'S SERIES. 
 
 SB 30b 577 
 
 ^ AT BISTORT 
 
 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 PREPARED FOR THE USE OF 
 
 SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES, 
 
 W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M.D. 
 
 Surgeon in tba U. B. Navy ; Fello-w of the College of Physicians ; Hoa. 
 
 *-"ho Poiladelpliia Medical Society; Member of the 
 j o; Kc.tunbd bcienccs of Philadelphia, Jco. &o. 
 
 FROM THE TEXT OF 
 
 MILNE EDWARDS, AND ACHILLE COMTE, 
 
 TROFESSORS OF NATURAL HISTCRY IN THE COLLEGES 
 OF HENRI IV, AND CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 WITH PLATES. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 GR1GG & ELLIOT, 
 
 NO. 9 NOBTH FOURTH 3T&Ei5T, 
 1840. 
 
\T 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 S&DCAIIOH LIBS, 
 

NEW AND IMPORTANT SCHOOL BOOKS. 
 
 TO TEACHERS, PRINCIPALS AND CONTROLLERS 
 
 OF SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES AND COLLEG-ES 
 
 We take the liberty of calling your attention to a Series 
 of Books on the subject of Natural History, which, in the 
 opinion of many of the most eminent men in our country, 
 is second to no branch of knowledge now taught in schools. 
 We ask your attention to these books, because we believe 
 them to be superior to any works of the kind ever offered 
 to the American public. They are small in size, extremely 
 cheap, as accurate in scientific arrangement as the most 
 voluminous works on similar subjects, and in every respect, 
 such as parents and teachers would wish to place in the 
 hands of their children. In confirmation of this opinion of 
 the worth of these works, we respectfully invite your 
 attention to the following testimonials. 
 
 Very respectfully, your obedient servants, 
 
 GRIGG & ELLIOT, 
 JVb. 9 North Fourth Street, Philad'a 
 
 These books have been introduced into the Public Schools of Pennsylvania 
 and Ohio, and no doubt will, ere long, be introduced into all the public schools 
 of our other States. 
 
 "We regard the introduction of these works into our public schools, among the 
 highest compliments they have received ; for we feel sure that the gentlemen 
 who constitute the committee for selecting books, possess too much discernment 
 and general knowledge, to pass favourably upon works of inferior pretensions. 
 The following gentlemen composed the Committee for selecting books for the 
 use of Public Schools." GEORGE M. WHARTON, Esq. 
 
 THOMAS H. FORSYTH, Esq. 
 GEORGE EMLEN, Jr., Esq. 
 
 * FRANCIS LYONS, Esq. 
 
 JOHN C. SMITH, Esq. 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 In addition to the following flattering notices of the American Press, the pub- 
 lishers have received upwards of one hundred recommendations from the most 
 prominent professors and distinguished teachers of our country, to the superior 
 claims of these works, and urging their introduction as Class Books into all the 
 Schools, Academies, &c., throughout the United States. 
 
RUSCHENBERGER'S SERIES. 
 
 FIRST BOOKS 
 
 OF 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY, 
 
 SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND FAMILIES. 
 
 1. ELEMENTS OF 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 2. ELEMENTS OF 
 
 MAMMALOGY, 
 
 The Natural History of Quadrupeds. 
 
 3. ELEMENTS OF 
 
 ORNITHOLOGY, 
 
 The Natural History of Birds. 
 
 4. ELEMENTS OF 
 
 HEEPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY, 
 
 The Natural History of Reptiles aud Fishes. 
 
 5. ELEMENTS OF 
 
 CONCHOLOGY, 
 
 The Natural History of Shells and Mollusca. 
 
 6. ELEMENTS OF 
 
 ENTOMOLOGY, 
 
 The Natural History of Insects. 
 
 7. ELEMENTS OF 
 
 BOTANY, 
 
 The Natural History of Plants. 
 
 8. ELEMENTS OF 
 
 GEOLOGY, 
 
 The Natural History of the Earth's Structure. 
 
 This interesting series of books has already met with the mosl 
 flattering reception ever extended to any work issued from the Amer- 
 ican press. Introduced into the Public Schools of Pennsylvania, and 
 in nearly all the first class seminaries of learning in the United States. 
 
RECOMMENDATORY NOTICES. 
 
 " Ruschenberger's Series of Books on Natural History, are among the 
 most valuable and useful works, for the use of Schools that have ever been 
 published. A knowledge of Natural History, is not only valuab'e, but 
 deeply interesting; and no one's education can, with such faciliiies as these 
 works afford, be considered complete without it." National Intelligencer. 
 
 "These are the most valuable ndditions of the day to our stock of School 
 Books. The avidily with which they have been seized upon is unprece- 
 dented. Though the first vol. w.is published for the first time only a few 
 months ngo, it has already gone through its fifth edition; the. second is fol- 
 lowing close upon its heels; and the third promises even to be more popular 
 than either of the other two. These books have been adopted by the * Koyal 
 Council of Public Instruction,' for the use of Sehoo's throughout France. 
 They are recommended and have been adopted by some of the most emi 
 nent teachers in the United States." Southern Literary Messenger. 
 
 From ' The Ladies' Companion, a Monthly Magazine." June, 1842, New York. 
 W. Snowden, 109, Fulton Street. 
 
 "RUSCHENBKRGER'S ORNITHOLOGY: Grigg & Elliot. This is an excel- 
 lent boo!?, by one who shows himself perfectly qualified for the task he haa 
 undertaken, which is the publishing of a series of works on the different 
 branches of education, for the use of schools and colleges. The present 
 issue is a general and synopt:?al view of Ornithology, one of the most 
 interesting subjects in Nature! History, and will be found of great service, 
 both to teacher and student." 
 
 " This is a compendious, and, as it seems to us. a judiciously compiled 
 treatise on Ornithology, and one well calculated for the use of Schools ; for 
 which object it is intended." N. Y. Courier and Enquirer. 
 
 " In the work before us, the plan is happily carried out. In its small 
 compass it embraces an immense amount of useful and interesting infor- 
 mation." Buffalo Adv. and Journal. 
 
 " Ornithology. This is evidently, like its predecessors, an excellent work 
 of instruction; and ha^ been, in all respects well got up by the publishers."' 
 Pennsylvanian, 
 
 " A valuable little work, and is divided up and classified admirably. The 
 glossary, giving the derivation of the names of birds, is of itself worth the 
 price of the volume." New York Aurora. 
 
 "An exceedingly interesting, and very instructive book, and one which 
 possesses special attraction for young ladies." Baltimore Sun. 
 
 "RUSCHENBERGER'S SERIES : Second Book. A highly useful and instructive 
 school book. Third Book. This we consider as decidedly an acquisition 
 to our list of school books, the subject is treated of in such a plain style as 
 to be adapted to the simplest capacity. Altogether we think the above 
 series as worthy to lake a high and permanent place among our school 
 books." Buffalo Democrat. 
 
 u We wish we could induce our teachers generally to examine this, as 
 well as the earlier works of Dr. Ruschenberger ; they are admirably 
 arranged, and just the very books needed for schools. The work before 
 us on the Natural History of Birds is an admirable one, and no teachel 
 should neglect to introduce the series. 'Cincinnati Gazette. 
 
 * It is an excellent text book of an interesting science, comprising much 
 knowledge in a brief space, presented in a clear style and with lucid 
 arrangement. Dr. Rupchenberger, who has already achieved a high charac 
 cer in the literary world, is acquiring additional claims by his exertions j 
 Ihe field of Natural Science.- Spectator, Washington City. 
 
RECOMMENDATORY NOTICES. 
 
 ** Ruschenberger's Series. These volumes are constructed upon a new 
 and admirable plan, combining great simplicity of arrangement, with a 
 perspicuity and sententiousness of style seldom found in works of this 
 class; and which has elicited the highest encomiums of upwards of thirty 
 of the leading professors of the country, whose opinions have again been 
 endorsed by most of the public prints." U. States Adv. 
 
 "The developement of the principles of classification, is among the very 
 best we have ever seen. Science is here dressed in her own native sim- 
 plicity and beauty, so that the philosopher may admire, while the child may 
 acquire it. Medical Reporter. 
 
 " It is a choice, and well digested work." Atlas. 
 
 " An excellent publication adapted to the youthful mind, and a great help 
 to the more matured." Mercury. 
 
 "The study of Natural History though generally neglected in schools, 
 is of undoubted use : the present work contains a great amount of infor. 
 malion within a small compass, and properly condenses it for the young 
 mind." N. Y. Journal of Commerce. 
 
 " Ruschenberger's Series. The subjects are Well treated, and from the 
 exceeding cheapness, and admirable arrangemeuiof these elementary works, 
 they are well fitted for general use in public schools and academies." 
 New York American. 
 
 "We do not hesitate to say, that this is the best work of the kind and 
 dimensions, that has even fallen under our notice. We hope all will embrace 
 the first opportunity of procuring a copy, as we are sure they will prize 
 it highly." Botanic Recorder. 
 
 "A well digested and carefully arranged abstract of the most interesting 
 parts of Natural Science." Philadelphia Gazette 
 
 " Admirably adapted to convey an elementary knowledge on the subject 
 of which it treats; and will be found an excellent book for the student." 
 Public Ledger. 
 
 " Valuable in every respect, it contains a vast amount of information, 
 condensed into an available form, for the use of schools." Spirit of the Times. 
 
 " Just such a work as is wanted for elementary instruction, in this pleas, 
 ing branch of science." New York Evening Post. 
 
 "We regard this series as eminently useful, supplying adequately the 
 
 instruction in natural history necessary to a proper school education." 
 
 North American. 
 
 '* It is an excellent little work for the purpose designed, written in a clear 
 and familiar style, and will not fail to facilitate the studies of those who 
 wish to make themselves* acquainted with the subject." Saturday Courier. 
 
 "Admirably adapted for elementary instruction." Saturday Chronicle. 
 
 " We have great pleasure in recommending it as an excellent elementary 
 manual on the subject." Medical Examiner. 
 
 "Ornithology This book is equal in merit to the first and second, and 
 is a most valuable work. It is intended for the use of schools and acade- 
 mies, and we would call the attention of parents and others to the series of 
 books to which this belongs, assuring them at the same time, that it will 
 answer the purpose for which it is intended, better than any other work of 
 the kind that we ever saw, or, in our opinion, that was ever published in 
 this country. It is divided into questions and answers, contains an exten- 
 sive and valuable Glossary, and is illustrated by eight Plates ; and what la 
 more the price is so very low that every person can aftord to purchase it. 
 JVffw Yoik New Era. 
 
RECOMMEiNDATORY NOTICES. 
 
 it has been justly observed, that " the double effect of the study f I\ f atural TIL'toi jr 
 IB to impart certainty to the mind, and religion to the heart," and the Christian no les 
 than the man of science, must rejoice in every effort to throw more widely open the 
 sublime and boundless field which it presents. Tins is the design of Dr. Ruschenberger, 
 in a series of First Books of Natural History, which he is preparing foi the use of 
 schools and colleges. Banner of the Cross. 
 
 The series have i/iet a demand and sale in France almost unparalleled, and the words 
 are well adapted, not only for schools, but for popular reading and instruction. Thia 
 work is from the French of Edwards and Comte, and has received the warm commen- 
 dation of many of the best physicians and scholars in this country JV". Y. Eve. Tattler. 
 
 It is highly commended by the very best authorities. JV*. Y. Tribune. 
 
 This book is highly commended by competent judges, and we therefore give our so- 
 lemn opinion that it is an excellent work. Boston Daily Times. 
 
 A small, but very valuable work. Boston Evening Transcript. 
 
 We have examined this new book for schools and colleges, with peculiar gratification. 
 The style is succinct and clear, and the subject illustrated by appropriate drawings. We 
 tliould be glad to see this work introduced into all the schools. It teaches knowledge 
 Ihe most important, which has been, however, strangely overlooked in our school and 
 college system. It is a book which should not be confined to seminaries alone It may 
 be used with advantage by all individuals in society. We repeat, it is in all respects a 
 most excellent work, and we hope will receive the attention and patronage it merits. 
 Brooklyn Evening Star. 
 
 A valuable work; we have read it with profit. JV". Y. Mercury. 
 
 We are highly pleased with this work. For elementary instruction in families, 
 schools, and colleges, it is decidedly superior to any thing of the kind we have seen. It 
 gives much valuable information in a very small space, and in style it is generally free 
 from obstruse technicalities It has already received the highest recommendations from 
 a large number of professional men in different parts of the country ; and it must have, 
 we think, a general circulation. It gives that kind of knowledge which should be dif. 
 fused among the mass of the people, and it must and will be patronised as far as its 
 merits are known. Zion's Watr.hm.an. 
 
 This is a fine little book, containing the elements of much useful learning, illustra- 
 ted by anatomical plates of the human figure, its organs and (heir functions. It is a 
 highly useful work to the student indeed to every citizen it shows how fearfully and 
 wonderfully we are made, and what slight causes may derange and utterly destroy lite 
 complicated machine. The Olive Branch 
 
 A very useful little work. JV. Y. dtlas. 
 
 As far as we are competent to determine, it may safely be welcomed as an important 
 addition to the means of elementary instruction in natural science, The Friend. 
 
 We recommend it as a highly instructive publication. JV". Y. Times and Eve. Star. 
 
 This is a most valuable work, by Dr. Ruschenberger, and most admirably are the 
 plates, representing all the different parts of the body, done. It is cheap, and every pa 
 rent should place one in the hands of their children. JV". Y. Herald. 
 
 We have examined this little volume with much pleasure, and think it admirably 
 adapted to the purpose for which it is intended. Animal Mechanism, as a study, has 
 generally been neglected, except by the few, whose profession requires a knowledge of 
 it, and who have time to spare in acquiring that knowledge. A prominent cause of 
 the neglect of this useful and interesting science by the general student, is, the want 
 of a suitable treatise upon the subject, those extant being too voluminous, technical, 
 and expensive for general use. The little work before us is happily calculated to sup- 
 ply this want. It will, we think, be introduced into our schools and colleges as a text- 
 book, but its circulation ought not to be confined there. Every private library should 
 be considered incomplete without it. JV". Y. Mechanic. 
 
 It seems to us to be well suited for the object for which it is designed, and it witi 
 doubtless be introduced into many of our elemer \ary schools. The American Juurn4 
 of Uie Medical Sciences. 
 
OPINION OF THE PUBLIC PRESS. 
 
 ** Such a little treatise is just the thing for our schools and academies and 
 no time should be lost in introducing it." Neia York Mirror. 
 
 " This is a most excellent work, and we would most respectfully recom- 
 mend it to our common school tru tees, as worthy of introduction into the 
 temples of learning 1 under their supervision." New York New Era. 
 
 "The plan and arrangement of the work are admirable, and eminently 
 calculated to facilitate the progress of the pupil. We recommend it to 
 teachers and head.s of families." Philadelphia Sat. Chronicle. 
 
 " We know of no books better calculated to convey elementary instruction 
 than these, and heartily recommend those which have appeared." Brothei 
 Jonathan. 
 
 "We cannot too earnestly recommend it to public attention." Cincinnati 
 Enquirer. 
 
 " Decidedly one of the best elementary works on the subject with which 
 we have ever met." New York Lancet. 
 
 "The information it contains is at once lucid, intelligible, and satisfactory; 
 it forms an excellent text-book for classes in schools, and cannot fail to 
 infuse into the young mind a knowledge and love of Natural History. It 
 is concise and comprehensive, and must if adopted in seminaries of learning 
 be exceedingly useful in inculcating a correct knowledge of the elements o 
 Zoology. The plan is excellent, and must be found eminently useful." 
 Alexandria Gazette. 
 
 " It is one of the most valuable works of the kind we have erer read. 
 Such are the books we like to see disseminated among the people." New 
 Orleans American. 
 
 "The reputation of the author is a guarantee that the work is a good one. 
 On examination we find it to be so. tt is an admirable compend of the 
 subjects of which it treats: we should think, indeed, that it would attract 
 the attention of teachers, both from its cheapness, and the admirable manner 
 in which it is arr mged." Cincinnati Gazette. 
 
 " The Second Book: this number treats of all animals that in infancy 
 feed on the milk of their mothers; from the human being down to the mus- 
 quito-catching bat. Like the " First Book," it is divided into questions and 
 answers, and a glossary ; and is illustrated by six plates. It is as cheap as 
 dirt; and contains an abundance of useful information. There are thousands 
 of persons in this country, and millions in Europe, who do not know that 
 whales give milk." New York Era. 
 
 "We do not know a more useful set than this promises to be : and IS." 
 New York Aurora. 
 
 " We hesitate not to say that it is a valuab!e work, and fully entitled to 
 the high encomiums bestowed upon it ; taken as a whole the work may be 
 juhily regarded as invaluable to schools." New York Standard. 
 
 u It is a most valuable work, and one which we believe has no superior in 
 our seminaries, we know of nothing equal to it. It is very flatteringly 
 recommended by the most distinguished men in France and in the United 
 States, and deserves it." New York Courier and Enquirer. 
 
 Ruschenberger's So cond- Book of. Natural History. "This is another o. 
 those useful volumes, which Dr. Ru.*chenberger is so beneficially in editing. 
 His former volume has already been received into some of our public school* 
 and we hope both it and the present may find their way into all." American 
 Medical Intelligencer. 
 
 The present work, is in our opinion quite a desideratum, and abounds 
 with information of the most useful and, at the same time, most necessary 
 character, every parent should place it in the hands of his children, and no 
 public instructor should neglect to give it a place in his academy. Phila 
 delphia Spirit of the Times. 
 
RECOMMENDATORY NOTICES. 
 
 ORNITHOLOGY. This is No 3, and like its predecessors is excellent 
 These are the most valuable additions of the day to our stuck of School- 
 Books. The avidity with which they have been seized upon is unproce 
 dented. Though the first vol. was published 'or the first time only a Ie\\* 
 months ago, it has already gone into the fifth edition; the second is fol- 
 lowing close upon its heels; and the third promises to be even more popular 
 than either of the other two. These books h ive been adopted by the 
 "Royal Council of Public In.-truotion" lor the use of Schools ihrougliout 
 France. They are recommended and have been adopted by some of the 
 most eminent teachers in the United States. Southern Lit Mes, 
 
 The present book conveys a large amovnt of useful and pleasing 
 information on Ornithology. The structure, functions, and habits of Birds, 
 are classified and grouped in such a manner as to gratify the student of 
 Natural History, and at l\ e same time to aid the tyro in remembering the 
 oeculiarities of individual birds, and their various points of resemblances to 
 others of their family. Bulletin of Medical Science. 
 
 The Third Book of Natural History is worthy of being placed alongside 
 the first and second. Ol thrse we have already spoken; and we may now, 
 we presume, congratulate Dr. Ruschenberger and the publishers, that 
 sufficient encouragement has been received t> induce them to Continue their 
 interesting and instructive series. American Medical Intelligencer. 
 
 The series of books of which this forms a part has been highly and justly 
 commended bv the ablest judge?, HS furnishing rare facilities in the 
 acquisition of branches of knowledge, but too much neglected in our schools. 
 We have examined the volumes with much care, and we find them well 
 deserving all the praise bestowed on them. Cody's Lady's Book. 
 
 DR. RUSCIIENBFRGER'S series of books on Natuial History are among the 
 most valuable and u-eful works for the use of schools that have ever been 
 published. The text is that of two d. stugir.shed French Naturalists, Milne 
 Edwards and Achille Comte translg'.ed und prepared for the use of 
 schools and colleges by Dr. Ruschenberger, who deserves great credit for 
 thus devoting his leisure to so useful an object. A knowledge of Natural 
 History is not only valuable, but deeply interesting, nnd no one's education 
 can, with such facilities as are now offered, be considered complete without 
 it. Simple and comprehensive as the elements of this science have been 
 made by the French professors and Dr. R., and adopted as they should 
 be, in schools and colleges, it would be inexcusable in any youth to be 
 ignorant of these elements, and having acquired them he will find it equally 
 easy and pleasant to enlarge his knowledge by consulting more extended 
 works, and devoting his attention to the study of the various branches of 
 this interesting science. The present book on Ornithology is upon the same 
 plan and possesses the same merit as those that have preceded it, and which 
 have been received with deserved commendation. It is brief and compre- 
 hensive, but sufficiently full to give the student a thorough knowledge of 
 the elements of Ornithology. It contains also a Glossary of the terms used 
 in this branch of Natural History, and a number of wood cuts illustrative 
 of the matter contained in the body of the work. Washington Nationa, 
 Intelligencer 
 
 Precisely the work to place in the hands of young people. Madisonian. 
 
 " We have much pleasure in commending this series of works the third 
 ef which now before us, is rn Ornithology, It will be found useful in the 
 chool-roorw, 01 the private study." U. S Gazette. 
 
 7 
 
RECOMMENDATORY NOTICES. 
 
 From the Carolinian, Fayetteville, N. C. 
 
 These books are the first books, or elements of the different studies of 
 which they treat ; calculated to convey the ideas without that labour of 
 thought which might otherwise be attendant upon the commencement of the 
 study. The great difficulty with the mind is to get a clear conception or 
 understanding of first principles or rudiments of a study ; these once ob- 
 tained, and the whole course is clear and smooth. These books of Grigg & 
 Elliot, we think, so far as we are capable of judging, are admirably calcu- 
 lated to this end of simplifying, what to the young learner would appear 
 abstruse. They are for sale at Mr. Hardie's Book Store, on Hay Street. 
 
 From the Daily Herald, New Haven, Conn. 
 
 They are published by Messrs. Grigg & Elliot, of Philadelphia, and are 
 for sale in this city by Messrs. A. H. Maltby and S. Babcock. As element- 
 ary works they can hardly fail to be found useful in the stuily of the various 
 branches of science which they embrace, and are at least worthy of the can- 
 did examination of all Teachers and Proprietors of Schools, Academies and 
 Colleges, to whom the publishers' notice is particularly addressed. Ques- 
 tions, Glossaries, &c., are appended, to give all the necessary facilities to the 
 student and the teacher. 
 
 From the Morning Courier, New Haven, Conn. 
 
 From a cursory examination of the work, and the consideration of the 
 importance of a knowledge of the history of the various subjects treated of, 
 as well as from the numerous testimonials which accompany the work we 
 are inclined to the belief that it is one of much merit, and worthy the atten- 
 tion of both teachers and learners. 
 
 OPINION OF JOHN FROST, A. M., 
 
 Professor of Belles Leltres in the High School of Philadelphia. 
 
 Dear Sir, I am delighted with your little book. It will form a very im- 
 portant addition to the means of elementary instruction in natural science. 
 The subjects which it embraces form a part of our course of instruction in 
 the Central High School of this city, and we consider this branch among the 
 most important means of developing the powers, storing the minds and form- 
 ing the habits of our students. I shall do my utmost to bring your book 
 into general use; because I am greatly pleased with your plan, and I think it 
 will do much towards directing the public attention to that much neglected, 
 but important branch of science the natural history of man. 
 
 Very truly and respectfully yours, 
 
 To DH. RUSCHESBERGKR. JOHN FROST. 
 
 GRIGG & ELLIOT'S 
 NEW SERIES OF COMMON SCHOOL READERS, 
 
 NUMBERS FIRST, SECOND, THHID, AND FOURTH. 
 
 These books are particularly adapted for an introduction into the School* 
 generally in the South and West ; and Teachers who feel a deep interest m 
 promoting the welfare of their pupils, will no doubt, after a careful examina 
 tioi, give them a preference over all other Readers now in use. 
 
GRIGG & ELLIOT'S 
 
 NEW SERIES OF 
 
 COMMON SCHOOL READERS, 
 
 Numbers First, Second, Third, and Fourth. 
 
 These books are particularly adapted for an introduction into the Schools gene- 
 rally in the South and West ; and Teachers who feel a deep interest in promoting 
 the welfare of their pupils, will, no doubt, after a careful examination, give them 
 the preference over all other Readers now in use. 
 
 To Teachers, Principals and Controllers of Schools, Acade- 
 mies and Colleges, throughout the United States. 
 
 LEE'S PORT, BERKS Co., AUG. 25, 1845. 
 Messrs. Grigg $ Ettiot : 
 
 GENTLEMEN, Accept my thanks for the series of Readers you were so kind as 
 to send me by my friend Dr. Darrah, when he was last in the c;ty. I consider 
 them decidedly the best School Readers I have met with. I have introduced them 
 into the school at this place, and find them fully to answer my expectations. I have 
 also introduced Grimshaw's History of the United States, another of your valuable 
 School publications. I arn very much pleased with Dr. Ruschenberger's works on 
 Anatomy and Botany, which you kindly sent me. They appear to be just the 
 works needed to bring the subject of Natural History within the compass of our 
 Common Schools ; and I intend, during the coming winter, to make an effort to 
 introduce the subject into the school here ; and for this purpose, I would like to 
 possess the whole series of eight uniform volumes, which I have requested Dr. 
 Darrah to procure for me. Very respectfully, H. C. BAKER, 
 
 Principal Lee's Port Seminary. 
 
 
 From the WTiig Courier, Pulaski, Tenn. 
 
 SCHOOL BOOKS. We have received, by the hands of Messrs. Martin & 
 Topp, of Messrs. Grigg & Elliot, Philadelphia, a copy of their " New Series of 
 Common School Readers." As this series has been so often recommended to Teach- 
 ers, School Committees and Parents, by the press, and so far as we are able to 
 judge, justly, properly and worthily too, we feel no hesitancy in endorsing the fol- 
 lowing from JOHN FROST, LL.D., Professor of Belles Letters in the Philadel- 
 phia High School : 
 
 ' I have examined your Readers with great pleasure, and have no hesitation in 
 recommending them to the special favour of Parents, Teachers, and School Com- 
 mittees ; they are calculated to be eminently interesting to the young, from the 
 happy style of narration, dialogue and description, which pervades the series ; but 
 their chief excellence is their UNEXCEPTIONABLE MORAL TENDENCY. It would 
 hardly be too much to say, they comprise a complete system of moral instruction, 
 and in this point of view, I know of no books used in Common Schools which are 
 preferable to them." 
 
GRIGG & ELLIOT'S COMMON SCHOOL READERS. 
 
 From the Philadelphia Gazette. 
 
 These are four little volumes to be used in schools, as reading books. They 
 afford progressive exercises for the learner in the art of reading, at the same time 
 that they convey a large amount of useful knowledge, particularly adapted to the 
 vrants of the rising generation of this country. This is a most important part of 
 elementary instruction, to which less than due attention has been paid. We cor- 
 dially endorse the commendation of the series given by Professor Frost, of the 
 High School. 
 
 From the Alabama Reporter, Talladega. 
 
 Messrs. Grigg & Elliot, of Philadelphia, have kindly sent us a copy of then* 
 series of Common School Readers, numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4. We have examined 
 them carefully and find them first rate books for children just commencing to read, 
 number 2 being for those a little further advanced, and number 3 for those still 
 further. Their moral tendency is unexceptionable, and withal they amuse the 
 learner, while they convey instruction in the rudiments of the most valuable arts 
 and sciences, and history. We take great pleasure in recommending them with 
 confidence to parents, teachers, and all those who have the care of the young of 
 either sex. The books are for sale by Messrs. John Hardie & Co. of Mardisville. 
 
 From the Philadelphia Enquirer $ Courier. 
 
 Messrs. Grigg & Elliot, No. 9 north Fourth street, have just published Nos. 1, 
 2, 3 and 4 of their new series of Common School Readers. These are among the 
 best works of the kind that are issued in our country. Professor Frost, of the 
 High School, recommends them to the especial attention of parents, teachers and 
 school committees, and says they are calculated to be eminently interesting to the 
 young, from the happy style of narration, dialogue and description, which pervades 
 the series ; but their chief excellence is their unexceptionable moral tendency. 
 They are issued in a cheap and substantial form, and are sold at very low prices. 
 
 From the North American. 
 
 Messrs. Grigg & Elliot have issued four books, designed as progressive exer- 
 cises in reading, for the use of learners. The object of publications of this kind is 
 an important one, and, until of late years, it has not sufficiently engaged the atten- 
 tion of those who labour especially in the cause of juvenile instruction. The plan 
 of these books is to afford not only exercises in reading as an art, but to convey at 
 the same time, peculiarly useful knowledge for the rising generation of this country. 
 We cordially endorse the commendation of the series given by Professor Frost, of 
 the High School. 
 
 From the Democratic Recorder, Fredericksburg, Va. 
 
 We are indebted to the publishers, Messrs. Grigg & Elliot, Philadelphia, for a 
 new series of reading books for schools, just issued by them. We have examined 
 them with care, and recommend them with much pleasure. The introductory le- 
 
GRIGG & ELLIOT'S COMMON SCHOOL READERS. 
 
 sons are well calculated to induce a fondness for reading, and to imprint upon the 
 youthful mind the soundest moral impressions. One great fault of some other read- 
 ing books, is completely remedied in this : the transition from one book to the 
 other is easy and natural. The scholar is not presumed to have doubled his know- 
 ledge when his text book is doubled in size. The embellishments (a thing not to 
 be neglected when catering for juveniles) are remarkably good. To be had at 
 White's. 
 
 t- 
 
 From the Washington (Pa.) Reporter. 
 
 We are indebted, through Mr. H. M. Koontz & Co., to the firm of Grigg & El- 
 liot, extenlive book publishers of Philadelphia, for a complete "series of Common 
 School Readers," comprised in 4 volumes. We have given them a cursory peru- 
 sal, and also handed them to an esteemed female teacher, an admirable judge in 
 such matters, who unites with us in pronouncing them most meritorious. 
 
 The series is handsomely gotten up, being interspersed with appropriate engrav- 
 ings. The arrangement is excellent, and the matter unexceptionable in its moral 
 tone and tendency. 
 
 From the Heading Gazette. 
 
 Messrs. Grigg & Elliot, of Philadelphia, have favoured us with copies of their 
 new series of Common School Readers, selected from some of the best works of 
 their kind, and prepared for the gradual instruction of scholars, which would be 
 found of great service if introduced into all our common schools. 
 
 The Reader, No. 1, is prepared specially for beginners, and contains pieces 
 easily intelligible, instructive and interesting, illustrated with engravings, and treats 
 of matters and in language such as any child can understand. 
 
 Reader, No. 2, is the old Pleasing Companion, a work which has, for some 
 years, held a deserved esteem in school instruction. The selections it comprises, it 
 is well known, are of the most pleasing kind ; and instead of making reading a 
 task, sufficiently interests the scholar to read and understand its fascinating instruc- 
 tions. 
 
 Reader, No. 3, is another work of reputation and its admirable lessons of moral 
 and religious instruction, have secured it a place in many schools. The object of 
 the work " to inculcate the necessity and duty of general, domestic and national 
 economy and simplicity of manners," is one of interest to every patriot ; and there 
 certainly can be no better mode to perpetuate that object, than to instruct the rising 
 generation in its principles. 
 
 An examination of the work will strictly satisfy, that if the end be not accom- 
 plished, it is no fault of the compiler. 
 
 From the Gallatin (Tenn.) Union. 
 
 We acknowledge the receipt, from Messrs. Grigg & Elliot, Philadelphia, of four 
 volumes of reading books for common schools. From a cursory review of their 
 contents we are well pleased with them, and would recommend them to be used in 
 our schools. 
 
GRIOO & ELLIOT'S COMMON SCHOOL READERS. 
 
 From the U. S. Gazette. 
 
 Messrs. Grigg & Elliot have published a series of reading books for common 
 schools, prepared with a special reference to the progression of scholars, each les- 
 son referring to some subject of interest to the young, so that the pupil will have 
 an interest in his lesson, and not read merely because " it is his turn now." 
 
 The compiler of the work has had a special eye to sound morals, to pure bene- 
 volence, and to the application for good of all his pieces, and hence his series com- 
 mend themselves to high approval. We have some special acquaintance with the 
 use of the works, and are glad to see that the first is a proper introduction to its 
 successor ; so that we may, and do, confidently recommend the series as eminently 
 deserving a place in schools, as well from their moral tendency, as from the adapta- 
 tion of the contents to the progression of the scholar in classes. 
 
 
 
 From the Olive Branch, Youngstown, Ohio. 
 
 Grigg & Elliot, of Philadelphia, Pa., have published a new series of Common 
 School Books, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4. They are, so far as our opinion is worth any 
 thing, worthy of being adopted by an enlightened public ; their chief excellence 
 being the moral instructions communicated. 
 
 They are highly recommended by distinguished literary gentlemen in the east. 
 
 Messrs. Grigg & Elliot have a variety of other School Books, which they flatter 
 themselves are equally worthy of general reception by the intelligent part of our 
 community. 
 
 From the Harrison Republican, Cadiz, Ohio. 
 
 We have now on our table, through the politeness of Messrs. Grigg & Elliot, of 
 No. 9, North 4th St. Philadelphia, their New Series of Common School Readers, 
 comprising Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4. The books are particularly adapted to the West 
 and we think no way inferior to the Eclectic Readers, that have gained so much 
 celebrity among us which have been imposed upon the public at an exorbitant 
 price by the publisher. The New Series are intended to answer the place of the 
 Eclectic, at much lower prices, and embracing all of the facilities of the former. 
 
 From the Charleston Mercury. 
 
 Messrs. Grigg &. Elliot, Philadelphia, have published an interesting series of 
 books, which we commend to the attention of teachers. A series of Readers, 
 adapted to successive classes, which seem to us well selected and arranged. A far 
 more important series, and one long called for, in the shape of elementary scientific 
 treatises on the following subjects : MAMMALOGY : ORNITHOLOGY : HERPETOLO- 
 LOGY and ICHTHYOLOGY : BOTANY : CONCHOLOGY : ANATOMY arid PHYSIOLOGY. 
 These works are prepared by Dr. Ruschenberger, on the plan and materials of 
 similar books used in the public schools of France. They are illustrated with the 
 necessary plates, and are complete in their treatment of the subject, and undoubt- 
 edly deserve a place in our now meagre list of elementary class books of science. 
 These works are for sale by McCarter & Allen. 
 
GRIGG & ELLIOT'S COMMON SCHOOL READERS. 
 
 From the Indiana State Journal, Indianapolis, Ind. 
 
 Our friend Davis has now for sale a new and valuable lot of books, among 
 which is a very valuable series of School Books, viz : Grigg <$ Elliot's New Series 
 of Common School Readers. These Readers are comprised of four parts adapted 
 to the youngest and more advanced class of children. We have attentively exa- 
 mined these books, and have no hesitation in recommending them as the cheapest 
 and most useful series that has come under our observation. 
 
 From the Sangamo Journal. 
 
 We have received from Messrs. Grigg & Elliot, Philadelphia, a scries of read- 
 ing books for common schools; "prepared with a special reference to the pro- 
 gression of scholars, each lesson referring to some subject of interest to the young, 
 so that the pupil will have an interest in his lesson, and not read merely because 
 'it is his turn now.' " 
 
 From the Galena Sentinel. 
 
 Grigg & Elliot's new series of Common School Readers, comprising four num- 
 bers, have been laid on our table ; they will be found for sale at the store of F. & 
 N. Stahl. After giving them a careful examination, we cannot give them a better 
 recommendation than the flattering notices we have seen, from John Frost, LL.D., 
 Professor of Belles Lettres in the Philadelphia High School, and others. 
 
 From the Caddo Gazette, Shreeveport, La. 
 
 We have received from Messrs. Grigg & Elliot, of Philadelphia, through our 
 fellow townsman, J. W. Morris, four numbers of the Common School Reader, 
 designed for the use of common schools and families. From the examination 
 which we have given them, we are compelled to say that they are admirably 
 adapted to the purposes for which they were designed. No. 1 contains a series of 
 simple narratives entirely within the comprehension of any child, and the syllables 
 are divided so as greatly to facilitate pronunciation. Nos. 2 and 3 contain, the first, 
 familiar stories, well calculated to interest the youthful mind; the last a " Moral 
 Instructor and Guide to Virtue, being a Compendium of Moral Philosophy with 
 Practical Rules for the Conduct of Life." The books possess much merit, and 
 we doubt not that they will eventually obtain general circulation and use. 
 
 From the Highland Messenger, Asheville, N. C. 
 
 We have received from the publishers, Messrs. Grigg & Elliot, of Philadelphia, 
 copies of their series of Common School Readers, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4. They have 
 been recently published, and we have no hesitancy in recommending them to pa- 
 rents and teachers, on account of their great moral excellence, as well as their per- 
 fect adaptation to the wants of the community, as a complete and thorough system 
 of instruction in reading. 
 
8 ORIGQ & ELLIOT'S COMMON SCHOOL READERS. 
 
 From the Peoria (III.} Register. 
 
 Through the politeness of Andrew Gray, Esq., who has just returned from the 
 city of Philadelphia, we have been presented with a copy of Grigg & Elliot's new 
 series of Common School Readers, intended for the instruction of children, and 
 upon a careful examination of them, we feel justified in saying that a better series 
 of school books cannot be put into the hands of the rising generation. 
 
 
 RUSCHENBERGER'S FIRST BOOKS OF NATURAL HISTORY, 
 For Schools, Colleges and Families. 
 
 1. Elements of Anatomy and Physiology, 
 
 2. Elements of Mammalogy, the Natural History of Quadrupeds, 
 
 3. Elements of Ornithology, the Natural History of Birds, 
 
 4. Elements of Herpetology and Ichthyology, the Natural History of 
 Reptiles and Fishes, 
 
 6. Elements of Conchology, the Natural History of Shells and Mol- 
 lusca, 
 
 6. Elements of Entomology, the Natural History of Insects, 
 
 7. Elements of Botany, the Natural History of plants, 
 
 8. Elements of Geology, the Natural History of the Earth's Structure. 
 
 To Teachers, Principals and Controllers of Schools, Academies 
 and Colleges. 
 
 We take the liberty of calling your attention to a Series of Books on the subject of Natural Hia- 
 tory, which, in the opinion of many of the most eminent men in our country, is second to no branch 
 of knowledge now taught in schools. We ask your attention to these books, because we believe them 
 to be superior to any works of the kind ever offered to the American public. They are small in size, 
 extremely cheap, as accurate in scientific arrangement as the most voluminous works on similar sub- 
 jects, and in every respect, such as parents and teachers would wish to place in the hands of their 
 children. Very respectfully, your obedient servants, 
 
 GRIGG & ELLIOT. 
 
 These books have been introduced into the Public Schools of Pennsylvania and Ohio, and no doubt 
 will, ere long, be introduced into all the public schools of our other States. 
 
 " We regard the introduction of these works into our public schools, among the highest compliments 
 they have received ; for we feel sure that the gentlemen who constitute the committee for selecting 
 books, possess too much discernment and general knowledge, to pass favourably upon works of infe- 
 rior pretensions. The following gentlemen composed the Committee for selecting books for the use of 
 Public Schools." GEORGE M. WHARTON. Esq. 
 
 THOMAS H. FORSYTH. Esq. 
 GEORGE EMLEN, Jr., Esq. 
 ^_ FRANCIS LYONS, Esq. 
 
 JOHN C. SMITH. Esq. 
 Philadelphia. ^^^~^~^~~^~~~~~~~~ 
 
 In addition to numerous flattering notices of the American Press, the publishers have received up- 
 wards of one hundred recommendations from the most prominent professors and distinguished teachers 
 of our country, to the superior claims of these works, and urging their introduction as Class Books 
 into all the Schools, Academies, &c., throughout the United States. 
 
 These Books can be procured from Country Merchants and 
 Booksellers generally throughout the United States. 
 

 NEW AND IMPORTANT 
 
 SCHOOL BOOKS,-; 
 
 -^ 
 TO TEACHERS, PRINCIPALS AND CONTROLLERS 
 
 OF 
 
 SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES AND COLLEGES. 
 
 SMILEY'S ARITHMETICAL RULES AND TABLES 
 FOR YOUNG BEGINNERS. 
 
 This is the best work of the kind now in print ; but teachers are particu- 
 larly requested to examine for themselves. 
 
 SMILEY'S ARITHMETIC, or the New Federal Calculator, 
 in dollars and cents. This work contains, among other important im- 
 provements, Questions on the Rules and Theory of Arithmetic, which are 
 considered by teachers generally, very conducive to the improvement of 
 the pupil. 
 
 Although a prejudice exists among some teachers in favour of the old 
 works on arithmetic, yet the very liberal patronage which this work has 
 received, must be considered as decisive evidence of the great estimation 
 in which it is held by most of the instructors of youth. Upwards of 300,- 
 000 copies have been printed and sold. The sums being altogether in dol- 
 lars and cents, gives it a decided preference over any other arithmetic in 
 use. The most distinguished teachers of our city and country pronounce 
 it superior to any other like work ; therefore the publisher sincerely hopes 
 this useful improvement will overcome the prejudice that many teachers 
 have to introducing new works, particularly those preceptors who wish to 
 discharge their duty faithfully to parent and child. 
 
 The editors of the New York Telegraph, speaking of Smiley's Arithme- 
 1 
 
2 GRIGG & ELLIOT'S SCHOOL BOOKS. 
 
 tic, observe, " We do not hesitate to pronounce it an improvement upon 
 every work of that kind previously before the public, and as such recom- 
 mend its adoption in all our schools and academies." 
 
 A KEY TO THE ABOVE ARITHMETIC ; in which aU 
 the examples necessary for a learner are wrought at large, and also solu- 
 tions given of all the various rules. Designed principally to facilitate the 
 labour of teachers, and assist such as have not the opportunity of a tutor's 
 aid. By T. T. Smiley, author of the New Federal Calculator, &c. &c. 
 
 CONVERSATIONS ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY; in 
 
 which the Elements of that Science are familiarly explained. Illustrated 
 with plates. By the author of" Conversations on Chemistry," &c. With 
 considerable additions, corrections, and improvements in the body of the 
 work, appropriate Questions, and a Glossary. By Dr. Thomas P. Jones. 
 
 CONVERSATIONS ON CHEMISTRY; in which the Ele- 
 ments of that Science are familiarly explained and illustrated by Experi- 
 ments and Engravings on wood. From the last London edition. In which 
 all the late Discoveries and Improvements are brought up to the present 
 time, by Dr. Thomas P. Jones. 
 
 The learned and distinguished Professors Silliman and Bigelow, speak- 
 ing of these works, observe: "They are satisfied that the Works contain 
 the fundamental principles, and truths of the Sciences, expressed in a clear, 
 intelligible, and interesting manner, and that the present editions are de- 
 cidedly more valuable than any preceding ones. The high character of 
 the author, as a lecturer, and a man of science, will, we doubt not, secure 
 for these Works the good opinion of the public, and cause their extensive 
 adoption among Seminaries and Students." 
 
 TEACHERS in ordering would do well to say "Jones' Improved Editions." 
 
 THE BEAUTIES OF HISTORY, or Examples of the 
 Opposite Effects of Virtue and Vice, for the use of Schools and Families, 
 with Questions for the Examination of Students. 1 vol. 12mo., with plates. 
 
 This work is introduced into our High School. It is particularly adapted 
 for a Class Book in all our male and female Seminaries, &c. 
 
 " We have received from the publishers, Messrs. Grigg & Elliot, a very 
 neat duodecimo volume, entitled 'The Beauties of History; or, Examples 
 of the opposite effects of Virtue and Vice, drawn from real life.' After a 
 careful examination of this book, we can conscientiously recommend it to 
 parents and teachers as a most meritorious performance. There are here 
 collected, within a narrow compass, the most striking examples of indivi- 
 dual virtue and vice which are spread forth on the pages of history, or are 
 
GRIGG & ELLIOT'S SCHOOL BOOKS. 3 
 
 recorded in personal biography. The noblest precepts are recommended 
 .or the guidance of youth; and in the most impressive manner is he taught 
 to conquer the degrading impulses which lower the standard of the human 
 character. We have not lately met with a volume which, in design and 
 execution, seemed so acceptable as this. The book, moreover, is hand- 
 somely got up, and illustrated with wood engravings." 
 
 GRIMSHAWS HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Recently brought up by the author to the present time. 
 
 Also, Questions adapted to the above History ; and a Key, adapted to the 
 Questions, for the use of Teachers and Private Families. 
 
 GRIMSHAWS HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Recently 
 brought up by the author to the present time. 
 
 Also, Questions adapted to the above History; and a Key, adapted to the 
 Questions, for the use of Teachers and Private Families. 
 
 GRIMSHAWS IMPROVED EDITION OF GOLDSMITH'S 
 HISTORY OF GREECE, with a Vocabulary of the Proper 
 Names contained in the work, and the Prosodial Accents, in conformity 
 with the pronunciation of Lempriere. 
 
 Also, Questions adapted to the above History ; and a Key, adapted to the 
 Questions, for the use of Teachers and Private Families. 
 
 GRIMSHAWS IMPROVED EDITION OF GOLDSMITH'S 
 HISTORY OF ROME, revised and corrected, and a Vocabulary 
 of Proper Names appended, with Prosodial Marks to assist in their pro- 
 nunciation. . 
 
 Also, Questions adapted to the above History; and a Key, adapted to the 
 Questions, for the use of Teachers and Private Families. 
 
 GRIMSHAWS HISTORY OF FRANCE, with Key and 
 Questions. 
 
 GRIMSHAWS HISTORY AND LIFE OF NAPOLEON. 
 
 The editor of the North American Review, speaking?of these"'Histories, 
 observes, that "Among the Elementary^Books of American History, we 
 do not remember to 'have seen any one more^deserving approbation than 
 Mr. Grimshaw's History of the United States. It u is a small volume, and a 
 great deal of matter is brought into a narrow space; but the author has 
 succeeded so well in the construction of his periods, and the arrangement 
 of his materials, that perspicuity is rarely sacrificed to brevity. 
 
4 GRIGG & ELLIOT'S SCHOOL BOOKS. 
 
 "The chain of narrative is skilfully preserved, and the author's reflec- 
 tions are frequently such as make the facts more impressive, and lead the 
 youthful mind to observe causes and consequences which might otherwise 
 have been overlooked. As a school book it may justly be recommended. 
 
 "What has been said of this volume will apply generally to his other 
 historical works. They are each nearly of the same size as the one jus 
 noticed, and designed for the same object, that is, the use of classes in 
 schools. 
 
 " The History of England is an original composition ; but the Grecian 
 and Roman Histories are Goldsmith's, improved by Mr. Grimshaw, in 
 which he has corrected the typographical errors, with which the later edi- 
 tions of Goldsmith's Abridgments so much abound; and removed any 
 grossness in language, which, in some few instances, render these valua- 
 ble compends less useful in the schools to which youth of both sexes resort. 
 He has also added a Vocabulary of Proper Names, accentuated, in order 
 to show their right pronunciation, which is a valuable appendage to the 
 History. 
 
 "All these books are accompanied with very full and well-digested 
 Tables of Questions, for the benefit of Pupils, and also with Keys to the 
 same, for the convenience of Teachers." 
 
 [Teachers generally, who have examined Mr. Grimshaw's Histories of 
 the United States and England, and Improved Editions of Goldsmith's 
 Greece and Rome, have given them a decided preference to any other 
 Histories in use as School Books and any person who will examine them, 
 will find about one thousand errors in each corrected; and teachers order- 
 ing those works will do well to say " Grimshaw's Improved Editions."] 
 
 GRIMSHAW'S LADIES' LEXICON, and Parlour Com- 
 panion ; containing nearly every word in the English language, and ex- 
 hibiting the plurals of nouns and the participles of verbs, being also 
 particularly adapted to the use of Academies and Schools. By William 
 Grimshaw, Esq., author of the Gentlemen's Lexicon, &c. 
 
 THE GENTLEMEN'S LEXICON, or Pocket Dictionary; 
 
 containing nearly every word in the English language, and exhibiting the 
 plurals of nouns and the participles of verbs; being also particularly 
 idapted to the use of Academies and Schools. By William Grimshaw, 
 author of the Ladies' Lexicon, History of England, of the United States, &c. 
 "The public are again indebted to the talents of Mr. Grimshaw, for the 
 very useful books which he has called ' The Ladies' and Gentlemen's 
 Lexicon.' The peculiarity and advantages of these works may be col- 
 lected from the following portion of the preface. * They differ from all 
 
GRIGG & ELLIOT'S SCHOOL BOOKS. 5 
 
 preceding works of the kind in this, that they exhibit the plurals of all 
 nouns which are not formed by the mere addition of the letter S, and also 
 the participles of every verb now generally used, and unless accompanied 
 by a particular caution. No word has been admitted which is not now of 
 polite or popular use, and no word has been excluded which is required 
 either in epistolary composition or conversation.'" 
 
 In the Nashville Republican, we observe the following notice of this very 
 useful book : 
 
 " In recommending the ' Ladies' Lexicon,' therefore, to all our readers, 
 male and female, who have ever experienced the difficulties which it is so 
 admirably calculated to remedy, we but do an ordinary jct of justice to the 
 author and publisher. We consider the 'Ladies' Lexicon,' and recom- 
 mend it to our readers, as a work that possesses superior claims on their 
 attention and patronage." 
 
 In giving the above extracts, we take occasion to say, that teachers will 
 find the "Ladies' and Gentlemen's Lexicons" works admirably adapted to 
 take the place, with advantage to their pupils, of the different works re- 
 cently put into their hands under the name of Expositors, &c. 
 
 0^ The above work has been introduced as a Class Book into many of 
 our Academies and Schools with great approbation. 
 
 BIGLAND'S NATURAL HISTORY of Animals, Birds, 
 Fishes, Reptiles and Insects, illustrated with numerous and beautiful en- 
 gravings. By John Bigland, author of a "View of the World," "Letters 
 on Universal History," &c. Complete in 1 vol. 12mo. 
 
 (J^T This work is particularly adapted for the use of Schools and Fami- 
 lies, forming the most elegantly written and complete work on the subject 
 of Natural History ever published, and is worthy of the special attention 
 of the Teachers of all our Schools and Academies. 
 
 BIGLAND'S NATURAL HISTORY OF ANIMALS, illus- 
 trated with 12 beautifully coloured engravings. 
 
 BIGLAND'S HISTORY OF BIRDS, illustrated with 12 
 beautifully coloured engravings. 
 
 PERSIA. A DESCRIPTION OF. By Shoberl, with 12 
 coloured plates. 
 
 These works are got up in a very superior style, and well deserve an 
 introduction to the shelves of every family library, as they are very inte- 
 resting, and particularly adapted to the juvenile class of readers. 
 
6 GRIGG & ELLIOT'S SCHOOL BOOKS. 
 
 CONVERSATIONS ON ITALY, in English and French, 
 designed for the use of Schools, Academies, &c. By Miss Julia S. Hawkes, 
 in 1 vol. 12mo. 
 
 CC/- This work is spoken very highly of by Miss C. Beecher, (who form- 
 erly taught in Hartford, Conn., and who has done as much for the elevation 
 of the female character, and for education generally, as any other lady in 
 this country,) and has received the highest recommendation from our most 
 distinguished Teachers, and the American press. 
 
 MURRAY'S EXERCISES, adapted to his Grammar. Grigg 
 and Elliot's stereotype edition. 
 
 MURRAY'S KEY TO THE EXERCISES. Grigg and 
 Elliot's stereotype edition. 
 
 HORACE DELPHINI. Grigg and Elliot's new corrected 
 stereotype edition. 
 
 The Delphin Classics (of which Horace Delphini and Virgil Delphini 
 are two,) were prepared at the express command of the King of France, 
 for the education of his son, the Dauphin. They are not the result of the 
 labours of a single man, but of many of the most learned men of whom 
 France could boast; and consequently they ought, by every thinking mind, 
 to be considered as near perfection as it is possible to approach. They 
 are illustrated in the margin by an ordo, and at the foot of each page by 
 most copious and learned notes in the Latin language ; and they are sub- 
 mitted to the judgment of every teacher. 
 
 VIRGIL DELPHINI. Grigg and Elliot's new corrected 
 stereotype edition. 
 
 For remarks respecting this work and the Delphin Classics generally, 
 ^see note to " Horace Delphini," immediately above. 
 
 HUTCHINSON'S XENOPHON, with notes, and a Latin 
 translation under the Greek in each page, by Thomas Hutchinson, A. M. 
 
 This edition of the above valuable work is printed on a large and bold 
 Greek type; and has, in order to insure its accuracy, been stereotyped. 
 The classical elegance and well-known celebrity of Xenophon demand of 
 every teacher, that he should place it unmutilated and complete in the 
 hands of his scholars, instead of being content with the meagre extracts 
 which are made from it in many of the Greek compilations for schools of 
 the day. 
 
VALUABLE WOKKS 
 
 FOR 
 
 PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LIBRARIES, 
 PUBLISHED BY GRIGG * ELLIOT, 
 
 And for Sale by Booksellers and Country Merchants 
 generally throughout the United States. 
 
 SPLENDID LIBRARY EDITIONS, &c. 
 
 Crabbe, Heber and Pollok's Poetical Works, steel portraits, complete in 1 
 
 vol. 8vo., bound, library style. 
 
 The same work, calf extra, embossed gilt, and calf extra gilt. 
 Byroji's Works, complete in 1 vol. 8\ro., including all his suppressed and 
 
 attributed poems, bound, lib. style. 
 
 The same work, calf extra, embossed gilt, and calf extra gilt. 
 Cowper and Thomson's Prose and Poetical Works, complete in 1 vol. 8vo., 
 
 bound, library style. 
 
 The same work, calf extra, embossed gilt, and calf extra gilt. 
 Rogers, Campbell, Montgomery, Lamb and Kirk White's Poetical Works, 
 
 complete in 1 vol. 8vo., bound, library style. 
 The same work, calf extra, embossed gilt, and calf extra gilt. 
 Milton, Young, Gray, Beattie and Collins' Poetical Works, complete in 1 
 
 vol. 8vo., bound, library style. 
 
 The same work, calf extra, embossed gilt, and calf extra gilt. 
 Mrs. Hemans' Poetical Works, complete in 1 vol. 8vo., bound, lib. style. 
 The same work, calf extra, embossed gilt, and calf extra gilt. 
 
 (j* This is a new and complete edition, with a splendid engraved like- 
 ness of Mrs. Hemans, on steel, and contains all the Poems in the last Lon- 
 don and American editions. 
 McMahon's American Gardener, 9th edition, greatly improved, 8vo., fine 
 
 edition. 
 Goldsmith's Animated Nature, beautifully illustrated, 2 vols. 8vo., about 
 
 300 cuts. 
 Laurence Sterne's Works, with a Life of the Author, written by himself, 
 
 8vo., engraved portrait. 
 
 Burder's Village Sermons. For Family Reading. 
 Josephus' Works, 2 vols. 8vo., sheep, gilt. 
 
 tfj* The only readable edition published in this country. 
 Say's Political Economy, 8vo., new edition. 
 Mason's Popular System of Farriery, new edition. 
 
 7 
 
8 GRIGG & ELLIOT'S MISCELLANEOUS BOOKS. 
 
 Hind's Popular System of Farriery, new edition. 
 
 The Stock Raiser's Manual, by W. Youatt, with plates. 
 
 The Importance of Family Religion, by Rev. S. G. Winchester, 1 vol. 12mo. 
 
 Seneca's Morals. " Should be found in every library." 
 
 Shoberl's History of Persia, with 12 fine coloured plates, fancy paper. 
 
 Bigland's Natural History of Animals, 12 fine coloured plates, fancy paper. 
 
 Bigland's Natural History of Birds, Fishes, &c., 12 coloured plates, fancy 
 
 paper. 
 
 Dictionary of Select and Popular Quotations, 9th edition. 
 The American Chesterfield, containing a complete Treatise on Carving, 
 
 with cuts. 
 
 The Southern and Western Songster, plate. 
 The Daughter's Own Book. 
 
 Bennett's Letters to Young Ladies. ; <' i / 
 
 The Gentlemen and Ladies' Book of Politeness, and Propriety of Deport- 
 ment, by Mrs. Celnart. 
 The Life of General Jackson. 
 Winchester's Family Prayers, fine edition. 
 
 The New Testament, royal 8vo., large type, new edition, for Family use. 
 Letters from a Father to his Sons in College, by Samuel Miller, D. D. 
 Bigland's Natural History, with 24 coloured plates, half mor. ext. gilt ed., 
 
 and plain School edition. 
 Shakspeare's Plays, various editions. 
 Weems' Life of Marion. 
 
 I)o. do. Washington. 
 Polyglott Bible, 18mo., plain sheep, rolled ed. 
 
 Do. do. morocco tucks, gt. ed. 
 
 Do. do. plain Eng. calf, gilt ed. 
 
 Do. do. Eng. calf, super ex. do. -. . , T) (J . 
 
 Do. do. Turkey, mor. gilt ed. 
 
 Pearl Pocket Bible, best ed. published, plain sheep. 
 
 Do. do. do. mor. tucks, gt. ed. 
 
 Do. f^rg do. do. plain Eng. calf, gt. ed. 
 
 Do. do. do. calf, sup. extra gt. 
 
 Do. do. do. Tur. mor., extra gt. ed. 
 
 OCj All the above Bibles are in the best Philadelphia binding. 
 lO 01 Public, private, and social libraries, and all who purchase 
 to sell again, supplied on the most reasonable terms with every 
 article in the Book and Stationery line ; including new novels, 
 and all new works in every department of literature and science. 
 All orders will be thankfully received and promptly attended to. 
 
RUSCHENBERGER'S SERIES. 
 
 FIRST BOOKS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 ELEMENTS OE BOTANY; 
 
 PREPARED FOR THE USE OF 
 
 SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES, 
 
 BY 
 
 W. S. W. ^USCHENBERGER, M.D. 
 
 SURGEON IN THE U. S. NAVY J FELLOW OF THE COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS } HON. 
 
 MEMBER OF THE PHILADELPHIA MEDICAL SOCIETY; MEMBER OF THE 
 
 ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA, ETC., ETC. 
 
 FROM THE TEXT OF 
 
 MILNE EDWARDS AND ACHILLE COMTE, 
 
 PROFESSORS OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE COLLEGES 
 OF HENRI IV., AND CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 WITH PLATES. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 GRIGG & ELLIOT, 
 
 NO. 9 NORTH FOURTH STREET 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1844, by 
 W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M.D., 
 
 in the clerk's office of the District Court of the United States in and for the 
 Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 
 
 J. Fagan, Stereotyper. 
 
 T. K. & P. O. Collins, Printers. 
 
 (4) 
 
3 
 
 EDUG 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The SEVENTH in the Series of FIRST BOOKS OP NATURAL 
 HISTORY, comprises the Elements of Botany. 
 
 This subject is deeply interesting, useful, and consequently 
 popular, which may be readily inferred from the great number 
 of books published on this branch of Natural Science. Whether 
 the little volume now presented will find favour with the public, 
 among the many that have been well received, time will show. It 
 is brief, and I have attempted to make it clear to beginners. 
 The explanations and etymologies of technical words are given 
 as they occur, either in the text, or in foot notes, and in many, 
 if not in all cases, the pronunciation of these words has been 
 designated by accents. When it occurs, the Greek omega has 
 been marked thus (6), and italics have been substituted for 
 Greek characters, because, it is presumed, many who may use 
 this volume are unacquainted with the dead languages. An ample 
 glossary has also been appended. 
 
 Besides the work of Messrs. Edwards and Comte, which forms 
 the skeleton of this, I have freely consulted the writings of 
 Lindley, Loudon, Smith, Gray, Reed, and others, and as freely 
 appropriated whatever seemed useful to us in carrying out the 
 design of forming an accurate, brief, and simple treatise on the 
 Elements of Botany, suitable for beginners, whether young or 
 
 old> i M788534 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The numerous illustrations, engraved by Mr. G. Thomas (65 
 South Third Street, Philadelphia), have been well executed, and 
 do credit to the artist. 
 
 The present edition has been carefully revised, and several 
 new figures have been added; this little volume now contains 
 one hundred and sixty-four illustrations. 
 
 W. S. W. R. 
 
 U. S. Naval Hospital, New York. ) 
 July, 1644. ( 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 , 
 
 OF 
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 Botany. Definition of Plants Structure of Plants Nomenclature of 
 Organs. 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 Functions of Nutrition. Absorption and Ascent of Sap Roots; their 
 Structure and Forms Stem ; its Divisions, Varieties, &c. Structure of 
 the Stem, in Ex'ogens Medullary Canal Pith Medullary Sheath 
 Wood Medullary Rays Bark Epider'mis Cork Structure of tho 
 Stem in En'dogens. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 Mechanism of the Absorption and Ascent of the Sap. Ascending Sap- 
 Exhalation Respiration Leaves Parts of Leaves; their Structure, 
 Shape, and Position Stipules Tendrils Examples of the Forms of 
 simple and compound Leaves Exhalation Respiration Distribution 
 of the nutritive Juices Descending Sap Secretions Excretions- 
 Succession of Crops Proper Juices Lignin Fecula Growth of 
 Plants Grafting Effects of the Seasons on the Nutrition of Plants 
 The Age of Plants. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 Generation of Plants. Multiplication of Plants by Division Formation 
 of adventitious Roots Multiplication of Plants by Grafting ; by Tuber- 
 cles Phanero'gamous and Crypto'gamous Plants defined Structure 
 of Flowers Peduncle Pedicil Floral Leaf Bract Involucre Spathe 
 Glume Torus Receptacle Inflorescence Perianth Calyx 
 Corolla Petals Forms of the Corolla Nectary ^Estivation Essen. 
 tial Parts of Flowers Stamens Anther Pollen Pistil Carpel 
 Ovary, 
 
 (7) 
 
viii CONTENTS OF BOTANY. 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 Development and Functions of Flowers. Flora's Calendar Flora's Clock 
 Fertilization of Flowers Fruit Epi-carp Meso-carp Endo-carp 
 Carpels Classification of Fruits Seeds ; their Structure Embryo 
 Coty'ledons Germination. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 Classification of Plants. Natural and Artificial Methods Artificial Sys- 
 tem of Linnaeus The Natural Method of Jussieu. 
 
 Crypto'gamous Plants. Lichens, Fungi, Agarics, Truffle, Algae, Mosses, 
 Ferns. 
 
 Phanero'gamous Plants. Monocoty'ledons Grasses Wheat, Rye, Barley, 
 Malt, Oats, Rice, Maize, Sugar-cane, Sugar, Sugar-candy Palms- 
 Narcissus Dicoty'ledons A'petalous Dicoty'ledons Monope'talous Di- 
 coty'ledons Potato, Tobacco, Belladonna, Olive, Sage, Coffee Polype'- 
 talous Dicoty'ledons Hemlock Mallow, Cotton, Flax, Orange, Tea, 
 Vine, Wine, Poppy, Sensitive Plant, Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry, Apricot, 
 Peach, Strawberry, &c. Dicli'nero Hop, Hemp, Elm, Bread-fruit, Oak, 
 Chestnut, Ash, Pine Of the Uses of Plants Examples of Ornamental 
 Plants. 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY! 
 
 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PLANTS 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 BOTANY. Definition of Plants Structure of Plants Nomen- 
 clature of Organs. 
 
 1. Botany (formed from the Greek word botane, a plant) is 
 that division of Natural History which treats of vegetables. 
 
 2. The science of Botany is divided into three branches : 
 namely, the Anatomy of Plants, Vegetable Physiology, and 
 Descriptive Botany, which last comprises the classification of 
 plants and their especial history. 
 
 3. Botany, therefore, does not consist, as is commonly ima- 
 gined by the ignorant, in merely " getting by heart" a great 
 number of names of plants, and of being able to apply their 
 names to the objects to which they belong ; but in a knowledge 
 of the plants themselves, of their organization, their growth, their 
 manner of living, their properties, and the relations they bear to 
 each other, as well as the characters by which they are distin- 
 guished from each other. 
 
 4. Dejinition of Plants. Plants are beings organized for 
 living ; but they are not endowed, like animals, with the faculties 
 of sensation and of performing voluntary motion. 
 
 5. Like animals, these beings are readily distinguished from 
 inorganic bodies by their mode of structure, by their nutritive 
 function, through the means of which their substance is renewed 
 and augmented, by their origin, and by the limited duration of 
 their existence. 
 
 6. They differ from animals not only in being destitute of the 
 functions of relation, but also in many other respects. Almost 
 all vegetables live fixed in the soil ; they absorb, from without, 
 nutritive matters which they assimilate, without previously di- 
 
 1. What is Botany? 
 
 2. How is the science of Botany divided ? 
 
 3. What is to be learned by studying Botany ? 
 
 4. What are plants ? 
 
 5. How are plants distinguished from inorganic bodies ? 
 
 6. How do plants differ from animals ? 
 
 (9) 
 
10 SENSIBILITY OF PLANTS. 
 
 gesting them, and they have nothing which resembles a stomach ; 
 by the act of respiration, they possess themselves of the carbonic 
 acid of the air, and exhale the oxygen. 
 
 7. We have said that vegetables are destitute of the faculty of 
 sensation, and the faculty of performing voluntary motion : this 
 is very evident in an immense majority of instances ; but 
 there are some plants which, at first sight, seem to form an ex- 
 ception to this rule. For example, the branches and leaves of 
 all plants are directed to that side from which they receive the 
 light and air. Certain plants on the approach of night, or the 
 morning dawn, close their leaves or flowers : and there are some 
 that contract themselves in this manner when they are touched 
 by any foreign body. The small shrub called the Sensitive 
 Plant exhibits this phenomenon in a very remarkable manner : 
 and a plant of certain 
 Carolina marshes, Venus's 
 Fly-trap, Dionma mus~ 
 cipula (jig. 1) performs 
 these motions most singu- 
 larly ; the leaves, which 
 are formed of two lobes, 
 are so irritable that they 
 close on the slightest touch ; 
 when an insect alights 
 upon the internal face of 
 one of them, the two lobes 
 immediately approximate 
 each other, and the ani- 
 mal, caught upon the 
 thorns with which these 
 lobes are armed, dies in 
 this species of natural 
 snare. The Sundew, 
 Drosera, the white flow- 
 ers of which often deck 
 the pools in France, are 
 somewhat analogous, for 
 
 the hairs which fringe Fi S- L VENUS'S FLY-TRAP. 
 
 their broad round leaves, lie down the moment they are irritated 
 by the contact of a foreign body. 
 
 8. But these phenomena differ essentially from the voluntary 
 movements of animals ; there is no proof that the plants we have 
 
 7. Do plants feel ? Are they capable of voluntary motion ? 
 
 8. Is there any positive proof that vegetables feel, or move of their own 
 will? 
 
STRUCTURE OF PLANTS. 11 
 
 just mentioned experience sensations, nor that the motions per- 
 formed by them are directed by will : sometimes these move- 
 ments result from the action of heat or humidity upon certain 
 parts of their tissues, and at other times they can only be com- 
 pared to the automatic movements, which are readily brought 
 about by means of electricity or galvanism, in animals that have 
 been recently killed and deprived of the functions of relation. 
 
 Of the Structure of Plants in General. 
 
 9. Although plants differ very widely from each other in their 
 external forms, they closely resemble each other in the materials 
 of which their organs are composed : if we examine the internal 
 structure of plants by the aid of a microscope, we find they con- 
 sist entirely of cellular tissue alone, or at most of cellular tissue 
 united to vessels. 
 
 10. Plants that are composed entirely of cellular tissue are 
 called cellular plants, and those formed of cellular tissue and 
 vessels are named vascular plants. 
 
 Of Cellular Tissue. 
 
 11. The cellular or utricular tissue of vege- 
 tables consists of a multitude of vesicles (minute 
 cells) filled with a liquid or -other substance; 
 sometimes these little bladders are rounded and 
 loosely attached to each other (fig. 2); but in 
 general they are so strongly pressed against each Fl 8- 
 other that they are flattened at the points where VESICLES. 
 
 they touch, and take the form of polygons (from 
 the Greek, polus, many, and gone, sides, jigs. 3 
 and 6, g, c) ; at the same time their union be- 
 comes so intimate that it is difficult to separate 
 them, and the cells formed by their cavities seem 
 to be separated only by simple partitions, as cavi- 
 ties would be if hollowed out of a continuous or 
 solid mass, like the cells of a honey-comb, for example. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 2. Utricula or cells of the cellular tissue, which 
 have preserved their primitive form, magnified. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 3. The same cells which have become poly'gonal 
 in consequence of pressing against each other. 
 
 9. Do plants differ from each other in their internal structure as much as 
 they do in their external form ? 
 
 10. What are cellular plants ? What are vascular plants ? 
 
 11. Of what does the cellular tissue of plants consist? Are all cells of 
 the same form ? 
 
 ' 
 
12 
 
 CELLS VESSELS. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 VESICLES. 
 
 12. The form of these cells varies very much : 
 sometimes they are spherical or octa'gonal, at other 
 times flat or very much elongated, and tapered at 
 their extremities like spindles (fg- 4) ; in the latter 
 case they are often designated under the name of 
 clostres. Their surface frequently presents rays or 
 points which resemble pores, but in reality these vesi- 
 cles are completely closed, and are without openings 
 or orifices ; their parietes are naturally transparent, 
 and almost colourless ; but ordinarily these cells con- 
 tain granules which are deposited on their internal 
 surface, and, when these corpuscles (little bodies) are green, 
 brown, red, &c., their parietes appear to be coloured in the same 
 manner. The colour of different parts of plants depends upon 
 this circumstance. 
 
 13. The cellules (little cells) of the cellular tissue often have 
 between them empty spaces of more or less extent, called inter- 
 cellular mcdtvs, or inter-cellular pores, or passages: these 
 cavities, which are of irregular form, are very important, as we 
 shall see in the sequel. 
 
 Of Vessels. 
 
 14. The vessels of plants are generally cylindrical 
 tubes, which sometimes resemble excessively elon- 
 gated cells (fg. 5). They differ*very much in their 
 structure, and they are divided into trachese, false tra- 
 cheae, punctuated or dotted vessels, moniliform vessels, 
 reticular vessels, mixed vessels and proper vessels. 
 
 15. Trachea. We give the name of trachea? to 
 
 tubes, which closely resemble the 
 trachea? of insects, for, like them, 
 they are formed of a thread 
 spirally folded (Jig. 6). This thread, which 
 .,.,,, , is silvery white, is very elastic and easily 
 a i cd e f g unrolled; and if we carefully break a leaf 
 Fig. 6. TRACHEA. of a rose tree, or dog- wood, for example, we 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 4. Clostres or fusiform cells of wood, magnified. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 5. A punctuated or dotted vessel, magnified. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 6. Vertical section of a stem, showing the cellular 
 tissue of which the epidermis is composed (a) ; the cellular tissue of the 
 bark (6) ; the clostres of the fibre of the wood (c) ; a punctuated vessel (d) ; 
 a rayed vessel (e) ; a tracheae (/) ; and soft cellular tissue (^). 
 
 12. What are clostres? 
 
 ] 3. What are inter-cellular passages ? 
 
 14. How are the vessels of plants divided ? 
 
 15. What are tra'chese ? (Trachete, the plural of trachea, pronounced 
 Ira'-ke-ah wind-pipe.) 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 VESSEL. 
 
VESSELS. 
 
 13 
 
 find the two fragments united to each other by filaments, similar 
 to spider's web, which are, in fact, the unrolled tracheae. 
 Sometimes, instead of being formed of a single spiral thread, 
 these vessels are composed of two or three parallel threads rolled 
 together. Their length is, in general, very considerable, and it 
 seems that they terminate in a point at each extremity ; they do 
 not branch or ramify like blood-vessels in animals, and ordinarily 
 they are united in bundles. 
 
 16. The false trachea, which are also called annular, or 
 radiated vessels, are unramified lubes, marked by transverse 
 parallel rays (fig- 6, e). When the rays are very close toge- 
 ther, these vessels resemble tracheae very much, but they are 
 not elastic and cannot be unrolled. 
 
 17. The punctuated or dotted vessels (fig. 5) are cylindrical 
 tubes like the preceding, but their parietes are dotted with 
 small opaque points arranged in parallel or oblique series. 
 They were formerly called porous vessels, because it was be- 
 lieved that these dots were holes, but we are now assured that 
 they are not pores. 
 
 18. The reticular vessels are cylindrical tubes, the surface of 
 which being covered by oblong transverse spots, gives them the 
 appearance of a net. 
 
 19. The mixed vessels are tubes which at different points in 
 their length seem to possess alternately the characters of the three 
 kinds of vessels we have just mentioned. 
 
 20. The moni'liform, or bead-like vessels, are 
 
 punctuated tubes 
 which ramify, and 
 are contracted or 
 strangulated at dif- 
 ferent points (fig- 7). 
 Many botanists sup- 
 pose they consist of 
 series of cells at- 
 tached to each other, 
 end to end. 
 Fig. 8. VESSELS. 21. The proper vessels (fig. 8, 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 7. Moni'liform (bead-like) vessels, magnified. 
 
 Explanation of Fig: 8. Vertical section of a stem, showing cellular 
 tissue with elongated cells (a) ; and the reservoirs of the peculiar or proper 
 juices (J>, 6). 
 
 16. What are false tra'cheae ? 
 
 17. What are punctuated or dotted vessels ? 
 
 18. What are reticular vessels ? (Reticular ; from the Latin, rete, a net.) 
 
 19. What are mixed vessels ? 
 
 20. What is meant by moniliform vessels ? (Moni'liform, from the 
 Latin, monile, a necklace, a string of beads, and forma, form.) 
 
 21. What arfe proper vessels? 
 
 m 
 
 
 .-.a 
 
14 FIBRES. EPIDERMIS. 
 
 b) are cavities which are sometimes in the form of short blunt 
 tubes, and sometimes they are elongated very much ; they en- 
 close the particular juices of the various species of plants. 
 
 22. Finally, the vessels of the latex are ramified canals, 
 which may be considered as a sort of proper vessels ; according 
 to some botanists, they are lined by a proper membrane, but ac- 
 cording to other observers, they have no lateral parietes, and are 
 merely inter-cellular passages or meatus. (Latex is a Latin 
 word, signifying a peculiar fluid, which is usually turbid, and 
 coloured red, white or yellow; often, however, colourless.) 
 
 Of the Compound Constituent Parts of Organs. 
 
 23. The elementary parts of plants we have just mentioned 
 constitute, either alone or by their union, the tissues and the dif- 
 ferent organs which, in their turn, concur in the formation of the 
 various apparatuses constituting the body of these beings. Such 
 are the fibres, the epidermis, the hairs, the glands, &c. 
 
 24. Fibres. The fibres which are often found in the different 
 parts of plants, but chiefly in the stems, are not composed of a 
 peculiar tissue, but are formed of vessels united in bundles, inter- 
 mingled with clostres or elongated cells. Among these vessels, 
 we sometimes find tra'cheze, but most of them are punctuated 
 vessels. The filaments thus formed are arranged parallel to each 
 other, and joined together by a more or less loose cellular tissue; 
 it is therefore much easier to separate them lengthwise than 
 transversely. 
 
 25. Epidermis (from the Greek epi, upon, and derma, skin). 
 The epidermis or cuticle 
 
 is a thin membrane which 
 
 covers the external surface 
 
 of plants ; it is especially 
 
 distinct in the young 
 
 stems, the leaves and 
 
 roots ; it is composed of k & jl 
 
 cellular tissue, : the cells of 
 
 which adhere more strong- ** 9-.cAL SECTION or A LEAF. 
 
 ly to each other than to the subjacent parts, and for this reason 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 9. Vertical section of a leaf magnified ; a. the 
 epidermis of the upper surface ; b. the paren'chyma formed of cellular 
 tissue, in which we observe inter-cellular passages or mea'tus ; c, c. epi- 
 dermis of the lower surface;*?, d, d. the stomata cut transversely. 
 
 22. What are the latex vessels? 
 
 23. What elementary parts constitute the tissue of plants? 
 
 24. What are fibres ? 
 
 25. What is meant by epidermis? W T hat are sto'mata ? Where are 
 they 'found? 
 
HAIRS. SCURF. 
 
 15 
 
 -ILL/ 
 
 it is, in general, easily raised up (fig. 9, a and c) : we often re- 
 mark in it little openings called sto'mata (from the Greek, stoma, 
 mouth), which are not visible without the assistance of a magni- 
 fying-glass (fig. 10, 6) ; the a 
 
 edges of these pores are 
 formed by two oval or glo- 
 bular cells filled with green 
 globules, and their opening e 
 corresponds with the inter- 
 cellular vacuities or lacuna? 
 (fig. 9, fe), the uses of which 
 appear to be very important 
 in the respiration of plants. 
 No sto'mata are found upon 
 the roots ; many cellular 
 plants, such "as mushrooms Fi ?' ^.-HORIZONTAL SECTION OF A LEAF. 
 
 and mosses, are altogether without them, and they are also want- 
 ing in certain plants that live in water. 
 
 . 26. The hairs of plants are external appendages formed of 
 elongated and projecting cellules ; sometimes they are simple, 
 that is, composed of a single cell ; sometimes they are partitioned, 
 that is, formed of several cells arranged in a row, end to end, and 
 at other times they are more or less branching ; sometimes they 
 lie upon glands, and serve as an excretory canal to the caustic 
 juices secreted by these organs. 
 
 Hairs vary extremely in length, density, rigidity, ancf other particulars ; 
 on this account they have received the following names : 
 
 Down, or pubescence,when they form a short soft layer, which only par- 
 tially covers the cuticle or epidermis. 
 
 Hairiness (hirsutus), when they are rather longer and more rigid. 
 
 Pilosity (pilosus}, when they are long, soft, and erect. 
 
 Villosity (villosus), when they are very long, very soft, erect, and straight. 
 Crini (crinitus) are this variety in excess. 
 
 Velvet (velutinus\ when they are short, very dense and soft, but rather 
 rigid, and forming a surface like velvet. 
 
 Cilia;, eye-lashes (ciliatus\ when long, and fbiming a fringe to the 
 margin, like an eye-lash. 
 
 Bristles (setts, sctosus), when short and stiff. 
 
 Stings (stimuli slimulans\ when stiff and pungent, giving out an acrid 
 juice if touched, as in the nettle. 
 
 Glandular hairs (pili capilati), when they are tipped with a glandulai 
 exudation. 
 'Hooks (hami, unci, rostelld), when curved back at the point. 
 
 Barbs (glochis glochidatus\ if forked at the apex, both divisions of the 
 fork being hooked. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 10. Horizontal section of a leaf, magnified : 
 dermis; b. stomata; c. cellular tissue of the paren'chyma. 
 
 26. What are hairs ? Mention some of their varieties. 
 
 epi- 
 
16 FUNCTIONS OF NUTRITION. 
 
 27. SCURF consists of thin flat membranous disks, with a 
 ragged margin, formed of cellular tissue springing from the 
 epidermis. It may be considered as a modification of hairs ; for 
 it differs from those bodies only in being more compound. 
 
 28. Prickles are conical hairs of large size, sharp pointed, and 
 having their tissue very hard. They differ from thorns in being 
 fixed to the bark ; the thorn is fixed to the wood. 
 
 29. Glands. We give the name of glands to those organs 
 which are destined for the secretion of particular liquids : they 
 are found in almost all parts of plants; they are small cavities, 
 sometimes formed of cellular tissue only, and sometimes of very 
 little cells mingled with a great number of vessels ; in other 
 respects, they do not appear to differ essentially from the tubiform 
 reservoirs we have already mentioned under the name of proper 
 vessels. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF VE- 
 GETABLES. 
 
 30. The functions of vegetable are referred to two classes. 
 One belongs to the individual life of the vegetable, that is, the 
 functions which effect its nutrition : the other refers to its multi- 
 plication or the preservation of the species. 
 
 31. The parts of plants that serve the functions of nutrition, 
 are the roots, the stem, and the leaves. 
 
 32. The parts which are especially designed to secure the mul- 
 tiplication of plants are the organs of fructification ; namely, the 
 flowers and fruits. 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 FUNCTIONS OF NUTRITION. Absorption and Ascent of Sap 
 Roots, their Structure and Forms Stem, its Divisions, 
 Varieties, fyc. Structure of the Stem in Ex'ogens Medul- 
 lary Canal Pith Medullary Sheath Wood Medullary 
 Rays Bark Epidermis Cork Structure of the Stem in 
 En'dogens. 
 
 FUNCTIONS OF NUTRITION. 
 
 1. The phenomena of the life of nutrition in plants are referred 
 to five distinct functions ; namely, 
 
 27. What is scurf? 
 
 28. \Vnat are prickles ? How do they differ from thorns? 
 
 29. What are glands ? 
 
 30. How many kinds of functions do plants possess ? 
 
 31. What parts serve the function of nutrition ? 
 
 32. What parts serve the function of multiplication, or reproduction of 
 plants ? 
 
 1, What are tne several functions of the life of nutrition? 
 
ROOTS. 17 
 
 1st. The absorption of nutritive matter: 
 
 2d. The transportation of the nutritive liquid or sap to the 
 organs of respiration. 
 
 3d. The process of respiration and elaboration (or prepa- 
 ration) of the nutritive juices in the interior of the respiratory 
 organs. 
 
 4th. The transportation of the sap thus elaborated to different 
 parts of the plant, and the deposition or assimilation of its ele- 
 ments in its various parts. 
 
 5th. The secretion of peculiar juices effected by special 
 organs. 
 
 2. The roots of plants absorb the nutritive matter necessary 
 for the maintenance of vegetable life, and the liquids, thus in- 
 troduced into the body of the vegetable, constitute what is called 
 the ascending sap. This sap rises through the stem by means 
 of particular canals, and in this manner reaches the leaves and 
 other green parts of plants; there it is modified by the effects of 
 transpiration and of respiration, and after having been thus pre- 
 pared, the sap descends, following a new route, and is distributed 
 to those parts for the growth of which it is destined. 
 
 We will study successively these phenomena, and the organs 
 which are the seat of them, both in vascular and cellular plants. 
 
 OF THE ABSORPTION AND ASCENT OF SAP. 
 
 3. The absorption of nutritive matters is principally effected by 
 the extremity of the roots, and by passing through these organs 
 and mounting along the stem, they reach the leaves, in the sub- 
 stance of which the alimentary juice is rendered fit for the nutri- 
 tion of the plant. These two phenomena, the absorption and 
 ascent of the sap, are very intimately united ; and in order to un- 
 derstand them, we must, in the first place, study the structure of 
 .the two portions of the plant which are the seat of them, namely, 
 the roots and stem. 
 
 OF THE ROOT OR DESCENDING AXIS (RADIX). 
 
 4. We give the name of root to that inferior portion of plants 
 which serves to fix them in the soil, and which, by its growth, 
 increases in length in an opposite direction to the stem. 
 
 5. With the exception of some plants that live under water, or 
 float upon its surface, all vegetables are provided with roots, 
 
 2. What is ascending sap ? -What becomes of this ascending sap? 
 
 3. Through what part of a plant is matter chiefly conveyed for its nour- 
 ishment. 
 
 4. What is meant by the root of the plant? 
 
 5. Are all plants provided with roots? Where are the roots usually 
 found ? What are adventitious roots ? 
 
 2* 
 
18 STRUCTURE OF ROOTS. 
 
 and these organs are almost always buried in the earth. Some- 
 times the roots float freely in the water, and there are some 
 plants that insinuate them into cracks in walls, or in crevices 
 of the stem of some other plant, as the mosses, for example. 
 There are certain plants, the roots of which arise at a considera- 
 ble distance above the surface of the soil, and have only their ex- 
 tremity buried in the earth, so that the greater part of their length 
 remains exposed to the air. To such roots we give the name of 
 aerial or adventitious roots; the maize or Indian corn and many 
 other American plants have them. 
 
 6. We see now that it is not a constant character of roots to 
 be covered up in the earth ; and, on the other hand, we should be 
 equally deceived if we were to regard as roots all parts of plants 
 that are buried in the soil ; for it sometimes happens that the 
 stem, instead of rising up through the air, creeps horizontally 
 under ground ; but the structure of the two parts is different, and 
 prevents them from being confounded with each other. The tissue 
 of roots is whitish, and never becomes green by exposure to the 
 action of light, which occur to all other parts of plants. [Those 
 stems which creep along under the ground, are called root-stalks, 
 or subterranean, or rhizome (from the Greek ridsa, root) stems ; 
 the stems of the orris root, ginger, and potato, upon which grow 
 the tubers we eat, are instances of this kind.] 
 
 7. The root, considered as a whole, generally consists of 
 three distinct parts : First, the body or middle part, which is 
 sometimes globular, and, at others, similar in form to a descend- 
 ing stem ; Second, the radicles, the more or less delicate fibres 
 which terminate the root at its lower part ; and, third, the neck 
 or collum, the point that separates it from the stem, and which is 
 often marked by being smaller. 
 
 8. The internal structure of roots varies ; in general, it is di- 
 vided into the cortical part, or bark of the root, and central or 
 ligneous part. 
 
 9. The bark of the root, which is often very thick, is entirely 
 composed of cells ; its epidermis is always without sto'mata. 
 
 10. The ligneous body of the root is not ordinarily composed 
 of distinct fibres, and we do not find tracheae in it as in the stalk 
 or stem of vascular plants ; nor has it pith in the centre. 
 
 6. Are roots always under ground ? Does the stem ever grow under 
 ground ? How is a root distinguished from a stem that grows under 
 ground ? How is the tissue of roots characterized ? How are those stems 
 which grow under the soil designated ? 
 
 7. How is the root divided ? 
 
 8. How is the internal structure of roots divided ? 
 
 9. What is the structure of the bark of the root ? 
 10. What is the ligneous body of the root ? 
 
DIVISION OF ROOTS. 19 
 
 11. The extremities of the radicles are unprovided with epi- 
 dermis, and are composed only of rounded cellular tissue ; these 
 parts are called spongioles (little sponges), and, as we shall pre- 
 sently see, play a very important part in absorption. 
 
 12. The general form of roots varies much, and gives rise to 
 numerous distinctions, the chief of which are the following : 
 
 DIVISION OF ROOTS. 
 
 Roots are primarily divided into Simple and Compound or Multiple 
 Roots. 
 
 SIMPLE ROOTS have a single base continuous with the stem; they are 
 called 
 
 Tap-roots, when they descend perpendicularly, and have almost the whole 
 of their spongioles united at their extremity. These are 
 
 Fusiform, when they are shaped like carrots, and 
 
 Napiform, Tuberous, &c., when they are swelled and rounded like turnips. 
 
 Fibrous, when they are very branching and ordinarily furnished with 
 numerous spongioles. These are 
 
 Knotted, when they present swellings along the course of their fibres, and 
 
 Creeping, or Repent, when they run along near the surface of the soil. 
 
 The second primary division of roots is 
 
 The COMPOUND ROOTS : they arise in great numbers from the neck of the 
 plant. They are said to be 
 
 Branching, or Capillary, when each fibre, which is distinct at its origin, 
 gives off branches in abundance ; 
 
 Knotted, when the fibres have swellings or knots in their course ; and 
 
 Fusiform, or Fasciculate, when they are formed by the union of a great 
 many more or less elongated tubercles. 
 
 13. We may add that roots are said to be fleshy, when they 
 are more succulent (juicy) and larger than the base of the stem, 
 and ligneous, when their tissue resembles wood. They frequently 
 present swellings or tubers, which are always masses of nutritive 
 matter destined to supply the wants of the plant at a certain 
 period. 
 
 14. Finally, we give the name of adventitious roots to those 
 which, in certain instances, arise from the stem, but are in other 
 respects analogous to ordinary roots. (See pages 63 and 64.) 
 
 OF THE STEM (CAULIS). 
 
 15. We give the name of STEM (Cavlis, Stalk) to that part 
 of plants which is intermediate between the roots and the leaves. 
 
 11. What are spongioles ? 
 
 12. What is a simple root? What is a tap-root? What is a fusirbrm 
 root? What is a napiform root? What is a fibrous root? What is a 
 knotted root ? When is a root said to be creeping ? What is a compound 
 root ? What is a capillary root ? 
 
 13. What is meant by a fleshy root ? What is meant by a ligneous root? 
 What is the use of those swellings or tubers found on certain roots ? 
 
 14. What are adventitious roots ? 
 
 15. What do you mean by stem ? 
 
20 STEMS. 
 
 16. The stem grows in an opposite direction to the root, and 
 seeks the air and light ; in general, it rises vertically above the 
 soil, and serves to support the leaves, flowers, and fruit. 
 
 17. Generally this part of a vegetable is very apparent and 
 easily recognised ; sometimes it is simple, at others branching, 
 and when it is simple below, and branching in its superior part, 
 the first part is called the trunk, and to the second we give the 
 name of branches. 
 
 18. All vascular plants are provided with a stem, but some- 
 times it is so short and so enveloped in leaves, or so completely 
 hidden in the ground, that it seems not to exist ; vegetables thus 
 formed, are named a'caulous plants (from the Greek, a, without, 
 and kavlos, stem or stalk) ; but this absence of the stem is only in 
 appearance. 
 
 19. Thus, in tulip and other bulbs, there exists 
 amidst the leaves in form of scales, of which the 
 greater part of these bodies is composed, a 
 tissue which separates these appendages from 
 the roots, and which constitutes a true stem 
 (Jig. 11); only, instead of being elongated and 
 cylindrical, as is ordinarily the case, it is gene- 
 rally globular and flattened above, an arrange- 
 ment which has procured for it the name of 
 
 cormus or plateau. Fi &- H- BULB. 
 
 20. Subterraneous or rhizome stems have the appearance of 
 roots, but are distinguished from them by their structure and 
 several other characters ; their tissue becomes green by the ac- 
 tion of light, which is never the case in true roots, and, under the 
 influence of moisture, branches spring up covered with leaves, 
 but radicles never grow from them. Sometimes these subterra- 
 neous stems bear, here and there, irregular tubercles. 
 
 21. The stem of a plant assumes numerous and very different 
 appearances in different plants. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 11. A bulb or onion, showing the roots (o) ; the 
 cormus, or plateau, or representative of the stem (ft) ; and the leaves or 
 scales (c) ; Cormus (from the Greek Arormos, a stem), a rhizome, or subter- 
 raneous stem. 
 
 16. In what direction does the stem grow ? What is the use of the 
 stem? 
 
 17. What is meant by trunk and by branches ? 
 
 18. Are all plants provided with a stem? 
 
 19. What is a cormus ? 
 
 20. How are subterraneous stems distinguished from roots ? What is 
 the effect of light on the colour of plants ? 
 
 21. Is the form of the stem in all parts the same ? What are the forms ? 
 What is a scape ? 
 
 . V " ' 
 
STEMS. 21 
 
 If above ground, it is root-shaped, or knotted ; ascending ; 
 creeping ; articulated ; leafless, succulent, and deformed ; or 
 leafy. 
 
 If it bears the flowers, proceeding immediately from the soil or 
 near it, it is a scape. 
 
 22. The stem, in most plants, rises vertically in the air, but 
 sometimes it wants strength to sustain itself, and rests drooping 
 on the surface of the ground, to which it often attaches itself by 
 roots (stems of this kind are named repent or creeping), or they 
 sustain themselves upon some other more robust plant, as is seen 
 in the climbing plants, &c. It is observed that the latter often 
 wind themselves spirally round whatever supports them; they are 
 then called twining or voluble ; and it is worthy of note, that the 
 direction according to which different individuals of the same 
 species wind themselves, never varies; in some, such as the 
 haricot or bean, and bind-weed, it is from right to left ; in others, 
 such as the honeysuckle and hop, it is constantly from left to 
 right. 
 
 23. While young, stems are always of a soft consistence and 
 similar to grass ; they often remain in this state, and live but a 
 year ; they are then called herbaceous stems. In other instances 
 they acquire more or less hardness, their interior is transformed 
 into wood, and they live out of the ground many years : in this 
 case they are called ligneous stems. 
 
 24. When the stem, although it be persistent, remains watery 
 and more or less soft, it takes the name of fleshy stem. 
 
 25. We generally apply the name of shrub to those plants 
 with a ligneous stem which branch at their base, and do not 
 much exceed a man in height, such as the rose or lilac ; and we 
 give the name of tree to those with a ligneous (woody) stem that 
 branch only at the superior part, and rise to a considerable 
 height. The branches are only divisions of the trunk which di- 
 verge more or less from it, and are again subdivided in their turn ; 
 upon their arrangement depends the general form of the plant ; 
 sometimes they stand up, which gives the tree a pyramidal form ; 
 sometimes they are spread out, and at others they are pendent or 
 hanging. 
 
 26. Stems of certain plants present at intervals knots or enlarge- 
 
 22. What is meant by a creeping stem ? What is meant by twining or 
 voluble stems ? What is especially remarkable in these stems? 
 
 23. What is an herbaceous stem 1 What is a ligneous stem ? 
 
 24. What is a fleshy stem ? 
 
 25. What is a shrub? How does a tree differ from a shrub? 
 
 26. What is a culm ? 
 
22 
 
 STEMS. 
 
 Fig. 12. DATE PALM. 
 
 merits, produced by an indura- 
 tion and a swelling of their 
 tissue; when they are also 
 hollow internally, they are 
 designated under the name of 
 culm or straw. The stems of 
 wheat, barley, and oats are of 
 this kind. 
 
 27. We give the name of 
 stipe to stems which resemble a 
 round column, as large above 
 as below, and crowned with a 
 cluster of leaves or flowers, like 
 the stems of palms (jig- 12). 
 
 28. The stem of all vascular 
 plants is composed of fibres ar* 
 ranged in bundles (fasciculi), 
 or layers, and variously sur- 
 rounded by cellular tissue ; 
 but we observe very great dif- 
 ferences in their structure ; 
 and these variations, which 
 coincide with differences not 
 less important in their mode 
 of growth, have caused vas- 
 cular plants to be divided into 
 two groups; namely, EX'OGENS 
 and EN'DOGENS.* 
 
 * EX'OGENS (Exogenous plants). From the Greek, ex, from, and geinomai, 
 I grow. A term applied to those plants, a transverse slice of whose stem 
 exhibits a central cellular substance or pith, an external cellular and fibrous 
 ring or bark, and an intermediate woody mass, and certain fine lines radiat- 
 ing from the pith to the bark through the wood, and called medullary rays. 
 They are called EX'OGENS, because they add to their wood by successive 
 external additions ; and are the same as what are otherwise called dicoty'- 
 ledons. They constitute one of the primary classes into which the vegetable 
 world is divided, characterized by their leaves being reticulated ; by their 
 stems having a distinct deposition of bark, wood, and pith ; by their em- 
 bryo having two cotyledons ; and by their flowers being usually formed on 
 a quinary type. 
 
 EN'DOGENS (Endogenous plants). From the Greek, endon, within, and 
 geinomai, I grow. One of the primary classes of plants, so called because 
 their stems grow by successive additions to the inside. They are usually 
 
 27. What is a stipe ? 
 
 28. What is the nature of the stem in vascular plants ? 
 lar plants divided ? 
 
 How are vascu- 
 
STEMS OF EXOGENS. 23 
 
 29. The CLASS OF EX'OGENS comprises all the trees and 
 shrubs of our forests, and is composed of vascular plants, the 
 stem of which has a medullary canal in the centre, and grows by 
 super-posed layers (Jig- 13). 
 
 30. The CLASS OF EN'DOGENS comprises those plants in which 
 the stern has neither a central canal nor concentric layers (fig* 
 14). The palms belong to this division. 
 
 Structure of the Stems of Exogenous Plants. 
 
 31. In the stems of these plants we distinguish two principal 
 parts : the bark, and the central, or ligneous part, which might 
 be called the body of the stem. Each one of these portions is in 
 turn composed of several different parts ; the central portion of 
 the stem is formed by a central pith, by ligneous layers, and by 
 medullary rays ; the bark, or cortical portion, is composed of the 
 epidermis of a cellular envelope, and of a fibrous part named 
 liber, or cortical layers. (Liber, Latin, bark, is the interior 
 lining of the bark of ex'ogenous plants.) 
 
 32. If we cut through an elder, or any other ex'ogenous tree, 
 transversely, we observe in the centre a canal, which is ordi- 
 narily angular, or very nearly cylindrical, and which, in the 
 young branches, if not in the whole plant, is filled with a round 
 cellular tissue (Jig- 13, a); this cavity is called the medullary 
 canal, and the cellular tissue found in it is named the pith of the 
 plant. 
 
 33. This central pith is of a soft consistence, and of a very 
 homoge'neous* structure; while young it is always humid, and 
 of a light greenish tint ; but with the progress of age, the cells 
 of which it is composed become empty, dry, and assume a re- 
 markable whiteness ; sometimes it is torn by the effect of the 
 elongation of the stem, and separates in laminae or bundles, as 
 may be easily seen in branches of jasmine that have attained one 
 year old. 
 
 known by the veins of their leaves running parallel with each other, with- 
 out branching or dividing. Grasses, lilies, the asparagus, and similar 
 plants belong to this class, which in warm countries contains trees of large 
 size, such as palms and screw pines. 
 
 * Homoge'neous. From the Greek, omou, together, and genas, kind. 
 Of the same kind. Bodies whose constituent elements are of one and the 
 same kind, are said to be homoge'neous. 
 
 29. What is the general character of those plants which constitute the 
 class of Ex'ogens ? 
 
 30. What kind of plants does the class of En'dogens comprise ? 
 
 31. How is the stem of ex'ogenous plants divided ? What is the central 
 portion ? What is bark ? 
 
 32. What is the medullary canal of plants ? What is meant by pith ? 
 
 33. What is the character of pith ? 
 
24 
 
 PITH. WOOD. 
 
 34. In herbaceous plants, and in ligneous plants of very 
 rapid growth (such as the elder), the space occupied by the pith 
 is very considerable ; but in trees, the wood of which is very 
 hard, such as the oak, the medullary canal or sheath is generally 
 very small. 
 
 35. The parietes of the canal, containing the central pith, 
 called the medullary sheath, are formed of longitudinal fibres, 
 ordinarily arranged in a circle, and of a layer composed of tra- 
 cheae, false tracheae, and porous vessels. It is the only part of 
 the stem in which true tracheae have been observed. 
 
 36. Between the medullary canal and the bark, is the ligneous 
 body, or wood, which is composed of concentric layers, the 
 number of which is more or less considerable, according to the 
 
 c b a 
 
 Fig. 13. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF AN Ex'OGENOUS STEM. 
 
 age of the plant (Jig. 13, 6, c) ; each of these layers is com 
 posed of longitudinal fibres, united to the subjacent layer by eel 
 lular tissue. These fibres are formed nearly in the same manner 
 as those of the medullary sheath, except that no tracheae are 
 found in them ; they are composed only of clostres or elongated 
 cells, or dotted or rayed vessels. 
 
 37. The ligneous body constitutes what is generally termed 
 wood ; its central portion is harder than its external part, and is 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 13. Transverse section of an ex'ogenous stem : 
 a. the pith ; b. layers of the heart of the wood ; c. layers of the albur'num 
 or sap-wood ; d. the bark. 
 
 34. How does the pith vary in quantity in different plants ? 
 
 35. What is meant by medullary sheath ? What is remarkable in its 
 structure ? 
 
 36. What is meant by the ligneous body ? How is it formed ? 
 
 37. What is wood ? What is meant by true wood ? What is meant by 
 alburnum ? In what respect does true differ from sap wood ? 
 
BARK. 25 
 
 ordinarily of a different colour : it is this part which is commonly 
 called the heart of the wood, and which botanists designate under 
 the name of true-wood, heart-wood, or duramen, while they give 
 the name of albur'mtm or sap-wood to the external ligneous 
 layers, the solidity of which is less, and the colour whiter (Jig- 
 13, c). In other respects the structure of these parts is the same, 
 only the ligneous fibres of the true or perfect wood are filled with 
 solid matters deposited in their interior, while the proportion of 
 liquids is more considerable in the sap-wood or alburnum. In 
 trees of slow growth the line of demarcation is very distinct be- 
 tween I he heart and sap-wood, and in the coloured woods, such 
 as ebony, mahogany, &c., it is the heart only that possesses their 
 peculiar colour, the sap-wood being usually white. In trees of 
 very rapid growth, such as the poplar, willow, &c., there is, on 
 the contrary, but little difference between these two ligneous lay- 
 ers. As we shall see in the sequel, the albur'num is gradually 
 converted into perfect wood, and it is by the formation of new 
 ligneous layers between those already formed and the bark, that 
 the stem increases in thickness. 
 
 38. The medullary rays are the divergent lines which run 
 from the centre of the stem towards its circumference ; they 
 are composed of vertical laminae of compressed cellular tissue, 
 and are very analogous to the pith, from which they seem to 
 arise. These rays come in part from the external ligneous 
 layers, and terminate in the bark, thus establishing a communi- 
 cation between the superficial and central parts of the stem. 
 
 39. The bark is composed first of a layer of cellular tissue, 
 which constitutes the epidermis, and of a deeper layer formed 
 of clostres grouped together so as to form fibres, but without 
 being united with tracheae ; in the progress of age, new alter- 
 nating zones of cellular tissue and fibres, are formed beneath the 
 preceding, and there results from it a series of super-posed lay- 
 ers, which resemble those of the wood, but differ from them es- 
 sentially in their mode of growth ; we have observed that the 
 latter are formed successively one on top of the other ; in the 
 bark, on the contrary, growth takes place from without inwards. 
 
 40. We give the name of liber to the inner layers of the bark, 
 because they are easily detached in thin "plates or laminae, and 
 because the ancients made use of it, as we do paper, to write upon.* 
 
 * Some of our young readers may remember the Latin word, liber, and 
 its several versions, given as follows : 
 
 " Liber, book ; liber, tree ; 
 Liber, child, and liber, free." 
 
 38. What are medullary rays? 
 
 39. How is bark formed ? In what respect does bark differ in its man- 
 ner of growth from wood ? 
 
 40. What part is culled liber 7 
 3 
 
26 
 
 CORK. STEMS OF ENDOGENS. 
 
 41. The external layer of cellular tissue constitutes the epi- 
 dermis, and is what botanists term the herbaceous envelope 
 of the bark. In the course of the growth of the subjacent parts, 
 it soon becomes strongly compressed, and at a certain epoch, we 
 see it crack and tear in flexible lamina?, or detach itself in scales 
 or patches ; the neighbouring cortical layers undergo the same al- 
 terations, and when the part of the bark thus modified has been 
 raised up, the laminae of cellular tissue thus exposed becomes for 
 a brief period a kind of epidermis, until it is itself in turn detached. 
 For this reason the thickness of the bark is never very considera- 
 ble, and its surface is continually renewed. In some plants the 
 herbaceous layer becomes very much developed, and the portion 
 of bark that is thus separated is of sufficient consistence and thick- 
 ness to be very useful to us in the arts. Cork, for example, b 
 only the superficial part of the bark of a particular species of oak, 
 quercus robvr, which detaches itself from the liber every 
 eight or nine years, and it may be removed more frequently with- 
 out any danger of destroying the tree. 
 
 42. Bark often contains, in its interior, cavities which are 
 reservoirs of proper juices, and, in particular, those called the 
 vessels of the latex. 
 
 Structure of the Stem of Endogenous Plants. 
 
 43. The stem of these plants, 
 that of a palm, for example 
 (Jig. 14), is formed of a consi- 
 derable mass of cellular tissue, 
 analogous to pith, through which 
 penetrate bundles of fibres in 
 various ways, but never forming 
 concentric layers, as in the ex'o- 
 genous plants. Each of these 
 fibres is composed of elongated 
 cellules, of large dotted vessels, 
 of tracheae, of proper vessels, and 
 of polyhedral cells; they are 
 closer together near the centre 
 of the stem than towards its cir- 
 cumference, and their superior 
 extremity is abruptly curved out- 
 wards to be continued into the 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 14. Section of the stem of an endogenous plant, 
 fa palm) ; a. cellular tissue ; b. fibres ; c. external pellicle. 
 
 41. What is epidermis ? How is it formed ? What is cork ? 
 
 42. What does bark contain ? 
 
 43. What is the structure of the stem in endogenous plants ? 
 
 
 ^.-SECTION OF AN ENDOGEN. 
 
ABSORPTION AND ASCENT OF SAP. 27 
 
 leaves (c). It is to be remarked also, that in general there is no 
 distinct bark, and that the external pellicle never grows in layers, 
 as is the case in the Ex'ogens. 
 
 CELLULAR PLANTS never present parts that are really analo- 
 gous to the organs we have just spoken of, and to which we shall 
 again recur. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 MECHANISM OF THE ABSORPTION AND ASCENT OF THE SAP. 
 Ascending Sap Exhalation Respiration Leaves 
 Parts of Leaves ; their Structure, Shape, and Position 
 Stipules Tendrils Examples of the Forms of Simple and 
 Compound Leaves Exhalation Respiration Distribution 
 of the Nutritive Juices Descending Sap Secretions Ex- 
 cretions Succession of Crops Proper Juices Lignin 
 Fecula Growth of Plants Grafting Effects of the Sea- 
 sons on the Nutrition of Plants The Age of Plants. 
 
 MECHANISM OF THE ABSORPTION AND ASCENT OF THE 
 
 SAP. 
 
 1. It is by the process of absorption that plants derive from 
 the soil in which they are fixed, the nutritive matters necessary 
 for their growth and the maintenance of their existence. 
 
 2. The nutritive matters, to be pumped up in this manner, 
 must necessarily be in a fluid state ; in the solid form they could 
 not be absorbed ; and it is, in fact, water holding various sub- 
 stances in solution, that thus penetrates the plant and serves for 
 its nourishment. 
 
 3. It is chiefly, and sometimes exclusively, by the extremity 
 of the roots that this operation is effected . The epidermis, 
 which covers almost the whole plant, in general offers obstacles 
 to the passage of these liquids ; but the spongioles, as we have 
 already seen, are unprovided with this envelope, and constitute 
 a cellular tissue which gives a ready passage to water ; for this 
 reason we must consider these spongioles as the chief organs of 
 absorption. 
 
 4. Some plants also absorb by the leaves; and when the 
 
 1. By what process do plants derive nourishment from the soil in which 
 they grow ? 
 
 2. In what state or condition must the food of plants be before it can 
 nourish them ? 
 
 3. What are the chief organs of absorption ? How is this operation 
 effected ? 
 
 4 Is absorption carried on by the roots alone ? 
 
28 ASCENDING SAP. 
 
 stem of a plant is cut across, its internal tissue being thus laid 
 hare, also pumps up water in which it may be placed ; but in the 
 ordinary state of a plant, these cases are exceptions, and the ab- 
 sorption of liquids is carried on in the most active manner by the 
 spongioles. 
 
 5. It has been remarked that water, rendered thick and viscid 
 by the presence of foreign substances, was absorbed very slowly 
 and willi difficulty, but when its fluidity is not diminished by 
 matters that it holds in solution, it penetrates vegetables just 
 as if it M^ere pure. Now, the water which reaches the roots 
 of plants always holds in solution a greater or less quantity 
 of air, earthy salts, and organic matter ; and consequently it 
 introduces these substances into the interior of the plant, which 
 is either benefited or injured according as they are proper for 
 its nutrition, or as they exert an injurious influence upon its 
 organs. 
 
 6. The liquids thus absorbed by the roots constitute the as- 
 cending sap, which rises through the stem to reach the leaves. 
 
 7. The ascent of the sap is always effected through the ligneous 
 body ; and it is remarked that it takes place more actively through 
 the albur'num than through the perfect wood. 
 
 8. It is not known with certainty by what way the absorbed 
 liquids rise up in this manner; many botanists think that it is 
 only by the intercellular passages ; others believe that it is by 
 the vessels; and in fact, if we place the roots of a plant in 
 coloured water, we are not long in perceiving that the vessels 
 of the stem assume the same colour, which seems to indicate that 
 it is through these tubes that the liquids mount up towards the 
 leaves. Nevertheless, under ordinary circumstances, we find 
 these vessels empty, or at least filled with air, and it would seem 
 that it is chiefly through their interior that the air, absorbed by 
 the roots, ris^s in the stem of the plant. 
 
 9. The rapidity and force with which the ascent of sap takes- 
 place, are sometimes extremely great. In the experiments made 
 upon this subject, it has been shown that a branch of an apple tree 
 cut across and surmounted by a tube, raised water contained in 
 the laiter several feet in the space of some hours ; and what 
 are called vine tears, is nothing but the ascending sap, which 
 escapes in abundance when the plant is trimmed. In other 
 experiments made to ascertain the force with which the sap 
 
 5. How are earthy salts introduced into the substance of living plants ? 
 
 6. What constitutes the ascending sap ? 
 
 7. Through what part of the plant does the sap ascend ? 
 
 8. What is the manner of the ascent of the sap ? 
 
 9. What is the force and rapidity of the ascent of the sap? 
 
EXHALATION. RESPIRATION. LEAVES. 29 
 
 mounts in the grape vine, it was found to be sometimes so great 
 as to sustain the weight of a column of water, over forty feet in 
 height. 
 
 10. The circumstances that have most influence upon the as- 
 cent of the sap are heat and light. 
 
 OF EXHALATION AND RESPIRATION. 
 
 11. To render it fit for the purpose of nutrition, the ascending 
 sap undergoes, in the interior of the plant, considerable changes ; 
 these changes are the result of two important phenomena ; name- 
 ly, exhalation and respiration. 
 
 12. The leaves are the chief seat of these two functions, and 
 must be regarded as their special organs. We will now study 
 their structure. 
 
 OF LEAVES. 
 
 13. The leaves of vascular plants are the lateral appendages 
 of the stem, formed of more or less distinct fibres and cellular 
 tissue, enclosing, in its interior, a great deal of green colouring 
 matter. 
 
 14. The fibres of the leaf are the continuation of those of the 
 stem, but ordinarily they contain more trachece ; in general, 
 they form at first a cylindrical fasciculus (bundle), caniculated 
 (that is, hollowed in a gutter on the opposite side), or laterally 
 compressed, which is named petiole, or leaf-stalk ; then they 
 expand and join again to form the flat part called the blade or 
 limb of the leaf. When the fibres separate immediately on 
 springing from the stem, the leaf has no pedicle or petiole, and 
 is then said to be sessile (from the Latin, sedeo, I sit). The 
 petiole of dicotyle'donous* plants is separated from the stem 
 by an articulation or joint, that is, a line at which its tissue offers 
 but little resistance, the cells and vessels of which it is composed 
 being placed end to end, instead of being mingled as usual ; it is 
 on account of this arrangement that the leaves fall when they 
 fade, while those of which the limb or blade arises directly from 
 the stem are destroyed only little by little, and remain adherent 
 at their base. The first are called caducous, or articulate leaves, 
 
 * DICOTYLE'DONOUS. (From the Greek, dis y double, and kotuledon, a seed 
 leaf.) Having a double seed-leaf or seed-lobe. 
 
 10. What circumstances most influence the ascent of the sap? 
 
 11. Does the ascending sap undergo any change in the interior of 
 plants ? 
 
 12. In what part of plants do exhalation and respiration take place ? 
 
 13. What are leaves ? 
 
 14. How are leaves formed ? What is the petiole ? What is the limb of 
 a leaf? When is a leaf said to be sessile ? What are caducous or articu. 
 late leaves ? What are persistent leaves ? 
 
 3* 
 
30 
 
 STRUCTURE OF LEAVES. 
 
 and to the second we give the name of persistent ; the leaves of 
 fir trees are persistent. 
 
 15. When all parts of the leaf are equally adherent to each 
 other, it is named a simple leaf, whatever may be the divisions 
 of its blade ; for example, the leaves of the lilac, the ranunculus, 
 of the vine, &c. (see figs. 17 to 57) ; sometimes the same tail 
 or peduncle supports several petioles, each of which is articu- 
 lated upon this peduncle, as it itself is upon the stem, and then 
 this assemblage is called a compound leaf. (Examples of com- 
 pound leaves are seen in the sensitive plant, the leaves of the 
 acacia, of the chestnut, &c. See Jigs. 58 to 74.) 
 
 16. The fibres, by expanding 
 in the limb, constitute the nerves 
 of the leaf, and the cellular 
 tissue lodged between these 
 bundles of fibres, thus ramified, 
 constitutes the paren'chyma^ 
 of the leaf (fig. 15). 
 
 17. The form of the leaf 
 depends principally upon the 
 disposition of the nerves ; in 
 general, the nerves expand on 
 a single plane so as to form a 
 plate or membrane with two 
 
 Fig. 15. SECTION OF A LEAF. 
 
 surfaces, a superior and an inferior; but they sometimes ramify 
 in all directions, and then give rise to leaves characterized by be- 
 ing thick, cylindrical, triangular, or swelled, as we observe in 
 certain fleshy plants. The large nerves that arise immediately 
 from the petiole are called primary nerves (figs. 25 and 26) ; 
 those which arise from the latter are secondary nerves (fig. 28) ; 
 we sometimes give the name of tertiary nerves (fig* 43) to those 
 ramifications which spring from the secondary nerves, and we 
 apply the name of veins of the leaf to those terminal divisions of 
 the nerves which are visible to the eye, but too small to make any 
 projection on the surface. [The veins are merely a continuation 
 
 * PAREN'CHYMA (pronounced pareri-ke-ma). From the Greek, partg- 
 cliuein, to strain through. The spongy and cellular tissue of vegetables and 
 animals is so called. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 15. Section of a leaf showing the epidermis 
 (, a) ; the paren'chyma (&, &) ; the dense cellular tissue (c, c) ; and the 
 vessels (rf) of which its fibres are composed. 
 
 35. What is a simple leaf? What is meant by a compound leaf? 
 
 16. What are the nerves of a leaf ? What is paren'chyma ? 
 
 17. Upon what does the form of the leaf depend ? What are primary 
 nerves ? What are secondary nerves ? What are the veins of leaves ? 
 
NERVES OF LEAVES. 31 
 
 of the nerves, and both are constituted of the same fibres and 
 vessels. It must not be supposed from the names that have been 
 arbitrarily given them, that these parts are similar in function to 
 those parts of animals of the same name. 
 
 18. Sometimes the leaf presents one or more primary nerves 
 which diverge in a straight line from the base of the blade, and 
 give rise to more slender nerves, that separate from each other, 
 following a straight line, and forming an angle with the first 
 (Jig. 28) : at other times the principal nerves are curved from 
 their base (fi,g. 34). 
 
 19. We give the name of angu'linerve leaves to those in 
 which the primary and secondary nerves are straight, and form 
 angles with each other (Jig. 26), and we call those curvinerve 
 leaves in which the primary nerves are curved (figs. 37 and 43). 
 The first belong chiefly to ex'ogenous or dicotyle'donous plants, 
 and the second to endogenous or monocotyle'donous plants. 
 (Monocotyle'donous. From the Greek, monos, single, and kotu- 
 ledon, seed-lobe. Applied to plants that have but one seed-lobe 
 or cotyledon in the embryo.) 
 
 20. The angu'linerve leaves present four principal arrange- 
 ments ; sometimes they are penninerve; that is, provided with a 
 middle nerve (called also midrib), which is a prolongation of the 
 petiole, and which gives off to the right and left secondary 
 nerves, like the feathers of a pen (for example, the olive leaf, 
 Jig. 22, the leaf of the yoke-elm, and of the beech tree) ; some- 
 times they are palminerve^ that is, provided with several primary 
 nerves which separate from each other at the base of the blade, 
 like the divisions of a fan (Jig. 28) ; for example, the leaf of the 
 grape vine, which has five primary nerves, and that of the mal- 
 lows, in which we count seven or even nine : the number of 
 these nerves is always unequal, and that of the middle appears 
 to be the prolongation of the petiole ; peltinerve (fig. 45), that is, 
 provided with nerves that radiate on an oblique plane relatively 
 to the petiole, so as to constitute a sort of disk or shield, placed 
 upon its peduncle (foot), (for example, the leaf of the nastur- 
 tium) ; and in others again they are pedalinerve, that is, having 
 a very short central nerve or midrib, from which spring two 
 largely developed lateral nerves, the ramifications of which are 
 very small towards the external side (edge) of the leaf and very 
 
 1 8. Are the nerves of all leaves alike in arrangement ? 
 
 19. What are anguli nerve leaves ? 
 
 20. What is a penninerve leaf? (Penninerve, from the Latin, penna, pen 
 or feather.) What is a palminerve leaf? (Palminerve, from the Latin, 
 palma, palm of the hand.) What is a peltinerve leaf? (Peltinerve, from 
 the Latin, pelta, a shield.) 
 
FORMS OF LEAVES. 
 
 strong towards the centre of the blade, like the leaves of the 
 foetid hellebore (fig. 72), and some of the arums, for example. 
 
 21. The curvinerve leaves, in general, have a great number 
 of slightly projecting nerves, which most generally ramify near 
 their summit, and are often nearly parallel in the greater part 
 of their length (for example, the leaves of the narcissus and 
 fig,.fe.37). 
 
 22. It sometimes happens that the space comprised betwixt the 
 nerves is not filled by cellular tissue, which produces a very 
 singular arrangement ; the leaf is then full of holes and resem- 
 bles a trellis-work (for example, the leaves of the Hydrogeton 
 fenestralis) ; or the holes are irregular, as we see in the leaves 
 of the Dracontium pertvsum. 
 
 23. At other times the cellular tissue which surrounds the 
 nerves is spread out in such a way as to completely unite them 
 to their utmost extremity, in which case the leaf is said to be 
 entire (for example, the leaf of the lilac, and of the olive, figs. 
 22, 52, and 53). But between these two very different modes 
 of conformation, there is a great number of intermediate degrees. 
 Sometimes the paren'chyma completely unites all the ramifica- 
 tions of a secondary nerve, but does not extend between the 
 different nerves that arise from the primary nerve, so that the 
 blade is divided into several segments or lobes ; sometimes these 
 lobes are joined at the base or as far as the middle of their length, 
 and then the leaf is said to be partite or divided, and the intervals 
 between the lobes are called fissures (fig. 32). According to 
 the number of these fissures or divisions, the terms trifid, quin- 
 qvifid, &c., are used. In some instances this junction is com- 
 plete, but the paren'chyma which separates the last nerves does 
 not extend entirely to their extremity, and the edges of the leaf 
 are then dentate, as in the rose (fig. 47). When these small 
 marginal divisions are rounded instead of being pointed, they are 
 called crenulations, and the leaf is said to be crenulate (fig. 41). 
 
 24. The two surfaces of the leaf are ordinarily covered with 
 an epidermis, which often has hairs upon the nerves, and stomata 
 on the paren'chyma ; these appendages and orifices are, in gen. 
 eral, especially numerous on the inferior surface; and on this 
 account it is almost always paler than the superior surface of the 
 
 21. What is remarked of curvinerve leaves? 
 
 22. Is the space between the nerves of the leaves always filled by cel r 
 lular tissue ? 
 
 23. What is meant by an entire leaf ? When are leaves partite ? What 
 are fissures of leaves ? What is the difference between a dentate and a 
 crenulate leaf? (Dentate, from the Latin, dens, a tooth.) 
 
 24. Why is the inferior surface of a leaf generally palest ? What is 
 found in leaves besides the nerves and cellular tissue ? 
 
POSITION OF LEAVES. STIPULES. 33 
 
 leaf. Sometimes there are no stomata on the superior surface, 
 and the arrangement of the cells of the paren'chyma is not the 
 same as beneath. In the thickness of the leaf there are, ordi- 
 narily, cavities or intercellular lacunse which contain air, and 
 communicate externally through stomata (Jigs. 9 and 10) ; some- 
 times we also find in the paren'chyma, glands or reservoirs of the 
 proper juices. 
 
 [The distribution of the vascular tissue through the limb of the leaf is 
 termed its venation or nervation, because the course of the vessels (of which 
 these nerves are made up) have been supposed to bear some resemblance 
 to the distribution of veins and nerves in certain parts of the animal struc- 
 ture. The bundles of vessels constituting the nerves, maintain nearly a 
 parallel course in their passage through the petiole, and are closely con- 
 densed together; but on arriving at the limb they separate, and, as we have 
 seen, are distributed in various ways. It will be observed they may all be 
 referred to one or the other of two classes, called the angulinerve and 
 curvinerve arrangement.] 
 
 25. The position of the leaves on the stem and branches varies 
 in different plants, and furnishes very useful characteristics to 
 botanists for the distinction of species ; sometimes they are oppo- 
 site, that is, they rise in pairs at the same point from two sides 
 of the stem or peduncle (Jig. 70) ; sometimes they are verticil- 
 late, that is, grouped, three or more together, around the same 
 part of the stem ; and at other times they are alternate, that is, 
 they arise separately at different points. 
 
 26. It is remarked, also, that opposite leaves are almost always 
 so arranged that the different pairs cross each other. When they 
 touch each other at the base, instead of arising from the opposite 
 sides of the stem, they are called gemini, or geminate leaves. 
 
 27. On the stems of many plants, we observe on both 
 sides of each leaf, small organs named stipules, which seem 
 to be very analogous 
 
 to leaves, but their ; ,^ ,1 
 
 nature is not fully ^ \ x ^ '* 
 
 ascertained (Jig. 16, 
 
 s,s). They are only / ; 
 
 found in the dicotyle'- 
 donous plants, and 
 they sometimes re- 
 semble little leaves, p 
 at others, scales. Fig-. 16. STIPULES. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 16 : s,, stipules arising at the axil of the leaf, that 
 is, where the petiole joins the stem ; Z, leaf ; p. petiole ; st. stem. 
 
 25. When are leaves opposite ? When are leaves said to be verticillate ? 
 
 26. When are leaves geminate ? 
 
 27. What are stipules? To what description of plants are they con. 
 fined ? What is their use ? 
 
34 STIPULES. TENDRILS. 
 
 [Whatever arises from the base of a petiole, or of a leaf, if sessile, oc- 
 cupying the same place, and attached to each side, is considered a 
 stipule. The appearance of this organ is so extremely variable, some 
 being large and leaflike, others being mere rudiments of scales, that 
 botanists are obliged to define it by its position, and not by its organization. 
 
 Stipules, the margins of which cohere in such a way that they form a 
 membranous tube sheathing the stem, are called ochrea. Example, the 
 rhubarb. Lindley.] 
 
 28. The filamentous appendages, known under the name of 
 tendrils, which twine themselves round neighbouring bodies, serve 
 to sustain weak and climbing plants, are frequently petioles or 
 stipules, modified in a particular manner, but they are also often 
 formed by the peduncle of flowers that have proved abortive in 
 development. 
 
 29. According to their duration on the stem, the leaves are 
 
 Caducous, when they fall early, as in the plane tree. 
 
 Deciduous, when they fall before the new leaf appears, as in the horse- 
 chestnut, and most other trees. 
 
 Marcescent, when they wither before falling, as in the oak, and many 
 other trees. 
 
 Persistent or Evergreen (Semper vir ens), when they remain on the ve- 
 getable one winter or longer, as the ivy, the pine, the myrtle, the com- 
 mon laurel, &c. Plants of this kind are called evergreens. 
 
 The various shapes of leaves, and the names given to them, as 
 well as the variety of their margins, may be seen in the following 
 
 EXAMPLES OF THE FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES. 
 
 The side or edge of the leaf in which the petiole is inserted, is 
 termed the base, and the opposite extremity, the apex of the leaf. 
 A linear leaf folium linear -e (Jig. 17). (Folium, 
 Latin, a leaf; lineare, Latin, line-shape.) The two 
 edges straight and equidistant throughout, except at the 
 two extremities. The Jester linearifolius, the star-flower, 
 as well as Indian corn, and the grasses generally, have 
 leaves of this kind. 
 
 When it embraces the stem it is vaginate or 
 sheathing. 
 
 Fig. 17. A subulate leaf folium subulatum (fig' 
 LINEAR, is). (Subulate, from the Latin, subula, an 
 awl awl-shaped.) Linear at bottom, but gradually 
 lessening towards the top, and ending acute. The 
 Phascum subulatum, one of the mosses, and the jonquil, Fig. 18. 
 have a leaf of this description. SUBULATE, 
 
 28. What are tendrils ? 
 
 29. What is the difference between a caducous and a deciduous leaf? 
 'Caducous, from the Latin, cado, I fall. Deciduous, from the Latin, de- 
 cido, I fall off.) When are leaves said to be marcescent ? (Marcescent, 
 from the Latin, marceo, I wither.) What are persistent leaves? (Per- 
 istent, from the Latin, per, through, and sisto, I remain.) 
 
FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES. 
 
 35 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 OBTUSE. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 OBCORDATE, 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 EMARGINATE. 
 
 An a'cerose leaf (from the Latin, acer, a needle), 
 in the form of a needle, is seen on pines ; it is linear 
 acuminate. 
 
 An obtuse leaf folium obtusum (fig- 19), blunt 
 pointed ; the apex is broader than the base, and forms 
 the segment of a circle. The primrose has a leaf of 
 this kind. 
 
 An obcordate leaf folium obcordatum (fig. 20). 
 The Latin word ob is prefixed to technical terms, 
 to indicate that a thing is inverted : obcordate means 
 inversely cordate (see fig. 51), the notch being at 
 the apex instead of the base of the leaf. Example : 
 the Oxalis acetosella, sheep-sorrel. 
 
 An ema'rginate leaf folium ema.rgina.tum (fig. 
 21). Emarginate (from the Latin, e, from, and 
 margo, margin, or edge), notched. Having a notch 
 at the end. Example : the Geranium emarginatum. 
 
 When the notch or sinus is very obtuse, it is said 
 to be retuse, or almost emarginate. 
 
 A. lanceolate leaf 
 folium lanceolatum (fig- 
 22) lance-shaped, as in 
 
 the olive. Narrowly ob- Fig. 22. LANCEOLATE. 
 
 long and tapering to each 
 end. The peach tree has leaves of this description. 
 
 An acute leaf folium 
 acutum (fig. 23). Sharp 
 pointed. Terminating in 
 an acute point without Fig-. 23. ACUTE. 
 
 tapering suddenly. The Solidago odora, an aromatic plant, is 
 an instance. 
 
 A seta'ceo-acuminate leaf 
 folium setaceo-acumina- 
 tum (fig. 24). (From the Fig. 24. SETACEO-ACUMINATE. 
 
 Latin, seta, a bristle.) The point of the leaf terminated by a 
 straight bristle-like projection. The Quercus phellos, willow- 
 leaved oak, is an example. Leaves are 
 
 Mucronatc (from the Latin, mucro, in the genitive, mucronis, 
 a sharp point), when an obtuse leaf terminates in a short, rigid 
 point, formed by the projection of the midrib. 
 
 Cuspidate (from the Latin, cuspis, the point of a spear or 
 other weapon), when it is more gradually prolonged into a rigid 
 point. 
 
 Pungent, when it terminates in a hard sharp point, like the 
 leaves of thistles. 
 
FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES. 
 
 Awned aristate (from the Latin, arista, a beard of wheat), 
 when it terminates in a long, hard bristle or beard. 
 
 An acuminate leaf 
 folium acuminatum 
 1g. 25). -(From the 
 itin, acumen, a point.) 
 It has an extended ter- 
 mination, and in this 
 r . 25. ACUMINATE. respect differs from the 
 
 lanceolate leaf. 
 The Cornus alternifolia and reed are examples. 
 This figure (25) and the following (26) show the primary 
 nerves, which arise directly from the petiole and midrib. 
 
 A hastate leaf folium 
 hastatum (fg. 26). 
 (From the Latin, hasta, a 
 spear or halbert halbert- 
 shaped.) Triangular with 
 lobes projecting perpen- 
 dicularly to the petiole. 
 
 The Polygonum hasta- 
 tum and bitter-sweet are 
 Fig. 26. HASTATE. . 
 
 examples. 
 
 This leaf is an instance of an angulinerve leaf. 
 
 A sagittate leaf folium 
 
 sagittatum (fig- 27). 
 (From the Latin, sagitta, 
 an arrow.) A leaf resem- 
 bling the head of an arrow : 
 the lobes at the base are 
 
 Fig. 27. SAGITTATE. 
 
 elongated, and scarcely diverging from the petiole. Example: 
 Polygonum sagittatum, called tear-thumb, and turkey-seed. 
 
 A palmato-lobate leaf 
 folium palmato - lobatum 
 (fig. 28). (From the 
 Latin, palma, palm of the 
 hand.) Having lobes which 
 give it some resemblance 
 to the hand. This figure 
 illustrates a palminerve 
 leaf. 
 
 Example: the Liquid- 
 ambar styracifera, called 
 Fig. 28. PALMATO-LOBATE. sweeUgum. 
 
FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES. 
 
 37 
 
 A palmate leaf folium palmatum 
 (Jig- 29). Hand-shaped, divided nearly 
 to the insertion of the petiole into oblong 
 lobes of similar size, but leaving a space 
 entire like the palm of the hand. 
 
 Examples : the Viola palmata, the pas- 
 sion flower, and castor-oil plant ; also, the 
 red and sugar mapJes. 
 
 A trilobate leaf folium 
 trilobatum (Jig. 30). 
 (From the Latin, tres, three.) 
 A leaf formed of three lobes, 
 the margins of which are 
 rounded. 
 
 A , lyrate leaf folium 
 lyratum (f,g. 31). (From 
 the Latin, Z/ro, a lyre.) A 
 leaf supposed to resemble the 
 shape of a lyre. It is cut 
 into several transverse seg- 
 ments, gradually larger to- 
 wards the extremity of the 
 Ieaf,which is rounded,as in the 
 Salvia lyrata, Lyre-leaved 
 sage, and garden radish. 
 
 A sinuate, or sinuose leaf 
 folium sinuatum (Jig. 32). 
 A leaf having deep fissures or 
 sinuses. Bending in and out. 
 (Sinus: the bays or recesses 
 formed by the lobes of leaves or 
 other bodies, are so called.) 
 
 Example : the Argemone 
 mexicana. 
 
 Fig. 29. PALMATE. 
 
 Fig. 30. TRILOBATK. 
 
 Fig. 31. LYRATE. 
 
 Fig. 32. SINUATE. 
 
FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES. 
 
 Fig. 34. REPANDATE. 
 
 Fig. 35. AMPLEXICAULE. 
 
 A' doubly serrate leaf 
 folium duplicate- serratum 
 (Jig. 33). (From the Latin, 
 serra, a saw.) Having teeth 
 like a saw: the larger teeth 
 being notched also with teeth. 
 (See fig. 48.) 
 
 Fig. 33 shows the second- 
 ary nerves arising from the 
 primary. 
 
 A repand leaf folium repan- 
 dum (fig. 34). (From the Latin, 
 repandus, bent.) A leaf having a 
 margin undulated, and unequally 
 dilated, is so called. 
 
 Example : the Hydrocotyle. 
 
 An amplexicaule leaf -folium 
 amplexicaule (figure 35). 
 (From the Latin, amplecto, I 
 embrace, and caulis, stem, 
 stem - embracing.) A leaf or 
 bract whose base projects on 
 each side, so as to clasp the 
 stem with its lobes. 
 
 Example : the Papaver somni- 
 ferum. 
 
 Fig. 36. CONNATE. 
 
 A connate, or double-perfoliate, or doubly amplexicaule leaf 
 folium connatum (fig. 36). (From the Latin, con, together, 
 and natus, grown.) Joined together at the base. 
 
 Example : the Eupatorium perfoliatum, bone-set. 
 
FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES. 
 
 39 
 
 A perfoliate leaf folium perfoliatum 
 (fig- 37). (From the Latin, per, 
 through, andybZit/m, leaf.) A leaf having 
 the stem running through it. The annex- 
 ed figure (37) is an illustration of acurvi- 
 nerve leaf. 
 
 Example: the Uvularia perfoliata, or 
 bell-wort. 
 
 Fig. 37. PERFOLIATE. 
 
 Fig. 33. PANDURATE. 
 
 A pandurate leaf folium panduratum 
 (fig- 38 )- (From the Latin, pandus, 
 bent or bowed inward in the middle.) 
 Fiddle-shaped. It is also termed panduri- 
 form. It is oblong, broad at the two 
 extremities, and contracted in the middle. 
 
 Example : Convolvulus panduratus, Virginia Bindweed, and 
 Convolvulus imperati, native of Egypt, Italy, &c. 
 
 A runcinate leaf folium 
 runcin'atum (fig' 39). 
 (From the Latin, run'cina, a 
 large saw, to saw timber.) 
 
 Example: Leontodon ta- Jfc. 39. - RUNCINATK. 
 
 ra xacum, common dande- 
 lion. (Dandelion, a corruption of the French, dent de lion, lion's 
 tooth.) 
 
 An undulate leaf folium 
 undulatum (figure 40). 
 (From the Latin, undula, a 
 little wave.) Having the edges 
 irregularly waved. 
 
 Example : Asclepias obtu- 
 sifolia. 
 
 A crenate leaf folium 
 crenatum (figure 41). 
 Having rounded teeth, which 
 are not directed towards 
 either extremity of the leaf, 
 as in the garden pink, ground 
 ivy, and heart's ease. Fig. 41. CRENATE. 
 
 Crenulate, finely crenate. Some leaves are doubly crenate, 
 that is, bicrenate. 
 
 Example : the Quercus prinus, chestnut oak of Pennsylvania. 
 
40 
 
 FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES. 
 
 Fig. 44. SPATULA TE. 
 
 A lobate leaf folium loba- 
 turn (Jig. 42). Divided more 
 deeply than toothed or dentate, 
 by somewhat obtuse incisions of 
 an uncertain depth : each portion 
 is termed a lobe. The number 
 of lobes is sometimes specified. 
 
 Example : the Liriodendron 
 tulipifera, or tulip tree; also 
 called poplar, canoe-wood, sugar 
 maple. 
 
 A reniform leaf folium reni- 
 forme (Jig. 43). (From the 
 Latin, ren, kidney ; and forma, 
 form, shape.) Kidney-shaped. A 
 short, broad, round leaf, with a 
 sinus or hollow at the base. 
 
 This figure shows the tertiarv 
 nerves springing from the second- 
 ary. 
 
 Example: the Asarum cana 
 dense, colt's foot. 
 
 A spatulate leaf folium spatula- 
 tn m (Jig. 44). (From the Latin, 
 Spathvla, a broad slice or knife to 
 spread plasters.) Oblong or obverselv 
 ovate, with lower part much attenuated. 
 
 Example: the Poly gala lutea. 
 
 A peltate leaf folium peltatum 
 (fig. 45). (From the Latin, pelta a 
 shield.) Where the petiole is inserted 
 into the middle of the leaf on the under 
 side, like the arm of a man holding n 
 shield. This figure (45) is also an illus- 
 tration of a peltinerve leaf. 
 
 Example : the common nasturtium. 
 
 r, 45. PELTATE. 
 
FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES. 
 
 41 
 
 A deltoid leaf folium 
 deltoides (fig. 48). 
 (From the Greek letter 
 A, delta, and eidos, re- 
 semblance.) 
 
 Example : the Populus 
 nigra. 
 
 A dentate leaf folium 
 dentatum (fig> 47). 
 (From the Latin, dens, a 
 tooth.) The edge having 
 horizontal, distant teeth. 
 This term, as well as the 
 following, refers only to 
 the edge or margin of the 
 leaf, without regard to its 
 general form. 
 
 Example : Populus grandidentata. 
 
 A serrate leaf folium 
 serratum (fig. 48). 
 (From the Latin, serra, 
 saw.) The edge being 
 cut into notches, like saw 
 
 Fig. 46. DELTOID. 
 
 Fig. 47. DENTATE. 
 
 Fig. 48. SERRATE. 
 
 Fig. 49. RHOMBOID. 
 
 teeth, ending in sharp points, which incline towards the apex of 
 the leaf. 
 
 The nettle, rose, and peach, are examples. 
 
 A rhomboid leaf folium rhom- 
 boideum ($^.49). Rhomb-shaped 
 <C>- A rhomb, in geometry, is a 
 four-sided figure, having its opposite 
 sides equal. When the angles are 
 right angles, it becomes a square. 
 
 An auriculate, or eared 
 leaf folium auriculatum 
 (fig- 50 ); (From the 
 Latin, auricula, a little 
 ear.) It has two small 
 
 rounded lobes, projecting _ AURICULATE< 
 
 at the base. 
 
 The Magnolia auriculata and Rumex acetosella are ex- 
 amples. 
 
 4* 
 
42 
 
 FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES. 
 
 A cordate leaf folium 
 cordatum (fig- 51 ). 
 (From the Latin, cor, a 
 heart.) Heart - shaped, 
 ovate, with two rounded 
 lobes at the base. 
 
 Example : the Pente- 
 
 Fig. 51. CORDATE. deria cordata, and com- 
 
 mon morning-glory. 
 
 Obcordate is the cordate reversed ; the sinus and lobes being 
 at the summit instead of the base of the leaf. (See Jig. 20.) 
 
 An obovate leaf folium 
 obovatum (fg> 52). (From 
 the Latin, ovum, egg.) The re- 
 verse of ovate, egg-shaped, with 
 the base broader than the apex ; 
 and length greater than the 
 Fig. 5-2. OBOVATE. breadth. (See Jig. 20.) 
 
 Example : the Arbutus uvi ursi. 
 An elliptic or oval leaf 
 folium ellipticum (fig. 
 53). Having a regular 
 outline, resembling an 
 ellipse : the curves of both 
 ends are alike, and it is 
 longer than it is wide. 
 
 Example : the Magnolia 
 
 Fig. 53. ELLIPTIC. glauca, common magnolia 
 
 or beaver tree. 
 
 An orbiculate leaf folium 
 orbiculatum (figvre 54). 
 (From the Latin, orbis, an orb.) 
 Having a circular outline. 
 
 Example : the Glycine to- 
 mentosa. 
 
 A cuniate or cunieform leaf 
 folium cunieforme (fg> 55). 
 (From the Latin, cuneus, a wedge.) 
 Wedge-shaped. Broad and obtuse at 
 the summit, and tapering gradually 
 almost to a point at the base. 
 
 Example : the Quercus nigra, the 
 true black oak or black jack. 
 
 Fig. 54. ORBICULATE. 
 
 Fig. 55. CUNIEFORM. 
 
FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES. 
 
 A partite leaf folium 
 partitum, is one deeply 
 divided nearly to the base, 
 as Helleborus viridis : and 
 according to the number of 
 its divisions it is bipartite, 
 tripartite, or multipartite. 
 
 A multipartite leaf 
 folium multipartitum 
 (figure 56). ' (From the 
 Latin, multus, many ; and 
 pars, part much divided.) 
 Having very deep and very distinct divisions. 
 
 Fig. 56. MULTIPARTITE. 
 
 A laciniate leaf folium laciniatum 
 (fig* 57). (From the Latin, lacinia, 
 a lappet; a separate fold of a garment.) 
 Divided by deep incisions ; the lacinise or 
 parts being quite slender and numerous. 
 
 Examples : the Dentaria laciniata, 
 and the Rudbeckia laciniata. Also, 
 the lower leaves of the Clematis flam- 
 mula, sweet virgin's bower. . 
 
 Fig. 57. LACINIATE. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF COMPOUND LEAVES. 
 
 Compound leaves may be referred to two classes or divisions ; 
 one containing digitate, and the other pinnate leaves, accordingly 
 as they are supposed to resemble fingers (digitus) or feathered 
 stems (pinnatus). First, of digitate leaves : 
 
 A conjugate or binate leaf (Jig- 58). 
 (Conjugate, from the Latin, conjugatum, 
 which is formed from con, together, and 
 jugum, a yoke, yoked together. Binate, 
 from the Latin, bis, two, and natus, grown.) 
 When a common petiole bears two leaflets on 
 its summit. 
 
 Fig. 58. CONJUGATE. 
 
44 
 
 FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES. 
 
 Fig. 59. TERNATE. 
 
 A ternate leaf folium terna- 
 turn (Jig. 59). (From the Latin, 
 ternus, three and three.) When 
 three leaflets arise from one 
 petiole. 
 
 Example: the Trifolium pra- 
 tense, red clover. 
 
 Biternate, twice three leaved : 
 the petiole divided into three 
 parts, and each part bearing three 
 leaflets. 
 
 Triternate, three times three 
 leaved : a common petiole divided 
 into three parts, and each of these parts subdivided into three, 
 and each subdivision bearing three leaflets, as in the wind flower. 
 
 A ternate leaf, which is also 
 doubly serrate (Jig. 60), that 
 is, folium ternatum, foliis du- 
 plicato-serratis, a ternate leaf, 
 with doubly serrate leaflets, 
 as in Indian physic, Spir&a 
 trifoliata. 
 
 Fig. 60. TERNATE. 
 
 A quaternate leaf folium 
 quaternatum (Jig. 61). (From 
 the Latin, quatcr, four.) Having 
 four leaflets growing from a com 
 mon petiole or leaf-stalk. 
 
 Fig. 61. QUATERNATE. 
 
FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES. 
 
 45 
 
 A quinquefoliate or quinate 
 folium quinquefoliatum 
 (fig. 62). (From the Latin, 
 qmnque, five, and folium, leaf.) 
 Having five leaflets growing 
 from one common petiole. 
 
 Example : ginseng Panax 
 quinqucfolium. Panax is de- 
 rived from the Greek, pan, all, 
 and akos, a reaiedy; a remedy 
 for all things. It is an almost 
 universal medicine among the 
 Tartars and Chinese, and ac- 
 cording to them, it is capable 
 of relieving iatigue both of 
 body and min</. It is a native 
 of North America, where it is 
 not esteemed as a medicine. 
 
 Fig. 62. QUINCUTEFOLIAm 
 
 A digitate leaf folium digita- 
 tum (fig. 63), composed of 
 seven leaflets, an example of which 
 is afforded in the perennial lupin, 
 which is common in the neigh- 
 borhood of Philadelphia. (Digi- 
 tate, from the Latin, digitus, a 
 finger.) . Compared to the spread 
 fingers of a hand. When several 
 leaflets arise from the very sum- 
 mit of the petiole, as in the horse- 
 chestnut tree, and high blackberry. 
 
 Fig. 63. DIGITATE. 
 
 T/ie second division of compound leaves, called pinnate. 
 
 A pinnate leaf folium pinnatum (Jig. 64). 
 (From the Latin, pinnatus, winged or feathered.) 
 Having leaflets arranged along each side of a com- 
 mon petiole, like the feather of a quill. 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 
 PINNATE. 
 
46 
 
 FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES. 
 
 A bipinnate leaf folium 
 bipinnatu?n (fig. 65), 
 as that of the mimosa far- 
 nesiana. Doubly winged : 
 a common petiole bearing 
 pinnate leaves on each one 
 of its sides. Most of the 
 Aca'cia tribe have bipinnate 
 leaves. 
 
 (Bipinnate: :rom the Latin, 
 bis, two ; and -pinna^ wing, 
 two- winged.) 
 
 Fig. 65. BiriNNATE. 
 
 A bipinnate leaf (fig. 
 66), folium bipinnatum. 
 We have an example of 
 leaves of thfs kind in the 
 Pride of China, Melia 
 azederach. 
 
 Here the leaflets of the 
 secondary petiole are un- 
 equally pinnate. (Sec fig. 
 70.) ' 
 
 Fig. 66. BIPINNATE. 
 
FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES. 
 
 47 
 
 Fig, 67. TRIPINNATE. HEMLOCK. 
 
 A tripinnate leaf folium tripinnatum (fig. 67). (Frorn 
 *he Latin, tres, three ; and pinna, wing.) Coni'um macula- 
 turn, common hemlock. Common in many parts of the 
 United States. When the common petiole has bipirmate leaves 
 on each side. 
 
 A pinnate leaf, with Ujugate leaves 
 (fig' 68). Folium pinnatum ; foliolis 
 bijugis (from the Latin, bis, two; and 
 jugum, yoke), formed of two pairs of 
 leaflets, as seen in the Cassia absus, of 
 India and Egypt. 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
48 
 
 FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES. 
 
 An abruptly pinnate leaf (Jig. 69). When 
 the petiole of a winged leaf ends without a 
 leaflet or tendril, as in the American senna, it 
 is abruptly pinnate. 
 
 When the leaflets of the opposite sides 
 alternate, it is alternately pinnate ; and when 
 the leaflets are alternately large and small, it 
 is interruptedly pinnate. 
 
 When the leaflets are opposite or in pairs, 
 as in the annexed figure (69), it is oppositely 
 pinnate. J 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 ABRUPTLY PINNA1 
 
 An unequally pinnate leaf 
 folium impari-pinnatum 
 (jig. 70). Example: the 
 she'll- bark hickory. 
 
 When a pinnate or wing- 
 ed leuf is terminated by a 
 single leaflet, as roses, &c., 
 it is unequally pinnate, be- 
 cause the pinnce or leaflets 
 are not of an even or equal 
 number. 
 
 When the leaflets are cut 
 in fine divaricated segments, 
 embracing the footstalk, we 
 have the verticillato-pinnate 
 leaf. 
 
 The lyrato -pinnate, " in a 
 lyrate manner, having the 
 terminal leaflet largest, and 
 the rest gradually smaller, 
 as they approach the base, 
 like Erysimum prcecox^anL], 
 with intermediate smaller leaflets, Geum rivale ; also, the com- 
 mon turnip. 
 
 " Such leaves are usually denominated lyrate in common with 
 those properly so called (whose shape is simple, and not formed 
 of separate leaflets); nor is this from inaccuracy in botanical 
 writers. The reason is, that these t\vo kinds of leaves, however 
 
 Fig. 70. UNEQUALLY PINNATE. 
 
FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES. 
 
 49 
 
 distinct in theory, are of all leaves 
 most liable to run into each other, 
 even on the same plant." Smith. 
 
 A cir'roso-pinnate leaf folium 
 cirroso-pinnatum (fig- 71). 
 (From the Latin, cir'rus, a tendril, 
 a climber.) 
 
 Example : the tamarind tree, 
 Tamarindus Indica. 
 
 In this form of leaf, a tendril 
 supplies the place of the odd leaflet 
 (as in the pea and vetch tribe), con- 
 stituting the remarkable difference 
 between it and the unequally pin- 
 nate leaf (Jig. 70). 
 
 Fig. 71. CIR'ROSO PINNATE. 
 
 A pedate leaf folium peda- 
 tum (fig. 72). (From the 
 Latin, pes, in the genitive case, 
 pedis, foot.) A compound leaf, 
 the divisions of which give it a 
 resemblance to a foot with out- 
 spread toes. This is an exam- 
 ple of the pedalinerve leaf (see 
 page 39), in which there is no 
 decided midrib, but the vessels 
 diverge in two strong lateral 
 nerves, from which branches 
 are given off, on that side only 
 which is towards the apex of the 
 leaf. 
 
 Example : the Helleborus f<x- 
 tidus. 
 
 Fig. 72. PEDATE. 
 
FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES. 
 
 A pedate leaf, with 
 compound leaflets 
 folium pedatum ; 
 foliis composilis. 
 
 Example: I he Maid- 
 en hair Adiantum 
 pedatum. A very com- 
 mon plant in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Philadel- 
 phia. 
 
 Fig. 73. PEDATE. 
 
 a b 
 
 The most singular of 
 all the various leaves, are 
 those of the pitcher plants. 
 The pitcher of the Nepen- 
 thes (74, c) is provided with 
 a perfect lid or cover, which 
 is closed in dry weather, as 
 if to prevent evaporation, 
 and open when it is rainy 
 or damp. It has been sug- 
 gested, that these pitchers 
 were designed as reservoirs 
 in which water is stored 
 for the occasional use of 
 the plant in extremely dry 
 weather. 
 
 When the petiole be- 
 comes dilated and hollowed 
 out at its upper end, the 
 lamina being articulated with and closing up its orifice, as in 
 Sarracenia (fig. 74, a), and Nepenthes (fig- 74, c), it is called 
 a pitcher, or a&cidium ; if it is enclosed and is a mere sac, as in 
 Utricularia (fig. 74, 6), it is called ampulla. 
 
 The surface of a leaf may be ribbed or nerved, having fine elevations, 
 running from one extremity to the other, without branching ; or 
 
 Veined, having prominent divisions near the base, and finer and smaller 
 as they extend over the leaf, as in the mullein ; or 
 
 Wrinkled, rvgose, rough, or corrugated, like the leaf of the sage ; or 
 
 Fig. 74. LEAVES OF PITCHER PLANTS. 
 
EXHALATION. 51 
 
 Plicate (plaited), having the surface formed into ridges and channels, by 
 the alternate rising and sinking of the nerves of the leaf; or 
 
 Smooth, when without wrinkles or ribs ; or 
 
 Villose, or velvety, when covered by soft down or hairs. 
 
 Besides the general form, the character of the margin, and surface of 
 leaves, their position is also described. When upright, and the leaf forms 
 a very acute angle with the stem, it is erect. When they are at right 
 angles with the stems, and parallel with the horizon, they are horizontal* 
 When the apex of the leaf hangs lower than the insertion of the petiole, it 
 is reclined. When the base of the leaf is turned in one direction, and the 
 apex in another, that is, twisted, it is oblique. 
 
 Radical leaves are those which grow very near to the root. 
 
 When leaves arise one after the other from opposite sides of the stem, 
 they are alternate ; but when they arise, on the same line, from opposite 
 sides of the stem, they are opposite. 
 
 When they grow in a circle round a stem, they are verticillate (whorled) 
 or stellate. 
 
 EXHALATION. 
 
 30. When treating of absorption, we saw that vascular plants 
 pump up, by their roots, a considerable quantity of water, hold- 
 ing different matters in solution, and that this liquid rises through 
 the stem to reach the leaves. But all the water thus absorbed 
 does not remain in the interior of the plant, and a great part is 
 dissipated in the form of vapour. To satisfy ourselves on this 
 point, it is only necessary to place in a perfectly dry glass jar, 
 the leafy stem of a vegetating plant, and expose the whole to the 
 sun ; we soon discover little drops which arrange themselves on 
 the parietes of the jar. By weighing plants immediately after 
 they have been watered, and weighing them again some time 
 afterwards, we obtain proof of this loss, and we may exactly 
 estimate the quantity of water exhaled ; it was found, by an, 
 experiment of this kind, that a cabbage lost by evaporation nine- 
 teen ounces of water a day, and a helianthus (from the Greek, 
 elios, the sun, and anthos, flower) or sunflower loses even a more 
 considerable quantity in form of vapour. 
 
 .31. A small part of the water thus expelled, evaporates through 
 the tissue which constitutes the surface of all parts of the plant, 
 as well after death as during life ; and it is for this reason that 
 the stem, fruit, tubercles, and flowers terminate their existence 
 by drying, when the place in which they may be is not very 
 damp. But the greatest quantity of water is expelled through 
 the leaves of the living plant, and this exhalation only takes 
 place, while the plant is alive, and when the influence of light 
 
 30. What becomes of the water absorbed by the roots ? How is it ascer- 
 tained that plants exhale water in form of vapour ? What quantity of 
 water does a cabbage exhale ? 
 
 31. What parts of plants are seats of exhalation ? When does exhalation 
 take place? What influences exhalation? What description of plants 
 exhale least? 
 
52 EXHALATION. RESPIRATION. 
 
 causes the stomata to open. It has been ascertained that the 
 quantity of water thus exhaled is in proportion to the extent of 
 the leafy surface of the plant, and the number of stomata ; thus, 
 fleshy plants, which have but few stomata, lose very little by 
 aqueous exhalation. 
 
 32. Light, as we have said, has the property of causing the 
 stomaia to open, but these orifices close when the plant is placed 
 in the dark. During the night, plants lose very little by evapora- 
 tion ; and it is known that the best way of preserving a bouquet 
 as fresh as possible, is to put it in an obscure place, or at least 
 shelter it from the light of the sun. 
 
 33. Exhalation is more active in dry warm air, than when the 
 atmosphere is cold and damp ; and it takes place more actively 
 in young leaves, than in those of which the surface has been 
 hardened by age. The water that thus escapes is almost pure, 
 and it is estimated that, under ordinary circumstances, it is equal 
 to about two-thirds of the quantity of liquid absorbed by the 
 roots. Sometimes this exhalation becomes even more abundant 
 than absorption, and causes the death of the plant ; this often 
 happens when we transplant a tree in spring, without taking suf- 
 ficient care to lop the branches, for by taking it from the earth 
 we destroy a great many radicles of the root, and absorption is 
 consequently less active ; in order to proportion the exhalation to 
 this enfeebled absorption, gardeners leave but a small number of 
 leaves on the summit of the stem. 
 
 RESPIRATION. 
 
 34. Plants cannot live when deprived of air, and are, just as 
 much as animals, under the necessity of constant respiration ; 
 but their respiration is carried on in a different manner from that 
 of animals. 
 
 35. All parts of the plant, root, stem, and flowers, as well as 
 the leaves, continually absorb a certain quantity of ox'ygen from 
 the air, which combines with the car'bonous particles of the sap, 
 and thus forms carbo'nic acid ; but this carbo'nic acid is not 
 expelled as in animals, but serves for nutrition. 
 
 [Before we proceed further, let us endeavour to obtain clear notions of the 
 meaning of the words ox'ygf.n and carbo'nic acid. 
 
 32. Why are we recommended to put a bouquet in the dark for preser- 
 vation ? 
 
 33. What condition of the atmosphere is most favourable to exhalation ? 
 What is the character of the water exhaled by plants ? What happens if 
 exhalation is greater than absorption? Why do gardeners carefully lop 
 trees that are transplanted ? 
 
 34. Do plants breathe? 
 
 35. What parts of plants absorb ox'ygen ? What becomes of the ox'ygep 
 absorbed ? What is the use of carbo'nic acid to plants 7 
 
RESPIRATION. 53 
 
 The air we breathe (called atmospheric air) is a compound of about one 
 part of ox'ygen gas to four parts of ni'trogen gas, and a very much smaller 
 proportion of carbo'nic acid gas, together with some watery vapour. 
 
 Ox'ygen and ni'trogen are simple substances, that is, chemists have not 
 been able to decompose them ; but carbonic acid gas is a compound sub- 
 stance, that is, it consists of more than one material or substance. 
 
 This name, ox'ygen, is formed from the Greek, oxus, acid, and geinomai, 
 I beget, and was so called because it was believed, without it, there could 
 be no acid. Although there are acids which contain no ox'ygen, we know- 
 that without its presence every living thing, animal or plant, would die, and 
 all fire would be extinguished. It is indispensable to respiration and com- 
 bustion, j 
 
 The word ni'trogen was formed from the Greek, nitron, nitre, and 
 geinomai, I beget, because it was discovered to be one of the essential con- 
 stituents of nitre, and also of nitric acid. It was also called azote (from </, 
 privative, and zoe, life), because it would not support animal life. 
 
 Carbo'nic acid consists of carbon and ox'ygen. 
 
 Carbon (from the Latin, carbo, coal) is the name of a simple substance 
 or element. It occurs naturally in the form of the diamond (which is pure 
 carbon), of plumbago or black-lead, anthracite and bituminous coals ; it is 
 an elementary constituent of all wood ; it seems to be the true food of plants, 
 without which they die. Lamp-black and charcoal are forms of impure 
 carbon. The chief action of vegetable organization is to obtain and form 
 carbon. 
 
 Carbo'nic acid exists in the atmosphere as the product of combustion, and 
 of the respiration of animals ; the frothing of beer, and the sparkling of 
 champagne and " mineral water," depend on its presence.] 
 
 36. The leaves and other green parts of plants also absorb 
 the carbonic acid gas contained in the air, and by the process of 
 respiration, this fluid, as well as the carbonic acid formed in the 
 interior of the plant, is decomposed ; its carbon remains in the 
 tissue of the plant, and nourishes it, while the oxygen is thrown 
 off and mingles with the atmosphere. 
 
 37. We now see that the relations of plants with the air are 
 more complicated* than those of animals with the same fluid. 
 The latter absorb oxygen, and in its place exhale carbo'nic acid ; 
 plants absorb ox'ygen and carbo'nic acid, and exhale the ox'ygen 
 arising either from the quantity of this gas previously absorbed, 
 or from the decomposition of the carbo'nic acid derived from the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 38. In general it is the last phenomenon, that is, the absorp* 
 tion of carbonic acid, its decomposition and the exhalation of 
 ox'ygen, that is designated under the name of respiration of 
 plants. Its effect, as we see, is to destroy the carbo'nic acid, 
 
 36. What parts of plants absorb carbo'nic acid gas from the atmospheric 
 air ? What becomes of the constituent elements of the carbo'nic acid of 
 plants ? 
 
 37. How does the respiration of animals differ from that of plants ? 
 
 38. What constitutes the respiration of plants ? What is the effect of 
 the respiration of plants ? How does it purify the atmosphere ? 
 
 5* 
 
54 RESPIRATION. 
 
 which the respiration of animals is unceasingly diffusing through 
 the air, and consequently to purify the atmosphere. 
 
 39. The green parts alone possess the property of decompos- 
 ing carbo'nic acid in this way, and they cannot effect this decom- 
 position without the direct influence of the light of the sun. 
 Thus, a plant which is put in an obscure place ceases to respire, 
 languishes, bleaches, and dies, after a shorter or longer time. 
 
 40. Consequently, the leaves are the principal seat of respira- 
 tion, and this function is only carried on during the day. 
 
 41. It is easy to demonstrate the influence of light upon the 
 respiration of plants ; a simple experiment is sufficient to do this : 
 if we place leaves in water containing a small quantity of car- 
 bo'nic acid in solution, and expose them to the sun, we see bub- 
 bles of air rise from them ; but if we place them in the shade, 
 this disengagement of gas is arrested. 
 
 42. In leaves exposed to the air, the absorption of carbo'nic 
 acid takes place chiefly through the stomata, and this fluid acts 
 upon the sap in the interior of the cavities which exist in the 
 paren'chyma of the leaf, and abandons its carbon lo pass to the 
 state of free ox'ygen. The intercellular passages (meatus) of 
 the leaves consequently perform, in the respiration of plants, 
 functions analogous to those of the pulmonary cells in terres- 
 trial animals ; and it is remarkable that in aquatic plants, the 
 leaves of which are submerged, there are no similar cavities, and 
 respiration is carried on by the surface of the leaves, just in the 
 same manner as the skin or projecting branchiae perform this 
 function in aquatic animals. 
 
 43. During the night, the leaves, instead of purifying the air, 
 absorb ox'ygen, and consequently contribute towards its vitiation. 
 For this reason, as well as on account of the odour they exhale, 
 it is often dangerous to place plants or even bouquets of flowers 
 in sleeping apartments. 
 
 44. The absorption of ox'ygen by the parts of plants that are 
 not green is feeble, but takes place by day as well as by night, 
 and it is necessary to the life of all plants. It is because roots 
 do not obtain the air which they require that they die, when too 
 deeply buried ; and it is for the same reason that a seed will not 
 germinate when removed from the action of the atmosphere. 
 
 39. Do all parts of a plant decompose carbo'nic acid ? Do plants decom- 
 pose carbo'nic acid under all circumstances ? 
 
 40. Do plants respire at all times ? 
 
 41. How is it shown that light influences the respiration of plants? 
 
 42. In what part of the plant does the carbo'nic acid act on the sap ? 
 What is remarkable in the respiration of aquatic plants ? 
 
 43. Why is it improper to keep plants in apartments in which we sleep ? 
 
 44. Why do roots and seeds die when too deeply buried ? 
 
DESCENDING SAP. 55 
 
 OF THE USE AND MODE OF DISTRIBUTION OF THE 
 NUTRITIVE JUICES. 
 
 45. The sap elaborated in the leaves, as we have seen, again 
 descends to other parts of the plant, and constitutes the nutritive 
 juice by the aid of which its growth is effected. 
 
 46. It is easy to be convinced that the nutritive juices of plants 
 are formed in the leaves ; for if we strip a tree of all its leaves, 
 it will cease to grow until it is furnished anew with these organs; 
 and farmers who cultivate mulberries for feeding silkworms have 
 remarked that the growth of the trees is less in proportion to the 
 frequency of stripping them of their leaves. 
 
 47. The movement of the nutritive juice (that is, the descend- 
 ing sap) is slow, and always takes place from the leaves, towards 
 the roots, whatever may be the position of the branches that this 
 liquid traverses. 
 
 48. The route followed by the descending sap is not the same 
 as that by which the sap rises from the roots to the leaves; in- 
 stead of traversing the ligneous layers, it descends chiefly through 
 the substance of the bark. 
 
 49. The following experiment proves that it is the descending 
 sap which especially serves for the nutrition of the plant, and that 
 this same sap moves in the interior of the bark. If we remove 
 from a branch or the trunk of an ex'ogenous tree, a circular strip 
 of bark, we prevent the sap that descends from the leaves to the 
 lower part of the plant from continuing its route, and, in fact, we 
 see that the portion of the stem which is below this annular or 
 ring-like section, ceases to grow, while the part situate above 
 profits more than is usual, and swells out on the upper margin 
 of the wound, so as to form a ring. The same thing happens 
 when we surround a branch by a very tightly drawn cord ; for 
 in this way we may also arrest the descending sap, and the parts 
 where this juice accumulates are benefited at the expense of those 
 situated below. 
 
 45. What becomes of the sap that is elaborated in the leaves ? (Elaborate: 
 from the Latin, labora're, to work. The word is employed to signify the 
 act of living organs upon substances capable of assimilation, by which 
 nutritive matter is separated and appropriated. The elaboration of food in 
 the stomach produces chyme.) 
 
 46. What proof is there that the nutritive juice of plants is formed in 
 the leaves ? 
 
 47. Is the movement of the nutritive juice rapid ? In what direction 
 does it flow ? 
 
 48. What is the route of the descending sap ? 
 
 49. How do you prove that the descending sap is the nutritive juice of 
 plants, and that it moves through the substance of the bark ? v 
 
66 SECRETION. 
 
 50. For this reason gardeners sometimes make annular in- 
 cisions through the whole thickness of the bark around a branch 
 filled with fruit, so as to retain the nutritive juice, and augment 
 the size of the fruit. 
 
 51. The greater part of the descending sap is found, as we 
 have before stated, in the bark ; but it appears that this liquid 
 also traverses the young layers of the albur'num, and it is by its 
 action that we explain the transformation of this albur'num into 
 perfect wood or dura' men. (Dura' men : Latin, hardening.) 
 
 52. The descending sap appears to be chiefly composed of 
 water holding gum and some other substances in solution. It 
 must be regarded as the chief source from which the plant 
 derives the materials composing; 1st, the excreted products; 2d, 
 the peculiar juices secreted in the different organs and designed 
 to remain in the interior of the plant ; 3d, the new tissues. We 
 shall now study these phenomena successively in order. 
 
 OF SECRETIONS. 
 
 53. Plants, as well as animals, form, in certain parts of their 
 bodies, peculiar liquids, which differ from the generally diffused 
 juices ; and it is to the process by which these peculiar liquids 
 are formed, as well as to the liquids themselves, that we give the 
 name of secretion* 
 
 54. The matters secreted may be thrown out or expelled, or 
 they may be destined to remain in the interior of the plant, and 
 subserve the purposes of nutrition or some other function. 
 
 55. The matters that plants excrete in this way are very vari- 
 ous. A great many plants produce in reservoirs, situate near 
 the external surface, volatile oils that evaporate through their 
 tissue and diffuse themselves through the air ; the odour of flowers 
 and also of certain leaves depends in a great measure upon this 
 exhalation ; and it is to an emanation of this kind that is due 
 
 * Secretion : from the Latin, secer'nere, to separate. The process by 
 which organic structure is enabled to separate, from the fluids circulating 
 in it, other different fluids. The function of secretion is usually performed 
 by glands, and each gland secretes a peculiar fluid according to its struc- 
 ture ; for example, the liver secretes bile, that is, it separates from the blood 
 circulating in the liver, the materials which it forms into bile ; the sali'vary 
 glands secrete saliva, and the mammary glands in females, secrete milk, &-c. 
 Now, bile, saliva, and milk, are also termed secretions. 
 
 50. How may the size of fruit be augmented ? 
 
 51. Does the descending sap pass through any other part than the bark ? 
 
 52. What are the chief uses of the descending sap ? 
 
 53. What is meant by the term secretion ? 
 
 54. What becomes of the secretions ? 
 
 55. Mention some of the various secretions of plants. 
 
SECRETIONS. 57 
 
 a singular phenomenon presented by a plant named Fraxinella, 
 which in hot days exhales an essential oil in such abundance, 
 that if it be approached with a light, the vapour with which the 
 plant is surrounded takes fire and burns, like that we force out 
 of an orange or lemon skin by pressure, into the flame of a can- 
 dle.- Other plants secrete a caustic juice, which is frequently 
 poured out through hollow hairs, and thus produces a lively irri- 
 tation at the bottom of punctures made by these hairs. The 
 nettle is an example of this kind. Again we have wax secreted 
 by the leaves or epidermis of young branches and afterwards 
 expelled ; and we have also produced in this way gluey, acid, 
 saline, sugary, and other secretions. 
 
 56. These excretions* are formed by the roots as well as by 
 the leaves ; and as the matters thus expelled are of a nature that 
 is injurious to the plants which produce them, we understand 
 through the knowledge of this fact why plants of the same species 
 do not flourish when kept for a long time in the same soil ; for 
 the matters expelled by the roots are deposited in the earth sur- 
 rounding them, and are again absorbed by the plants growing in 
 it. But the matters expelled by one plant may often be suitable 
 nourishment for a plant of another species, and it is for this reason 
 that the ground often becomes fitted for certain culture when it 
 has been previously made to produce plants in which the excretion 
 by the roots is abundant. The art of assolement or succession 
 of crops, so important in agriculture, is chiefly based upon the 
 results depending on this excretion by the roots. We give the 
 name of assolement to the succession in the same soil of different 
 crops, combined in such a manner as to produce as largely as 
 possible ; and we say triennial, quatrennial assolement, &c., 
 according as the cultivation of the same plant recurs every three, 
 every four years, &c. 
 
 57. The liquids secreted by plants and designed to remain in 
 the interior of their organs are designated under the name of 
 proper juices ; if they escape externally, it is altogether by acci- 
 dent, and their production appears to be useful to the health of 
 the plant that forms them. These juices are sometimes milky, 
 
 * [Excretion : from the Latin excer'nerc, to separate from. The throwing 
 off those matters which are supposed to be useless or injurious to organic 
 life, as the perspiration in animals. An excretion is a secretion that is 
 thrown out of a plant or animal because useless to its internal well-being.] 
 
 56. Do other parts than the leaves of plants form excretions ? Why is 
 it that farmers do not plant the same plant in the same field, year after 
 year ? What is meant by excretion ? 
 
 57. What are proper juices ? What are their characters ? 
 
58 SECRETIONS. 
 
 sometimes resinous, sometimes composed of essential oils, and at 
 other times formed of fatty matters. 
 
 58. The milky juices are chiefly found in the bark, and appear 
 to constitute the liquid we see circulating in the vessels of the 
 latex, in a great number of plants. The white liquid that runs 
 from the fig tree when it is cut, opium, caoutchouc (India rubber), 
 &c., are juices belonging to this class. 
 
 59. The resinous juices are very common in the bark, and are 
 also met with in other parts of the stem ; they are formed in 
 little masses which become united together, and descend by their 
 own weight in the tissue of the plant. Sometimes these juices 
 are so abundant that, by making an incision in a tree, we cause 
 a stream to flow out of it, and in this way collect considerable 
 quantities of its proper juices ; as we see in pine and fir trees. 
 
 60. The essential or volatile oils are contained in cells or 
 vesicles, and are found in the foliacious and cortical parts of 
 plants. And the proper juices constituted of fatty oils are chiefly 
 found in the seeds. 
 
 61. The solid matter, found in the elongated cells of the wood, 
 and on this account called lignin (from the Latin, lignum, 
 wood), may also be considered as being the product of a species 
 of secretion, as well as the fecula, which is produced in great 
 abundance in certain parts of plants, seemingly forming deposits 
 of nutritive matter, destined at a future time for the nourishment 
 of the plant. This last substance has the appearance of small, 
 white, hard grains, which seem to be composed of different layers, 
 the exterior of which are hardest, and the most internal are simi- 
 lar to gum. It is found isolated in the cells of the cellular tissue; 
 and in some parts of certain plants, such as the seeds of wheat 
 or of rye, the tubers of the potatoe, the ligneous stems of mono- 
 cotyle'donous plants, &c., it forms considerable masses. 
 
 OF THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 
 
 62. The growth of plants depends upon two phenomena : 1st, 
 the increase of the diameter of stems already formed ; 2d, the 
 development and elongation of new branches. We will succes- 
 sively examine both. 
 
 58 Where are the milky juices found ? Give some instances of milky 
 juices. 
 
 59. How are resinous juices collected from plants ? In what part of the 
 plant are they found ? 
 
 60. In what parts of plants do we find the essential oils ? In what part 
 the fatty oils ? 
 
 61 . What is lignin ? What is fecula ? Where is it found ? 
 
 62. Upon what does the growth of plants depend ? 
 
GROWTH OF PLANTS. 59 
 
 63. The cellular tissue of plants, while it is still young, and 
 receives a sufficient quantity of nutritious juices, gives rise to 
 new cells, which are at first very small, isolated and soft ; but 
 which, in proportion as they are developed, enlarge and harden, 
 and become as closely united to each other as to the cellular tissue 
 upon the surface of which they are formed. Those cells which 
 have ceased to grow, no longer possess the power of giving rise 
 in this way to new tissue; they become strongly joined to the 
 young cells with which they are in contact; and hence it is that 
 the growth of plants takes place only from the surface of the 
 most recently formed parts. 
 
 64. In ex'ogenous plants, the new tissue is thus deposited 
 between the albur'num and the bark, and at first appears in the 
 form of a viscid matter which is called cam'bium. Those tissues 
 which arise from the albur'num, form around the ligneous body 
 or wood of the stem, a new layer of albur'num, exterior to all 
 those that have been already deposited ; and those which arise 
 from the bark constitute a new cortical layer, within the layers 
 of bark already formed. Each of these layers increases in 
 thickness for a certain time, then ceases to grow, and, at the end 
 of a certain period, in its turn produces a new layer. 
 
 65. Perennial ex'ogenous plants in this way form a new layer 
 of wood and of bark every year; and if we cut through the 
 stem of a tree transversely, we may see the number of zones or 
 rings of which it is composed, and thus count the number of 
 years it has lived. 
 
 66. The thickness of these layers varies in different plants, 
 and also varies in the same tree according to its age, the richness 
 of the soil in which it grows, and the abundance of its leaves, 
 &c. Trees grow most rapidly during the first years of their 
 existence, and it is observed that in old trees the most external 
 ligneous layers are thinnest. When the soil that surrounds the 
 foot of a tree is more favourable to vegetation on one side than 
 on the other, the roots become unequally developed, and on the 
 side where the largest roots are found are also found the largest 
 branches and the thickest ligneous layers. 
 
 67. The new ligneous and cortical layers are not restricted to 
 covering the surface of the plant, but are prolonged beyond it, 
 and, at different points, form lateral expansions which constitute 
 
 63. From what parts does the growth of plants take place ? 
 
 64. What is cam'bium ? How is the new matter deposited ? Do the 
 new layers always continue to grow ? 
 
 65. How long is occupied in the formation of a new layer ? 
 
 66. Is the thickness of these layers the same in all plants ? When is the 
 growth of trees most rapid ? 
 
 67. What are buds? Where are they found? What are the charac- 
 ters of these buds ? Upon what does the rapidity of their growth depend 7 
 
60 GROWTH OF PLANTS GRAFTING. 
 
 the new branches. These young shoots are, in general, protected 
 in their first growth by peculiar scales, and then constitute what 
 are called buds. They are ordinarily found at the base of the 
 petioles of the leaves, or at the extremity of the branches in 
 ligneous plants, and at the collum or neck of the root in perennial 
 herbaceous plants. Sometimes they are not apparent externally, 
 and are concealed even in the substance of the wood : but in 
 most instances they have the form of a small projecting tubercle, 
 which shows itself in the summer, and is known to farmers under 
 the name of eye ; during the winter they enlarge, and in the 
 spring, when the sap begins to rise with strength, and to carry 
 towards the extremity of the branches the nutritive matters pre- 
 viously deposited in the roots or in the stem, they rapidly develope 
 themselves, their scales separate, and we see a young branch 
 spring from them, the leaves of which are at first variously 
 plaited and very close together ; this new shoot grows more 
 rapidly in proportion to the abundance of the sap, and during a 
 certain time is elongated throughout its length. But after the 
 first year it ceases to grow in this way, and it then forms laterally, 
 and particularly towards its upper part, new layers of vegetable 
 tissue which contribute to the increase of the length of its ex- 
 tremity, and, at the same time, to augment the diameter of its 
 base. 
 
 68. In endogenous trees growth takes place very nearly in the 
 same manner, only the new parts do not form concentric layers, 
 but simply bundles (fasciculi) of fibres variously arranged, and 
 the buds are ordinarily developed at the extremity of the stem 
 and branches. 
 
 69. We have said above that the cells of the cellular tissue, 
 when very young, tend to become united or soldered to each 
 other. This is so true that if we lay bare a portion of new 
 tissue of two neighbouring trees, and bring these parts together 
 and keep them in contact, they become so intimately united that 
 the two soon form a single body, and possess one life in common. 
 The art of grafting plants depends upon a knowledge of this 
 fact. 
 
 [Grafting is an operation by which one plant is joined to another in vital 
 union, in such a manner as to form one. The tree upon which grafting is 
 practised is called the stock, and the branch, or rudiment of a branch that 
 is fitted to it, is named the graft. The stock is ordinarily a wild shrub, 
 and the graft a cultivated variety of the same plant. In order to succeed, 
 the albur'num of the graft must accurately fit, through the greatest part of 
 its extent, that of the stock, that is, the tree upon which the graft is im- 
 planted ; then the junction, or, as it were, soldering of the two barks, is 
 
 68. How does the growth of en'dogens differ from that of ex'ogens ? 
 
 69. Upon what does the art of grafting depend ? What is grafting ? 
 What are the modes of performing this operation ? 
 
GROWTH OF PLANTS. 61 
 
 effected by the assistance of the cam'bium. One condition necessary to 
 the success of the operation is, that the sap of the two plants shall be 
 similar ; for example, the plants of the same genus, or of the same family, 
 are more readily grafted upon each other than those which belong to dif- 
 ferent families. Grafting is a very useful operation in agriculture ; it 
 serves to preserve and multiply varieties which could not be produced by 
 means of seeds ; it saves time by procuring a great number of trees which 
 are with difficulty multiplied by other means, and accelerates by many 
 years the fructification of certain plants. 
 
 Gardeners employ five or six different processes to obtain the develop, 
 ment of the bud or graft upon the bark of other trees which they use as 
 stocks. 
 
 Splice or whip grafting, consists in paring down in a slanting direction 
 both the graft and stock, and, after applying them neatly to each other, 
 securing them by strands of bast matting, in the same manner as two 
 pieces of rod are spliced together to form a whip handle. The part is after- 
 wards covered with tempered clay, or any convenient composition that will 
 exclude the air. 
 
 Grafting by approach, or inarching, is a mode of grafting in which, to 
 make sure of success, the graft or scion is not separated from the parent 
 plant until it has become united to the stock.] 
 
 70. Such are the principal phenomena of the life of nutrition 
 in plants : but they are far from taking place with the same in- 
 tensity at all times ; and their duration is extremely variable. 
 
 71. In every plant we observe periods of activity, of languor, 
 and even torpor, and then an augmentation of the vegetative 
 functions. In our climate these periods correspond with the four 
 seasons of the year. During winter, the cold and absence of the 
 leaves, in most plants, almost entirely arrests nutrition ; they are 
 then in a state of torpor, comparable to that which hibernating 
 animals experience, and their buds and roots alone continue to 
 grow. But when returning spring imparts to the plant thus 
 benumbed a certain amount of heat and moisture, it awakes in a 
 measure, the sap rises with force, the buds develope themselves, 
 the young shoots or scions become elongated, and vegetation 
 displays all its activity. In summer the leaves are somewhat 
 hardened, and become less suited for attracting the sap and 
 exhaling the liquids which reach them from the roots ; conse- 
 quently vegetation is less active: and in autumn this change in 
 the leaves being greater, gradually brings about their destruction 
 or fall. At this period, it sometimes happens that buds begin to 
 develope themselves, and again attract the sap with force ; and 
 this ascent of the nutritive juices causes an elongation of the 
 branches and the formation of new leaves, the freshness of which 
 is in beautiful contrast with the yellow tint of the old ones. But 
 the cold soon enfeebles all these phenomena of life, arid arrests 
 
 70. Is the duration of all plants the same ? 
 
 71. Are the functions of vegetables always equally active ? How is their 
 activity influenced ? 
 
 6 
 
 u 
 
62 AGE OF PLANTS. 
 
 nutrition, even when it does not cause the fall of the leaves, as 
 ordinarily happens. 
 
 72. In hot countries, where there is no winter properly speak- 
 ing, there are, nevertheless, periods of activity and repose in 
 plants which correspond to the dry and wet or rainy season ; 
 there the great heat arrests vegetation as the cold does in our 
 climate, and the life of plants is reanimated in the rainy season. 
 
 73. As we have already stated, a great number of plants are 
 annual, that is, they live only through one year ; others com- 
 plete their growth only in the second year, and die on the 
 approach of the second winter, and are termed biennial ; others 
 again continue to live many years, and are for this reason called 
 perennial plants. All herbaceous plants are annual or biennial; 
 ligneous plants live many years, and the duration of their lives 
 exceeds every thing we could imagine. One of the orange trees 
 at Versailles, in France, appears to be nearly four hundred 
 years old ; and a tree of the same species, which may be still 
 seen at the convent of Saint Sabin in Rome, was planted there 
 by Saint Dominick more than six hundred years ago. In Swit- 
 zerland there are linden trees which, to judge from their diameter 
 and the manner in which these trees ordinarily grow, ought to be 
 more than a thousand years old ; and there is a chestnut tree at 
 Sancerre, which was known six hundred years ago as the great 
 chestnut, from which we may conclude that its age is not much 
 less than that of the lindens we have just mentioned. But the 
 tree most celebrated on account of its longevity is, unquestion- 
 ably, the baobab, that flourishes in Senegal. A botanist named 
 Adanson notices one which three centuries before had been 
 observed by two English travellers, and on excavating the trunk 
 of this tree, there was found an inscription they^ had written, 
 covered by three hundred ligneous layers ; from this they were 
 enabled to judge how much this gigantic plant had grown in three 
 hundred years, and, comparing this with the diameter of the tree, 
 it was estimated that the probable duration of its existence was 
 upwards of five thousand years. 
 
 72. Is there any variation in the activity of the functions of vegetables 
 in hot countries ? 
 
 73. What is meant by an annual plant ? What is meant by a biennial 
 plant ? What is a perennial plant ? What is supposed to be the age of 
 the oldest living tree ? 
 
GENERATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 GENERATION OF PLANTS. Multiplication of Plants by Division 
 Formation of adventitious Roots Multiplication of Plants 
 by Grafting ; by Tubercles Phanero gamous and Crypto ga- 
 mous Plants defined Structure of Flowers Peduncles Pedi- 
 cil Floral Leaf Bract Involucre Spatlie Glume 
 Torus Receptacle Inflorescence Perianth Calyx Co- 
 rolla Petals Forms of the Corolla Nectary JEstivation 
 Essential Parts of Flowers Stamens Anther Pollen 
 Pistil Carpel Ovary. 
 
 OF THE REPRODUCTION OF PLANTS. 
 
 1. The multiplication of plants takes place in two ways ; some- 
 times by means of special organs, designed to produce the germ 
 of the new individual, and sometimes by the simple division of 
 their tissue. 
 
 2. The multiplication of plants by division consists in the 
 separation of a part of an individual, which part continues to 
 vegetate, and becomes so complete in itself as to constitute, in its 
 turn, a new individual plant. 
 
 3. This phenomenon depends upon the fact that the different 
 parts of a plant, placed under favourable circumstances, have a 
 tendency to produce those organs which are wanting to constitute 
 a complete plant, and that the portion which gives rise to these 
 complementary parts becomes fit to live without the assistance of 
 the individual from which it was taken. For example, a branch 
 placed in favourable circumstances may put forth roots (which 
 are called adventitious when they arise in this way, as before 
 stated in page 19), so that, if it be separated from its stem, it 
 will still continue to be nourished, and will constitute a new indi- 
 vidual ; the same is true of roots ; they also have the faculty of 
 giving rise to stems and to leaves ; and a root from which a stem 
 and leaves arise possesses all the organs necessary for vegetation, 
 and consequently may continue to live after it has been separated 
 from the plant of which it at first formed a part. 
 
 4. Gardeners give the name of shoots or slips to those branches 
 from which they cause adventitious roots to spring, and which 
 they then separate from the parent plant. In general we succeed 
 
 1. How is the multiplication of plants effected ? 
 
 2. What is meant by the multiplication of plants by division ? 
 
 3. Upon what does the multiplication of plants by division depend ? 
 
 4. How are adventitious roots artificially produced ? 
 
64 MULTIPLICATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 in producing these roots by placing in a properly moist situation, 
 a branch in which the progress of the descending sap is slow, 
 therefore permitting an accumulation of nutritive matter in it. 
 To arrest in this way the descending sap at a point from which 
 we wish to produce adventitious roots, we sometimes make a cir- 
 cular incision through the thickness of the bark, and place in it 
 a tightly drawn ligature, and then surround it with moist earth ; 
 sometimes we simply bend a branch into the ground, because, at 
 t'le point where it is bent, the nutritive juices, being forced to 
 overcome their own weight in order to ascend towards the stem, 
 are retarded in their progress ; at other times we take advantage 
 of natural knots that exist in a branch and favdur the development 
 of adventitious roots ; and there are some plants, the branches 
 of which, when surrounded by moist earth or moss, put forth 
 roots without a stagnation of the nutritious juices being necessary. 
 When the roots appear, we cut the branch so as to separate it 
 from the plant to which it belonged, and it then constitutes a new 
 individual. 
 
 5. But we do not separate the slip or branch until the roots 
 are formed, that is, when it possesses all the parts that compose 
 a complete plant ; but it often happens that a branch cut before 
 it has put forth adventitious roots, continues to vegetate and pro- 
 duce roots so as to constitute a new individual : for example, a 
 branch of willow freshly cut and planted in moist earth, promptly 
 takes root and becomes a tree similar to that from which it 
 was detached ; it is then called a slip or sucker. All plants 
 may be multiplied in this way, but with more or less facility ; as 
 this operation rarely succeeds, gardeners seldom have recourse 
 to it. 
 
 6. It is not the branches alone that may give rise to adventi- 
 tious roots and constitute a slip or shoot ; sometimes the leaves 
 will perform this office ; for example, the leaves of the orange, 
 of the fig, &c., detached from their stems and fixed in the earth 
 by their petiole, will take root by their principal nerve, and after- 
 wards give rise, from the superior surface of their paren'chyma, 
 to ascending stems. 
 
 7. The multiplication of plants by grafting, of which we 
 have already spoken, is also a mode of propagation that belongs 
 to this class of phenomena, because it is effected by simple divi- 
 sion ; only the part of the plant which is separated, instead of 
 
 5. When is the new branch separated ? 
 
 6. Do any other parts than branches produce adventitious roots ? (See 
 page 19.) 
 
 7 What is the multiplication of plants by grafting ? 
 
"MULTIPLICATION OF PLANTS. 65 
 
 becoming complete in itself, forms an intimate union with another 
 plant, and lives at the expense of its roots as a sort of parasite. 
 
 8. Propagation by tubercles is another mode of multiplication 
 by division, which is effected by means of buds surrounded by a 
 deposite of nutritive matter, which, being placed in favourable 
 circumstances in regard to moisture, heat, &c., may vegetate and 
 put forth a stem and roots. These deposites of nutritive matter 
 are sometimes formed in the roots, sometimes in subterraneous 
 stems, sometimes in the axil* of the leaves, ordinarily designated 
 under the name of tubercles, off-setts, which, when they have 
 attained a certain size, are usually detached. The potatoe pre- 
 sents us with a remarkable example of this mode of multiplica- 
 tion ; this plant produces along its stems tubercles which are not 
 developed ordinarily except in its subterraneous part, and are 
 only held by a thin thread, so as to be easily separated at the end 
 of the year, either by the slightest force, or from the death of the 
 stem from which they grow ; now, each one of these tubercles 
 has upon it several buds or germs (called eyes] enveloped by a 
 mass of cellular tissue containing fecula, &c. ; if placed in a 
 situation that is sufficiently moist and warm, these buds soon 
 begin to sprout and attract the nutritive matters deposited around 
 them ; by means of this nourishment the bud elongates, the stem 
 and leaves begin to develope themselves, and as soon as they 
 begin to perform their ordinary functions, the nutritive juices, 
 prepared within them, descend and cause the formation of roots 
 so as to give rise to a new and complete plant. 
 
 9. To recapitulate : we see, then, that, under certain favour- 
 able circumstances, all plants may be multiplied by division, and 
 that this division may be effected by shoots, by slips, by grafting, 
 and by tubercles ; but in most cases, the reproduction of plants 
 is effected in a manner altogether different, by the means of seeds, 
 which are themselves the production of particular organs : 
 namely, flowers and fruits. 
 
 10. The special organs destined to secure the multiplication of 
 plants are the flowers, fruits, and seeds. 
 
 11. Plants that are provided with perfectly distinct flowers, are 
 designated under the name of Phanero 'gamous (from the Greek, 
 phaneros, evident, and gamos, marriage) ; and those which have 
 no distinct special organs of multiplication are called Crypto'- 
 
 * Axil : from the Latin, axilla, arm-pit. The angle or point at which a 
 leaf or branch unites with the stem. 
 
 8. What is meant by the propagation of plants by tubercles ? 
 
 9. How is the reproduction of plants usually effected ? 
 
 10. What are the special organs of reproduction of plants ? 
 
 11. What are phanero' gamous plants ? What are crypto'gamous plants ? 
 
66 STRUCTURE OF FLOWERS. 
 
 gamous (from the Greek," kruptos, concealed, and gamos, mar 
 riage). 
 
 12. The flower consists of the assemblage of organs, upon 
 which spring the germs of phanero'gamous plants, and the parts 
 which immediately surround them. Its use is to secure the pro- 
 duction of these germs, and their fecundation (fertilization), that 
 's, to endow them with the faculty of living and of developing 
 themselves so as to be able to become plants, similar to those 
 from which they were derived. 
 
 13. The fruit is the assemblage of these germs already 
 fecundated, and of organs destined to protect them until they 
 attain maturity, that is, the state of perfect seeds. 
 
 14. And the seed is the germ furnished with various envelopes, 
 that is, the body which, by its development, becomes the new 
 plant, and the organs designed to protect it, or to furnish the 
 young plant its first nourishment. 
 
 Of the Structure of Flowers. 
 
 15. The flowers, as we have stated above, are the parts in 
 which the germ of the new plant is produced and acquires the 
 property of living and of developing itself. They are composed 
 of appendages analogous to leaves, but of various forms, which 
 arise from the extremity of the stem or its ramifications. 
 
 16. Sometimes the flowers arise immediately from the stem 
 without being attached to it by a tail or any accessory part ; in 
 this case they are termed sessile (from the Latin, sessilis, dwarfish, 
 that is, without a stalk or stem) ; but in general that portion of 
 the stem which bears them is prolonged and constitutes a sort of 
 tail, analogous to the petiole of a leaf; to this support we give 
 the name of peduncle (from the Latin, pes, a foot,) a little foot, 
 (Jigs. 81, 82, 96); and when it is divided, each one of the 
 divisions that is terminated by a flower is called a pedicil. (See 
 Jig. I, page 11). 
 
 17. For example : pedunculate Jlowers have the tailor stem 
 simple, as in the common pink ; and pedicelate Jlowers have 
 several tails springing from one common to the whole, as in 
 hunches or clusters of lilac, of the vine, dec. 
 
 18. The peduncle or the pedicil of a flower may arise from 
 
 12. Of what does the flower consist ? What is its use ? 
 ] 3 What is meant by the fruit ? 
 
 14. What is the seed ? 
 
 15. Of what are flowers composed ? 
 
 16. What is the peduncle of a flower? What is a pedicil? 
 
 17. What is meant by pedicelate flowers? 
 
 18. What is a floral leaf? What is a bract? 
 
STRUCTURE OF FLOWERS. 
 
 67 
 
 the very extremity of the branch that bears it, or laterally, and 
 in this last case, it arises from the axil of a leaf, which on this 
 account has been called floral leaf, when it resembles other 
 leaves (fig. 86), and is named bract (from the Latin, bractea, 
 a thin leaf of metal), when it differs from the other leaves in its 
 colour, its form (figs. 75 and 76), or in the absence alone of the 
 buds in its axil. 
 
 19. These bracts may be found at the base of the peduncle, 
 or at the base of each of its divisions, when this support is 
 ramified as in pedicelate flowers. When they are symmetrically 
 arranged around one or several flowers, so 
 as to form a kind of accessory envelope, 
 the assemblage is called an involucre 
 from the Latin, involutus, folded in (fig. 
 75). Generally, they have a foliaceous 
 consistence, but they sometimes resemble 
 little scales, more or less closely embracing 
 the base of the flower. When the in- 
 volucre surrounds a single flower, and is 
 very close to it, it often resembles one 
 of the proper envelopes of the flower, 
 called calyx (Latin, the cup of a flower), 
 and in this case it is commonly known . _. 
 under the name ofcalicula, as in the mal- 
 low. When the involucre entirely covers a flower before it is 
 blown, and the flower is not seen externally until this envelope 
 
 Fig. 76. SPATHE. 
 
 Fig. 77. GLUME. 
 
 is torn open or unrolled, it is called a spathe (fig. 76, sp, from 
 the Greek, spathe, a ladle) : the common onion, narcissus (fig 
 
 19. What is an involucre ? What is a spathe ? What is a glume ? 
 
IKTLORESCENCE. 
 
 113), the palm, &c., are examples. Finally, the bracts of some 
 plants are in the form of two small scales, which seem to be in 
 the place of the proper envelopes of the flower, and then they 
 constitute what botanists call glume (from the Latin, gluma, 
 a husk of corn, fig. 77). 
 
 20. The terminal portion of the pedicil which gives rise to 
 the different parts of the flower, is called torus (from the 
 Latin, torus, a bed). When the terminal extremity of a peduncle 
 
 is divided into a great number of pedicils, 
 and these are very short, we generally re- 
 mark that the principal support is widened 
 and thickened, and to this dilated portion of 
 the peduncle we give the name of recep- 
 tacle ; it contains a deposit of nutritive 
 matter destined to assist in the develop- 
 ment of the flowers situate above, and it 
 is sometimes entirely fleshy as in the 
 
 Fig. 78. RECEPTACLE, artichoke ; sometimes it is so concave as to 
 completely enclose the flowers and fruits 
 
 that arise from it, as is seen in the fig tree (fig. 78). 
 
 21. We give the name of inflorescence to the arrangement 
 which the flowers assume on the stem, and we give special names 
 to the different arrangements they assume. For instance, those 
 flowers which spring from the axil of an ordinary leaf, are called 
 axillary flowers ; and these axillary flowers are again dis.tin- 
 guished by the terms solitary, geminal, ternary, quaternary, 
 and fascicular, according as one, two, three, four, or a greater 
 number spring from the axil of the same leaf: and we give the 
 name of verticillate to flowers which arise from the axil of leaves 
 which are also verticillate, and form a kind of ring around the 
 stem. Terminal flowers are those found at the extremity of the 
 stem or a principal branch, and accompanied at their base by two 
 opposite bracts ; the term spike (fig. 79) is applied to axillary 
 flowers which are arranged upon a common, but simple and 
 not ramified axis, as in the wheat, &c. ; when unisexual flowers 
 furnished with scales, the known peduncle of which is similar to 
 that of the spike, but is articulated at its base in such a manner 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 78. Flowers of a fig tree enclosed in a concave 
 receptacle ; c, receptacle ; 6, flowers. 
 
 20. What is meant by torus ? What is the receptacle ? 
 
 21. What is meant by inflorescence? What is meant by axillary 
 flowers ? What are verticillate flowers ? What are terminal flowers ? 
 What is a spike ? What is a cat-kin ? What is a cluster ? What is a 
 panicle ? What is a thyrsus ? What is a corymb ? What is an umbel ? 
 What is a capital ? -*~r%,. ( 
 
PARTS OF FLOWERS. 
 
 as to be entirely detached after inflorescence, as, for example, in 
 the flowers of the willow, elm, beech, oak, &c., it is called a cat- 
 kin ; when all the flowers are borne upon a common peduncle, 
 irregularly branched, 
 they are termed a 
 cluster, as in the 
 horse-chestnut ; when 
 flowers are arranged 
 on the stem similarly 
 to a cluster, but have 
 the secondary divi- 
 sions very much elon- 
 gated and widely se- 
 parated from each 
 other, they form a 
 panicle, as in the 
 male flowers of the 
 maize or Indian corn ; 
 thyrsus is a sort of 
 cluster, the axis of 
 which is much elon- 
 gated, and the branch- 
 es of which, in parti- 
 cular, have the same 
 
 arrangement as the assemblage of the cluster, 
 as in the lilac and vine; a corymb is where all 
 the flowers, the peduncles of which with their 
 ramifications arise from the upper part of the 
 stem, at different points, and reach to nearly the 
 same height, as in the milfoil; when the peduncles 
 are of equal lengths and arise from the same point, diverging and 
 ramifying in a uniform manner so that the assemblage of flowers 
 presents an arched surface like the top of an extended parasol, 
 we have an umbel, as in the carrot, parsley, hemlock, &c. (fig. 
 156) ; we give the name of capital to an assemblage of a con- 
 siderable number of little flowers upon a common receptacle, that 
 is wider than the summit of the peduncle, and surrounded by a 
 particular involucre, as in the artichoke, milk-thistle (fig- 80), 
 the marigold (fig 153), the sunflower, &c. ; capitals are often 
 designated under the name of compound or composite flowers, 
 because at first sight the assemblage of all the flowers borne 
 upon a common peduncle appear to form only one and the same 
 flower. 
 
 22. The flower itself is ordinarily composed of two series of 
 organs, namely, (1.) the essential parts, which occupy the centre, 
 
 Fig. 80. A CAPITAL. 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
 A SPIKE. 
 
 22. How is a flower composed ? 
 
70 CALYX. SEPALS. 
 
 and, (2.) the accessory or tegumentary parts, which occupy the 
 circumference, and serve to protect the first. 
 
 23. These tegumentary parts of ike flower constitute what is 
 called the perianth (from the Greek peri, around, and anthos, 
 flower) ; sometimes they are wanting entirely ; and at others 
 they are imperfect; hut in most instances they form around the 
 essential organs of infloresence two envelopes, the most external 
 of which is called the calyx (cup of the flower), and the second, 
 which is situate above, and within the preceding, is named 
 the corolla (from the Latin, corolla, a little crown) {figt. 81, 82, 
 83, 84). 
 
 d 24. CALYX. The calyx 
 
 or the external envelope 
 of the flower is composed 
 of a variable number of 
 appendages, analogous to 
 leaves, which are called 
 sepals ; they are arranged 
 nearly in a circle around 
 the inferior part of the 
 
 Fig. 81. SECTION OF A FLOWER. flower (fig. 81 , 6, c). Their 
 
 colour is generally green ; 
 their surface is furnished with stomata, and their structure is 
 similar to that of leaves. 
 
 25. Sometimes all the se'pals are perfectly distinct and may 
 be separated without breaking their tissue ; in this case they con- 
 stitute a polyse'palous* calyx ; at other times they are joined, or 
 as it were glued together, in such a way that the calyx appears 
 to be formed of a single piece, and is then designated under the 
 name of monose'palous\ or gamose 'pafaus^ calyx (figs. 84, 89, 
 95 ). When this junction extends throughout the whole extent 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 81. Vertical section of a polypetalous flower (of the 
 family of Rosacece), showing the relative position of its different parts: a, 
 the peduncle ; 6, the calyx ; c, division of the calyx ; rf, the corolla ; e, 
 the stamens ; /, the stigma ; o, the ovary. 
 
 * POLYSE'PALOUS. From the Greek, polus, many, and se'pal having 
 many sepals. 
 
 t MONOSE'PALOUS. From the Greek monos, single, and se'pal having a 
 single se'pal. 
 
 t GAMOSE'PALOUS. From the Greek ^omos, marriage, and se'pal having 
 the se'pals united together, forming a single piece or sepal. 
 
 23. What is a perianth ? 
 
 24. What is a calyx ? 
 
 25. What are sepals ? What is a polyse'palous calyx ? What is a mono- 
 sepalous calyx ? What is meant by an entire calyx ? What are the lobes 
 of the calyx ? What is a regular calyx ? What is an irregular calyx ? 
 What is a labiate calyx ? 
 
SEPALS. COROLLA. 71 
 
 of the se'pals, the calyx is entire, but in general it occurs only at 
 the base, and then the terminal and free portion of the se'pals 
 constitutes the lobes or teeth which occupy the upper part of the 
 calyx and spread more or less. We give the name of tube to the 
 lower and commonly contracted part of a calyx thus formed, and 
 the superior and open part is called the limb. In most dicotyle'- 
 donous plants, the calyx is composed of five se'pals, and when 
 these appendages are united at the base, presents five lobes ; 
 sometimes, however, there are only three or even two, and there 
 are examples of a considerably greater number. Its form varies : 
 sometimes it is regular, that is, composed of parts entirely like 
 each other ; sometimes irregular, that is, consisting of parts that 
 differ from each other in form or size. Sometimes certain se'pals 
 nre united to each other for a shorter distance than the rest, so as 
 to form divisions of unequal size, and constitute what botanists 
 term a labiate calyx (labiate, from the Latin labium, lip). 
 
 26. The se'pals, like the leaves, are sometimes caducous (from 
 the Latin, cado, I fall), and sometimes persistent (from the Latin 
 per, through, and sisto, I remain); after inflorescence they some- 
 times dry where they are, and at other times, on the contrary, 
 they enlarge and become fleshy. Their form varies : some are 
 lanceolate (lance-shaped) or pointed, others are blunt, and others 
 again are cordiform (heart-shaped). In some plants their extremity 
 is hardened so as to resemble a spine or a long hair. 
 
 27. The whole of the calyx formed by the assemblage of the 
 se'pals also presents considerable differences ; the monose 'palous 
 ca'lices may be tubular (or elongated in the form of a tube, as in 
 the pink); urce'olate (from the Latin urceus, a pitcher), or in form 
 of a pitcher or urn, contracted above the limb and then dilated, 
 as in the rose ; campa'nulate (from the Latin campanula, a little 
 bell), or in form of a bell ; vesicular, compressed, angular, &c* 
 The polyse 'palous ca'lices also vary ; some are tubular, others 
 are campanulate, others stellate (star-shaped), &c. 
 
 28. Corolla. The internal 
 envelope of the flower or 
 corolla is composed, like the 
 calyx, by the union of a certain 
 number of lamellar appendages 
 somewhat analogous to leaves, . 
 which are arranged circularly 
 
 in one or more rows or whorls a s 
 
 (Jigs. 82, 83, 84). To these 
 
 appendages we give the name Fig. 82. COROLLA. 
 
 26. In what particulars do se'pals resemble leaves ? 
 
 27. What are the forms of calices ? 
 
 28. What is a corolla ? What are petals ? 
 
72 
 
 COROLLA. 
 
 Fig. 83. 
 
 POLYPETALOUS COROLLA. 
 
 d c of petals (from the Greek petalon, a leaf, 
 
 Jig. 83, c), and it is to be observed that 
 they differ from leaves more than the se' 
 pals ; they have but few stomata ; their 
 nerves, which are similar to those of the 
 leaves as regards their direction, art; 
 more slender, and contain no other kin'i 
 ""* of vessels but tracheae ; they are very 
 __ a seldom green, but generally possess tho 
 most brilliant colours. 
 
 29. The corolla is sometimes mono- 
 pe'talous or gamope'talous (Jig. 84), that 
 is, composed of a single piece, formed by the inti- 
 mate union of all the petals (as in the flower of the 
 bind-weed) ; at other times it is polypetalous (Jigs. 
 82, 83), that is, composed of a greater or less num- 
 ber of separate petals (as in the rose, pink, &c.). 
 The number of petals is ordinarily five, in which 
 case they are arranged around the essential or- 
 gans of the flower in a single row or whorl or 
 verticellus ; sometimes there are three or four 
 only, or seven, and at other times a much larger 
 number, and then they are placed so as to form 
 several concentric whorls (verticelli), and to alter- 
 nate with those of the neighbouring row. Polype' - 
 talous flowers are called dipe'talous when they 
 have two petals only ; tripe'talous when they have three ; tetra- 
 pe'talous, pentape'talous, hexape'talous, when they have four, five, 
 and six petals, and so on. 
 
 30. We generally recognise in a pe'tal, the claw or inferior 
 part, corresponding to the petiole of the leaf, which is more or 
 less contracted, and the limb, which is more or less spread and 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 82. A polypetalous flower (of the family of Rosa, 
 cese) : a, the peduncle or flower-stalk ; 6,&,6,6, extremities of the divisions 
 of the calyx or sepals ; c,c, the petals of the corolla ; d, the stamens (in 
 this instance, peripy'nous, from the Greek, peri, around, and gune, woman), 
 in the midst of which is seen the pistil. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 83. Flower of a malva'cea : o, the calyx ; fe, the 
 corolla ; c, the stamens united in a tubular andro'phorum (from the Greek 
 aner, man, or in Botany, a stamen, and pherein, to bear) a columnar ex- 
 pansion of the centre of the flower upon which the stamens seem to grow ; 
 d, the stigmata. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 84. Represents a monopetalous, labiate flower, or 
 bilobate corolla. 
 
 29. What is meant by a monopetalous corolla ? What is a polypetalous 
 corolla ? 
 
 30. What is the claw of a petal ? What is the limb of a petal ? What 
 is the throat of a corolla ? 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
 MOXOPETALOUS 
 COROLLA. 
 
VARIOUS FORMS OF COROLLA. * 73 
 
 constitutes the upper part. Its form varies very much : some- 
 times it is rounded^ sometimes acute, sometimes hollow, and at 
 other times its base is prolonged like a spur. Like the calyx, 
 the corolla is sometimes regular, sometimes irregular; sometimes 
 it is cadu'cous; that is, it falls as soon as it is expanded or blown; 
 at other times it fades in the flower before it is detached, and is 
 then said to be marcescent, and we generally distinguish an in- 
 ferior, straight portion, which, in monopetalous flowers, consti- 
 tutes the tube; a superior part which is more or less flaring, 
 called limb, and a circular line which separates the latter from 
 the tube, and bears the name of throat. 
 
 The general form of the corolla varies much ; the following 
 are its principal modifications. 
 
 VARIETIES OF THE COROLLA. 
 
 Corollas are monope'talous, when they are formed of a single 
 petal, and polype'talous, when they consist of several petals. 
 
 MONOPETALOUS COROLLAS are either regular or irregular. 
 
 31. The principal forms of REGULAR MONOPETALOUS COROLLAS, 
 are the following : 
 
 ~ ' 
 
 Tabular, when the tube is long, as in the 
 lily. 
 
 Campanulate, or bell-shaped, as in the 
 annexed figure (85). (From the Latin, cam- 
 pana, a bell.) Example: the campanula. 
 
 Fig. 85. -CAMPANULATE. 
 
 Infundibular, or funnel-shaped, as in the flower 
 of the tobacco (fig. 86). 
 
 (Infundibular, from the Latin, infundibulurn, a 
 funnel.) 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 INFUNDIBULAR, 
 
 31. What is a tubular corolla? When is it campanulate? When is it 
 infundibular? When is it cyathiform ? What is a hypocrate'rilbrm 
 corolla ? What is a rotate corolla ? What is an urce'olate corolla? What 
 i a scu'tellate corolla ? 
 7 
 
74 
 
 VARIETIES OF COROLLA. 
 
 Cyathiform, or cup-shaped (fig. 87). (Cyathiform, 
 from the Latin, cyatkus, a drinking-cup.) It differs from 
 the infundibular corolla in having its tube, and of course 
 its border, less spreading; and from the campanulate, 
 in not having its tube appear as if scooped out at the 
 base. 
 
 CYATHIFORM. 
 
 Hypocrate'riform, or salver-shaped, when the 
 tube is long, and expanded into a flat limb at the 
 throat or entrance into the corolla, as in the prim- 
 rose. 
 
 (Hypocrate'riform : from the Greek, upo t under, 
 krater, cup, and phorme, shape. Salver-shaped.) 
 The form of a corolla consisting of a tube, sud- 
 denly expanded into a flat border. ( Fig. 88 : c, 
 corolla ; d, the calyx.) 
 
 d 
 
 Fig. 88. 
 
 PRIMROSE. 
 
 Rotate, or wheel-shaped, when the tube is 
 very short, and the limb expanded and almost 
 flat. 
 
 Urceolate, or pitcher-shaped, when it is di- 
 lated towards the base, and contracted towards 
 the orifice, as in several heaths, &c. Fig. 89 
 represents an urceolate, monopetalous corolla : 
 a, the calyx; b, tube of the corolla ; c, the 
 limb of the corolla ; d, the pistil. 
 
 Scu'tellate, or porringer-shaped, when it is 
 expanded and slightly concave, like a basin. 
 
 The following are the principal forms of 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 URCEOLATE. 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 BILABIATE. 
 
 IRREGULAR MONOPETALOUS COROLLAS. 
 
 32. Bilabiate, when it is more or less elongated, 
 dilated, and open towards the top, and terminated by 
 two lips, one superior and the other inferior (Jig. 
 90). 
 
 Personate, or in form of a mask, when 
 the tube is elongated and the throat di- 
 lated and closed above by the approxima- 
 tion of the limb, which consists of two 
 unequal lips (Jig. 91). 
 
 Anomalous, when its form is so irregu- 
 lar that it cannot be referred to any of 
 the ordinary types. 
 
 32. What is a bilabiate corolla ? When is a corolla personate ? When 
 
VARIETIES OF COROLLAS. 
 
 75 
 
 The following are the principal forms of 
 
 REGULAR POLYPETALOUS COROLLAS. 
 
 Cruciform (from the Latin, crux, a cross), 
 when it is composed of four petals with an 
 elongated claw, arranged in the form of a 
 cross, as in cresses (fig. 92). , 
 
 (The four petals have the form of a St. Andrew's 
 cross ; the lower part is the unguis or claw, and the 
 upper part is called the tolamen or border, each petal 
 having the form of a battledore. The claw is some- 
 Fig. 92. CRUCIFORM, what longer than the border.) 
 
 Rosa'ceous, when the petals, from 
 three to five, or more, have a very short 
 claw, and are expanded as in the simple 
 rose (fig. 93). 
 
 Cary'ophylla'ceous (from the Latin, 
 caryophyllus, the garden pink) when 
 the petals, five in number, have very 
 long claws, concealed by the calyx, 
 as in the pink. 
 
 The following are the principal forms of the 
 
 IRREGULAR POLYPETALOUS COROLLAS. 
 
 Papiliona'ceous (from the Latin, papilio, 
 a butterfly), when the petals, five in num- 
 ber, have each a peculiar form, the two 
 lower ones ordinarily united to 
 each other, forming what is call- 
 ed the carina or keel (fig. 95) ; 
 the two lateral ones are general ly 
 expanded and called wings ; and 
 the superior one ordinarily erect, 
 various in form, and covered by 
 the other four, previous to the 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
 CARINA. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 94. Represents a papiliona'ceous flower; c, the 
 calyx ; 6, the banner ; c, the wings ; d, the carina or keel ; e, the 
 stamens. 
 
 Fig. 95 is the same flower, having the banner and wings removed to 
 show the carina. 
 
 is it anomalous ? What is a cruciform corolla ? What is a rosaceous 
 corolla ? When is it caryophylla'ceous ? 
 33. What is a papiliona'ceous flower ? What is the vexillum ? 
 
76 NECTARY. ESTIVATION. 
 
 blowing of the flower, and called the banner, or standard, or 
 vexillum, as in the pea, acacia, &c. (Jig. 94). 
 
 Anomalous, when the petals are irregular without having the 
 papiliona'ceous form, as in the violet. 
 
 34. NECTARY. The word " nec- 
 tary," (from nectar, the food of the 
 gods,) is of very general application, 
 and is used to express some peculiar 
 modifications in the sepals or petals, 
 by which they assume an unusual 
 form ; but more especially when 
 there is some alteration of struc- 
 ture, by which they are wholly or 
 partially converted into secreting or- 
 gans, and exude a saccharine, glutin- P 
 
 ous juice. J%- 96. -NECTARY. 
 
 35. ^ESTIVATION. As the condition of the leaf whilst yet in 
 bud, is termed its vernation, so the manner in which the several 
 parts of the flower lie folded in the flower-bud, is termed their 
 cestivation. 
 
 36. Certain flowers (the tulip for example), instead of having 
 a double perianth, have only a single envelope, and we are not 
 certain whether it is a calyx or corolla. In general it seems to 
 bear a closer resemblance in structure to the calyx, but it some- 
 times presents the bright colours of corollas ; it is sometimes 
 analogous to the first of these floral envelopes, and sometimes 
 analogous to the second ; and at other times again it is entirely 
 formed by the union of the two, which have become perfectly 
 alike. Be it as it may, we give the name of perigonium (from 
 the Greek, peri, around, and gein&mai, I grow) to this single 
 envelope (which, in other respects, may be double or simple) ; 
 and flowers that possess this mode of organization are termed 
 monochla'mydous (from the Greek, monos, one, chlamus, cloak, 
 and eidos, resemblance: apparently having but one covering or 
 envelope). 
 
 37. ESSENTIAL PARTS OF FLOWERS. The essential parts of 
 a flower occupy its centre (Jigs. 81, 82, 83), as has been stated 
 above, and, although they are the most important, they are very 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 96. Flower of the larkspur; w, the nectary ; 
 jj, the peduncle. 
 
 34. What is meant by nectary ? 
 
 35. What is meant by vernation ? (Vernation : from the Latin, vernug % 
 belonging to the spring-.) What is aestivation? (^Estivation : from the 
 Latin, cestiva, summer quarters.) 
 
 36. What is the perigonium ? What are monochla'mydous flowers ? 
 
 37. What are the essential parts of flowers ? 
 
PISTILS. STAMENS. 
 
 77 
 
 Fig. 97. 
 
 STAMENS. 
 
 Fig. 98. 
 
 PISTIL. 
 
 far from being the most apparent to the eye. These organs are 
 of two kinds ; one kind is destined to produce the ovules or 
 germs, and the other to cause their fecundation ; the first bears 
 the name of pistil, and the second is called stamen. 
 
 38. Most flowers are provided both with a pistil, and with 
 stamens, and consequently possess all the organs necessary for 
 
 the production and fecundation of germs ; 
 they are distinguished by the name of her- 
 maphrodite flowers. Others, on the con- 
 trary, either possess only stamens (fig' 97) 
 or a pistil alone (fig- 98), and are named 
 unisexual; the plants that bear these in- 
 complete flowers are termed mon&ceous 
 (from the Greek, monos, single, and oikos, 
 a house), when the two kinds of flowers, 
 those with pistils, and those with stamens, 
 are developed on the same plant ; but when 
 these different flowers grow on separate plants, some 
 producing flowers with stamens, and others bearing 
 flowers with pistils only, they are named diceceous 
 (from the Greek, dis, two, and oikos, house). Those which have 
 flowers provided with all the organs are named polygamous plants. 
 
 39. Stamens. Thesta- / e d 
 mens are situate between 
 
 the corolla (d) and the pis- 
 til (/) (fig. 99, e} ; they 
 are generally in form of 
 filaments (threads), and in 
 no manner resemble the 
 leaves in their use; never- 
 theless, they may be con- 
 sidered as analogous to Fig. 99. 
 leaves, because, under cer- 
 tain circumstances, they are changed into petals. In double 
 flowers, for example, it is by the stamens being changed into 
 petals that the corolla, in place of being simple, as in the natural 
 or uncultivated state, presents a greater or less number of whorls. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 97. Represents (enlarged) one of the male flowers 
 of a fig tree, isolated ; it has three stamens, each one crowned by an 
 anther. 
 
 Fig. 98. Represents (enlarged) one of the female flowers of the fig tree, 
 separated ; it shows a pistil. 
 
 38. What are monoeceous flowers ? What are dioaceous flowers ? What 
 are polygamous flowers ? 
 
 39. Where are the stamens situated ? How are stamens analogous to 
 leaves ? What are double flowers ? 
 
 7* 
 
78 
 
 STAMENS. 
 
 .Fig. 100. 
 
 Fig. 101. 
 
 DIANDROUS. 
 
 40. The number of stamens varies much in different plants ; 
 certain flowers which are on this account named monandrous 
 
 (from the Greek, monos, single, and 
 aner, stamen), have but one stamen ; 
 other flowers called diandrous (Jig. 
 101), triandrous, tetrandrous, pen- 
 tandrous, &c. (Jig. 100) have two, 
 three, four, five, or more stamens. 
 In general, their number is equal to 
 that of the petals, or is a multiple of 
 tne peta}s. Sometimes they are all 
 alike, and at other times they are not of the same 
 
 size ; when the same flower always has two short and two long 
 
 stamens, it is named didyna'mous (from the Greek, dis t twice, 
 
 and dunamis, power) ; when the whole 
 
 number of stamens is six, and four of 
 
 them are longer than the other two, the 
 
 plant is termed tetradyna'mous (from the 
 
 Greek, teteres, four, arid dunamis, power). 
 
 These organs form one or more whorls 
 
 or verlicels, situate within the corolla 
 
 (jig" 102), and in general those which 
 
 form the external whorl (or the only ,.,. 
 
 verticel when there is but one) regularly '^' 
 
 alternate with the petals, so that each stamen corresponds with 
 
 one of the divisions of the corolla. 
 
 41. Each stamen consists of three parts: namely, the Jila- 
 ment, the anther ', and the pollen. 
 
 42. The ' Jilament of a stamen is a sup- ? 
 port analogous to the petiole of the leaves 
 
 and the claw of the petals, and is gene- 
 rally cylindrical and slender, as in fig. b - 
 103, b. Sometimes it is so short that 
 it seems to be wanting, and in this case, 
 the stamen is said to be sessile; gene- 
 rally, however, it is very long. 
 
 43. The filaments arise from the 
 
 Fig. 103. STAMENS. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 103. A flower without its envelopes ; cr, the calyx ; 
 fe, the filament of the stamen ; c, the anthers ; (7, the ovary ; e, the 
 stigma. 
 
 40. Have all flowers the same number of stamens ? What is a didy- 
 na'mous flower? What is a tetradyna'mous flower? How are sta'mens 
 placed in respect to the petals ? 
 
 41. Of what parts does each stamen consist ? 
 
 42. What is the filament ? When is a stamen said to be sessile ? 
 
 43. What part gives rise to the filament? Are the filaments joined 
 together, or are they separate from each other ? What is an androphor ? 
 
STAMENS. 79 
 
 torus or receptacle (fig. 104, c), that is, from the supe- 
 rior extremity of the pedicel of the flower, 
 between the corolla and the pistil (figs. 
 >~- a 103 and 104). Generally they are distinct 
 b from each other, and entirely free, but some- 
 times they are joined together, and in this 
 1c way form, one or more bodies, to which we 
 give the name of androphor (from the 
 1%. 104. Greek, andros, the genitive of aner, man, 
 
 anther, and phoreo, I support anther-bearer:^^. 105). 
 
 In certain plants, such as the mallows, this cohesion takes 
 place between the filaments of all the stamens, so that the 
 androphor constitutes a tube of greater or less length, in the 
 interior of which the pistil is lodged (fig. 110, p. 81). At other 
 times the stamens are united in two or more 
 bundles (fasciculi) and then form two or more 
 androphors. And there are flowers in which 
 the anthers cohere to each other, although 
 the filaments are distinct (fig. 105, a). 
 
 44. The point where the stamens cease to 
 adhere to the neighbouring parts varies ; some- 
 times they arise below the portion of the pistil 
 
 called the ovary (figure 104); they are then Fig. 105. 
 
 termed hypogy'nous (from the Greek, upo, under, and gune, 
 
 woman or pistil) ; at other times these organs, as well as the 
 
 petals, seem to arise at a greater or less distance above the calyx, 
 
 and are then termed perigy'nous (fig. 81) (from the Greek, peri, 
 
 around, and gune, pistil). At other times again, the portion of 
 
 the pedicle which bears them is prolonged in the 
 
 same way between the calyx and the ovary, but 
 
 adheres to the latter organ as well as to the calyx, 
 
 and in this instance the stamens seem to arise 
 
 above the ovary, and are named epigy'nous (from 
 
 the Greek epi, upon, and gune, woman or pistil). 
 
 Fig. 106 : o, the ovary ; e, the stamens ; s, the 
 
 stigma. 
 
 45. In consequence of these differences, the 
 
 stamens may have four different and fixed posi- Fig. 106. 
 tions : 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 104. A vertical section of the same flower, to show 
 the interior of the ovary ; a, the lodges or cells of the ovary ; b, the 
 ovules ; c, the torus or receptacle ; rf, filament of the stamen. 
 
 Fig. 105. A flower opened to show the coherence of the stamens by the 
 anthers (a) while the filaments are distinct. 
 
 44. What is meant by a hypogy'nous stamen ? What is meant by a 
 perigy'nous stamen ? What is meant by an epigy'nous stamen ? 
 
 45. What are the several positions of the stamens? 
 
80 ANTHER. POLLEN. 
 
 1st. Upon the internal parietes qftJie tube of the 
 J corolla, when it is monopetalous, as in the lilac. 
 Fig. 107 represents the flower of a primrose opened, 
 showing the pistil (a) and the stamens (&) attached 
 to the corolla (c). 
 
 2d. Upon the ovary, which takes place when the 
 Fig. 107. corolla is epipeHalous, as in umbelliferous plants. 
 3d. Beneath the ovary, which happens when 
 the corolla is hypope'talous, as in the poppy, the cruci'fera, the 
 vine (fig. 115), &c. 
 
 4th. Upon live calyx, which always occurs when the calyx 
 bears the petals, as in the rose (fig. 82). 
 
 46. The corolla always has the same position as the stamens ; 
 in all monopetalous corollas, the stamens are attached to the 
 corolla, and in all polype'talous flowers the stamens are not 
 attached to the corolla. 
 
 47. Anther. The anther is the most essential part of the 
 stamen, and occupies its summit (fig. 103, c); its colour is almost 
 always yellow, and it may be compared to the limb of a very 
 small leaf, that has become thickened, narrow, and folded upon 
 itself. In its interior the pollen is formed,- and it ordinarily con- 
 sists of two small membranous sacks, named cells or lodges, 
 which are joined together back to back, or by a portion of the 
 superior extremity of the filament, called the connective. Some- 
 times there is but one of these cells, which seems to be owing 
 to the abortion of one of these pouches, or to the bifurcation 
 of the filament; and at other times there are four. There 
 are some also that are divided internally by partitions. The 
 form and mode of insertion of the anthers vary ; sometimes 
 these organs are elongated, at other times rounded, cordiform, 
 &c. Sometimes they adhere to the filament for a great part of 
 their length ; at other times they are attached by one of their 
 extremities only, and at other times again, they are fixed at their 
 middle upon the very extremity of the filament. 
 
 48. Pollen. The pollen is a yellow dust that is enclosed in 
 the cells of the anther, which by falling upon the pistil causes the 
 development of germs and the formation of seeds. It is composed 
 of extremely small grains, the surface of which is sometimes 
 smooth, sometimes covered by asperities, and their interior is 
 filled with extremely fine dust. The envelope of these grains of 
 pollen is composed of two membranes, and when they come to be 
 
 46. Where are the stamens attached in monopetalous flowers ? Where 
 are they attached in polypetalous flowers ? 
 
 47. Describe the anther. What is meant by the connective ? Is the 
 form of all anthers the same ? Are their attachments alike in all flowers ? 
 
 48. What is pollen ? Where is it formed ? What is the use of it ? 
 
PISTIL. CARPELS. 
 
 81 
 
 moistened, the internal vesicle swells, tears the external mem- 
 brane, and escapes, forming species of tubes of greater or less 
 length. 
 
 49. Pistil. The pistil (figs. 108, 109), or 
 organ that produces the germ, occupies the 
 centre of the flower, and is surrounded by 
 the stamens, by the perianth (figs. 103, 
 110). The portion of the torus or extremity 
 , e of the pedicel where it springs sometimes 
 takes its rise above the origin of other parts 
 of the flower, so as to form for this organ a 
 Fig 108 special support, named a gymnophore (from 
 PISTIL. the Greek, gumnos, naked, and phoreo, I 
 support). The pistil is composed of ap- 
 pendages, named carpels, which are somewhat analogous 
 to leaves, but they are folded inwards, and bear on their %' ^ 9 
 edges the ovules destined to become seeds (fig. 110). 
 
 50. In each carpel we distinguish three 
 parts : the ovary (fig. 110, o), the style (e), 
 and the stigma (d). The ovary occupies its 
 lower part and encloses a cavity or cell (fig* 
 108, e), in which the germs are developed. 
 The style (fig. Ill, c), is a superior pro- 
 longation of the ovary, which is, however, 
 much less, and is often even as slender as a 
 
 . ' c thread ; it varies extremely in length. And 
 ( ~" the stigma (fig. 110, d), is the terminal por- 
 tion of the pistil which surmounts the style ; 
 ^ -a or, when this latter organ is wanting, it rests 
 on the ovary, and is generally composed of a 
 soft and, to appearance, glandular tissue. 
 
 51. The number of carpels varies much; 
 j PISTIL . sometimes there is only one, sometimes two or 
 
 three, or even more, and, as we have seen in 
 the case of sepals and petals, these organs cohere more or less 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 108. Pistil, with the ovary (e) opened. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 109. Pistil of the jasmine magnified. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 110. Vertical section of a polypetalous flower, 
 showing the manner in which the androphor sheaths the pistil : a, the 
 calyx ; b, the corolla ; c, the androphor open ; /, the anthers ; d, the 
 stigmas ; e, the styles, the upper portion of which is free and the lower 
 part adherent ; o, the ovaries. 
 
 49. What is the pistil ? Where is it situate ? Of what is it composed ? 
 What is a gymnophore ? 
 
 50. What parts compose a carpel ? (Carpel : from the Greek, karpos, 
 fruit.) What is the ovary ? What is a style? What is the stigma? 
 
 51. Is the number of carpels always the same ? 
 
CARPELS. 
 
 completely to each other. When the carpels remain entirely 
 separate from each other, they constitute several distinct pistils, 
 and when they are united into one mass, they form what is ordi- 
 narily called a single pistil. Sometimes this coherence 
 takes place through the whole length of the carpels, 
 sometimes in the ovaries, without the styles partici- 
 pating, so that the single mass formed by the ovaries, 
 and ordinarily called a single ovary, is surmounted 
 by two or more styles ; and when the styles are united, 
 the stigmas of the different carpels may be separate 
 (fig. 110), or they may cohere (fig. 104). 
 
 52. The number of cells we find in an ovary when 
 we cut through the lower part of a pistil, depends upon Fig. 111. 
 the number of carpels that are united together : some- TIL * 
 
 times there is but one, at other times two, three, four, five, or 
 even more. Its general form is commonly ovoid (egg-shaped). 
 Finally, the cell of each carpel encloses one or more ovules, 
 which, by being developed, become seeds. 
 
 58. The relations of the ovary with 
 other parts of the flower vary, and fur- 
 nish important characters for the classi- 
 fication of plants. Sometimes the base 
 of this organ corresponds to the point 
 at which both the stamens and perianth 
 are inserted, so that the ovary is free 
 at the bottom of the flower ; it is then 
 termed a super -ovary (fig. 
 112). At other times it is uni- 
 ted entirely round the tube of 
 the perianth, so as to form one 
 body with the calyx, and is 
 only free at its upper part ; in 
 this case the stamens and petals 
 seem to arise above the ovary, 
 and is said to be infra (below), 
 or adherent (fig. 113). This latter 
 arrangement carries with it the coherence 
 of the sepals to each other: therefore, 
 whenever the ovary is infra, the calyx 
 Fig. 113. NARCISSUS. is necessarily monose'palous. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 111. The pistil : a, the torus ; 6, the ovary; c, 
 the style ; </, the stigma. 
 
 52. Upon what does the number of cells in the ovary depend ? What dc 
 the cells of the carpels contain ? 
 
 53. What is a super-ovary ? What is an infra-ovary ? 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF FLOWERS. 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 Development and Functions of Flowers Flora's Calendar 
 Flora's Clock Fertilization of Flowers Fruit Epicarp 
 Mesocarp Endocarp Carpels Classification of fruits 
 Seeds ; their structure Embryo Coty'ledons Germination. 
 
 OF THE DEVELOPMENT AND FUNCTIONS OF FLOWERS. 
 
 1. Flowers are formed in certain plants long before 
 they appear externally ; in the palms, for example, they 
 remain concealed a year or even several years before they 
 show themselves. They first appear in the form of a 
 bud, which is generally a little larger than the buds of 
 the leaves, and for a certain time their different constituent 
 parts remain contracted ; they are then designated under 
 the name of flower-bud (fig. 114) ; finally, when they 
 approach a little nearer to the term of their growth, they 
 expand or blow, and it is to this phenomenon that we 
 ordinarily apply the name of inflorescence or flowering 
 of plants. 
 
 2. Plants do not fade till they attain a certain age, which 
 varies according to the species and according to circumstances, 
 but this period is deferred in proportion to the slowness of the 
 growth of the plant and the time it is destined to live. For 
 instance, herbs fade on the first year of their existence ; some 
 do not fade until the second year ; most shrubs only die in the 
 second, third, or even fourth year; and in trees, this phenome- 
 non is more tardy. A certain degree of heat is necessary to 
 effect inflorescence, and it is remarked that the same plant begins 
 to fade sooner in warm countries than in cold ; it sometimes even 
 happens, in the latter, that certain plants, if they can live at all, 
 never fade. Too much moisture, and superabundant nourish- 
 ment, by favouring the development of the leaves and stem, often 
 contribute to retard inflorescence. 
 
 3. When a perennial plant has begun to blossom, it ordinarily 
 produces new flowers every year at about the same period ; some- 
 times, however, this periodical return of inflorescence does not 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 114. A flower bud, magnified. 
 
 1. How do flowers first appear ? What is a flower-bud ? What is inflo- 
 rescence ? 
 
 2. When do plants fade? What circumstances exert an influence over 
 the duration of inflorescence ? 
 
 3. Is the recurrence of inflorescence regularly periodical in plants ? 
 
84 FLORA'S CLOCK. 
 
 occur with the same regularity, and when vegetation is injured 
 by any circumstance, it may have barren years. It has also 
 been observed, that when a tree has borne a great deal of fruit 
 one year and retained it late, inflorescence is feeble or entirely 
 wanting the succeeding year; and thus it is in the south of 
 Europe, when the olives are left late upon the trees, the harvest 
 fails the following year. Sometimes, on the contrary, the periods 
 of inflorescence are more approximated, and in warm and humid 
 autumns, we occasionally see plants flowering a second time. 
 
 4. The period of the year at which inflorescence takes place 
 is generally definite for each species of plant, but varies a little 
 according to the temperature and other atmospheric circum- 
 stances. For example, in the climate of Paris (which is similar 
 to that of the Middle States), the black hellebore flowers in 
 January ; the hazel tree and willow in February ; the box, the 
 yew, the almond, the peach, the apricot, the primrose, the stock- 
 gilly flower, in March ; the plum, the pine, the ash, the elm, the 
 yoke-elm, the hyacinth, the dandelion, &c., in April ; the apple, 
 the horse-chestnut, the lilac, the cherry, the peony, in May ; the 
 linden tree, the vine, oats, wheat, the wild red poppy, larkspur, 
 in June ; the violet, the carrot, hemp, lettuce, in July ; asters, 
 garden-balsams, and water-hyssop, in August; ivy, saffron, in 
 September; Jerusalem artichoke and certain other plants, in 
 October. The table of the different epochs of inflorescence con- 
 stitutes what botanists have named Flora's calendar. In colder 
 countries, inflorescence is retarded, while in the South it occurs 
 earlier ; for example, in Smyrna, the almond flowers in the first 
 fortnight of February ; in Germany, in the second half of April ; 
 and in Christiania (Sweden), in the first days of June. 
 
 5. The expansion or blooming of the flower is 
 almost always effected by the separation of the 
 pieces of the corolla and calyx from above down- 
 wards; but there are some in which the floral in- 
 teguments remain adherent to the summit, and 
 separate at the base, as in the vine, for example 
 (fig. 115). 
 
 6. The period of the day at which this phenomenon occurs 
 varies in the greatest number of plants, but in some it is fixed, 
 and a series of plants arranged according to the hour at which 
 the flowers blow, constitutes what Linnaeus called Flora's clock. 
 For example, at Paris, the bearbind (a species of bind-weed) 
 blows between three and four o'clock in the morning ; between 
 
 4. Does inflorescence recur in the same species of plant at the same 
 period ? What is meant by Flora's calendar ? 
 
 5. How does a flower expand ? 
 
 6. What is meant by JFlora's clock ? 
 
FERTILIZATION OF FLOWERS. 85 
 
 four and five, certain of the chicora'ceae expand ; between five 
 and six, the convolvulus tricolor appears ; about seven, the 
 lettuces, water-lilies, &c. ; about eight o'clock, a species of 
 chick-weed ; about nine, the umbel-flowered marigold ; at ten, 
 the ice-plant ; towards eleven, the purslain an-d the star of 
 Bethlehem ; about noon, most of the ficoides (fig-marigolds) ; 
 about sunset, the evening primrose ; between six and seven in 
 the evening, the marvel of Peru; between seven and eight, the 
 privet ; and about ten in the evening, a bind-weed, which garden- 
 ers call a morning-glory, because they always find it open when 
 they rise in the morning. 
 
 7. When the flower has arrived at a certain period of its 
 development, the pollen formed by the anthers falls upon the 
 stigma, and in this way causes the fecundation of the ovules, 
 enclosed in the inferior part of the pistil ; frequently the stamens 
 are inclined towards the pistil that they may more conveniently 
 deposit the pollen ; for example, in the geraniums, the filaments 
 of the stamens are curved so that the anther rests upon the 
 stigma ; and in the nasturtium, the eight stamens are each in- 
 clined in turn for eight successive days to deposit the pollen on 
 the pistil in this way ; and at other times this species of dust is 
 cast into the air, and borne by the wind to the pistil of the same, 
 or of a neighbouring flower. 
 
 8. It is easy to prove that the action of the pollen upon the 
 pistil is indispensable to the fecundation of the ovules and the 
 production of seeds which are developed in this organ. For 
 example, it is sufficient to cut off the stamens of an hermaphro- 
 dite flower to render it sterile (provided it be sufficiently removed 
 from other flowersun which the stamens have not been destroyed), 
 and when we have mutilated a flower in this way, it is sufficient 
 to cast upon its stigma some pollen taken from another flower of 
 the same species to make it produce seeds. In monceceous plants 
 (that is, having flowers with stamens and flowers with a pistil 
 only on the same stalk), as the maize, it is only necessary to 
 remove the flowers with stamens to prevent the others from pro- 
 ducing seeds ; and when the plants are dioeceous (that is, when 
 the stamens and pistils are borne on different stems) the fecun- 
 dating action of the pollen is still more evident ; it has been long 
 known that female date trees do not produce fruit, if they are 
 very distant from trees of the same species bearing flowers with 
 stamens ; and in this case they will not bear, if we are not care- 
 ful to dust over the branches, at the time of inflorescence, with 
 
 7. How are flowers fertilized by the pollen ? 
 
 8. What evidence have we that the pollen is necessary for the fecundation 
 of flowers ? 
 
 8 
 
86 FRUIT. 
 
 pollen derived from the male date. This operation is daily prac- 
 tised on date trees in the East; and during the expedition of the 
 French army in Egypt, the war having prevented the inhabitants 
 of that country from procuring, as usual, flowers with stamens, 
 they were deprived of their harvest of dates. 
 
 9. The grains of pollen that are deposited on the stigma meet 
 there with moisture, swell, burst, and permit the escape of the 
 granules contained within. These granules penetrate the spongy 
 tissue of the pistil, and descend to the ovules which they are 
 destined to fecundate. If the pollen is moistened before it 
 reaches the stigma, it bursts in the same way ; but in that case 
 the granules it contains are lost, and fecundation does not take 
 place ; for this reason nature ordinarily gives to the corolla a 
 form or position that protects the stamens against the action of 
 moisture. 
 
 10. When the ovules are fecundated, the flower fades, and all 
 the parts situate above the ovary, or that are not adherent to this 
 organ (as is sometimes the case with the calyx), fall or dry up. 
 But the ovules, as well as the parietes of the ovary, rapidly 
 enlarge and constitute the fruit. 
 
 OF FRUIT. 
 
 11. We give the name of fruit to the fecundated and increased 
 ovary, and, by extension, we also understand by this term, the 
 floral envelopes which may remain adherent to this organ. 
 
 12. The fruit is essentially composed 
 of two parts ; namely, the ovules or 
 seeds (fig* 116, e\ and the carpels or 
 ovaries which surround them, and for 
 this reason they are called by some 
 botanists the pericarp (Jig. 116, c, d) 
 (from the Greek, peri, around, and 
 karpos, fruit). These two parts are 
 never wanting, but the pericarp is 
 sometimes so thin and so closely united 
 to the seeds, that without a very care- 
 a e d ful examination, we would not believe 
 Fig. 116. APPLE. that it existed at all. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 116. Fleshy fruit (an apple) ; </, the peduncle; ft, 
 the remains of the limb of the calyx ; c, the sarcocarp, surrounded by the 
 calyx ; d, the lodges or cells lined by the endocarp ; e, the seeds. 
 
 9. What takes place after the pollen has been deposited on the stigma ? 
 
 1 0. What becomes of the flowers after the fertilization of the ovules ? 
 
 11. What is meant by fruit ? 
 
 12. Of what parts is the fruit composed? 
 
FRUIT. 87 
 
 13. A carpel may be compared, as we have before said, to 
 a leaf folded upon itself (that is, the edges rolled inwards to- 
 wards its midrib), and, like it, is composed of three layers ; 
 namely, an external membrane, which represents the epider- 
 mis of the inferior surface of the leaf, and in the fruit is named 
 epicarp (from the Greek, epi, upon, and karpos, fruit) ; a middle 
 layer, which is analogous to the paren'chyma of the leaf, and 
 is called the mesocarp (from the Greek, mesas, the middle, and 
 karpos, fruit), or sarcocarp (from the Greek, sarx, flesh, and 
 karpos, fruit, flesh of the fruit) ; finally, an internal membrane 
 or en'docarp (from the Greek, endon, within, and karpos, fruit), 
 which corresponds to the superior surface of the leaf; also, 
 the pericarp, which is nothing but the united or 
 agglutinated carpels, is essentially composed of 
 
 three layers ; namely, the epicarp, which occupies 
 the surface of it, the mesocarp, which is more deeply 
 situated, and the endocarp, which lines the lodges or 
 cells in which the seeds are found. 
 
 14. The epicarp frequently has upon its sur- ^ JC * ' 
 face, hairs, glands, and stomata ; in general, it is 
 
 thin and flexible, and is often easily detached from the subjacent 
 parts ; it is this membrane which forms the velvety skin of the 
 peach and of the plum. When the ovary is infra, that is, when- 
 ever it is united with the tube of the calyx, it is this tube which 
 constitutes the epicarp, and then we always distinguish at its 
 superior part, the teeth or divisions of the limb, or at least a 
 border formed by the remains of this part of the floral envelope, 
 which fades after fecundation (Jig. 116, &). 
 
 15. The mesocarp is the parenchy'matous portion in which all 
 the vessels of the fruit are united. It frequently presents a very 
 considerable thickness and a fleshy consistence (which has ob- 
 tained for it the name of sarcocarp), as in the peach, the apricot, 
 the cherry, &c., and constitutes the part we eat. Sometimes the 
 mesocarp is dry and fibrous, as in the almond, or it constitutes the 
 part called the sJiell ; and at other times it is so thin as to be 
 hardly distinguished. 
 
 16. The endocarp which internally lines carpels or ovaries, 
 and constitutes the layer of the pericarp nearest the seed, varies 
 much. In most fruits it is thin and transparent (as in the husk 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 117. Fruit of a palm tree opened; a, the peri 
 carp, composed of three layers, called epicarp, mesocarp, and endocarp ; 
 b, the seed ; c, its embryo. 
 
 13. Of what parts is a carpel composed ? 
 
 14. What is the epicarp ? 
 
 15. What is the mesocarp? 
 
 16. What is the endocarp ? 
 
88 FRUIT. 
 
 of beans, for example), but at other times it becomes hard and 
 brittle, and forms what is named the stone of the fruit. 
 
 17. Each carpel has two edges, one named dorsal, which cor- 
 responds to the primary nerve of this appendage, and another, 
 called ventral, which results from the agglutination of these two 
 edges to each other ; and, when the edges of the carpel, in place 
 of being simply joined, are folded inwards, they constitute an in- 
 ternal partition which divides the ovarian cell or cavity into two 
 parts. 
 
 18. The carpels are sometimes single in each flower, some- 
 times more or less numerous, and in this last case they may be 
 agglutinated to each other in different ways, and constitute com- 
 pound fruits, the appearance of which varies. Sometimes they 
 are very distinct externally, at other times are united with the 
 torus and with the calyx in such a manner that no trace of ex- 
 ternal union can be seen, and constitute a simple fruit (fig. 116). 
 In general the cells of different carpels united into a single mass, 
 are perfectly distinct, and the compound fruit consequently pre- 
 sents as many cells as there are carpels ; but sometimes the car- 
 pels are not closed along their ventral edge, and then the cells of 
 all these organs communicate with each other, and constitute a 
 single cavity, of which the circumference only is more or less 
 lobed. And it also happens sometimes that the partitions, which 
 separate the neighbouring cells, are in part destroyed by the pro- 
 gress of maturation, and all the cells of a compound fruit are 
 united into a single cavity, the centre of which is occupied by a 
 species of column formed by the remains of the ventral edge of 
 the carpels thus united. Often one or more carpels abort and 
 leave no trace of their existence. Finally, not only may the 
 carpels of the same flower be united to each other, but sometimes 
 those of neighbouring flowers approximate, and become agglu- 
 tinated into a single mass, and thus constitute what is termed an 
 aggregate fruit. Figs, and the cones of the pine tree are com- 
 posed in this way. 
 
 19. At the period of their maturity fruits present still other 
 important differences ; some are indehiscent (from the Latin in, 
 not, and dehiscere, to gape wide open), that is, they do not open 
 spontaneously ; others, on the contrary, open of themselves, and 
 are called for this reason, dehiscent. In simple fruits, the open- 
 ing generally takes place at the agglutinated edges of the carpel, 
 or by this and the dorsal edge at the same time, so that the fruit 
 is divided into two pieces called valves. In the compound fruits, 
 
 17. What is meant by the dorsal and ventral edges of a carpel ? 
 
 18. Have all flowers the same number of carpels? What is meant by 
 an aggregate fruit ? 
 
 19. What is meant by an indehiscent fruit ? What is a dehiscent fruit 1 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS. 89 
 
 we sometimes see the different carpels separate and fall singly 
 then remain closed, or open in the same way as the simple fruits; 
 sometimes also the back of each cell is torn without the carpels 
 being separated. 
 
 The differences that we have pointed out in the conformation 
 of fruits and the principal variations of form which they present, 
 have led botanists to class them as follows : 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS. 
 
 20. All fruits are included in three classes. 
 
 21. The first CLASS is composed of the SIMPLE or APOCARPOUS 
 fruits, formed of a single carpel or of several free carpels. 
 
 The first division of this class includes what are termed dry 
 fruits, having a thin pericarp and being but slightly furnished 
 with juices, and generally contain only a small number of seeds. 
 
 22. This division contains two varieties ; the first are the in- 
 dehiscent, simple fruits : under this head we have the three fol- 
 lowing forms : 
 
 Caryopsis. Fruit monospermatic (from the Greek, monos, 
 single, and sperma, seed, having one seed) and indehiscent, the 
 pericarp of which is very thin, and intimately connected with the 
 seed, as wheat, barley, rice, oats, &c. 
 
 Akene or achenium (from the Greek, a, without, and chaind, 
 I gape). Fruit monospermatic and indehiscent, the pericarp of 
 which is distinct from the proper covering of the seed, as in 
 hemp, sunflower, &c. 
 
 Gland or nut. Fruit unilocular (from the Latin, unus, one, 
 and loculus, partition, seed-vessel not separated into cells) and 
 therefore monospermatic, from the constant abortion of all the 
 ovules except one ;* the coriaceous or woody pericarp of this one 
 presents at its summit vestiges of the limb of the calyx, and is 
 enclosed, either partly or entirely, in a kind of involucrum called 
 cupule, as in the oak. 
 
 23. The second variety of the first division of the first class 
 contains the three following dehiscent fruits : 
 
 * If we regarded the carpels which constantly abort in glands, ache- 
 niums, &c., we must place these in the class of compound fruits ; but most 
 botanists place them here, because, at maturity, they are essentially com 
 posed of a single carpel. 
 
 20. How are fruits classified ? 
 
 21. What are the general characters of fruits of the first class? 
 
 22. What is a caryopsis ? What is an achenium ? What is a gland or 
 nut? 
 
 23. What is a follicula ? What is a legume ? What is a lomentum ? 
 
 8* 
 
90 FORMS OF FRUITS. 
 
 FoLlicula (little bag follicle). Fruit ordinarily 
 membranous, opening longitudinally on the ventral 
 surface, as the larkspur, senna, &c. 
 
 Legume or husk. Fruit which is ordinarily mem- 
 branous, elongated, and compressed in form, 
 opens longitudinally both by the ventral and 
 dorsal suture at the same time, as peas, 
 beans, &c. (Jig. 118). 
 
 Lomentum. Fruit similar to a pod or 
 legume, but contracted at different points, 
 forming partitions which result from the 
 cohesion of the two faces of the carpel, and 
 opening by transverse sections, as in Cassia 
 3 - fistula (fig. 119). 
 
 24. The second division of the first class contains 
 fleshy fruits, having a thick, pulpy, and succulent 
 pericarp ; they are never dehiscent. 
 
 It contains the two following forms : 
 
 Drupe. Fruit fleshy, enclosing a nut internally 
 
 (the mesocarp being fleshy and very thick, and the 
 
 endocarp coriaceous, or bony), as the peach, the Fig. 119. 
 
 apricot, the cherry, &c. CASSIA - 
 
 Nut. Fruit similar to a drupe, but the mesocarp is less thick, 
 
 and constitutes what is called a shell (as the fruit of the almond). 
 
 Sometimes these fruits, in place of being isolated, are grouped 
 
 together on a fleshy gymnophore so as to resemble a compound 
 
 fruit, as in the strawberry and raspberry. 
 
 25. The SECOND CLASS is composed of fruits that are COM- 
 POUND or SYNCARPOUS (from the Greek, sun, with, and karpos, 
 carpel or fruit) : they are formed of several carpels of the same 
 flower agglutinated together. 
 
 26. The fruits of the first division of the second class are free, 
 not being united to the calyx or perigon through the medium of 
 the torus. The first variety contains the two following dehiscent 
 fruits : 
 
 Silique or siliqua. Fruit dry, analogous to a legume, but 
 bilocular (from the Latin, bis, two, and loculus, partition), and 
 having the seeds attached upon the two edges of the partition in 
 each cell, as the cabbage, rose, &c. 
 
 Capsule. Fruit dry, formed of two or more carpels united 
 together, and opening in different ways, but not bivalve, as the 
 
 poppy- 
 
 24. What is a drupe ? What is a nut ? 
 
 25. What are compound fruits ? 
 
 26. What is a silique ? What is a capsule ? :.+'*,& 
 
FORMS OF FRUITS. 91 
 
 27. The second variety of the first division of the second class 
 consists of the following indehiscent fruit : 
 
 Hesperide orange. Fruit fleshy, composed of a common 
 epicarp, and several cells formed by the endocarp of different 
 carpels, and filled with a sort of pulp, as the orange, citron, &c. 
 
 The fruits of the second division of the second class are 
 adherent, being united to the calyx or perigon through the medium 
 of the torus. 
 
 28. The first variety of this division contains fleshy or pulpy 
 fruits. 
 
 Pome or apple. Fruit composed of several indehiscent car- 
 pels with a cartilaginous or bony pericarp, completely enveloped 
 by a fleshy indehiscent calyx to which they are agglutinated, as 
 the apple, pear, medlar, &c. 
 
 Melonide or pepo. Fruit unilocular, formed of several inde- 
 hiscent carpels with edges not infolded, and enclosing numerous 
 seeds surrounded by a pulp, as melons, gourds, &c. 
 
 Berry. Fruit multilocular, indehiscent, semi-fluid internally, 
 as gooseberries, &c. 
 
 The second variety includes dry fruits and certain adherent 
 .japsules, &c. 
 
 29. The THIRD CLASS is composed of fruits that are AGGRE- 
 GATED or POLYANTHOCARPOUS (from the Greek, polus, many, 
 anthos, flower, and karpos, fruit, fruit from many flowers), 
 because these fruits are formed by the approximation or aggluti- 
 nation of the fruits of many flowers. The three following are 
 placed in this class : 
 
 Cone. An assemblage of sessile fruits concealed at the base 
 of convex scales formed by bracts, or by a ligneous pericarp, as 
 the pine, savin, &c. 
 
 Sycone. An assemblage of very small fruits analogous to 
 drupes, enclosed in a fleshy concave receptacle, as figs ( fig. 78). 
 
 Sorose. An assemblage of fruits attached to a single body, by 
 means of their floral envelopes, which are fleshy and united so as 
 to resemble a mammalated berry, as the mulberry, &c. 
 
 " Of the terms above explained only a few are in common use, and it 
 seems to be found by systematic botanists more convenient to describe a 
 given fruit by exact words, than to use any particular term. The names 
 most employed are achenium, nut, caryopsis, drupe, capsule, siliqua, legume, 
 and cone." Lindley. 
 
 27. What is a hesperide ? 
 
 28. What is a pome ? What is a pepo ? What is a berry ? 
 
 29. What are aggregated fruits ? What is a cone ? What is a sycono ? 
 What is a sorose ? 
 
92 
 
 SEEDS. 
 
 Fig. 120. 
 
 OF SEEDS. 
 
 30. The seeds, which, during the early period of 
 their development, are called ovules, are produced in 
 the interior of the cells of the carpel or ovary, along 
 the ventral suture of this organ (jig* 120). 
 
 31. That part of the carpel from which the seeds 
 spring is named the placenta or trophosperm (from 
 the Greek, trepho, I nourish, and sperma, seed, seed- 
 nourisher), and the stalk or thread by which the 
 seeds are attached to it, we call the funicula (Latin, 
 little cord) or podosperm (from the Greek, pous, in 
 the genitive, podos, foot, and sperma, seed, seed-foot 
 or seed-stalk). 
 
 32. The funicula in general resembles a little 
 pedicle, and its extremity is expanded sometimes 
 around the seed so as to envelope it more or less, 
 and constitute what is named the aril (arillus). 
 
 Sometimes this expansion of the funicula is thick and fleshy ; 
 sometimes thin and membranous ; its form varies considerably. 
 In the nutmeg tree, for example, the aril forms a fleshy lamina 
 of a bright red, divided* in shreds which envelope the nutmeg, 
 and constitutes the spice called mace. It is to be remembered 
 that the aril is found only in those plants that have a monope- 
 lalous corolla. 
 
 33. The seed itself is the part of the perfect fruit contained in 
 the interior of the carpel, and encloses the body which is destined 
 to become the new plant. The point by which it adheres to its 
 funicula, generally has the appearance of a small scar or cicatrix, 
 and is called the hilum. Finally, the seed is composed of two series 
 of organs ; namely, the accessory parts, and the essential parts. 
 
 34. The accessory parts of the seed are 
 divided into the spermoderm (from the Greek, 
 sperma, seed, and derma, skin) or episperm 
 (from the Greek, epi t upon, and sperma, seed), 
 and the albumen ; the essential part is called the 
 embryo (jig- 121). 
 
 35. The spermoderm or skin of the seed is 
 Fig. 121. sometimes a simple membrane, and sometimes a 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 121. The seed of a bean, split open to show the 
 spermoderm (a), the plumule (c), and the radicle (6). 
 
 30. Where are seeds formed ? What are ovules ? 
 
 31. What is the placenta ? What is the funicula? 
 
 32. What is the aril ? What is mace ? 
 
 33. What is the hilum ? 
 
 34. What constitutes the accessory parts of the seed ? 
 
 35. What is the spermoderm ? 
 
PARTS OF SEEDS. 
 
 covering composed of two or even three coats. The nutritious 
 vessels of the seed, which come from the trophosperm, ramify in 
 the thickness of this seed-covering, and we usually perceive near 
 the centre of the hilum a minute hole, which gives them a free 
 passage. 
 
 33. The al'bumen, also called perisperm (from the Greek, peri, 
 around, and sperma, seed) or endosperm (from the Greek, endon, 
 within, and sperma, seed) ; the albumen is a body intermediate 
 between the spermoderm and the embryo, which surrounds the 
 latter (embryo) and ordinarily constitutes a depot of nutritive 
 matter. In general it is formed of a kind of cellular tissue, in 
 which is found the fecula, as in wheat; at other times it encloses 
 fatty matter, as in the castor oil plant (palma christi) ; frequently 
 it is very thin, and sometimes it is entirely wanting. 
 
 37. The embryo or essential part of the seed is the rudiment 
 of the new plant which the seed is destined to produce. In 
 plants unprovided with albumen or perisperm, the embryo con- 
 sists of a single kernel or almond, and fills the sperrnoderm. In 
 this case we call it an epispermatic embryo, because it is covered 
 immediately by the epispenn, or internal layer of the spermoderm. 
 But in plants that are provided with an albumen, the kernel is 
 composed of the latter united to the embryo. (In this instance it 
 is termed an endospermatic embryo.} In this latter case the posi- 
 tion of the embryo may vary considerably ; sometimes it is sim- 
 ply applied upon a point of the surface of the albumen, which 
 presents for its reception a little pit (fossette), as in the grain of 
 wheat, or it may be rolled around the albumen so as to envelope 
 it, more or less completely ; it is then said to be extra : at other 
 times it is entirely enclosed in the interior of the albumen, and 
 then takes the name ofintra embryo, as in the castor-oil seed. 
 
 38. We distinguish in the embryo, that is, 
 in the young plant which is still enclosed in 
 the seed, three principal parts ; the radicle, the 
 plumule^ and the cotyledons (figs. 121 and 
 122). 
 
 39. The radicle (fgs. 124 and 125) is the 
 young root, which before germination is al- 
 ways simple, but by development it is more 
 
 or less divided, and constantly tends towards the centre of the 
 earth. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 122. The seed of a bean : a, the coty'ledons ; ft, 
 the radicle. 
 
 36. What is the albumen ? 
 
 37. What is the embryo ? 
 
 38. What parts are distinguished in the embryo ? 
 
 39. What is the radicle ? 
 
94 COTYLEDONS. 
 
 40. The plumule (Jigs. 121, c, and 125, d] or young stem is 
 sometimes scarcely visible before germination ; at other times it 
 is as long as the radicle with which it is inferiorly continuous : 
 by development it becomes elongated in a direction contrary to 
 that of the root, and consequently it always tends to rise. We 
 distinguish in it two parts, namely : the stemmule and the gemmule, 
 situate one above and the other below the coty'ledons. 
 
 41. The coty'ledons are lateral appendages 
 which represent the first leaves (Jig. 123). They" 
 are almost always thick and fleshy in plants un- 
 provided with albumen, but thin and membranous 
 in endospermntic seeds. Their use seems to be to 
 furnish the young plant with the first alimentary 
 matter, and their number is various ; sometimes 
 
 there is but one and at others there are two or 
 Fig. 123. 
 
 COTYLEDON. , _ ,-,, , , . , , 
 
 42. Plants whose seeds contain only a single 
 coty'ledon, are named monocot.y 'ledons (from the Greek, monos, 
 single, and kotuledbn, seed-lobe) ; those whose seeds contain two 
 or more coty'ledons, are named dicoty 'ledons (from the Greek, dis, 
 two, and kotuleddn, seed-lobe). 
 
 &"- x=*r^\ The annexed figure (124) 
 
 a--"|jglin\ represents the section of a 
 
 seed of a monoeoty'ledon in 
 process of germination, 
 showing the perisperm (a) ; 
 the summit of the single 
 coty'ledon (&) ; the base of 
 the coty'ledon, forming a 
 sort of tube (c) ; at the lower 
 part of the base we see the 
 plumule (d), which sets upon 
 the radicle (e). 
 
 Figure 125 represents the same seed, further Fig. 125. 
 advanced in germination, after the appearance COTYLEDON. 
 of the plumule or young stem (d). 
 
 43. When the seeds are ripe or a short time afterwards, they 
 separate from the plant; sometimes the fruit opens spontaneously 
 to permit their escape ; at other times they are detached without 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 123. A seed in process of germination : c, base of 
 the cotyledon. 
 
 40. What is the plumule ? (Plumule : from the Latin plumula, a little 
 feather.) 
 
 41. What are coty'ledons ? What is their use ? 
 
 42. What is meant by a monoeoty'ledon ? What is dicoty'ledon ? 
 
 43. How are seeds naturally distributed ? 
 
GERMINATION. 95 
 
 its opening, and the pericarp is sown entire, or in part, with the 
 seed. Most seeds fall upon the surface of the ground, and nature 
 resorts to various means to secure their dispersion : sometimes 
 they are surmounted by a little plume which takes the wind ; at 
 other times they are furnished with wings, so as to be readily 
 carried to a distance ; they are often conveyed to great distances 
 by the currents of rivers or of the sea ; and occasionally their 
 dissemination is effected in a still more singular manner, for it 
 frequently happens that birds eat fruits, the seeds of which they 
 do not digest, but afterwards discharge at some more or less 
 distant place, where they germinate and grow. 
 
 44. The number of seeds produced by most plants is so con 
 siderable that if every seed germinated, the product of some 
 square leagues of land would be equivalent, according to several 
 calculations, to the vegetation of the whole world. For example, 
 160,000 seeds have been counted on a single stalk of tobacco, 
 arid 629,000 on an elm. But this seeming prodigality on nature's 
 part is only a wise precaution against the numerous causes of 
 destruction to which they are exposed. 
 
 OF GERMINATION. 
 
 45. The term germination is applied to the series of pheno- 
 mena that a seed presents, in effecting the development of the 
 embryo it contains. Germination cannot take place except under 
 a concurrence of circumstances dependent on the seed itself and 
 external influences. The seed must be ripe, enclose a complete 
 embryo, and not be too old. There are some seeds that retain 
 the faculty of germinating for a very long time ; wheat and beans 
 enjoy this property for sixty and even a hundred years, while 
 coffee, on the contrary, loses it in a very short time. Some, when 
 protected from contact with the air, preserve their germinative 
 faculty for a long period : on the other hand, the seed must be 
 subject to the action of certain external agents, the chief of which 
 are water, heat, and air. Water is indispensable to germination ; 
 it acts by penetrating the substance of the seed, by softening its 
 envelopes, by causing the embryo to swell, and by bringing about 
 in the endosperm or in the coty'ledons, chemical changes, which 
 render the substances deposited in their paren'chyma (from the 
 Greek, paregchuein, to strain through, the spongy and cellular 
 tissue of organized bodies) fit to nourish the young plant. Heat 
 is also necessary : below a certain temperature the seed remains 
 
 4<J. Are the seeds of plants very numerous ? 
 
 45. What is meant by germination ? What circumstances are essential 
 to germination ? 
 
96 
 
 GERMINATION. 
 
 inactive; too much heat destroys the vegetative power; the 
 extreme limits are between thirty-two and one hundred and 
 twenty-two degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer. The presence 
 of air is as indispensable to the germination of seeds, or at least 
 to their development, as it is to the respiration of animals. It 
 acts through the means of the oxygen it contains ; seeds placed 
 in contact with this gas are stimulated in their germination. 
 Light, on the contrary, hinders or at least retards it much. 
 
 46. The first phenomenon observed in germination is the 
 swelling of the seed and the softening of its envelopes ; the time 
 at which the latter burst varies in different plants ; the manner 
 of this rupture is either regular or irregular. From this moment 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 we observe the embryo,which 
 is at this period termed plan- 
 tule (diminutive plant), begin 
 to develope (figs. 126 and 
 127), we observe its two 
 extremities which constantly 
 grow in opposite directions ; 
 .j the gemmule, called the as- 
 cending caudex, is directed 
 towards the air and light ; 
 the radicle or descending 
 caudex tends to bury itself in 
 the ground. The substance 
 of the coty'ledons liquefies ; 
 it becomes milky and serves 
 for the nourishment of the 
 plantule; the perisperm un- 
 dergoes an analogous trans- 
 formation and appears to 
 perform the same function. 
 While the radicle, by pene- 
 trating the earth, gives rise 
 to delicate little ramifications, 
 the stemmule lengthens and 
 raises up the coty'ledons. 
 The gemmule is at once free 
 
 d 
 
 Fig. 127. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 126. Seed of a bean in a state of germination ; a, 
 the spermoderm split ; 6, coty'ledons ; c, radicle ; d, plumule. 
 
 Fig. 127. The same bean in a more advanced stage of development; 
 a, radicle ; 6, collum or neck ; c, the stemmule ; </, the cotyle'donous 
 leaves. 
 
 46. What is the first phenomenon observed in germination ? What is 
 the ascending caudex ? What is the descending caudex ? When does 
 germination cease ? 
 
GERMINATION. 97 
 
 and uncovered ; the little leaves of which it is composed expand, 
 increase in size, become green, and begin to draw from the 
 atmosphere a portion of the fluids which nourish the young plant. 
 The act of germination is now at an end, and nutrition goes on 
 as we described it when speaking particularly of this function. 
 
 47. All seeds do not require the same period of time for their 
 germination. For instance, certain cresses germinate in two 
 days ; the turnip and bean in three days ; lettuce in four ; the 
 melon in five ; most of the grasses in six or seven days ; the 
 hyssop in a month ; the peach in a year, and rose tree in two 
 years, &c. 
 
 48. What we have hitherto said of fructification relates entirely 
 to cotyle'donous plants ; and we have still to say a few words of 
 what takes place in acoty'ledons (from the Greek, a, without, and 
 kotuledbn, seed-lobe), in which we find neither flowers, nor seed, 
 nor embryo. The class of acoty'ledons comprises all plants 
 which are unprovided with true organs of generation, that is, 
 stamens and pistils ; on this account they are named crypto' gam- 
 ous (from the Greek, kruptos, concealed, and gamos, marriage) 
 or agamous (from the Greek, a, without, and gamos, marriage), 
 and are produced through the means of corpuscules, analogous 
 in their structure and development to the bulbills or bulblets of 
 certain perennial plants. These corpuscules (minute bodies) are 
 named sporules or seminules ; they are contained in envelopes 
 called conceptades, and are variously placed either in the interior 
 of the plant itself, or (but more rarely) on its exterior in the form 
 of tubercles, as we shall see when we come to speak of the his- 
 tory of these plants. 
 
 47. Do all seeds require the same time for germination ? 
 
 48. What are acoty'ledons ? What plants are contained in the class of 
 acoty'ledons ? What are crypto'gamous plants ? 
 
98 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. Natural and artificial Methods 
 Artificial System of Linnceus The Natural Method of 
 Jussieu. 
 
 CRYPTO'GAMOUS PLANTS. Lichens, Fungi, Agarics, Truffle, 
 Algce, Mosses, Ferns. 
 
 PHANERO'GAMOUS PLANTS Monocotyledons Grasses Wheat, 
 Rye, Barley, Malt, Oats, Rice, Maize, Sugar-cane, Sugar, 
 Sugar -candy Palms Narcissus Dicoty' ledons Apetal- 
 ous Dicoty' ledons Monopetalous Dicoty' ledons Potatoe, To 
 bacco, Belladonna, Olive, Sage, Coffee Pof.ypetalous Dico- 
 ty' ledons Hemlock, Mallow, Cotton, Flax, Orange, Tea, Vine 
 Wine, Poppy, Sensitive Plant, Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry t 
 Apricot, Peach, Strawberry, <SfC. Diclinece Hop, Hemp, 
 Elm, Bread-fruit, Oak, Chestnut, Ash, Pine Of the Uses of 
 Plants Examples of ornamental Plants. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 1. As we staled when beginning the natural history of ani- 
 mals, we give the name of classification to any arrangement 
 designed to facilitate the determining and study of objects, by 
 separating them into more or less numerous groups, which, in 
 their turn, are again divided and subdivided ; and by assigning to 
 each of these divisions a name and character suitable to enable 
 us to recognise all bodies of which they are composed. 
 
 2. With this view we make use of two kinds of classifica- 
 tion ; one called an artificial system, and the other a natural 
 method. > ; 
 
 3. An ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM or classification of plants is a mode 
 of arrangement by means of which we may readily obtain a 
 knowledge of the name of a plant, by examining the characters 
 furnished in the conformation of certain parts of these beings. 
 In this kind of classification we divide and subdivide the vege- 
 table kingdom into groups, into each one of which we range all 
 those plants which possess a certain character, selected arbitrarily, 
 and exclude all those that do not possess this same character, 
 without considering whether we separate in this way, plants that 
 resemble each other in all the most important relations, or 
 whether we bring together in the same division, other plants that 
 
 1. What is meant by classification ? 
 
 2. By what modes are plants classified ? 
 
 3. What is understood by the artificial method or system of classifica- 
 tion ? 
 
NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL SYSTEMS. 
 
 possess scarcely any properly in common with each other. On 
 this principle we might class plants according to the variations 
 observed in the form and structure of the leaves, or of the corolla 
 of the flower, or any other organ ; but by proceeding in this way, 
 we should learn almost nothing in relation to the organization of 
 these beings, or in respect to the degrees of resemblance or dis- 
 similarity they possess. 
 
 4. A natural method or classification is, on the contrary, a 
 sort of synoptical table of all the modifications that nature has 
 produced in the conformation of plants, a table in which these 
 modifications are arranged according to their relative importance, 
 and serve for the establishment of divisions and successive sub- 
 divisions. In consequence of this, plants arranged according to 
 this method have more important and more numerous points of 
 resemblance to each other in proportion to their approximation to 
 each other in the classification ; for instance, when two plants are 
 placed in two different divisions, it is because they differ from 
 each other in more respects than either of them differs from all 
 the other plants with which it is arranged, and these differences 
 are less important between different species of the same genus 
 than between the different genera of the same family. Those 
 characters which distinguish the families from each other are, in 
 their turn, of less importance than those employed to separate 
 from each other the groups formed by the union of several of 
 these families, and so on. By the assistance of these methods 
 we determine the name of a plant we wish to know with less 
 facility than by an artificial system, but we acquire much more 
 important knowledge, because, having thus ascertained the place 
 a plant occupies in a classification of this kind, we know the 
 principal features of its mode of organization, and consequently 
 its physiological history also. 
 
 5. Botanists have successively employed different artificial 
 systems and the natural method in the classification of plants. 
 Among the first, there is one which, from its simplicity, and the 
 celebrity it for a long time enjoyed, merits being cited here ; it is 
 the System of Linnceus (a Swedish botanist who died in 1778), 
 which is based upon the differences that plants present in the 
 various essential parts of their flowers, but especially in their 
 stamens. 
 
 6. In this system of classification plants unprovided with 
 stamens and pistils form a particular class, and those which pos- 
 sess these organs are divided : frst, according to the existence of 
 stamens and pistils in the same flower, or in different flowers ; 
 
 4. What is meant by the natural method ? 
 
 5. Which method or system of classification is employed by botanists ? 
 
 6. Upon what principle is the artificial system of Linnaeus based ? 
 
100 LINN^EAN SYSTEM. 
 
 second^ according to the cohesion of the stamens to each other or 
 with the pistil, or according to their not cohering ; third, accord- 
 ing to the relative length of the stamens ; fourth, according to the 
 number of stamens, &c. 
 
 7. The first eleven classes are characterized by the number of 
 stamens. The names of these and the two succeeding classes are 
 formed from the Greek by prefixing the proper numerals to the 
 word nner (man), used metaphorically for stamen. 
 
 Class 1. MOXAXDRIA : includes all plants with perfect flowers that 
 have but one stamen. 
 
 2. DIAXDRJA : two stamens. 
 
 3. TRIANDRIA : three stamens. 
 
 4. TETRAXDRIA : four stamens. 
 
 5. PENTANDRIA : five stamens. 
 G. HEXANDRIA : six stamens. 
 
 7. HEPTAJJDRIA : seven stamens. 
 
 8. OCTANDRIA : eight stamens. 
 
 9. ENXEANDR.IA : nine stamens. 
 
 10. DECANDRIA : ten stamens. 
 
 11. DODECANDRIA : eleven to nineteen stamens. 
 
 8. The two succeeding classes are characterized by the num- 
 ber of the stamens with their mode of insertion. 
 
 12. ICOSAXDRIA : twenty or more stamens which are attached 
 to or stand upon the calyx ; as in the apple, cherry, &,c. 
 
 13. POLYANDRIA: twenty or more stamens which do not ad- 
 here to the calyx, that is, the stamens are hypogy'nous. 
 
 9. The two following classes are characterized by the relative 
 length of their stamens : 
 
 14. DIDYNA'MIA (from the Greek, dis, two, and dunamis, 
 power) : two long and two shorter stamens, as in mint. 
 
 15. TETRADYXA'MIA (from the Greek, tetleres, four, and duna- 
 mis, power) : four long, and two short stamens, the longer 
 stamens are supposed to be the most powerful. 
 
 10. The four following classes are characterized by the con- 
 nexion of the stamens. 
 
 16. MOXODE'LPHIA (from the Greek, monos, single, and del- 
 phos, brotherhood) : having the filaments of all the stamens 
 united into a set or tube, constituting a single brotherhood , 
 Example, the mallow. 
 
 17. DIABE'LPHIA (from the Greek, dis, two, and delphos) 
 having the filaments of the stamens united in two sets, as 
 in the pea. 
 
 7. How are the first eleven classes of the Linnsean system named and 
 characterized ? 
 
 8. How is the class Icosa'ndria characterized ? How is the class Poly, 
 andria characterized ? 
 
 9. How is the class Didyna'mia recognised ? What are the characters 
 of the class Tetradyria'mia ? 
 
 10. What are the characters of the class Monodelphia ? What are the 
 characters of Dia'delphia? What are the characters of Polya'delpbia ? 
 
LINN^JAN SYSTEM. 101 
 
 18. POLYDE'LPHIA (from the Greek, polus, many, and delphos) : 
 having the filaments of the stamens united into more than 
 two sets. 
 
 19. SYNGENE'SIA (from the Greek, 'sun, together, and geinomai, 
 to arise, to grow) : having the stamens united by their 
 anthers in a ring or tube, as in the sunflower. 
 
 20. GYNA'NDRIA (from the Greek, gune^ woman, used meta- 
 phorically for pistil, and oner, stamen) : having the stamens, 
 in appearance, growing out of the pistil, as in the ladies' 
 slipper. 
 
 In all the preceding classes the flowers are perfect. 
 
 11. The next three classes are characterized by the stamens 
 and pistils being separately contained in different flowers. 
 
 21. MONOZ'CIA (from the Greek, monos, single, and oikia, 
 house) : the stamens and pistils are in separate flowers, but 
 both grow on the same plant, or both dwell in the same 
 house, as the name denotes. 
 
 22. DKE'CIA (from the Greek, dis, two, and oikia} : the stamens 
 and pistils are not only in separate flowers, but on different 
 individuals, they are in two households. 
 
 23. POLYGA'MIA (from the Greek, polus, many, and gamos, 
 marriage or union) : the stamens and pistils are separate 
 in some flowers, and united in others, all on the same, or 
 on two or three individuals of the same species. 
 
 12. The last class includes flowers in which neither stamens 
 nor pistils are visible. They are now termed flowerless plants. 
 
 24. CRYPTOGA'MIA (from the Greek, kruptos, concealed, and 
 gamos, marriage) : having the essential organs of the flower 
 concealed from view. 
 
 A synoptical view of the Linua3an classes is seen in the 
 following : 
 
 What are the characters of Syngenesia? What are the characters of 
 Gynandria ? 
 
 11. What are the characters of Monoecia ? What are the characters of 
 Dicecia ? What are the characters of Polygamia ? 
 
 12. What are the characters of the class Cryptoga'mia ? 
 
 9* 
 
102 
 
 LINN^JAN SYSTEM. 
 
 PLANTS 
 
LINNJEAN SYSTEM. 103 
 
 13. In the first thirteen classes of the Linnsean system, the 
 orders are founded on the number of styles, and when these are 
 wanting, on the number of stigmas. The names of these orders 
 are formed by prefixing numerals from the Greek to the word 
 gynia, from gune (woman), metaphorically used for pistil. 
 
 Order 1 . MONOGYNIA : 1 style, or sessile stigma. 
 
 2. DIGYNIA : 2 styles, or sessile stigmas. 
 
 3. TRIGYNIA : 3 " 
 
 4. TETRAGYNIA : 4 " 
 
 5. PENTAGYNIA : 5 u 
 
 6. HEXAGYNIA : 6 " 
 
 7. HEPTAGYNIA : 7 " 
 
 8. OCTAGYNIA : 8 " 
 
 9. ENNEAGYMA : 9 " 
 
 10. DECAGYNIA: 10 u 
 
 11. DODECAGYNIA : 12, or about twelve. 
 
 12. POLYGYNIA: more than 12. 
 
 The sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth orders are very rarely found. 
 
 14. The 14th class, Didyna'mia, contains two orders, named 
 and characterized as follows : 
 
 GYMNOSPE'RMIA (from the Greek, gumnos, naked, and sperma, 
 seed) : has naked seed, commonly four in number. 
 
 ANGIOSPE'RMIA (from the Greek, aggeion, a vessel, and sperma, 
 seed) : has the seeds, which are usually numerous, enclosed 
 in a seed-vessel. 
 
 lo. The 15th class, Tetradyna'mia, has two ordersj distin- 
 guished by the form of the fruit. 
 
 SILICULO'SA : fruit a silicle or roundish pod. 
 SILIQUO'SA : fruit a silique. 
 
 16. The orders of the 16th, 17th, and 18th classes are 
 founded on the characters of the first thirteen classes. For 
 example, the mallow, which belongs to the 16th class, Monodel- 
 phia, has more than 20 stamens, and therefore belongs to the 
 order Polyandria of that class. 
 
 17. The 19th class, Syngenesia, has five orders, characterized 
 by the nature of the florets, whether perfect, separated, or barren. 
 
 1. POLYGAMIA ^EQUALIS has perfect florets, that is, furnished 
 with both stamens and pistils. Example, the thistle. 
 
 2. POLYGAMIA SUFE'RFLUA has the florets of the disk perfect, 
 and those of the ray furnished with pistils only. Example, 
 the aster. 
 
 13. On what characters are the orders of the first 13 classes of the 
 Linnsean system founded ? 
 
 14. What are the orders of the class Didynamia ? 
 
 15. What are the orders of Tetradynamia ? 
 
 16. On what characters are the 16th, 17th, and 18th classes founded ? 
 
 17. What are the orders of Syngenesia ? 
 
104 NATURAL METHOD. 
 
 3. POLYGAMIA FRUSTRANEA : has the, florets of the disk per 
 feet; those of the ray without either stamens or pistils 
 which are well formed. Example, the sunflower. 
 
 4. POLYGAMIA NECESSARIA : has the florets of the disk with 
 stamens only, the stigmas being imperfect ; and those of 
 the ray with pistils only. Example, silphium. 
 
 5. POLYGAMIA SEGREGATA : has all the florets perfect, and each 
 floret has a well formed calyx, the whole being enclosed in 
 an involucre. Example, elephantopus. 
 
 The orders of the 20th, 21st, and 22d classes are for the most 
 part characterized by the number of stamens. 
 
 18. The 23d class, Polygamia, has three orders founded on 
 the immediately preceding orders. 
 
 1. MONOZCIA has both separated and perfect flowers on the 
 same individual. 
 
 2. DIOSCIA : when one individual bears the perfect, and another 
 the two kinds of separated flowers. 
 
 3. TRICECIA : when one bears the perfect, a second the stami- 
 nate, and a third the pistillate flowers. 
 
 The Ferns, Mosses, Algse, Fungi, &c., constitute the orders 
 of the 24th class, Cryptogamia . 
 
 19. The basis of the natural method was proposed by a 
 French botanist, Bernard de Jussieu, and this classification, per- 
 fected by the labours of Antoine Jussieu (pronounced jus-sue), 
 and the botanists of his school, is the one now generally adopted. 
 According to this classification, we bring together, in groups 
 called genera, all the species of plants which resemble each 
 other throughout, in the important characters of their organiza- 
 tion ; and in the same manner we bring together, into divisions 
 of higher rank, named natural families, the different genera, 
 the most essential organs of which possess an analogous mode 
 of structure: then we group together the natural families accord- 
 ing to the same principle, and finally obtain a small number of 
 divisions which comprise all the subdivisions we have mentioned 
 above, and which, by their union, include the whole vegetable 
 kingdom. 
 
 20. The most important differences among plants, consist in 
 the absence or presence of flowers or organs of fructification, 
 and this difference almost always coincides with their peculiar 
 modes of organization in all their parts, such as the absence or 
 presence of distinct vessels in the tissue of the plant. There- 
 lore, in a natural method, we must first divide the vegetable 
 kingdom into two groups ; one containing plants which are re- 
 produced by means of flowers, and the other including plants 
 
 18. What are the orders of the class Polygamia? 
 
 19. What is the basis of the natural method of arranging plants ? 
 
 20. What are the most important differences among plants ? Into how 
 many groups is the vegetable kingdom divided ? What are they ? 
 
NATURAL METHOD. 105 
 
 which are not multiplied in this way, and unprovided with flowers. 
 This is, in fact, the course followed ; we ordinarily designate the 
 first of these divisions under the name of cot.yle donous or pha- 
 nerogamous plants, and the second under the name of acotyle'- 
 donous or crypto' gamous plants. 
 
 21. The phanerogamous (from the Greek, phaneros, evident, 
 and gamos, marriage) or cotyle' donous plants all resemble each 
 other in the most important particulars of their organization, but 
 nevertheless very greatly differ from each other ; in some, the 
 seed contains but a single coty'ledon, and the stem is en'dogen- 
 ous ; the others have seeds provided with two or more cotyledons, 
 and an ex'ogenous stem ; consequently we divide them into two 
 groups, which are called monocoty 'ledons and dicotyledons. 
 
 22. Among the crypto' gamous plants, there are some which 
 are composed exclusively of cellular tissue, and do not possess 
 any distinct organs that are analogous either to roots, stems, or 
 leaves; there are others which, although composed chiefly of cellu- 
 lar tissue like the first, often acquire vessels at a certain period of 
 their development, and are provided with parts analogous to tho 
 roots and leaves of ordinary plants. In order that the classifies* 
 tion of these plants be natural, that is, the expression of the more 
 or less important resemblances or differences they present, we 
 must, therefore, form them into two divisions ; that of cellular 
 plants properly so called, and that of semi-vascular plants. 
 
 23. We subdivide the monocotyle'donous and dicotyle'donous 
 plants into classes according to the structure of their flowers, and, 
 to characterize the groups thus formed, we ordinarily take into 
 consideration, first, the absence or existence of a corolla, &c., 
 then we make a distinction between the monopetalous and 
 polypetalous corolla ; then we consider the manner of insertion 
 of the stamens or petals when they possess stamens. Finally, 
 the classes thus formed are subdivided into natural families ac- 
 cording as nature has variously modified the general mode of 
 organization of the seed, of the fruit, of the flower, &c. 
 
 The following table, in which we have placed the most import- 
 ant natural families, shows at a glance the successive degrees 
 through which we arrive at the division of the vegetable king- 
 dom, according to the natural method or classification of Jus- 
 sieu : 
 
 21. In what respects do phanerogamous plants differ from each other? 
 How are phanero'gamous plants divided ? 
 
 22. How do crypto'gamous plants differ from each other? How are 
 they divided ? 
 
 23. On what principle are these divisions subdivided ? 
 
TABLE 
 
 OF THE 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS, 
 ACCORDING TO THE NATURAL METHOD OF JUSSIEU. 
 
 f Cellulares. 
 
 C Algae. 
 < Fungi. 
 
 5 v ;> 
 
 f Lichenes. 
 
 ' Cryptoga' mia or inembryonatze-^coiy/edons -^ 
 
 l Hepa'lices. 
 
 j. Semi-vasculares. 
 
 < Aphylls?. 
 
 
 ( Fi'lices. 
 
 
 fife7b?lovvThTovar^: j Monohypogy>nea.< Grami'nese. 
 
 
 Stamen perigy'nous, C 
 
 ( Palmaj. 
 
 
 Mmocoty 1 le- 
 
 fixed on the calyx < Monoperigy 1 nea. 
 around the ovary. ( 
 
 < Asphode'leae. 
 ( Lilia'ceae. 
 
 
 dons. 
 
 Stamons epigy ' nous, f 
 
 
 
 
 fixed on the upper part^ Monoepigy' nea. 
 
 ^ Iri'dete. 
 
 I 
 
 of the ovary. ( 
 f Stamens epigy'nous. ^ Epistami' nea. 
 
 ^ Aristolo'chise. 
 
 ih 
 
 
 With- <( Stamens perigy'nous. ^ Peristami 1 nea. 
 
 { Lauri'neffi. 
 
 1 
 
 
 out pe | 
 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 tals. (.Stamens hypogy'nous.<{ Hypostami 1 nea. 
 
 <( Amaranta'cea;. 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 C Sola'neae. 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 f Corolla hypogy' nous. { Hypocoro' llea. 
 
 < Labia'tae. 
 
 M 
 
 "Q 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 ( Convolvula'ceaB. 
 
 
 s 
 
 Mono-^ Corolla perigy'nous. <{ Pericoro' llea. 
 
 { Campanula'cete. 
 
 te or Phai 
 
 
 aphrodite 
 
 P! 1 ^ 1 " Corolla ( 8 f Anthers ( ^ 
 OU8 ' epigy- JfJ united. | ^-"^'r-. 
 1 nous, f S ' Anthers ( _ . 
 .|L distinct. \Consanthe' rea. 
 
 { Synanthe'reee. 
 { Rubia'ceae. 
 
 a 
 
 C 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 Stamens epigy'nous. { Epipeta'lea. 
 
 ^ Umbelli' ferae. 
 
 o 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 ">, 
 
 
 
 
 
 fRanuncula'ceae. 
 
 jt 
 
 
 
 
 
 Malva'ceae. 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Aurantia'cea?. 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 K 
 
 Poly- 
 
 Stamens hypogy' nous. ( Hy pop eta' lea. 
 
 I Papavera'cea?. 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 pet ill- - 
 
 
 Cruci' ferae. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 one 
 
 
 1 Caryophi'lleas. 
 
 J' 
 
 
 
 LAmpeli'deae, Vite? 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 f Ficoi'deae. 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 Cucurbita'ceae. 
 
 
 
 .Stamens perigy'nous. ^ Peripeta' lea. 
 
 J Myrta'ces3. 
 1 Rosa'ceffi. 
 
 
 
 Legumino'see. 
 LTerebintha'cae. 
 
 
 
 fEuphorbia'cess 
 
 
 Flowers unisexual, borne on two ( .,.., 
 individuals. | *** ncd! - 
 
 Urti'ceae. 
 ( Cupuli' ferae. 
 | Coni'feras. 
 
 
 tCyca'deas. 
 
 
 (106) 
 
CELLULAR PLANTS. LICHENS. 107 
 
 CRYPTO'GAMOUS PLANTS. 
 
 Division of Cryptoga'mia. (See table on page 102.) 
 
 24. Crypto' gamous plants are constituted exclusively, or 
 chiefly of cells, and during the first period of their growth, or 
 even throughout their existence, are unprovided with vessels and 
 stigmas ; they also differ from phanero' gamous plants in their 
 mode of propagation, for their multiplication always takes place 
 without the aid of various reproductive organs, analogous to 
 stamens and pistils, and is effected by the division or by the 
 development of sporules, bodies which resemble the seeds of 
 ordinary plants, but have no protecting envelope like a pericarp, 
 nor a depot of nutritive matter similar to the albumen, or to 
 cotyledons. We divide these plants into two groups; cellular 
 plants properly so called, and semi-vascular plants. 
 
 25. CELLULAR PLANTS properly so called are composed ex- 
 clusively, and at all periods of their existence, of cellular tissue, 
 which forms a homogeneous mass and is rarely green ; their 
 forms, which are very various, do not at all resemble those of 
 ordinary plants ; we can distinguish in these plants neither roots 
 nor organs similar to stems or leaves, and absorption seems to 
 take place throughout the whole extent of their surface. When 
 their tissue is membranous and flat, we give the part thus con- 
 stituted the name of thallus, and when branched and spread out, 
 it constitutes what is called a frond or frons. The sporules are 
 sometimes naked, sometimes contained in one or more membran- 
 ous sacks which seem to be ordinary cells. 
 
 26. This group is divided into three natural families; Lichenes, 
 Fungi, and Alga3. 
 
 27. LICHENS are perennial plants which grow upon the trunks 
 of trees, on rocks, or on the surface of the ground, and are com- 
 posed of a thallus (possibly from the Greek, thaleia, the bloom- 
 ing one) having the appearance of filaments, of foliaceous mem- 
 branes or hardened pulve'rulent crusts. This thallus consists of 
 two layers, one external or cortical, variously coloured, but never 
 green ; and an internal or medullary, which often contains green 
 matter and gives origin to young plants, either by the division of 
 its tissue or by the production of spores (from the Greek, spora, 
 
 24. What are the general characters of crypto'gamous plants? How do 
 they differ from phanero'gamous plants ? What are sporules ? How are 
 crypto'gamous plants divided ? 
 
 25. What are the general characters of cellular plants ? What is a 
 thallus? What is a frond ? . 
 
 26. How are cellular plants divided ? 
 
 27. What are lichens ? What is the character of the thallus in lichens f f 
 
108 MUSHROOMS. 
 
 seed) called apothecum or scutum (Latin, a shield), because their 
 form is frequently like that of a small shield. 
 
 28. There are more than two thousand species of lichens 
 known ; they grow in the most arid places, and constitute the 
 greater part of the vegetation of the regions near the pole. One 
 species, the cenomy'ce range-ferina (reindeer) (cenomy'ce, from 
 the Greek, kenos, empty, and mukes, a minute fungus), forms the 
 food of the reindeers of Lapland for the greater part of the year 
 and several are used as dye-stuffs, as the archil. 
 
 29. The FUNGI, mushrooms, are plants of various forms, and 
 are never green. In general, they consist of cellular tissue 
 c - -^aiiim^. formed into globular masses, or having a 
 
 peduncle (Jig- 128, d) surmounted by a 
 cap, pileus (c), which is ordinarily convex, 
 and the inferior surface is furnished with 
 radiating laminse (fig' 128). They are 
 distinguished from lichens and algae by the 
 absence offrons or crust, bearing organs of 
 fructification. The sporules are sometimes 
 
 . naked, and sometimes enclosed in little cap- 
 
 Fig. 128. MUSHROOM. , , 
 
 sules ; in common mushrooms, the union 
 
 of these capsules constitutes a membrane named the hyme'nium 
 (from the Greek, umen, a membrane), which is ordinarily plaited, 
 and covers, entirely or in part, the surface of the plant. These 
 sporules become free, sometimes by the rupture of their envelope, 
 sometimes by the decay of the tissue which surrounds them ; and 
 when they germinate, we observe arising from them white fila- 
 ments upon which spring bodies, from point to point, that seem- 
 ingly constitute the mushroom, but in reality they appear to be 
 only the spores, that is, the reproductive organs. These plants 
 are developed, in general, in shady, damp, and warm situations, 
 and are found especially numerous where organic matters in a 
 state of putrefaction abound ; many live as parasites upon peren- 
 nial plants, and some grow on the surface of water, but most of 
 them inhabit the surface of the earth, or are buried in the soil ; 
 sometimes they grow with extraordinary rapidity ; frequently we 
 see thousands of mushrooms growing up in a single night, and 
 the greater part of them do not live beyond a few days at most ; 
 there are some however that grow slowly and live many years. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 128. A mushroom (fungus); a, 6, the volva or 
 wrapper ; c, the pileus or cap ; J, the peduncle or stipe. 
 
 28. How many species of lichens are known ? To what uses are lichens 
 applied ? 
 
 29. What are the general characters of fungi ? What is a hyme'nium ? 
 Where are fungi found ? 
 
AGARICS. 109 
 
 30. This family is very numerous, and is divided into several 
 groups, the most important of which are agarics or mushrooms, 
 properly so called, lycopodia'cece, and the rnuscidinea, moss 
 tribe. 
 
 31. Agarics or mushrooms, properly so called, are plants ordi- 
 narily of fleshy consistence, the sporules of which are placed on 
 the surface of an external membrane and enclosed in distinct 
 capsules. Some have a sort of stem surmounted by an um- 
 brella-shaped cap, the inferior surface of which is lined by the 
 sporiferous membrane ; others are club-shaped or branched ; 
 others again form irregular masses of a gelatinous consistence. 
 They are commonly found in shady, damp woods, at the foot of 
 old trees, and a great many are known. Several of them may 
 be used as food, and are even very much esteemed, but others are 
 violently poisonous, and there are no general characters by which 
 good mushrooms may be certainly distinguished from bad ones ; 
 it is only when we are able to recognise perfectly the species 
 known to be good that we should venture to eat those found in 
 forests, because there are poisonous mushrooms which so closely 
 resemble the edible species that mistakes are easily made. We 
 should invariably reject those which change colour quickly after 
 being gathered ; those which contain a milky juice, or are of a 
 very soft and watery structure; those that have a peppery, bitter, 
 or astringent taste, and disagreeable odour ; a bright red colour 
 is also frequently an indication of poisonous qualities. 
 
 32. The mushrooms most used as food are the edible agaric 
 agaricus edulis, the mousserron agaric, the orange, chant relle, 
 morille, ceps, or boletus edulis, or edible bole; but the only 
 species cultivated is the edible agaric, which is propagated at 
 pleasure by means of the white filaments that spread out in the 
 soil where the sporules have germinated, and are known to 
 gardeners under the name of white of mushrooms. 
 
 33. One of the most poisonous mushrooms is the false oronge, 
 which resembles the true oronge, which is among the most 
 esteemed species, and is very common in the South of France. 
 
 34. Tinder or spunk is a species of mushroom of the genus 
 Agaric. 
 
 30. What are the most important divisions of the family of Fungi ? 
 
 31. What are agarics ? How are edible mushrooms recognised ? 
 
 32. What species of mushrooms are used for food ? What species is 
 cultivated ? 
 
 33. Name one of the most poisonous species of mushroom. 
 
 34. What is spunk? 
 
 10 
 
110 
 
 TRUFFLES. 
 
 35. The division of the Lycopodia! cece comprises mushrooms, 
 the sporules of which are not enclosed in especial capsules. We 
 place among them truffles (Jig. 129), singular plants of irregu- 
 larly rounded form, which grow under ground without being 
 attached to any other body and without ever appearing above the 
 surface. The edible truffle, so much esteem- 
 ed by gourmands, is of a brown colour, 
 
 strong odour, and peculiar taste ; its size 
 varies from that of an egg to that of a fist, 
 and it grows five or six inches under ground. 
 It is chiefly met with in forests of ash, chest- . 19r 
 
 . . . - * f> * J? *M* J-/*J"~'J 
 
 nut, or oak, and in soils composed of sand 
 and clay. To gather these subterranean mushrooms we take 
 advantage of the instinct of hogs, which root them up with their 
 snout. They have not been multiplied by cultivation as yet. 
 
 36. The mucedinea or moulds are also plants of the family 
 of Fungi, and we also place in this natural division certain 
 parasitic plants that grow on other living plants, often producing 
 in them very remarkable injurious alterations. Of this number 
 is a species of fungus named aredo, which is sometimes developed 
 on wheat, and occasions what farmers call blight. 
 
 37. The FAMILY OF ALGJE Sea- 
 weeds is composed of marine and 
 other aquatic plants, the structure of 
 which is very simple. The fuel which 
 cover the rocks on our coast belong 
 to this group. The genus Fucus (fig. 
 130) yields iodine, a useful medicine. 
 The Chondrus crispus or Carageen 
 moss of Ireland, which also grows on 
 our own coast, is converted into size ; 
 it also yields a fine jelly for invalids, 
 and is often used in the composition of 
 blancmange. 
 
 38. The SEMI-VASCULAR PLANTS 
 are at first composed of cellular tis- 
 sue alone like cellular plants, but often acquire, at a certain 
 period of their development, vessels and stomata like phanero'- 
 gamous plants. They are provided with roots like the latter, 
 
 35. What species of mushroom belong to the division of Lycopodia'cea,- ? 
 What are the general characters of the edible truffle ? Where are they 
 found ? Are they cultivated ? 
 
 36. What are mucedi'nese ? What is aredo ? 
 
 37. What are Algae ? What do we obtain from the genus Fucus ? 
 
 38. What are the general characters of the semi-vascular plants ? 
 
 Fig. 130. FUCUS. 
 
MOSSES. FERNS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 and with expansions or fronds, ordinarily 
 green, analogous to leaves ; the latter often 
 arise from an axis similar to a stem, and 
 sporules are developed upon their external or 
 inferior surface. 
 
 39. In this division we place the mosses, 
 musci, the ferns, felices, and some other 
 families of less importance. 
 
 40. The MOSSES Musci (Jigs. 131 
 and 132) have a very short, herbaceous 
 stem, fixed on the ground, on stones, 
 
 or the bark of trees, by small brown 
 roots, and covered by little leaves 
 in form of scales ; there are no 
 vessels in their interior; finally, 
 their spores are enclosed in lateral 
 or terminal buds, surrounded by 
 a sort of perigon, and arise from 
 the internal parietes of a sort of 
 urn (Jig- 132). "Mosses rank 
 among the smallest of plants ; 
 
 Fig. 131. MOSS. 
 
 Fig. 132. 
 
 MOSS. 
 
 they seldom exceed the height of a few inches ; and many are 
 so minute that they would wholly escape our observation if they 
 did not grow in patches. Several species, indeed, are scarcely 
 visible to the naked eye ; and yet they have a stem, leaves, fruit, 
 and other organs, as the largest plants of the family." Gray's 
 Elements of Botany. 
 
 41. The FERNS Felices (figs. 133 and 134) are 
 herbaceous or arborescent plants, the fronds or leaves 
 of which are alternate, often lobate, and grow upon 
 a sort of vertical stem or rhizome ; we find stomata on 
 the leaves, and trachea? and other vessels in their 
 petioles. Their organs of fructification are found on 
 the inferior surface, of the leaves, towards the edge, at 
 the extremity of the veins (fig. 133). "Although 
 the ferns of the United States and of all northern cli- 
 mates have prostrate stems, and consequently do not 
 
 Fig. 133. 
 
 FERN. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 132. A magnified view of the capsule of a moss, 
 enclosing the sporules. The sporule case, or theca, also called capsule, 
 is a little oblong urn-shaped body, which in a few cases is sessile, but 
 is usually borne on a filiform fruit stalk or seta (Jig. 131). The tall 
 cap-like part of the figure above, somewhat like an extinguisher, is called 
 a caly'ptra, and when of this form is said to be mitriform. 
 
 39. What families belong to the semi- vascular plants? 
 
 40. What are the general characters of the mosses ? 
 
 41. What are the general characters of the ferns ? 
 
112 
 
 PHANEROGAMOUS PLANTS. 
 
 Fig. 134. 
 
 FERN. 
 
 rise, at most, above three or four feet in height, yet in 
 tropical countries their trunks are often erect, and fre- 
 quently attain the height of seventy or eighty feet. The 
 tree ferns of the tropics are said to be objects of incom- 
 parable beauty ; their straight, unbranched trunks often 
 rising, like those of palms, as high as forty or fifty feet, 
 without a leaf." Gray. 
 
 42. We also place in this 
 division of the vegetable king- 
 dom the chara (Jig. 135), an 
 aquatic plant, which is very re- 
 markable on account of the 
 singular circulation observed 
 in the interior of the cellules 
 of its tissue. Of the structure 
 of the charse very little is cer- 
 tainly known. They consist 
 of submersed water-plants, hav- 
 ing slender jointed stems desti- 
 tute of leaves, but furnished 
 with whorled branches resembling the Fi S- 135. CHARA. 
 stem. There are only a few species, but these abound in stag- 
 nant waters. 
 
 PHANERO'GAMOUS PLANTS. 
 
 43. This great division of the vegetable kingdom comprises all 
 plants that bear flowers and are multiplied by means of true seeds. 
 They are also called cotyle 'donous plants, because the embryo or 
 germ, contained in the seed, is always provided with one or more 
 coty'ledons, organs which serve as depots of food for the nourish- 
 ment, of the young plant during the first part of its existence, and 
 are not found in the cryptoga'mia. Vessels as well as cellular 
 tissue always enter into the composition of these plants, and for 
 this reason botanists sometimes designate them under the name 
 of vascular plants. 
 
 They are divided, as we stated before, into two groups, the 
 monocoty'ledons and dicoty'ledons. 
 
 MONOCOTYLE'DONOUS PLANTS. 
 
 44. The most remarkable characteristics of the organization of 
 plants of this division are : 
 
 Explanation of Figl 134. The leaf of a fern (magnified) seen from below, 
 showing the capsules containing the sporules. 
 
 42. What are the characters of the genus Chara ? 
 
 43. What description of vegetables belong to the division of phanero'ga- 
 mous plants? 
 
 44. What are the most remarkable characteristics of the monocotyledons ? 
 
MONOCOTYLEDONS. GRASSES. 
 
 113 
 
 1st. The existence of a single coty'ledon in the seed, a circum- 
 stance which corresponds with a particular mode of germination. 
 2d. The existence of an endogenous stem, that is, a stem in 
 which the new fibres do not form concentric layers around the old, 
 but are arranged in scattered bundles. 
 
 3d. The arrangement of the nerves of the leaves is almost al- 
 ways parallel ; as in Indian corn. 
 
 4th. The existence of a single floral envelope, called perianth 
 or glume, which takes the place of calyx and corolla. 
 
 45. These plants are also distinguished from the dicoty'ledons 
 by their aspect and by some other characters. We place in this 
 group the Grami'neae, Palma'ceee, Asparagi'nea3, Lilia'cese, Nar- 
 cissa'cese, Pridese, Orchi'deas, and several other natural families. 
 
 46. The FAMILY OF GRAMI'NE^E Grasses 
 (figs. 136 and 139) belongs to the class of 
 monocotyledons with stamens inserted below the 
 ovary, named for this reason, monohypogy'nia 
 (from the Greek, monos, single, upo, below, and 
 gune, woman, metaphorically, pistil, that is, hav- 
 ing the stamens fixed below the ovary). They are 
 for the most part herbaceous plants ; their stem, 
 which is cylindrical and ordinarily hollow, pre- 
 sents at different points knots from which the 
 leaves arise ; it is called a culm or straw. The 
 flowers are generally united in a spike or in 
 panicles (fig. 137); their ovary is simple, and 
 the seed, sometimes naked, and sometimes fur- 
 nished with an envelope named 
 glume, is composed of an albu- 
 men or farinaceous perisperm, 
 having a lateral pit near its 
 base which lodges the embryo. 
 It is this perisperm which ren- 
 ders many of these plants so 
 useful, by furnishing to man an 
 abundant and wholesome arti- 
 cle of food, flour, and meal, 
 &c. 
 
 Fig. 136. 47. This family is composed 
 
 DARNEL. of a great many genera, among 
 
 Fig. 137 
 
 DARNEL. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 137. A magnified flower of the darnel, Lo'lium 
 perenne, sometimes called ray-grass, &c. 
 
 45. What natural families belong- to the class of monocoty'ledons ? 
 
 46. What are the general characters of the grasses? What is a sulm ? 
 
 47. What genera belong to the family of Grami'nece ? 
 
 10* 
 
114 WHEAT. 
 
 which are wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize (Indian corn), rice, 
 and sugar-cane, as well as bamboo and reeds. We also place in 
 this family different herbs which constitute the bottom-grass of 
 all natural prairies, such as fescue, alopecurus (from the Greek, 
 alopeXj a fox, and oura, tail, fox-tail), timothy, festuca, meadow- 
 grass, and darnel or tare (jig. 136). 
 
 48. Common wheat Tri'ticum the most important of all 
 the grasses, is an herbaceous annual plant, with a stem (culm) 
 four or five feet high, furnished with some leaves, which is ter- 
 minated by a spike composed of flowers united in groups of from 
 three to six, called spikelets, in a common enve- a a 
 lope, which consists of two scales, bearing 
 
 the common name of glume; each flower 
 
 bears three stamens enclosed between two 
 
 unequal palese (from the Latin, palea, chaff), 
 
 the external of which often but not always 
 
 terminates in a long beard or barb, called 
 
 awn (fig. 138 a). The seed is oval, larger 
 
 than that of most other grasses, convex on 
 
 one side, and on the other hollowed by a 
 
 longitudinal groove ; on an average, there 
 
 are forty seeds on each spike. It is filled 
 
 by a white, farinaceous substance, chiefly 
 
 consisting of fecula, and a peculiar sub- . 13 o_ 
 
 stance named gluten. These two substances, 
 
 crushed by a mill-stone, constitute the flour which we use for 
 
 making bread. Fecula consists of minute grains, filled with a 
 
 matter of a gummy consistence, which, by the action of heat 
 
 and various chemical agents, burst and permit their contents to 
 
 escape ; this is the reason why, when we boil fecula in water, it 
 
 suddenly thickens and becomes paste. Gluten is a very elastic 
 
 substance, which may be separated from fecula by washing 
 
 wheat flour, wrapped in a cloth, under a stream of water, for 
 
 some time. 
 
 49. Wheat is sown at two different periods; in the autumn 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 138. The glume or husk ; a, a, the awns; g, g, 
 the glume. This term is most generally applied to the outer and thicker 
 set of scaly leaves next to the sexual organs in grasses, two in number, and 
 embracing each other at the base (fig. 138), in which are seen the outer 
 scales (glume or calyx, g, g) and the inner scales with the awn (a) attach- 
 ed. The stamens and pistils are removed. The small thin leaves to which 
 the awns are attached, are called palea. When these scaly leaves embrace 
 several flowers, they are called bractese (bracts). 
 
 48. What are the characters of wheat? What is a glume? What ia 
 meant by the paleae ? What is fecula ? What is gluten ? 
 
 49. What is the difference between fall and spring wheat ? 
 
RYE BARLEY OATS. 115 
 
 and in the spring ; the first is called winter or " fall" wheat, and 
 the second spring wheat; the season of the harvest varies accord- 
 ing to the climate. 
 
 50. There is a species of wheat called spelt, the seeds of 
 which are not separated from their envelope by thrashing, and 
 still another called dog or couch-grass, having a long spreading 
 root, which is very injurious on account of the rapidity with 
 which it overspreads wheat-fields. 
 
 51. Common rye Secale very much resembles wheat, but 
 it never has more than two flowers joined in the same glume, and 
 forming a spikelet. It is said to have come originally from the 
 Levant, but is cultivated in the United States and all parts of 
 Europe ; it succeeds better than wheat in cold countries, and in 
 dry and arid soils. It is sown earlier than the other cereals, and 
 generally flowers in the month of May ; and it is usually gathered 
 fifteen or twenty days before the wheat (generally in the month 
 of July). Rye flour is not so white as that of wheat, but is used 
 for the same purposes. 
 
 52. Barley Hordeum is distinguished from the preceding 
 species by its simple, compact spike, formed of spikelets of a single 
 flower, arranged three and three ; its height does not exceed two 
 or three feet. It is the easiest of the cereals to cultivate, and the 
 most rapid in its development ; but barley flour is even less 
 nourishing than rye. What is called pot barley is made by grind- 
 ing off the husk, and pearl barley is made by carrying the opera- 
 tion so far as to produce roundness of the grains. 
 
 Malt is the chief purpose for which barley is cultivated in Great Britain 
 arid the United States. In order to understand the process of malting-, it 
 may be necessary to observe, that the cotyledons of a seed, before a young 
 plant is produced, are changed by the heat and moisture of the earth into 
 sugar and mucilage. Malting is only an artificial mode of effecting this 
 object, by steeping the grain in water, and fermenting it in heaps, and then 
 arresting its progress towards becoming a plant, by kiln-drying it, in order 
 to take advantage of the sugar in the distillation of spirits, or fermentation 
 for beer. 
 
 53. Oats Arena has its flowers arranged in an open panicle, 
 composed of multiflorous spikelets hanging on their peduncles. 
 The seeds adhere to the glume, and are oblong and acute ; they 
 are much used as food for horses. Oats are sown in the autumn 
 or spring, and are gathered from the middle of July to the first of 
 September. The flour, called oat meal, is also made into bread, 
 and forms what is termed groats by grinding off the husk. 
 
 50. Are there other kinds of wheat ? 
 
 51. What are the characters of rye ? 
 
 52. How is barley distinguished from wheat and rye ? What is the dif 
 ference between pot and pearl barley ? What is malt ? 
 
 53. What are the characters of oats ? 
 
116 
 
 RICE. MAIZE. SUGAR-CANE. 
 
 54. Rice Ory'za* also has flowers arranged in a panicle, but 
 the spikelets are uniflorous ; it is an annual plant, and delights 
 most in low humid situations, and even in inundated places ; its 
 culm rises three or four feet high, and its leaves are very long. 
 It is originally from India : it is cultivated in Italy, but Asia, 
 Africa and America furnish most ; Carolina rice is considered 
 amongst the very best; it constitutes the principal article of diet 
 of all the nations of the East. 
 
 55. Maize, or Indian Com Zea (from the Greek, zeb, I 
 live) is also an herbaceous annual grass ; its fibrous roots give 
 rise to one or more stems five or six feet high, the summit of which 
 bears a panicle nearly a foot long, formed of male flowers in great 
 numbers on several spikes ; the female flowers are very nume- 
 rous, sessile, attached upon a common axis in the axil of the su- 
 perior leaves. The grains are round- 
 ed, of the size of a common pea, 
 ordinarily of a yellow colour, com- 
 pressed one against the other, and ar- 
 ranged longitudinally in six or eight 
 rows. This plant is originally from 
 America ; but was long ago intro- 
 duced into Europe, and is cultivated 
 in all the south of France, Spain and 
 Italy, and is used as food both for 
 men and many domestic animals. 
 
 56. Sugar-cane Saccharum^ 
 (Jig. 139)^also belongs to the fami- 
 ly of Grami'nese; its white, silky 
 flowers, all of which are hermaphro- 
 dite, are arranged in fasciculated 
 spikes, with two flowers at each arti- 
 culation ; its stem, which is from 
 eight to twelve feet high, is full of 
 sweet juice, which, being compressed 
 and evaporated by boiling, yields su- 
 gar. It grows in the East and West 
 Indies, United States, South America, 
 Fig. 139. SUGAR-CANE. and South Sea Islands. 
 
 * ORY'ZA. From the Arabic word eruz, the Greeks coined their word 
 orwza, and the various modern nations of Europe, their rice, riz, rets, 
 arrdz, &c. 
 
 t SACCHARUM. From its Arabic name soukar, from which the Greeks 
 
 54. What are the general characters of the rice plant ? 
 
 55. What are the characters of Indian corn ? 
 
 56. What are the characters of sugar-cane ? How is sugar made ? How 
 is sugar-candy prepared ? What is rock-candy ? What is barley .sugar ? 
 What is rum ? 
 
SUGAR. BAMBOO. 117 
 
 [The cane in the West Indies is propagated by cuttings from the root end, 
 planted in hills or trenches in spring or autumn, something in the manner 
 of hops. The cuttings take root at the joints under ground, and from those 
 above send up shoots, which, in from eight to fourteen months, are from six 
 to ten feet long, and fit to cut down for the mill. A plantation lasts from 
 six to ten years. Sugar mills are merely iron rollers placed vertically or 
 horizontally, between which the canes are passed and repassed. The juice 
 thus squeezed out is collected and boiled with quicklime, which imbibes the 
 superfluous acid, which otherwise would impede crystallization : impuri- 
 ties are skimmed off, and the boiling is continued till a thick syrup is pro- 
 duced, when the whole is cooled and granulated in shallow vessels of earthen 
 ware, which permit the molasses (a part that will not granulate) to drain 
 off. It is now the brown or raw sugar of commerce. A further purifica- 
 tion is effected by dissolving it in water, boiling, skimming, adding lime, 
 and clarifying from the oily or mucila'ginous parts, by adding blood or eggs, 
 which incorporate with them and form a scum. When boiled to a proper 
 consistency, it is put into unglazed earthen vessels of a conical shape, with 
 a hole at the apex, but placed in an inverted position, and the base, after the 
 sugar is poured in, covered with clay. When thus drained of its impurities, 
 it is taken out of the mould, wrapped in paper, and dried or baked in a close 
 oven. It is now the loaf sugar of the shops, and according to the number 
 of operations it undergoes, is called single or double refined. The operation 
 of refining is seldom or never performed by the growers, but forms a sepa- 
 rate branch of business. 
 
 Sugar-candy is formed by dissolving loaf sugar in water over a fire, boil- 
 ing it to a syrup, and then exposing it to crystallize in a cool place. When 
 crystallized upon strings put into the syrup, it is called rock-candy. This 
 is the only sugar esteemed in the East. 
 
 Barley-sugar is a syrup from the refuse of sugar-candy, hardened in 
 cylindrical moulds. 
 
 Rum is distilled from the fermented juice of sugar and water.] 
 
 57. The Bamboo Bambu'sa (from the Indian name Bam- 
 bos) an arborescent plant of the equatorial regions, also belongs 
 to the family of Grami'nea3. The bamboo is applied to a great 
 variety of purposes. In India it is used for building- houses and 
 bridges, for masts, for boats, for making boxes, baskets, cups, 
 mats, tables, chairs, fences, paper, and a variety of other pur- 
 poses ; and the tops of the tender shoots are, in the West Indies, 
 pickled. It grows about forty feet high. The genus Bambu'sa, 
 belongs to the class Hexandria, order Monogy'nia of Linnreus. 
 
 58. The FAMILY OF PALMS Palma'cece^fig. 140) is com- 
 posed of monocoty'ledons with perigy'nous stamens; the stem, 
 which is cylindrical and resembles a column, is crowned by a 
 fasciculus of large leaves. We have already spoken of its struc- 
 ture (page 26). Their flowers, which are generally unisexual, 
 
 formed sackchar, and modern European nations sugar. The genus Sac' 
 charum belongs to the class Tria'ndria, order Trigy'nia, of the Linneoan 
 arrangement. 
 
 57. What is bamboo ? To what uses is it applied ? 
 
 58. How is the family of Palms characterized' What is sago? 
 
118 
 
 PALMS. 
 
 form catkins or a great bunch 
 called raceme; the fruit is a 
 fleshy or fibrous drupe contain- 
 ing a very hard, bony nut. 
 Nearly all these large and beau- 
 tiful trees belong to the inter- 
 tropical regions ; many of them 
 furnish the inhabitants of the 
 countries in which they grow 
 naturally, wholesome and plea- 
 sant food ; the date tree and 
 cocoa-nut yield excellent fruits ; 
 the cabbage-tree palm bears a 
 terminal bud which may be com- 
 pared to our common cabbage, 
 and several other species yield 
 a fecula named sago. By in- 
 cision into the spathe at the top 
 of the stems of some, a saccha- 
 rine liquor, termed siceet toddy, 
 is procured, which when fer- 
 mented constitutes Palm wine, 
 and yields by distillation arrack, 
 or rack. The date tree Fivx- 
 nix (the Greek name of the 
 
 Fig. 140. DATE PALM. 
 
 date) furnishes a great part of the diet of the inhabitants of 
 Arabia and part of Persia. They make a conserve of it with 
 sugar ; and even grind the hard stones in their handmills for 
 their camels. The leaves are manufactured into baskets, bags, 
 brushes, &c., and the stem is used in building, and another part 
 of the plant is made into rope and rigging for small vessels.* The 
 palms of Scripture are the leaves of the date tree. 
 
 The genus Ca'lamus (from the Greek kalamos, a reed) fur- 
 nishes the several species of rattan-canes, whose flexible stems 
 when split are woven into chair-bottoms. 
 
 59. The FAMILY OF ASPHODE'LF^E, or Asparigi'nese, belongs 
 to the class of Monoperigy'nia, and is composed of herbaceous 
 plants with fibrous roots, the fruit of which is a capsule with three 
 cells, or a globular berry. Common asparagus, the young shoots 
 of which are eaten, is the type of this gro*up. 
 
 * The Phoenix, according to the Linnean arrangement, is in the class 
 Dicecia, order Triandria ; while the Calamus, another genus of the Pal- 
 macege, is in the class Hexa'ndria, and order Monogy'nia. 
 
 What is sweet toddy ? What is arrack ? What tree furnishes dates ? What 
 
 are rattans ? 
 
 L 59. What are the characters of the Asphode'leae ? 
 
LILIES. 
 
 60. The FAMILY OF LILIA'CE^E is also placed in the class 
 of Monoperigy'nia ; it is composed of plants with bulbous or 
 fibrous roots, and a stem (or shaft) 
 
 generally naked ; the leaves are sessile 
 or sheathing ; several species of this 
 family are remarkable from having 
 flowers with a coloured calyx, such 
 as the lilies, tulips, hyacinths, tuberoses, 
 imperials, &c. 
 
 61. The FAMILY OF AMARY'LLID^E 
 or NARCI'SSE^: (Jig. 141), and the 
 family of IRI'DE^E belong on the con- 
 trary to the Mono-epigy'nia : among the 
 first is the common Narcissus (Jig' 
 141), the Agave americana, and among 
 the second the Iris florentina, which 
 furnishes orris root, and the Crocus 
 sativus, which has long, orange-coloured 
 stigmas, which, when dried, form saf- 
 fron. The plants of the family of 
 Iri'dea? are herbaceous under shrubs, 
 with fibrous or bulbous roots ; gene- 
 rally their flowers are large, beautiful, 
 
 and variegated in different colours. Fig. 141. NARCISSUS. 
 
 DICOTYLE'DONOUS PLANTS. 
 
 " . V 
 
 62. The plants of this division are chiefly characterized : 
 
 1st. By the existence of an embryo with two cotyledons; 
 sometimes however we find three, or even more. 
 
 2d. By the internal organization of the stem, all parts of 
 which are arranged in concentric layers, the growth of which is 
 ex'ogenous. 
 
 3d. By the arrangement of the leaves, the nerves of which 
 are ramified. 
 
 4th. By the very frequent presence of both a calyx and a 
 corolla, &c. 
 
 63. They are divided into four groups; the Apeta'lese, Mono- 
 peta'leae, Polypeta'lese, and Dicli'nese. 
 
 60. What are the characters of the Lilia'ceae ? 
 
 61. To what family does the common narcissus belong? What is orris 
 root ? What is saffron ? 
 
 62. What are the chief characters of the dicotyledons ? 
 
 63. How is the division of dicotyledons divided ? 
 
120 
 
 BIRTHWORT. LAURELS. 
 
 Fig. 142. 
 
 APE'TALOUS DICOTY'LEDONS. 
 
 64. This group of dicotyle'donous plants is characterized by 
 the absence of a corolla, or at least of a double floral envelope, 
 for the perianth as often resembles a corolla as a calyx. We 
 place in it Aristolo'chiae, Lauri'nesc, &c. 
 
 65. The FAMILY OF ARIS- 
 
 TOLO'CHIA Birthwort (from 
 
 the Greek, arisos, excellent, and 
 
 lochos, female, because it was 
 
 supposed to be excellent for 
 
 females in particular conditions) 
 
 is composed of twining plants 
 
 with epigy'nous stamens (figure 
 
 142), with alternate and internal 
 
 leaves, some species of which are 
 
 cultivated in gardens the com- 
 mon Aristolo'chia, for example (fg- 143). 
 The Aristolo 1 chia serpentaria Virginia snake- 
 root belongs to this family. 
 
 66. The FAMILY OF LAURI'NE^: (from the Latin, laurus, 
 the laurel or bay tree) belongs to the class of Peristami'nese 
 (from the Greek, peri, around, and stamen fig* 144), and 
 
 is composed of trees or shrubs with per- 
 sistent leaves and fleshy fruit. The type 
 of the family is the laurels, one species of 
 which, the laurel of Apollo, is originally 
 from Greece, and was used by the ancients 
 for decorating the crowns of their conquer- 
 ors. Cinnamon is the bark of another 
 species of laurel which grows in India ; and 
 camphor is derived from another tree of the 
 same genus. 
 
 67. We will also mention in this class the FAMILY OF CHENO- 
 PO'DE^E (from the Greek, chen, a goose, and pous, foot goose- 
 foot), because we find in it one of the plants which at present 
 occupies a good deal of attention among agriculturalists, espe- 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 
 ARISTOLOCHIA. 
 
 Fig. 144. LAURUS. 
 
 Explanation of Fig. 144. Flower of a laurel; a, the perigon ; b, 
 stamen ; c, pistil. 
 
 64. How are Apeta'leae characterized ? 
 
 65. How is the family of Aristolo'chia (pronounced aristolokea) charac- 
 terized ? 
 
 66. From what is cinnamon obtained ? From what genus of plants is 
 camphor derived ? 
 
 67. To what family does the sugar-beet belong ? 
 
SUGAR-BEET. POTATOE. 121 
 
 cially in France ; namely, the sugar-beet. This plant, originally 
 from the southern parts of Europe, is annual or biennial ; it has 
 a spindle-shaped, fleshy root, sometimes as thick as one's leg, 
 which contains a considerable quantity of sugar, precisely like 
 that of the sugar-cane ; the leaves of the sugar-beet constitute 
 an abundant and wholesome food for cattle, but it is especially 
 cultivated in France for its sugar. 
 
 MONOPE'TALOUS DICOTY'LEDONS. 
 
 68. This division, which is much more numerous than the 
 preceding, is characterized by having a corolla distinct from the 
 calyx, and composed of a single piece. In it we place the 
 Sola'neti), Primula'ceae, Jasmi'nea?, Labia'tae, Synanthe'reae, and 
 Rubia'cece, &c. 
 
 69. The FAMILY OF SOLA'NE^E is composed of monope'talous, 
 dicotyle'donous plants with hypogy'nous stamens, the flowers of 
 which have a monose'palous, persistent calyx, with five lobes, a 
 regular corolla, divided into from four to five lobes, four or five 
 stamens, and a style bearing a stigma with two lobes, the fruit 
 of which is a capsule or n berry containing a great many seeds, 
 and the leaves are commonly alternate. Most of the Sola'neje 
 contain a narcotic (stupifying) substance, which sometimes 
 renders them very dangerous; tobacco, henbane, stramonium 
 (Jamestown weed), are of this kind ; we find it even in the leaves 
 of the common night-shade, and the Solanum tubcrosum. This 
 last plant, the stem of which is herbaceous, and the flowers white 
 or slightly violet, has at irregular intervals on its long, fibrous 
 roots, large tubers, which are ordinarily rounded or oblong, 
 which contain an immense quantity of fecula, and are known 
 under the name of potatoes. 
 
 The potatoe is originally from America (growing- at this time wild in 
 Mexico and Peru), and was first introduced to Europe by Sir Walter 
 Raleigh, about the year 1587, who carried it to England, whence it was 
 soon spread upon the continent ; it is now cultivated in almost every part 
 of the world. This plant may be reproduced, multiplied in two ways ; 
 namely, by the seed, or by the development of the root-buds or eyes, which 
 we see on the surface of the tubers. By sowing the seed we obtain a great 
 variety; but the multiplication by the root-buds produces, without any 
 alteration in the form or colour, potatoes like those from which the tuber- 
 cles were taken. This last mode of culture is most generally used, and to 
 succeed, it is only necessary to place entire tubers in the ground ; we may 
 divide them into several pieces, provided each fragment has one or more 
 root-buds upon it, for the development of which the feculent matter of the 
 
 68. How are the Monopeta'lese characterized ? 
 
 69. What are the general characters of the Sola'neoj ? What plant pro- 
 duces potatoes ? Where were potatoes originally found ? How are they 
 cultivated ? 
 
 11 
 
122 
 
 TOBACCO. BELLADONNA. 
 
 potatoe furnishes the nourishment. In those countries where frosts are 
 feared in the spring, these vegetables are planted about the month of April, 
 and gathered towards the end of October ; a sandy and rich soil suits them 
 best ; in moist clayey land they become pasty. By the ordinary method of 
 cultivation, the potatoe yields but seven or eight for one, but by hoeing the 
 stems, that is, by heaping up the earth to a certain height around them, we 
 obtain twelve or thirteen for one, and we are assured that by bedding and 
 covering them with earth the product may be increased to sixty for one. 
 
 70. Tobacco Nicotiana tabac- 
 cum (fg> 145) is a plant of the 
 enus Nicotiana, which is a native 
 of America ; it is actively culti- 
 vated for its large leaves, the uses 
 of which are known by every body. 
 Introduced into the stomach it acts 
 as a poison, and the smoke it yields 
 when burnt commonly excites nau- 
 sea and giddiness in persons not 
 accustomed to it ; but they may 
 become readily habituated to its 
 use, which, either in the form of 
 snuff, cigars, or smoking and chew- 
 ing tobacco, has become almost uni- 
 versal. It is now cultivated in 
 France, and in most countries of 
 Europe, and several parts of India, 
 as well as in various parts of 
 America. It is sown about the 
 month of March ; and about the 
 middle of July, they begin to gather 
 the leaves ; this harvest continues until the period of frost, which 
 the plant does not resist, and after drying the leaves thus obtained, 
 and having removed from them the large nerves (stems), they 
 are sprinkled with salt and water, and for a certain time permit- 
 ted to ferment; tobacco for smoking is then coarsely cut up, and 
 exposed to a moderate heat which curls it ; tobacco for snuff is 
 cut into strips, which are pressed into masses, which are after- 
 wards reduced to powder by a mill. 
 
 71. Belladonna Atropa belladonna is another plant of the 
 family of Sola'nese which is also very poisonous ; it is common 
 under walls and in the woods. Its stem is branching, three or 
 four feet high, and slightly hairy ; its leaves are large, ovate, acu- 
 minate, and diffuse a disagreeable odour ; its corolla, in form of an 
 elongated bell, has five lobes, is of a dull red ; its fruit is fleshy, 
 
 Fig. 145. TOBACCO. 
 
 70. Where is tobacco found ? What are its qualities ? 
 
 71. What are the properties of belladonna? 
 
OLIVES. 
 
 123 
 
 Fig. 146. 
 
 JASMIN. 
 
 about the size of a cherry, at first green, then 
 reddish, and lastly black. It then resembles a 
 black-heart cherry ; its taste is insipid, but this 
 fruit is extremely poisonous. The henbane 
 (hyosciamus), bitter-sweet (dulcamara), and se- 
 veral other plants of the same family are also 
 active poisons. 
 
 72. The FAMILY OF JASMI'NEJE, also, belongs 
 to the class of the Hypocoro'llese, and is com- 
 posed of trees and shrubs with, commonly, op- 
 posite leaves ; the corolla of the flower has 
 four or five lobes, but only two stamens (figs. 
 146, 147). We place in it the jasmine, olive, 
 ash, &c. 
 
 73. The Olive Olea europea 
 (fig. 148) is a tree originally 
 from Asia Minor, and 
 the south of Europe, 
 now extensively culti- 
 vated in the southern 
 departments of France ; 
 in the East it grows 
 from forty to fifty feet 
 high, but in France it 
 rarely exceeds twenty- 
 five. It is extremely long-lived. 
 Its leaves are opposite, lanceolate, 
 of a bronze green 
 colour above, and 
 whitish below. Its 
 flowers are small and 
 arranged in little 
 clusters (fig. 149); 
 its fruit is a fleshy, 
 oval drupe, contain- 
 Fig. 148. BRANCH OF OLIVE. i ng a nut with a single seed. A 
 symbol of peace, and consecrated to Minerva, this tree was an 
 object of a species of worship among the Greeks, and its destruc- 
 tion was prohibited under severe penalty : it is still cultivated with 
 care, but for other reasons its fruit and its oil. (Olive, or sweet 
 oil, may be said to form the cream and butter of Spain and Italy. 
 Olive oil is made by crushing the fruit to a paste, then pressing it 
 through a woollen bag, adding hot water as long as any oil is pro- 
 
 72. To what class does the family of Jasmi'neoe belong ? 
 
 73. What are the general characters of the olive tree ? How is sweet 
 oil prepared ? What is the difference between French and Spanish olives ? 
 
 Fig. 149. 
 
 OLIVE. 
 
124 
 
 SWEET OIL. MANNA. 
 
 duced. The oil is afterwards skimmed off the water, and put in 
 tubs, barrels, and bottles for use. Pickled olives are prepared from 
 unripe fruit, by repeatedly steeping them in water, to which quick- 
 lime or any alkaline substance is sometimes added to shorten the 
 operation. Afterwards they are soaked in pure water, and then 
 taken out and bottled in salt and water, with or without an aro- 
 matic. Spanish olives differ from the French in consequence of 
 being prepared from ripe fruit.) 
 
 74. The Ash Ffaxinus is among the largest and most beau- 
 tiful forest trees ; it delights in a humid, light soil ; its wood, which 
 is white, longitudinally veined and very pliant, is much employed 
 in carriage-building, &c. 
 
 75. The Manna-ash, or round-leaved ash Fraxinus omus 
 which grows in Calabria, and on the coast of Africa, permits a 
 sugar-like substance to exude through its bark, which hardens in 
 the airj and is known under the name of manna. 
 
 Fig. 150. SCARLET SAGE. Fig. 151. SAGE. 
 
 76. FAMILY OF LABIA'TJE (Jigs. 150 and 151) belongs to 
 the same division as the preceding : these plants, which are 
 almost all herbaceous, have a square stem and a tubular corolla, 
 divided into two lips, one of which is superior to the other 
 (fig. 151); the fruit is composed of four monospermous ache- 
 niums enclosed in a persistent calyx, and the leaves are sessile 
 and opposite. Most of the Labia'tse are very aromatic ; they are 
 employed in medicine, and for the preparation of scented waters ; 
 such are the mint, lavender, rosemary, sage, thyme, balm, &c. 
 
 74. What use is made of the ash ? 
 
 75. From what tree is manna obtained ? 
 
 76. What are the general characters of the family of Labia'tae? 
 
BINDWEED. MARIGOLD. 
 
 125 
 
 The FAMILY OF BORRAGI'NE^E is 
 closely allied to the Labia'tse ; the type 
 of this family is the barrage. 
 
 77. The FAMILY OF CONVOLVU- 
 LA'CE^E, which is also composed of 
 hypogy'nous, monopetalous plants, has 
 the bindweeds as its type (figure 152), 
 which are common in our fields and 
 gardens. A species of the bindweeds 
 furnishes jalap, an active purgative 
 medicine. 
 
 78. We also place in the class of 
 Hypocoro'lleae the FAMILY OF PRIMU- 
 LA'CE^J, the type of which is the prim- 
 rose, the gentia'nre, and several others. 
 
 79. The FAMILY OF SYNANTHE'- 
 REJE (from the Greek, sun, with, and 
 anthos, flower) or COMPOSITE, which 
 belongs to the division of monopetalous 
 Epicoro'llece, is very remarkable for the 
 arrangement of its flowers. They are 
 generally small, and united in a close 
 mass, called capi'tulum, upon a com- 
 mon receptacle ; they a 
 are of two kinds ; one 
 has a regular corolla in 
 form of a funnel, and 
 called flosculous ; the 
 others have an irregu- 
 lar corolla, laterally 
 warped in form of a 
 little tongue. Finally, 
 the anthers are united, 
 and form a tube which 
 is traversed by the 
 style (figure 110). 
 Sometimes the capitulums (fig. 80) are composed only of florets 
 like the thistle (fig. 154, a) and artichoke ; sometimes in demi- 
 florets, as the dandelion and lettuce ; and sometimes of florets in 
 the centre, and demi-florets occupying the circumference, as the 
 sunflower and marigold (Jig. 153). The first are frequently 
 designated under the name of flosculous, the second are called 
 semi-flosculous, and the last radiate. 
 
 77. From what family of plants is jalap obtained ? 
 
 78. To what class does the family of Primula' CCEB belong? 
 
 79. What are the general characters of the Synanthe'reae ? 
 
 11 * 
 
 Fig. 153. MARIGOLD. 
 
 Fig. 154. 
 
 MILK THISTLE. 
 
126 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 80. Other monopeta'leae with epigy'nous corollae, have the 
 anthers distinct, and form the class named Corisanthe'rece, which 
 is divided into several families, among which are the CAPRI- 
 FOLIA'CE^E, of which the honeysuckle is the type, and the 
 RUBIA'CE.E, a group in which we find the coffee, Peruvian bark, 
 and ipecacuanha, &c. 
 
 81. The Coffee tree (figure 
 155) appears to be originally 
 from Ethiopia, whence it was 
 carried by the Arabians to dif- 
 ferent parts of Arabia, but par- 
 ticularly to the province of 
 Yemen, and especially to the 
 environs of Mocha. Towards 
 the close of the seventeenth 
 century, the Dutch carried it to 
 Batavia, and about 1710, one 
 of these precious plants was 
 sent from this colony to Am- 
 sterdam ; it was carefully culti- 
 vated in the botanical garden, 
 and soon produced fruit, the 
 seeds of which furnished the 
 means of its rapid multiplica- 
 tion, for one of these young 
 trees thus obtained, having been 
 sent to Louis XIV., flourished in 
 the garden of plants, near Paris, 
 and afforded the French govern- 
 ment the means of introducing its cultivation into Martinique ; it 
 soon spread through the West Indies, and Brazil, &c. The trunk 
 of the coffee tree is cylindrical, and rises to from fifteen to twenty 
 feet high ; its branches are somewhat knotty ; its leaves are 
 lanceolate, shining, and of a deep green ; its flowers are white 
 and almost sessile; and its fruit is fleshy, ovoid berries, which are 
 at first green, then red, and finally black ; each berry encloses 
 two fleshy nuts, each containing a seed convex outwardly and 
 flat within, and marked on the flat side by a longitudinal groove. 
 This shrub ordinarily flowers twice a year, but there is scarcely 
 an interval between these periods, so that it is always loaded 
 with flowers and fruit ; the latter generally ripens four months 
 after inflorescence, and must be gathered with care according to 
 its state of maturity. 
 
 Fig. 155. COFFEE. 
 
 80. To what class do the families Capri folia' cess and Rubia'ceso belong ? 
 
 81. What are the characters of the coffee tree ? Where does it grow ? 
 
HEMLOCK. 
 
 127 
 
 82. The plant which furnishes us the medicine called ipeca- 
 cuanha, used as an emetic, bears considerable analogy to the 
 coffee tree, and is found in South America. 
 
 83. The Cinchona or Peruvian bark, so valuable in the treat- 
 ment of intermittent fevers, is the bark of certain trees which 
 also belong to the family of Rubia'cea? ; they grow in Peru. 
 
 POLYPE'TALOUS DICOTY'LEDONS. 
 
 84. This division is distinguished from the two preceding by 
 having flowers, the corolla of which is composed of several 
 separate petals. It is also divided in accordance with the inser- 
 tion of the stamens into three sections called Epipeta'lece (epi, 
 upon), Hypopeta' lecB (hypo, beneath), and Peripeta! lea (pexi, 
 around), which, in their turn, are subdivided into families, the 
 most remarkable of which are the Umbelli'ferse, the Malva'cese, 
 the Gerana'cese, the Aurantia'ceaB, the Papavera'ceoe, the Cary- 
 ophy'llere, the Ampe'lidse, the Cucurbita'cese, the Myrta'cese, the 
 Rosa'ceae, the Legumino'sa3, the Terebintha'cea?, &c. 
 
 Fig. 156. HEMLOCK. 
 
 82. Where does ipecacuanha grow ? 
 
 83. To what family does Peruvian bark belong ? 
 
 84. What are the general characters of the polypetalous dicoty'ledons 7 
 How are they divided ? 
 
 : *" ?b?.>- .-- :.-. V= iriCV^.^." ivs? 3* 
 
128 
 
 MALLOWS. COTTON. 
 
 85. The FAMILY or UMBELLI'FER,E is composed of plants of 
 the class Epipeta'lese, the flowers of which are very small, and 
 arranged in an umbel. One of the most remarkable genera of 
 this group is that of the tomlocks (fig- 156), the poisonous 
 action of which is very powerful. Several species are known ; 
 the spotted hemlock Coni'um macvla'tum has a cylindrical, 
 fistulous stem, longitudinally striated, branching, and marked at 
 its inferior part with irregular spots of a dark purple, which are 
 also seen on the leaves ; these are very large, three-lobed, and 
 of a very deep green ; the whole plant diffuses a strong odour, 
 especially when rubbed between the fingers. This hemlock is 
 biennial, and grows in stony places, near hedges. 
 
 86. The Carrot, Fennel, Angelica, Anis, Assafatida, Am- 
 moniac, Galbanum, and several other plants which are not at 
 all poisonous, belong to this family. 
 
 87. The FAMILY OF MAL- 
 VA'CE^ the type of which is the 
 marsh-mallows (figure 157), be- 
 longs to the class of Hypopeta'lese; 
 its principal characters are a mono- 
 se'palous calyx with from three to 
 five divisions, and a corolla with 
 five petals adhering, at their base, 
 to the filaments of the stamens, 
 which are united into a tube (fg. 
 110). The uniform character of 
 the mallow tribe is to abound in 
 mucilage, and to be totally desti- 
 tute of all unwholesome qualities. 
 
 88. The most important plants 
 of this family are the cotton trees, 
 the fruit of which furnishes the 
 texible (weaveable) material, known 
 under the name of cotton. Many 
 species of this genus are known : 
 one called herbaceous cotton, varies much in its appearance ; some- 
 times it is an herbaceous annual plant growing scarcely beyond 
 eighteen or twenty inches in height ; at other times a shrub from 
 four to six feet high, the stem of which is ligneous and perennial 
 at its lower part. This cotton tree grows in Egypt, Syria, and 
 
 85. What are the general characters of hemlock ? To what class and 
 family does it belong ? 
 
 86. Name some of the plants of this family. 
 
 87. How is the family of Malva'ceee characterized ? 
 
 88. What is cotton ? What part of the plant furnishes cotton ? How 
 is the cotton wool separated from the seeds ? 
 
 Fig. 157. MARSH MALLOW. 
 
COTTON. FLAX. 129 
 
 India, and is also cultivated in Sicily. The arborescent cotton 
 tree was originally from India : it is now cultivated in Brazil and 
 Peru, and constitutes one of the most important products of the 
 United States : it grows to the height of from fifteen to twenty 
 feet. The leaves of these plants are alternate, petiolate, and 
 divided into five digitate lobes ; the flowers, borne upon peduncles 
 in the axils of the upper leaves, are yellowish or purplish. The 
 fruit is an egg-shaped capsule, divided into from two to five cells, 
 each of which contains several seeds ; the cotton is found sur- 
 rounding these seeds. 
 
 The Gossy'pium herba'ceum herbaceous cotton " grows from four to six 
 feet high, and produces two crops annually ; the first in eight months after 
 sowing the seed ; the second within four months after the first ; and the 
 produce of each plant is reckoned at about one pound weight. The branches 
 are pruned or trimmed after the first gathering ; and if the growth is over 
 luxuriant, this should be done sooner. When a great part of the pods are 
 expanded, the wool is picked, and afterwards cleared from the seeds by a 
 machine (invented by Whitney, an American) called a cotton-gin, com- 
 posed of two or three wooden rollers of about one inch diameter, ranged 
 horizontally, close and parallel to each other ; and the central roller being 
 moved by a treadle or foot-lath, resembling that of a knife-grinder, makes 
 the other two revolve in contrary directions. The cotton is laid in small 
 quantities at a time upon these rollers, whilst they are in motion, and readily 
 passing between them, drops into a bag placed underneath to receive it, 
 leaving the seeds, which are too large to pass with it, behind. The cotton 
 thus separated from the seeds, is afterwards hand-picked and cleansed 
 thoroughly from any little particles of the pods or other substances which 
 may be adhering to it. It is then stowed in large bags, where it is well 
 trodden down, that it maybe close and compact ; and the better to answer this 
 purpose, some water is every now and then sprinkled upon the outside of 
 the bag ; the marketable weight of which is usually three hundred pounds.** 
 London. 
 
 89. The Flax Linum usitati' ssimum which is employed in 
 a like manner, belongs to another family of the same class, called 
 the family of GERANIA'CE^J, the type of which is the Geraniums 
 of our gardens and green-houses. This well-known thread or 
 clothing plant has been cultivated from the remotest antiquity for 
 its cortical fibres, which, when separated from the woody matter, 
 form the lint and tow, which is spun into yarn, and woven into 
 linen cloth. Flax-seed yields a valuable oil, by expression, called 
 linseed oil, used in painting ; in powder it is much used for poul- 
 tices ; and the refuse, after pressing for oil, forms a cake fit to 
 fatten cattle, and for manure. The stem of the flax is simple 
 and cylindrical, from two to three feet high, and branching only 
 towards the top ; the leaves are sparse and lanceolate, and the 
 terminal flowers are of a delicate blue ; the calyx has five sepals, 
 
 89. To what family does the flax plant belong ? What is linen ? What 
 is linseed oil ? 
 
130 ORANGE LEMON. SHADDOCK. 
 
 and the corolla, which is campanulate, is composed of the same 
 number of petals, and encloses five stamens, and as many 
 stigmas. 
 
 90. The FAMILY OF AURANTIA'CE^ or HESPERI'DEJE, which 
 includes the orange and lemon, belongs to the same class as the 
 two preceding, and is composed of trees or shrubs, bearing articu- 
 late leaves, furnished with small vesicular glands, filled with a 
 transparent volatile oil ; their flowers are composed of a mono- 
 se'palous persistent calyx, with from three to five divisions, and 
 a corolla with from three to five petals; the style is simple ; and 
 the fruit is fleshy, internally separated by very thin membranous 
 partitions, and covered by a thick pericarp, which, like the leaves, 
 is furnished with vesicles filled with a volatile oil. 
 
 91. The common orange Citrus auran'tium is a tree 
 which may grow to thirty or forty feet in height, but in our 
 climate seldom attains to twenty feet. It does not resist the cold 
 of our winters, and during this season it must be protected by a 
 proper temperature. Orange trees do not often yield fruit after 
 they are twenty years old ; but they may live for centuries ; there 
 are orange trees still existing at Cordova, that date back to the 
 time of the Moorish kings ; one of these trees is said to be 
 between six and seven hundred years old. At Versailles, there 
 is a biiter orange tree, that, it is said, was sown in the year 1421, 
 in the garden of the Queen of Navarre, at Pampeluna ; it after- 
 wards belonged to the Constable of Bourbon, and after his death, 
 this tree, then the only one in France, was transported from 
 Chantilly to the chateau of Fontainebleau, whence Louis XIV. 
 carried it to the orangery of Versailles in 1684. 
 
 92. The uses of the orange, the lemon (Ci'trus me'dica), the 
 citron (a variety of the Ci'trus me'dica), the lime (Ci'trus acida), 
 and the shaddock (Ci'trus decumana], are well known. They 
 all contain an agreeable acid, which renders them favourites as 
 dessert fruits, or for making acidulous drinks, for preserves, 
 confections, &c. The rind is generally bitter, and abounds in 
 volatile oil. There are two principal varieties ; the sweet or 
 China orange, and the bitter or Seville orange. An agreeable 
 distilled water is prepared from the flowers of the orange. The 
 oil of bergamot is obtained from the rind of the fruit of a species 
 of Citrus. 
 
 90. What are the characters of the family of Aurantia'cece ? 
 
 91. To what family does the orange tree belong ? Are orange trees very 
 short-lived ? 
 
 92. What are the uses of the orange ? 
 
TEA. VINE. 
 
 131 
 
 93. Most botanists place in this 
 family the tea-plant (fig. 158) 
 Camellia (from Camellus or 
 Kamel, the name of a Jesuit bota- 
 nist). This remarkable genus fur- 
 nishes the domestic tea in universal 
 use, and flowering trees and shrubs 
 which are universally admired. 
 There are two species, the Camel- 
 lia bohe'a, and the Camel' Ha viri- 
 dis, which furnish tea. This article 
 is prepared with great care, and 
 considerable labour. The leaves 
 are carefully picked one by one ; 
 dried in shallow, iron pans, over a 
 slow fire ; exposed to the air, fre- 
 quently turned, and finally passed 
 through a winnowing machine, such 
 as is commonly used by our farmers 
 for wheat, &c. In this way the 
 kinds of tea are separated, the 
 lightest falling farthest from " the 
 fan ;" the first and the heaviest is 
 the " imperial," next the young 
 hyson, then gunpowder, and so on. 
 
 Both green and black tea are said to be from the same plant ; 
 but the green tea is longest over the fire. Rusckenberger's 
 Voyage round the World. 
 
 94. The VINI'FEK^E, or VITES, or AMPELLI'DE^E, form 
 another nat-ural family closely resembling the preceding, which 
 belongs to the same class ; it is composed of bushes or sarment- 
 ous (trailing or climbing) shrubs, which support 
 themselves by tendrils growing in the place of the 
 
 peduncles ; with simple or digitate, alter- 
 nate leaves, having two stipules at the 
 base, and small greenish flowers ar- 
 ranged in racemes opposite to the leaves ; 
 calyx very short, and the corolla com- 
 posed of five petals, and five stamens 
 opposite to the petals ; the fruit is a 
 Pi* 159 globular berry containing from one to 
 VINE. ' four seeds. Annexed are representations VINE. 
 
 93. To what family does the tea-plant belong ? What is the genus of the 
 tea-plant ? Where does it grow ? 
 
 94. What are the characters of the family Viniferae? How many species 
 of vine are cultivated in France ? What are raisins ? What are currants ? 
 
 Fig. 158. TEA-PLANT. 
 
132 
 
 WINE. OPIUM. 
 
 of the flowers of the vine. Figure 159 is the unexpanded flower 
 magnified. The Common vine Vitis vinifera was originally 
 from Arabia, but is now widely spread through the tropics and 
 temperate zones of both hemispheres. The varieties are very 
 numerous, and there are no less than fourteen hundred said to be 
 cultivated in France alone. The fruit of the vine (the grape, 
 when newly gathered, and the raisin, when dried) is extensively 
 used as an article of dessert, and its juice furnishes wine by fer- 
 mentation. Verjuice, a harsh acid juice, is obtained from the 
 unripe grape. Currants or Corinthian raisins are obtained 
 from a remarkably small variety of black grape, called the 
 Black Corinth. 
 
 95. Wine is the product of the fermentation of the juice of 
 the grape ; its colour, as we know, varies from red to a very 
 pale yellow : red wines are made from black grapes from which 
 the pericarp or envelope of the fruit is not separated from the 
 juice ; white wines are from white grapes or from black grapes, 
 the skins of which are not permitted to remain in the juice while 
 fermenting. During fermentation there is a great quantity of 
 carbonic acid disengaged, and when the wine is put into bottles 
 
 before this process is terminated, 
 this gas remains imprisoned in 
 the liquid, and, escaping the mo- 
 ment the cork is withdrawn, 
 renders the wine sparkling and 
 frothy : Champagne is of this 
 kind. 
 
 96. The FAMILY OF PAPA- 
 VERA'CE^E (Jig. 161) also be- 
 longs to the class of Hypope- 
 ta'Iese ; the type of this family is 
 the poppies, plants from which 
 opium is obtained. The flower 
 of the poppy has a calyx with 
 two concave and very cadu'cous 
 sepals ; a corolla with four large 
 petals, which, before their ex- 
 pansion, are plaited or wrinkled ; 
 a great many stamens, a one- 
 celled ovary, which becomes an 
 oval capsule enclosing a great 
 number of seeds. The red poppy 
 Fig, 1 61. RED POPPY. Papaver rlweas (fig. 161) 
 
 95. What is wine ? What Benders some wine sparkling ? 
 
 96. To what class does the family of Papavera'cea- belong ? What is 
 o'pium ? What is lau'danum ? 
 
CRUCIFEILE. LEGUMINOS^J. 
 
 133 
 
 so common in our gardens, belongs to this genus ; but the most 
 celebrated species is the white poppy Papaver somni'ferum 
 because the juice that is extracted from the capsules constitutes 
 opium, a peculiar substance which has the property of calming 
 pain and inducing sleep, when taken in small quantity, but in a 
 large dose, is a violent poison. Dissolved in proof-spirits it con- 
 stitutes lau'danum. 
 
 97. The FAMILY OF RANUNCU- 
 LA'CE.E or Crowfoot tribe (fig* 
 162) also belongs to the class of 
 Hypopeta'leae. It consists of herbs 
 or very rarely shrubs. The petals 
 are from three to fifteen, hypo- 
 gy'nous, in one or more rows. 
 The leaves are alternate or oppo- 
 site, generally much divided, with 
 the petiole dilated and forming a 
 sheath half clasping the stem. 
 The Anemone, Buttercup, Monk's- 
 hood, and Traveller's-joy, are of 
 this tribe. The plants of this 
 family are in general acrid and 
 caustic, and some are even poison- 
 ous. 
 
 98. The FAMILY OF CRUCI'FEKJE 
 is also composed of plants with 
 hypogy'nous stamens ; almost all 
 of them are herbaceous ; the leaves 
 
 are alternate, and the flower has four ungui'culate petals arranged 
 in the form of a cross, and six tetrady'namous stamens (four long 
 and two short), and the fruit is a silique. In it we place mustard 
 Sina2)is Cabbages Bras' sica Radish Raphanus sati- 
 vus, &c. 
 
 99. The FAMILY OF RESEDA'CE^E, the type of which is the 
 Reseda or Mignonette, that of the VIOLA'CK^E, which includes 
 Violets, &c., that of the CARYOPHI'LLE^E, which includes the 
 caper-bush (Capparis spinosa), &c., and several other families 
 belong to the class of Hypopeta'lese. 
 
 100. The FAMILY OF LEGUMINO'S.E, of the class of Peripe- 
 ta'leae, is, next to the grasses, one of the most useful, on account 
 
 Fig. 162. RANUNCULUS. 
 
 97. What are the characters of the family of Ranuncula'cese ? 
 
 98. What are the characters of the family of Cruciferse ? 
 
 99. Name some other families of the class of Hypopeta'leae. 
 100. What are the characters of the family of Legumino's* ? 
 
 12 
 
134 
 
 MIMOSA. 
 
 of the abundant and various aliment it furnishes for man and the 
 domestic animals. Some of these plants are herbaceous, and 
 others are even very tall trees ; their flowers are generally com- 
 posed of a monose'palous calyx, ordinarily campanu'liform or 
 tubular, and a corolla with five unequal petals, the general form 
 of which bears some resemblance to that of a butterfly ; the 
 stamens are almost always ten in number, and joined together in 
 two unequal fasciculi ; the fruit is a cod or legume, generally 
 elongated, compressed, bivalve, and has a single cell enclosing 
 seeds which are ordinarily globular or lenticular. The leaves 
 are almost always alternate, and the stem varies much. 
 
 101. This very natural family has been divided into three 
 sections, the Papiliona'cese, Cassia, and Mimosse. 
 
 102. The Papiliona 'cecz are characterized by the papiliona'- 
 ceous corolla (Jig. 94), and have, in general, ten diadelphous 
 stamens, as broom (Spartium scoparium), pea (Pisum sativum), 
 laburnum (Cy'tisus laburnum]. 
 
 103. The Cassice have an equal and regular corolla of three 
 or five petals, and ten stamens, of which some are frequently 
 abortive, as the Senna shrub (Cassia senna), the Tamarind tree 
 ( Tamarindus indica). 
 
 104. The Mimo'scB have a double calyx, the external small 
 and of five teeth, the internal monosepalous and tubular (some- 
 times called corolla), and 
 numerous stamens, general- 
 ly monodelphous, as the sen- 
 sitive plant (fig. 163) 
 (Mimosa pudica] the Gum 
 Arabic tree (a'cacia vera), 
 &c. The most common fea- 
 ture of the family of Legu- 
 minosse, is (Mr. Lindley ob- 
 serves) " to have what are 
 called papiliona'ceous flow- 
 ers ; and when these exist, 
 no difficulty is experienced 
 in recognising the order, for 
 papiliona'ceous flowers exist 
 nowhere else. Another and 
 more invariable character is 
 
 Fig. 163. SENSITIVE PLANT. 
 
 101. How is the family of Legumino'sffi divided ? 
 
 102. How are the Papiliona' ceee characterized ? (from the Latin, papilio^ 
 a butterfly, because the flower bears some resemblance to a butterfly.) 
 
 103. What are the characters of the Cas'siae ? 
 
 104. What are the characters of the Mimosas ? 
 
ROSACESAPPLE. PEARPLUM. 135 
 
 to have leguminous fruit; and by one of these two characters all 
 the plants of the family are known." 
 
 105. Many plants of this family yield seeds, the coty'ledons 
 of which are thick and fleshy, and formed chiefly of fecula, that 
 serve us for food ; others furnish gum, the different a'cacice for 
 example ; some are used as purgative medicines, such as the senna 
 and tamarind ; and others yield colouring matters, which are very 
 useful in the arts, such as indigo, campeachy wood, &c. 
 
 106. Most of our fruit trees belong to the FAMILY OF ROSA'CE^E, 
 the type of which is the rose tree. This family takes its place 
 near the Legumino'sa?, in the division of peripetalous dico- 
 ty'ledons. The flower of these plants is composed of a mono- 
 sepalous calyx, with four or five divisions, and a corolla almost 
 always composed of from four to five petals regularly displayed ; 
 the stamens are generally numerous; the leaves are alternate, 
 and the form of the fruit varies a great deal. We place in this 
 family, which also includes many ornamental plants, the apple, 
 oear, plum, cherry, peach, apricot, quince, medlar, almond, 
 strawberry, raspberry, dewberry, &c. 
 
 107. The apple tree Pyrus rnalus grows to from fifteen to 
 twenty feet in height, and bears oval, dentate leaves, smooth on 
 both sides, and white flowers tinted with rose colour externally. 
 It is indigenous to the forests of Europe, and in the wild state, 
 flowers about the beginning of May, but earlier when cultivated. 
 The structure of its fruit has already been mentioned (fig. 116). 
 More than a hundred varieties are known ; this tree only flourishes 
 in temperate climates, and succeeds best in a deep and slightly 
 humid soil ; it may live two hundred years. The apple is a 
 wholesome and agreeable fruit ; the most important product from 
 it is rider, a more or less spirituous liquor, obtained by ferment- 
 ing the juice of the fruit, which is obtained by pressing it. 
 
 108. The pear tree Pyrus communis a tree similar to the 
 preceding, is also indigenous to the forests of Europe ; it succeeds 
 best in a rich soil, but also accommodates itself to dry and sandy 
 situations. Pears are very much esteemed, and vary very much 
 in taste as well as in form; their juice by fermentation yields a 
 liquor very similar to cider, called perry. 
 
 109. The plum, apricot, peach, and cherry, differ from the 
 preceding in the structure of their fruit, which is a fleshy, round 
 
 105. In what manner are the Mimosae valuable to us ? 
 
 106. What are the characters of the family of Rosa'ceae? What plants 
 are included in this family ? 
 
 107. What are the characters of the apple tree ? What is cider ? 
 
 108. What is perry? 
 
 109. What are prunes ? 
 
136 CHERRY APRICOT. PEACH. ALMOND. 
 
 drupe, slightly furrowed on one side, containing a nut enclosing 
 one or two oleaginous seeds. The domestic plum Prunus 
 domestica is a hardy tree of middle size, which accommodates 
 itself to all kinds of soil ; when left to itself it grows straight 
 and pyramidal, but from trimming forms a rounded top ; the 
 leaves are oval, smooth above and slightly pubescent below; its 
 flowers are white; and its fruit, the colour and form of which 
 varies, has a smooth skin, without down, and more or less 
 covered by a very fine powder, called flour. Nearly all the 
 species of plums may be dried in the sun or in an oven and con- 
 verted into prunes. 
 
 110. The common clierry Prunus cera'sus is analo- 
 gous to the plum; it appears to be originally from Asia, and 
 Pliny informs us that in the year of Rome 880, Lucullus, after 
 his victory over Mithridates, introduced it into Italy. This tree 
 delights in temperate climates, and yields abundance of excellent 
 fruit. 
 
 111. The apricot Prunus armeni'aca appears to be origin- 
 ally from Armenia; every one knows the fruit of this tree, and 
 the form of its stone or nut. The peach Amy'gdalus persica 
 (of which the nectarin is a variety) and the almond Amy 'g. 
 dalis communis and Amy'gdalus ama'ra belong to the same 
 genus, but differ from the apricot in the nut, the surface, of which, 
 instead of being smooth, is irregularly and deeply furrowed. 
 The peach is originally from Persia, and does not prosper except 
 in localities where it is exposed to the influence of the sun ; when 
 carefully trimmed it may live forty years. The almond is a tree 
 of twenty-five to thirty feet high ; its trunk is rugged, and cover- 
 ed with an ash-coloured bark ; the leaves are straight, pointed 
 and dentate; the flower is white, and expands before the leaves 
 are developed ; the fruit is ovoid, elongated, a little fleshy, and 
 of a green colour ; and the bony case which envelopes the 
 almond kernel is sometimes thin and pliable, and at others, thick 
 and very hard. There are two principal varieties; one called 
 the bitter, and the other the sweet almond ; both contain a good 
 deal of oil, and yield, when rubbed up in water, an emulsion 
 called almond milk, which forms the basis of orgeat. Bitter 
 almonds also contain, in very small quantity, a very volatile sub- 
 stance, called hydrocy'anic or prussic acid, which is a most vio- 
 lent poison. 
 
 112. The strawberry Fraga'ria vesca is an herbaceous 
 
 1 1 0. Where is the cherry tree from, originally ? 
 
 111. What are the characters of the almond tree ? What is orgeat ? 
 
 112. What are the characters of the strawberry 1 
 
STRAWBERRY. RASPBERRY.MELONS. 137 
 
 plant with a very short stem ; almost all the leaves are radical, 
 and ordinarily consist of three leaflets borne on a long petiole ; 
 the collum of the root gives rise to slender, long, repent shoots, 
 which take root, from point to point, put forth leaves, and thus 
 form new stems ; from the midst of these leaves rise two or three 
 simple, slender sterns, which bear on their summit from four to 
 six white flowers. The red, fleshy body which succeeds the 
 flower, and known under the name of strawberry, is commonly 
 taken for the fruit of this plant, but is nothing but a prolongation 
 of the common support of the seeds, which becomes succulent 
 and very much developed ; the true fruit, that is, the seeds and 
 their envelope, adhere to its surface. This plant grows through- 
 out Europe, and in most places in North and South America. 
 
 113. Raspberries Rubus idceus which have nearly the 
 same structure as the strawberry, are furnished by a shrub of 
 the genus of bramble, which belongs to the family of Rosa'ceax 
 Botanists call the raspberry the bramble of Mount Ida, because 
 it grows wild on that mountain, but it is also originally from the 
 northern regions of Europe and America ; it delights in a light 
 and somewhat shaded soil. Its root is a ligneous stock which 
 produces several straight stems armed with numerous fine thorns; 
 its flowers are white, quite small, and borne on slender peduncles. 
 Its fruit is composed of many small monospermous berries slightly 
 attached to each other, and placed round a conical, fleshy sup- 
 port. The dewberry Rubus ccesius yields a fruit of similar 
 character, but it is without the taste and perfume of the rasp- 
 berry. 
 
 114. The FAMILY OF CUCURBITA'CE^E belongs to the same 
 class as the preceding, and is composed of large herbaceous 
 plants, the fruit of which is a pepo. The pulpy matter found in 
 the fruit of most of the plants of this family is wholesome and 
 often very nutritious. The melon or cantaloupe, so much prized 
 as a dessert fruit, is obtained from the Cu'cumis melo ; the com- 
 mon cucumber is the fruit of the Cu'cumis sativus. Besides 
 these, we have the water-melon Cu'cumis citrullus and the 
 squash-gourd, &c. The FAMILY OF MYRTIA'CE^E or MYRT.E, 
 and several others also take their place in the division of polype- 
 talous dicotyledons. 
 
 113. What are raspberries ? 
 
 114. What are the characters of the Cucurbita'ces ? 
 
138 FOP. HEMP. 
 
 115. To the same division of Peripeta'lese 
 belong the Indian figs, or Ca'ctece, or Nopa'- 
 lecs (Jig. 164) ; they are known by the stamens 
 being indefinite, the calyx and corolla being im- 
 perceptible, or very minute, and their succulent 
 character. The fruits of many of the Ca'ctece 
 are pulpy and refreshing. The milky juice of 
 some of the plants in this family is very dan- 
 gerous, as that of the Cactus grandiflorus, 
 C actus flagelliformis, &c. The insect called 
 Cochineal (Cocus cacti) is found on some 
 species of cactus. 
 
 DICLINOUS* DICOTY'LEDONS. 
 
 116. This fourth division of the dicoty'ledons is composed, in 
 the method of Jussieu, of plants, the flowers of which are truly 
 unisexual and diclinous, that is, the two sexes are not found in 
 the same individual ; but it is not very natural and is not adopted 
 by the majority of the botanists of the present day. 
 
 In this division we place the Euphorbia'ceaa, the Cupuli'fera, 
 or Amenta'cese, the Urti'cese, the Coni'ferae, &c. 
 
 117. The FAMILY OF URTI'CE,E is composed of plants, both 
 herbaceous and ligneous, the juices of which are often milky, the 
 flowers are apetalous, joined in a catkin or enclosed in a fleshy 
 involucre, and have hypogy'nous stamens ; the fruit is composed 
 of a crustaceous achenium enveloped by the calyx or involucre. 
 We place in this family the hop (Humulus lupulus), which is 
 valued in brewing for the bitter quality of its strobili or cones ; 
 the banyan tree (Ficus religiosa) ; the fig (Ficus carica) ; nettle 
 (Urtica dioica) ; the well known plant which furnishes hemp 
 (Cannabis saliva) ; mulberry (Morus nigra). The bark of the 
 Morus papyrifera furnishes the paper of the Chinese. The 
 bread-fruit tree (Artocarjms incisa) ; the elm, &c. 
 
 118. The hemp Cannabis sativa belongs to the family of 
 Urti'cese; it is an herbaceous, dioeceous plant, the male flowers 
 of which are arranged in axillary and terminal panicles, and the 
 female flowers are sessile in the axils of the superior ramuscules ; 
 these flowers have a single envelope which takes the place of 
 
 * DICLINOUS : (from the Greek, dis, two, and kline, bed.) This term is 
 applied to plants in which the sexual organs exist separately in different 
 flowers, that is, not having both sexes in the same flower, being unisexual. 
 
 115. How is the family of Nopa'leae known ? What is cochineal? 
 
 1 1 6. What kind of plants are included in the class of Dicli'neoe ? 
 
 117. What are the characters of the family of Urti'ceffl ? 
 
 1 18. What is hemp ? For what is it used ? 
 
ELM. BREAD-FRUIT. OAK. 139 
 
 calyx and corolla; it is entire, oblong or conical, and in the 
 female flowers laterally cleft, while in the male, it presents five 
 oblong and slightly concave parts. We know but one species of 
 this genus ; its straight, quadrangular stem rises from five to six 
 feet high ; the leaves are digitate, acuminate, and dentate ; at the 
 base of the stem, opposite, and alternate above. In this plant, as 
 well as almost all of the dicecia, the males are not so tall as the 
 females, and, through a singular error, they are always regarded 
 by the ignorant, as the female, and vice versa. Hemp is origin- 
 ally from Persia, and has been as long in use as flax ; it is culti- 
 vated in great quantity in different parts of Europe, and even 
 grows there spontaneously. It is sown in the month of June in 
 very rich soil ; the female plants, which ripen later than the 
 male, are chiefly cultivated for the seed, from which an oil is 
 obtained, for burning in France, for eating in Russia, and paint- 
 ing in England. Within a few years hemp has been cultivated 
 in the United States. It is manufactured into ropes for rigging 
 ships, &c. 
 
 119. The elm is also a plant of the family of Urti'cese. Its 
 flowers, which are hermaphrodite, are very small and united in 
 clusters at the upper part of the ramifications of the stem ; they 
 expand before the leaves, which are simple and alternate. This tree 
 is indigenous in France, and acquires a great size ; it is. frequently 
 employed in forming shady avenues, and its wood is useful. 
 
 120. The bread-fruit of the South Sea Islands bears a pulpy 
 fruit, which, when gathered before being ripe, is roasted ; it tastes 
 like bread made of wheat flour and potatoes. The inhabitants 
 of Tahiti and the adjacent islands feed upon it nearly throughout 
 the year. 
 
 121. The FAMILY OF CUPULI'FER,E or AMENTA'CEJE, contains 
 several of our most important forest trees, such as the oak, beech, 
 and chestnut. It is composed of trees with simple, alternate 
 leaves; the male flowers are arranged in cylindrical and scaly 
 catkins, and the female flowers are generally axillary and 
 entirely, or in part, covered by a scaly cupule ; the fruit is always 
 a gland, which is commonly unilocular, and always accompanied 
 by a cupule. There are several species of oak known ; the com- 
 mart or red oak is a magnificent tree which grows to a height of 
 sixty or seventy feet; the leaves are laterally incised into obtuse 
 lobes, and almost always regularly opposite; the male flowers 
 
 119. What are the general characters of the elm ? 
 
 120. Where is bread fruit found ? How is it eaten ? 
 
 121. What are the characters of the family of Cupuli'fenB ? (from the 
 Latin, cupulum, a little cup, and fero, I bear.) What description of plants 
 does this family contain ? What are the characters of the oak ? What is 
 tan? 
 
140 TAN. NUT-GALLS. CORK. 
 
 form long, slender catkins at the upper part of the young 
 branches ; and the female flowers are sessile, and grouped in the 
 axils of the upper leaves. This tree grows slowly, but lives for 
 a long time ; it rarely begins to bear glands (acorns) at an early 
 age, but does not cease to grow till the end of three or four cen- 
 turies. Its wood is very valuable on account of its hardness and 
 durability, and is used for frame-work in building. Its bark, 
 which is very astringent, is also very useful, because it serves to 
 make tan, a substance by means of which skins are tanned, and 
 form leather. 
 
 122. Nut-galls, which are employed for making ink, and for 
 dyeing black, are excrescences produced by the sting or puncture 
 of a little insect on the branches of a species of oak in Asia 
 Minor. 
 
 123. The holm-oak or evergreen-oak which abounds in the 
 South of Europe, has dentate leaves, which remain throughout 
 the winter. The same is true of another species of this genus, 
 known as the cork tree, because it furnishes cork. This sub- 
 stance, which is spongy and elastic, is the herbaceous layer of 
 the bark, which is removed from the tree every eight or ten 
 years ; there are a great many of these trees in Spain, and also 
 in the South of France. The outer bark is the cork, but there 
 is an interior bark which is left on to protect the tree, so that 
 stripping off the outer bark is so far from injuring the trees, that 
 it is necessary to their continuation. Trees that are never bark- 
 ed are said to die at the end of fifty or sixty years. The bark 
 is removed for the first time when the tree is about fifteen years 
 old. It is taken off in sheets, and after being detached, it is flat- 
 tened by presenting the convex side to heat, or by pressure. In 
 either case it is charred (slightly burned) on both surfaces to 
 close the transverse pores previously to being sold. The car- 
 bonized surface produced by this charring may be seen in bungs 
 (for casks), but not in corks, which being cut in the lengthway 
 of the bark, the charring is taken off in the rounding. 
 
 124. The live-oak Quercus virens grows to the height of 
 forty or fifty feet, spreading its branches, when in open places, 
 extremely wide ; it yields the finest and most durable ship-timber 
 of any species known ; for which reason it is considered one of 
 the most valuable trees in the United States. It is chiefly found 
 in Florida, and the Southern States. 
 
 122. What are nut-gails ? What are they used for ? 
 
 123. What tree furnishes cork ? What is the reason that we see sheets 
 of cork slightly charred ? 
 
 124. Where does live-oak grow ? 
 
CHESTNUT. ELM. PINES. 141 
 
 125. The chestnuts Casta'nea form another genus of the 
 same family as the preceding; the fruit is a species of nut with 
 a single cell, which encloses two or three seeds containing a good 
 deal of fecula, and is entirely enveloped by the cupule, the sur- 
 face of which is studded with sharp points. The common chest- 
 nut is a large beautiful tree which grows spontaneously in the 
 forests, nearly throughout Europe and different parts of North 
 America; it sometimes acquires an enormous size; there is one 
 on Mount Etna said to be one hundred and ten feet in circum- 
 ference ; it is hollow, and a little house has been built in its 
 interior, with a hearth where they cook chestnuts which are often 
 gathered from the tree itself. In Cevennes, Limousin, and some 
 other parts of France, the peasants live almost exclusively on 
 chestnuts. The wood is used in building ; it is extremely durable, 
 and in high esteem for posts and rails to construct fences. The 
 chinquapin nut Casta'nea pu'mila is a small tree, or rather a 
 shrub, growing to the height of thirty feet in the Southern States, 
 but scarcely exceeding seven or eight in cold latitudes. The fruit 
 is very sweet and agreeable to eat. 
 
 126. The yoke-elm also belongs to the family of Cupuli'ferae ; 
 the male and female flowers are arranged in catkins, composed 
 of imbricated scales. It is a tree easily shaped by trimming, and 
 for this reason is often employed in Europe for hedges ; it some- 
 times rises to fifty or sixty feet in height, and its wood, which is 
 very hard, is much used by wheelwrights, and for fuel. 
 
 127. A great many European forests are formed of trees of 
 the FAMILY OF CONI'FER^E, which is placed in the class of Di 
 cli'neoc, alongside of the Cupuli'ferra ; they are generally designated 
 under the title of evergreens and resinous trees, because they pre- 
 serve their leaves through the winter, and because their wood 
 contains a great quantity of resin (commonly called rosin). 
 Almost all of them have stiff, linear, coriaceous leaves ; their 
 flowers are unisexual, and arranged in cones or catkins which are 
 ordinarily scaly; and generally the fruit also is a scaly qone. 
 Fir trees and pines are types of this family ; these two genera 
 are distinguished from each other by their aspect, by their leaves, 
 which are solitary on the fir tree, and united in fasciculi or 
 bunches of from two to five on the pines ; by the male flowers, 
 the catkins of which are isolated and solitary on the pines, and 
 united and grouped on the fir tree, and by several other charac- 
 teristics. Both delight in mountainous regions, and on sandy 
 
 1 25. What are the characters of the chestnut tree ? What plant furnishes 
 chinquapins ? 
 
 126. What are the characters of the yoke-elm? 
 
 127. What are the characters of the family of Coni'ferse ? (from the Latin, 
 com/8, a cone, and /cro, I bear.) Where do pines most abound ? 
 
142 USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 plains. Pines abound especially in the north, where they form 
 forests of vast extent ; the stem is straight, and their height, fre- 
 quently colossal ; a great many species are known. 
 
 128. The Jersey pine, pitch, or scrub pine, is of middle size, 
 straggling growth, and full of resin. Its branches are tougher 
 than those of any other pine, and might be used for many pur- 
 poses if its wood were not subject to so early a decay. The 
 pitch pine is generally known in its native country by the name 
 of Norway pine ; sometimes, particularly among the Canadian 
 French, red pine. It grows in close forests, is very tall, and its 
 bark remarkably smooth and red ; the limber is very heavy ; for 
 which reason it is rejected for masts, though its shape and size 
 appear to recommend it for that purpose. The yellow pine is 
 most in use for building houses as well as shipping. The loblolly 
 or old field pine is found in large tracts in the Southern States ; 
 all the woods seem to be filled with its seeds ; for when any piece 
 of clear land is neglected for any space of time, it will be covered 
 by these pines. It is difficult, and in some cases almost imprac- 
 ticable, to recover lands so run over, as the ground appears to 
 have lost all fertile properties for other vegetation. The long- 
 leaved, yellow, pitch, or brown pine, is a beautiful, as well as a 
 very useful tree. The white or Weymouth pine grows in the 
 State of Vermont, to an enormous size ; it is the best timber in 
 America for masts. 
 
 Turpentine, resin, tar, and pitch, are the products of several 
 species of pines, and are exported in large quantities from the 
 United States. 
 
 The common fir is found in the same countries as the wild 
 pine. Larch and cedar are very analogous to the fir tree. 
 
 OF THE USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 From the short sketch we have just given of the vegetable 
 kingdom, we see how many important and varied services are 
 rendered to us by plants. Either directly or indirectly, all ani- 
 mals are nourished by plants; indeed, there is an immense num- 
 ber of animated beings that eat nothing but vegetable substances, 
 and those that feed upon meat would not find sufficient food, unless 
 they devoured each other, without destroying those that are main- 
 tained on vegetable food exclusively. There is scarcely a plant 
 that does not nourish some animal ; almost all insects, for exam- 
 ple, live either in the perfect or in the larva state, at the expense 
 of the plant upon which they are habitually found ; and even in 
 the highest classes of the animal kingdom, the number of 
 
 128. What species of pine are most prevalent in the United States ? 
 What is tar procured from ? What plants yield turpentine ? 
 
USES OF PLANTS. 143 
 
 phyti'vorous* species is immense, for the quadruma'na,f the 
 gnawers, the pa'chyderms,:}: and the ruminants, all observe a 
 vegetable diet ; and man himself derives most of his food from 
 the vegetable kingdom. 
 
 Among the most important alimentary plants, the first are the 
 cereals. Under this name we designate plants of the family of 
 grasses, which afford nourishment to man and most domestic ani- 
 mals ; namely, wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, and rice. There 
 is in the interior of their seed, betwixt the spermoderm and the 
 embryo, a considerable deposit of amylaceous matter, designed 
 to nourish the young plant, and designated by botanists under 
 the name of albumen or perisperm ; it is this matter we use for 
 food. We have already studied the history of these plants, con- 
 sequently it is useless to repeat it. We will, however, add here, 
 that the perisperm of the cereals, and consequently the flour 
 obtained by grinding them, is essentially composed of fecula or 
 starch, ordinarily mixed with a certain quantity, of a substance 
 named gluten, which considerably resembles animal matter. 
 Wheat flour contains more gluten than any other, and for this 
 reason, it makes better bread and is more nutritious ; rye also 
 contains it, but there is none in rice, oats, &c. 
 
 Other plants also furnish abundance of fecula, but not from the 
 same part as in those mentioned ; sometimes it is in the coty'le- 
 dons of the seed, sometimes in tubercles, and at other times in 
 the very substance of the stems or roots ; thus, peas and beans 
 and some other plants of the family of Legumino'sae, furnish 
 edible seeds, the coty'ledons of which contain the same as the 
 albumen of the cereals, a great deal of fecula, and a certain 
 quantity of gluten mixed with sugar and some other matters. 
 Whatever part this fecula may occupy, it in general constitutes, 
 as in the pericarp of the cereals, depositories of nutritive matter 
 for the nourishment of the young plant, or of new shoots. 
 
 The tubers of the potatoe owe their nutritious qualities to the 
 quantity of fecula they contain ; the same is true of batatas\\ 
 (the Spanish or sweet potatoe), a species of convolvulus, originally 
 
 * Phyti'vorous. From the Greek, phuton, plant, and oro, I eat; plant, 
 eating. 
 
 t Quadruma'na. From the Latin, quadrinvs, formed from quatuor, four, 
 and manus, hand ; having four hands. 
 
 t Pa'chyderm. From the Greek, pachus, thick, and derma, skin. 
 
 Amyla'ceous. From the Latin, amy'lum, starch ; starchy. 
 
 || Batatas is either a Malay or Mexican word. The plant is a native of 
 both the E.ast and West Indies, and China. It was first carried to Spain 
 from the West Indies, and annually imported into England, and sold as a 
 delicacy. It is the potatoe of Shakspeare and his cotemporaries, the com- 
 rnon or Irish potatoe being then scarcely known in Europe. 
 
144 USES OF PLANTS. 
 
 from India, which is now cultivated in all warm regions in the 
 world. The species of fecula, known under the name of cassava 
 or tapioca, of which great use is made in the West Indies, is 
 derived from the root of the manioc, a plant of the family of 
 Euphorbia'cese, which also contains a very poisonous juice that 
 is separated by means of water. Sago is another species of 
 fecula obtained from the stem of a palm, and salep is also a fecula 
 obtained from the stem of a monocotyle'donous plant of the family 
 of Orchi'dese. 
 
 The most esteemed of our fruits, the majority of them at least, 
 are furnished by the family of Rosa'cese : for example, apples, 
 pears, plums, cherries, peaches, apricots, strawberries, raspber- 
 ries ; and to complete the list of fruit trees we must not omit the 
 mention of some species of the family of Ampeli'dese, and the 
 family of Aurantia'cese ; namely, the vine, the orange, and 
 citron. 
 
 Plants furnish us not only with wholesome and agreeable food, 
 but also substances which are of the greatest utility in the manu- 
 facture of clothing, and in the construction of our dwellings. 
 Hemp, flax, and cotton, yield us long, flexible filaments, which 
 constitute excellent materials for spinning and weaving ; and our 
 forest trees, almost all of which belong to the family of Cupuli'- 
 ferse, or that of the Coni'ferse, furnish abundance of wood for 
 building our houses and ships, as well as for the manufacture of 
 furniture, and instruments of various kinds. 
 
 Ornamental plants which decorate our gardens and con- 
 servatories are very numerous ; they are furnished by very 
 various families, in the front rank of which we may place the 
 rosa'cese, because it has for its type one of our most beautiful 
 flowers, the rose. Many species and varieties of rose trees are 
 known, and almost all of them may be cultivated in the open air, 
 in our climate; they flourish best in a light soil and partial expo- 
 sure to the sun. In the wild state, they have but five petals, in 
 the midst of which we observe a great number of stamens ; but 
 cultivation has transformed most of these latter organs into petals, 
 and enhanced the beauty of the flowers. 
 
 The dahlia, which was for some years so rare, but now every- 
 where met in gardens, belongs to the family of Synanthe'rese; 
 this beautiful herbaceous plant has a perennial root composed of 
 bundles of horizontal, oblong tubercles, from which rises a cylin- 
 drical, branching stem, bearing opposite leaves and large flowers, 
 which appear from the end of July till the approach of frost. 
 The dahlia may be multiplied by its seeds, or by the division of 
 its roots. 
 
 The genus aster, which comprises a great number of beautiful 
 autumnal flowers, including the Queen Margaret, which was im- 
 
USES OF PLANTS. 145 
 
 ported from China into Europe, about a hundred years ago, also 
 belongs to the family of Synanthe'rea3. 
 
 The family of Caryophi'llese presents our gardens with dif- 
 ferent species of carnations or pinks, known under the name of 
 common pink, china pink, &c. The family of Legumino'sae 
 gives us aca'cia, the sweet pea, &c. 
 
 We have seen that a great many plants afford to man whole- 
 some and abundant food ; that others are violent poisons to him, 
 but very many even of the latter are useful, because when pru- 
 dently administered they constitute powerful medicines. 
 
 A great number of plants of the family of Sola'nese are of 
 this kind; for example, belladonna, henbane, stramonium, to- 
 bacco ; some species of the family of Papavera'ceaB, such as the 
 poppies ; and hemlock, which belongs to the Umbelli'ferce, &c. &c. 
 In our citation of poisonous plants, we must not omit the mush- 
 rooms, the history of which we have already given. 
 
 13 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 ABO'RT. To bring forth before the 
 time; to fail in complete produc- 
 tion. A seed that fails to germi- 
 nate may be said to abo'rt. 
 
 ABO'RTION. The act of bringing forth 
 untimely. 
 
 ABO'RTIVE. That which fails to pro- 
 duce or bring forth anything; fall- 
 ing off without producing any 
 fruit. 
 
 ABSO'RPTION. The act of swallowing 
 up (pages 17 and 27). 
 
 ACA'CIA. From the Greek akantha, a 
 thorn Systematic name of a ge- 
 nus of plants. 
 
 ACA'ULOUS. From the Greek, o, with- 
 out, and kaulos, stem. Without a 
 stem. 
 
 A'ccESsoRY. Joined to another thing 
 so as to increase it ; additional. 
 
 ACERO'SE. From the Latin, acer, a 
 needle. In form of a needle. 
 
 ACHE'NIUM. From the Greek, a, with- 
 out, and cAaino, I gape. A form 
 of fruit. 
 
 A'ciD. Sour, sharp. In chemistry 
 this term is applied to all sub- 
 stances which saturate and neu- 
 tralize alkalies and other salifiable 
 bases. 
 
 ACOTY'LEDON. From the Greek, a, 
 without, and kotuledon, a seed-lobe. 
 A class of plants. 
 
 A'COTYLE'DONOUS. Belonging or re- 
 lating to acoty'ledons. 
 
 ACU'MINATE. From the Latin, acu- 
 men, a point. Pointed. 
 
 ACU'TE. More gradually sharp point- 
 ed than acuminate. In botanical 
 language every angle is acute. 
 
 ADVENTI'TIOUS. Accidental. Adven- 
 titious roots are those which grow 
 from the stem (page. 19). Adven- 
 titious buds are those which grow 
 on parts of the stem where they are 
 not commonly met. 
 
 IS. Latin. Equal ; even. 
 
 . From the Latin, asti- 
 vus, of or belonging to summer. 
 A figurative expression employed 
 to indicate the manner in which 
 the parts of a flower are arranged 
 before they unfold. Botanists speak 
 of the aestivation of the calyx, of 
 the corolla, of the stamens. 
 
 A'GAMOUS. From the Greek, o, with- 
 out, and gamos, marriage. A class 
 of plants. 
 
 AGA'RICUS. Latin. Agaric. 
 
 AGGLU'TINATED. From the Latin, ad, 
 together, and gluten, glue. Joined 
 to, or united together. 
 
 AGGREGATED. Collected together ; 
 accumulated. When a fruit is com- 
 posed of several agglutinated car- 
 pels, it is said to be aggregate. 
 
 AKE'NE. See Achenium. 
 
 ALBU'MEN. From the Latin, albus, 
 white. An immediate principle of 
 animals and vegetables ; it con- 
 stitutes the chief part of the white 
 of eggs. 
 
 ALBUR'NUM, Sap-wood. 
 
 AL'G^E. Latin, plural of alga, sea. 
 weed. Systematic name of a family 
 of plants. 
 
 ALIME'NTARY. Affording nourish- 
 ment. 
 
 ALOPECU'RUS. From the Greek, alo- 
 pex, fox, and oura, tail. Name of 
 a kind of grass. 
 
 ALTE'RNATE. Being by turns ; one 
 after another. 
 
 AMA'RA. Latin. Bitter. 
 
 AMARYL'LID^:. Also,Amaryllida'ceaB. 
 Systematic name of an order of 
 plants, formed from Amaryllis, the 
 name of one genus of the order. 
 
 AME'NTUM. Latin. A cat-kin. 
 
 AME'NTA. Latin. Plural of Amentum. 
 
 AMENTA'CE^J. Systematic name of a 
 family of plants, in which the flow- 
 ers are arranged in amenta or cat. 
 kins. 
 
 (H8) 
 
BOTANY. GLOSSARY. 
 
 147 
 
 L j American . 
 
 AMERICA'NA. 
 AMERICA NUS. 
 AMPEI/IDE^E. From the Greek, Am- 
 
 pelos, a vine. A systematic name 
 
 of a family of vines. 
 AMPLE'XJCAULE. From the Latin, am- 
 
 plecto, I embrace, and cavils, stem. 
 
 Stem - embracing. Applied to a 
 
 fbrrn of leaf. 
 AMPU'LLA. Latin. A bottle. Any- 
 
 thing blown or puffed up. The 
 
 name of a form of leaf. 
 AMYG'DAUJP. Latin. From the Greek 
 
 amugdalon, an almond. Generic 
 
 name of the almond tree. 
 AMYLA'CEOUS. From the Latin, amy'- 
 
 lum, starch. Starchy ; of the na- 
 
 ture of starch. 
 ANA'LOGOUS. Similar ; bearing a re- 
 
 semblance to. 
 ANDRO'PHORE. From the Greek, an- 
 
 dros, the genitive of alter, man 
 
 anther, and phoreo, I bear. Anther- 
 
 bearer. A kind of sheath to the 
 
 pistil. 
 
 ANDRO'PHORUM. Latin. Androphore. 
 ANGIOSPE'RMIA. From the Greek, ag- 
 
 geion, a vessel, and sperma, seed. 
 
 Name of a Linnsean order of 
 
 plants. 
 ANGU'LINERVE. From the Latin, an- 
 
 gulus, a corner, an angle, and ner- 
 
 vus, a nerve or sinew. Having 
 
 straight nerves which form angles 
 
 with each other. 
 A'NNUAL. From the Latin, annus, a 
 
 year. Yearly. A plant which rises 
 
 from the seed, reaches perfection 
 
 and perishes within a year. 
 A'NNULAR. From the Latin, annulus, 
 
 a ring. In form of a ring. 
 ANO'MALOUS. From the Greek, and- 
 
 malos, unequal, irregular. 
 A'NTHER. From the Greek, anthera, 
 
 a flowery herb. 
 A'NTHRACITE. From the Greek, an- 
 
 thrax, charcoal. Mineral charcoal. 
 
 A kind of stone coal, which is hard 
 
 and difficult to inflame. 
 APETA'LE^E. From the Greek, fl, with- 
 
 out, and petalon, petal. Systematic 
 
 name of a group of plants. 
 APE'TALOUS. Applied to flowers that 
 
 have a calyx and no corolla, or 
 
 neither. 
 A'PEX. The top, summit, or end. 
 
 When applied to a leaf, it is tho 
 point most remote from the base. 
 
 APOCA'RPOUS. From the Gieek, apo, 
 from, and karpos, fruit. Applied 
 to fruits formed of a single carpel. 
 
 APOTHE'CUM. From the Greek, apo- 
 theke, a repository. 
 
 APPARA'TUS. An assemblage of or- 
 gans. 
 
 ARBORE'SCENT. From the Latin, ar- 
 bor, a tree. Stems of plants which 
 are at first herbaceous and after- 
 wards become somewhat woody 
 and tree-like. 
 
 A'RIL. A coat or covering of certain 
 seeds, formed by the expansion of 
 the funicula or placenta. 
 
 ARI'LLUS. Latin. Aril. 
 
 ARI'STATE. Awned. 
 
 ARISTOLOCHI'A. From the Greek, arri- 
 ses, excellent, and lochos, female, 
 because it was supposed to be ex- 
 cellent for females in particular 
 conditions. Name of a family of 
 plants. 
 
 ARMENI'ACA. Latin. Armenian. 
 
 AROMA'TIC. From the Greek, aroma, 
 an odour. Spicy ; fragrant. 
 
 ARTI'CULATE. Jointed. Articulate 
 leaves are those attached to the 
 stem by a sort of joint. 
 
 ARTICULA'TION. A joint. 
 
 ARTOCA'RPUS. From the Greek, artos, 
 bread, and karpos, fruit. Generic 
 name of the bread-fruit tree. 
 
 ASCI'DHJM. From the Greek, askos, a 
 bottle or pitcher. A kind of leaf. 
 
 ASPARAGI'NE^E. From the Greek, spar- 
 rosso, I tear, or asparagos, a term 
 applied to the tender shoots of 
 plants. Systematic name of a fa- 
 mily of plants. 
 
 ASPHODE'LEJE. From the Greek, as- 
 phodelos, name of a flower. Sys- 
 tematic name of a family of plants. 
 
 ASSIMILA'TION. The act by which liv 
 ing bodies (plants or animals) ap 
 propriate and transform into their 
 own substance, matters with which 
 they may be placed in contact. As- 
 similation is therefore a part of the 
 function of nutrition. 
 
 ASSO'LEMENT. French. The art of 
 arranging crops in proper succes- 
 sion, according to the soil, to secure 
 the greatest production. 
 
148 
 
 BOTANY. GLOSSARY. 
 
 A'STER. From the Greek, aster, a 
 star. Name of a genus of plants. 
 
 AT'ROPA. From the Greek, atropos, 
 " the Goddess of Destiny;" so called 
 from its fatal effects. Name of a 
 genus of plants. 
 
 AURANTIA'CE^E. From the Latin, au- 
 rantium, an orange. Name of an 
 order of plants. 
 
 AURA'NTIUM. Latin. An orange. 
 
 AURI'CULATE. From the Latin, auri- 
 cula, a little ear. A form of leaf 
 which has ear-like lobes or projec- 
 tions at the base. 
 
 AUTOMA'TJC. From the Greek, avtos, 
 self, maten, easily, or automates, 
 spontaneously. That which acts 
 of itself. 
 
 A' VENA. Latin. Oats. 
 
 AWNED. Terminating in a long hard 
 bristle. 
 
 A'XIL. From the Latin, axilla, arm- 
 pit. The angle or point at which a 
 leaf or branch unites with the stem. 
 
 A'XILLARV. Belonging to an axil or 
 axilla. 
 
 A'ZOTE. From the Greek, a, priva- 
 tive, and zoe, life. A name given 
 to nitrogen because it will not sup- 
 port animal life. 
 
 BAMBU'SA. Bamboo. 
 
 BATA'TAS. Sweet potatoes. 
 
 BICRENATE. From the Latin, bis, 
 two, and crena, a notch, a slit. 
 Doubly crenate. 
 
 BJE'NNIAL. From the Latin, bis, two, 
 and annus, year. A term applied 
 to plants which grow one year and 
 flower the next, after which they 
 perish; they only differ from an- 
 nuals in requiring a longer time to 
 produce fruit. 
 
 BIFURCATION. From the Latin, bis, 
 two, and furca, fork. The point 
 where a part forms two branches 
 like a fork. 
 
 BIJU'GATE. From the Latin, bis, two, 
 and jugum, yoke. A leaf formed 
 of two pairs of leaflets. 
 
 BILO'BATE. Having two lobes. 
 
 BILO'CULAR. From the Latin, bis, 
 two, and loculus, partition. Hav- 
 ing two cells. 
 
 BI'NATE. From the Latin, bis, two, 
 and nalus, grown. A form of leaf 
 composed of two leaflets. 
 
 BIPIN'NATE. Doubly pinnate. 
 
 BITE'RNATE. Doubly ternate. 
 
 BITU'MINOUS. Relating to bitu'men; 
 mineral pitch. 
 
 BIVA'LVE. From the Latin, bis, two, 
 and valva, door. Composed of two 
 parts, joined together like doors. 
 
 BORAGI'NE^E, or Boragina'ceae. Name 
 of a family of plants of whicli the 
 Borago is the type. 
 
 BO'TANV. From the Greek, botane, a 
 plant. Natural history of plants. 
 
 BRA'SSICA. Latin. Cabbage. 
 
 BRACT. From the Latin, bractea, a 
 thin leaf of metal. A floral leaf 
 different in colour from other leaves 
 
 BRA'CTE^E. Latin. Bracts. 
 
 BULB. A collection of fleshy scales 
 arranged like those of a bud, of 
 which the bulb is a slight modifi- 
 cation, separating spontaneously 
 from the stem to which it belongs, 
 and emitting roots from its base. 
 
 BU'LBOUS. Belonging or relating to a 
 bulb. 
 
 CADU'COUS. From the Latin, cado, I 
 fall. Applied to leaves which fall 
 off early. 
 
 C^'sius. Latin. Grey. 
 
 CA'LAMUS. A genus of palms. 
 
 CA'LICES. Latin. Plural of calyx. 
 
 CA'LYX. The cup of a flower. 
 
 CALY'PTRA. From the Greek, kalup- 
 tra, a covering. Part of the cap- 
 sule of a moss. 
 
 CA'MBIUM. A low Latin word for 
 liquid which^ becomes glutinous. 
 
 CAMEL' LIA. A genus of the family 
 of Aurantia'ceae, named in honour 
 of Ivamel, a botanist. 
 
 CAMPA'NULATE. Bell-shaped. 
 
 CAMPANU'LIFORM. From the Latin 
 campanula, a little bell, and forma, 
 shape. In shape of a bell. 
 
 CANI'CULATED. Channelled or fur- 
 rowed. 
 
 CANNA'BIS. Latin. Hemp. 
 
 CAPI'LLARV. From the Latin, capil- 
 lus, a hair. Hair-like. 
 
 CA'PITAL. From the Latin, caput, 
 head. An assemblage of flowers 
 on a common receptacle. 
 
 CAPITA' TI, flores. Flowers collected 
 into heads, as thistles and other 
 plants, with compound flowers 
 growing with a head. 
 
BOTANY. GLOSSARY. 
 
 149 
 
 CAPITA'TUS. Headed. 
 
 CAPI'TULUM. Latin. A capital. 
 
 CA'PPARIS. Latin. Caper-bush. 
 
 CApRiFoLu'cEyE. Systematic name 
 of a family of plants, formed from 
 tlie genus Caprifolium, which is de- 
 rived from the Latin, capra, goat, 
 and folium, leaf. 
 
 CAPSU'LE. From the Latin, capsula, 
 a little casket or chest. A form of 
 fruit. 
 
 CA'RBON. See page 53. 
 
 CA'RICA. Latin. A kind of dry fig. 
 
 CA'RINA. Latin. A keel. 
 
 CA'RPEL. From the Greek, karpos, 
 fruit. Certain appendages or parts 
 of the pistil are called carpels. 
 
 CARYOPHYL'LE^:. From the Latin, 
 caryo'phyllus, the garden pink. 
 Systematic name of a family of 
 plants. 
 
 CARYOPHYLLA'CEOUS. Belonging or 
 relating to the caryophylleae. 
 
 CARYO'PSIS. From the Greek, karvon, 
 a nut, and opsis, resemblance. Name 
 of a form of fruit, as the grain of 
 wheat, for example. 
 
 CASTA'NEA. Latin. Chestnut. 
 
 CA'TKIN. A form of inflorescence. 
 
 CAU'DEX. Latin. A trunk of a 
 tree. 
 
 CAULIS. Latin. Stem. 
 
 CAU'STIC. From the Greek, fond, I 
 burn. Substances which possess 
 the property of destroying organic 
 structure are so termed. 
 
 CE'LLULAR. Composed of cells. 
 
 CENOMY'CE. From the Greek, kenos, 
 empty, and mukes, a diminutive 
 fungus. A kind of lichen. 
 
 CERA'SUS. Latin. A cherry tree. 
 
 CE'REAL. From the Latin, ceres, 
 corn. Applied to grasses which 
 produce the bread corns ; as wheat, 
 rye, barley, oats, maize, rice and 
 millet. 
 
 CHENOPO'DE^E. From the Greek, chen, 
 goose, and pous, foot. Name of a 
 family of apetalous dicotyledons. 
 
 CHICORA'CE^E. From the Greek, ki- 
 chore, garden succory. Systematic 
 name of a family of plants. 
 
 CHOND'RUS (pronounced Tcond'rus). 
 From the Greek, Chondros, carti- 
 lage. Name of a genus of sea- 
 weeds. 
 13* 
 
 ICA'TRICES. Plural of cicatrix. 
 
 CICA'TRIX. Latin. A scar. 
 
 LIA'TUS. Latin (from cilium, eye- 
 lash). Having the margin guarded 
 by parallel bristles, like the eye- 
 lash. 
 
 NCHO'NA (pronounced sinkdnah). 
 Name of Peruvian bark, so called 
 from the Spanish Viceroy's lady, 
 the Countess of Cinchon, who was 
 cured of fever by it, at Lima, about 
 1638. 
 
 CIRR'OSO-PIXNATE. From the Latin, 
 cir'rus, a tendril, and pinna, wing. 
 A form of pinnate leaf having ten- 
 drils at the extremity. 
 
 CI'TRUS. Latin. Lemon or orange 
 tree. 
 
 CITRU'LLUS. Latin. Diminutive of 
 citrus. j 
 
 CLAW. The inferior part of a petal, 
 corresponding to the petiole of a 
 leaf. 
 
 CLO'STRES. Elongatcd,spindle-shapcd 
 cells. 
 
 CLUSTER. When flowers are borne 
 on a common, irregularly branched 
 peduncle, they form a cluster. 
 
 CO'LLUM. Latin. Neck. The part 
 between the stem and root. 
 
 COMMU'NIS. Latin. Common. 
 
 COM ' POS ITE. Com poun d . 
 
 CONCE'NTRIC. Having a common cen- 
 tre. 
 
 CONCE'PTICLE. Envelope of a sporule. 
 
 COM'FERJE. From the Latin, conus, a 
 cone, and /ero, I bear. Cone-bearing. 
 
 CONM'UM. From the Greek, koneion, 
 hemlock. 
 
 CON'JUGATE. From the Latin, con, 
 together, and jugum, a yoke. 
 Yoked or joined together. 
 
 CON'NATE. From the Latin, con, to- 
 gether, and natus, grown. Joined 
 together at the base. 
 
 CONNEC'TIVE. From the Latin, con- 
 necto, I join together. 
 
 CONVO'LVULUS. Latin. Bind-weed. 
 (From convolo, I bind together or 
 entwine.) 
 
 CONVOLVULA'CE*:. Systematic name 
 of a family of plants. 
 
 COR'DATE. Heart-shaped. 
 
 CO'RDJFORM. From the Latin, cor, the 
 heart, and forma, shape. Heart- 
 shaped. 
 
150 
 
 BOTANY. GLOSSARY. 
 
 CORIA'CEOUS. From the Latin, cori- 
 
 um, liide of a beast. Leathery. 
 CORISANTHE'RE.E. From the Greek, 
 
 koris, St. John's wort, and anthos, 
 
 flower. Systematic name of a 
 
 class of plants. 
 CO'RMUS. From the Greek, kormos, 
 
 stern. The representative of the 
 
 stem in bulbous plants. 
 CORO'LLA. Latin. A little crown. 
 CORO'LL^E. Plural of Corolla. 
 CORFI/SCULE. From the Latin,corpws, 
 
 body. A diminutive body. 
 COR'RUGATED. From the Latin, con, 
 
 together, and ruga, a wrinkle. 
 
 Wrinkled. 
 CO'RTICAL. From the Latin cortex, 
 
 bark. Belonging to or partaking 
 
 of the nature of bark. 
 CO'RVMB. From the Greek korumbos, 
 
 a helmet, a summit. 
 COTY'LEDON. From the Greek, kotu- 
 
 leddn, seed-lobe. 
 COT YLE' DO NOUS. Belonging or relat- 
 
 ing to a cotyledon. 
 CRE'NATE. Having rounded teeth. 
 CRE'NULATE. Finely crenate. 
 CRENULA'TION. A rounded tooth. 
 CRJ'NES. Latin. Hairs. 
 CRI'NITUS. Latin. Hairy. 
 CRUCI'FER^E. From the Latin, crux, 
 
 a cross, and fero, I bear. The flow- 
 
 ers being in form of a Maltese 
 
 cross. Systematic name of an or- 
 
 der of plants. 
 
 CRU'CIFORM. Cross-shaped. 
 CRYPTOGA'MIA. From the Greek, 
 
 kruptos, concealed, and gamos, mar- 
 
 riage. Name of a class of plants. 
 CRYPTO'GAMOUS. Belonging or relat- 
 
 ing to Crvptoga'mia. 
 CUCU'MIS. Latin. A cucumber. 
 CUCURBITA'CE^E. From the Latin, 
 
 cucurbita, a gourd. Name of a fa- 
 
 mily of plants. 
 CULM. From the Latin, culrrws, a 
 
 stem. The stems of the grasses. 
 From the Latin, ,, 
 
 Wege - 
 
 CU'PULE. A little cup. 
 CUPULI'FERJE. From the Latin, cu- 
 
 Clum, a little cup, and fero, I 
 nr. 
 
 CURVINERVE. See page 32. 
 CU'SPIDATE. From the Latin, cuspis, 
 
 a point. A form of leaf terminal- 
 ing in a point. 
 
 CU'TICLE. From the Latin, cutis, 
 skin. The scarf-skin. The exter- 
 nal covering of plants. 
 
 CYA'THIFORM. From the Latin, cya- 
 thus, a drinking -cup, and forma, 
 shape. A form of corolla. 
 
 DECAGY'NIA. From the Greek, deca, 
 ten, and gune, pistil. Name of an 
 order of plants. 
 
 DECA'NDRIA. From the Greek, deca, 
 ten, and oner, stamen. Name of a 
 class of plants. 
 
 DE'CIDUOUS. From the Latin, decide, 
 to fall off. Applied to plants whose 
 leaves fall in the autumn, to distin- 
 guish them from evergreens. 
 
 DECOMPO'SE. When the chemical con- 
 stitution of substances is altered, 
 they are said to be decomposed. 
 
 DEHI'SCKNT. From the Latin, dehi. 
 scere, to gape wide open. Applied 
 to certain fruits. 
 
 DE'LTOID. From the Greek A, delta, 
 and eidos, resemblance. A form 
 of leaf (page 45). 
 
 DE'NTATE. From the Latin, dens, 
 tooth. Toothed. 
 
 DIADE'LPHIA. From the Greek, dis, 
 two, and delphos, brotherhood. 
 Name of a Linnaean class. 
 
 DIA'NDRIA. From the Greek, dis, two, 
 and aner, stamen. Name of a class 
 of plants. 
 
 DIA'NDROUS. Having two stamens. 
 
 DICU'NI^E. From the Greek, dis, two, 
 and klinos, bed. Name of a divi- 
 sion of plants. 
 
 DICLI'NOUS. From theGr.<Zis,two, and 
 klin?, bed. Having- the stamens in 
 one flower and the pistils in another. 
 
 DICOTY'LEDON. From the Greek, dis, 
 two, and kottiledon, seed-lobe. 
 
 DJCOTYLE'DONOUS. Relating to dico- 
 tyledons. 
 
 DIDYNA'MIA. From the Greek, dis, 
 two, and dunamis, power. Name 
 of a Linntean class, having two 
 long and two shorter stamens. 
 
 DIDY'NAMOUS. Relating to didynamia. 
 
 DI'GITATE. From the Latin, digitus, 
 finger. Spread out like fingers. 
 
 DIGY'NIA. From the Greek, dis, two, 
 and gune, pistil. Name of an order 
 of plants. 
 
BOTANY. GLOSSARY. 
 
 151 
 
 DICE'CIA. From the Greek, dis, two, 
 and oikia, house. Name of a Lin- 
 nesan class. 
 
 DICE'CIOUS. Relating to dioscia. 
 
 DIPE'TALOUS. From the Greek, dis, 
 two, and petalon, a petal. Having 
 two petals. 
 
 DODECAGY'NIA. From the Greek, do- 
 decn, twelve, and gune, pistil. Name 
 of an order of plants. 
 
 DODECA'I\ ? DRIA. From the Greek, do- 
 deca, twelve, and aner, stamen. 
 Name of a class of plants. 
 
 DOME'STICA. Latin. Domestic. 
 
 DOR'SAL. From the Latin, dorsum, 
 the back. 
 
 DULCAMA'RA. From the Latin,du/cis, 
 sweet, and amara, bitter. Bitter- 
 sweet. Systematic name of a ge- 
 nus of plants. 
 
 DURA'MEN. Latin. A hardening. 
 Systematic name of heart-wood. 
 
 E'DULIS. Latin. Eatable. Edible. 
 
 ELABORA'TION. See question, page 55. 
 
 EM'BRYO. From the Greek, embruon, 
 from bruo, I bud forth. 
 
 EMA'RGINATE. From the Latin, e, 
 from, and margo, margin or edge. 
 Notched. 
 
 ENTI'RE. Even or whole on the edge. 
 
 EN'DOGENS. See note, page 22. 
 
 ENDO'GENOUS. See page 22. 
 
 EN'DOCARP. From the Greek, endon, 
 within, and karpos, fruit. An in- 
 ternal membrane of fruits. 
 
 EN'DOSPERM. From the Greek,endon, 
 within, and sperma, seed. 
 
 EN DO SPERM A' TIC. Belonging or relat- 
 ing to endosperm. 
 
 ENNEAGY'NIA. From the Greek, en- 
 nea, nine, and gune, pistil. Name 
 of an order of plants. 
 
 ENNEA'NDRIA. From the Greek, en- 
 nea, nine, and aner, stamen. Name 
 of a class of plants. 
 
 E'PICARP. From the Greek, epi, upon, 
 and karpos, fruit. 
 
 EPICORO'LLE*;. From the Greek, epi, 
 upon, and corolla. Name of a class 
 of plants. 
 
 EPIDF/RMIS. From the Greek, epi, 
 upon, and derma, skin. The cu- 
 ticle. 
 
 EPIGY'NE^E. From the Greek, epi, 
 upon, and gune, pistil. Name of a 
 class of plants. 
 
 EPIGY'NOUS. Belonging or relating 
 to Epigynea. 
 
 EPIPK'TALOUS. From the Greek, epi, 
 upon, and petalon, petal. 
 
 E'PISPERM. From the Greek, epi, up- 
 on, and sperma, seed. 
 
 EPISPERMA'TIC. Relating to episperm. 
 
 ESSE'NTIAL OILS, or VO'LATILE OILS. 
 Under this term are included all 
 those peculiar compounds obtained 
 by distilling vegetable substances 
 with water ; anid which pass over 
 along with the steam, and are af- 
 terwards condensed in the liquid or 
 solid form. They appear to con- 
 stitute the odorous principle of ve- 
 getables. 
 
 EUROPE'A. Latin. European. 
 
 EUFHORBIA'CE^E. From eupho'rbium, 
 which was named in honour of 
 Euphorbus, physician to king Juba. 
 Name of a family of plants. 
 
 EXCRE'TORY. See page 57. 
 
 EXCRE'TION. See note, page 57. 
 
 EXHALA'TION. From the Latin, ex- 
 hal'are, to throw out. See page 51. 
 
 EX'OGENS. See note, page 22. 
 
 EXO'GENOUS. See page 22. 
 
 EXTRA-EM'BRYO. When the embryo 
 is simply applied to the surface of 
 the albumen or envelopes, it is said 
 to be extra (outside) from its po- 
 sition. 
 
 FARINA'CEOUS. From the Latin, fa. 
 rina, meal, flour. Partaking of the 
 nature of flour. 
 
 FASCI'CULUS. Latin. A bundle. 
 
 FASCI'CULI. Plural of fasciculus. 
 
 FASCI'CULATE. Collected in bundles. 
 
 FE'CULA. From the Latin, fcex, a 
 sediment. When certain vegetable 
 substances are bruised and mixed 
 with water, the pulverulent matter 
 which subsides is called the/ecu/a ; 
 it is commonly of a starchy nature, 
 hence starch is often called fecula. 
 
 Fi'cus. Latin. A fig. 
 
 FI'LAMENT. From the Latin Jila- 
 mentum, a shred. A little thread, 
 like part of a stamen. 
 
 FILAME'NTOUS. Of the nature of a 
 filament 
 
 FI'LIFORM. Thread-like. 
 
 FI'LICES. Latin. Ferns. 
 
 FLOWER. That part in which the 
 germ of a new plant is produced 
 
152 
 
 BOTANY. GLOSSARY. 
 
 FLO'RAL. Relating to flowers. Flo- 
 ral leaf is that one from the axil 
 of which the peduncle or pedicil 
 of a flower rises. 
 
 FOLIA'CEOUS. Leafy. 
 
 FO'LIUM. Latin. A leaf! 
 
 FOLLI'CULA. From the Latin, follis, 
 a bag. A little bag. 
 
 FRONS or FROND. The leaves of 
 crypto'gamous plants. 
 
 FRUCTIFICA'TION. The flower and 
 fruit with their parts. 
 
 FRUIT. An assemblage of the germs 
 and protecting parts destined to 
 become a new plant or perfect 
 seed. 
 
 FU'NCTION. From the Latin, fungor, 
 I act or discharge an office. The 
 action of an organ or system of 
 organs. 
 
 Fu'ci. Latin. Plural of fucus, a 
 sea-weed. 
 
 FUN'GI. Latin. Plural of fungus, a 
 mushroom. 
 
 FUNI'CULA. From the Latin, funis, a 
 cord. A little cord. 
 
 FU'SIFORM. From the Latin, fusus, 
 a spindle, and/orma, shape. Spin- 
 dle-shaped. 
 
 GA'LVANISM. From Professor Gal- 
 vani, the discoverer. The name 
 given as a general term to the 
 electrical phenomena produced by 
 the contact of different metals. 
 
 GAMOPK'TALOUS. From the Greek, 
 gamoSj union, and petalon, petal. 
 A corolla composed of a single 
 piece is so called. 
 
 GAMOSE'PALOUS. From the Greek, 
 gamos, marriage, and sepal. Hav- 
 ing the sepals united together, 
 forming a single piece or sepal. 
 
 GAS. From the German, geist, spirit. 
 The name given to all permanently 
 elastic fluids, or airs differing 
 from atmospheric air. 
 
 GE'MINI. Latin. Twins. 
 
 GE'MINATE. Growing in pairs. 
 
 GE'MMINAL. From the Latin, gem- 
 ma, a bud. Relating to buds. 
 
 GE'MMULE. A little bud. 
 
 GERMINA'TION. The process of the 
 development of the seed and the 
 embryo which it contains. 
 
 GERMINA'TJVE. Relating to germina- 
 tion. 
 
 GLAND. An organ for the purpose 
 of secreting a peculiar fluid, &c. - 
 
 GLA'NDULAR. Relating to glands. 
 
 GLO'CHIS. From the Greek, gldchis t 
 a point. A barb. 
 
 GLOCHIDA'TUS. Armed with points 
 or barbs. 
 
 GLUME. A husk. 
 
 GLU'TEN. Latin. The viscid elastic 
 substance which remains when 
 wheat flour is wrapped in a coarse 
 cloth, and washed under a stream 
 of water, so as to carry off the 
 starch and soluble matters. 
 
 GLU'TINOUS. Viscid, sticky, adhesive. 
 
 GOSSY'PIUM. Latin. Cotton. 
 
 GOU'RMANO. French. A glutton. 
 One particular in his food. 
 
 GRAFT. See p. 60. 
 
 GRAMI'NE^E. From the Latin, gra- 
 men, grass. Systematic name of 
 the family of grasses. 
 
 GRA'NULE. A diminutive grain. 
 
 GUM. A vegetable product which is 
 tasteless and inodorous, and is dis- 
 tinguished by being soluble in 
 water and insoluble in alcohol. 
 
 GY'NOPHORE. From the Greek, gune, 
 pistil, and phoreo, I support. A 
 support of the pistil. 
 
 GYMNOSPE'RMIA. From the Greek, 
 gumnos, naked, and sperma, seed. 
 Name of a Linnrean order. 
 
 GYNA'NDRIA. See page 102. 
 
 HA'MI. Latin. Plural of hamus, a 
 hook. 
 
 HA'STATE. See page 36. 
 
 HERBA'CEUM. Latin. Herbaceous. 
 
 HERBA'CEOUS. Herb-like ; that per- 
 ishes every year. An annual stem. 
 Not woody. 
 
 HELIA'NTHUS. See page 51. 
 
 HERMA'PHRODITE. From the Greek, 
 frmes, Mercury, and aphrodite, 
 Venus. An organized body com- 
 bining in reality or appearance the 
 characteristics of both sexes. 
 
 HF.PTAGY'NIA. From the Greek, 
 hepta, seven, arid gune, pistil. 
 Name of an order of plants. See 
 page 103. 
 
 HEPTAN'DRIA. From the Greek, 
 hepta, seven, and aner, stamen 
 Name of a class of plants. 
 
 HESPERI'BE or HESPERI'DIUM. A 
 form of fruit. 
 
BOTANY. GLOSSARY. 
 
 153 
 
 HEPTAGY'NIA. From the Greek, exa, 
 six, and gune, pistil. Name of an 
 order of plants. 
 
 HEXA'NDRIA. From the Greek exa, 
 six, and oner, stamen. Name of a 
 class of plants. 
 
 HIBER'NATE. From the Latin, hiber- 
 nare, to winter. Animals that 
 retire and sleep throughout the 
 winter are said to hibernate. 
 
 HI'LUM. Latin. The little black 
 spot on a bean. 
 
 HIRSU'TUS. Latin. Hairy. 
 
 HOMOGE'NEOUS. See page 23. 
 
 HOR'DEUM. Latin. Barley. 
 
 HU'MULUS. Latin. Hops. 
 
 HYDROCYA'NIC. From the Greek, 
 udor, water, and kuanos, blue. The 
 name of an intensely poisonous and 
 peculiar acid. 
 
 HYME'NIUM. From the Greek, umen, 
 a membrane. 
 
 HYPOCRATE'RIFORM. From the Greek, 
 vpo, under, krater, cup, and phorme, 
 shape. Salver-shaped. 
 
 HYPOGY'NOUS. From the Greek, upo, 
 under, and gune, pistil. Arising 
 beneath the ovary. 
 
 HYPOPETA'LE^;. From the Greek, 
 upo, beneath, and petalon, petal. 
 Name of a class of plants. 
 
 HYPOPE'TALOUS. Relating to hypo- 
 petaleae. 
 
 HYOSCIA'MUS. From the Greek, us, a 
 swine, and kua?nos, a bean. Hen- 
 bane. 
 
 ID^E'US. Latin. Belonging or relat- 
 ing to Mount Ida. 
 
 IM'BRICATE. Tiled. When the 
 scales of a stalk or calyx lie over 
 one another in the manner of tiles 
 or shingles on a house. 
 
 INCI'SA. Latin. Cut, carved, cut off. 
 
 IN'DICA. Latin. Indian. 
 
 INDI'GENOUS. Native to a country. 
 
 INDEHI'SCENT. See DEHISCENT. 
 
 INFLORE'SCENCE. The flowering of 
 plants. 
 
 INFO'LDED. Folded in. 
 
 INFUNDI'BULAR. From the Latin, in- 
 fundibulum, a funnel. Funnel- 
 shaped. 
 
 INTE'GUMENT. From the Latin, te- 
 gere, to cover. The covering, the 
 skin. 
 
 INTERCE'LLULAR. From the Latin, 
 
 inter, between, and cellula, little 
 
 cells. Placed between cells. 
 INVOLU'CRE. An accessory envelope 
 
 of a flower, formed of bracts. 
 INVOLU'CRUM. Latin. Involucre. 
 IRI'DE^E. Systematic name of a 
 
 family of plants of which the Iris 
 
 is the type. 
 
 I'SOLATED. Separated ; alone. 
 JASMI'NE^E. Systematic name of a 
 
 family of plants of which the jas- 
 mine is the type. 
 LABIA'T^E. Systematic name of a 
 
 family of plants known by having 
 
 a labiate or two-lipped corolla 
 
 (page 125). 
 LABIA'T^E. From the Latin, labium, 
 
 lip. Having lips. 
 LABU'RMJM. Latin. Name of a 
 
 plant. 
 
 LACI'NIATE. See page 35. 
 LACU'NA. Latin. A pit, a hollow, a 
 
 vacuity. 
 
 LACU'N.E. Latin. Flural of lacuna. 
 LA'MINA. Latin. A thin plate. 
 LA'MIN.E. Latin. Plural of lamina. 
 LANCEOLATE. See page 43. 
 LA'TEX. Latin. A peculiar fluid, 
 
 which is usually turbid, and of a 
 
 red, white, or yellow colour. 
 LAURI'NE^E, From the Latin, laurus, 
 
 a laurel or bay tree. Name of a 
 
 family of plants. 
 LEGU'ME. From the Latin, legu'men, 
 
 all kinds of beans, peas, c. A 
 
 form of fruit. 
 LEGUMINO'S^E. Systematic name of a 
 
 family of plants. 
 
 LENTI'CULAR. Shaped like a lens. 
 LIBER. Latin. Bark. 
 LIG'NEOUS. Woody. 
 LIG'NIN. Solid matter found in the 
 
 elongated cells of wood. 
 LIUA'CE^E. Name of a family of 
 
 plants. 
 LIMB. The spreading part or border 
 
 of a leaf or petal. 
 LI'JVEAR. See page 34. 
 LINIARIFO'LIUS. See page 34. 
 LI'NUM. Latin. Flax. 
 LOBED. Composed of lobes. 
 LO'LIUM. Latin. Darnel. 
 LOME'NTUM. A form of fruit. 
 LU'PULUS. Latin. Little hops. 
 LYCOPODIA'CE^E. From Lycopodium, 
 
 formed from the Greek, lukos, wolf, 
 
154 
 
 BOTANY. GLOSSARY. 
 
 and pous, foot. Systematic name 
 of a family of plants. 
 
 MACULA'TUM. Latin. Spotted. Mot- 
 tled. 
 
 MA'LUS. Latin. An apple tree. 
 
 MAKVA'CE^E. Name of a family of 
 plants. 
 
 MA.MMALA'TED. Studded with nipple- 
 like projections. 
 
 MARCE'SCENT. See question, page 34. 
 
 MATURA'TION. The act of ripening. 
 
 MEA'TUS. Latin. A passage, a 
 pore. 
 
 MK'DICA. Latin. Medicinal. 
 
 MEDU'LLARY. From the Latin, me- 
 dull'i, pith. Belonging or relating 
 to pith. 
 
 MK'LO. Latin. A melon. 
 
 MELON I'DE. A form of fruit. 
 
 MEM'BKANOUS. Composed of mem- 
 brane. 
 
 ME'SOCARP. From the Greek, mesos, 
 middle, and carpos, fruit. The cen- 
 tral envelope of fruit. 
 
 MIMO'S^E. Name of a family of 
 plants. 
 
 MI'TKIFORM. Shaped like a mitre. 
 
 MONA'NDRIA. From the Greek, 
 monos, single, and aner, stamen. 
 Name of a class of plants. 
 
 MONA'NDROUS. From the Greek, 
 monos, single, and aner, stamen. 
 Having but one stamen. 
 
 MONI'LIKORM. From the Latin, mo- 
 nile, a necklace. Like a necklace. 
 
 AIONCE'CIA. From the Greek, monos, 
 single, and oikia, house. Name of 
 a Linnsean class. 
 
 MONCE'CIOUS. Having flowers with 
 stamens alone, and flowers with 
 pistils alone on the same plant. 
 
 MONOCHLA'MYDOUS. From the Greek, 
 monos, one, chlamus, cloak, and 
 eidos, resemblance. Seemingly 
 having but one covering. 
 
 MONOCOTY'LEDON. From the Greek, 
 monos, one, and kotuledon, seed- 
 lobe. A plant whose seeds have 
 but one seed-lobe. 
 
 MONOCOTYLE'DONOUS. Having but 
 one seed-lobe. 
 
 MONODE'LPHIA. From the Greek, 
 monos, single, and delphos, brother- 
 hood. Name of a Linnsean class. 
 
 MONODE'LPHOUS. Relating to one 
 brotherhood. 
 
 MONOGY'NIA. From the Greek, mo- 
 nos, single, and gune, pistil. Name 
 of an order of plants. 
 
 MOXOHYPOGY'NIA. From the Greek, 
 monos, single, vpo, below, and 
 gune, pistil. Name of a class of 
 plants. 
 
 MONOPERIOY'NIA. From the Greek, 
 monos, single, peri, around, and 
 gune, pistil. Name of a class of 
 plants. 
 
 MUNOPETA'LK.C. From the Greek, 
 monos, single, pelalon, a petaL 
 Name of a class of plants. 
 
 MO.NOPF/TALOUS. Same derivation. 
 Consisting of one petal. 
 
 MONOSE'PALOUS. From the Greek, 
 monos, one, and sepal. Consisting 
 of one sepal. 
 
 fFrom the Greek, 
 
 MONOSPERMA'TIC. J monos, single, 
 
 MONOSPE'RMOUS. j and sperma, seed. 
 [ Having one seed. 
 
 MORUS. Latin. The mulberry tree. 
 
 MU'CRONATE. See page 35. 
 
 MULTIPARTITE. See page 43. 
 
 Mu'sci. Latin. Mosses. 
 
 MUCEDI'NE*. Moulds. 
 
 MUSCI'PULA. Latin. A fly or 
 mouse-trap. 
 
 MYRTA'CE^E. Name of a family of 
 plants. 
 
 NA'PJFORM. From the Latin, napus, 
 turnip, and forma, shape. Turnip- 
 shaped. 
 
 NARCO'TIC. From the Greek, narke, 
 torpor. Medicines which produce 
 drowsiness, sleep, and stupor are so 
 called. 
 
 NARCI'SSE^E. Name of a family of 
 plants. 
 
 NAUSEA. From the Greek, nous, a 
 ship ; because those unaccustomed 
 to sailing are so affected. Sick- 
 ness. A desire to vomit. 
 
 NECESSA'RIA. Latin. Necessary. 
 
 NE'CTARY. See page 75. 
 
 NERVA'TION. See page 33. 
 
 NICOTIA'NA. Generic name of the 
 tobacco plant, derived from Nicot, 
 a Frenchman, who first sent to- 
 bacco to France, about the year 
 1560. 
 
 NI'GRA. Latin. Black. 
 
 NI'TROOEN. See page 53. 
 
 NU'TRITIVE. Affording nourishment 
 
BOTANY. GLOSSARY. 
 
 155 
 
 OB. See page 35. 
 
 OB' CORDATE. See page 35. 
 
 OBO'VATE. See page 42. 
 
 O'ciiRE^E. Latin. Boot. See page 
 34. 
 
 OCTA'GONAL. From the Greek, octo, 
 eight, and gonia, angle. Relating 
 to an octagon, a figure contained 
 in eight sides, and having eight 
 angles. 
 
 OCTAGY'NIA. From the Greek, octo, 
 eight, and gune, pistil. Name of an 
 order of plants. 
 
 OCTA'NDRIA. From the Greek, octo, 
 eight, and aner, stamen. Name of 
 a class of plants. 
 
 O'JLEA. Latin. An olive tree. 
 
 OJLEA'GINOUS. From the Latin, oleum, 
 oil. Oily ; unctuous. 
 
 OP'POSITE. Standing against each 
 other on opposite sides of the stem. 
 
 O'RANGERY. A kind of gallery, for 
 the preservation of orange trees, 
 during the winter. 
 
 ORBI'CULATE. See page 42. 
 
 O'RGAN. From the Greek, organon, 
 an instrument. Part of an or- 
 ganized being, destined to exer- 
 cise some particular function ; for 
 example, the ears are the organs 
 of hearing, the muscles are the 
 organs of motion, &c. 
 
 ORGA'NIC. Relating to an organ. 
 
 ORGANIZA'TION. A mode of structure. 
 
 O'RNUS. Latin. A wild ash. 
 
 ORY'ZA. Latin. Rice. 
 
 O'VARY. From the Latin, ovum, an 
 egg. A hollow case, enclosing the 
 ovules or young seeds, which ulti- 
 mately become fruit. 
 
 OVA'RIAN. Relating to the ovary. 
 
 O'VOID. Egg-shaped. 
 
 O'VULE. A young seed. 
 
 PA'CHYDERM. From the Greek, 
 pachus, thick, and derma, skin. 
 Name of an order of animals. 
 
 PA'LEA. Latin. Chaff. 
 
 PA'LE^E. Plural of palea. 
 
 PALMA'CE^E. Name of a family of 
 plants. 
 
 PA'LMATE. See page 42. 
 
 PALMA'TO-LOBATE. See page 36. 
 
 PALMINE'RVE. See question, page 31. 
 
 PA'NICLE. A loose irregular bunch 
 of flowers with subdivided 
 branches. 
 
 PANDU'RATE. See page 39. 
 
 PANDU'RIFORM. Same as pandurate. 
 
 PAPA'VER. Latin. Poppy. 
 
 PAPAVERA'CE^E. Name of a family 
 of plants. 
 
 PAPILIONA'CE.E. From the Latin, pa. 
 pilio, a butterfly. Name of a 
 family of plants whose flowers are 
 supposed to resemble a butterfly. 
 
 PAPILJONA'CEOUS. See page 75. 
 
 PAPYRIFE'RA. From the Latin, pa', 
 pyrus, a kind of paper, and /ero, I 
 bear. Specific name of a plant. 
 
 PA'RASITE. A hanger-on ; an adhe- 
 rent. 
 
 PARE'NCHYMA. See page 29. 
 
 PARENCHY'MATOUS. See vote, page 29. 
 
 PARI'ETES. From the Latin, pari'es, 
 a wall. The sides or parts form- 
 ing an enclosure: the limits of 
 different organic cavities are so 
 termed. 
 
 PARTI'TE. Deeply divided. See page 
 43. 
 
 PE'DATE. See page 47. 
 
 PEDA'LINERVE. See page 31. 
 
 PE'DICLE. A little foot or support. 
 
 PE'DICEL. One of the ramifications 
 of that part of the flower called 
 peduncle. 
 
 PEDI'CELLATE. Having pedicles. 
 
 PEDU'NCLE. The foot-stalk, or sup- 
 port of a flower. 
 
 PEDU'NCULATE. Growing on pedun- 
 cles or foot-stalks. 
 
 PELTA'TE. See page 40. 
 
 PE'LTINERVE. See question, page 31. 
 
 PE'NNINERVE. See question, page 31. 
 
 PENTAGY'NIA. From the Greek, 
 pente, five, and gune, pistil. Name 
 of an order of plants. 
 
 PENTA'NDRIA. From the Greek, 
 pcnte, five, and aner, stamen. 
 Name of a class of plants. 
 
 PENTA'NPROUS. Having five stamens. 
 
 PE'PO. A form of fruit. 
 
 PERE'NNIAL. From the Latin, per, 
 through, and annus, year. Those 
 plants whose roots remain alive 
 more years than two, but whose 
 stems flower and perish annually, 
 are termed perennial. 
 
 PERFO'LIATE. See page 39. 
 
 PE'RIANTH. From the Greek, peri, 
 around, and anthos, flower. The 
 tegumentary parts of a flower. 
 
156 
 
 BOTANY. GLOSSARY. 
 
 PE'RIGON. 
 PERIGO'NIUM. 
 
 PE'RICARP. From the Greek, pert, 
 around, and carpos, fruit. Parts 
 surrounding the seeds. 
 
 f From the Greek, peri, 
 around, and geino- 
 mai, I grow. A flo- 
 ral envelope, which 
 partakes of the na- 
 ture both of calyx 
 and corolla. 
 
 PERIGY'NOUS. From the Greek, peri, 
 around, and gune, pistil. Sur- 
 rounding the pistil. 
 
 PE'RISPERM. From the Greek, peri, 
 around, and spermn, seed. Another 
 name for the albumen. 
 
 PERISTA'MINE^:. Name of a class of 
 plants. 
 
 PE'RSICA. Latin. Persian. 
 
 PERSI'STENT. Permanent. Not fall- 
 ing. 
 
 PE'RSONATE. From the Latin, per- 
 sona, a mask. A form of corolla. 
 
 PERTU'SSUM. Latin. Broken, crack- 
 ed. 
 
 PE'TAL. From the Greek, petalon, 
 leaf. A part of the corolla, analo- 
 gous to a leaf. 
 
 PE'TIOLE. That portion of a Jeaf 
 which connects the limb or lamina 
 of a leaf with the stem ; the foot- 
 stalk. 
 
 PHANERO'GAMOUS. From the Greek, 
 phaneros, evident, and gamos, mar- 
 
 | riage. Applied to plants having 
 distinct flowers. 
 
 PHYSIO'LOGY. From the Greek, phu- 
 sis, nature, and logos, a discourse. 
 The science which treats of the 
 functions of animals or vegetables. 
 
 PHYTI'VOROUS. From the Greek, 
 phuton, plant, and voro, I eat. 
 Plant-eating. 
 
 PI'LI. Latin. Plural of pilus, hair. 
 
 PI'LEUS. Latin. A cap, helmet. 
 
 PILO'SITY. Hai ry ness. 
 
 PILO'SUS. Latin. Hairy. 
 
 PI'NNATE. See page 42. 
 
 PI'SUM. Latin. A pea. 
 
 PI'STIL. From the Latin, pistillum, 
 a pestle. 
 
 PLACE'NTA. Latin. A cake. 
 
 PJLA'NTULE. A diminutive plant. 
 
 PLI'CATE. From the Latin, plicalus, 
 plaited. Folded like a fan. 
 
 PLU'MULE. From the Latin, plvmula, 
 
 a little feather. A young diminu- 
 tive stem. 
 
 PO'DOSPERM. From the Greek, pous, 
 foot, and sperma, seed. The seed- 
 stalk, or little stem which attaches 
 the seed to the placenta. 
 
 PO'LLEN. The fertilizing powder of 
 plants. 
 
 POME. An apple ; a form of fruit. 
 
 POLYADE'LPHIA. From the Greek, 
 polus, many, and delphos, brother- 
 hood. Name of a Linnean class. 
 
 POLYA'NDRIA. From the Greek, 
 polus, many, and aner, stamen. 
 Name of an order of plants. 
 
 POLYANTHOCA'RPOUS. From the 
 Greek, polus, many, anthos, flow- 
 er, and karpos, fruit. Applied to 
 a form of fruit formed of many 
 flowers. 
 
 POLYGA'MIA. From the Greek, polus, 
 many, and gamos, marriage. Name 
 of a Linnean class. 
 
 POLYGA'MOUS. Same derivation. Re- 
 lating to polygamia. 
 
 POLY'GON. Seepage 11. 
 
 POLY'GONAL. Relating to a polygon. 
 
 POLYGY'NIA. From the Greek, polus, 
 many, and gune, pistil. Name of 
 an order of plants. 
 
 POLYHE'DRAL. From the Greek, 
 polus, many, and edra, seat. Relat. 
 ing to a polyhe'dron, a geometrical 
 figure, bounded by many faces or 
 planes. 
 
 POLYPE'TALE^E. From the Greek, 
 polus, many, and petalon, a petal. 
 Name of a class of plants. 
 
 POLYPE'TALOUS. Same derivation. 
 Having many petals. 
 
 POLYSE'PALOOS. Having many se- 
 pals. 
 
 PRIMUIA'CE^E. From primula, a 
 primrose. Name of a family of 
 plants. 
 
 PRU'NUS. Latin. A plum tree. 
 
 PUBE'SCENCE. From the Latin, pu- 
 bescens. Downy. 
 
 PU'DICA. Latin. Modest. 
 
 PU'MILA. Latin. Dwarfish, little. 
 
 PU'NGENT (leaf). See page 35. 
 
 PY'RUS. Latin. A pear tree. 
 
 QUADRUMA'NA. From the Latin, 
 quadrinus, formed from guatuor, 
 four, and manus, hand. Having 
 four hands. 
 
BOTANY. GLOSSARY. 
 
 157 
 
 QUATE'RNATE. See page 44. 
 QUATERNARY. From the Latin, qua. 
 ternarius, the number four. Re- 
 lating to four. 
 
 QUATRE'NNIAL. Every fourth year. 
 QUE'RCUS. Latin. An oak tree. 
 QUINA'RY. Relating to five. 
 QUINA'TE. See page 45. 
 QUI'NQUEFID. Five cleft. 
 QuixauEFo'LiATE. See page 45. 
 RACE'ME. From the Latin, racemus, 
 
 a bunch, a cluster. 
 
 RA'CHIS (ra'kis). From the Greek, 
 racfiis, the spine, a branch, which 
 proceeds in nearly a straight line 
 from the base to the apex of the 
 inflorescence of a plant. 
 RA'DIATE. From the Latin, radius, 
 a spoke of a wheel. Rayed ; di- 
 verging in rays. 
 RA'DICLE. A little root. 
 RA'DIX. LAtin. A root. 
 RAMU'SCULE. From the Latin, ra- 
 mus, a branch, a small or diminu- 
 tive branch. 
 
 RAMIFJCA'TION. Branching, a branch. 
 RECE'PTACLE. A dilated portion of 
 the peduncle, containing nutritive 
 matter. 
 
 RE'NIFORM. See page 40. 
 RE'PANDATE. See page 38. 
 RE' PENT. Creeping. 
 RESIDA'CE^E. From Resida, one of 
 the genera. Name of a family of 
 plants. 
 
 RE'SIN. Vegetable substance, distin- 
 guishable by its solubility in alco- 
 hol, and insolubility in water. 
 RE'SINOUS. Of the nature of resin. 
 RESPIRA'TION. From the Latin, res- 
 piro, I take breath. The act of 
 breathing. A function proper to 
 animals as well as plants. 
 RESPI'RATORY. Belonging to the 
 
 function of respiration. 
 RETI'CULAR. See question, page 13. 
 RHI'ZOME. See page 18. 
 RHO'MBOID. See page 41. 
 RO'BUR. Latin. An oak ; strength. 
 ROSA'CE^E. Name of a family of 
 
 plants. 
 ROSSO'LIS. French name of the Sun 
 
 dew, or Drosera. 
 RO'TATE. Wheel-shaped. 
 RU'BUS. Latin. A blackberry bush 
 14 
 
 RUBIA'CE^E. Name of a family of 
 
 plants. 
 
 RU'GOSE. Rough or wrinkled. 
 SACCHA'RUM. Latin. Sugar. 
 SACCHARI'NE. Sugary ; relating to 
 
 sugar. 
 
 SA'GITATTE. See page 36. 
 SA'RCOCARP. From the Greek, sarx, 
 flesh, and karpos, fruit. The pulp 
 or flesh of the fruit. 
 SA'TIVUS-A-UM. Latin. That which 
 
 may be planted or sown. 
 SCAPE. A kind of stem. See page 
 
 21. 
 SCOPA'RIUM. From the Latin, scopa, 
 
 butcher's broom, milfoil. Specific 
 
 name of a plant. 
 SCURF. See page 15. 
 SCU'TUM. Latin. A shield. 
 SECA'LE (seca'ley.") Latin. Rye. 
 SECRE'TION. See page 56. 
 SEED. Seepage 66. 
 SE'GMENT. A section ; a part cut off". 
 SEGREGA'TA. From the Latin, segre- 
 
 gatus, separated. Name of an 
 
 order of plants. 
 
 SE'MINULES. Diminutive seeds. 
 SEMPER'VIRENS. See pages 23 and 
 
 34. 
 
 SE'PAL. See page 70. 
 SE'RRATE. See pages 38 and 41. 
 SE'SSILE. See page 66. 
 SE'TA. Latin. A bristle. 
 SE'TJE. Plural of seta. 
 SETA'CEO-ACU'MINATE. See page 35. 
 SETO'SUS. Latin. Bristly. 
 SHOOTS. See page 63. 
 SI'LIQUA. Latin. A pod. 
 SILICULO'SA. Diminutive of siliqua. 
 SINA'PIS. Latin. Mustard. 
 SI'NUATE. See page 37. 
 SI'NUOSE. See page 37. 
 SI'NUS. Latin. A bay. See page 
 
 37. 
 SOLA'NE^E. From Solanam. Name 
 
 of a family of plants. 
 SOLA'NUM. Latin. Nightshade. 
 SOMNI'FERUM. Latin, formed from 
 
 somnus, sleep, and fero, I bear. 
 
 Sleep-inducing. Specific name of 
 
 a poppy. 
 SO'ROSE. From the Greek, soros, a 
 
 heap. A form of fruit. 
 SPA'DIX. A form of inflorescence 
 
 in which the flowers are arranged 
 
 around a fleshy rachis, and en- 
 
158 
 
 BOTANY. GLOSSARY. 
 
 closed within a kind of bract, 
 called a spathe, as in palms. 
 
 SPARSE. From the Latin, sparsus, 
 scattered. 
 
 SPA'RTIUM. Latin. Broom. 
 
 SPA'THE. Greek, a ladle. A form of 
 involucre. 
 
 SPA'TULATE. See p. 40. 
 
 SPE'RMODERM. From the Greek, 
 sperma, seed, and derma, skin. 
 Seed-covering. 
 
 SPIKE. An assemblage of axillary 
 flowers arranged on a simple axis. 
 
 SPIKE' LET. A little spike. 
 
 SPINO'SA. Latin. Thorny. 
 
 SPONGI'OLES. Seep. 19. 
 
 SPORE. Seed of Lichens. 
 
 SPORI'FEROUS. From spora, and/ero, 
 1 bear. Bearing spores. 
 
 SPO'RULES. Diminutive spores. 
 
 STA'MEN. Latin. Male apparatus 
 of a flower. 
 
 STEM'MULE. A little stem. 
 
 STELLA'TE. From the Latin, Stella, a 
 star. Star-shaped. 
 
 STI'GMA. The superior terminating 
 part of the pistil. 
 
 STIGMA'TA. Plural of stigma. 
 
 STI'MULANS. Latin. Pricking, irri- 
 tating. 
 
 STI'MULI. Latin, plural of stimulus. 
 Stings. 
 
 STIPE. See p. 22. 
 
 STI'PULE. See p. 33. 
 
 STO'MATA. See p. 14. 
 
 STYLE. That part of the pistil be- 
 tween the stigma and ovary. 
 
 SUB'ULATE. Awl-shaped. See p. 34. 
 
 SUC'CULENT. Juicy. 
 
 SUPE'RFLUA. Latin. Superfluous. 
 
 SUPER-O'VARY. Applied to flowers 
 which have the perianth and sta- 
 mens above the ovary. 
 
 SUPER PO'SED. From the Latin, super, 
 upon, and pono, I place. One 
 lying upon or placed on another. 
 
 SU'TURE. From the Latin, suo, I 
 stitch. A seam or line of junction. 
 
 SY'CONE. From the Greek, sukon, a 
 fig. A form of fruit. 
 
 SYNANTHE'RE^E. From the Greek, 
 sun, with, and anthos, flower. 
 Name of a family of plants. 
 
 SYNCA'RPOUS. From the Greek, 
 sun, with, and karpos, fruit. Ap- 
 
 plied to fruits formed of several 
 carpels. 
 
 SYNGENE'SIA. From the Greek, sun, 
 together, and geinomai, to grow. 
 Name of a Linnsean class. 
 
 TABAC'CUM. Latin. Tobacco. 
 
 TEGUME'NTARY. From the Latin, 
 tegere, to cover. Belonging or re- 
 lating to covering. 
 
 TEN'DRIL. See p. 34. 
 
 TER'MINAL. Applied to flowers at the 
 extremity of the stem. 
 
 TER'NARY. Relating to three. 
 
 TER'NATE. See p. 44. 
 
 TETRADY'NAMOUS. From the Greek, 
 teltcres, four, dunamis, power. Ap- 
 plied to plants having four long and 
 two short stamens. 
 
 TETRADYNA'MIA. Name of a Lin- 
 nean class. 
 
 TETRAGY'NIA. From the Greek, 
 tetteres, four, and gune, pistil. 
 Name of an order of plants. 
 
 TETRA'NDRIA. From the Greek, 
 tetteres, four, and aner, stamen. 
 Name of a class of plants. 
 
 TETRA'NDRODS. Relating to tetran- 
 dria. 
 
 THA'LLUS. A flat membrane belong, 
 ing to cellular plants. 
 
 THY'RSUS. A kind of cluster. 
 
 TI'SSUE. From the Latin, texere, 
 to weave. The interlacement or 
 union of many things which form 
 a body, as threads of flax, silk, 
 wool, &c., of which cloths and 
 stuffs are made. From analogy 
 the term is employed to describe 
 the substances of which the organs 
 of plants and animals are com- 
 posed. 
 
 TOLA'MEN. A border. 
 
 TO'RUS. Terminal portion of the 
 pedicil. 
 
 TRA'CHEA (trak-ea). (In the plural, 
 tracheae). Tubes or vessels in the 
 structure of plants which are sup- 
 posed to convey air. 
 
 TRIA'NDRIA. From the Greek, treis, 
 three, and aner, stamen. Name 
 of a class of plants. 
 
 TRIA'NDROUS. Having three sta- 
 mens. 
 
 TRICO'LOR. Latin. Three-coloured. 
 
 TRIE'NNIAL. Every three years. 
 
BOTANY. GLOSSARY. 
 
 159 
 
 TRI'FID. Three-cleft : divided in 
 
 three. 
 TRIGY'MA. From the Greek, treis, 
 
 three, and gune, pistil. Name of 
 
 an order of plants. 
 TRI'LOBATE. -Sec p. 37. 
 TRIOE'CIA. From the Greek, treis, 
 
 three, and oikos, house. Name of 
 
 a Linnean class. 
 TRIPE'TALOUS. From the Greek, 
 
 treis, three, and petalon, petal. 
 
 Having three petals. 
 TRIPI'NNATE. See p. 47. 
 TRITE'RNATE. See p. 44. 
 TRI'TICUM. Latin. Wheat. 
 TRO'PHOSPERM. From the Greek, 
 
 trepho, I nourish, and sperma, seed. 
 
 That part of the carpel from which 
 
 the seeds spring. 
 TU'BER. Latin. A bunch, a knot, a 
 
 lump. A form of root. 
 TU'BERCLE. A small knot or projec- 
 tion. 
 TUBERO'SUM. Latin, tuberous. Of 
 
 the nature of a tuber. 
 TU'BIFORM. Tube-shaped. 
 TU'BULAR. Consisting of tubes or 
 
 pipes : relating to a tube. 
 UM'BEL. A form of inflorescence in 
 
 which several peduncles expand 
 
 so as to produce a flower some- 
 what resembling a parasol when 
 
 open. 
 UMBEJ.U'FER.*:. From umbel, and 
 
 fero, I bear. Name of a family of 
 
 plants. 
 UMBELLI'FEROUS. Belonging to Um- 
 
 belliferaj. 
 UN'CI. Latin. Plural of uncus. 
 
 Hooks. 
 
 UN'DULATE. See p. 39. 
 UNGUI'CULATE. From the Latin, un- 
 
 guis, a claw. Having a claw. 
 UNILO'CULAR. From the Latin, unus, 
 
 one, and loculus, partition : single- 
 celled. 
 
 UNISE'XUAL. Of one sex. 
 URCE'OLATE. From the Latin, urce- 
 
 us, a pitcher : pitcher-shaped. 
 
 URTI'CE.E. From the Latin, vrtica, 
 
 a nettle. Name of a family of 
 
 plants. 
 USITATI'SSIMUM. Latin. Most com- 
 
 mon, familiar. 
 UTRI'CULA. From the Latin, utri- 
 
 cvlus, a little bottle. See p. 11, 
 
 Jigs. 2 and 3. 
 UTRI'CULAR. Of or relating to utri'- 
 
 cula. 
 
 VA'GINATE. See p. 34 
 VALVE. From the Latin, vali-a, 
 
 doors. A little door. 
 VA'SCULAR. Supplied with vessels. 
 VEGETA'TIVE. Belonging or relating 
 
 to vegetation. 
 
 VELUTI'NUS. Latin. Velvety. 
 VE'NTRAL. Relating to the belly. 
 VE'RA. Latin. True. 
 VERNA'TION. Applied to leaves in the 
 
 state of buds. 
 
 VERTICE'LLUS. Latin. A whorl. . 
 VERTI'CILLATE. Arranged in a 
 
 whorl. 
 VE'SCA. Latin. Edible ; any thing 
 
 that may be eaten. 
 VE'SICLE. A small bladder. 
 VESI'CULAR. Composed of vesicles. 
 VEXI'LLUM. Latin. A standard. 
 VILLO'SITV. Velvet-like ; a covering 
 
 of soft hairs, forming a nap like 
 
 velvet. 
 
 VILLO'SUS. Latin. Velvety. 
 VINI'FERA. From the Latin, vinum, 
 
 wine, and fero, I bear. Wine. 
 
 bearing. 
 VINI'FER^E. Name of a family of 
 
 plants. 
 VIOLA'CE^E. Name of a family of 
 
 plants. 
 
 VI'RENS. Latin. Flourishing, green. 
 VI'RIDIS. Latin. Green. 
 VI'TES. Latin. Plural of vitis. 
 VI'TIS. Latin. A vine. 
 VO'LUBLE. Twining. 
 VO'LVA. Latin. A wrapper. 
 ZE'A. From the Greek, zed, I Jive. 
 
 Generic name of Indian corn o~ 
 
 maize. 
 
VB 36057 
 
 
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 FIRST BOOKS 
 
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 NATURAL HISTORY, 
 
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 1. ELEMENTS OF 
 
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 2. ELEMENTS OF 
 
 MAMMALOGY, 
 
 The Natural History of Quadrupeds* 
 
 3. ELEMENTS OF 
 
 ORNITHOLOGY, 
 
 The Natural History of Birds. 
 
 4. ELEMENTS OF 
 
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 The Natural History of Reptiles and Fishes* 
 
 5. ELEMENTS OF 
 
 CONCHOLOGY, 
 
 The Natural History of Shells and Mollusca. 
 
 6. ELEMENTS 
 
 ENTOMOLO GY, 
 
 The Natural History of Insects. 
 
 7. ELEMENTS OF 
 
 IJOTANY, 
 
 The Natural History of Plants. 
 
 8. ELEMENTS OF 
 
 GEOLOGY, 
 
 The Natural History of the Earth's Structure. 
 
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