ELECTROTYPING 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE ART OF ELEC- 
 TROTYPING BY THE LATEST 
 KNOWN METHODS. 
 
 CONTAINING HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE SUBJECT, FULL 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE TOOLS AND MACHINERY 
 REQUIRED, AND COMPLETE INSTRUCTIONS 
 FOR OPERATING AN ELECTRO- 
 TYPING PLANT. 
 
 BY C. S. PARTRIDGE. 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 CHICAGO : 
 
 THE INLAND PRINTER COMPANY. 
 1908.
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1899, 
 COPYRIGHT, 1908, 
 
 BY THE INLAND PRINTER COMPANY, CHICAGO. 
 
 PRESS OF THE HENRY O. SHEPARD COMPANY.
 
 PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. 
 
 THE art of electrotyping has within recent years made 
 material advancement. Labor-saving machinery 
 and appliances have simplified and at the same time 
 insured greater accuracy in the mechanical features of 
 the art, while the constant and increasing demand for 
 rapid work has been an incentive to invention and 
 research, with the result that electrotypes are now pro- 
 duced in much less time than was formerly required. 
 That the literature of electrotyping, although of great 
 value, is hardly up to date, is evidenced by the state- 
 ments of Urquhart, Wilson, Langbein and others, to the 
 effect that from seven to twenty hours are required to 
 deposit shells of practical thickness. While these state- 
 ments were, perhaps, correct at the time they were pub- 
 lished, they can hardly be considered accurate now, in 
 view of the fact that the plate from which this page is 
 printed was deposited in fifteen minutes. 
 
 In the following pages, revised from a series of arti- 
 cles in The Inland Printer, I have endeavored to 
 describe, as clearly and simply as possible, the most 
 approved methods of producing electrotypes, with the 
 hope that the information may prove of value both to 
 the professional and the amateur. 
 
 C. S. PARTRIDGE. 
 CHICAGO, June, 1899.
 
 PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 
 
 THE general favor accorded "Electrotyping" made 
 several printings of the first edition necessary. 
 This second edition has been revised and corrected 
 to date and much new matter added, an important 
 addition being a glossary or reference list of terms, 
 processes and apparatus. 
 
 C. S. PARTRIDGE. 
 
 CHICAGO, December, 1908.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 I. HISTORICAL REVIEW . . ... 7 
 
 II. THE BATTERY 18 
 
 III. THE DYNAMO . . ... . . .25 
 
 IV. THE BATH ... . . . ' . . 35 
 
 V. STEEL, BRASS AND NICKEL BATHS ... 41 
 
 VI. MANAGEMENT OF BATHS . . .- . . 46 
 
 VII. AGITATION OF BATHS 51 
 
 VIII. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS . . . . 58 
 
 IX. PREPARATION OF WORK .... 63 
 
 X. MOLDING . -67 
 
 XI. BUILDING ' . . . . . . . .78 
 
 XII. METALLIZING 83 
 
 XIII. THE CONDUCTORS 94 
 
 XIV. DEPOSITING . ..... . . 99 
 
 XV. CASTING 105 
 
 XVI. FINISHING . 119 
 
 XVII. TRIMMING AND ROUTING 127 
 
 XVIII. REVISING 136 
 
 XIX. BLOCKING 143 
 
 XX. DR. ALBERT'S METAL MOLDS . . . . 150 
 
 REFERENCE LIST OF TERMS, PROCESSES AND APPA- 
 RATUS 161
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 HISTORICAL REVIEW. 
 
 DURING the period of 1837-1839, Professor Jacobi, 
 of St. Petersburg, Mr. Thomas Spencer, of Liver- 
 pool, and Mr. C. J. Jordan, of London, made at differ- 
 ent times announcement of their independent discovery 
 of the art of electrotyping. According to one author- 
 ity the rival claims of Professor Jacobi and Mr. Spencer 
 were presented by them in person before the Chemical 
 Section of the British Association for the promotion of 
 Science, and this august assembly after prolonged dis- 
 cussion decided that both had independently arrived at 
 the same result, but that the priority of discovery was 
 undoubtedly Mr. Spencer's. However, this decision of 
 the society with the high-sounding title did not by any 
 means settle the controversy, which became still further 
 complicated by the later claims of Mr. Jordan. In view 
 of the conflicting character of the evidence we are 
 inclined to divide the honor between the gentlemen 
 named; but whatever merit may attach to their respec- 
 tive claims as discoverers, there is probably no question 
 but that the credit for the first practical application of 
 the new art to the printing business belongs to an Amer-
 
 8 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 ican Mr. J. A. Adams, of New York, who produced 
 successful electrotypes of wood engravings in 1841. It 
 is to American inventive genius, also, that we are in- 
 debted for most of the labor-saving methods and machin- 
 ery which have brought the art to its present state of 
 perfection. In England, electrotyping seems to have 
 been first utilized chiefly for the production of metallic 
 art work such as engraved medals, statuary, etc. 
 Messrs. Elkington & Co. were so successful in this 
 branch of the art that in 1845 they had established a 
 considerable business in the duplication of cups, vases 
 and other articles, deposited entirely in gold, silver and 
 copper. While our friends over the water have perhaps 
 excelled in this feature of electrotyping, Americans were 
 quick to grasp and develop the possibilities of the art 
 as applied to printing purposes. In 1863, Mr. William 
 Filmer, an electrotyper of New York, who had much 
 to do with the early development of electrotyping, after 
 an extended trip abroad stated that electrotyping as 
 applied to the printing industry was generally recognized 
 in Europe as an American art. 
 
 The discovery of electrotyping, like many other 
 important discoveries, was purely accidental. Mr. 
 Spencer, for instance, was trying some experiments in 
 electro-chemistry. He had immersed a copper plate 
 in a solution of sulphate of copper and a zinc plate in 
 a solution of common salt, connecting them together 
 by a wire, and separating the fluids by a partition of 
 plaster of paris. In order that no action should take 
 place on the wire connecting the plates, he covered it 
 with sealing wax, and in so doing, spilled some of the 
 wax on the copper plate. After a few days he found
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 9 
 
 that copper crystals had covered the copper electrode 
 except the portion protected by the drops of wax. It 
 at once occurred to him that by the application of wax 
 or other non-conducting substance, he could perfectly 
 control the deposition of the metal. Mr. Spencer then 
 coated a plate of copper with beeswax, and scratched 
 his name through the wax on the plate and connected it 
 with a zinc plate of corresponding size, immersing them 
 in the solutions as before. After a few hours he found, 
 as he expected, that the portion of the plate from which 
 the wax had been removed was coated with bright 
 metal, while the protected portions remained untouched. 
 
 The discovery of electrotyping created hardly less 
 interest than the nearly contemporaneous invention of 
 the electric telegraph. Scientists, professional men and 
 workmen became alike interested, and the copying of 
 medals, coins, etc., by electrotyping became a popular 
 amusement of the time. 
 
 The apparatus employed at this time consisted of a 
 single cell, as before described. The back of the coin 
 or medal to be copied was first coated with wax or var- 
 nish. Copper was then deposited on its face to form a 
 matrix, which, after having been removed from the coin 
 and properly prepared, was returned to the bath to 
 receive in its turn a deposit of copper in the form of 
 a facsimile of the original. 
 
 In 1840, Mr. Joseph Murray discovered that non- 
 conductive substances could be made conductive by 
 applying to them a film of graphite. This was a nota- 
 ble step in the progress of the art, for it not only made 
 possible the duplication of nonmetallic objects, but 
 opened the way for the use of gutta-percha, wax and
 
 10 KLKCTROTYI'IXC. 
 
 similar substances for molding' material in which an 
 impression of the coin or other object could be made', 
 therein greatly expediting' the work by saving the time 
 required to make a matrix in copper. 
 
 The invention of the separate battery about the 
 same time, by Mr. Mason, marked another material 
 advancement in the art. 
 
 Mr. Adams made his first electrotype copies of 
 wood engravings by depositing copper directly on the 
 engraving and using the deposit for a matrix. The 
 process was, of course, very crude and invariably 
 destroyed the wood engraving, but it was of value as 
 an insurance against checking and because the electro- 
 type would stand much more wear than the wood cut. 
 
 Mr. J. W. Wilcox, of Boston, Massachusetts, an 
 employee of Mr. Daniel Davis, was the originator of 
 the methods by which electro,typing was made of prac- 
 tical use for the printing business. Mr. Davis had 
 produced a few electrotypes, but after the method laid 
 down by European experimenters ; and it may be that 
 Mr. Wilcox obtained, through his connection with Mr. 
 Davis, his first information of the possibility of making 
 duplicates by galvanoplasty, yet Mr. Davis did not 
 encourage, but, on the contrary, endeavored to dis- 
 suade Mr. Wilcox from the notion that something, in 
 a business way, could be gotten out of the new art. 
 Mr. Wilcox had so much faith in a successful result 
 that he resigned his position, that of foreman for Mr. 
 Davis, engaged a room and devoted his energies to the 
 work. In less than one month thereafter he produced 
 electrotypes from cuts and type, without injury to the 
 originals, by virtually the same manipulation that is
 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 11 
 
 now used. His most important discovery was of a 
 wax composition in which molds could be readily made 
 by pressure. He immediately started in the business of 
 making plates for printers' use, and was the first to 
 make a business of electrotyping. He showed speci- 
 mens of electrotypes in the fifth exhibition of the Mas- 
 sachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association (1847), 
 and page 42 of the report for that year reads as 
 follows : 
 
 2. J. W. Wilcox, Boston. Specimens of Electrotype. 
 These specimens are produced, as we think, in a manner 
 original with Mr. Wilcox. The originality, consists in making 
 the matrix, upon which the copper is deposited, of wax, 
 either coated or mingled with plumbago. Previously, matrices 
 were usually made of soft metal upon which, in a melted 
 state, the original plate was laid and subjected to a smart 
 blow, when the melted metal was partially hardened in the 
 process of cooling. Objections to this mode are: liability of 
 injuring molds or plates made of soft materials and, of 
 course, its inapplicability to wood engravings, and the diffi- 
 culty of obtaining perfect matrices, since even a small por- 
 tion of air beneath the plate might, when the blow is given, 
 materially injure the cast. Besides, the old mode is hardly 
 practicable, when the plate is of great extent. By the 
 method of Mr. Wilcox, matrices of any dimensions can be 
 made from a plate or mold of any materials without the 
 least injury to the original ; and the liability of failing to 
 obtain a good matrix is almost wholly obviated. 
 
 We hence infer that, among other benefits resulting from 
 this process, it will be found more economical, and will con- 
 tribute much to the beauty and perfection of the impression, 
 to use copper plates made from the blocks for wood engra- 
 vings, than to use the blocks themselves. Indeed, several of 
 the specimens exhibited were of this kind, and impressions 
 from them substantiate the opinion of the committee. 
 
 One of the specimens examined was a copper stereotype
 
 12 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 plate for common printing, accompanied by an impression 
 from the plate. This suggests to the committee what they 
 consider the most important feature of the subject, namely, 
 the probability that copper stereotype plates will take the 
 place of common type-metal plates. The circumstances to 
 warrant this probability are, the greater durability of copper 
 plates and the more perfect outline of the letters. That 
 copper plates will be more durable does not admit of a 
 doubt ; and some practical men express their belief that they 
 will last six times as long as type-metal plates. If so, and 
 if, as is almost certain, copper is soon to become much 
 cheaper than at present, there will be a decided economy in 
 using copper plates, and the use of them will contribute very 
 materially to the diffusion of knowledge, and, as we trust, to 
 the growth of virtue. In addition to this, the impression 
 from such a plate will be much more distinct and beautiful, 
 inasmuch as a mold in wax will have its lines better defined 
 than a similar mold in plaster. Gold Medal. 
 
 Mr. Davis had an exhibit of magnetical apparatus 
 in the same class and year, for which he was awarded 
 a gold medal, and it is not likely that the award to Mr. 
 Wilcox would have passed unchallenged if not prop- 
 erly made. 
 
 Mr. Wilcox continued in business many years to 
 his profit, but did not derive as much financial benefit 
 from his inventions as he might had he patented them. 
 He died in West Roxbury, Massachusetts, February 
 19, 1876. 
 
 The following, from a letter recently received from 
 Mrs. Wilcox in reply to an inquiry regarding her hus- 
 band, shows that Mr. Wilcox did not confine his efforts 
 entirely to making printers' plates : 
 
 He perfected the art so well that the Massachusetts 
 Charitable Mechanic Association, in 1847, awarded him a 
 gold medal for specimen of electrotypes. The American
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 13 
 
 Institute of New York awarded him a medal in 1848. He 
 turned his attention to making clock dials and steam-gauge 
 dials and all kinds of ornamental plates for decorating soda 
 fountains and other ornamental work. He invented a proc- 
 ess of electrotyping the face of rolls for dressing cloth, and 
 received a medal in 1860 from the Massachusetts Charitable 
 Mechanic Association for the same. 
 
 Mr. Daniel Davis properly Daniel Davis, Jr. 
 was a prominent manufacturer of philosophical instru- 
 ments, in Boston. In 1842 he published " Davis' Man- 
 ual of Magnetism," in which the process of electro- 
 metallurgy was mentioned, and there appeared a cut 
 and an electrotype duplicate of the same. In the sixth 
 edition, published in 1847, there is a frontispiece 
 two pages one of which was printed from an origi- 
 nal engraving, on copper, and the other from an elec- 
 trotype duplicate made by depositing on the original 
 for a matrix, and by depositing on the matrix to make 
 the plate printed from. At the bottom of the page it 
 is stated that that duplicate was made by Mr. Davis. 
 Page 53 of that edition was printed from an electro- 
 type made by Mr. Wilcox. The seventh edition of 
 Davis' Manual, issued in 1848, contains the following 
 regarding the electrotype process : 
 
 An engraved copper plate may be copied by taking an 
 impression on clean and bright sheet lead with a powerful 
 press, or if the plate is small it may be pressed by hand on 
 the melted fusible metal. Or a mold may be made by depos- 
 iting copper on the plate itself, but care must be taken to 
 prevent adhesion both of the mold to the original and of the 
 copy to the mold. The duplicate thus obtained will furnish 
 engravings which can not be distinguished from those printed 
 from the original plate, however elaborate the design and 
 delicate the workmanship may be.
 
 14 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 An engraving printed from an electrotype plate by this 
 method is given as a frontispiece to the 1842 manual. 
 
 A medal or engraved plate is placed in the solution and 
 copper deposited upon it. The negative wire of the battery 
 should be connected with the rim of the medal, and in case 
 of an engraved plate it may be soldered to the corners. The 
 deposit is apt to adhere very firmly, sometimes so much so 
 that its removal is impossible. This may be avoided by 
 slightly greasing or oiling the mold and then brushing it 
 over with a little dry copper bronze. 
 
 The mold thus obtained may have a wire soldered to it 
 and be placed in the solution like the original one. In most 
 cases it will be considered safer to take a mold of a valuable 
 medal or plate in soft wax or by some of the other processes 
 to be described. An engraving printed from an electrotype 
 plate obtained by this process is given as a specimen in the 
 1847 manual. 
 
 In the same edition there is the following notice : 
 
 This book is believed to be the first ever electro-stereo- 
 typed throughout. A single page (the 53d) of " Davis' Man- 
 ual of Magnetism," published in August, 1847, was previously 
 electrotyped by the subscriber in the same manner. The 
 advantages of this process are : First, its durability, the 
 copper face of the type and illustrations lasting many times 
 longer than the type-metal ; and second, the blackness of the 
 impression taken from copper. 
 
 I am prepared to execute any orders for printed work in 
 the above style, of which the present book is an example, and 
 to execute any number of facsimiles of engraved copper 
 plates and of whatever size. The face of each electrotype 
 copy is harder and more durable than the rolled copper. 
 
 I am also prepared to execute plates of electrotype copper 
 for engraving of greater purity and uniformity than can 
 otherwise be prepared. 
 
 I have, within two years, electrotyped a large number of 
 wood cuts, many of which have been in constant use and
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 15 
 
 which have answered every expectation as to their durability 
 and the perfect character of the impression... 
 
 The report of the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic 
 Association, taking the lowest estimate, assigns to these a 
 durability six times greater than that of the type-metal stereo- 
 types. The slight additional expense of the electro-stereo- 
 types is therefore in no proportion to their comparative value. 
 
 Ornamental work and every branch of the art of electro- 
 typing will receive the attention of the subscriber. 
 
 J. W. WILCOX. 
 
 In 1853, an improvement in the Smee battery was 
 suggested by Mr. Adams, and immediately adopted by 
 electrotypers in America and Europe. Other improve- 
 ments of a more or less important nature were made 
 by Mr. Adams, Mr. Wilcox, Mr. Filmer and others, 
 and by 1858-59 the electrotyping business may be said 
 to have become established on a practical basis ; so 
 much so that the process was quite generally employed 
 for the reproduction of wood cuts. 
 
 In the meantime electricians had been busy with 
 the problem of producing a continuous current of elec- 
 tricity by mechanical means which could be substi- 
 tuted for the battery. Machines more or less useful 
 for this purpose were constructed by Dr. W. Siemens, 
 of Berlin, in 1857. Between 1860 and 1870, Gramme, 
 Schuckert, Weston, Brush, and Wilde, brought out 
 improvements of more or less value. The Wilde 
 machines were the first to be used to any extent for 
 electrotyping, and were first adopted, about 1872, by 
 Frank Leslie and Lovejoy, Son & Co., of New York 
 City. They accomplished a revolution in the art by 
 reducing the time required to deposit a shell to about 
 three hours. Invaluable as these first machines were
 
 16 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 to the electrotyping trade, they soon gave place to 
 improved types, until at the present time it is possible 
 to produce an electrotype shell thick enough for ordi- 
 nary purposes in one hour or less. 
 
 Improvements in molding, blackleading and finish- 
 ing machinery have kept pace with the advancing 
 methods of electrotyping proper. In 1855, Mn J. A. 
 Adams invented a blackleading machine with a vibrat- 
 ing brush and traveling carriage. In 1856, Mr. Filmer 
 patented a method of backing electrotype shells, by 
 means of which the shell was held down by springs 
 during the operation of casting. In 1858, Mr. S. P. 
 Knight invented an improvement in the preparation of 
 electrotype molds for the bath which was of great 
 value to the trade and is universally employed at the 
 present time. His invention consisted in precipitating 
 a thin film of copper on the mold previous to immers- 
 ing it in the bath. This is accomplished by flooding 
 the mold with a solution of sulphate of copper and then 
 dusting iron filings over it. The effect of the operation 
 is to cause the deposition of copper to begin immedi- 
 ately over the entire surface, instead of beginning only 
 at the points of contact and spreading slowly there- 
 from to other portions of the mold. Mr. Knight also 
 invented, in 1871, a process for applying blacklead to 
 the molds in the form of a solution, distributing it 
 over the face of the mold by means of a traveling rose 
 nozzle. 
 
 Many other improvements of a minor nature, which 
 we have not space to describe, have been made from 
 time to time, and the art of electrotyping may be said 
 to be now in a high state of perfection.
 
 ELECTROTYP1NG. 17 
 
 In 1857, Alfred Smee made the remark that " elec- 
 trotyping is likely to be useful for the Bible, Shakes- 
 peare, ' Pilgrim's Progress,' or works that have a large 
 circulation." But the world has made wonderful prog- 
 ress in forty years, and the art of electrotyping has 
 kept up with the procession. Improved methods, labor- 
 saving machinery, cheapening material and the skill 
 which comes from long experience have combined to 
 reduce the cost and improve the quality of the product, 
 and to-day electrotyping has become an indispensable 
 auxiliary to the printing business. It is perhaps safe 
 to say that seventy-five per cent of the books published 
 during the last decade have been electrotyped, to say 
 nothing of innumerable engravings and jobs of all 
 kinds which have passed through the electrotypers' 
 hands. Fifty years ago there were in existence per- 
 haps a dozen electrotyping plants. There are in the 
 United States alone about two hundred and fifty estab- 
 lishments having an estimated annual output of over 
 $5,060,000. To such proportions has grown a business 
 that had its beginning a half a century ago in a quart 
 jar.
 
 18 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE BATTERY. 
 
 LECTROTYPING as applied to the manufacture 
 I ^ of printing plates may be briefly described as 
 follows : A mold of the object to be copied is taken in 
 beeswax and suspended, together with a plate of copper, 
 in an acidulated solution of copper sulphate. The mold 
 is attached to the negative pole of a battery or dynamo 
 and the copper plate to the positive pole. The electric 
 current passing through the bath decomposes the solu- 
 tion and sets the copper free on the wax mold, deposit- 
 ing it in an unbroken sheet. When the copper shell 
 has become of sufficient thickness it is removed from 
 the mold, strengthened with a backing of soft metal, 
 straightened, shaved, trimmed and blocked, and is then 
 ready for the printing press. As thus described the 
 process is apparently a simple one ; but it is, in fact, an 
 art which demands a high degree of manipulative skill 
 and the closest attention to detail. 
 
 The electric current which makes the electrotype 
 possible must be of a certain strength and tension. If 
 too strong or too weak, the deposited copper would be 
 brittle, crystalline or spongy, and unsuitable for electro- 
 types. It is obvious, therefore, that the source of elec- 
 tricity is a most important consideration. The dynamo 
 is now so generally employed for electrotyping that a 
 detailed description of the galvanic battery would seem
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 19 
 
 to be out of place were it not for the fact that there are 
 possible conditions under which the battery may still be 
 found useful such, for instance, as small experimental 
 work, the deposition of copper during the night, or 
 under other circumstances where power for operating 
 the dynamo is not available. 
 
 In discussing the galvanic battery no effort will be 
 made to consider the theory either of its action or the 
 effect of the current on the solution. It will be suffi- 
 cient to consider simply those facts a knowledge of 
 which is essential to the successful practice of electro- 
 typing. A plate of zinc and a plate of silver immersed 
 in acidulated water and connected together with a wire 
 will generate a current of electricity, and if this current 
 is passed through a copper sulphate solution under 
 proper conditions the solution will be decomposed. 
 Why this is so and how it is done are matters concern- 
 ing which various theories have been published in books 
 devoted to these subjects and to which the reader is 
 respectfully referred. 
 
 While a scientific education is not essential to the 
 successful practice of the electrotyper' s art, he should 
 possess a sufficient knowledge of chemistry and of the 
 principles of electro-metallurgy to enable him to prop- 
 erly prepare and care for his solutions and to recognize 
 the cause and apply the remedy for the difficulties which 
 will occasionally confront him. It is essential, also, that 
 the student of this subject shall become familiar with 
 certain technical terms which are unavoidable in a dis- 
 cussion of the subject. The following list will be found 
 to contain most of the words and terms peculiar to 
 electrotyping :
 
 20 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 Positive plate, the active element (zinc) of the bat- 
 tery. Negative plate, the inactive (silver) element of 
 the battery. Positive pole, the wire attached to the 
 silver plate by which the current leaves the battery. 
 Negative pole, the wire attached to the zinc plate by 
 which the current returns to the battery. Electrodes, 
 the immersed surfaces of metal or other conductor, by 
 which the current enters and leaves the liquid. Anode, 
 the pole or plate by which the current enters the solu- 
 tion. Cathode, the wax mold or other surface receiving 
 the deposit and by which the current leaves the solu- 
 tion. Volt, the unit of electro-motive force. Ampere, 
 the unit of current strength. Watt, a current of one 
 ampere at the pressure of one volt. 
 
 There is hardly any limit to the number and variety 
 of galvanic batteries extant, but for various reasons the 
 one invented by Mr. Alfred Smee and bearing his name 
 has been found most suitable for electrotyping. When 
 a plate of copper and a plate of zinc are immersed in 
 acidulated water and connected together with a wire, a 
 current of electricity will at once begin to circulate, 
 starting at the zinc, or positive plate ; passing through 
 the fluid to the copper, or negative plate, and thence 
 through the connecting wire back to the zinc. The 
 current thus generated is at first powerful, but gradu- 
 ally decreases in strength and finally ceases altogether, 
 owing partly to so-called local action in the zinc plate 
 and partly to the adherence of hydrogen bubbles to the 
 copper plate, which have the effect of insulating it. 
 The local action referred to is caused by particles of 
 other metals, such as lead and tin, which are nearly 
 always present in zinc to a greater or less extent.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 21 
 
 These foreign metals form minute but independent bat- 
 teries in themselves, which serve to rapidly dissolve the 
 zinc. This local action may be minimized by amalga- 
 mating the zinc plate with mercury, which is done in 
 the following manner : After thorough cleaning with 
 caustic potash or dilute sulphuric acid, the zinc plate is 
 placed in a shallow vessel and every part of its surface 
 carefully coated with mercury mixed with a little sul- 
 phuric acid. The coating may be applied with a flan- 
 nel cloth tied to a stick or in any convenient manner, 
 and should be well rubbed in. 
 
 The adherence of hydrogen bubbles to the copper 
 plate may be prevented to a large extent by roughening 
 its surface. Mr. Smee improved upon this plan by sub- 
 stituting a silver plate for the copper plate and roughen- 
 ing the surface of the silver by platinizing. The first 
 cost of silver plates is considerable and platinizing is 
 also an expensive process, but the Smee battery is so 
 far superior to the zinc-copper battery for electrotyping 
 that the difference in first cost is a matter of small con- 
 sequence. Solid silver plates are seldom employed in 
 the battery, heavily plated copper plates having been 
 found to answer the purpose nearly as well. Platinizing 
 is effected by suspending the silver plate in a saturated 
 solution of bichloride of platinum and acidulated water 
 in the proportion of one part solution to thirty parts 
 water. In the same vessel opposite the silver plate is a 
 porous cell containing sulphuric acid and water ( i to 
 10) with a zinc plate suspended in it. On connecting 
 the zinc and silver plates with a wire the platinum in the 
 solution will be deposited on the silver plate in the form 
 of a nearly black powder, which roughens the surface
 
 22 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 of the plate and effectually prevents the adherence of 
 hydrogen bubbles. 
 
 A battery may consist of one or more sets of plates, 
 the number and size of plates to be determined by the 
 amount of work to be performed. To produce the best 
 results the surface of the zinc element in the battery 
 should equal the cathode surface in the depositing bath. 
 That is to say, if it is desired to deposit copper on four 
 molds at one time, each one square foot in area, then 
 the battery should contain an equal area of zinc surface; 
 a convenient size for the plates in a battery of this 
 capacity would be 12 by 12 inches. A battery made 
 up of four zinc and two silver plates, each twelve inches 
 square, would deposit a good quality of copper over 
 eight square feet of area. 
 
 The electro-motive force of one Smee cell is sufficient 
 to deposit copper on shallow molds, and there is, there- 
 fore, no necessity for employing more than one cell for 
 ordinary electrotyping, but care should be taken to make 
 the cell large enough to accommodate a sufficient num- 
 ber of zinc plates to equal the area of the molds in the 
 depositing bath. In this connection it may be explained 
 that while a strong current may be employed in electro- 
 typing, but very little tension or electro-motive force is 
 required, and it is well to remember that the size of the 
 battery or the number of plates it contains, have noth- 
 ing to do with its electro-motive force or the pushing 
 power of its current. A cell of one quart capacity has 
 the same E. M. F. as one of 100 gallons, but the 
 strength or quantity of current depends on the area of 
 zinc surface attacked. It is, therefore, essential in mak- 
 ing up a battery for electrotyping to connect all the zinc
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 23 
 
 plates to one electrode, and all the silver plates to the 
 other. As before stated, the E. M. F. of one cell is 
 sufficient for ordinary electrotyping; but for such work 
 as steel or nickel facing, one cell would not have suffi- 
 cient power to overcome the resistance offered by the 
 iron or nickel solutions, and it becomes necessary to 
 couple two or more cells together by connecting the 
 zincs of one cell with the silvers of the other. In this 
 
 FIG. i. 
 ELECTROTYPE BATTERY. 
 
 way the power of the battery to overcome resistance is 
 increased in proportion to the number of cells employed, 
 but the strength of the current remains the same unless 
 the area of zinc surface attacked should also be increased. 
 In Fig. i is illustrated a single-cell battery showing 
 the electrode and cross-rods for supporting the zinc and 
 silver plates. This cell is 18 inches long, 18 inches 
 deep and 16 inches wide, and is designed for four zinc
 
 24 ELKCTROTYPING. 
 
 and two silver plates, each 1 2 inches square. This bat- 
 tery is large enough to deposit from eight to ten feet of 
 copper at a time. The electrodes are ^-inch copper 
 rods, and the cross-rods are ^ inch in diameter. The 
 vat is constructed of pine or whitewood planks, bolted 
 together, and is lined with asphaltum. 
 
 To obtain satisfactory shells at a minimum expense, 
 the battery should receive careful attention. The zinc 
 plates must be kept thoroughly amalgamated to prevent 
 waste. With this object in view the plates should be 
 frequently examined, and when dark spots are observed 
 the plate should be reamalgamated. When not in 
 action the zinc plates should always be removed from 
 the cell. The battery should be stirred as often as every 
 other day to equalize the solution, which becomes dense 
 from the addition of sulphate of zinc. A little acid and 
 water must also be added from time to time to keep up 
 the strength of the battery. In mixing acid and water 
 the acid should always be added to the water, and 
 this should be done very slowly and carefully to avoid 
 sudden heat and consequent danger of explosion. The 
 silver plates require very little attention except an occa- 
 sional washing, but should be platinized two or three 
 times a year if in constant use. 
 
 After being in action about a week the battery 
 usually becomes so impregnated with sulphate of zinc 
 that the addition of acid has little or no effect upon it. 
 If the quantity of sulphate becomes excessive, it will 
 crystallize on the positive element and entirely stop the 
 action of the battery. When such conditions appear, 
 it is better to throw away the contents of the battery 
 than to attempt a remedy.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 25 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE DYNAMO. 
 
 AS previously stated, there are certain conditions 
 under which the galvanic battery may be found 
 useful as a current generator for electrotyping, but it 
 should be understood that in every respect except the 
 quality of copper deposited the battery is inferior to the 
 dynamo. Compared with the machine the battery is 
 both slow and expensive. A shell which would require 
 twelve hours' time to deposit with the battery may be 
 deposited in one hour with the dynamo, and leaving the 
 time element out of consideration the actual cost of 
 deposition by the battery method is probably six times 
 as great as by the machine. Theoretically a pound of 
 copper should be obtained for each pound of zinc and 
 acid consumed in the battery, but in actual working the 
 consumption of zinc amounts to nearly two pounds. 
 With zinc at 7 cents per pound, a copper shell nAn> of 
 an inch in thickness would cost for deposition about 
 3 cents per square foot. On the other hand, a dynamo 
 with a capacity of 1 60 square feet per day can be opera- 
 ted at an expense for power of not to exceed 75 cents, 
 or about J^ cent per square foot. The current gener- 
 ated by the dynamo is powerful, uniform, and easily 
 managed; while the machine itself requires but little 
 attention, is clean and always ready for business. 
 
 Dynamos of various sizes and types are now manu- 
 factured specially for electrotyping and plating purposes,
 
 26 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 and the electrotyper is offered an unlimited assortment 
 from which to choose. Dynamo building is no longer a 
 mystery, and its principles are so well understood that 
 there is no more excuse for building an inferior machine 
 than there would be for building a poor steam engine. 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 ELECTROTYPING DYNAMO. 
 
 There is, therefore, little danger of disappointment if 
 the dynamo is purchased from a reputable manufac- 
 turer, provided the requirements of the machine are 
 thoroughly understood by purchaser and seller. It 
 would be folly to attempt to force a ten-horse engine to 
 do work requiring twenty horse-power, and it is equally
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 27 
 
 foolish to expect a dynamo to do more work than it is 
 designed to do. Here is where an error is often made. 
 To save the few dollars difference in first cost a small 
 machine is installed, overloaded and condemned, when 
 the fault is not in the machine but in the man who over- 
 loads it. Competition between builders of dynamos 
 induces them to claim for their respective machines the 
 utmost limit of their capacity when running under the 
 most favorable conditions, and as the conditions are 
 not always favorable, dissatisfaction results. The elec- 
 trotyper should himself have a definite idea of the 
 number of square feet he will require to deposit at one 
 time and the speed at which he wishes to work, for it 
 is true in electrotyping as in mechanics generally that 
 ' ' we cannot get something for nothing. ' ' A dynamo 
 which will deposit 100 feet of shells in two hours will 
 deposit only 50 feet in one hour, and if a rapid rate of 
 deposition is desired a correspondingly large machine 
 must be employed. 
 
 Authorities differ somewhat in their estimates as to 
 the maximum current density which may be employed 
 in electrotyping ; but it is safe to figure on about twenty- 
 five amperes per square foot with the solution at rest 
 and about fifty amperes with the solution in motion. 
 On this basis, a dynamo of 500 amperes, with an E. M. 
 F. of i^ volts working one vat, would deposit about 
 twenty feet at a time. If speed were no object a some- 
 what larger area could be covered by reducing the volt- 
 age. The most economical method of utilizing the 
 current, and the one generally employed, is to connect 
 the machine to two vats in series. By this means the 
 current is utilized in both baths before it returns to
 
 28 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 the machine and the capacity of the dynamo is nearly 
 doubled. Fig. 3 is a plan view of a double vat, show- 
 ing the method of con- 
 necting the dynamo in 
 srries. The current leav- 
 ing the machine traverses 
 the electrode a, enters the 
 solution in the first vat by 
 anode ( i ) , passes through 
 the solution and leaves 
 the vat by cathode (3) 
 and the dead rod c, enters 
 the second vat by the 
 anode (2), leaves it by 
 cathode (4) and returns 
 to the dynamo by elec- 
 trode b. By this method 
 the current is made to do 
 duty in both vats ; but 
 inasmuch as the resist- 
 ance of two solutions is 
 double the resistance of 
 one solution, the E. M. 
 F. of the current must be 
 double what would be re- 
 quired for a single bath. 
 If one volt pressure will 
 overcome the resistance 
 of one solution to an ex- 
 tent sufficient to accom- 
 plish a satisfactory rate of deposition, then two volts will 
 be required to effect the same rate of deposition in two 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 DYNAMO CONNECTIONS ON DOUBLE 
 VAT.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 29 
 
 vats. It should be remembered that within certain 
 limits the rate of deposition depends on the strength of 
 current employed, and this fact should have due con- 
 sideration in estimating the capacity of a machine. A 
 good quality of copper may be deposited with a current 
 density of thirteen or fourteen amperes per square foot, 
 but the rate of deposition would be slow. On the other 
 hand, fifty or more amperes per square foot may be em- 
 ployed, under proper conditions, with a corresponding 
 increase in the rate of deposition, but at an additional 
 expense for power. In the first case, roughly speaking, 
 about four hours would be required to deposit a shell 
 TD 5 oo of an inch in thickness, while in the latter case one 
 hour would be sufficient to deposit the same weight of 
 copper. In the first case a 5OO-ampere machine on one 
 vat would deposit about thirty-five feet at one time, 
 while in the latter case it would deposit only one-fourth 
 as large an area, but would accomplish the work four 
 times as fast. In the long run the result would be the 
 same so far as the total quantity of copper deposited is 
 concerned, and where speed is no object the former 
 current density is preferable because more economical 
 in power. 
 
 It has been stated that fifty or more amperes per 
 square foot of cathode surface may be utilized in elec- 
 trotyping under proper conditions, and that shells of 
 average weight may be thus deposited in about one 
 hour. To effect such a rapid rate of deposition it is 
 essential, first, that the dynamo shall be constructed to 
 supply a large volume of current without dangerously 
 heating the machine; second, the solution should be 
 properly proportioned; third, the solution or the anodes
 
 30 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 must be kept in constant motion; and fourth, all con- 
 nections must be of large size, and the points of contact 
 clean and firmly made. 
 
 Large plants, in which more than two vats are oper- 
 ated, usually employ more than one machine. In other 
 words, it is considered good policy to employ two dyna- 
 mos for four vats, rather than to couple all four vats to 
 one dynamo. The object of such an arrangement is 
 that one-half the plant may be discontinued during a 
 dull season, and it also permits the use of low voltage 
 machines, such as are carried in stock by the manufac- 
 turers. From what has been previously said on this 
 subject, it will be obvious that a dynamo working four 
 vats in series would require to have four times the volt- 
 age needed for one vat, and twice the voltage needed 
 for two vats. If a very rapid rate of deposition is 
 desired, a machine working four vats would need to be 
 operated at a tension of eight or ten volts, whereas a 
 tension of four to five volts would be sufficient for two 
 vats. Machines of the latter capacity are of standard 
 make, while it is probable that a ten-volt dynamo would 
 have to be specially constructed. 
 
 When purchasing a dynamo, consideration should 
 be given to the possible maximum output of the foun- 
 dry, as well as the rate of deposition desired. If the 
 plant includes but one molding press and one black- 
 leading machine, and rapid work is not imperative, a 
 dynamo of 450 amperes and two volts would take care 
 of all the work which could be turned out, for such a 
 machine working two vats in series would deposit from 
 forty to fifty square feet at one time, and would deposit 
 a sufficiently heavy shell in about three hours. In other
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 31 
 
 words, it would deposit about fifteen feet per hour, 
 which would probably be the limit of the capacity of a 
 foundry of the indicated size. If, however, it is desired 
 to deposit fifteen feet every hour instead of forty-five 
 feet every three hours, a much larger machine would be 
 required, for, as has been before stated, the rate of 
 deposition depends principally on the strength of cur- 
 rent employed; and while a sufficient current density 
 for a limited number of shells could be obtained from 
 the small machine, it could be applied to only one vat 
 at a time, because sufficient E. M. F. could not be 
 generated to force the current through two solutions at 
 the maximum speed. The capacity of the machine in 
 square feet of cathodes which could be deposited at one 
 time would, therefore, be cut down to one-quarter of 
 the surface which could be covered at slow speed. 
 
 To further illustrate this point, we will suppose a 
 dynamo of 450 amperes and 2j^ volts to be connected 
 with two baths in series. Each bath would then be 
 supplied with a current of i ^ volts pressure, and the 
 quantity of current utilized would be approximately 30 
 amperes per square foot of cathode. The total capacity 
 of the machine, 450 amperes, divided by 30, gives 15, 
 the number of feet which can be deposited at one time 
 in each bath, or a total of 30 feet. Now, if it is desired 
 to double the rate of deposition, it becomes neces- 
 sary to double the pressure of the current, which would 
 mean 5 volts instead of 2^. As the small machine 
 cannot be made to produce 5 volts, the only alternative 
 is to disconnect one of the vats. We now have 2^ 
 volts applied to one bath, and are using about 60 
 amperes per square foot of cathode ; 450 divided by 60
 
 32 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 gives 7^ as the maximum number of feet which could 
 be deposited at one time, and this is in theory only, for 
 in actual practice it is found impracticable to deposit 
 more than 5 feet, owing to the tendency of the machine 
 to heat. The economy in operating a large dynamo for 
 rapid deposition is thus plainly evident. 
 
 The results of a series of tests recently conducted 
 by the writer are given below : 
 
 Dynamo No. i Lloyd 
 
 Speed 1,350 
 
 Volts 2% 
 
 Amperes per square foot, about 5 1 
 
 Number of baths i 
 
 Area of cathodes, square feet 7 
 
 Time of exposure, minutes 60 
 
 Thickness of deposit, inches 003 
 
 A similar test of a No. i Eddy dynamo produced the 
 same result. It should be said that during the tests 
 these machines were both operated at higher speeds 
 than those mentioned, with the result that shells .007 
 of an inch were deposited in one hour; but owing to 
 heat generation only two or three square feet of cathode 
 surface could be exposed at one time. 
 
 A test of a larger machine resulted as follows : 
 
 Dynamo No. 2 Lloyd 
 
 Speed 1,000 
 
 Volts, per vat 2# 
 
 Amperes per square foot of cathode, about. 54 
 
 Number of baths in series 2 
 
 Area of cathodes, square feet 20 
 
 Time of exposure, minutes 60 
 
 Thickness of shell, inches 0035 
 
 These tests indicate that a dynamo of 800 amperes 
 and 5 volts, working two baths in series, will deposit,
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 33 
 
 without undue heating, about twenty-eight feet of shells 
 per hour ; while a 45o-ampere, 2^ -volt dynamo will 
 only deposit about seven feet per hour. It appears, 
 therefore, that rapid deposition is not practicable with a 
 small machine. However, the difference in cost of 
 installation is of slight moment in view of the increased 
 product of the large machine, and should not stand in 
 the way of the better service, particularly as the larger 
 dynamo will perform a limited volume of work equally 
 as well as the smaller, and at only a nominal increase in 
 expense for power. In later tests with larger dynamos 
 and an agitated solution the current strength was 
 increased to 125 amperes per square foot, with the 
 result that practical shells were produced in fifteen 
 minutes. The above mentioned tests are given with 
 the object of indicating how present facilities may 
 be utilized to the best advantage by electrotypers 
 whose machines equal or excel the capacity of the 
 No. 2 Lloyd. 
 
 Dynamos, as a rule, require but little attention, but 
 should always be kept clean and well oiled. The com- 
 mutator, in particular, should be occasionally cleaned 
 with a piece of fine sandpaper (not emery paper) and 
 then wiped off with a clean, damp cloth. Slow-speed 
 machines require no lubricant on the commutator other 
 than an occasional wiping with a damp cloth. On high- 
 speed machines a very little vaseline may be applied 
 every two or three hours. The brushes should fit the 
 commutator fairly well, otherwise there will be a ten- 
 dency to spark and heat. Sparking should never be 
 permitted, as it rapidly wears the commutator. It may 
 often be prevented by moving the brushes a little one 
 3
 
 34 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 way or the other from the position in which the spark- 
 ing occurs. 
 
 For nickel-facing electrotypes a current tension of 
 2^ to 3 volts is required, and for this work a separate 
 dynamo is usually employed; but when the electrotyp- 
 ing dynamo is sufficiently powerful the nickel bath may 
 be operated in connection with the copper baths by pro- 
 viding it with a resistance coil for regulating the strength 
 of current supplied to it. With a dynamo operating at 
 2^ volts it would be possible to work the nickel bath 
 without a resistance coil, as in this case a sufficient vari- 
 ation of current strength could be obtained by varying 
 the distance between the cathodes and anodes. But if 
 the tension exceeds 2^ volts, a means must be pro- 
 vided for cutting down the current to the point best 
 suited to the conditions of the work.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 35 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE BATH. 
 
 THE depositing bath for electrotyping in copper con- 
 sists of a solution of blue vitriol acidulated with 
 sulphuric acid. Copper sulphate, blue vitriol, or blue 
 stone, as it is variously termed, forms crystals which 
 when unadulterated are pure blue in color and cannot be 
 mistaken for any other chemical. A green tinge indi- 
 cates the presence of sulphate of iron and should be 
 rejected. While the color is a sufficient guide to the 
 purity of the sulphate it may be further tested by boil- 
 ing a small quantity of the solution with a little nitric 
 acid and adding spirits of ammonia in excess. The 
 presence of iron will be indicated by brown flakes. 
 Distilled water or filtered rain water should, if possible, 
 be used in making the solution. If rain or distilled 
 water cannot be conveniently obtained, well or lake 
 water will answer, but should always be thoroughly 
 boiled and filtered. 
 
 Sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) for acidulating the 
 solution should be used pure and concentrated. The 
 crude acid contains arsenic which renders it unfit for use 
 in electrotyping solutions. The pure acid has a specific 
 gravity of 1.84. It may be recognized by mixing one 
 part with twenty-five parts of distilled water and com- 
 pounding with a few drops of barium chloride, when a 
 white precipitate will be formed. In diluting acid with
 
 36 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 water it should always be added to the water very slowly 
 and with constant stirring, as the heat generated by the 
 contact of the acid and water might otherwise be suffi- 
 cient to cause a dangerous explosion. Sulphuric acid 
 is exceedingly corrosive and should always be kept in 
 glass bottles or carboys. 
 
 The copper solution is the least troublesome of all 
 electrolytes. While some baths require accurate pro- 
 portionment, the use of distilled water, and even an 
 exact degree of temperature for their successful opera- 
 tion, the copper bath may be widely varied in propor- 
 tion and will work well under considerable variation ol 
 temperature. Nevertheless, there are certain limits 01 
 proportionment which must be observed to obtain rapid 
 deposition of a good quality of copper; for, while the 
 rate of deposition depends very largely on the strength 
 of current, it is essential that the solution be constituted 
 to work in harmony with the current. The essential 
 qualities of the solution are to present the least possible 
 resistance to the electric current and to dissolve the 
 anode with the same rapidity with which the copper 
 from the solution is deposited on the cathode. A solu- 
 tion of copper sulphate without the addition of acid 
 will conduct electricity, but its resistance is such that 
 a very strong current is required to overcome it. Von 
 Hiibl found that the minimum current density per 
 square foot of cathode in a fifteen-per-cent blue vitriol 
 solution without acidulation is 24. i amperes, while the 
 same solution with six per cent sulphuric acid added 
 required but 13.9 amperes. But while it is thus shown 
 that the addition of sulphuric acid lessens the resistance
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 37 
 
 of the solution, there remains a wide difference of opin- 
 ion as to the maximum quantity of acid which may be 
 employed to advantage. 
 
 It is not difficult to prepare a solution which with a 
 moderate current will deposit copper of good quality at 
 a moderate speed. As an evidence of this fact it may 
 be stated that it would be difficult to find two solutions 
 exactly similar, the variations extending from twelve to 
 twenty-two per cent blue vitriol, and from two to eight 
 per cent acid. However, there is no question but that 
 a moderately rich solution is preferable and even neces- 
 sary for rapid work. A solution poor in copper will 
 deposit quickly, but the shells are apt to be porous and 
 granular. On the other hand, a solution too rich in 
 copper will deposit slowly and in crystalline form. 
 Deposits of this nature are specially noticeable when a 
 weak current is employed, and it is also noteworthy 
 that a poor solution is much more apt to produce gran- 
 ular deposits when the current is strong. From these 
 facts it appears that a richer solution may be employed 
 with a strong than with a weak current. Almost any 
 kind of a solution, within reasonable limits, will do good 
 work if the current strength is adapted to work in har- 
 mony with it. That is to say, by observing the quality 
 of copper deposited and increasing or decreasing the 
 current strength as the conditions demand. For in- 
 stance, if a pulverulent deposit is obtained it is an indi- 
 cation that the current is too strong or the solution too 
 weak, and the defect may be most easily remedied by 
 reducing the current strength either by means of a 
 switchboard or by decreasing the speed of the dynamo.
 
 38 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 On the other hand, a crystalline, brittle deposit indi- 
 cates a weak current or a rich solution, and may be 
 remedied by increasing the dynamo speed. However, 
 if rapid deposition is desired the solution must be con- 
 stituted to work with a strong current, and defects in 
 the deposit should be remedied, so far as possible, by 
 changing the solution rather than the dynamo, inas- 
 much as a reduction in the speed of the machine would 
 retard the rate of deposition. Of course, there are 
 well-defined limits to the current strength which may 
 be effectively employed with any solution, and it should 
 be the object of the operator to determine the highest 
 effective point of harmony between the two. With 
 the bath at rest, a fourteen to sixteen per cent solution 
 acidulated with two to three per cent sulphuric acid and 
 a current density of fifteen to eighteen amperes per 
 square foot has been found most satisfactory. An agi- 
 tated solution may be made somewhat richer if a 
 stronger current be employed, say eighteen to twenty 
 per cent blue vitriol and three to six per cent acid. 
 The depositing vat for the copper solution should be 
 solidly constructed of pine or whitewood planks bolted 
 together and lined with sheet lead united at the corners 
 by "burning" or melting the sheets together. Solder- 
 ing will not answer, as the acid in the solution will 
 attack the solder, and soon eat its way through. The 
 vat should preferably be partitioned into two compart- 
 ments, in order that the dynamo may be operated in 
 series, as previously described. It is essential also that 
 the vat shall be of ample size. The resistance presented 
 to the electric current by the solution is enormous,
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 39 
 
 and only a great area will compensate for its lack of 
 conductivity. At least 100 gallons of solution should 
 be provided for each twenty feet of cathode surface 
 exposed. A convenient size and shape of depositing 
 vat is shown in Fig. 4. The length is 60 inches, width 
 
 FIG. 4. ELECTROTYPER'S DEPOSITING VAT. 
 
 30 inches, and depth 26 inches. It will contain about 
 200 gallons of solution, and will accommodate about 
 ten cases of average size in each compartment. 
 
 In mixing the solution the vat should be about two- 
 thirds filled with rain, distilled or boiled water. The 
 blue vitriol may be conveniently dissolved by suspending 
 it in cheese-cloth bags just under the surface of the 
 water. As the water becomes saturated it will sink to 
 the bottom of the vat, and should be frequently stirred 
 and tested with a Baume' hydrometer, when 14 or
 
 40 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 15 degrees is indicated on the instrument the bags 
 of vitriol may be removed and sulphuric acid added 
 to the solution, with constant stirring, until the reading 
 of the hydrometer is increased two or three degrees. 
 This solution will work well with a moderate current. 
 If the current strength is more than 20 amperes per 
 square foot, the solution may be enriched by the addi- 
 tion of blue vitriol to the extent of two or three degrees, 
 and if required as many degrees of acid may also be 
 added. 
 
 The solution should be well stirred, and may be used 
 at once, although it usually works better after standing 
 a few days.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 41 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 
 
 STEEL, BRASS AND NICKEL BATHS. 
 
 /^OPPER is almost universally employed for the pro- 
 \^s duction of electrotypes for printing purposes, and 
 generally speaking it is the most suitable of all metals 
 for this purpose. It is easily deposited, is tough, duc- 
 tile, practically non-corrosive and inexpensive. How- 
 ever, it is too soft to stand the wear of very large edi- 
 tions, and it does not print well with colors containing 
 mercury, which chemically attacks copper. To over- 
 come these defects it is customary, when the circum- 
 stances are such as to warrant the extra labor and 
 expense, to face the copper electrotype with steel, brass 
 or nickel. This is effected (a) by suspending the fin- 
 ished electrotype in the proper solution and depositing 
 thereon a film of harder metal, or () by suspending 
 the wax or other mold in the hard-metal solution, 
 obtaining thereon a preliminary deposit, and then trans- 
 ferring it to the copper bath where it is strengthened by 
 a sufficiently heavy deposit of copper. Of these meth- 
 ods, the former is the more readily performed and the 
 latter the more accurate in results. By the former 
 method it is obvious that only a very thin facing can 
 be given to the electrotype without impairing its accu- 
 racy, and it is doubtful if any kind of a facing could 
 be given to a fine-screen half-tone by this method
 
 I- ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 without destroying something of its delicacy. How- 
 ever, electrotype plates of ordinary character may have 
 a thin facing of harder metal deposited upon them 
 without perceptibly affecting their accuracy. 
 
 Of the three metals employed for facing electrotypes, 
 nickel is the more readily deposited and its solution the 
 least troublesome to manage. It is malleable and duc- 
 tile, and nearly or quite as hard as iron. Moreover, 
 it is non-corrosive and altogether is an ideal metal for 
 the purpose. Various solutions are recommended for 
 the nickel-depositing bath, each of which has its ad- 
 vocates, but many of them are more or less compli- 
 cated and require special care in management. A 
 simple bath which has been thoroughly tested in some 
 of the largest electrotyping establishments in the coun- 
 try is made by dissolving the double sulphate of nickel 
 and ammonia in warm water in the proportion of ^ 
 of a pound of the salts in each gallon of water. The 
 procedure is the same that has been recommended 
 for the copper solution, i. e., the salts should be sus- 
 pended in cheese-cloth bags just under the surface ot 
 the water until entirely dissolved, when the solution 
 should be well stirred and is then ready for use. Some 
 operators add about ten per cent of common salt to 
 the solution for the purpose of increasing its conduc- 
 tivity. 
 
 The deposition of iron is attended with more or less 
 difficulty, and is not always successfully accomplished 
 even by experienced operators. A good bath for iron 
 (steel) facing may be made by dissolving two pounds 
 of the double sulphate of iron and ammonia in each
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 43 
 
 gallon of water. Another bath, recommended by Urqu- 
 hart, is prepared by adding a solution of carbonate of 
 ammonia to a solution of sulphate of iron until the iron 
 is precipitated, when the liquid portion should be poured 
 off and the precipitate washed, after which it is dissolved 
 to saturation in a bulk of sulphuric acid equal to the 
 volume of solution required. 
 
 Another iron solution consists of 56 pounds of car- 
 bonate of ammonia dissolved in 35 gallons of water and 
 supplied with iron by means of a large anode and an 
 electric current from the dynamo. 
 
 The solution which seems to be most popular for the 
 production of iron electrotypes, and which is highly 
 recommended by M. Klein, is composed of equal parts 
 of sulphate of iron (green vitriol) and sulphate of mag- 
 nesia, kept neutral by bags of carbonate of magnesia 
 suspended in the bath. A sufficient quantity of the 
 sulphates should be dissolved in water to make the spe- 
 cific gravity 1.55, i. e. , about 51 Baum6. This bath 
 requires a current density of 18.5 amperes per square 
 foot. A peculiarity of all iron solutions is that the 
 anodes must always be of large size, preferably about 
 eight times as large as the cathodes. 
 
 The deposition of brass is also attended with some 
 difficulty, chiefly because it is composed of two metals, 
 one of which is positive and the other negative, hence 
 the current strength requires more or less regulation to 
 insure uniform deposition of both metals. As brass is 
 composed of copper and zinc, the salts of these two 
 metals must necessarily form the basis of the depositing 
 solution. A good brassing solution consists of 16
 
 44 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 ounces of cyanide of potassium, 5 ounces carbonate 
 of copper, i % ounces carbonate of zinc, i ounce of 
 ammonia, and i gallon of water. The following formu- 
 las are recommended by Roseleur and Dr. Langbein: 
 Copper sulphate and zinc sulphate, each 5^ ounces, 
 and crystallized carbonate of soda, 15^ ounces. Crys- 
 tallized carbonate of soda and crystallized bisulphide 
 of soda, each 7 ounces ; 98 per cent potassium cyanide, 
 8^ ounces ; arsenious acid, 30^ grains ; water, 10 
 quarts. The bath is prepared by dissolving the copper 
 and zinc sulphates in 5 quarts of warm water, and in 
 the other 5 quarts, the 15^ ounces of carbonate of 
 soda; then mix both solutions, which will form a pre- 
 cipitate of the carbonates of copper and zinc. After 
 setting ten or twelve hours the supernatant liquor is 
 poured off and sufficient water added to the precipitate 
 to make six quarts of solution. Now add to the bath 
 with constant stirring the carbonate and bisulphide of 
 soda. Dissolve the potassium in 4 quarts of cold water 
 and add this solution to the first solution with the ex- 
 ception of one-half pint, in which the arsenious acid is 
 dissolved by the aid of heat, when it is also added to 
 the bath. This solution should be thoroughly boiled for 
 one or two hours and the water lost by evaporation 
 replaced. 
 
 Another brass solution, which is less troublesome to 
 prepare, contains crystallized carbonate of soda, 10% 
 ounces ; crystallized bisulphate of soda, 7 ounces ; 
 neutral acetate of copper, 4.4 ounces ; crystallized 
 chloride of zinc, 4.4 ounces ; 98 per cent potassium 
 cyanide, 14.11 ounces; arsenious acid, 30^ grains;
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 45 
 
 water, 10 quarts. Dissolve the carbonate and bisul- 
 phate of soda in 4 quarts of water, then mix the acetate 
 of copper and chloride of zinc with 2 quarts of water 
 and add this solution to the first ; retaining, however, 
 a small portion of it in which to dissolve the arsenious 
 acid with the aid of heat. Finally, add the arsenious 
 acid solution, when the bath becomes clear. Boiling 
 the bath or working it through with the current is 
 required. 
 
 The following solution is recommended by Watt : 
 Cyanide of potassium, i pound ; carbonate of ammonia, 
 i pound ; cyanide of copper, 2 ounces ; cyanide of zinc, 
 i ounce ; water, i gallon. 
 
 Another brassing solution which the writer has 
 found very satisfactory consists of 16 ounces cyanide 
 of potassium, 5 ounces carbonate of copper, \y 2 ounces 
 carbonate of zinc, i ounce ammonia, and one gallon of 
 water. 
 
 Solutions containing cyanides would immediately 
 destroy wax or gutta-percha molds, and their use is 
 therefore restricted to plating or facing electrotypes or 
 other metallic articles.
 
 46 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF BATHS. 
 
 / T~~*HE acid copper solution is not difficult to manage 
 JL and may be kept for years in constant use by 
 adding from time to time a little of one or the other of 
 its constituents as may be needful to make good the 
 loss occasioned by various causes. This loss is prin- 
 cipally by evaporation, and by simply adding a few pints 
 of distilled water the solution may generally be restored 
 to nearly its original proportions. 
 
 Under ordinary conditions the copper withdrawn 
 from the bath and deposited on the cathode is not 
 fully replaced by the anodes, and it is necessary, there- 
 fore, to enrich the solution occasionally with a little 
 sulphate of copper, which may be done by suspending 
 just under the surface of the solution a few pounds of 
 the crystals in a cheese-cloth bag. A reduction in the 
 content of copper in the bath from this cause always 
 produces a corresponding increase of free acid. Should 
 the content of acid become excessive, it may be neu- 
 tralized by the addition to the solution of a little car- 
 bonate of copper. 
 
 When the anodes are larger than the cathodes or 
 when, as may happen, a number of anodes are left in 
 the bath, connected with the current, while molds are
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 47 
 
 being prepared for the depositing process the quan- 
 tity of copper dissolved will exceed the quantity depos- 
 ited, resulting in undue concentration of the solution. 
 This condition will be indicated by a tardy formation 
 of the deposit and the production of a shell of brittle 
 and crystalline character. Moreover, a dense solution, 
 unless continuously agitated, is apt to produce streaky 
 deposits. An excess of copper is further indicated by 
 the formation of crystals of sulphate of copper on the 
 sides of the vat and sometimes on the anodes. When 
 such conditions appear, the obvious remedy is to dilute 
 the solution with water. However, the addition of water 
 to make good the loss caused by evaporation is usually 
 sufficient to remedy any excess of copper without further 
 dilution. 
 
 A quiescent solution always becomes more concen- 
 trated at the bottom than at the top of the vat. As a 
 result of this condition the lower portion of the anode 
 will be dissolved less freely than the upper on account 
 of the increased resistance; but, on the other hand, the 
 copper will be deposited more rapidly on the lower por- 
 tion of the cathode where the largest quantity of metal 
 is in solution. For the same reason that portion of the 
 cathode which is suspended in the heavier strata of the 
 bath is apt to become covered with nodules or excres- 
 cences which are more or less annoying and wasteful. 
 This difficulty may be minimized by stirring the solution 
 occasionally with a wooden paddle, which will tem- 
 porarily equalize its density. The bath should not be 
 stirred while in use, particularly if old and dirty, as the
 
 4S ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 impurities which will have settled on the bottom of the 
 vat would be likely to lodge on the work and cause 
 holes in the shells. Some electrotypers are content to 
 stir the solutions once a week, usually on Saturday 
 evening, thus giving the bath thirty-six hours in which 
 to settle; but, unless very dirty, it is advisable to stir 
 it as often as every twenty-four hours. When a bath 
 has become so dirty that it cannot be agitated without 
 danger of injuring the work it should be filtered. 
 
 The temperature of the bath should be kept between 
 65 and 75 degrees Fahr. At 65 degrees the best qual- 
 ity of copper is produced; but the quality is not seri- 
 ously impaired by raising the temperature ten degrees, 
 while the rate of deposition is materially increased. 
 Baths located in a room not heated at night may be 
 provided with a coil of lead pipe through which steam 
 may be circulated and the temperature increased thereby 
 as desired. Deposition always proceeds sluggishly on 
 cold mornings, unless some provision for warming the 
 solution is made. It is always desirable to keep the 
 baths in a room separate from the molding and finishing 
 departments in order to protect them as far as possible 
 from dust and flying particles of metal. It is also a 
 good plan to keep the vats covered when not in use. 
 
 The anodes should be removed from the solution 
 daily, and thoroughly cleaned from the slime which 
 accumulates on them and which has the effect of par- 
 tially insulating them. 
 
 What has been said regarding the general care of 
 the copper bath applies also to the nickel bath. An
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 49 
 
 occasional addition of water to restore the loss occa- 
 sioned by evaporation is imperative, as is also the addi- 
 tion of a few crystals of nickel salts from time to time if 
 the bath becomes impoverished. 
 
 Brass and iron baths are more troublesome than 
 either copper or nickel. The brass bath requires fre- 
 quent building up, particularly if not in regular use. 
 As brass contains a larger proportion of copper than 
 zinc, the copper in the bath becomes first exhausted, 
 and sufficient carbonate or cyanide of copper, according 
 to the constitution of the bath, must be added to restore 
 the proper proportions. Cyanide of potassium must 
 also be supplied when the action of the bath becomes 
 sluggish and no bubbles are observed on the cathodes. 
 When, however, there is a vigorous evolution of gas it 
 is an indication of an excess of cyanide, and a slow 
 deposit under these circumstances would be remedied 
 by the addition of the metallic salts. A deposit of light 
 color would indicate a want of copper in the solution, 
 and a dark color a lack of zinc. However, the color is 
 not a reliable guide, as it may be caused by a variation 
 in the density of current employed. A weak current 
 would deposit more copper than zinc and would give its 
 color to the deposit, while a strong current deposits 
 both metals in their proper proportions. Constant 
 watchfulness is required to keep the brass bath in good 
 working condition. 
 
 The iron bath is even more troublesome than brass 
 and less certain in the production of satisfactory depos- 
 its. Owing to its tendency to oxidize, the bath must 
 4
 
 50 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 be frequently filtered to insure uniform deposits. For 
 the same reason it should be kept under cover when 
 possible. The surface of anodes exposed should always 
 be seven or eight times greater than the cathodes.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 51 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 AGITATION OF BATHS. 
 
 r I "HE continuous agitation of the copper bath is of 
 JL great advantage to the electro ty per, particularly 
 when rapid deposition is desired. The copper is more 
 evenly deposited and of better quality, the formation 
 of gas bubbles and also of nodules and excrescences 
 is largely prevented, while the annoying streaks which 
 sometimes appear on the deposit, usually as the result 
 of an excess of metal in the solution, are seldom or 
 never seen in an agitated bath. But the principal 
 advantage may be found in the fact that much higher 
 current densities may be utilized, resulting in a corre- 
 sponding increased rate of deposition. With a quiescent 
 solution the quantity of current which may be employed 
 is limited to about 18 or 20 amperes per square foot ; 
 any excess of this quantity usually results in a deposit, 
 dark red or black in color, and rotten, porous or granu- 
 lar in texture. But in an agitated bath these defects 
 disappear. The copper becomes lighter in color, and 
 tough and ductile in character, and these conditions 
 will not change materially even when the current density 
 is increased to 100 amperes or more per square foot. 
 A quiescent solution is seldom of equal density 
 throughout. The heavier portions settle to the bottom
 
 ,Y2 I.I.KCTROTYPING. 
 
 of the vat and the lighter portions rise to the top, and 
 while the density of the bath may be temporarily equal- 
 ized by occasional stirring, there is a continual tendency 
 to separation. The evils resulting from this lack of 
 homogeneity have been described in a previous chapter, 
 and the remedy for these evils is continuous agitation. 
 There are various methods by which this object may be 
 accomplished. A small propeller may be operated 
 near the bottom at one end of the vat, or, where sev- 
 eral vats are employed, they may be arranged in steps 
 and the solution permitted to flow through a connecting 
 pipe from the upper vat to the next lower vat, and so 
 on through the series. 
 
 Fig. 5 shows a depositing vat arranged for working 
 by the Englehard process. For electrotyping, the 
 anodes used are about 7 inches wide and i^ inches 
 thick, the length being as may be needed for the work 
 in hand. They are mounted on spindles as shown, 
 and by suitable arrangement are rotated by power 
 while the battery is in action, the usual rate of speed 
 being about fifty revolutions per minute. The agita- 
 tion of the solution insures thorough mixture and uni- 
 form density ; friction between the solution and the 
 moving anode clears its surface of foreign matter and 
 facilitates its rapid dissolution. This also permits the 
 employment of much greater electrical energy than 
 in vats as ordinarily worked in fact, quite beyond the 
 capacity of nearly every plating dynamo in use. The 
 inventor claims a current of 6 or more volts per vat, 
 and 75 to 100 amperes per square foot of cathode
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 

 
 54 ELECTKOTYPING. 
 
 may be used without the least indication of burning 
 the deposit, which is of finer quality than that usually 
 made in the old way, and the quantity of metal thrown 
 down is fully twice as much in a given time. 
 
 The Dunton* method for producing a circulation in 
 the solution is illustrated in Fig. 6. A small centrifu- 
 gal pump, with a capacity of about 40 gallons per 
 
 FIG 6. 
 
 minute, rests on the bottom of one corner of the vat. 
 The solution is drawn in through a strainer at a point 
 over the center of the wheel, near the bottom of the 
 vat, and discharged near the surface. In this manner 
 the heavier liquid is lifted, and by the force of its dis- 
 charge a circular motion is imparted to the whole body. 
 It is forced toward the end of the tub, where it glances
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 55 
 
 across, down the other side, some of it passing between 
 the anodes and cathodes, across the opposite end to a 
 point nearly over the pump. The pump occupies an 
 area 6^ inches square by 4 inches high, and is con- 
 structed entirely of lead and hard rubber. Above the 
 solution the shaft ends in a length of hardened steel 
 tubing, which runs in the upper bearing and carries the 
 driving gear. The two lower bearings, under the solu- 
 tion, consist of flint glass bushings pressed into hard 
 rubber jackets, then forced into the sleeves provided at 
 the top and bottom of the pump casing. 
 
 Fig. 7 illustrates the Leetham apparatus, which is 
 particularly suitable for electrotyping solutions. Agita- 
 tion is effected by air compressed in a reservoir by a 
 small double-acting pump. The air is forced into the 
 baths through perforated lead pipes which lie on the 
 bottom of the vats, where they are entirely out of the 
 way of the work. 
 
 The perforations in the pipes are only about one inch 
 apart, which insures thorough circulation of the solu- 
 tion between the anodes and cathodes. 
 
 The pressure is regulated by valves, and the agita- 
 tion may therefore be made more or less violent at the 
 pleasure of the operator. On top of the air reservoir 
 and connected with it is a condensing chamber through 
 which the air passes before it is admitted to the vat. 
 The condensing chamber is provided with an inlet for 
 steam. When it is desired to increase the temperature 
 of the bath or increase its contents of water, steam is 
 admitted to the chamber, where it is condensed, and is
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 FIG. 7.
 
 ELECTROTYPING, 57 
 
 then conveyed to the solution through the air pipes. 
 This device therefore provides a means for heating the 
 solution and supplying it with distilled water as well as 
 agitating it. Another obvious advantage of this appa- 
 ratus is that one machine will agitate the contents of 
 several vats
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 A CONVENIENT and almost indispensable measur- 
 /A_ ing instrument in the electrotype foundry is the 
 hydrometer, or, as it is popularly termed, acid gauge. 
 By its aid the desired quantity of salts or acid in the 
 bath may be conveniently measured, and the specific 
 gravity of any solution readily determined. The hydrom- 
 eter consists of a glass tube with a graduated stem of 
 uniform diameter, a bulb to cause it to float in the 
 liquid, and a weight to keep it upright as it floats. 
 From the reading of the scale at the point which is on a 
 level with the liquid in which it is floating, the density 
 of the fluid may be ascertained. In pure water at 
 a temperature of 60 Fahr., the hydrometer sinks 
 to the zero mark, but by the addition of salts or acid 
 having a greater density than water, the bulb is forced 
 upward, and the reading on the scale will then indicate 
 the increased density. In making up electro typing 
 solutions, the hydrometer is floated in a vat partially 
 filled with water. Sulphate of copper is then dissolved 
 in the water until the increased density of the solution 
 forces the instrument upward to a reading which is
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 59 
 
 known to indicate the desired proportions. Sulphuric 
 acid is then added to the solution until the desired 
 quantity is denoted on the scale of the instrument. To 
 further illustrate : a popular bath for nickel-plating is 
 made by dissolving three-fourths of a pound of salts in 
 each gallon of water ; but instead of weighing the salts 
 and measuring the water the same proportion may be 
 obtained by dissolving salts in any quantity of water 
 until the hydrometer scale registers 7 degrees. There 
 are two well-known makes of hydrometers in use, 
 namely : the Baum6 and the Twaddle. Every degree 
 on the scale of a Twaddle hydrometer represents .005 
 of a degree of specific gravity. Zero on the scale is 
 equivalent to i.ooo specific gravity. To ascertain by a 
 Twaddle hydrometer the specific gravity of any liquid 
 heavier than water, multiply the reading by .005 and 
 add i.ooo. For example, the reading on the hydrom- 
 eter is 60 degrees : 60 X .005 .300 + i.ooo = 1.300, 
 the actual specific gravity of the liquid. The specific 
 gravity of a liquid may also be easily ascertained by 
 means of a Baum6 hydrometer by a simple calculation 
 as follows : Subtract the reading from the number 144, 
 and divide the same number by the difference. For 
 
 example, 144 50 = = 1.532, the specific gravity 
 
 94 
 
 of a liquid registering 50 degrees on a Baum6 hydrom- 
 eter. 
 
 Instruments for measuring electric currents should 
 belong to the equipment of every well-ordered electro- 
 typing establishment. In the early days of the art it
 
 OU ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 was sufficient to know that a current of some kind was 
 at work and that in due course of time a shell of suf- 
 ficient thickness would be deposited. It might take 
 twelve hours at one time and eighteen at another, but a 
 few hours more or less was not considered of serious 
 moment. With the modern electrotyper, however, 
 every minute counts, and as a rule he employs all the 
 current strength which can be utilized without burning 
 the deposit. Having learned by experience what quan- 
 tity may be employed to advantage, it is of great con- 
 venience to be able to measure the current and by 
 means of proper registering instruments maintain the 
 pressure at the maximum point. Instruments for meas- 
 uring electricity are the voltmeter and the ammeter. 
 The former measures the tension and the latter the 
 density of the current. While the scientific electrotyper 
 would find both instruments convenient, the ammeter is 
 not indispensable, for the strength of a current proceed- 
 ing from a dynamo increases with the tension, and an 
 instrument which registers the tension would, so far as 
 the electrotyper' s necessities are concerned, also meas- 
 ure the volume. Assuming that one volt pressure is 
 sufficient to force a current of 12 amperes per square 
 foot of cathode through a solution of given proportions, 
 then with two volts pressure the current strength would 
 be increased to 24 amperes and three volts would mean 
 about 36 amperes per square foot. If, therefore, the 
 electrotyper is provided with a voltmeter he may 
 determine with sufficient accuracy for his purpose the 
 strength of current employed.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 61 
 
 The speed with which copper may be deposited 
 depends on certain conditions, but more especially on 
 the density of current employed. To reproduce such 
 conditions at all times it is important that the E. M. F. 
 existing between the anode and cathode should be 
 accurately measured. The ordinary galvanometer is 
 insufficient for this purpose because it does not give an 
 accurate reading of the tension. On the other hand, a 
 sensitive voltmeter will indicate any loss of power due 
 to slipping belts, short circuits or irregularities of any 
 kind, and when used in connection with a switchboard 
 will enable the electrotyper to accurately reproduce the 
 conditions which he has found by experience conducive 
 to success. 
 
 The switchboard or resistance board consists of a 
 number of metallic spirals, usually of German silver, 
 arranged on a board in such a manner that one or 
 more of them may be switched into the circuit, 
 thus presenting more or less resistance, as may be 
 desired, to the passage of the current. The utility 
 of the switchboard may be illustrated as follows : sup- 
 pose a tension of 2^ volts is desired in the bath 
 and that by reason of slipping belts or other causes 
 the tension has been reduced to 2^ volts. Then by 
 moving the handle of the switchboard one or two but- 
 tons a corresponding number of spirals will be cut out 
 of the resistance, permitting a larger quantity of current 
 to enter the bath. Or suppose the load in the bath be 
 much smaller than usual, or for any other cause the ten- 
 sion increases beyond the desired limit, a movement of
 
 02 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 the switch handle in the opposite direction will increase 
 the resistance by adding to the number of spirals in the 
 circuit and the tension will thus be regulated. The 
 wires connecting the voltmeter with the baths may be 
 arranged in such manner that the tension in any one of 
 a series may be readily determined.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 63 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PREPARATION OF WORK. 
 
 SUCCESS in electrotyping depends largely on care- 
 ful attention to details, not the least important of 
 which is the preparation of cuts or type forms for mold- 
 ing. The finished electrotype must be perfectly flat to 
 insure satisfactory printing. If the original form is 
 defective by reason of imperfect justification, high or low 
 cuts or type, the defects will necessarily appear in the 
 electrotype and must finally be rectified at the finishing 
 bench. The truth of the old adage ' 'A stitch in time 
 saves nine ' ' is nowhere better illustrated than in electro- 
 typing. A few minutes' time spent in making ready the 
 form for molding frequently saves hours at the finishing / 
 bench, particularly when a number of duplicate electro- 
 types are made from the same form. For instance, a 
 broken or mashed type, unless discovered and replaced 
 by a perfect one before the form is molded, will be a 
 defect existing in every electrotype made from that form 
 and must be finally corrected by punching out the 
 defective letter and soldering in its place a perfect type. 
 These defects are not always the fault of the electro- 
 typer, but it is nearly always difficult to convince the
 
 64 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 printer of that fact unless a proof is furnished by the 
 printer with the job. 
 
 Printers' forms frequently consist of both type and 
 cuts, and it often happens that the cuts are lower or 
 higher than the type. Here again a few minutes' time 
 spent in shaving down or underlaying the cuts, as the 
 case may demand, will save much valuable time in the 
 later operations of finishing, and will also insure a better 
 electrotype, for it is obvious that if the cut is low in the 
 plate it must be forced up to a level with the type by 
 punching or hammering, and it will be plain, even to 
 the novice, that a plate which has been subjected to 
 such treatment will be less perfect than one which has 
 been corrected in the original and which, therefore, 
 requires but little attention from the finisher. 
 
 Usually better results are obtained by the molder 
 from metal-mounted cuts than when they are mounted 
 on wood, as the wood bases are liable to yield somewhat 
 under pressure and will thus make a shallower impres- 
 sion in the molding composition than the surrounding 
 type. Moreover there is danger of losing something of 
 the detail of the engraving. This is more especially 
 true of half-tone engravings, which should always be 
 mounted on metal bases. 
 
 Wood engravings, when subjected to changes of tem- 
 perature or atmospheric conditions, sometimes check or 
 crack. When it is desired to make an electrotype of 
 such an engraving, the checks, if not too large, may be 
 closed by covering them with strips of damp blotting 
 paper and then applying a hot building iron to the
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 65 
 
 paper until it is wholly or partially dry. When the 
 check has been closed the mold should be made at once 
 before it has time to open again. 
 
 Forms which are to be electrotyped should be sur- 
 rounded by type-high beveled bearers with the beveled 
 side next the type. The bearers prevent the wax or 
 composition from spreading, and also serve to protect 
 the face of the electrotype from injury during the oper- 
 ations of shaving and finishing. 
 
 When low leads, quads and furniture are used to 
 justify the form, the larger blanks may be filled up to the 
 shoulders of the type with strips of wax. The wax will 
 adhere to the furniture sufficiently to hold them in place 
 when the form is inverted on the case; and, on the other 
 hand, if the wax filling is well brushed over with black- 
 lead after it has been placed in the blanks, it will not 
 adhere to the mold. Preparing the forms in this manner 
 will prevent undue displacement of the molding compo- 
 sition and facilitate the later operations of cutting down 
 and building. Parts of book pages or pages of poetry 
 should have an inverted type placed in each corner of 
 the page to indicate the size of the page and serve as a 
 guide to the finisher, and title-pages and large blanks 
 of all kinds should have inverted letters so placed as 
 to protect isolated lines from injury during the finishing 
 processes. 
 
 All forms which are to be electrotyped should be 
 
 securely locked in extra strong chases and be perfectly 
 
 justified. The type should be squarely on its feet and 
 
 carefully planed. The pressure employed in molding is 
 
 5
 
 66 ELECTROTVPING. 
 
 such that unless great care is taken to lock up the forms 
 securely the wax will be forced between the bodies of 
 the type, causing them to spread and throwing them off 
 their feet. This will result in an imperfect plate, and at 
 the same time be the cause of much trouble and annoy- 
 ance owing to the difficulty of removing the wax thus 
 firmly imbedded in the form. Moreover, unless the 
 form is securely locked, there is danger that some of the 
 types will be drawn out of the form, when it is separated 
 from the mold, and lost or misplaced.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 67 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 MOLDING. 
 
 r I ^HE most important department of electrotyping, 
 .1- from the workman's point of view, is the molding, 
 and it is here that the question of profit or loss on a job 
 is often determined. In some other departments of the 
 foundry the work may be slighted to some extent with- 
 out materially affecting the output, but carelessness or 
 inefficiency on the part of the molder always means 
 delay, extra expense for finishing inferior electrotypes, 
 and possibly a final rejection of the job. A cheap 
 (poor) molder is always the most expensive man in 
 the foundry, for unless a perfect mold is obtained the 
 time expended in later operations of depositing, casting 
 and finishing will be wasted. Until recently the mate- 
 rial most generally employed for molding composition 
 was beeswax, mixed with a little crude turpentine and 
 plumbago. The proportions vary somewhat, according 
 to the ideas of the molder. A good combination is 
 composed of pure beeswax eighty-five per cent, tur- 
 pentine ten per cent and plumbago five per cent. If 
 the molding room is very warm, about five per cent of 
 burgundy pitch may be added with advantage. A 
 cheaper material which is now quite generally em- 
 ployed is ozokerite. Ozokerite is a mineral wax, which 
 can hardly be distinguished from beeswax. It has a
 
 68 ELECTROTYPING 
 
 high melting point, is non-adhesive and by most elec- 
 trotypers is claimed to be superior to beeswax for gen- 
 eral work. In some instances gutta-percha is employed 
 as a molding material, and under proper conditions the 
 results obtained are very satisfactory. The kind best 
 adapted for the work is what is known as the unmanu- 
 factured but purified sheet. Gutta-percha takes a coat- 
 ing of blacklead readily, and is impervious to the solu- 
 tion. When used for molding without pressure, as is 
 usually the case in duplicating steel engravings or arti- 
 cles of a fragile nature, it is melted and thoroughly 
 mixed with about forty per cent refined lard, or it may 
 be dissolved in bisulphide of carbon, and then moder- 
 ately heated until it is thin enough to pour. 
 
 A good molding composition for certain purposes 
 may be made by melting together one pound of lead, 
 Y$ pound of tin, and \y 2 pounds of bismuth. This 
 alloy melts at the temperature of boiling water, and 
 assumes a soft but firm condition just before setting, 
 at which time the impression should be made. The 
 principal advantage of this composition is found in the 
 fact that it expands in cooling, and therefore takes a 
 very sharp impression. An elastic composition recom- 
 mended by Urquhart, which may be used for molding 
 an entire object at one time, is prepared as follows: 
 TCight pounds of good glue is soaked in cold water 
 until quite soft. It is then placed in a glue-pot and 
 mixed with two pounds of treacle. The whole is heated 
 and thoroughly incorporated by stirring; when the 
 mold is not likely to be roughly handled, ^ pound of 
 beeswax may be added to the mixture. This material 
 is poured around the prepared object, and when set
 
 KLKCTROTYPING. 69 
 
 may be cut open from top to bottom and the object 
 removed ; the mold will now spring into its original 
 position and shape. The tendency of this composition 
 to absorb water may be prevented by immersing the 
 mold in a weak solution of bichromate of potash and 
 drying in the sun. An insoluble coating is thus secured. 
 
 A list of materials suitable for molding composition 
 might be extended to include nearly any inelastic sub- 
 stance which can be sufficiently softened to receive an 
 impression from type or cuts with a reasonable degree 
 of pressure. At this writing admirable results are 
 being obtained from pure lead under the name of the 
 Doctor Albert process, a description of which will be 
 found in another chapter. However, there is no mate- 
 rial which, for general work, equals in popularity pure 
 ozokerite or ozokerite mixed with a little beeswax. 
 Freedom from lumps, fiber or grain insures a perfect 
 medium for the production of the finest lines and 
 shades of engraving. It may be easily softened by 
 heat to the degree most suitable for molding and will 
 not perceptibly shrink in cooling or recover its form 
 after receiving an impression. Moreover it takes black- 
 lead readily, is unabsorbent and may be used over and 
 over innumerable times. In this age of adulterations 
 it is not always easy to obtain pure wax, but most 
 adulterations may be detected. The materials which 
 are most commonly mixed with wax are paraffin, resin 
 and tallow, and the presence of these substances may 
 be suspected if the fracture is smooth instead of 
 granular. 
 
 To prepare wax for molding it should be melted in 
 a steam-jacketed kettle and heated for several hours to
 
 70 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 expel all the moisture. About ten per cent of crude 
 turpentine and five per cent blacklead should then be 
 added and thoroughly incorporated. Having been thus 
 prepared the wax is dipped out and poured through a 
 strainer upon some shallow trays of brass or other 
 metal and allowed to cool. These trays, or cases, are 
 sometimes made of brass plates of a convenient size 
 with the edges raised about one-fourth of an inch so as 
 to form a shallow pan. Such cases are, however, quite 
 expensive and entirely unnecessary, as a perfectly flat 
 plate made of electrotype backing metal will serve the 
 purpose even better than brass, for in the event of its 
 becoming bent or warped it may be easily straightened 
 by simply laying it on a flat surface and planing it 
 down with a hammer and block. A raised edge may be 
 obtained by surrounding the case with wood or metal 
 strips of suitable height. It is customary to place the 
 cases on a stone or iron table large enough to accom- 
 modate several at the same time and located within 
 convenient distance of the wax-melting pot. When a 
 stone table is employed for the purpose it should be 
 very thick, not less than five or six inches, in order 
 that it may quickly absorb the heat from the cases and 
 thereby facilitate the cooling of the wax, otherwise 
 much time would be consumed in waiting for the wax 
 to set sufficiently to stand handling. Even a heavy 
 stone table, unless of extraordinary size, will not cool 
 cases fast enough when the volume of work is consid- 
 erable, and under such conditions it is advisable to 
 employ a hollow iron table provided with water and 
 waste connections so that a circulation of cold water 
 may be maintained and the time required to cool the
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 71 
 
 cases reduced to the minimum. Such a table may have, 
 permanently secured to its surface a strip of iron, 
 three-eighths of an inch thick, extending entirely 
 around the outside edge. The flat cases, about one- 
 eighth of an inch thick, are then laid on the table and 
 wax poured on them until it reaches the height of the 
 jH$-inch strips. The cases may be separated, if desired, 
 by strips of wood. After the wax has set, the cases 
 are cut out with a knife and removed from the table, 
 and the residue returned to the kettle. The iron table 
 may be made still more effective by providing it also 
 with steam connections, for it often happens on a cold 
 morning that the table is too cold to cast perfect cases, 
 and considerable time is consumed in producing the 
 proper temperature by outside influences. In pouring 
 the wax on the cases it is always advisable to strain it 
 and thereby insure the exclusion of all dirt or foreign 
 matter which may have found its way into the melting 
 kettle. Immediately after pouring, a straight-edge or 
 wire should be drawn over the surface of the cases to 
 remove any air bubbles which may have formed. Any 
 bubbles which do not yield to this treatment may be 
 lightly touched with a gas flame. Neither wax nor com- 
 position material can be used for molding until some 
 time after it has been cast in cases, or until it has had 
 time to cool, and it is therefore the practice to cast 
 cases several hours in advance of the time they will be 
 required for use. 
 
 Molding presses operated by steam or hydraulic 
 power are usually provided with devices for indicating 
 the depth of impression made in the wax, or with auto- 
 matic stops for shifting the belt when the impression
 
 72 KLK(TROTYri\<;. 
 
 has reached a predetermined depth. Such devices are 
 effective only when the wax cases are all of the same 
 thickness and of uniform temperature. The tempera- 
 ture of the wax determines its degree of plasticity, and 
 the suitable degree is indicated when the wax will yield 
 under pressure of the thumb. The ability to judge the 
 correct temperature comes with experience, and can be 
 acquired in no other way. 
 
 By exercising due care to fill the cases level with 
 the bearers which surround them, the waxcaster may 
 produce cases reasonably uniform as to thickness ; but 
 to insure absolute accuracy they should be passed 
 through a wax-shaving machine, which not only in- 
 sures uniformity but also removes any dirt or dust 
 which may have become attached to the wax while in 
 a liquid or semi-liquid state. 
 
 When wax cases are cast several hours in advance 
 of their use and have become cold and brittle, it is 
 necessary, before molding, to restore them to a plastic 
 condition, as any attempt to mold in cold wax would be 
 not only dangerous alike to press and form, but would 
 inevitably result in failure. The wax is sometimes 
 softened by laying the cases on a steam-heated table, 
 such as is illustrated in Fig. 8, first placing some strips 
 of wood on the table to protect the back of the case 
 from excessive heat. Unless so protected, the wax 
 next the case would become much softer than the face,' 
 and the result of molding from a case thus unevenly 
 heated would almost certainly be concaved faces in the 
 reproduced type and cuts. Even when great care is 
 observed in warming the cases, it sometimes happens 
 that this defect occurs in the electrotype, and for this
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 73 
 
 reason as well as to avoid delay it is advisable to keep 
 the cases in a box moderately heated by steam or hot 
 air where they will be gradually brought to nearly 
 the proper temperature for molding. They will then 
 require an exposure of but a few moments on the 
 steam table to make them sufficiently plastic. Instead 
 
 FIG. 8. 
 ELECTROTYPKRS' WAX KETTLE AND TABLH. 
 
 of a box, a number of pigeonholes may be constructed 
 about two feet above the steam table in such a manner 
 that the cases may rest on their edges in a vertical 
 position, and the hot air arising from the steam table 
 permitted to circulate between them. 
 
 Having warmed the case until the wax will take an
 
 74 RLECTROTYPING. 
 
 impression of the thumb, it is given a thorough coating 
 of molding graphite, which, when properly applied, 
 prevents the wax from spreading. Graphite should 
 also be applied to the form, rubbing it in thoroughly 
 with a brush in order to prevent the type or cuts from 
 adhering to the wax. 
 
 The form is now placed on the apron of the mold- 
 ing press and the case inverted upon it, or if the form 
 is small the operation may be reversed and the form 
 inverted upon the case. In either event two or three 
 sheets of heavy strawboard should be placed between 
 the back of the case and the press to prevent too sud- 
 den chilling of the wax. Having been thus prepared, 
 the form and case with its strawboard backing are slid 
 under the head of the molding press and pressure 
 applied until sufficient depth of impression has been 
 obtained in the wax, when the form and mold should 
 be carefully separated and examined. 
 
 It will sometimes be found necessary to take a sec- 
 ond impression in order to obtain a perfect mold, and 
 in such cases it is obvious that the utmost care must be 
 exercised to prevent a doubled impression. To provide 
 for such contingencies, forms which are to be electro- 
 typed should be imposed in such a manner as to leave 
 an opening between the sections of furniture at two of 
 the corners of the chase, that the molder, when setting 
 the form the second time, may accurately locate the 
 first impression. 
 
 When a large number of duplicates are required 
 from one form it is customary to prepare a sufficient 
 number of electrotype patterns to fill a chase and there- 
 after mold from the patterns instead of the original
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 75 
 
 form. When the patterns are carefully prepared no 
 building will be required on the molds, and much of 
 the labor of finishing will also be saved. 
 
 The operation of the molding press is sufficiently 
 explained by the illustrations Figs. 9 and 10. With 
 the exception of the hydraulic press the principle by 
 
 FIG. 9. 
 ELECTROTYPERS' HAND MOLDING PRESS. 
 
 which pressure is applied is the same in all molding 
 presses a toggle joint operated by a screw. In the 
 hand press the screw terminates in a hand wheel whose 
 spokes extend beyond the rim of the wheel to provide 
 a convenient means of applying power. The screw in 
 a power press terminates in a large gear wheel which 
 is engaged by a pinion driven by steam power.
 
 70 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 The press illustrated in Fig. 10 is provided -with an 
 indicator consisting of a finger and graduated dial, by 
 means of which uniformity in depth of impression may 
 be obtained. The indicator is particularly useful when 
 two or more impressions are required, for, having 
 noted the location of the finger on the dial plate at the 
 
 FIG. 10. 
 
 ELECTROTYPERS' POWER MOLDING PRESS. 
 
 completion of the first impression, it is an easy matter 
 to determine the depth of the second. 
 
 In connection with the operation of the molding 
 press mention may be made of a fact not always recog- 
 nized by molders, which is, that the greatest power 
 exerted by a toggle joint occurs just before the toggles
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 77 
 
 reach a perpendicular position. The amount of pack- 
 ing placed under the case is sometimes so excessive 
 that the toggles never reach the point of highest effi- 
 ciency, and therefore more or less power is unneces- 
 sarily expended in producing the impression. While 
 this is of no particular moment in the case of the steam 
 press, except as it throws a heavy strain on the yoke, a 
 proper adjustment of the packing would save consid- 
 erable hard labor to the operator of the hand press.
 
 78 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 BUILDING. 
 
 MOLDING a form or pattern naturally causes more 
 or less displacement of wax, which is forced up 
 around the edges of the form and between the cuts or 
 type, or wherever there is an opening, however small. 
 Before proceeding to metallize the mold, it is necessary 
 that these displacements shall be cut down to a uniform 
 level, for it would not only be difficult to metallize, by 
 the usual methods, a mold whose surface consists of 
 knobs and protuberances of uneven heights, but it 
 would also be impossible to cast the electrotype plate 
 within the limits of the thickness usually required for 
 printing purposes, for every protuberance on the mold 
 would necessarily involve a corresponding depression in 
 the shell; and inasmuch as the shell must be backed 
 with metal and entirely covered thereby, the thickness 
 of the finished electrotype plate could not be less than 
 the highest point of the shell. As a rule, electrotypes 
 are made not more than one pica in thickness, and the 
 lowest depression in the electrotype where blank spaces 
 occur must obviously be somewhat less than a pica in 
 depth.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 79 
 
 For the purpose of cutting down the mold a wax 
 knife (Fig. u) of special design is employed. The 
 mold and the knife should be warm, and the knife must 
 be occasionally heated over a gas jet or stove. The dis- 
 placed wax is removed by a shaving, outward cut of the 
 knife, taking care not to cut too deep into the mold. 
 
 FIG. ii. WAX KNIFE. 
 
 The operation requires some practice, but is easily 
 accomplished if the knife blade is kept warm ; other- 
 wise there would be danger of breaking down, or dis- 
 torting the walls of the cavities of the mold, in which 
 case the later operation of blackleading or metallizing 
 the mold would be rendered difficult if not impossible. 
 Even a sharp, warm knife will leave the edges of the 
 walls more or less ragged, but these edges may be ren- 
 dered smooth and rounded by passing rapidly over the 
 mold a lighted gas jet attached to a rubber hose. 
 
 After the cutting-down process, the operator should 
 go carefully over the mold with a sharp-pointed tool and 
 pick out any shavings or particles of wax which may 
 have become lodged in the indentations. 
 
 The mold should now present a reasonably smooth 
 surface, all the high places caused by displacement hav- 
 ing been cut down to a uniform level, which leaves the 
 indentations in the mold from ^ to ^ of an inch deep.
 
 80 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 If the mold has been made from a solid type form, it 
 may now be metallized and prepared for the depositing 
 vat; but if made from an open form, the blanks between 
 the printing surfaces must be raised in order to produce 
 a depression in the electrotype and thus eliminate all 
 possibility of smutting in printing. Unless the blank is 
 raised or built up in the mold, it would be necessary to 
 deepen the depression in the electrotype by routing or 
 chiseling, which is a much more expensive operation 
 than building, particularly when a number of duplicates 
 are required from one pattern. Building is an operation 
 requiring a steady hand and a quick eye as well as a 
 skill which comes from long practice. The tools em- 
 ployed are a building iron (Fig. 12), a small gas stove 
 
 FIG. 12. BUILDING IRON. 
 
 and a strip of wax. The building iron is a smooth, 
 cone-shaped block of copper, about two inches long, one 
 inch in diameter at one end and tapering to a sharp 
 point at the other, with a handle eight or ten inches in 
 length inserted in the side. Several of these irons 
 should be provided in order that while one is in use the 
 others may be heating. To build up a blank in the 
 mold, the operator takes a hot iron in one hand and a 
 strip of wax in the other, and, holding the point of the 
 iron over and close to the blank which is to be raised,
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 81 
 
 touches the iron lightly with the strip of wax, which 
 instantly melts and runs down the iron onto the mold. 
 If the blank is large, the wax is held in contact with the 
 iron while it is moved over the space back and forth 
 until entirely covered and built up to the required height. 
 
 Care must be .taken not to get the iron too hot, for 
 in that case the wax would be made too thin and would 
 not chill quick enough by contact with the mold, but 
 would run off from the blank and into the indentations of 
 the mold. It is always advisable to test the heat of the 
 iron by running some wax onto the edges of the mold 
 where no damage can result. Before blackleading or 
 metallizing the mold it is also necessary to provide 
 places of contact for the electrical connections.- This 
 may be done in various ways. The simplest method is 
 to provide two pieces of copper wire, about r s s of an inch 
 in diameter and six or seven inches longer than the case. 
 One end of each wire should be turned over to form 
 hooks by means of which the case may be suspended 
 from the cross rods of the depositing vat. The wires 
 are heated by dipping them in the metal pot or in any 
 convenient manner, and are then laid on the case, one 
 on each side of the mold, where they become embedded 
 by melting a channel for themselves in the wax. 
 
 Additional security is obtained by covering over the 
 wires with wax by means of the building iron. This 
 method of providing electrical connection with the mold 
 is simple and reasonably secure, if the case is not too 
 heavy; but a better method consists in substituting for 
 the wires strips of thin sheet copper from one-half to one 
 6
 
 82 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 inch in width. These strips are not designed to sustain 
 the weight of the case, but simply to act as conductors, 
 and for this purpose are superior to wires, because they 
 assure a better contact with the cross rods. When this 
 connection is employed, the weight of the case is sus- 
 tained by S-hooks, one end of which is passed through 
 a hole in the case, and the other end, which should be 
 insulated, hooked over the cross rod. 
 
 There are several other methods of making elec- 
 trical connections with the molds which are valuable 
 chiefly as time-savers. One of them is shown in the 
 illustration. A piece of copper or brass is melted into 
 the mold near the top and makes contact with a portion 
 of the hook which suspends the case from the cross 
 rod of the bath.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 83 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 METALLIZING. 
 
 THE utility of electrotyping in its early days was 
 restricted to the reproduction of medals or other 
 metallic objects which were conductors of electricity, 
 but in 1840 Mr. Murray discovered that nonmetallic 
 objects could be made conductive by applying to their 
 surface a film of graphite (blacklead), and to this dis- 
 covery is largely due the successful application of elec- 
 trotyping to the copying and duplication of engravings 
 and type forms. Only the purest grades of graphite 
 containing from 95 to 99 per cent of carbon are used 
 for metallizing. For this purpose it is ground to a 
 seemingly impalpable powder, but under the microscope 
 it is found to consist of minute flakes. To metallize or 
 render conductive a nonmetallic object, it is essential 
 that these flakes shall lie flat upon it like the scales of a 
 fish, overlapping each other and forming a continuous 
 and unbroken metallic covering for the object. Such a 
 surface can be obtained only by brushing or otherwise 
 forcing the flakes into the position described, which will 
 incidentally give to the object a bright polish. Black- 
 leading is sometimes accomplished by means of a pump
 
 84 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 or air blast, as will be hereafter described, but the usual 
 method is to apply the graphite with a soft brush of 
 camel's or badger hair, either by hand or with a black- 
 leading machine. For blackleading by hand a camel' s- 
 hair brush is preferred. With this instrument the 
 graphite is brushed back and forth over the mold until a 
 bright polish is obtained, and until it is certain that no 
 spot, however small, has been neglected. If so much 
 as a punctuation point fails to receive the proper polish, 
 copper will not deposit thereon, and a hole in the shell 
 will result. 
 
 Blackleading by hand is a slow and disagreeable 
 task, and is seldom practiced in American foundries, a 
 blackleading machine being considered essential even 
 in the smallest establishments. Fig. 13 illustrates a 
 blackleader which is a type of the machines in general 
 use at the present time. While there are variations in 
 the mechanical movements of different machines, the 
 essential features are a vibrating brush or brushes, and a 
 reciprocating bed to carry the molds back and forth 
 under the brushes. The apparatus is all inclosed in a 
 tight box which confines and prevents waste of graph- 
 ite. After the mold has been built up and prepared as 
 previously described it is placed on the bed of the 
 blackleader and covered thickly over with graphite. 
 When the machine is started the molds travel slowly 
 back and forth while the rapidly vibrating brushes soon 
 effect the necessary polish. The time required to prop- 
 erly blacklead a mold depends upon the nature of the 
 work and the speed at which the brushes are operated.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 85 
 
 A mold of a type form requires considerable more 
 brushing than a flat engraving because of the minute 
 
 FIG. 13. BLACKLEADER. 
 
 indentions made by the punctuation points, etc. With 
 a double-brush machine running at about 600 revolu-
 
 86 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 dons per minute, a good polish is usually obtained in 
 from five to ten minutes. 
 
 A disagreeable feature of blackleading is the flying 
 dust, which cannot be wholly confined and which even- 
 tually covers everything in the molding room, including 
 the workmen. This annoyance is minimized by the use 
 of the inclosed blackleading machine but not entirely 
 eliminated. On this account the wet process of black- 
 leading is sometimes preferred. This method was 
 invented and patented by Mr. Silas P. Knight in 1872. 
 By this process the graphite is mixed with water to the 
 consistency of thin cream and by means of a rotary force 
 pump is discharged with considerable force upon the 
 mold through a traveling rose nozzle, the entire appara- 
 tus being confined in a water-tight box. In another 
 form of wet blackleader the emulsion of graphite is 
 forced over the mold by a paddle wheel which revolves 
 in the liquid. The blades of the wheel consist of 
 badger-hair brushes which come lightly in contact with 
 the mold and assist in producing the necessary polish. 
 The wet process is said to be entirely satisfactory, but 
 for some reason has never come into general use. 
 
 Various attempts have been made to perform the 
 operation of blackleading by means of a blower or air 
 blast, and several patents have been issued for machines 
 with this design. Fig. 14 illustrates a machine which 
 combines both the air-blast and brush features. Air 
 from the pressure blower (on the floor, back of the 
 machine) passes through tubes in the horizontal cylinder 
 
 (above the machine) and is discharged through a narrow 
 6
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 87 
 
 slot extending across the table and close to the mold ; 
 water circulating outside the tubes reduces the tempera- 
 
 FIG. 14. COMBINATION BLACKLEADING MACHINE. 
 
 ture of the compressed air, so the machine may be oper- 
 ated continuously even in the summer without dan- 
 ger of injury to wax molds. At the bottom of the
 
 SS ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 machine there is a shallow drawer with a gauze bottom 
 through which the air passes to the blower ; the gauze 
 retains particles of wax and other substances likely to 
 obstruct the free passage of air through the slot. How- 
 ever, should the slot become clogged, by removing the 
 plate on the front of the machine the workman can 
 obtain access to the wind chest and may easily clear 
 away any obstruction. By a glance at the mercury 
 gauge, on the top of the machine, the operator can see 
 whether the air pressure is as it should be. The brush, 
 which is of badger hair, is located just back of the wind 
 chest and actuated from a shaft supplied with a tight 
 pulley, so, whenever desired, the brush may be stopped. 
 The distance of the brush from the table is adjustable. 
 
 In operation the workman lifts the cover, at front, 
 which is held raised by a hook shown at the left side, 
 lays the cases to be leaded on the table, which is 33 by 
 22 inches, lowers the cover, and starts the machine by 
 pulling the handle on the right until a pawl drops into a 
 notch in the rod ; he then adjusts the stop motion so 
 the table will make one, two or three trips forward and 
 back; when these have been completed the pawl will be 
 detached automatically from the rod, and the spring on 
 the countershaft carry the belt on the loose pulley, stop- 
 ping the machine. It is claimed by the manufacturers 
 that a tableful of molds may be metallized in one 
 minute. 
 
 After the mold has been blackleaded, it must be 
 thoroughly freed from the loose graphite which would 
 otherwise remain in the depressed portions, particularly
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 89 
 
 in the smaller indentations made by punctuation points 
 and leaders, and cause defective shells. The removal 
 of the superfluous graphite may be effected by a hand 
 bellows, but in large establishments a rotary fan opera- 
 ted by power is sometimes employed. A still better 
 method consists in taking the air through a tube from 
 a reservoir in which it has been compressed by an air 
 pump. By this method sufficient pressure to thor- 
 oughly blow out the mold is assured. From such a 
 reservoir additional tubes may be extended to the 
 molding presses, and utilized to blow the loose graphite 
 from the molds as may be necessary during the opera- 
 tion of molding. 
 
 By the process of blackleading, the case is rendered 
 conductive over its entire surface, and should it be sus- 
 pended in the bath without further preparation, it would 
 receive a deposit of copper not only upon the mold but 
 upon the margin of wax surrounding the mold, and 
 upon the back of the case. To restrict the action of 
 the current to the surface upon which a deposit is 
 desired, the remaining portion is painted out with hot 
 wax or varnish, or its conducting surface is destroyed 
 by passing lightly over it a hot building iron. The 
 conductivity of graphite is only .07 of one per cent as 
 compared with pure copper, 100 per cent, and the 
 action of the electric current on a blackleaded mold is 
 therefore very slow until covered with a coating of cop- 
 per, when deposition proceeds rapidly. To give the 
 mold a better conducting surface than is provided by 
 the graphite, and thus facilitate immediate action of the
 
 90 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 current over its entire surface, it is customary to precipi- 
 tate a film of copper on the mold before placing it in 
 the bath. This preliminary coating of copper is pro- 
 duced by pouring on the mold a solution of sulphate of 
 copper of about 16 Baum, and covering it with a 
 sprinkling of iron filings. With a badger-hair brush 
 the filings are lightly distributed over the mold until 
 thoroughly wet, when they take up the acid in the solu- 
 tion, and the copper thus set free is precipitated in a 
 bright film on the mold. If any portions of the mold 
 fail to take the coating the operation is repeated. Par- 
 ticular care is observed to avoid scratching the mold 
 with the iron filings. 
 
 Flat molds such as are made for the production 
 of copper printing plates may be readily and effectively 
 metallized by either of the methods previously described, 
 but for the production of nickel electrotypes or the 
 reproduction of irregular shaped objects such as stat- 
 uary, or art work of various kinds having undercut or 
 deep portions, recourse must be had to what is called 
 metallizing by the wet way. While this class of work 
 is not strictly in the line of commercial electrotyping 
 it is sufficiently analogous to deserve mention. The 
 processes to be described are recommended by such 
 practical writers as Langbein, Urquhart and Watt. 
 Gutta-percha or wax molds have their surfaces rendered 
 conductible by the following plan : Take equal parts 
 of albumen (white of egg) and a saturated solution of 
 common salt, and apply the mixture to the object to be 
 coated by means of a soft brush. Then dry the compo-
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 91 
 
 sition thoroughly. Now make a strong solution of 
 nitrate of silver and dip the mold into it for a few min- 
 utes and dry again. Expose the mold to a strong light 
 until it becomes quite black. The mold is then to be 
 dipped into a saturated solution of sulphate of iron, 
 when a layer of metallic silver will be formed upon 
 which a deposit of copper may readily be obtained. 
 The mold should be rinsed when taken from the sul- 
 phate of iron solution and connecting wire attached to 
 it, when it may at once be placed in the depositing bath. 
 
 Another method of metallizing is as follows: Dis- 
 solve a piece of phosphorus in two drams of bisul- 
 phide of carbon, stir in two drams of benzine and a 
 drop or two of sulphuric ether; pour the whole into 
 half a pint of alcohol and wash the surface of the mold 
 with this mixture twice, allowing it to dry after each 
 application. 
 
 The silver solution is made by dissolving one dram 
 twenty grains of nitrate of silver in a mixture of half 
 a pint of alcohol and one dram of acetic acid. The 
 mold is thoroughly floated once with this solution and 
 allowed to dry spontaneously. 
 
 Another and simpler method of rendering the mold 
 conductive may be described as follows : Dissolve phos- 
 phorus in pure alcohol until a strong solution is 
 obtained and wash the mold with the mixture. The 
 silver solution is prepared by dissolving nitrate of 
 silver in aqueous ammonia to saturation. It is to be 
 poured evenly over the mold and allowed to float over 
 it for a few minutes. The solution is poured off and
 
 92 ELECTROTVPING. 
 
 the mold allowed to become partly dry, when it is again 
 floated with the mixture. Spots that do not appear to 
 take the solution readily should be wetted with it by 
 means of a soft brush. 
 
 Still another process is as follows: Apply with a 
 brush upon the mold a not too concentrated solution of 
 nitrate of silver in a mixture of equal parts of distilled 
 water and ninety per cent alcohol. When the coat is 
 dry, expose it in a closed box to an atmosphere of sul- 
 phureted hydrogen. The latter converts the nitrate of 
 silver into sulphide of silver, which is a good conductor 
 of the current. For the production of the sulphureted 
 hydrogen, place in the box, which contains the mold to 
 be metallized, a porcelain plate or dish filled with dilute 
 sulphuric acid (i acid to 8 water) and add five or six 
 pieces of iron pyrites the size of a hazelnut. The 
 development of gas begins immediately and the box 
 should be closed with a well-fitting cover to prevent 
 inhaling the poisonous gas; if possible, the work should 
 be done in the open air or under a well-drawing chim- 
 ney. The formation of the layer of sulphide of silver 
 requires but a few minutes, and, if not many molds 
 have to be successively treated, the acid is poured off 
 from the iron pyrites and clean water poured upon the 
 latter so as not to cause useless development of gas. 
 
 For coppering leaves, plants, flowers, etc., dissolve 
 five parts (by weight) of wax in five of warm oil of 
 turpentine, and add to the solution a mixture of five 
 parts of phosphorus, one of gutta-percha and five of 
 asphalt in 120 bisulphide of carbon. When both are
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 93 
 
 thoroughly mixed, add to the whole a solution of four 
 parts (by weight) of guncotton in sixty of alcohol and 
 sixty of ether, and, after a thorough shaking, allow to 
 settle. The next day pour off the clear solution from 
 the sediment, when the solution can at once be used. 
 A French process for metallizing leaves, etc., con- 
 sists in immersing them in iodized collodion composed 
 of forty per cent alcohol, 40 cubic centimeters; ether, 
 60 cubic centimeters; potassium iodide, i gram; gun- 
 cotton, i gram. Allow the leaves, etc. , to dry so that 
 a firmly adhering layer is formed; then immerse them 
 in a solution of ten parts (by weight) of nitrate of sil- 
 ver in 100 of water, whereby a layer of iodide of silver 
 is formed. Now expose the article thus treated for 
 some time to the light, and then immerse it in the 
 reducing fluid consisting of water, 500 parts; green 
 vitriol, 25 parts, and acetic acid, 25 parts. The reduc- 
 tion of silver proceeds rapidly and the articles are soon 
 ready for coppering. Instead of the iodized collodion, 
 a mixture of equal parts of white of egg and solution 
 of common salt may be used.
 
 94 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE CONDUCTORS. 
 
 THE electrodes and all connections between the 
 dynamo and the molds or anodes should be of 
 copper and should be amply large to conduct, without 
 heating, the strongest current practicable to use in the 
 depositing process. It should be remembered that the 
 generation of the electric current requires power, and 
 that a portion of the power is always expended in over- 
 coming resistance, and is, so far as its effect on the work 
 is concerned, wasted. It is obvious, therefore, in the 
 interest of economy, that due precaution should be 
 observed to provide both in the conductors and in the 
 bath a path of minimum resistance. A barrel of water 
 would run out of an inch bunghole in a very few min- 
 utes, while it would take a tremendous pressure to force 
 the same quantity of water in the same time through a 
 gimlet hole. In the same way a current of several 
 hundred amperes will flow readily through a large rod, 
 when the attempt to force the same current through a 
 small wire would result in overheating the wire and the 
 dynamo, with a consequent waste of power. ' ' The 
 development of heat in the conductors or the solution is 
 proportional to its resistance and is proportional to the
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 95 
 
 square of the strength of the current. Hence, the 
 development of heat will be the greater, the smaller the 
 cross-section of the conductor and its conducting capac- 
 ity are, and the larger the quantity of current which 
 passes through it." 
 
 The size of the conducting rods required for electro- 
 typing depends, therefore, on the quantity of current to 
 be employed at one time, which may be estimated with 
 sufficient accuracy by multiplying the area of the cath- 
 odes in square feet by the number of amperes required 
 to deposit one square foot at the maximum practicable 
 rate. Curiously enough there is a wide divergence of 
 opinion among authorities as to the quantity of current 
 which may be advantageously employed. V. Hiibl 
 gives the maximum as 36 amperes with an agitated solu- 
 tion. Sprague and Watt place the maximum at 37 
 amperes, while other writers claim that from 75 to 100 
 amperes may be employed. It is probable, however, 
 that the latter estimates are made without considerations 
 of economy. It would no doubt be possible to employ 
 loo amperes, but at a tremendous waste of power in 
 overcoming the resistance due to polarization, which 
 increases " at a rate approaching that of the square 
 root of the current. " It is probable that 50 amperes 
 per square foot cannot be exceeded, if consideration be 
 given to economical working. 
 
 Depositing vats vary in dimensions, and for that 
 reason a conducting rod which would be of ample 
 capacity in one case would be too small in another. 
 Inasmuch as the difference in the cost between a small
 
 96 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 rod and a large one is inconsiderable, it is always wise 
 to err on the side of safety. The text-books recom- 
 mend a cross-sectional area in the conductor of one 
 square inch for each 500 amperes, and in practice, rods 
 of this size have been found to be of ample capacity. 
 The resistance of a conductor is proportional to its 
 length as well as to its cross-sectional area, and this rule 
 applied to electrotyping means that the dynamo should 
 be located in the immediate neighborhood of the depos- 
 iting vats. For the purpose of conducting the current, 
 the cross rods, i. e. , the rods from which the anodes and 
 molds are suspended, do not usually require to be more 
 than one-fifth the size of the main conductors, but inas- 
 much as it is their province to sustain the weight of the 
 heavy anodes they should not be less than one-half inch 
 in diameter. 
 
 Less trouble will be found in making good connec- 
 tions if the main conducting rods are rectangular in 
 shape, as in that case the cross rods which rest upon 
 them will have a larger area of contact surface, particu- 
 larly if the ends are slightly flattened. If the main 
 conductors are round, the ends of the cross rods should 
 be not only flattened but curved to fit over the larger 
 rods, and thus insure a good contact. The anodes are 
 usually suspended in the solution by two copper hooks, 
 which should be large enough to transmit the current 
 without becoming sensibly heated say three-eighths of 
 an inch in diameter. These hooks, like the cross rods, 
 should be flattened and curved in order to insure ample 
 contact surface. Undoubtedly the best method of
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 97 
 
 suspending the anodes is to drill and tap holes in the 
 ends and screw the suspending hooks into them. This 
 makes a perfect connection, and will remain as long as 
 the anodes last. 
 
 It has been frequently noted that electrotypers do 
 not always appreciate the importance of making good 
 connections. It is of no avail to provide large conduct- 
 ing rods and cross rods if the conducting capacity of 
 the rods is to be choked off at the point of connection, 
 which is what occurs when one round rod is laid across 
 another round rod. It should be plainly obvious that 
 unless one or both of the rods are flattened where they 
 come in contact, the area of the contact will be extremely 
 limited compared with the area of the conductors on 
 both sides of the contact. It is hardly necessary to say 
 that all contact points should be kept clean and bright. 
 A neglected rod will soon become corroded, and corro- 
 sion increases resistance and is a frequent cause of heat. 
 
 It should not be forgotten that the solution is a con- 
 ductor of the current in the same sense that the rods 
 are, and should be considered in that capacity as well 
 as a dissolving medium. Pure sulphate of copper solu- 
 tion is an extremely poor conductor. The addition of 
 sulphuric acid improves its conductivity, but under the 
 most favorable conditions its resistance is several million 
 times greater than copper. To reduce this resistance 
 to a point where the solution will not become appreci- 
 ably heated by the passage of a strong current it 1 is 
 necessary to provide an exceedingly large area of con- 
 ducting fluid and to suspend the anodes and cathodes 
 
 7
 
 98 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 as near together as possible, say two to three inches 
 apart. According to Joule's law, previously quoted, 
 the development of the heat will be the greater the 
 smaller the cross-section of the conductor and its con- 
 ducting capacity are, and the larger the quantity of 
 current which passes through it. If, therefore, it is 
 desired to employ a very strong current, the vats must 
 be larger in proportion to the size of the anodes than 
 would be necessary with a moderate current. It is safe 
 to say that the cross-sectional area of the solution should 
 be at least double the area of the anodes.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 99 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 DEPOSITING. 
 
 WHEN a mold has been metallized by the dry 
 graphite method, and before proceeding to 
 strike it (i. e. , precipitate on its surface a preliminary 
 coating of copper to render it more conductive), it is 
 essential that the air shall be expelled from its surface 
 by thoroughly wetting it, otherwise the mold when first 
 immersed in the bath will be apt to repel the liquid, and 
 the film of air retained on its surface will partially insu- 
 late the mold and cause holes in the shell. Wetting 
 may be accomplished by pouring over the mold a small 
 quantity of alcohol or wood spirits. A more economical 
 method consists in placing the mold face up on a shelf 
 in a tank partially filled with water in such a manner 
 that it will rest an inch or two under the surface, and 
 then by means of a rotary pump and a rose nozzle 
 direct a stream of water upon it. In some foundries 
 graphite is mixed with the water, in which case the 
 apparatus becomes an auxiliary blackleader and aids 
 in the metallization of the mold. 
 
 After wetting and striking the mold it should be 
 immediately suspended in the bath from one of the rods 
 connected with the negative pole of the dynamo or bat-
 
 100 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 tery. It will be recalled that the current enters the 
 bath through the positive electrode and leaves it 
 through the negative. It is obvious, therefore, that 
 were the mold suspended from the positive rod no 
 action would result. 
 
 The anodes are solid plates of rolled copper of any 
 convenient thickness, but they should have as nearly as 
 possible the same area of exposure as the cathodes. If 
 the anode be much smaller than the cathode the deposit 
 will be brittle and the solution become impoverished. 
 If the anode should be much larger than the cathodes 
 copper will be dissolved faster than it is deposited, 
 increasing the density of the solution and resulting in 
 streaks on the back of the electrotype and the forma- 
 tion of uneven deposits. 
 
 Holes in the shell are usually due to defective black- 
 leading or failure to expel the air from the mold by 
 thorough wetting. In some instances, however, they 
 are caused by hydrogen bubbles. The remedy for the 
 latter evil is to decrease the current strength or pass a 
 camel' s-hair brush lightly over the mold several times 
 during the time it is in the bath, or, better yet, agitate 
 the solution. 
 
 The mold should be examined after it has been in 
 the bath a few minutes, and if any dark spots are 
 observed it should be at once removed and a solution 
 of graphite and water, or, better yet, graphite and alco- 
 hol, should be thoroughly rubbed into the defective 
 spots. The mold should then be rinsed under a strong 
 head of water applied through a spray nozzle and
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 101 
 
 returned to the bath. On no account should the mold 
 be allowed to dry while out of the bath. 
 
 The anodes should, of course, be suspended from 
 the positive pole of the dynamo, and it is evident that 
 only one anode need be provided for each pair of 
 cathodes, for, to maintain an equal area of exposure, 
 a mold should be placed on each side of the anode. 
 
 If the baths are arranged in series, which is the most 
 economical method of working, the total number of 
 molds should be divided as evenly as possible between 
 the vats to insure an equal rate of deposition. 
 
 The copper sulphate solution requires little attention 
 as a rule, because the proportions of its ingredients may 
 be quite widely varied without materially affecting the 
 quality of the deposited copper, and, on the other hand, 
 the current strength may also be varied and the quality 
 of the production still remain satisfactory; but, notwith- 
 standing these facts, it is possible to make the solution 
 too rich or too poor in metal, or too weak or too strong 
 with acid, and the current density may be too great to 
 work in harmony with the solution. Very often a 
 defective shell may result from one of two or three 
 causes. It is, therefore, sometimes necessary to experi- 
 ment a little in order to determine the exact cause of 
 the trouble. For instance, a sandy, pulverulent deposit 
 may be caused by an excess of current, or it may be 
 caused by an excess of metal in the solution, or both. 
 A brittle deposit will be caused by a weak current, or a 
 solution poor in metal, or both. But if the electro- 
 typer be provided with an accurate voltmeter it is a
 
 102 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 comparatively easy matter to locate the cause of the 
 trouble, for if the instrument indicates a current of suit- 
 able tension for a properly proportioned solution, it may 
 be assumed that the cause of the defective deposits will 
 be found in the bath and may be removed by enriching 
 or diluting the solution as may be indicated by the char- 
 acter of the deposited copper. 
 
 Under ordinary conditions of current and solution, 
 the molds should be separated from the anodes by a 
 distance of about two inches; but if it is found that the 
 deposit is very dark in color or granulated in texture, 
 this distance may be increased, thereby increasing the 
 resistance of the solution, which is equivalent in its 
 effect to cutting down the current strength. 
 
 After working a few hours the anodes become more 
 or less coated with slime, consisting of impurities and 
 small quantities of foreign metals, which are always 
 present to a greater or less extent in rolled copper. To 
 remove the slime, which has the effect of partially insu- 
 lating the anodes, they should be removed from the 
 bath once every day and thoroughly scrubbed and 
 rinsed with clean water. 
 
 When molds are removed from the bath the anodes 
 should always be disconnected from the dynamo, as 
 otherwise copper would be dissolved into the solution, 
 thereby unduly increasing its density. 
 
 The length of time required to deposit a shell of 
 given thickness depends on the current - strength em- 
 ployed and the condition of the solution and connec- 
 tions. According to Gore, a current density of 17.94
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 103 
 
 amperes per square foot will deposit .001 inch of copper 
 per hour; 35.88 amperes will deposit .002 per hour, and 
 so on. Having ascertained the current-strength avail- 
 able there would be no difficulty in calculating the time 
 necessary to obtain a deposit of any required thickness 
 provided it were certain that no variation in the current 
 would occur, and that the connections would remain 
 clean and in perfect contact, for having once ascertained 
 the time required to deposit a satisfactory shell, it would 
 be safe to assume that the same results would be obtained 
 thereafter; but carelessness in the preparation of molds, 
 as well as dirty rods or connections, sometimes delays 
 the action of the current, and the electrotyper, after the 
 calculated time, usually separates one corner of the shell 
 from the mold with a sharp-pointed tool, and tests its 
 thickness by bending it back and forth. This would 
 seem to be a " rule-of-thumb ' ' method of working, but 
 constant practice makes the workman so expert that he 
 seldom makes a mistake. In establishments where the 
 volume of work is large, it is customary to provide time 
 tags which may be attached by clothes pins or other 
 devices to the molds or cross-rods. When the mold is 
 suspended in the bath, a tag is attached on which is 
 written the hour it is due to come out. In this way the 
 electrotyper is enabled to keep tab on his work and 
 avoids waste of time in testing work which has been 
 insufficiently exposed; for while it sometimes happens 
 that a longer time is required to deposit a shell than 
 would be indicated by the voltmeter or ammeter, it never 
 takes less than the time so indicated.
 
 104 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 The electrotypers' sink should be of ample dimensions 
 and should be provided with an unlimited supply of hot 
 and cold water. The cold water faucet should be a hose 
 bib, to which should be attached a short piece of hose 
 terminating in an adjustable nozzle, to provide either a 
 spray or a strong stream of water as circumstances may 
 demand. The hot water should be kept in a tank at 
 one end of the sink, from which it may be dipped as 
 needed. One end of the sink should be provided with 
 a hinged apron to protect the operator and the floor 
 from the spray when using a strong head of water such 
 as is necessary in washing out molds.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 105 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 CASTING. 
 
 ELECTROTYPERS' furnaces were formerly con- 
 structed of brick with an iron kettle and face 
 plate. These furnaces are, however, seldom seen now, 
 the modern furnace (Fig. 15) being constructed of iron, 
 lined with fire brick. It occupies less room than the old 
 style furnace, is set up several inches from the floor to 
 provide an air space underneath and thus minimize the 
 
 FIG. 15. ELECTROTYPERS' FURNACE.
 
 106 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 danger from fire, and it may be moved from one place 
 to another when desired without tearing it to pieces. 
 The kettle is square or oblong in shape, for convenience 
 in floating the backing pans, and is about six inches 
 
 FIG. 16. LEVELING STAND. 
 
 deep. A wide flange or shelf extends around the top 
 of the furnace to provide a convenient resting place for 
 the backing pans and body molds. The floor under 
 the furnace and for some distance in every direction 
 should be covered with heavy sheet iron, about No. 16 
 gauge. 
 
 The leveling stand (Fig. 16), upon which the back- 
 ing pans rest while the cast is poured, is a light but 
 substantial framework of iron, whose upper rails are 
 provided with T-screws which may be so adjusted as to
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 107 
 
 keep the pan always in a level position and thus insure 
 a cast of uniform thickness. 
 
 The backing pan (Fig. 17) is a plate of iron or steel, 
 planed perfectly true and surrounded with a raised edge 
 whose height determines the thickness of the cast. The 
 pan is provided with handles to facilitate handling. 
 Where the pans are large it is customary to handle 
 them by means of a crane with an arm of sufficient 
 Length to swing them from the furnace to the leveling 
 
 FIG. 17. BACKING PAN. 
 
 stand. Backing pans should always be kept perfectly 
 clean, and to that end should be scoured after each cast. 
 Unless they receive proper attention in this respect they 
 will soon become rusted and totally unfit for the purpose 
 for which they are designed ; for to assure a perfect cast 
 it is essential that the shell shall lie perfectly flat upon a 
 smooth and level surface. 
 
 Backing metal is composed of lead, tin and anti- 
 mony. A popular mixture is lead 90 pounds, tin 5 
 pounds, antimony 5 pounds. However, the proportions 
 of tin and antimony are sometimes varied. Some elec- 
 trotypers prefer 4 pounds of tin and 6 of antimony, 
 and others 6 pounds of tin and 4 of antimony. The
 
 108 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 requirements are that the metal shall be soft enough to 
 straighten easily under the hammer and punch, yet not 
 so soft as to crush down on the press, and it must 
 contain tin in sufficient quantity to insure perfect adhe- 
 sion of the metal to the copper shell. 
 
 Having deposited a shell of satisfactory weight, the 
 mold is removed from the bath and placed in the sink 
 in a slanting position. After cutting the connections, a 
 small quantity of hot water is poured over the mold, 
 beginning at the upper end and allowing it to flow 
 down over every portion of its surface. The heat 
 softens the wax and releases the shell, which should be 
 carefully handled to prevent buckling or bending. 
 After rinsing the shell in cold water it should be washed 
 with hot potash to remove the film of wax which will 
 still adhere to the copper. The shell may be placed on 
 a slanting board over the lye kettle and scrubbed lightly 
 with a soft brush, and then rinsed with potash and after- 
 ward with clean water. Unless the shells are to be 
 immediately backed up with metal, they should be 
 placed in a shallow, lead-lined box partially filled with 
 water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid. If the 
 shells are permitted to become dry they will tarnish and 
 will not readily amalgamate with the backing metal. 
 
 In order to effectually unite the backing metal to 
 the shells it is essential that the back of the shell shall 
 be perfectly clean, and that it shall be first covered with 
 a coating of solder or with tin foil, which becomes 
 solder when mixed with the lead in the backing metal. 
 Tin foil may be purchased in rolls of any desired width
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 109 
 
 and thickness. A convenient size is five or six inches 
 in width and about .002 inch in thickness. 
 
 To thoroughly clean the shell it should be brushed 
 over with a solution of chloride of zinc, which may be 
 prepared by dissolving scraps of sheet zinc in muriatic 
 acid to saturation and adding twenty-five per cent pure 
 water. The zinc should be dissolved in a wide-mouthed 
 bottle in the open air, as the fumes given off are disa- 
 greeable and poisonous. The zinc solution may be 
 applied with a bristle brush, and the operation may 
 preferably be performed on a glass-topped table or on 
 a sheet of heavy plate glass placed on the workbench. 
 Glass is preferred because it is not affected by acid and 
 may be easily kept clean. 
 
 After cleaning with the tinning solution the shell is 
 covered with tin foil and placed face down in the back- 
 ing pan, which has been previously heated by floating 
 it in the molten metal, whose temperature should be 
 sufficiently high to scorch a piece of white paper with- 
 out burning it. The tin will almost immediately melt 
 and cover the shell with a thin coating. If preferred, 
 the shell may be placed on an iron plate heated by gas 
 instead of in the backing pan, the object being to melt 
 the tin foil on the shell. After the tin is melted the 
 backing pan should be immediately transferred to the 
 leveling stand and the shells covered with molten metal, 
 pouring it on slowly from a small ladle and holding the 
 shell down with a stick or any convenient instrument if 
 it shows any inclination to rise to the surface of the 
 metal.
 
 110 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 To expedite cooling of the cast a small blower may 
 be placed on the floor under the leveling stand in such 
 a manner that a stream of air may be directed against 
 the bottom of the pans. 
 
 A device which is sometimes employed in connection 
 with the backing-up process and which is claimed to 
 
 FIG. 19. 
 
 accomplish a material saving of time and labor is illus- 
 trated in Fig. 19. The description is taken from the 
 circular of the manufacturer. 
 
 The apparatus is designed to flatten the plates by 
 pressure after the metal has been poured and before it 
 has set and hardened. The process differs but little
 
 ELECTROTYPING. Ill 
 
 from that hitherto employed, the new feature being 
 the application of pressure, whereby much of the ham- 
 mering and finishing is obviated. 
 
 The press has been so designed as to make it thor- 
 oughly efficient and convenient, many suggestions from 
 experienced electrotypers being embodied in its con- 
 struction. Its operation is very simple, presenting no 
 difficulties. 
 
 When the pan is lifted out of the metal pot the 
 metal that adheres to the bottom of the pan is scraped 
 off by a steel scraper attached to the front end of the 
 press. On the inner sides of the frame of the press 
 are rollers, seven on each side, upon which the pans 
 move easily and quickly. The pan is set on the rollers 
 on the front of the press and the shell backed as usual. 
 Air is blown on the bottom of the pan from a pipe 
 underneath, and on the metal from a pipe above, the 
 object being to cool the cast evenly as well as quickly. 
 When the metal has commenced to set, a sheet of thick 
 asbestos, covered with powdered chalk or blacklead, is 
 laid on top of it and the pan rolled under the platen. 
 The blast is then turned on the bottom of the pan 
 under the platen. The rollers under the platen are on 
 springs, and depressed by the pressure on the pan until 
 the pan rests on supports underneath. The asbestos 
 and the rollers being elastic, the pressure is gradual and 
 easy. The pan remains under pressure till the next 
 one is ready, and is then pushed out to the back of the 
 press and taken off. The blast pipes underneath are 
 supplied with the press and provided with dampers.
 
 112 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 They are so arranged that connection can be made with 
 
 the pipe from the blower on either side of the press. 
 
 Electrotypes are usually mounted on wooden blocks 
 
 to make them "type high," but for certain purposes it 
 
 ' 
 
 FIG. 20. 
 
 is desirable to mount them on metal bases, as, for 
 instance, half-tone cuts and matter which is to be 
 stereotyped, such as advertising cuts for daily news- 
 papers. For the latter purpose electrotypes are made 
 in standard widths, i. e. , single, double or triple column. 
 The electrotype, after it has been backed up and 
 straightened, may be tacked or soldered to metal bases 
 which have been previously trimmed and shaved to the 
 proper dimensions, but better results are obtained both 
 in appearance and security by casting the base directly
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 113 
 
 on to the plate by placing the electrotype face down in 
 an iron mold and pouring molten metal on the back. 
 The cover of the mold is provided with corrugations 
 which form depressions in the metal, thus effecting a 
 saving in material and at the same time producing a 
 cast both light and strong and more easily handled 
 than a solid metal cast. 
 
 Figs. 20 and 21 illustrate respectively a body mold 
 and a section of a cast made therein. The bottom 
 plate of the mold on which the electrotype rests is not 
 shown. 
 
 FIG. 21. 
 
 Before making a cast all parts of the mold are 
 floated in the metal pot until they are of uniform tem- 
 perature with the metal. With a pair of pincers or 
 tongs the bottom plate is then withdrawn from the metal 
 and placed on two supporting blocks, one under either 
 end, one of which is slightly higher than the other, so 
 that the plate will have a pitch of about one-half inch. 
 The frame of the mold is then laid on the bottom plate, 
 the electrotype placed inside, the cover adjusted and the 
 8
 
 114 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 different parts clamped together with two iron hand 
 clamps. The cover is somewhat shorter than the frame, 
 which leaves an opening at the upper end to receive the 
 metal. The temperature of the mold is sufficient to 
 soften the backing of the electrotype, so that the new 
 metal, which is poured slowly and cautiously, readily 
 amalgamates with it. Having filled the mold, the cast 
 may be cooled by swabbing the mold with cold water. 
 As the metal cools it shrinks and more metal must be 
 continually added until the cast is set. 
 
 Electrotype body molds are made in several standard 
 sizes, from 6 to 41 picas in width and about 14 inches 
 long. Electrotypes wider than 41 picas are cast in 
 adjustable molds, an illustration of which is shown in 
 Fig. 22. In such a mold electrotypes from one-half to 
 four columns in width may be cast solid or cored. 
 Eight cores of different sizes are usually provided, 
 suitable for different kinds of work. 
 
 In some foundries the mold is cooled after the cast 
 has been poured by partially immersing it in a tank of 
 water. When employing this method it is important 
 that the cooling shall be effected gradually, otherwise 
 uneven shrinkage would result and the electrotype be 
 injured or destroyed. A convenient means of handling 
 the molds is by means of a small derrick which may be 
 locked in any desired position and thus permit the grad- 
 ual immersion of the mold in the water. 
 
 After the shell has been backed up, the cast is taken 
 to the scrubbing trough and thoroughly cleaned with 
 kerosene and powdered pumice stone applied with a
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 115 
 
 moderately stiff brush, and finally polished and dried 
 with soft sawdust. Great care should be observed in 
 cleaning half-tones, as a slight scratch is sufficient to 
 ruin them. 
 
 The backing pan will usually accommodate several 
 shells, and after they have been cast and cleaned the 
 
 FIG. 22. 
 
 next operation is to saw the different jobs apart that 
 that they may be separately straightened and finished. 
 For this purpose an iron saw table is employed, of which 
 Fig. 23 is an illustration. The mandrel is driven by a 
 countershaft and pulleys which are furnished with the
 
 110 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 machine. The rear end of the table is hinged to the 
 frame of the machine; the front rests on the end of 
 a screw, terminating in a hand wheel, by means of 
 which the top may be adjusted to any desired height for 
 sawing mortices, etc. An adjustable side gauge and a 
 sliding end gauge are necessary features if the saw is to 
 
 FIG. 23.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 117 
 
 be used for general work, and a glass saw guard for 
 protecting the eyes of the operator from flying chips 
 and sawdust is also essential. 
 
 Saw blades for cutting electrotype metal should have 
 about the same temper as for sawing wood, and should 
 not be of greater diameter than the nature of the work 
 demands. A large saw is liable to wind and warp, while, 
 on the other hand, if it projects but slightly through 
 the work this tendency will be minimized. The diam- 
 eter of the saw must depend, of course, upon the dis- 
 tance between the saw mandrel and the table top. For 
 instance, if the saw mandrel is three inches below the 
 top of the table, a nine-inch saw would be required to 
 give sufficient cutting surface above the table and allow 
 for a reasonable amount of wear. In most machines, 
 however, the mandrel is located within two and one-half 
 inches from the top, or even less, thus permitting the 
 use of smaller blades. For general use a cross-cut saw, 
 eight inches in diameter, No. 1 8 or 19 gauge, and with 
 about five points to the inch, is found most practical and 
 convenient. Such a saw should be driven about 4,000 
 revolutions a minute. 
 
 To cut freely without sticking or filling up, saws 
 should be kept sharp, round, evenly set, and the teeth 
 should be filed all with the same angle and without 
 hook. To keep the saw round, it should be jointed 
 occasionally by elevating the table top until only the 
 longer teeth of the saw project through the slot in the 
 top, when they may be ground down with a piece of 
 emery stone to uniform length. If the saw mandrel fits
 
 1 1 s ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 perfectly the hole in the saw and no more filing is done 
 than is necessary to bring the teeth to a point, a perfect 
 circle will by this method be obtained. 
 
 The saw may be set by laying it on a block of hara- 
 wood and striking every alternate tooth with a hammer 
 or punch, and then turning it over and repeating the 
 operation with the remaining teeth. It requires consid- 
 erable skill, however, to set a saw evenly in this way, 
 and it is preferable, particularly for the novice, to use a 
 carpenter's saw set which may be purchased at any 
 hardware store. 
 
 To file a saw properly it should be clamped between 
 two round blocks, about one inch thick and one inch 
 less in diameter than the saw. The blocks may be 
 clamped together on the saw by placing them in a vise. 
 The saw should be filed straight across and should not 
 hook or lean forward of a line drawn from the center of 
 the saw to its periphery.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 119 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 FINISHING. 
 
 THE duties of the electrotype finisher are to make 
 the face of the electrotype perfectly flat and level, 
 to repair defective letters, or cut them out and replace 
 them with type; to repair defective rules, etc., and 
 finally to bevel the edges of the plates if they are to 
 be worked on patent blocks, or to mount them upon 
 wooden or metal bases. 
 
 The tools required to properly straighten an electro- 
 type are a light hammer, with one round face, Fig. 24; 
 a set of punches, Fig. 25; a pair of calipers, Fig. 26, 
 and a rubber, Fig. 27. 
 
 The first operation is to beat down the edges of the 
 bearers surrounding the page or engraving with the 
 hammer, after which the plate is laid face down on a 
 smooth, steel-faced finishing block, and planed down 
 with a block of wood and hammer to make it lie flat 
 and solid. If any bad sinks are observed in the electro- 
 type their exact location is marked on the back of the 
 plate by means of the calipers. The plate is then again 
 laid on its face on the finishing block, and with a suit- 
 able punch the marked spot is driven down until it is 
 flush with the surrounding matter. After the plate has 
 been rough-finished and straightened it is taken to the 
 rougher, Fig. 28, and a cut taken off the back, which 
 reduces it to an approximately uniform thickness.
 
 120 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 As its name implies, the rougher was designed to 
 take the first or rough cut off from the electrotype cast. 
 Its chief utility consists in the fact that a large quan- 
 tity of 'metal may be removed at one operation. The 
 electrotype rests face down upon a traveling bed, and 
 
 FIG. 24. 
 
 FIG. 25. 
 
 is held down during the operation of planing by two 
 spring rolls located one on either side of the track of a 
 reciprocating cutter. The cutter is secured in a tool 
 post which is arranged to slide on an arm extending 
 over the bed and at right angles thereto. The cutter is 
 actuated by a pitman, one end of which is connected 
 with a stud on the cutter head and the other with a stud
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 121 
 
 on the drive pulley. The bed is operated in one direc- 
 tion by a worm, which is driven by a belt from a pulley 
 on the drive shaft, and is reversed by hand. 
 
 FIG. 26. 
 
 While the machine was originally intended for rough 
 work, yet if carefully constructed it can be made to per- 
 form its duty so accurately that no further planing or 
 shaving is necessary, and in many foundries it takes the 
 place of the shaving machine. 
 
 An improved type of rougher has an adjustable 
 shaving knife located just back of the reciprocating 
 cutter, which frees the plate from the metal chips which 
 
 FIG. 27. 
 
 become imbedded in the plate by passing under the 
 spring roller, and which would otherwise have to be 
 removed with a file or scraper. The shaver knife also 
 removes the tool marks left by the rougher, and gives 
 the plate a finished appearance.
 
 122 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 After the electrotype has been roughed it is taken 
 back to the finishing block and carefully examined. 
 Every minor defect is then remedied and necessary 
 corrections made. 
 
 To more readily detect the low spots in the plate, 
 the face of the electrotype is lightly rubbed over with a 
 rubber ink eraser, mounted on a block of wood, or with 
 a piece of fine emery paper stretched over a block. 
 Those portions of the electrotype which do not receive 
 a polish from this treatment are obviously low, and after 
 locating them on the back of the plate with the aid of 
 
 FIG. 28.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 123 
 
 the calipers, they are hammered or punched up to a 
 uniform level. After each operation of hammering or 
 punching, the electrotype is planed down and straight- 
 ened, and again tested with the rubber, and these treat- 
 ments are repeated until all the dark spots have been 
 brightened. 
 
 While the process of straightening an electrotype as 
 thus described is very simple, it really calls for a high 
 degree of mechanical skill, which can be acquired only 
 by long practice. 
 
 The electrotype having been straightened and re- 
 paired, it is taken to the shaving machine for a final cut, 
 which should reduce its thickness, if a book plate, to 
 exactly n points (small pica), this thickness having been 
 adopted by the electrotypers' associations of America as 
 a national standard for bookwork. If the plate is to be 
 mounted on a wooden base it may be shaved somewhat 
 thinner. 
 
 Shaving machines are of various patterns and sizes, 
 some operated by steam power and some by hand. The 
 hand shaver consists of an iron table planed perfectly 
 true upon its upper surface, and provided with a stop at 
 one end to hold the plate in position. The side edges 
 of the table are planed true, both top and bottom, and 
 serve as guides for a sliding head to which the knife is 
 bolted. Secured to the rear of the head and traversing 
 the entire length of the machine are steel racks, one on 
 either side, which are engaged by two pinions located 
 on a shaft which is at right angles with the racks. To 
 one end of the shaft a cast-iron spider is keyed, and to 
 the spider long wooden spokes are bolted, which afford 
 the means of operating the head. The head is provided
 
 124 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 with brass gibs, and the wear on the gibs may be taken 
 up by means of set screws. 
 
 In large establishments shaving machines are usually 
 driven by steam power. There are various devices for 
 applying the power, one of which is illustrated in 
 
 FIG. 29. 
 
 Fig. 29. The shaft and pinions acting on the racks 
 are the same as in the hand machine. A large gear 
 wheel is substituted for the spoke wheel on the main 
 shaft and is driven by a pinion to whose shaft power 
 is communicated through intermediate gearing by means 
 of band wheels shown at the left of the machine.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 125 
 
 Nearly all shaving machines are provided with a 
 spring roller located in front of and attached by brack- 
 ets to the head. The purpose of the roller is to press 
 the plate flat down on the bed of the machine just 
 before the knife begins its cut. A plate which is slightly 
 uneven or warped is thus secured against the danger of 
 ' ' g u g m g> ' ' an d the necessity for planing or filing a 
 bevel on the end of the plate is also obviated. 
 
 Another type of shaving machine has a bed resting 
 on steel wedges which are made adjustable by a screw 
 
 FIG. 30
 
 120 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 passing through the front of the machine and terminat- 
 ing in an indexed hand wheel. By means of this wheel 
 the bed may be raised or lowered to any desired height 
 within the range of the machine. 
 
 Fig. 30 illustrates a machine which is of compara- 
 tively new design and differs in many respects from 
 other makes. The following description is given by 
 the manufacturer: "The knife remains stationary, the 
 plate to be shaved being placed on a table and passed 
 under the knife. Power is applied to move the table 
 in one direction only, the power being thrown on 
 and off by a lever handle, not shown, convenient to 
 the right hand of the operator. The backward move- 
 ment is obtained by means of a hand wheel. The table 
 is extended beyond the head toward the front of the 
 machine, affording increased bearing surface and equaliz- 
 ing the wear over all parts of its length; the extended 
 portion, is made slightly concave, on which plates may 
 be bent so that they shall rest properly on the shaving 
 table. At the front of the machine, on the left side, is 
 an inverted plane, by which the plates may be beveled 
 as is usual to prevent the too abrupt commencement of 
 the shaving operation. ' '
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 127 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 TRIMMING AND ROUTING. 
 
 ALL electrotype plates, whether job or book work, 
 require to be trimmed on sides and ends. In 
 the case of wood-mounted plates the trimming is done 
 after they have been mounted on blocks, when plate 
 and block may be finished at one operation. The cir- 
 cular saw is unsuited for such work because of its 
 tendency to spring away from the job, and because its 
 cut is more or less ragged and uneven. 
 
 FIG. 31. 
 
 Various machines have been designed for the finish- 
 ing of electrotypes, the simplest and least expensive of 
 which is the shootboard, Fig. 3 1 , which consists of an
 
 128 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 iron plate with a gutter or chute along one side in which 
 a plane, furnished with an adjustable cutter blade, freely 
 slides. A stop extending across the bed at right angles 
 with the gutter serves as a rest for the electrotype and 
 also as a guide for squaring the plate. The plane is 
 
 FIG. 32. 
 
 provided with two blades, one for making a square edge 
 and one for producing a beveled edge such as is required 
 on book plates. 
 
 Fig. 32 illustrates a very convenient and efficient 
 trimming machine, specially designed for finishing type- 
 high or ' ' body ' ' work. A rapidly rotating arbor carry- 
 ing a cutter head, in which are secured two or more
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 129 
 
 cutting tools, is journal ed in a substantial iron frame. 
 The work is carried past the cutters on a reciprocating 
 carriage which slides on ways parallel with the cutter 
 head. The carriage is furnished with a right-angled 
 adjustable gauge against which the work rests, which is 
 adjusted by a finely threaded feed-screw, admitting of 
 close and accurate work. The trimmer head should 
 travel at a speed of about 3,500 revolutions per minute. 
 To prevent the work from being drawn into the 
 cutters and mangled it must be held securely on the 
 carriage. Large and heavy pieces may be held by the 
 fingers without danger, but the very small pieces, such 
 as one, two or three line electrotypes, should be held 
 by a lineholder, Fig. 33. The lineholder is an oblong 
 
 FIG. 33. 
 
 block of iron ten or twelve inches in length, two inches 
 in width, and one inch high. A dove-tailed groove, 
 extending the full length of the side face of the block, 
 admits two thin serrated clamps, one of which is secured 
 by means of a set screw at any desired distance from 
 the end of the block, and the other is pivoted to the 
 end of a lever which is operated by a handle on the 
 top of the block. The under side of the block is 
 recessed to receive a spiral spring which is attached to 
 9
 
 130 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 the lever and serves to hold the clamps firmly together 
 upon the work. In operation the block is placed upon 
 the carriage of the trimmer, the clamp jaws separated 
 by means of the handle and the work inserted between 
 them. On releasing the handle, the spring acting on 
 the lever draws the clamps together. The work is thus 
 securely held and may be trimmed without danger to 
 the eyes or fingers of the operator, provided the line- 
 holder itself be held firmly against the side gauge of 
 the machine during the operation of trimming. It 
 should be impressed upon the workman that whether 
 trimming large or small pieces it is important that the 
 carriage be kept free from chips. More accidents have 
 been caused by carelessness in this regard than from all 
 other causes combined. A chip or a small piece of 
 metal under the work will cause it to chatter or rock 
 when it encounters the cutters, with the result that the 
 workman often loses control of it; and even if he 
 is not injured by flying fragments his work will be 
 destroyed. 
 
 Two kinds of cutters are used in trimming machines, 
 one for trimming metal and the other for wood, or wood 
 and metal combined, such as job or book plates mounted 
 on cherry or mahogany blocks. The cutters should be 
 made of Stubs' tool steel, hardened, and the temper 
 drawn to a purple color. The holes in the cutter head 
 are usually made round, in which case round steel of a 
 size which will accurately fit the holes should be used 
 for tools. The cutting ends of the metal cutters must 
 be squared for at least a half inch back from the end 
 that is to say, there must be one right-angled corner to 
 do the cutting. Fig. 34 is a side and end view of a
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 131 
 
 metal cutter, and Fig. 35 illustrates a wood cutter or 
 "goose-bill." 
 
 It sometimes becomes necessary to deepen the relief 
 in an electrotype to prevent blacking or smutting the 
 paper in printing. While this operation may be per- 
 
 FlG. 35- 
 
 formed with a mallet and chisel, it is always preferable 
 to employ a router, Fig. 36. In this machine a rapidly 
 revolving vertical spindle carries on its lower end a 
 chuck in which may be secured cutting tools of various 
 sizes suited to the nature of the work to be performed. 
 The box in which the spindle turns is bolted to a handle- 
 bar, one end of which serves as a handle for guiding the 
 tool over the work, while the other end is pivoted to 
 another handle-bar which is again pivoted to the frame 
 of the machine. The double joints thus formed permit 
 the tool to be moved freely in any direction over the 
 bed of the machine. The second handle-bar is sup- 
 ported at the elbow formed by pivoting together the 
 two bars, by a steel segment, and the first handle-bar
 
 132 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 rests on a straightedge of hard wood extending the 
 entire length of the machine. The ends of the hard- 
 wood slide are supported by spring studs, which hold 
 
 FIG. 36. 
 
 the handle-bar carrying the spindle high enough from 
 the table so that the cutting tool clears the work when 
 not in operation. A pedal attached to a lever under- 
 neath the machine affords a means of compressing the 
 springs, thereby permitting the tool to enter the work.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 133 
 
 The tool spindle is adjustable in a vertical direction to 
 provide for plates of different thicknesses, as when a 
 change from type-high to plate work, or vice versa, is 
 desired. This adjustment is obtained by means of a 
 hand wheel attached to a threaded sleeve in which the 
 spindle turns. The sleeve is provided with a feather to 
 prevent its turning, so that a movement of the hand 
 wheel in either direction raises or lowers the spindle. 
 The work is held in screw clamps, which slide freely in 
 dovetailed grooves planed in the bed of the machine. 
 Power is transmitted to the tool spindle by a belt passing 
 over idle pulleys at the corner of the machine. The 
 pulleys at the pivotal points of the radial arms enable 
 the operator to move the spindle freely in any direction 
 without changing the tension of the belt. To perform 
 smooth and rapid work router tools require to be driven 
 at a high speed. For electrotype metal the speed 
 should be about 12,000 revolutions per minute. A 
 machine running so rapidly should, of course, receive 
 careful attention. The bearings should be kept clean 
 
 FIG. 37. 
 
 and well oiled, and must not be permitted to become 
 overheated. Router tools for general work are about 
 the size of a lead pencil. For special work they 
 may be made as small as one-sixteenth of an inch 
 in diameter, and when large quantities of metal are to 
 be removed, the size of the tool may be increased to 
 one-half inch. The cutting end of the tool is made in
 
 134 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 the shape of a half moon, as shown in Fig. 37, the 
 leading point being slightly longer than the heel, to pre- 
 vent clogging. This tool is sharpened by grinding the 
 end only, and may, therefore, be easily kept in order. 
 Book plates, when finished ready for the press, are 
 usually mounted on patent blocks, and are secured to 
 
 FIG. 38.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 135 
 
 their bases by bevel clamps which lap over the edges of 
 the plates. It is, therefore, necessary to provide a bev- 
 eled edge for the plates. This work may be performed 
 on a shootboard by using a suitable plane; but when a 
 large number of plates are to be prepared, it is cus- 
 tomary to employ a beveling machine Fig. 38. This 
 machine resembles a trimmer, but has an adjustable 
 vertical shaft. It has a reciprocating carriage to carry 
 the work past the cutters, is provided with gauges for 
 the alignment of the work, and may be adjusted so as 
 to produce either a rabbet or bevel, as may be desired.
 
 UK) ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 REVISING. 
 
 AFTER book plates have been straightened, shaved 
 and beveled, a proof is taken, and it sometimes 
 happens that errors or omissions are then discovered 
 which make changes and corrections necessary. Such 
 changes may consist in some cases of only a single let- 
 ter, while in others an entire line or paragraph may be 
 involved. In the former case, the defective letters are 
 punched out and type inserted in their places, and in the 
 latter, the line or paragraph is set up and electrotyped, 
 and after cutting out the defective portion of the plate 
 the new piece is set in and soldered. The special tools 
 required for this work consist of a set of punches and 
 chisels and a pair of calipers, such as have been pre- 
 viously described; a revising stick (Fig. 39), a blow 
 pipe, a pair of cutting pliers, a soldering iron, some small 
 flat files, and a light hammer. A complete set of chisels 
 and punches consists of eight sizes, and corresponds 
 with the different sizes of type in general use, namely: 
 pica, small pica, long primer, bourgeois, brevier, minion, 
 nonpareil and agate. The thickness of the tools corre- 
 sponds with that of the letter i in the respective fonts. 
 The revising stick may be made of a piece of print- 
 ers' brass rule, six or more inches in length. To one 
 edge and one end of the rule a strip of brass one-eighth
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 1.37 
 
 of an inch square should be soldered, as shown in Fig. 
 39. This makes a convenient, and in fact indispensable 
 tool for holding a line of type while fitting it to the slot 
 in the plate in which it is to be soldered. 
 
 FIG. 39. 
 
 A line gauge, Fig. 40, is employed for detecting 
 errors of alignment between the inserted type and the 
 remainder of the line, and is also employed for the 
 alignment of newspaper headings or other jobs com- 
 posed of capitals and lower-case letters. In trimming 
 a line composed of a capital letter followed by several 
 lower-case letters, the width of the block, of course, 
 
 FIG. 40. 
 
 must correspond with the width of the capital, and it is 
 obvious that without a guide it would be difficult to 
 trim the block so that the lower-case letters would all 
 be at an equal distance from the top and bottom of the 
 block. The same difficulty would occur in trimming
 
 138 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 any kind of a job requiring a margin above and below 
 the matter. The line gauge enables the operator to 
 trim the edges of such jobs exactly parallel with the 
 printing face, and is, therefore, an important and almost 
 indispensable tool. When used in revising, the edge of 
 the gauge is set in alignment with the line in which a 
 correction is to be made. After the type has been 
 inserted, and before it has been permanently secured by 
 soldering, an application of the gauge will determine 
 whether the alignment is perfect. 
 
 The blowpipe is used for soldering in places which 
 cannot be conveniently reached with a soldering iron. 
 It consists of a Y of brass tubing, one of whose arms is 
 connected by a rubber tube with the gas supply. By 
 blowing in the other arm of the Y a stream of air is 
 mixed with the gas. The point of flame may be 
 directed and focused on any desired point, however 
 small. 
 
 Referring to Fig. 41, it will be observed that the 
 cutting ends of the revising punches are provided with 
 V grooves, which give to the tools two cutting edges, 
 
 FIG. 41. 
 
 thus admitting of a sharp, clean cut through the plate 
 of just the size of the type which is to be inserted. In 
 correcting a typographical error in a plate, the workman 
 first marks with his caliper the exact location of the
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 139 
 
 letter upon the back of the plate. With a small chisel 
 a groove is then planed at the point marked by the 
 caliper to the depth of about one-half the thickness of 
 the plate. A punch of the proper size having been 
 selected, the plate is turned over, face up, upon a block 
 of wood, and with a sharp blow with the hammer the 
 letter is punched out. Turning the plate over again, 
 face down upon the finishing block, the type is inserted 
 in the hole, and the contiguous metal crowded against 
 it with a chisel until it is secured against dropping out, 
 when the face is examined to see that the inserted type 
 is in alignment with the remainder of the line and level 
 with the surface of the plate. Care must also be 
 observed to keep the type on its feet that is to say, it 
 must not lean from the perpendicular. The body of the 
 type which has been left projecting through the hole is 
 now cut off with the pliers level with the back of the 
 plate, and the type secured in its position with a drop 
 of solder. It is of course necessary to observe some 
 care, otherwise there would be danger of melting the 
 surrounding metal or the type itself. After the type is 
 secured the superfluous solder is removed with a chisel 
 or file. 
 
 When several consecutive letters are to be inserted 
 in the plate, the hole made with the punch is enlarged 
 with chisel and file to the size of the correction, and the 
 type which has been previously set up in the revising 
 stick is inserted and temporarily secured as before. 
 Somewhat more skill is required to make a correction 
 of this kind than to insert a single letter, as the slot 
 must be kept parallel and in exact alignment with the 
 remainder of the line, and this is a more difficult matter
 
 140 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 than to punch a single hole in the plate. When the 
 slot has been made too large, as sometimes occurs, the 
 type is aligned by crowding the contiguous metal against 
 that side of the type which is above or below the 
 line. When the type has been properly placed it is 
 usually partially secured by soldering before cutting 
 off the body; otherwise there would be danger of dis- 
 turbing it. 
 
 When the correction consists of several words or 
 parts of lines, the matter is set up and electrotyped in 
 the usual manner. The corrected piece so made is laid 
 on the plate in the position it is to occupy, and with a 
 graver or other sharp-pointed tool its exact outline is 
 transferred to the plate. A hole is drilled in one corner 
 and the defective portion of the plate cut out with a jig 
 saw Fig. 42. The correction is then inserted, the 
 plate turned face down and a drop of solder applied to 
 each of the four corners. During the operation of sol- 
 dering, the plate and correction should be firmly held 
 against the finishing block to prevent warping or spring- 
 ing of the pieces, which might otherwise be caused by 
 the heat of the iron. For this purpose the cutting pliers 
 may be reversed, the end of one handle being used to 
 hold the plate and the other the correction. 
 
 A necessary part of the equipment of an electrotype 
 foundry is a set of brass standards based upon the print- 
 er' s universal unit of measurement, the pica. These 
 standards should be twenty-six in number, ranging from 
 one to twenty-six picas in length. The convenience of 
 such standards will be apparent when it is remembered 
 that all large type, such as is employed for newspaper 
 headings, etc. , is made to occupy the space of a certain
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 141 
 
 FIG. 42.
 
 142 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 number of lines of pica and is called 6-line type, y-line 
 type, etc. 
 
 In addition to the pica standards, the electrotyper 
 should have a type-high standard, preferably made of 
 steel, about 2 by 3 inches in size and .919 of an inch 
 thick. Such a standard is useful not only for testing 
 finished work, but also for setting the knife of the shav- 
 ing machine, for which purpose it is placed on the bed 
 of the shaver and the knife screwed down until it will 
 just touch it. 
 
 Book plates are usually worked on patent blocks and 
 should be shaved to exactly eleven points (small pica) 
 in thickness. For testing this class of work a standard 
 should also be provided.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 143 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 BLOCKING. 
 
 T)OOK plates are usually worked on patent blocks, 
 * - * with which every large publishing house is sup- 
 plied. These blocks are made in some cases of wood, 
 but preferably of iron, accurately finished and provided 
 with clamping devices for securing the plate to the base. 
 The best blocks are made in sections, and may be 
 arranged and adjusted to fit various sizes of plates. 
 The clamps are beveled and made adjustable so that 
 they will fit snugly over the beveled edge of the plates. 
 
 Plates which cannot be worked on patent blocks are 
 secured by screws, tacks or anchors to wooden blocks. 
 Mahogany makes the best blocking wood, but is rather 
 expensive for general work. Cherry comes next, and is 
 the wood most generally employed for blocks ; birch and 
 maple are also used to some extent. Blocking wood 
 may be procured ready for use, kiln dried, and surfaced 
 to proper thickness; but most electrotypers prefer to 
 purchase lumber in the rough and dress it to thickness 
 as it is required for blocking, thus avoiding danger of 
 warping, which is likely to occur when the wood is 
 dressed several days in advance of its use. 
 
 Lumber which has been thoroughly dried in the 
 yard is superior to kiln dried lumber because it is less 
 susceptible to changes of atmosphere. When sufficient 
 space is available it is always advisable to carry a stock
 
 144 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 in the foundry, where it soon becomes seasoned. It 
 often happens, however, that well-seasoned lumber can- 
 not be procured and kiln drying then becomes neces- 
 sary. By whatever process the wood is dried it should 
 
 FIG. 43. 
 
 be thoroughly done, otherwise the block will warp after 
 the electrotype has been secured to it, probably after it 
 has been delivered to the printer, in which case much 
 annoyance and expense will inevitably result.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 145 
 
 Blocking wood must be surfaced on both sides and 
 with perfect accuracy to insure good printing. For this 
 purpose a rotary planer, Fig. 43, is almost indispensa- 
 ble. The peculiar advantage of this machine consists 
 in the fact that it dresses the wood perfectly flat and 
 level, no matter how badly it may have been warped or 
 sprung before planing. In this respect it is far supe- 
 rior to the ordinary wood planer, for, while the wood is 
 flattened by the pressure rollers during the operation of 
 planing, it springs back to its original shape on being 
 released. 
 
 Referring to Fig. 43, it will be observed that the cut- 
 ting tools of the rotary planer are secured in a revolving 
 disk which is made vertically adjustable by means of the 
 crank shown at the top of the machine. Power is com- 
 municated to the disk by a belt passing over idlers at the 
 rear of the upright frame to the pulley on the disk shaft. 
 One of these idlers is secured to a shaft which carries 
 on its outer end a grooved pulley which provides a 
 means of transmitting power to the worm shaft shown at 
 the side of the machine. The worm wheel driven by 
 this shaft is secured to a shaft passing under the travel- 
 ing bed, and is provided on its inner end with a small 
 pinion which engages the rack attached to the under 
 side of the bed. By a simple mechanism which is at all 
 times in control of the operator, the worm is thrown 
 out of gear at the termination of the cut and the bed 
 returned to its first position by hand. The lumber is 
 held during the operation of planing between the jaws 
 of two clamps, one of which is stationary and the other 
 connected with a screw which terminates in the crank 
 
 handle shown at the front of the machine. In opera- 
 10
 
 146 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 tion, the board is placed between the jaws of the clamps 
 and locked by means of the crank mentioned. The 
 board is thus secured against springing or rocking while 
 its upper surface is dressed perfectly true and level. 
 The board is then turned over with its flat surface 
 against the bed of the machine, and again passed under 
 the cutters, which reduce it to the required thickness. 
 The disk is raised and lowered by a graduated adjust- 
 ing screw operated by the crank shown at the top of the 
 machine, and may, therefore, always be returned to the 
 proper height for the finishing cut without going to the 
 trouble of comparing each board with a standard. Ow- 
 ing to the large size of the disk and the fact that the 
 tools are located near its periphery, the machine should 
 be driven at a speed not exceeding 1,500 revolutions 
 per minute. 
 
 After planing, the boards are cut into convenient 
 lengths for handling, and the plates secured to them 
 by means of wire brads or screws, or both. Brads 
 may be driven through the thin places (spaces) in the 
 plates, but for the screws holes should be drilled and 
 countersunk in order that the heads may be sufficiently 
 depressed to avoid danger of blacking or smutting in 
 printing. Where a plate has no spaces or blanks where 
 brads or screws may be driven, it is customary to 
 ' ' anchor ' ' the plate to the block. For this purpose 
 holes about one-fourth of an inch in diameter are bored 
 through the block and deeply countersunk on both 
 sides. If the plate has been finished long enough to 
 have become oxidized, the back should be brightened 
 by filing, and is then laid on the block and temporarily 
 secured thereto by hand clamps. It is then turned over
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 147 
 
 on its face, and, after a very small quantity of soldering 
 fluid has been applied to the plate through the holes, 
 melted solder is poured in until the holes are full. It is 
 important, of course, not to get the solder too hot, as 
 in that case there would be danger of its melting 
 through the plate. There is always an element of 
 uncertainty in securing electrotypes to blocks by this 
 method, and, when possible, it is best as an additional 
 safeguard to rabbet the edges of the plate and drive in 
 a few brads. When the plate is small, it may some- 
 times be fastened securely in this way without the use 
 of anchors. 
 
 When several small cuts are to be blocked at one 
 time, it is customary to tack them on to a board as 
 large as may be conveniently planed, leaving sufficient 
 room between the cuts to saw them apart. Should it 
 be necessary to take a final shaving off the bottom of 
 the cuts after they have been blocked, it may be done 
 more economically if several are shaved at a time than 
 if each one were to be handled separately. 
 
 Very large blocks are liable to warp in time, in spite 
 of any precautions which may be taken to prevent it, 
 and to reduce this tendency to a minimum each block 
 should be strengthened by end strips crossing the grain 
 of the block. The strips may be secured to the blocks 
 by countersunk screws, but a more satisfactory method 
 is to dovetail them together. A machine specially 
 designed for this work is illustrated in Fig. 44. The 
 cutting tools are a thick gouge saw of about No. 3 
 gauge, which cuts a slot in the board or strip, and a 
 vertical revolving cutter, which follows in -the slot and 
 changes it into a dovetail groove. The mechanism for
 
 148 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 driving the tools is sufficiently explained by the engrav- 
 ing. The parallel side gauge, against which the board 
 is pressed during the cutting of the dovetail, can be 
 instantly changed by means of the small lever at the 
 
 FIG. 44-
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 149 
 
 right of the machine so that either the center or the 
 edge of the strip may be thrown in alignment with the 
 cutters, thus providing a means of cutting a dovetail in 
 one board and a tenon on the other. The mechanism 
 for changing the side gauge from one position to the 
 other is such that there can be no variation in the dis- 
 tance it is moved, and whatever position it occupies it 
 is automatically locked therein, thus insuring absolute 
 uniformity of work. The machine may be readily 
 adjusted to operate on lumber of different thicknesses.
 
 150 ELKCTRUTVI'ING. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 DR. ALBERT'S METAL MOLDS. 
 
 " I "HE subject of metal molds is one in which all 
 J. progressive electrotypers are interested, and we 
 have therefore translated from the German Dr. 
 Albert's description of his process, which is sufficiently 
 in detail to enable the skilled electrotyper to compre- 
 hend how it is possible to mold in lead. Dr. Albert 
 does not explain the nature of the mechanism by which 
 he is able to obtain " successive partial pressures " on 
 " any press," nor does he describe fully the character 
 of the alloy which he employs in loosening the shell 
 from the matrix. The American patents concerning 
 Dr. Albert's process have been purchased by an Ameri- 
 can manufacturer of electrotyping machinery, who has 
 already installed several plants in this country which 
 are in more or less successful operation. The follow- 
 ing is a translation from " Theory and Practice of the 
 Metal Matrix," by Dr. E. Albert : 
 
 " Jacobi, the inventor of the art of electrotyping, 
 has for more than half a century experimented in pro- 
 ducing lead matrices for engraved steel and copper 
 plates, and with the greatest success. Nevertheless, 
 the wax and gutta-percha matrix has been the popular 
 method of electrotyping until recently, although the 
 defects of the electrotypes made from it urgently called 
 for a change in the method.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 151 
 
 " The origin of these defects is to be found princi- 
 pally in the fact that the non-conducting material must 
 first be made conductive by brushing with black lead, 
 whereby it is impossible to avoid an essential deterio- 
 ration in quality as compared with the original ; and 
 that in consequence of the necessary heating of the 
 material before the impression is taken, and the 
 changes in its dimensions after cooling, an exact regis- 
 ter of electrotypes for multi-colored prints can not be 
 guaranteed. With the possibility of using conducting 
 and cold-molded metal matrices, all this inferiority of 
 the electrotypes, as compared with the original, is at 
 once removed. 
 
 " But modern printing forms, such as photoengra- 
 vings, woodcuts, type 'forms, heliogravure, can not be 
 impressed in soft metal in the same manner as in wax 
 and gutta-percha. The requisite pressure would be 
 so great that the soft printing material would be 
 destroyed. 
 
 " Some attempts to avoid the high pressure in pro- 
 ducing metal matrices by using very thin lead foils 
 and putting on them layers of thoroughly saturated 
 pasteboard, or wax, have never had any practical 
 results, although they date back to the forties in the 
 last century, and for the following reasons : 
 
 " Every electrotyper knows that in molding from 
 mixed type and cut forms the type is impressed long 
 before the shading of the woodcut or a photoengraving 
 is molded. The above-mentioned thoroughly satu- 
 rated pasteboard affects the impression just as wax or 
 gutta-percha made soft by heating, i. e., the lead foil 
 must first be pressed into the large and then into the
 
 152 RLECTROTYPING. 
 
 smallest depressions of the printing form by the satu- 
 rated pasteboard. In spite of the enormous ductility 
 of lead, it will not, of course, satisfy this demand for 
 expansion. 
 
 " It must be considered that in the square milli- 
 meter of a photoengraving there are thirty-six depres- 
 sions into which the lead foil must be pressed, and 
 that it applies itself to 144 side walls per qmm. In 
 underetched printing-plates considerable force is nec- 
 essary to separate the matrix from the plate, and, 
 therefore, it is impossible in larger forms, N without dis- 
 torting the mold, to separate the plate from the lead 
 foil, which, in the interest of lessening the pressure, 
 must be very thin. 
 
 " The pressure necessary for forcing any molding 
 material into the smallest depressions of a form can 
 not be produced as long as an opportunity remains for 
 it to make its way into open spaces. In consequence 
 of this characteristic, all wax matrices must be sub- 
 jected to a shaving process to remove the large angu- 
 lar protuberances, which correspond to the depressions 
 in the printing form. This necessary manipulation 
 would, of course, be impossible in matrices consisting 
 of thin lead foil, and also for these reasons the use of 
 this method for rule etching, woodcuts and type mat- 
 ter is excluded. 
 
 " It has been pointed out as a characteristic of the 
 materials hitherto used for the production of matrices 
 that the molding of the largest depressions is done 
 before that of the smallest. With soft metals, espe- 
 cially lead, the contrary is the case, as this material 
 first shifts in the direction of the pressure and fills the
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 153 
 
 small depressions. With increased pressure, which is 
 necessary in order also to press the lead down in the 
 large depressions of the form, the lead also begins to 
 shift like wax to the sides in the neighborhood of the 
 first-molded parts. 
 
 "Apart from the fact that the already molded little 
 points, which correspond to the smallest depressions in 
 the form, will be shaved off, this shifting of the lead 
 has another disadvantage, namely, that the lead lodges 
 in these smallest depressions and the original will be 
 made unfit for use through this filling up with lead. 
 Besides, neither type matter nor cuts will withstand 
 the enormous pressure that must be used to impress a 
 lead plate of at least five millimeters (about one-fifth 
 of an inch) thickness into the large depressions. 
 
 " But such a thickness in the lead plate would be 
 just as necessary as in the wax or gutta-percha, as the 
 difference in height between the face of the type and 
 that of the spacing is about one pica. 
 
 " With the present means, therefore, matrices can 
 not be produced in metal plates, and it has been neces- 
 sary to use wax or gutta-percha for this purpose, until, 
 in the year 1903, Dr. Albert succeeded in establishing 
 a method for the rational production of metal matrices. 
 This method is based on a number of inventions and 
 is patented in all civilized countries. 
 
 " The knowledge that depressions in the electro- 
 types in the blank spaces are required only to prevent 
 smearing in the subsequent printing of the electro- 
 types, led to the course of pressing or bending a lead 
 plate of about two millimeters (about seventy-eight 
 one-thousandths of an inch) thickness into said depres-
 
 154 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 sions only so far as the technical necessities of printing 
 demanded, by means of a backlayer of some soft 
 material. 
 
 " This method is accordingly based upon a com- 
 bination of impression and bending. The bending of 
 the lead will be greater the larger and wider the 
 depressed surface is, and the blank places will there- 
 fore be of such a depth that they will not smear in 
 printing. The process is illustrated by Figs. I and 2. 
 
 " Fig. I shows the arrangement of the press platen, 
 the lead plate and the soft, elastic intermediate layer 
 
 FIG. i. 
 
 before the impression is taken. The material used for 
 this purpose must originally, or in its arrangement, be 
 of certain qualities, and must be softer than the mold- 
 ing material. It must be compressible without giving 
 way sideward under the pressure ; but it must also 
 give a certain resistance to the compression in order to 
 be able by this power of resistance to bend the lead 
 plate where it lies over the hollow. This material, 
 however, should not be so soft as, for example, heated 
 wax, but should be porously soft, either in its nature 
 or in its arrangement. A certain degree of elasticity 
 is useful in the interest of the bending of the molding 
 plate into the depressions in the form.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 155 
 
 " Such intermediate layer can suitably consist of a 
 number of layers of paper, and such a one is, through 
 the nature of the fiber of the paper, as well as through 
 the air inclosed between, soft and elastic in itself in 
 respect to the vertical direction toward the surface of 
 impression ; while, on the other hand, through the 
 texture of the paper, the necessary check will be given 
 to prevent the paper from gliding sideways at the 
 beginning of the pressure. In earlier experiments the 
 latter tendency was prevented by saturating the paper. 
 
 " In Fig. 2 the platen is lowered so that the inter- 
 mediate layer between the points o o', from which the 
 first counterpressure comes, is compressed to half its 
 original volume. In the moment when, through com- 
 
 FlG. 2. 
 
 pression, the intermediate layer has reached the same 
 degree of hardness as the molding material, the next, 
 increase in pressure will press this material into the 
 smallest depressions of the surface o o'. The lead 
 lying perfectly free between the points u u', and there- 
 fore exerting no counterpressure, will simultaneously 
 be pressed down in the hollow space u u' as an effect 
 of the resisting power of the intermediate layer. 
 
 " The same will be the case between the points 
 m m', although in a lesser degree, just as a board that
 
 1/56 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 is supported at intervals of two meters will sag more 
 than one whose supports are only one meter apart, 
 with the same weight on it. 
 
 " By the use of this bending process, the requisite 
 molding pressure is reduced to one-tenth of what 
 would otherwise be necessary, and the use of metal 
 molds is made possible. 
 
 " The question of producing the metal matrix was 
 thus solved only for moderate sizes, for, even if the 
 pressure was considerably lessened by the correct selec- 
 tion of the thickness of the lead plate and by the back- 
 layer of a soft, elastic matter, still an essentially greater 
 pressure than is required for wax or gutta-percha is 
 necessary. The usual hydraulic presses with about 
 one hundred atmospheres were consequently not usable 
 for the impression of larger sizes. 
 
 " By using a successive partial pressure and at the 
 same time introducing a secondary pressure, Dr. 
 Albert has succeeded in changing any press to a twenty 
 times higher capacity at very small cost. This gradual 
 progress of a limited pressure over the whole form 
 affords an opportunity for the air to escape and pre- 
 vents troubles arising from this cause. As the shifting 
 proceeds automatically, there is no loss of time worth 
 mentioning in this method. For example : The mold- 
 ing of a form of Woche (the Week} requires only a 
 period of fifty-five seconds, and for a form of Berliner 
 Illustrirte Zeitung (Berlin Illustrated Gazette) not 
 quite two minutes. For molding of cut forms of the 
 same size only half of the time mentioned is required. 
 With this method there is no difficulty whatever in 
 producing molds of any size.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 157 
 
 " It is self-evident that a copper shell deposited on 
 a lead matrix can not be loosened directly, as is the 
 case with a wax matrix. It would not be possible to 
 melt the lead away from the copper without injury to 
 the electrotype. But by letting the matrix and copper 
 deposit float on a very easily fusible metal alloy with 
 many free calorics, this loosening succeeds so well that 
 the same matrix can be used five times for the produc- 
 tion of new electrotypes without affecting the quality 
 of the electrotypes. Thus the problem of the metal 
 matrix is perfectly solved in all respects. 
 
 " These inventions have made a revolution in elec- 
 trotyping technics. The word revolution, however, has 
 more reference to the clearness, rapidity, cheapness 
 and quality of the production than to the change of 
 the working methods and arrangements of already 
 established electrotype foundries. 
 
 "Of great importance is the discarding or doing 
 away with the blackleading of the mold matrix, 
 whereby in soft printing elements of photoengravings, 
 etc., a shifting of the tone values in respect to the 
 original occurs. The metal matrix in itself conducts 
 the electricity and needs no blackleading. 
 
 ''' The Albert electrotype is identical with the origi- 
 nal. A difference in the print of both can not be 
 detected. This identity of the Albert electrotype and 
 the original, in respect to the tone values, is based on 
 the nature of the metal matrix and is not dependent 
 on the skill of the workman. 
 
 " The molding process itself can be done on any 
 hydraulic press in use. The machinery for successive 
 partial pressure can be set up in a few hours at a small
 
 158 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 expense. The increase of the capacity of the press is 
 enormous; with 120 atmospheres (1,800 pounds to the 
 square inch), with 40 centimeters piston diameter 
 (about 1 6 inches) photoengravings, 40 by 50 centi- 
 meters ( 1 6 by 20 inches) large, can be molded. Faulty 
 moldings, as in wax, which are occasioned by inclosed 
 air, do not generally occur, as the air always has a 
 chance to escape during the successive partial pressure. 
 
 " It has already been mentioned how little time is 
 necessary for successive partial pressure when suitable 
 arrangements are made. Wax and gutta-percha have 
 not only to be blackleaded after molding, but by heat- 
 ing be brought to a certain degree of softness before 
 molding. In this way changes in the dimensions arise 
 when the molds cool off, and exact register can there- 
 fore not be guaranteed in electrotypes for multi- 
 colored prints. The metal matrix is perfectly cold- 
 molded, and therefore an exact register in multi- 
 colored prints is always assured. 
 
 " Thus the metal matrix is cleaner and more rapid 
 than wax or gutta-percha, and, besides, is of a quality 
 that guarantees the identity of the electrotypes with 
 the original. The financial advantages of the Albert 
 electrotype will be seen in the further manipulation of 
 the matrix. 
 
 "After the lifting off of the form, the matrix will, 
 without any afterwork whatever, be fastened with four 
 nails to a board, whose suspending bow touches the 
 matrix by contact, and the latter will at once be coated 
 over the whole surface with copper in the same 
 moment it is suspended in the bath. Owing to the 
 high melting-point of the matrix, the copper bath can,
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 159 
 
 without any danger to the matrix, be heated to 50 to 
 60 Celsius (which will allow an increase in the cur- 
 rent tension of eight to twelve volts), and the forma- 
 tion of a sufficiently thick copper deposit will follow in 
 a hitherto-considered impossible short time ; for 
 medium sizes only one-half to one hour for producing 
 the deposit is needed. 
 
 " Besides this shortening of the time for producing 
 the deposit, the high temperature will act favorably 
 on the physical character of the electrically deposited 
 copper, as well in respect to its hardness as to its elas- 
 ticity, which also is evident in the fact that the electro- 
 types need only a minimum straightening. 
 
 " The loosening of the copper shell from the metal 
 matrix is done so easily, rapidly and surely that no 
 damage to or change in the metal matrix or copper 
 shell results. The matrix can therefore at once be 
 suspended in the bath again for a second copper 
 deposit, and this second electrotype, as well as the 
 third and fourth, is in no way inferior to the first elec- 
 trotype. 
 
 " When the matrix is not to be used any more, it 
 can be converted into backing metal. The loosened 
 copper shell can, of course, be backed in any way 
 desirable, and the electrotype be made ready for print 
 in the usual way. Only one hour and a half is needed 
 (inclusive of the molding and copper deposit) for put- 
 ting the electrotype in shape for the press."
 
 REFERENCE LIST 
 
 OF TERMS, PROCESSES AN-D APPARATUS. 
 
 ACID, TO ASCERTAIN PERCENTAGE OF, IN 
 SOLUTION. Dilute 10 grams of the solution with an equal 
 quantity of distilled water. Add normal soda solution until 
 Congo paper is no longer colored blue. The number of grams 
 of soda solution consumed multiplied by 4.9 gives the number 
 of grams of acid per liter. One liter equals 1,000 grams. 
 
 ACID, EFFECT OF, ON NICKEL BATH. The pres- 
 ence of a small quantity of free acid in the nickel bath effects 
 the reduction of a whiter nickel than in the case with a neutral 
 or alkaline solution. Hence a slightly acid reaction of the bath 
 due to the presence of citric acid, with the exclusion of the 
 strong acids of the metalloids, can be highly recommended. 
 The quantity of free acid must, however, not be too large, as 
 this would cause the deposit to pull off. 
 
 ACID, EFFECT OF, IN SOLUTION. According to 
 Von Hubl, the minimum current density per square foot of 
 cathode in a fifteen per cent blue vitriol solution without acidu- 
 lation is 24.1 amperes, while the same solution with six per 
 cent sulphuric acid added required but 13.9 amperes. 
 
 ACID, HYDROCHLORIC The pure acid is a colorless 
 fluid which emits abundant fumes in contact with the air and 
 has a pungent odor by which it is readily distinguished from 
 other acids. The specific gravity of the strongest hydrochloric 
 acid is 1.2; the crude acid of commerce has a yellowish color, 
 due to iron, and contains arsenic. 
 
 ACID, MURIATIC See hydrochloric acid. 
 
 ACID, SULPHURIC. Ordinary sulphuric acid has a spe- 
 cific gravity of 1.84. It is used in the preparation of the 
 
 11 161
 
 162 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 depositing solution. In diluting the acid with water, it should 
 in all cases be added to the water in a gentle stream and with 
 constant stirring, as otherwise a dangerous explosion might 
 result. While it is known that sulphuric acid aids in making 
 the bath conductive, there is, of course, a limit to the quantity 
 which may be advantageously employed, and it is doubtful if 
 this point has ever been exactly determined. The writer has 
 been to some trouble to ascertain the views of certain practical 
 electrotypers on the subject and compared them with the 
 recommendations of numerous scientific writers. From these 
 various sources of information we learn that the solution of 
 copper should show a specific gravity of from 14 to 18 B., 
 and that to the solution should be added sulphuric acid in suf- 
 ficient quantity to increase the density of the mixture from 
 l /t to 9. This wide divergence of opinion is probably due in 
 some cases to the effort of the electrotyper to adapt his solu- 
 tion to the current strength which his dynamo may happen 
 to be generating. 
 
 ACID, SOLDERING. Prepared by dissolving scrap zinc 
 in hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid) to saturation, and adding 
 from 25 to 50 per cent of water. The operation should be con- 
 ducted in the open air, as the fumes produced are both dis- 
 agreeable and dangerous. 
 
 AGITATION, BENEFITS OF. The continuous agita- 
 tion of the copper bath is of great advantage to the electro- 
 type, particularly when rapid deposition is desired. The copper 
 is more evenly deposited and of better quality, the formation of 
 gas bubbles, nodules and excrescences is largely prevented, 
 while the annoying streaks which sometimes appear on the 
 deposit, usually as a result of an excess of metal in the solu- 
 tion, are seldom or never seen in an agitated bath. But the 
 principal advantage may be found in the fact that much higher 
 current densities may be utilized, resulting in a corresponding 
 increased rate of deposition. 
 
 AGITATION, DOES IT ELIMINATE RESISTANCE? 
 While agitation is a practical and useful aid to deposition of 
 metals, and is recognized as such by all electrotypers who have
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 163 
 
 given it a trial, as well as by all the great copper refiners of 
 Europe and America, its chief value consists in the fact that 
 it promotes uniformity in the composition of the solution, aids 
 in the diffusion of metal in the solution, and, when a strong 
 current is employed, prevents to a certain extent the forma- 
 tion of nodules, excrescences and streaks on the cathode. It 
 also minimizes the tendency to polarization and promotes 
 purity in the character of the copper deposited. If inequality 
 in the composition of the solution tends to increase the resist- 
 ance of the solution, then agitation, by promoting uniformity, 
 would diminish the resistance to just that extent. It is doubt- 
 ful, however, whether the mere fact of giving motion to a 
 solution adds to its conductivity. In other words, if an agi- 
 tator should be introduced into a depositing solution which 
 had previously been employed for electrotyping without agita- 
 tion, and if no change were made in the content of acid or 
 metal in the solution or in the speed of the dynamo, the 
 increase in the rate of deposition would probably be inappre- 
 ciable. It should be understood that some motion always takes 
 place in the solution whenever deposition is going on. With- 
 out motion there could be no diffusion, and without diffusion 
 there could be no deposition, for it is obvious that there must 
 be constant renewal of metal in the solution next the cathode, 
 as otherwise it would soon become exhausted. This motion 
 is caused by the sinking of the heavy liquid next the anode 
 and the constant rising of the liquid next the cathode, where 
 it is deprived of its metal, and consequently becomes lighter 
 than the surrounding liquid. This motion, together with the 
 stirring of the solution occasioned by the immersion and 
 removal of the cathodes, is sufficient for the diffusion of the 
 metal when a current of low density is employed. It is true 
 that a solution undisturbed for some time will become more 
 acid at the top than at the bottom and, therefore, more con- 
 ductive at the top than at the bottom. Yet it is doubtful if 
 the total resistance of the solution is very much affected by 
 this condition. Granting that agitation would diminish the 
 resistance of the solution to a slight extent by promoting uni-
 
 164 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 formity, it is certain that it does not influence the resistance 
 beyond this point, for frequent tests have demonstrated that 
 the current strength measured at the electrodes remains 
 unchanged whether the agitator be in operation or not. But 
 if the agitator does not in itself increase the rate of deposition, 
 it enables the operator to increase his current and thereby 
 accomplish practically the same purpose. Von Hubl found by 
 careful laboratory tests that the current strength could be 
 increased about fifty per cent when the bath is kept in gentle 
 motion. This statement is very conservative and probably 
 means that the current strength may be increased fifty per 
 cent without changing the character of the copper or causing 
 waste of power by polarization. If no consideration be given 
 to economical working, there is no doubt but the current may 
 be increased far beyond the fifty-seven amperes per square 
 foot which he gives as a maximum. 
 
 AGITATION, METHODS OF. One of the main objects 
 of agitation is to remove the exhausted stratum of solution 
 next to the cathode and replace it with a saturated solution in 
 order that deposition may proceed with the greatest possible 
 rapidity. Various mechanical means are employed to effect 
 this object. The most popular method is that of forcing air 
 through the solution from perforated lead or rubber pipes laid 
 on the bottom of the vats. Another method consists in pump- 
 ing the solution from the bottom of one end of the vat and 
 discharging it in such a manner as to create a circular motion. 
 Another method consists in mounting the anodes on spindles 
 and revolving them slowly in the solution between the cathodes. 
 By another and very effective method a horizontal rod is made 
 to travel up and down between the anode and cathode. The 
 latest and, it is claimed, the best method is briefly described 
 as follows : A large perpendicular cylinder is made to revolve 
 slowly in the solution. The cylinder is surrounded by anodes 
 and to the periphery of the cylinder the cathodes are attached. 
 In operation the cathodes are constantly passing the anodes 
 and the disturbance is so effectual that 200 or more amperes 
 per square foot may be utilized without burning the deposit.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 105 
 
 ALKALINITY AND ACIDITY. An excess of acid or 
 alkali in a nickel solution may be instantly detected by dip- 
 ping simultaneously into the solution strips of blue and red 
 litmus paper. If the blue litmus paper becomes red, it indi- 
 cates an excess of acid, while on the other hand the test shows 
 that when red litmus paper becomes blue an excess of alkali 
 is indicated. 
 
 ALLOY, FUSIBLE. Melt i pound of lead in a clean 
 vessel, and stir in 34 pound of tin and, finally, i l / 2 pounds of 
 bismuth. Stir well, and thoroughly incorporate the mixture; 
 pour out gradually into water ; collect, and repeat until a com- 
 plete admixture is obtained. It melts at 212 F., the tem- 
 perature of boiling water. 
 
 AMALGAMATION OF ZINC. To amalgamate zinc 
 plates it is necessary, first, if the plates be new, to wash them 
 in hot caustic soda solution, so as to remove the greasy film 
 imparted to them at the rolling mills. A flat vessel is then 
 partially filled with dilute sulphuric acid and upon it is also 
 poured a little of the best quality of mercury procurable. The 
 plate is dipped in the liquid and the mercury rubbed on with 
 a pad of tow or other suitable substance. The workman should 
 take particular care to cover every portion of the surface. 
 When the plates present a uniform silvery appearance they 
 may be set upon edge to drain, after which they are ready to 
 be placed in the battery. 
 
 AMMETER? WHAT IS AN. Without going into 
 technicalities, it may be said that the ammeter is an instru- 
 ment for measuring the amount or quantity of electric current 
 employed in performing work. The ammeter measures quan- 
 tity, while the voltmeter measures pressure, and the product 
 of quantity multiplied by pressure, as measured by these instru- 
 ments, is called watts and is what we who buy electric power 
 have to pay for at the end of each month. 
 
 AMMETER VARIATION. The ammeter reading may 
 vary from two causes on a constant surface (cathode) load 
 without the voltmeter varying. The resistance of the solution
 
 1G() ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 may vary or the resistance between the supporting or case 
 rods and the tank rods may vary. Another reason, prohably 
 the best, is that a new case when immersed presents a large 
 resistance, due to the lack of copper on the surface. A new 
 case will not use full current density for some minutes after 
 it is immersed. In fact, the current for the first few seconds 
 is almost nothing. If you have a large number of fresh cases, 
 and a few that are nearly done, your current will perhaps 
 be fifty per cent low with no voltmeter change. Bad brush 
 contact would vary voltmeter and ammeter together. 
 
 AMMONIA. Is water saturated with ammonia gas. 
 Must be stored in closely stoppered bottles. It is employed 
 for neutralizing nickel solutions when too acid and is some- 
 times added to soldering fluid. 
 
 AMPERE. The unit of current strength is produced when 
 
 an electromotive force of one volt acts through a resistance 
 
 of one ohm and conveys one coulomb per second. An ampere 
 
 is that strength of current which will deposit .00508 grain of 
 
 copper per second from a blue vitriol solution. 
 
 ANCHORING ELECTROTYPES AND HALF-TONES. 
 Bore several holes through the base and countersink both 
 sides. If the plate has been finished long enough to have 
 become oxidized, brighten the back by filing and then lay it 
 on the block and secure it temporarily by hand clamps. Apply 
 a small quantity of soldering fluid to the plate through the 
 holes and then pour in melted solder until the holes are full. 
 It is important, of course, not to get the solder too hot, as in 
 that case there would be danger of melting through the plate. 
 There is always an element of uncertainty in securing plates 
 by anchoring, but in some cases there is no other way to 
 accomplish the object. 
 
 ANODE. The pole or plate by which an electric current 
 enters a depositing solution. In electrotyping a solid plate of 
 copper of any convenient thickness and about the same area 
 as the cathode or mold, it should be connected with the posi- 
 tive pole of the battery or dynamo and kept clean by occa- 
 sional scouring and washing.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 167 
 
 ANODE CONNECTIONS. A new anode connection 
 recently introduced consists of a broad strap of copper about 
 three inches wide and one-eighth of an inch thick, accurately 
 milled where it hooks over the rod so as to make a perfect 
 connection. The strap is secured to the anode by a casting of 
 electrotype metal which covers and protects the connection 
 from the action of the solution. The anode may, therefore, 
 be suspended entirely under the solution without danger of 
 destroying the connection, which is practically everlasting. In 
 addition to the advantage of having a perfect connection, the 
 anodes wear away evenly, leaving no stub ends to go in the 
 junk pile or be worked off in the baskets. 
 
 ANODE HOOKS. Anode hooks should be of ample 
 dimensions to carry a large volume of current without heating. 
 Copper wire of three-eighths of an inch in diameter is recom- 
 mended. The hooks should be kept clean where contact is 
 made with anodes and cross rods, to insure minimum resist- 
 ance. 
 
 ANODE PLATES, SIZE OF. The anode and cathode 
 should each present an equal surface to the solution. The 
 anode has two sides, but the back, when facing flat work, 
 should be left out of account. Hence an electrotype a foot 
 square should be faced by an anode a foot square. If there 
 be any difference in size, the anode should be the larger. 
 
 ANTIMONY. Antimony is hard and brittle and melts 
 at 842 F. It is not attacked by cold sulphuric acid. It is 
 employed with lead and tin in the manufacture of electrotype 
 and stereotype metal to harden the mixture. 
 
 " BACKER-UP," THE. Next to the molder, the backer- 
 up is the most valuable man in a first-class foundry that is, 
 a good one that knows his business in regard to having his 
 metal right and how to pour it on his shell with the least 
 injury to the plate and to avoid shrinks. The responsibility of 
 the backer-up is very great, and, if he does his work properly, 
 he can save a great deal of time and labor in the finishing 
 room.
 
 168 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 BACKING-UP PRESS FOR ELECTROTYPES. A 
 patented device for backing up and straightening electrotypes 
 consists of a bed frame supported by suitable legs and made 
 long enough to provide room at its middle part for a yoke and 
 vertically adjustable platen. At one side of the platen suffi- 
 cient space is provided for the backing pan to set during the 
 process of backing up the shell, and on the other side there is 
 room for moving the finished plate out so that another pan 
 may be placed in position at the left hand of the platen. The 
 yoke and platen are somewhat similar to the yoke and platen 
 of a stereotyper's drying press, except that the platen is pro- 
 vided on its under side with a layer of felt about one-fourth 
 of an inch in thickness, and a press plate having projections 
 or teats on its surface called a " hurdy-gurdy " plate. The 
 hurdy-gurdy plate, with the intermediate layer of felt, is 
 attached by bolts to the platen. The bed frame is provided 
 with rollers to facilitate the passage of the backing pan from 
 one end of the bed to its position under the platen, and from 
 thence to the other end of the bed. In operation, the shell is 
 placed in the backing pan on one end of the press, where it 
 is backed up and cooled in the usual manner. The backing 
 pan is then rolled under the platen and pressure applied by 
 means of a hand wheel and screw, which has the alleged effect 
 of straightening the face of the electrotype and bringing all 
 parts of the same, by means of the hurdy-gurdy, into one 
 plane, removing all unevenness and irregularities. It is 
 claimed the intermediate layer of yielding material permits the 
 hurdy-gurdy to give and adapt itself so it will not press any 
 harder on the ends or sides of the electrotype than on the 
 intermediate points. The inventor asserts that a great saving 
 of time is accomplished by this method of straightening plates, 
 as very little finishing is required. 
 
 BLACKLEADING BY HAND. Blackleading by hand is 
 a slow and laborious process and is seldom practiced, a machine 
 being considered essential even in small foundries. For black- 
 leading by hand, a camel's-hair brush is employed. The 
 graphite should be brushed back and forth over the mold until
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 169 
 
 a bright polish is obtained and until it is certain that no spot, 
 however small, has been neglected. If so much as a punctua- 
 tion point fails to receive the proper polish, copper will not 
 deposit thereon, and a hole in the shell will result. In the 
 days before blackleading machines were invented, it was the 
 custom to place the mold in a box provided at the front with a 
 curtain. Then, by inserting the hand through a hole in the 
 curtain, the polishing could be effected without filling the air 
 of the room with dust. 
 
 BLACKLEADING MACHINE, WET. The only wet 
 leading machine is the one patented about twenty-six years 
 ago by Mr. S. P. Knight, foreman of the electrotyping depart- 
 ment of Harper Brothers. The machine consisted of a tank 
 with a centrifugal pump, to which there was attached a hose 
 and syringe. The tank contained a mixture of plumbago and 
 water, of about the consistency of cream, which by means of 
 the pump, was forced through the syringe, which was arranged 
 to move to and fro across the tank and thus coat the molds, 
 which were laid on a rack placed just below the surface of the 
 solution in the tank. On moving the cases from the machine, 
 the surplus mixture was scraped off with the hand, the cases 
 being afterward thoroughly washed in another tank. The 
 plumbago in the second tank was allowed to settle before the 
 water was drawn off. This process gave promise of obviating 
 much dust in the foundry, but never came into extensive use 
 owing to the inability of workmen to operate it successfully, 
 notwithstanding that Mr. Knight used it and no other method 
 for coating his molds. In use it was found that, from the drip- 
 pings from the cases after the water had dried out, there was 
 nearly as much dust in the room as with the dry process. 
 
 BLISTER ON SHELLS. Blister is sometimes caused by 
 an excess of crocus on the mold ; it will cause shrinks in the 
 plates, making trouble for the finisher. Crocus should be used 
 very sparingly, if at all, and should be carefully brushed off 
 the mold before it goes into the vat. Instead of crocus, brush 
 a small quantity of sulphate of zinc on the case before molding.
 
 170 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 BOOK-PLATES, DEVICE FOR HOLDING. When 
 molding from beveled book-plates, make four wooden blocks 
 exact size of the book-plates which are to be duplicated. Place 
 them in chase, with wooden furniture at one end and one side, 
 next to the chase. Place inverted brass rules around each 
 block and a pica slug between the rules which are at the ends 
 of the block where they meet in the middle. Lock up with 
 Hempel quoins at one side .and one end. Only one rule is 
 necessary between the blocks the long way. The brass rules 
 should have teats or lugs soldered on to catch the plates at 
 the bevel to prevent them from lifting when wax mold is 
 being lifted. 
 
 BRASSPLATING HALF-TONES. Plating with brass 
 is not an easy proposition for an amateur and is rendered 
 unnecessarily difficult by the complicated solutions recom- 
 mended by most writers. The following formula is simple and 
 less troublesome to keep in order than those generally advo- 
 cated: 16 ounces cyanid of potassium, 5 ounces carbonate of 
 copper, 1 1/2 ounces carbonate of zinc, I ounce ammonia and i 
 gallon of water. The deposition of brass is usually attended 
 with some difficulty because it is composed of two metals, one 
 of which is positive and the other negative ; hence the current 
 strength requires more or less regulation to insure uniform 
 deposition of both metals. As brass contains a larger pro- 
 portion of copper than of zinc, the copper in the bath becomes 
 first exhausted, and sufficient carbonate of copper must be 
 added to restore the proper proportions. Cyanid of potassium 
 must be supplied when the action of the bath becomes slug- 
 gish. A strong current is required. Constant watchfulness is 
 necessary to keep the bath in good working condition. To 
 increase the wearing qualities of zinc half-tones, the " Process 
 Photogram " suggests facing the half-tone with brass, and 
 recommends the following bath formula : Zinc carbonate, 10 
 parts ; copper carbonate, 10 parts ; soda carbonate, 20 parts ; 
 soda bisulphite, 20 parts ; potassium cyanid, 20 parts ; arsen- 
 ious acid, 1-5 part; water, 1,000 parts. To make up the solu- 
 tion, proceed as follows : Take 12 parts sulphate of copper
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 171 
 
 and 12 parts sulphate of zinc, and dissolve them in water; 
 then add carbonate of soda, already dissolved, to the solution. 
 This precipitates the copper and zinc in the form of carbonates, 
 a greenish-colored powder. Allow the precipitate to settle and 
 pour off the supernatant liquor. Wash the precipitate and 
 then mix in with the carbonate and bisulphite of soda in 900 
 parts water. Next dissolve the cyanid and arsenic in the 
 remaining 100 parts of water and pour this into the first solu- 
 tion. This bath should be used cold. 
 
 BRITTLE DEPOSIT. A weak current always and under 
 all conditions causes the deposition of a harder and more 
 brittle nickel than a current of medium strength. 
 
 BRONZING SOLUTION. One gallon of water, y 2 ounce 
 sulphate of potash, l /\ pint of ammonia. This mixture should 
 be well heated. After the electrotype has been immersed, take 
 it out and apply a wet scratch brush until the surface assumes 
 a dark cherry hue, which is a favorite color with art lovers. A 
 very beautiful bronze color may be imparted to copper arti- 
 cles, such as medals for instance, by boiling them in a solution 
 composed of verdigris, 5 ounces ; muriate of ammonia, 5 
 ounces ; strong vinegar, l / 2 ounce. Mix the verdigris and the 
 sal ammoniac by pulverizing in a mortar and then add a suf- 
 ficient quantity of vinegar to form a paste. Now pour this 
 into a copper vessel with a pint of water and boil for about 
 half an hour. When cold, stand the mixture aside until the 
 sediment has subsided, when the clear liquor may be poured 
 off and bottled until required. The articles to be bronzed 
 should be boiled in this liquor for ten minutes or longer, tak- 
 ing care that they do not come in contact during the opera- 
 tion. The fumes of hydrochloric acid or of chlorid of lime 
 will produce a very good green bronze upon electrotypes, giv- 
 ing them the appearance of ancient bronze. The following 
 process is recommended by Watt : " Electrotypes may be 
 bronzed by suspending them in a wide-mouthed bottle (or 
 other vessel) at the bottom of which a small quantity of sul- 
 phid of ammonium has been placed. The sulphid of hydrogen 
 which escapes will give a good bronze tint to the copper in a
 
 172 ELECTROTYPINC.. 
 
 few moments, the depth of tone being regulated by the time 
 of exposure." 
 
 BURNING. An error is frequently committed in nickeling 
 with too strong a current, the consequence being that the 
 deposit on the lower portions of the objects soon becomes dull 
 and gray-black, while the upper portions are not sufficiently 
 nickeled. This phenomenon, which is due to the reduction of 
 the nickel with a coarse grain in consequence of a too powerful 
 current, is called burning or overnickeling. A further conse- 
 quence of nickeling with too strong a current is that the 
 deposit readily peels off after it reaches a certain thickness. 
 This phenomenon is due to the hydrogen being condensed and 
 retained by the deposit, which prevents thick deposition. 
 
 CASES. Cases made of electrotype metal, cast in the 
 backing pan and shaved down to about three-sixteenths of an 
 inch in thickness, are superior in every respect to the expen- 
 sive brass pans sold by manufacturers of electrotyping machin- 
 ery. The soft metal may be easily kept in shape by planing 
 down with a block of wood after each use. 
 
 CASES, WARMING OR Warming cases by laying them 
 on the steam table, although quite generally practiced, is not a 
 good plan, for it softens the wax next the case more than on 
 the surface, and often results in concaved work. Cases should 
 always be kept in a " hot box," the temperature of which 
 should be so regulated as to keep the cases in proper condition 
 for molding without additional warming. 
 
 CASTING HARD SHELLS. It will be found that there 
 is a great deal of difference in copper shells about the solder 
 flowing readily. When a shell is extra hard the solder is 
 invariably obstinate about flowing. 
 
 CATHODE. Cathode is the pole or plate by which an 
 electric current leaves a depositing solution. In electrotyping, 
 the wax or composition mold which receives the deposit of 
 copper. It is suspended from the negative pole of the dynamo. 
 
 CIRCUIT. A circuit is the entire path of an electric cur- 
 rent.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 173 
 
 CLEANING BRUSHES, HALF-TONE. Mr. E. R. 
 Rodd, superintendent of the electrotyping department of the 
 Butterick Publishing Company, is the inventor of certain half- 
 tone brushes which are rapidly becoming popular with electro- 
 type molders. Although these brushes are made of metal, the 
 material is such that they may safely be applied to the most 
 delicate half-tone without fear of injury. By the aid of these 
 brushes, dirty half-tones may be thoroughly cleaned and all 
 the original detail restored. Two brushes are employed. The 
 ink or dirt in the half-tone is first softened with wood alcohol 
 and then brushed out with the No. i brush. The cut is then 
 covered with a soft rag and patted gently with the hand. 
 After the cut is dry it is rubbed gently with the No. 2 brush, 
 and again after the form has been blackleaded until all the 
 black lead has been removed. 
 
 CLEANING CUTS. The molder will often receive forms 
 containing dirty woodcuts, though not so many now as for- 
 merly, since the zinc line cuts and half-tones have to such an 
 extent taken the place of the woodcut, but it will be well to 
 know a liquid that will clean the woodcut nicely and which 
 may be made as follows : To I quart of alcohol, add y 2 ounce 
 of bisulphid of carbon and i l /2 ounces of strong liquid ammo- 
 nia ; thoroughly mix and apply with a brush as you would 
 bezin. This wash will be found efficient in removing ink from 
 a woodcut, or, in fact, from a half-tone. A good cleansing 
 fluid, according to Dunton, is composed of alcohol, 16 ounces ; 
 carbon disulphid, i ounce, and strong fluid ammonia, 2 ounces. 
 This may be used in the same way as benzin and will be found 
 very effectual. 
 
 CLEANING ELECTROTYPE CASTS. Scrub the casts 
 while hot with kerosene oil and powdered pumice stone. Then 
 lay the cast in a shallow sink with inclined bottom, and steam 
 it out, using a steam hose without a nozzle. Then take the 
 cast to a sawdust box and brush it thoroughly with clean, dry 
 sawdust or lay it on a heated steam-table until dry. 
 
 CLEANING MACHINE, PLATE. The Raisbeck Elec- 
 trotype Company, of New York, has devised a machine for
 
 174 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 cleaning electrotype plates, which is said to be superior to hand 
 scouring and much more rapid. The machine " subjects the 
 face of the plate to a current of benzin or other solvent or 
 detergent simultaneously with gentle friction. We accom- 
 plish this by an apparatus which moves the plate to be cleaned 
 backward and forward several times in contact with a moving 
 brush of the proper soft material, adjusted sufficiently near to 
 act in all the interstices. In the most complete form of the 
 invention the brush is caused to reverse its motion on the 
 plate and thereby to act more effectively in the recesses." The 
 apparatus is the subject of letters patent No. 621,539. 
 
 BLACK ELECTROTYPES. Seven pennyweights sul- 
 phate of barium, I quart of water. After the article has been 
 immersed in the solution a light brown color is produced, 
 which gradually deepens until it assumes an intense black. The 
 object must be rinsed in hot water and then allowed to dry. 
 To secure a brilliant polish, all that is necessary to do is to 
 rub it with chamois. 
 
 COLOR-PLATES, REGISTERING. Fasten the plates 
 to the blocks by driving the nails only part way in. Then draw 
 your nails, cut out the portions of the plates not wanted, and 
 reblock the electros, using the same tack holes. This will 
 insure a perfect register, provided your blocks have first been 
 accurately finished to the same size. 
 
 COLORING ELECTROTYPE MEDALLIONS. A very 
 pleasing effect may be produced thus: Having well cleaned 
 the electrotype, apply varnish with a soft brush to the base 
 or flat surface, carefully avoiding the figure ; when the varnish 
 has become hard, attach a wire to the electrotype and place 
 it in a gold or silver^ bath for a short time until sufficiently 
 coated. Now remove the varnish and apply the bronzing 
 material to the copper surface, and thus the figure will stand 
 out in relief, either in gold or silver as the case may be. 
 
 CONCAVE. This is almost invariably caused by over- 
 heating the backs of the cases, which softens the wax next 
 the case more than on the surface. The temperature should
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 175 
 
 be uniform throughout. For this reason it is advisable to 
 employ a " hot box," i. e., a box or cabinet heated by steam 
 or gas and so arranged that the cases may be kept at just the 
 right temperature for molding. 
 
 CONDUCTIVITY OF LIQUIDS. The following is a 
 list of the conductivity of a few liquids as compared with that 
 of pure silver : 
 
 Pure Silver 100,000,000,000 
 
 Nitrate of copper, saturated solution 8,990 
 
 Sulphate of copper, saturated solution 5,420 
 
 Chlorid of sodium, saturated solution 31,520 
 
 Sulphate of zinc, saturated solution 5,77o 
 
 Sulphuric acid, i.io specific gravity 99,070 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 1.24 specific gravity 132,750 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 1.40 specific gravity 90,750 
 
 Nitric acid, commercial 88,680 
 
 Distilled water 7 
 
 CONDUCTIVITY, INCREASING. To increase the 
 conductivity of a blackleaded wax mold, it is customary to 
 precipitate a film of copper on its surface by the well-known 
 method of first floating the mold with a solution of sulphate 
 of copper and then sprinkling iron filings thereon. Another 
 method consists in immersing the mold for a few moments 
 in a solution of wood alcohol and phosphorus, afterward par- 
 tially drying, then rinsing in running water and immediately 
 suspending in the bath. This method is specially desirable for 
 nickeltyping. The phosphorus solution is made by placing a 
 few small pieces of phosphorus in a bath of wood alcohol and 
 allowing it to stand for three or four days. Phosphorus is 
 only soluble in alcohol, and the portion dissolved will be hardly 
 perceptible, but will be sufficient for the purpose. While phos- 
 phorus is a dangerous substance to handle, on account of its 
 inflammability when exposed to the air, it is perfectly safe 
 if kept under water or alcohol, and the quantity employed is so 
 very minute that no danger whatever need be apprehended 
 from its use in the manner described. 
 
 CONNECTIONS, GOOD. It has been frequently noted 
 that electrotypers do not always appreciate the importance of 
 making good connections. It is of no avail to provide large 
 conducting rods and cross rods if the conducting capacity of
 
 176 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 the rods is to be choked off at the points of contact, which is 
 what occurs when one round rod is laid across another round 
 rod. It is obvious that unless one or both of the rods is flat- 
 tened where they come in contact, the area of the contact will 
 be extremely limited compared with the area of the conductors 
 on both sides of the contact. 
 
 COPPER DISSOLVED BY SOLUTION. An electric 
 current passing through a solution of sulphate of copper will 
 dissolve copper suspended in the solution, whether it is in the 
 circuit or not. This fact may be readily tested by weighing 
 a small piece of copper and hanging it in the solution, without 
 electric connection, and after a few hours weighing it again. 
 It is because of this fact that extra anodes not in use, if left 
 in the solution, will make it dense and heavy at the bottom 
 and frequently cause the deposit to be spongy and granular. 
 
 COPPER SCRAPS UTILIZED. Copper clippings and 
 scraps may be utilized as an anode by packing them in a per- 
 forated lead box and suspending the box from an anode rod. 
 The box may be constructed of plates of electrotype metal 
 joined at the corners by soldering. It should be somewhat 
 longer and deeper than your cases and about four inches wide. 
 The perforations should be as near together as possible. 
 
 COPPER, TO SEPARATE FROM WATER. There is 
 a method called the " Cementation Process," which was 
 employed a great many years, " for separating copper from the 
 drainage water from mines containing copper in solution 
 derived from the oxidation of mineral sulphids in the earth." 
 By this process the water is brought into contact with scrap 
 iron and its copper deposited by simple immersion. Under 
 such circumstances the copper separates in little loose crystals 
 termed " cementation copper," which contains nearly all the 
 impurities of the iron used to precipitate it, and requires to 
 be purified. Spain and Portugal export about half a million 
 tons annually of iron pyrites containing several per cent of 
 copper, the whole of which is extracted by this process.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 177 
 
 COPPER, WEIGHT OR A copper shell .005 of an inch 
 thick weighs about 3.71 ounces per square foot. One cubic 
 inch of copper weighs 5.1585 ounces. 
 
 CORROSION OF COPPER-FACED TYPE. In a dry 
 atmosphere and under ordinary conditions, copper will not 
 corrode to an extent sufficient to injure printing-plates, or 
 type faced with copper, but there are certain colored inks 
 which attack copper by reason of the mercury contained in 
 them, and certain cleaning compounds containing ammonia 
 which would be likely to produce corrosion if allowed to 
 remain on the type. Verdigris may be removed from copper 
 by brushing with very dilute nitric acid or ammonia and thor- 
 oughly rinsing with clear water. 
 
 CORROSION, TO PREVENT. Copper soon loses its 
 luster when exposed to the atmosphere, but the printing quality 
 of the electrotype is not impaired thereby. When electrotypes 
 are stored in a d^mp vault or exposed to the action of acid 
 fumes or gases which cause excessive corrosion, damage will 
 of course result. The remedy is to remove the plates to a 
 dry place. If such a place is not available, a coat of hot 
 paraffin will protect them to some extent, or they may be 
 given a coat of lacquer such as is used to preserve the luster 
 on certain kinds of metal artwork. Most electrotypers would 
 ridicule the idea of spending any time or money in an attempt 
 to preserve the color of an electrotype, and if they are care- 
 fully cleaned and stored in a dry place there is really no 
 necessity for further protection. 
 
 COST OF ELECTROTYPE SHELLS. The material in 
 a tinned shell costs about .05 of a cent per square inch. The 
 cost of molding and the various other operations involved in 
 producing a shell are estimated to be about one-half the cost 
 of the finished electrotype. It is customary, therefore, to 
 charge half price for shells. From the seller's standpoint this 
 is a satisfactory method of estimating, but as a matter of fact 
 the cost of the shells is considerably less than one-half the 
 cost of finished book-plates. That is to say, the value of the 
 metal in the plates, together with the labor of backing up and 
 
 12
 
 178 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 finishing, is actually about two-thirds of the total cost cf the 
 electrotypes. 
 
 COULOMB. A coulomb is the amount of current which 
 passes through a conductor in one second when the strength 
 of current is one ampere. 
 
 CROCUS. Crocus is sometimes used to prevent the form 
 from " sliding " and also to prevent the wax from sticking 
 to solid cuts and causing them to be rough. If used at all, 
 it should be carefully brushed off the mold before it goes into 
 the vat, otherwise it is a frequent cause of " blisters " and 
 " sinks." 
 
 CURRENT, HIGH TENSION. The incandescent light 
 current will not answer for electrotyping or plating, because 
 the tension is too high. The voltage of an electric light machine 
 is no or more, while one to three volts is amply sufficient for 
 electrotyping. There are other reasons, not necessary to 
 explain, why the electric -light current would be unsuitable for 
 electrotyping. 
 
 CURRENT STRENGTH. Current strength is the quan- 
 tity of electricity which flows through any cross section of a 
 circuit in one second of time ; it depends on the electromotive 
 force and the* total resistance. The unit of measurement is 
 called ampere (see Ampere). According to Ohm's law, the 
 strength of current is equal to electromotive force divided by 
 resistance. Current strength is measured by means of an 
 ammeter. 
 
 CURRENTS, MEASURING ELECTRIC The ammeter 
 is employed to measure electric currents, and the voltmeter, to 
 measure the electromotive force or pressure. Speaking of 
 water flowing through a pipe, we would say that it is delivered 
 at the rate of so many gallons per minute. The quantity would 
 depend upon the pressure behind it and the friction of the 
 pipe. So with the electric current ; the number of amperes 
 delivered depends on the pressure (E. M. F.) and the resist- 
 ance of the conductors. If the pressure is one volt and the 
 resistance one ohm, the current delivered will be one ampere
 
 ELECTROTYl'ING. 179 
 
 per secdnd. If the resistance is only .01 of an ohm, the cur- 
 rent will be 100 amperes per second. The current always 
 equals the E. M. F. divided by the resistance. Inasmuch as 
 the current depends on the resistance as well as the pressure, 
 it is obvious that the voltmeter will not always accurately 
 measure the current, for, while one volt pressure may produce 
 100 amperes under certain conditions of resistance, under 
 different conditions the product may be more or less than 100 
 amperes ; and, while one volt may produce 100 amperes, it 
 does not always follow that two volts will produce 200 amperes, 
 for increasing the pressure may increase the resistance by 
 heating or polarization. A current of one ampere will deposit 
 18.116 grains of copper per hour, and as the ammeter is 
 employed to measure the current after resistance has been 
 overcome, its working value is always uniform. On the other 
 hand, a current of one volt E. M. F. may deposit more or less 
 copper at different times as the conditions of resistance vary. 
 It is, therefore, evident that the true working value of the 
 current can be measured only by the ammeter and can not be 
 accurately measured by the voltmeter. 
 
 CURVED ELECTROTYPES, CASTING. Many of the 
 pages (all of the colorwork) of the Chicago Blade and 
 Chicago Ledger are printed from curved electrotype plates 
 which are cast by pouring the stereo metal directly into the 
 tinned shell, in the same manner that a stereotype plate is 
 cast from a paper matrix. 
 
 CURVED PLATES, EXPANSION OF. The only way 
 to prevent expansion in curved plates is to curve the shell and 
 cast it in a curved box. Most electrotypers consider this an 
 impractical method, although the writer knows of one large 
 publication whose color pages are all printed from plates made 
 in this manner. While it is obviously impossible to curve an 
 electrotype without stretching it, the expansion may be mini- 
 mized by surrounding the form with wide bearers and cutting 
 clown spaces so as to make the plate as nearly solid as possible. 
 A form of open type matter will always stretch more than a 
 solid tint or half-tone.
 
 180 ELliCTKOTYl'ING 
 
 DEPOSITION, ECONOMICAL. It is a waste of power 
 to run the dynamo at a high voltage and prevent " burning " 
 by cutting down the conductivity of the solution or increasing 
 its resistance. It would obviously be in the interest of economy 
 to make the solution as conductive as possible and adapt the 
 current strength to the solution. 
 
 DEPOSITION, RATE OF. One ampere deposits 18.116 
 grains of copper per hour ; 10 amperes deposit 9.84 ounces in 
 24 hours ; 386.4 ampeYes deposit i pound in i hour ; 746 
 amperes deposit 1.93 pounds of copper in I hour; 17.94 
 amperes per square foot deposit .001 inch thickness of copper 
 per hour. 
 
 DURABILITY OF ELECTROTYPE PLATES. Accord- 
 ing to the New York Times, the greatest achievement in 
 connection with the printing of " David Harum " was the part 
 played by the plates from which the book was printed. Only 
 one set has been used to print 425,000 copies. When certain 
 signs indicated that " David Harum " was fast winning an 
 extraordinary popularity, a second set of electrotype plates 
 was made, to be used in case of emergency, but so well has 
 the electrotyper done his work that this set has not as yet 
 been pressed into service. 
 
 DYNAMO, CHOOSING A. When making choice of a 
 dynamo, it should be remembered that a certain volume of 
 current is required to produce certain results. According to 
 Gore, 17.94 amperes will deposit .001 of an inch thickness per 
 hour on a square foot of cathode. A dynamo whose capacity 
 is 360 amperes, or twenty times 17.94, will, therefore, deposit 20 
 square feet at a time at the rate of .001 of an inch per hour, 
 or, to put it in another way, it will deposit 6,480 grains of 
 copper per hour. By increasing the E. M. F. of the dynamo 
 this weight of copper may be deposited .002 of an inch thick 
 on 10 square feet of copper, or .004 of an inch thick on 5 
 square feet, or even .008 of an inch thick on 2.^/2 square feet, 
 but the limit of the capacity of the dynamo in weight of 
 copper deposited per hour is 6,480 grains, and this limit can 
 not be exceeded. It is obvious, therefore, that to perform a
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 181 
 
 large amount of work in a limited time requires a large 
 dynamo. The best results which the writer has ever seen 
 produced in an electrotype foundry were obtained from a 
 lo-volt, i,ooo-ampere dynamo coupled to three baths in series, 
 and arranged in such a way that one of the baths may be 
 disconnected when it is desired to hurry the work in the other 
 two. Ordinarily the E. M. F. is 35/3 volts per bath and the 
 time required to deposit a satisfactory shell is from forty-five 
 to sixty minutes, but this time may be reduced to thirty minutes 
 or less by utilizing the entire pressure in two vats. This 
 machine will deposit thirty feet of good shells per hour or 
 about one hundred pounds of copper per day, and will take 
 care of the product of four molding presses. 
 
 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE. The electromotive force 
 of a current means that power by virtue of which it can sur- 
 mount resistance. A current of low electromotive force may 
 be entirely stopped or absorbed by a moderate resistance. A 
 current of high electromotive force can overcome a high 
 resistance or accomplish work in such a circuit. 
 
 ELECTROTYPES, NEW METHOD OF MAKING. 
 A sheet of thin metal, copper or an alloy of copper and some 
 other metal, is laid on the type-form, which is then covered 
 with a blanket and passed through a machine similar to a 
 matrix-rolling machine. The blanket is then removed and a 
 sheet of softened gutta-percha substituted therefor, after which 
 the form is passed through the machine again. This gives a 
 deep and sharp impression of the type in the sheet metal, which 
 is now stripped from the form and backed up with electrotype 
 metal. It is claimed that the plates obtained by this process 
 are satisfactory except possibly in the case of very fine-screen 
 half-tones. 
 
 ELECTROTYPING IN AMERICA. According to the 
 " Typothetae and Platemaker," there are 372 firms in the 
 United States and Canada who make electrotyping their sole 
 business, and New York city has about ten per cent of them. 
 
 FINISHING HALF-TONES. If half-tone shells are 
 made extra heavy, there will be no necessity for using a
 
 182 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 smasher in finishing the plate ; in fact, little or no finishing 
 should be required other than straightening. If punching is 
 unavoidable, it is a good plan to employ a sheet of soft paper 
 to protect the face of the plate. 
 
 FINISHING VIGNETTED HALF-TONES. Before 
 straightening the electro, take a punch of suitable shape and 
 go around just outside the edge of the vignetting. This will 
 have the effect of sinking the edge a little below the level. 
 When straightening the plate do not bring up the edges of 
 the vignetting, but leave it a little lower than the half-tone. 
 The result will be that the print will shade off to nothing 
 and give the soft effect of the original. 
 
 FOREMAN'S SALARY, THE. There is a vast differ- 
 ence in foremen, just as there is among workmen. The ideal 
 foreman possesses large executive ability, has a thorough 
 knowledge of his business and has his employer's interests 
 always at heart. He keeps his machinery in first-class work- 
 ing order and is as careful in expenditures as if the business 
 were his own. He secures and retains the respect of his men 
 and obtains from them their best efforts. He is prompt, accu- 
 rate, energetic and courteous, and always a hustler. There 
 are only a few of him. His services are in demand at good 
 wages, and he is worth more than he gets. 
 
 GUTTA-PERCHA MOLDS. If the character of the 
 work is such that black lead is not objectionable, it may be 
 used, in preparing for the bath, the same as on a wax mold. 
 On molds of half-tones or steel engravings, the molds may 
 be coated with silver. The following is an extract from a shop 
 talk by Mr. G. J. Kelly, of London, England : " Gutta-percha 
 is a product of the earth, and, in its natural state, is of a white 
 color ; it is gritty usually, and wants careful washing before 
 manipulating. There are three kinds of gutta-percha in the 
 market; the purest is white, the next brown, and the last or 
 commercial article is black. The third-class article, for pur- 
 poses in the trade, is the best. Of course there are various 
 grades of black percha, and the choice is a difficult matter, 
 known best to those who have had to try inferior material
 
 ELECTROTYPING. . 183 
 
 through economizing. The pcrcha should be about one-eighth 
 inch in thickness and carefully rolled out in sheet. It should 
 be hard and without any patches of ' brown ' in its composi- 
 tion, because a good percha is always black and shiny as 
 ebony after pouring. Now the next thing is its touch ; it 
 should be free from clamminess and dry to the finger. If 
 there is a tendency to stick, you may reckon at once that the 
 tar, or whatever foreign substance it contains, means trouble 
 in store. When you have chosen your percha, -it will suit 
 your purpose best to cut it up into strips and then into squares 
 of about four inches. It will not run down as wax when 
 steam or heat is applied, and here begins the addition of fat. 
 If you get English mutton fat, you have the very best article 
 for mixing with gutta-percha. We now have selected our two 
 principal materials, and we place in the same pan say four 
 pounds percha and one pound fat. Then mix and stir the 
 percha and fat together with a painter's knife say ten inches 
 long. You mix and stir for some time, the longer the better, 
 because all the air must be exuded. The plate to be duplicated 
 must be absolutely free from dirt. The temperature of the 
 plate should be hot enough to enable one to touch the plate 
 with the fingers, and no more. You plunge the knife in and 
 then take a portion of the percha on the blade from out of the 
 pan, and pour exactly in the center of the plate, and this must 
 be done to prevent airholes. We have now poured a mold, 
 and we immediately remove the same from the heat to a cold 
 slab for cooling. After the mold has set and cooled, I take it, 
 press the edge of the mold gently down, the original upward, 
 and, if I find the mold loosen from the corners, I gently lift 
 the original off by means of a paring knife. If I find the 
 slightest tendency in the percha to cling to the original, I give 
 the mold another half hour. You may find that the mold 
 may never come off ; in other words, it will stick for all it is 
 worth. Well, that is caused by pouring your material too hot 
 or on a dirty original. If your mold has creases or airholes, 
 it is cold material, and all this can be overcome only by expe- 
 rience. I face the mold by pouring and drying on the face a
 
 184 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 solution of phosphorus and silver nitrate, which immediately 
 gives it sufficient conductivity to cover the mold by an ordi- 
 nary Smee battery in thirty seconds." 
 
 HALF-TONES AND ELECTROTYPES. Half-tone 
 shells should be made extra heavy, so that the pressure or 
 weight of the metal will not distort them or force to the 
 surface those portions of the shell corresponding to the high 
 lights in the picture and which are a trifle low in the engraving. 
 The same caution applies to the vignette. It is too much to 
 expect that electros will be absolutely perfect. There is prob- 
 ably always some loss in reproduction, notwithstanding the 
 claim of some electrotypers to the contrary. Sometimes the 
 loss is hardly perceptible, but an expert will usually detect a 
 difference. 
 
 HALF-TONES INSERTED IN ELECTROTYPE 
 PLATES. The method most commonly employed is to back 
 up the etching to the thickness of the book-plate, then fit it 
 into the plate and secure it by soldering. Mr. P. M. Furlong's 
 process, which is patented, is described as follows : A base 
 or blank block is fitted under the etching to make it type-high, 
 and, having been properly trimmed to fit into the type-form, 
 the etching is removed and the base alone is locked up in the 
 form with the type. The removal of the etching is necessary 
 in order that the type may be blackleaded to cause it to freely 
 release from the molding composition in the operation of mold- 
 ing, and it being preferable that the face of the etching should 
 not be blackleaded. After blackleading the type-form, the 
 etching, having had its back thoroughly cleaned, is replaced 
 face upward on the base within the form, with its face flush 
 with the type, and then the surface of the molding composi- 
 tion having been coated with plumbago, the form is molded 
 in the usual way. When the mold thus obtained is lifted from 
 the form, the etching will be found imbedded in and adhering 
 to the molding composition, face inward. The mold contain- 
 ing the etching is then blackleaded in the usual way prepara- 
 tory to being placed in the electrotyping bath ; but, before 
 being placed in the bath, the exposed back of the etching
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 185 
 
 should be freed from black lead and scraped bright to insure 
 the incorporation of the electro-deposited metal with the back 
 and edges of the etching and in order that the metal may be 
 deposited in a continuous and unbroken sheet over the edges 
 of the etching to the back thereof and thereby form a perfect 
 union between the electrotype and the etching, so that when 
 the shell is removed from the mold it brings the etching with 
 it, the two forming practically one plate, which, after having 
 been freed from adhering wax or molding composition, may 
 be backed with composition metal and finished in the same 
 manner as ordinary electrotype plates. By this simple, direct 
 and economical process, an absolutely perfect incorporation of 
 an etching plate with an electrotype of reading matter is 
 obtained. 
 
 HALF-TONES, MOLDING. Molding half-tones requires 
 considerable skill and careful attention to every detail of the 
 process. The molding composition must be of a certain tem- 
 perature, which can not be described but must be learned by 
 experience ; the blackleading, washing and coating should be 
 performed with the utmost care, to avoid filling up the minute 
 hatches of the engraving; and, lastly, you should not attempt 
 to mold half-tones in connection with type. Mold them sepa- 
 rately, and, after the plates are finished, insert the engraving in 
 the page. It is impossible to learn electrotype molding from 
 written instructions. Skill comes only from long practice 
 under the tutelage of an expert workman. 
 
 HOLES IN SHELLS. Holes in the shells are due either 
 to defective blackleading, failure to remove the air from the 
 mold by thorough wetting before placing in the bath, or the 
 use of a current so strong that it causes the formation of 
 hydrogen gas on the cathode. Defective blackleading may be 
 caused by a poor quality of graphite or insufficient brushing. 
 The best way to wet the surface of the mold is to place it 
 face up in a tank partially filled with water in such a man- 
 ner that the mold will be an inch or two under the surface, 
 and then direct a stream of water from a rotary force pump 
 on to the mold. If trouble is due to the third cause, the
 
 186 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 remedy is to reduce the speed of your dynamo or use an 
 agitator. The latter is by far the best plan, as the agitator 
 will not only dissipate the gas bubbles but will enable you to 
 employ a current twice as strong as would be practicable with 
 your solution test, and thus double the rate of deposition. 
 
 HORSE-POWER. One horse-power equals 746 watts. 
 The unit of electric output: 1,000 watts equals 1.34 horse- 
 power; I horse-power equals 746 amperes with i-volt pres- 
 sure causes 1.93 pounds of copper to be deposited per hour. 
 
 HOT BOX, DUNTON'S The cabinet consists of two 
 boxes, one built inside of the other and having an air space 
 between them. The outer box should be constructed of heavy 
 material, or, better still, of two thicknesses of board, with a 
 lining of thick asbestos board between the wooden walls. 
 This keeps all the heat on the inside. Both boxes should be 
 built practically tight ; that is, do not bore any holes through 
 the walls of the inner box to communicate with the heat space 
 between the boxes. This is unnecessary and a detriment to 
 the satisfactory working of the cabinet. The radiating space 
 between the outer and inner boxes should be at least six 
 inches ; that is, the walls of the inner box should be placed 
 six inches from those of the outer, on the top, ends and sides, 
 while on the under side there should be at least eight inches, 
 and the floor of the inner box should be made of two thick- 
 nesses, with a layer of asbestos paper between them. The heat- 
 ing coils, consisting of six lengths of 54-inch steam pipe, should 
 run lengthwise of the cabinet and be placed under the floor 
 or bottom of the inner box. There "should be at least six inches 
 between the top of the pipes and the floor of the inner box, 
 and they should be supported on iron rods going through the 
 walls of the outer box. The doors and their casings need spe- 
 cial attention ; they must not be made of a single thickness 
 of wood, for this might spoil the satisfactory working of the 
 whole affair. They should be constructed of two thicknesses 
 of wood, with an air space between, similar to those on a 
 refrigerator, and closed in on the sides, top and bottom, having 
 holes of at least an inch in diameter bored at intervals on the
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 187 
 
 four sides, corresponding to the same holes bored in the cas- 
 ings, to connect the air spaces with the heat chamber of the 
 cabinet. Both doors should be provided with springs, so that 
 they will not be left open after molds have been taken out of 
 or placed in the cabinet. The volume of heat can be regulated 
 perfectly satisfactory by the manipulation of the valve in the 
 steam pipe. The cabinet should stand up off the floor at least 
 six inches, and be located handy to the wax shaver and filling 
 tables. 
 
 INVENTIONS. It is gratifying to note that inventors 
 are taking up the subject of electrotyping and striving to 
 produce more economical or more convenient methods of 
 manufacture. The invention or discovery of a compound to 
 satisfactorily anneal ozokerite may be mentioned as an indica- 
 tion of what may be expected in the way of improvement. A 
 firm of Brooklyn chemists has just put on the market a solder- 
 ing fluid, ready for use, which does away with the use of 
 muriatic acid and the disagreeable and unhealthy process of 
 " killing " it with zinc. Another inventor claims to have dis- 
 covered a material which acts as a precipitant of copper to be 
 used in the place of iron filings, thus eliminating all danger of 
 scratching the molds. The electrotyping business is suscepti- 
 ble of much improvement. 
 
 IRON DEPOSITION OF. Deposition of iron, except for 
 the purpose of " steel facing," is seldom practiced in this 
 country, and there are probably not half a dozen establish- 
 ments which are equipped for such work. In St. Petersburg, 
 however, M. Klein has been very successful in producing elec- 
 trotypes in iron, which are largely, if not exclusively, employed 
 in the printing of state papers, documents, labels, etc. Some 
 of these electrotypes, which were on exhibition at the Colum- 
 bian Exposition, were very heavy and would indicate that there 
 is no limit to the thickness which may be deposited with proper 
 facilities. 
 
 LEVELING ELECTROTYPES. In a recent patented 
 process for leveling electrotypes, the method consists in intro- 
 ducing the backing pan and its contents into an air-tight
 
 188 ELECTROTYI'IM;. 
 
 chamber and of forcing artificially cooled air into the chamber 
 at a high pressure in order to cool and level the electrotype. 
 
 LITMUS PAPER. Blue litmus paper is colored red by 
 acid fluids, and red litmus paper blue, by alkaline fluids. By 
 simultaneously dipping one-half a strip of blue and of red 
 litmus paper in a solution, the reaction of the fluid can be 
 judged from the change in color and the rapidity and intensity 
 of its appearance. 
 
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. Instruments for meas- 
 uring electric currents should be included in the equipment of 
 every well-ordered electrotyping establishment. In the early 
 days of the art, it was sufficient to know that a current of some 
 kind was at work and that in the course of time a shell of the 
 desired thickness would be deposited. It might take twelve 
 hours at one time and eighteen at another, but a few hours 
 more or less was not considered of serious moment. With 
 the modern electrotyper, however, every minute counts, and, 
 as a rule, he employs all the current which can be utilized 
 without " burning " the deposit. Having learned by experience 
 what quantity may be employed to advantage, it is of great 
 convenience to be able to measure the current and by means of 
 the proper registering instruments maintain the pressure at 
 the maximum point. The voltmeter and ammeter are also 
 useful indicators of the condition of the solution. For instance, 
 with the solution properly proportioned and the tanks con- 
 nected in multiple, a pressure of 25/2 volts should produce a 
 current strength of about seventy-five amperes per square foot 
 of cathode. If the ammeter registers less, it is an indication 
 that the solution is deficient in acid. 
 
 METALS USED IN ELECTROTYPING, MELTING 
 POINT OF. Antimony, 840 F. ; copper, I,I96F.; lead, 
 617 F.; tin, 773 F. 
 
 METAL ELECTROTYPE. Electrotype backing metal 
 is composed of lead, tin and antimony. The proportions may 
 vary somewhat. The most popular formula is : Lead, 90 
 pounds ; tin, 5 pounds, and antimony, 5 pounds. However, 6
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 189 
 
 pounds of tin and 4 pounds of antimony, or 6 pounds of anti- 
 mony and 4 pounds of tin, may be employed with good results. 
 Electrotype metal fuses at about 600 F. 
 
 METAL-POTS, CAPACITY OF. To calculate the con- 
 tents of a round pot, multiply the cube of the diameter by the 
 decimal .5236 and divide by 2, to find the number of cubic 
 inches. To calculate the contents of a square pot in cubic 
 inches, multiply the length, breadth and depth together. On 
 account of the slope in the walls of the pot, the length and 
 breadth measurements should be taken at a point equally 
 distant from the top and bottom of the pot. A cubic inch of 
 stereo metal weighs 6.15 ounces. A cubic inch of electro metal 
 weighs 6.28 ounces. 
 
 METALS USED IN ELECTROTYPING, SPECIFIC 
 GRAVITY OF. Antimony, 6.70; copper, 8.889; lead, 8.01; 
 tin, 7.3. 
 
 MOLDING COMPOSITION. Most molders have their 
 own opinion as to what constitutes the best molding composi- 
 tion. Possibly no two of them use exactly the same com- 
 bination of ingredients, and yet all produce excellent results. 
 Some of the best molders still use beeswax and decline to 
 accept a substitute ; others use ozokerite ; others " crask " 
 wax, which has ozokerite for a base ; others a combination 
 of ozokerite and beeswax, or " crask " wax and beeswax. 
 All molding compositions are subject to changes, caused by 
 repeated meltings and coolings, changes of temperature, etc. 
 The skilled molder watches his wax and adds from time to 
 time the material necessary to preserve its virtue. A good 
 molding composition may be made by mixing together pure 
 beeswax, 85 per cent ; crude turpentine, 10 per cent ; plum- 
 bago, 5 per cent. In summer add 5 per cent burgundy pitch. 
 Ozokerite may be substituted for beeswax and is becoming 
 popular as a molding composition. The following mixture is 
 specially recommended by Mr. George E. Dunton : 10 pounds 
 ozokerite, Y* pound vaseline and % to l / 2 pounds of white- 
 pine pitch. If by long use the composition becomes hardened,
 
 190 ELECTROTYI'ING. 
 
 it may be annealed by adding from time to time a small quan- 
 tity of vaseline. 
 
 MOLDING COMPOSITION, ELASTIC Dissolve 32 
 parts (by weight) of gelatin in 24 parts of water, over a slow 
 fire ; when dissolved, add I part beeswax cut up in small 
 pieces. The mixture should be warm but not hot when used. 
 Before applying the composition, the plaster casts should be 
 well brushed with oil. The following composition is recom- 
 mended by Mr. George E. Dunton : " Select 10 pounds of the 
 best cabinetmaker's glue and put it to soak over night in 5 
 pints water. The semi-plastic mass should be heated over a 
 water bath until it becomes of the consistency of thick syrup. 
 To this mass should be added 2. l /2 pounds of a good quality 
 of molasses and I pound of pure glycerin, and thoroughly 
 incorporated by stirring. The molasses and glycerin must not 
 be added until within one-half hour from the time the compo- 
 sition is to be poured. Never try to make up this composition 
 in a kettle sitting directly over the blaze of a fire." This 
 composition is suitable for obtaining a reverse mold of objects 
 which may not themselves be suspended in the bath. When 
 the mold has been obtained, a duplicate of the original should 
 be made by pouring wax into the elastic mold. This wax cast 
 may be suspended in the bath and deposited upon, thus secur- 
 ing a metallic reverse upon which a duplicate of the original 
 may be deposited. 
 
 MOLDING PRESSES, HYDRAULIC The hydraulic 
 molding presses in one of the larger electrotyping establish- 
 ments in New York are operated by accumulators, in which a 
 pressure of 1,000 pounds to the square inch is maintained by a 
 suitable pump. When the pressure in the accumulators reaches 
 one thousand pounds an automatic governor stops the pump, 
 which starts again when the pressure is diminished by reason 
 of the operation of the presses. Pressure is applied to the 
 presses by simply turning a valve, and, as the pressure is con- 
 tinuous, the travel of the press bed is much more rapid than is 
 the case when the pump is attached to the press. The plant 
 would be considered very expensive by most electrotypers, and
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 191 
 
 for that reason this method of molding is not likely to become 
 popular. 
 
 MOLDING WAX, TO SOFTEN. A new composition 
 for softening wax which has become dry and brittle has 
 recently been put on the market and is sold by dealers in elec- 
 trotyping supplies. It is called Ozo Compound, and is highly 
 recommended by many electrotype molders. 
 
 MOLDS, BLISTERED. Blisters are sometimes due to 
 moisture in the wax. It may be due to adulteration. The 
 trouble may be partially remedied by burning down the case 
 before molding. Skimming the case with a hot wire will also 
 help to remove the moisture. 
 
 MOLDS, COATING. When spots appear on the molds 
 which do not coat readily, the difficulty may be due to the fact 
 that the mold has not been thoroughly wetted, and may be 
 remedied by using stronger alcohol or a more powerful stream 
 of water. Greasy iron filings might also cause the trouble. 
 
 NICKEL ELECTROTYPES. To deposit nickel on wax 
 molds, blacklead the mold in the usual manner and increase 
 the conductivity by floating the surface of the mold with a 
 solution made by dissolving phosphorus in wood alcohol to 
 saturation. After floating the mold with the phosphorus solu- 
 tion, rinse in running water and repeat the operation. Mold 
 will cover in five minutes, and, after ten minutes, may be 
 removed from the bath, rinsed and immediately placed in the 
 copper bath. An interesting invention comes from Louis 
 Boudreaux, of Paris, France. In order to produde electrotypes 
 in nickel, he covers the wax (before taking the impression) 
 with powdered bronze, the coating with graphite being omitted. 
 In this way he secures a surface of wax that, when placed in 
 the bath, will permit the adhesion of the nickel and result in 
 the quick building up of a shell. As is well known, if electro- 
 plating is undertaken with nickel, after the manner of copper, 
 the small amount of adhesion of the nickel to the graphite 
 often causes a failure. The inventor further claims that a
 
 li)2 ELECTROTYi'lNG. 
 
 metallic surface, as of bronze, on the wax is much better for 
 electroplating with any metal than is the plumbago surface. 
 
 NICKEL-PLATING ELECTROTYPES. In printing 
 from electrotypes with colored inks, more especially with inks 
 which are prepared from a mercurial pigment, such as red, 
 brown or vermilion, not only is the surface of the electrotype 
 injuriously affected by the mercury forming an amalgam with 
 the copper, but the brilliant colors are also seriously impaired 
 by the decomposition which occurs. To avoid this, it is best 
 to give electrotypes to be used for such purposes a coating of 
 nickel, which effectually protects the copper from wear and 
 the action of the mercury, and seemingly brightens the color 
 of the ink. It is absolutely necessary that the face of the 
 electrotype should be chemically clean, in order that the nickel 
 deposit may adhere to the copper. After printing-plates have 
 been nickeled, they should be rinsed in clear water, then 
 plunged in hot water and dried in sawdust. It is claimed that 
 nickeled plates will take ink better if they are also brushed with 
 fine whiting. 
 
 NICKEL-PLATING HALF-TONES. There appear to 
 be conflicting opinions regarding the nickel-plating of half- 
 tones, the usual impression being that the cut becomes filled 
 up. While this may be true to a certain extent, the effect so 
 produced is far less than is generally supposed. This may be 
 determined by depositing a good plating of nickel on one por- 
 tion of a first-class electrotype and comparing the plated and 
 unloaded portions under the microscope. Some nickel-plated 
 electrotypes, made for the purpose of determining this point, 
 appeared to be equally as sharp as nickeltypes from the same 
 originals, the amount of nickel on the plated cuts being con- 
 siderable, .001 inch or more, as judged by the time and current. 
 The reason of this may be found in the fact that nickel deposits 
 in a very smooth condition, and that the current densities 
 during plating being greater at points nearest the anode, more 
 metal would be deposited upon the printing surface than in 
 the depth of the dots, thus, if anything, increasing the depth 
 of the half-tone plate. Deterioration, if any occurs, would
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 193 
 
 seem to be .due to a decrease in the diameter of the dots in 
 the half-tones and the accumulation of nickel on the high- 
 light points, causing the impression in printing to be darker. 
 In practice, it is doubtful if such an effect could be noticed. 
 
 NICKEL SOLUTION. The following formula is recom- 
 mended by Dunton : To make a solution in which nickel will 
 be deposited as near faultlessly as it is possible in an alkaline 
 bath, the proportion of the nickel-ammonium sulphate should 
 be l /2. pound to the gallon of boiling water, and make this 
 volume of water slightly less than the bulk of the desired 
 solution is to be. If the solution is to be 12 gallons, dissolve 
 5 pounds of the sulphate in 10 gallons of boiling water, stir- 
 ring until the sulphate is all dissolved; then strain off into 
 the tub, and add 2 gallons of cold water. Allow it to stand 
 until the temperature has fallen to 70, and test with the 
 hydrometer. If it registers 5, or even a half degree less, 
 it is in condition to work; but if more than that, it must be 
 reduced with cold water to that point, to obtain the best 
 results. Outside of the advised addition of certain organic 
 acids, certain theorists have recommended the addition of all 
 kinds of nitrates, sulphates, carbonates, citrates, sodium, mag- 
 nesium, potassium and calcium chlorids ; but, as the result of 
 my personal experiment, I would advise the reader to leave 
 them all entirely out of his prospective nickel baths. The 
 results without their addition will be far more satisfactory. 
 The nickel bath will be found quite a troublesome customer 
 to keep in sorts, as it is supposed to be kept at a state of 
 neutrality that is neither alkaline nor acid ; if either, I believe 
 it should show a very slight acid reaction. This state may be 
 tested for, and proved, by the ordinary " litmus paper," which 
 should be always kept handy to the tub. Either the blue or 
 red will answer the purpose equally well. If the red is used, 
 first dip in strong ammonia, which will turn it a deep blue, 
 proving that the ammonia is strongly alkaline. Allow the 
 paper to dry (it will retain the blue color) ; now dip it in the 
 solution and allow to dry. If, upon drying, the color has 
 .changed to a reddish purple, between the red and the blue, 
 
 13
 
 194 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 in which neither predominates, the solution will yield the best 
 results. If it should turn a reddish tint as soon as drawn 
 from the liquid, rest assured there is too much acid in the 
 solution, and the deposit will peel. If the paper retains its 
 blue, the solution is too alkaline and will yield a deposit which 
 will prove too brittle or hard. A very slight reaction toward 
 the red is prolific of the best results. If the solution becomes 
 too acid, the addition of a small quantity of ammonium sulphate 
 will correct the fault ; if too alkaline, the nickel sulphate. 
 Consequently, it is an easy matter to keep the contents of the 
 solution constant. A simple bath, which has been thoroughly 
 tested in some of the largest electrotype foundries in the 
 country, is made by dissolving the double sulphate of nickel 
 and ammonia in warm water, in the proportion of three- 
 quarters of a pound of the salts in each gallon of water. The 
 procedure is the same that has been recommended for the 
 copper solution, i. e., the salts should be suspended in cheese- 
 cloth bags just under the surface of the water until entirely 
 dissolved, when the solution should be thoroughly stirred, and 
 is then ready for use. 
 
 NICKELTYPES. Nickeltypes possess three principal 
 advantages over electrotypes for half-tone reproduction : First, 
 they are much more durable ; second, they take ink better, 
 particularly colored inks, and, third, the method of their manu- 
 facture is such that there is less danger of scratching or 
 injuring the mold than in the ordinary methods of electrotyp- 
 ing. Probably the chief advantage of the nickeltype is found 
 in the fact that it is not affected by colored inks, although due 
 consideration should be given to the other points mentioned. 
 
 NICKELTYPING. The proper anodes for the purpose 
 are so hard that they are subjected to 4,000 degrees of heat 
 in casting, and, when coming in contact with the sand, a thin 
 scale or coating is formed on the outside, which causes irregu- 
 lar deposit and gives the anode the appearance of being 
 veneered or plated. This outer covering also contains an 
 indefinite quantity of iron (carbon), which, if liberated in the 
 solution to an excessive degree, will stratify the latter to an
 
 ELECTROTYPING. lO-'J 
 
 extent of causing endless trouble. Where this iron oxid comes 
 in contact with the cathode before the shell is perfectly formed, 
 further development is checked, and the next deposit, or back- 
 ing, comes through to the face, giving a faulty plate, the sur- 
 face either being rough or copper specks and spots showing 
 through. If this same oxid is allowed to dry or adhere to the 
 nickel shell after it is perfectly formed, the copper or tinfoil 
 will not unite perfectly, and the shell will be lost and blister 
 or peel off. These are the genuine blisters, and should not be 
 confounded with the so-called globular and irregular blisters 
 that arise when depositing the nickel shell. These are not 
 blisters, but, more properly, gas-blows, caused by the current, 
 solution, anode and cathode surface exposed not harmonizing. 
 A certain amount of effervescence during deposition is neces- 
 sary to insure quick, bright and perfect deposit ; too little 
 retards the work ; too much produces the defects mentioned, 
 which are next to impossible to eradicate after the shell is 
 backed up, especially in half-tones. 
 
 NICKELTYPING, CONNECTIONS FOR. In deposit- 
 ing nickel on wax molds, it is desirable that the mold shall be 
 covered as quickly as possible. To promote this end, it is 
 well to extend a loop of wire entirely around the mold, sinking 
 it into the wax and having it long enough so that the ends 
 may be bent into hooks for suspending the mold in the bath. 
 By observing this method, deposition will begin on all sides 
 of the molds at once, instead of beginning at the top and 
 spreading down over the entire length of the mold, as is the 
 case when the ordinary electrotyping connection is employed. 
 With the loop-wire method, the mold will cover in from two 
 to three minutes. 
 
 NICKELTYPES, DEFECTIVE. Depressions in the face 
 of nickeltype plates are due to gas bubbles, caused usually by 
 too strong a current. Nickeltyping is not an easy proposition, 
 and, to be successful, all the conditions must be just right. The 
 current and solution must harmonize. To ascertain the proper 
 strength of current is a matter of experiment, and for this
 
 196 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 purpose depositing apparatus should include a rheostat, by 
 means of which the current may be varied at will. 
 
 OZO COMPOUND. The quantity of ozo compound to 
 be added to the molding wax or ozokerite varies with the 
 season of the year and the condition (or quality) of the wax. 
 Start with from one pint to one quart to each fifty pounds of 
 wax, adding more until the wax is soft enough. Most of the 
 ozokerite in use is of inferior grades. The less pure ozokerite 
 is the more crude oil it contains and the lower its melting 
 point, requiring less ozo compound. Beware of an overdose, 
 as it takes some time to get the wax into shape in case of an 
 overdose. The best molds are made with pure ozokerite 
 reduced with ozo compound. Never heat the forms, and use 
 cold cases or molds. In lifting forms out of the mold, give a 
 steady, strong pull. The form will not release quite so easily 
 from a cold case as from a heated case, but the results will be 
 better from the cold case. 
 
 OZOKERITE, TO SOFTEN. When ozokerite molding 
 composition becomes hard and brittle, add vaseline, or ozo 
 compound, a little at a time, until it becomes sufficiently soft 
 and plastic. 
 
 OZOKERITE, TO HARDEN. In hot weather, if the 
 composition becomes too soft, add a very little of pine tur- 
 pentine. 
 
 PATINA, IMITATION OF GENUINE. Repeatedly 
 brush the objects with solution of sal ammoniac in vinegar, 
 the action of the solution being accelerated by the addition of 
 verdigris. A solution of 9 drams of sal ammoniac and 2^4 
 drams of potassium binoxalate, in I quart of vinegar, acts still 
 better. When the first coat is dry, wash the object and repeat 
 the manipulation, drying and washing after each application, 
 until a green patina is formed. It is best to bring the article, 
 after being brushed over, into a hermetically sealed box, upon 
 the bottom of which a few shallow dishes containing very 
 dilute sulphuric acid and a few pieces of marble are placed.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 197 
 
 PEELING, TO PREVENT. The great difficulty in nick- 
 eltyping is peeling of the deposit before a sufficient thickness 
 has been attained. To prevent peeling, the solution and the 
 current must be of just the right strength. To enable the 
 operator to work intelligently, a voltmeter and a rheostat 
 should be included in the circuit. The current may then be 
 suited to existing conditions and varied at the will of the 
 workman. Nickel is a somewhat obstinate metal to deposit, 
 and requires careful attention. It will not adhere to surfaces 
 which are not absolutely clean, and even then will peel if left 
 in the bath too long, or if deposited with too strong a current. 
 The printing surfaces which are to be nickeled should be 
 scrubbed with hot lye or brushed with lime paste, and then 
 thoroughly washed in running water, after which they should 
 be immediately suspended in the bath. They should not be 
 allowed to dry or be touched with the hands ; with a current 
 of two to three volts tension, fifteen or twenty minutes in the 
 bath will be sufficient. The plates should be separated from 
 the anode by a distance of six or seven inches. 
 
 PINHOLES. Shells which are defective by reason of 
 " pinholes " are very annoying. The usual cause is insufficient 
 blackleading, or failure to blow out the lead thoroughly after 
 the mold has come out of the machine. There are other 
 causes, however, among which may be mentioned the forma- 
 tion of gas bubbles in the depressions of the mold, and an 
 insufficiency of acid in the solution when working with a very 
 strong current. The second cause may be remedied by employ- 
 ing an agitator. The remedy for the first and third causes is 
 self-evident. 
 
 PLATING WITHOUT A BATTERY. Simple immer- 
 sion of an iron article in an ordinary solution of copper sul- 
 phate, such as is employed in electrotyping, will produce 
 sufficient action, chemical or electrotlytic, or both, to form a 
 very thin coating of copper on the iron. Steel pens, needles, 
 etc., are coppered by revolving them in a tumbling-box with 
 sawdust moistened with a solution made by dissolving i^ 
 ounces of blue vitriol in 10 quarts of water, and adding 1^4
 
 1U8 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 ounces of pure sulphuric acid. Brush coppering is executed 
 as follows : The utensils required are two vessels of sufficient 
 size, each provided with a brush. One vessel contains a 
 strongly saturated solution of caustic soda, and the other a 
 strongly saturated solution of blue vitriol. The well-cleansed 
 object is first uniformly coated with the caustic soda and then 
 with the blue vitriol. A quite thick film of copper is immedi- 
 ately deposited. Care must be taken not to take the brush too 
 full, and not to touch a second time the place once gone over, 
 as otherwise the copper will not adhere firmly. 
 
 POSTAGE STAMP PLATES. The United States post- 
 age stamps are printed on a steam press, from steel plates, and 
 not from electrotypes. The original is engraved on soft steel 
 and then casehardened, and this hardened die or original is 
 pressed into the rim of a soft steel roller, which is also case- 
 hardened, and from this hardened roller any number of dupli- 
 cates are made on soft steel, which are again hardened before 
 printing. 
 
 RAPID ELECTROTYPING. Mr. J. A. Corey, manager 
 of the electrotyping department of His Majesty's printing- 
 office, claims to have invented a depositing apparatus which 
 enables him to successfully employ 220 amperes per square 
 foot. No more time is required to prepare the mold for the 
 bath than is usually necessary. He hopes soon to be able to 
 give the trade full particulars of this depositor. The full sig- 
 nificance of Mr. Corey's announcement may be realized when 
 it is remembered that the average electrotyper employs from 
 forty to seventy-five amperes per foot. Mr. Corey's invention, 
 if practical, would reduce about two-thirds the time at present 
 required for depositing. 
 
 RESISTANCE. Resistance is that quality in an object 
 which prevents more than a certain amount of current passing 
 through it in a given time, when impelled by a given electro- 
 motive force. The resistance of a conductor is equal to the 
 time required for a unit quantity of electricity (i. e., a 
 coulomb) to pass through it, while its two ends are maintained 
 at a unit difference of potential, i. e., at one volt. The unit
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 199 
 
 of resistance is termed an ohm. The resistance of liquids as 
 compared with metals is enormous, the resistance of a satu- 
 rated solution of blue vitriol being 16,885,520 times greater 
 than copper. The resistance of a wire is directly proportional 
 to its length, and inversely to its sectional area or weight, per 
 unit of length. Conductivity is the reverse of resistance. By 
 rise of temperature, the conductive resistance of metals is 
 increased, and of electrolytes is decreased; thus warm solu- 
 tions facilitate deposition. 
 
 RESISTANCE BOARD. The switchboard, or resistance 
 board, consists of a number of metallic spirals, usually of Ger- 
 man silver, arranged on a board in such a manner that one 
 or more of them may be switched into the circuit, thus pre- 
 senting more or less resistance, as may be desired, to the 
 passage of the current. 
 
 REVERSE ELECTROTYPING. To prevent the deposit 
 from adhering to a metallic matrix, clean the matrix thor- 
 oughly and then flow over it a very weak solution of potas- 
 sium sulphuret. An impalpable film will effectually prevent 
 adhesion of the deposit. This process is found very useful in 
 the production of reverses and in the manufacture of embos- 
 sing dies. 
 
 SAWS, CARE OF. Royle says : If new saws do not 
 run true sideways, get the manufacturers of them to remedy 
 the trouble. The eye of the saw should always fit the mandrel 
 nicely. Never use a hammer on the spindle nut a wrench is 
 provided especially for this nut. A piece of emery wheel or 
 grindstone is good for truing up a saw. Do not use a saw 
 that is out of round. See that every tooth in the saw cuts. 
 To set a saw truly, much care is needed. Avoid too much set. 
 Set over only the points of the teeth. Use as little set as 
 possible. Never use a nail punch for setting. Work with a 
 sharp saw. Don't be stingy with saws; keep an assortment. 
 Specially good workmen should have saws for their special 
 use. Change saws to suit the work required remember that 
 this can be readily done. The smaller saw that is suitable is 
 the preferable one to use. A sharp, true saw is required for
 
 200 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 good work. A dull saw is a dangerous one. Avoid a high 
 ripping gauge, or fence, when a low one will answer. Before 
 ripping stuff, try the ripping gauge to see if it is parallel with 
 the saw. A good test of this is to rip a short piece to a 
 width, and see if, as it passes through, it just glides along the 
 edge of the saw-blade, touching it lightly. Adjust the table 
 top so that the saw will just reach through the stuff. While 
 sawing, keep your eyes on your work. Use great caution, but 
 avoid timidity. A smoking saw needs sharpening. Flying 
 smoke means trouble for the saw. Burnt and buckled saws 
 indicate carelessness. A buckled saw is a bad one. Screech- 
 ing saws have long teeth. Avoid high or long teeth. Joint 
 off the saw frequently, and, when you do so, remove it to the 
 clamps for filing. File straight across. In filing, first sharpen 
 the face or front of the tooth, then file off the back of the 
 same tooth. Save time by filing from one side. Different 
 persons should not file the same saw. Why use a fleam-toothed 
 saw for crosscutting when a fine-tooth rip will answer? Try 
 it. Fleam teeth are unnecessary except for special work. Too 
 thin saws will screech and run. A good sawyer is known by 
 the saws that he keeps. Avoid a worn throat-piece renew it 
 frequently. Most accidents arise from carelessness. Have the 
 belt-shifter work freely ; control it with the foot. It is essen- 
 tial that the' belts be even in thickness throughout their entire 
 length. The spindle belt, at least, should have no rivets or 
 lacings; all joints should be lap-glued or cemented. 
 
 SERIES, ELECTROTYPING IN. There is no object in 
 
 connecting two tanks in series unless you use twice the E. M. 
 F. you would on one tank. The primary advantage in con- 
 necting tanks in series is found in the general principle of 
 electric distribution that a given amount of power or energy 
 is conveyed more cheaply at a high pressure than at a low 
 pressure. Next, it is easier to build a machine of a given 
 capacity for high pressure and low current than for low pres- 
 sure and high current. The current capacity of a dynamo is 
 determined by the cross-section of the armature conductors. 
 A four-pole armature wound with J^-inch copper rods has a
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 201 
 
 capacity of 1,500 amperes. It will get too hot on a high cur- 
 rent. Suppose you are working quiet solutions : I volt is 
 enough E. M. F. per tank, and 20 amperes per square foot 
 of cathode, we will say, is the current required. If this 1,500- 
 ampere armature is revolved in such a field and such a speed as 
 to develop or generate I volt, it is evident that tanks in parallel 
 only can be used or one big tank. The surface that can be 
 covered at a maximum rate is 1,500 divided by 20, or 75 square 
 feet. If, however, this same armature be revolved in such a 
 field and at such a speed as to generate 2 volts, its current 
 capacity will in no wise be affected, and you can use the cur- 
 rent twice over, consuming I volt in its first passage through 
 the solution, and the remaining I volt in its second passage, 
 and so on. If a 1,500-ampere armature be revolved in a field 
 which will produce 10 volts, a corresponding number of tanks 
 can be operated, each depositing for a maximum on 75 square 
 feet of surface. A water-power may, perhaps, give a simple 
 analogy. Suppose 1,000 cubic feet per minute is flowing in a 
 given stream. It is evident that, with 2O-foot fall or head, 
 twice the work can be accomplished that can be with a 10-foot 
 head. From the fact that the E. M. F. of an armature is 
 dependent on three things, namely, turns of armature, strength 
 of field, and velocity, it follows that an armature built for 
 1,500 amperes and I volt can not be used for 1,500 amperes 
 and 5 volts, without making an enormously large field and 
 running it at a prohibitory speed. Therefore, a change in E. 
 M. F. above 25 per cent, on small, slow-speed machines, 
 demands a rearrangement of parts and different windings. 
 There is no object in taking a dynamo of 3 volts or less and 
 putting it on two tanks either in series or in parallel, for, if 
 the solution be agitated, the entire 3 volts may be used in 
 one tank. 
 
 SILVER ELECTROTYPING. Silver is occasionally 
 used in special cases for copying works of art or even valuable 
 engraved steel plates. Ordinary wax and gutta-percha molds, 
 such as are used for copper electrotyping, are not admissible 
 for silvering, because they are to some extent attacked by the
 
 202 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 cyanic! solutions. The simplest method of obtaining replicas of 
 works of art in silver is to obtain, first, a thin electrotype shell 
 of copper from the intaglio mold, and then to deposit silver 
 upon this in the cyanid bath. The copper protecting film may 
 be of the thinnest, so that it shall not destroy the sharpness 
 of the lines, but it must, of course, be subsequently removed, 
 after the required thickness of silver has been deposited, and 
 the whole electro separated from the mold. This solution of 
 the copper may be effected by treatment with warm hydro- 
 chloric acid, or, better, with a warm solution of iron per- 
 chlorid, either of which will attack the copper but leave the 
 silver untouched. On the removal of the copper, the pure 
 silver surface has the required form in practically undimin- 
 ished sharpness and brilliancy. The silver may be built up 
 to a thickness of one-eighth of an inch or more. It is seldom, 
 however, that this process is required, and practically the sole 
 application of electro-silvering is -to be found in the coating 
 of other metals to endow them with properties which they do 
 not themselves possess. 
 
 SILVERING SOLUTION FOR GLASS. (i) Nitrate of 
 silver, i ounce ; water, 10 ounces ; add liquid ammonia until 
 the brown precipitate is redissolved ; then add 90 ounces 
 water. (2) A i per cent solution of formaldehyde. Mix two 
 parts of i with one part of 2. Flood the surface to be silvered. 
 In fifteen to twenty minutes wash in running water. 
 
 SOLUTION, CONDUCTIVITY OF. It should be 
 remembered that the solution is a conductor of the current in 
 the same sense that the rods are, and should be considered in 
 that capacity as well as a dissolving medium. Pure sulphate 
 of copper solution is an extremely poor conductor. The addi- 
 tion of sulphuric acid improves its conductivity, but under the 
 most favorable conditions its resistance is several milh'ons of 
 times greater than copper. To reduce this resistance to a point 
 where the liquid will not become appreciably heated by the 
 passage of a strong current, it is necessary to provide an 
 exceedingly large area of conducting fluid and to suspend the 
 anodes and cathodes as near together as possible, say two or
 
 ELECTROTYPIXG 203 
 
 three inches apart. According to Joule's law, the develop- 
 ment of heat will be greater the smaller the cross section of 
 the conductor and conducting capacity are, and the larger the 
 quantity of current which passes through it. If, therefore, 
 it is desired to employ a very strong current, the vat must be 
 larger in proportion to the size of the anodes than would be 
 necessary with a moderate current. 
 
 SOLUTION, COPPER, HOW TO ASSAY. There are 
 two ways of measuring the content of copper in a solution, 
 both of which require accurate instruments and the facilities 
 of a laboratory. The simplest and best method is that of 
 electrolysis. A very delicate and accurate scale is required, 
 capable of measuring i-ioo of a grain. The process is 
 described by McMillan as follows : " A platinum dish about 
 three-quarters of an inch to an inch in height, and about three 
 inches in diameter, forms a convenient cathode, at once hold- 
 ing the solution and receiving the deposited metal. The anode 
 consists of a circular plate of stout platinum foil about 2^/2 
 inches in diameter, with several perforations to allow gas to 
 escape from beneath it. The platinum sheet is fastened hori- 
 zontally, without solder, to the end of a vertical platinum wire, 
 attached to the positive pole of the battery, the platinum dish 
 making contact externally with a copper wire attached to the 
 negative pole. Instead of this, a cylinder of platinum foil 
 may be used as a cathode, being suspended with its main axis 
 vertical within a small beaker, the anode consisting of a coil 
 of platinum wire placed within the cathode. The object of 
 the electrolysis method is to continue the action of the current 
 until every trace of copper is precipitated on the platinum 
 cathode, and, as the latter should have been weighed pre- 
 viously, the increase of weight shown after deposition gives 
 the number of grains of metal in the quantity of solution taken. 
 It is possible to separate every trace of copper from the solu- 
 tion, so this method may be made to give absolutely accurate 
 results. Half an ounce of the liquid may be employed, and 
 electrolysis is continued until the liquid is decolorized and a
 
 204 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 drop removed from it strikes no blue color with an excess of 
 ammonia." 
 
 SOLUTION, HOT, REMEDY FOR. Heating of the 
 solution is caused by resistance. This is always the cause of 
 heat, and the way to minimize resistance is to increase the 
 capacity of the conductors. The solution is a conductor of 
 the current from the anode to the cathode. It is a very poor 
 conductor, however, as all solutions are, and must, therefore, 
 have a large area to compensate for what it lacks in quality. 
 Under ordinary conditions the cross-sectional area of the solu- 
 tion should be at least twice as great as the area of the anode ; 
 with a very strong current, the cross-sectional area of the solu- 
 tion should be at least three times that of the anode. In other 
 words, if the anode is 15 by 20 inches, the vat should be 32 
 inches wide and the solution 28 inches deep. A current of 
 sufficient strength to deposit good shells in one hour requires 
 large conductors, and this applies not only to the copper rods 
 but to the solution, which is also a conductor. Moreover, the 
 solution is a very poor conductor, and what it lacks in respect 
 of quality must be made up so far as possible in quantity. The 
 cross-sectional area of the solution should be from two to 
 three times the area of the case.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 205 
 
 SOLUTIONS, SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF, CORRESPONDING TO 
 THE DEGREES OF THE BAUME HYDROMETER. 
 
 Degree 
 
 Specific 
 
 Degree 
 
 Specific 
 
 Degree 
 
 Specific 
 
 Degree 
 
 Specific 
 
 Baume. 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 Baume. 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 Baume. 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 Baume. 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 o 
 
 .000 
 
 19 
 
 I.I47 
 
 37 
 
 337 
 
 55 
 
 I-596 
 
 I 
 
 .007 
 
 2O 
 
 I-I57 
 
 38 
 
 349 
 
 56 
 
 1.615 
 
 2 
 
 .014 
 
 21 
 
 .166 
 
 39 
 
 .361 
 
 57 
 
 1.634 
 
 3 
 
 .020 
 
 22 
 
 .176 
 
 40 
 
 375 
 
 58 
 
 1.653 
 
 4 
 
 .028 
 
 23 
 
 -I85 
 
 4i 
 
 .388 
 
 59 
 
 1.671 
 
 5 
 
 034 
 
 24 
 
 195 
 
 42 
 
 .401 
 
 60 
 
 1.690 
 
 6 
 
 .041 
 
 25 
 
 .205 
 
 43 
 
 .414 
 
 61 
 
 1.709 
 
 7 
 
 .049 
 
 26 
 
 215 
 
 44 
 
 .428 
 
 62 
 
 1.729 
 
 8 
 
 057 
 
 27 
 
 -225 
 
 45 
 
 .442 
 
 63 
 
 1-750 
 
 9 
 
 .064 
 
 28 
 
 235 
 
 46 
 
 .456 
 
 64 
 
 I.77I 
 
 10 
 
 .072 
 
 2 9 
 
 245 
 
 47 
 
 .470 
 
 65 
 
 1-793 
 
 ii 
 
 .080 
 
 30 
 
 .256 
 
 48 
 
 .485 
 
 66 
 
 1.815 
 
 12 
 
 .088 
 
 31 
 
 .267 
 
 49 
 
 .500 
 
 67 
 
 1-839 
 
 13 
 
 .096 
 
 32 
 
 .278 
 
 50 
 
 -515 
 
 68 
 
 1.864 
 
 14 
 
 .104 
 
 33 
 
 .289 
 
 51 
 
 531 
 
 69 
 
 1-885 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 .300 
 
 52 
 
 -546 
 
 70 
 
 1.909 
 
 16 
 
 .121 
 
 35 
 
 .312 
 
 53 
 
 1.562 
 
 71 
 
 i 935 
 
 I? 
 
 I.I30 
 
 36 
 
 .324 
 
 54 
 
 1.578 
 
 72 
 
 1.960 
 
 18 
 
 I.I38 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 NOTE. The specific gravity of a solution is rapidly ascertained by 
 
 floating a hydrometer in it. This instrument sinks deeper in solutions 
 
 of low density than in those of high gravity, and the actual gravity is 
 
 found by the level at which the liquid stands on the graduated portion 
 
 when the apparatus is floating freely in it. Hydrometers of this kind 
 
 are sometimes graduated so that the specific gravity is read off direct 
 
 from the scale, others are graduated by Baume's method, and the reading 
 
 may then be converted into the number representing the true density, by 
 
 reference to the above table. 
 
 STATISTICS. A London writer states that there are 
 fourteen electrotype foundries in that city, whose total output 
 is 80,000 (approximately $400,000) yearly. In Chicago there 
 are twenty foundries, having an estimated output of over 
 $500,000. Prices in the two cities do not differ materially, 
 while the population of London is probably three times that of 
 Chicago. On the basis of population, as compared with Chi- 
 cago, London should support sixty electrotype foundries and 
 should produce $1,500,000 worth of electrotypes annually. It 
 is evident that English printers do not employ electrotypes 
 as extensively as the Americans, and one reason for this may
 
 206 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 be found in the popularity of stereotyping. Nearly every large 
 printing establishment operates a stereotyping plant, and it is, 
 to a certain extent, independent of the electrotypers. In Chi- 
 cago, very little job-printing is done from stereotypes. Few 
 printers have facilities for doing their own stereotyping, and, 
 when purchasing plates, most of them prefer to pay the extra 
 cost for electrotypes. 
 
 SWEATING. Shave the top of the base and the back of 
 the plate so as to have clean, smooth surfaces. Do not shave 
 the bottom of the base. Brush over the shaved surface of the 
 base with soldering fluid, made by dissolving scraps of zinc 
 in muriatic acid to saturation, and diluting with an equal bulk 
 of water. After covering the surface of the base with a sheet 
 of tinfoil, place it on an iron plate and float it in your metal- 
 pot. When the tin begins to melt, remove the base from the 
 metal-pot, place the electro upon it, and immediately clamp 
 them together. The back of the electro should have been pre- 
 viously brushed over with the soldering fluid. The plate and 
 base may be clamped together with an ordinary hand clamp, or 
 more than one if the plate is large, first protecting the face 
 of the plate by laying upon it a piece of smooth board. In 
 this method of blocking, advantage is taken of the fact that 
 tin fuses at a much lower temperature than stereotype or 
 electrotype metal, and also that clean, bright metal fuses much 
 more readily than old metal, or, strictly speaking, metal which 
 has become oxidized. Because of this latter fact, it is impor- 
 tant that the bottom of the base should not be shaved, as the 
 film of oxid protects it to a considerable extent and insures the 
 fusing of the tin before the base metal is attacked. 
 
 THREE-COLOR BLOCKS, ELECTROTYPES OR 
 Mr. J. S. Sunderland, in " Penrose's Pictorial Annual," advises 
 that in making electrotypes of fine-screen plates no brush 
 should be allowed to come in contact with the molded surface. 
 He produces a conducting surface by polishing the wax sur- 
 face before molding, not merely brushing over the case with 
 molding lead, but giving it a real polish. Dixon's and Mor- 
 gan's polishing lead in equal proportions is recommended.
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 207 
 
 Cover the wax mold with a sheet of paper while trimming, and 
 only blacklead the parts cut with the trimming knife. The 
 result will be electrotypes equal in every respect to the origi- 
 nals. 
 
 VATS, GLASS RAILS FOR. Electrotypers' depositing 
 vats are usually lined with lead, which is turned over the top 
 edges of the tank to guard against any possibility of leakage. 
 To insulate the rods from the metal lining, a wooden rail is 
 fitted over the top edges of the vat on top of the lead. So 
 long as the wood remains dry, the insulation is effectual, but 
 eventually it becomes saturated with the solution and must be 
 removed. With an agitated solution, the life of the wood is 
 shorter than when a quiescent solution is employed, but in 
 either case it is only a question of time when the wooden rail 
 will become saturated and rotten, and in this condition it 
 becomes a conductor of the current and creates a short circuit 
 which absorbs more or less of the energy of the current. The 
 life of the rail may be prolonged by giving it several coats of 
 waterproof paint, but a more cleanly and altogether more 
 satisfactory plan is to substitute for the wooden rails strips of 
 heavy glass about one inch in thickness. Such strips may be 
 procured from glass dealers at small expense, and, with a 
 couple of holes drilled and countersunk in each, to provide a 
 means of securing them to the vat, they furnish a neat and 
 serviceable finish for the vat and provide a reliable insulation 
 for the rods. 
 
 VERDIGRIS, TO REMOVE FROM ELECTROTYPES. 
 Acetic acid and table salt will aid in removing the objection- 
 able spots. First dissolve the salt thoroughly in the acid. It 
 is then ready for use. Use a nail-brush or tooth-brush to apply 
 the wash. Do this carefully to avoid scratching the face of the 
 plates. This wash will not remove the enamel from original 
 copper engravings. After cleaning the plates, rub a little 
 kerosene over them before and after use. Creosote will also 
 be found a good remover of verdigris from copper surfaces. 
 
 WASHING ELECTRO SHELLS. Backing up electro 
 shells without washing is a very objectionable practice. Even
 
 208 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 when washed with hot lye there is likely to be some wax 
 remaining, which will be burned to the backing pan, rendering 
 it uneven and making lots of trouble in finishing plates. 
 
 WRINKLES IN SHELLS. Wrinkles in shells are 
 caused by wrinkles in the molds. Unless the molds are care- 
 fully examined, they would not be noticed, but close inspection 
 in a strong light will detect them. 
 
 WATT. A watt is a current of one ampere, at a pressure 
 of one volt ; equal to 1-746 of a horse-power. 
 
 WAX ENGRAVING. The term wax engraving is, in one 
 sense, misleading, for, while wood, zinc, copper and steel 
 engravings and etchings may be printed direct from the origi- 
 nals, the wax engraving, like the chalk-plate engraving, can 
 not be utilized direct. The wax engraving is, in fact, a mold 
 into or upon which copper or other metal must be deposited 
 by the electrotyping process in order to obtain a printing sur- 
 face. To make a wax engraving, a plate of copper or other 
 metal is thinly coated with wax. The design which is to be 
 reproduced as a printing-plate is then drawn through the wax 
 upon the plate beneath. In the reproduction of wood engra- 
 vings, zinc etchings, etc., by the electrotype process, a mold of 
 the object is made by impressing it in a bed of wax. The wax 
 mold is then suspended in the depositing bath, and the deposit 
 formed upon it will obviously be an exact duplicate of the 
 original. But we do not want a duplicate of the wax engra- 
 ving. What we do want is a reverse. So, instead of making 
 a mold, we hang the engraving in the solution, and deposit 
 directly upon it. The process of making an electrotype of wax 
 engraving from this point on is just the same as making an 
 electrotype of any other printing surface. Previous to immer- 
 sion in the bath, the spaces between the engraved lines are 
 built up with wax. The engraving is then blackleaded, a film 
 of copper is precipitated upon it by the iron-filings process, to 
 increase the conductivity of the mold, and the connections 
 adjusted. When a shell of sufficient thickness has been 
 deposited, it is removed in the usual manner, backed up with
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 209 
 
 metal, straightened, mounted on a wood or metal base, and is 
 then ready for the press. 
 
 WAX-KETTLES. For melting beeswax or ozokerite, 
 a steam- jacketed kettle should always be employed. Never 
 heat by gas or fire, as there would be great danger of over- 
 heating and spoiling the composition. 
 
 WAX MOLDS, METALIZING. The following methods 
 of making the surface of wax molds conductive are recom- 
 mended by Langbein, Urquhart and Watt. Take equal parts of 
 albumen (white of egg) and a saturated solution of common 
 salt, and apply the mixture to the mold by means of a soft 
 brush. Then dry the surface thoroughly. Now make a strong 
 solution of nitrate of silver and dip the mold into it for a few 
 minutes, and dry again. Expose the mold to a strong light 
 until it becomes quite black. The mold is then to be dipped 
 into a saturated solution of sulphate of iron, when a layer of 
 metallic silver will be formed, upon which a deposit of copper 
 may be readily obtained. The mold should be rinsed when 
 taken from the sulphate of iron solution, and connecting wire 
 attached to it, when it may at once be placed in the depositing 
 bath. Another method is as follows : Dissolve a piece of 
 phosphorus in a small quantity of bisulphid of carbon. Stir 
 in two drams of benzin and a drop or two of sulphuric ether ; 
 pour the whole into half a pint of alcohol and wash the sur- 
 face of the mold with this mixture twice, allowing it to dry 
 after each application. The silver solution is made by dissolv- 
 ing one dram twenty grains of nitrate of silver in a mixture of 
 half a pint of alcohol and one dram of acetic acid. The mold 
 is floated once with this solution and allowed to dry spon- 
 taneously. Another and simpler method of rendering the 
 mold conductive is described as follows : Dissolve phosphorus 
 in pure alcohol until a strong solution is obtained, and wash 
 the mold with this mixture. The silver solution is prepared 
 by dissolving nitrate of silver in ammonia to saturation. It 
 is to be poured evenly over the mold and allowed to float over 
 it for a few minutes. The solution is then poured off and 
 the mold allowed to become partly dry, when the operation is
 
 210 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 repeated. Spots which do not appear to take the solution 
 readily should be wetted with it by means of a soft brush. 
 
 WAX SHAVERS, VALUE OR Most large electrotype 
 foundries are equipped with wax-shaving machines. They are 
 chiefly valuable when used in connection with power molding 
 presses which are provided with indicators to register the 
 depth of impression. The shaved case being of uniform thick- 
 ness, and the proper depth of impression having been estab- 
 lished and noted on the indicator, the operator may thereafter 
 be guided entirely by the indicator, for, if the press is stopped 
 each time at the same reading, the impressions will obviously 
 be all of the same depth. A shaved case is also preferable, 
 because the " skin " is thereby removed from the case, and, 
 with it, all dust or dirt which may have collected thereon, or 
 which, being in the wax, may have risen to the surface when 
 poured in the case. 
 
 WOODCUTS, TO PRESERVE. If wood is wet, oil can 
 not enter it ; if wood is oiled, water can not get in. As it is 
 alternate cold or dampness and heat or dryness that swell and 
 warp cuts and blocks, let every cut you care anything about 
 be soaked in oil at the bottom the place most affected and 
 the trouble will be overcome. You can then lay the cuts on 
 cold stones or presses, or in moderately warm places, with 
 little or no risk of injury. 
 
 WOOD ENGRAVINGS, CLOSING CHECKS IN. 
 Wood engravings, when subject to changes of temperature or 
 atmospheric conditions, sometimes check or crack. When it is 
 desired to make an electrotype of such an engraving, the 
 checks, if not too large, may be closed by covering them with 
 strips of damp blotting paper and then applying a hot building 
 iron to the paper until it is wholly or partially dry. When the 
 check has been closed, the mold should be made at once, before 
 it has time to open again.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Acid, to ascertain percentage in solu- 
 tion, 161; effect of, on nickel bath, 
 161; effect of acid in solution, 161; 
 hydrochloric, 161; muriatic, 161; 
 sulphuric, 161; soldering, 162; acid 
 gauge, 58 
 
 Adams, J. A., 8, 16 
 
 Agitation of bath advisable, 51 ; bene- 
 fits of, 162; methods of, 164 
 
 Alkalinity and acidity, 165 
 
 Alloy, fusible, 165 
 
 Amalgamation of zinc, 165 
 
 Ammeter, 60, 165 
 
 Ammonia, 166 
 
 Ampere, 166 
 
 Air blast for blackleading, 86 
 
 Albert, Doctor, 69 
 
 Anchoring plates, 146, 166 
 
 Anode, 166; connections, 167; hooks, 
 167; plates, 167 
 
 Antimony, 167 
 
 Backer-up, the, 167; backing up 
 press, 168 
 
 Backing metal, 107 
 
 Backing pan, 107 
 
 Baths, constituents of, 35; size of 
 depositing vat, 
 solution, 40; 
 
 baths, 41, 44; brassing solution, 
 43; management of bath, 46; holes 
 in shells, 48; temperature of bath, 
 48; cyanide, 49; agitation of bath, 
 51; Englehard process, 52; Dun- 
 ton method, 54; Leetham appa- 
 ratus, 55 
 
 Battery, Smee, 15, 20; strength of, 
 1 8; scientific knowledge not essen- 
 tial, 19; positive and negative 
 plates, 20; positive and negative 
 poles, 20; electrode, anode, cath- 
 ode, volt, ampere, watt, 20; platin- 
 izing, 22; care of battery, 24 
 
 ,t, 39; testing the 
 steel, brass and nickel 
 
 Beginning a job, 63 
 
 Beveling machine, 134 
 
 Black electrotypes, 174 
 
 Blackleading, 16, 84, 168, 169 
 
 Blister on shells, 169 
 
 Blistered molds, 191 
 
 Blocking, sectional and wood blocks, 
 143; rotary planer, 145; anchor- 
 ing and nailing, 146, 166; warp- 
 ing, 147; dovetailing, 147 
 
 Blowpipe, 138 
 
 Blue vitriol, 35 
 
 Body mold, 113 
 
 Book plates, 135, 136; device for 
 holding, 170 
 
 Brass bath, 41, 44 
 
 Brassplating, 170 
 
 Brittle deposit, 171 
 
 Bronzing solution, 171 
 
 Brushes, cleaning, 173 
 
 Building, wax knife and how to use 
 it, 79; how to use building iron, 
 80; making electrical connection 
 with mold, 81 
 
 Burning, 172 
 
 Cases, warming of, 172; handling the 
 case, 81; thickness of, 72. 
 
 Casting, the furnace, 105; leveling 
 stand, 1 06; backing pan, 107; com- 
 position of backing metal, 107; 
 preparing the shell for backing, 
 1 08; flattening plates, no; electro- 
 typer's press, no; casting hard 
 shells, 172; mounting, 112; metal 
 bases, 11.2; body mold, 113; cool- 
 ing the cast, 114; saw table, 116 
 
 Cathode, 172 
 
 Circuit, 172 
 
 Cleaning, brushes, 173; cuts, 173; 
 electrotype casts, 173; plate ma- 
 chine, 173 
 
 211
 
 212 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Coating molds, 191; coating of cop- 
 per, preliminary, 90 
 
 Coloring electrotype medallions, 174 
 
 Color plates, registering, 174 
 
 Combination blackleading machine, 87 
 
 Composition, molding, 67 
 
 Concave, 174 
 
 Conductors, quantity of current, 93; 
 size of rods, 96; importance of 
 good connections, 97 
 
 Conductivity, 175; of mold, 90, 91, 
 92 ; of solution, 202 
 
 Connections, 175; importance of good 
 connections, 97 
 
 Copper, dissolved by solution, 176; 
 scraps utilized, 176; to separate 
 copper from water, 176; weight of 
 copper, 177; how to assay copper 
 solution, 203; copper sulphate, 35; 
 copper vat, 38 
 
 Coppering foliage and plants, 92 
 
 Corrections, see Revising 
 
 Corrosion of copper-faced type, 177; 
 to prevent corrosion, 177 
 
 Coulomb, 178 
 
 Cost of shells, 177 
 
 Crocus, 178 
 
 Current, high tension, 178; strength, 
 178; measuring, 178; restricting 
 action of, 89 
 
 Curved electrotypes, casting, 179; ex- 
 pansion of curved plates, 179 
 
 Cutters, 130 
 
 Cyanide of potassium, 49 
 
 Davis, Daniel, 10, 13 
 
 Davis' Manual of Magnetism, 13 
 
 Deposition, rate of, 28, 180; econom- 
 ical deposition, 180 
 
 Deposit, cost per foot, 25 
 
 Depositing, vat, 38, 39; striking the 
 mold, 99; holes in shell, 48, 100; 
 causes of imperfections, 101; time 
 required to deposit, 102 
 
 Discovery of electrotyping, 7, 8 
 
 Doctor Albert process, 69 
 
 Dovetailing, 147 
 
 Dunton's hot box, 186 
 
 Dunton method, 54 
 
 Durability of electrotype plates, 180 
 
 Dynamo, choosing a, 30, 180; superior 
 to battery, 25 ; capacity of, '27; con- 
 nections, 28; rate of deposition, 28, 
 29; care of, 33; current for nickel- 
 facing, 34 
 
 Electrical connections with molds, 82 
 Electrical terms, meaning of, 20 
 Electromotive force, 181 
 Electrotyping in America, 181 
 Elkington & Company, 8 
 Englehard process, 52 
 
 Fjlmer, William, 8, :6 
 
 Finishing, tools required, 119; rough 
 finishing, 119; low spots in plate, 
 122; straightening, 123; finishing 
 half-tones, 181, 182; standard thick- 
 ness of plate, 123; shaving machine, 
 123 
 
 Forms, preparation of, 64 
 
 Furnace, 105 
 
 Glass rails for vats, 207; Silvering 
 
 solution for glass, 202 
 Goose-bill, see Cutters 
 Graphite in metallizing, 83 
 Gutta-percha molds, 182 
 
 Hard shells, casting, 172 
 
 Half-tones, and electrotypes, 184; in- 
 serted in electrotype plates, 184; 
 molding of, 185 
 
 Holes in shells, 48, 100, 185 
 
 Horse-power, 186 
 
 Hot box, Dunton's, 186 
 
 Hot solution, remedy for, 204 
 
 Hydrometer, 58 
 
 Impression, depth of, 71, 72; taking 
 the impression, 74 
 
 Instruments, measuring, 58, 188; acid 
 gauge, 58; voltmeter and amme- 
 ter, 60; switchboard, 61 
 
 Inventions in electrotyping, 187 
 
 Iron, deposition of, 187 
 
 Irregular shaped objects, electrotyp- 
 ing of, 90 
 
 Jacobi, Professor, 7 
 Jordan, C. J., 7 
 
 Knight, Silas P., 16, 86 
 
 Leetham apparatus, 55 
 
 Leveling stand, 106; leveling, 187 
 
 Line gauge, 137 
 
 Lineholder, 129 
 
 Litmus paper, 188 
 
 Low spots in plate, how to detect, 122 
 
 Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic 
 Association, 1 1 
 
 Measuring instruments, see Instru- 
 ments 
 
 Medallions, coloring, 174 
 
 Melting point of metals, 188 
 
 Metal bases, 112; metal molds, Dr. 
 Albert's, 150; electrotype metal, 
 1 88; capacity of metal pots, 189; 
 specific gravity of metals, 189 
 
 Metallizing, use of graphite, 83 ; black- 
 leading, 84; wet process, 86; air 
 blast, 86; restricting action of cur- 
 rent, 89; preliminary coating of
 
 INDEX. 
 
 213 
 
 copper, 90; irregular shaped ob- 
 jects, 91; conductivity of mold, 
 90, 91, 92; coppering flowers and 
 leaves, 92 
 
 Molding, press, 71, 75, 76, 190; im- 
 provements in, 16; composition, 67, 
 189, 190; blistered molds, 191; 
 metallizing molds, 209; striking the 
 mold, 99; gutta-percha molds, 182; 
 Dr. Albert process, 69; preparation 
 of mold, 69, 70; cooling cases, 70; 
 depth of impression, 72; even 
 thickness of cases. 72; warming 
 cases, 73 ; wax kettle and table, 73 ; 
 taking the impression, 74 
 
 Molding wax, to soften, 191 
 
 Mounting, 112, 146 
 
 Mounting, 112, i 
 Murray, Joseph, 
 
 New method of making electrotypes, 
 
 181 
 
 Nickel-facing, 34, 192 
 Nickel electrotypes, 191 
 Nickel solution, 193 
 Nickeltypes, 194 
 Nickel bath, 41 
 
 Ozo compound, 196 
 
 Ozokerite, 67; to soften or harden, 196 
 
 Patina, imitation of, 196 
 
 Peeling, to prevent, 197 
 
 Pinholes, 197 
 
 Planer, rotary, for blocks, 145 
 
 Plants and flowers, coppering, 92 
 
 Plates, apparatus for flattening, i to 
 
 Plating without a battery, 197 
 
 Platinizing, 21 
 
 Postage stamp plates, 198 
 
 Preparation of work, 63; shaving and 
 underlaying cuts, 64; wood cuts, 
 64; forms to have bearers, 65 
 
 Press, electrotyper's, no 
 
 Punches, revising, 138 
 
 Rapid electrotyping, 198 
 
 Reference list of terms, etc., 161 
 
 Resistance, 198; resistance board, 61, 
 199 
 
 Reverse electrotyping, 199 
 
 Revising, tools, 136; revising stick, 
 137; punch, 138; line gauge, 137; 
 blowpipe, 138; method of inserting 
 corrections, 138, 139, 140; brass 
 standards, 140; type high stand- 
 ards, 142 
 
 Rough finishing, 119 
 
 Router, 131 
 
 Routing, see Trimming and Routing 
 
 Salary, foreman's, 182 
 
 Sawing, etc., 115, 118 
 
 Saws, care of, 199 
 
 Sectional blocks, 143 
 
 Series, electrotyping in, 200 
 
 Shaving machines, 123 
 
 Shavers, wax, 210 
 
 Shell, preparing for backing, 108; 
 holes in, 48, 100, 185; time re- 
 quired to deposit, 102; washing 
 shells, 207; wrinkles in, 208; cost 
 of shells, 177 
 
 Shootboard, 127 
 
 Silver electrotyping, 201 
 
 Silvering solution for glass, 202 
 
 Sink, 104 
 
 Smee battery, 15, 21 
 
 Solution, hot, remedy for, 204; sil- 
 vering, for glass, 202; specific 
 gravity of, 205 ; how to assay cop- 
 per solution, 203; conductivity of 
 solution, 202; testing the solution, 
 40 
 
 Specific gravity, of solutions, 205; 
 how to find, 59 
 
 Spencer, Thomas, 7 
 
 Standards, brass, 140 
 
 Statistics, 205 
 
 Steel bath, 41 
 
 Stick, revising, 137 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 35, 161 
 
 Sweating, 206 
 
 Switchboard, 61 
 
 Temperature of bath, 48 
 
 Thickness of plate, 123 
 
 Three-color blocks, electrotypes of, 
 206 
 
 Tools for finishing, 119; revising, 136 
 
 Trimming and routing, 127; shoot- 
 board, 127; the lineholder, 129; 
 cutters, 130; the router, 131; book 
 plates, 134; beveling machine, 134 
 
 Type high standards, 142 
 
 Vats, glass rails for, 207 
 Verdigris, to remove, 207 
 Voltmeter and ammeter, 60, 165 
 
 Warping blocks, 147 
 
 Washing shells, 207 
 
 Watt, 208 
 
 Wax shavers, 210; wax kettles, 73, 
 
 209; wax molds, metallizing, 200; 
 
 wax engraving, 208; wax knife, its 
 
 use, 79; wax table, 73 
 Wet process of blackleading, 86 
 Wilcox, J. W., 10 
 Woodcuts, 64; to preserve, 210 
 Wrinkles in shells, 208
 
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