MEIDICAL »S€InI®©L LUISMAl^lf Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/diseasegermstheiOObealrich DISEASE GERMS. DISEASE GERMS; NATURE AND ORIGIN. :^** ^ ^ V Germs of bacteria, growing and multiplying rapidly X 1600. 1866. pp. 21,34. ^155 of an inch c 215 linear. 180G. [To face page 20. GERMS nV THE AIR. 2 1 and bear upon their summits heads in which spores are formed, these last being so well protected from the influence of destructive agents, that the germinal matter within can retain its vitality for a great length of time. Fig. 10, plate II. GERMS IN THE AIR. The spores just referred to are so light as to be easily supported in the atmosphere, and they may be carried a long distance by currents of air. The in- finitesimal germs before adverted to are of course transported still more readily. Some of these are represented in Fig. i, plate L, and some of the most minute that can be discovered with the highest powers of the microscope, in Figs, i to 5, and in Figs. 13 and 14, plate II. Bodies weighing 100 times as much as these can be supported in air. There is, therefore, no wonder that germs so very small and light are almost constantly present in our atmosphere. Myriads no doubt perish for one that falls in a spot where it meets with suitable food and other advantageous con- ditions. It is not to, be wondered at that such minute germs as these should exist almost everywhere, float- ing in the atmosphere, deposited upon everything, and ready to undergo development wherever the conditions may be favourable. And the vitality of the bioplasm of lowly organisms of the kind under consideration is so great, that protected as it is by its external en- OF DETECTING GERMS velope of formed material, it is able to resist effectually and for a long time the disturbing influence of adverse external conditions. Should these lead to the death of a great part of the living matter or bioplasm, it must be remembered that by this very change, the thickness of the external envelope is increased, and thus the speck of living matter which remains, be- comes still more effectually protected than it was at first (see Figs. 9 and 10, plate II.). Protected in this way, multitudes of such germs escape destruction. Provided only a speck of living matter remains, and resists the influence of adverse con- ditions, it will increase undei favourable circumstances. Particles will make their way through pores in the envelope, and coming into contact with the pabulum outside will soon increase and develope minute germs or branching stems as represented in Figs, 11 and 12. Of the Detection of Vegetable Germs in the Air. — Vegetable germs were detected in the air more then twenty years ago by a number of observers, and by many different plans of procedure. One method was to cause air to be drawn through a glass vessel, the outside of which was cooled by ice. Upon collect- ing the water which condensed upon the interior in a vessel placed beneath for its reception, and examining under the microscope the slight sediment which sub- sided, the germs were discovered. Another plan was to cause air to be projected against glass plates, the surface of which had been wetted with weak glycerine, IN THE AIR. 23 water, or some other substance, to which the particles would adhere ; or merely to hang up such plates in the air for a time. Some observers employed paper moistened with the same fluids. Pasteur investigated the matter very carefully, and showed that the number of germs existing in the air varied much in different places and at different heights. He also found that the air which had been undisturbed for some time in cellars was almost destitute of germs. Mr. Crookes followed a plan which had been previously adopted by Schroeder, and separated germs from the air by filter- ing it through pure cotton wool. He also collected the germs in tubes, and upon glass slides moistened with glycerine (Cattle Plague Report, 1866). It would be generally concluded that many of the germs suspended in air and capable of being wafted long distances by currents, would subside if the air became perfectly still, just as the dust in our rooms falls upon the floor or is deposited upon shelves and other projections. Dr. Tyndall has, however, considered it necessary to demonstrate the fact that tiny particles of dust really do fall down to the ground if the air in which they are suspended be quiescent. By throwing a ray of very bright light upon air contained in a closed chamber of glass 3 ft. by 2 ft. 6 inches, and 5 ft. 10 inches high, tapering to a truncated cone at the top, he was able to prove not only that particles of dust which float in the air for a time after it has been disturbed gradually subside, but that these were 24 IMPOTENCE OF AIR. deposited upon the sides of the chamber as well as upon the floor. " The chamber was examined almost daily ; a perceptible diminution of the floating matter being noticed on each occasion. At the end of a week the chamber was optically empty, exhibiting no trace of matter competent to scatter the light." This ex- periment is calculated to convince any one who doubts the fact that particles of lifeless matter, even when very minute, really do tend to fall through air, until they reach some resting place which prevents them from falling still lower, and the great discovery is announced that ponderable bodies are ponderable. But the demonstration determines nothing whatever with regard to living particles, not even their pre- sence. Dr. Tyndall also makes a prediction concerning the discovery of the cause of the impotence of certain air as a " generator of life," as if air, which is lifeless, could under any circumstances generate that matter which lives. Has any one been educated into a belief in the life-generating properties of the air } The nature of the materials which make up the dust of our air is a subject which has often engaged the attention of microscopists, who have long been familiar with the fact that multitudes of organic par- ticles derived from various sources are floating in the more or less disturbed air of our rooms. Many of these fall into our microscopic specimens while they are being mounted^ and in spite of all our care, and EXTRANEOUS MATTERS. 25 the use of glass shades and other means, we often preserve portions of hair, feathers, scales of the wings of insects, and a number of other foreign bodies which we would gladly exclude from our prepara- tions. The characters of these organic particles are but too well known to us, and probably hun- dreds of microscopists have many times examined the dust which commonly collects upon shelves and little projections from the walls of our rooms, for the very purpose of demonstrating the many different kinds of organic fragments of which it is in great part composed. Memoirs have been written upon the extraneous matters which fall into urine, sputum, and other secretions which it is the business of the physi- cian to examine. These extraneous particles which have been deposited from the dust suspended in the air of the rooms have given rise to great confusion, and some of them have been mistaken for bodies derived from the organism of man. No wonder, there- fore, that much attention should have been given to the examination of dust, and in order to prevent mistakes figures of some of the most important constituents of dust have been given.* Particles of hair and wool of various kinds, filaments of cotton and silk, portions of insects, especially the scales of the common clothes- moth, starch granules, pollen grains, fragments of wood, and animal and vegetable germs, are among * See for example " How to Work with the Microscope," 4th edition, p. 195, Plate XLIV. ?6 DUST AND HAZE. the many organic constituents of dust which are familiar to microscopical observers. Pouchet found in the dust of the air [Comptes Rendiis, March 2ist, 1859), " the detritus of the mineral crust of the earth, uniinal and vegetable particles^ and the minutely divided debris of the various articles employed in our wants." Mr. Samuelson, many years before 1863, obtained living germs from dust taken from the window panes, and from other common-place localities, and gave numerous figures of the different forms he discovered ("On the Source of Living Organisms," Quarterly Journal of Science, Vol. I., p. 598). Many other observers have also examined dust of various kinds with great care, and have described the organic particles existing in it in great numbers. Yet in spite of the numerous observations which have been made and published upon this subject, we find Dr. Tyndall teaching the public in a lecture on " Dust ajid Haze,'' given at the Royal Institution on Feb. 1 8th, 1870, and afterwards published in several newspapers, that he had only just discovered that the dust of our air contained organic particles. His re- marks were afterwards more widely diffused in several journals under the title " Dust and Disease," no con- nection whatever having been shown by the lecturer to obtain between disease and dust or between either and germs. Dust may certainly be perfectly harmless.^ * Witness the cavalcade of picturesque stalwart women crossing Hyde Park every evening on their way from the dust-heaps at Paddington, to DUST AND DISEASE. 27 On the other hand, is it impossible that disease germs may exist free from dust ? Dr. Tyndall had thought " with the rest of the world, that the dust of our air was in great part inor- ganic and non-combustible." But from the " rest of the world" must be excluded the majority of those who have used a microscope or are acquainted with the use of this instrument. Ought a lecturer to excite the astonishment of his audience by trying to convince them that until lately he was quite un- acquainted with some things very generally known, and when his hearers have become sufficiently interested in this want of information on his part, relate as some new discovery what he has happily to introduce to their notice t Dr. Tyndall has discovered that the little particles of cotton and hair and wool and feathers and other organic substances which exist in the air, can be destroyed by a red heat and converted into smoke, which would not be the case had they consisted of inorganic matter as he supposed before he tried the experiment he proceeds to repeat.* their homes at Westminster. Whatever may be said against them, they are evidently persons in rude health and more affected by the passive organic and inorganic constituents of the dust than by its active disease- producing germs. * Dr. Tyndall, after the publication of his lecture, announced in the "Times," that Dr. Percy had discovered that the dust upon the walls of the British Museum contained 50 per cent, of inorganic matter — this, in support of Dr. Tyndall's belief, that the dust of our air was in great part inorganic and non-combustible. But Dr. Tyndall says nothing about the nature of the remaining 50 per cent, of this dust. 28 COTTON WOOL AND ALPINE AIR, But more than this, Dr. Tyndall professes to be able to bring " the air of the highest Alps into the chamber of the invalid." This grand result he pro- poses to achieve by causing the dusty air to traverse cotton wool, by which operation the dust which had been demonstrated together with the germs supposed to be mixed with it are filtered ofif. Even Dr. Tyndall will scarcely be inclined to deny, after a little quiet reflection, that the promise to bring Alpine air into the London sick rooms, may appear to unromantic people who actually attend upon invalids more like the result of emotional excitement than a conclusion deduced from any exact methods of observation or experiment. By the physical method of examination, particles of wool and cotton and hair, scales and other particles from insects, and starch and soot, and all the other con- stituents of dust, alive and dead, organic and inorganic, are illuminated so as to form one confused ray, which can be seen at a great distance ; but, it need scarcely be said, the brightest light the physicist can cause to beat upon them fails to reveal the nature of the several dust particles, or enable anyone to distinguish the living particles from the lifeless debris ; or the virulent disease germs, should there be any, from the harmless dust. Now, instead of burning all the organic matter together, the living and the lifeless with the non-living, including that which exhibits form and structure, and that which is formless and structureless, GERMS AND DUST. 29 and demonstrating the smoke resulting from the destruction of all, any one with the aid of a microscope in less time, with less trouble, without complicated apparatus, might have quickly demonstrated, and with the greatest precision identified the various kinds of organic particles present in that particular specimen of dust, and he could have shown the particles them- selves instead of the smoke which resulted from their combustion and destruction. In short, the method of burning dust proves only what can be proved quite as positively by much simpler means, and proves abso- lutely nothing regarding the existence of disease or other germs in the air — a subject which has been suc- cessfully studied during the last ten years or more by other methods of inquiry. It is difficult to imagine anything further removed from fact than the state- ment that the dust of our air consists of disease germs. No one would dare to make such an assertion in plain words. It would be nonsense. And yet remarks have been made which have undoubtedly led the public to infer that such a conclusion was implied, or that it was desired that such an inference should be drawn. It is, however, still more astonish- ing that writers in some of our leading journals should be so misled as to give, without comment, an inter- pretation of an author's views which amounts to absurdity. Thus the "Academy" (April 9th, 1870, p. 185), in referring to Dr. Tyndall's lecture on Dust and Disease remarks, " The floating dust-like matter 30 DR. T.YNDALVS STATEMENTS revealed in the air by a sunbeam is organic, probably germs of animal and vegetable life!^ In a subsequent letter to the "Times " (April 2ist), Dr. Tyndall says that the organic matter of London air is not all ^^ germinal matter!^' The lecturer has spoken of germs, animalcules and germinal matter, but he does not explain whether these terms are used by him for the same thing or for different things. He speaks of the " morass of wordy discussion and contra- dictory argument," in which he says, without identifying the offender, " the germ theory of disease and the question of spontaneous generation are entangled," and with surpassing simplicity he assures the editor of the " Times " that he is " unpledged to more than a clear statement of the germ theory," and refers to the exactness of physics and chemistry, and to the methods by which he proposes to detach " from the domain of vagueness and uncertainty each successive fragment of demonstrated truth ! " In common fairness. Dr. Tyndall should have studied the matter a little before he gave his first lecture, instead of in his last characteristically excusing him- self on the ground of " tenderness for the public,"* for not alluding to the researches of others, and for with- ♦ The considerate tenderness which, as a rule, is reserved exclusively for the public, is, it must be admitted, on one occasion extended to- wards an individual. Dr. Tyndall did indeed admit that he could not read without "sympathetic emotion" the papers of an observer, whom, however, a stern sense of justice compels him to regard as "ai man of strong imagination" — as one "who may occasionally take a AND CONCLUSIONS. . 31 holding from the, press statements concerning these which he had ''twice or thrice written down." Had he done so, there would be less reason to condemn or to laugh at the following paragraph with which he con- cludes his last letter to the Editor of the " Times," and retires for the present from the consideration of dust, disease, and germs. " For a long time to come I shall be unable to devote any attention to this sub- ject, and this has caused me to write at what I fear you will consider inexcusable length : were the ques- tion of less practical interest to humanity, I should not have troubled you either with this or with any former communication."* It would indeed be difficult to point out a series of conclusions less justified by the experiments. flight beyond his facts!" but he tenderly observed, "as long as the heat (dynamic heat of heart by which alone the solid inertia of the free- born Briton is to be overcome) is employed to warm up the truth with- out singeing it overmuch ; as long as this enthusiasm can overmatch its mistakes by unequivocal examples of success, so long am I disposed to give it a fair field to work in," — "Times," February 19th, 1870. Such comments are very curious, but they are not in good taste, and are altogether uncalled for and out of place. Dr. Tyndall had no right to speak in the way he has spoken of such a man as William Budd, of Bristol. * Dr. Bastian has expressed his opinion of Dr. Tyndall's still more re- cent observations upon the influence of germs and animalcules upon disease as follows : — "The question is, however, one of so complicated a nature, that little save amazement will be excited in the minds of those conver- sant with all the difficulties of the problem, that Professor Tyndall should place so much reliance upon indirect evidence towards its solu- tion, and should step forward on the strength of this, with the view of establishing a doubtful theory of disease, to which he, by his own con- fession, has so recently become a convert. " — "Times," April 13th, 1870^ 32 r>Ii. TYNDALVS METHOD DEFECTIVE. It is difficult to see in what way Dr. Tyndall's experi- ments illustrate or affect any sort of germ theory. They could all have been made without a single reference to germs of any kind or to a germ theory or to disease. On the other hand, these last sub- jects might have been rendered more intelligible to the unlearned if their attention had not been diverted by the brilliant illuminations and combustions. The method is defective. The Professor first points out that he supposed that dust consisted of inorganic particles. He discovers to his surprise that it con- tained organic matters. Next he seems to wish that his audience should regard these organic matters as germs or animalcules, or at any rate look upon some of the particles of dust as composed of " germinal matter." But Dr. Tyndall did not demonstrate what the organic particles in air were, nor did he prove that dust contained anything whatever that would give rise to disease. The particles might have consisted entirely of harmless germs, or of disease germs or of animalcules, or there might have been a few of these bodies present, or there might not have been a vestige of any of them, and Dr. Tyndall would not have dis- covered the difference by the method of investigation he employed, of the advantages of which he speaks so confidently. By his discoveries, surmises, assertions, and predictions published in the '* Times " and other journals, people have been led to suppose that dust consists of germs, and that air teems with animalcules POPULAR TEACHING. 33 and disease-producing particles, which is not really the case. There is now a strong feeling in favour of scientific teaching. And branches of science, particularly those capable of illustration by experiment, are deservedly popular. But if the feeling in favour of scientific educa- tion is to be lasting, and not a mere fashion, and if it is desirable that the public should have any respect for science, her exponents must not put out what they have to teach in a sensational form. Undoubtedly the public may with good reason find fault with many of us for being slow and dreary, dry and uninteresting, and for presenting our lessons in a hard, unpalatable, not easily digestible form. But in endeavouring to escape these faults, it is very undesirable that any tendency towards the gushing and hysterical or rhapsodical, should be permitted. Our object it must be distinctly understood is to teach, and not to excite or surprise or amuse. There are theatres, and in great number, established for the very purpose of affording amuse- ment where we may enjoy excitement and wonder and surprise to our heart's content, but the scientific work- room is built for instruction and for real earnest work. TJie Characters of the most mmute Vegetable Germs. — The very minute vegetable organisms which may be obtained from the air, and which are developed in infusions of animal and vegetable matter, are for the most part of an oblong oval form, frequently exhibit-^ ing a constriction which corresponds to the point of D 34 MOST MINUTE GERMS. division (see Fig. 20, plate III,). Some are, however, much more elongated than others. Compare Figs, 15, 16," 21, plate ,111., with Figs, i, 2, 3, 4, plate I. ; but whether these represent different species, or are" merely variations due to the circumstances under which they have been developed, is not known. Some- times a very elongated form is found amongst nu- merous short ones, Plate II., fig. 13. The general appearance of minute germs of fungi multiplying rapidly in fluid favourable to their de- velopment, is represented in Plate L, fig. i, under a power magnifying only 200 diameters. The most minute germs (bacteria) visible under the higher powers are seen in Figs. 2, 3, and 4, which are magnified respectively 1,800, 3,000, and 5,000 diameters linear. In Fig. 5 the appearance of very minute particles of bioplasm, which have been well stained with carmine and examined under the -Jq, which magnifies 2,800 diameters, is represented. Some notion of the manner in which the most minute germs multiply, may be formed if Figs. 1 3 and 14, plate II., opp. p. 20, be carefully examined. Whether there is any actual firm membrane around the minute particles of bioplasm represented in Fig. 14 is very doubtful. It is more probable that each little particle of bioplasm is embedded in a soft and semi-fluid formed material which has been produced by it. This, under certain circumstances, may be- come condensed, and thus an envelope or protecting KINDS OF GERMS. 3^ covering may be formed. The particles in Fig. 1 3 are only represented in outline. The minute germs developed in infusions in closed vessels are represented in Figs. 17 to 20, plate III. These are referred to in page 49. But the somewhat definite characters manifested by these particles last mentioned, are not exhibited by the most minute germs discovered by the aid of the highest powers. These, like the most minute particles of other kinds of bioplasm, always appear as little specks of a rounded form. There is no possibility of identifying the different kinds of bioplasmic matter under the microscope. The most minute living particles of a vegetable organism exactly resemble those of an animalcule or those which may become developed into beings still higher in the scale ; and in another part of this work it will be shown that these cannot be dis- tinguished from particles of bioplasm derived from the living mucus, ox pus, or white blood-cor^usc\Qs of man himself Every kind of bioplasm at this stage of its being exhibits, as far as has yet been ascertained, pre- cisely the same characters. Of Germs of different kinds of Vegetable Organisms. — Of microscopic fungi and algae there are many dif- ferent kinds, which grow and multiply under very different external conditions, and live upon different kinds of food. Thus there are germs of numerous different species diffused through the air and wafted long distances at different seasons. Some flourish at D 2 36 SPECIES OF GERMS. a temperature which would be fatal to others ; some live upon vegetable, some upon animal, matters. Some require solid substance upon and into which they may grow, while others seem to obtain from the atmosphere alone all the materials required for their growth and development. Some enjoy light, while others vegetate freely in darkness. Many of these vegetable germs are almost constantly diffused every- where in the atmosphere, ready to increase a million- fold in a few hours whenever circumstances should be favourable. But all increase and grow in the same manner ; all consist of the growing, living, active, moving bioplasm, or germinal matter, and a certain proportion of the passive, lifeless formed mateidal around it, which has been already referred to. It is supposed that germs of different species of vegetable organisms give rise to the phenomena in the system invaded, which are characteristic of the several contagious diseases, and by which they are recognized and distinguished from one another. In the germ stage, however, there are no characters which would enable us to determine the source of the germ ; and whatever differences may exist in the fully developed state, at an early period of existence the embryonic living particles are alike. It is not my purpose to direct attention to the various species of microscopic fungi which are known, or to discuss the vexed question concerning species and variety, or to indicate the variety of appearances ORIGIN OF GERMS. 37 which may be assumed by one species, and which seem to be determined rather by varying external conditions and food than to be due to inherent specific powers. These questions are interesting and important enough, but I must now pass on to consider several points more intimately connected with the question concerning the origin of vegetable germs, and their supposed influence in causing disease. Of the Origin of Vegetable Germs. — Several scientific authorities of high repute have of late summed up very distinctly in favour of the doctrine of the forma- tion of living beings directly out of lifeless matter, without the instrumentality of pre-existing living matter. On the other hand, there are men well qualified to form an opinion who consider that the advanced minds of the present day have been led to strain facts more than was right, in order to make it appear that spontaneous generation, as well as some other doctrines correlated to this, ought to be ac- cepted. The so-called " tendency of thought " has been adduced in favour of these views ; writers of advanced articles in our magazines, distinguished for the brilliancy of their speculations, have written up the doctrine ; and there is reason to think that no inconsiderable number of readers is desirous of being told, and is really anxious to believe, that living things may come direct from lifeless matter, and that force may build up structures and form organs with- out the assistance of intelligence, or the intervention 38 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. of creative power or other mysterious agency ; and that matter requires but to be exposed to the influence of certain conditions in order to assume the Hving state. Nevertheless, every one admits that, in all the instances he knows about, the living being did, with- out doubt, come from a pre-existing living being. But, he proceeds to argue, because a higJily complex creatttre cannot be formed direct from the dust of the ground, does it therefore follow that all the simple living forms modern research has brought under our observation have come from pre-existing simple creatures like themselves } Why, he asks, are we to assume that a simple structureless mass of jelly must come from a pre-existing mass of jelly } There must, he Ui'ges further, have been, at least in the beginning, a beginning of life. The living, at some time or other, did spring direct from the lifeless. If, then, it is ad- mitted that this has happened once, is it unreasonable, he might ask, to conclude that it happened more than once, nay, many times, nay, he might remark, may we not. feel sure that it has happened lately, and is going on daily and hourly } It is very generally admitted that ever since life first appeared on our earth uninterrupted develop- ment has proceeded, and it is maintained by many that the evidence in favour of the view that the higher forms have been derived by descent from lower ones, is almost conclusive ; and, it might be said by those who accept the doctrine, since " spontaneous UNINTERRUPTED DEVELOPMENT 39 generation is still in operation, the lineal descendants of the simple beings which are now being evolved in vast numbers direct from the non-living, will, after the lapse of ages, during which progressive change shall never cease, become the parents of highly de- ^veloped organisms totally distinct from any which have yet existed, and of which we, with our imperfect knowledge of the properties of the particles of non- living matter, cannot form even the faintest concep- tion. But if our knowledge was sufficient, we should be able to determine now the specific characters of the creatures that are to be in the ages yet to come." May we not argue back with equal justice that the ■producer is greater than the thing produced, and that, therefore, we ought to go at once to the fountain head for life, which on this theory would be the simplest non-living matter t Further, it has been argued, " since we can trace a certain gradational re- lationship between the higher and the lower forms of living beings, we may consider it proved that the non- living is related to the lowest, simplest living in the same sort of way." The new philosophy, after affirming that the higher life passes by imperceptible grada- tions into the lower life, enquires, can it be possible that any one with intelligence should doubt for one moment that the lowest life passes gradually into the non-living } And modern philosophy boasts of her exactness, and professes to accept nothing that can- not be proved by observation and experiment. But 40 HETEROGENESIS. her disciples occasionally forget the iron rules they have laid down for others, and here, as in some other instances, after asserting that as the first position is proved, the second must be true, they just suggest that if notproved to be true, it is at any rate capable of proof ^ or if not actually provable just at this present time, i§ sure to be proved to demonstration before very long I Any objection to such remarks as these, which are pronounced to be in harmony with the tendency of modern thought, are accounted frivolous. But, fortu- nately, or unfortunately, according to the stand-point taken, every one does not feel able to accept these ar- guments, and in spite of being considered foolish enough to attempt to oppose the whole tendency of modern thought, which is undoubtedly difficult, and perhaps impossible, I must, nevertheless, venture to remark that the doctrine of heterogenesis has not yet been proved to be true as respects one single living organism, and it is unfortunately the case that some of the " facts " which have been adduced in its favour are not facts at all, while of the " facts " some have been misstated and many misinterpreted. He who does not accept the doctrine of the hour is, in these days, in danger of being denounced as a bigot, and stigmatized as orthodox because his rejection of the physical and sensational is held to prove him to be a bigoted believer in every antiquated doctrine that has ever been demolished by the bright light of research in the time that has passed^ He is CONTINUITY OF LIFE. 4^ also likely to be reproached as a heretic because he re- fuses to bow down to the phantom called the tendency of modern thought. But unreasoning credulity is not peculiar to old beliefs, neither is persecution. If the bigot of former days set physics at defiance, does not many a modern philosopher unquestionably attribute to physics phenomena which are altogether beyond the range of merely physical law .'* It is even doubtful if the unreasoning faith of the skilled scientific does not sometimes exceed the vulgar belief of the poor igno- rant bigot. If' the bigot is to be accused of believing in spite of reason, the sceptic of modern times some- times exposes himself to the charge of justifying his disbelief by argument which has been proved to be false, as well as by advancing as a fact what is really but an assertion in a fact form. If the bigot may be laughed at for his belief in the unseen and unknowable, how is the modern enthusiastic believer in the omni- potence of the material to escape ridicule } However absurd, and against all the accumulated evidence of observation, it may be to believe in the immediate creation of any particular species of com- plex plant or animal, it is at any rate equally absurd, and also quite conti^ary to any evidence yet obtained^ to maintain that living forms result from the direct combination of particles of inanimate matter. And whatever may be said in favour of the uninterrupted continuity of life, and of the gradual alteration of liv- ing forms from age to age — all that has been proved 42 HE TEROGENESIS. in connection with the growth and development of every class of living beings, tells against the doctrine of heterogenesis. And many who have written in its favour have convicted themselves of inconsistency, unless it be consistent to believe at the same time in the law of continuity and succession, and in a law which involves discontinuity and interruption as applied to the production of living forms at this present time. I will, however, admit that upon such a question as heterogenesis, any one acquainted with the facts and arguments on both sides, and well accustomed to the marshalling of evidence in order, would, by a judicious selection of his facts, soon adduce evidence which would convince the unlearned of the truth of that view which he chose to advocate. Just at this time many circum- stances have fostered in the public mind a demand for arguments in favour of the origin of living beings from mere matter independent of a superintending will. People have been so well educated that they do not recognise the oft-repeated assertion, that living beings are being continually made out of inanimate matter without the aid of already existing living beings, as a jnere dogma, in direct support of which well authen- ticated facts and conclusive experiments cannot be adduced. That with some heterogenesis is accepted as an article of belief is not disputed here. There is no harm in this, but it must be distinctly denied that there is reasonable ground for the faith. And it is pro- bable that the doctrine would have attracted very PUBLIC TEACHING. 43 little attention if it had not been forced into undeserved notoriety in consequence of the support it seemed to afford to modern matter-and-force views. There has been far too much tendency of late to decide scientific questions by a show of hands. A very little tact is required to make a number of people who know little about the matter look with favour upon a new theory, for in their enthusiastic haste to upset old creeds of which they are tired, they are sure to neglect to ascertain whether the new one they accept is really as reliable as the old one they discard. But the cry " Hurrah for spontaneous gene- ration," will not advance the cause, for happily, science is not like politics, in which people may take sides and settle things by acclamation, and action has to be determined by expediency and a number of con- siderations quite apart from the mere question of truth or of fact. In science, views are changed in no time, and theories most popular for a while are discarded the instant some new fact is revealed. Nothing can however retard scientific discovery more than the attempt to convert scientific deliberations into mere party questions. Science is open to all the world, and although excuses have been made for spreading inac- curacies on the ground that it was necessary to put the subject in a form to please unlearned persons — such excuses are utterly inadmissible. The unlearned public can understand any scientific question that is put before them clearly if they choose to take the trouble to 44 THE LA W OF CONTINUITY. do SO ; and he who sacrifices accuracy to briUiancy and sensationalism offends in two directions, for he can have no respect for the intelligence of the people whom he really misleads, but is profess- ing to teach, and he brings discredit upon science, gaining only for himself thoughtless applause. People who care very little about scientific investiga- tion are encouraged to express themselves convinced of the truth of this or that scientific doctrine, just as vast numbers have believed in the truth of the table- turning, spirit-rapping, and other fanciful manifesta- tions. They appeal to evidence which they assert to be convincing to their judgment, although the favourite views may be opposed to known laws, and be inconsistent with demonstrated facts. That ninety-nine hundredths of the living beings on this globe should be derived from living beings that existed before them, while one hundredth, or one thousandth, or one ten thousandth should result di- rectly from non-living matter, is very improbable ; but because it is afifirmed that such a view is " advanced," and in harmony with the whole tendency of thought, people do not stop to consider its probability or im- probability. Continuity prevails as a law, but con- tinuity is not to be universally applicable. Experience and observation demonstrate in thousands of cases that living matter is derived from living matter, and yet we are asked to believe that in some instances living matter comes from lifeless matter, because the SCIENTIFIC PROPHECIES. 45 active and energetic minds of the day assert this. We are told authoritatively that we must believe that the non-living passes by gradations into the living, although the bodies supposed to establish the fact of these gradations exist only in the imaginations of those who make the assertion. It is unsatisfactory, if not useless, on the part of any one, however great the authority he wields, to declare that although sub- stances in a state of transition from the non-living to the living cannot yet be produced, they will be dis- covered at some future time. Why are we to believe him } Of all prophecies the prophetic assertions of the scientific are the least worthy of belief, for the scientific spirit is utterly incompatible with the spirit of pro- phesy. No one can have so mistaken his calling in this world as the scientific man who ventures to pro- phesy, and yet the prophetic spirit seems to prevail in scientific quarters where it would be least expected. Even Professor Huxley cannot quite resist the tempta- tion of foretelling what will be possible in a certain time. He says that he believes it possible before half a. century has elapsed, that man may be able to take inorganic substances, such as carbonic acid, ammonia, water, and salines, " and be able to build them up into protein matter," and that that protein matter may " begin to live in an organic form." Of course he does not consider it necessary to give any reasons for such a strange opinion. It is supported by authority, but where are the facts which support it ? 46 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. \\ Not one of the many who have joined the ranks of the heterogenists has succeeded in giving us any con- ception of what, according to the doctrine he accepts, really occurs when the non-living matter becomes alive. No one who affirms spontaneous generation has ventured even to theorize upon this. Is it that the supporters of this view are at a loss to conceive what takes place, or are they afraid to commit them- selves to an opinion concerning the rudimentary facts upon which the faith they profess to believe rests } What can that doctrine be worth the fundamental facts of which are not to be examined } To maintain that lifeless matter spontaneously assumes the living state, and not be able to give the faintest notion of what occurs when the change takes place, is not furthering investigation but sowing dogma. No one has any right to. assert that the non-living can become living without the influence of the living, because at this present time such a change is against experience and is not conceivable. Marvellous, indeed, must be the change which occurs at the moment when the living Imparts to the particles of the non-living its wonderful powers. Anyone who has seen living matter increasing, and moving, and dividing, will feel that it is useless to attempt to divine the nature of the change which takes place. How utterly impossible, therefore, must it be to conceive what may occur upon the hypothesis that the non-living becomes living without the intervention of any living, matter whatever. GERMS.— FUNGI PLATE III. Fig. Id. Fig. 15. Classes of bioplasm and vegetable orgaaisru.s (bact4?ila?) in active movement trom surface of villas in cattle plague. The bacteria are only shown in outline. X '.iSOO. pp 34, 66. From central part of a dark red clot taken from aoita — cattle plafiue— -witbin twenty-iour boura after deatla. a, largest red blood corpus- cles andtbose of average si/e; some were stel- late. 6, vegetable organisms, bacteria only shown in outline, c, white blood corpuscles, exhibiting active movements. X 700. pp. 31,66. Fig. jS. ^l9. Fig. 20. CO ©' .<2> Living orSanisnis found in closed vessels into which fluid and organic matter had been previously introduced, due care having been taken to exclude air. The contents of the flasks had been w^ell boiled . The large oval bodies in Fiis 17, 18, are crystals. Fig. 17 X 1700, Fig. 18 X 1700, Fig. 19 X 1700 Fig. 20 shows one of the smallest objects in Fig. 19 x 2*00. pp. 34, 49. Fig. 23. Fig. 31. Vegetable growths in the mucus of the gall bladder. Cattle plague. These organisms were very numerous. Below a. a myeloid corpuscle, x 1800. The vegetable organisms only shown in outline, p. 66. Fungi in diHei'ent staees of growth in the sputuin of a patient in the last stafie of phthisis. Spores or germs aj^e seen to be very numerous, and the stems have grown from these. X •lib. p. 20 of an inch X 315 linear. L. S. 3., 1=65. 70'J. X 1:;00. [To face i>a=e 46. EXPERIMENTS. 47. The results of many experiments have, however, been brought forward in favour of the doctrine of heterogenesis. Organic matter, air, and water, which have been subjected to various operations supposed to effectually destroy any living particles that may be present, have been introduced into glass vessels which have afterwards been hermetically sealed. In spite of every precaution germs have made their appearance, and it has been inferred therefore that these sprang into existence without being in any way indebted to parental organisms. In 1864-65 I examined with Dr. Child the contents of several hermetically sealed glass flasks, into which various vegetable infusions had been introduced. In order to prevent the entrance of germs from the air, and to destroy any germs which might exist in a living state in the matters introduced into the flasks, the following precautions were adopted by Dr. Child. ("Essays on Physiological Subjects," second edition, page 116.) " In these experiments I have adopted some slight modifications of the apparatus used in the former ones. That now employed consists of a porcelain tube, the central part of which is fitted with roughly pounded porcelain ; one end is connected with a gas-holder, and to the other the bulb is joined, which contains the substance to be experimented upon. The bulb has two narrow necks or tubes, each of which is drawn out before the experiment begins, so as to be easily sealed 48 EXPERIMENTS IN FA VOUR OF by the lamp ; one neck is connected with the porcelain tube, as already stated, by means of an india-rubber cork, and the other is bent down and inserted into a vessel containing sulphuric acid. The central part of the porcelain tube is heated by means of a furnace, and when it has attained a vivid red heat the bulb is joined on the end of the porcelain tube, which projects from the furnace, being made thoroughly hot imme- diately before the cork is inserted, the cork itself being taken out of boiling water, and the neck of the bulb being also heated with a spirit lamp before it is inserted into the cork. A stream of air is now passed through the apparatus by means of the gas holder, and bubbles through the sulphuric acid at the other end. The substance in the bulb is then boiled for ten or fifteen minutes, the lamp withdrawn and the bulb allowed to cool while the stream of air is still passing through the porcelain tube, maintained during the whole time at a vivid red heat. When the bulb is quite cool the necks are sealed by means of a lamp. The advantage gained by means of this apparatus is that there is only one joint the perfec- tion of which in any degree affects the success of the experiment, and of that joint it is easy to make sure. The porcelain tube also, being for a considerable part of its length fitted with small fragments of porcelain, all heated up to redness, easily insures that every particle of air admitted to the bulb shall be thoroughly heated." SPONTA NE US GENERA TION. 49 In many instances undoubted organisms in a living state were identified, but the number present varied greatly in different flasks. The cause of the difference was not in all instances clear. In many cases the germs were so very minute, that I am quite sure they would have completely escaped observation if an object glass magnifying upwards of i,ooo diameters linear had not been employed. These observations necessarily lead us to conclude that the failure of observers who have worked with quarters and object glasses magnifying less than 500 diameters, is easily accounted for. Even Hallier, I believe, carried on his more recent observations with very low powers, and I believe the observations of both Pouchet and Pasteur are open to objections upon the same grounds. Some of the organisms discovered in Dr. Child's infusions are represented in Figs. 17 to 20, plate III, from drawings made by myself. The large dumb- bell shaped bodies represented in Figs. 17, 18, are not organisms, but crystals. They could be readily- distinguished from the living forms by their high refractive power, larger size, and absence of any movement. It was supposed that boiling was fatal to all living things ; then it was proved by experiment that some living things, under certain circumstances, did live in spite of being subjected to a temperature even above that of boiling water. But was it therefore necessary to assert authoritatively that no living E 50 ORIGIN OF GERMS. organisms could live at a temperature a certain number of degrees above that of boiling water, and that in cases in which any living forms are found in fluids in closed vessels that have been exposed to that temperature, they are formed de novo f What is there to prevent us from coming to the conclusion supported by so many positive general facts in nature which are well known, that the living forms discovered did spring from living matter which resisted the high tem- perature to which they had been exposed ? Moreover, in many of the experiments it does not appear that every part of the apparatus had been subjected to the high temperature. If the smallest portion were left above the bath in which the closed vessel was immersed, a few living germs might have escaped the destructive action, and from these might have been developed those which were subsequently detected and supposed 'to have arisen in a new way. ^ Dr. Charlton Bastian exposed fluids to a tempera- ture varying from 148 deg. C. to 152 deg. C. (298-4 to 305 *6 Fahrenheit) for four hours, and yet in the course of a few weeks living organisms were developed (" Times," April 13th, 1870). But even this striking fact proves nothing concerning the actual origin of the living forms, and it is more in accordance with the results of observation and experiment, to conclude that living forms might live though exposed under certain conditions to a temperature even of 350'' Fah- renheit, than it would be to infer that the living INFLUENCE OF HEAT AND COLD. 51 bodies present originated spontaneously in a fluid after it had been exposed to this high temperature. In every instance in which living forms have been attributed to spontaneous generation, the possibility of their origin from germs cannot be denied or dis- proved. We have yet very much to learn concerning the influence both of high and low temperatures upon the minute particles of bioplasm constituting the germs of the lowest forms of life. And there is no doubt that the effect of the same degree of tempera- ture would be different at different phases of the life of each species of fungus or low organism, and at different periods of the year. The effect would also vary according as the organisms were exposed to sudden great alterations of temperature, or submitted to intense cold or heat by slow and gradual changes ; and even in man and the higher animals it is remark- able what great degrees of heat and cold can be borne if only the change be gradual. Some of the lower forms of life are habitually exposed to a temperature of 32, and would probably bear a very much lower temperature without being destroyed. These crea- tures, it must be remembered, are not merely exposed externally to this temperature like many vertebrata which have the power of developing heat within them- selves, and whose temperature does not therefore vary with that of the surrounding medium, but they suffer every change which affects the medium in which they E 2 .52 FREEZING BIOPLASM. are placed, for their means of evolving internal heat are so slight and imperfect, that these may be left out of consideration altogether. Their bioplasm or living matter is adapted to live and grow at very low tem- peratures. Some organisms which do not grow and flourish at a temperature much below 50° are never- theless capable of bearing a low temperature, and may even live for a length of time imprisoned in solid ice. Whether the bioplasm of their organism is actually frozen is very doubtful. It is more likely that the bioplasm resists for a long time the process of congelation, and it seems to me probable that the motion which there is reason to think continues during life, prevents the living matter from freezing. Death most likely occurs before congelation takes place, but when once the living matter has actually become ice, its life is for ever destroyed, and it is inca- pable of being revivified or revitalized. It can never live or move again. With regard to the power possessed by certain living organismsof resisting the destructive influence of a high temperature, it must be remarked that of certain of the forms discovered in the closed vessels (see p. 47), little is yet known. Many have been passed over by highly distinguished observers, and it is even probable that some have altogether escaped notice up to this very time. Of the very minute organisms in question, some may be able to resist the degree of heat to which they are exposed in the course of the experi- IMPORTANCE OF HIGH POWERS. 53 ment without being killed — nay, there 7nay be several forms of organisms extremely minute which are at present undiscovered, but which among other charac- teristics possess the remarkable property of resisting the destructive influence of a temperature of 300° or 350°. From these many might afterwards grow. In many instances in which the absence of living germs would have been inferred, minute organisms, invisible by the aid of the magnifying powers usually employed, have been discovered, and in considerable number. And in some cases in which it has been stated that living organisms were not present, there is reason to think many might have been detected, had greater care in the examination been exercised, and higher magnifying powers employed. But though this be admitted, the fact does not in the slightest degree strengthen the case for the heterogenists. They have to prove that living forms appear under conditions which not only absolutely preclude the possibility of the entrance of living germs from with- out, but which ensure the death of every living form that may have been present in the substances used for experiment. The position is indeed a difficult one, for the more investigation advances, and the more we learn concerning the minute living germs which exist in such wonderful profusion, the more do we hesitate to place perfect confidence in the means employed for the destruction of those that were present before the experiment commenced, and for 54 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION excluding the entrance of living germs into the closed vessels in which the actual new generation of living organisms has been held to occur. Bearing in mind that living particles far more minute than could have been seen by the magnifying powers employed by Pasteur, Pouchet, and others, undoubtedly have been detected in the closed vessels, as in the observations of Dr. Child, for example, in which I had the ad- vantage of assisting, and that germs are not invariably destroyed by boiling, — I would ask, is it not more reasonable to conclude that the living forms discovered were derived from pre-existing germs which obtained access to the fluids in consequence of the arrangements made to exclude them not being quite perfect, than that they had been formed anew from lifeless matter in the image of those very forms which have been unques- tionably developed from predecessors like themselves ? If the view of their formation direct from the non- living be accepted, how are we to account for their exact resemblance in form and actions to beings familiar to us, whose parentage is known ; and for the fact that further growth and multiplication pro- ceed precisely as those operations occur in germs derived from parental organisms .'' But it has been suggested that although perfect living forms may not be developed spontaneously, perhaps a form from which these may soon be evolved, results in this manner. To argue from facts revealed in the course of observations made with magnifying powers FROM NON-LIVING TO LIVING. 55 SO moderate as a quarter or even an eighth (two to four hundred diameters) that eggs are produced spontane- ously is surely, in the present state of knowledge, very hazardous, if not altogether unjustifiable. Of the supposed lifeless particles, by the aggregation of which the eggs are said to be formed, little can be learnt from observations with powers below a twelfth; because higher objectives would have resolved these supposed lifeless atoms into something very different, and perhaps have proved, that so far from being non- living particles, they were really living organisms which had been living for some time, and were at the time of observation at any rate far enough from the inorganic. Moreover, those who have advanced this theory, and those who have given in their adhesion to it, have not intimated how we may ascertain when the aggregation of lifeless particles assumes the living condition ; and they have left us completely in the dark as to what occurs when the marvellous change in question takes place. What a wonderful disturb- ance must occur at the instant of animation ! What a violent dislocation of elements which were combined as compounds, and what re-arrangement must take place when the inanimate collection of molecules starts into vitality ! What sort of force effects the change, and whence arises the destructive force and the con- structive power ? Not a word of explanation on all this, and yet are we expected to accept as a fact proved, the formation of spontaneous eggs ! 56 SPONTANEOUS EGGS. But the lifeless " proliferous disk," from which the living eggs are supposed to emanate so curiously, when carefully examined, is at once resolved into countless millions of separate living particles, every one of which lives and grows, and must be regarded as a distinct germ. Every one of these millions may give origin to successors, each little bioplast being a distinct being with all the attributes of an independent living organism, and containing within itself all the marvellous self-propagating powers of a living germ. I feel sure that anyone who patiently studies the simplest forms of life under the highest powers of the microscope, will utterly reject the so-called observa- tions which are adduced in support of the formation of " spontaneous eggs " by the aggregation and coalescence of lifeless particles. In the ten thousandth part of such a proliferous mass are living germs enough to produce by simple division in the course of a few hours countless multitudes of living forms. Living particles, far more minute than the life- constructing, non-living particles, have been seen and studied, and they have been observed to increase and multiply. But what is the nature of the mysterious operation of vivifaction which takes place at the moment of the conversion of the lifeless into living matter ? Is the passage from the inanimate to the living condition sudden and abrupt, or gradual } Ac- cording to Owen, this process is going on daily and hourly, so that there ought to be abundant opportuni- OWEN'S VJEWS. 57 ties for studying it carefully. This authority does not tell us what he means by the daily and hourly conver- sion of physical and chemical into vital modes of force, but surely such an investigator as Owen will not deem it right to leave this bare assertion without any fur- ther explanation. Every one interested in this won- derful problem naturally desires that he should give us some idea of the view he has formed in his own mind regarding what takes place at the moment when the mode of the force ceases to be physical and becomes vital — when the passive atoms become active organisms — when the inanimate leaves the state of lifeless rest and assumes that of living acti- vity — when the matter acquires converting powers which it never possessed before — when, after having collected together by aggregation, the now living matter begins a new existence, and, instead of aggre- gating, its particles move away from one another — separate, never to join again. Any statements affirm- ing that living particles have been seen to coalesce and join, under a power of less than five hundred diameters, are not to be relied on. A mistake is very easily made, and before an observation advanced in favour of such a statement can be accepted as true, it must receive confirmation ; not only on account of the errors possibly made by the observer himself, but be- cause the conclusion is opposed to many broad facts which have been demonstated and accepted, and par- ticularly the fact of the formation of these same 58 OMNE VIVUM EX OVO. organisms by division and subdivision, which has been observed and confirmed in many cases by hundreds of competent observers. Nothing is gained by the statement being repeated over and over again that Hfeless particles of matter come together and form a Hving thing, save that by mere iteration people who have concerned themselves little with the subject may be persuaded to assent to the view advo- cated. But knowledge cannot be advanced by de- clarations and affirmations, or by the consent of numbers. Very recently this question of spontaneous generation has been re-opened in this country, by Dr. Bastian, whose papers will be found in "Nature," for June 30th, July 7th and 14th, 1870. New experiments have been made, and the author comes forward as a warm advocate of the doctrine of Heterogenesis. He com- mences, however, by adducing arguments in favour of the view which he seeks to establish. These argu- ments are founded upon evidence which we possessed before he commenced his experiments. He endeavours in the first instance to convince the reader that proba- bilities are strongly in favour of heterogenesis, in order to prepare him for the acceptance of the conclusions he has himself deduced from his experiments. But it is obvious that if already existing evidence were really as decisive in favour of the doctrine as the reader is led to suppose it to be, new experiments were unnecessary and superfluous, while if, on the DR. BASTIAJSrS EXPERIMENTS. 59 other hand, these new experiments were as conclusive as Dr. Bastian maintains, a priori arguments could not make them more true, or in any way promote their acceptance. If new experiments were really needed, and no one doubts this, it would have been better to have allowed them to rest upon their own merits, and speak for themselves. Some of the experimental results are at variance with those arrived by previous investigators, and are very remarkable. It would not therefore be right to offer an opinion upon them until the same experi- ments have been carefully repeated. But it is not possible to resist drawing this general inference from the drawings and statements published in the latter part of Dr. Bastian's memoir, viz., that a solution of tartrate of ammonia and phosphate of soda boiled for twenty minutes and kept in vacuo, for from ten to thirty days, is really as potent, or even more potent, as a generator of life than many solutions of vegetable matter which have been exposed for several days to the atmosphere ! Indeed, several of Dr. Bastian's ex- periments appear to me to prove too much, and until they have been repeated and similar results obtained by other observers, he must excuse me for postponing for the present the acceptance of the statement that 5uch organisms as he has figured in Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, and 17, have really been developed as he supposes. Unquestionably, if Dr. Bastian's observations should prove unassailable, the new facts he has discovered will be regarded as of the very highest importance \ 6o OMNE VIVUM EX OVO. indeed they would go far towards modifying the opinions expressed by myself and^ many others upon the subject of heterogenesis. His statements about the genesis of crystals, and other arguments, founded upon old evidence, however ingenious, seem to me worthless, and only weaken the cause the heteroge- nists have at heart, because the analogies supposed to exist are fanciful, and do not really obtain. But while the evidence in favour of the origin of organisms de novo remains inconclusive, uncertain, and open to objection, there is no doubt whatever concerning the origin of living beings from pre-existing living beings. Many microscopists have actually seen the living' particles detach themselves from a pre- existing living mass, and there is abundant evi- dence to prove that this process takes place among creatures occupying various positions in the scale of living beings, as well as in the different forms of bioplasm from the highest organisms. In some of the the lower creatures the process may be watched from hour to hour, as it gradually progresses towards solu- tion of continuity, and the formation of two beings out of one is completed. I have myself frequently witnessed the sub-division of living particles from the organisms of the highest as well as from those of the lower forms of life, so minute and of such tenuity, that they could only be seen with difficulty when mag- nified 5,000 diameters ; and there is much reason to think that even if the magnifying power could be increased to 50,000 diameters, there would still be DIRECT LIFE-FORM A TION. 6 1 seen only more minute living particles growing and dividing and giving rise to particles like themselves. Are we to believe, then, on the mere dictum of authority, that living germs are formed in two ways — upon two distinct principles ? i. By being detached from parent living matter ; and 2. By the direct com- bination of lifeless particles without the intervention of any pre-existing living matter at all ? It must be freely conceded that many facts are sus- ceptible of more than one interpretation, and may be regarded as being of different import by different minds. Nay, in some instances, the very same facts have been appealed to, and not in any way unfairly, in support of opposite and conflicting doctrines. With reference to the question of spontaneous generation, I must, however, venture to remark, that to my mind the case of those who at this time hold to the doc- trine of the direct origin of living beings from non- living matter appears so hopelessly opposed to facts, that I should as soon think of believing in the direct formation from lifeless matter of an oak, a butterfly, a mouse, nay, man himself, as in that of an amoeba or a bacterium. After so many failures to force people to believe that the phenomena peculiar to living beings are to be explained by physics alone, it was natural to expect that the language employed by those who still entertain such doctrines would have become more guarded, if not more exact. But, on the con- 62 ■ PHYSICAL LIFE. trary, the more conclusively it is proved that the physical facts yet discovered are incompetent to ex- plain vital phenomena, the more do we find vague but most positive assertion used, as if this were as convincing as the results of observation and experi- ment. The more desperate the case becomes the more violently do its advocates affirm that their cause is good ; the more strongly do they assert they are in the right. And yet those who are determined to support the physical theory of life need not care if facts and arguments are against them, for, in order to prove their case to the satisfaction of many per- sons they have but to exclaim triumphantly, " In the years yet to come new facts shall be discovered which will demonstrate conclusively the truth of the physical theory of life ! " Since cosmic vapour has produced worlds, shall not air generate life .'* Was not the announcement made at the Royal Institution some years ago that the sun formed the heart and built the brain, and that cattle, and verdure, and lilies, were his workmanship .'* Why, then, shall not the air divide with the sun these mar- vellous powers } May we not be indebted to the sun for the formation of complex organs like the heart and brain, and may not the air generate that much simpler moving jelly-like matter of which the simpler beings are composed t In conclusion, the following suggestions shall be offered as an unworthy contribution towards esta- SPECULATION. 63 blishing an hypothesis which may illumine the path of the physicist until he arrives at the demonstra- tion of the physical origin of life. Since it is well known that the infinitely minute particles of cosmic vapour, of which by mere aggregation worlds are formed, are diffused through space, is it not reason- able to imagine that between these, perhaps sup- porting them as well as separating them, is a subtle animated vapour ? Heat, as is well known, causes a re-arrangement of material particles, which may be scattered or condensed according as the cosmic forces operate upon them. This scattering or condensation would occur at a different temperature in the case of different particles, according of course to the original properties of the molecules. Certain particles of the cosmic vital steam, would, at a given temperature, gyrate upwards and distribute themselves, while others might approach one another and form a vital crystal. This, growing by aggregation, might become a spontaneous ovum, the product of evolution and formifaction, containing potentially not only a fully developed organism, but whole generations of altering forms, every one of whose specific characters might be defined at this very time by a suf^cient intelligence ! The rapid increase of physical energy encourages the physicist in his attempts to forecast the future, while it enables him to secure some frag- ments of the real which, but for his successful efforts, would have been for ever lost in the infinite void of unfathomable nothingness. 64 VEGETABLE GERMS SUPPOSED INFLUENCE OF VEGETABLE GERMS IN CAUSING DISEASE. The manner in which they might enter the Body. — No wonder that many of the diseases of man should be attributed to microscopic fungus germs so very small that they could readily enter his organism by any of the numerous pores all over his body. Particles so minute could easily pass into his blood through the soft mucous covering of his mouth or stomach, enter- ing these recesses with food and water. They would not insinuate themselves into the chinks between the epithelial cells of his cuticle and move towards the blood, as is possible in the case of bodies which possess the power of active movement, like an amoeba, or a white blood corpuscle, or a pus corpuscle, but they would extend inwards, by growth and free multi- plication in the very substance of the protecting epithelium. Each new particle produced would thus get nearer and nearer to the blood, which would at last be reached by the growth of particle after particle in advance. Becoming immersed in a medium adapted for their nutrition, the germs which had gained access to the blood would grow and multiply very rapidly. Countless myriads of such germs might circulate to all parts of the body. Multitudes of these becoming stationary in the capillary vessels of the cutaneous and mucous surfaces would increase THE CAUSE OF DISEASE. 65 there, and might give rise to the morbid phenomena which characterise fever. Since it has been shown that living germs of entozoa a thousand times larger than these vegetable germs may traverse man's textures, and pass long distances through the tissues and organs of his body, until the particular locality suitable for their development into a higher stage of being has been reached, it is im- possible to oppose to this notion of the entrance of vegetable fungus germs any serious objection, at least from this point of view. But at the same time, before anyone who is acquainted with the facts, and reflects carefully, will accept this doctrine, he will desire to be satisfied upon many points which unquestionably require elucidation. It is not sufficient to show that such particles might enter the body in the maimer suggested. But it is necessary to prove not only that they really do enter, but that they give rise to the changes in the way which is suggested by the theory in question. If the vegetable germs which have been referred to are indeed the active agents, we ought to be able to demonstrate them, for there is no difficulty whatever in demonstrating closely allied organisms where they do exist, as for instance in the epithelial cells on the mucous lining of the mouth, in which millions can be seen at any time. Of the Vegetable Germs actually discovered in the fluids and tissues of the higher Animals during Life, — In every part of the body of man and the higher F 66 VEGETABLE GERMS animals, and probably from the earliest age, and in all stages of health, vegetable germs do exist. These germs are in a dormant or quiescent state, but may become active and undergo development during life should the conditions favourable to their increase be manifested. Indeed, if the flow of fluid which persists in the normal state in the ultimate parts of the tissues as long as life lasts be stopped, changes take place exactly resembling those which are occasioned in dead tissues removed from the body, and kept at a temperature of lOO degrees. As has been remarked, " decomposition " takes place, and, if this decomposi- tion is not a consequence of the multiplication of the vegetable organisms, it is at any rate certain that the growth and multiplication of these bodies are constantly associated with the change in question. There cannot be a doubt that vegetable germs exist in the internal parts of the body which would grow under the circumstances supposed. The higher life is, I think, everywhere interpene- trated as it were by the lowest life. Probably there is not a tissue in which these germs do not exist, nor is the blood of man free from them. They are found not only in the interstices of tissues, but they invade the elementary parts themselves. Multitudes infest the old epithelial cells of many of the internal surfaces, and grow and flourish in the very substance of the formed material of the cell itself But the living germinal matter of the tissues and organs is probably IN THE BLOOD AND TISSUES. 67 perfectly free from vegetable germs. Some are, however, not uncommonly met with on the free surface of the germinal matter, where its death and conversion into formed material are taking place. So long as the higher living matter lives and grows, the vegetable germs are passive and dormant, but when changes occur and the normal condition departs, they become active and multiply. Millions are always present on the dorsum of the tongue and in the ali- mentary canal, but they remain in what may be termed a germ or embryonic state. The normal secre- tions poured into the alimentary canal prevent their growth, and the nourishment comes to us instead of being appropriated by them. But what happens if some of these fluids be suppressed or changed in quality } The bacteria grow and multiply, and the nourishment is no longer absorbed into our bodies. In infants a little derangement in digestion will entirely prevent the assimilation of the milk, which remains in the intestines a source of irritation, until it is expelled, serving only for the nutrition of bacteria, which are found in countless multitudes in every particle of it. If more milk be introduced it soon undergoes the same change, and the child might, perhaps, be starved by the persistent introduction of fresh food. If food is withheld for a time, the alimen- tary canal soon becomes emptied of its contents, and regains its natural healthy action, a process which is expedited, as is well known, by the administration of F 2 68 BACTERIA IN THE BLOOD. some simple purgative, which excites the glands to pour out secretion, and so the passage is cleared from the stomach downwards. In many very different forms of disease these germs of bacteria, and probably of many fungi, are to be dis- covered in the fluids of the body, but the evidence yet adduced does not establish any connection be- tween the germs and the morbid process. In Plate IV. these minute organisms are represented in the contents of the alimentary canal, and in the interior of the epithelial cells of the mucous membrane of th6 intestine in cholera. In the contents of the blood- vessels of the same disease, and in the blood taken almost immediately after death from the vessels of animals destroyed by cattle plague and other fevers, similar bodies have been found, Plate III, figs. 15, 16, 21, though probably not of exactly the same kind in every case, Figs. 25, 26, 27. As has been already stated, germs apparently of the same nature as those figured in Figs. 23 and 24 from cholera, are invariably to be found in the old epithelial cells of the mouth of healthy persons, and not rarely in those from many other surfaces. In the intestinal contents in various slight derangements, they are common enough, so that we cannot but con- clude that their presence is due rather to alterations in the fluids consequent npon morbid changes, than that they are themselves the cause of the disease. They follow the morbid change instead of preceding it. GERMS.-BACTERIA IN INTfiRJOR OF THE BODY. Fig. 23. PLATE IV. iJolumnar ecithelium from the je^nmimof a child who died of ciiolera The small bodies in every part of the field and many of those in the epithelial cells themselves are bacteria and bacteiia ^erms. These are not peculiar to cholera. They were alive when the specimen was esaminsd. x 700. p. 68 Fig. 25. Fig. 24. lie] i^ .Summit of one of the epithelial cells represented iu Fig 03. containing gernns in th-i interior, a, thick sum- rait of the ceil b, free bacteria germs. X 1300. p. 63 Fig. 26 Obstructed vessel, with bulgiugs, from the summit of a villus Case 3. Cholera In the interior were bacteria, oil globules, biood corpuscles, and the sporules-of fungi- X 700. p. 63. Fig. 27. O O .-- ^ c ^ I.. Germs lu blood from the hepatic vein of a cow which died of cattle plaiiie. The round bodies 6 are growing red blood corpuscles still containing bioplasm. The large body « is a white blood corpuscle.' The blood was quite warm when examined. X 2800. p 63 ^ very small portion of one of the con- tracted and altei-ed capillanes from the summit of a villus Cholera, x "2600. a is a small particle which somewhat rr- Hera'bled a sporuleof afungus. 66, minute particles of very smooth material (grow- ing bioplasm) Oil globules Eire also serii in considerable numbers, p. c8. i'rTn of an inch X 700. B , isee. 1500. X 2=(j0. [To face p. 63. BACTERIA IN SECRETIONS. 69 And the same observations may be made with re- gard to the presence of bacteria in the blood of man and animals destroyed by various diseases. Sometimes these germs grow and multiply in a secretion not perfectly healthy, before it has left the gland follicles, and they have been detected in the milk as it issued from the breast, in the saliva, in the bile and urine, as well as in other secretions. It will no doubt be said in all these cases, " the germs have been introduced from without — they pass from the air into the orifice of the duct, and thus make their way to the gland. From this point they might readily pass into the blood." But it is more likely they are in the blood and in the tissues at all times. They are met with in the blood especially, in some instances in which there is no reason whatever for concluding they made their way into this fluid shortly before they were found. Nay, little particles may be seen in the circulating fluid which I believe to be these lowly germs, ready to grow and multiply whenever the conditions become favourable. I have seen such particles adhering to the surface of the white blood corpuscles, and also to the red blood corpuscles. In the fibrin of an aneuris- mal clot I have found active bacteria in vast numbers, and have observed the erosion resulting from their long- continued action so very short a time after death, that I feel quite certain they had been living upon the coagulated fibrin, and growing and multiplying during several weeks previously, and yet they had not passed 70 MALIGNANT PUSTULE. into the general mass of the blood. But if this had accidentally happened, they would have been destroyed instead of multiplying, if the blood was in a healthy state. In cases in which these organisms have been discovered actively multiplying in the blood, that fluid must have already undergone serious changes, which had rendered it unfit for the nutrition of the body. I cannot agree with those who consider that we have evidence in favour of the view that the bacteria are really the active agents in cases in which the blood has been shown to exhibit the properties of a specific contagious virus. The disease called malignant pustule has been attributed by Davaine (Comptes Rendus, 1864) to the presence of bacteria in the blood, but this observer does not prove that the bacteria were the poisonous agents, and many cir- cumstances render it probable that other matters suspended in the blood constituted the real virus, while the vegetable organisms were but harmless con- comitants. Polli, Tigri, and many others, have attributed typhoid fever and allied diseases to bac- teria in the blood acting after the manner of ferments, but the objections raised to the fermentation theory have not yet been disposed of by those who advocate this doctrine. Indeed, many authorities who have attributed various phenomena to fermentation, and have spoken of the fermentation theory, have not explained what they mean by the terms they employ, and appear to have very, vague. notions concerning the BACTERIA AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASE. 71 nature of the process called *' fermentation." This word is often employed very carelessly, and like "irrita- tion," "nutritive irritability," "stimulus," and a number of other terms, is supposed to account for many pheno- mena, although its meaning has not been defined, and those who use it do not tell us what they mean by it. It appears then that bacteria germs grow and multiply whenever a change takes place in the solids and fluids of the organism which develops compounds suitable for the pabulum of these living bodies. From the fact that bacteria grow and multiply not only in a few special fevers, but in a great variety of different morbid conditions, it is evident they have nothing to do with any particular form of disease. All attempts to demons- trate various constant species of bacteria, representing different contagious diseases — and many attempts have been made — have completely failed. There is greater dif^culty than would appear at first in testing the matter experimentally, for it is probably impossible to introduce bacteria in quantity into the blood of a healthy animal without introducing at the same time putrescent matters which by themselves would occa- sion the most serious derangement. Active bacteria introduced into a healthy wound or amongst the living matter of healthy tissues, will die, although the most minute germs present, which escape death, may remain embedded in the tissue in a perfectly quiescent state. 72 PROFESSOR LISTER'S VIEWS. Before the bacteria can grow and multiply, the death of the higher germinal matter must occur ; as long as this lives, it, and the adjacent tissues, are freely per- meated by healthy fluids, and will efficiently resist their assaults. Much as I admire the interesting observa- tions of Mr. Lister, and firmly as I believe the facts as stated by him, I venture to doubt if the efficacy of the treatment he so ably advocates is due to the pre- vention of the entrance from without of these germs. There are germs out of number within, which would grow and multiply in the wound, however perfectly those outside were excluded, provided only the wound itself were in a state favourable to the process. Bac- teria germs appear in close cavities in the substance of tissues during life and within the blood-vessels, as has been already stated. The true explanation of the undoubtedly beneficial action of the carbolic acid antiseptic treatment may be very different to the explanation offered by Mr. Lister. To me it appears much more probable that the carbolic acid acts directly upon the growth and multiplication of the bioplasm of the part ; but this question shall be con- sidered in another part of this memoir, after the mode of formation of pus has been referred to. The virulent poison which sometimes produces such terrible results upon the healthy (.?) organism in cases of dissection wounds cannot be attributed to the pre- sence of vegetable germs, for the period of its most virulent activity is very soon after death, but before FUNGI FROM HUMAN BIOPLASM. 73 the occurrence of putrefaction and the development of bacteria. It has been assumed that the poison in question is not developed until after death has occurred. But no one has shown that if inoculation were effected while the patient yet lived, the results would be in any way different. There is, I think, no more doubt that such poison is developed during life than that the poison of small-pox, syphilis, and many other poisons which are allied to these, and probably grow and multiply in the same manner, increase during life. When putrefaction has actually set in, and bacteria germs are being developed in immense numbers, apunc- tured wound is not productive of the dire consequences which too often result if inoculation takes place within a few hours after death. In fact, the real virus loses its power when decomposition commences. Before vegetable germs appear the virus is active ; soon after these have been developed it is harmless. Its power cannot, therefore, be attributed to the germs but must be due to something else which continues to live and remains active for a short time after death, and then for ever disappears. The nature, mode of origin, and multiplication of this active material will be fully dis- cussed in the second part of this work. Question of derivation of Fungus Germs from higher Germinal Matter of another kind. — As has been already remarked, lowly vegetable germs appear in closed cavities in the substance of dead animal 74 DERIVA TION OF FUNGI and vegetable tissues. I have often seen them within vegetable cells in which not a pore could be discovered when the tissue was examined by the highest powers. I have detected them in the interior of the cells in the tissues of animals, and in the very centre of cells with walls so thick and strong that it seems almost impossible that such soft bodies could have made their way through from the surrounding medium. How are we to account for the presence of living particles in such situations } I have no dOubt that ere long the theory will be advanced that the living matter of the cell, and the formed material of which it is composed, become changed, and assume the condition of bio- plasm of a lower grade of organisation. Thus, it will be said, from one form of living matter a lower and more degraded form is evolved, the lowly germs spring- ing from the living matter of the cell itself And it might be alleged that the same forces which were once active in the cell, become active in the new organisms which grow and multiply after it has ceased to live. Such simple germs are, as has already been stated, from time to time found in the blood of man, and to them various disturbances, ending in death, have been attributed. They have been looked upon as the germs concerned in the production of disease and in the destruction of life much higher than their own ; but the matter on which they live has ceased to take part in the actions of the higher life, and instead of being decomposed into noxious FROM HIGHER BIOPLASM. 75 gases inimical to all life, it becomes appropriated by the vegetable organisms, which grow and multiply enormously. But these having continued to increase, at length cease to multiply, and in their turn die. The products resulting from their death may serve as food for beings a little higher in the scale. But we have now to enquire, how, if they are not actually formed there, these bacterium germs get into the interior of a perfectly closed cell. There is no real difficulty in accounting for the entrance of these germs through the cell wall ; for although no pores may be visible even with the aid of the highest powers, still pores sufficiently large to permit the passage of such very minute particles as the germs are, necessarily may exist, if not in the fully-formed state of the cell, at least at an early period of its develop- ment. If we examine, under the highest powers ot the microscope, fluid exudation which we know may pass through membrane, and which, when examined by ordinary means, appears perfectly clear, like water, we frequently find in it minute particles of living matter. By the -^-^ the apparently clear fluid rotating round the cells of vallisneria is resolved into multi- tudes of extremely minute particles of colourless matter, or bioplasm, every one of which possesses the power of moving, and is alive. There is, then, nothing improbable in the supposition that minute germs might pass through the cell wall with the pabulum. They would remain in the cell wall or tissue perfectly 76 DISEASES DUE TO inactive and dormant as long as the cell remained vigorous and healthy, but sooner or later, if not from disease, from old age, changes must occur by which a state of things results which is favourable to the germs whose turn invariably comes at last. These grow and multiply and live upon the dead germinal matter and the" altered and softened formed mate- rial of the cells. We must, in the absence of positive demonstration, hesitate to accept the doctrine that the lowest organisms may result from degradation of the living matter, which at one time formed a part of a higher being. But we may i-efuse to accept the state- ments which have been made as to the direct conver- sion of the fibrillae or discs of striped muscle into bacteria, because such assertions are contradicted by well-known facts. From the red blood corpuscles may be made bodies which might be mistaken for bacteria ; nay, if the most practised observer were to examine one of these bodies only by itself, he might easily be deceived. The little beaded filaments exhibit move- ments which, though differing from the movements of the bacteria, would certainly be mistaken for them by an unpractised observer. But it ought not to be necessary to state, that in microscopical research mere resemblance in external form and general characters should not be accepted as proof of identity of nature any more than in ordinary observation. Of Diseases known to be due to Vegetable Organisms. — The diseases of man and the higher animals, known VEGETABLE ORGANISMS. 77 to depend upon the growth and development of vegetable organisms, are local affections confined to a part of the body not involving the blood, while for the most part, the different forms of contagious fevers are general affections in which the whole mass of the blood, and, in some cases, every part of the body, is affected, and is capable of communicating the disease. In fungus diseases, the structure of the vegetable organism can be made out without difficulty, and the vegetable examined in every stage of its development. The microscopic characters are distinct and definite enough. No such success attends our efforts to prove that vegetable organisms are truly the active agents in contagious fevers. And in many of the diseases which are at this time considered to be actually due to the multiplication of vegetable germs, it is doubtful if the tissues and organs invaded were perfectly healthy at the time of invasion. For all persons ex- posed are not attacked, and if not in all, at least in the great majority of instances known, the view that a morbid change must occur before the tissue is in a state to be invaded by the fungus growth, is tenable. In fact, it has been already shown that the fungi which commonly grow on the surface, and in other parts of the body, do not produce disease. The germs of fungi may remain perfectly passive and quiescent in healthy textures, growing and multi- plying only in those which have already deteriorated in consequence of disease or old age. The growth of 7 8 DIFFICUL TIES IN A CCEPTING the ^vegetable germs, therefore, instead of occasioning the disease, may be dependent upon the occurrence of phenomena altogether different. There are, T think, very few morbid conditions that are unques- tionably solely due to the growth and multiplication of vegetable fungi. Some difficulties which prevent tis from accepting the Vegetable Germ Theory of Disease. — If con- tagious diseases are due to the entrance into the organism of such minute vegetable germs as those described, is it not wonderful that any one escapes disease 1 Multitudes of germs of different species, as numerous as are the contagious diseases from which we suffer, must, if this theory be true, surround us. And yet the fungus germs, which are to be detected easily enough, and which indeed do exist in great numbers, are not known to cause any disease. Still, upon this view these must be the disease-producing particles, for they are the only vegetable germs that have been discovered. Passing into our lungs with every inspiration, entering our stomachs with our food and drink, everywhere in contact with our cuticle, in the chinks of which they might grow and multiply, these fungus germs must, one would think, pass in vast numbers, into our blood, and be carried to every part of our bodies. Contagious diseases ought, there- fore, to be more common than they are, and escape from attack should be almost impossible. Vegetable fungus germs are to be met with in every FUNGUS GERM THEORY. ^^ country, and there are probably few substances in or upon the earth which are entirely free from them. If their introduction alone is sufficient to produce disease, one malady ought to follow another, until the cata- logue of contagious diseases becomes exhausted, or the organism is destroyed. But many fungi even form articles of diet and medicine, and many animals devour whole forests of living, growing fungi in every mouthful of food they take. Of these not a few are destroyed by the fluids poured into the alimentary canal, digested, and the products appropriated by the organism. The animal, in fact, lives upon them, in- stead of the fungi living upon him ; and in various cases in which certain fungi do actually invade our tissues, the evidence of change in these last having occurred prior to the development of the fungi, is sometimes so distinct, that the conclusion is irresistible, that, so far from the fungus attacking a healthy struc- ture and damaging it, the structure itself had dete- riorated and changed, or had undergone morbid derangement ere it was invaded. By decay it would appear that it had become converted into material adapted for the nutrition of the fungi, the growth of which had been effectually resisted as long as the tissue remained healthy. If this be so, the fungi cannot be regarded as the cause of the disease, any more than the vultures which devour the carcase of a dead man can be looked upon as the cause of his death. Vegetable germs exist in countless multitudes 8o DIFFICUL TV IN A CCEPTING where contagious diseases are unknown, as well as where they are rife. Their sparing or abundant multi- plication varies with altering temperature, moisture, and other conditions, and does not always coincide with the fluctuation of disease. If vegetable germs are the seeds of disease, the seeds are everywhere, while in many instances the diseases are remarkable for being particularly local. If these be disease germs, they are present in all climes, while the diseases them- selves are limited to certain definite regions. We may cultivate the vegetable germs without producing disease, and disease may be raging while there is no evidence of a corresponding increase of the vegetable organisms upon which it is supposed to depend. If vegetable organisms are really the contagious particles, it is hopeless to attempt to protect ourselves from their invasion, and to talk of extirpating them w^ould be absurd, for were a particular species destroyed over half England to-morrow, the next breath of wind would bring multitudes of germs to take the place of those which had been swept away. Nor should we stand any chance of escaping theii ravages, by leaving our dwellings in cities, and taking up our abode in the country, or by taking refuge even in the highest mountains, or other sequestered places far away from the haunts of men. Aud if fungi are developed spon- taneously, and disease germs consist of fungi, the state of things is still worse, as in that case, if eradi- cation were possible, it would be idle to attempt to FUNGUS GERM THEORY. 8 1 effect it ; for if all in existence at any one time were utterly destroyed, new ones would soon spontaneously emanate from the non-living, and we should be in as bad a plight as before. Minute vegetable germs, re- sembling those to which contagious disease has been attributed, are everywhere, though they may easily escape observation. If, however, the pabulum adapted for them be present, and the conditions favourable to their development exist, they soon grow and multiply, and abundant evidence is afforded of their presence. In answer to the observation, that if these fungus germs constitute the morbid material of contagious diseases everyone should be attacked, it might be said, " the organism is not always in a state favourable for invasion, and that it is only in exceptional cases, or in exceptional states of health, that the presence of fungi affects us deleteriously." To this the reply might be, that "there are many kinds of conta- gious matter which give rise to characteristic effects with unerring certainty;" The introduction of as much as would adhere to a needle point into the body of a healthy subject, acting without a chance of fail- ure. If, therefore, we accept this vegetable germ theory of disease, we must hold that there are certain fungi which affect all men in all conditions of health, but which are at present undiscoverable, while other fungi, which are very easily discovered, are not known to affect the organism in any condition of health ; G 82 NO VEGETABLE ORGANISMS and that yet other fungi, also unknown at this time, exist, which are only able to produce their effects in organisms changed by certain previous actions for their reception, — and this, in spite of the fact that no connection whatever has been shown to obtain between any contagious disease and any kind of fungus. But yet in favour of such a doctrine it might be urged with truth, that some parasitic organisms affect all indiscriminately, while others require certain preli- minary changes to be carried out before the various parts of the organism they delight in are adapted for their habitation and are rendered favourable to their increase. It must not, however, be forgotten that parasites which are known exhibit at one or other stage of existence certain well-marked characters by which they may be recognised with the utmost cer- tainty, and this is especially the case with parasitic vegetable organisms, many of which can be grown artificially without much difficulty, and studied in the several different stages of their development. Those who look with partiality upon the vegetable germ theory of disease should consider how the absence of any bodies like vegetable fungi in animal fluids and solids, proved by experiment to possess active infectious properties, is to be accounted for. Not only is it the case that vegetable organisms are not to be found in the perfectly fresh virus when it is most active, but no specific form of vegetable growth can be developed from the particles which do exist, as would almost IN CONTAGIOUS VIRUS. 83 certainly be the case if the particles present in the fluids had been vegetable germs. Every kind of parasitic germ known is capable of undergoing development into a body having definite and well-marked charac- ters. Though in the germ stage different species would resemble one another, as indeed is the case as regards creatures much higher in the scale, they do not constantly retain indefinite characters. And when the germs are so minute as to be readily passed over in ordinary microscopical examination ( 100 to 300 ), by the aid of higher powers excessively minute vegetable germs may be recognised with certainty, if not by their form., at least by their mode of multiplication. The germs of many animal parasites are also to be distinguished by careful examination, and from what we know of the life history of these, we should not be justified in attributing contagious diseases, in which every drop of animal fluid in the body possesses con- tagious properties, but for a fixed and definite period of time only, to germs of a new class of animal or vegetable parasite of which not one species has been discovered, and the germs of which are even less than to oVoo- ^^ ^^ ^^^^ i'^ diameter. It may, therefore, be affirmed that the matter which forms the active virus or poisonous material does not exhibit the properties of any vegetable or animal parasitic organism yet discovered and identified. Neither can any organisms, having special and pecu- liar characters, be developed from any definite virus. 84 VEGETABLE GERM THEORY. Will, then, the advocates of the vegetable germ theory of disease maintain that this view ought to be accepted simply because, in some of the discharges and fluids of diseased animals or man, vegetable germs are to be found, in face of the fact that similar germs are to be detected in all sorts of harmless animal fluids a7id even in foods which are takeii and digested? As soon as fungi have developed them- selves freely in animal fluids possessing special con- tagious properties, such as vaccine lymph, or small- pox lymph, the specific characters of the poison be- come weak or disappear. This seems to negative the view under consideration. In answer it might be urged that, " because a few vegetable organisms ex- cite the disease, it does not therefore follow that a multitude should be more potent, — rather the con- trary ; for a few might retain their vitality and propa- gate themselves, while, if a great number were present, the pabulum necessary for their activity would be in- sufficient, and all would perish ! " The advocates of the theory may be permitted to enjoy any ad- vantage that can be derived from this sort of argu- ment ; for, however cleverly it may be put forward, most people who know the facts of the case will be of opinion that the vegetable organisms when present are but accidental concomitants, and that a potent poison, not of the nature of a vegetable germ, is pre- sent in the animal fluid or solid in which the contagious properties are known to reside. PART II. DISEASE GERMS THEIR REAL NA TURE. MONG the most fatal diseases from which man and the higher animals suffer are those which are called contagious or infectious. These depend upon a poison, which, having entered the body, grows and multiplies there in a marvellous manner •peculiar to matter which is alive. The living poison may be introduced into our bodies in the air we breathe, in the water we drink, or in the food we eat, and may possibly also gain access to us by the pores of the skin, or even by penetrating through the cuticle itself. No care on our part will insure us against invasion ; but, though surrounded by infection, and living among contagious disease germs, it is by no means certain that we shall be attacked, indeed the probabilities of escape are very great. We might wear water-proof coats and water-tight boots, cover the head with mackintosh, protect the nostrils and mouth with a cotton wool respirator, and grease or varnish every particle of skin exposed, and, in spite of H 86 ZYMOTIC DISEASES. all these precautions, the living germs might enter our bodies, grow and multiply there to our detriment, and perhaps destroy us ; while a friend who took no such pains to protect, himself, and may have been for hours exposed to the infected air, might escape altogether, and enjoy perfect health though surrounded by con- tagion on every side ! We shall have to consider in another part of this work what circumstances probably increase our lia- bility to attack, and by what means we may improve our chance of escape. The diseases in question are known diS Zymotic {Zv fir}, a ferment, leaven), but under this head have been also included affections due to malaria, maladies resulting from changes in the food, and diseases depending upon the introduction into the body of living parasitic animal or vegetable organisms. This classification is not altogether satisfactory, because diseases induced by the introduction into the organism of bodies so essentially distinct from one another, as for instance the poison of small-pox, and the tape worm, should scarcely be included in one class. At the same time, when the subject comes to be carefully considered, it must be admitted that there are many difficulties, while the classification in question possesses many practical advantages, and upon the whole has been found to work well. If the conclusions arrived at in this work are accepted, it will not be difficult to separate the fevers and allied diseases from others which are at present CONTA GIO US DISEASES. 8 7 grouped together in the zymotic class, without intro- ducing changes in nomenclature or classification, which might cause inconvenience in practice. . Some of the contagious fevers are among the most terribly fatal maladies which we are called upon to treat, but many of us feel convinced that these of all diseases are the most preventible, for this has been clearly proved by the great success which has already attended measures as yet but imperfectly carried out. Yet year after year, in conseq^uence probably of those who make our laws being ignorant of the facts, and seldom brought face to face with actual cases of disease, little is done to reduce the virulence, or to arrest the spread of these frightful scourges, some of which, as scarlet fever, are almost as fatal to the children of persons in easy circumstances as they are to the children of the classes whose day's work seldom produces much more than is sufficient for the day's sustenance, and sometimes less than enough to pre- serve the body in a state fit for work. The ignorance even of many very intelligent persons concerning the simplest practical requirements for limiting the spread of contagious diseases is deplorable, so that in epidemics the scourge is sometimes fostered and spread by the very persons in charge of the sick, sometimes by the patients being allowed to mix with the healthy and distribute far and wide the germs of disease. Heads of families are not always aware that a child who has completely recovered from scarlet H 2 88 MORTALITY FROM fever and is in fact well, may communicate it to half the children with whom he comes in contact, unless he is placed in quarantine for two months, by which time there is reason to think all the active contagious particles will have died, or will have been removed. From a return moved for by Mr. W. H. Smith, and printed by order of the House of Commons, we learn that the deaths from zymotic diseases in England and Wales amount to upwards of 111,000 annually, out of a population of under 22,000,000, the total deaths from all causes being under 500,000. Continued fever destroys upwards of 20,000 lives per annum ; scarlet fever alone averages about 1 8,000 victims, and sometimes destroys 30,000 persons in a single year. The actual numbers are given in the accompanying table, which has been calculated from the Registrar General's return above referred to. Fve years, A-verage 1864 to 1868, for inclusive. one year. Estimated population ,, 21,210,431 Totaldeaths 2,438,826 487,765 Diarrhoea and Cholera 125,828 25,165 Fever •.. 100,807 20,161 Scarlet fever 93»297 18,659 Hooping cough 54>o77 iOj8i5 Measles 46,043 9,208 Small-pox 21,689 4i337 Diphtheria 18,222 35644 Other zymotic diseases 97,127 19,425 Total Zymotic diseases 557,090 111,418 Being 22 '84 per cent, of the total deaths. ZYMOTIC DISEASE. 89 It would be too much to say that this frightful mortality represents the deaths from preventible diseases, but there can be little doubt that good sani- tary regulations, combined with cleanliness and tem- perance upon the part of the people, would save at least 100,000 lives annually in England and Wales alone. But this eminently practical part of the sub- ject has been well considered by others far better qualified for the task than myself I therefore pass on to discuss the nature of the material concerned in the spread of contagious diseases. It was shown in the first part of this work that the active substance was not a lowly vegetable organism developed independently of man or the animals subject to disease. We have, therefore, now to enquire what is the material substance which passes from the diseased to the healthy organism in small-pox, in measles, in scarlet fever, and other allied contagious diseases from which man and domestic animals suffer so severely. The material in question grows and multi- plies and produces its kind as all living things do, and as nothing that does not live has been proved to be capable of doing. We may therefore conclude that it is living matter. But it has been already shown that it is not a vegetable organism. What then is its nature t The arguments advanced against a vegetable germ theory of disease do not perhaps apply to some other forms of a germ theory, one of which will be considered. 90 ZYMOTIC DISEASE. In order to make the conclusions at which I have arrived intelligible, it will be necessary for me in the first place to direct the reader's attention to some of the most important changes which occur in the living matter or bioplasm of the healthy tissues. BIOPLASM AND ITS DEGRADATION. Those marvellous progressive changes which occur during the development of the embryo, while the structures which characterise the organism are being evolved, are still but very imperfectly understood. We know, indeed, that all the complex tissues and organs of man and the higher animals are dependent for their production upon changes occurring in a minute mass of perfectly colourless living matter, in which no indications of form or structure can be dis- cerned, but how these changes are brought about we have not yet been able to ascertain ; nor is it con- veying much information to the student if the teacher informs him that the perfect organism, with all its marvellous apparatus, existed '* potentially " in the little colourless living embryonic particle, since it would be impossible to distinguish the particle which was to develop a highly elaborate mechanism from that which was to produce a simple amoeba, as its highest developmental product. Hence, while it can- not be said that the structures evolved " existed " in the original mass of living matter it will not make the assertion more correct if it be qualified by the term " potentially." All we know is that such and such structures result, but we know this from seeing them, not from d, priori reasoning. For the characters and 92 BIOPLASM. composition of the living matter do not enable us to premise anything whatever as to its formative pro- perties. In the formation of man and the higher vertebrata the primary mass of bioplasm or living matter absorbs nutriment, and grows, and then divides and subdivides into numerous masses, which are arranged in a defi- nite manner, but what determines this is not known. From each of these in pre-ordained order, and with perfect regularity, more are produced, no doubt, ac- cording to " laws," but laws about which we know nothing, except that if physical, they are very different from any physical laws yet discovered. As this pro- cess of division goes on, the resulting masses produce various substances, some having wonderful structure and properties. But the power of each series to pro- duce these peculiar materials, which did not exist before, and which cannot be extracted from the food supplied, differs from that of the series which pre- ceded it, and so on until the complex structural basis of the organism is as it were laid down. There are developed masses of bioplasm to form nerve, others to produce muscle, others glands, and so on, all of which have been derived from one common mass, but the bioplasm, destined to take part in the development of a gland will, under no circumstances, produce muscle or nerve. And yet with all this marvellous difference in power, which if not acquired is at any rate manifested FORMATION OF ORGANS. 93 as development advances, there is, as far as is known, no difference in matter which will account for the result. The nerve or muscle producing bioplasm is, as far as can be ascertained, the exact counterpart of the gland or bone forming bioplasm, and why one produces one tissue and the other a very different tissue cannot be explained ; all these different forms of bioplasm have descended from one, which may be regarded as the parental mass, but in regular, definite, and pre-arranged order ; so that if from any circum- stance the bioplasm which is to form a gland or other organ, or a member, is not produced, and does not occupy its proper place at the right period of develop- mental progress, that gland, organ, or member will be waitting in the particiUar organism. The manifestation of power or property to form special parts with special functions proceeds in regular order, progressively in one direction only as the germ advances towards the particular perfect form it is to attain. The power once lost can never be regained, although life may continue to be manifested never- theless, and perhaps more actively than before. * If the particles of bioplasm which were to take part in the development, say of the brain, do not receive at the proper period a supply of the right kind, or the proper proportion of nourishment ; a well-developed healthy brain cannot in that case be formed. The particles may waste and die, or they may grow for a time and then cease to progress further; or they may 94 BIOPLASM. grow, and live, and multiply, and form a great mass of matter, which however will never produce a brain or an organ capable of performing the functions which the brain was designed to discharge. They may multiply fast, and take up more nourishment than the brain cells would have appropriated, had they been formed, but the organ with its marvellously complex intricate structure, which for its formation requires gradually progressive changes, steadily pro- ceeding during a length of time, will never be pro- duced ; and under no circumstances conceivable could any of these masses, or any of their descendants, develop one perfect brain cell. If progress towards the mature state be stopped at any point the perfect state of development can never be reached, and the organism if developed must be imperfect. The de- velopment of other complex organs may have pro- ceeded with perfect regularity, but the organism must ever remain incomplete in structure, and incapable of performing all the functions it might have dis- charged. But although developmental power may be lost for ever, power of a different kind may be acquired pari passu during the rapid multiplication of bioplasm. Progressive advance in the capacity to form lasting structures and elaborate organs is characterised by the comparatively slow but regular and orderly growth and multiplication of bioplasm. Rapid mul- tiplication, on the other hand, involves degradation DEGRADA TION IN PO WER. 95 in formative power, which is at length entirely lost, never to be reacquired. Degradation in power is commonly associated with increased rate of growth, increased faculty of resisting adverse conditions, and, in some cases, with such remarkable vitality of the living matter that it takes up more than the nourishment which should be appro- priated by healthy parts. Consequently these last are at length starved and deteriorated or are completely destroyed. Nay, the actively living degraded bioplasm may retain its vitality although removed altegether and for some time from the living body, and it may grow and at length destroy other living organisms to which it gains access. It is the main object of this work to show that a disease germ is probably a particle of living matter derived by direct descent from the living matter of man's organism, and I propose to give a sketch of some of the most important facts which have led me to adopt this view. The inquiry is of great interest, and affects the question of the nature of the material concerned in the propagation of contagious diseases. I shall also indicate how our views of treatment and more particularly how our efforts to extirpate the poison of contagious diseases and to prevent its pro- duction, will be influenced by the conclusions arrived at. In the first place I shall refer to the mode of multiplication of the bioplasm of man in health, and then endeavour to trace its degradation until a form 96 BIOPLASM of bioplasm destructive of healthy life and capable of infinite multiplication results. Bioplasm of Animals and Man in Health. Bioplasjn of Amceha. — Among the lower, simplest living forms known are some very simple organisms consisting apparently of transparent structureless semifluid material. Seldom indeed as much as the ToVo ^^ ^^ 1^^^ i^ diameter, they vary much in size down to particles of extreme minuteness and tenuity only just visible under the highest power yet made, equalling about 5,000 diameters. These masses, apparently composed almost entirely of living matter, can move in any part, and in any direction (Figs. 29, 30, plate v.). Portions of the seemingly viscid or semi- fluid material may protrude in advance of the rest of the mass, and coming in contact with protrusions from other parts, join these, and thus may result a ring or a series of rings. The protrusion may be withdrawn and the whole assume the appearance of a perfectly smooth globular mass. Such naked masses of living bioplasm or germinal matter may apply themselves to foreign bodies, and if these are small, completely invest them, so that the latter are at length seen in the interior of the mass embedded in its very substance. It is in this way that these simple forms of life are capable of effecting the solution of certain substances, and afterwards ap- IN HEALTH. 97 propriating them as nutrient materials. They increase in number in a very simple manner. If one of the protrusions above referred to be detached, artificially or by accident, a new and independent organism results. So long as a pedicle remains between the two, though it be so thin as to be only just visible, the diverticulum may be withdrav/n, and the whole form one single spherical mass of living, growing, moving matter. But if the communication be once completely severed two separate beings result, and these can never again be incorporated so as to form but one. Any one can study for himself the most im- portant of the highly interesting phenomena which have been observed in these wonderful and simple organisms. Amoebae can be readily obtained from water which has been left for a few days in a warm light room. Their growth can be watched from day to day, and their movements can be seen without difficulty. With the aid of high powers it will be found that the moving material is clear, transparent, and as far as we are able to discover, destitute of structure, exhibiting no appearance which could be reasonably supposed to be due to the presence of ** molecular " or any kind of " machinery." It ap- pears like homogeneous matter of syrupy consistence which moves in all directions. No one has been able to offer anything like an explanation of these move- ments although every one can see and study them without difficulty. Authorities have expressed them- 98 BIOPLASM OF BACTERIA. selves as if they had been able to give a full and sufficient explanation of the phenomenon, but there is nothing in their statements to justify the confidence which they seem to repose in the correctness of their views. The cause of these movements is unknown, if it is not unknowable. An attempt has been made to delineate the appearance of the moving matter in question in Plate V., fig. 30, which was examined under a power of 5,000 diameters. The difference in the shading indicates changes in thickness resulting from the movement. Bioplasm of Bacteria. — If a large bacterium be crushed, the very simply living matter may sometimes be expressed from the envelope without injury, and may be seen to exhibit vital movements, while in the field of the microscope. Fig. i. The progressional movements of many of the simplest organisms are effected by the bioplasm of their bodies protruding through the pores in their investing membrane or shell, by currents in the fluid caused by the movement of the living matter, and by the action of this same self-moving living material upon processes of the envelope or other passive organs composed of formed material project- ing from different parts of the surface. Vital Movements of Bioplasm. — These movements, which take place in every kind of bioplasm, or living matter, and which are to be observed so easily in the amceba, were formerly supposed to be peculiar to this organism. When it was discovered that the same MOVEMENTS OF BIOPLASM. 99 sort of motion was to be observed in the case of many of the lower forms of life and in the white blood cor- puscle, it was spoken of as amcebiform or amceboid, as if the movements in question were connected with some mechanism or action peculiar to the amoeba and the lowest forms of life. And even now the formation of " amoeboid corpuscles " is spoken of as if it were some very special and exceptional phenomenon. The movement is, however, characteristic of the whole living world ; but it is strictly confined to living beings, and nothing like it has been shown to occur in non-living matter. In man and the higher animals it is not always possible to see the movements of the bioplasm, for a very slight change in the circumstances under which life is carried on may cause its death ; but in some cases, and these not a few, they may be seen in the living matter taken from man's organism, and from animals, both in health and also in the diseased state. See Plates XV., XVII., figs. 52, 54, fig. 60, pp. 46, 54. As I have endeavoured to show, these movements are invariably limited to living matter (bioplasm). I have called this movement vital dind have endeavoured to show that it is distinct from musadar contractility^ and from every other kind of movement known. The vital movements of bioplasm vary remarkably in activity, and the same kind of living matter may move quickly or slowly according as the surrounding conditions change. Living particles transport them- lOO BIOPLASM OF LIVING selves from place to place ; they may insinuate them- selves through the narrowest apertures, or creep through very minute fissures and channels. They may climb through water, and there is even reason to think they may move upwards through perfectly still air by virtue of their capacity for vital movement. The division and subdivision of living matter, and hence the multiplication of living beings, are among the results of vital movements. These vital move- ments too are the cause of many phenomena which are characteristic of man and the higher animals. That is, a chain of changes, each being a consequence of an antecedent change, may be traced backwards until at last we arrive at the movements occurring in the living matter, beyond which we can- not go ; for we cannot ascertain the cause of these movements, although we know it must be closely related to life itself, for life cannot be conceived of without movement. The growth and multiplication of disease germs, their introduction into the body, their passage into the blood, and their subsequent wanderings, are intimately connected with their capacity for vital movement. Their formation I shall endeavour to prove is associated with greatly increased activity of vital movements, and the undue nutrition of certain forms of the bioplasm of the organism. In order to render intelligible to the reader the grounds of my views, it will be necessary in the first place to offer some general remarks concerning the nature and PLATE V. lilOPLASM OP BACTERIUM, AMCEBA, AND MUCUS. Fig. 23. _^1'-^~-y^,t Bii:)plasm orliviug matter from a crushed bacterium showing tlie changes in form whicla occurred during a few seconds, x 1900. p. 97. Fig. 29. -^ f\ ,>' * -*■' rig. 30. A small amoBba, magnified by the ^^ = £800 diameters. 1867. p. 93. Very minute living amoebae, magnified SO-GO diameters, p. 96. Fig. 31. Fi^. S; Uucus from the trachea during life, magnified 700 diameters, p. 101. One of the living mucus corpuscles represt^uted in Fig. 4. magnified by the 5'fj = -:'800 diameters. showing alterations in form during one minute, p. 101 . -.th of an inch L.S. B.] X 700 linear. X 2SG0. X 5fX)0. isyo. [To face page 100 MATTER OF MUCUS. growth of the bioplasm of the higher animals and man. The Living Matter or Bioplasm of Mucus. — If a little mucus which collects commonly enough upon the soft mucous membrane of the air passages be examined upon a warm glass slide, with the aid of a power magnifying 700 diameters, or upwards, little oval masses of germinal matter not unlike amoebae will be seen in great numbers embedded in the viscid transparent material which gives to the mucus its properties, and which has been formed by the par- ticles of the bioplasm. Fig. 31, plate V. By attentive examination movements will be ob- served in many of these masses, not unlike those above described in the case of the amoeba. Fig. 32 represents the changes in form in a living mucus corpuscle under a power of 2,800. If the distribution of nutriment to the mucus be increased, the bioplasts enlarge, and divide and subdivide until vast numbers result. In some cases of inflammation of the mucous membrane all the viscid matter secreted upon the surface appears to consist of bioplasts ordinarily termed pus corpuscles, while on the other hand the proportion of formed material which w^as abundant in ordinary mucus is exceedingly small. The bioplasm has multiplied so fast that there has not been time for the production even of the soft mucus. Vital movements resembling those which have been described in the amoeba, in the bioplasm of mucus, I I02 EMBRYONIC BIOPLASM. and in white or colourless corpuscles may be seen, but not so easily, in the bioplasm of young epithelial cells, in that of cartilage, the cornea, connective tissue, and other textures, and there can be no doubt whatever that all bioplasm possesses the power of movement, and that by virtue of this power of movement the several masses are able to take up the positions they respectively occupy in all the different tissues which they form, and in the preservation and main- tenance of which, in a state of integrity, they play so highly important a part as long as life lasts. Embryonic Bioplasm. — The growth and multipli- cation of bioplasm at an early period of development may be studied in an embryo, and many highly import- ant observations may be made if the growing tissues of the chrysalis of the common blow-fly be submitted to examination, especially when they have been suc- cessfully stained by the carmine fluid. A mass of formless bioplasm invariably represents the earliest stage of development of every tissue and organ. The bioplasm, which is concerned in the formation of the special tissues, emanates from this, and in many cases a sort of temporary structure is formed in the first instance in which the development of the higher tissue afterwards takes place. Some suppose that the particles of bioplasm are formed anew, but this is certainly not the case. They have been invariably derived from pre-existing bioplasm. In the forma- tion of the tissues of the imago or perfect insect WHITE BLOOD CORPUSCLES. 103 during the chrysalis state, each texture is developed anew from bioplasm, but this was derived from the bioplasm of the larva. If one of the growing extre- mities of a foetal tuft of the placenta be examined, it will be found that the material which advances first, which grows away as it were from the tissue which is already formed, is a mass of bioplasm, which is di vided and subdivided into smaller portions, as repre- sented in Fig. 33, plate VI. The loop of vessels gradually increases in the wake of this little collection of living matter which continues to move onwards as long as the placenta continues to grow. These little collections of bioplasm bifurcate, and thus form branches into which vascular loops afterwards pro- ceed. As in every other instance, the first changes are produced by bioplasm ; and by this living matter every kind of growth and development is effected. White Blood Coi'puscles or Blood Bioplasts. — If a drop of blood be obtained from the finger by pricking it with a needle, and allowed to fall upon a glass slide slightly warmed, covered with thin glass, and carefully pressed, and then examined under a power of 700 dia- meters or upwards, here and there, colourless slightly granular, apparently spherical bodies will be seen amongst multitudes of the well-known red blood- corpuscles. These are the so-called white or colour- less blood-corpuscles (Plate XVI, fig. 55). They con- sist of living bioplasm or germinal matter, and exhibit movements like those referred to in the amoeba and I 3 I04 BLOOD BIOPLASM. in the mucus corpuscle. The movements continue for many hours after the blood has been withdrawn from the body. The colourless as well as the red blood-corpuscles vary much in size, although they are often represented as if they were of uniform diameter. These bioplasts multiply by giving off little diverti- cula, which become detached, and then grow into complete corpuscles. In the blood there are, besides the white blood-corpusles, multitudes of minute masses of living matter, probably composed of the same material as the white blood-corpuscles. These were described and figured by me in 1863, and I showed that when the capillary walls became stretched by distension they would escape through little longitudinal rents or fissures into the spaces external to the vessels, where, being freely supplied with nutrient matter, they grew and multiplied, giving rise to the numerous corpuscles seen in this situation in inflammation. These minute particles are indeed the most important constituents of inflammatory exuda- tion, and are the agents by which the important changes occurring in the exudation are effected. They vary much in number in the blood and are very abundant in inflammation. Whenever the circulation is carried on slowly in any part of the body the colourless or white blood- corpuscles grow and multiply, and at an early period of development, before the heart and lungs are fully formed, the only corpuscles are these white or colourless INCREASE OF BIOPLASM. PLATE VI. -DEVELOPMENT OF VESSELS AND OTHER TISSUES. Fig. 33. Growing extremiLn d w. .v^jial tufts from human placenta, 7tli month, X 215. At every extremity is seen a collection ol small masses of bioplasm which are undergoing division. Each collection advances, and the vessels and other structures grow in its wake as it were. The masses of bioplasm of the capillaries and other structures entering into the foimation of the tuft are also w^ell seen. Ib61. p. 103. Fig. 34. Capillary vessels opening into a small vein. Pia mater. Human foetus, fifth month of intra- uterine life. The capillaries contain numerous white blood corpuscles (bioplasm) which are coloured by canmine, and the vein is completely fiUed with them. Very few red blood corpuscles were present. X 215. p 105. r^so of an inch X 915 linear. L. S. B.] 1870. |_To face pa^e 104. ACCUMULATION IN VESSELS. 105 blood-corpuscles. This important fact may be easily demonstrated if the blood in any of the small vessels of the embryo of a vertebrate animal be examined. A very striking and beautiful example is represented in Fig. 35, plate VII, from the ovum of the turtle. The capillaries are seen to be filled with living growing blood bioplasts (white blood-corpuscles) every one of which has been well coloured by carmine fluid, and can therefore be very distinctly seen in the specimen. Only here and there could a red blood- corpuscle be discovered. In Fig. 34, plate VI, I have given a drawing of part of a small vein, with a few capillaries opening into it, from a beautiful specimen of the pia mater, covering the hemispheres of the brain of a human embryo at the fifth month of intra-uterine life. This illustrates the same fact. The little veins were quite filled with blood bioplasts, very few of which had as yet become developed into red blood-corpuscles. In the capillaries represented in this drawing will be seen many very minute bioplasts which have been detached from larger ones and are growing. The bioplasts seen in the capillary interspaces are those which take part in the development of the other textures of which the pia mater is constituted. In animals which hybernate, or which have been kept inactive in confinement for some time, and in man, under certain circumstances, many of the red blood-corpuscles in the blood-vessels are absorbed, io6 BLOOD BIOPLASTS, just as they are from a clot formed in any of the smaller vessels, and in some instances from a clot situated external to the vessels, and the living bio- plasts (white blood-corpuscles) grow and multiply at their expense. After a time, such is the increase of the latter that the capillaries in many tissues are almost entirely occupied by them. This fact is illustrated by Fig. 36, plate VIII, which represents very small capillary vessels of the mesentery of the com- mon frog in winter. The vessel is almost choked up with white blood-corpuscles, only one or two red ones remaining in the specimen from which the drawing was taken. Another illustration of this fact is given in Fig. 37, plate VIII, which represents some of the capillaries from the bladder of a half-starved frog. The capillaries have much wasted, and contain no red blood-corpuscles whatever, their cavity being entirely occupied by fluid liquor sanguinis and masses of bioplasm, differing much in size, the largest particles having the ordinary dimensions of the white blood- corpuscles, while the smallest are so minute that they cannot be demonstrated under a power magnifying much less than 1,000 diameters. It is remarkable that in this case the white blood-corpuscles are still growing and multiplying, and are, indeed, probably the active agents in the absorption of the tissues. In this specimen taken from the most beautiful and delicate of all the tissues of the frog may also be seen the very fine pale nerve-fibres which I demonstrated PLATE VII. BLOOD BIOPLASTS, OR, WHITE BLOOD CORPUSCLES IN VESSELS O? EMBRYO. Fi£?. 35. Capillary vessels and sn:iaU veiu froia the ovum of the turtle a.t an early period of development. The vessels were entirely filled with white blood corpuscles, and in some places tljey were completely distended with them. Developing connective tissue with connective tissue corpuscles, fat cells, and perhaps nerve fibres are also seen. To the ril^ht of the drawing at a will be observed a very young capillary, the tube of which is not yet wide enough to allow a blood corpuscle to pass through it. X 216. 1864. p. 105 ,}r,n of an inch X 315 linear. L. 3. B.l 1370. [To lace page 106 THEIR INCREASE IN NUMBER. 107 some years ago. A fine bundle is seen at a, from which point it may be readily followed, as it divides into finer branches, ramifications of which are seen in every part of the drawing. The bundles of unstriped muscular fibres are marked b, while the bioplasm masses of the connective tissue corpuscles are repre- sented here and there in the intervals. So far I have endeavoured to show that the masses of germinal matter or bioplasm which are to be found in all parts of the tissues of man and the higher animals at every period of life, and suspended in the nutrient fluids, notwithstanding very remark- able differences in power, exhibit the same general characters as those manifested by the living matter of the lowest animals and plants. In all cases it is the bioplasm only which lives and grows and multi- plies. Moreover, attention has been especially directed to the fact that the rate of growth of the bioplasm varies according to the scarcity or abundance of the nutrient material, and to the rapidity of its access. The bioplasts (white blood- corpuscles) of the blood increase in number, when the fluid in which they are suspended moves slowly as at an early period of life before the propelling apparatus is fully de- veloped, or at any period of life when the circulation is retarded from any cause whatever. This remarkable growth and multiplication of the blood bioplasts seems to be determined by the altered conditions under which life is carried on without any 1 o8 GEO WTH AND MUL TIPLICA TION derangement of the health necessarily accompanying the change. The fact of the increase of the white blood-corpuscles in apparently opposite conditions of the system receives a simple explanation. A hyber- nating animal cannot be said to be suffering from disease, but nevertheless the blood in his capillary vessels contains a vastly increased number of bioplasts, and could hardly be distinguished from blood which was stagnating in consequence of something im- peding the circulation — a state of things which would be rightly regarded as disease. In this part of the inquiry we seem indeed to be on the very confines of disease ; in a sort of border-land where the healthy process may so gradually and imperceptibly pass into the morbid process that it would not be possible to draw a distinction in words, nor would the appearances which may be demonstrated by the eye enable us to define with greater exactness the special condition. In fact, up to this point there is no real difference. The state of things I have described, if it continues and if it leads to other changes, would be considered evidence of disease. If, on the other hand, the circu- lation soon returned to its normal rate, the increased number of white blood-corpuscles in the capillaries would soon pass into the circulation and become lost in the mass of the blood, where they would undergo further changes. There would be no stronger evidence of even a temporary disturbance of the healthy con- dition than was afforded perhaps by some trivial PLAl'l'! V]l[. BIOPLASM IN Bl.OOD VESSELS. Fi6(. 36. Capillary vessels and connective tissue, aucl connective tissue corpuscles Mesenceiy. I'i'oi^ in winter. The capilliines are tilled wjtli numerous wliite blood corpuscles (bioplasm). Only one or iwo red blood corpuscles were present. X ^16. p. 100 Fig. 3/ Bladder of a froi^ which waa half atarved. The capil aiies ar^ wastina, and contain ypioplasin only. No red blood corpuscles could be detected Bundles of nn.stnped mn.'.cle are seen raniifyini^ over the field Some have fibres radiating m three directiona, and the bioplasm of these is triangular b. At a, a bundle of very fine nerve fibres is renresented. Its ramifications may be followed over every part of the specimen. The bioplaf^Tn of the connective tissue is also represented. Thus, all the tissues of the tljin bladder are demonstrated. X '-JlO. 'I'he drawini; was taken from a specimen mounted in 1S6J. X Ul-^v p. 106. of an inch X -215 linear. L.S. B.] 1370. I lo (ace page I OS. OF BLOOD BIOPLASTS. 109 nervous derangement possibly, giving rise, in the case of man and the higher animals to slight pain, which might soon pass off, or perhaps escape notice altogether. These blood bioplasts possess formative power of a very remarkable kind even in the adult. Not only are they capable of producing fibrin, but they or bioplasts directly descended from them, are capable of forming fibrous tissue which resembles the ordinary fibrous tissue developed in connection with several textures of the body. But, more than this, these bioplasts, poured out from the vessels suspended in fluid exudation, or their descendants growing and multiplying upon a surface wound of the skin or a mucous membrane may produce cuticular cells or the epithlial particles of a mucous membrane, not perhaps quite so perfect and well formed as those developed in sitzt, but nevertheless efificient as a protecting covering. The varied power of forming tissue pos- sessed by these bioplasts is perhaps due to the circumstance that they have inherited formative powers from the bioplasts of the germinal area at an early period of development, for it must be remembered that the ancestral white blood-corpuscles from which all have directly descended, were developed at a time anterior to that when the various bioplasts taking part in the formation of the tissues diverged from their common progenitor. So that formative power of a more general character than is possessed by the 1 10 BIOPLASM OF TISSUES. bioplasts of the tissues might be expected to belong to the blood bioplasts. And in the case of some of the lower animals which exhibit the power of reproduction of lost parts and organs, it appears very probable that the agents directly concerned in the development of these are bodies resembling the blood bioplasts ; and that from them result masses of bioplasm which take part in the formation of the several tissues of which the new member is constituted. Bioplasm of tht^ Tissues of the Adults — As the tissues are formed by the conversion of the outer part of each bioplasm mass into the formed material or tissue, the distance by which the several masses of bioplasm are separated from one another becomes greater. This important fact may be demonstrated in almost any tissue of a young or adult animal. In Figs. 38 and 39, plate IX, are represented young and fully formed cuticle of the newt from the very same spot of skin. The formed material of the cuticular tissue accumulates around each mass of bioplasm until the well known adult " cuticular cell ** results, Fig. 39. Again, in Figs, 40 and 41, the appearance of sec- tions of permanent cartilage from the same part of the body is given under a power of 700 diameters. At an early period of development ** tissue " scarcely exists, and all that can be discovered is bioplasm. In young tissue, at all periods of life, the same fact is observed, but as the textures advance towards ma- turity the proportion of bioplasm in a given bulk of PLATE IX. LJ BIOPLASM 01'' FULLY FORMED TISSUES. Fig. 38. fig. 39 Cuticle Newt. Deep layer, consist- ing of bioplasm with very Utile formed material. X 215. p. 110. ^1. Ciitiole. Newt. t;ui.eitici:il layer, showing eaoli inaHS of biojilasm sui-rouudecl by its ibrrnuil material. X 215. p. 110. Fig. -50. Fig. 41. Cartilage rib "i kiiL-n at birth, showing large masses of biopia«in vrith very little formed material between tbem. X 700. p. 110. Cartilage rib ofyoimi^cat. showing diminished size of masse.s of bioplasm and great increase of matrix or foi nied material of cartilage, x '00. i„\,„ of an inch — — x 21 o lincai L.5.B.] iV/0. rago 1 FROM HEALTH TO DISEASE. texture becomes less. Now in disease we shall find that in adult tissues the bioplasm increases, and that the general appearance assumed is that which em- bryonic tissue presents, indeed some " inflamed " textures might be mistaken for embryonic tissue. From Health to Disease. I have endeavoured to show that the only material in the organisms of living beings capable of growth and multiplication is that which I have recently named bioplasm, hitherto known as germinal or living matter. In fully formed tissues the proportion of this is very small. Still, all active change which takes place in the tissue depends upon this living matter, however little there may be. If there be none, the tissue is as incapable of undergoing active changes as if it did not form a part of the body. The smallest particle of bioplasm possesses active powers, and if supplied with proper pabulum, soon grows. Each little bioplast grows, that is, increases, by taking up material differ- ing entirely from it in composition, properties, and powers, and converts certain elements of this into matter identical with that of which it consists. After the bioplasm-particle has reached a certain size, division occurs. Instead of growing larger and larger, and forming a continuous mass of enormous size, as some have fancifully supposed exists at the bottom of the ocean, portions are from time to time detached. 112 FROM HEAL TH TO DISEASE. These separate themselves and move away from the parent mass. Each of these little germs has pro- perties in many respects like those of the parent mass, though it may possess the capacity for forming matters which the parent mass could not have pro- duced. Each bioplasm particle lives and grows, attains a certain size, and may produce its kind in the same way. Now, the whole human organism at a very early early period of its development consisted entirely of little masses of living bioplasm like those above referred to. Each of these grew and divided and sub- divided, so that multitudes at length resulted from the division of a few. All were descendants of the first primitive germinal mass, which was itself derived from pre-existing germinal matter. After a time some of the bioplasm particles cease to multiply, though they still live and take up food. The living matter of which they are composed undergoes change. It dies under certain conditions, and "tissue" results. In this way muscle, and nerve, and fibrous tissue, and bone, and hair, and horn, and nail, and all other textures, are formed. In the adult, however, there remain some masses of germinal matter which go on growing and dividing just as all grew and multiplied in the embryo. Among these are the white or colourless blood-corpuscles, which possess formative power even in old age in greater degree than any other form of bioplasm in the adult, as has CHARACTERS OF BIOPLASTS. 113 been already shown. At the deep aspect of the cuticle, and below the fully formed epithelium of mucous membranes and some glandular organs, are masses of germinal matter, which continue to divide and subdivide in the same way throughout life. These, in the ordinary course, move towards the surface, and as they move, each gradually forms upon its surface the hard cuticular matter (cell-wall) to which the properties of the epidermis are due, see Plate IX, fig. 39- It has been already said that the bioplastic masses of different organisms, and those in different parts of the same organism, possess different endowments. For from one kind of bioplasm is formed muscle, from another nerve, from another fat, and so forth, but yet all these kinds have directly descended from one. They could not be distinguished from one another, nor from the primary mass from which they came, by any microscopical or chemical characters. Neither could one of these kinds of bioplasm in the adult develop a mass capable of producing the rest. Al- though no one could distinguish one particle from the other, each will produce its kind, and that alone. It would be as unreasonable to expect an amoeba to result from a pus-corpuscle, or from a yeast particle, or to suppose that by any alteration in food or man- agement a cabbage would spring from a mustard seed, or the modern white mouse from the descendant of an ancestral white rabbit, as it would be to maintain 114 THE PUS-BIOPLAST. that muscle, nerve, brain, gland, or other special tissue might be produced indiscriminately by any mass of bioplasm of the adult, supposing that the conditions under which it lived were changed to any possible extent. Its vital powers, which are within, and upon which the capacity to develop depends, cannot be thus changed by any mere alteration in external circumstances. The Pus-Bioplast derived from the Germinal Matter of all the Tissues. — But it is certainly very remarkable that the many kinds of germinal matter of the organism of man and the higher animals, though differing so much in power or property that one pro- duces nerve, another muscle, a third bone, a fourth fat, and so on, will each under certain conditions give rise to a common form of germinal matter or bioplasm differing in properties and powers from them all. This is the form of bioplasm known as pus, which may go on multiplying for any length of time, producing successive generations of pus-bioplasts, which exhibit remarkable vital properties, although they cannot form tissue, nor produce tissue-forming bioplasts of any kind whatever. It is evident from this that the power is manifested in one direction only — onwards. Embryonic living matter or bioplasm gives rise to several different kinds, not one of which can produce matter having precisely the same endowments as that which existed immediately before it, and from which it sprang. And RE TR GRESSION IN PO WER. 1 1 5 yet every kind of germinal matter exhibits powers of infinite growth.* When bioplasm or germinal matter lives faster than in health, in consequence of being supplied with an undue proportion of nutrient material, a morbid bioplasm results ; and if the process continues for a short time, changes familiar to those conversant with pathological alterations occur upon a large scale. Of Retrogression in Formative Power. — In discuss- ing questions of this kind, involving such minute details, we must be most careful to avoid too hasty generalization, and must proceed by very slow steps. This is more particularly necessary if it so happens that our inferences in some measure accord with the views of speculative and enthusiastic persons, who are always fancying that we are on the eve of some grand dis- covery which is to revolutionize thought. Many, from a consideration of the arguments I have advanced, would perhaps be led to look with favour upon the doctrine that the lowest living forms are capable of being produced by the retrograde development of higher forms, and that bioplasm even very high in the * While, however, the process of division is proceeding, as has been described, in some cases a small portion of the germinal matter does not undergo division into masses of the next series, but retains its primi- tive povi^ers. This remains in an embryonic condition after the tissue has been formed, and thus the development of new tissue, even in advanced life, is, in some cases, not only possible, but actually occurs. Many cancers and other morbid growths probably originate in these masses of embryo bioplasm which remain for a long time in a quiescent state embedded in some of the fully -formed textures of the adult. Ii6 PRODUCTION OF scale of organization, may give rise to forms of bio- plasm approximating more and more closely to the lowest constant forms of life with which we are acquainted. A doctrine asserting that by continual retrogression through ages, the descendants of the highest forms would gradually deteriorate until their only remaining representatives were monads, would not be very easily disproved, and might be supported by many ingenious arguments. It is a view that doubtless would recommend itself to many minds in the present day. But on the other hand it is obvious that cells and organisms might retrograde and produce various modified forms, without giving rise to any of those particular forms characteristic of the lower organisms which we are acquainted with. Nay, cells of different organisms might give rise to many different retrograde forms, and every one of these be very different from one another, and yet totally unlike any known or- ganism. It is obviously possible that there should be infinite advance and infinite retrogression in multi- tudes of parallel lines, as it were, without the resulting forms of any one line becoming identical with those of another. Just as it is possible to conceive infinite advance in the features of the dog, without any resemblance whatever to the human face resulting-, and retrogression and deterioration of the latter pro- ceeding to any degree, and continuing for any length of time, without the production of the simian type of countenance. RETROGRADE FORMS. 117 Sufficient allowance is not made by many thinkers for the infinity of difference even in structure, and variety of change, possible in living forms, without the production of two things alike, or any indication of the merging of one set of forms into another. It must not be forgotten for an instant that from such a marvellous storehouse of facts as is placed at our disposal in nature, we may with very little ingenuity select certain series of facts in favour of several very different general hypotheses ; and however conflicting these may be with one another, it may not be possible to disprove any one of them in the present state of knowledge. The fact that masses of germinal matter, derived by direct descent from cells of one of the lower animals, may grow and multiply in man's organism, and vice vei^sd, might be adduced as an argument in favour of the original common parentage, countless ages back, of the predecessors of both ; but there are, it need scarcely be said, facts and arguments tending to a different conclusion, and these must not be lost sight of in our attempts to ascertain the truth. It is not improbable that the germinal matter of some of the lower, simpler plants and animals, when exposed to altered conditions, may give rise to morbid forms bearing a relation to their normal healthy living germinal matter, similar to that which pus bears to the germinal matter of healthy tissues, and it is possible that in our observations upon the lower forms of life we may be sometimes examining K 1 1 8 BIOPLASM OF EPITHELIUM morbid instead of normal healthy organisms. It may be that the matter of the malarial poison may thus result, in which case it must be regarded as a morbid bioplasm of some low organism, — not as a species of any kind whatever, — but as a deteriorated form of living matter freely multiplying but incapable of pro- ducing healthy matter or of returning to its primitive healthy state. I propose now to draw attention to the facts I have been able to observe in connection with the deteriora- tion in power of bioplasm during that increased multiplication which results from the very free supply of pabulum, and which may at last lead to the production of diseased germs. Bioplasm of Epithelium. — When the germinal matter of the epithelial cells of certain mucous membranes, or that of other tissues of the body, or the germinal matter of the white blood-corpuscles, lives faster than in health, in consequence of being supplied with an undue proportion of nutrient material, it grows and multiplies to an enormous extent ; so that one mass may perhaps be the parent of five hundred, in the time which, in a perfectly healthy state, would be occupied in the production of two or three cells. And in some ordinarily very slowly-growing tissues, the germinal matter may in disease divide and subdivide very quickly, although in the healthy state it would undergo scarcely any appreciable change in the course, perhaps, of several weeks or months. The AND ITS MULT I PLICA TION. 1 1 9 increased rate of access of nutrient material to the living matter is the necessary condition of its increase. The living matter always tends to increase, but in the normal state of things it is only permitted to do so at a certain regular rate, which is determined by the even distribution and somewhat limited access of the nutrient material. In certain cases in which an increased proportion of nutrient material is distributed to the epithelium of the mucous membrane, — as, for example, to that of the fauces, — the young epithelial cells grow and multiply so rapidly that the superficial layers of older and hardened structure become detached, and upon the free surface is produced a thick layer of soft, spongy, epithelial elements, with, in many instances, but faint indications of division into individual epithe- lial particles, Fig. 42, plate X. In fact, under the circumstances alluded to, growth takes place too rapidly for the formation of the characteristic hardened epithelial texture, though the changes are not so rapid as to lead to the formation of actual pus. The spongy texture produced may be regarded as occupy- ing a position midway between healthy epithelial tissue and the pathological bioplasm, pus. I have examined the young rapidly-growing, but as yet im- perfectly-formed epithelial particles, in specimens taken from the surface of the pharynx in a case of slight sore-throat coming on in a person enjoying ordinarily good health ; some of these are represented K 2 INCREASED MUL TI PLICA TION in Fig. 42 under a power magnifying 700. The mode in which the masses divide and subdivide could be well seen, and the thick plastic character of the matter of which they are .composed has been carefully given in drawings. The greater part of the material consists of living matter or bioplasm, some of which has pro- bably undergone conversion into soft-formed material, which, however, still remains mingled with it. From any part of one of these masses diverticula might have been formed, and thus new bioplasts, each capable of undergoing conversion into an epithelial cell, would result. Many epithelial formations exhibit much the same changes in disease, and the transition from the healthy to the morbid state is beautifully indicated (Fig. 43). Nay, we may almost conceive that it is by unremitting continuance of this very process, combined with irregularity in the rate of multiplica- tion of contiguous particles, that the remarkable pathological formation of epithelial cancer results (Fig. 44, pl. X.). If, then, the bioplasts of a tissue receive an un- usually abundant supply of nutrient matter, they grow and multiply just like the amoeba, the white blood-corpuscle, the mucus-corpuscle, and the pus- corpuscle, and they may give origin to pus. Masses of bioplasm which under ordinary circumstances would form cuticle, grow and live so very fast, that there is not time for their cuticle-forming property to manifest itself. The changes are well shown in Fig. 45, pl. XL, PLATE X. FROM HEALTH TO DISEAS: Fie. 42. '^^I^*^ Epithelium from the, surface of ttie pharynx of a healthy person suffering from very slight sore throat, a day after ' catching cold.' a a normal full grown epithelial cell for contrasting with the other specimens in which the proportions of germinal matter is very great and the formed material still plastic and containing very much bioplasm in some instances dependent upon very rapid growth, x 700. p. 119. Fig. 43. Some of the smallest cells in white mucus from the smallest bronchial tubes of a cow which died from cattle plague. The bioplasm has increased in quantity. The animal was warm when examined. X lf?00. p, 119. ,?,,-. iith of an iricli — Fie. 44. ;.B.] Cancer cells from a case of epithelial cancer ofthe bladder, showing growth and multiplication of the bioplasm which exists in large quantity, X 215. p. l-.O, X 700 linear. X ISOO. 1870. [To face page 1- 0, OF BLOOD BIOPLASTS IN DISEASE. i 2 i to the left of which, at abed, are represented separate cells, the bioplasm of which is growing and dividing and subdividing. The cells multiply faster than any cuti- cle cells, and the numerous descendants they produce are pus-corpuscles. Figs. 46, 47. From these pus-bio- plasts, diverticula, proceed, and particles are from time to time detached which are extremely minute, and by their movements may pass through very narrow chinks in tissues, and thus spread from the point where they were first produced : not only so, but some of these are so minute, that, like the little germs detached from the yeast cells and other microscopic fungi, the amceba germ, and many others, air will support them ; they may thus be carried long distances from the spot where they were developed. If exposed to great heat or cold, or to the action of certain gases and vapours, they will be killed, but in warm, moist air they will live ; and if they fall in a favourable place, that is, where there is proper food for them, they will grow and multiply a thousandfold like yeast. But the yeast germ is essentially different from these, and will not produce amoeba, or the latter pus. The pabulum suitable for the first would kill the last. Multiplication of Blood-bioplasts in Disease. — Next, then, let us consider whether the multiplication of the bioplasts (masses of germinal matter) of the blood which occurs in the capillary vessels in disease, differs from the process which we have seen going on in the vessels of all animals at an early period of develop- 1 2 2 INFLAMMA TION. ment, and throughout Hfe at a certain time of the year in the case of hybernating animals, and in man under physiological conditions which cause the blood to circul-ate very slowly, or to stagnate for a time in the smaller vessels of the body. As will be inferred from the remarks made in pp. io8, 1 19, it is not possible to draw any distinct line of demarcation between physiological and pathological changes. In inflarmita- tion, the phenomena above referred to proceed a stage further, and then are unquestionably pathological. But even if this stage be reached, it by no means follows that the texture involved should not regain its normal condition and the previous healthy state be perfectly restored. On the other hand, it is quite certain that if the state of things now to be described continues for a time, and proceeds to any great extent, destruction of tissue is inevitable and return to the original con- dition is renddVed impossible. Repair may follow the injury, but this i^epair involves serious alteration in structure, with corresponding deterioration in action, without capacity for improvement and without the possibility, under any circumstances, of return to the former state. When the circulation through the capillary vessels is impeded in many cases of fever, inflammation, and other diseases, the blood bioplasts (white blood-corpuscles) multiply, and the capillaries often appear to be filled with them. The vessels and their PLATE XI. FROM ITEALTH TO DISEASl Fig. 45. A portion of the epitlielial covering; of the tongue in a state of infla-mmation. The 'bioplasm at the lower part is i^io-xiu'i, aud multiplying very rapidly. The changes taking place in individual cells or elementary parts are represented on the light, at a, b, c. d, X 700. This drawing has not been copied from a single preparation, but has been completed from the appearances observed in several diSerent specimens, p. 119. Fie-. 46. Fig. 47. Increase of bioplasm and formation of pus in individual epithelial cells of mucous membrane. Mouth, x 315 p, l^il. Division of bioplasm in cells of blad- der epithelium. From a case of inflammation of the bladder. X 215. rnnn of an inch X 215 linear. 1S70. [To face paje IC INCREASE OF BLOOD BIOPLASTS. 123 contents then very closely resemble those of an animal during the early period of its development. This state of things always exists in inflammation, and the multiplication of the bioplasts often proceeds to a wonderful extent. The appearances seen are cer- tainly not due simply to the accumulation of white blood-corpuscles, as some have held, but only in part to this, and mainly, as I pointed out many years ago, to their actual growth and increase. " If in any capil- laries of the body the circulation is retarded from any cause, an increase in the white blood-corpuscles in- variably takes place. In congestion and inflammation of the vessels of the frog's foot, the number of the white blood-corpuscles soon becomes so great as to impede and ultimately to stop the circulation through the vessel. Although the great majority are merely corpuscles that have been retarded in their passage, there can be little doubt that the corpuscles actually multiply in number in the clot that is formed."* In Fig. 51, plate XIV, p. 128, a very small vein with two capillaries from the frog's foot a few hours after inflam- mation had commenced, is represented under a magni- fying power of 215 diameters. The white blood- corpuscles form a thick layer all round the vessel, the circulation had quite ceased, and the entire tube would soon have been entirely occupied by white blood-corpuscles. The little capillaries are quite * "On the Germinal Matter of the Blood, with Remarks upon the Formation of Fibrin," December 9th, 1863, 'Trans, of the Mic. Soc.' 124 DISTENSION OF CAPILLARIES occluded. The liquor sanguinis is transuding through their walls, and in a very short time the minute vessels would have appeared quite filled with bioplasm, and the growth of the living matter from the minute particles of bioplasm which escaped when they were distended, would soon have commenced as in Figs. 48, 49, 50, plates XII, XIII, XIV. The fact of the increase of the white blood-corpuscles appears to have been overlooked in consequence of the prepara- tion of the specimens not having been conducted with sufficient care to permit of examination being made with powers of high magnifying power. Whenever a capillary vessel is distended, its walls necessarily become much reduced in thickness, and in extreme distension which occurs in inflammation, little longitudinal rents or fissures are here and there produced. Through these, serum, holding in suspen- sion very minute bioplasts probably detached from the larger ones growing and multiplying in the vessel, pass. Having thus extravasated, these particles, resulting directly from the subdivision of the white blood-corpuscles, make their way by vital movements into the interstices of the surrounding tissues, and being nearly stationary, and abundantly supplied with nutrient pabulum, grow and multiply in the new locality, and at an increasing rate. The phenomena here described will be understood if the figures given in Plates XII,XIII,and XlVbe carefully studied. These have been copied from preparations which were pre- PLATE XII. INCRRASR O? BIOPLASM IN INKLA^/lMA'TIuN. H^. 4S. PoiLiou of pectoral muscle, frog. fortyeii;ht lioura ufter beiug perforaied. X 50. Showing increaypd growib of bioplasm iu all the tissues. The vessels coutaiu an increased number of white blood coi-pnscles (bioplasm), and the bioplasm masses of the muscles are already dividing and sub- dividing. The elementary muscular libres have iu several instances ruptured and contracted within the tube of the sarcolemma. From a specimen mounted in 1863. p. 12i. of an inch — x 50 linear. L. S. B.] 1570. [To face page 124. BY BLOOD BIOPLASTS. i 2 5 pared in the year 1863. But the facts demonstrated were well known to me, had been described in my lec- tures before 1863, and were particularly referred to in a paper presented to the Royal Microscopical Society in that year. I did not come to the conclusion which has since been adopted by Cohnheim, that an individual white blood-corpuscle passed through the wall of the vessel, and then changed its characters and became a pus-corpuscle, an idea which had been previously advanced by W. Addison and also by Waller ; but my observations led me to believe — and of the correctness of the conclusion I am fully satisfied -^that the particles of germinal or living matter seen in such great numbers outside the vessels in cases of inflammation, result for the most part from the growth, division, and subdivision of minute particles of ger- minal matter which have passed through the vascular wall suspended in the fluid exudation. Many of the masses of germinal matter represented in Fig. 50, pi. XIV, are the descendants of white blood-corpuscles, but they are not the white blood-corpuscles which were previously in the blood, and which were circu- lating in that fluid. They may continue to grow and multiply like other kinds of germinal matter, until at last that rapidly-growing form of bioplasm, the com- mon result of the greatly-increased growth and multiplication of every form of bioplasm in the living body, may be produced. In inflammation of a texture going on to pus-formation, — of the pus-corpuscles in I 26 ON THE GROWTH AND the abscess, some are descendants of white blood-cor- puscles, others of the bioplasm of the tissue, vessels, and nerves. The pus-corpuscle may therefore be a descendant of the white blood-corpuscle, as well as of the germinal matter of epithelium, and of other tissues. We may, indeed, trace back its parentage to the original embryonic bioplasmic mass, which must be regarded as the primitive ancestor of all. New Observations on the Growth and Multiplication of Pus. — The researches upon which the conclusions here briefly expressed, are based, have proved, I think, as I showed in the first course of lectures which I gave at the Royal College of Physicians, 1 86 1, that the pus corpuscle is not formed by the breaking up of the tissue, and the aggregation of lifeless particles resulting therefrom. Nor is pus produced by the precipitation of particles from a clear exudation and their subsequent aggregation to form masses, as Dr. Bennett of Edinburgh supposes. Pus, as I have endeavoured to show, is a form of living germinal matter, and has descended uninterruptedly from the normal germinal matter of the body. Virchow concluded that pus was formed in connective tissue corpuscles and in epithelial cells only. But there is little doubt that pus may be derived by very rapid growth from any germinal matter in the body. The pus corpuscles usually figured and described are dead, not living. These spherical granular cor- puscles have no longer the power of growth or multipli- PLATE XI] CI LANG KS IN INFLAM'MATION-INCREASi^J -AND MULTIPLICATION 0?| BIOPLASM. ■ ' Fig. Muscular fibres and connective tissue of fhe pectoral muscle of the fro^ in a state of inflatninatiou from the immediate neighbourhood of the seat of ininry FOtlR days alter the muscle had been ti-ansflxed by a fine thread. The vessels are seen to be filled with white blood corpuscles. Some ol the bioplasm particles, probably deiived from the -white blsorl corx^uscles (pa^e 124) have escaped from the vessel at two points. The bioplasm of the connective tissue, and also that of the muscular fibres IS much increased. X 216. From a specimen mounted in 1863. p. 12t. Yi^r,n of a-n inch X 215 linear. [To facr- page V:9. MULTIPLICATION OF PUS. 127 cation. In many coagulation has taken place on the surface, and thus a sort of" cell wall" has been formed. Within this are granules and minute oil globules, resulting from the disintegration of the living matter, of which the corpuscle originally consisted, and germs of bacteria. Such pus corpuscles do not alter their form of their own accord. After a time they undergo further disintegration. If the pus remains in a cavity in the tissues, the fluid products may be absorbed, while a small quantity of cheesy matter, rich in oil and cholesterine is all that represents what was once pus. But how different is the living corpuscle. This may be seen to change its form under the microscope. Diverticula, which are from time to time detached, are seen to be formed at every part of the circumference, and thus give rise to new pus-corpuscles. The living pus-corpuscle is a mass of living, growing germinal matter, derived from matter like itself, or from the normal bioplasm matter of the organism. Plate XV. As I stated in 1863, the white blood corpuscle, the minute masses of germinal matter which I have described as existing in the blood, lymph corpuscles, chyle corpuscles, the masses of germinal matter in the spleen and other ductless glands, those found in con- nection with the walls of capillaries, germinal matter of nerve, muscle, and other tissues of the body, may give rise to pus if placed under conditions in which they are too freely supplied with pabulum. 128 ON THE MO VEMENTS On the Movements occur jnng in ordinary living Pus. — I propose now to bring forward evidence which seems to me conclusive as to the mode of growth and multi- phcation of pus corpuscles, and which, I think, goes far to show how living particles, so minute that they may be transferred considerable distances without loss of vitality, may be produced. There is certainly no true cell-wall in the case of living pus, for protrusions of the matter of which pus corpuscles consist may occur upon every part of the surface, and not only so, but some of these protruded portions, after moving a considerable distance away from the mass, become disconnected from it, and thus new pus corpuscles are produced. It is in this way that the very rapid multiplication of pus corpuscles is effected. In pus from the bladder, movements even more active than those in the mucus corpuscle are very easily observed, and when fresh, not a single spherical corpuscle can be found. See Fig. 52, plate XV, repre- senting some of the many different forms of pus corpuscles present in a very small quantity of pus. Every corpuscle exhibits a great number of these protrusions, and every protrusion might be detached and form a free pus corpuscle, Figs. 52, 53. Little particles are sometimes detached, and these are often so minute (less than -j-qoVoo" ^^ ^^ inch in diameter) that they might be supported by the atmosphere and thus transported to a distance while yet alive. PLATS XIV. CHANGES IN INFLAMMATION— GREAT INCREASE ANP MULTIPLICATION O? BIOPLASM. Fitf. 50. is drawing ■waa taken from a prepatation le.setnbling that, represented m Fi^. 49, but tlie oeriod T-ved to elapse after the inflammation had been excited was loader, The Fro^ was killed SEVEN days after the pectoral was perforated by a thread, x 215. p. 1J4. Fig-. 51. I iu the web of a young fro^ during life, a lew minutes alter inflammation liad been excited by the application of mustard. X 215. p, 123, ynfjth of an. inch ToVoth „ „ X 40. X 215. [To face pa^e 128. OCCURRING IN LIVING PUS. 129 (Fig. 54.^) la warm weather, I have known the movements continue in pus corpuscles in urine con- taining little of the ordinary urinary constituents, for forty-eight hours or more after the urine had left the bladder.* The very phenomena which take place upon the surface of the mucous membrane of the bladder may in fact be watched for hours under the microscope, and there are few things more beautiful or more instructive. The conditions required for the maintenance of life being more complex in the case of some forms of germinal matter than in others, we should conclude that such movements would continue for a consider- able period of time in particles after their removal from their natural habitat, only in the lowest and most degraded forms. This is actually the case, just as some simple creatures are capable of supporting life under a great variety of conditions, while comparatively * It is probable that careful observations upon this transparent living moving material will teach us much concerning the nature of life. I think that this subject merits far more attention than it has hitherto received, not only from physicists, chemists,, and physiologists, but from philosophers. I do not think that what will be learned from the study will favour the notions now most popular, but that is no reason why it should any longer be wholly neglected, especially by those who profess to desire to carry their enquiries to the utmost possible limits, but who really cany them a very little way, who, if successful in destroying, are certainly obstructive. Some of those who profess to be most liberal in science strongly object to enquiry being carried beyond the limits they have arbitrarily and without sufficient reason laid down. I30 DEATH AND DECOMPOSITION slight alterations would be fatal to others higher in the scale. It is not possible to distinguish many pus corpuscles from lymph corpuscles, white blood corpuscles, and many other masses of germinal matter ; indeed, if the developing brain of an embryo be examined at an early period, it will be found that this important structure consists of nothing more than a number of spherical cells, which could not, by any means we are yet acquainted with, be distinguished from many forms of pus corpuscles. See " The Microscope in Medicine," Plate XXIV, figs. 182, 183. If we carefully reflect upon many observed facts, we shall be com- pelled to admit that masses of germinal matter which resemble one another in every character we can ascertain, differ nevertheless remarkably in power, as is proved by the results of their living. Few recent writers seem to have fully recognized the remarkable truth that living things may agree in physical and chemical characters, but nevertheless differ widely in power ; that transcendent difference in vital power may be associated even with similarity of composition, so that we are quite prepared for the discovery that the powers of certain forms of morbid bioplasm are very different from those of the normal living matter from which they have descended, although no differ- ence whatever can be detected in their chemical composition. Death aiid Decomposition of Pus. — When pus bio- PLATE XV. PUS BIOPLASTS— THEIR VITAL MOVEMENTS. Fig. 52. ^^5J3?^ Pus bioplasts or corpuscles in active movement, from the unne of a case of chronic inflammation of the bladder. X 700. p. 128, Fig. 53. Fig. 54. a. Portion of aliving pus bioplast or corpuscle from the bladder The portion marked 6 moved 'out in four seconds, and was then retracted. The other portion -was extended in about the same time. X 2,600. p 1-.9. ( Fig. £4.* fe#""^ Different forms assumed by the same minute mass of bioplasm of pus from the bladder, during five seconds. X 2,800. p l'.i9. /#' m. "BP^' A portion of a pus corpuscle from the bladder of -man, the third day after the urine contain- ing it hadbeen'passed. The vital movements ii^d long ceased, and it was very transparent At a little particles (Bacteria) weie oscillating in all directions. One of these was seen to take the course indicated by the dotted line during the fraction of a second, x 2,800, p. 131. of an inch X 700. X 2500. To face page ioO OF PUS BIOPLASTS. 131 plasts die, and their death occurs when they are placed in any fluid which is not adapted for their nutrition, the vital movements cease and the cor- puscles invariably assume the spherical form. Not, unfrequently a change occurs in the outer part, and a sort of membrane like a cell wall is produced ; the contents become more granular, and they, assume the appearance usually given in published drawings. After a short time the matter of which they are com- posed undergoes change, and is invaded by bacteria germs, which grow and multiply as represented in Plate XV, fig. 54. These bacteria are not formed directly from the matter of the pus which once lived, but it is quite possible that bacteria germs existed in a living but perfectly quiescent state amongst the oldest particles of the living matter on the surface of the pus corpuscle when it was yet alive. DISEASE GERMS IN ANIMAL FLUIDS AND SECRETIONS. Before I proceed to describe the characters of the particles suspended in animal fluids, having virulent contagious properties, it is very desirable to draw attention to the minute particles of bioplasm, which may be demonstrated in many specimens of simple exudation. From this subject we shall pass on to the consideration of other forms of " exudation " which possess specific disease-producing properties. We shall find that by a careful microscopical examination of fluids which experience has proved to us have con- tagious properties, facts of great interest are disclosed Avhich have an important bearing on the question of the nature of the poison of contagious diseases. Many such fluids are clear like water, and quite as tran- sparent when examined by the unaided eye only. When we come to subject them to examination with the aid even of the highest powers yet made, although solid particles are detected, and sometimes in great number, we observe nothing peculiar to these fluids alone — nothing which would enable us to form any conception of the wonderful properties they possess — nothing that would attract the attention of the chance observer, or excite the interest of any one who had not long and carefully studied the matter. Nevertheless, GERMS IN FLUIDS AND SECRETIONS. 133 what we are able to demonstrate is of vast importance, and with the aid of other observations and experi- ments, we may form, I think, clear notions of the nature and origin of these morbid poisons, and of the manner in which they produce their marvellous and oftentimes disastrous effects. Much yet remains to be disclosed, but we shall soon learn more if we will but work and think independently, and accept the teaching of facts of observation and experiment, while careful to avoid being misled by the dog- matism of those who obstinately persist in assert- ing that all vital phenomena are to be explained by physics and chemistry, and try to make people believe that living organisms are mere machines con- structed by force. For all truly vital phenomena must necessarily be altogether out of the range of mere physical investigation ; nevertheless, to such ex- travagant lengths has the opposite view been carried of late, that it has even been seriously stated that he who refuses to look upon life as mere inorganic force opposes investigation, and looks upon the structure of man's organism as a subject unsuitable for scientific exploration. It would be as reasonable to assert that a man who is to be a scientific investigator must com- mence by confessing his belief in the truth of a con- clusion which has long been proved to be false by reason and observation. The evidence that the wonderful properties of the fluids about to be considered are due to the presence 134 SIMPLE EXUDATION of extremely minute particles of livmg matter will, I think, be admitted to be conclusive, while the effects produced by these in a living organism cannot be explained by physics or chemistry, or imitated artifi- cially. Few persons will in these days be so deluded as to accept as an explanation the assertion that vital phenomena are " molecular,"' or admit that it conveys any more information than the announcement that the phenomena of living beings are due to the molecular changes in the basis of physical life. Such " expla- nations" explain nothing, and are but impertinent fictions of the imagination. Simple Exudation. — The transparent colourless fluid which moistens the surface of a superficial wound after it has ceased to bleed, is poured out from the capillaries, or from the lymphatic vessels,, or from both sets of vessels. This fluid, besides containing albumen in solution, contains multitudes of minute particles of bioplasm, which grow and multiply upon the surface. These form fibrin and matters more or less allied to it, and perform an essential part in the healing process, or in the formation of pus, as the case may be. These minute particles of living matter are present in the blood and lymph in countless numbers. They are concerned in the production of fibrous tissue outside the capillaries, which takes place in many pathological processes, and also in the pro- duction of pus-corpuscles, and other " corpuscles " in the same situation, in disease. All "exudations" FROM THE BLOOD. 135 contain these particles of living matter. The follow- ing paragraphs are taken from a paper written by me in 1863^ : — " When the capillary vessels are distended, as In that extreme congestion which soon passes into in- flammation, a fluid which possesses coagulable pro- perties transudes through the stretched capillary walls. It is probable that in such cases minute and narrow fissures result, which, however, are too narrow to allow an ordinary white or red blood-cor- puscle to escape, but, nevertheless, wide enough to permit many of the minute particles of the living or germinal matter (the existence of which in the blood has been already referred to) to pass through. The small protrusions upon the surface of the white blood- corpuscle might grow through the capillary walls, become detached, and pass into the tissue external to the vessels. Such minute particles of living matter external to the vessels being surrounded with nutrient pabulum, and stationary, would grow and multiply rapidly, while a similar change would of course go on in the now stagnant fluid in the interior of the capil- lary. The result would be exactly that which is observed, viz., the presence of a vast number of cells like white blood-corpuscles in the interior of the capillary vessel, and im7nediately around its external ♦ " On the Germinal Matter of the Blood, with remarks upon the Formation of Fibrin." Microscopical Society, December, 9th, 1863.-^ See Trans. Mic. Soc, April, 1864. L 2 13 6 VER Y MINUTE PAR TICLES surface, and sometimes these extend for some distance in the substance of the surrounding tissue, and they increase in number, " I venture, then, to conclude that many of the clear fluids which have been considered as 'exudations' from the blood, really contain a multitude of extremely minute particles of living matter, which are intimately related to the white blood-corpuscles, and that these grow and become one source of the small granular cells or corpuscles which are so familiar to all who have studied morbid changes in the tissues as they occur in man and the higher animals. ** Some of these active living particles may be so small as to be invisible by a power magnifying 5,000 diameters. I have seen such particles, less than the 50,000 of an inch in diameter, and have no reason whatever for assuming that these are really the smallest that exist." These minute particles of bioplasm multiply freely, but they may also be derived from the white blood- corpuscles, and from other forms of bioplasm. The general appearance of such minute particles is repre- sented in a minute portion of recently drawn blood in Fig. 55, plate XVI. As the blood coagulates they undergo change, die, and help to form the non-living fibrin. In every clot numerous white blood-corpuscles, also composed of living matter, can be detected. Fig- 57- ^"^ coagulation it is probable that the most minute particles of bioplasm change first, and become LIVING BIOPLASM FROM THE BLOOD. PLATE XVI. Fig. 55. Fig. Red and white blood corpuscles in a drop of blood which had just been removed from the finder X 2,800* The l.\ri5e smooth circular bodies are the red corpuscles, i'hree very small red coi-puscles are less than the _J-_th of an inch in diameter. The smallest particles are composed of matter like that of which the white blood corpuscle or blood b'ioplast (6) consists. Threads of fibrine are bein^ formed by the coagulation of tlje mmuie particles of bioplasm of the blood. 'J'liese are seen between the corpuscles in the upper and lower part of the field. « red corpuscle exhibiting ani^ular projections Above it and to the left is another with still more pointed processes. September, 1863. p, }3t3. "Very minute particles of bioplasm from estida- tiou. X 5,000. p. 136. From a pale clot in the heart of a patient who died of exhaustion, show- ing white corpuscles, or blood bioplasts, and fibres of fibriue. x '00. p, lt6. Fig. 53. C;ipillaiy vessel, from the mucous mernbraoe of tlie epiglottis. Show- ing numerous massea of bioplasm situated very close together and projecting into the cavity of the vessel, x '00. p. 137. ,th of an inch X 2,80f' [To face paga 13'5. OF BIOPLASM IN BLOOD. 137 fibrin. After a time the white blood-corpuscles also die, and thus the coagulum of fibrin continues to in- crease for a short time after coagulation has com- menced. The diverticula froni a white blood-cor- puscle undergoing conversion into fibrin are repre- sented in Plate XVII, fig. 60. The lines round the red blood-corpuscles seen stretching from one to the other in Fig. 55, represent the earliest stage in the formation of fibrin, and the minute particles of bio- plasm are seen actually undergoing change. The bioplasm of the blood is derived from the bioplasm originally found in the vessels of the germinal area at a very early period of development, from the bio- plasm of the capillary walls, which is very abundant in some capillaries, and projects into the cavity, Plate XVI, fig. 58, and from the lymph and chyle bioplasm which is being continually poured into the vascular system and mixed with the blood. If the clear transparent material which moves round the cells of Vallisneria (Fig. 59, pi. XVII.) and other plants be carefully examined under very high powers magnifying upwards of 2,000 diameters, it will be discovered that this is not a simple fluid like water containing the nucleus and chlorophyl (Fig. 62). But the apparent fluid has suspended in it an infinite number of particles of living matter like those of which the amoeba, white blood-corpuscle, and other forms of living matter consist. With high powers the slightly opalescent appearance may be detected, and 138 BIOPLASM OF VALLISNERIA. by careful foccussing minute particles of living matter will be brought into view. The movements of the fluid may therefore be compared with the movements of the living bioplasm of an amoeba. In the circu- lating juice of many plants similar appearances may be observed, and in the blood and circulating fluid of all animals, and in man himself, minute particles of living matter are to be demonstrated in immense multitudes. These are diffused through the fluid, and to them is probably due the movement of the contents of the finer vessels and spaces. This con- stituent of the blood, seen with such difficulty that its presence is not yet admitted by observers, is pro- bably the most important, for its increase or diminu- tion may occasion serious disease or death. This almost impalpable living moving matter is the seat of many very important changes, and is perhaps in- fluenced before any other constituents of the body when certain poisons and disease germs find their way into the blood. Protection, after successful vaccination, and the escape from a second attack, which is the rule in the case of many contagious fevers, is most likely brought about by changes induced in the living matter under consideration. In health it is upon this material that the coagulable property of the blood is mainly dependent, and it is this which in great part undergoes conversion into what we call fibrin, when the blood is removed from tiie living vessels or " dies." If destroyed it may, PLATE XVII. BIOPLASM, BLOOD; VACCINE LYMPH; VEGETABLE CELLS. F:.^. 59. Fi6. 60. Valtisneina spiralis, sliowiu^ large and ttmall cells wiih liviu^ couteuis wLicLi Altered blood bioplast or corpuscle. Bodies of this foiin were common in the blood an hour after it had been drawn from tbeSnger. Theprojectini^ processes consist of germinal matter which is gradually undergoing change into tibrin. X l.SOO. p. 137 Fig. 61. Corpuaxiles consisting of germinal matter or living bioplasm in the 'lymph.' from a vacciue vesicle, ahowinS chauiSes in form which occured a few minutes alter the lymph haa been transferred to a warm slide, x l.bOO. pp. U4, U6. Fig. 62. Part of a Cell in vallisneria. showing circulation. The lar6e m^ss a witli nucleus, is colourless, and consists of bioplasm. The smaller particles (under 6) are aiao composed of living inatter or bioplasm. The movements of the entire contents lound the cell are probably due to these. After death they are translormed into fibrin. The round bodies , c, are mass'^s of chlorophyl, which are in process of formation, x -2,800. pp 137,139. Toijoo of an inch. X 1800. - X 2S00. [lo :acepa;e 133. LIVING PARTICLES POISONOUS. T39 under favourable circumstances, be renewed by the appropriation of nutrient matter by the white blood- corpuscles which are intimately related to this living bioplasm and take part in its formation. I believe they bear to it the same relation as the '* nucleus " in the cell of Vallisneria bears to the living particles sus- pended in the fluid, Fig. 62, pi. XVII., whilethe red blood-corpuscles of the blood correspond to the chlo- rophyl particles in the rotating fluid contents of the vegetable cell. In this work attention will be drawn to the vast importance of this living fibrin-forming matter in various exudations, and it will be found that a simple explanation of many most important morbid phenomena may be given. Now in the fluid exuda- tion or virus which produces a " poisoned wound " when inoculated we also find minute particles of living bioplasm. Many arguments will be advanced in this treatise in favour of the view that the virulence of the poison is due entirely to the living particles, and not to the fluid in which these are suspended. In the case of some of these poisonous fluids we are able to study the production of the contagious virus, and we may even in some cases succeed in tracing out the manner in which the material with the wonderful poisonous property originates. In some forms of inflammation of serous membranes the process may be made out, and a conception formed of the several changes which occur, and at 140 CHANGES IN BIOPLASM last end in the development of the poison. The morbid change is sometimes limited to the effusion of serum and the production of " inflammatory lymph," but in other instances the inflammation proceeds to a further stage, and actual pus is generated. Peritonitis is an example of an inflammation which much more frequently proceeds to the formation of pus than inflammation of other serous membranes. The greater vascularity of the peritoneum as compared with allied textures may perhaps account for this fact. It is inter- esting to discuss briefly the characters of the different " inflammatory products," as they are called, resulting from peritoneal inflammation, varying in intensity. In slight inflammation there is great vascular dis- tension, accompanied, as in other cases, by the escape of exudation in which are suspended particles of bio- plasm. The exudation coagulates upon the surfaces of the serous membrane, perhaps glueing them together. The fluid portion is gradually absorbed, and if the case progresses to recovery, much of the coagulated matter is also taken up, a little being transformed into fibrous tissue, resulting in a few " adhesions," or mere thickening of the serous membrane, as the case may be. When, however, the intensity of the inflammation is more marked, the little particles of bioplasm ori- ginally derived from the white blood-corpuscles, grow and multiply, and with the fibrinous matter in which they are entangled, form transparent flocculi, which DURING INFLAMMATION. 141 are suspended in the serous part of the exudation, or adhere here and there loosely to the peritoneal sur- face. Many of these flocculi are found to contain multitudes of bioplasm particles, and oftentimes a vast number of these are suspended in the fluid, and congregated here and there, forming little collections, upon the surface of the delicate serous membrane, to which they adhere, and where they grow. If the inflammatory process still continues, and in- creases in severity, the vascular congestion becomes more marked, and the exudation is poured out from the blood more abundantly ; the masses of bioplasm increase in number yet faster, and the exudation in consequence appears nearly opaque. The flocculi are of a yellowish colour, and look very like pieces of clotted cream which stick here and there to the peri- toneum covering the intestines and the inner surface of the abdominal parietes. Not unfrequently the surface is smeared over in places with whitish pasty masses of soft cream-like matter, in the intervals between which the highly-injected vessels stand out with great distinctness. The masses of bioplasm would now be called pns-co7'piLscles. Here then is an interesting example of the production of pus-corpuscles by the rapid growth and multiplication of particles of bioplasm which were once in the blood, and intimately related to the white blood-corpuscles. But further : if, as is well known, a little of this material were to be introduced into the body, as may 142 NATURE OF POISON unfortunately happen from a dissection-wound in the course of making a post-mortem examination, terrible inflammation may be excited in the person inoculated. The most tiny morsel of this virulent, rapidly-multi- plying morbid bioplasm may give rise to a dreadful form of " blood-poisoning," which may end .fatally and in a very short time. In some cases similar poisonous particles which have been derived from a diseased organism are so very light that they are supported by the air, and may find their way into the blood of a healthy (.^) person through his respiratory organs, or may gain access to his circulating fluid by traversing the narrow chinks between the epithelial cells of the cuticle. Now, what is the nature of the matter inoculated, which produces these dreadful results "i The virulent poison which sometimes destroys life in cases of dis- section-wounds cannot, as was remarked in Part I, be attributed to the presence of vegetable germs, for the period of its most virulent activity is very soon after death, but before the occurrence of putrefaction, when the vegetable fungus germs multiply. A punc- tured wound is not dangerous if putrefactive decom- position has taken place, because, although bacteria are developed in immense numbers, the real contagious virus is dead. The vegetable germs in fact grow and flourish upon the products resulting from the death of the dangerous animal living poison. In short this material is living and very actively growing germinal INTRODUCED BY INOCULATION. 143 matter ; living matter which retains its Hfe after the death of the organism in which it was produced has occurred ; Hving matter which has descended directly from the living matter of health, but which has ac- quired the property of retaining its life under new conditions ; living matter destroyed with difficulty, and possessing such wonderful energy that it will grow and multiply when removed from the seat of its develop- ment and transferred to another situation, provided only it be supplied with suitable nutrient pabulum, — and it is to be feared the ordinary nutrient fluids of a perfectly healthy organism are eminently adapted for the nutrition of this destructive virus. TJie Germs of Ptirideiit Ophthalmia — Gonorrhceal Pus. — Such is the vitality of these forms of bioplasm that they will grow and multiply upon certain mucous surfaces if placed there ; not only so, but the living particles will retain their vitality for some time after their removal from the surface upon which they grew. They may even be transported long distances by the air, or they may remain for some time in moist cloths without being destroyed. When once a room has been infected with such particles, some weeks may elapse before the death of all the specific disease- carrying germs has taken place. The characters and vital movements of pus and minute pus germs, have been already described in p. 128. The pus possessing specific contagious properties 144 VACCINE LYMPH. cannot be distinguished from ordinary pus. It differs indeed from this last, but not in appearance, chemical composition, or physical properties. It differs in vital power. Vaccine Lymph. — Vaccine lymph which has been just removed from the growing vesicle will be found to contain a great number of extremely minute par- ticles of bioplasm, which may be well seen under a power magnifying from i,000 to 2,000 diameters. In 1863 I made a drawing of the appearances I observed in the bioplasts from a drop of perfectly fresh lymph which had been transferred to a warm glass slide, and carefully covered with very thin glass, under the -j-^ object glass, which magnifies about 1,800 diameters. The results are represented in Fig. 61, plate XVII, which was published in the " Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science " for April, 1864. In vaccine lymph which has been kept for some time in glass tubes, multitudes of very minute par- ticles are observed, and these exhibit the most active molecular movements. These particles have often been termed debris, and have been regarded as quite unimportant elements of the lymph. To them, how- ever, the active properties of the lymph are entirely and solely due. And I should be no more inclined, in the absence of the most positive evidence to the contrary, to regard the fluid portion of the vaccine lymph as the active material, than I should be to assume that the fluid in which the spermatozoa were PARTICLES OF BIOPLASM. 145 suspended was the fertilizing agent, and that the spermatozoa themselves were merely epithelial debris, and quite unimportant ; or to infer that the fluid in which the yeast fungi or bacteria were growing, was the active agent in exciting fermentation while the actually growing, moving and multiplying particles were perfectly passive. The germinal particles in all cases are, without doubt, the active agents, and it seems to me as much opposed to the facts of the case to maintain that the niateries morbi of cattle plague and other contagious fevers is a material that can be dissolved in fluid, and precipitated and reformed, or sublimed as a volatile substance, as it would be to look upon any living organism as the result of the con- centration of an albuminous solution, and capable of resolution and precipitation. The little particles represented in Plate XVIII, fig. 66, could not be distinguished from the minute particles of pus, Plate XV, fig. 54*, or other germs of living germinal matter, and I think they consist of a peculiar kind of living matter, the smallest particle of which, when supplied with its proper pabulum, will grow and multiply, giving rise to millions of little particles like itself, each having similar properties and powers. I consider it to be almost certain that the material of which these particles are composed has the power of forming matter like itself from pabulum around it, which differs from it in properties and composition. 146 VACCINE BIOPLASTS, Such living germs may pass from the organism on which they grew to another, and will grow and multiply there if they meet with the proper pabulum. The only condition in which matter is known to ex- hibit these powers of self-multiplication is the living state. M. Chauveau (Comptes rendus, February, 1868) described these same bodies in 1868. It is evident he had not seen my observations, published in the Cattle Plague Report, or my previous researches published in the Microscopical Transactions for 1863.* Fig. 61, plate XVII, was appended to this paper, which was read December 9th, 1863. Chauveau showed that the active particles subsided after forty-eight hours, and that no effects were produced by inoculating the albuminous supernatant fluid, while the full effects were produced by vaccinating with the deposit. As would be supposed from the excessive minuteness of these bodies, they are not to be separated by ordinary filtration, but if the fluid containing them also con- tains a trace of coagulable fibrin diffused through it, this by contraction after coagulation would filter off the little bioplasts, and leave a serum perfectly free. Dr. Farr calls the living particles biads {^i,a, force, ^Los, life), and speaks of the vaccine particles as * "Beale had, before Chauveau, declared that the 'active properties of vaccine lymph are entirely and solely due ' to these corpuscles. He has figured them." — Dr. Farr, " Report on the Cholera Epidemic of J 866," p. Ixviii. THEIR NATURE. j^^ vaccinads. — " Report on the Cholera Epidemic of 1866," p. Ixx. The circumstance that vaccine lymph retains its activity if kept in a tube for several weeks, seems conclusive as to the possibility of the particles re- taining their vitality for a considerable time after they have been removed from the place where they grew ; the arguments advanced as proving that the active power resides in the particles and not in the fluid, being admitted. It is not more difficult to explain the fact that such living particles may be dried with- out losing their power, than that an amoeba or rotifer should exhibit the same peculiarity. As this property is observed in connection with many of the lower forms of life, we might almost anticipate that the living matter from the highest organisms, if reduced to a degraded condition, would retain its vitality under circumstances which would cause its death in its nor- mal condition. Yet it must not be supposed that these particles any more than the " dried animalcules " are really dried. Some moisture is retained by the particles within the imperfectly dried mass. Com- plete desiccation will destroy life in both cases. Since it has been shown that the active powers of vaccine lymph reside in the minute particles of living germinal matter, and it has been proved that these may be dried (imperfectly) without loss of power, it is surely not too much to conclude that the jnateries morbi of other and allied contagious diseases is probably com- J 48 VARIOLA— FEVER. posed of living particles which have the same property of living for some time in a state of partial desicca- tion. Living Germs of Variola. — 1 have examined the contents of the little vesicle which rises in small-pox at different stages of its development, and find, as in allied pathological changes, vast multitudes of minute particles of living matter or bioplasm, but, as will have been anticipated from what has been already said, these present nothing peculiar or characteristic, nothing that would enable us to say if we saw these particles under the microscope that they had been ob- tained from a small-pox vesicle, and would certainly give rise to that disease. I have made a drawing of some of the varioloid bioplasts from a well-developed vesicle on the fifth day of the disease, and also from a vesicle which was just making its appearance. Plate XVIIL, fig. 64. Living Germs of Fever. — As was shown experi- mentally of Dr. Sanderson, a mere trace of blood serum was sufficient to propagate cattle plague. A very small portion of blood or of the tissues of an infected animal had the same effect. Nay, the contagium is so subtle that in this as well as in many other contagious diseases, the breath of the diseased organism contains numbers of the potent par- ticles of poison, and in this manner the very air of a considerable space or even district may become infected. BIOPLASM OF SMALL POX VESICLE, AND BLOOD IN j^Jl^VLR. Fig. 63. t'lg- 6-i. ^ P': /^ fS " \\ % % &■ G i Bioplasta from the va^inalmucas of a cow. Cattle Plas^ue, a. bacLpriutn amongst these. 6, a- mass of fterrniual matter eon- tainiuft minute particles like bacteria. These are also seen in the white blood and pus cor- puscle, ice. X 2,600. p. 148 Bioplasts from small pox vesicles on the fifth day of the disease The two bodies under o from one of tlje youn^e.sc vesicles, which was just be^iuuiuA to be white at the summit. The six bodies under 6 from a fully loaned vehicle. X 1,800. p. U8 Fig. 65. b >^ 'k: ^'^^%:^ ^ Blood from intestinal capillaries and small mesenteric vein Cattle Plague. The seni reddish a. part of white blood corpuscle in outline ; h. minute particles of bioplasm { fterms) in immense number in all parts ofthe field The smooth round bodies are yoi corpuscles. " The angular corpuscles are old and altered red blood corpuscles, x 2,800. tn WHS disease ang red p 149. Fig. 66. Fig. 67. Mg 63. • Particles from vaccine lymph ■which had been kept in a tube, exhibiting very active move- ments. X 6,000. pp. 141, Uo. Very small masses of ger- minal matter and white blood corpuscle (o) from small vein as in Fig. 38. X 2,80C>. p. 149. of art inch 1800, White and red blood corpuscles from abranch of the pulmonary vein. Cattle Plague. A quantity of germinal matter or bioplasm in a very minute state of divi- sion is aeenaroiind the lower part of the white corpuscle. X 1,800, p. 149. SYPHILITIC BIOPLASTS. 149 In the blood removed from the smaller vessels, in the mucus secretions of the mouth, intes- tinal canal, and in the milk of animals suffering from this disorder, I have found multitudes of minute particles of bioplasm, which, as long as they remain alive, are, without doubt, disease-carrying particles. Disease germs are figured in Plates XVIII and XIX, and in Plates XXIV to XXVIL Their characters will be further discussed in the Section on the " Nature of Disease Germs," p. 161. The disease germs of many contagious fevers will retain their vitality in water and other fluids for a length of time, and there is reason for concluding that some of these poisons not only grow and multiply in fluids different from any in the organism, but that in the course of such growth and multiplica- tion, they acquire still more virulent properties. Dr. C. Macnamara has discovered that cholera poison in water after exposure to the sun for a few hours, becomes extremely virulent, and that this period corresponds with the development of multitudes of vibrios ; but that after the lapse of a day or two, when the vibrios will have disappeared and given plaoe to ciliated animalcules, the fluid may be taken with impunity. Syphilitic Disease Germs. — The syphilitic germ is another of those remarkably special living poisons which may be suspended in serum and other fluids, and retain its vitality for a length of time. M 150 SYPHILITIC BIOPLASTS. There is reason for thinking that a single epithelial cell may carry multitudes of active particles of syphilitic poison, one of which introduced into the blood or lymph of a healthy person would probably grow and multiply, and give rise to pathological changes characteristic of, and quite peculiar to this particular poison. We know that the syphilitic poison may retain its specific characters in the organism for years, from time to time giving rise to local pathological phenomena, which are characteristic of this kind of morbid bioplasm. It is impossible from the facts of the case to arrive at any other conclusion than this : that a certain portion of the living matter remains in the organism, and that under certain favourable circum- stances this grows and multiplies, producing disease. Particles of this virulent poison may be transferred from the infected organism to a healthy one, and contaminate it, even many years after its introduction into the first had taken place. Of syphilitic bioplasm there are different kinds, giving rise to different pathological affections belonging to the syphilitic class. Indeed, some fac^s render it probable that there are several different species or varieties of syphilitic poison, instead of only one or two. One very remarkable property of the poison of syphilis is, that it may be re-inoculated into the same organism over and over again, until inoculation ceases to produce any specific effect. As soon as this is the DISEASE GERMS IN SECRETIONS. 1 5 1 case, the organism is said to be " protected." But such protection sometimes cannot be procured until successive inoculations have been practised during several months, and, as has been remarked, the remedy is in many respects worse than the disease, besides being, and on many grounds, quite unjustifiable. Living Disease Germs in Secretions. — The living germs of many fevers pass from the blood into the secretions. The urine, the secretions from the mucous membrane of the nose, mouth, stomach, and intestinal canal, contain them in large numbers. There is reason to think they may also escape in the secretion of the sweat and sebaceous glands. In the excre- ments there can be no doubt disease germs exist in vast numbers in typhoid fever, in cholera, and in some other diseases. Even in the milk, in the tears, in the saliva, they are present. Some of the living particles in the milk from a cow suffering from Cattle Plague are represented in Figs. 69 and 71, plate XIX, and in Fig. 70, particles of bioplasm as well as fungi are seen in vaginal mucus from another animal suffer- ing from the same disease. The particles of bioplasm in which I believe the contagious properties reside, are situated immediately under the letter d in Fig. 70. Below and to the left of these particles are sporules of fungi, which cannot be mistaken. Their spherical form, sharp, well-defined outline, and the high retrac- tive power of the envelope, positively distinguish them from disease germs. M 2 152 TUBERCLE BIOPLASTS. Living tubercle germs will not be considered as very closely related to the contagious particles which are the active agents in the propagation of contagious fevers. There is, however, reason to think that particles of living growing tubercle exist sufficiently minute to be supported by the atmosphere and carried long distances ; while there are many facts which are considered by some sufficiently conclusive to justify the opinion that tubercular disease of the lungs is at least in some instances contagious. And it is certain that the most recent observations in connection with the question of the nature and mode of propagation of tubercle, so far from militating against this view, tend rather to support it. That tubercle is not eminently contagious is certain, while the probabilities of minute particles of living growing .tubercle escaping into the air while it remains in the air-cells of the lungs, or rising in a living state into the atmosphere from the sputum after its expectora- tion, are not great. At the same time neither circum- stance can be regarded as impossible, neither view can be held to be untenable. The manner in which the bioplasm of tubercle multiplies is represented in Fig. "Ji, pi. XIX, where it is seen extending round a small artery in the areolar tissue of the external coat. The living particles obstructed in the vessel make their way through its lining membrane and between the fibres of the muscular coat, until they reach the areolar tissue BIOPLASM, FEVER, CANCER, TUBERCLE. Fig. 69. PLATE XIX. Fig. 70. Milk, a, Colostrum co'puscle with bioplasra ; 6, oily matter foiTDing cyliudrical masses ; c, growing gerirnnal matter or bioplasm, the so-called puslike corpuscles ia the milk of a cow suffering from cattle plague. X '00. p. 161. Fig. 71. -vi3^ Mucus frona vagiaa. Cai ile pKgue. Bioplasm growing and multiplviug rabidly, a, Sporules ot fungi; 6, small spor'jles of fungi; c, corpuscles and pus- like cells The manner iu which tlie rapid multiplication of imperfectly formed epithelial cells takes place is represented at e. Observe the concentric layers of tlie imperfectly hardened formed material. X 700. p. 161. Fig. 72. Soirie o: the smallest masses of bioplasm (uct coloured' iu milk in cattle plague. X 2.800. p. 161. Bioplasm (not coloured) in cancer cells from case of cancer of the bladder. X 215. p. 161. Fig. VS. Tubercle bioplasm In the coats of a -small artery ofthepia mater, from a case of tubercular infiam- matiou. Death three weeks after the commencement of the attack, x 216. p 16i. T55o of ^^ inch — X 215. X 700. 2SCX). I To face page 162. CANCER BIOPLASTS. 153 outside, where they grow and multiply. By their accumulation, the pressure upon the vessel becomes greater, and at last its calibre will be completely obliterated. From such tubercle collections minute bioplasts may be readily detached, and after having found their way into a pervious lymphatic vessel, or blood capillary, might be carried to distant parts and grow there. In this way tubercles are developed in many different parts of the body and in the substance of many different tissues and organs. If a particle of fluid, holding living tubercle-germs in suspension, were introduced by inoculation into a weakly or- ganism, the disease might be produced. Cancer Germs. — Whilst it is almost certain cancer could be introduced by direct inoculation into the organism of a healthy person, many circumstances render it in the highest degree improbable that living- germs detached from the growth, could, under any circumstances, gain access to another organism through the air breathed, or in any other manner pass into the blood or tissues, as long as the surface remained uninjured. Cancer germs would probably live for some time in animal fluids out of the body, and it is by no means impossible that we may succeed in growing them in glass vessels away from their natural seat of growth, and watch the changes which occur under our microscopes ; but it is exceedingly doubtful if these germs would long retain their vitality if removed from the fluid which nourished them. Some 154 CANCER BIOPLASTS. cancer germs are represented amongst the large cancer cells figured in Plate X, fig. 44, and in Plate XIX, fig. 72, Between the cancer germ, which cannot be conveyed by the air from the diseased organism to one not infected, — and the germ of scarlatina, which will retain its vitality for weeks after it has escaped from the organism in which it was produced, and may readily gain access to healthy organisms in the air they breathe, — we have examples of living disease germs manifesting powers of retaining their vitality when free in many different degrees. In other words, these poisons differ re- markably in the facility with which they are propa- gated, or spread from person to person. All exhibit the same appearances, though they differ remarkably in power. The capacity for resisting death, due to some inherent power and not to their chemical com- position, varies much, some being capable of living for weeks or months away from the fluids of the body, while others die within a very short time of their removal from the seat of growth. In this section a number of remarkable forms of contagious matter or virus have been referred to. These resemble one another in general appearance. Neither by its form, chemical composition, or other demonstrable properties, could the vaccine germ be distinguished from the small-pox germ, or the pus- germ from either. All are like the minute particles DISEASE GERMS, 155 of bioplasm of the blood from which they differ so remarkably in power. Of the conditions under which these germs are produced, and of the manner in which the rapidly-multiplying matter acquires its new and marvellous specific powers, we have very much yet to learn. Those who have committed themselves to physical views of life, undisturbed by the signal failure of all their attempts to demonstrate facts in favour of their hypothesis, must needs resort to the wretched expedient of suggesting that differences of form, structure, and composition, may be discovered at some future time. These, when discovered, they prophecy will fully account for the marvellous differences in power manifested by the different kinds of formless, structureless, living matter, healthy and morbid, which has hitherto defied chemical analysis. Yet it is imagined that the difference between the chemistry of the small-pox germ, and that of the ordinary pus germ, will be found sufficient to fully account for the different actions of the two. When chemical science shall have progressed sufficiently to enable chemistry to demonstrate the highly complex chemical pheno- mena of these germs, their marvellous collocations and combinations will, doubtless, be exhibited to the public. In the meantime chemists and physicists await with confidence the fulfilment of their pro- phecies, and decline to take notice of any facts that have been, or that may be advanced, against their untenable doctrines. INTRODUCTION OF DISEASE GERMS INTO THE BODY AND OF THEIR ESCAPE. Disease Germs in Air, Water, and Food. — Such minute particles as those described in the last section are liable to be suspended in the air we breathe, or they may be disseminated through the water we drink, or hidden in the food we eat. Not only so, but there is reason to think that some kinds of these contagious disease germs even grow and multiply outside the body. Indeed, it appears probable that a few actually acquire their virulent properties after they have left the organism in which they have been developed, while they remain immersed in some extraneous medium containing the proper elements for their nutrition and further development. That such particles as those represented are sufficiently light to be supported in the air and carried long distances by air currents, is proved by the fact that the scales of the wings of Insects and starch corpuscles, each of which weighs more than a hundred times as much, are supported by the slight currents of air In our ordinary rooms, deposited upon shelves, and even transported long distances. The careful examination of the particles suspended in the air as seen in a sunbeam, renders all further remarks upon this part of the question superfluous. DISEASE GERMS. 157 It is well known that many contagious diseases may be propagated by the breath. Of this we have direct proof as regards the poison of cattle plague, small-pox, scarlet fever, and some others. Kiichen- meister made a sheep breathe, during one hour, air which was made to traverse the shirt worn for twelve hours by a patient who was suffering from small-pox. Five days afterwards the disease commenced, and by the eighth day a well-marked eruption of variola was developed upon the sheep. Glanders is another contagious disease, and of a most fatal kind, which is propagated through the air, and, although direct inoculation is usually necessary for its communication to man, in one case which fell under my observation, the evidence that the fatal disease was communicated by the air was very strong indeed, if not perfectly conclusive. I have endeavoured to ascertain if such particles as I have described could be actually demonstrated by microscopical investigation with the aid of the highest powers, in the air which was known to contain a form of contagious poison. Mr. Crookes made some investigations upon this part of the subject in connection with the Cattle Plague Inquiry, and he obtained some very interesting and important experimental results. He was good enough to give me a tube which contained a piece of cotton wool that had been exposed to the breath of a diseased animal, and was fully impregnated with contagious 158 DISEASE GERMS matter, and another tube through which the breath of an animal, dying from the disease, had been passed. I carefully moistened the wool and the tube with perfectly pure glycerine, and subjected the fluid to examination with the gV^h. Although in each case I have seen particles resembling those already many times referred to, I do not attach much importance to these two isolated observations, or look upon them as con- clusive, for in the first place the number of minute particles of various kinds present makes it impossible to identify with any certainty the supposed particles of contagmm ; secondly, as there are undoubted sporules of fungi, I could not prove that the very minute particles which I should be inclined to regard as the contagium had not been developed from these ; and, thirdly, in such an enquiry it would be wrong in principle to place much reliance upon only one or two observations. At the same time it is only right to state that the piece of wool in one of the tubes, through which the breath had been passed, exhibited a much greater number of minute particles, resembling those which I regard as particles of contagium, than were obtained from the second piece of wool at the other end of the same tube, by which the air was subjected to a second filtration. It does, therefore, appear possible to de- termine the question from this experimental side. The microscopical part of the investigation presents IN AIR, WATER, AND FOOD. 159 many practical difficulties, and any one entering upon it should perform, in the first instance, a great many preliminary experiments in order to determine the most convenient and most delicate methods of examination. Many disease germs will retain their vitality in water, and there can be no doubt that many are introduced into the organism in this medium only. From the evidence that has been adduced, it is certain that both typhoid fever and cholera are disseminated by drinking water, and almost as certain that if pure wholesome water had been supplied to the victims instead of the disease-carrying fluid, many lives would have been saved. That some disease germs will live for a considerable time in water, may be proved by experiment. Pus-corpuscles from the bladder may be kept alive in water, to which a very little albumen or serum has been added. The gonorrhoeal poison- germ, as well as the bioplast capable of producing purulent ophthalmia, will also retain their vitality in water, and probably even in water containing soap and other things dissolved in it. Much of the water containing disease-producing germs is very rich in organic matter, and the products of the decomposition of organic matter. Hence it is always desirable to discard such water for drinking or culinary purposes. Although there can be no doubt that many bad specimens of water are perfectly harmless, as we are unable to say whether disease germs are actually i6o OF DETECTING DISEASE present or not in any given specimen, the only safe course is to condemn all water rich in dissolved and suspended 'organic matter, and to subject all doubtful specimens to the action of Condy's fluid, boiling and filtration, before its use is permitted. Various kinds of food afford a nidus for disease germs. Articles of diet should never be kept in the sick room longer than necessary, and the healthy should never be permitted to partake of food which had been left for some time exposed to the air of the sick room. ' In milk and weak soup it is probable some disease germs might retain their vitality for a length of time, and perhaps in warm weather grow and multiply to a great extent ; and although a number of persons might perhaps take these fluids with impunity, or be in other ways exposed to the influence of disease germs, the probability that but one here and there would be attacked, renders the slightest carelessness on the part of the attendants highly culpable, and deserving of severe punish- ment. As is well known, the poison of scarlet fever, small- pox, and some other contagious diseases, may be retained for a length of time, in a living state, in the clothes of the sick, in the bedding, hangings, furniture, on the paper of the walls, and even in the floor, of the sick room. It is probable that in these cases the living germs are embedded in a portion of the poisonous matter itself or the secretion in which it GERMS IN THE AIR. l6i was present, or in some other kind of organic matter which has dried up. Thus some of the germs become protected in the same manner as the living germs of vaccinia and of variola are preserved in the partially dried lymph. In this way, as is well known, they will retain their vitality even for many weeks upon the point of a lancet or upon a glass or ivory plate. On Detecting Disease Germs in the A ir. — Various methods for detecting germs in the air have already been referred to when the subject of vegetable germs was under consideration. It remains now only to describe the apparatus recently devised by Dr. Mad- dox, for collecting from the atmosphere all foreign particles suspended in it. A full account of the instrument in question is given in the " Monthly Microscopical Journal" for June ist, 1870, p. 286. The arrangement will be understood, if the figures in Plate XX, copied from those illustrating Dr. Mad- dox's paper, be referred to. In Fig. 74, the instrument is so placed as to be used like a vane outside the house. By slipping off the vane, and placing the rest of the apparatus in a vertical instead of horizontal position, and attaching to it another short tube (Fig. y%) with a metal pipe terminating in a small funnel, it can be used over a cesspool, in any nook or corner, in an ordinary room, in a cow-shed or stable, or in a ward near a patient suffering from any infectious disease. A draught of 1 62 DR. MADDOX'S APPARATUS air is produced by placing a lighted lamp under the funnel, as shown in the drawing. When the apparatus is to be used vertically, the extra brass tube (Fig. 'j^) is to be slipped over the end, and the whole is to be supported by one of the retort-holders of the laboratory, or in any convenient way, and beneath the open end of the little funnel is to be placed a lighted oil or spirit lamp, in order that a current of air may be generated. Its position above the surface of the ground may vary from a few to many inches or feet, according to choice. Dr. Maddox thinks about 3 feet the proper height. If it be desired to test the efficacy of various vapours or fluids as disinfectants for the purpose of destroying the living germs, an extra nozzle (Fig. "jj) made as a flat box having a small nozzle projecting from the cover, looking towards the thin glass, can be screwed on the ordinary one. "If this narrow box, which should be platinized inside, be packed with fine cotton wool, damped at one part with any article, as creosote, tincture of the muriate of iron, or solution of quinine, or a particle of hypochlorite of lime placed at one part, the particles from the air may be supposed to be entrapped amongst the fibres ; but the cotton-wool should, before use, be soaked in absolute alcohol for half an hour, and squeezed dry between heated plates of glass ; or gun-cotton might be used if thought more free from error. The wool from opposite the nozzle might, in each case, be DR. MADDOX'S GERM COLLECTING APPARATUS. Fie?. 74. PLATE XX. Pr Marldox'! suapeiideil in smaller fuun ipf aratus for coUectine germs and aoWri particles le atinospbere The air enters at a and through the s above and below, it passes through the narrow noz/le in the central part of the figure and strikes against the thin glass placed imme- diately beneath This is smeared with glycerine or purified treacle and to it all foreign particles adhere. The air then escapes through some holes at the circum- ference of the glass and then passes away, p. 161. Fig. 77. The spring for re- taining the thiu glass in position, seen in section. Fig. 76. Screwed pipe with fine extra nozzle for experiments wuh disinfectants, p 162. The thin glass on its plate with lioles around the circumference, through which the air escapes. Tube and lamp for causing a draught through the apparatus when it is used in a room or confined space. The vane is . removed and the apparatus arranged vertically, p. 162. [To face page 162, FOR DETECTING GERMS IN AIR. 63 removed with a pair of fine scissors and forceps, placed in a deep growing slide with some medium, and set aside for observation." The advantages claimed by Dr. Maddox for this apparatus are ready application at any spot, the col- lection of the atmospheric particles i7ito a small space in such a manner that they may be at once micro- scopically examined with a y^^th or -g^th objective, placed in some form of cultivating apparatus for further observation, or mounted permanently. Dr. Maddox has found besides particles of various organic and mineral matters, pollen grains, minute germs of various fungi or protophytes, and excessively minute bodies, "molecules," "globules," &c. These varied in number according to the force of the wind, dryness of the ground, and other circumstances. At the close of his paper Dr. Maddox remarks : — " The examination of the collections made over forty days has shown that in this immediate locality (Woolstone, near Southampton), at this period (May), the air cannot be considered as loaded with micro- scopic germs ; the largest number visible and counted as such on one cover being twenty-one (not including bacteroid bodies). A few only have germinated \ they are under observation." 164 ENTRANCE OF DISEASE Mode of entrance of Disease Germs. Of the Passage of the Disease Germs into the Blood, — In all cases in which disease germs produce their characteristic effects, they reach the blood. Until they have entered this fluid there is no possibility of their exerting any deleterious effects upon the system. Having entered the blood, they grow and multiply, and, as we shall see presently, become obstructed in the smaller capillary vessels, in and around which those changes occur, which give to each particular contagious fever the characteristics peculiar to it, and enable us to recognize and define it. With regard to the manner in which the minute particles of contagious germinal matter gain access to the blood, there has been much difference of opinion, but many circumstances render it certain that they may reach it from many different surfaces. Suspended in the air, they may pass towards or into the air-cells of the lung at every inspiration. Some of the lightest particles might reach the ultimate air- cells where an exceedingly delicate membrane easily penetrated by living particles alone separates them from the blood. If living disease-germs fell upon the soft mucous lining of the air passages, they would there find a material if not adapted for their nutrition, at least favourable for preserving them in a living state. Through this they would gradually make their way GERMS INTO THE BODY. 165 into the capillary vessels or lymphatics, ramifying in the tissues beneath. But besides gaining access to the blood of man's organism through the breathing apparatus, the particles of contagious germinal matter may pass into the stomach with the food, and make their way into the blood after traversing the delicate mucous covering of that organ. They might get into some of the mucous follicles, and after growing and multiplying there, some of the particles might reach the vessels which lie just beneath. As has been already mentioned, some disease- germs, like the lower vegetable and animal organisms, will live for a considerable time in water. But it must not be concluded that this fact tends in any way to favour the view that disease-germs are in fact animal or vegetable particles, for pus-corpuscles will not only live for a considerable period of time in water, holding in solution a very small quantity of animal matter, but they will grow and multiply. Of all media taking part in the wide diffusion of disease- germs, and facilitating their introduction into man's organism, water, there is reason to think, is the most general, and, perhaps with the exception of air, the most effective. Lastly, the particles of contagious bioplasm or germinal matter may enter the body through the skin. In some states of the cutaneous surface, the epidermis is swollen, softened, and moist, and living particles would easily insinuate themselves in the N 1 66 OF THE PASSAGE OF DISEASE slight chinks which exist between the epithehal cells, and gradually make their way into the capillary vessels beneath. I have heard that a well-known physicist has said, that if his mouth and nose were protected by a cotton-wool respirator, he would not hesitate to sleep in a bed which had been occupied by a patient suffering from scarlatina. Although we are much in want of information concerning the precise mode of ingress of poison-germs, I trust that so foolish and utterly useless an experiment will not be made. If the experimenter took the disease, the fact would add nothing whatever to our knowledge, while if he escaped scathless, the fact could be more satisfac- torily explained than by attributing it to the efficiency of the vaunted cotton-wool respirator. Germs so minute as those of contagious diseases will find their way into the blood by other channels than the air passages or alimentary canal. The mucous mem- brane of the conjunctiva, covering the front of the eye, is soft and moist and they could easily worm their way between the soft epithelial-cells, and thus reach the blood. They might readily make their way into a hair-follicle, or pass down the tube of a sweat-gland. There are also many passages opening upon the external surface of the body by which such minute living, moving particles might gain access, to the moist tissues, and make their way into the blood GERAIS INTO THE BLOOD. 167 In some instances it seems that the disease-germs gain access to lymphatic vessels, and grow and multiply there, causing abscess in some of the lym- phatic glands. The blood is sometimes infected as well, while in some cases, in which there is serious inflammation of lymphatic glands, it appears to escape contamination. The living particles of contagious germinal matter readily find their way into the blood if there is an open wound upon any part of the body, and if, as is not unfrequently the case in patients suffering from wounds, the blood is not in a healthy state, the poison grows and multiplies rapidly. To introduce cases of contagious fever into a ward where a number of persons who have undergone surgical operations are lying, would be a cruel and, though not so in law, a criminal act. To place a surgical case in a medical ward in which fever cases of any kind are admitted, is most dangerous. Even slight wounds like those made in operations upon the eye do not heal readily, and out of a number of such cases a large percentage will certainly go wrong. Accoucheurs are well aware of the horrible fatality of contagious poisons when intro- duced among lying-in women, and are but too often painfully familiar with the dread certainty with which these minute germs make their way into the blood, poison the living matter of the body, and destroy life in the puerperal state. For this reason lying-in wards can never be maintained in any general N 2 1 68 ENTRANCE OF DISEASE hospital, if cases of disease depending upon conta- gious poisons are also admitted. It is probable that if cases of surgical operations were placed in buildings apart from medical cases, the mortality from pyaemia and allied diseases, would be considerably reduced. State of Vessels favouring the Entrance of Disease- germs. — Admitting, then, that it has been proved that contagious poisons generally consist of minute particles of living matter or bioplasm, and that this living matter, to produce its characteristic effects upon the system, must enter the blood, let us inquire how the living particles gain an entrance into the vascular system in cases in which no wound is made, in which there is no solution of continuity in any part of the vascular walls. The fact that, of a number of persons equally exposed to the influence of con- tagium, some will contract the disease, while the majority will escape, may be accounted for by sup- posing either that in the latter case the particles do not really penetrate the vascular wall at all, or that, they are in some way destroyed as soon as they traverse the wall of the capillary and come into contact with the blood. We must therefore enquire what circumstances would favour or assist the passage of the living particles of the contagious material through-the vascular mem- brane into the blood. Thin- walled capillary vessels, as is well known, come very near to the free surface in many parts of the body, and if these capillaries are GERMS INTO VESSELS. 169 distended with blood, their walls are rendered still thinner, and they come still nearer to the surface. The capillaries of parts of the mucous membrane of the nose, mouth, fauces, and conjunctiva, even in a state of perfect health, are covered with a very thin layer of protective epithelium, while those of the air- cells of the lung are practically bare. Through these, minute germs might readily pass. In many morbid states, the epithelial covering of the mucous mem- branes above enumerated, is very soft, and sometimes it is reduced to a thin layer of moist, pulpy mucous material in which any foreign particles would very readily become embedded. In such a material, con- tagious disease-germs would find a nidUs suitable for their reception, and at the same time probably also soluble materials adapted for their nutrition. Having fallen into this, they would grow and multiply, and minute offsets from them might soon make their way to the external surface of the thin capillary walls. When the capillaries are much stretched, as is always the case when they are fully distended with blood, the minute particles of living germinal matter or bioplasm of the blood, as well as diverticula from the white blood-corpuscles, readily make their way out of the capillaries through the walls with the blood serum, and grow and multiply in their new position. Even red blood-corpuscles, as is well known, often pass through the vascular walls under lyo DISEASE GERMS IN VESSELS. these circumstances. In many kinds of inflammation this commonly happens. Every one who has been in the habit of making minute injections of the vessels of tissues must be acquainted with the fact that little longitudinal rents or fissures in the walls of the capillaries, quite wide enough for a red blood-corpuscle to pass through edgeways, are easily made. It is therefore quite certain that particles can ^diss f 1^0 m the interior of the capillary vessels outwards with the greatest readiness, and without the occurrence of any actual rupture of the vascular wall. There can, therefore, be no difficulty in explaining how the passage of disease-germs in the opposite direction in a similar state of the capillary wall takes place. These little particles, like other forms of bioplasm, possess inherent powers of movement, and would easily insinuate themselves through any slight fissure which existed in the capillary wall. Such particles of living matter are even capable of passing consider- able distances through the interstices of various tissues, like the living germs of some parasitic organisms, which, as is well known, often traverse a great extent of tissue before they arrive at the spot where they undergo development. Again, it must be borne in mind that there are at very short intervals in the capillary walls masses of bioplasm (nuclei), which increase considerably in size when supplied very freely with nutriment. These MODE OF ENTRANCE. 171 may divide and subdivide, and give rise to collections of little bioplasts ''granular corpuscles," as seen in cases of inflammation of the pia mater, and also in cases of tubercular disease of the same membrane. The walls of the vessel are weak and liable to altera- tions in the situation of these nuclei, as the latter increase or diminish in size. Hence there is no diffi- culty in accounting for the passage of minute par- ticles of the living contagious bioplasm in cases in which the capillary walls are diseased, and after they have been unduly stretched and have remained some- what flaccid. Now, the state of things referred to above — a soft moist state of the mucous surfaces, a dilated con- dition of the capillaries, combined with a weak, flaccid state of their walls, which always follows long-continued congestion, and which is intimately connected with a weak heart's action and feeble condition of the nervous system, are the very conditions which would facilitate the passage of living germs, — and is not this the state of things which exists in the organism about to be the victim of a contagious fever } No doubt in these cases the composition of the blood is altered and its fluid constituents manifest a tendency to permeate the vascular walls more readily than in a perfectly healthy state. Such a state of blood would doubtless afl'ect the action of the nervous centres presiding over the contraction of the arterial walls, and regulating the flow of blood through them, 172 PRESENCE OF GERMS thereby influencing the nutrition of the part. In this way a relaxed state of the arterial walls and a congested state of capillary vessels might be induced, or already existing, might be increased. It is this low and but too often ill-defined weak state of health, which often persists for some weeks before the attack of contagious disease occurs, that we should endea- vour to detect, and at once treat. Nay, it is almost certain that every serious acute disease dangerous to life to which we are subject is preceded by a condi- tion of system which in many particulars is a departure from health. If this can be altered, the liability to the supervention of the acute attack no longer exists. It is in the direction of anticipating the occurrence of actual serious well-marked disease that those most earuf^st in advancing medicine may reasonably hope to do useful work. And it seems certain that the more minutely we investigate, the more likely shall we be to learn how to discover and to appreciate that slight departure from the healthy state which precedes, and often by some considerable time, the development of many of the most serious and most fatal maladies. Were our knowledge greater we might perhaps in many instances succeed in warding off altogether the threatened invasion of disease. Minute investigation in connexion with disease, has been most unwisely discouraged, by purely scien- tific men on the one hand, and by those who confine themselves to their practical medical duties on the IN THE CAPILLARY VESSELS. 173 other. By the first, because they think that medical practice affords occupation enough for one man ; by the last, on the ground that scientific work \mfits a man for the practical duties. It has too often happened that the very few who have devoted themselves to real medical enquiry, have been unfairly treated, and by the very persons who ought to have afforded them support. The time has now arrived when the incen- tives to this course should be openly condemned, as resulting from narrow ancient prejudice, which has long survived its allotted term. Every intelli- gent person will do his utmost to further those branches of investigation which have already ex- erted so great an influence upon the discovery of the wonderful changes which occur in man's body in health and disease, and therefore upon the pro- gress of medicine. Of the Presence of the Germs in the Capillaries. — In every form of contagious disease, and during every period of its existence, the circulation through the capillaries is affected ; indeed, the essential phenomena of each special malady are due to changes in the quantity and quality of the contents of the capillary vessels. If recovery from the malady is rapid and complete, the capillary changes induced by the disease have been slight. If the disease terminates in death, tixe fatal result is occasioned by irreparable damage in and around the capillary vessels themselves, or it is occasioned by secondary changes in the tissues induced 174 PRESENCE OF GERMS thereby. The character of the eruption is determined mainly, and in some cases entirely, by the abnormal state of the capillary circulation, and even in those instances in which local alterations in vascular tension are unquestionablyassociated with nervous disturbance, this is often induced indirectly by a primary change in the capillary circulation, by which the afferent nerv.e fibres passing to the ganglia, are influenced. Disturb- ance consequently occurs in the ganglion, and the central variation excited in the intensity of the current is conducted along the efferent vaso-motor arterial nerves. In consequence, many little arteries become dilated, and the vascularity of the area of tissue sup- plied by them is increased. In all cases of contagious disease which I have examined, the same sort of living germinal or bioplas- tic matter has been discovered in the capillary vessels of many of the affected tissues of the body. In some parts the vessels appear to be quite filled with a " granular," more or less transparent material, which, when fresh, may be stained by the carmine fluid, and exhibits the characters of bioplasm, the particles of which are, however, exceedingly minute. I cannot explain fully and satisfactorily why the contagious material collects principally in the capil- laries of the skin and mucous membranes, but I would remark that the masses of bioplasm in connexion with the surface capillaries are large, and project into their interior, Plate XVI, fig. 58, p. 136. Thus there are IN THE CAPILLARY VESSELS. 175 many little eminences by which the further passage of the germs might be interfered with. The vessels themselves change much in volume many times during every twenty-four hours ; the canal being some- times far too narrow to permit a red blood corpuscle to pass, Plate XXVI, fig. 106, p. 188, while at others the tube is much dilated and filled with blood. Moreover, the capillaries often form loops, and sometimes little diverticula may be found here and there, in which particles might collect and accumulate to some ex- tent, without the tube of the vessel being Ixi any way obstructed. The little particles of contagious matter having gained entrance into the blood and arrived at the super- ficial capillary, probably absorb nutrient material ra- pidly. It is possible that fibrin may become coagulated around these little bodies, just as if they were par- ticles of pus, and the m^ss being too large to pass, may become impacted into some part of the capillary system. The large size of the white blood corpuscles in very many blood diseases is also a fact not gene- rally known, although of great importance, which must not be lost sight of in considering this part of the question ; but I cannot discuss it here. In those organs in which the circulation is slowest — as the spleen and liver — the conditions would be very favour- able to the multiplication of such particles of living matter, and it is probable that in some cases the capil- laries in these organs are principally afi'ected in the 176 STATE OF BLOOD FA VO URING early period of the disease. From the collections thus formed, particles may be carried to other parts. State of Blood favourable to the Multiplication of Disease Germs. — No investigation is likely to be more fruitful in valuable results than a very care- ful inquiry into the microscopical and chemical cha- racters of the blood just before its invasion by con- tagious disease germs, and the alterations effected by them during the period of incubation. There is much reason to think that certain states of blood are favour- able to the multiplication of the poison, while others, perhaps, render its destruction almost certain. It is at least doubtful if the growth and multipli- cation of every kind of disease germ will occur in perfectly healthy blood, even if introduced and mixed with it. Numerous facts, which will occur to every practitioner, render it far more probable that — at least in the case of the great majority of contagious fevers — a certain state of blood must be induced before the contagious poison can grow and multiply, and pro- duce new germs. No one has, however, yet suc- ceeded in ascertaining exactly in what particulars such altered blood differs from the perfectly healthy circu- lating fluid, but it is not a state of blood associated with a large number of red blood corpuscles, or with a highly active condition of the oxidizing processes ; nor is the condition under consideration brought about by living much in the open air, and by the plentiful supply of good wholesome food and water. MULTIPLICATION OF DISEASE GERMS. T77 Although little has been discovered concerning the state of blood favourable to the growth and multipli- cation of disease germs, it has long been known that when fever, inflammation, and other blood diseases have become established, the composition of the blood is altered, and even in a slight feverish attack which constitutes an ordinary cold, the chemistry of the blood is temporarily deranged. The extractive matters soluble in boiling water are present in undue pro- portion, and it is probable that this increase arises from insufficient oxidation. Various matters which in perfect health are very highly oxidized, so as to be eliminated in the form of carbonic acid, urea, and other substances which are readily excreted, remain in the blood unoxidized, or are very slowly and with difficulty eliminated in a suboxidized state. Thus there remains in the blood an excess of soluble material, which per- meates the tissues much more readily than ordinary healthy serum. This transudes through the walls of the capillaries, and is appropriated by the bioplasm of the blood, of the vessels, and of the tissues. The bio- plasts or masses of germinal matter invariably increase in size under these circumstances. By this increased growth of germinal matter, which invariably takes place in all inflammations and fevers, the close analogy existing between these two classes of diseases is clearly indicated. One important change in the composition of the blood when fever has become established, may be 1 7 8 OBSTRUCTION OF demonstrated in a very simple manner. If* the dried residue of the fever blood be extracted with boiling distilled water, it will be found that the proportion of matter dissolved out from the fever blood is much larger than that obtained from the healthy blood residue. Three specimens of blood taken from animals which died of the Cattle Plague, contained respec- tively, 2'9i, 2*22, and I'Si parts of soluble matter dissolved out by boiling water, or twice the quantity extracted from healthy ox blood. The exact amounts were as follows : — Blood from Cattle Healthy ox blood. Plague. I, 2. I. 2. 3. Solid matter obtained ] by evaporating 100 / iQ'Sy 20*63 23'i 2278 24*88 parts of blood ) Substances soluble in) ^ ^.^^ ,.c, boiling water [ ^ ^^^ ^" ^ 9i 2*22 181 The solid matter of the two healthy specimens con- tained respectively 669 and 5 '38 per cent, of matters soluble in boiling water, while the diseased specimens contained respectively 12*62, 972, and 7*22 per cent. So that not only is the percentage of the solid matters generally greatly increased in this form of fever, but the extractives and other substances soluble in boiling water are present in increased proportion. These substances probably constitute a pabulum, which is very readily appropriated by degraded forms of bioplasm. Obstruction of the Capillary Circulation. — In all CAPILLARY CIRCULATION. 79 diseases depending upon the presence of disease germs in the blood there is at length unmistakeable evidence of obstruction to the flow of blood through the capillary vessels of different parts of the body,. If this obstruction is incomplete, and only affects a limited area of tissue here and there, the case ter- minates in recovery, but if, on the other hand, the capillaries of a considerable portion of the body are obstructed, and more especially if the heart's action in such a case should be weak, and the contractions of the left ventricle not sufficient to drive the blood forcibly towards those capillaries which may yet remain more or less pervious, the disease must be fatal, and probably during its early stage. It is therefore of the utmost importance in critical cases to excite the heart's action by giving remedies which are known to have this effect. See also page 140. The contagious disease germs in some instances, as has been already suggested, are perhaps enveloped in a coagulum of fibrin, and thus are formed little masses which would be too large to traverse the capil- lary vessels. Mr. Lee showed that if pus. was injected into the blood of a living animal, coagulation of the fibrin of the blood immediately occurred. In the case of some contagious disease germs, it is possible that the coagulation of fibrin around the contagious par- ticles may only increase the size to that of a white blood-corpuscle, or little larger, but a body even of this size would, under some circumstances, fail to pass, l8o CAPILLARIES OBSTRUCTED. and being obstructed in its passage, further coagulation is necessarily occasioned, p. 175. Thus many capillaries would be stopped up, and small patches of highly turgid and obstructed vessels would result. Soon the germs enveloped by the coagulum increase and multiply, and thus after a while the cavity of the capillary vessel appears to be entirely occupied by them, and no blood whatever can pass through. This often leads to com- plete disorganization, which will be again referred to. In some cases the obstruction depends rather upon the increase of the bioplasm of the capillary walls, which occurs in all inflammations and fevers, Plate XXVIII, p. 218, and is not due to the increase and accumulation of the contagious disease germs them- selves. But however the obstruction may be brought about, it is soon followed by most important changes, exter- nal to the vessels, in consequence of which the action of the tissues and organs involved becomes seriously deranged. It has been frequently proved that if, in certain states of the blood, particles of living matter allied to pus be introduced, phenomena which at length end in death, are occasioned. The blood cannot cease to circulate without the neighbour- ing tissues being deprived of nourishment, and if the obstruction remains complete for a few days, still more serious consequences ensue. Not only are the vessels themselves destroyed, but the adjacent textures are involved in the common ruin. Separation of the DESTRUCTION OF VESSELS. textures by the formation of sloughs not unfrequently occurs ; but where neighbouring vessels and lymphatics remain healthy, the removal of disintegrated tissue is sometimes effected by absorption, in which case por- tions of the tissue or organ afterwards appear as if they had wasted. With regard to the particular capillaries obstructed, it has been already remarked, that those of the cuta- neous and mucous surfaces are most seriously involved in many contagious fevers, but these are by no means the only vessels affected. In some diseases the capil- laries of the liver and spleen are the seat of change, while in certain forms, those of the lungs, kidneys, and other glands, and even those of the muscular and nervous tissues suffer to such an extent, that part of the organ may undergo most serious pathological change, or be completely destroyed. Destruction of Vessels and Tissues. — Wasting of tissue, usually circumscribed, which not unfrequently follows a bad attack of contagious fever, is a direct consequence of the vascular changes which have been referred to. In such cases the organism is often seriously and permanently damaged, and the normal state can never be regained. There is not a tissue or organ in the body which is certain to escape the ter- rible consequences of a severe attack, but happily cases in which many organs in one individual are seriously damaged, are rare, for, as a general rule, when the disease is sufficiently severe to produce o 1 8 2 DILA TA TION AND DESTRUCTION such a result, it ends fatally. Still, we meet with many instances, where serious local damage has hap- pened, as, for example, where permanent local para- lysis follows continued fever, diphtheria, and scarlatina, or destruction of the delicate textures which form the nervous portion of the organs of sight and hearing, especially as a consequence of the last condition. Nor is- prolonged or permanent derangement of the health and imperfect nutrition an uncommon consequence of the changes effected in and around the capillaries in many cases of different kinds of contagious fever, which are due to the entrance of disease germs into the blood. A very good notion of the sort of change which occurs may be formed if the great alterations which are induced in the villi as a consequence of cholera, be carefully studied. If such changes have affected an extensive tract of small intestine, it will be seen that the proper functions of this important surface can never again be properly discharged. Although, no doubt, in the healthy state there is a much greater extent of absorb- ing surface than is really required, it must be obvious that if this be very much reduced, as is the case after a severe attack of cholera, the effective absorbing area will be too limited to take up the quantity of nutri- ment required to maintain the body in a state of health and vigour. Nor, after a careful consideration of the serious changes induced in the vessels and other tissues of the villi in cholera, shall we be surprised that serious OF VESSELS OF VILLI. 183 attacks generally prove fatal. The obstructed vessels of the villi are represented in Plate XXI, figs. 79 to 86, under a low magnifying power. The villi them- selves are much smaller than in health, and some are completely disorganised (Fig. 84). Lieberkuhn's fol- licles are also seen to be shrunken, short, and wasted, and some have completely degenerated (Fig. 86). In Fig. 85 the narrow openings of wasted follicles are represented. These are very much smaller, and are separated from one another by a much greater dis- tance than in health. Many of the vessels represented in these drawings are so changed and disorganised, that it is impossible they could ever again have trans- mitted blood. Had the patient recovered, many of the villi figured would have disappeared. The capillaries in many of the villi have wasted in a manner and to an extent which is very remarkable. A specimen has been represented in PI. XXI, fig. 82, which shows the alterations very distinctly, although they have not yet proceeded to an extreme degree. In Pis. XXII, XXIII, a more advanced stage of disor- ganisation, is represented. At the .summit of the villus in Figs. 87, 88, p. 186, many of the capillaries have become reduced to mere lines, and the texture a short distance from the surface has wasted ; indeed much of it had completely disappeared. In the intervals between the lines which mark the positions occupied by the capillaries is a little indeterminate tissue, in which several oil-globules are seen. 2 184 STATE OF CAPILLARIES In Figs. 82, 89, the vessels have not wasted to the same degree, but their outHne is irregular, and they are filled with an almost colourless material. A greater quantity of the tissue of the villus remains in the meshes of the capillaries in Fig. '^j than in Fig. 90. It is clear that the blood could not have circulated at all in these vessels for some time before death. Any blood that remained stagnant in the larger ones had become altered. Its colouring matter had dis- appeared, proving that many days had elapsed since the obstruction had first occurred. Those consti- tuents of the tissues which were incapable of absorp- tion have undergone great change. Among the resulting products is fatty matter in considerable quantity (Fig. 88). In some cases there was demonstrative proof that some time before death blood had actually passed through the capillary walls into the surrounding tex- tures. Crystals of haematoidin, as well as oil-globules, were found in considerable number in this situation, as represented in Fig. %%. This circumstance proves that the villus had not been in a healthy condition, even for some time before the attack. Villi exhibiting the structural alterations de- scribed cannot be organs of absorption. Neither could secretion have taken place from the follicles. The passage of fluid out of the vessels must have ceased long before they became reduced to the state figured. They must now be regarded as mere processes of de- Fig. 79. PLATi'l XXI. CAPILLARIES. 01' VILLI. CHOLhiHA. Fig. 80. b'lg. Bl. \>i-tical yection3 iiironAli mucous Tnembrane of inLestiuPs in cases of cholera showing euolnrousfv distended vessels of villi aud wasted Lieberkulm's follicles a small arteries in sub- mucous areolar tissue filled with clots. X 40. p. Ibd Fig. 52. Cell-like mass represented at 6, Fi^. S9. The dark bodies iu cue lower part may be bacteria X 1800. Vessel with bulgings consequent: upon obstruction. From the summit of a villus, (Cholera, case 4 ) x '215. Oi globules are seen in great number in ttie vessel itself and in the tissue external to it. pp 183, 197. Fig. 84. Fig. 55. Villi of small intestine, cholera, aho-v- ing distended vessels of villi with complete di80rgaui7ation of capil- laries and tissues at the summit X 40. P, 1^3. j-i^ of an inch Orifices of I ieberkuhn's follicles of small iute.^- tine-much wasted. X 10. X 40. X 215. Irregular and much alterea villi. Cholera a, I..ieberkubii'.s follicles, much altered, waited aud degenerated. X-10. p. 183. X 13C0 LTo OF VILLI IN CHOLERA. 185 generated tissue, useless to the economy, and destined to be removed, and their place occupied by new organs, if life had been preserved. The changes affecting the capillary vessels as they appear under high powers, will be understood by refe- rence to Figs. 82, '^j, to 94. Fig. 91 shows the capil- laries of the villus in an almost healthy condition. It is quite certain that the morbid changes de- lineated in these drawings must have been progressing some time previous to the attack which destroyed hfe. It may be confidently affirmed that such changes as those described could not have taken place in a few days. There is sometimes evidence of alterations which must have been going on, even for weeks before death. The kind of degeneration which has been observed obviously requires some time for its comple- tion, although I have not the data to enable me to fix the precise period. The time requisite for the changes which occur in blood-clots can be ascertained accu- rately in some cases, and we have no reason for infer- ring that the red blood-corpuscles could be much more quickly disintegrated in the tissue of the villi, or haematoidin crystals formed in a shorter time, than in other situations. In many of the specimens of small intestine from cholera cases I have found villi in every stage of wast- ing — the villus in which the change has only just commenced, and villi of which all that remained were little stunted elevations, projecting slightly from the surface of the mucous membrane. Had the patient 1 86 EFFECTS OF CHOLERA. recovered, I am of opinion that new villi would have been formed, and to some extent have replaced those which had been removed. As I have already remarked, in a given area of intestine in cholera cases there are fewer villi and fewer Lieberkuhn's follicles than in health, and I believe that many victims of this disease had been suffering from degeneration of their villi for a long while before the occurrence of the attack of cholera, which proved fatal. The constant introduction of bad food and water, and in many instances terrible defi- ciency" of food of all kinds, will sufficiently account for the marked changes which have been described. I think the evidence advanced in favour of the view that healthy persons die of cholera is defective and inconclusive, and believe, if this scourge is ever to be prevented, it will be by constant and unremitting atten- tion to the food and general habits of life of the poor, not merely while we are appalled by the actual pre- sence of the scourge, but at all times. There seems reason for thinking that it is possible by good manage- ment to prevent people from being attacked by cholera. Have we not reason to conclude that much may be done to prevent people from becoming subjects for the cholera poison ? We know, alas ! that we can do little, sadly little, to cure those attacked — though, perhaps, very much to improve the health of those liable to attack. We might thus mitigate to some extent the severity of the disease, and improve the patients' chances of recovery. I should waver in these views SUMMIT OF VILLI— CHOLERA. Fig. 87. PLATE XX IL Shrunken and altered vessels from the summit of a villus Jejunum. (Cholera, case 5) I'hickeuing of apparent ■ basement membrane.' x 700. p. 1 i4. Part of the summit of a villus (Cholera, case 6.) a, crystals of haematoidin, Tlie vef pervious up to the point marked 6. beyond which nnei-e lines were discernible. The tissue of Uie villus had comoleteiy disappenrefl, and numerous uil i^lobule disseminated through what leccained. x ^OO. pp. Ibi, 1P7. .^ ?i2.59. Altered capillanes, from the summit of a villuR. (Cholera, case 1 .) a represents a 1 arte m^ss of Aprmiual matter in the vessel, probably an altered white blood corpuscle b. some cells apparently in the tissue of the villus, perhaps in the lacteal ; one of these is represented more highly magnified in Fig, 83. Plate xxi. c, oil globules, x TOO. p. 18t. ^f,'".,,-,th of an inch 70 [To face pai^e ".i?t VILLI IN CHOLERA. Fig. 9(». PLATK XXIII. )t H villus. Jeiunum. (Case 5.) Showing shrunken and wasted vcsacls a-ud thickening of apparent ' basement membrane ' of villus, x 700. p. 165. Fig. 91. Summit of a villus froin the jejunum. (Case i.) Nearly healtby, a. lacteal. X 700. Fig. 93. Capillary vessela, from the summit of a villus. Containing a large mass with dark pigment granules and oil globules in its interior, la various places very minute bioplasts are seen. X 1 ,800. p. 18o. Fig. 9i. Capillaries and bodies external to tlie vessel. (Cases.) X 700. p. 185. Vessels from tlie summit of a villua. Case 3.) Containing numerous oil globules. X 700. p. Ib6. [To foUow pUle XXII, MUL TI PLICA TION OF DISK A SE GERMS. 1 8 7 if I should obtain but a single specimen of small in- testine in which I could not demonstrate diseased and altered villi. So far I have found them, without ex- ception, in every case I have examined, and hence I have been led to form the above opinion, which becomes stronger as I work on.* Multiplication of the Disease Germs in the Infected Organism. — From the observations already advanced concerning the size of the smallest living particles capable of growing and multiplying, it will be inferred that the actual quantity of contagious bioplasm suffi- cient to produce a contagious disease is wonderfully small, and that within the organism this minute par- ticle multiplies a million-fold. The contagious disease ^erms, like particles of germinal matter in inflammation, multiply enor- mously, not only in the blood vessels (Plates XXIV and XXV), but after having passed through the capillary walls, and gained the interstices of the tissues, Plate XXVI, they grow there, and not only * I regret to have to notice here that a distinguished pathologist has stated that he has failed to confirm my observations upon the villi. It would have been but fair had he taken the trouble to look at my speci- mens before condemning my statements. It is probable he did not employ a method of examination which would afford a chance of success — certain that he did not proceed as recommended. Such hasty and confident assertions are calculated to excite distrust in the minds of many, but this cannot be helped. The observer simply records the facts, and if others, who have not taken the trouble to ascertain whether they are true or not, think proper to contradict him positively, he cannot prevent the practice. Speaking solely from what he has actually ob- served, and delineating carefully what he has seen, he may safely leave to those who contradict his observations the satisfaction of registering their contradiction. DISEASE GERMS appropriate the nutrient matter which is required by the bioplasm of the tissue, but they may even grow at the expense of the latter, Plates XXIV and XXV. The bioplasm of the tissue may be killed and the tissue completely destroyed. The latter very soon ceases to discharge its function, and gradually it dete- riorates in structure, and at length undergoes disinte- gration. Bacteria may be developed in it, and its decomposition may even occur in consequence of the rapid growth and multiplication of the germs of some contagious fever. In Plate XXVI will be found draw- ings, which illustrate some of the remarks just made, and in Plate XXV, fig. 99, is a drawing which shows very well the vast growth of bioplasm amongst the vesicles of adipose tissue in ordinary inflammation. We have now to inquire more precisely into the circumstances under which the wonderful increase of the poison is brought about. There are two views essentially different from one another, which may be supported by different arguments. I. It might be maintained that the contagious ma- terial actually passing into certain portions of the hving germinal matter of the organism excited in these new actions, and caused them to divide and sub-divide very actively, and communicated to them the same properties which the original particle possessed, somewhat in the manner in which the wonderful powers existing in connexion with the germinal matter of the spermatozoon are communicated to that of the ovum and affect to some extent every one PLATS XXIV. DISEASE GERMS IN VESSELS— CATTLE PLAGUE. Fig. 95. Fig. 96. "^luMct, of mucous inerabrane of fouith. Si,->m^ch ( itUe Ma^iio, corresponding to a thin depressed circular spot like au ulcer : a. superficial capillary vessels varyin* very mucti in diameter, filled willi (disease germs) minute particles of eerminal matter or bioijlasm. The orifices of several gastne glands* are seen in the spaces bounded by tbe vessels, and the deeper vessels on a lower plane are also delineated. X 350. p. 187. Portion of one of the larger vessels on the surface of the mucous membrane represented in Fig. 96, containing masses cl" bioplasm, x 1,800. Yi&. 93. Capillary vessels from the surface of a viUus con- . Capillary loop from Malpighian body of taining large masses of bioplasm and minute kidney. Cattleplague. Containing numerous bioplasts (disease germ«>). X 700. p. 1S8. -white blood corpuscles and many minute bioplasts (disease germs), x 700. p, 188. rs^oo of an inch X 700. [To face page 188. PLATE XXV. BIOPLASM— CATTLE PLAGUE. Fi^. 99 Fig. J 00. ta vcbitif-s and areclar tisbup liom cvtciual codt ot veiu ot Lioise thiee davs altei it -viraa opened by opeiauon Multitudes of bodies like -white bleed coipuscles (bioplasts) and piobaHy duect descsadanta from them are Seen in the intervals befween the fat cells, ■which m some instances were dyed with the altei-ed and dissolved colouring matter of the blood, the greater part of which had however been removed. The bioplasm represented in this figure is harmless, but could not be distinguished from the contagious particles in other figures in this plate. X 216 p. 188. One of the loops of vessels in a papilla of the mamma, cattle plague. Just under the eruption, fig, lOJ. The epithelium has been removed. The morbid bioplasm a. (disease germs) is seen just at the summit. I'he bioplasm of the epithelial cells. 6, is much increased, x 'OO. i'ortion of a capillary from the surtace or a villus, rimall intestine- from a very bad case of cattle plague. The vessels were covered with lai-ge and small masses of bioplasm, and contained masses of the same character in their interior. Complete disorganization had occurred. X ii.SOO. Tosi) °f ^^ inch X 215. X 700. X 2800. ;To follow Plate XXIV, PLATE XXVI. DISEASE GJ^RMS.-CATTLE PLAGUE. fig. 102. Vertical section tlarough the centre of a ■well-marked papule (pustule ' ) from the udder of a cow, with cattle plague, sent by Mr Ceely, January 14th, 1866. The eruption and roseoloid rash were well marked. There were also numerous scales ; a is the central softened portion of the papule. Natural size. Fig. 103. Fl:^. 104. A portion of Fig. 103. magnified 'OO. The masses of contagious bioplasm can be seen dividing and subdividing into new portions which ai-e growing rapidly and invading the bundles of white fibrous . tissue, p. 188. Fifi. 106. Fibrous tissue of the corium or true skin ff-om the softened part of the papule, a. Fig. 103. The intervals between the fibres occupied with bioplasm (disease germs) growing and multiplying rapidly, x 215. p. 188. Capillary. Retina of calf (cattle plague) showuig enlarged nuclei, a, of the walls projectiug into the interior of the vessel 6, enlargad white blood corpuscle c, c, c. red blood corpuscles. X 700. Fig. 107. (^0^ Minute particles of contagious bioplasm from the fibrous tissue of the skin, beneath the erupliou. (P'ig. 101.) X l.tOO. To'ss of an inch — Masses of bioplasm from the external surface of a villus, catae plague, x 7i.O X 215. X 700. [To follow plate XXV IN INFECTED ORGANISM. 189 of the multitudes of living particles resulting from its division. 2. The contagious particle or particles having gained access to the fluids of the uninfected organ- ism may absorb nutrient matter, grow and multiply, and give rise to a progeny very closely resembling the originals. In the first case the actual living matter of a healthy organism is supposed to take upon itself a new and peculiar action in consequence of the influence of another kind of germinal matter upon it. In the second the contagious material simply grows and rnultiplies at the expense of the pabulum. It is open to discussion which of these two views is supported by the greatest number of and most preg- nant facts. I incline strongly to accept the latter as the more probable of the two. It may, however, be fairly asked, when a pus cor- puscle from the surface of the conjunctiva of a person sufl"ering from purulent ophthalmia, or when a particle of gonorrhoeal pus comes into contact with an uninfected conjunctiva and grows and multiplies, establishing a similar morbid condition to that in operation upon the surface where it grew, — whether the multitudes of resulting pus corpuscles are the direct descendants of the original specific pus cor- puscle, or are derived from the bioplasm of the blood or of the cells of the conjunctiva, which is modified in consequence of its action upon it. It seems to me probable that the corpuscles capable IQO CAM DISEASE GERMS of exciting a new action upon an unaffected surface are the direct descendants of the original corpuscles which excited that action. Not only so, but I believe they take the nutrient material which was destined for the nutrition of the normal bioplasm, and live at its expense. Just as in the case of cancer, the adventitious rapidly growing germinal matter takes the nutriment destined for the normal tissue, and even feeds upon the latter in consequence of its powers of growth being much more active. At the same time in the case of the specific pus- corpuscles growing upon a m.ucous surface there is no doubt that the germinal matter of the normal cells increases and multiplies too. Indeed, in some in- stances I have proved that this is the case, so that there are two distinct processes going on — i, the mul- tiplication of the specific bioplasm, and, 2, the multipli- cation of the germinal matter of the normal cells modified by the altered circumstances to which it is exposed. And it therefore follows that not every one of the pus-like bodies formed is capable of exciting the specific inflammation, but the morbid bioplasts outstrip to so great an extent, in the rate of their multiplication, the masses of normal germinal matter, that the number of descendants of the latter would be comparatively insignificant, and would soon be completely overwhelmed by the former. Upon the whole, then, I venture to conclude that the millions of contagious particles produced in the INVADE NORMAL BIOPLASM? [91 organism in an eminently contagious disease, are all the direct descendants of the very few, or perhaps even sj/igle particle first introduced ; just as the millions of bacteria and fungi developed in certain decomposing organic matters in the course of a few hours may have been produced from one or at most a very few par- ticles. And that although in the secretions upon the mucous surfaces, and in internal parts, there may be many masses of germinal matter resulting from the increased access of pabulum already many times referred to, these latter do not form the active elements of the contagious material or contagium. Concerning the Possibility of Disease Germs passing into the substance of Normal Living Bioplasm. — It is true that in the substance of many masses of germinal matter found in the secretions and discharges of ani- mals dying from cattle plague, and of many other diseases, some minute particles which would ordi- narily be termed "granules," w^hich refract the light very highly, and probably have been often mistaken for minute oil globules, may be invariably observed in great number. The nature of these particles is not known. They are met with in almost all kinds of living matter with which I am acquainted, and different forms are observed. In PI. XIX, fig. 71, some are seen in masses of germinal matter from the milk. It seems to me probable that some of these particles have originated in the germinal matter itself, while others have passed into it from without. 192 CAN DISEASE GERMS Now it is certain that such particles are very numerous, and are commonly found in masses of bioplasm so situated as to render their entrance from without not only possible, but probable. The fact of the amoeba opening itself as it were, and then enclosing upon foreign particles, and embedding them in its very substance, is well known. Nor is this a phenomenon peculiar to the amoeba, but it is possessed by other kinds of germinal matter. And now that the supposed importance and even the actual existence in many cases of the cell-wall has been disproved, and the active spontaneous move- ment which used to be called amoebiform, because it was supposed to be peculiar to the amoeba, has been proved to be common to living matter in gene- ral, it is probable that this and other vital pro- perties, equally characteristic of all kinds of matter in a living state, will at last be admitted. It must then be regarded as at least possible that particles of contagious living matter less than the TooVoo of a-n inch in diameter might pass into the substance of a white blood, lymph, or chyle corpuscle, and thus embedded, the particle might be carried to all parts of the system. The matter itself might increase and multiply in the corpuscle, destroying it and living at its expense until the new collection attained a size larger than that of the corpuscle ; or the foreign living particles in -the white blood cor- puscle might, interfere with its division and sub- INVADE NORMAL BIOPLASM? i^^ division, and the germinal matter of the corpuscle itself, attain a size larger than ordinary ; or the pre- sence of the bodies supposed might cause the death of some of the particles of germinal matter and the formation of oil globules and other substances which might go on accumulating until the white corpuscle became too large to traverse the smaller capillaries. The phenomena above referred to would not only seriously interfere with the growth and nutrition of the white blood corpuscles, but would prevent the material undergoing conversion into red blood cor- puscles ; and in consequence of the diminution in number of the red blood corpuscles, and the reduc- tion of the total quantity of blood in the system, various secondary phenomena would ensue. But in whatever way the minute particles of germ- inal matter supposed to be included in the white blood corpuscle might cause their enlargement or interfere with their function, impediment to the free circulation of the blood in the capillaries must be induced. The minute particles now stationary would rapidly increase and multiply, and some might make their way through the vascular walls towards the surface, or into the surrounding textures. The minute particles embedded in the germinal matter sometimes so closely resemble minute vege- table germs that in some cases it is difficult to believe they are not of this nature, and have gained access from without. In other cases these particles are of 194 ESCAPE OF DISEASE GERMS the nature of nuclei, and have originated in the ger- minal matter itself, while I am quite certain that some of the minute highly refracting particles embedded in the white blood-corpuscles, pus-corpuscles, and some other masses of germinal matter, result from changes occurring in the germinal matter itself, and are closely allied to fibrin.* Of the Escape of the Contagious Bioplasts FROM THE Diseased Organism. There are three ways in which such minute particles of living matter as contagious disease-germs have been proved to be, might escape from the system in which they have been developed. These may be stated as follows : — 1. The living disease-germs might make their own way through small chinks or fissures in the capil- lary wall when it is overstretched. 2. They might be removed from the blood sus- pended in the fluid which is made to exude through the vascular wall. 3. It is supposed by many that disease-germs may be, as it were, attracted through the walls from the blood by the action of epithelial and secreting cells situated outside the vessels. The view which has long been entertained and is * ' ' On the Germinal Matter of the Blood ; with remarks on the Formation of Fibrin." Trans. Mic. Soc, Dec, 1863. FROM THE INFECTED ORGANISM. 195 most in favour at the present time, is the last. The opinion seems generally held, that disease-germs, like urea, uric acid, and other poisonous matters present in the blood may be selected and separated from the normal constituents of the circulating fluid by the agency of cells situated external to the vessels, and thus " eliminated " from the organism. But there is no analogy whatever between non-livin(^ urea and uric acid, and living disease-germs, while it is an error to suppose that if fluid is discharged from the blood the process is invariably due to the influence of epithelial or other cells. The result is often, I believe almost invariably, dependent upon other circum- stances altogether. So far from the epithelium taking an active part in the process, this structure is often damaged and sometimes destroyed and stripped ofl" by the free escape of fluid from the blood, or before any discharge has commenced to take place. The escape of the fluid is usually associated with a highly distended state of the capillary vessels. There have been stretching and consequent thinning of the capillary walls in these cases. Even after death fluid will transude through the capillary vessels which have been involved, with undue readiness. This I have frequently noticed in injecting the vessels of persons who have died of cholera. Although the fact has not been observed in every case, it has occurred too often to be regarded as a mere accident, and in many instances the phenomenon was so 196 ESCAPE OF DISEASE GERMS striking that it could not fail to excite immediate and careful attention. In order to make a good artificial injection of healthy capillary vessels, it is necessary, as is well known, to employ some force in pressing down the piston of the syringe, and the injection is seen to spread very slowly from the points where it first appears. It is only after several minutes that the injection becomes complete. In many cases of cholera, however, the injection seemed -to run into the most minute capillaries almost instantly, and under very slight pressure indeed. The capillaries seemed to be filled at once, and extravasation occurred, without any force having been exerted, within half a minute after the injection had been commenced. While injecting the vessels, one was forcibly reminded of what takes place when fine injection is introduced by the aid of very slight pressure into one of the large vessels of a mollusk — the force required to inject the smallest vascular ramifications, which in this class are very large, being so slight that the injection will pass freely into the smaller vessels, although it runs out very fast through the opening made in the larger one, in which the pipe is placed without being tied. I think there is little doubt that this increased facility of injection depends upon the extreme stretching to which the coats of the capillaries have been subjected during the course of the disease. The FROM DISEASED ORGANISM. 197 elasticity of the vascular walls had been much im- paired during tHe progress of the disease, and I think it likely that in many instances the stretching had been carried to such an extent as to reduce the capillaries to a state of extreme tenuity, and to pro- duce slight fissures in every part of the capillary wall through which the injecting fluid readily escaped after death. In some of these same cases we know blood-corpuscles had passed out during life. Now there can be no question as to the extreme distension suffered by some of the capillary vessels in cholera. In Fig. 82, plate XXI, p. 184, some capil- laries are shown stretched to three or four times their ordinary diameter, and yet there is no evidence of actual rupture having occurred. It appears probable, however, that in many instances the distension is suc- ceeded by the giving way of the capillary walls, when haemorrhage takes place into the surrounding tissues. This appears to have occurred in the specimen from which Fig. ^Z, plate XXII, p. 186, is taken. In vari- ous parts well-defined crystals of haematoidin were observed, as well as numerous oil-globules which have resulted from changes having taken place in matters which have extravasated from the blood. The tube of the capillary vessel may be traced up to a point indicated by the letter b, but beyond this the only indications which remain of its further course are a few irregular lines. This vessel was pervious, and was injected with fine Prussian blue fluid as far as the P ELIMINA TION. point marked. Below this point its walls were very permeable, and permitted the fine Prussian blue injection* to pass through them readily. Capillary haemorrhage, as is well known, although frequent in cholera, is by no means constant. It is probable that in many capillaries extreme distension is followed by cessation of the circulation and stagna- tion of the blood, which then undergoes change, much of it being re-absorbed. The vessel after shrinking very much gradually wastes, as has been already described. It would seem, therefore, that in this case a free escape of fluid occurs, and any disease particles present would be removed in the blood. The circum- stances, therefore, which gave rise to the stagnation of the blood and the distension of the capillary vessels must be regarded as the cause of the escape from the blood of fluid holding in suspension the disease-germs. Neither the epithelium which had probably been removed long before, nor other struc- ture external to the vessels were actively concerned in the discharge of fluid or in the removal of the disease-germs. As, however, it has been maintained that ** elimina- , tion " performs a very active part in the removal of matters from the blood, and that living disease-germs • For the composition of the Prussian blue injecting fluid, see "The Microscope in its Application to Practical Medicine," 3rd edition ; or ** How to Work with the Microscope," 4th edition. ELIMINA 770 N. j g g are "eliminated" from the infected organism, it is desirable to consider the nature of the process called "elimination" as it occurs in health and disease. On Eliiniiiation. — The idea that poisons of all kinds are eliminated by a natural process, and that the operation is effected through the agency of the cells of certain tissues and organs, has of late years taken so firm a hold upon the mind as to be regarded by many writers as a well-established pathological fact. If, however, the view which is entertained be carefully analysed, and the supposed phenomena examined by the light of modern investigation, little indeed will, I think, be found to justify the doctrine that cells take an active part in removing poisons from the blood, or that it is part of their duty to " eliminate " such deleterious little particles as disease- germs which have gained an entrance. Indeed if this were part of the work of these cells, we could not help acknowledging that they performed their duties most imperfectly, and failed more often than they succeeded in separating from the blood the poison which had entered. And it would certainly appear very strange that the cells did not " eliminate " the small amount of poison soon after it had entered, instead of remaining perfectly passive until it had accumulated to an enormous extent, jeopardized the life of the patient and seriously impaired the action of the very apparatus that was to take an active part in expelling it from the body. So far from the cells P 2 ELIMINA TlOJSr. which are supposed to conduct this beneficial opera- tion being" active, it is probable they are perfectly- passive, and have nothing to do with removing the disease-germs. So far from having any affinity for the particles they are supposed to eliminate, the secreting cells are damaged or destroyed by the latter, which may take up pabulum which the normal cells should have absorbed ; or in their escape from the body the disease-germs may forcibly detach and destroy the healthy tissue supposed to be instrumental in elimination. Let me now try to determine what is generally understood by this act of " elimination," which is sup- posed to play so important a part in physiology and pathology. By this process it is held that certain substances existing in the blood are removed from that fluid. The agents by which this removal is effected are the gland cells, and it is supposed that these pos- sess an attraction for the particular substances which it is their duty to eliminate, by virtue of which they are enabled to select and draw towards themselves these special matters. It seems further to be generally concluded that the gland cells, after having taken up the particular substances in question, at least in some instances, produce in them important alterations and convert them into new compounds. When the change is complete and the gland cells have attained their mature state, it is supposed that they are cast off from the surface loaded with the materials they have NATURE OF SECRETION. 201 modified and are about to eliminate. In short, the gland cell is supposed to take up certain matters as cells in general take up nutrient materials — to grow, to pass through certain phases of existence, and to die, its contents being set free at the time of its destruction. The place of this cell is then occupied by a new one which grows up. If this view is correct, it follows that numerous cells in every gland must grow, pass through their several stages of existence, and die in the course of a few hours at most ; and necessarily the changes occurring in the cell must take place very quickly indeed. Now what are the facts which lead us to conclude that in the ordinary process of secretion the cells are thus destroyed bodily 1 It is indeed quite true that cells occupying different positions in a gland follicle exhibit different characters, the most mature cells apparently containing the perfectly elaborated secre- tion. But does this fact alone prove that these cells are removed and renewed as fast as the secretion is formed 1 Can the fact be only explained upon such a view } There is no doubt that the epithelial cells are gradually cast off bodily from the surface of the cuticle and mucous membranes and replaced by new ones, which grow up from below ; and this is an argument in favour of the occurrence of a similar pro- cess in glandular organs, but the analogy has surely been much overstrained. The rate of desquamation of cuticular epithelium for example is not very rapid, ELIMINA TION but it must be slow indeed compared with the desqua- mation of liver and kidney cells that must take place if the bile and urine discharged are set free by the rupture and destruction of epithelial particles. But what shall we say concerning the gastric juice, in which case many pounds of secretion are poured out in the course of twenty-four hours from glands which, with their vessels and other structures included, weigh but a few ounces ? Does the formation of every drop of gastric juice necessitate the destruction of an equal bulk of gland cells ? Is it not much more probable that the secretion filters away fully formed from the gland cell as fast as it is produced, while the latter remains apparently unchanged ? In the case of the cuticular cell, it is necessary to inquire if the hard epithelial material is the only thing eliminated by its agency. Was it not very moist at an early period of its life, and is it not probable that much liquid hold- ing various soluble substances in solution filtered through it and was carried off for a long time before the cell itself was cast away } If the formation of a liquid secretion, like the bile, urine, or gastric juice, involved the growth and de- struction of epithelial cells, the quantity of the secre- tion formed in these cases is so very great that the growth of the cells would take place very quickly. I think that we ought to be able to see, under our microscopes, the actual process of growth taking place — if not in man, at least in some of the lower OF EXCREMENTIT20US MATTERS. 203 animals — just as we can see the movements of the blood, lymph, and chyle corpuscles, and the wonder- ful alterations in form and size of the mucus and pus corpuscles and portions detached from them. Many circumstances, however, render it far more probable that the act of secretion, and "elimination" of excrementitious substances from the blood, does not involve the destruction of the cell. That every cell grows old and dies is certain ; but the process is much slower than it would be if the functional activity of the cell involved its death as a whole. The facts arrived at from a careful study of the cells at different stages of development lead me to con- clude that every cell, instead of secreting only its own weight of matter, elaborates and eliminates a hun- dred, or a thousand, or ten thousand times its weight of material in its lifetime. The doctrine generally entertained upon this point involves an extravagance of cell destruction which neither the results of ana- tomical observation nor the conclusions arrived at from physiological experiments permit us to enter- tain. In secretion and elimination it is probable that the germinal matter of the cell absorbs the materials from the blood, and converts these into matter like itself, while at the same time a portion of the germinal matter already existing dies, and undergoes conversion into those substances which constitute the secretion, ac- cording to the explanations given in my papers on 2 04 ELIMINATION OF UREA. nutrition, &c., in the " Medical Times and Gazette," March, 1865. The cell may thus take up a quantity of material, convert it into new constituents, and dis- charge these into its duct, without itself undergo- ing any appreciable alteration either in form or weight. A large quantity of urea or uric acid may, I think, "be "eliminated" from the blood without the destruc- tion of a vast number of renal cells. Lactic acid, and lactates, and ammoniacal salts may be " eliminated " by the agency of the cells of the sweat glands without these cells being destroyed and replaced by new ones. Other lifeless soluble substances may be separated from the blood and eliminated in the same way, but it is veiy improbable that the cells of secreting organs should also attract towards them particles of living matter and afterwards " eliminate " these in an unal- tered and living state. I would remark here that when the eliminative act does undoubtedly involve the destruction of the organ of elimination, we have an arrangement very different from that observed in the permanent or true glands possessing ducts. The secreting organ in that case is a closed follicle, like the " solitary glands " and the glands constituting Peyer's patches in the alimentary canal. The little " cells '' or masses of germinal mat- ter, of which the gland is composed, grow and mul- tiply, and retain in their substance at least a great part of the nutrient pabulum they take up. The mass CHANGES IN THE CELLS. 205 composing the closed gland therefore increases in size, and approaches the surface of the mucous membrane ; an opening is formed, and the contents escape. The walls of the old gland shrivel up, the wound in the mucous membrane heals, and probably a very slight cicatrix, with a little condensed areolar tissue beneath, is all that marks the seat of the gland. But even in this case we cannot affirm that the " cells " which have elaborated the secretion die and discharge their contents. They escape from the cavity in which they grew, but has anyone shown that they die and undergo rupture } We have much to learn concern- ing the destination of these "cells" in the closed glands which escape by rupture of the capsule of the gland. We know that "cells" of the same kind formed in the spleen have a very different office and destination. They seem to be but commencing their career when they become free, and I could bring forward several facts which justify me in expressing a strong opinion that the life of the cells does not cease when the temporary follicle in which they grew be- comes ruptured and permits their discharge. On the contrary, it appears to me that at this very time they commence the really important part of their life- work, and they may now be only beginning to perform their active duty for the first time ; so that neither in the case of the secreting glands with permanent ducts, nor in that of the temporary closed glands, can I admit that the doctrine which maintains that the 2 o 6 EFFOR TS OF NA TURE formation of a secretion involves the detachment, death, and destruction of the cell which formed it, rests upon sound evidence. We have now to inquire how far the term " elimina- tion" is appropriate, when speaking of the removal of living disease germs from the blood. It is true we are told that the living self-propagating germs of scarlatina are "eliminated" by the skin and kidneys, but no evidence is adduced in favour of such a view. Like many doctrines, it is accepted as if it had been proved, although arguments have not been adduced in its favour. We may, however, now form a more exact notion of the kind of matter the poison in question really is, and of the way it escapes through textures from the blood and from the body, and we are, perhaps, for the first time in position to consider the question with advantage. The desquamation of the cuticle, which almost inva- riably takes place after scarlatina, and the desqua- mation of renal epithelium, which not unfrequently occurs after this disease, as well as in acute dropsy, have been supposed to result from a tendency upon the part of the skin and kidneys to " eliminate " the scarlatina poison ; and it has been held that these circumstances indicated an effort on the pai't of nature to remove or " eliminate " a noxious poison from the system. But it has not been shown whether the poison is capable of being eliminated, nor proved that it cannot make its own way out of the blood without the agency TO ELIMINATE POISON. 207 of any epithelial or other cells at all. On the other hand, I think it must be admitted that the facts, viz., the peeling of the cuticle and the removal of renal epithelium, might be explained on the supposition that the *' poison " had damaged the cutaneous and renal epithelium, as we know it often damages other tissues, and had afterwards made its own way out of the blood. Not only so, but if we accept this view we have a simple explanation why the injury done does not make itself evident till two or three weeks afterwards. The growth of the young cells, which were at the time of the fever near to the vessels, was affected, but the interruption of regular growth could not become manifest till the time had arrived when these cells should have considerably advanced in growth and reached the free surface of the body. So far, therefore, from the desquamation of cuticle after scarlatina being due to an effort of nature on the part of the epithelial cells to eliminate poison, it is more probable that scaling results from the young cuticular cells having been damaged by the poison, as it escaped from the blood coming into contact with, and perhaps invading the structure of, these young cells. But can the hypothesis which assumes that such poisons as those of small-pox and scarlatina are " eli- minated" by the skin and kidneys, and that it is the business of the skin and kidneys to eliminate "poisons" of this class from the blood be sustained ? If such a 2 o8 ELIMINA TION view is justifiable at all, it can only be on the ground that the *' poisons" of small-pox and scarlatina are allied to the soluble excrementitious substances, which it is really the business of the secreting organs to " eliminate" from the blood. Recent researches here recorded, so far from favouring this view, lead us to a different conclusion. On the one hand, many things which were supposed to exist preformed in the blood, and to be " eliminated " by the agency of cells, are actually formed by the cells, and did not pre-exist in the blood ; and, on the other hand, we have been led to the inference that the ^'contagious poisons" are totally distinct from excrementitious matters, that they are '' living," and quite distinct in their nature from anything that can, as far as is known, be " elimi- nated." The term " eliminate" is therefore wholly in- appropriate. If an epithelial cell can attract towards it, and then get rid of, any kind of living matter, it is an operation concerning which nothing whatever is known. It would not be more incorrect to talk of the "ehmination" of ova or spermatozoa than it would be to speak of the elimination of living pus corpuscles or disease germs. Although it has been asserted that pus corpuscles pass through epithelial cells, it need scarcely be said that the assertion has never been proved, while many arguments that might be advanced render such an hypothesis untenable. But even if the pus corpuscle did pass into an epithelial cell, it would not be correct OF LIVING MATTER IMPOSSIBLE. 209 to say that the epitheHal cell eliminated it from the body, unless it had been shown that the epithelial cell in some way attracted or drew towards itself the cor- puscle. But we know that the pus corpuscle is itself living ; it can destroy epithelium and normal textures, and can make its own way through tissues out of the body. It is opposed to all that we know of the changes effected by epithelium to conclude that it is capable of attracting or selecting particles of living matter from the blood and eliminating them. Moreover, it has been established that living parti- cles of the nature of pus may insinuate themselves into the interstices between epithelial cells, invade these, and ultimately destroy them. The epithelial cells of the mouth are invaded by vegetable germs, but it would surely be absurd to say that the latter organisms have been " eliminated " by the cells, for they simply make their way into the formed material, just as many of the lower animals bore their way into the old tissues formed by some of the higher animals and consume them. It would be as unreasonable to attribute destruc- tive operations depending upon the invasion of the living particles to a tendency upon the part of the cells invaded to eliminate the particles, as it would be to argue that the invasion of the organism by the germs of entozoa was due to a tendency on the part of the body to attract these germs from other bodies, or eliminate them from the surrounding medium. The term " elimination " has, then, been applied to ELIMINATION. two very different phenomena — the. removal of non- living excrementitious matter from the blood by the agency of epithehal cells, and the passage of living particles through the capillary walls, in which operation it has not been proved that the cells take any part whatever. In the first series of phenomena it is reasonable to conclude that the gland cells are the active agents, and not only take up but change mate- rials which they have absorbed ; in the last it is much more probable that the particles of the poison or virus in the blood move themselves, and pass of their own accord through the vascular walls. So far from being selected or attracted by the epithelium, it is more likely that they bring about conditions which damage it, and in some cases lead to its destruction. Indeed, when we examine the seat of actual change in small-pox, so far from finding the cells imagined to be the active agents in eliminating the poison in a con- dition such as we should suppose would be favourable to the operation, we find them terribly deranged, many of them completely destroyed, and the particles which are probably ^^contagions'' amongst them, dislocating them from their natural positions and damaging them. It would seem that the epithelial cells had been destroyed by the poison, or by the conditions resulting from its presence, rather than that they had selected it from the blood and taken an active part in removing it from the system. But if the passage of one kind of living matter A CTION OF COL UMNAR EPITHELIUM. 2 t I through the vascular wall be due to an eliminative act, it is difficult to see why the passage of other kinds should not be due to elimination. If the escape of the virus of small-pox or scarlatina from the blood be an example of " elimination/' surely the migration of an entozoon might be referred to the same process, and we might correctly speak of the " elimination '* of a leaf from the branch, or the " elimination " of a hair from the hair follicle. In the organism certain kinds of epithelium are concerned in absorption, and certain kinds in secre- tion and elimination. In the first the direction of the flow must be towards the blood, and in the last/r^w the blood. It is obvious that if epithelium ordinarily concerned in absorption is to take part in eliminating matters from the blood, its action must be reversed. The columnar epithelium covering the villi is a remarkable instance of the first form of epithelium, and yet not only has it been inferred that this was concerned in eliminating poison from the blood in cholera, but that there was actually an increased formation of epithelium in this disease, and that the detachment of the epithelium was to be regarded as evidence of a tendency upon its part to separate a poisonous material which had been accumulating in the blood. It was shown, however, in the first part of this section, that epithelium usually eliminates with- out being detached or destroyed, and that we are not justified in inferring that such epithehum could PASSAGE OF DISEASE GERMS. under any circumstances increase so rapidly as has been supposed to be possible. But is not cholera characterized by an almost complete cessation of the eliminative process ? Is it not a fact that the organs which ought to be active in eliminating morbid materials are almost passive ? So far from taking upon themselves increased duties, they do not even discharge their ordinary work. There is, as is well known, complete suppression of urine for a time, and, although there are often pro- fuse perspiration and free discharge of fluid from the intestinal surface, it seems more probable that this increased pouring out of fluid is a physical pro- cess, than that it results from an effort upon the part of any cells connected with these surfaces to eliminate matters, noxious or otherwise, from the blood. So far from the detachment of epithelium in cholera being evidence of an effort of nature to eliminate poison from the blood, it is more probable that it results from a destructive process altogether, and is due to morbid changes which have taken place in the blood in the subjacent capillaries (p. 185). The villus is destroyed and incapable of absorbing or eliminating, and there is reason to think that before the epithe- lium is detached the circulation, but very imperfectly carried on for a long time previously, entirely ceases. Nothing, therefore, could be brought to the villus for elimination, supposing it were able to eliminate. THROUGH THE VESSELS. 213 I will now venture to state briefly the principal con- clusions arrived at in this section : — 1. That the gland-cell is not, as a general rule, destroyed when it secretes. 2. That the poisons " eliminated " by the skin and kidneys are probably in a state of solution. 3. That the poisons of contagious diseases are not soluble, but consist of living germs which move of themselves, but which cannot be " eliminated " from the blood by epithelial or other cells. 4. That so far from there being any evidence of the epithelial cells eliminating contagious poisons, the living particles of the latter interfere with the action of the cells, and many are destroyed by them. 5. That the function of the columnar epithelial cells is to draw substances from the intestine and pass them on towards the blood, and that therefore it is most improbable that these cells should take part in " eliminating " anything whatever from the blood in health or in disease. The passage of Disease Germs through the Vessels. — The observations made in the preceding sections will prepare the reader for the remark that the minute particles of bioplasm which constitute disease germs, after having multiplied in the capillaries through which the circulation had completely ceased and made their way into the surrounding tissue and multiplied there, would easily pass in the intervals be- tween epithelial cells and thus reach the free surface ; Q 214 CONSTANT PHENOMENA or they might grow and multiply amongst the epi- dermic cells or epithelial cells of mucous membrane, and cause small collections or flakes of these to be detached from time to time. It is probably in this manner that the poison of scarlatina is discharged from the infected organism. Protected by the scales of cuticle amongst which it has grown, it may retain its vitality for a length of time. From animals which have died of the cattle plague, I have been able to obtain specimens which show very conclusively the manner in which the escape of the particles of contagious bioplasm is effected. In Plate XXVII are represented several papillae from the mamma of an animal which died of the disease. All the capillaries contain the bioplasm which makes its way from them into the epithelial texture above, in the manner represented in the outline drawing, Fig. no. In 113 many of the bioplasts are actually seen amongst the epithelial cells. The bioplasm of the cells is also enlarged from the accompanying fever and inflammation, and in some cases pus was almost produced. Fig. in. See also pp. 190, 218. Among the softened and altered cuticular cells sporules of fungi may often be detected. Fig. 112, but these have nothing whatever to do with the disease. The constant phenomena of Fevers and Inflamina- tions. — Although the subject of fever and inflam- mation is far too extensive to be discussed here, my work would be incomplete if I omitted to refer ERUPTION-CATTLE PLAGUE. Fig. lOS. St-ction thiougb cuticle and cutis in the seat o the eruption. CAttle plague, febowing dt a a papilla, the cu^-icle over which is still m a healthy state, while that above the papillee at b is undergoin^^ disintegration caused by the growth and multiplication of contafiious bioplasm among the cuticular cells, as shown by the dark patches. X 130. p. 2U. Fig-. 110. Outline plan showing how the contagious biopUsra may pass from the capillaries and reach that part of the cuticle where the layers of cells are parallel, a. whence it spreads horizontally in various directions. and thus strips off the superf cial layers of the cuticle p. '214. PLATE XXVIL Fig. 109. /■apnue fi-om beneath the eruxition. Cacile plaftue. The cuticle is much more easily detached from the cutis than in health, x 130. Fig. ni. Young cuticular cells and masses of liioplasm growing and multiplying under scab. Cattle plague. X 700 p. 214. Fig. 112. Minute sporuU.-s of fungi amongst the superticial cells of cuticle situated near the eruption. X 1,600. p. 'JH. Cuticular cells under scab. Cattle plague. Eiuption on mamma, showing how ilje cells are invaded by the growth and muluplicaii->n of the minute particles of contagious bioplasm. X 700. p 21i. of aa inch X 700. 1500. [To face page 21 -i. OF FE VER AND E\ FLA MM A TION. 2 1 5 altogether to the febrile action which invariably follows the introduction into the system of every kind of contagious germinal matter, and is indeed a constantly attendant phenomenon. But fever, as is well known, may be due to changes induced within the organism, and which do not de- pend upon the introduction into the body of disease germs or other particles from without. If in these cases of idiopathic fever there be dipoiso?i at all, the special morbid bioplasm must necessarily have h^en generated in the organism itself during or just previous to the ill- ness. In the simple feverish state, and in febrile con- ditions induced by the introduction of contagious bioplasm from without, we find the essential pheno- mena identical. These are to be noticed : altered chemical changes, impeded capillary circulation, and elevation of temperature, which is maintained as long as the fever lasts. These phenomena cease when free action of the skin, kidneys, and bowels occurs. By this free action, is effected the removal of a large quantity of imperfectly oxidized compounds which had been accumulating during the continuance of the febrile condition. The escape of these substances is soon followed by complete disappearance of febrile symptoms and return to the healthy state. The most virulent and fatal fevers excited by the introduction of poisonous disease germs into the organism differ from the simple feverish condition only in degree, and in the immediate exciting cause of the early changes. Q 2 2i6 FEVER AND Fever and inflammation are always characterized by an elevation of temperature varying from one or two, twelve, or even fifteen degrees, above the normal standard. If this is not, as I believe it to be, a conse- quence of the increase of bioplasm or living matter in the organism, the two phenomena are invariably asso- ciated. Principally and primarily there is increase of the bioplasm or germinal matter of the blood and of that in the capillary vessels, but afterwards that of the tissues undergoes the same change. This increase of germinal matter is itself due to the presence in the blood of pabulum, and its accumulation in undue pro- portion. The constituents of this pabulum ought to have been eliminated by various glands as fast as they were formed, or other compounds should have been produced instead, which being more highly oxidized would have been readily got rid of in the form of urea, uric acid, carbonic acid, and other sub- stances easily excreted. In a common cold, and in any slight feverish attack from which we may suffer, there is evidence of increase of the germinal matter in the blood, of consequent impairment of free circulation through the capillaries, and of increase of the bioplasm upon various mucous surfaces. These phenomena are accompanied by a temperature higher than the normal standard. Congestion in many of the surface capillary vessels is invariable in all fevers. Upon local or general dila- tation of the small arteries and capillaries of the INFLAMMA TION. 217 cutaneous surface, the general redness, spots, or rashes, characterising various kinds of fever, depend. In some cases the dilatation and congestion of the capil- laries pass on to actual rupture and extravasation of blood, and little ecchymoses result. In others serum, containing much red colouring matter of the blood, permeates the walls of the vessels and infil- trates the neighbouring tissues. In all febrile states the heart cannot drive the blood through the ob- structed vessels fast enough to carry off the animal heat which is developed. The temperature of the whole body therefore rises, and the action of the various organs which are adapted to work perfectly at one fixed temperature is deranged. In contagious fevers these same phenomena are observed, and are caused in the same manner, but the bioplasm matter (disease-germs) which increases has a definite rate of multiplication of its own. It goes on increasing for a time, and from its increase serious complications may result. Numbers of the germs produced rhay pass through the capillary walls into the tissues around, and many escape from the ex- creting surfaces into air or water, and thus the scourge is spread far and wide. When this has happened, under favourable circumstances the process stops. Products resulting from the death and decay of the specific contagious germinal matter which yet re- mains are removed by the increased activity of the organs of excretion, and health is gradually restored. 2i8 FEVER AND If, on the other hand, the changes have proceeded to a degree sufficient to prevent the capillary circulation over a considerable portion of the body or through- out the greater part of one or more organs, the integrity of which is necessary to life, recovery is no longer possible, and death must result. The actual changes which take place in the vessels and tissues will be understood if the reader will attentively examine the drawings in Plate XXVIII, which well illustrate the striking alterations which occur in the bioplasm or germinal or living matter of the tissues and vessels in fever. Figs. 114 and 115 represent respectively the bioplasm of connective tissue in health, and in fever. The amount in the diseased connective tissue is many times greater than in the healthy specimen. The masses of bioplasm of the capillary represented in Fig. 116, are more than three times as large as they would be in a state of health, and the same remark applies to the little artery represented in Fig. 117. In both these figures the bioplasm is already beginning to divide and sub- divide, and had life been prolonged for a few days, numerous separate particles, like pus-corpuscles, would have resulted. In very bad cases of fever which are fatal, similar changes may be demonstrated in the textures in all parts of the body ; and in every case of local inflammation precisely corresponding pheno- mena are found at the seat of pathological change. . The rise in temperature, be it restricted to a part INCREASE OF NORMAL 3I0PL ASM— FEVER Fi^. 114. Fie. 115, PLATE XXVIII, Connective Tissue coroiiscles bui ^39 2 H 2 456 INDEX, PAGE Polli, Prof. , on the treatment of contagious fevers 307 ,, ,, typhoid fever ... ... ... ... ... 'JO Popular science teaching ... ... ... ... ... 33» 43 Potash bicarbonate, value in febrile affections ... ... ... 352 ,, bitartrate ,, ,, 362 ,, nitrate ,, ,, ... ... ... 3^2 Potassium sulpho-carbolate ... ... ... ... ... ... 311 Pouchet on the dust of the air .. ... ... ... ... 26 ,, spontaneous generation ... ... ... ... ... 49 Powell and Lealand's -^oth object glass, degree of magnifying power Power, degradation of, in bioplasm ... ,, formative, retrogression in ... Practice, medical, based upon unsound theories ... ,, ,, changes in Privy Council, Report of Medical Officer of, on the nature of disease germs Proliferous disk Prophecies, scientific ... Protection from other attacks of the same contagious disease Protein matter " beginning to live" .. . Protoplasm Pullna water, purgative Purgative, at commencement of an attack of enteric fever ,, saline waters Purgatives, value of, in febrile affections Pus bioplast , , Addison, on the origin of „ Author ,, ,, Bennett ,, ... ... ... ... ,, Cohnheim ,, ,, Virchow ,, Waller „ • Pus, death and decomposition of , , derived from bioplasm of all tissues ... ,, formation... ... .. ,, ,, action of tar acids upon ,, gonorrhoeal , , killed by carbolic acid ... , , movements occurring in ,, multipHcation of, in inflammation ,, new observations on ... ... ... , , phenomena which occasions the formation of ... Public teaching .Puerperal state, susceptibility to contagious poisons during the Punilent ophthalmia, germs of Pustule, malignant Putrefaction, influence of bacteria upon Putty, Prof. Lister's antiseptic INDEX. 457 Quantity of food and stimulant requisite for different persons Rapid and slow growth Renewal of vital power Repair of tissues, after injuries by inflammatory process ... Report of the Medical Officer of Privy Council on contagia ,, author's, on the cattle plague ,, Mr. Crookes' ,, Respirator, as a protection against entrance of disease germs into the organism Rest and support during the antefebrile state Retrogression in formative power Retrograde forms, production of Rheumatism, desperate cases of acute, treated by alcohol and ice Ricci, Dr. De, treatment of zymotic diseases ... Rotifera, under the influence of carbolic acid Saline waters, purgative Samuelson, Mr., on dust Sanderson, Dr., on development of bacteria from microzymes ,, ,, nature of disease germs ,, ,, propagation of cattle plague ... Sansom, Dr. E., "antiseptic system" ,, ,, on the sulpho-carbolates Scarlatina, poison ol eliminated by the skin and kidneys... Scarlet fever, communicable after complete recovery Scepticism, therapeutic Science teaching, popular ... .».. Scientific prophecies ... Secretion, nature of ... Secretions, bacteria in . . . , , living disease germs in ... Self-propagating power of the living germ . . . Sensational science teaching ... Sick room of the patient ,, as a larder Simon, Mr., on disease carrying properties of vegetable fungi Simple exudation Sheep, smallpox transmitted to, from man... Skin, free action of, in febrile affections "Sleeping off" feverish ailments Slight cases of fever, principles of treatment Slow and rapid growth Small pox, Dr. Calthrop, on a case of ,, elimination of, by skin and kidneys , , remarkable case of protection from, by vaccination ,, ' transmitted to sheep from man... Smith, Dr. Angus, on antiseptic properties of cresylic acid Sodium, sulpho-carbolate of PAGE 4CX) 412 408 122 237 240 267 168 359 115 116 332 303 275 26 294 237 148 307 306 206 87 351 43 45 201 69 151 ... 56 ... 44 • •• 434 ... 371 ... 236 ... 134 ... 157 ... 356 .-• 354 348, 352 ... 417 ... 440 ... 207 ... 441 ... 157 ... 269 ... 310 132, 458 INDEX, PAGE Specific contagious virus ... ... ... ... ... ... 70 Speculations philosophical 63 Spirillse killed by carbolic acid 275 Spontaneous eggs 55 ,, generation ... ... ... ... ... ... 38 ,, ,, Dr. Bastion on ... ... ... ... 50 ,, ,, Dr. Child on ... ... ... ... 47 ,, ,, Hallier on ... ... ... ... 47 ,, ,, Pasteur on ... .. ... ... 49 ,, ,, Pouchet on ... ... ... ... 49 Stimulants, action of, in severe cases of febrile and inflammatory diseases ... ... ... ... ... ... 390 ,, administration of ... ... ... ... ... 381 ,, in fever ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 382 ,, objections to ... ... ... ... ... ... 398 ,, tolerance of, in fever ... ... ... ... ... 383 Structure of different kinds of living matter ... ... ... 246 ,, disease germs ... ... ... ... ... ... 6 Sulphate of iron as a disinfectant ... ... ... ... ... 295 Sulphites and bi-sulphites in zymotic diseases ... ... 264,303 Sulpho-carbolates, Dr. Sansom on ... ... ... ... ... 306 ,, ,, therapeutical importance ... ... ... 313 ,, carbolic acid ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 309 Sulphurous acid gas, disinfectant ... ... ... ... ... 263 Sun, formation of heart and brain by the ... ... ... ... 62 Support ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 417 ,, during the ante-febrile condition ... ... ... ... 359 Suppuration, efficiency of coal tar in restraining ... ... ... 282 Surgical fever, calomel in cases of . . . ... ... ... ... 364 Syphilitic disease germs ... ... ... ... ... ... 149 ,, ,, in a quiescent state ... 248 Tar a destroyer of disease germs ... ... ... ... ... 265 Temperature of the body, influence of alcohol upon ... ... 329 ,, ,, mechanism concerned in equalizing ... 328 ,, ,, rise of, in fever, caused by increase of bioplasm ... ... ... 219 ,, ,, ,, treatment based upon .. . ... 326 Tendency of thought ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 37 Therapeutic nihilism ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 350 Tigri, Dr. , on typhoid fever ... ... ... ... ... ... 70 Tissue-forming power of blood bioplasts ... ... ... ... 109 Tissues, destruction of, in bad cases of fever ... ... ... 181 ,, of the adult, bioplasm of ... ... ... ... ... no ,, vegetable germs in ... ... ... ... ... ... 66 Tobacco, effects upon the tissues of the young smoker ... ... 383 Todd, Dr. , his treatment of acute disease ... ... ... ... 396 Tolerance of stimulants in fever ... ... ... ... ... 383 Tonsils, ulceration of, treated by the sulpho-carbolates ... ... 315. INDEX. 459 Treatment after the cessation of the febrile state . . . Treatment of the febrile state ,, ,, based upon the fact of rise in the temperature ,, slight fever Tubercle disease germs ,, ,, in a quiescent state Turtle, bioplasts in the vessels of the ovum of Tuson, Prof., comparative examination of pepsin preparations Tyndall, Dr. , on dust and haze ,, impotence of air ... Typhoid fever, Polli on the origin of ,, treatment of, by the sulpho carbolates Ulceration of tonsils, treated by the sulpho-carbolates Unsound theory, good practice based upon Urea, elimination of, from the organism Vaccination, a protection from small-pox ... Vaccine lymph ,, Dr. Farr on ... ,, glycerine and ,, M. Chauveau on Vallisneria, bioplasm of the circulating fluid of Variola, communicated to sheep from man... ,, living germs of Vegetable fungi, their disease-carrying properties ... ,, germ theory of disease , , germs in air , , , , influence of, in causing disease ... , , J > in fluids and tissues of higher animals during life ,, organisms, diseases due to , , particles in the substance of normal bioplasm . . . Vessels, destruction of, in bad cases of contagious fever . . . , , of inflamed parts, action of alcohol upon ... , , passage of disease germs through walls of ,, state of, in tissues of cholera cases Villi, dilatation and destruction of, in cases of cholera Virchow on the formation of pus Virus of cattle plague, action of carbolic acid upon Vital crystal ... ,, movements of bioplasm ,, phenomena ,, ,, carbolic acid a test of ,, ,, out of the range of physical investigation ,, power, renewal of, by improving the quality of the blood ,, steam ... ... Volatile contagious matter ... ... . . . ' , , disinfecting vapours ... Vomiting excited by swallowing food in fever Vorticellse killed by carbolic acid ... 460 INDEX. Waller, Dr., on the origin of the pus-corpuscle Water, disease germs in Waters, Dr., treatment of zymotic diseases W^asting of villi in cases of cholera ... Weyrick von D. Victor, on exhalation from the skin at different temperatures ... White blood corpuscle ,, ,, descent and degradation into pus-corpuscle WTiitehead's meat extracts Winn, Dr., on typhus treated w^ith large doses of whiskey Wolfe, Dr., on the influence of coal tar on the pus forming process Wollowicz on influence of alcohol on the temperature of the body Wood, Mr. John, on the use of carbolates of zinc and copper in the treatment of wounds ... Wounds, antiseptic treatment of ,, dissection ... „ Mr. J. Wood on the treatment of Yeast, action of carbolic acid upon ... ,, fungus ... Young persons, of giving alcohol to . . . Zinc, chloride of, disinfectant ,, sulpho-carbolate Zymotic action in the blood ... ,, diseases >) ,, mortality from, in England and Wales 125 156 303 185 221 103 256 373 402 282 329 318 281 139 318 273 14 384 296 3" 242 86 46 1 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. Amoeba magnified 2, 800 diameters ... ,, very minute living, magnified 5,000 diameters ... Apparatus for collecting germs from atmos- phere ... Areolar tissue invaded by bioplasts,, external areolar coat, vein, horse Artery in connective tissue, beneath mucous membrane fourth stomach, cow, cattle plague ,, with tubercle bioplasm in its coats, pia mater, human ... Bacteria from the mouth, human subject ,, growing and multiplying rapidly ,, ,, ,, in the sub- stance of a dead pus corpuscle . . . ,, with columnar Epithelium from the jejunum of a child, cholera Bacterium, crushed, showing alteration in form of its extruded bioplasm Basement membrane, thickening of at the Plate, v summit of villi, in cholera ...xxn, xxm. Bioplasm, contagious, amongst young cuticular cells, just beneath scab, eruption on teat of cow, cattle plague ... ,, ,, beneath eruption, cattle plague ,, enlarged masses of in capillary, dividing and sub-dividing, mucous membrane, fourth stomach, cow, cattle plague ,, ,, ,, coats of artery, mucous membrane, fourth stomach, cow, cattle plague ,, increased growth of the bioplasm of all the tissues in a portion of the pectoral muscle, frog in a state of inflammation of 48 hours' duration ,, ,, ,, of 4 days' duration ,, ,, ,, of 7 days' duration Fig. 29 30 30 99 117 73 2,3,4 13, 14 54 23 28 87,90 3 105 116 117 48 49 50 Page. 100 100 162 188 218 152 16 20 130 36 100 186 214 188 218 218 124 126 128 462 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. Bioplasm in the interior of and external to capillary vessels, surface of villus, bad case of cattle plague ,, ,, vessel, from mucous membrane, stomach, cattle plague ,, large masses of, in vessels of villus... ,, masses of, in active movement, from villus, cattle plague ,, multiplication of in areolar tissue, external coat of vein, horse ,, of blood, from the embryo turtle... ,, in the capillaries of the retina of a calf, cattle plague ,, cancer , , connective tissue, mesentery frog. . . ,, crushed bacterium, showing altering outline of its form ,, cuticle, newt ,, embryonic tissues ... ,, epithelium of tongue in a state of inflammation ,, foetal tuft of human placenta ,, fully formed tissues ,, lymph corpuscles ... , , milk from cow, cattle plague , , mucus from trachea, man ... J J ,, vagina, cow, cattle plague ,, pus in active movement ... ,, on external surface of villus, cattle plague ,, passage of, through pores in formed material of penicillium ... „ very minute particles of, and white blood bioplasts ... >> ,, ,, from exudation Bladder epithelium, formation of pus from bioplasm of , , of frog, vessels filled with blood bioplasts Blood bioplasts and disease germs in capillary vessel, Malpighian body, kidney, cow, cattle plague J J , , fibres of fibrin from a pale clot from heart, human subject >> ,, enlarged in capillary vessel, retina, calf, cattle plague . > > , , from a clot, aorta, cattle plague i> M in capillaries, ovum of turtle Plate. XXV xxiv xxiv iii xxiv xii xxvi X v ix vi, vii xi vi ix xvii xix V xviii XV Fig. Page. 100 96 97 15 99 35 106 44 45 33 61 69 31,32 63 52 106 188 188 188 46 188 106 28 ... 100 38,9 ... no 104, 106 .. 122 .. 104 .. no .. 138 .. 152 .. 100 .. 140 .. 130 20 xviii .. xvi .. 56 . . 148 • 13^ xi .. viii .. 47 • 37 • . 122 . 108 xxiv .. 98 . : 188 xvi . 57 • • 136 xxvi .. iii .. vii .'. 106 . 16 . 35 • . 188 • t . 106 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 463 Blood bioplasts undergoing conversion into fibrin ,, corpuscles, red and white, in a drop of blood from pulmonary vein, cattle plague ,, ,, ,, from finger, man ,, disease germs in a drop of, from hepatic i'ein, cow, cattle plague ,, from intestinal capillaries, cattle plague ,, vessels, bioplasm in, cow, cattle plague Bronchial mucus, cow, cattle plague ... Cancer cells, from a case of cancer of the bladder ,, ,, epithelial cancer ... Capillary vessel, containing blood bioplasts, pia mater, human foetus ,, ,, contracted and altered, sum- mit of villus, cattle plague . ,, ,, enlarged masses of bioplasm, dividing and sub-dividing in, from beneath depression in mucous membrane, stomach, cow, cattle plague ,, ,, Malpighian body, kidney, cow, cattle plague, containing blood bioplasts and disease germs ,, ,, mucous membrane epiglottis, with masses of bioplasm pro- jecting into the cavity of the vessel „ „ retina, calf, cattle plague ... ,, vessels, altered and obstructed by mass of bioplasm, villus, cholera ,, ,, and bodies, external to, in villus, cholera ,, ,, containing blood bioplasts, mesentery, frog ,, ,, passage of contagious bioplasm through, to the parallel layers of cuticular cells ,, ,, summit of villus, containing pigment granules, oil globules, and bioplasts ,, ,, surface of villus, containing and covered by masses of bioplasm ... Cartilage rib, cat ,, . kitten at birth ... Cell-like mass in vessels of villus, cholera ... Plate, xvii ... 60 Page. ... 138 xviii ... xvi ... 68 , 55 ■ ... 148 .. 136 vi ... xviii ... vi, vii, viii. 26 . 65 . xxiv, .. 68 .. 148 et seq. X ... 43 • ... 120 xix ... X ... 72 . 44 • .. 152 .. 120 vi ... 34 • .. 104 iv ... 27 . .. 68 16 ... 2] xvi . xxvi .. . 58 - . 106 . .. 186 .. 188 xxii .. . 89 . .. 186 xxiii .. • . 93 • .. 186 viii .. . 36 . .. 108 (cxvii .. no .. . 214 xxiii ... 91 .. . 186 XXV ... lOI .. . 188 IX ... 41 .. . no IX ... xxi ... 40 .. 83 •• . no . 184 464 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. Cells in white mucus from bronchial tubes of cow, cattle plague ... Cholera, altered capillaries in villus in ,, hoematoidin, in villi, in a case of ... ,, impervious vessels in villi ,, obstructed capillaries, orifices of Lieberkuhn's follicles in ... ,, sections through small intestines, showing distended vessels and wasted follicles ,, summit of villus, in a case of Colostrum corpuscles with bioplasm, cow, C. P. Columnar epithelium and bacteria, jejunum cholera Connective tissue corpuscles enlarged, epiglottis, cow, cattle plague Connective tissue corpuscles, epiglottis, ox ... >> >> j> ,, ,, mesentery frog ... Contagious bioplasm, growing and multiplying amongst young cuticular cells under scab, eruption, cattle plague Contagious bioplasm, mamma, cow, cattle plague „ ,, minute particles of in fibrous tissue, skin, beneath eruption, cattle plague , , , , passage of from the capil- laries to the cuticle . . . Corium, fibrous tissue of, from softened part of pustule, cow's udder, cattle plague Cuticle and cutis, section through seat of eruption, cattle plague ,, masses of contagious bioplasm, grow- ing and multiplying under scab, cattle plague ,, newt, deep layer of ... ,, ,, superficial layer of , , passage of contagious bioplasm to, from the capillary vessels ,, sporules of fungi amongst superficial cells of Disease germs amongst cuticular cells, under scab of eruption, cattle plague >> M in a capillary loop from a Malpighian body, kidney, cow, cattle plague ... Plate. Fig. Page. X , xxii xxii , xxii , ... 43 •• ... 89 .. ... 88 .. ... 88 .. . 120 . 186 . 186 . 186 xxi . xxi xxi xix ... 85 .. ( 79, 80, ) 81, 84, 86 \ ... 82 .. ... 69 .. . 184 184 . 184 • 152 iv , ... 23 .. . 68 xxviii . ... 115 .. . 218 XXVlll . ... 114 .. . 218 xxvni . viii , :: "i :: . 118 . 108 xxvii ... Ill .. . 214 xxvii ... 113 . 214 XX vi ... 105 .. . 188 xxvii ... no .. . 214 xxvi 103,104 .. . 188 xxvii ... 108 .. . 214 xxvii ix ix ... Ill .. ... 38 .. ... 39 .. . 214 . no . no xxvii ... no .. . 214 xxvii ... 112 .. . 214 xxvii ... 113 .. . 214 xxiv ... 98 .. . 188 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 465 Disease Germs in a capillary loop from a papilla, mamma of cow, cattle plague ,, ,, in a capillary loop f^om surface of villus, bad case of cattle plagaie' ,, ,, in drop of blood from a branch of the pulmonary vein, cattle plague ,, ,, in drop of blood from small mesenteric vein, cattle plague ,, ,, amongst the capillary vessels of surface of villus ,, ,, amongst the capillary vessels of mucous membrane, stomach, cow, cattle plague ,, ,, intervals between the fibres of fibrous tissue, skin, pustule, cow's udder, cattle plague . . . Diverticula, from growing yeast cells... Plate. Fig. Page. 100 lOI 68 65 ... 148 97 ... 188 95 XXVI 103-105 i ... 7, 8 16 Embryonic tissues Enlarged connective tissue corpuscles from mucous membrane, epiglottis, cattle plague Epiglottis, capillary vessel in mucous mem- brane of, with bioplasts very close together and projecting into cavity of vessel ... ,, connective tissue corpuscles from the mucous membrane, in health and in cattle plague Epithelial cancer cells ... ,, cell, summit of, containing in its substance germs of bacteria ,, cells, columnar, jejunum of child who died of cholera ,, ,, division of bioplasm of ,, ,, ofmouth formation of pus from ,, ,, surface of pharynx of healthy person ,, ,, tongue in a state of inflamma- tion ... Eruption on mamma, cattle plague, a vertical section through a pustule Eruption on mamma, cattle plague, a vertical section through cuticle and cutis Eruption on mamma, cattle plague, a vertical section through cuticle and cutis, contagious xxvni X 114, 15 "5 44 24 23 47 46 42 45 108 104-6 . 218 58 ... 136 218 120 68 68 122 122 120 122 214 466 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. bioplasm between the fibres of the fibrous tissue Eruption on mamma, cattle plague, cuticular cells invaded by contagious bioplasts Eruption on mamma, cattle plague, papillae fi-om beneath the seat of Exudation, very minute particles of bioplasm in Fat vesicles and areolar tissue of external areolar coat, vein, horse, containing numerous bioplasts Fibrin and blood bioplasts from a pale clot, heart, human subject , , formation of, by blood bioplasts Fibrous tissue of corium from softened part of pustule, udder cow, cattle plague ... Foetal tuft, growing extremities of, human placenta ... ... ... ... • ... Formed material, passage of bioplasm through pores of spore of fungus Forms assumed by a mass of pus bioplasm . . . Frog, bladder of, all the tissues in a portion of , , pectoral muscle of in a state of inflamma- tion, of 48 hours' duration ... ,, pectoral muscle of in a state of inflamma- tion, of 4 days' duration ,, pectoral muscle of in a state of inflamma- tion, of 7 days' duration , , vein of web of, in a state of commencing inflammation ... Fungi, germs of, showing relation of bioplasm to the formed material ,, in different stages of growth ... ,, most minute germs of ... ,, old spores of ,, sporule of, amongst superficial cells of cuticle, near eruption, cattle plague Germs, disease, amongst cuticular cells under scab of eruption,' cattle plague ,, ,, in a capillary loop from a Mal- pighian body, kidney, cow, cattle plague ,, ,, in a capillary loop from a papilla mamma, cow, cattle plague ,, ,, in drop of blood from a branch of the pulmonary vein, cattle plague Plate. Fig. XXVI 103-105 109 56 99 Page. . 188 . 214 . 214 . 136 188 xvi .. xvi .. 57 • • 55 • . 136 . 136 xxvi .. • 103 . . 188 vi .. • 33 • . 104 ii . II . . 20 XV . viii .. 54 • • 37 ■ • 130 . 124 xii . 48 . . 124 xiii . • 49 • . 126 xiv . • 50 • . 128 xiv . 51 • . 128 ii .. iii . i .. ii . . 8, 10 . 22 . 5 9 • . 20 . 46 . 16 . 20 214 13 • . 214 98 . . 188 00 . . 188 68 . . 148 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 467 Germs, disease, in a capillary loop from small mesenteric vein, cattle plague , , , , amongst the capillary vessels of surface of villus ,, ,, amongst the capillary vessels of mucous membrane, stomach, cow, cattle plague... ,, ,, mucous membrane, intervals between the fibres of fibrous tissue, skin over pustule, cow's udder, cattle plague. . . ,, ,, Dr. Maddox's apparatus for collecting, from the atmo- sphere ,, ,, in blood from hepatic vein, cow, cattle plague... ,, in organic fluids ... ,, of bacteria, growing and multiplying ... ,, of fungi, most minute ,, ,, showing relation of bioplasm to formed material Growing bacteria ... ... ... ,, extrerftities of foetal tuft, of human placenta ,, sugar fungus ... ,, yeast cells Healthy mucous membrane, connective tissue, corpuscles of, ox Hepatic vein, germs in the blood from, cow, cattle plague ... Hoematoidin, crystals of, in the summit of a villus, case of cholera Impervious vessels, at the summit of a villus, case of cholera Inflammation of the bladder, changes of form of pus bioplast... , , epithelium of the tongue . . . bioplasts in active movement, from a case of ,, pectoral muscle, frog, of 48 hours' duration . . . ,, pectoral muscle, frog, of 4 days' duration ofpectoral muscle frog, of 7 days' duration ... ... •■• of vein in the web of a living frog's foot, in a state of recent Plate. Fig- Page. xviii .. 65 .. 148 xxiv ... 97 • .. 188 95 xxvi 103-105 ... 74-8 88 [88 [62 iv . i . .. 26 .. I .. . 68 . 16 n . i . 14 .. 5 •• . 20 . 16 ii . .. 8-10 .. 20 11 . ..13,14 .. 20 vi . ii . i . •• 33 •• 12 .. ..6,7,8 .. . 104 . 20 . 16 xxviii .. 114 . . 218 iv .. 26 . . 68 xxii .. 88 . . 186 [86 XV ... xi ... 52 .. 45 •• • 130 . 122 XV ... 52 .. . 130 xii ... 48 . . 124 xiii ... 49 • . 126 xiv ... 50 • . 128 xiv ... 51 • . 128 468 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. Intestinal capillaries, contents of, in cattle plague Kidney, capillary loop from Malpighian body of, containing disease germs and blood bioplasts ;.. ... ... Kitten at birth, cartilage of, and its bioplasm Lacteal, in villus of healthy jejunum, man ... Lieberkuhn's follicles, orifices of wasted, cholera ,, ,, wasted, and distended "I vessels of villi, \ cholera ... ... J Living organisms, found in closed vessels . . . |- ,, pus bioplasts, forms of in active move- ment ... Loop of vessels in a papilla of the mamma of a cow, cattle plague . . . ,, ,, Malpighian body, con- taining disease germs, blood bioplasts, &c. ... Lymph bioplasts ,, ,, minute in active movement... Maddox, Dr., his apparatus for collecting germs floating in the atmosphere ... Malpighian body, capillary loop in, of kidney of cow, cattle plague, containing disease germs Mamma with pustular eruption, cow, cattle ,, plague, cuticular cells of, invaded by contagious bioplasm ... ,, with pustular eruption, cow, cattle plague, loop of vessels in a papilla of, containing bioplasts ... Milk, colostrum corpuscles, cow, cattle plague ,, smallest particles of bioplasm in Mouth, bacteria from the human ,, formation of pus bioplasts in epithelial cells of the ... Mucous membrane, artery in, obstructed with a large mass of abnormal bioplasm ... ... 3 Mucus corpuscle from trachea, man ... ,, from bronchial tubes of a cow in cattle plague ,, from gall bladder, vegetable growths in ,, ,, trachea, man, during life Plate. Fig. Page. xvii .. .. 65 ... 148 xxiv ., ,. 98 .. 188 IX ., .. 40 ... 1 10 xxiii .. . 91 ... 186 xxi .. . ( XXI < 1 1 iii • 1 ,. 85 ... 1 79, 80, ) 81, 84, ' 86 ) 17, 18, 19, 20 J 184 184 45 XV .. . 52 ... 130 XXV .. . 100 ... 188 xxiv .. xvii .. xviii .. -. 98 ... . 61 ... . 66 ... 188 148 XX .. • 75-78 ... 162 xxiv .. . 98 ... 188 13 46 214 100 .. . 188 69 .. • 152 71 .. • 152 2, 3,4-- . 16 122 [I7 . .. 218 32 . .. 100 43 •■ , 120 21 .. • 46 31 .. . 100 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 469 Mucus from vagina, cow, cattle plague, bio- plasts in ,, ,, vagina, cow, cattle plague, bio- plasts in, growing and multi- plying rapidly ... Obstructed vessel with bulgings from sumrcit of a villus, cholera ,, vessels at summit of villus Oil globules, vessels of villus containing Organic fluids, germs in Organisms found living in closed vessels, the \ contents of which have been boiled ...\ Papilla of mamma, cow, cattle plague, loop of vessels in, containing bioplasts Papillse beneath pustule of eruption, cattle plague... Papule udder of cow, cattle plague, vertical section through Pectoral muscle, frog, inflammation of, 48 hours' duration ,, ,, ,, 4 days' duration „ ,» ,, 7 days' duration Pharynx, epithelium from surface of, man . . . Pia mater, vein and capillaries from, contain- ing blood bioplasts, human foetus ... Pigment granules, in a cell-like mass at summit of villus, cholera Placenta, growing extremities of foetal tuft of. . . Pus bioplast from bladder, man, different forms assumed by... ,, ,, ,, portion of living showing outline of movements ,, ,, dead, containing bacteria ... ,, bioplasts containing bacteria in active movement ,, formation of, from bioplasm of bladder epithelium ... „ ,, „ ,, mouth Pustule, udder, cow, vertical section of ,, ,, ,, disease germs multiplying in the fibrous tissue of Red and white blood corpuscles, from pul- monary vein, cattle plague 2 I Fig. Page. 63 ... 148 70 ... 152 IV .. xxi .. xxiii .. 94 • . 68 . 184 . 186 . 16 iii 17, 18, 19, 20 46 XXV .. 100 . . 188 sxvii .. 109 . . 214 xxvi .. 102 . . 188 xii .. 48 . . 124 xiii .. 49 • . 126 xiv .. 50 . . 128 X .. 42 . . 120 vi .. 34 • . 104 xxiii .. 92 . . 186 VI .. 33 • . 104 XV .. 54 • • 130 XV .. XV .. 53 • 54*- . 130 ■ 130 XV .. 52 • . 130 xi .. xi .. 47 • 46 . . 122 . 122 XXVI .. 102 . . 188 xxvi ... 103, 104 188 68 ... 148 470- INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. Red and white blood corpuscles in a drop of blood removed from the finger, man Retina, calf, cattle plague, capillary of, con- taining enlarged blood bioplasts Plate, Fig. Page. xvi .. 55 • .. 136 xxvi .. . io6 . .. 188 Scab, pustular eruption, cattle plague, cells of cuticle invaded by con- tagious bioplasm ,, ,, ,, young cuticular cells and contagious bioplasts . . . vShrunken and wasted vessels, villus, cholera... Small-pox vesicle, bioplasts of Sporules of fungi ,, ,, amongst superficial cells of cuticle, eruption, cattle plague ,, ,, in different stages of growth in sputum Sputum, fungi in various stages of develop- ment from Starved frog, portion of the bladder in a, show- ing all the tissues Stomach, portion of one of the large vessels in the mucous membrane of, cow, cattle plague ,, thin depressed spot like an ulcer in mucous membrane of, cow, cattle plague Sugar fungus, branching stem with growing extremities Tongue, portion of the epithelial covering in a state of inflammation Trachea, man, mucus from Tubercle bioplasts in the coats of an artery, pia mater, man 13 214 xxvu ... xxiii ... xviii ... i ... Ill .. 90 .. 64 .. I ,. 214 . 186 . 148 . 16 xxvii ... 112 .. . 214 iii ... 22 .. . 46 iii ... 22 .. • 46 viii ... 37 •• . 108 96 ... 188 :iv ... 95 •■ . 188 ii ... 12 .. 20 xi ... 45 •■ . 122 V ... 31 •• . 100 73 [52 Udder, cow, cattle plague, pustular eruption on the skin of . . . Ulcer in mucous membrane, stomach, cow, cattle plague ... ,, thin depressed spot like, in mucous membrane, fourth stomach, cow, cattle plague ... Unstriped muscular fibres, bioplasm of, frog's bladder Vaccine lymph, particles in active movement xxvi ... 102 .. ,. 188 xxiv ... . 96 .. ,. 188 xxiv ... 95 - . 188 viii ... 37 •• . 108 xviii ... 66... . 148 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 471 Vagina, bioplasts in mucus from, cow, cattle plague ,,, ,, ,, growing and multiplying rapidly Vallisneria spiralis, large and small cells of, with their contents ,, ,, part of a cell showing cir- culation of contents . . . Vegetable growths in mucus from gall bladder, cattle plague ,, organisms in active movement from a villus, cow, cattle plague Vein from the ovum of the turtle ,, multiplication of bioplasts in the areolar coat of, from horse , , pia mater filled with blood bioplasts, human foetus ,, web of young frog during life in a state of recent inflammation ... Vessel, and bodies external to it, in a villus, jejunum, man, cholera ,, olDstructed and with bulgings, summit of a villus, jejunum, man, cholera ... Vessels and connective tissue corpuscles, from mesentery frog ,, capillary, from summit of villus, cholera ,, loop of, in a papilla of the mamma, cow ,, of villi, enormously distended and Wasted, cholera ,, villus, disease germs in, cow, cattle plague , , portion of one of the large, from surface of mucous membrane, stomach, cow, cattle plague ... ,, shrunken and altered, from summit of a villus, jejunum, cholera ,, ,, wasted and thickened, basement membrane, villus, cholera Villus, large masses of bioplasm in the vessels of, cow, cattle plague , , masses of bioplasm on external surface of ,, obstructed vessel of, with bulgings, jejunum, man, cholera ,, portion of a capillary vessel from the surface of, covered by and containing disease germs „ simunit of, obstructed vessels at, cholera „ „ healthy jejunum ... Plate. Fig. Page. xviii . • 63 . . 148 xix . • 70 . . 152 xvii . • 59 • . 138 xvii . . 62 . . 138 iii . 21 . . 46 iii . vii . • 15 • • 35 ■ . 46 . 106 xxiv . • 99 ■ . 188 vi . • 34 • . 104 xiv . • 51 • . 128 xxiii . • 93 • . 186 iv . 25 . . 68 viii . • 36 . . 108 xxiii . XXV . xxi • 93 ■ ICO . 79,80 81,84 . 186 . 188 ,84 XXIV xxii xxiii xxiv xxvi XXV xxi xxiii 97 95 87 90 97 107 23 188 188 186 186 188 188 68 82 ... 184 91 ... 186 472 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. Plate. Fig. Page. Villus, summit of, containing oil globules ... xxiii ... 94 ... i86 ,, ,, thickening of basement mem- brane at ...xxii, xxiii... 87, 90 ... 186 Wasted and shrunken vessels of villi, in cases of cholera ... ... ... ... ...xxii, xxiii... 87, 90 ... 186 Web, inflammation in vein of, frog's foot ... xiv ... 51 ... 128 Yeast cells, growth and multiplication of ... \ '.. 6, 7 ... 16 THE ENDt TO THE BINDER. Note.— Plate XXII. to be inserted opposite to page 186 instead of 184., as directed at the foot of the Plate NEW WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. Now ready, %th Thousand, 2 is. HOW TO WORK WITH THE MICROSCOPE. The Fourth Edition, very much enlarged. This work is a complete manual of microscopical manipulation, and contains a full description of many new processes of investigation, with directions for examining objects under the highest powers. fVif/i Seventy Plates, including many new Figures, some of which are coloured. CONTENTS :— I. The Simple and Compound Microscope — Choice of a Microscope — Travelling and Dissecting Microscopes — Clinical, Pocket, and Class Microscope. II. Examination of Objects by Reflected, Transmitted, and Polarized Light — Dark ground Illumination — Illumination — On Drawing and Measuring Objects— Ascertaining the Magnifying Power of Object Glasses. III. Instruments required for Dissection — Valentin's Knife, &c. — Cements — Preservative Solutions. IV. 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