teven aerC xi^t .-tsrf* , he^4^«»rC5> ©fe ,we1: vt<»v «>tr .'f:>i'iw ^seXee • vodB ©ait ^ton asob ciO£^*;(H*''*noo 9T0Mi;fi>iT,>^ hne e^ut e3i/Ri>©^ b^W" « v«#f{ 08 tort e i'^c^ti^ c'xoo leTooq J»ni' atiw Off «.« i[«^f |tJ3 s^xjjp 919W o: * tw b»fo«i:t 10 iBbnei.-- . . .. ot^Bno') ■ ■- ' ' -riB abnuoq 000,008 bomj/anoa taili/ae ^^ it nu.ally in salaries anc' adrninistra*-ive expenses. Al.nough Charles III and his ministers redliz^cl' the great' evil o? the' system of taxation and seem to have reoogni^ea the true cause of its inefficiericvj the'reforms that were instituted were •■ X. rather half-hearted and narrow. r^vertheless the trend of the fiscal policy was changed and nroke down at least part of the insurmountable barriers to prosperity in the industries and r.u na^y. Charles trii J ♦•o • tr;e coat of commerce • " ' The expenditures of ?pain increased in a measure proportional to her economic development. During the reign Of Philip they amounted to about 3,359,529 pounds ; to 3,779,183 in*^the reign of Ferdiriand Vi ; and^ in*'i788, the last year of Charles* reign^ t'hey rose to a grand total of 8,161,713 pounds. According to Canga-Arguelles the expenditures which were 1,342,275 pounds during the reign of Philip III rose to 27,297,991 pounds during the reign of Charles III. The ex- penditures of the last year ' or the reign of Charles III con- sisted of the follov/ing items :-- Royal household, 747,621 pounds ; secretaries of state, 82,444 pounds ; councils snd tribunals, 1,879,830 pounds ; pensions, 32,935 pounds ; embas- 1 7. sadors and ministers, 85,720 pounds ; revards, 52,258 pounds ; secret expenditures, 46,208 pounds ; extraordinary expenses of th6'' treasury, '440,833 pounds ; paymasters of fhe 'treasury, Si&, 633 pounds ; debts of Phildip V, 6,187 pounds ; army,* , 1. D . y"cf.%'vol. VI, p 18 I riJOr'tlA . F.V)arT'=>'T;x«» s^^t^B'f^^lriimhf! vine g9ii*?I.e'? ni x^^fi^^ 91SW bsiuiiitftrri ®*I9W cfsif^ errnolarc ©rf^ ? ^aneJt jiltenx 8:fx ^ 9fi;t la- (fidq :f«i3»i ^b nwob i^-Aond pes ^f*,-!it£fy 8«w cjiXoq iBdex'i . sjt amino o I t^ i*©'^ ^aal ©rit ,83 VI nl baB i IV bnsni. felts'^ lo n^iei 9rf.t ni .eftrtwc^ KIT, 1^1,8 T-c ie3'0:f b'^Blt'^ G*a?? ^ao^TY .-^'ilei •selierfO oJt dfioift III qi I ifi*! lo ugiei ^rit yiaixub tfrnvo* dVS^S^&^I -x« sr'T .TIT soJTerff) ^o n^ist $rf* -iniivb 2»7ftir€T lee^Ves.^S -noj H T- seii^n'.) 'to asisn: 9.nL? t^© TB©"^wSSi suit ic 8©'Xij:J'x. ana q IS8,VI»T ,6Io;1&aiJO/f IbyoH -*: emeti ?^niwoIIot »H^ t,-© bslel^s slion'JOo ; Rbnisoq I^M^eS© fS"*??*^' to «©fxfi*©ii>»8 ; al^niwq -a ^iFi'- ; o'-i.u"oq a€e,SC »snoJtanyq i s'jauu^- 058,eV8,i ^^slj-'cwitfl'"-' 8d 3,414,380 pounds ; intendarits and oofnmissloners, 44,445 pounds; charity, 48,100 pounds ; navy, 2,000,000 pounds ; loan banks, 64,718 pounds ; interest on bonds, 575,466 pounds ; interest - on other debts, 430,619 pounds ; making the abov6" named total of 8,611,717 pounds, out of whioh 5,414,380 pounds were used for the ariny and navy. . The most important items of expense are, the public debt, the royal 'household expenses and the army and navy. Charles tried hard to reduce the cost of maintaining his court and established a Junta to see that the arount should not i increase. - iu^.. ;ii The necessities of war compelled Charles III to in- crease his army to a considerable extent. The num.ber of militia regiments was raised to forty-two and various compa- n- nies of urban m.ilitia were maintained. Charles III passed various ordinances for the improvement of the army ; disci- pline was restored and the army was placed on a respectable footing. The creation of schools of infantry, artillery, cavalry and the engineer corps vms a good proof of the inter- est Charles felt for his army. After the peace v/hich followed the disastrous war of 1761, Spain had only about t^feirty-seven vesseld of the line and about thirty frigates. In 1770 there were fifty-one ships, ranging from ii2 to 58 guns ,^ twenty-two frigates besides a number of smaller vesseld, making one humdred and two vessels 1. Muriel, Vol. VT, p. 141. J8 ,?^>in«d nsol ; a^rr : 000,000,.^ eVt^>?r! ; Bbntjoq 001 tB^ ,vf Ij^iiBrfy '-•-s; 9-xew 3*:>«x;oq OS^^ii^Ir^ja /fjtrfv e;o t'^i^'nuo'i VIVtIIdtS ^o bXoil olcffi "4 no lO^aei 5ew sfilq ft ovvjL nl .-.^ 3ftt?.?)cf 5?:'C*B:3i*T'i ow*-v5r!«;'. 'it motl: snti^nsf .1 . .lov , m in all. In 1774 Spain had. sixty-four ships of the line, eight of which were three-deckers, twenty-six frigates, nine shebecks and twenty-eight other vessels of less strength, mak- ing a total of one hundred and forty-two. In 1778 before the second war with "England, the Spanish fleet consisted of sixty- seven ships of the line, thirty-two frigates, besides other ships, in all numbering one hundred and sixty-three. The sup- port of this fleet demanded great sums of m^ney and was the cause of the financial difficulties in v/hich the government be- came involved previous to the founding of the national bank.* - with The finances of Spain during the reign of Charles IT I were hampered by the excessive burdens of the army anci navy and though the ministers of this reign tried to Improve fiscal con- ditions their remedies seem to have been only temporary and were in most cases applied rather timidly. ''"^ -^ policv w^l S8 TMiB ^i*t;v o [rtt^t x£fJ^ asM *-' . a^ib&r'^t tt^t eriol-^tb r£^ d^ tw Iter' ]b£fO;;ea a ft } r Q.'f ■ -'i&dlflAia ii' •'---till. &ff-» ' m CHAPTER Aa I . « ?-^ ft f? •■ ' pi. ">' ; ? t of tte 'r- of t.hi«{ tex th*-- ad- Until the reign of Charles III -ihe restrictions on trade and corranerce were practicall-y prohibitive and as a re- , suit it was either carried on as a i-ionoiioly or by srnuggleFS. As early as 1760 Charles and his ministers began to devise projects by which they hoped to promote the commerce of Spain with Algiers, Tunis, the Levant and America. Departing from the principle of exaggerated protection initiated by Philip V Charles remove* the duty An many foreigh'Tnanufactures, cocoa and sugar, and re imposed them only in order to defray the ries expenses of the war with Oreat Britain. In 176,0 he also Vrik made a commercial treaty with England so that foreign commerce might be put on a more advantageous basis. The vacillating policy which Charles was following in these commercial reforms was more aiparent when in 1764 he prohibited absolutely the 2 exportation of silk called cabezas. Then again a year later he reverted to his original pian and proclaimed the abolition of internal customs duties on grain, so that i*- might be trans- ported from one province to another without an exorbitant tax which made exportation so expensive that one province would 1. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 245. 2. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. 246. ^3 I moil 3ni;ti6q&a .fi;ijti9inA bnB toBv^l &ri* ,ai0£r? ,at8iaIA ri:Mw fiirl.* ^ail^b o^ labto fli xi«o fls®^^ l>9»o'^^?fnt»i bna «tBj|iia ban ORlis 9r[ OdVI ill .xiia^t^^a ^saiD rf-*^ ..^ *4Jt -lii**. e:«?^'^^^'T«e 9jT9Hiraoy n^i»iol i»iU o^ bnsXsnST rf:flw vjifitb-ict iBij-isramoj c5 ©i>Bw 3ia'iv> . r IiUut9[n!t}0j ©a^rit ni ^niwoiloT: aew .,._<.., jx{ '3 n'oirfv ■^^jtloi mit Y-ta-uIoecfe bs-tlc'irfoiq ©ri l-BTi nt n^riw ^rieisq B diora saw a ts^Bl ise-^i B aiB^fi n^rfT .aasadBj baJLIaa >IXia to nol^Btntoqx© -:iaB*i:f ©d -iijitra ''i tBrI- oa ,jKiij*:;3 ao ^^iiah suio^taw^ iBxri^vai l^ 3CB;}' Jfnfitlcfioxs aa tjjorj^iw fejri.ton ftno raott fjattoq ,-6t- . . ' 86 suffer' alb so fiitV v/ah^ M^^iTfe ' ei neighbor inc ohe had more food prodvicts than were needed for home consumption. '-The evils ^^ of this system were inestimable and it seems as if almost an:'^ other* country but Spain'' wdWlbf have' W^ ruined under so r;reat a burden. A.t the time of the abolition of this tax the ad- vantages of this reform were slow to be felt for the means of transportation were confined to be'a^tis of burden and the roads 'end canals had not yet experienced the salutary measures of ■?'lorida Planca. In the same year of 1765 Charles reaffirmed the law passed by Ferdinand VI hy which he forWd^' t'hfe efkporta- •tion of rags as being injurious to the paper industry and also eatablished so-called free trade between the island of Cuba, 2 the Windward Islands, and Spain. : ^'^ In 1767 a royal itecree was 'issued which proclaimed internal free tra^^e in all necessaries 3 of life. "Since then, the liberty of internal commerce was a principle constantly guarded in Spain, in harmony with the iilGctrine upheld with respect to liberty of agriculture and of 4 'industry." External commerce was the subject of profound study on the part of Florida Blanca and tlie Marquis de Senora and in the year 1778 free trade v/ith the colonies was declared ; though as early as 1764 Charles had attacked the monopoly of <^he galleons by establishing a regular line of vessels leaving 9---- - -----------_._-- 1. Huriel, Vol. Vl, p. 143. 2. D. y Q., Vol. VI, p . 247. 3. Ibid. '^'-^ • ^ 4. Ibid. 56 food eiom bsrf eno ^aliodrfalsn b slirlw tasw ©ctjjloadk- .Tub -be f^riS xaS aiff;t to rioi:tiiod« srit lo ^mi^ ©rid -\ .nsbiu-^f 8 to ariH'^'^)"! srff 'toiT' *l9l erf 0"f woT^' A'jfi.v' (•tolai sIjI ]^i^\^*n^\f 1© aafwea^em ^istulBS ©/!:? beoftfttiaqx© i'«'^ ^on ftsri slBctsj bns s^i 16 nol* jBdwD to bnslai d/ff iidcwjta^ »h«'t;t «8Tt bellBJ--^^ n.^.-??> r f^f-tr r« SI lo bnfl ^n.utXj;j>tiaB to >j^i9dtl o* 4';>8f<|adT K,tijr bXsrfqu suiiJaob •^btfts bns/oto^q to to^t^^J^* ^df &tsw ^o*i^nmQj lBnf9txI^ bis 6ioae5J sb aiifp-tfiM 9-:.^ bnM awneXH fibitoXl to i^neq drtcf no ; -be-tsX jBb agw av^tnoloj srC^ ri^i^f <**^^»?''t 09it 6VVX *f«otr <4ff* mI to ^:Xoqo^ora oriit 6d?f^Bt;t6 bfirf aeitariO ^dVl qb ^Xi«6 as d^^odi j^ftfvsftX al9?jp!9v td drttX -ffiXfisB^it fi :'^itld8iXds^aa t<* a«09XXB5 ejit 1 ,1 oo Corunna for Cuba and Porto Rico at intervals of one month. This decree of 1778 was called "Ordinance on the free coiimierce with the colonies? but the term* free* was only a relative one, for the freedom consisted only in allowin^:, the courts of Seville, Cartagena, Alicanti, Barcelona, Corunna and Oijon to carry on trade with the Indies of which Cadiz until then had had the monopol: . The same decree destroyed the monopoly of the galleons and treasure fleets so that in the sam.e year of 1778 Cadiz sent out 66 vessels, Corunna 26, Barcelona 23, Malaga 34, Santander 13 and Alicanti 13, of a total value of 500,000 pounds. A little later the privilege of trading v/ith the colonies vf«.s extended to the rest of the Spanish ports with the exception of the BB-'^qve provinces and Biscay v.hich preferred to retain their old privileges and the profits of an 2 interloping trade to those of a regular comjnerce. New Spain did not enjoy these trade privileges until 1786 and the amount of merchandise v/hich could then be sent there was not to ex- ceed six thousand tons. The good effects of this ordinance v/ere far reaching and v/ere quickly felt. In less than ten years the exportation of foreign merchandise had/been trebled and domestic exportation had increased to five times its former dimensions.' The importations into America increased from 160,000 to nearly 3,000,000 pounds and the exportations to 1. Muriel, Vol. VI, p. 170. 2. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. 168? 3. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. 169. .^■"'. '■-0 e^'i i-YQli.. ;xaauv moDe- ' -lux lor* fit-!./ xib«D r^jjt-^'w to ^eihnl erll r{;?i> rto v*rt.ej o* IK «ao^: e^S enoIgjffiQ jc-v' 13'^nwioO ,'3l92'i9\'" 33 Jtjo .^n^;". stheO 3VVI to /i-sq triLir.Te.+ iai »J[;t?iI A ^:>.>:il'l • 000,006 ?^j'ti=*«" t'''To Ht-^'^l to «.1o9tt9 0003 9rrT .ano:? f>aB^"0'-*t xls hfefo ;idw afini4 iisai nl .tXet ^^iijiyj^ d!X*W bag $,■ ' ^*i -Xiri a^idv/ B7 1 Europe from 620,000 to 8,000,000. All the maratime provinces of Spain were greatly beneficed by this lav and commeroe re- ceived a great impetus. Catalonia became very prosperous because of these privileges and its present commercial suprema- ''ty'"(^'':tes from 1778, Louisiana, Florida and Trinidad were given special trade privileges and consequently experienced considerable prosperity in their industries and commerce. T^exico was placed on a better economic footing by receiving a market for tobacco, wheat and sugar cane, v/hile Buenos Ayres exported salt -cod «nd wheat to Spain, thus procuring not only V'good market but also giving the Spaniards an opportunity to free themselves from the humiliating dependency upon the Eng- lish for their great staple fish-food. The lav/ forbidding foreigners trading with the Indies to come v/ithin twenty leagues of the peninsula was repealed by Charles. One great disadvantage under which '^he Spaniards labored in their struggle for com.mercial prosperity "was ^:he scarci'^y of good' sailors so -^hat much of the carrying trade was in *"he hands of foreigners. One of the principal reasons for the establislmient of free trade v.'ith colonies was the desire on the part of Charles and his ministers to entourage the exportation of the home manufactures and it was for f^is purpose that various woolen and cotton goods were exem:pted from duties for ten years, - > i:t-a' ^li^ ;_• i J. I^ '.l^- _ _ _ _ . _ . _ _ _ . . . 1. Muriel, Vol. VI, p. 171. a0ot » ' A iOOeO^; ■'.J ao^r^A F.orfOM^i ©iiriw esneo : ;tB»rlw ,oaoadoT "T -•Ifts be ? noqt? \:on8biie to ffoi/ft! ;tBfft oe etoIlBB '^ -I stC :oioj BBtt IO i «J lUvt jOW B& while foreign mantifactures, Y/ines, oil and brandy were ex- cluded froyn the Indies. The same ordinance decreed that all vessels loaded entirely v^ith domestic products should he ex- empted from one third of the export duty and all colonial products as cotton, sugar, cochineal, Indigo, coffee, copper 2 and quinine Twere to be entirely free from export duty. Gold was taxed five per cent and silver ten, v/hich rate was later reduced to two and five and one-hplf per cent respectively. The exportation of gold in any form and silver in bars, as well as threaded cotton and building wood to foreign countries v/as absolutely forbidden. The absurd customs duties, levied according to the size of the article, were abolished and an 3 ad valorem tax wa» fixed. The main objections raised by opponents of free trade with the colonies were dictated by self-interest and came iflitify free Cadiz vvhich had been shorn of the monopply. It was argued that the contraband trade had increased under the new system and that it was cheaper for a foreign nation to trade with colonies than it was for Spain since the rpofits of the con- traband trade were so great &s to make almost any risk prefer- able to legitimate trade ; but since the revenues from, the customs diities were doubled this argument had very little 4 weight. Still the contraband trade was a great obstacle to 1. Bourg., Vol. II, p. 195. 2. Ibid, Vol. II, p. 195. 5. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. 197. 4. P. B., Statement. Ifilaaloj XXa htm ^cJi; i n-^l . Ttlififf i -l' >'.♦•• f «i r.c.'^T- — *. a*^ e>'*n -Jri r ,*g(jiQj[k< •J-* .J ill r\ ♦ j^ tJ 4i;f(i,»T\i ( , ,•> t^nti.T f»FA eld:fii fTev- ; >«XdiiOv) ft-se./ eel 7 , r i.V . U r .'f T 8$ making the colonies a reliable source of revenue. The high duties levied on foreign goods toward the latter part of Charles* reign ge.ve foreigners so great an advantage "^hat the Spamiards could in no v/ay compete with them in supplying the colonies . It was absolutellr impossible to guard the coast' of so vast a possession as the Spaniards had in Ar'erica and Bourgoing figured that the Spaniards paid twenty-eight per" '■ cent duty on foreign articles before selling them to the '■** colonies, v^hile the foreigner paid abo&'t 'df bur ipef c'ent'export and four per cent insurance premium, against risks. This gave ^he foreigner an advantage of twentv-two per cent so that it v/ai quite natural that the colonists shouJ.d prefer to trade with them.. The islands along the Aj:qerican coast were used as entrepots for contraband goods and this illicit trade "was car- ried on^Hs'Si^th'^y^'We colon is'ts'as^'ty'^or&igfeef's* '^-■^^'^^' ^ ^' The colonies both in Am.erica and in India' viere under the control of the Council of the Indies, which was chosen by the king and divided into adninistrative and judicial chaml)ers 'as was the Council of Castile. The Marquis of Senora ifas at the head of this council during Florida Bianca»s administration and it vras he who first proposed the plan of granting free trade v/ith colonies. He had previously been vice-roy of Mexico and his experience there gave him an insight into "'."he needs of the colonies. Curiouslv enough Mexico was the last 1. Bourg., Vol. II, p. 209. ?o *tf?.q tB*tFji Mf b-rswol aboo to bstvnl sstctrrb erfi ran- 8g£«j:i:3v,n£; n.s .:t.'.'t)'!3 oa a-ion^xt^-iu: 9V33 ngx-'i : ' -i^i'iiiriD 8ii:t 3nt)ii of 9* cfia^orfmi ^I ?:?fjlcsni? rj/r/"- .:M . aslnolou 9VS3 BlriT .asisti taatsge nuiitfdtGf aonfiijuanl icio^ aj8 bdaii 91©,/ tafjou nuax'i&f'iA erf.t ^nola 8tfcy«i«I .isisiicf rftlw - cA.i ;^, ; V fi^ss'it ^i;iilll aldf hem sboo^ baedstttio.i '^ot a,+ ocTft^*rt« 90 Of the provinces in America to receive free trade in 1786 and then restrictions were placed on the trade so that only six ' thousand tons of merchandise were allowed to enter that coun- try «ach year. "-? --^. > v.-:,.:on, v-".'.'''^ i; Charles* policy, in all matters affecting coranerce, was rathf^r for promotion of industrial prosperity than for^"- conmerce proper. The duties imposed on foreign goods show a desire to build up a market in the colonies for Spanish pro- • ducts. The king; and his ministers seem.ed to have forgotten^ that since m.ost of the m.erchandise had to be brought from, other countries bec-^use it was nct?jTianufactu.red at all in Spain a tax of six per cent would have placed the Spaniard on about an equal footing with the interloping foreigner. In looking at tlie ordinances and decrees of Charles we can find only two which purposed to advance commerce at the apparent expense of industries. Those 7fete"'f.'he decree of 1765 for internal free trade and possibly the one of 1778 proclaiming free trade with the Indies and particularly in the concessions made to Florida and Louisiana. Trade with other European nations was if anything discouraged since tt was thought that the only things Spain could receive were manufactured goods in place of their raw materials, as wool and hemp. Both export and import taxes were charged and formalities attendant upon customs regulations were extremely burdensome. Boujrgoing says that 1. Bourg., Vol. II, p. 218. 0^ leri^a mof'\ td^uoid act o.^ berf sQlbn.^-Kc Lq .tfeom, ^yai*- B nieqcl ni lis :fa baic/ioaluxiBci^ on a/iw Si 9 a9i*i^aM0j I«aid;*nJ: tot adVI to a5»t;ja& 846Tcf esTl .8. 91 "it is above all in respect to foreign commerce that Spain 1 plays an inactive part." Ke excepts Barcelona in this judg- ment of Spanish coirimercial activity, saying that its exports consisted mainly of silk, cloth, cotton, v/ines and brandies and its greatest article of iinport was the salt-cod v/hich the Enfilish caught off the Newfoundland coast. The English re- ceived more than three million pounds annually for this com- merce, although various attempts to substitute this fish with some other kind had been made. The French writer remarks on •the singularity of a heretic nation supplying a Catholic na- Ltion v/ith the article of food v/hich was generally prepared with salt taken from Spain and caught in v.aters first dis- r- C covered by tlie Spaniards. The slave-trade \;hich had been granted as a monopoly to the English by the treaty of Utrecht was given to a Span^- vish company when that monopoly expired. This Spanish company had its entrepot at Porto Rico and when in 1780 its franchise came to an end the government of Spain undertook to carry on this trade itself. For that purpose it acquired from Portugal tthe two islands of Ferdinando Po and Annobon when the treaty of peace was made in 1778. Bourgoing says that *hese islands v/ere , poorly situated for this traffic and that the Spaniards did not possess the proper ^vessels for carrying slaves, nor did •^ithey have surgeons who understood the diseases of the negro. 1. Bourg., Vol. II, p. 175. 2. Ibid, Vol. II, p. 175. 3. Ibid, Vol. II, p. 249. V .^ ..^ ^v "J. aaJtrfi^OB-rt g.ti Ot3'?X, ni n«rfw ixn^ ojtH otto*! t-a cfoq Y-B»'i^ eri? rterfw 7«ifJOftnA baa c fox a 70 fi ,a^v«Ici jfjni\"int0;>t toPt »I ^ Later contracts were let '^•o foreigners to furnish a certain number of slaves annually so that the colonies might receive an adequate supplv . ■ . Various commercial companies had been founded prior to Charles* reign and as a rule v/ere short-lived. The most famous of these^ devotecpi "to European commerce, were those of Aragon, Saragossa, Granada, Sevilla, Toledo and Burgos, all of which had become extinct as early as 1784. The grem.ios gr guildp had ^t first revfiy^d aU concesgions^j^n. Jhe ivay, of commercial monopolies, but v/it'n the formation of the Caraccas com-pany their influence decreased. Campomanes and J. vellanos attacked these corPorayioj:is,aji^ in tHat way caused the. monopoly Of trade with the Indies to be taken from the Cinao gremios mayores, the most profitable guilds in Spain.'^ The Caraccas ViOmpsny.v.'as fou^de^ in 1723 and,. in 17^2 had 12 large trading ' vessels, Iflk; ships to guard the coasts and employed 2800 seamen. But its lack of judgment in importing too much cocoa from 1770 to 111 A reduced its profits to a larre (degree and when in ..^.^ 1780 Rodney captured one of its treasure-ships it received a - blow from which i^ never recovered. ^y'r>. -"'o , ,, ^ The fgrmation of a Philippine company had been pra- posed as early as 1757), but the distance and d;angers of a sea voyage to these islands prevented the plans from meeting with any degree qf success. In 1767 Musquiez, the minister of 1. Colmeiro, Vol. II, p. 457. 2. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 242. 3f? 'r>9ft3i 9'i 9 >. i«^vii r t<:f bBH rf ^i ifW' ^ loltq bs'^nifot n99d barf asirtfiq 'lis ,a03TJ/a bnar bfr^lcT ^nliiv-y X .^ anox«fe#6noj lis !j^1rlo-^ * -^tt tfi bBff sMiua -jo aisooteiBO 9fl:f lo ftottBiTTtol ©f{^'i*.tlw JtirtJ fa^il-: .-ioiefTifnoo aolffTS't^ o^ntO fir':* n'.cil rtd>lB;f 9d (y& fesif^nl e rw ebB'x^f 'io 3D ^ffT .nteqS ni febXirj^S sItfB:* tto^q taom sdt ,a9io^:i?rr ^nlBfif^ dgtBl Sf bsff 2BVI fti bnj» B2VI nl bebm/e^ 8»w ^rtbqriuv. t>VTI moVl fiCToO-j f^jf/rf oot 3nl aut to :?CobI ail .tucT nl ne.ffw .in 99T38*b 9;1bI e W 'iiti:*to*tq ait ft'^j^fifta-f''*^'^''"' r*^ 3 hevts^ifii ft aitrfs-stcfaasii aft '*to 9no b :bo5i OdYi 89a e to 3Tdar:^.b h.ie e;>n9:talb '^K ; TV! af0 ^lt»^ aB b^soq to Tts^tainirrr srf* ,setjjpefcrM VBV ■ ■T . i-.^^. Ta^ .q t oV ,0 9S finance, conceived the project of founding a company composed of Frenchmen and Spaniards and Choiseul tn ought he might com- bine this company with his "East India Company arid' therefore encouraged its foundation. But this first plan failed and was only revived in 1785, by d'Estaing and the Prince of Has- ^ftt-^t'e|en^-lho having visited the Philippines on "a trip around the world proposed to found a post for trade with China there a and he offered to subjugate the Moro pirates who were costing the Spaniards 20,000 pounds annually. This proposition was coldly received by the Spaniards and then abandoned. The matter v/as, however, brought up again in 1784 when a junta' presided over by'OalVe^,'' the Marquis of Se'nora, 'w^s appointed to found a Philippine trading company. It was proposed that the capital should be 8,000,000 dollars q^f which the ^ank of San Carlos Was fo talce on6 si'xth. Cabarrue, the founder of that bank, was the one who procured the iKecessary funds ?nd he divided the capital into 32,000 shares of 250 dollars each. The king and his family invested larfje" suifi's in the new enter- prise and great enthusiasm v/as manifested by the merchants of Madrid and other cities. The Cinco Oremios of Madrid, v^ho had controlled this trade previously opi^'osed 'the n^w company and refused to take any of its shares, but hurriedly sent out a ship of their own. Unfavorable weather compelled it to return and the ship and cargo were finally sold to the company. 1. Bourg., Vol. II, p. 256, 2. Ibid. 5G F)9Roqf!T0j vnaqmc . :, ^ejfiJB rril 9to*iei»rf^ 'one ^^fwqmoO ^Ibnl isA^'A ai/I il.*iw '>ini^; "^:tf3 h^iidrf rtsXq ^atll: 'ai/f:f ^xi^ sftnuc -Tjsiuojns a sidff* tin "Iw s^ oliow erfl «j^»v fioi^laoqoTq al/f^ .vlfBjtnins afJUiioq 000,02 ctb-xnifiaqS erfd" .-^©rfi hssoqcrrq eew :fl . 'i:nsqttO j :iqqtllrf^ ^Bff ^rfij ocf bJtba 'cIlBrfit a-rs'.v oaias> h'a& tms n-uJuSi 94 The sailing route v/as charged so that the vessels returned, by v/ay of the Cape of Good Hope instead of Cape Hern as had here- tofore been the custom. The Dutch tried to prevent this but Florida Blanca gained his point through diplomatic channels and considers this advant-j.ge worthy cf mention in his cele- brated Statement. The first vessel which v/as sent out had been loaded with tea and muslin and the cargo did not sell for many ;;ears. Two vessels returned to Cadiz in 1787 and the r cent. The company continued with varying'; success until the year 1805 profits of the trip amounted to more than fifty per c when it was reorganized, but was finally abolished in 1G54. Mirabeau attacked the founders of the Philippine Company with ■ V. T'Tit' V t A r i ?j" 4' r i r f- all his well known ardor and his books ofi the subject of the national bank of San Carlos and this company were prohibitediin 3 Spain by a royal decree of July 9, 1785. ^Hiatever evils to r,BS7 ' ;this company may have represented to the economist, there can be no doubt that by its foundation new fields for commerce were opened to the Spaniards and the possessions iii the far East came into closer touch v/ith the metropolis. Commerce was regulated by various commercial ordi- nances based, qo the Ordenanzas de Bilbao. In 1782, in the same decree establishing the bank of San Carlos, the endorse- .ment. of drafts v/as regulated so that a proper and efficient 1. P. B., Statement. .2. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 278. ;3. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. 279. ^G -919/1 J&jirf ae o'f ^>0 to ©o jE^rf -f'o ■*r{'--ip. ?..'^tr K,if''v/ f^:;?.">.'^,v .tft-ffl- ArfT . w*nsr<'^<*-*n h^.^ftT-^' -rolllso :c)a px • ^ »--»^v L>aj* .li^^^*^ ^^^ ^^^, ^--^ '^^'^ n system of credit v/as established. A royal decree of June 22, 1775, Fi"t)vid'?d for the election of deputies of commerce who were to draw up lists of raerchants in their tovms and also report all vagrants. A decree of Decem]per 24," 1774, required 2 that all books should be kept in Spanish. The circular of February 3, 1787, coimnahtfecT all lookouts and watchmen to notify the nearest military garrison in case of a v/rcck so that only those engaged in life-saving could approach the v/recked vesse^-y .-„>., \ . ■■■A thus preventing the plundering of wreckage. All these acts t.r were later united into a code of commerce, which became quite celebrated throughout 'Europe.'^ 15 ; i »rj^g commercial marine experienced a considerable in- crease and according to Coxe the number of vessels which en- tered Cadiz during the six years ending in 177'6 was 984, and had increased to 1,867 in the sane term of years ending' in 1788. In Alicanti the number had risen from 722 to 2,187 ;~ in Malaga from 641 to 1,059 and in Barcelona from 401 to 749.'* "'■^' In surveying the changes made for the benefit of commerce during the reign of Charles III, it is necessary to remember the heavy burdens which had been imposed by his pre- decessors and that that which seemed like emancipation of trade for those times would now Te considered equal to a very high protective system. -..r!Ui..J. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ 1. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 541. 2. Ibid, Vol. ^I, p. 542. 3. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. 542. 4. Coxe, 2nd Append. ^B1 ■ . c -• 'iii^ cV\l .v: -:\IJA':) cItSS'i XiS aXlJ" ^nJLIiJD XXCijJ D3'T^J lo til9n&ff eiii tol: sbeni 8 9§nsrfu 0* "T^^oSooo.T " :. .ITT s^jitPrf! -)f Bri" \:i6v fi o^ iBJLjpa i)9iobJt8no:) © f wc .at; . f. 96 in r.us*. a*-- CHAPTER VIII. - EDUCATIONAL REFORMS AJ^TD CHARITIES. 1 Co■rlr.^ll The Bourbon dynasty perceived the necessity of re- forming the system of education prevalent in Spain at the beginning of the eighteenth century/knd such men as Macanaz, Camjillo and Ensenada were the first to ^;ttack the system and ;to institute reforms. The benedictine monk, Peijoo, from the obscurity; of his cell attacked the vices which had taken iroot in all institutions of learning and though prosecuted by the clergy, through the Inquisition, he paved the v/ay for the 'sweeping reforms made by Charles III. vfno n f »-#w)f<»,-? Instruction was divided ihto, primary, secondary and superior branches. The Church controlled all education until 'the formation of the brotherhood or Hermanidad of San Casiano which examined all candidates for teaching in primary schools and in that way the clergy was deprived of some influence in 'this branch. In 1743 Philip V conceded the same privileges to those teachers as were enjoyed by the masters of the liberal arts and confirmed the i)rivilege of the Hermanidad to examine candidates and to appoint inspectors to visit the different -schools. *. ^ - - - CK , -i/c. v.. '^ ,--------------- 1. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 289. 2. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 290. All the decrees and edicts are taken from the same work. ^Q 91B a#dlbe biiH aeeto&i> &rft IIA .0'. 97 ..In the franchise given to the tov/ns of the Sierra Morena in Chapter seventy-four it is stated "that all the children must attend grammar school and that one of these should be established in each district for the different towns in it." The school v/as to be situated near a church and the Council of Castile declared in a decree of June 11, 1771 that "the education of the youth by grammar school teachers is one and ever the principiM branch of the administration of the govi» ernment of the state." All candidates for teaching were examined by the San Casiano brotherhood. The teachers of girls had to be examined on questions of doctrine by an eccle- siastic board. The text-books used in the primary schools were decreet! by the Council and on December 22, 1780 the same body abolished the brotherhood of San Casiano and in its place created an academic college with the object "to promote the perfect education of the youth and -a. i. instruction dn the rudi- ments of the Catholic faith throughout the kingdom ; also the rules for v/orking, the exercise of virtue and the noble art of reading, writing and figuring ; to cultivate men from "•- - their infancy to the first steps in their intelligence until - - they have grown capable of progress in virtue, sciences and the arts ; the preservation and increase of religion and the more interesting branch of the ciuil ana economic government 1. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 292. - - TU aet-TiJ lg sno :r£ini' -Jiii; looiiaa 'taffid^iS :>ri9:fri3 Jaxita n9i:jX^nj •iaii^r iVvi ^ ■" 70 38'ia^i> t ^^Blj^bo ijll:!:a.B'J to iijnjJoO eno ei at^rij^©^ ioorfoe .'/ ©iiif to rtotSBouhti Bd^^ oniBs dii;f OSVi ,,s:si n© no Jiue li;>mxoO srit ic eisw T'L' ©ctsvx^Ij/j oi ; ;«^/TJtiff3i1: baa ;jai:^i:"rw tgniJbast lo t'ts :^flW!iat»v,08 alff?Ofii6^a# ntiB it... tes-xe^tifi ©ion . I 98 (l)f the state." The Collegio Academioo, a sort of normal school, was established by a decree of the Council and no teacher could obtain a position unless he had graduated from this institution or from one of its tv/enty-four branches. No school was to be under the same roof with a tavern, not even if there was a separate entrance. Teachers had also to study grammar and orthography in the Royal Academy of the Language and the read and learn the Christian doctrines. No person was allowed to teach who could not prove the purity of o ?, J his blood and and show that he had good habits and had led a decent life. By the royal deq^ree of May 11, 1785 v/ere estab- lished in !!adrid three schools for girls. It also recommended the establishment of such schoo3.s in the larger cities of the kingdom. From these various decrees it can be seen that Charles III laid great stress on primary education and as *late as May 15, 1788 he issued a decree charging his Corregi- dors to see that the teachers in primary schools should dis- charge their duties as provided for by the decrees. r. -, Secondary instruction-^ was directed more toward edu- cating and strengthening the body and the mind than toward in- struction and the course of studies was confused with primary education' and higher education, being supposed to represent a sort of intermediary course in preparation for a career'. It generally comprised Latin and philosophy and often embraced Pi ■ i. D. y C, Vol. V.I, p. 294. 30 .ton ,T^f»vB!^ t' f^^^iw loon . ^•.' loorfdr^ J b#i/eex *ll sevi , -oih bli.x.r{« aloodop. \:iBml\ . >h ; 99 subjects taught by the faculty of Arts. There were as many Latin as grammar schools and Philip iv and later Ferdinand VI confined the former to tov/ns having corregidors, intendants or alcaldes majores. In the decree of January 19, 1770 Charles III organized secondary education in Spain. He gave the Jes- uit college in Madrid, known as Collegio Imperial, to the in- stitution known as Reales estudios de San Isidore, founded by Philip IV in 1625 and he reestablished the chairs of Latin, poetry, rhetoric, Greek, Oriental languages, mathematics, phil- osophy, natural lav/ and ecclesiastic discipline. This school had a director who assigned the duties to the various masters, but he could make no change in the courses of instruction with- out consulting the faculty. To attain the highest possible perfection there were to take place competitive examinations within six months, at which the competitors v/ere to offer three public exercises before four examiners and two ministers of the Council, v/ho would grade the contestants according to merit and submit their decisions to the Council who would then recommend to the king the appointments for certain chairs. The Council controlled the faculty of San Isidoro and passed upon all appointments and courses of instruction. Charles III also tried to interest the clergy in this revival of education and in a decree of August 14, 1768 he commanded the Council of Trent to build seminaries in all of the large towns and cities. The convents vacated by the ex- pulsion of their orders were generally turned into schools and -rii 9d^ o.t ,Ii.-li^- -fill ot.-3©XIo-- -^on:>[ tbiihsM rtl ©isell -rluiv rolf j'Jt^anl tc a->2*i7cj 3;f v-'j err erlsr^ hluco 9i^ ijXdiaaoti aa&ii^xil &^^j ru • Xw;>CX 9- riQ'^* fX :'T.7 Grrvr fKjf^i/.D ^,;^:^ o.-^ p,f-;otR fji^f. •rlf)/'.-^ t{m^u?. f.rff. ..-;•. ^^ij 4Xa>o"' . ;^»a£Ui:t!^- ■■ to ila ni sf^lT'ifiiirnea Miucf o^ :' To ItotissoO ^ifit^xoo -X9 Oft J ;,i'j ifOC&jLv iitneviiQ^ &nt • ae ' "^ 1.00 seminaries and certain taxes were set aside to pay the salaries of the professors. If the seminaries v/ere to be for the secu- lar clergy they were to be controlled by the archbishops and bishops, under royal patronage ; but under no circumstances ..> were they to be under control of the order-s. All directors ^ were to be appointed by the king upon recommendation of the Camara and the prelates. The chairs were to be assigned by competition under the supervision of the diocesans. Grafjimar, rhetoric, geometry and arts, beinfj necessary and indispensible to all classes of youth, were taught in these schools. The bishoprics v/ere under the controi of the imperial government, but the Council; decided all questions of policy, es-^eci th*^ r,v7 By the expulsion of the Jesutts, Spain lost her most efficient body of educators and in order to replace theiii the -seminary of Cindad Rodrigp, was founded in 1769, but was in- e corporated with the University of Salamanca in 1777. In 1771 D. J^ay Alonso Cann founded the seminary of Segorbe which v/as ^later incorporated into the University of Valencia. The bishop D. Juan de Luelmo founded in Logrono in 1776 :he seminary of Calahorra, taking the college abandoned by the Jesuits. Many more such seminaries v/ere founded, encouraged by the sup- port given by the crown and the clergy. Around the various universities had grown up a lai'ge inumber of large and small colleges which were of greatest im- portance in the Spanish educational system. Of these col- leges those known as collegios majores were the most famous t . ;rt£5«9ooi6^rf^ 1:o fioleiir<6qi/8 &/S 7 fioi moo « insitfmevo?, Ifiii&qwi exit to ' ^^tuo^ ©lii ir^bflir 6*t©^ -aal1fqo^^ .>fjlioq to ftfioI*e9«p lie ba^bli>«*b fljnyoT^ **^* ^^tM ^soia leri ;taoX nisqR ,arlija&T> edi to nolniiAlxs 9n:- xE - , . "^ffff {^^"tl ni bebiiiioT: 8B-W p;|i«i|>€>^ M^iit'^ ''■'^ ^'"^«"t'".^B IVVX nl . VVVI itt fijn/?fn£-' iv^ beci:;':jOHiOi> 9f(T . B r on&XBV 'lit 'iiHa't»^%0§^ &'-'-' • * rtl h^^^^. v>-^, * ^^..^ renldse erf^' bVVi nl ono*t^oJ[ ni tsi^r n.il&uJ qB nflxit r0 tjofi«iu egiitl nwotTi hBf: eei^lsisviffir au^ltiiir 9^ -ftfi rfse^Bdig i.6 B'^pif /(^tf^w ass?;!.!. .. -4,-vfdrrf ~Iou sasflt'tO ".mate^e Ifinpi:tauwi)© iU.i.mtj*ilS $>.i bjii^cr-iovj riirofftB*^ taom ©i-fl" 0f9w 30*10 :jI:^911oj aegeX ICl and most influential. There was one of thes,e .-coileefeS -^t . Salamanca ; ,oae at Oviedo ; one at Santiago ; one ,..at ValadO'-. lid ; one at Guenoa and one at Aloala all of which were founded during the fifteenth or early in the sixteenth century. These colleges had absolute autonomy and the most deep seated abuses had in consequence arisen. The favoritism shown without re- gard to merit and the dissensions which arose caused Charles » III to appoint Sr . Perez Bayer to inspect t'lese colleges to report on the abusej[ and suggest reforms therefor. By royal decrees of T^ebruary 15 and 22, 1771, Charles declared that tak- ing account of the ecadence, v/hich had been going on for more than a century in the universities and colleges, especially the majores, and to reestablish trieir old standards, their .v,>... constitutions should be revised, especially wi'nh regard to thcbse causes on the subject of prohibition of gambling and residence in the colleger. He also forbade the admission of anyone to a fellowship without special permission of the body of fellowx^^^-g nor should anyone be treated as a fellow even if he had spent seven or eight years in college. The crown was to administer the income of all the colleges and Charles III appointed regu- lar inspectors to watch the colleges. In the decrees of February 12 and April 12, 1777, the reqA,iirements for honors were indicated. Of these purity of blood was the most important, o but the awarding of fellowships was to be impartial and fair to rich and poor alike. A colle'giate term was not to be longer than eight years under any circumstances and the students W6?**:' L'li -oialBV' cfB ©no ; 0?^i5l:?nBR , 1 vO 4j or'pmBlBP ot r: otJ 0E . i d^l" . '.S ^nioqnff? o- III -Av^l ^Sit^i bdlBiti)^ n »«XtHffO tlVVI ^^V'.rfeillB C' . i^'i^i»c• 9':^ori! *!EdT no barf liiltdw t^3^^Jnt9hx^J3 • arf^ to cfmiojj© s^^^ ti&Hv* ; -^a BXo ti^f^ YfBlldB.cfas^nf oct .ae'to(,Biu erf:? fi o.t afio^fi^ to fjoisfclrr^' lot oalB dH tH'/zoildt tt sMt t0 nOj efft f^-i':* to a^sTofiil^ :'0f(# -.til •'ra»3.fiXIosf' sf^* -'r^j^Bt; ^^ .r.-i.7Uirr,.ic. . ■. t 'T9W eionorf TCt 3:ffi<>mQfi*xpil*T QrfV , iS 2X \:ij^tr*td9'^' 6cr ot :fon 3BW-HW9# o^si^^iXou ^^ >^q bxijn riyii Oo :5n9bL • bf!B 8 9;)ni HOX ic; of the oollegios majores were to he under the same ruX^s as,, those governing ■ the rest of the university. The defenders of the collegiales majores tried to influence the king through his confessor, Pr . Joaquin Eleta, but his influence -did not shake the former's resolution and as the fellowships of many of the colleges expired they were filled with students nomi- nated by the king. By a provision of the Council of May 23, 1767 it was forbidden to teach the doctrines of regicide and tyrannicide against legitimate rulers. Various decrees were issued froii! 1768 to 1771 which prohibited the methods of the so-called Jesuit school and the use of its books for pur- poses of instruction. A royal decree of March 14, 1769 pro- vided that the director of feach university should be a nember of the Council of Castile. and that he should follov/ the "In- struccion" in all natters. The decree of September 6, 1776 forbade the discussion of the privileges of the Crown and -a^,, censor was appointed to enforce this rule. In 1784 the censors v/ere told to watch that no utterances against either religion or the king should be made . V The University of Salamanca had always enjoyed spe- rcial privileges ; but the decrees of 1770 and 1771 defined its jurisdiction and provided that the rectors and councillors of i:the university should be elected biennially. By the degree rot September 20, 1771 the obligation to take the oath of "Obien- di Sectori in li«Litis et honestis" was imposed on all matricu- lated students. All students in colleges and seminaries were subject to all the laws, rules and re^iiulations of the ."'♦f^^-*'•^fT'r s-r?: 'i.,^'yj'iii:: ;^ni :W 1 :.Li^ V '^■^\,^'^ c;yj.i5i^'t» ! pact. f ?? T t''^;^?:^ a t? 3 .1 1 u y »n j •3«i- . a '■ t. i ; ■ 1 V : :■ 1 3 X : i ^^ -.■ x : fl a i iz Qji y r> i c.) j. hub 'i ■; ." ;jn e 1Q 8 !>Offi* ©m ^r^.^ b©;ftdi r(a^q ri J i-4v XVVl o:" 88V t ftejtrasi ^^^oor' 'Yat/ erf-^ .f^ns foo5o3 ^ir/3sT, f^elfso-'n noisil^ji 19X1^X9 teniii^B EeuiiB*iaJ"jJJ on zup:: nor^v/ oz cio:' sji n^nii^eft' Xt*'tl lhil- OYM lo osaia-bb arir ::jjo ; e i"!^ ifiXJ 1C3 Council of Castile and had to be regularly matriculated ..^ ^./Ic- cording to a decree of November 8, 1770, the clergy could re- ceive their bachelor's degree by talcing courses in their con- vents ; but, having abiised this concession, it was ordered on March 11, 1771, that the courses taken in seminaries, colleges or convents under the control of the clergy would not count toward any degree. The hours of study were regulated in a depyree of August 3, 1771 as were also the courses of study at the University of Saiamanca in 1786. The simultaneity ofi-ji,. cours^QS was prohibited by a decree in 1772 and by another de- cree of the same year no credit was to be given unless the student had renewed his matriculation each year. According to a decree of March 5, 1773, bachelors of arts trying for a high- er degree had to assist the various chairs in t4aching and the duration of the collegiate year was fixed by royal decree on November 18, 1785. It was to last f r jm October 18, to the day of San Juan in June. The courses of science, mathematics, philosophy, physics e.nd. other subjects as given in the semina*^ ry of the nobles at Madrid, Vergara, Valencia and San Isidore, „ were to be accepted by all the universities, according to a decree issued in 1785. By means of these numerous decrees, Charles III tried to build up a sjirstem of national education and he succeeded in at least rooting out many of the worst evils . The object of articles eight and nine in book eight of the Movissima Recopilacion was the establishment of grades ?:3i ■nuO^ Jon bliiC ;>i i* i>i'y Im iO*£'«^ii «•' 'lii Zi^UaViiO. to /.Udii&cfiurTtls'fefft .d6Vr ni «;j :^Jta«i*viftU erf: >0 melt ?R»I 0!* ^BW -^T ,^.8^1 iBi *fc>r{m©voF rro otohlpl nsR bfiB BljneiBV ,B•IB^^•seV• fbi ts ael^of!' ■erf?*- t . aXiva to 3foorf nt ^n^rp br 1C4' in t?ie universities. The study of surgery received special attention on "^he part of Charles HI and in 178? he established a royal college of surgery at Madrid, under the immediate 5 only reqv;! \if^.ter*fi da^x^''' - protection of the Council and independedt of the Tribunate Protomedicato and of the Junta of hospitals. In a royal de- cree of P'ebruary 24, 1787, the qualifications for graduation were fixed. There was a constant desire to draw up a plan for the general control of the universities and D. Pablo de Olavide submitted plans of reform to the University of Seville. No general plan was adopted, though in 1770 it was proposed that each university should outline a course of instruction. Though these attempts to establish a system seem to have failed, a Spanish author rightly says that : "The impulse was undoubted- ly given and the same universities of Salamanca, Alcala, O-ra- nada, and Valencia, made notable improveaents in their courses of study and ended by placing themselves at the head of that intellectual movement and progress, which constituted the most 1 Bin fe glorious achievement of the reign of Charles." Prior to the reforms instituted by Charles, the edu- cational system of Spain was unquestionably as bad as a couple of centuries of ■ abuse could make it. Don Leucada Doblado gives an excellent account of 2 conditions then existing in Spain. The methods employed v;ere said to have been worthy of the thirteenth century. The study D. y C, Viai. IV, p.' 308. 2. Doblado, p. 102. *0I e;^Btb9^lmi eff. E.y t^^i^t) ub TO 039 J.' -Qf; i^^'iu"^: B al .s,ii;-v xq2or: 10 Bjnxfti sr.r 'to 'ons oi-Bjxrjair.Ou o".'! o93'froo -rx'^- «■:* ni a.-^'ftBfibvontqr'rJ: 9l(fe:f0ff sbBn ^fiionelaV bnB ,Bben . -^x jIfiOo 9SUiB ->i^iJi 910./ beYOi-iiro ajoii^ota &f^'r ".cu^qc: ru ;<.'a:-ai.x9 cfsnr snoxd'Xbnoy . ^u^ . 1C5 of Aristotelian philosophy was forbidden and. instead of that the inductive method of Bacon was taught. Three years of attend- ance in schools of logic, natural philos^ophy and metaphysics was the only requisite for a master's degree. Each university had three or four profe^ssors of divinity and as many for the courses in civil and canon iaw and i^iedicine. The six great colleges, or collBg^os majores formed the literary aristocra- ^ cy ; for none but those of untainted nob4.e blood v/ere elected to their fellowships. In order to insure against mistakes, one of the fellows went to the birthplaces of the parents and grandparents of the elected member and examined, on oath, from fifteen to thirty witnesses who had to sv/ear that the ancestry of the candidate had never been a menial servant, shop-keeper, a petty tradesman, a mechanic, and that neither he himself nor anj'- relative had ever been punished by the Inquisition nor had descended from Jews, Moors, Africans, Indians or Guauchos, the inhabitants of the Canaries. In this way the colleges v/ere backed by. the influence of all the great families of Spain and all the places of honor both at the bar and in the Church; were held by the collegians. Regular men of ability were kept in reserve for public literary competition and in that way the evil was somewhat disguised. The Marquis of Roda had been rejected because of a flaw in his title to purity of blood and therefore nursed a deep enmity against the collegios and also against the Jesuits. He succeeded in breaking up the exclu- siveness of the former, when he became a minister, by appointing + 1-. .-T ■* n- - ( xj97j9i9 919W booXd s^dofl netnxsJfw to se /d »non lo ; j ao . ,benioi8X8 &ns "fsdmein i)#:rael9 ©riJ to a^neieqbn •r '.■ ; ■' ; ■-;' '■ ■; ■,- ** ■■•'■< ' , ' ' . . , ' bi3rf Ton noil' t^.il■(■nl ©'■'•* ':rf bei^^lnirq nsorf tevs ' .'■. 31 9w 8936^1X0 J sri:* ^ew airfv nl . TB/iau en 3;?nfi:fi(tBiini Q'zu^:^^ nx Dxiii lac i^r iviivn xo i ' nl itqei eiew '::?lIlo'fi lo n&rt telirsaH « p,nBJts®-t-to^ ®rf^ Y^ bl9ri eri^t \ifiw cfBff;* ni t te7*).tll Jl.^-^• tea 91 n99d jberf sboH lo stfij.... ' .' ' . - bnfi boolcf lo vcflTuq of 9icfiJ sxrf ni welt b 1q 8ei;aj9d b9ctj9t,9T 'i:tnloqq» x<^ ,'^.9^axftim e 9fB^s(f sri nerfir ^i'^ 1C6 all the fellov/s to hir.h places in the Church and then filling: ^ef b*ij*?LUK ^'r'K^ of their vacancies in the colleges with young men of no family. The older fellows disowned their successors, but the barriers '•■i,-u-r-- •■ in tir;- ■ ^■-;.u" . ■j^i'^r-i: the of exclusi^'eness remained down. The same authOF thought that the influence of fhe Inquisition was extremely bad and compared the conditions to those under which Galileo recanted his own discoveries. Major Dalrymple, in his Travels through -y, hoth f':< '^ i r 'f iV<*!7Cf? of Spain,* comments on the dilapidated condition^of the universi- 2 ties and lays it to the "king's despotic influence." Bur- going also speaks of the backwardness of learning and attrib- utes it to the lack o:^ rewards or encouragement for learning, the religious restraint and the wrong principles governing the 3 system of education. The expulsion of the Jesuits had left a vacancy which was hard to fill for the endowments derived from Jesuit property did not amount to enough to supply the chairs vacated by the members of the order with well paid pro- fessors. Charles III was the friend and protector of arts and r'ii^..iciK- sciences and passed various beneficial decrees in order to in- crease t":eir influence. Florida Blanca granted heredetary nobility to all :nen of letters and university professors and 4 exempted from military service all printers and book makers. 1. Dob 1 ado, 2 . Dal . , p . 7?) . 3. Bourg., Vol. I, Chapter XI. 4. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 394. bOi TIfi -.'vyooiu awolibl i.i^bl^ w;(T lit n»ff:t hHB riatttfCO : . r ^rf?jt an ^tj t"t-i. irt r fT»Tri t. f arii \*Iqq;;8 o;f ffsuon© ocf ^HtJOfOB ion b^u ^in&quiq J^iuseL lautl - jiq bin Ji ciii-v T©bto ii sn'^ \id be^fe^jev fina sc-ie lo *o;?uev^oiq bnis brieiil sn'cf 8bv/ III asI-iB.iy -ni :9bio ni &eetoQb l&ijiJQaBd auoii&v begasq fme esorr^ioe bn3 8^0889'lo^q \vti8i9vini; biifi a-xeiJbi to a&ci IIb u;^ x^llidoa w8i95fsm /[ooff bai« aled'niiq IIb ejivrsr atqmsxs ,obfciIdolJ'^t;fb %6'''ft. Medical works T^feVe' not allowed ttf^r'^ I-'rinted without the approval of the president of the Proto- * medicato ; and the maps of the frontiers were subject to the revXis'i'br of trhe royal acWelnr d:f' Tif story .' On NoveinbBr 14, 1762, all taxes on books were abolished, excepting that on books of general use for instruction, which were subject to '^Ue tax 'of the 't-ouric^Y. " "^hei 'Vbyal 'S^ci^s "cff 1764 and 1768 made the copyright of the aulrhor heredetary if not held in mortmain. The decree of June 8, 1769, forbade the printing or "introductiori of any "Bulls, 'brife^i^s", or' oth^r' ddcum'ehts" frdin the court of Rome. Prelates and other members of the clergy could grant permission onlj'' to print books of religion or sanctity. Books could be introduced fi*om' dhV provfriue ah to another, but not from foreign countries into Spain without the license of the Council. The printing of Church literature was regulated by royal i^ecrees of Hay 1 and June 28, 1775, and on November 29 of the same yrar a decree was issued declaring that the official censor would hear the author of any boote and pass upon it after having done so. Accor(fing tb the decree of January 1, 1785, noi book could be sold before cne copy had been placed in the royal library and one in the Reales "Estudios de TTadrid. In 1787 the royal company of printers and book- binders was given the right to print all books on ecclesiastical matters and to reprint, without an ecclesiastical privilege, however, all those books which would be beneficial to the c •t^w jfalrTw ,noiifji/*f ot ««« len^n ajiood •to noi^lIST io aaCooirf In ota^i bluoy . ^}3r.lV'. .-'0 roil: ■ h«jo''^otvttl' !^^"ftJ fiiif^fj'ifiMJt ri;>"tijrr!) \o ;^dl*rtl'? . I . Tsjob ©ri* to e«n»jii ■gsfije^ or?.* tf:* -O.-jbA . o: ^te :i • ,6s©Itvtiq IajJ:;taBia©Ioo9 na cfworf.* t Ciff:f o.* lBloiJ.enB(i fid Muow r. , o/l 1C9 comiTieroe of the nation and to that of the oomrany. The tri- bunal of the Inquisition was charged with the duty of drawing up prohibitive and expurgal^ory indices of books, but the royal decree and d-^-cree of the Council issued ^n the 7th and 21st of June, 1767, respectively, forbade the publication of ail books injurious to the morals and customs of the people and . those which were seditious or injurious to the powers of the king or any other ruling princes. Two decrees of the Council issued on June 14 and 16, 176G, declared that the Holy Office should first hear the Catholic authors of a book before con-" demning it. The passages v/hin^ were offensive to religion or perverted the Christian morals were to be determined and ex- purgated so that a book was not to ^e prohibited entirely be- cause of a few harmful passages as had heretofore been thee- custom. All edicts of the Holy Office were subject to the approval of the king. Besides the encouragement of the publi- cation of books, which Charles III lent to authors and pub- lishers, he promoted the publication of periodicals and this. class of literature contributed much toward the extension of . learning during this reign. The same system of censureship was decreed as that exercised over the publication of books. The influence of the econonic societies .was not con- Tined to ameliorations in the industriaii system of Spain, but also served, to improve, to a large extent, the educational conditions. It was due to the efforts of the members of the Vasconada society that the seminary of Vergara was established, id, ' thus giving the you4;h of the nobility an opportunity to receive QOl JcXii mia ii4V iifi^ nD i>^;iiax aiaauo .i oaTtgorj -dwq bne atorii^uB ot iahl III eel'i ta.^oocf lo aoi;tBj lOvHOi 3119^X8 ©rf^r lisv/o^ r*;^>;a bac:«dX'J-a4>u d'Wf^B'ia-*^ rjasl;; qiiiaB-cuaxisa lo tced'a^a .scias 9X: ' .m^l^-i nlM gnii niaol .n>(oorf lo n J fito^ji f r^'-j.-r ?55:t •r'-^vn b^alotoxG *Bfi.t h'- b99'ij9b 3BW -npo ;roa .ai4v.v.J&fi^x-&lv>Q^ ^iu-^,oaujt :'- :fjjd ,(iiaqP. Ip a9iM\:a JBliw8A;|)rji 9r(^, fll aCToi.tBTBil9CTB tl , .i>eri « i XdB -* ae aaw B"t6a*x6ll lo ^iteii iirt • ; a V 9Vi9j8T ocf" v:Mnt;:tToarrro nis ^'■tftllrfOT erf . ^ -^frivl^ sJlrff lie their education in Spain instead of having to go abroad. The Basque Society v/as the model for all similar institutions and Caniponanes persuaded other provinces to follow in the same footsteps. At the meetings of these societies papers and various topics, touching on the welfare of the country, were discussed and nearly all the most learned and progressive men of those times contributed in this way. Prizes v/ere dis- tributed annually for essays which dealt "frith the problems of the industrial conditions, and everybody tried to present plans 1 which would tend toward the betterment of popular education. One of the principal projects was the founding of patriotic schools for poor children, where they might be taught in all branches conforming to their station in life and especially the managem.ent of machines. The granting of a doctor *s de-, gree at the University of Alcala de Henares to Dona Maria Isi- dore Quintana Guzman y la Cerda, daughter of the Count of Onate, v/as the motive for the creation of the Soclecad de Damas for ladies. This institution had been approved by the king and was really a branch of the patriotic men's societies. Its members were mostly of the nobility and the Infantas also joined in the good work. Charles III believed in the educa- 2 tion of v/omen and it was only through his intercession that they v/ere allowed to participate in the inteiiettual progress which manifested Itself in the kingdom during this reign. The 1. D, y C, Vol. VI/ p. 407. 2. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. 411. ^' '.-^ ■-'■* nit wollot of a^cjnirv ■ -ToqmsO ^i. LiS ue q « i> D a^ • fl'i x.i ax u j i :r e c c > n i rai ol a q i^ a an jna.^ d -lei QLt^-V sfioO 0-^ p. f^'i nn fiK' tfb /JCsjIA "o ^-^i^i'^vinU s-ft .^n ss-fQ to -nxjoD art J 'x.o idrri,3i/0£) tii.b'ssCj isi \.ai^ aaawuxu^. siod - -..y :- ) 9-^-^ nr c-vVfrls.-^ Ill nfil'isdO .:;{'. o'.7 boo-?, sr '^onfot Ill Junta de JDarnas v/hlch began with fourteen women of the nobility soon increased its numbers rapidly, for membership v/as eagerly sought. This new societj'- worked zealously for the promoticn of learning, the foundation of schools and other matters which could be improved by their influence or v/ork. Women were no longer barred from the advantages of higher learning and they were given dfegrees and honors which had previously been re- served for men. Florida Blanca in his statement made in 1788, said that there were more than sixty patriotic societies most of which were endeavoring to aid, educate and awaken a desi*^e - ' for work among the poorer classes ; they encouraged the arts, ' agriculture and handicrafts, and they had established drafting ■'schools, v/hich were of great importance for the progress of "^the arts and sciences. Besides giving academic degrees to women, Charles III allowed them to try teachers* examina^-icns, and ±t successful gave them certificates for teaching. Coxe says that the institution of these societies v/as one of the bv most profitable and one of the happiest conceptions which oc- curred to the eminent men of Charles* reign and a Spanish au- ^ thor in speaking of the same subject sayr. that the intellectual life of the Spanish nation during the reign of Charles III was 2 regenerated, progressive and truly glorious. ■ oi As Charles III v/as a man of intense religious and*' moral conviction, it was only natural that the Church should be 1. P. B. Statement. 2. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 412. ftn f,f ocfCfcr ^ri:^ "fr-'t vrp.rfolaes h: . . . on Slew n»«o'7 .3(to«r ia Buneulln it i#rir*^ v4 b»vc -©1 n89cf ^iau©lv»^q bsri rfyirfw e^toxicxi J>aii fiawiQS'B nevis o^sw ,8eVI fli ©fc^iii 4ft©cti9ctB(f8 aXA at B&afslF^ j»b:fcT0l^ .nactr tol: bdvisa lo :^Rnr- Efti-.*»^j08 ^tfoti-teq xjtxia HJBlfJt Afon^ p,'"r?,\s' Tf^rrt tSf^"* '>tfts 6;xa&i> a n©3ia«^ij A one o;JsdUbs this oc ^niiovssbiiG ©i8w ^ijliiw t^cfros 9ffXiiw ,aioorio3 I 3&ftTg9b oieflebeos anivi^ aei>is9e .ssoneija bna e^is ©ritf •,.j' .^iiiri^fi©"? -lot 89i«3ltiti8» CTSxl rlaasoows 3li bm> 0.'? lo ©xi'j afjw a»i*8ia03 sasrii *io crolitwti^fent :aa -i>o dairfw anoitqsanou ^eaiqqsff aK:* T/) ©no bna^^I eA ;d hlrrorfs rCut'rrJD ertt ^^flfl;? XttiiJ- '^rt ^irra '.t;6w ^otvnoo i.«ton 112 given great privileges with regard to the spiritual life of hi.s ^i^i:ect,^ .^ , ,^, J^Q)4gl\ b,oth_Charles and his. ministers had adapt- ed the unswerving policy of making the Church subject to all the civil lav/a of the kingdon there wert; very few decrees is-' su,e4 which affected.. .,th^, religious rights aiid custome of the Spanish Church. He did, however, prohibit all those customs^, which were contrary to a true religioiAs sentiment, the mostc notable case being the suppression of the Auto sacramental, a sort of passion play, around which had grown up sacrellgious abuses. This occurred in 1765 and in 1760 a decree had for- bidden the practice of various abuses which accompanied the, processions of the Holy V/eek. By a decree of 1774, Charles forbade the beating of tambourines in the processions of the Sagrament oiC.San Justo ; in 1780 dance§ were |)rohibi ted in'. p> religious processions ; in 1787 all noises and disturbances during the nights of San Juan and San Pedro were forbidden. V/hen the Cortes was assembled in 1760, Charles III asked that body to defend with all their power the mystery? of the Immecu- late Conception and to declare the Virgin the patron of the nation. In 1771 Charles established the royal order of Charles III and exacted from its memhere the oath "''O live and die for our sacred, catholic, apostolic religion."^ The badge of this order had on its face an image of the Holy Virgin and the Junta of the Immaculate Conception was united with this order i 1. D. y C ., Vol. VI, p . 444. 2. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. 445. \11 ^du^ewo eeorf^ Xi»- .t id 111 o^aBd«oi;f«ib haA aeaxon XIb V8VX fix ; anoiaaeuoiq sifoiailet .ri9i?Jbidi^l 9*t9# uxb©*! xibS bos aeu^I* afir '+ - -^^. ^^ - .^ir< :" b9?i»s ill aeXiBffO cOBVXjsX I^Xdmesai^ <4i*w eodioU ,8ficf 119x^(7 -uoarxi:! 9fil lo 'Ci©;?a^« »rftf i9woq ilerfiXXa xi:fiw f>a9l9b ot ^i^orf 8iJ4 \o n^ii^ii »ii^ al^TiXV wi** ©TtaXwai) c-^ ^--£5 aoX;tg9o£io ' a6X"wrfO It© ^9b^a X«YO!x •/i^ bsrieXXcffi^ae asX^i^xiO 4VJJC jil 8iJb boB eviX oc^^ rf^Jso ^di anBdcnem a^i cffotl he4-i>j6*xe hne ITI S '^^- f'^bBd 9/rT '*.aoJ^exi9T yxXoto.v .: jOlXorl':*^, 5 iia^ on March 21, 1779. In the "Instruoolon" given to the Junta of State in 1788., Charles makes it the firs-t; duty, pf that body to protect the Catholic faith and the promotion of good-- customs and the second article requires obedience to the Holy 1 See in all spiritual matters ; for though the king w^s not disposed to allow the Church to infringe upon his prerogative, he was unquestionably an orthodox Christian both in private i|' life and in his attitude as a sovereign. i-^.^i *^ ♦>,.. Florida Blanca showed himself to be a man of very .-.- advanced and enlightened ideas in the dispensing of charities. He sajrs that instead of encouraging professional mendicity, he established a regular system of ascertaining which of the - poor were desErving and which were simply professional beggars. Regular standing committees v/ere appointed to distribute the money granted b^- the king for charitable purposes or collected from generous individuals. A general Junta was appointed to supervise this work and special donations were made by the king ?t© unfortunate individuals such as officers wives and orJ)lians, or those of magistrates^ who were too modest to make known their wantL Schools and places of refuge were established for. poor and abandoned girls and there were also opportunities given to boys to learn a trade for v/hich they seemed particu- larly fitted. Loan banks were established for poor women so that they might buy material for their work. Florida Blanca 1. Crobierno, p. 107. 2. F. B. »s Statement. fi Sasj L &di o* It® V i g. *•«© J: j o irtS a it f * srf* nl . ^' ^ '^ ' : r o &Br{3 to vcfwJb tain «^r<-t *i ss^ifim seltflliD VSST M.-t^.f?^ to ,evit68o:i9iq fiXii rroq/J esnttlnl o* r(o*^ijifO srf^ woXIb 'of beeoqalb ©Jffiviiq nir if;tort fiAiiaitrfO xoborl^io na x-i^<^iB(*oic*38wpnw asw 9rf .nsisTevoa fi as eb«tt.t^»' etrf rrt brte <9l:ll Y^ev lo nfiifl'B sd o^ llsamiri bsworfa ajneX^ ©jbliol'^ tX^ijibnsrn Isrioisfteloiq sff^3«'^>Jooitft to fossc^eni :^fir(^ e^ftS •^ 9ri^Y'lo''/fjxxfw ?^niiicB;t-i908J3 to raSv^s^a tJ3Xi/3©i s bsrtalidjs^tsd srf .a'^Dierf Isrioxasdto'fq vlqi?ii8" 9iiw /^olHTifbrtfi sfllvtaasb eiew Toaq o^ oe^nioqqB a«w 8;*n«t I^Tsnag A .aXflUfelv^ibfii awo^fdnsg no'tl jHil orf^ '{d dfosm 8tew an xtBfiob Xsi^aqa ^flfl 3ii(iir alH:^ aeXv^-urfrp. ,»ff»nt|td bna aevlw ataoltto aB rfyi/a eX^jjbivihni afttiiJi:i'*iotflii oS tliirid^ owonjl 93iBfli o;t ^adbOM oovt a^sw oriw |a9ts^^ai3«f!! ': to "TPOl: bs^ria tXdavtas eif^w ©^t/let to as^jfiXq ft«fl aXoorfjH -p-^nn.^ a 9iii fitft-itjqqo oaXe Qtftw 9t9/1^ bfl^ eiila beno^rrsdB brns looq -i;o£^-teq beind&e ^;»di rtjlrtw lol ebBid* ft n^esX a** a^otf oi" ndvig 03 n^mow looq 'tot bsiiaxIdBJfae q^^at 'vt'nfut r^Rr>J . ^i^.-* * f^' 'rr«*« f aoaalE Bbi-JoX'i .:*rn 8<*vt'«^: Borrj?.!"'' isbi'^ol'^; . nvA).* 97:i-rBl sej:'£rl9''»:q TeriJc Drt£ aqofiaid ©fl;t cr^nj a'^jsa bne. a^tiow 93»ricJ' -lal Rtoit b-riff^ 9fi^ To CEOE^awbdb s/fi- ot *bje^g foeog d&tm'iief Hindis a 3iH ♦ xi68*iJtfr ib'*«xnxn 8'^nifli 9ff:f nji^&G &vsri or 2 . :iii»t'ii5 lo v:iit*fow e^s \:^x-rBrio Sntxlqqfl to aboric^ .-^ii 9/f# no «wair ':IIeft*r e*ie bfis aeaii^ ©»«fft to* s-r9:*'i-fw ?s«5:)rrHvbs tsot^ <^H* novs . ■trt©Hrte?'/i^^l>in9 una ricrDusii.; -u-t'/i^- -.-.i/^ y^ jj.j.i-.uirie'i 116 '- ^-ii*- CHAPTER IX. THE JESUITS AND THE INQUISITION. The most frequent accusation macTe against the Jes- uits so as to justify their expulsion from Spain v/as that they Jiad taP:en an important part in the risings of Madrid in March, 1766, It is, therefore, quite important that an account of their expulsion should begin prior to or with that period. In order to bring about the reforms contemplated by Charles III his ministers thought it necessary/ to begin by changing the manner of dress affected by the Spaniard. It usually consisted of an imme^nse hat, v/hich vss worn' in such a Y/ay as to conceal the face of its wearer ; and with this he generally wore a very long cleak Tr^hich likewise served to concesr-l the fori- and the fe^.tur-es. This mode r.f df ess 'made it ha^d for the police to detect assassins or robbers and to remedy this evil Charles III issued a decree forbidding the vearing of large hats ' df^'long clb'aks. The carrying out of this de- cree aroused the fury of the mob and it was directed solely against the minister of the interior, Squilacci, not only be- cause of the reforms, but also because of his forei^fh birth. The tailors, who were sent through Madrid to cut the coats to a proper length increased the already violent discontent and on Palm Sunday, Inarch 23, 1766, the mob, composed of the lovfer eii .i)Ol"XBq ^Qdt ci^iw to oi %oi'iq nl:%&6 biiJO:.& iiotafiu Sii^ -ed '/Ino ton ti^^j^HsJ: :if:lifi • fi^ild njiisiot 8tr^ to oawsasd OBi» #i;d e^ sauao l9'/>-0i srrt to b9so:fificytf:fOm exfi fbbX 116 classes, gathered in front of the royal palace, crying : "Long live the king I" and "Death to Squilacci I" All the street lanterns which had been introduced a little earlier were de- stroyed and the house of the Italian minister was sacked. The king agreed to withdraw the decree, but the people also demanded the banishment of Squilacci and the abolition of monopolies in the necessaries of life. The king granted these demands and also amnesty to "^he people, but the flight of Charles and his gfamily to Aranjuez, accompanied by Squilacci, cau.sed new tummlts to break out. This finally compelled the king to send his minister of the interior to Italy and Arand^a was made president of Castile, while Miguel Musquiez was made minister of finances. For 6.11 these disturbances, which can be traced to^yari- ous innovations instituted by Charles III and his ministers, = the religious orders v;ere blamed and especially the Jesuits. The spirit of enlightenment, which, had. come from Prance, and ,.^^ had been imbibed by the ministers appointed by Charles, found 1 its most ardent opponents among the members of this society, who tried in every way to oppose the spreading of the doc- trines of the Prench encyclopaedists and free thinkers. Wall, 'Grimaldi, Squilacci, the Duke of Alba, Roda and other influen- tial men had tried to persuade the king to take steps against the Jesuits, as had been done by Pombal in Portugal in 1759, and by Choiseul in Prance in 1764 ; but Charles seemed reluc- tant to attai;k so povrerful an arm of the Church as the Society 11 -eb 919W -reiXise eitJil 3 bs^ nt nosd berf rfjirfv^ e-?-i9>-tnBl .b9:4j63 aivw net' ' -'- aBiJ^f-"T - ' '" - - - -' ---^ -^otite osXs elqoeq 9xi^ :fwd t®-iJ*ofe «rf^ WBibriiiw ot besnaB aniM dKT lo flOJWXXocfB, erf:? bnfli lausXi^/fP tc ■*ri<^«!rff^i^e^ 9^^* ^sbrrsr'r'' ta 4"/^ t»Xqo9q a oaXe er' ' LXh.:nuj ciXeail aiilT , .iifo, vl8$'f" " ' ': •lA fma "<;Xe;tI c4 iQia^^ni 9ri>r "To fa^BXnf f>nes ot anisi sbBw 8tw selifpaifM X dX triw ,8Xxt8B0 lo :frr9.f)i8 9T'T^ :>:f ,eeVX nx XB^.iJtto*I fii XBdBio^ ;%:i. ennb ^^f^ri f t'-'-'i ^-^ -j.L'Xsi bout998 asXlurfO ^wd ; i-aVI n 1 117 Jesuits and it was not until after the riots in Madrid that he appointed a Junta to consider the suppression of the society. The decision reached by the Jun^a culminated in 'ihe expulsion of the Jesuits ;0n April 2, 1767. The The execution of this decree v/as accomplished with the greatest secrecy and it was arrant^.ed so that it should be proclaimec' simultaneously in all the provinces of the empire and that it should be executed ' with the utmost dispatch. Fro?:i 4000 to 5000 Jesuits v^ere transported to tlie various ports and were then shipped to the papal dominions. The hardships endured by these exiles was certainly disproportionate to tlieir offences and cast a shadov/ over what v/as proclaimed to be an act of great enlightenment. Although the riots in Madrid, which o(fecurred in March 1766, have generally been considered to be the original cause of the expulsion of the Jesuits, it is quite apparent upon a more careful study of the subject that they were only inci- dents in "^he movement against the Jesuits and that the ministers of Spain and even Charles III himself really considered the above named distu.rbances only as fortunate pretexts to carry out. thiir general policy of enlightenment. The death of "^ Elizabeth Parnese, the Queen-mother, which occurred in 1766, is another incident which brought the anti-Jesuit rr^ovement nearer its goal, for it vvas well known that the respect and filial devotion which Charles bore his mother prevented him from taking any steps against the society which enjoyed her protection ; though Tanucci hB.6. unquestionably inspired him ^Xi 8#rf^'^ to no X .-^ jj o ^. A t! orfT er fT , T dT I , S I i*iqA • nfls>.A^ ins © L »/i :♦ t o Ilff r?l \:X?:*f09'nfffi«/mia ?t&mtfiiao*Tq sit Mworfw*^ l>t *Bfi:' oa be^^naits 3iiw 3&jLi>:s sae.'i 'ij ny'u.fc:i9 8ilrf8jbtfir{ 9/fT ♦anoxairaob laqaq . vn^mna^ifSilna ^bS''::^^ Jo ^ob riB dcf ocf beacisl^jotq as^^ cfBrfvr levo iBnigito 9f{:f 9cr ot beta&laiioo rtsed '^Ils-Janea dvBil ,ddTi riuiBM -ijfu ilnu 9-..3.V -^9.v: :'sr,7 jj^tc^ifs sri:t to x*»w^a iulis-rfeo S'xo §/^t' ^g-I«^^ta^f^J -'.flcsT llsamli! Ill asit.a.-'O neve brta nrB-rfi Jo ^i'i'iBj 0* 3;!..s:*;r^%vi QTBnJjrio'i se ""^infc) 3*:'jn:±3d'XJj;^8Xb b^m/s.^ jjswufc to rf^fBO^ 8f{T .:tfl9rane.tn?3lJrj© "to ^{olX^q Xetsxxsa tx* ^oSVI :!i bstitiuoo rfolffw , :-fi«ewp 9rii ,e36i iBS-iI3 nriri bailq?3nJt ^Xd9f!0t^afWL;|>itsr berf luJirn;- 118 with an unfriendly spirit against the followers of Loyola. - ^^A *• In order to appreciate the influence exercised over the king as against the Jesuits by using the Madrid riots as arguments, it is necessary that we examine the validity of the charge implicating the Society in the rising. The hatred of the foreigners, who predominated in ,^ . the king*s council, and the reforms instituted by them were unquestionably the chief sources of irritat4,^qp. . This is evidenced bvv^tvhe pamphlets and dogger^llverse circulated at that time. Nothing in them suggests that the Jesuits had anything to do with the movement, but all the venom of low satire and wit seems to bo directed against the despieeid for- eigners. The nuntio wrote to the cardinal Torregiani on ^^ April 2, 1769,, ^.^yin^ tha,t, the ,hat^.^^(^^ p^.j^. thp. fo,re,ig;^ers ,wa^5. the cause of t he disturbance and expressing f-ear because of a ^belief, which was encouraged. That the clergy was connected y YfJ^p.. th^^^ tr.c^ublej^^ aj^d., that .s,qr:ie.,pa3rti,mAlar religious, ord,.er •:.,. ijiight be blamed for them. In a letter written by Arands' to 'Roda on April 9, 1766, the wi'iter says that after a secret inves- jf^d^at^i^pn h^,,ha^ ,cpme to the conclusion tl^.at. the moving spirit of the riot was the presence of Squilacci. It was Tanucci who implicated the Jesuits, though at first he thought that the ^rising was fomented by the lowest class of friars an^ that the order against long cloaks and slouch hats was the primary 1. D. y C, Vol. Ill, p.ie. •X9V0 i>eeiyisHX9 ejnswiljii arfr^ s^sIj^^ 96*10 ^I nx foe ,v ^8T9r?:^J&'T0*t ^="1?? to ; bS'itBr! 9rfT its f>9?!?;lw;>rJ:j ee^a^'f I^n 7^^ol> bne . id &' -9 srft #^jrlt fo«s fi-iriJitl to aa»|v!^^e»woi 9ii5" ttf fjelnamol eew ^niait .01 110 cause. In a letter to Losada he says that the riots re- sulted from suggestions made by some friars and that he did not hope for tranqmility of the people nntil the various or- ders had been driven out of the country. He also advised the most stringent measures against the inhabitants of Madrid and on June 10, 1766, he wrote to Losada that he was J)ersuaded that the clergy were the seciPet authors of sedition. Shertly aftervard in a letter to Azara, the Tuscan free -think r-r, he said : "The Jesuits are everywhere the same. They are sedi*^'- tious, enemies of all rulers and of nations, and public thieves. I do not knov: v/hy they wait in destroying the college of Loy- 2 Ola." In the same year he vrrote to Losada as follows : "The freeing of the country from the Jesuits should be considered carefully, but when this is once resolved, it should be car- ried out with precision and at a single instant throughout the kingdom." On December 9, Tanucci wrote to Losada,: "My^> desire is that the Jesuits should leave Madrid before the king 4 enters, that i6, as soon as they are expelled from Spain." The above extracts show the uncompromising attitude of Tanucci and upon considering the immense influence exercised by him over Charles it can hardly be denied that the primary motive for the expulsion of the Jesuits sprang from the mind of the political tutor of the king and that the riots of T'larch 23, - - - - - -■.!',: '■ir\%'r: - ~ - '^r-<_.Mm, .-^ n-.*' ^'- - - 'r '■ *- - - 1. D. y C, Vol. HI, p. 13. 2. Ibid, Vol. Ill, p. 14. 3. Ibid, Vol. Ill, p. 15. 4. Ibid, Vol. Ill, p. 16. 01 [ fcltfocM lo atnBtirfBnfTi d oB^aoJtanoa erf bluo^le ii^i./aeo £>;': irto*?! ^.1-T lo snicjeit -tfij Sri Mr; Off 8 tt ,f>©vIoee?f eacxo at ai gnt:^ *ri^ ©Tcterf ^ttb«n eve»I Jbi^roria ^sttua^I, srf'tf ts/ srl^. To fanins 9ff.t rnoil ^neiqa ejxijs^^u a.aj lo aoxaxyqx: ,52 fiy-ta'T to aloft od.t tad^ bnn ^n : 120 1766, were onlj^ opportune events v/hich offered the reforming ^••unisters of f3harles the chance they h&ri been looking for to 1 bring abcu-^ the downfall of the hater' society. Danvila says : "The corresponoence of Tanueci "v/ith the ministers of "^-he king of Sp^in in 1766 was the mirror from whence was re- flected everything that v/as said or done in I!adrid against the Jesuits and there can be no doubt that the expulsion and the manner in which it was carried ou"^- sprang from the mind of the free-thinker, who, dtaring the period of a quarter of a cen- tury, had given Charles III his political education." By a decree- issued April 22, 1766, Aranda was com- manded to make secret inquiry as tb- leaders of the riots and as to the publifhers of the satires and pasquinades against" the members of the Council. He v/as also to find means by YvM^.ich he could prevent future risings and was *-o punish the leaders. But the satires and pamphlets continued to be cilrcu- lated and Ensen&da, who had been knov/n as a friend of the Jes- uits, the bishop of Cuenca and o'^hers were arrested. Accord- ing to Lafuente there was no ground for believing that Ensenada had in an: way been connected wi^h the revolt, -^ hough it was said that 'vivats* were uttered for him. on one or two occa- sions during the rioting. His only fault had been his friend- ship for the Society of Loyola, but Te.nucci said that he had alv/ays been in old intrigues and among other things had tried 1. n. y C, Vol. Ill,, p. 16. OS^l oi Ti.^Iooi fried herf x^ti$ »«nflT ' bbS.^ -tim I gKt .■'p.frtR'-.B fU'fhft'T .Ti ano^ *¥o hies p.vt/ ^^Br'^ ■r>'nt.'f'^''r*tQV& bfr-^JBlJ. ? >ii* mntt j^Btqs v-^i/o h»iti8» aev ;tl /luitfir ftl ten ■n«';> fi' "to 't9.tifiifp « to fiotT«ia ftrf!* ^^rfitif^' .o-^y .'«:s>[r(i ;*-^^'^t grft -*fl50a vS XinqA bsiiasl «eije£y a ijF :?Baiogfi aai>sniwp«Bq hirt« ao*:i:we8 9ff^ lo aisii^^iXdifq &ri:^ o« sb ' gnivails^ riot twii/o-tg oir! S0vf^'i9ff:f . 9;fnei/'LS%I o;J :^»;il "1: sirl n6 9f(' bBxi ifXyst ^Inc ai' Jb anoxE b»rf 9f! ^arit t> ii? 8 t ;> awjs'j f t^tS v»X o %ett "^c^ X ^»1 i» o? " i -. a bQltt bBjfl e^nM^ t^sri*© 3rfor[iB bne a^rj^ti^'tni i nsacT s^:sv.rls .ai 121 to have '^'erdinand VI establish a systey of government sifliilar ^.0 that in England. None of the individuals v;ho had been arrestee* were convicted of any criine, though inquisitorial methods of procedure were used against them. The only proof of any connection whatsoever v/ith the revolt was furnished by one of the members of the persecuted Society. In September, 1766, Francisco Xavier, provincial of the Company, wrote to one of the ministers of the king, that a fev/ of his subordi- nates had been concerned in some of the troubles, against the express wishes of their superior, but the offenders had been deprived of their office and otherwise severely, punished . The king wrote back "l-hat he had the utmost confidence in the pro- vincial and that ^he acts of a few of his subordinates v/ould be treated as those of individuals only and that the Company wouid not be blamed for it. This instance and the fact that a few Jesuits tried to calm the disturbed masses -by reasoning with them were the only indications of any connection whatso- ever v/ith the riots on the part of the Society of Jesus. The appearance of the Jesuit brothers caused shouts of "Long live the Jesuits," etc., to be uttered and that naturally helped to advertise their presence. The various decrees issued after March, 1766, shov; the tendency of the king and his m.inisters to fix, if possible, "-he responsibility upon the clergy. All the pamphlets and pasquinades issued were believed to have been 1. D. y.C, Vol. Ill, p. 25. ■no -af.T -'^.rf* -' ^K.j; TA-^h ftrfO :i 1 ^i Ofn:* f/ .'!j J^/9a-iv)©b ajjolxs'- ^^'^T . ^=* vrT-»'-»-<|, f i^^-' -oad'jsriw n I 122 printed by the clergy and in April 1766 all such publications wei'B prohibited under pain of the severest penalties. Priests or any members of the clergy without any occupation \7ere told to leave the court and return to their churches or dioceses. In September of the same year a decree was issued prohibiting clergy from speaking against any royal personages or m.embers of the king*s councils. All investigations were made with a view to implicating the clergy and especially the Jesuits. A council, called Consejo extraordinario, v/as ap- pointed with the duties of investigating the riots of f^afirid 2 and preparing for the expulsion of the Jesuits. Its methods of procedure were inquisitorial ; boti-^ its members and the witnesses swore absolute secrecy in all matters and did not even allow the accused to have a hearing. Aranda was made president of this council which had thirteen members and was divided into two chambers, that of Justice and that of Con- science. In order to occupy this judicial body various accu- sations v/ere circulated against the Jesuits. It was said that satires and pasquinades were printed by the Society*s press and others declared that they had seen the Jesuits urging on the mob and had seen P.Isidro Lopez calling for Ensenada to 3 replace F5quilacci. It was also declared that Jesuits had encouraged riots with, offers of money and that they had held meetings for planning the assassination of the king. These absurd lies and the most convincing proof of the consciousness 1. D. y C, Vol. Ill, p. 25. 2. Ibid, Vol. Ill, p. o6. 'Z. T 1. i J Tr -. t-rf 123 felt by *he rovernment of the v/ealoiess of its c^ise. On January 29, 1767, the Extraordinary Council sent a proposal of expiilsion of the Jesuits to the king, this docu- ment being divided in*:o tv/o parts. The first deals l7ith the le- gal consideration and justice of such:^a^ ptep and the second suggested the manner and conditions of expulsion. Among other terms it was provided that regulars of the Company should receive one hundred dollars and lay-brothers ninety dol]ars annually ; v/hile the novices y.^ere allowed to choose hetv/een remaining in Hpain or going v/ith their superiors. On February 27, Charles gave warrant to Aranda to carry outt t'^e recommendation of the Coiincil, leaving date and other de- tails to his discretion. The only co-operators chosen by A.randa v/ere Monino, Campomanes and Roda. The date fixed by these for the carry in,^ out of the decree war, ^pril 2 and the plans "-ere so secretly and carefully laid that no one excepting the four ministers, Tanucci, and, of course, the king knew of *:h.e impending blow to be sti'uck at the papacy. On March 30th Charles sent a short letter to the Popi declaring his inten(6ion to expel the Jesuits from his domin- ions. He also sent one to Tanucci at the sane time, but the effect of the two letters v;«s not the same on the tv/o recipi- ents. The Pope sent Charles a letter of earnest and sorrowful 2 appeal asking him to reconsider the step which he had taken. 1, D . y 0. 2. Ibid, Vol. VI, p. 57. n -; ■ I f»fii :iym 124 Charles* answer was respectful and dignified but he remained firri in his decision, declaring that the expulsion was a rovidential act and that no irionasteries or orders would be permitted to exist in this kingdom v/hich did not remodel their constitutions. He also said that no religious order was ne- cessary for the welfare of the Ohurch, and that he had acted solely for the benefit of his dominions. When Tanucci heard of the decree, he wrote to Gampomanes that the prosperity of Spain was assured and that she would soon rival England and Prance. He calls Aranda t'^e Hercules who had performed a super-hBtnan task. It is necessary to read the letters of Tanucci to comprehenfl the great satisfaction he felt when he received the letters from the king and his ministers. On April 8, he wrote to Rollari that he had congratulated his friend D. Manuel upon the expulsion of the Jesuits toward Wiiich end he had been working ^o hard. On April 21, Tanucci wrote a letter to Charles, asking him to suggest the expulsion of the Jesuits to the y.oung king of Haples. He declared that Jesuits v/ere hated in all Catliolic countries of the world. The Extraordinary Councils issued a report on April 30, declaring that the part taken by the Jesuits in Madrid vms not the only charge against them. It v/as their spii^it of fanaticism and sedition, their false doctrines and their^ in- tolerable pride vvhich had characterized the body. This priffe l.D. y C, Vol. Ill, p. 45. 2. Ibid, Vol. Ill, p. 48. liO harmed the nation and also its prosperity ; but contributed to the aggrandizement of the pretensions of Rome tov/ard uni- versal dominion, which can be seen in the partiality of cardinal Torregiani to sustain the power of the Company as against the king*s. in refusing to allov; the expelled Jesuits to land in the Papal States, thB'jPope thought that he would compel Charles to take then back ; but the Spanish king had made up his m.ind to bring about the extinction of the order and after having rid Spain of the curse, as he called it, he turned his attention to the Sicilies. On June 9, 1767, he wrote to Tanvicci that he felt uneas^r bece.use of the presence of the Jes- uits in Naples and he asked the minister to aid his son in accomplishing their expulsion. In the same letter he said : "I knov/ that the3-' (the Jesuits) are capable of anything and no one knows better than I do, having had experience. I grow more contented each day for having expelled them and see more and nore hoi7 necessary it was." The causes for the expulsion assigned by Charles III or rather by his ministers were couched in generalities and the king himself declared he would keep the charges as one of the secrets of his heart. Cara: on says that the only accusations against the Jesuits can be summed up in these words: The Spanish Jesuits have been accused of a multitude of v/icked 1. D. y C, Vol. Ill, p. 58. 2. Ibid, Vol. IIT, p. 67. 126 acts and crimes."^ The provision made against any statements made b; the Jesuits on "^he subject of their expulsion was an indication of fear of scrutiny which was felt by the Spanish I:ing. The charge that the Jesuits had questioned the legiti- macy of Charles' birth seems to have been invented solely to further the interests of the anti-Jesuitical party and v/as so absurd that it hardly could have influenced the king in any way. A. Spanish author says : "Elizabeth of P'arnese has been accused by history of having, driven Spain into various ruinous enterprises to advance the interests of her sons ; but no one has ever been so bold as to say that she stained her royal couch with the stigma of adultery ; and perhaps one of the rea- sons v/hich aided in the firm establishment of the ^>ourbon dy- nasty in Spain was the honorable dignity of the royal con- sorts of Philip V, Ferdinand Vi and Charles III."^ Swayed by the principles of advanced ': bought which caused Charles to decree the expulsion he intrigued., plotted and planned until he had achieved the total extinction of the Society. In concluding it might be well to repeat that the \ expulsion of the Jesuits was not due to their alleged ac ivity in the riots of Tadrid, or to their absurd slander against the ling's birth or any other trumped-up charge of the encyclo- 1. Carayon, p. 40. 2. D. y C, Vol. Ill, p. 82. 127 paedists ; but rather to the necessity of the abolition of an institution v/hich was against all the principles on v;hich the system of enlightened absolutism was based. Although Charles III was an intensely religious and pious man, it v/as entirely in conformity with his political principles to limit the powei' of the clergy, the Church and the Papacy, as nmch as possible. By means of the Jesuits, the Inquisition, its nuntios and the numerous papal bulls published prior to thts reign many of the privileges and rights of the crown had, to a large extent, been absorbed by the Church, especially those pertaining to the judicial department. It was against these evils that the enlightened ministers of Charles III fought most zealously and they succeeded in curbing the power of Rome in such a w^ay as to leave the supremacy of the crown unquestioned. The Inquisition had lost m.any of its early charac- teristics and its omnipotence had been checked during the reign of ?erdinand VI, w^hen the king interfered in the trial of ■^eijoo. Wnen in 1760 the Holy oee forbade the publication of the work of Doctor Mesenghi, the tribunal of the Inquisition wanted to publish the brief condemning it ; but D, Rlcardo Wall ordered its publication to be suspinded. A pragmatic of January 18, 1762, commanded that no papal bull, brief or letter should be published before being submitted to the king 1. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 83. bB 128 for examina'tion. It was also decreed that all briefs or letters sent to individuals from Rome should first be passed upon by the Council, so as to determine whether or not the terms. of the Concordat were in any way infringed upon, whether the rights of the crown were prejudiced or whether the good . 1 cmstOEis or the quiet of the country was in any ■'./ay endangered. All condemnations of books were made subject to royal revis- ion. The Indictments, m.ade by the Inguisition against Aranda, "'lorida Blanca, Campomanes, Roda and the bishops who had been members of the Council which considered the expulsion of the Jesuits, declarinji them to te the supporters of the modern philosophy and enemies of the Church, were suspended by the 2 crown. The trial of Olavide, the superintendent of the Sierra I'orena colonies, v/as the last notable attempt on the part of the Inquisition to assert its terrible prerogative of earlier times, and in that case Charles allowed the victim, to escape to "'"'ranee aft-r a comparatively light sentence had been imposed. In 1770 a decree v/as issued confining^ the juris- diction of the Inquisition to cases of apostasy and heresy, with- out the right of placing the king's subjects in prison before having heard them. A royal decree of June 16, 1768, forbade the condemnation of a bool: without previously having heard its author. Danvila concludes by saying : *'A11 these acts go to show that Charles III preferred to limit the jurisdiction of 1. D. y C ., Vol. VI, p. 84. 2. Ibid. ,n J 129 the Koly Office, to softer itis harshness and rigors, and to convert its ancient omnipotence into laudible flexibility, rather than decree the suppression of -^he tribunal, v/hich, as the historian Lafuente recognized, would have clashed v/ith many of the interests, occupations and traditional customs of a large part of the clergy and a large part of thehpeople . " 1. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 86. 130 CHAPTER IX. PEPSOFAL CHARACTER 0? CHAPLEB III. The precominant ohare.oteristios of Charles III v/ere his good nature, his honesty, virtue anc" his tenacity or stubbornness, as his critics called it. His paternal rule while king of Naples had so endeared him to his Italian sub- jects that they considered it to be a national calamity when he left. His Spanish subjects became equally attached to their king and he made it his constant aim to procure their prosperity and to increase the glory of the nation. It is true that he made mistakes, especially in foreign politics, during his long reign ; but they were not due to any selfish desire for glory, but rather to reconquer territory which he thought rightfully belonged to his crown and virere a menace to the peace of his kingdom while in the hands of foreigners. Wlien Charles came to the Spanish throne, he was near- ly forty-four years old and, according to his ambassador in Paris, he v^as a little more that five feet tv/o inches in height, well built, very robust, tanned by the weather and had a large aquiline nose. His large nose was said to have marie a rather bad impression at first, but that was succeeded by a feeling 1. D. y C, Vol. VI, p. 5. 131 which was quite the reverse upon further acquaint^snce . He was exceedingly cleanly and dressed so morlestly that it was hard to tell v/ho, in a royal, assembly, v/as the king. Charles was a man of scrupulously regular habits and vms so attached to his mode of life that anything that interfered with it would upset him. His love anr' affection ^'^or his fanily v/as constant and one of his finest traits. His matrimonial life was exempl-^jry and exceedingly happy. His virtue was famous and was the subject of considerable commedt ofi the part of contemporary writers, for continence among liings was rare. Charles had thirteen children by his v/ife Ilaria A.m.alia of Seixo- nj'" and his interest and love for these was second to that he bore his subjects. She king's refusal to marry again was said to have been due to his love for his first vdfe and his fear of creating difficulties in his succession. ^ Charles* experience in ITaples had made him unusually fit for the tasks of a ruler and his choice of ministers is the best proof of his administrative ability. His hatred of changes of any kind made him reluctant to discharge a minister once in office and this v/as unquestionably a great source of good, for it gave the enlightened official an opportunity to work out his reforms. The regard which Charles III felt for Justice in most matters is shown by his reluctance to ask for favors for his personal friends and Iluriel gives an instance where he 1. D. y C, Vol. VI J p. 11. 132 expresses great joy v/hen a minister announces the appointment of one of his proteges to a position which the king had not cared to ask for, fearing lest he shoulr influence his ninis- 1 ters in their choice. The paternal rule which Charles exer- cised over his subjects is best illustrated by the degrees he issued and by his attitude at the time of the Madrid riots. He said at that time that his subjects were like children v/ho cried while being washed. The purity of his own life caused him to pass many lav/s regulating family relations and espe- cially those betv-een parents and children. In order to get a good idea of his character it is best to consider the opin- ions of the different historians of this reign and especially of the foreigners among these. Uanvila says : "It would be difficult to find anong the kings of that epoch, one who lived and reigned with more frugality and modesty and who lived more apatt from the temptations of the worlel and the danger which 2 courtly vanities and flatteries offer." A Prench author de- clares that Charles III v/as "simple in his manners, exemplary in the regularity of his private life and also as a prince, scrupiilously honest in his relations as a monarch, but until his death he paid a tribute, both by his acts and by his words, to superstition.""^ At another point this san:e author says : "Under Charles, Euterpe and Terpsichore ha^ lost their scep- 1. Muriel, Vol. VI, p. 3. 2. D. y C ., Vol. VI, p. 10. 3. Bourg. , Vol. II, p. 14. 133 tre, Being more simple and riore uniforri in his tastes and in- different to profane pleasures, he had banished then from his surroundings and contented himself with the encouragetaent of the silent arts as well as the sciences. A stranger to love, and although good, he Wc^s almost insensible to friendship dur- ing the thirty years of his reign, with the possible excep- tions of that with the Marquis of Pquilacci, which came very near proving costly, and that v/ith the Italian valet de cham- bre, Pusi, who was only influential to a limited degree. He did not have a single favoirite, and protected by his devotion against the seduction of court life, he spent twenty-nine years of his life without a wife or a mistress, a unique instance, perhaps, in the history of kings. Libertinism had to disgu-ise itself it order to approach the throne unpunished, and there was never a less gallant court than that of Charles II IV Coxe thought that Charles had "great capacity, a prodigious memory and was a graceful conversationalist, speaking Spanish, Italian, and French with great fluency." He also says that he was unruffled under the most trying circumstances and never unduly elated over success. He was devoted to religion but n®ver subservient to his confessor or to Rom.e . The English traveller, Townsend, describes Charles III as follows : "The reigninp; m.onarch, Charles III, has never been considered as a man of more than common abilities, but all v'bo know him admire 1. Bourg., Vol. I, p. 262. tliVOJ 134 the goodness of his heart ; and indeed it is impossible to look at him without reading distinctly the characters of benevo- lence and truth. As a man of principle, he esteems it his first duty to promote the happiness of the nation over which he reigns and if at any time his conduct has been inconsistent with his principles ; if he has contracted unnatural alliances, without either the pida of necessity or prospect of advantage ; if, in defence of a relation he has hastily engaged in var, it has always been from the goodness of his heart and from the influence of gratitude that he has erred. In choosing his ministers he consults only the good of his people, and it must be confessed that commonly he is well directed in hi[g choice." In spite of the good characteristics of Charles III as a man and his enlightened views as a ruler, he had a few faults which seemed, to say the least, inconsistent with his general attiture in regard to his subjects or to his private life. His superstition v/as perhaps the most striking of these efecfcs, especially when we consider the fact that he attacked the Church because of abuses arising mainly from the supersti- ions encouraged mainly by the lower orders of the clergy. Bourgoing speaks of one good instance of this v/eakness on the part of the king. In founding the order of Saint Januarius, he took as a device "in sanguine foedus", firmly believing in the liquefaction of the blood of the saint. V/hile at Naples 1. Townsend, Vol. II, p. 264. 135 Bourgoing heard that when at one time this blood had coagulated Charles showed great conoern and immediately began to look for the cause of this change. It was found upon examination of the saint's tomb that a crack had opened in the partition which separated the body of the saint from, the vial containing the blood. Since tradition had it thafe in oKfder to obtain the liquefaction there should be no communication between the body and the blood of the daint, the people and the king firmly believed that this had been the cause of the coagulation and that after the tomb had been repaired the blood recovered its 1 miraculous properties. This is only one instance of Charles' primitive belief, but is typical of his weakness. The king was also in the habit of carrying with him the toys of his childhood and his valet de charabre would always change them from the pockets of one suit to those of another whenever Charles changed his dress. His affection for a certain tree caused him to deflect the superb road leading into Madrid, so t'-^at the tree would not be disturbed. The passion which Charles entertained for hunting was probably the greatest source of evil due ^o the king personally. The cost of fol- lowing his favorite pastime was enormous and besides that it had a bad influence upon the population around his estates since it gave them many opportunities to lay down their regular work in o^ler to drive game for the royal huntsmen. The 1. T'^uriel, Vol. VI, p.2-w 136 Bourbon king's fondness for the chase caused him to commit real acts of injustice in the punishment of violations of the game- laws. In one case a peasant from the neighborhood of Madrid went into the royal preserves and took six or seven acorns, said to have been intended for food for his family. A guard who caugh'- the poor man arrested him and the case was brought before the king. *'Under an absolute ruler, excessively fond of the chase, the lav/s could hot be too severe on this point.** It was decided thAt the culprit should pay for his act by being confined in the dungeons of Centa for as many years as he had taken acorns and when the king was implored to commute this sentence he declared that "it was a terrible thing to deprive the poor little animals of their food." YJhen af er six years the unfortunate offender was allowed to have his freedom he ambushed and killed the guard who first arrested him, for v/hldh murder he was condemned to death ahd executed at Madrid. Such is the effect of an evil rule of despotism and it is quite clear that all the good derived from an enlightened biit des- potic government cannot compensate for this single act of injustice, so entirely against the laws of humanity and indi- vidual liberty. This constant desire on the part of the king to spend his time in pursuit of game v/as justified by some v/riters because it was said to have been necessary to divert the minds of Bourbons who had alv/ays shown a tendency tovvard L. . !!uriel, Vol. VI, p. 7. 157 melancholia and other forms of insanity. Coxe says of Charles' character : "His defects were few, but strongly marked, and among them we cannot .'pass over his love for the chase, or rather shooting, which degenerated into a ruling passion." Townsend estimated that the cost o£ one day's shooting v/hich 2 he attended amounted to three thousand pounds sterling. ■^lorida Blanca, in his Statement, calls the king's attention to the evils of allowing a great number of people to leave their work in order to drive game for the royal party and gives his reason for his opposition. The faults of Charles III, though they may seem great in a man v/ho has always had a reputation for enlighten- ment, were not considered as such by his people, who thought that he was only exercising his prerogative. In spite of the occasional acts of injustice due to personal prejudice there was no Spanish ruler, since the days of Isabella, v/ho had won more completely the affection of his subjects than had Charles III. He died on December 14, 1788, his death having been hastened by that of his favorite son, Don Gabriel. The grief of the Spanish nation was profound and sincere for they real- ized that the one who had checked her downv/ard course, who had turned darkness into light and brought cirder out of chaos had left a splendid edifice unfinished, though apparently firmly 1. Coxe, 1st ed . , Vol. Ill, p. 534. 2. Townsend, Vol. II, p. 75. 138 founded. Subsequent events served to undo much of the good wrought by Charles III ; but his meinory continues to be revered as the great regenerator of the Spanish nation. *; w I^MHk YE 054Cc O