GIFT OF SEELEY W. MUDD and GEORGE I. COCHRAN MEYER ELSASSER DR.JOHNR. HAYNES WILLIAM L. HONNOLD JAMES R. MARTIN MRS. JOSEPH F. SARTORI to the UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SOUTHERN BRANCH GESENIUS' HEBREW GRAMMAR: SEVENTEENTH EDITION, WITH NUMEEOUS COERECTIONS AND ADDITIONS, BY DR. E. RODIGER. TRANSLATED BY T. J. CONANT, PROFESSOR OF HEBEEW IN EOCHESTEE THEOLOGICAL SEAONAKT. WITH GRAMMATICAL EXERCISES AND A CHRESTOMATHY, BY THE TRANSLATOE. 6 2 ^ ; NEW YORK : D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 346 & 348 BROADWAY. 1859. ■ 87039 Entered, according to act of Congress, in the year 1856, by D. APPLETON & COMPANY, In the Clerk's office of tlie District Court for tlie Southern Dist)\ct of New York. 4", a? G-3 3 HE TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. The apparatus for the grammatical study of the Hebrew language, contained in this volume, consists of three parts : 1) A translation of Dr. Rodiger's seventeenth edition of the Hebrew Grammar of Gesenius. 2) A course of grammatical exercises, to aid the learner in acquiring and applying a knowledge of the elementary principles of reading and inflection, and in the analysis of forms. 3) A Chrestomathy, consisting of explanatory notes on select portions of the Hebrew Bible. The translation has been prepared from the manuscript revision for the seventeenth German edition, furnished by Dr. Rodiger in advance of its publication in Germany. This has been strictly followed in the revision of the translation, which has been in great part rewritten, so as to make it an exact repre- sentation of the original work, in its present improved form, and of the present state of Hebrew philology, as it is exhibited by Dr. Rodiger.* * In consulting the references to the grammar, in Gesenius' Hebrew Lexicon (Dr. Robinson's translation, fifth, revised edition, 1854), and in other works, it should be remembered that the numbering of the sections, in this edition, is increa- sed by one after §48, by two after §86, and by three after §126, of the former editions. X PREFACE The grammatical exercises have been entirely rewritten, on an improved plan. The attention of teachers is respectfully requested to the method of study, proposed on page fourth of the Exercises, which has been found to lighten greatly the laboi both of the teacher and learner. A new and much more extended selection has been made of Hebrew reading lessons, with grammatical and exegetical notes suited to the wants of the student. It is the plan of these notes, to repeat nothing which is contained in the grammar and lexi- con, and for the statement of which they can be referred to. On a different plan, the same information might have been spread over many times the number of pages, with no other effect than to embarrass the learner, and retard his real profi- ciency. No pains have been spared to secure perfect accuracy in the printing of the book. My thanks are due to the conductors of the press of Mr. Trow, especially to Mr. W. F. Gould, for the extraordinary care bestowed upon the proofs, before they were sent to me for examination. They have since been subjected to several careful revisions ; and it is believed that no error, of any importance, has escaped detection. CONTENTS. Page Introduction ..... 1 Section 1. Of the Semitic Languages in General .... 1 2. Historical View of the Hebrew Language .... 7 3. Grammatical Treatment of the Hebrew Language . . 12 4. Division and Arrangement ...... 14 PART L — Of the Elements. Chapter I. — Of Reading and Orthography. 5. Of the Consonants, their Forms and Names . 6. Pronunciation and Division of Consonants 7. Of the Vowels in General, Vowel-Letters, and Vowel-Signs 8. Of the Vowel-Signs 9. Character and Value of the several Vowels . 10. Of the Half-Vowels and the Syllable-Divider (Sh^va) 11. Signs which affect the Reading of Consonants 12. Of Daghesh in General, and Daghesh Porte in Particular 13. Daghesh Lene ....... 14. Mappiq and Raphe ...... 15. Of the Accents ....... 16. Maqqeph and Methegh ..... 17. a<=ri and K^hibh Chapter U.— Peculiarities and Changes of Letters ^ of Syllables and the Tone. 18. In General ........ 19. Changes of Consonants ...... 20. Doubling of Consonants ...... 21. Aspiration, and the Removal of it by Daghesh Lene . 22. Pecuharities of the Gutturals ..... 23. Of the Feebleness of the Breathings X and n . 24. Changes of the Feeble Letters 1 and i ... - 25. Unchangeable Vowels .... 26. Of Syllables, and their Influence on the Quantity of Vowels ' 27. Changes of Vowels, especially in Respect to their Quantity 28. Rise of New Vowels and Syllables .... 29. Of the Tone ; Changes of the Tone ; and of the Pause . 63 15 18 21 23 27 32 34 35 35 36 37 39 40 41 41 43 45 47 49 52 53 55 58 61 xii CONTENTS. PART II. — Op Forms and Inflections, or op the Parts of Speech. Section Page 30. Of the Stem- Words and Roots (Biliterals, Triliterals, duadri- literals) . . 66 31. Of Grammatical Structure . . . . . . 70 Chapter I. — Of the Pronoun. 32. Of the Personal or Separate Pronoun ..... 71 33. Suffix Pronoun ..." 73 34. The Demonstrative Pronoun ...... 75 35. The Article 75 36. The Relative Pronoun 77 37. The Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns ... 77 Chapter II. — Of the Verb. 38-41. General View 78 I. Of the Regular Verb. 42. In General 83 A. Of the Ground-Form, or Kal. 43. Its Form and Signification ...... 83 44. Perfect of Kal and its Inflection ..... 84 45. Of the Infinitive 86 46. Of the Imperative 87 47. Of the Imperfect and its Inflection ..... 88 48. Lengthening and Shortening of the Imperfect and Imperative (Jussive and Cohortative Forms) .... 90 49. Perfect and Imperfect with i Consecutive . . . .92 50. Of the Participle 94 B. Derived Conjugations. 51. Niphal 95 52. Piel and Pual 97 53. Hiphil and Hophal 99 54. Hithpael 102 55. Unusual Conjugations ....... 103 56. Gluadriliterals . 105 C. Regular Verb witli Pronominal Suffixes. 57. In General 105 58. The Suffix to the Verb .106 59. The Perfect with Pronominal Suffixes 108 60. Imperfect with Pronominal Suffixes . . . 110 61. Infinitive. Imperative, and Participle with Suffixes . Ill CONTENTS. XIU II. Of the Irregular Verb. A. Verbs with Gutturals. Section 62. In General 63. Verbs Pe Guttural. E. g. 64. Verbs Ayin Guttural. E. 65. Verbs Lamedh Guttural. B. Contracted Verbs. ^aS to stand, Parad. g. arna to slaughter. E.g nbo to send. D . Parad. E Parad. F 66. Verbs ■)£). E. g. taas to approach. Parad. H 67. Verbs V^ . E. g. 22D to surround. Parad. G C. Feeble Verbs (Verba Q,uiescentia). Feeble Verbs x"s . E. g. bsx to eat. Parad. I 69. Feeble Verbs "^SJ. First Class, or Verbs originally IS. 2123^ to dwell. Parad. K 70. Feeble Verbs "I's . Second Class, or Verbs properly ''3 . Dt:^ to be good. Parad. L . 71. Verbs ^'s . Third Class, or Contracted Verbs ''"a . 72. Feeble Verbs IS . E. g. nstp to rise up. Parad. M . 73. Feeble Verbs "^b . E. g. ')'^3 to perceive. Parad. N 74. Feeble Verbs xb. E. g. NS^ tojind. Parad. O 75. Feeble Verbs iib. E. g. iibs ^o reveal. Parad. P . 76. Verbs doubly anomalous ..... 77. Relation of the Irregular Verbs to one another 78. Defective Verbs ....... Chapter III. — Of the Noun. 79. General View ..... 80. Of Forms which mark the Gender of Nouns 81. Derivation of Nouns .... 82. Primitive Nouns ..... 83. Of Verbal Nouns in General 84. Nouns derived from the Regular Verb 85. Nouns derived from the Irregular Verb 86. Denominative Nouns .... 87. Of the Plural 88. Of the Dual 89. The Genitive and the Construct State 90. Remains of Ancient Case-Endings [Paragogic Letters] 91. The Noun with Pronominal Suffixes 92. Vowel-changes in the Noun ..... 93. Paradigms of Masculine Nouns .... 94. Vowel-changes in the Formation of Feminine Nouns 95. Paradigms of Feminine Nouns .... 96. List of the Irregular Nouns ... E.g. Page 112 112 114 115 116 118 121 123 125 126 127 130 132 133 139 140 141 142 143 145 145 146 147 150 152 153 155 157 158 161 164 168 173 175 177 XIV CONTENTS. Section 97. Numerals. 98. Numerals. I. Cardinal Numbers II. Ordinal Numbers Chapter lY .—Of the Particles. 99. General View ....... 100. Adverbs 101. Prepositions ....... 102. Prefix Prepositions ..... 103. Prepositions with Suffixes, and in the Plural Form 104. Conjunctions ...... 105. Interjections ...... Pagtt 178 181 182 183 185 186 187 190 191 PART III.— Syntax. Chapter I. — Syntax of the Noun. 106. Relation of the Substantive to the Adjective, — of the Abstract to the Concrete ........ 193 107. Use of the Genders 194 108. Of the Plural, and of Collective Nouns . . . . . 197 109. Use of the Article ...'... 200 110. Ditto 202 111. Ditto 203 112. Connection of the Substantive with the Adjective . . . 204 113. Of Apposition 205 114. Of the Genitive 206 115. Expression of the Genitive by Circumlocution . . . 207 116. Farther Use of the Construct State 208 117. Designation of the other Cases . . . '. . 209 118. Use of the Accusative ....... 210 119. Modes of Expressing the Comparative and Superlative . 212 129! Syntax of the Numerals 213 Chapter II. — Syntax of the Pronoun. 121. Use of the Personal Pronoun ...... 215 122. Of the Demonstrative and Interrogative Pronouns . . 218 123. Relative Pronoun and Relative Clauses .... 219 124. Mode of Expressing those Pronouns for which the Hebrew has no Proper Forms ........ 221 Chapter III. — Syntax of the Verb. 125. Use of the Tenses in General ...... 222 126. Use of the Perfect 223 127. Use of the Imperfect ....... 227 128. Use of the Lengthened and Shortened Imperfect (Cohortative and Jussive) ........ 230 CONTENTa XV Section Page 129. Use of the Imperfect with Vav Consecutive . . . .231 130. Of the Imperative 232 131. Use of the Infinitive Absolute 234 132. Infinitive Construct 237 133. Connection of the Infinitive Construct with Subjec and Object 238 134. Use of the Participle 240 135. Construction of the Participle ...... 241 136. Expression of the Optative * ...... 242 137. Persons of the Verb 243 138. Construction of the Verb with the Accusative . . . 244 139. Verbs which govern two Accusatives . ... 246 140. Construction of Verbs with Prepositions . -^ . 247 141. Constructio Prsegnans ....... 24S 142. Union of two Verbs for the Expression of one Idea . . 248 143. Construction of Passive Verbs ...... 251 Chapter IV. — Connection of the Subject with the Predicate. 144. Manner of expressing the Copula ..... 252 145. Arrangement of the Parts of Speech in a Sentence ; Case Ab- solute .253 146. Relation of the Subject and Predicate in respect to Gender and Number ......... 254 147. Ditto 256 148. Construction of the Compound Subject .... 258 Chapter V. — Use of the Particles, 149. In General 258 150. Of the Adverbs 259 151. Construction of Adverbs ..... . 261 152. Of Words which express Negation . . . . . 261 153. Of Interrogative Words and Sentences . . . 263 154. Of the Prepositions 265 155. Of the Conjunctions ...... . 270 156. Of the Interjections ....... 275 TABLE OF THE OLDER SEMITIC ALPHABETS. Phoenician coins and inscriptions. Old-Hebrew coins and gems. Aram.-Egypt. inscriptions. Palmyren i inscriptions. The square 1 character. ^ ^Ty A <^ A T H T 1 ^ ^ 4 -71 ^ r\ m ?^ T x-^ 1 'V 1 1 1 T ^n B H li ;r{ jv) n 63 «j • t9 /W rA ^l A-» 7 ^ 4Hi/N IJ 'f i! J ^ 1 U L t, L iJ ^ '^ y^ ^ •^ >3 >3 D > 1') ^ 6 J M ^ 1 73 C3 t o o o o ^ V 1 1 1 -3 C)C| r '»3 to collect ; Pers. ham, hania, at once ; San. amd, with, Gr. uiia (afxcpb)), ofiog, ofiov, (ofidog, ofiadog), and hardened, xoLvog, Lat. cum, cumuhis, cunctus, and with the corresponding sibilant, San. sam, avv, %vv, ^vvog^^ xoivog, Goth, sama, Germ, sammt, sammeln: though doubts may still be raised in regard to some of the instances quoted. Essentially different from such internal coincidence, is the adoption and naturalization of single words from other langua- ges (borrowed words). Thus, a) When Indian, Egyptian, Persian objects are expressed in the Hebrew by their native names. E. g. "iSf^ (Egypt, ior, iero, iaro) river, Nile ; WX (Egypt, ake, achi) Nile-grass ; 0'n"iQ = nngadsKTog, Persian pleasure-grounds, park ; ')ia3'i^ , daric, Persian gold-coin ; C^'Sn , from the Indian (Tamul.) togai, peacocks. Several of them are found also in Greek: as, Cjlp (San. kapi) ape, xrjnog, nij/iog ; 0e'i3 (San. karpAsa) cotton, xagnaaog, carbasus. b) When Semitic words, names of Asiatic products and articles of trade, have passed over to the Greeks along with the objects themselves. E.g. y^3 ^maoQ, byssus ; <^5i^. , kt/^uvoizog, frankincense; n3p. xuvt), navva, canna, reed ; Ti^S, xvfiivov, cuminum, cvimin ; "ib, fivQQa, myrrha ; W'^^p , xaaaia, cassia ; hv^ , xdfirjXog, camelus ; I'S^?. . aQqa^wv, arrha- bon, arrha, pledge. Such transitions would be facilitated, especially, by the commercial dealings of the Phoenicians. 5. The written form of a language is never so perfect, as to express all its various shades of sound. The writing of the Semites has one very remarkable imperfection ; viz. that only the consonants (which do indeed constitute the kernel and body of language) were written out as real letters ; whilst, of the vowel-sounds, only the more prolonged ones, and not always even these, were represented by certain consonants (§ 7). At a later period, in order to represent all the vowel-sounds to the families do not hold a sisterly, or any near relationship to one another; and that the characteristic structure of each must first be dissected and analyzed, before any original elements, which tliey may have in common, can be discovered. This com- parison, moreover, belongs more to the Lexicon than to the Grammar. § 1. SEMITIC LANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 5 eye, there were attached to the letters (§8) small, separate signs (points, or strokes, above or below the line) ; though, for more practised readers, they were wholly omitted. The letters are always written, moreover, from right to left.*— Dissimilar as the different Semitic alphabets may appear, they yet all proceed, by various tendencies and modifications, from one and the same original alphabet. Of this the truest copy, among all existing specimens of alphabetic writing, is preserved in the Phoenician, from which sprang the old Greek, and mediately all the Euro- pean written characters. For a complete view of the Phoenician alphabet, and of all those fvhich have proceeded from it, see Gesenius Monuraenta antiqua Phoenicia (Lipsiae, 1837, 4.) p. 15. ff. and Tab. 1-5, and his article PalcBogiaphie, in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclop. Sect. III. Bd. 9. 6. In regard to the relative age of these languages, the oldest written works are found in the Hebrew (§ 2) ; the Aramaean com- mence about the time of Cyrus (in the book of Ezra) ; those of the Arabic branch not earlier than the first centuries of the Chris- tian era (Himyaritic inscriptions, Ethiopic translation of the Bible in the fourth century, North-Arabic literature after the sixth). But it is still another question, which of these languages longest and most truly held to the original Semitic type ; in which of them, as they have come to us, we trace the earlier phase of their development. For the more or less rapid progress of language, in the mouth of a people or of tribes of the same people, is determined by causes quite distinct from the growth of a literature ; and often, before the formation of a literature, the organism of a language has already become shattered, especially by early contacts with other tongues. Thus, in the Semitic domain, the Aramaean dialects suffered the earliest and greatest decay ,t and next to them the Hebrew-Canaanitish. The Arabic * The EthioiDJc is written from left to right. But this is probably an innovation of the earliest missionaries, by "w^hom Christianity was introduced into Ethiopia ; for an ancient inscription still exhibits the reversed direction, as does also the South-Arabic (Himyaritic) writing, -which is most nearly related to the Ethiopic, and which regularly runs from right to left. See Rodiger, in the Zeitschr. f. d. Kunde des Morgenl. Bd. IL, S. 332. ff. and his Excursus to Wellsted's Reisen in Arabien, II. 376. ff. f A new element must -be taken into account, should the language of the cuneiform inscriptions, found within the Aramaean district, prove to be of the Semitic stock. But this is still so doubtful, that we here leave it out of view. 6 INTRODUCTION. longest retained the natural fulness of its forms ; remaining undisturbed, among the secluded tribes of the wilderness, in its fully stamped organism. But at length, in the Mohammedan revolutions, this also became greatlj'^ impaired ; and hence, at this so much later period, it begins to exhibit about the same stage as the Hebrew had reached, so early as the times of the Old Testament.* Hence the phenomenon, accounted so strange, that the ancient Hebrew accords more, in its grammatical structure, with the later than with the earlier Arabic ; and that the latter, though first appearing as a written language at a late period in comparison with the other Semitic tongues, has yet preserved a structure in many respects more perfect, and greater freshness in its system of sounds ; holding among them a relation similar to that of the Sanscrit among the Indo-Germanic languages, or of the Gothic in the narrower circle of the Germanic. How a language can preserve its fuller organism, amidst decaying sister tongues, is seen e. g. in the Lithuanian compared with the Slavic languages, properly so called. So the Doric held tenaciously to earlier sounds and forms ; so the Friesic and Icelandic, among the German and northern languages. But even the firmest and most enduring organism of language often decays, in single forms and formative tendencies; and vice versa, in the midst of universal decline, the ancient and original form is here and there preserved. Such is the fact, in regard to the Semitic tongues. The Arabic too, has its chasms, and its later accre- tions ; but in general, it may justly claim the priority, especially in the system of vowel-sounds. To establish more definitely these principles, and carry them out fully, belongs to a Comparative Grammar of the Semitic languages. But. from what has been said it follows: 1) That the Hebrew lan- guage, as found in the ancient, sacred literature of the people, has already suffered more considerable losses, in respect to its organism, than the Arabic at the much later period, when it first comes historic- ally within our field of view. 2) That notwithstanding this, we cannot award to the latter an exclusive priority in all points. 3) That it is a mistaken view, when many regard the Aramsean. on account of its sim- plicity, as nearest to the original form of Semitism ; for this simplicity it owes to a decay of organism and the contraction of its forms. On the character, literature, grammatical and lexical treatment of these languages, see Gesenius' preface to his Hebraisches HandwOrter- buch, eds. 2-4. — [Biblical Repository, vol. III.] * Among the Bedouins of the Arabian desert, the language still preserves many antique forms. See Burckhardt, Travels in Arabia, Append. VIII. p 466; his Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, p. 211; and Wallin, in the Zeitschrift dei ieutsch. morgenl. Gesellsehaft, Bd. V. (1851,) p. S. 1. fF. VI., S. 190. fif. 369. ff. § 2. HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGK 7 $2. HISTOEIOAL VIEW OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. See Gesenius' Geschichte der hebraischen Sprache und Schrift, Leip- zig, 1815, §§ 5-18. 1. This language was the mother-tongue of the Hebrew or Israehtish people, during the period of its national independence. The name, Hebrew language (rii"iay T^'^'^, ylcJOOa tcov'^E^qui- cov, 6iSQai'0Ti), is not found in the Old Testament, and seems rather to have been in use among those who were not Israelites. We find instead of this, hanguage of Canaan (Is. xix. 18) from the country where it was spoken ; and rT'^i^n';', Judcice (2 K. xviii. 26, comp. Is. xxxvi. 11, 13 ; Neh, xiii. 24). The latter term belongs to the later usage, which arose after the return of the ten tribes from captivity, and in which the name Jeio, Jeivs, came gradually to comprehend the whole nation. (Jer. Neh. Esth.) The names. Hebrews (n'^'nas, '^E^qrnoi, Hebroei) and Israelites (ija ^^'^^'?)) were distinguished as follows. The latter bore the character of a national name of honor, which the people applied to themselves, with a patriotic reference to their descent from illustrious ancestors. The former was probably the older and less significant name of the people, by which they were known among foreigners. For this reason, it is used in the Old Testament particularly when they are to be distin- guished from other nations (Gen. xl. 18; xliii. 32); and where persons who are not Israelites are introduced as speaking (Gen. xxxix. 14, 17 ; xli. 12). Compare Gesenius' Hebr. lexicon, Art. "^"i^y . On the contrary, among the Greeks and Romans, e. g. in Pausanias, Tacitus, and also Josephus, it is the only name in use. As an appellative it might mean, belonging to the other side, people of the land on the other side (with refer- ence to the country beyond the Euphrates), from "^a? land on the other side, and the formative syllable "i— (§ 86, 5). It might then have refer- ence to the colony, which under Abraham migrated from regions east of the Euphrates into the land of Canaan (Gen. xiv. 13); though the Hebrew genealogists explain it as a patronymic, by sons (posterity) of Eber (Gen. x, 21 ; Num. xxiv. 24). At the date of the writings of the New Testament, the term Hebrew {i^qa'iail, John v. 2 ; xix. 13, 17, 20. k^Qu'ig duiXexTog, Acts xxi. 40 ; xxii. 2. xxvi. 14) was applied also to the language then vernacular in Palestine, in distinction from the Greek. Josephus (ob. about A. D. 95) uses it in this sense, and also for the ancient Hebrew. The name lingua sancta is first given to the Hebrew in the Chaldee paraphrases of the Old Testament, as the language of the sacred books, in distinction from the lingua profana, or the Chaldee popular language 8 ' INTRODUCTION. 2. In the very earliest writings, as they have come down ic us in the Pentateuch, we find the language in nearly the same form which it continued to bear till the time of the exile, and beyond it ; and we have no historical facts respecting the earlier stages of its formation. So far as we can learn from history, its home was Canaan. It was substantially the language spoken by the Canaanitish, or Phoenician* races, who inhabited Pales- tine before the immigration of Abraham and his descendants, by whom it was transplanted to Egypt, and again brought back with them to Canaan. That the Canaanitish races in Palestine spokc the language now called Hebrew, is shown by the Canaanitish proper names. E. g. "'^S^'? p"!^ i. e. king of righteousness ; "iSO n^'ip i. e. city of books. There is an equally close agreement with the Hebrew, in the remains of the Phoenician and Punic language. These are found, partly in their own peculiar character (§ 1, 5) in inscriptions, about 130 in number, and on coins. For copies of them, see Gesenius, Monumenta Phoenicia; Judas, Etude demonstrative de la langue phenicienne, Paris 1847 ; Bourgade, toison d'or de la langue phenicienne, Paris 1852. Partly, they are found in Greek and Roman characters, scattered here and there in ancient writers, and among them is one continuous passage in Plautus, Poenulus, 5, 1, 2. From the former, we learn the native orthography ; and Irom the latter, the pronunciation and vocalization. The two toge- ther furnish a distinct image of this language, and of its relation to the Hebrew. As examples of variations in orthography and in forms, maybe cited, 1) the almost constant omission of the vowel-letters (§ 7, 2) ; as, n2 for n^a./iouse; hp for bip voice; pS for "JIT'S; DSna for D'^3r;2i priests; 2) the feminine ending n (ath) in the absolute state (§ 80, 2), and it (o), besides many others. In pronunciation they are still more remarkable, especially in the Punic. In this, i was pronounced commonly as u ; e. g. UBilJ S7fet (judge) ; laibia salus (three) ; T!3"i rus = lasi (head) : for short i and e, it has often the obscure, dull sound y ; e. g. ^lasn ynnynnu (ecce eum), riK yth: the S it sounds as o; e.g. ip5>?3 Mocar (comp. t^SSia Sept. Mcaxd). For the entire collection of these grammatical peculiari- ties, see Gesenius, Monum. Phoen. p. 430 sqq. and Movers, Art. Phaeni- zien, in Ersch and Gruber^s Encyclop. Sect. ill. Bd. 24, S. 434. ft'. 3. In the language of the ancient documents which have come down to us in the Old Testament, we can distinguish no more than two distinct periods : the iirst, extending to the end of * "iSSS , ''3S33 is the native name both of the Canaanitish tribes in Palestine, and of those who dwelt at the foot of Lebanon and on the Syrian coast, whom we call Phoenicians, while they are called "JSJS on their own coins. Also the people of Carthage gave themselves the same name. § 2. mSTOEICAL VIEW OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 9 the Babylonian exile, which may be called its golden age ; and the second, or silver age, after the exile. To the first belongs the greater part of the books of the Old Testament : viz. of prosaic and historical writings, the Penta- teuch, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel, Kings ; of poetical writ- ings, the Psalms (a number of later ones excepted), Solomon's Proverbs, Canticles, Job ; the earlier prophets, in their chronolo- gical order, as follows : Joel, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, Ze- phaniah, Habacuc, Nalium, Obadiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel. The last two, as they lived and taught shortly before, as well as during the time of the exile, and also the latter part of the book of Isaiah (chs. xl.-lxvi. with some earlier chapters), stand on the borders of both ages. • The point of commencement for this period, and in general, of the literature of the Hebrews, must certainly be fixed as early as the time of Moses ; even though we should regard the Pentateuch, in its present structure and form, as modelled by a later hand. It suffices for the his- tory of the language and for our object to remark, that the Pentateuch has certainly peculiarities of language, which may be regarded as archaisms. The words Nin he (§ 32, R. 6), and "i?5 a lad, as there used are of common gender, and mean also she and maiden, like o and ri naiq; and certain harder forms of words, e.g. pS^, P^ll, are here the usual ones, whilst in other books they are exchanged for the softer forms, as pST , pniu . On the other hand, there are found in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. clear instances of approximation to the Aramaean coloring of the second, or silver age (see No. 5). 4. The different writers and books, though each has certainly peculiar characteristics, exhibit no very important differences bearing on the history of the language during this period ; as, indeed, the date of composition of many of these books, especially the anonymous historical ones, cannot be determined with entire certainty. On the contrary, the poetic diction is every where distinguished from prose, not only by a rhythmical movement in measured parallel members, but also by words, forms and signi- fications of words, and constructions, peculiar to itself: a dis- tinction not so strongly marked, however, as in the Greek for example. But most of these poetic idioms are employed in the kindred languages, particularly the Aramaean, as the common forms of speech. They may in part be regarded as archaisms, which the poetic diction retained, in part as additions made to the stores of the language, by poets to whom the Aramaean was 10 INTRODUCTION. familiar.* The prophets, moreover, at least the earlier ones, in language and rhythm are to be ranked almost as poets ; except that with these poetical speakers, the sentences often run on to greater length, and the parallelism is less measured and regular, than in the writings of those who are strictly poets. The lan- guage of the later piophets keeps more closely to the form of prose. On the poetic rhythm in Hebrew, see De Wette, Comraentar uoer die Psalmen (4th ed. Heidelb. 1836), Einleit. § 7;t Ewald, die poetischen Bucher des alten Bundes, Th. I. (Gottingen ]839) ; and (briefly treated) Gesenius. Hebr. Lesebuch, Vorerinnerungen zur 2ten Abtheilung. Of poetic words, (occurring along with those used in prose.) the fol- lowing are examples : UJisX vian, -= D'lN ; rriX path. = Tj"!'!! ; i^nx to come, = Xia ; ^j I5 1^? Ij terminate (with the excep- tion of D) in a perpendicular stroke directed downwards, whilst the common form has a horizontal connecting line, directed towards the following letter. 4. Hebrew is read from right to left. The division of a word at the end of a line is not allowed. To complete a line, certain letters {dilatabiles) are at times dilated. These are in our printed books the five following : c=3, m, b, n, ^4, (DP^'?r!i<.) 1. The figures of the letters were originally hasty and rude repre- sentations of visible objects, the names of which began with the sounds of the several characters ; e. g. Gimel, in the older alphabets the rude figure of a camel's neck,ir denotes properly a camel (^^"'5 = ^'9^), but as a letter only the initial 5 ; Ayin, prop. eije. y^_if_ , stands only for 5, the initial letter of this word. In the Phoenician alphabet, the similarity of the figitres to the object signified by the names may still be seen for the most part, and even in the square character it appears yet in some let- ters ; e.g. ^, ^ -J, 3, h, y, ir. The most probable signification of each name is given in the alphabet. However certain it is, on the one hand, that the Semites were the first to adopt this alphabet, yet it is highly probable, on the other, that * And on some ancient signet-stones. See Rodiger, On tlie Old-Hebrew signet- stones, in the Zeitschr. der d. morgenl. Gesell. Bd. III., S. 243 u. 347. f Table of Alphabets, col. 2. % Ibid. col. 1. § Ibid. col. 3. || Ibid. col. 4 ^ Ibid. cols. 1, 2, 3. §5. THE CONSONANTS. 17 the Egyptian writing (the so-called phonetic hieroglyphics) suggested the principle though not the figures ; for these hieroglyphic characters, for the most part, indicate the initial sound in the name of the pictured object; e.g. the hand, tot^ indicates the letter f; the lion, /a6oi, the letter I* 2. The order of the letters (on which we have an ancient testimony hi the alphabetical poetic compositions in Ps. xxv., xxxiv., xxxvii., cxix. Lam. i. — iv.) certainly depended originally on a grammatical considera- tion of the sounds, as Ave may see from the occurrence in succession of the three softest labial, palatal, and dental sounds, viz. 3, S, ^, also of the three liquids, b, a, 3, and other similar arrangements (see Lepsius' sprachvergleichende Abhandlungen, Berlin, 1836, No. 1) ; but yet other considerations and influences must also have had some effect upon it, for it is certainly not a mere accident, that two letters representing a hand ( Yodh and Kaph), also two exhibiting the head ( Qoph and Besh), are put together, as is done also with several characters denoting objects which are connected (Mem and Nun, Ai7i and Pe). Both the names and the order of the letters (with a trifling altera- tion) passed over from the Phoenician into the Greek, in which the letters, from Alpha to Tati, correspond to the ancient alphabet ; whence proceeded also, directly or m^ediately, the Old-italic, the Roman, and those derived from them. 3. The letters are used also for signs of member, as the Hebrews had no special arithmetical characters or ciphers. But this numeral use did not, according to the existing MSS. take place in the O. T. text, and is found first on coins of the Maccabees (middle of 2d cent. B. C). It is now employed in the editions of the Bible for numbering chapters and verses. As in the numeral system of the Greeks, the units are denoted by the letters from K to a, the tens by ''—5. 100—400 by p— n. The hundreds, from 500 — 900, are sometimes denoted by the five final letters, thus, "] 500, D 600, ) 700, C] 800, y 900 ; and sometimes by n = 400, with the addition of the remaining hundreds, as pn 500. In combining different numbers the greater is put first, as X^ 11, NSp 121. Fifteen is marked by lU = 9 + 6, and not by tii , because with these the name of God [mn^J commences ; and 16 by Tl:, for a like reason. Thousands are denoted by the units with two dots above, as x 1000. 4. Abbreviations of words are not found in the text of the O. T. On coins, however, they occur, and they are in common use by the later Jews. The sign of abbreviation is an oblique stroke, as 'v"^ for bsiirJ'^ . 'q for *'3'bQ aliquis, '"^ST for laiil et completio = et ccBtera, "'7 or ■''^ for * See the works of Young, Cliampollion, and others on the Hieroglypliics. Lepsius exhibits the chief results in his Lettre d, Mr. Rosellini sur V alphabet hiero' glyphique. Rom. 1837. 8vo. Oomp. Gescnius iu der AUgem. Litt. Zeitung, 1839. No. 77—81. Hitzig, die Erfindung des Alphabets. Ziirich, 1840, fol. /. Oh- kciuscn Uber den Ursprung des Alphabets. Kiel, 1841, 8vo, 2 18 PAET L ELEMENTS. §6. .PRONUNCIATION AND DIVISION OF CONSONANTS. 1. It is of the greatest importance to understand the original sound of every consonant, since very many grammatical pecu- liarities and changes (§ 18, (fcc.) are regulated and explained by the pronunciation. Our knowledge of this is derived partly from the pronunciation of the kindred dialects, particularly of the yet living Arabic, partly from observing the resemblance and inter- change of letters in the Hebrew itself (§ 19), partly from the tra- dition of the Jews.* The pronunciation of the Jews of the present day is not uniform. The Polish and German Jews adopt the Syriac, while the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, whom most Cliristian scholars (after the example of Reuchlin) follow, more properly prefer the Arabic pronunciation. The manner in which the Seventy have written Hebrew proper names in Greek letters, furnishes an older tradition of greater weight. Several, however, of the Hebrew sounds they were unable to represent for want of corresponding characters in the Greek language, e. g. S , UJ , which is true also of Jerome's expression of Hebrew words in Roman letters, after the Jewish pronunciation of his time. For that of the Jews . now in northern Africa, see Barges, Journ. Asiat. 1S4S. 2. The following list embraces those consonants whose pro- nunciation requires special attention, exhibiting in connection those which bear any resemblance in sound to each other. 1. Among the giitlurals, N is the lightest, a scarcely audible breathing from the lungs, the spiriUis leni's of the Greeks; similar to n, but softer. Even before a vowel, it is almost lost upon the ear ("i^S{, ufirtq) hke the h in the French habit, homme [or Eng. Jwii?-^. After a vowel it is often not heard at all, except in connection with the preceding vowel sound, with which it combines its own (NS^ mdtsd, § 23, 2). n before a vowel, is exactly our h {spiritJis asper) ; after a vowel at the end of words, it may like X unite its sound with that of the preceding vowel [^\\ gillu), or it may retain its character as a guttural (pTDa gA- Ihah), which is regularly the case at the end of a syllable in the middle of a word, as in "3113 neh-pdkh (§ 7, 2, and § 14). * Important aid may also be derived from an accurate physiological observa- tion of the whole system of soimds, and of their formation by the organs of speech. See on this subject Liskovhis' Theorie der Stimme, Leipzig, 181-4, /. Miiller's Handbuch der Physiologic, Bd. II., S. 179, , as many do in reading and in the expression of Hebrew words by our letters (e. g. ^bs Eli^ pb^ss Amalek), and to pronounce it simply as g, are equally incorrect. The best representation we could give of it in our letters would be gh or 'g- (but softer), as SS'iX, something like arba^'*, JTibS ^g'^mora. The nasal pronunciation, gn or ng, of the Polish Jews, is entirely false. ' n is the hardest of the guttural sounds. It it a guttural ch. as uttered by the Swiss, e. g. Macht, resembling the Spanish x and j. While the Hebrew was a living language this letter had two grades of sound, being uttered feebly in some words and more strongly in others.* 1 also the Hebrews frequently pronouncea with a hoarse guttural sound, not as a lingual made by the vibration of the tongue. Hence it is not merely to be reckoned among the liquids (Z, «i, ?i, r), but, in many respects, it belongs also to the class of gutturals. (§ 22, 5.) 2. In sibilant sounds the Hebrew language is rich, more so than the Aramasan. which in part adopts instead of them the flat, lingual sounds. "d and iu were originally one letter U3 (pronounced without doubt like sh), and in unpointed Hebrew this is still the case. But as this sound was in many words very soft, approaching to that of s, the grammarians distinguished this double pronunciation by the diacritic point into 1!3 sh (which occurs most frequently), and i^ s. iU resembled D in pronunciation: it differed from this letter, however and was probably uttered more strongly, being nearly related to ly. Hence 130 lo close up, and "i3iU io reward, have different meanings, being distinct roots, as also bao to be foolish, and bS'iJ to be wise. At a later period this distinction was lost, and hence the Syrians employed only O for both, and the Arabians only lu. They also began to be inter- changed even in the later Hebrew ; as ISO = "isia to hire, Ezr. iv. 5 , mlob for nnb30 folly, Eccles. i. 17. T was a soft, murmuring s, the Gr. 'C (by which the LXX. represent it), the Fr. and Eng. z. 3. p and a diflfer essentially from 3 and n. The former (as also S) are uttered with strong articulation, and with a compression of the organs of speech in the back part of the mouth, answering to k and t. * In the Arabic language, the peculiarities of -which have been carefully noted by the grammarians, the liai'd and soft sounds of V and n (as well as the different pronunciations of 1, U , U), are indicated by diacritic points. Two letters are thus made from each : from y the softer p Ain, and the harder a Ghain ; from n the softer c^ Bha, and the harder ^ Kha, 20 PART I. ELEMENTS. 3. The six consonants (the so-called Mutes)^ n, B, D, "I, \ n. (nB37?a,) have a twofold pronunciation :* 1) a harder, more slender sound {tenuis), as h, g, d, k, p, i, and, 2) a soft sound uttered with a gentle aspiration {aspirata). The former is the original sound. It is found at the beginning of words and syllables, Avhen there IS no vowel immediately preceding, and it is indicated by a point in the letter {Daghesh lene), as 3 6 (§ 13). The aspirated sound occurs after a vowel immediately preceding, and is denoted in manuscripts by Raphe (§ 14, 2), but in the printed text it is known by the absence of the Daghesh. In some of these letters (especially ^) the difference is less perceptible to our ear. The modern Greeks aspirate distinctly />*, y, §, and the Danes d at the end of a word. The Greeks have two characters for the two sounds of the other letters of this class, as 3 ?e, D^, S ;r, B gc, n r, n t9-. For tke precise cases in which the one pronunciation or the other occurs, see § 21. The modern Jews sound the aspirated D as r, and the n nearly as s, e. g. f^''UJi<'n reshis, il"! rav. 4. After what has been said, the usual division of the conso- nants according to the organs of speech employed in uttering them, will be more intelligible and useful. The common divi- sion is as follows : a) Gutturals, H, n, y, «, (3?rini?) b) Palatals, p, 5, ^, \ (pT^) c) Linguals, t:, n, *!, with 3, b, C^^'^^) d) Dentals or sibilants, 1% IS, D, T, (tJSDT) e) Labials, S], n, tt, 1, (=1^^3) The letter 1 partakes of the character of both the first and third classes. The liquids also, "1, D, '52, b, which have in many respects a common character, are to be regarded as a separate class. In the Hebrew, as well as in all the Semitic dialects, the strength and harshness of pronunciation, which characterized the earlier periods of the language, gradually gave way to more soft and feeble sounds. In this way many nice distinctions of the earlier pronunciation were neglected and lost. * Sound Pi as <, n as th in thick; "^ &i d, ^ dh as th in that ; Q as ^, B aa ph or /; ^ as h, '2 bh aa v ; & as jr in go ; 3 as k. To give the aspirated sound of 3 and 3 , pronounce g and k, rolling the palate with the same breath. — ^Tr. § 7. THE VOWELS. 21 This appears, 1) in the preference of the softer letters ; e. g. p?S, pSt (see § 2, 3, Rem,), Syr. pSt ; 2) in the pronunciation of the same letter ; thus in Syriac S has almost always a feeble sound ; the Gali- leans uttered it as well as n like X ; in iEthiopic t: has the sound of »", n that of h. OF THE VOWELS IN GENERAL, VOWEL-LETTERS, AND VOWEL-SIGNS. 1. The origin of the scale of five vowels, a, e, i, c. u, in the three primary vowel-sounds A, I, U, is even more distinctly seen in the Hebrew, and its cognate dialects, than in oth^r languages. Here, E and O have in all cases arisen from a blending of two pure vowel-sounds into one ; viz. e from the union of /, and 6 from the union of U, witli a preceding short A. Hence, they are properly diphthongs contracted, e arising from ai, 6 from au according to the following scheme :* A az, a, e / \ mi, o The more ancient Arabic has not the vowels e and 6, and always uses for them the diphthongs at and au ; e. g. ')''3 , Arabic bain, di^ , Arab. yaum. It is only in the modern popular language that these diphthongs are contracted into one sound. The close relation of those sounds appears from a comparison of the Greek and Latin (e. g. Csesar, KaiauQ; &aviiu, Ion. i^w/ia), from the French pronunciation of ai and au. from the Germanic languages (Goth, auso auris, old High-Germ. Ora Ohr ; Goth, snaivs, old High-Germ, sneo Schnee), and even from the German popular dialects {Oge for Auge, Goth, augo; Steen for Stein. Goth. Slains). The Arabic, as now pronounced among the Bedouins, departs less from the three primary vowel-sounds, a, i, u, than that spoken in Syria and Egypt ( IVallin, as quoted p. 22, note). A similar fact is stated by Barges, respecting the Jews in the province of Oran (Journ. Asiat. 1S48, NovJ. 2. With this is connected the manner of indicating the vowel- sounds in writing. As only three principal vowel-sounds were distinguished, no others were designated in writing ; and even * For the sound of these vowels, see note on § 8, — Tr, 22 PART I. ELEMENTS. these were represented not by appropriate signs, but by certain consonants, whose feeble sounds had a very close affinity with the vowel-sounds to be expressed. I Thus, 1 (like the Lat. F and the old Ger. W) represented U and also O ; ^ (like the Lat. /) represented / and U. The designation of A, the purest of all the voAvels, and of most frequent occurrence, Avas regularly omit- ted,* except at the end of a word where long a was represented, in Hebrew, by n, and more seldom by i5.t These two letters stood also for final e and o. Even those two vowel-letters (1 and '') were used but sparing- ly ; primarily, and regularly, only when the sounds represented were long.l In this case, also, they were sometimes omitted (§8, 4). Every thing else relating to the .one and quantity of the vowel-sounds, whether a consonant should be pronounced with or without a vowel, and even whether T and ^ were to be regarded as vowels or consonants, the reader was to decide for himself. Thus for example, h'op might be read qatal. qatel, qatol, qHol, qoiel, qiiteJ, qattel, quttal ; "iS'i, dahhar (a word), dehher (a pestilence), dibber (he hath spoken), dabber (to speak), dobher (speaking), dubbar (it has been spoken) ; T\^•Q might be maveth (death), or muih, moth (to die) ; I'^a might be read bin, ben, bnyin. How imperfect and indefinite such a mode of writing was, is easily seen ; yet during the whole period in which the Hebrew was a spoken language, no other signs for vowels were employed. Reading was, therefore, a harder task than with our more ade- quate modes of writing, and much must have been supplied by the reader's knowledge of the living mother-tongue. * So ill Sanscrit, the aucient Persian cuneiform writing, and Etliiopic, short a alone of all the vowels is not indicated by any sign, but the simple consonant is pronounced with this vowel. ■f The close connection between H, t*, and the A-souud, 1 and the U-sound, *i and the I-sound, admits of easy physiological explanation, if we attend to the formation of these sounds by the organs of speech. The vowel A is formed by opening the mouth without changing the position of the organs; so also PI and X. ^7 is sounded in the fore part of the mouth, with the lips a little projecting and I'ounded ; so also 1 [linglish w]. / is formed at the fore part of the palate ; so also *^ [our y]. E is formed at the back of the palate, between i and a; in the under part of the mouth, between u and a. \ The Phoenicians did not indicate even the long vowels, except in very rare cases ; their oldest monuments can hardly be said to have any designation of vowels. See Mon. Phoenicia, pp. 57, 58 ; and above, § 2, 2. § 8. THE VOWEL-SIGNS. 23 3. But when the Hebrew ceased to be a spoken language, and the danger of losing the correct pronunciation, as well as the perplexity arising from this indefinite mode of writing, continu- ally increased, the vowel-signs or points were invented, which minutely settled what had previously been left uncertain. Of the date of this invention we have no account ; but a compari- son of historical facts warrants the conclusion, that the vowel system was not completed till about the seventh century of the Christian era. It was the work of Jewish scholars, well skilled in the language, who, it is highly probable, copied the example of the Syrian and Arabian grammarians. See Gesch. d. hebr. Spr. S. 1S2 fl'. and Hupfeld in ^^en tlieolog. Studien und Kritiken, 1830, No. 3, where it is shown that the Talmud and Jerome make no mention of vowel-points. 4. This vowel system has, probably, for its basis the pronun- ciation of the Jew^s of Palestine ; and its consistency, as well as the analogy of the kindred languages, furnishes strong proof of its correctness, at least as a whole. It seems to have expressed, however, not so much the pronunciation of common life, as the traditional one which had become customary in the public and solemn reading of the sacred books. Its authors have labored to exhibit by signs the minute gradations of the vowel-sounds, carefully marking even half-vowels and helping sounds, sponta- neously adopted in all languages, yet seldom expressed in writ- ing. To the same labors we owe the different marks by which the sound of the consonants themselves is modified (§§ 11-14), and the accents (§§ 15, 16). In Arabic, the vowel system is much more simple. It has only three signs for vowels, according to the three primary vowel-sounds. The Syriac punctuation is likewise founded on a less complicated system. It is possible that the Hebrew also had at an earlier period a more simple vowel system, but no actual traces of it are found. OF THE VOWEL-SIGNS.* 1. The full vowels (in distinction from the half-vowels, ? 10, 1, 2), are exhibited in the following table, classed according to the three primary vowel-sounds. * The vowels, as represented in this translation, are sounded as follows: — ■ & and iS ^h-qfull mouth), 'py^'^ properly avQia^iog, 7=i3p closing (of the mouth). This last meaning belongs also to y53|5 ; and the reason why long a and short (t|1^n 'j'Tip Qariiels correptuni) have the same sign and name is, apparently, that long a was sounded rather obscurely, nearly as o, fate ; e as c iu 7net ; i as i in pique ; z as i in pick ; 6 and 1 , stand over the consonants. In form also they are almost wholly differ- ent, and even, to some extent, in respect to the representation of sounds. For example : Pattach and Seghol, when accented, are represented by one and the same sign ; and on the contrary, the unaccented short vowels are indicated by different signs, according as they stand in a syllable sharpened by Daghesh forte, or not. In the accents there is less variation ; and they also stand, in part, under the line of consonants. See farther in Pinner's Prospectus der der Odessaer Gesell- schaft fiir Geschichte u. Alterthiimer gehorendeu altesten hebr. u. rabbin. MSS., Odessa 1845; and a general description of this Persian-Jewish vowel-system by Rodiger, in the Halle Algem. Lit. Zeit. 1848, Aug. JS^o. 169 26 PART I. ELEMENTS long vowels are mostly expressed by vowel-letters, the uncertain sound of which is determined by the signs standing before or within them. Thus, ^ may be determined by Chireq ('^_), Tsere 0—), Seghol ('^^). 1 by Shureq (1) and Cholein (i).* In Arabic the long a is regularly indicated by the vowel-letler Aleph (X — ) written in the text, so that there, three vowel-letters answer .o the three vowel-classes. In Hebrew the relation is somewhat different (§ 9, 1. and § 23, 2). 4. When in the second and third classes the long vowel is expressed without a vowel-letter, it is called scrvptio defectiva, when with a vowel-letter, scriptio ple7ia. Thus bip and D^p are written /wZ/y, Ji'bp and Dp defectively/. The choice of the full or the defective mode of Avriting is not always arbitrary, as there are certain cases in which only the one or the other is admissible. Thus the full form is necessary at the end of a word, e. g. ^btpp, '^nb'Op, '^^'^, ^Db^ ; but the defec- tive is most usual when the vowel is preceded by the analogous vowel-letter as consonant, e. g. Dt'iS for U"^^^^ . But in other cases much depended on the option of the transcribers, so that the same word is written in various ways. e. g. Til^il^n Ezek. xvi. 60, '^ST'Spn Jer. xxiii. 4, where other editions have "^nixipn. It may be observed, however, • a) That the defective writing is used chiefly, though not constantly, when the word has increased at the end, and the vowel of the penultima has lost somewhat of its stress in consequence of the accent or tone of the word being moved forward [see § 29, 2], as p'''^S, C'^p'ns ; bip, niVp; b) That in the later books of the Old Testament the full form, in the earlier the defective, is more usual. f * The vowel-sign which serves to determine the sound of the vowel-lttter, is Baid to be homogeneous with that letter. Many, after the example of the Jewish grammarians, nse here the expression, " the vowel-letter rests [quiesces) in the vowel-sign." Hence the letters "^ and 1 (with N and n , see § 23) are called Uteres quiescibiles ; when they serve as vowels, quiescentex, whm they are consonants, mobiles. But the expression is not suitable : we should rather say, "The vowel- letter is sounded as this or that vowel, or stands iu place of the vowel." The vowel-letters are also called by grammarians, matres lectionis [becaiise they are used as guides iu reading the unpointed text]. \ The same historical relation may be shown in the Phcnnitian and (in the case of K as a vowel-letter) in Arabic — iu the latter especially by means of the older Koran MSS. and the writing on coins. § 9. CHAEACTER OF THE SEVERAL VOWELS. 27 5. Ill the kindred dialects, when a vowel-letter has before it a vowel-sign that is not kindred or homogeneous, a diphthong is formed, e. g. 1-^ au, 1— eii, '^-^, '^— ai. But in Hebrew, accord- ing to the pronunciation handed down by the Jews, 1 and "^ retain in such cases their consonant power, — as av, ev, ay* e. g. IT vav^ 15 gev^ "^n chuy, "''13 goy. In sound T^— is the same with 1—, namely, av^ as *^'y^ (Tbhurdv. The LXX. give generally in these cases an actual diphtliong. as in the Arabic, and this must be considered as an earlier stage of pronun- ciation ; the modern Jewish pronunciation is, on the other hand, similar to the modern Greek, in which nv, iv sound like av, ev. In the manuscripts Yodh and Vav are, in this case, even marked with Mappiq (§ 14, 1). §9. CHAEACTER AND VALUE OF THE SEVEEAL VOWELS. Numerous as these signs appear, they yet do not suffice to express, completely, all the various modifications of the vowel- sounds, particularly in reference to their quantity, as long or short, acute or grave ; and, moreover, the designations of the speaking sounds, by these signs, cannot always be said to be perfectly adequate. We give here, therefore, for the clearer understanding of this subject, a brief commentary ,on the char- acter and value of the several vowels, with special reference to their quantity, but having respect at the same time to their mutability (§25 and §27). L First Class. A sound. 1. Qamets is always long a ; but yet it is in its nature of two kinds : 1) The essentially long and unchangeable a, for which the Arabic has i?-;: , as sriS kHhuhh (writing), S35 gannuhh (thief), D^ qdm (surrexit), written at times Di^p. 2) The prosodially long a,t both in the tone-syllable and close before or after it. This sound always comes from short a,+ and is found in an open syllable (i. e. one ending with a vowel, see §26, 2), e. g. bu]?, * AVhcn y represents the consonant power of "^ , it should have its full sound, as in you. — ^Tr. f See § 25, and § 26, 3. X lu Arabic, the short « is every -where retained. 28 PART I. ELEMEIs^TS. b^^S, D^p!^j and also in a closed (i. e. one ending with a conso- nant), as ^^, Dbiy. In the closed syllable, however, it can stand only when this has the tone, "ill, obis? ; but in the open, it is esjDecially frequent before the tone-syllable, as "li'l, "JjpT, bi^ll, ''D5::p, D5b. When the tone is moved forward or lessened, this vowel becomes, in the former case, short a (Pattach), and in the latter, vocal SJfva (§27, 3), "ini, nn^ {d^bhdr)] DDn, ODH (ch^khdm) ; bt:jp, ob-Jjp. As the closing sound of a word, Qamets can stand by itself (ri5uj5, T^b) ; but here, it is often represented by n, among the original consonant-letters (nns, niEiS). 2. Pattach, or the shorter a, stands properly only in a closed syllable^ with and without the tone (b'^p, DPibup). Most of the cases where it now stands in an open syllable ("i??, ^'}^), were originally closed ("15'2, iTi'l'S, see §28, 4) ; and in such cases it has generally become long a On the union of Pattach Avith X (J^— ) see § 23, 2 : on a as a helping sound {Pattach furtive), see § 22, 2, 6. 3. Seghol {ci, S) belongs chiefly to the second class of vowels, but now and then, according to its origin, to the first or the third class. It belongs to the first, when it is a modification of a (like the German Gast, Gdste, e. g. y'^i< from y^i^. Although an obtuse sound, it can stand in the tone-syllable, as in the first syllable of p'lS tsddSq, and even in the gravest tone-syllable at the end of a clause or sentence (in paiise). II. Second Class. I and E sound. 4. The long i is most commonly expressed by the letter ^ (a fully written Chireq *'— ) ; but even when this is not the case, it makes no essential difference, provided the vowel is long by na- ture (§8, 4),'e. g. p^^2 pi. D^p^l* ; sn^:" pi. ^xn;^. Whether a defectively written Chireq is long, may be best known from the grammatical origin and character of the form, but often also from the character of the syllable (§ 2G) or from the position of Methegh (§ 10, 2) at its side, as in 1i<1\ 5. The sliort Chireq (always written without '^) is specially frequent in sharpened syllables (b^p, '^'QX),* and in closed unac- cented syllables (bbpb). Not seldom it conies from a by shorten- * For this sliarj) i the LXX, mostly use «, ^i<>i35a3J 'Hfiftaiovijl. §9. CHARACTER OF THE SEVERAL VOWELS. 29 ing, as in '^ria (my daughter) from ma, '^n^'l from *i^'n, VtDfp';" out of bbj?\ Sometimes also it is a mere helping vowel, as in fi"^^ for n;'^ (§ 28, 4). The Jewish and older grammarians call every fully written Chireq Chireq magnum, and every defectively written one, Chireq parvum. In respect to the sound, this is a wrong distinction. 6. The longest e, Tsere with Yodh i^—), comes from the diphthong ai "^ (§ 7, 1), which also stands for it in Arabic and Syriac, as bD''?n (palac,e) in Ar. and Syr. haikal. It is therefore a very long and unchangeable vowel, longer even than "*— , since it approaches the quantity of a diphthong. This ''— is but seldom written defectively ("'Dl^ for '^D^'y Is. iii. 8), and then it retains the same value. At the end of a word ''— and ''— must be written fully : very rare is the form Th'qp^ (§ 44, Rem. 4). 7. The Tsere without Yodh is the long e of the second rank, which stands only in and close hy the tone-syllable, like the Q,a- mets above in No. 1, 2. Like that, it stands in either an open or a closed syllable, the former in the tone-syllable or before it ("ISO, n5tp), the latter only in the tone-syllable ('(3, b^jp). 8. The iSeghol, so far as it belongs to the second class, is most generally a short obtuse e sound, a shortening of the (— ), "■jS from )2 (son). It arises also out of the shortest e (vocal Sh°va, § 10, 1), when this is heightened in pronunciation by the tone, as "'H'^l for Tl^l , ^tjb for "^tib • and besides it appears as an involuntary helping sound, ISO for "iBD, %"} for bSi';' (§28, 4). The Seghol with Yodh (''--) is a long but yet obtuse a (e of the French) formed out of ai, n3ib|i galena, and hence it belongs ra- ther to the first class. See more on the rise of Seghol out of other vowels in §27, Rem. 1, 2, 4. III. TViird Class. U and O sound. 9. In the third class is found nearly the same relation as in the second. In the u sound we have : 1) the long u, whether a) fully written ^ Shureq (answering to the ''— . of the second class), e. g. b^3T (dwelling), or h) defectively written without Vav -- (analogous to the long — of the second class), Qibhuts, namely, that which stands for Shureq, and which might more properly be called defective iShnreq ("'^^T, I'lfltt^), being in fact a 30 PART I. ELEMENTS. long vowel like Shureq, and only an orthographic shortening foi the same ; 2) The short ii, the proper Qibbuts (analogous to the short Chireq), in an unaccented closed syllable, and especially in a sharpened one, as ^nblp (table), najP (bedchamber). For the latter the LXX. put o, e. g. ^\^?, , ^OdolXan, but it by no means follows that tliis is the true pronunciation ; indeed, they also express Chireq by t. Equally incorrect was the former custom of giving to both kinds of Qibbuts the sound ii. Sometimes also the short u in a sharpened syllable is expressed by 1, e. g. n^^i = ^h:_, § 27, Rem. 1. 10. The O sound stands in the same relation to U, as E to /in the second class. It has four gradations : 1) the longest 6, viz. from the diphthong an (§ 7, 1) ; it is mostly written in full, i {Cholem pleniun)., as tsitJ (whip), Arab, saut, tb'ys (evil) from Tbys ; sometimes it is written defectively, as ^'ITC (thy bullock), from nilij ; 2) The long o, which has sprung from an original a (cor- ruptly sounded) ; it is usually written fully in a tone-syllable and defectively in a toneless one, as bt3p Arab, and Chald. qatel, Wb^ Arab, and Chald. eluh^ plur. D^nibii;, Dbl> Arab, and Chald. *cdam ; 3) The tone-long o, which is a lengthening of short o or u by the tone, and which becomes short again on its removal, as bs (all), -bS [k6l), Dbs {kidlam), bb]?-', ^bts]?;', ^btp;:^ (in this last in- stance it is shortened to vocal Sh^va, yiqflu). In this case the Cholem is fully written only by way of exception ; 4) The Qcmiets-chatuph (— ), always short and in the same relation to Cholem as the iS'eghol of the second class to the Tsere, "53 kOl, Dj?^'l vuy-yiX-qOm. On the distinction between this and Qamets, see below in this section. 11. The )Seg-hol belongs here also, so far as it arises out of m or (No. 3), e. g. in Ons, Dnbl2]:. (§ 27, Rem. 4, b.) On the half-voivels see the next section. 12. In the following table we give a scale of the vowel-sounds m each of the three classes, with respect to their quantity, from the greatest length to the utmost shortness. The table does not indeed suffice to exhibit all vowel transitions which occur hi the language, but yet it furnishes a view of those in more frequent use. ; 9. CHAEACTER OF THE SEVEEAL VOWELS. 31 F^rst Class. A. — longest d (Arabic — tone-lengthened a (from short a or —7) in and by the tone-sylla- ble. ~z short a. — obtuse a. Greatest shortening to -n" or — * in an open, and to -72 in a closed syllable. Second Class. I and E. "^—e diphthongal (from ai). '^-::C (from ai). ^— or — ; long i. — tone-lengthened e (from -7 ^ or — :: obtuse e) in and immediately be- fore the tone-syllable. — short t. -7 obtuse e. Greatest shortening to — " or -7* in an open syllable, besides the —^i or '— in the closed. Third Class. O a7id U. i 6 diphthongal (from an). 1 or — 6 corrupted from d. ^ or — 7 long u. ■^ tone-lengthened (from — 6 or -^) in the tone-syllable. — short u, especially in a sharpened syllable. — short 6. -7 obtuse e. Greatest shortening to _o or —" in an open syl- lable, besides the short — or — 6 in the closed. ON THE DISTINCTION OF QAMETS AND QAMETS-CHATUPH. Of the inadequate repiesentation of the vowel-sounds, there is a striking- example in the use of the same sign (J both for long a (Q,amets) and for short Q (Q^amets-chatuph). In distin- guishing between them, the learner, who has not yet a know- ledge of the grammatical derivation of the words to be read (the only sure guide), will be directed by the two following rules : 1. The sign (J is o in a closed syllable which has not the tone [or accent^ ; for such a syllable cannot have a long vowel (§ 26, 3). Examples of various kinds are — a) When a simple Sh^va follows, dividing syllables, as in >^^rC chokh- vid (wisdom), fr^^T z6kh-ra ; with a Meihegh, on the contrary, the (^) is a, and closes the syllable, but then the following Sh®va is a half-vowel {vocal Sh'^va),as fT^^J za-kli^ra, according to § 16, 2. b) When Daghesh forte follows, as QTia hvttim (houses), "'isn chon- ne-ni (pity me) ; also D?"^!!}! bvttikhem (notwithstanding the Methegh, which stands by the vowel in the second syllable before the tone). c) When Maqqeph follows (§ 16, 1), as cnxn-bs kvl-haadlmm (all men). d) When the unaccented closed syllable is final, as Dj^'ji vaij7jdq6m (and he stood up). — There are some cases where d in the final syllable loses its tone by Maqqeph (§ 16, 1) and yet remains unchanged, e. g. Mn-nns Esth. iv. 8 ; i^-nd Gen. iv. 25. Methegh usually stands in these cases, but not always. * This portion must, in order to be fully understood, be studied in connection with what is said on the syllables in § 2G, and on Methegh in § 16, 2. 32 PART I. ELEMENTS. In cases like •^st^'rj.i "^iV ^'^'"''"'^! where the (t) has the tone, it is a, according to § 26, 5. 2. The sign (,) as short 6 m an open syllable is far less fre- quent, and belongs to the exceptions in § 26, 3. It occurs a) when Chatcph-Qatnets follows, as i^5^5* pd-^Zo (his deed); b) when another Q,amets-ChaUij)Ji follows, as 'ribys ^^O-sr-AVmt (thy deed) ; c) in two anomalous words, where it stands merely for (^. ), which are found so even in manuscripts, viz. C'lp'!})^ qO-dha- shim, sanctuaries, and D'''l2?'^^ sliO-ra-shim, roots. (§93, 6, 3.) In these cases (t) is followed hj Methegh. although it is 6, since Methegh always stands in the second syllable before the tone. The exceptions that occur can be determined only by the grammatical deri- vation, as "'3X3 in the ship (read: ha-°ni) 1 Kings ix. 27, with the article included ; on the contrary v]N '''^Oi? b6-cli°ri aph Ex. xi. 8. without the article. §10. OF THE HALF- VOWELS AND THE SYLLABLE-DIVIDER (SH-^VA). 1. Besides the full vowels, of which §9 chiefly treats, the Hebrew has also a series of very slight vowel-sounds, which may be called half -void els. t We may regard them in general as ex- treme shortenings, perhaps mere traces, of more full and distinct vowels in an earlier period of the language. To these belongs, first, the sign — , the slightest and most indistinct half-vowel, somethijig like an obscure half S. It is called *S*/i*va,§ and also simple Sh''va to distinguish it from the composite (see below. No. 2), and vocal SIfva {Sh^va mobile) to distinguish it from the silent {Sh^va quiescens), which is merely a divider of syllables (see below. No. 3). This last can occur only under a consonant closing the syllable, and is thus distin- guished from the vocal Sh®va, whose place is under a consonant beginning the syllable, whether a) at the beginning of the word, as bbj? q^tol, ii^'a'a nfmalle^ or b) in the middle of the word, as * That a ought here to be considered and divided as an open syllable ibs | Q appears from § 26, 7. f This case is connected with the foregoing, the second Qamcta-Chatuph having originated in Chateph-Qamets. \ In the table § 9, 12, the half- vowels have already been exhibited for the sake of a complete view. Tliey are expressed by small letters. § The name NITli (written also i<312J) is of doubtful origin and signification. § 10. HALF- VOWELS AND SYLLABLE-DIVIDEK. 33 'nbti'^p qd-fld, 1^t:p^ yiq-fla, ^btOp qit-flu. So also in cases like ibbn ha-lHit (which stands for ^b^n hal-lHu), Vi^V'^^. la-m^nats- tse"ch (for 'lH^) ; farther, biUian ha-ni''shol Judges ix. 2 (where the interrogative H makes a syllable by itself), ''Db'a nial^-khe. In the last examples the Sh^va sound is specially slight, in conse- quence of a very short syllable preceding. The sound e may be regarded as representing vocal Sh^va, although it is certain that it often accorded in sound with other vowels. The LXX express it by s, even rj, Drains Xtgov^ifi, ti^ ^^i??! ulhjXovia, oftener by a, ^5 1"!?,?, "i^ys pQ-^-lo, and b) even by vocal iSh%-a, e. g. N"^'^)? Job V. L " When it stands by Sli^va, many Jewish grammarians call it Ga'ya X''j;5, while others use this name in general for every Methegh. N. B. It is of special service to the beginner, as indicating (accord- ing to letter a above) the quantity oC Qainels and Chireq before a SMva. Thus in !T^2t za-hh^-ra the Methegh shows, that the (t) stands in the anlepenullima, and that the SMca is here vocal and forms a syllable ; but the (t) in an open syllable before ( : ) must be long (§ 26, 3), con- sequently Qamets not Qamets-chatitph. On the contrary nnat without Methegh is a dissyllable [z6kh-ra]. and ( t ) stands in a closed syllable, and is consequently shoit (Qanieis-chatuph). Thus also ^X'^''^ (they fear) with Methegh is a trisyllable with a long i, yl-r''-u ; but ixn^ (they see) without it, a dissyllable with short i, ytr-u. See above, the rules for Qamets and Qaniets-chatuph in § 9 at the end. §17. Q^RI AND K^THIBH. The margin of the Bible exhibits a number of various read- ings of an early date (§ 3, 2) called ''"'.p {to be read), because in the view of the Jewish critics they arc to be preferred to the reading of the text called Si'^fiS {written). Those critics have therefore attached the vowel-signs, appropriate to the marginal reading, to the corresponding word in the text. E. g. in Jer. xlii. 6 the text exhibits ^!i|!, the margin "'Ip i:n;i5. Here the vowels in the text belong to the word in the margin, which is to be pronounced ^"H^i?. : but in reading the text IIS, the proper vowels must be supplied, making ^:s?. A small circle or asterisk over the word in tlie text always directs to the marginal reading. Respecting the critical value of the marginal readings, see Gesenius Gesch. dor hebr. Sprache, S. 50, 75. ; 18, 19. CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. 41 CHAPTER II. PECULIARITIES AND CHANaES OF LETTERS : OF SYL. LABLES AND THE TONE. §18. In Older fully to comprehend the changes which words undergo in their various inflections, it is necessary first to survey the general laws on which they depend. These general laws are founded partly on the peculiarities of certain letters and classes of letters, considered individually or as combined in sylla- bles, and partly on certain usages of the language in reference to syllables and the tone. §19. CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. The changes occasioned among consonants by the formation of words, inflection, euphony, or certain influences connected with the history of the language, are commictatioti, assimilation, rejection and addition, transposition. 1. Commutation takes place most naturally among letters which are pronounced similarly, and by the use of the same organs, e. g. "pby, Dby, i^'J to exult ; HXb, nnb, Aram. TOb to tire ; D"*— and X'— (as plural endings) ; fnb, yn: to ]}ress ; l^?? *1DD to close ; tibia, tjbs to escaj)e. In process of time, and as the language approximated to the Aramaean, hard and rough sounds were exchanged for softer ones, e. g. bsa for b;^5 to reject ; pTW for pn:^ to laugh ; for the sibilants were substituted the corres- ponding flat sounds, as ^ for T, 12 for 2, M for W. This interchange of consonants affects the original forms of words more than it does their grammatical inflection ; the con- sideration of it, therefore, belongs properly to the lexicon.* Ex- amples occur, however, in the grammatical inflection of words ; viz. the interchange a) of Jl and t: in Hithpael (§ 54), b) of 1 and "> in verbs Pe Yodh (§ 69), as "ib^ for 'ibl. 2. Assimilation takes place most frequently, when the closing consonant of a syllable is exchanged for the one with which the * See the first article on each letter in Geseniits' Hebrew Lexicon. 42 PART L ELEMENTS. following syllable begins, forming with it a double consonant, aa illnstris for inhistris ; diffusns for disfnsiis ; 6vX)ucfi/3av(o for 6v-vXa[.ii3dvco. In Hebrew this occurs most frequently, a) with the feeble, nasal 3 before most other consonants, espe- cially the harder ones, e. g. D^jJ^'Q for D'lpp'a frotii the east ; nra for 'r\1Vafrom this ; in;' for inp ; Pn? for PSnj. Before gutturals i is commonly retained, as bnp'p he icill possess ; sel- dom before other letters, as MDl^ thoii hast dwelt ; b) less frequently and only in certain cases, with b, 1, ri. E. g. n]?;i for n):b:' ; isisn for tsisnn ; -w for itc^ (§ 36). In all these cases, the assimilation is expressed by a Daghesh forte in the following letter. In a. final consonant, however, as it cannot be doubled (§ 20, 3, a), Daghesh is not written, e. g. ?|i5 for vlpN or vl.rx ; nSP contr. nn ; WS contr. na ; tn) contr. nb. Comp. Tui/jccg for rvipccvg. In the last cases the assimilated letter has not Sh^va, but the helping vowel Seghol (§ 28, 4). which, however, does not render the assimilation impracticable. In the way of assimilation, we occasionally find a second weaker sound swallowed up by the stronger one before it ; e. g. W^Bp from ^innbup (§ 59). ^iss^ for ^in?^^ from him (§ 103, 2). Here we may also refer ab'; for aao"^ he surrounds (§ 67. 5). 3. The rejection or falling away of a consonant easily hap- pens in the case of the breathings and vowel-letters i5, tl, 1, i, and also of the liquids. It takes place. a) at the beginning of a word {apharesis), when such a feeble consonant has no full vowel, and its sound is easily lost upon the ear, as ^:n: and ^:ri2S [ive) ; nt? sit for a©;' ; iri (give) for ins ; -t for mr^!:, who, comp. No. 2, b; b) in the midst of a word (contraction), when such a feeble con- sonant is preceded by a Sh^va, e. g. t^b'sb, the prevailing form for Tfbianb ; bvjj?^ for bii:;5n;i (§ 23, 4. §35, R. 2. § 53, 1) ; c) at the end of Avords {apocope), e. g. 'lb'Jp';i for "Jlbipp^ ; D^sa so?iSj before the genitive ^sa. Bolder changes were made in the infancy of the language, particu- larly in casting away consonants at the end of a word ; thus from *|rx was formed "5* ; from n^s, a ; from bn , ri (see § 99). Here belongs also the weakening of the feminine ending n-^ ath to Ti— a (see § 44. 1. and § 80). A. In other cases a harshness in pronunciation is prevented by the addition of K {Aleph prostheticiufi) with its vowel at the §20. DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS. 43 beginning of a word, e. g. ?ilT and ?i^|^ ar7n ; (comp. ;^&£g, ixOkit sjnritus^ Fr. esprit.) 5. Transposition, in grammar, seldom occurs. An example of it is 1'BPi'Cn for "I'BTiJtin (§54, 2), because st is easier to sound than ths. Cases are more frequent in the province of the lexi- con, as iSSS and 3itJ? lamb ; nb'aiE' and rrabilJ garment ; they are chiefly confined, however, to the sibilants and liquids. Consonants may also, especially the weaker, at the end of a syllable be softened to vowels, like ilc, from tvq, chevaux from cheval (compare, below, § 30, 2, e) ; e. g. 3313 star from 3333, 33^3 ; d\«< man from 11J5X or U325^ (where the Seghol is merely a helping vowel, see above, No. 2).* §20. DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS. 1. The doubling of a letter by Daghesh forte takes place, and is essential, i. e. necessary to the form of the word {Daghesh essential), a) when the same letter is to be written twice in succession, with- rt* out an intermediate vowel ; thus for ^2?!ni we have 13ti5 we ' have given ; for ''r*?!^, "^nT? I have set ; h) in cases of assimilation (§ 19, 2), as 'jri'' for '}!??'?. In both these instances it is called Daghesh comptensative ; c) when the doubling of a letter originally single is characteristic of a grammatical form; e. g. 1'ab he has learned, but "172b he has tanght {Daghesh characteristic). The double consonant is actually and necessarily written twice, when ever a vowel-sound, even the shortest (a vocal Sh^va), comes between. Hence this is done a) when a long vowel precedes, Dibbl'n which is read ho-lHim (§ 26, Rem.), and even after a merely tone-long vowel, iiaaia , where compensation is more usual ; b) when a Daghesh has already been omitted, as ib^n ha-Nu for ^hhT] hal-lHu ; c) when by composition the two consonants have come to stand together, but properly belong to two words, as '!]3*i3'i (he blesses thee), ''ii'iN'ip'^ (ihey call me), where T^ and "^3 are suffixes ; d) when the form has come from another which has a full vowel, as nb^p construct of nbbp?. Sometimes the same word is found in both the full form and the contracted, e. g. t^ll^'? Jer. V. 6, and D^^7 Prov. xi. 3, Q^ri; ''SSSn Ps. ix. 14, and ''SSn Ps.'iv;2. * In the Punic, "^b^ malkh (king) is in this way contracted to nidfch, see Men, Phoenicia, p. 431. 44 PART I. ELEMENTS. 2. A consonant is sometimes doubled merely for the sake of euphony. The use of Daghesh in such cases {Daghesh eupho- nic) is only occasional, as being not essential to the forms of words. It is employed, a) when two words, of which the first ends in a vowel, are more closely united in pronunciation by doubling the initial conso- nant of the second {Daghesh forte conjunctive), as HtTl'a what is this ? for HT ma ; ^SiSI ^'Q'p qii-muts-tsyi {arise ! depart !) Gen. xix. 14 ; Dl^ PibDS) Deut. xxvii. 7* In some instances words thus united are contracted into one, as ri;7^ for nrnia, DD^'Q for a^^"^, ns^ tr^ what (is) to you 7 [s. iii. 15. Analogous to the above usage is the Neapolitan le llagrime for le lagrime, and (including the union of the two words in one) the Latin reddo for I'e-clo, and the Italian alia for a la, della for de la. b) when the final consonant of a closed syllable, preceded by a short vowel, is doubled in order to sharpen the syllable still more, e. g. "^535? for "'32^ grapes, Deut. xxxii. 32. Compare Gen. xlix. 10, Ex. ii. 3, Is. Ivii. 6, Iviii. 3, Job xvii. 2, 1 Sam. xxviii. 10, Ps. xlv. 10. Examples of this, however, are com- paratively rare, and without any regard to uniformity. Compare the following forms as found in very ancient Greek inscrip- tions, viz. vcgiaaiog, TshcraTui, ^ylaaxlriniog {Bijckh, Corpus Inscr. Gr. I. p. 42), and in German anndere, unnsere (for andere, unsere) as written in the time of Luther. c) when it is inserted in the final tone-syllable of a sentence (§ 29, 4), in order that it may furnish a more firm support for the tone, e. g. ^2113 for ^:rip they give, Ez. xxvii. 19, ^^n';* for '^T}'} they waited, Job xxix. 21, Is. xxxiii. 12. 3. The Hebrews omitted, however, the doubling of a letter by Daghesh forte, in many cases where the analogy of the forms required it ; viz. a) always at the end of a word ; because there, at least in tlie pronunciation which has come down to us, the syllable did not admit of sharpening. Thus the syllable all would be pronounced, not as in German with a sharpened tone, but * Here belong such cases as nxa nXJ, Ex. xv. 1, 21 ; so that the assertion is not correct, that the first of the two words must be a monosyliable, or accented on the penultima. § 21. ASPIRATION AND ITS REMOVAL. 45 like the English all. call, small. Instead, therefore, of dou- bling* the consonant, they often lengthened the preceding vowel (§ 27, 2). E. g. UV (people), with a distinctive accent (§ 15, 3), for D? from COl^. The exceptions are very rare, as PiS5 thou,f., ritip thou hast given, Ez. xvi. 33 ; h) often at the end of a syllable, in the body of a word (where the doubling of a letter is less audible, as in Greek dXro Homeric for alltro) ; e. g. D^TDJ^S^n for D^TSJ^n^n ; c) in the gutturals (§ 22, 1). In the case &, it may be assumed as a lule, that the Daghesh remains in the letter with Sh^va (which is then vocal, § 10, 1), and is never left out of the aspirates, because it materially affects their sound, e. g. nnBDwN: ""khapp'^ra (not n'^sa!!^, "khdphra) Gen. xxxii. 21, ^rns Is. ii. 4, ''5'ir'Dj "^nf?!- On the contrary, it is usually omitted in the preforma- tives 7 and a in Piel, as "lai^^, Q'^'ia'i^ri ; rt^i-oh for n;i552b ; so also in '^f)i':, and in cases like >i^n''for ^b^h, 'i33n for '^ssn. In some cases a vowel or half-vowel was inserted to render the dou- bling of the letter more audible, e. g. D352S with you for 0335 ; fJI^O for naO (§ 67, 4), ^3315'^ Is. Ixii. 2. Bern. In the later books, instead of the sharpening of the syllable by Daghesh for le, the preceding vowel is sometimes lengthened (comp. mile for mille), as 'jniri'i he terrifies them for 'jfin';' (Hab, ii. 17), D'^^i'^'ni^a threshing-sledges for nia"i"ia, 1 Chron. xxi. 23. §21. ASPIRATION", AND THE REMOVAL OF IT BY DAGHESH LEKE. The pure hard sound of the six aspirates (fi, S, D, 1, !*, H), with Daghesh lane inserted, is to be regarded, agreeably to the analogy which languages generally exhibit in this respect, as their original pronunciation, from which gradually arose the softer and weaker aspirated sound (§ 6, 3 and § 13). The origi- nal hard pronunciation maintained itself in greatest purity, when it was the initial sound, and after a consonant ; but when it followed a vowel-sound, or stood between two vowels, it was softened by partaking of the aspiration with which a vowel is uttered. Hence the aspirates take Daghesh lene : * So in Latin, fel (for fell) gen. fcllis ; met, mellis ; 6s, ossis. In mid. high- German a consonant is doubled only at the beginning of a syllable, as was the case in the old high-German. E. g. val (Fall) valles ; si>a?;i (Schwamm), — (§25, 1), and in many cases Tsere, was retained. Between it and the guttural, however, there was involuntarily uttered a hasty a {Pattach furtive), which was written under the guttural. This is found only in final syllables, and never under X, E. g. n^n ric^'ch, nibto sha-ld^'ch, n-in rtch, ?n re* fniaa ga- bho^'h, n^bton htsh-ltch, &c.* For the same reason the Swiss pronounces ich as i'^ch. and the Ara bian n^llJa mesi^h, though neither writes the supplied vowel. The Pattach furtive falls away when the word receives an accession at the end, e. g. nil, *'n>i"i, where the n is made the beginning of the new syllable. The LXX write s instead of Pattach furtive, as nb Nat. Hem. 1. The guttural sometimes exerts an influence on the following vowel. But the examples of this usage are few, and are rather to be regarded as exceptions than as establishing a general rule, e. g.'^S'l foi "isS ; bSQ for bSE, The A sound is preferred wherever it would be admissible without the influence of the guttural, as in the Imp. and Impf. of verbs, e.g. p^f, P'^AI- If however, another vowel serves at all to characterize the form, it is retained, as nn^'^, bn^T not bfi*^. 2. Seghol is used instead of Pattach both before and under the gut- tural, but only in an initial syllable, as ^3)1);, ''ban. Without the guttural these forms would have Chireq in place of Seghol. When the syllable is sharpened by Daghesh, the more slender and sharp Chireq is retained even under gutturals, as b|fi , njfi , n::n ; but when the character of the syllable is changed by the falling away r*" Daghesh, the Seghol. which is required by the guttural, returns, e. g. Tiian, const, state Ti"^^n ; 'ji"'-m, f^Tn. 3. Instead of simple (Sh%a vocal, the gutturals take a coni- jwsife Sh'va (§ 10, 2), e. g. bDjJN, ^m ; ^p?T, ^p5>T^ This is the most common use of the composite Sh^vas. 4. When a guttural stands at the end of a (closed) syllable, in the midst of a word, and has under it the syllable-divider {silent Sh^va, § 10, 3), then the division of syllables often takes place as usual, especially when that syllable has the tone, e. g. rinbliJ {thou hast sent). But when the syllable stands before the tone, there is usually a softening of the sound by giving* to the guttural a slight vowel (one of the composite /Sh''vas), which has the same sound as the full vowel preceding, as iton|;| (also Ston;;'), ^f^TCri'^. (also TV^I), ptT}!^ (also pit}';!) ; this composite Sh^va is * The accent is on the proper final vowel, and Pattach furtive is sounded like a in real, denial. — Tb. §23. FEEBLENESS OF !!< AND n. 49 changed into the short vowel with which it is compounded, whenever the following consonant loses its full vowel in conse- quence of an increase at the end of the word, e. g. ^pTn^;; , ^IDI?^ yd-6bh^-dhu (from "iny";), ^DBn^. ya-hu-ph^-khu (from ^brjj;). Rem. 1. Simple Sh'va under the gutturals, the grammarians call hard (U55'n), and the composite Sh'vas in the same situation soft (ns"i). See observations on verbs with gutturals (§§ 62-65). 2. Respecting the choice between the three composite Sh^vas it may be remarked, that a) ii, n, S>, at the beginning of words prefer (-:), but X (•.•:), e. g. 5""in, lian , "lias . But when a word receives an accession at the end, oi loses the tone, N also takes (-.-), as ^bx to, C3''^i!< to you; bbs to eat, but -b3N Gen. iii. 11. Comp. § 27, Rem. 5. ' 6) In the middle of a word, the choice of a composite Sh^va is regulated by the vowel (and its class) which another word of the same form, hut without a guttural, would take before the Sh^va ; as Perf. Hiph. *^'''?^r! (according to the form b">M]5l-i), Inf. T^asn (conformed to bittpti), Perf. Hoph. "iJiSn (conformed to bcpn). For some further vowel-changes in connection with gutturals, see § 27, Rem. 2. 5. The "1, which the Hebrew uttered also as a guttural (§6, 2, 1), shares with the other gutturals only the characteristics mentioned above in No. 1, and a part of those given in No. 2 ; viz. a) the exclusion of Daghesh forte ; in which case the vowel be- fore it is always lengthened, as tfi^ for 1\'^'2, TfiS for 'FJ'^ia ; b) the use of Pattach before it in preference to the other short vowels, though this is not so general as in the case of the other guttural sounds, e.g. ii^i^jT and he smo from nX"i;i ; np^l for 10^'] and he turned hack, and for "ip^T and he caused to turn back. Unfrequent exceptions to the principle given under letter a are ITniD mor-ra, Prov. xiv. 10 ; T('?^ shor-rekh, Ezek. xvi. 4, where "i is doubled j in Arabic also it admits of doubling, and the LXX write n^U 2uQQa. In a few other cases, there is neither the doubling of the Resh nor the lengthening of the vowel ; as tin"!?? (for r]'T^^) 2 Sam. xviii. 16. §23. OF THE FEEBLENESS OF THE BREATHINGS « AND fl. 1. The X, a light and scarcely audible breathing in the throat, regularly loses its feeble power as a consonant (it quies- ces), whenever it stands without a vowel at the end of a syllable. 4 50 PART I. ELEMENTS. It then serves merely to prolong the preceding vowel (like the German h in sah)^ as ^Tfll he has found ^ J^^IS he has filled, i^'^H she, S'2i^ to find, SS^n he; n^5|^, HDS^^n. This takes place after all vowels ; but in this situation short vowels with few exceptions become long, as SS'a for ^V^, ^'^'Q'^. for i^?''?'!'. 2. On the contrary, 55 generally retains its power as a conso- nant and guttural, in all cases Avhere it begins a word or syllable, as Tax he has said, lOi?''? they have rejected, bb^b for to eat. Yet even in this position it sometimes loses its consonant-sound, when it folloAvs a short vowel or a half-vowel [vocal Sh%a) in the mid- dle of a word : for then the vowel under ^ is either shifted back so as to be united with the vowel before it into a long sound, as nbsb for 1^555?, b?N^^ for bsx;;, also bsi?'' [a obscured too) for bsii'^ : or it wholly absorbs it, as in DS^^ for QX'lS Neh. vi. 8, DiSph {chotmi) for D'^Xph [sinning) 1 Sam. xiv. 33, D'i'f]^''? [two hundreds) for Q^ns^^, D^TSSsn [heads) for D''T^K'-|.* Sometimes there is a still greater change in the word, as bsi^'a'O';' for b&52?'D'iai, HDSb'a [business) for HDSjb'a. Sometimes also the vowel before X remains short when it is a, e. g. "'j^iil for '^?'lfi?|l, '^'t^^ for ''sniiib, n^^njpb for nxn;?b. Instead of the i? thus quiescing in Cholem, Tsere, and Chi- req, we often find written, according to the nature of the sound, one of the vowel letters 1 and "', e. g. "iSs for 1i?S [cistern), D""! [buffalo) for QS?"!, ]'W^') [the first) for )^m'^ Job viii. 8, comp. ib for iib [7iot) 1 Sam. ii. 16 K'tltibh ; at the end of a word fl also is written for fi?, as nb^^ [he fills) for xb)2^ Job viii. 21. 3. Such a quiescent N sometimes falls altogether away, e. g. ■in^^ [I went forth) for Ti<^^ ^^^"^ [I am full). Job xxxii. 18, for "^nsbTa, n'ai? [I saij) constantly for TaSX, niirnb [to lay waste) 2 Kings xix. 25, for nisffinb Is. xxxvii. 26, ^b^'for 1«bl2 Ezek. xxviii. 16. Rem. 1. In Aramtean the K becomea a vowel much more readily than in Hebrew ; but in Arabic, on tlie contrary, its power as a consonant is much firmer. According to Arabic orthography, i< serves also to indi- cate the lengthened A ; but in Hebrew the examples arc very rare, in which it is strictly a vowel-letter for the long A sound, as DN|? Hos. x. 14, for the usual Df? , llis'i Prov. x. 4, xiii. 23, for ^"i. Hebrew orthography generally omits, in this case, the prolonging letter (§ 8, 3). * Tlie feeble St being lost to the ear, the previous vowel is naturally prolonged {iS-'mOr, then le-niOr) ; and its vowel, when its own sound is lost, is heard with thft pi-evious vowelless consonant, first bo-th'dm, then bO-tham. — ^Tr. §23. FEEBLENESS OF N AND n. 51 2. In Syriac, X even at the beginning of words cannot be spoken with a half-vowel (vocal Sh^va), but always receives a full vowel, usually E, as e. g. the Chald. bax is in Syr. ekhal. So also in the Hebrew, instead of a composite Sh'va, it takes, at the beginning of many words, the cor- responding long vowel, as "liix girdle foT "litx, o^^nx tents for D'^^i^s?, nii-ix stalls for ni^nx . T \ tt: 3. We may call it an Arabism, or a mode of writing common in Arabic, when at tlie end of a word an X (without any sound) is added to a ^ (not being part of the root), as VA'^h'n for >i3bln {they went), Josh. x. 24, X13X {they were willing), Is. xxviii. 12. Similar are X^pj for "'pj pure, X^lb for ^b if, XIBX for I'SN , The case is different in X^in and Xin , see § 32, Rem. 6. 4. The il is stronger and firmer than i<, and scarcely ever loses its aspiration (or quiesces) in the middle of a word ;* also at the end it may remain a consonant, and then it takes Mappiq (§ 14, 1). Yet at times the consonant-somid of the <^ at the end of a word is given up, and H (without Mappiq, or with Raphe JH) then remains only as representative of the final vowel, e. g. fib (to her), Nam. xxxii. 42, for tlb • Job xxxi. 22 ; Ex. ix. 18. At the beginning of a syllable H is often not heard, and is omitted in writing, as "ij^sb [in the morning) for "^psrib, f"iSJ3 [in the land) for f"ixr;2, "jrijin^ contracted 'jn^i''. In these cases of con- traction, the half- vowel * (— ) before H, is absorbed by the full vowel under it. In other cases, however, the vowel under H is displaced by the one before it, as D3 {in them), from Dri3 ; or both are blended into a diphthong, as io^D (also Hb^D) from ^HD^O, iVjp from ^nbtafp [ahu, a-u, 6). Accordingly, the so-called quiescent ii at the end of a word stands, sometimes, in the place of the consonant tn. But usually it serves quite another purpose, namely, as an orthographic expression, in the consonant text, of final a, as also o, e, and a (Seghol), e. g. nt^N, nbs, riba, iiba, nba-:, § 7, 2 and § 8, 3. Bern. In connection with o and e it is occasionally changed for 1 and "^ (iX'i = nx'i , "130 = nsn Hos. vi. 9), and in all cases for X according to later and Aramtean orthography, particularly in connection with a, e> g- !>*;'r? (s^eep), Ps. cxxvii, 2, for njd, k^: {to forget), Jer. xxiii. 39, for nitJS, &c. *A very fe-w examples are found in proper names, as bxtltoS, ^^l£ri1Q, which are compounded of two woi-ds, and in many MSS. are also written in two separate words. One other case, n^S'.IS';' Jer. xlvi. 20, is also in tlie printed text divided by Maqqeph, in order to bring the quiescent fl at the end of a word. 52 PART L ELEMENT §24. CHANGES OF TIIE FEEBLE LETTERS ^ AND V The 1 {2v) and the "^ (y) are as consonants so feeble and soft, approaching nearly to the corresponding vowel-sounds u and i, that they easily flow into these vowels in certain conditions. On this depend, according to the relations of sounds and the charac- ter of the grammatical forms, still further changes which require a general notice in this place, but which will also be explained in detail wherever they occur in the inflections of words. This is especially important for the form and inflection of the feeble stems, in which a radical 1 or ^ occurs (§ 69, (fcc. § 85, III-VI). 1. The cases where 1 and "^ lose their power as consonantP and flow into vowel-sounds, occur only in the middle and at the end of words, their consonant-sound being always heard at the beginning.* These cases are chiefly the following : a) when 1 or '^ stands at the end of a syllable, immediately after a vowel. The feeble letter has not strength enough, in this position, to maintain its consonant-sound. Thus ItDin for nWin or rnsin ; f )5i'' for Y'P'!^ ; mT\^^ for n'l^n^'a ; so also at the end of the word, e. g. ^bX'ito'^ yisi'deli (propeily, -liy, hence fern, -liyya), W^ {made, Job xli. 25), for ^iW (comp. niW5> 1 Sam. XXV. 18, K^thibh). After homogeneous vowels, par- ticularly pure u and i, 1 and *^ constantly quiesce in these cases. But after a heterogeneous vowel they sound as conso- nants (according to h 8, 5), as ibiD quiet, IT May month, "'in nation, "^^ba disclosed. But with short a, 1 and "i mostly form a diphthongal d and e (see below. No. 2, h) ; b) after a vocal Sh^va, when such syllables would be formed as (fvom, ¥vo. Hence Xi3 for ^^'^3, D^p for Dip. So, especially, when they stand at the end of a word and are preceded by a ShVa ; as ^n;' for ^n;' (from n^n^), ^IS/rniY for ""ns ; c) when the feeble letter has a full vowel both before and after it; as Dip for Dilp, Dip for Dllp. Comp. mihi contr. mi, quum contr. cum,. In Syriac, where these letters flow still more readily into vowel- eounds, i is sounded, even at the beginning of words, merely as r, not as "^ or "^ (as for i<, e) ; and so in the LXX rTilIT;! is written ^Iov8d, P^^"!, laaux. Hence may be explained the Syriac usage, examples of which * Except «l for n, and, § 2G, 1, and § 104, 2, b. § 25: UNCHANGEABLE VOWELS. 63 occur also in Hebrew, which transfers the vowel ?, belonging to the feeble letter, to the preceding consonant, which should properly have simple ShVa, e. g. linnis for liin-^S Eccles. ii. 13, ^hn-^) (in some editions) for si^n'^'l Job xxix. 21. 2. When such a contraction has taken place, the vowel-lettei quiesces regularly in a long vowel. Respecting the choice of this vowel, the following rules may be laid down : a) when the vowel, which an analogous form without the feeble letter would take, is homogeneous with the vowel-letter, it is retained and lengthened, as yo^"; for ^12";'^ (analogous form bt:)p^) ; niiJ^.n {hahitare f actus est) for 312Jin' ; 6) when a short a stands before "^ and 1, it forms with them a diphthongal e and 6 (according to § 7, 1) ; thus l'^t2?«r becomes c) but when the vowel-sign is heterogeneous, and at the same time is an essential characteristic of the form, it ccjitrols the feeble letter, and changes it into one which is homogeneous with itself. Thus 'ttJ'1'1'' becomes ^T'^ ; Qlj? becomes Djp qdm ; "bl and ^bi» become nb5 and nbilj.t -T -T TT* TT An original "^-^ at the end of words becomes : a) ii— (for "i— is never written at the end of a word), when tlie impure sound a is to be used; e. g. Th^'i for 'hT- (§ 75, 1); i^'^^'^form, for "^^y^'i '^'i^ field (poet.), common form fTib ; J 6) n— , when the A sound prevails, as being characteristic of the form ; as n^a, nh, nsa for -^bs, -'\t;, ^h. §25. UNCHANGEABLE VOWELS. What vowels in Hebrew are firm and unchangeable, can be known, with certainty and in all cases, only from the nature of the grammatical forms and from a comparison with the Arabic, where the system appears in a purer and more original form * Instances in which no contraction takes place after a short a are D'^Si^i^ 1 Chron. xii. 2 ; B'l'^O'l'X Hos. vii. 12 ; "'Fl'lVa Job iii. 26. Sometimes both forms are found, as HblS and flbiS evil; in (KOTwgr), construct state "^n. Analogous is the contraction of T^IZ death, constr. niB, y^b eye, constr. "jiS. f In Arabic is often written, etymologically, i^a , but spoken gala. So the LXX -write "'S'^p , 2iva. But for ibtJ is written in Arabic Nb\». X When an addition is made to the ending ri-^, it is written i-:;; and some- times the original i— reappears (§ 93, 9, Rem.). 64 PART I. ELEMENTS. than in Hebrew. This holds, especially, of the essentially lo7ig vowels in distinction from those Avhich are long only rhythmi- cally, i. e. through the influence of the tone and of syllabication, and which having arisen out of short vowels readily becom e sho rt again by a change in the position of the tone and in the division of the syllables. The beginner may be guided by the following specifications : 1. The essentially long and therefore unchangeable vowels of the second and third class, namely, z, u, e, d, are regularly expressed among the consonants [or in the line] by their vowel- I letters, i and e by "i, m and 6 by 1, with their appropriate vowel- signs, thus "i— , "i— , ^, i, as in H'^TJ?''? anointed. ^D"*?! palace, b'lSil a hound, ^ip voice. The defective mode of writing these '■ owels (§8, 4) is indeed pretty frequent, e. g. tlT^'a for n'^TT'O, Dibp voices for nibip, baa for biaa ; but the difference is merely one of ortho- ^raphy^ not affecting the nature of the vowel, which still retains its character as essentially long. Comp. § 8, 4. Occasionally, a merely tone-long vowel of these two classes is writ- ten fully, but only as an exception ; e.*g. the 6 in i'i^P'^, for ^bp*]. 2. The unchangeable a has in Hebrew^, as a rule, no repre- sentative in the consonant-text, though in Arabic it has, namel}'' the S, which occurs here but very seldom (§ 9, 1, § 23, 3, Rem. 1). For ascertaining this case, therefore, there is no guide but a knowledge of the forms ; see § 84, Nos. 6, 13, 28. Such cases as i<^^o (§23, 1) do not belong here. 3. Unchangeable is also a short vowel in a sharpened sylla- ble, followed by Daghesh forte, e. g. 325 thief ; likewise in every closed syllable, when another of the same kind follows, e. g. ID^Sb'a garment, 'ji"'^S5 j^oor, '^S'l'Q loilderness. 4. So are also the vowels after which a Daghesh forte has been omitted on account of a guttural, according to § 22, 1 {for- ma dagessanda), e. g. bj)5"i'nn for b!S"'^';)ri mountains of God ; ?Jliil for Tf^a he has bee7i blessed* * A convenient division is: 1) vowels unchangeable by nature (Nos. 1, 2, 4); 2) vowels unchangeable by position (No. 3). In the first class, the vowels of No. 1 and 2, being representatives of original and essential elements of the word, are unchangeable ; as for a like reason are those in No. 4, the omission of a letter being indicated by the consequent lengthening of a vowel in the open syllable. In the second class (No. 3), the position requires a vowel, and it is already short — Tu. §26. SYLLABLES. . 5fi §26. OF SYLLABLES, AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE QUANTITY' OF VOWELS. A survey of the laws whicli regulate the choice of a long or a short vowel and the exchange of one for the -other, requires a previous knowledge of the theory of the syllable, on which those laws are founded. The syllable must be viewed with reference to its initial sound (No. 1) ; and also to its close, or ^nial sound (Nos. 2-7), which is the more important of the two. 1. With regard to the commencement of the syllable it is to be observed, that every syllable must begin with a consonant ; and there are no syllables in the language which begin with a vowel. The single exception is ■=! {and), in certain cases for 1, e. g. in tJ^'Q'^,.* The word "TaX is no exception, because the i? has here the force of a light breathing. 2. With regard to the close of the syllable, it may end : a) with a vowel, and is then called an oj^en or si?nj)le syllable, e. g. in si^P)? the first and last are open. See No. 3. 6) with a half-vowel or vocal Sli^va, as j^^ in "i"!?? j)^-ri (frtiit), ch"- in ''Sn chUsl {half), t" in ^btp)^ qa-f-lu. Such we call half -syllables, or j^i'^fv-syllables. See No. 4. c) with one consonant : a closed or ??iixed syllable, as the second in b^, nnb. See No. 5. Here belongs also the sharj)ened syllable, as the first in bDp qat-tel. See No. 6. d) with two consonants, as p"ttJp, Pibt2p (§ 10, 3). We shall now (in Nos. 3-7) treat in particular of the vowels that are used in these various kinds of syllables. 3. The open or simple syllables have, as a rule, a loiig- voweljt whether they have the tone, as ?ja in thee, ISO book, * See § 104, 2, b. The word wmiilekh, in pronunciation, readily becomes umdlekh, as the sound oo precedes the formation of the feeble consonant w. Comp. Note *, p. 22.— Tr. f This is cei'tainly a fundamental law in Hebrew, as its pronunciation is now indicated by the vowebsigus, but not a matter of absolute necessity, for other languages very often have short vowels in open syllables, as iyivsTO, Arab, qa- tiila. At an earlier period the Hebrew, like the Arabic, most probably liad short vowels in those open syllables in which the vowel was not essentially long ; and the present pronunciation is derived in part from the solemn, slow, and chanting way of reading the Old Testament in the synagogues. 56 PART I. ELEMENTS. ttJlp sanctuary, or not, as b'JjP, nnb /imr/, ^S'l;;' ^Aey will fear. Usually tlieie is a long vowel ( Qamets, less frequently Tsere) in an open syllable before the tone (pretonic vowel), e. g. Dln^, D^p;', bt:jp, nnb.* Short vowels in o/;e« syllables occur only in the following cases : a) In dissyllabic words formed by means of a helping-vowel (§ 28, 4) from monosyllables (6'eg-Ao/aZes), as Ty^fo. "i3.'D youth, n'^3 house, ZTp^, from T)^^. 153, n';'2, a^V The reason is that the final helping-vowel is very short, and the word sounds almost as one syllable. Yet the first vowel is also lengthened, as in ap^ another form for 3p^ (§ 75, Rem. 3, h). b) In certain forms of the suffixes, as "^^^^P, ^7:5? (f''om "H-?'?)- c) Before the so-called He local, which has not the tone (§ 90. 2), e. g. nba^S towards Caj-mel, l^'^%^'0 to\cards the "mlderness. In all these cases the short vowel is supported by the chief tone of the word. Elsewhere it has at least the support of Methegh, viz. d) In these connections — — , — — , — — , as i'o'J'^ his taste, "ibx,';j he rcill bind, i^SQ his deed, ^p'^^'^ and thy ornament. e) In forms like ^ptn-; ye-chi-z^qii {they are strong), t^,S^ pv-ofkha {thy deed) ; also in C'r'y'jj sho-ra-shhn {roots), comp. page 32, and § 28, 3. The first syllable in n"''n!nfi, '.iJinfi, and similar forms, does not belong here, but to No. 6, below. 4. There is also a slighter sort of open syllables, consisting of one consonant and a half-vowel (or vocal iSh^va, § 10, 1, 2). They may be called half syllables, or prefix-syllables, as being so slight and unsubstantial that they always attach themselves to the following stronger syllable ; e. g. "^nb {cheek) r-chi, ^'Tobl' yil-m''-dhd, ''bn {sickness) ch^-li, ib^S po-"-lo. Modern grammarians do not regard these as actual syllables, but always reckon them as part of that which immediately follows. The half-vowel is certainly not such as to serve for the final sound of a full syllable ; and according to the pronunciation handed down to us. this syllable with Sh^va is obviously of a different kind from the open syllable with a full vowel (No. 3). But that half-vowel is in general a shorten- ing of an original full vowel, which is commonly still retained in Arabic; and the Jewish grammarians, from whom came the vowels and accents, * For this, the Arabic lias always a short vowel. The Chaldee has only vocal Sh'va, "jin^ to them, Olp"^ , blJp. DSb ; into which, in Hebrew also, this vowel passes over so soon as the tone is thrown forward (§ 27, 3, a). Not that this pretonic vowel was adopted (perhaps in place of a Sh"va) on account of the accen- tuation of the following syllable. It is the original vowel of the syllable, retained on account of its position immediately before the tone, on the removal of which it is reduced to a vocal Sh*va. §26. SYLLABLES. 57 have assigned to the union of a consonant with a half-vowel the value of a syllable, as appears especially from the use o? Methegh (see § 16 2,6). 5. The closed syllables, ending with one consonant, have necessarily, when without the tone, sho^t vowels, both at the beginning" and at the end of words,* as •HSb'O queen, "jiSTlJn under- standing, n'opn wisdom; ID^T and he turned hack, D)5^T and he set up, D|P^!] and he stood uj). When with the tone, they may have a long vowel as well as short, e. g. DDn he ivas wise, D3I7 rvise ; yet of the short vowels only Pattach and Seghol have strength enough to stand in such a syllable having the tone.t Examples of long vowels, in the final syllable, are ll'l, bDp, bbp';' ; in the last but one, flDblSj?, niVup. Examples of short vowels, bu]?, QriN, DDtJ ; in the penul- tima, r.'p^)?, 'I3b'tpp\ 6. A peculiar sort of closed syllables are the sharpened, i. e. those which end with the same consonant with which the follow- ing syllable begins, as "^^5!! im-mi, 'b^ kul-li. Like the other closed syllables, these have, when ivithout the tone, short vowels, as in the examples just given ; when with the tone, either short, as ^ao, ^23 n, or long, as niaffi, nrin. Sharpened syllables are wholly avoided at the end of words, see § 20, 3, letter a. 7. Closed syllables, ending with two consonants, occur only at the end of words, and have most naturally short vowels, as ribt3)5, ^t^^, yet also Tsere and Cholem, as 'in?, ^n^l , "JTSp. But compare § 10, 3. Most commonly this harshness is avoided by the use of a helping-vowel (j 28, 4). Rem. In the division into syllables, accordingly, a simple Sh^va after a short vowel belongs to the foregoing syllable and is quiescent, as i^^'ia mir-ma ; but after a long vowel, to the following, and is vocal (§ 10, 1), as i^^kJlp qo-t^-la, C^hhiji ho-lHim. The composite Sh^va belongs always to the following syllable, as ibsb po-Ho, even after a short vowel, aa * There are some exceptions, when a word loses the tone through ilaqqeph, aa n'nn-sns {k'thabh), Esth. iv. 8. f See § 9, 2. Short Chireq {%) occurs only in the particles DJt and WS . which, however, are mostly toneless because followed by Maqqeph. 58 PART L ELEJSIENTS §27. CHANGES OF VOWELS, ESPECIALLY IN RESPECT TO THEIE QUANTITY. As to the changes which the vowels undergo by the inflection of words, we may lay down ihese, fundamental prmcij)les : a) that they generally occur only in the last syllable and the last but one, very seldom in the antepenultima, e. g. "I3'l, w; linsT, ^iiDT ; Tjn, li^n ; ^ b) that they are usually made within the limits of one and the same vowel-class (§ 8). Thus a may be shortened into d and a, e into l and S, 6 into 6 and u ; and with the same limita- tion the short vowels may become long. But such a change as a into u never takes place. The most material exception is the approximation of the first class to the second, when Pattach is attenuated to Chireq or blunted to Seghol; see below, Rem. 2 and 3. So also in the origin of obtuse Seghol out of vowels belonging to all three classes, see Rem. 4. The vowels with the changes of which we are here chiefly concerned, are the whole of the short ones and as many of the long as owe their length simply to the tone and rhythm, viz. : Long vowels (sustained by the tone). Corresponding short vowels. — a —a — I — 6 {Qamets-chatuph) — w To these add the half-vowels or Sh^vas — , _, _, _, as extreme shortenings. Let the student compare here again what was said in § 9 on the character and value of the several vowels, and in § 25 on the unchange- able vowels. According to the principles laid down in § 26, the following changes occur : 1. A tone-long vowel is changed into a kindred short one, when a closed syllable loses the tone (§ 26, 5). Thus when the tone is moved forwards, 1^ liand becomes 1|^, as nin^i"*!^ hand- of- Jehovah ; )^. son, D'lSn"]^ son-of-man ; bb whole, D J'r}~b3 the § 27. CHANGES OF VOWELS. 59 whole-of-the-j)eople ; also when the tone is moved backwards, e. g. Dj?^, Dj?f|1 ; ^S!?, ?J^^1. Farther, when an open syllable with a long" vowel becomes by inflection a closed one, e. g". ISO 6ooA', "^"IBD my hook ; '(D'if sanctuary, '^tC'ljP my sanctuary. In these cases, Tsere (e) passes over into tSeghol (e) or Chireq (?), Cholem (o) into Qamets-chatujjh {6). But when a closed sylla- ble with a long vowel becomes a sharpened one, i. e. ending with a doubled consonant, Tsere is attenuated into Chireq, and C^o>- /em into Qibbuts ; as DX mother, ^l^i^ my mother, pn statute, plur. D''j?n. The short vowels i and m are more pure, and hence are accounted shorter than e and 6. 2. On the contrary, a short vowel is changed into a corres- ponding long one — a) when a closed syllable, in which it stands, becomes an open one, i. e. when the word receives an accession, beginning with a vowel, to which the final consonant of the closed syllable is attached, as bDjp, ibJDp he has killed him, ; 3.T}, plur. ^3[n give ye ; '^t^'O'^L, directly from riD^D ; b) when a syllable, which should be sharpened by Daghesh forte, has a guttural for its final consonant (see § 22. 1), or stands at the end of a word (see § 20, 3, a) ; * c) when it meets with a feeble letter (§ 23, 1, 2 ; § 24, 2) ; as S32'D for NS'a he has found ; d) when the syllable is in paiise, i. e. is the tone-syllable of the last word in the clause (§ 29, 4). 3. When a word increases at the end, and the tone is at the same time shifted forward, all vowels (long and short) may, according to the effect on the division of the syllables, either pass over into a half-vowel {vocal Sh^va), or Avholly fall away, and give place to the mere syllable-divider {silent Sh^va), An exam- ple of the former is DtJ {name), '^'5310 {my name) ; p/?/?'. T&Qt: {names), DJniiaTlJ {their names) : of the latter, HD'ia {blessing), constr. nsnS . Whether the full vowel remains, or becomes a half-vowel {Wn, i^a'i ; Dttj, ''^tJ), and which of the two vowels in two successive syllables disappears, depends on the nature of the word. In general it may be said, that in the inflection of nouns, the first vowel is usually shortened, while the second, if immedi- ately before the tone (pretonic vowel), remains ; as 1p^, pre- ■60 PART I. ELEMENTS. cious, fern. •T^^'? y^qd-ra : but in verbs, the second is commonly shortened, as 1]?^ was precious, fern. '*T}'P1 ya-cfrd. Thus a half- vowel comes in place of — a) Q,amets and Tsere in the first syllable (principally in the inflection of nouns), as '^2'^ loord, plu7\ U'^'^y^ ; bina great, fern. n5il^ ; 32b heart, ''Iilb my heart ; HITDri she will return, nrn'iTiJn* they (fem.) icill return ; h) the short or merely tone-long vowels, a, e, o, in the last sylla- ble, especially in the inflection of verbs, e. g. b'^'^,fet}i. nbp]? qatHa; bpip, p/^r. D-'b-jp qotTim ; bbp;^, ^blpp:! yiqflii. The helping-vowel, JSeghol, wholly falls away (becomes silent ShVa), e. g. ^blQ (for tfb^), ^3b^. If there is no shifting of the tone, the vowel remains notwithstanding the lengthening of the word, as muJ;', ^n^TT^ ; b^ns, nb^ns. Where the tone is advanced two places, both the vowels of a dissyllabic word may be so much shortened, that the first be- comes t and the second a Sh®va. From "13", a ivord, we have m the jilur. D^'?^^ ; and with a grave suffix this becomes DH'^'IS'l their words (comp. § 28, 1). On the shortening of u into i, see especially in Rem. 3, below. Some other vowel changes, mostly with respect to quantity, are exhibited in the following remarks : Rem. 1. The diphthongal 1 6 (from aii), as also the 6 sprung from the firm il (§ 9, 10, 2), is longer than ^i ii; and hence, when the tone is moved forward, the former is often shortened into the latter. E.g. CipJ, m"a^p3 (see Paradigm 3/, Niph.); G13^ fight, fem. iiO'lia, with stiff . tp!!:^ ; pina sweet, fem. nj^wa. Tlie ^ stands sometimes even in a sharpened syllable, nssin Ps. cii. 5, "'istn Ez. xx. 18, l^!)-^ Jiulg. xviii. 29. About the same relation exists between ''-^ e and ''— i (see § 75, 2). On the contrary ^ m is shortened into 6, which appears in the tone- syllable as a tone-long o {Cholem). but on the removal of the tone becomes again o (Qamets-chadiph). as B>!p^ (he will rise), Dp^ (jussive: let him rise), Dp^l (a7id he rose iij)), see Parad. Af, Kal. So also from ■1— comes the (less lengthened) tone-long Tsere (e), and without th« support of the tone, Seghol (e). as c^p^ (/le iinll set up), op^ (/e/ him set up) Dp^l! (a?jcZ he set up), see Parad. M, Hiphil. 2. Prom a Pattach («) in a closed syllable there arises a Seghol (e), through a farther shortening, or rather weakening and blunting, of the sound. This happens, * The vowel, which here passes into a half- vowel (vocal Sh'va) when the tone is thrown forward, is the so-called pretonic vowel in an open syllable ; see § 9, 1, 2, and § 26, 3. § 28. RISE OF NEW VOWELS AND SYLLABLES. 61 a) Sometimes when the tone hastens on to the following syllable, as 0?.1!! your hand for D^.l!^, "it^^^X (prop, n.) for "iri^2X ; especially when a syllable loses something of its sharpness by the omission of Daghesh forte, as '^j^aN Ex. xxxiii. 3 for '^PJA I destroy thee, h: the Seghol is used only where a greater shortening is required on account of the distance of the tone ; hence t3'1^^^l^ for D'^inri the mountains, hx:.*. "inn the mountain; '|isrt the misdeed, but ci'n the people. Before S and "i, where a short sharpened vowel cannot so easily stand (§ 22. 1), Qamets always remains, as niaxfi the fathers, ?''p■^'^ the firmament. Comp. further, on the interrogative ri (n , rt) § 100, 4. c) In syllables properly ending with two consonants, e. g. a^3 (also in Arabic pronounced kiilb) from which comes first sbs, and then with a helping Seghol (§ 28, 4) 3^3 dog ; l?3i^ (jussive in Hiphil from <^^5), then h^, and finally ba^* " •' 3. In a closed (and sharpened) syllable, which loses the tone, a is at times attenuated into i, e. g. Q?53'7 your blood for B5^';i , i'n^ /j/s measure for i'n^ ; '^ri'l?'; / have begotten, ?]''ni^'? / Aai-e begotten thee.] Comp. above, oni-ia^. 4. The Seghol arises, besides the cases given above in Rem. 2, also a) From the weakening of « ( Qamets) at the end of a word (comp. Roma, French Borne; Arab. nS'^bn read khalife), as nn and na w^a? ? § 37, 1, c ; see similar examples in Ps. xx. 4 ; Is. lix. 5 ; Zech. ix. 5. 6) Even from the weakening of u, as DRN (you) from the original attum (Arab, anlum), § 32, Rems. 5. 7 ; Crtb (io them) from the original lahum. Comp. page 24. 5. Among the halt-vowels, (-:) is shorter and lighter than (•.•:) and the group (— — ) than (-rTr), e. g. dSx Edom, "i^^N Edomite ; npx irw/^, iR^x his truth; nh^yhiddeJi, pbir.^'^'ah^i^ -, ''Finasiri ; ip'isni. §28. RISE OF NEW VOWELS AND SYLLABLES. 1. When a word begins with a half-syllable (§26, 4), i. e. with a consonant which has a half-vowel (vocal Sh^va), and there comes another half-syllable before it, then this latter re- ceives instead of the Sh*va an ordinary short vowel, which is * So the LXX also say MfAj^tfff^s'x for p'^S"' 'Sbn. f Analogous to this attenuating of H into ? is the Latin tango, attingo ; laxus, prolixus ; and to that of a into S (in Rem. 2) the Latin carpo, decerpo ; spargo, conspergo. 62 PART I. ELEMENTS. regularly i (Chireq), but with gutturals a (Pattach). E. g. bbS (to fall) n^phol, with the preposition 3 not bs?^ b^n^'phol, but bsDS hin'plwl ; so also bblS kui'phol for b>SD3 ; ^nsb for ''"ifib ; n^^H^S (whence tTl^rr^a according to § 24, 1) for JTl^n^a ; 'Ci1l12T\ [niim paruvi est ?) hunfat for tiS^'an Jfin'^at. At times another division of syllables takes place, so that tlie second consonant gives up its half- vowel and forms a closed syllable wdth the first, as bS3b Un- vol Num. xiv. 3, "13T3 Jer. xvii. 2. A similar process occurs in the body ofa word, as ''5^'n rish^phe and iQiuT reshpe, "'lUSi* from Di^JX ; but here Jie initial vowel comes imme- diately from a full vowel, and is more like i in oni";;;':} (§ 27, 3). In Syriac, the usual vowel here is a (e). even in the absence of gut- turals ; in Chaldee it is the same as in Hebrew ; the Arabic has retained every where, in plac5 of vocal Sh^va, the usual short vowel. 2. When the second of the two consonants is a guttural with composite Sh^va, then the first takes, instead of simple ShVa, the short vowel with which the other is compounded ; whence proceed the groups — — , ——^ — — , e. g. ^TiJi?!3 so as, 13?^ to serve, Isbsb to eat, ''bna ill sickness, for -n»i?3, ^il?b, bbiib, ^bn^. The new vowel in such cases has Methegh according to § 16, 2, a. 3. When the first Sh^va is composite and stands after an open syllable with a short vowel, then it is clianged into the short vowel with which it is compounded, e. g. ITQ^]^ yaam^dhii for "^TG^I they ivill stand, IDSn?. nehepJfkii for ^2£nD they have turned themselves, '^bS'E p66l''kha, thy ivork ( j 26, 3, e). 4. At the end of Avords, syllables occur which close with two consonants (§ 10, 3, j 26, 7) ; yet this takes place only when the last of these is a consonant of strong sound, 13, p, or an aspirate with its hard sound {tentiis), namely, 3, "H, ■=}, r\,* e. g. t3ilJ|^ let him ttirti aside, p'CJ;)^ and he watered, ribt2j3 thoii (f.) hast killed, ?ja^1 a7id he wept, 'l"!.'' let hi?7i rule, ^V"^"] and he took captive. This harsh combination of letters is, however, avoided in gene- ral by supplying between the tw^o consonants a helping-vowel, which is mostly Segliol, but Pattach under gutturals,! and Chi- * An instance of A and C) (which should likewise have Daghesh) scarcely occui'3. Alone stands 6]0in (shortened from CjOin) Prov. xxx. 6 ; in several MSS. 5) (with Daghesh). f With the exception, however, of St , as N^Q wild ass, NlU'n fresh grass. On account of the feeble sonnd of the K the helping-vowel may also bo omitted, as Xan sin, r^1l valley. § 29. THE TONE AND ITS CHANGES. 63 req after ^^ e. g. b^'^l for hy^^ ; mf for T»7j? ; ^5>5 for ^^3 ; rinSiB* for rinbi^ I n^3 for !n^a. These helping-vowels have not the tone, and they fall away whenever the word increases at the end. These helping-vowels have inappropriately been coWeA furtive, a term which should be restricted to the Pattach sounded before a final guttural, according to § 22, 2, b. 5. Full vowels arise from half-v»wels also, by the influence of the Pause ; see 9 29, 4, §29. OF THE TOJ^E ; CHANGES OF THE TOmi ; AND OF THE PAUSE. 1. The principal tone, indicated by the accent (§ 15, 2), rests on the final syllable of most words, e. g. ^tDj?, ^^'l ; i'n^'l, Qri^Pp (as these two examples show, even on additions to the root) ; less frequently on the penultima, as in ^^'KJ, ^^^^ nighty ^^^)?- Connected with the principal tone is Methegli^ a kind of secondary accent (§ 16, 2). Small words which are united by Maqqeph with the following one, are destitute of the tone (§16,1). It is not necessary here to single out the words accented on the penultima {voces penacnlce) ; for the sake, however, of calling attention to these words, they are generally marked in this book with —, as a sign of the tone. In Arabic the tone is more on the penultima, and even on the ante- penultima. The Syriac accents mostly the penultima; and the Hebrew is pronounced thus, contrary to the accents, by the German and Polish Jews, e. g. X^3 n'^Bx'na breshis boro. 2. The original tone of a word frequently shifts its place on account of changes in the word itself, or in its relation to other * In. this and the analogous examples (§ 65, 2) Baghesh lene remains in the final Tav, just as if no vowel preceded (§ 22, 2), in order to indicate that the helping Paltach has a very short sound, and at the same time to suggest PlH^UJ as the original form. (Accordingly ritlfsb thoio hast taken is distinguished also in pronunciation from Hflpb ad sumendum.) The false epithet furtive given to this helping-vowel, in connection with the notion that such a vowel must be sounded before the consonant, caused the decided mistake which long had its defenders, namely, that nnblU should be read shaldacht ; although such words aa '^'l^j '1? were always correctly sounded shdchath, ndchdl not naachl. Strictly analogous is 'nn'^ yX-had (Trom iTnO, § 75, Rem. 3, d). 64 PART I. ELKMENTS. words. If the word is increased at the end, the tone is thrown forward {descendit) one or two syllables according to the length of the addition, as nn"!, D^Sa^, DS'^nn^ ; TIJ'lp, Q''p'})5 ; nbt3]5, ^npblJp. For the consequent shortening of the vowels, see §27, 1,3:"^ In one case the tone is thrown forward in consequence of accession at the beginning of the word. See § 44, Rem. 5, 6. 3. On the contrary, the*original tone is shifted from the final syllable to the penultima (ascetidit), a) when the syllable (•']), § 49, 2, is prefixed, as ^^ih he ivill say, TOi?^] and he said ; 1^'^, he will go, 1\)p}^ and he icent ; Dp^ let him rise, Dp^l and he rose np ; b) when a monosyllabic word, or one with the tone on the penul- tima follows (in order to avoid the meeting of two tone-sylla- bles).* E. g. i2 i^^Hi Job iii. 3, for i3 ";5lX ; D?| Dbin Is. xli. 7, for n?S n5in ; Gen. i. 5, iii. 19, iv. 17 ; Job xxii. 28 ; Ps. xxi. 2 ; c) in Pause. See No. 4. The meeting of two tone-syllables {letter b) is avoided in another way, viz. by writing the words with Maqqeph between them, in which case the first wholly loses the tone, as Dtj"aFia^1 . The above method is adopted whenever the penultima is an open syllable with a long vowel. Compare § 47, Rem. 1, § 51, Rem. 3, § 52, Rem. 2. 4. Yery essential changes of the tone, and consequently of the vowels, are effected by the Pause. By this term is meant the strong accentuation of the tone-syllable of the word which closes a period or member of a period, and on which the tone of the whole rests. This syllable is marked with one of the great dis- tinctive accents, as V'?i$»7, Q'''^n' The changes are as follows : a) when the syllable has a short vowel, in pause it becomes long ; as bTJp, btDp ; U'J'a, U^^^ ; Pib'Jp, nb'jp ; y"i«, ynx, Jer. xxii. 29 ; "iTCp {conspiracy), "\tDp 2 K. xi. 14 ; h) when a final tone-syllable has a prefix half-syllable (as nbp|p, § 26, 4), the half-vowel of the latter gives place to a full vowel, which takes the tone, A more fitting cadence is thus pro- duced, than by the accentuation of the final syllable. E. g. nbpp, nb-Jp ; nijb^, nxbia ; ibup^', ^bbp^ The vowel select- * Even the prose of the Hebrews proceeds, aecording to the accentuation, in a kind of Iambic rhythm. That the authors of the system intended to secure this object is evident, particularly, from the application of Methegh. § 29. THE TONE AND ITS CHANGES. 65 ed is always that which had been shortened, in the same syl- lable, to vocal Sh®va.* Moreover, vocal Sh\-a in pause be- comes /Seghol, as "'nb, "^Tlb ; and a Chaieph gives place to the analogous long vowel, as '^SS?, ""SX ; "^bin, "hVj, ; c) this tendency to place the tone on the yenultima in pause^ shows itself moreover in several words which then regularly retract the tone, as ^six, ^pbsj ; nnx, nnij ; nn?, nr^ ; and in single cases, like ^bs Ps. xxxvii. 20, for ^bs, and also ^5?b Job vi. 3, for lyb from nVb. 7 IT T T The rule given under letter a respects principally Pattach and Seghol. Seghol is however strong enough to be retained in pause (tj^a , p'l'S) especially when the syllable is sharpened by Daghesh forte. as ^sf^pV Pattach is sometimes adopted in place of Seghol, as TJ^^], in pause "l^?!! ; Ir'.Jj''"^' ^" pause l^P|"^!i< Jud. xix. 20. Pattach even takes the place of Tsere in pause. E. g. 3^n for DtJrj Is. xlii. 22 ; ^5<3^ , in pause ^sai: Is. vii. 6. But more commonly, Tsere is retained ; and on the contrary, Pattach sometimes takes its place out of pause, as TiPl for T^R Lam. iii. 48. Some other changes, occasioned by the Pause, will be noticed as they occur, in the next division. * Such a Pause-syllable is sometimes strengthened by the doubling of the fol- lowing consonant ; § 20, 2, c. PART SECOND. OF FORMS AND INFLECTIONS, OR OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH, §30. OF THE STEM- WORDS AND EOOTS (BHITERALS, TRILITERALS, QUADRILITERALS). 1. The stem-words of the Hebrew and of the other Semitic languages have this peculiarity, that by far the most of them consist of three consonants, to which the essential meaning is attached, while its various modifications are expressed by changes in the vowels, e. g. D'lX he loas red, DIN red, D^li? man (prop. red one). Such a stem-word may be indifferently either a verb or a noun, and usually the language exhibits both together, as i^ViZ he has reigned, tfb'a king. But it is customary.and of prac- tical utility for the beginner, to consider the third j)erson si?ign- lar of the Perfect, i. e. one of the most simple forms of the veiii, as the stem-word, and the other forms of both the verb and the noun, together with most of the particles, as derived from it ; e. g. p"!! he was righteous, p*!^ righteousness, p'^^lS righteous, &c. Sometimes jiie_Jaiigiiag;e^as handed down to us, exhibits pnly the verbaf stem without a corresp'onding fOTm for the noun, as >pO to stone, pnp to bray ; and^^ficcasionally the noun is found without the cori-espondlng verb, e. g. SW south, ^tcri 7iine. Yet it must be supposed tharthe language, as spoken, often had the forms now wanting. Hem. 1. The Jewish grammarians call the stem-word, i. e. the third person singular of the Perfect, the root. 'O']^, for which the Latin term radix is often used; and hence the three consonants of the stem are called radical letters, in contradistinction from the servile letters.^ namely X, a, n, 1, "i, 3. b, a, 3, tIJ, n, which are added in the derivation and inflection of words. We however employ the term root in a different sense, as explained in No. 2. 2. Many etymologists give the name root to the three stem-conso- nants, viewed as vowelless and vinpronounceable. from which the stems § 30. STEM- WORDS AND ROOTS. 67 for both the verbs and the nouns are developed, as in the vegetable kingdom (from which the figurative expression is taken) the stems grow mt of the concealed root. Tlius for example — Root : "jba (to reign). , _^ Verb-stem : Ty^'O he has reigned. Noun-stem : '^h^)2 king. This supposition of an unpronounceable root is, however, an abstrac- tion too remote from the actual state of the language ; and it is better, at least for the liistorical mode of treatment, to consider the concrete verb [3 pers. sing. Perf ] as the stem-word. 3. These triliteral stems are generally of two syllables. But among them are reckoned also such as have for their middle letter a "l, which is uttered as a vowel (§ 24, 2, c), and thus reduces the form to one sylla- ble, e. g. B|5 for d;!|5 . 2. The use of three consonants in the stems of the verbs and nouns is so prevalent a law in the Semitic languages, that we must look upon it as a characteristic peculiarity of this family. Even such monosyllabic nouns as might be deemed originally mono- syllables {biliteral roots), since they express the first, simplest, and most common ideas, as ns father, Di? mother, ns brother, come under this law ; thus we have '^T2S my mother, as if deri- ved from D^X. But, on the other hand, stems with three conso- nants {triliteral roots) may be reduced to two consonants, which with a vowel uttered between form a sort of root-syllable, from which spring several triliteral stems with the same fundamental meaning. Such root-syllables are called primary or biliteral roots. They are very easily made out when the stem has a fee- ble consonant or the same consonant in the second and third place. Thus, the stems l^^'l, tf^^, XS^, ns^, have all the mean- ing to beat and to beat in pieces, and the two stronger letters 1* dakh constitute in each of them the monosyllabic root. The third stem-consonant also may be strong. To such a monosylla- bic root there often belongs a whole series of trihteral stems, which have two radical letters and the fundamental idea in common. Only a few examples can be presented here : — From the root yp , which imitates the sound of heioing, are derived immediately y^p^, nsps to cut off; then, z^^.p, 2)2;?, ^ri;?, with the kin- dred significations to shear, to mow, and metaph. to decide, to judge (hence y:ip, Kadi, a judge). Related to this is the syllable VSp , Op from which is derived DD]^ to cut into; Z'iip to sharpen; nvp to pare. With a lingual instead of the sibilant, up, 'ip ; hence sai? tV cut down. G8 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. to destroy ; ^tip; to ad doxcn, to kill ; liip? io ait off, to shorten ; til?)? to tear off, to pluck off ; Ti)^ to ail asunder, to split. A softer form of this radical syllable is D3 ; hence DD3 to act off] to shear off'; 033 Syr. to sacrifice, to slay for sacrifice. Still softer are tM and 15 ; hence fta to mow, to shear ; rtts to hew stones ; QTa, stj. btJ, "lU to hew off, to cut off] to eat off] to graze ; and so IIJ to cut, 5)15 to cut off' ; compare also nia, tiia. With the change of the palatal for the guttural sound, 3^H, aiin to hew stones and wood, I'Nn, nsn to split, divide, yn arrow {yxlQa)., 11H to sharpen, T'^tn arrow, lightning, also rtjn ^o see (Lat. cemere, Germ, scheiden), and many others. The syllable on expresses the humming sound made with the mouth closed {^voi) ; hence "i^fi, E>iJ (°!v??), Arab, dnan to hum, to buzz. To these add DHD io 6e dumb ; nm io become mute, to be astonished. The radical syllable 3J1, of which both letters have a tremulous sound, means to tremble, in the stem-words ll^i , b?"j , DSl , liJSl : then It is expressive of what causes tremulous motion or agitation, as thunder (DS>"i), the act 0^ shattering, o^ breaking in pieces (yj)"!, ysi). Compare further, on the radical syllable 135 with the idea o^elevation, curving upward {gibbous), and on IS to break, "Sb, nb, to lick, to sup, the articles 3^5, liQ, ?^^ in G'esej^izis' Hebrew Lexicon. From a further consideration of this subject we may draw the follow- ing observations : — a) These roots are merely deduced from stems in actual use, and are themselves not in use. They merely represent the hidden germs (semina^ of the stems which appear in the language. Yet the latter have, now and then, so short a form that they exhibit only the elements of the root itself, as Dtn perfectus fuit, bjD light. b) Most of these monosyllabic roots are imitations of natural sounds, and sometimes coincide with the roots of the Indo-Germanic stock. E. g. t^an [comp. Eng. /a;;], ivTiica {tvtio}). NEI ^wtttw (^wqpw), tjbs, xoluJiTb), a^b i.di&b), Xav&avw. c) The stems with hard, strong consonants are to be regarded, accord- ing to the general progress of language (§ 6, 4), as the oldest, while the feebler and softer consonants distinguish forms of a later period, which consequently are more frequently used for the derivative and metaphorical significations. E. g. nii^ and riba to be smooth, to be shorn, to be bald; and even nb5 to be bare. Sometimes, however, the harder or softer sound is essential to the imitative character of the word, as bba to roll (spoken of a ball, of the rolling of waves), but "iia rather of the rough sound made in the act of scraping = aalqa, avgco, verro; 3Sn to cut stones or wood, requires a stronger sound than It J to cut grass, to mow. d) It appears also that those consonants which resemble each other in strength or feebleness, are commonly associated in the formation of root-syllables, as yp, DD, T5, 15 (never ^'S, y:,, C35, tp) ; yS, TD ^seldom tS); Up, 15 (not W5). Scarcely ever are the first two radi- § 30. STEM- WORDS AND EOOTS. 69 cals the same (iT^^) or very similar (in!!*)- On the contrary the last, two are very often the same (§ 67).* e) The tendency to substitute smooth for harsh sounds (see letter c) is sometimes so great that I, n, ?-, especially when used as middle stem- letters, are even softened to vowels, as ^^'^, ttJW to tread down, to thresh; yk^, y^^ (comp. G3S), to press, and many others. Comp, salvare, French smiver ; caiidus, Ttal. caldo, in Naples caudo, French chaud ; falsus. falso. in Calabria fauzu, French faux ; and the pro- nunciation of the English words talk, walk. Comp. § 19, 5. Rem. f) Often, however, the three stem-letters must all be regarded as origi- nal, since all are necessary to make the sound of the word expressive of the sense, e. g. T|5ri. pJPl, p\v to be narrow, to afflict ; w//o), ango ; T|"iv ^(^ tread ; Cia , pgsfxco, fremo, to make a humming sound {to buzz, hence to spin), &c. A full development of this action of the living elements of the lan- guage, may be found in the later editions of Gesenius'^ Hebrew Lexicon. It is important that even the learner should be taught to regard the roots and their .significations, not as the arbitrary creation of a people secluded from all the rest of the ancient world, but as imitations of nature, and as intimately connected with the well-known treasures of other languages, spoken by nations more nearly related to ourselves. 3. To a secondary process, or later epoch of the language, belong stem-words of four and, in the case of nouns, even ofj^ye consonants. These are, however, comparatively far less frequent in Hebrew than in its sister dialects. t This lengthening of the form is effected in two ways : a) by adding a fourth stem-letter ; 6) by combining into one word two triliteral stems, so that then even quinquelitei'als are formed. Such lengthened forms as arise from the mere repetition of some of the three stem-letters, as b::i5, bt:bt2)5 ; nno, '2'O^'q, are not regarded as quadriliterals, but as variations in conjugation (§ 55). So likewise the few words which are formed by prefixing t , as rinnb tlj flame from nnb , Aram. conj. Shafel ^nblD. Rem. on a). Some forms are made by the insertion particularly of / and r between the first and second radicals ; as DD3 , CD"i3 to shear off, to eat off; E5"i2n\JJ = aad sceptre ; 5]St to glow ; rnssb? hot wind (the * Letters which are not found associated as radicals are called incompatible. They are chiefly such as too strongly resemble each other, as 5p , p5 , 5l2 23 . Some letters, however, have been falsely considered incompatible, as bl , wliich are sometimes associated, e. g. in hy^ and b'ln, from the harsher forms "na. I'in. Comp. yqumog, together with yguiSdi^r, oxtw, along with oydoog, and much that is analogous in Sanskrit. t Especially in yEthiopic, where these forms are very frequent. 70 PAET II. PARTS OF SPEECR first form with ^ frequent in Syr.). This mode of formation is analogoua with Piel, and in Aramaean the two forms exist together, as b^3J, b5"iS. In Latin there is a correspondent lengthening of the stem; as Jindo, scindo, tu7ido,jungo (in Sanscr. Class VII), i'romjid. scid (axiduw), tud, jug. Additions are also made at the end, principally of I and n; as l.'!"ia an axe, from the stem TnJi to cut; ^2i"i3 an oj chard, from 01.3; ^2>as Jlower-cup, from ?^35i cup ; from ann to tremble, ^a'lri to hop. The ter- mination -I has perhaps a diminutive force, as it has in many languages. Rem. on h). In the combination of triliterals, it generally happens that letters common to them both are written but once in the compound form, as ?'|]*1S:J a frog, perhaps prop, marsh-hopper, from "iSS to hop, and Arab. S^xin a marsh; "Ijxbu tranquil, from fib^ to be quiet, and "|5NUJ to be at rest ; or a feeble letter is cast away, as vl^os a bat, from bay dark and ti'S Jlying. Still bolder changes are sometimes made in the amalgamation of words, as ^'i'ab'B (6 SBiva) Dan. viii. 13 from It should be remarked that quadriliterals may be shortened again mto triliterals. E. g. from ba"in (Ao/j, see above), bsn with the same signification ; hence "^^5)1 a partridge (from its hopping, limping gait) ; n\and a chain for tTiilJnia', from "inid, "id")^. 4, To an earlier stage of the language, on the contrary, be- long the pronouns (§ 32 foil.), and some particles, especially inter- jections (§ 105, 1), which as an ancient and crude formation have not attained to the model of the triliteral stems, and follow pecu- liar and freer laws of inflection.* Most of the particles, however, are either derived from nouns or resemble them in inflection, although their form is often very much shortened on account of their enclitic nature, and their origin can no longer be known. (See § 99, &c.) §31. OF GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE. 1. The formation of the parts of speech from the roots, and their inflection, are eflfected in two ways : 1) by changes in the stem itself, particularly in its vowels ; 2) by the addition of for- mative syllables. A third method, viz. the use of several sepa- rate words in place of inflection (as in expressing the comparative * Comp. Hup/eld's System dor semiti?chen Dcmonstrativbiklung und der damit zusammenhangenden Prouominal- und Partikelnbildung, in the Zeitscbrift fiir die Kunde des Moi^enlandes, Bd. II., S. 124 ffi 427 ff. § 32. THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 71 degree and several relations of case), belongs rather to the syntax than to that part of grammar which treats of fortns. The second mode of forming words, namely, by agglutination, which is exemplified in the Egyptian, appears on the whole to be the more ancient of the two. Yet other languages, as the Semitic stock, had early recourse also to the first mode, namely, internal modification of the stem, and in the period of their youthful vigor this formative ten- dency was actively developed ; but in later periods its force continually diminished, and it became necessary to resort to the constructions of syntax. This is exemplified in the Greek (including the modern) and in the Latin with its corrupt branches, the Romanic languages. — The formation of words by agglutination is prevalent in ancient and modern Egyptian ; that by internal modification in Sanskrit and Greek ; the Chinese is almost entirely destitute of any grammatical structure, and supplies its place by the relations of syntax. 2. Both methods of formation and inflection are found in Hebrew. That which is effected by vowel-changes exhibits con- siderable variety (^t:]?, bp]^, bbj5, bDp, ^Dp). We have an exam- ple of the other method in bDptn?1, and of both in the same word in blDptiri. Inflection by the addition of formative syllables occurs, as in almost all languages, in the formation of the persons of the verb, where also the import of these annexed syllables is still, for the most part, perfectly clear (see §§ 44, 47) ; moreover it occurs in the distinction of gender and number in the verb and the noun. Of case-endings, on the contrary, there appear in Hebrew only imperfect remains (§ 90). CHAPTER I. OF THE PEONOUN. §32. OF THE PERSONAL OR SEPARATE PRONOUN". 1. The personal pronoun (as well as the pronouns generally) is among the oldest and simplest elements of the language (§ 30, 4). For this reason, and as forming the basis of verbal inflection (§§44, 47), it properly claims our first attention. 2. The pronouns in their separate and full forms, or as expressing the nominative, are the following : 72 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. /Singular. Plural I cowm.'^pbJ*, in pause ] '^T.i^ ; '^?S?:,m pause >•/. ( m. nns? ( ns ), in i 2 -< pause nri^ ^ thou. 3 comm. ^:n;N, Cijns), /. ni< (•'riix pr. "inx) ) m. «in /ie. /• ^^57 she. w. on, n^n ye. if/tey. The forms included in parentheses seldom occur. A com- plete view of these pronouns with their abbreviated forms [suf- fixes) is given at the end of the grammar in Parad. A. Remarks. I. First Person. 1. The form ""Dix is nearly as frequent in the Old Testament ae ''3X. The former exists in the Phoenician, but in no other of the kindred dia- lects ;* from the latter are formed the suffixes (§ 33). In the Talmud "'SSt is constantly used, and *i3bx very seldom. 2. The formation of the plural in this and the other persons, though analogous with that of verbs and nouns, exhibits (as also in the pronoun of other languages) much that is irregular and arbitrary. IsnSN is made from ■'33X (with the exchange of 3 for n) by the addition, as it seems, of ^3X . The form 13X . from which the suffixes are derived, occurs only in Jer. xlii. 6 (K^thibh). The form wnj is found only six times ; e. g. Gen. xlii. 11, Numb, xxxii. 32. (In the Talmud !i3>t alone appears.) 3. The first person alone is of the common gender^ because one that is present speaking needs not the distinction of gender as does the second person addressed (in Greek, Latin, and German the distinction is omitted here also), and the third person spoken of II. Second Person. 4. The forms nnx, Fix, drns, "jrix, are contracted from nnJX, &c. ; the kindred dialects yet have n before the n, Arab, anta f anti thou, plur. anhim f antimna ye. The essential syllable is iijn ta, to which the meaning thou belongs (see § 44, 1) ; the an prefixed is demonstra- tive, and gives more support to the form. PX without ti occurs only five times, e. g. Ps. vi. 4, and each time as K^thibh with the Q'ri SiPX. As the vowels of the text belong to the Q^ri (§ 17), the reading of the KHhibh may have been Fix as an abbreviation from nnx . * In Phcenician it is ■written "^SX , without the ending ''—7, and spoken some- what like anckh (Plauti Pcenulus, V. 2, 35., Gesenii Mon. Phcenicia, pp. 376, 43*7). A trace of this form ia found in the ^thiopic qatalku (/have killed). In ancient Egyptian ANK (pronounced anok). § 33. THE SUFFIX PRONOUK 73 The feminine form was originally pronounced '^flX (with the feminine designation ''-r, probably from X'^fi she, properly thou she, compare "^h^pU, § 47, 2), as in Syriac, Arabic, and ^thiopic. This form is still found in a few instances (Judg. xvii. 2, 1 Kings xiv. 2). Some forms in the inflection of the verb are derived from it (§ 44, Rem. 4, § 59, 1). The final "^—7 being gradually lost to the ear (in Syriac it was at length only written, not pronounced), its Yodh was omitted, so that the Jewish critics, even in the above-mentioned passages, place in the Q^ri FIS, whose Sh^va stands in the punctuation of the text (§ 17). The same final ■'— r appears, moreover, in the unfrequent forms of the suffix "^3-::. ''?1— (5 58). 5. The plurals CFiJt , "JPIX are blunted forms (comp. § 27, Rem. 4, b) of nsinx (Arab, antum, Chal. "I'lPX, a form which lies at the foundation of some verbal inflections, § 59, 1), and y\T\ii or 1'^ns, the full final vowel giving place to the obtuse sound of e, somewhat in the manner of the third person. "jFiit is found only once (Ezek. xxxiv, 31. where another reading is IPX); and «^2riN (for which MSS. have also i^SPiX (occurs only four times, viz. in Gen. xxxi. 6 ; Ez. xiii. 11, 20 ; xxxiv. 17. For the ending fi— see No. 7. III. Third Person. 6. The X indicates a kind of half-vowel heard at the end of wn and X'^ii) hiia, Ma, like e in the German die (old GermAhiu^thid), sic, wie. A trace of this appears in the Arabic ; as huwa, hiya, in the common dialect hiia, hia. The masculine NW is of common gender in the Pentateuch, in which it is used also for she. (See § 2, 3.) The punclators, however, whenever it stands for N"^!i, give it the appropriate pointing of this form (Klfi), and require it to be read XT) (comp. § 17). It is, however, to be sounded rather according to the old form NW. 7. The plural forms en and ",11 come from i<>in and N^n in the same manner as EPS from nnx . In Arab, where they are pronounced hum, himna, the obscure vowel-sound is retained; for which the suffixes on, in still have Seghol (§ 27, Rem. 4, 6). The n— in both forms has a demonstrative ^OYce. (See § 90, 2.) In Chald. (liart; I'^n). Arab, and jSlthiop. {humu, homu) there is an appended o, ii, which occurs in Hebrew in the poetical forms i'O, i?2^— , ia^ § 58, 3, Rem. 1). 8. The pronouns of the third person X^n, Xin. an, "jn, are also demonstrative pronouns (see § 122, 1). § 33. SUFFIX PRONOUN. 1. The full and separate forms of the pronoun, as given in the foregoing section, express only the nominative :* the accusa- * See an exception in § 121, 2. 74 PAET II. PARTS OF SPEECK live and genitive, on the contiar}^, are expiessed by shortened forms or fragments which are joined to the end of verbs, nouns, and particles {suffix j^rotioims, usually suffixes), e. g. in him and i his (from i^^H he), thus W^rib^J? I have killed him, iO'lD his horse. Instances of the like contraction occur in Greek, Latin, and German, as nttxrjQ /xov for naxriQ ifiov, Lat. eccuvi in Plautus for ecce eum, Germ. du hasVs for dii, hast es. In Hebrew this is done systematically, as in Egyptian, Hungarian, and some other languages, 2. Concerning the cases which these sufSxes denote, let it oe remarked : a) when joined to verbs, they denote the accusative (but comp. § 121, 4), ^H'^rib'Jp I have killed him ; h) when joined to substantives, they denote the genitive (like LiarrjQ f-LOv, "pater ejus), and then serve as possessive pro- nouns, as '^SX [ahh-i) tny father ; iO^O, equus ejus, and equus suns (§ 124, i, b) ; c) when joined to particles, they denote either the genitive or the accusative, according as the particle has the meaning of a noun or a verb ; e, g. "^rilSl (prop. m,i/ vicinity) with me, like mea caussa, on the contrary '^isn behold ine, ecce me ; d) the dative and ablative of the pronoun are expressed by com- bining the prepositions that are signs of these cases (b sign of the dative, 3 in, ^Qfrom, § 102) with the suflfixes, as ib to him, is in him, ^p2from me. 3. Some of these suffixes are probably derived from forms of the separate pronoun of which no trace now remains, as ^— thee from a form like HSX = SIPS thou. This applies also to the affor- matives of the verb (§44, 1). 4. The suffix of the verb (the accusative) and the suffix of the noun (the genitive) are mostly the same in form, but sometimes they are different, e, g. "^3 me, ^— my. A tabular view of all the forms, both of the separate pronouns and of the suffixes, is exhibited in Paradigm A. In §§ 58-61 are given more full explanations of the forms oi^ verbal suffixes and of the modes of attaching them to the verb, and in § 91 of the forms and attachment of nominal suffixes. On the prepositions with suffixes, see § 103. 1 34, 35. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN AND ARTICLE. 75 §34. THE DEMONSTEATIVE PEONOUN. Sing", m. HT* /. nsi'n to fish. §39. CONJUGATIONS. 79 A peculiar kind of secondary verbs, and at least of rather late forma- tion in the language (hence frequent in the later dialects), are those denominatives, one of whose consonants, originally a servile, has become a radical. E. g. 013 to rest, to set one's selfdoicn; hence the noun nnS a setting down; hence again nnj to descend; in like manner rin!ij, a pit. destruction (from H^lU), hence nJiia to destroy. §39. 1. The third person of the Perfect, in the simple, primitive form of the verb (i. e. Kal, see No. 4), is regarded as the stem, or ground-form ; as bu]? he has killed, ^13 he was heavy * From this come the other persons of the Perfect, and with this the Participle connects itself. There is still another, of the same form as the Infinitive (Vt3j?, also ^tJp), with which are connected the Imperative and the Imperfect. The first ground-form, of two syllables (Arab, qatala, qatila, qattda), may be called the concrete ; and the second, which is generally mono- syllabic (Arab, qatl, qitl, qiitl), the abstract. The same analogy prevails in the division of nouns into abstract and concrete. In verbs whose second radical is 1, the full stem appears only in the second form ; e. g. aiiiJ, of which the third person Perf. is 3^. 2. From this stem are formed, according to an unvarying analogy in all verbs, the verba derivata, each distinguished by a specific change in the form of the stem, with a corresponding definite change in its signification (intensive, frequentative, cau- sative ; passive, reflexive, reciprocal). E.g. Tab to learn, Tab to cause to learn, to teach ; DDtC to lie, l''3pn to cause to lie, to lay ; tiSTC to judge ; tOSTp; to contend before a judge, to go to laio. In other languages such words are regarded as new derivative verbs ; e. g. to fall, to fell ; jacere to throio,jacere to lie ; yh'OjLiai to be born, ytvvaco to bear. But in Hebrew, where these forma tions are far more regular than e. g. in German, Greek, or Latin they are called, since the time of Reuchlin, conjugations't (Hebr. D''2^513, more correctly species, modifications) of the ground-form, and both in the grammar and the lexicon are always treated of in connection, as parts of the same verb. * The infinitive is here used for the sake of brevity in most grammars and lexicons, thus lia^ to learn, prop, he has learned. t Not in the sense in which this term is used in Greek and Latin grammars. 80 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. 3. The changes of the ground-form consist partly in varying its vowels, or doubling one or more of its letters (^25p, b^]? ; buip ^1??^ ; ^f'Ppj "'P'?'^!? ; comp. to lie, to lay ; to fall, to fell) ; partly in the addition of formative letters or syllables (blDpS, b'^ppn ; comp. to speak, to bespeak ; to count, to recount ; hid, forbid) ; sometimes in both united, as bapti^l. (Comp. §31, 2.) In the AramEean this is effected less by the change of vowels than by the addition of formative syllables ; the variations by vowels having almost gone out of use ; so that, for instance, all the passives are sup- plied by the reflexives, with the prefix syllable Pix, nx. The Arabic is rich in both methods, while the Hebrew holds also here the middle place (§ 1, 6). 4. Grammarians differ as to the number and arrangement of these conjugations. The common practice, however, of giving to them still the old technical designations, prevents any error. The ground-form is called Kal ('bp light, because it has no for- mative additions) ; the others (D'^'75? heavy, because burdened with formative additions) derive their names from the Paradigm used by the old Jewish grammarians, bys he has done* Several of them have passives which distinguish themselves from their actives by the obscure vowels. The most common conjugations (including Kal) are the five following ; but few verbs, however, exhibit them all. Active. Passive. 1. Kal, bti]? to kill. (wanting.) 2. Niphal, bup; to kill one's self. (very rare.) 3. Piel, ^^UokUlnmny, ) [to massacre. \ ' -'* 4. Hiphil, bi'jpn to cause to kill. Hophal, ^^PO 5. Hithpael, bDpnn to kill on.'i's self. Hothpaal, btOpriH * This verb, on account of the guttural which it contains, is unsuitable for a Paradigm, and was accordingly exchanged for 1|5B, which has this advantage, that all its conjugations are actually in use. There is, however, some indistinct- ness in the pronunciation of some of its forms, as Fl'I^Q, tSh'ipS. The Paradigm btap , in common use since the time of Danz, obviates this inconvenience, and is especially adapted to a comparative treatment of the Semitic languages, inasmuch as it is found with a slight change (Arab, and ^Ethiop. bnp) in all of them. In Hebrew, it is true, it has only the forms of Kal, which are not frequent, and occur only in poetry ; yet it may be retained as a type or model sanctioned by usage. §40. CONJUGATIONS. 81 There are several other less frequent conjugations, of which some, however, are more common than these in the kindred lan- guages, and in the irregular verb in Hebrew they sometimes take the place of the usual conjugations (§ 55). Ill Arabic there is a greater variety of forms, and a more perfect arrangement, than in Hebrew. Arranged after the Arabic manner, the Hebrew conjugations would stand thus : — 1. Kal. 2. Piel and Pual. 3. Poel and Poal (§ 55, l). 4. Hipkil and Hophal. 5. Hithpael and Hothpaal. 6. Hithpoel (§ 55). 7. Niphal. 8. Wanting in Hebrew. 9. Pilel. The most appropriate division is into three classes ; 1) Tlie intensive Picl, with the analogous forms derived from it ; 2) The causative Hiphil, and its analogous forms (Shaphel, Tiphel); 3) The reflexive and passive Niphal. § 40. 1. The Hebrew verb is indebted, for whatever copiousness it exhibits, chiefly to these co7ijugations or derivative verbs. In moods and tenses it is ver}^ poor, having only two tenses {Perfect and Ini^s^xfeet*), an Lnperative^ an Lifinitive (with two forms), and a Participle. All other relations of time, absolute and rela- tive, must be expressed by these, either alone (hence the multi- plicity in the uses of the same form, § 125, &c.) or in syntactic connection with other words. The jussive and optative are sometimes indicated by peculiar forms of the Impf. (see § 48). In the Germanic languages also there are distinct forms for only two tenses (the present and imperfect). In the formation of all the others, auxiliary verbs are employed. Comp. Grimni's d. Gram. 2. A. I. 835. 2. In the inflection of the Perf. and Imjf. by persons, the Hebrew differs from the Western languages, having in most cases distinct forms for both genders.^ as in the personal pronoun, which is incorporated in the forms of these tenses. The following table exhibits the formative syllables [afforma- tives and preformatives) of the two tenses. The stem-letters are indicated by dots. For the details, see § 44 ff". * See § 47, note * wheve the relation of these two terms to each other, and their general import, are explained. The learner will observe, that the cor- responding terms in the Hebrew lexicon of Gesenius (translated by Dr. Robinson, fifth edition, 1854) are Prctter for Pei'fect, and Future for Imperfect. — Tr. 6 82 PART n. PAHTS OF SPEECH. PERFECT. 3 m 3 /• 2 m 2 / 1 c. 3 m 3 /• 2 m 2 / 1 c. Sing, n. P?Mr. 3 c. 2 m. dn . . . 2/. 1^ • . . Ic. 513 . • • IMPERFECT. • 3 m. 1 . . . ^ n 3/ ns . : r\ 2 m. 1 . . . n : 2/. T : b( Ic. , . . ? §41. In the formation of all the verbs there is the same general analogy ; and the Hebrew has properly no anomalous verbs, like those, for instance, in Greek, which end in ^u. The devia- tions which occur from the general model of the regular verb are owing — a) to the presence of a guttural as one of the stem-letters or radi- cals, which occasions various vowel changes according to § 22 {guttural verb, §§ 62-65) ; 6) to the falling away of a strong stem-letter by assimilation or contraction {contracted* verb, §§66, 67), as liJSii, HID ; c) to the presence of a feeble letter as one of the radicals (§§ 23, 24), so that many changes occur through its commutation, omission, or quiescence {quiescent ox feeble verb, §§ 68-75), as The letters of the old Paradigm bl^s are used in naming the letters of the stem, S designating the first, V the second, and b the third. Hence the expressions, verb NS for a verb whose first radical is X {primes radicalis i<) ; verb rtb for one whose third radical is ti {terticB radicalis ti) ; verb ISS (S doubled) for one whose second and third radicals are the same {medice radicalis geminates). * The term defective, by which some designate this class, we apply to those whose forms are not all in use (§ 7 8). §§42, 43. THE REGULAR VERB; KAL 83 I. OF THE REGULAR VERB. §42. As the rules for the formation of the regular verb apply, with only occasional modifications, to all the irregular verbs, it will be most con- venient (and will also exhibit the subject in the most clear light to the learner) to present, while treating of the former, whatever belongs to the general analogy of the verb. In Parad. B, and the above table § 40, 2, are given the usual and normal forms, with full explanations in the following sections (43-55). In these, each subject is explained where it first comes under notice ; e. g. the inflection of the Perfect and Imperfect, with the modifications of the latter, in treating of /faZ — as also the forms and significations of the several conjugations in treating of the regular verb, though the same things are applicable to irregular verbs, &c. A OF THE GROUND-FORM, OR KAL. §43. ITS FOEM AND SIGNIFICATION. 1. The common form of the 3d person Perf. in Kal is bap [middle A)* especially in tra7isitive verbs. There is also a form with E (Tsere), and another with O {Chole?}i), in the second syllable ; the two latter usually employed in an intransitive sense, and for expressing states and qualities, e. g. '^5? io be heavy, Itijp to be S7nall. Sometimes both forms, the transitive and the intransitive, exist together, as i^b'a to Jill (Esther vii. 5), itb'Q to be full (comp. §47, Rem. 2), yet also with the same sense for both forms, as D"!)? and S'l^ to app7'oach. A verb middle E will be found in the Paradigm by the side of a verb middle A. The example selected shows, at the same time, the effect of inflection on Daghesh lene in the middle stem-letter. Rem. 1. The vowel of the second syllable is the principal vowel, and hence it distinguishes between the transitive and intransitive. The pretonic Qamets in the first syllable has little strength, and becomes vocal Sh^va on the shifting of the tone, as DnVap. In Aramtean it wholly lalls away in the root itself^ as bap, bup. Rem. 2. Examples of denominatives in Kal : "inrj to cover with pitch, from "iian pitch ; tCtq to salt, from nhh salt. * A verb middle A is one that has Pattach (short a) under the middle radical. or in the second syllable ; a verb middle E, one that has Tserc ; and a verb middle 0, one that has Cholem. — Tr, 84 PART n. PARTS OF SPEECH. §44. PEKFEOT OF KAL AND ITS INFLECTION. 1. The inflection of the Perfect in respect to person, number, and gender, is effected by appending fragments of the personal pronouns, plural and feminine endings, (as afforonatives,) to the end of the ground-form. In explaining this connection, we may treat the ground-form as a jiarticiple, or a verbal adjective* ex- pressing by itself the ^d sing. Perf. ; as b'Jj^ he has killed, r»"'5'J^ thoii hast killed ( = killing-thou, or killer-thou, a, killer wast thou, nriS? ^T\p), S}"!^ he was fearing, Utr^y; fearing were ye, for DFifi? £51''. In the second person this is readily seen, as well as in ^Sbajp for ^DS!| bT2)?. In the first person sing. ^Tb^"^ we have '^—, the simple germ of the pronoun, united with the demonstrative sound In, by which the afformative is at the same time distin- guished from the suffix forms "^D and "i— (as if one would form ■ippX, "^riN /, after the analogy of nni?). In the third person, tl— (originally fl— , comp. Rem. 4) is a designation of the feminine (as in the noun § 80, 2), and ^ (originally "Jl) is a sign of the plural. In the Indo-Germanic tongues the inflection by persons originated in the same manner, namely, by appending pronominal forms ; as, e. g. in the Sanscrit and Greek, from the stem as {to be) Sanscr. asmi, dfil, Dor. f|U(Ui for ifffxl (I am), where the ending ^t belongs to /xol and fii; Sanscr. asi, Dor. icrai (thou art), where ai is about = av ; Sanscr. asti, iaxi (he is), where xt corresponds to the pronoun to, and so fortli. For the most part, indeed, the etymology is more obliterated here, as it sometimes is in the Semitic languages ; e. g. 1st pers. sing., Arab, katallu, Syr. ketlet, where the characteristic i is wholly lost. 2. In respect to vowel changes, the analogy of the 3d fern, sing, flbp)? is followed by the 3d masc. j)lur. 'ibpS, and that of the 2d masc. sing, ri*?^)? by all the forms of the first and second persons.t * On the intimate connection between the Perfect and the verbal adjective, see what has already been said § 89, 1. In intransitives they often have the same form, as St Via full, or he was full ; "jbi? small, or fic was small. In traiisitives the participle has, indeed, a difTerent form (btSp) ; but the adjective-form, ^lip , may be compared with ptij? , although it generally denotes properties, as fiSn wise, "]13U5 (inimical) adversary, § 84, 1. \ In the Paradigms the forms f^'^p and n?t?p are, therefore, designated with an asterisk as model-forms, for the notice of the beginnei-. § U. PERFECT OF KAL AND ITS INFLECTION. 8S Only ur\b'Upj 'Jl!iVtDj3 have the tone on the last syllable, and, in consequence, Sh\a under the first radical (§27, 3). N. B. Bern. 1. Verbs middle E, falling back in their inflection to the type of verbs middle A, generally lose the E sound, which passes over into (-), as the Paradigm shows. The original E remains, however, regularly in the feeble stems Ni> (§ 74, Rem. 1) ; in strong stems only in pause, i. e. when the stress of voice falls upon it, as •^fj^'^. Job xxix. 10 ; comp. 2 Sam. i. 23 ; Job xli. 15. 2. In some feeble stems middle A, the a under the second radical, sometimes passes over into — or — , when the syllable is closed and toneless, and the first radical has not a full vowel (§ 27, Rem. 2. 3). Thus DPi^Xiy ye have asked 1 Sam. xii. 13, BPiia-i'i ye possess Deut. iv. 1, 22 ; so also before suffixes I'^n^NlU / have asked him 1 Sam. i. 20, 'T^f^lr''? I have begotten thee Ps. ii. 7. Such forms must not be considered verbs middle E : the weakening of the vowel is owing simply to the general weakness of the form, and the 3d person Perf is ix^, lan';;, n^V not bxia, ^-i;, nbv See § 64, Rem. 1, and § 69, Rem. 4. " 3. In verbs middle O, the Cholem is retained in inflection where it has the tone, as nn'i^ . But when the tone is thrown forward. Cholem becomes Q,amets-chatuph, as I'^n^S'? / have overcome him, Fibs'^'i (see § 49, 3) and thou wilt he able, Ex. xviii. 23. 4. Unfrequent forms.* Sing. 3d fern, in n— (as in Arab. iEthiop. Aram.), e. g. ri^ts, Deut. xxxii. 36. Before suffixes this is the prevail- ing form (§ 59, 1) ; more frequent in stems sb and nb , § 74, Rem. 1. § 75, Rem. ]. — 2d masc. tin for Pi (difl'ering only in orthography), as nn'iaa, Mai. ii. 14, comp. Gen. iii, 12. — 2d fern, sometimes has still a Yodh at the end; as "'Fiabn, Jer. xxxi.. 21 (according to one form of the pronoun "iriN . § 32, Rem. 4). especially in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. It is properly pro- nounced "'Pisbn, and the vowels of the text belong to the marginal reading (without '') as in the corresponding pronoun. With this is connected the form Tibap before suffixes (§ 59, 1, c). — 1st com. sometimes without Yodh, as sVj'j^, 'Ps. cxl. 13 ; Job xlii. 2 ; 1 Kings viii. 48. This however is found only in K^thibh ; the d^ri substitutes the full form.— Pltir. 2d fern, mh (or nsn) Amos iv. 3.— 3d com. seldom with the full plural ending )^ (often in Chald. and Syr.), as I'S"!^, Deut. viii. 3, 16, or with a superfluous X (after Arabic orthography), as N^sipn , Jos. x. 24. In the Imperfect the form with ■)>! is more frequent, see § 47, Rem. 4. N. B. 5. In connection with the affbrmatives n, "^ti, ^3, the tone is on the penultima, and the word is Milel; with the others it is i]///ra (§ 15, 2). The place of the tone is shifted, a) in several persons by the Pause (§ 29, 4), where it is moved backwards and at the same time the vowel of the second syllable, if it had become (.), is restored, as * Almost all these forms, which in Hebrew are unfrequent, are the usual ones m the kindred dialects, and may, with a proper iinderstanding of the terms, be called Chaldaisms, Syriasms, and Arabisms. 86 PAET n. PARTS OF SPEECH, nbofs, 1^^i5, i^^^'?; ^)by Vav consecutive of the Perfect, where it is moved forward one syllable (§ 49, 3). H5. OF THE INFINITIVE. 1. The Infinitive, originally a verbal-substantive, has two forms. The shorter, in Kal Vujp, is the prevailing form [Injin. construct). In this form it is united with suffix pronouns, and with prepositions (p'^p^ to kill, § 132, 2), and takes after it a nominative of the subject or an accusative of the object (§ 133). The longer form {Infin. absolute, or em])hatic), in Kal bit3]?, is used when the action of the verb is presented by itself, without direct cormection with other words ; and most frequently, when the Infinitive, as an adverbial accusative, is added to the finite verb for the sake of emphasis. The first is the more original form, and has more of the nature and mobility of the verbal- substantive ; the second is somewhat rigid and immovable, ex- pressing the verbal idea more in the abstract. For the details, see Syntax, § 131-133.* 2. In form, bbp and bitaj? are distinguished, by a firm immu- table 6 in the latter, and a mutable o in the former (hence with suff. "^^P)?). In the derived conjugations, except Hiph. and Hoph. the Inf. absol. has generally an immutable 6, although the Inf. constr. has other vowels ; e. g. Piel, ^itSp, with bD]?. Besides ibp the Infin. constr. has the following unusual forms in Kal: a) b::p , e. g. :3?il5 to lie Gen. xxxiv. 7. 6) nVjp and t^Vj;?, i^\'::ip (feminine forms from bap and bbp) ; as nssiu to hate, '^3'?p to approach Ex. xxxvi. 2, t^^'Sfi to j^iiy Ezek. xvi. 5. (As a verbal noun, the Infin. may also take the feminine ending.) c) b^pa (as in Chaldee) ; e. g. i<'ip53 to call Numb. x. 2. These unfrequent forms are in more common use as verbal nouns (§ 84, Nos. 10, 11, 14). 3. A sort of Gerund is formed in Hebrew by the Inf. constr. with the preposition 1?, as Vupb interficiendo, ad interficiendum, bsib ad cadendutn (for to fall). * In the Paradigms the Inf. constr., as the predominant form, is jnit before tht other under the name of Infinitive, x«r' i^oxriv. §46. THE ISIPERATm:. 81 The h is here closely combined with the Inf. into a grammatical form as is shown by the division of syllables and the use of Daghesh lene. namely Vs;b lin-pol (§ 28, 1). so also liq-tal. ]ust as in the Impf. ''33", bispv On the contrary ^353 Job iv. 13, VS33 2 Sam. iii. 34. where the prepositions 3 and 3 are conceived to be less closely connected with the Infinitive : so also ^. as an exception ; yinsbli UJinDi, Jer. i. 10. §46. OF THE IMPERATIVE. 1. The chief form of the Imperative bbjp (^t^Jp) is the same that Hes also at the basis of the Imperfect (§47), and which in another view, as Infinitive (§ 45), connects itself with the noun.* It expresses only the second person, but has inflections for the feminine and the plural. For the thh'd person it has no form (see § 130, Rem. 2), and supplies its place by the jussive Imper- fect ; and even the second must be so expressed when a nega- tive precedes, as btJpn bs? 7ie occidas (not blip bjs). The proper passive conjugations have no Imperative ;t but the reflexives, as Niphal and Hithpael, have it. 2. The inflection is analogous to that of the Imperfect, and will be understood from the explanations given below in § 47, 2. Like the Imperfect, the Imperative also has a lengthened and a shortened form, the first in the manner of the cohortative, the second after the analogy of the jussive (see §48, 5). Rem. 1. Besides the form bbp there is also one with Pattach. as 33123 (as in the Inf. and Impf) 2 Sam. xiii. 5. The Pattach is regular in 133 from 133 ; see the Paradigm. 2. Less frequently there is found in the first syllable of the feminine and plural form an 6 (Q,amets-chatuph) instead of the z, as ^STrTa diaw ye Ez. xxxii. 20 ; ''sba reign thou f. Judges ix. 10. * Also the Inf. absol. is occasionally used, like the Greek Infinitive, for the Imperative (§ 131, 4, h). But this is no ground for taking the Imperative to be properly an Infinitive ; for the Inf. absol. stands also for a Present, Perfect and Imperfect. It might rather be supposed, that the Imper. is a shortening of the 2d person of the Impf (bbp from iibpPi) ; but in reality these three forms are each independent, and have not arisen one fi-om another, but all alike have been formed on the basis of the abstract verb (^ 39, 1). The inflection of the Imper. may cer- tainly have been borrowed from the Impf. f An Imper. is found twice (Ez. xxxii. 19, Jer. xlix. 8) in Hophal, but with a reflexive meaning. 88 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH 3. In tlie form iij^ap the n— at times falls away, and then a helping vowel is introduced, as in ll^aiT hear ye f. for "^JS^iy Gen. iv. 23; coinp 'S'np call ye f for HJXlp Ex. ii. 20. The shortening is probably owin^ to the guttural. h^7. OF THE IMPERFECT AND ITS INFLEOTIOK* 1. Fragments of the personal pronoun are employed in the inflection of the Imperfect as well as of the Perfect ; but in the Imperfect these fragments are j^jrefixed [preformatives) to the root in the abstract form, viz. the Inf. constr. (52t2p). These for- mative particles, inasmuch as they stand before the verbal form, towards the end of which the tone continually tends, are much more abbreviated than the afformatives of the Perfect, so that in every case, only one consonant remains (■>, P, X, 3), mostly with a very short vowel, viz. vocal Sh^a. But as this is not always sufficient to mark at the same time the distinction of gender and of number, the defect is supplied by additions at the end. Comp. the table, § 40, 2. 2. The derivation and signification, both of the preformatives and afformatives, are still in most cases clear. In the \st pers. Vi2pS5 , plur. Vi2p3 , X is an abbreviation of "^Siil , 3 of ^3i|!. This person required no addition at the end. In the 2d jiers. sing, the n in Vl2pr\ is from nrii?, the '^— in ■^blipn is the sign of the feminine, as in ^^riK thou (feminine, see §32, Rem. 4). In the 2d pers. phir. the ^ (more fully 1^, see Rem. 4) in ^''pjpri, is the sign of the plural as in the 3d person, * The name Imperfect is here used in direct contrast with Perfect ; in a wider sense, therefore, than in the Latin and Greek grammar. The Hebrew Perfect denotes, in general, the finished and past, what is come to pass or is gone into effect ; but at the same time, that which is represented as perfected, whether extending still into the present, or in reality yet future. Tho Imperfect, on the contrary, denotes the imfinhhed and continuing, that which is being done, or coming to pass, and is future (hence called also Future) ; but also that which is in progress and in connected succession, iu past time (the Latin Imperfect). This distinction shows itself in the mode of their formation. Thus, in the more objective Perfect, the vei"bal-stem precedes, and the designation of the person follows as something suboi'dinate ; but in the Imperfect, the subject, from which the action proceeds, is expressed by a prefixed pronoun. A like twofold division of the tense-forma occurs in the older branches of the Aric family, and as revived again in the Parsi and Modern Persian. — See farther, in the Syntax, § 125, fl^. §47. THE IMPERFECT AND 11^ INFLECTION. 89 and as in the Perfect also (§44, 1), and is here appropriated to the masculine ;* "3 in nsbbpH is the sign of the plural /emwime (in Chaldee )—), or borrowed from n|n ece. In the 3d person ^'^'p'!, the "^ is less easily explained, there being no clearly corresponding pronominal form in Hebrew. It stands, perhaps, as a stronger consonant for 1 (from N'^H), pro- perly biopn (comp. y^O"; for man § 69). The plur. (fully l^Vj]?^) is formed by the plural ending "jl, shortened 1. The T\ in the femi- nines ^bpn, n]b'i5pri, which are precisely the same as the second person, may be connected with the feminine ending n_. 3. In the course of inflection the final vowel is dropped in some forms, while in others it is retained. In this respect the analogy of ^tDpi is followed by all the other forms which receive no addition at the end, and that of ''btppri by the forms ^bljpl', ibupri j analogous to nDbupri is nsbi:]? in the Imperative. Rem. 1. The final 6 {Cholem) is only tone-long (§ 9, No. 10, 3), as in the Injin. and Iinper. Hence, a) The examples in which it is written fully are very rare, and are to be regarded as exceptions, b) Before Maqqeph it becomes Qamets-chatupli ; e. g. d^"3nD^T and he wrote there, Josli. viii. 32. c) It becomes vocal Sli^va before the afformatives ■'— 7 and 1. In the few instances in whicli it remains before such affor- matives, the pointing becomes ^, because it stands close before the pause, e. g. ^ais'iji yish-putu {they will judge), Ex. xviii. 26 ; Ruth ii. 8 ; comp. Prov. xiv. 3. N. B. 2. Tliis Cholerii is confined, ahiiost exclusively, to verbs mid- dle A, like biii^. IntransUive verbs (middle E and O) take a {Pattach) in the Imjierf! , as b'la to be great, Imp/. b'lS'^ ; 'bj? to be small. Imp/. IBp"; . Sometimes botli forms exist together ; the Impf. with o is then transi- tive, and that with a intransitive. E. g. "iJ£p'^ he will cut off, will reap ; "^^P.l he will be cut off, i. e. will be short. So also ^libn , Inqyf. 0, to sub- due ; Impf. a, to be subdued. Ex. xvii. 13 ; Job xiv. 10. More seldom, both occur without any difference in signification ; e. g. T\^^, and T\^^, he will bite. In the irregular verbs, the feeble e (T'sere) is also found in the final syllable, as )'Fi'; for 'P?"!. These three forms of the Imperfect are called Impf O, Impf. A, Impf E. 3. For the 3d plur.fem. rijls'bptn occurs in three instances (as if to distinguish it from the 2d pers.), the Ibrm tijbiSp';!, as in Chaldee and Arabic. E. g. •li'iJa?^ they will arise, Dan. viii. 22 ; comp. Gen. xxx. 38 ; 1 Sam. vi. 12. In several instances nsbSptn seems to have been used improperly for the 3d pers. singidar, Ex. i. 10 ; Judg. v. 26 (and accord- * This is also the proper geuder of the plural-syllable un, u. It is true that in the Pcrf. the Hebrew employs it for both genders, but in the kindred tongues, it stands eveu in the Perf. for the masculine alone ; as in Syriae, masc, qetalun, fern qctaltn, so in Arabic, masc, qdtalu, fern, qatdlna. ?Q PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. ing to some Job xvii. 16 ; Is. xxviii. 3). (In the vulgar Arabic, necul^ properly we eat, is the common form for I eat ; and in the French patois, favons for fai.) — In the Pentateuch ^"1 {na) occurs in place of n3 , espe- cially after Vav consecutive (§ 49, 2) ; e. g. Ex. i. 18, 19, xv. 20, as in Arabic, and in a still more abbreviated form in the Imp. (§ 46, Rem. 3). — Once occurs (Ezek. xvi. 50) the anomalous form n3ifi3">Pi with '^— inserted, after the manner of verbs 's'v and 51 (§ 67, 4, § 72, 5). N. B. 4. The plural forms ending in >i appear also not unfrequently with the fuller ending "Jl, most commonly with obvious sfrress on the word at the end of a clause, where the vowel of the second syllable is then retained, as '\^\^')1 they tremble, Ex. xv. 14, l^iS^UJn ye shall hear, Deut. i. 17. But it is not confined to this position ; see e. g. Ps. xi. 2, ncp "i^S'il':; corap. iv. 3, Gen. xviii. 28, 29. 30, 31, 32; Is. viii. 12; 1 Sam. ix. 13. But the preference for this form at the end of a clause is clearly seen in Is. xxvi. 11, l^is'^'i Itn;] )^''1^'!. ^3 they see not; let them see and be ashamed.* This original ending l^i is common in Ara- maean and Arabic ; but in the vulgar Arabic it is shortened. Of the Impf with X (the Arab, orthography, § 44, Rem. 4), XlbS';' Jer. x. 5 is the only example. 5. In like manner "^^tipn has a longer form with final "i, namely 'pbtJpFi , which is also common in Aram, and Arabic. The )''— here is scarcely original ; perhaps it arose from imitation of the plural ending 11 . See examples in 1 Sam. i. 14 ; Ruth ii. 8, 21 ; iii. 4, 18. 6. In Pause, the vowel of the second syllable, if it had become Sh^va. is restored and takes the tone, as "'^iapFi, ibbp'^. Comp. § 29, 4. §48. LENGTHEmNG AND SHORTENING OF THE IMPERFECT AND IMPERATIVE. {Jussive and Cohortative Forms.) 1. The want of definite forms for expressing the relative tenses and the moods, in Hebrew and the kindred dialects, is partially supplied by changes in the form of the Imperfect, to which a certain signification is either exclusively or principally appropriated. 2. Thus, the language distinguishes between the common form of the Imperfect and two others, viz. a lengthened form (with a cohortative force) and a shortened form (with a jussive force). The lengthened Imperfect, however, occurs only in the * It is worthy of remark, that the Chronicles often omit the Nun where it stands in the books of Kings ; see 1 Kings viii. 38, 43 ; comp. 2 Chron. vi. 29, 38. — 1 Kings xii. 24 ; 2 Kings xi. 5 ; comp. 2 Chron. xi. 4 ; xxiii. 4. §48. JUSSIVE AND COHORTATTVE FORMS. 91 first person (with unimportant exceptions), while its shortened form is confined to the second and third. In Hebrew, however, the short-spoken Jussive is not always orthographically distin- g-uished from the common form of the Imperfect. In Arabic the distinction is always clear. Besides the common Indi- cative Imperf. yaqiulii, it has, a) a Subjunctive, ydqtula; b) a Jussive. yuqtul ; and c) a so-called Imperf. energic, yaqtulan, which is nearly related to the Heb. Cohortative. 3. The characteristic of the Cohortative is a long a (H— .) appended to the first person ; e. g. nbppx for ViipS. It is found in all the conjugations and in all classes of regular and irregular verbs (except in the Passives), and has the tone wherever it is taken by the afformatives ^ and '^— , and hence it affects the final vowel in precisely the same manner as these do. E. g. in Kal, rr^•nm ; in Piel, HjJnDS Ps. ii. 3 ; but in Hiphil, Very rarely, the duller sound i^—^ takes the place of ii— (§ 27, Rem. 4), e. g. 1 Sam. xxviii. 15 ; Ps. xx. 4. As rarely is it attached to the third person (Is. v. 19 ; Ez. xxiii. 20 ; Ps. xx. 4). The second person, however, receives it in the Imperative. See No. 5. il— denotes, as accusative ending to a noun, motion or ten- dency towards a place (§ 90, 2) ; and after the same analog}^, the Cohortative with this ending expresses effort and the direction of the unll to an action. Accordingly it is used especially to express excitement of one^s self, determination, wish (as Opta- tive), &c. (see § 128). 4. The Jussive occurs only in the second and third persons. Its form is often orthographically the same as that of the Indica- tive ; e. g. "513)5^ as Indie, he will kill, as Jussive let him kill. It is sometimes, however, plainly distinguished by the orthogra- phic shortening of the form, as will be shown in every instance in the appropriate place. In the regular verb, it is externally distinguished from the Indicative only in Hiphil ; Indie, ^''p)?!], Jussive ^Up!'. It is found in Kal and Hiphil of verbs iy, as rib|^ and rra^ for ty^iy^ and iT''a^ ; and in all the conjugations of verbs n5, where it consists in the removal [apocope) of the ending H— : e, g. b^^ for Thy] . (The name Future apocopated, derived from the mode of forming it in verbs fib, is applied generally to this form of the Imperfect.) But in all cases the plural forms of the Jussive coincide with the common, except that the ending )'^ is 92 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. excluded. So also the 2d sing, fern., as ^'?^l3jpn, ^ni^n, ^b^t^. &c. ; and all forms, sing, and plur., with pronominal suffixes, as '^Sri'^'Qri Indicative .Ter. xxxviii. 15, Jussive xli. 8. In signification this form is similar to the other, with some modification occasioned by diflference of person. In general it is used where a command, loish, or condition is expressed. 5. The persons of the Imperative, as it is allied in form and meaning to the Imperfect, are also lengthened (by n_) and shortened, in a manner perfectly analogous. So also the Arabic has an Imperativus energiciis. In most conjugations only one of these forms is found, in others both are employed. The length- ened Imp. occurs, e. g. in Kal of the regular verb, as "i^Tl?, fT^''?^, SDttJ, riDDTlJ ; the shortened Imp. in verbs nb, as ba for n^5 ; both together in Hiphil, as bupn and nb^'tapn for ^''lipn. The signifi' cation of these forms is not always so strongly marked us in the Imperfect. The longer form, however, is often emphatic, as D^p .stand up^ iTTD^p up ! 'jri give, T\iT\ give up. §49. PERFECT A¥D IMPERFECT WITH 1 CONSECUTIVE. 1. The use of the two tenses, as will more clearly appear iu the Syntax (§§ 126, 127), is by no means confined to the expres- sion of the past and the future. One of the most striking pecu- liarities in their use, and, indeed, in the Hebrew diction gene- rally, is this : that in continued narrations of the past, only the first verb stands in the Perfect, the narrative commencing with the Perf. and proceeding with the Itnpf. ; and, on the contrary, continuous description of the future is commenced with the Imq>f. and proceeds with the Verf. Gen. i. 1 : In the beginning God created (Perf.) the heavens and the earth. Ver. 3 : And God said (Impf ), Let there he light, and there vms (Impf.) light. Ver. 4 : And God saio (Lnpf ), &c. Just the reverse in Is. vii. 17 : Jehovah loill bring (Impf.) upon thee, and upon thy people, and upon thy father'' s house, days, such as have not come since, &c. Ver. 18 : And it will happen (Perf. n^ril) on that day .... Ver. 19 : and they will come (Perf.). This progress of time, this succession of thought, is usually indicated by the Vuv copula- tive ; with a change, however, partly affecting the form of the §49. PERFECT AND IMPERFECT. 93 Vav, and partly that of the Perfect and Imperfect to which it is prefixed.* 2. The Vav consecutive of the Imjierfect is the most impor- tant. This a) is regularly prefixed with Pattach and a Da- ghesh forte in the next letter, as btipt^l and he killed, but to the 1st pers. sing, with Qamets (according to §22, 1), as bljpj^lj;, a?id I killed [see another exception with Daghesh forte omitted, as ^'2lT}'\ and "^n^l , in § 20, 3, h\ ; h) it takes a shortened form of the Imperfect, when that exists (comp. §48, 4), e. g. in Hiphii ^Pp!!] (§ 53, Rem. 4). and often at the same time draws the tone back to the penultima, as fT^'X2!|', shortened ri^^, with Vav consecu- tive t^12\^ [and he died), § 67, Rem. 2, 7 ; § 68, 1 ; § 69, Rem. 3 ; § 71 ; § 72, Rem. 4, 7 ; § 73, Rem. 2.t To the 1st pers. on the contrary, especially in the sing., the ending ?1— is often append- ed, but chiefly in the later books ; e. g. rru'l'DKI and I plucked out, Ezra ix. 3. See more in § 129. This 'I is a strengthened form of Vav copulative (comp. n^as. ri523. HBb. where the prepositions 3, 3, b are strengthened in a similar way), in the sense o? and then, and so. The drawing back of the tone is found also in similar connections, like <"il2^; and the shortening of the verb at the end (apocojae) is merely an accidental coincidence with the form of the Jussive, though it seems to have favored the increasing use of the Cohortative form in the first person.! 3. As the opposite of the above, we have Vav consecutive of the Perfect, by which it is joined to a preceding Imperfect. In form it is the usual Vav copulative (1), e. g. •^^•7'] (after Impf.) * Since it affects iu some measure the use of the tenses, it is called by gram- marians Vav conversivc (i. e. converting the Impf. into the Per/., and the Per/. into the Imp/.). Tlie name Vav consecutive is more appropriate, since it essentially denotes sequence or progress. \ Also the forms in "jil and 1^— :• occur very seldom after Vav cons., "I'lS"''^'?] Judg. viii. 1 ; Ez. xliv. 8. X The opinion of earlier grammarians, that ^iip'^5 is a contraction of bbp"" n^n (which was explained, it happened that he hilled), is in every respect erroneous, and is now antiquated. The ^^ is always an emphatic and ; and when it begins entire divisions and books of the Old Testament, it indicates, that they were either origi- nally connected with what goes before, or have been brought into connection with it (e. g. Levit., Num., Josh., Jud., 1 and 2 Sam., Esth., Ruth) ; just as some other books, for a like reason, begin ynih the simple copula 1 (Ex., 1 K., Ezra). — Equally false is its derivation, according to some, from bbp^ ^"^f^? • 94 PART 11. PARTS OF SPEECH. and it will be ; but it has generally the effect of shifting the tone to the last syllable, in those verbal forms which would otherwise have it on the penultima,* e. g. '^S^33n I iveiit, ''Ppbn'i (with pre- ceding Impf.) and I will go, Judges i. 3 ; nb^'^D?! Perf, JlSi^li?!'! and it shall divide, Ex. xxvi. 33. See more on the use of the Perfect, in § 126. This shifting forward of the tone does not always take place, and the exceptions are sometimes strange. It is omitted, specially, a) in the Istpers. pi. >i3a^;'] Gen. xxxir. 16 ; b) in verbs xb and rib ; e. g. ri'^'^SI Ex. xxvi. 4; 6, 7, 10 ff. (on the contrary, ri^iarj^ the 9th and other verses). §50. OF THE PARTICIPLE. 1. Kal has two forms of the Participle, viz. an active, called also Poel, and a passive or Pa-ul (b'iS'S).t The latter is to be regarded, without doubt, as a remnant of a lost passive form of h'0'\^. In the Aramaean the passives of Piel and Hiphil are in like manner lost, except in the participles. 2. In intransitive verbs mid. E and mid. O, the active Parti- ciple of Kal coincides in form with the Perf. 3d sing. ; as 1^^ sleejnng from 111?^, "iy^ fearing from "iy^. Comp. the formation of the Participle in Niphal, § 51, 1. But in verbs 7nid. A, it has the form btDp ; in which the d is a corruption of the original a {qotel from qutel, § 9, 10, 2), and is immutable. (The form btlp is in common use only as a verbal noun, §84, 1.) In Piel, Hi- jthil, and Hithpael, the Participle is formed after a different manner. 3. Participles form their feminine and plural like other nouns (§§87,94). Bern. 1. An unfrequent form is '^lain prehendens Ps. xvi. 5 (for tj^in from Tl'?!^), comp. a'^sb 2 Kings viii. 21, and the prop. n. b'^a'ix 1 Chron. xxvii. 30. Many reckon here also vjOi^ Is. xxix. 14, xxxviii. 5 ; but this is rather the 3(Z sing. impf. Hiphil of CiO" . Comp. a quite similar construction Is. xxviii. 16. The Cholem in buip is unchangeable, though * Whether the liastening of the toue forward expresses the reference to the future, and, on the contrary, the shifting of it backward, a close connection 'with ■what '\& past, is left undecided. f The Jewish grammarians call the participle also '^3i3''3 {middle word); yet not in the sense of the Latin name, but as \ised for a present tense, and accord- ingly holding the middle place between the Perfect and the Imperfect (§ 181, 2). §51. NIPHAL. 95 it is generally written defectively. The form Qbl'n, Is. xli. 7, for fibl'n is explained by § 29, 3, h. 2. Tlie participle in the passive form has not unfrequently an activt; signification, especially when it belongs to an intransitive verb, which cannot take a passive meaning. Compare in English risen, Jlown. Thus tinx means holding (not held), Cant. iii. 8. H!i::3 conjisus for confidens, Ps. cxii. 7. Comp. the deponent verbs in Laiin B. DERIVED CONJUGATIONS §51. XIPHAL. 1. The full characteristic of this conjugation is the syllable DH (in the corresponding seventh conjugation in Arabic Sijl) pre- fixed to the ground-form. It appears only in the Inf. const?'. btijjn, contracted from bpppn. With the Inf. are connected, in form, the Imp. ^t2jjri and the Itnpf. ^PJ^o contracted from b'D'^'n\ In the Pe?f. the (less essential) He has been suffered to fall away, and only Nun remains as the characteristic, hence ^t3j33. This applies also to the Participle, which is distinguished from the Perfect only by the long (J, as bupD,/ey;i. "^^'^p? or nbtJ^D. The inflection of Niphal is perfectly analogous to that of Kal. Niphal may be distinguished in the Perf and Part, by the Nun pre- fixed ; in the Imp., Inf., and Impf by the Daghesh in the first stem-letter. The same marks are found in the irregular verbs ; except that where the first stem-letter is a guttural, Daghesh forte must be omitted (§ 63, 4). In consequence of this omission, the preceding vowel is made long (§ 22, 1). 2. In signification., it bears a resemblance to the Greek mid- dle voice ; and hence a) It is primarily reflexive of Kal, e. g. *TaTC3 to look to one's self, to beware, (fvXaOGtoO^at., "^F^P? to hide one's self ; often of emotions which act upon the subject, e. g. QH? to trouble one's self, to grieve, niS3 to bemoan one's self, to betoail, comp. odvQtO&c/i, lamentari, contristari. b) Then it fiequently expresses reciprocal action, as tJSIiJ!: to contend with another at law ; f^r ^^ counsel, Niph. to considt together ; comp. the middle and deponent verbs i^ovXbvtoOaL, f.iaxt6^((i (DTib:), altercari, luctari, prosliari. c) It has also, like Hithpael (§ 54, 3, c) and the Greek middle, the signification of the active with the addition of self, for one's self, e. g. bSTCp to ask for one's self {i Sam. xx. 6, 28), precisely like alroujuai OS rovio, 96 PART 11. PAETS OF SPEECH. svbvOaa&ai XLTOJVCc lo irut on {one's self) a coal. Here, instead of the accusative (se), the remote object (expressed by the dative, slbi) lies in the idea of the conjugation, d) It is often also passive of Kal, e. g. 'i^'^ to bear, Niph. to be born ; likewise of Piel and Hiphil, when Kal is intransitive or not in use, e. g (from ^151 to be in honor) Piel to honor ; ^tV2 in Piel to conceal, Hiph. to make disappear, to destroy; Niph. passive of each: and in this case its meaning may again coincide with Kal (nbn Kal and Niph. to be sick) and even take an accusative (§ 138, 2, Rem. 1). Examples of denominatives are ; I3t3 to he horn a male, Ex. xxxiv. 19, from "i3t a male ; 33^3 cordatum fieri. Job xi. 12, from 33^ cor. The older grammarians have represented Niphal as the proper Passive o? Kvi\. This representation, however, is decidedly incorrect. Niphal has not the characteristics of the other passives. There are still found in Kal traces of another passive form (§50, 1) ; and the Arabic has an independent conjugation, corresponding with Niphal (inqatala), which has its own Passive ; nay, in Hebrew itself there is probably a trace of the Passive of Niphal in the form hi^3 Judges vi. 9. Instead of nsb^iisri are found such forms as njb^fJpi, e. g. Is. iii. 16; xiii. IS. 3. The Inf. abs. Pual has sometimes the separate form given in the paradigm, as "ib^ castigando, Ps. cxviii. 18 ; but far more frequently, that of the Inf constr. ''^'^P,. 4. In Pual, instead of Qibbuts is found less frequently Q,amets-cha- tuph, e. g. t.'^^'q dyed red Nah. ii. 4; comp. iii. 7; Ps. xciv. 20. It is merely an orthographic variation, when Shureq takes the place of Q,ib- buts, as l^l'^ Judges xviii. 29. 5. As Inf. abs. Pual we find 335, Gen. xl. 15. An Inf constr. Pual does not occur in the regular verb. 6. The Part. Pual sometimes occurs without the prefix ^ ; it is then distinguished, like the Part. Niph., only by the Qamets in the final syl- lable, e. g. n^sb taken 2 Kings ii. 10 ; comp. l|ip'^2'7l;l and they pursued Judg. xviii. 22. The single exceptions, where i (as in Aramsean) is shortened to vocal Sh^va, are I2'n"i?l Jer. ix. 2, 'ipa'iLl 1 Sam. xiv. 22 ; xxxi. 2. The defec- tive mode of writing Chireq, e. g. D^'U?, is not an essential variation. 5. The form of the Part, with (..) in the sing, is doubtful (Is. liii. 3) ; but perhaps the plurals D^aVn?? dreamers Jer. xxix. 8, Bi"iT2.'53 helpers 2 Chroii. xxviii. 23, are derived from this form. The /ej?J. is nbopa. e. g. Tt"^;q Lev. xiv. 21. Comp. Gen. xxxv. 8. 6. In the Perf are sometimes found the forms ^isab'sn we have re- proached 1 Sam. xxv. 7, and "^nbxJiX I have stained (with K as in Aram.) Is. Ixiii. 3, comp. Job xvi. 7. 7. In the Impf and Part, the characteristic n regularly gives place to the preformatives, as b'''Jp'^ , ^'•■qp^ , but not to prepositions in the Inf, ^''Dprib, because their connection with the ground-form is less intimate than that of the preformatives. To both rules there are some few exceptions, as 3''llJin'i he will save Ps. cxvi. 6, for Itf'^di"' , iTiin^ he will praise for tTii^ (in verbs IS only) ; on the contrary S'^^Uib for J2'^52iijnb to sing Ps. xxvi. 7, n-i-iitb for a-^lNnb to cause to faint, 1 Sam. ii. 33 ' comp. Is. xxiii. II ; Ps. Ixxviii. 17. 1 02 PART n. PARTS OF SPEECH. N. B. 8. The tone, in Hiphil, does not fall on the afformatives 1, n— and ''—7. They take it, however, in the Perf. when Vav consecutive is prefixed, as Hib^'nat-i'i Ex. xxvi. 33. 9. In the Passive (Hophal) Perf., Impf., and Part, u ('-.) is found in the first syllable as well as 6 (t), bwpn, but not so often in the regular verb, e. g. nscn Ez. xxxii. 32, and na'siun xxxii. 19 ; r\\^.^, Part. Ti^iua 2 Sam. XX. 21, and RS^^an Is. xiv. 19; but verbs fs have ft constantly, as iSrt (according to § 9, 9, 2). 10. The Inf abs. Hophal (as in Hiphil) has (••) in the final syllable ; ©• S- ^'!^^r} fasciando Ez. xvi. 4; isn nuntiando Jos. ix. 24. Of the Infinitive construct there occurs no example in the regular verb. 11. On the Imp. Hophal, see § 46, 1, note (*). §54. HITHPAEL. 1. This conjugation connects itself with Piel, inasn.uch as it prefixes to the form bSJp the syllable nn (Chald. inx, Syr. ^2$*), which, like 3n in Niphal, has undoubtedly the force of a reflexive pronoun (§ 51, 2, Rem.). 2. The n of the syllable inn suffers the following changes, as also in Hithpoel and Hithpalel (§ 55) : a) when the first radical of the verb is a sibilant (D, f , IB), it changes places with t\ (§ 19, 5), as iTarnBH to take heed, for nriTiJnn, banpn to he hurdeiied, for baonn. With 1, more- over, the transposed T\ is changed into the more nearly related t:, as P'nt32tn to justify one's self for p'nn^n. (Single excep- tion in Jer. xlix. 3.) 6) before ^, U, and ri, it is assimilated (§19, 2), e. g. IS^in to converse, IHi^n to clea7ise one^s self, Q^rir^ io conduct one's self uprightly ; sometimes also before 2 and D, as X2l2n to prophesy, elsewhere iiSSrT' ; IP'^^n foi" IP'isrin to make one's self ready. Once before T, Is. i. 16 ; before TS, Eccl. vii. 16 ; before 1, Is. xxxiii. 10. 3. The significations of Hithpael. a) Most frequently it is reflexive, primarily of Piel, as tC'lprin to sanctify one's self, Dpinn to avenge one's self, 'y^^'^T\T\ to gird one's self Then farther it means : to make one's self that which is expressed by the first conjugation : hence, to conduct one's self as such, to * See also, in Hebrew, "lantlX 2 Chron. xx. 35. ' « V § 55. UNUSUAL CONJUGATIONS. 103 show one's self, to imagine one's self, to affect, to be such ; pro- perly to make one's self so and so, to act so and so. E. g. ^'IJSfiri to make one's self great, to act liroudly, DSnrifl to show one's self cunning, crafty, also, Eccles. vii. 16, to think one's self wise ; ^WT\T\ to make, i. e. to feign one's self rich. Its siguifi- cation sometimes coincides with that of Kal, and both forms are in use with the same meaning, e. g. bsii Kal to mourn, is found only in poetry ; Hithp. in the same sense, is more common in prose, and even takes an accusative (§ 138, 2, Rem. 1). h) It expresses reciprocal action (like Niph. § 50, 2, h), as nx'irin to look upon one another Gen. xlii. 1. More frequently c) It expresses what one does indirectly to ox for himself {comp. Niph. §50, 2, c). It has then an active signification, and governs an accusative, e. g. TJiBStin exnit sihi {vestem), TlPSTiT} solvit sibi {vincula). So without the accusative, '^^nriH to walk about by one's self {ambulare). Only seldom d) It is passive, e. g. ^I^Stin to be numbered, mustered, Judges xx. 15, 17, xxi. 9. Comp. Niphal, § 50, 2, d. The passive Hothpaal is found only in the few following examples : silpsnri (so always for 'pBnrt) ihey were viustered. Num. i. 47 ; ii. 33 ; i!<53L:ri to be rendered icnclean Deut. xxiv. 4 ; 033fi to be washed Lev. xiii. 55. 56 ; n3T^'iif7 it is smeared with fat Is. xxxiv. 6. Denominatives with the reflexive signification are: ■^■^^^l!^ to embrace Judaism (make one^s self a Jew), from l^iT^, rriiilT^ Jews; "i^^sn to pro- vide one's self with food for a journey, from 'T^'^^. N. B. Rem. The Perfect, as in Piel, has frequently Paitach in the final syllable, as pinHli to be strengthened, 2 Chr. xiii. 7 ; xxi. 4. Final Pattach occurs also in the Imperf and Imper., as QSHn"^ he deems him- self vrise, Eccles. vii. 16 ; ■>iJ'!)r3n!7 sanctify thyself Jos. iii. 5. In Pause these forms take Q,amets. and are the usual ones, as baxn"^ Ez. vii. 27, iiTsbn-^ Job xxxviii. 30. With the form in Piel nibbi^F? (§ 52, Rem. 2) comp. Hithp. nwfnnpi Zech. vi. 7. §55. UNUSUAL COl^JUGATIOFS. Of the unusual conjugations (§ 40, 2), some are connected, in form, with Piel, and are made by the doubling or the repetition of one or more stem-letters, or by the lengthening of a vowel, i. e. by changes ruithiji the stem itself ; others are analogous to Hiphil, and are formed by the addition of prefix letters or sylla- bles. To the former class, besides a passive distniguished by 104 PAliT II. PAETS OF SPEECH. the vowel in the final syllable, belongs also a reflexive form with the prefix fin, after the analogy of Hithpael. Those which are analogous to Piel, and which follow it in their inflection, are : 1. PoH; as h'^^'^p , pass. i>i:i'p, reflex. ?3i:ipri!i (corresponding to Conj. III. and VI. in the Arabic, qdtala, qidila, taqiUala), Impf. i'Mip'^, Part. btsipa , Impf. pass. ^l?lp'^ , &c. In the regular verb it but seldom occurs. E. g. Part. ■'L2SUJa my opposer, he who pleads with me, Job ix. 15 ; "^Pii^nii I have appointed 1 Sam. xxi. 3 (unless we should read ■^Pi^'i'in) ; ;ij'ni\2j to take root, Den'om. from ltJ"itl3 root. In verbs 52) (§ 67) it is far more frequent; e.g. bbin, anio, J3in. Its signification, like that of Piel, is often causative of Kal. Some- times both are in use in the same signification, as ysil and f'St'n to oppress ; sometimes each has its peculiar modification of meaning, as 33p to turn about, to change, aaio to go about, to surround ; b^rt to exidt, bbin to make foolish (from bbn to be brilliant, but also to be vain-glorious, foolish); 12n to make pleasant, "jiin to commiserate; UJ'nia to root out, ttSnid to lake root. With baip is connected the formation of quadriliterals by the inser- tion of a consonant at the end of the first syllable, as biJTp (§ 30, 3). 2. Pilel, Pidal, Hithpalel ; as bb:2p and bbap, pass. bbi:p, reflex. bbapnn, like the Arab. Conj. IX. iqtalla, and XI. iqldlla, used especially of permanent states or conditions, e. g. of colors, as 13N^ to be at rest, 1??1 fo be green, Pass. bb^X to be withered ; of these verbs there is no example in Kal. It is more frequent in verbs ^^S , where it takes the place of Piel and Hithpael (§ 72, 7). 3. Pealal ; as babijp, with repetition of the last two stem-letters, used especially of slight motions repeated in quick succession ; e. g. "ininp to go about with quick motion, hence (of the heart) to palpitate, Ps. xxxviii. 11, I'rom "inp to go about ; Pass. "i^")?aH to ferment with vio- lence, to make a rumbling sound, Lam. i. 20. Nouns of this form are diminulives (§ 84, 23). Nearly related to this is, 4. Pilpel, formed from verbs S3 and ISJ by doubling both of the essen- tial stem-letters; as npap from 2p=33p; bsbs from bs (biD). This also is used of motion rapidly repeated, which all languages are prone* to express by repetition of the same sound, as ClSBS to chirp, bstbs to tinkle, I5na to gurgle, 51SSS to flutter {^vom ?|!is> tojiy). With Hiphil are connected : * Compare tinnio, flntinnus, and in German Tick-tack, Wirrwarr, Klingklang [our ding doJigJ. Tlie repetition of the same letter iu verbs SS produces also the same eflfect; as in ppb to lick, pp'n to beat, !r)Sl3 to trip along. Other languages express the same thiug by diminutive forms ; comp. in Lat. the termination -illo, as in cantillo, in Germ, -eln, em, in jlimmern, trillern, trbpfeln. Hence we may explain the relation, mentioned under No. 3, between these forms and the dimi- nutives. §§56, 51. REGULAR VERB WITH PR0n6mIN"AL SUFFIXES. 105 5. Tipliel ; as iiuSpri , with t\ prefixed, as i>5"iPi to teach one to walk, to lead (dcnoni. from b3"i afoot) ; tTiriF] , Impf. iTinn'^ to emulate Jer. xii. 5 ; xxii. 15 (from !Tnn to be ardent, eager). The Aramaean has a similar form na'^Fi to interpret. 6. Shaphel; as ^Bpia, frequent in Syriac, as a«^^l2j to Jlame, from 2inb . In Heb. it is found only in the noun nsnbTlJ Jlame, § 84. No. 35. Forms of which single examples occur : — 7. ts^tJp, pass. '^\^p ; as DQOn^a scaled off, having the form of scales, Ex. xvi. 14, from vjor;, Cli^H to peel, to scale. — 8. bj5D|:5, as 'q'^l'il a violent rai7i, from Cj'nt. — 9. b::;5na (frequent in the Rabbinic), a form compounded of Niphal and Hithpael, found in the examples ^"i&li? for 1i&;iri3 they siffer themselves to be warned, Ez. xxiii. 48, 1Q33 for "isanj to be expiated, Deut. xxi. 8. Worthy of note is also, — 10. the form "iSian to sound^ the tnimpet, commonly derived from the stem "i^tl . But it is probably a denom. from irnaiiiri a trumpet, an onomatopoetic form like the old Latin taratantara, from the sound of the trumpet. Ennius apud Servium ad ^n. 9, 503. §56. QUADEILITEKALS. Of the formation of quadiiliterals we have already spoken (§30, 3). The few verbs of this kind (of nouns there are more) are formed after the analogy of Piel, once after Hiphil. The following are all the examples that occur : Pret. filJ'nS he spread out, Job xxvi. 9 (with Pattach in the first syl- lable, as in Chaldee). hnpf ns^onDi he will devour it, Ps. Ixxx. 14. Pass. ^Sii'n to become green again, Job xxxiii. 25. Part, ^a'la^ 1 Chr. XV. 27. After Hiphil b-ix^ain contracted b-'X^qii to turn to the left (denominative from ^X^iU), Gen. xiii. 9 and other places. a REGULAR VERB WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES.* §57. The accusative of the personal pronoun after a verb active may be expressed 1) by a distinct word, MX (the sign of the accusative) with the suffix (§ 101), as irik b'^jp [he has killed him) ; or 2) by a mere suffix, as ''inb'Djp or ib'jp [he has killed * We treat this subject in connection with the regular verb, in order to show here the general analogy. As to the irregular verbs, the shortening of their forms before the suffixes will be noticed under each class. 106 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. him). The second method is the usual one, and of this only we now treat.* Two things are to be considered here, viz. 1) the form o/ the suffix itself (treated in § 58) ; 2) the changes in the verbal stem to which it is attached (§§ 59-61). §58. THE SUFFIX TO THE VERB. 1. The suffixes appended to the verb express the accusative of the personal pronowi. They are the following . Plural. /Singular. 1 comm. "'p ; "^S^ ; ''3-1 r m. ^, ^— (fkha), in 2-1 pause ^— me. m. T\, 1] ^ni-, (n), thee. him. her. 1 comm. ^3 ; ^D-1 us. you. in. DD, DD_ ''m. DHjtD; D— (con- tr. fr. Dn_), D^ ; D— (contr. from 3-{ , DH— ), Dtt-^; poet. )-them. iia, 1^4 j i^4 2. That these suffixes are shortened forms of the perso7ial pronoim, is for the most part clear of itself, and only a few of them require any explanation. In the suffix of the second person {"^^ DD, p) the basis appears to be a lost form of the pronoun nriX with DJ instead of T\ (nSpN, nSS ; D3X), which was employed here in order to distinguish the suffixes from the affiDrmatives of the Perfect (§ 44, 1). * On the cases where the former must be employed see § 121, 4. ■f drt occurs very seldom as verbal suffix (Deut. xxxii. 26), )'n not at all. But they are given in the list as being ground-forms, which frequently occur with nouns and prepositions. ^ Traces of this lost form appear still in the afformatives of the ^Ethiopic Per- fect, as qatalka (thou hast killed), and also in the Samaritan (see Gescnii Anecdota Orientalia, I. 43). Comp. what was said in § 44, 1, on "^riblip. — The sounds t and 1e are not unfrequently interchanged. § 58. THE SUmX OF THE VERB. 107 In the 3d pers. 'masc, from ^n_, by dropping the feeble h there arose a-ii, and thence 6 (§23, 4), usually written i, much more seldom ri. In the /em. the suffixes from i^Tl ought, accord- ing to analogy, to sound H, ITI— ., ri— . ; but izistead of n_. we have, for the sake of euphony, simply fl— where the n is regularly a consonant, and therefore marked with Mappiq. Once (Ez. xli. 15) i^n stands for H, as in Chaldee and Arabic, 3. The variety in the forms of the suffixes was occasioned chiefly by the regard had to the form and tense of the verb which received them. Thus three forms of almost every suffix may be distinguished : a) one beginning with the consonant itself, as ''5, l!l, ID, dH, D, (fcc. This is appended to verbal forms which end with a vowel, as ^3^5i:]5, iniribpp ; h) a second and a third with the so-called union-vowels* C'?-^, ''S-l.), for the verbal forms which end with a consonant (with one exception, § 59, Rem. 3) : with the union-vowel a for the forms of the Perfect, as "^p^tpp, ^55t2p, DbtJp ; with the union- vowel e (rarely a) for the forms of the Imperfect and the Im- perative, as ^nBpp';', D^P)?- To the Perfect belongs also i, from 'in.l. With 7^, DD, ^D the uniting sound is only a half- vowel {vocal SJfva)^ as ^— , 03—, p— , e. g. ^^t3jp {(fta-Vkha) ; or when the final consonant of the verb is a guttural, ?j— , e. g. 'nri^^- In Pause this Sh®va becomes a Seghol with the tone, '^-^. Rem. 1. As rare forms may be mentioned ; Sing. 2d pers. masc. ns 1 Kings xviii. 44, in pause t]— Is. Iv. 5, and 03^: Pro v. ii. 11; fern. "^D, "^3-^ Ps. cxxxvii. 6, and in the later Psalms frequently, (t^-^, contrary to the rule, appended to the Perf. in Judges iv. 20.) — In the 3d pers. masc. ri Ex. xxxii. 25 ; Num. xxiii. 8 : fern. Ti— without Mappiq Num. XV. 28; Jer. xliv. 19. — The forms ip, I'iS^, 153-^ are strictly poetic (except Ex. xxiii. 31) ; instead of iJ3 we find la once in Ex. xv. 5. On the origin of these forms see § 32, Rem. 7. 2. By comparing these suffixes of the verb with the suffixes of the noun (§ 91) we observe : a) There is here a greater variety of forms than there (because the forms and relations of the verb are themselves more various) ; b) the verbal suffix, where it differs from that of the * We retain the common name union-vowel, although it rests on a rather super- ficial view and is somewhat vague. These union-sounds seem rather to be rem- nants of old verbal-endings, like the i in ^iniribap , Comp. e. g. the Hebr. form q'tal-ani with the Arab, qatala-ni ; and on the contrary, Hebr. q'talat-ni, Arab. qatalatni. t08 PART II. PART« OF SPEECH. noun, is longer, as ^3, '^3— , ^^— (me) ; '^— ; (my). The reason is, tha the object of the verb is less closely connected with it, than the posses- sive pronoun is with the noun ; on which account also the former may even be expressed by a separate word (§ 117, 2). 4. The suffix gains still more strength, when instead of the union-vowel there is inserted a union-syllable 5_, D— (common- ly called Nun epenthetic, but better Nun demonstrative), which, however, occurs only in the Imperfect and in Pause, e. g. '^n55"in'|' he loill bless him (Ps. Ixxii, 15), iDp^2D'|i he loill honor me (Ps. 1. 23). This Nun is, however, for the most part incorporated with the suffixes, and hence we have a new series of forms, namely, Istpers. ^3^, ^3r^, for ^:}—, ''ii— ; 2d jjers. 5^, once 'JfSl-; (Jer. xxii. 24) ; 3^ pers. 'isl- for ^n2_, also 12 (Num. xxiii. 13) ; fe?n. <1|^, for n5_ ; ' ' ' 1st pers. plur. 13^ for 125_. In the other persons this Nun does not occur. Bevi. The forms with Niin written out are rare, merely poetic (Jer. v. 22), and do not occur at all in 3d fern. sing, and 1st plur. The con- tracted forms (with the Nun assimilated) are pretty frequent, especially in pause. This Nun is in its nature demonstrative, and belongs to the appended accusative of the personal pronoun, to which it serves to direct atten- tion, as the object of the verb. In Chaldee, besides the Nun, there is also inserted a consonant Yodh ; in Samaritan a 3 is appended also to the Perfect, and in similar cases a n inserted. §59. THE PERFECT WITH PRONOMmAL SUFFIXES. 1. The endings {afformafives) of the Perfect have in part a somewhat different form, when connected with the suffixes. Namely : a) in the 3d sing, f em. the original feminine ending ri— , n_., for ri— ; h) the 2d sing. masc. besides ri has also T\, to which the union- vowel is attached ; but the only clear instance of it is with * Here also, the short « probably belongs to the verbal form ; see § 58, 3, b; uote (*). § 59. PERFECT WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. 109 c) the 2d sing. fern, has ^Pt, likewise an older form for H (comp. in«, inb-J^ § 32, Rem. 4 ; §44, Rem. 4). This form is to be distinguished from the 1st pers. sing, only by the connection ; d) the 2d plur. masc. has 11^ for DPI, which is explained by the Arabic antum, qataltum^ Chald. "jWi?, l^nV^J? for QriS, Dri'stip (§ 32, Rem. 5). Of the/em. ']ri'?Up with suffixes no example occurs, but it probably took the same form as the masculine. We exhibit, first, the forms of the Perfect in Hiphil as they appear in connection with the suffixes, because there is here no change in the stem itself, except in reference to the tone (see No. 2). Sing. Pmr. 3d m. b^tpjpn 3d c. ^b^tppn 3d f. nb^Ippn 2d m. S?'5t:ipn, ribispn 2c? m. ^r\bt3jpn 2d f. "^nbDpn, r^^Ppr^ 1st c. ^nVjpn 1st c. ^sVjpn The learner should first exercise himself in connecting the suffixes with the forms of Hiphil, and then with those of the Per/. Kal (in No. 2). 2. The tone inclines towards the appended suffix, so that it seldom remains on the stem itself. This occasions certain changes of vowels, particularly in the Perfect of Kal, in conse- quence of which it takes the following forms : Sing. Plur. 3d in. btpp (bi:p, Rem. 1) 3d c. ^bt3p 3d f. nbip 2d m. Pibt:p (nbt:p, Rem. 4) 2dm. inbtDp 2df. ^nbt2p (nyjp,Rem. 4) l"*^ c. "inbup " ' 1st c. ^Dbtjp The connection of these forms with all the suffixes is shown in Paradigm C. It will there be seen also, that Tsere in Piel is shortened sometimes into Seghol and sometimes into vocal Sh^va. Rem. 1. The suffixes for the 2d per. plural, dd and 13, are (together with on and yn) rather weightier (more strongly accented) forms than the others, and hence are called grave suffixes. They always have the tone, and cause in the 3d m. sing, of Perf. Kal a greater shortening than the others (called light suffixes), e. g. ^^.^P , ti^^i^p . The difference has still greater effect in the case of nouns (§ 91). 110 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. 2. In the 3d sing. masc. ^nHiip is also contracted into ibup according to § 23, 4. and so likewise in the 2d sing. masc. ifrnVjp into in^l?!?. 3. The 3d sing, f em. vb'^p^ (=nb:^;5) has the twofold peculiarity, a) that it constantly draws the tone to itself, except with D3 and la (see Rem. 1), and then takes the suffixes that make a syllable by them- selves (""S, tj, ^2t&n from fSn to he inclined. 2. When a preformative is prefixed to such forms, it takes the vowel corresponding to the Chateph (§28, 2), as T^?,'!!, Ci^r!|] he will dream, v|bS!^ he ivill gather ; or the composite Sh®va conforms to the vowel of the preformative, when the latter is an essential characteristic of the form ; e. g. Perf. Niph. TQ?3. (for "Iia:?5), Hiph. T^?n (for T^yn), Inf. and Impf 1^^?n, TXJ?;!, Hoph. Perf "t^^^j ^»^Pf- ^'^Vr- (On the idethegh in these forms, see § 16, 2, a.) In many verbs, however, the guttural, especially 11 , when it stands after a preformative at the end of a syllable, retains the simple Sh^va ; but in this case the preformative always has the vowel corresponding to the composite Sh^va, which the guttural * See the general view of the classes in § 41. §63. VERBS PE GUTTURAL. 113 would take according to the above rule. E. g. Imjyf. Kal ^'^H^ he rvill desire, T2J!3ln|^ he mill bind, Niph. '?fS?75 he turned himself, nTNI2 girded, Hiph. '^p^'i^ to cause to fail. The grammarians call the latter the hard, the former with the comp. Sh^va the soft combination. Both often occur in the same verb. 3. When in forms like "lb5^^, W5, the vowel of the final syllable becomes a simple Sh^va vocal, on the addition of a suffor- mative (^, '^— , f1— ), the composite ShVa of the guttural is ex- changed for its short vowel, as l^^,"^, ])lur. ^^W^; (pronounced ya-um''-dh{L) ; S^^T?.? she is forsaken. But here again there is also a harder form, as ^^3H|] they take a pledge, '^pT'?!? as well as ^prn;: they are strong. See § 22, 4, § 28, 3. 4. In the Inf., Imp., and Impf. of Niph.^ vhere the first stem-letter would regularly be doubled (^t3|^n, ^'^)5?), the doubling is always omitted, and the vowel of the preformative is length- ened into Tsere, as W."! for W\ Remarks. I. On Kal. 1. In verbs XS the Inf. consir. and Imp. take {-^) under the first letter (according to § 22, 4, Rem. 2) ; as "I'tx gird Job xxxviii. 3, anx love thou Hos. iii. 1, bbx to eat, with a prefix ths^, bbwSb. The {—) is found here only when the tone is forcibly thrown forward ; e. g. HJSti bbxa Num. xxvi. 10. For the same reason was written Qr)"i?3X not CFi'iiax. In the other forms also of the Imp. the guttural often exerts its influ- ence upon the vowel, which becomes Seghol, as iiS^S set in order Job xxxiii. 5, "^QiiJr! v.ncover Is. xlvii. 2, especially when the second radical is also a guttural, as 12I1X Ps. xxxi. 24. Pattach occurs in ^t^^an take a pledge of him Pro v. xx. 16. 2. The Impf. A, as the Parad. shows, has regularly under the first two letters -r— 5 and with the hard combination 777, as ^''^h;; he ceases, can;) he is wise. This is also true of those verbs which are at the same time lib, as ri.Tn|] he sees, fi^nj;; he divides. Less frequently the pointing — — is found also in verbs Impf O ; as tlbs^, Clbn;] he uncovers. Q,uite unique is the form aJJJni and she loves Ez. xxiii. 5. In these forms the pointing —— is very frequently shortened to -^— (according to § 27, Rem. 5) J as IDS'; he binds, plur. with suf. ^n^^tiii^ ; also ^on;;, snon^. II. 071 Hiphil and. Hophal. 3. The rule given in Rem. 2 respecting ——;: and -::— applies again here in the Perf. after Vav consecutive ; i. e. the throwing forward of the tone occasions a change of e* into a" as Pi'i^J^n thou didst set, TC^.'O^tX) and thou wilt set. Num. iii. 6 ; viii. 13 ; xxvii. 19 ; '^Pi'iaS'^, ''n"?3yni. 4. In the Perf. o[ Hiph. is sometimes changed into , and 114 PART II. TARTS OF SPEECH. — : — into — — in Hoph. Perf. by prolonging tlie short vowel, which waa sustained by Methegh, e. g. !^"i2J;n thou hast brought over Jos. vii. 7 nbsn he brings up Hab. i. 15 ;Vi^2J'n Nah. ii. 8. III. In General. 5. In the verbs rr^n to live, apd !T;n to be, the guttural is treated as such in very few forms; Impf. f^^.f^?, fT?.""?- The rule given under No. 1 is indeed true of these verbs, hence ni^n ; but so soon as a letter is prefixed, tiie first radical drops the peculiar pointing of the guttural, as niinb, ni'inb, oniini Ez. xxxvii. 5, 6. 6. For stems in which the initial K loses its consonant-power, see §68. §64. VERBS AYIN GUTTURAL. (E. g. '^tvii to slaughter. Paradigm E.) The deviations from the regular verb are not so great as in the former class, and are mainly as follows :* 1. Where a Sh®va is required, the guttural takes without exception a composite Sh%'a, namely {,). E.g. Perf. ^tSTO, Imj)f. ^"on^IJ';', Imp. Niph. ^Dntsn. In the Imp. Kal the vowel, supplied under the first radical, conforms to the Chateph of the second ; as ^'^rw, rjnir. So in the Inf. Kal fern., as narix to love, nsx-i to languish. 2. The preference of the gutturals for the A sound has gene- rally less influence on the following than on the preceding vowel (§ 22, 2, a, and Rem. 1) ; accordingly, not only is the Cholem in Inf. Kal ish©, t2imy retained, but also, for the most part, the Tsei^e in I?}ipf Niph. and Piel onb'^ he fights, Dn?|' he consoles, and even the more feeble iSeghol (after Vav consecutive) Un}'^^ . But in the Impf. and Imp. Kal the last syllable generally takes (J, through the influence of the guttural, even in transitive verbs, e. g. unilJ, t:rn2J:' ; p^T, 'pVI'^ ; "1113, IJlS^ (seldom as Dhr) ; and in the Perf, Piiil also, Pattach occurs somewhat more fre- quently than in the regular verb, as i:np. 3. In Pial, Piial, and Hithp., the Daghesh forte cannot stand in tiie middle stem-letter ; but in the greater number ot examples, particularly before H, n, and V, the preceding vowel * Hophal, which is not exhibited in the Paradigm, is varied like Kal. Hiphil is regular. § 65. VERBS LAjVIEDH GUTTURAL. 115 remains short and sharp, the guttural having Dagltesh forte implicihmi (§22, 1). E. g. Piel pntp, /w/. pnilJ to jest ; PncU YTn ^0 ^^ washed ; Hithp. T\T\^T) cleanse yourselves. Before i? the vowel is commonly prolonged, and always before ^, as Piel 'jii'a to refuse, l^"^^ to bless, Inypf. ^'^i^'!', Pass. ^Jt!^, seldom as fji?? to commit adultery. Rem. 1. In the Perf. Kal of the much used verb bxiU to ask, to de- mand, the peculiar feebleness of the X occasions a weakening of its a to -7, and in a closed syllable to -^ and — , when the syllable loses the tone and X is not preceded by a full vowel (as in some verbs ''S , § 69, Rem. 4). E. g. with suff. tjbx^ Gen. xxxii. 18, siiJlbxTZ? Ps. cxxxvii. 3 ; 2dplur. tDtnbxia 1 Sam. xii. iS ; xxv. 5; 1st sing, with suff. iinipibxTU Judg. xiii. 6; VSam. i. 20; also in Hiph. ^'n-'V\h^'qri 1 Sam. i. 28. Comp'. § 44, Rem. 2. 2. In Piel and Hithp. the tone is sometimes drawn back upon the penultima, and the Tsere of the final syllable shortened to Seghol ; viz. a) Before a word of one syllable (according to § 29, 3, b), as Dia ri"iab in order to serve there Deut. xvii. 12, comp. Gen. xxxix. 14 ; Job viii. 18. b) After Vav consecutive, as t^i.S'?] and he blessed Gen. i. 22, ^'iS'?^ and he drove out Ex. x. 11, comp. Gen. xxxix. 4. 3. The following are unfrequent anomalies in the Perf. Piel: ^iriN they delay Judges v. 28 for ^^nx ; and the similar form '^Jn^ri'^ she con- ceived me Ps. li. 7 for '''^rian;; or ''snrn'). 4. For some examples, in which a middle X loses its feeble consonant- power, see § 73, Rem. 1. §65. VERBS LAMEDH GUTTURAL. (E. g. nbir to send. Paradigm P.) 1. According to 9 22, 2, a and b, we here distinguish two cases ; viz. either the regular vowel of the final syllable remains, and the guttural takes Vdiii''5att!N Jer. xviii. 2. On the feeble verbs xb , see especially § 74. B. CONTRACTED VERBS.* §66. VEEBS fs. (E. g. laaj to apyproach. Paradigm H.) The irregularities of these verbs are caused by the feebleness of the nasal letter Nun^ and are as follows : 1. The Imj). and Inf. constr. often lose their Nun, which would here take Sh^va, as m for 12J5? (§ 19, 3). The Inf. then, * Including the two classes, Pe Nun and Ayin doubled, -which have this in common, that one of the stem-letters is in many forms expressed by a Daghesh forte. Strictly speaking, however, the term applies only to the latter class, the former belonging rather to the feeble verbs. — Tk. §G6. VERBS IS. 117 however, has regularly the feminine ending ri_I, or, with a guttu- ral, n_ (§ 80, 2), as rmaSf, , n?5 (from ^52) to touch. The /m;^. has usually P attach ; but also Tsere, as "jn ^ive (from ipz). The lengthened form is frequent here, as T\ZT\ give up. 2. In forms which take a prefonnative, where the Nun is thus made to stand at the end of a syllable, it assimilates itself to the following stem-letter (§ 19, 2, a) : viz. a) in the Lyipf. Kal, e. g. bs^ Ae t^i// fall, for bjsr ; 1C5:' for m}^ ; 'jn:' /ie will give for 'jri?;' (the Imp/. O as in the regular verb most common, the Impf. E only in this example*) ; h) in the Perf. Niph., e. g. TIJ53 for TlJa23 ; c) in the whole of Hij)hil and Hophal (which here has always Qibbuts, §9, 9, 2), e. g. tJ^Sn, ican for TS''53n, T2Ja:n. The other forms are all regular, e. g. Peif., Inf. absoL, Part., of Kal, Piel, Pual, &c. Only those conjugations which are irregular aie included in the Paradigm H. The characteristic of these verbs in all forms which begin with a formative letter, is the Daghesh forte following it in the second radical. Some forms, however, of one class of verbs "'S (§ 71), and even of verbs 's'-S (§ 67. 5), exhibit the same appearance. Verbs IS likewise exhibit such forms of the Imp. as \I3a, also "1^5 (Gen. xix. 9), and 'iH. Rem. 1. The instances are comparatively few in which the forms mentioned in Nos. 1 and 2 retain their Nun, e. g. Imp. ^li: permit, ^ibsJ fall ye; Inf. ?i3 (but also n:sr>) to touch j Impf ibS'i he keeps Jer. iii. 5 (elsewhere "its'!'). In Niph. this never occurs, and in Hiph. and Iloph. very seldom, as Tj'^ln?'! to melt Ez. xxii. 20, ^plnJ^J they are cut o^ Judges XX. 31. It regularly occurs, however, in all verbs which have a guttural for their second stem-letter, as ^^^'! he will possess. In these verbs the Nun rarely falls away, as nn;^ and rins^ he will descend ; Niph. ons for C)133 he has comforted himself. N. B. 2. These anomalies are in part shared by the verb n;?^ to take, whose h is treated like the Nun of these verbs (§ 19, 2). Hence, Impf ni?"^, Imp. nj'3 (seldom Hj^b), Inf. constr. nn^, Hoph. Impf riiS^. Niphal, however, is always riplsD . N. B. 3. The verb "jPia to give has the further irregularity, that its third radical (as a feeble nasal sound) is also assimilated ; e. g. "'Pin? for '^FisriJ, Fjb? for PiJna ; Inf. constr. nn for rsn (see § 19, 2), with suff. TIP) my giving. * The vei'b TIJSJ , employed as a Paradigm, has the Impf. A, which is not pre- Bcnted, however, as the most usual form of the Impf. in verbs of this class, but only as the actual form of this particular verb. The Tsere in "jn" is owing to tlie double feebleness of the stem "jrii (comp. Rem. 3). 1 1 S PART II. PAETS OF SPEECH. §67. VERBS VV. (E. g. 330 to surround. Paradigm G.) 1. The principal irregularity of these verbs consists in the contraction of the second and third radicals often into one double letter, as ^ISD for ^3DD, even when a full vowel would regularly stand between them, as 30 for Dip, 3D for 120 • Only those forms are not contracted which contain unchangeable vowels, or a Daghesh forte, as 3inD, 3310, 330. 2. The monosyllabic stem thus obtained takes, throughout, the vowel which the full form would have had in its second syl- lable, and which, in the regular verb also, is the characteristic of the form (§ 43, Rem. 1) ; e. g. Perf. 3p for 330 ; Inf. 30 for 330 ; Hiph. 3pn for 33Dn (comp. No. 6). 3. The Daghesh forte, which, after this contraction, properly belongs to the final stem-letter, is excluded from it (§ 20, 3, a), except when formative additions are made at the end, as ^30, ^30, Impf. ^30;^, but not 30, 3b. 4. When the afibrmative begins with a consonant (3, ri), a vowel is inserted before it in order to render audible the Daghesh of the final stem-letter (§ 20, 3, c, Rem.). This vowel in the Perf. is i, in the Imp. and Impf '^—, e. g. fii3p, ^Diio, Impf n:^3Dn. The Arabian writes indeed regularly rill^a , but 'pronounces in the popular language especially rr^ia inaddeit, maddU, also maddat, which last is exactly analogous to the Hebrew inflection.* 5. The preformatives of Impf Kal, Perf Nij^h., and of Hiph. and Hoph., which in consequence of the contraction stand in a simple syllable (3b|'^ instead of 33|D"i), take, instead of the short vowel of the regular form, the corresponding long one (§ 27, 2, a). Hence Kal Impf O 30^' for 330;: = 330^ ;t Impf A, "113^ for TP^'} ; * The explanation here given, of this inserted vowel, may perhaps suffice, especially if a certain approximation be supposed to verbs of tlie class fi?; com- j)are niap and Arab. ?na(Z(/tte with tiiba or n"^!?, and tiraOPl with nphn . \ It might seem an easier explanation of the Impf. DD^ (as well as of the Impf. in verbs "IS, B^P"^), to regard it as formed from the contracted stem-syllable 20 by prefixing "^ ; so also in Hiph. and Hoph. But the mechanically easier way is not always the natural one. §67. VERBS sir. 119 Hiph. ncn for ssDJi , Inf. npn for sacn ; Hoj)h. nc^n for n^on This long vowel (except the ^ in Hophal) is changeable. There is still another mode of constructing these forms (the common one in Chaldee), according to which the Inipf. Kal ab"^ comes from 32D1, Impf. Iliph. cn^ irom D^n;;>, Hoph. ns;' from nriDi, the first syl- lable being sharpened, with a consequent douhling of the first radical. When these forms receive an addition at the end, the first radical com- monly appears single (i. e. without Daghesh forte, as if the sharpening of the first syllable sufficed for this), the tone at the same time falling on the accessory syllable. E. g. ^"^P,"! they bow themselves (from ^1|5), ^351 (from nns) ; but see !ia&:;i Judges xviii. 23, ^tns^ Job iv. 20. They omit also the vowels 1 and 1 — , e. g. nj^^n (from bb:i) Jer. xix. 3. The Parad. exhibits this form by the side of the other in Impf. Kal. 6. The originals of these contractions are several unusual forms, which in part are older and more nearly primary than those of the regular verb. Thus, Sb^ is contracted from n3p|;i, the preformative having a as in the regular verb in Arabic ;* Hiph. icn for 33cn has in the contracted stem-syllable the shorter e (like tlie Aram. VjpK comp. § 53, 1 and Rem. 1) ; Perf. NipJi. nc: for n?c: ; Inf. Niph. ns;' for nne:', comp. bi:]^i, §51, Rem. 2. ' 7. The tone has this peculiarity, that it is not thrown forward upon the formative syllables beginning with a vowel (H— ., .^, ^i— ), but remains before them on the stem-syllable, as ^30. t Before the otlier afformatives, it rests upon the inserted syllables i and *i__ (with the exception of DP and "JFI, which always take the tone), and in consequence the vowels of the word are shortened, as ^3Dr\, nriicn ; rapn, but niicn. 8. Instead of Piiil, Pual, Hithp., arid in the same significa- tion, is found in numerous verbs of this kind, the unfrequent conjugation Poel (§55, 1), witli its passive and reflexive, e. g. bbiy to treat one ill, Pass, bbis?. Reflex, bbiynn (from bby) ; in some is found Pilpel (§ 55, 4), as bsba to roll, ^^b^lnn to roll one^s self (from bb:\). Pass. ^Wt to he caressed (from VVt). They are inflected regularly like Piel. * Hebrew ^bp^ from h'^p^., § 9, 5. The a appears also in verbs S guttural, especially in verbs XS § 68, and verbs ^^S § 72. f The terminations for gender and number in the Participles take the tone, these not being a part of the verbal inflection, as n|"j53 , Msop . 120 PART 11. PARTS OF SPEECH. Remarks. I. On Kal. 1. In the Perf. are found some examples with Cholem (comp. bb^ § 43, 1), as >l53"i from Db"! they are exalled Job xxiv. 24, ^3"n from Dh" Gen. xlix. 23. 2. The Cholem of the /?j/l, /mp., and /«y/. (nb , ab^), is a change- able vowel, and is written defectively, with a few exceptions, which are found especially in the later orthography. E. g. tin^ for Thb to -plunder Esth. iii. 13; viii. 11. It is consequently shortened into Qamets-chatuph or Qibbiits, whenever it loses the tone, as Inf. "I"! to rejoice Job xxxviii. 7, with suff. "ipna when he founded Prov. viii. 27, /?hj3. iJsn pzV?/ wie, /mjs/^ with Vav consec. 2G*1 Judges xi. 18, with suff. C^'^j'? /je lays them waste Prov. xi. 3, aM. 3. Of final Pattach in the Inf., Impf. an& 'mp. (Vjp, b'Jp-^) the fol- lowing are examples : '^'O to stoop Jer. v. 26. Imp. ba ro/Z Ps. cxix. 22, Impf "^"02 he is bitter Is. xxiv. 9, bp;; he is despised Gen. xvi. 4, 5, T^ti!! he becomes weak, Is. vii. 4. Examples of the Cha.ldaizing Impf are : 23"^ even though sb^ is also in use ; D'iZJ^ he is astonished 1 Kings ix. 8 ; !l1|3^l and they bowed themselves, from 1^j5 . 4. In the Participle occurs the Aramsean form DXiU for Otgit) Jer. xxx. 16, K^thibh. II. On Niphal. 5. Besides the most usual form with Pattach in the second syllable, as given in the Paradigm, there is still another with Tsere, and another with Cholem (analogous with h^p^, ^133, bb^. § 43, 1), extending through the whole conjugation. E. g. Perf. b;?3 (also b;?3) it is a light thing Is. xlix. 6, Part. D123 wasted away 1 Sam. xv. 9 ; with Cholem, ^y^ they are rolled together Is. xxxiv. 4, Impf. ^ann thou art destroyed Jer. xlviii. 2. In The Inf. and Imp. there occur no forms with Pattach, but only with Tsere and Cholem ; e. g. /»/". &52li to melt Ps. Ixviii. 3, Inf. abs. Tistn ^0 6e plundered Is. xxiv. 3, //»;>. ^iHTi"; g-e^ ?/oz« ?

lpn;i in pause (Job xix 23) for ^pn^ . ' § 68. VERBS XS . 121 IV. In General. 9. Verbs SS are very nearly related to verbs IS (§ 72), as appears even from the similarity in their conjugations, which are parallel through- out. In form the verb V'J is generally shorter than the other (comp. "b^ and O^ip^, 3Dn and n''|?ln). In some cases they have precisely the same form, as in the Impf. consec. of Kal and Hiphil, in Hophal, and in the unfrequent conjugations. On account of this relation, they have sometimes borrowed forms from each other, e. g. I^i^ for '|"i;|' he rejoices Prov. xxix. 6. 10. Along with the contracted forms ihere are found, especially in certain conjugations and tenses, others which are wholly regular. E. g. Perf. Kal ITS to plunder, Plur. ^tT3, WT3 (also !i3ila Deut. ii. 7); Inf. 3ho and 30; Ini))/. '^ri^ he is gracious Amos v. 15, elsewhere yn^ ; Hiph. ■|''?"}n, Impf. T'3"!'^ he will rejoice (which is never contracted), Paft. Dixiir^ astonished Ez. iii. 15. The full form is rather poetic, and is used with some degree of emphasis (Ps. cxviii. 11). 11. We have seen above (No. 5), that in the Impf. of the Chaldee form, the Daghesh of the third radical, together with the preceding vowel, is omitted before afformatives, the tone at the same time falling on the latter, as ^"ii?^!] . This sometimes occurs also in other forms, as >^^23 Gen. xi. 7 for nV33 ice will coifound (cohortative irom bbs) ; ^"Q^"^ for ^5an ver. G they will devise; Perf. Niph. ^203 for n3D3 Ez. xli. 7 ; cnbiss for Dn'^'23 Gen. xvii. 11 (from ^h'O =b^'0 to circumcise) ; comp. Is. xix. 3 ; Jer. viii. 14. Without Daghesh, but with the accented full vowel : ntsti for nj2Jn Prov. vii. 13, nj33 1 Sam. xiv. 36; comp. Q-i^n; Is. lvii.5 for t3"i53n3. 12. Although the tone falls less on the afformatives here (see No. 7), yet this occasionally takes place ; sometimes as an exception, e. g. li'i Jer. V. 6; Ps. iii. 2; civ. 21, ^ihp^ Gen. iv. 13; sometimes on account of appended suffixes, as ^30, i3^3D Ps. cxviii. 11. The vowels suffer before Daghesh the changes pointed out in § 27, 1, viz. Cholem in the Impf. becomes Qibbuts, less frequently Qamets-chaiuph, Tsere in Hiph. becomes Chireq (after the analogy of njisori. nniipn) ; the preforma- tives then, in place of the full vowel, take Sh'^va. E.g. "'3307 Ps. xlix.6, inbO': Job xl. 22, mn"! Ps. Ixvii. 2, Hiph. ^i^t)"] Ez. xlvii. 2." C. FEEBLE VERBS (VERBA QUIESCENTIA). §68. FEEBLE VEPvBS XD. (E. g. bax to eat. Paradigm I.) So far as X retains its power as a consonant and a guttural, these verbs have all the properties of verbs Pe guttural exhibited in § 63. Here we treat of them, only so far as their N quiesces, i. e. loses its consonant-sound, and is blended with the preceding 122 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. vowel. This happens only in a few very common verbs and forms, worn away as it were by frequent use. The limitationg are as follows : 1. In the Liipf. Kal of five verbs, viz., 13i5 to perish, H^S to be wllliug, ^3i5 to eat, "Tas to say, nsx to hake, the X always quiesces in a long 6 {Chole?)i), as 13i<''. In some others, the form in which it retains its power as a consonant is also in use, as TnS'^ and tHx^;; he takes hold of. The 6 in this case is a corruption of the vowel a (§ 9, 10, 2), which is itself derived by- contraction from — — or ——. The feebleness of these verbs (§41, c) affects also their last syllable, so that it takes instead of the stronger vowel o an e ( Tsere), particularly with distinctive accents at the end of a period or clause ; but with conjunctive accents, which mark the continuance of the discourse, it takes a {Pattach), e. g-. "i?b iniin Ps. ix. 19, on the contrary ins?n Ps. i. 6 (comp. a similar exchange of e and d § 65, 1, c). When the tone moves back, the last stem-syllable has sometimes Pattach, as Di"' "ns"" perish the day Job iii. 3, ^Di?''!! and he ate, and some times Seghol, as l^fi^^!! {Milel), with conjunctive accents, but I^.SJ'il {Milra) with distinctives (but in Job a few times "MZ^k^^ in pause). Very seldom does l^sere stand in the frst syllable in the Jmpf. Kal^ as nnsn it shall come Mic. iv. 8, contracted from f^ri^^f} : always, how ever, in the form "laxb dicendo {Inf. with h). for "I'^xb. 2. In the 1st j^ers. si)ig. Impf the radical i5 (to avoid the repetition of this letter) is regularly dropped (§ 23, 3), as "l12i? for n^S<55 / loill say. Except in this case the radical ^« seldom falls away, as C|Oh for ClOXP. Ihou takest aivaij Ps. civ. 29, Tj^i^^ for T]!i-irx"' they speak of thee Ps. cxxxix. 20, "'bl'n thou goest away (from ^!i<), Jer. ii. 36. The Paradigm I. gives the feeble forms (namely, Impf. Kal), and indicates the other more regular forms. jRem. 1. Out of Kal X seldom quiesces, as Perf. Niph. ^itnxs Jos. xxii. 9 ; Hiph. ^3X^1 and he took aicay Num. xi. 25. '('^TX I hearken Job xxxii. 11, tTiifiX (/> from A) I will destroy Jer. xlvi. 8, ■j'^'tTa attending Prov. xvii. 4, Imp. ^'^'nf} bring ye (from nnx) Is. xxi. 14. 2. In Piel X sometimes falls away by contraction (like n in b'^apfl'^, ^iiap'^) ; e. g. rj^n (so, regularly, in Syr. Chald. and Samar.) for C)5NO teaching Job xxxv. 11. §69. VERBS ''B. 123 §69. FEEBLE YERBS _ to be able. 2. The Imp. Kal often has the lengthening ti— ;-, as nsttj seat thyself iTTn descend. From niili to give the lengthened Lnp. is n2fi g-ive up, fern, "'an, plur. ^2ri, with accented Qaniets, owing to the influence of the guttural. 3. The Impf of the form niZJ';; takes Pattach in its final syllable when it has a guttural, as ^^"^ he will know, also T^P? Jer. xiii. 17. When the tone is drawn back upon the penultima, the final syllable takes Seghol. §"70. VERBS "IS. 125 namely, before a word of one syllable and after Vav consecutive. E. g. S<3-3d^ Gen. xliv. 33; 1-ii], 2ia^1, but in Pause aiiJ'l and 'T^^}. A very rare exception, in which an /mjj/". of this kind is written fully, is •"iDb^X Mic. i. 8. — The form ^t!'^? when lengthened can also lose its radi- cal ""j as ISS^ Is. xl. 30. ^"5|; Ixv. 23. Yet the cases are rare and ques- tionable where this occurs after other preformatives than "^ (see Is. xliv. 8). 4. In some stems the feebleness extends also to the Per/. Kal, so that the a under the second radical becomes e or i. as •i^TlJ'i'^ , on'iU'n'i , rpin'i!?';! from ^'n^ , "hj^ . Examples are found in Num. xi. 1 2 ; Deut. iv. 1 ; viii. 1 ; xix. 1 ; xxvi. 1 ; Ps. ii. 7 ; Ixix. 36, &c. In Syriac, e :jb here predomi- nant ; in Hebrew the feeble vowel is found only in such forms of the Per/, as have no full vowel under the first radical. See a similar case in § 73, Rem. 4. 5. As an exception, the Impf. Niph. has sometimes Yodh instead of Vav, e. g. bn^*! and he waited Gen. viii. 12 ; comp. Ex. xix. 13. The 1st pers. sing, has always the form aiiJ^X not Siyj!* ; comp. § 51, Rem. 4. 6. In Piel the radical Yodk sometimes falls away after 1 preforma- tive, which takes its punctuation (comp. § 68, Rem. 2). E. g. iMDa^T for 1!iffl3;^'^l and he drieth it up Nah. i. 4. 7. In Hiphil, as in Kal, the Imp/, with retracted tone takes Seghol, as CjOi^ let him add Prov. i. 5, t]0i'1 and he added. On forms like SiiaiiT;!, see § 53, Rem. 7. — In Hophal, there are some examples of i in place of 1, as S'lin (for S"i!in) Lev. iv. 23, 28. N. B. 8. With verbs I's of the first class is connected, also, the verb "n^'l io go; for it forms (as if from "^1) Inipf. Ty?!^., with Vav ~^*!], in pause Tl^*!), Inf. constr. nab, Imp. T)b, lengthened nsb and also ?|b, and so Hiph. '^''bin. Rarely, and almost exclusively in the later books and in poetry, are found also the regular inflections from T]bfi ; e. g. Impf. r\^flt^, Inf. Ti'bn (Num. xxii. 14, 16 ; Eccles. vi. 8, 9), Imp. pi iisfl-i (Jer. li. 50). On the contrary, Perf Kal is always T^bri, Part. T\?i^, Inf. abs. "^ibrj, Piiil T^^H) Hithp. T^trrlr) ; so that a "^ nowhere appears decisively as the first radical. An obsolete stem T^b^ is commonly assumed, how- ever, for the explanation of the above forms ; though, in a word of so frequent use, the stem with the feeble breathing T]bii may itself be sup- posed to have admitted those forms, after the analogy indeed of verbs "I'a. Comp. also the feeble NS forms, e. g. "'btn from btjj (§ 68, 2), like labF] from "r^bn ; Impf Hiph. n'n''^i< from 'nnst,' like na'^bix 2 Kings vi. 16 from Ti^rt. §70. FEEBLE VEEBS "I'S. Second Class, or Verbs properly ''S. (E. g. Da"^ to be good. Parad. L.) The most essential points of difference between verbs properly ■'S and verbs '^B are the following : 126 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. 1. Kal has only the stronger formation described in § 69, 1, namely, that in which the radical ^ remains. Inf. 3b';', with the Inipf. A, as ny^, fp"'^ ; with retracted tone, the Pattach becomes Seghol, as f'i^'^'Tl. and he aiooke Gen. ix. 24, IIS'^^'I (from 12?"'';') and he formed Gen. ii. 7, 2. In Hiphil the "^ is pronounced as a diphthongal e ( Tsere), and is regularly written fully, e. g. ^'^p'^n (for Dip';'!!), Impf. 31'J''.'^ ; seldom with the diphthong ai, ay, as in 'lI'^T!?^!;' they make straight Prov. iv. 25 ; Ps. v. 9, Gt^ri. The following are the only verbs of this kind : '2'^'^ to be good, pJ"; to suck, ■J'p'; to awake, is; to form, hh^ Hiph. b^b-^n to bewail, ir;; to be straight. Of the Impf. Hiph. there are some anomalous forms with preforma- tives attached to the ScZ pers. b'lb; ; as b'^b;^';! he wails, b'lbl^x / wail, ^^■^b;;?! ye xcail, Is. xv. 2; Ixv. 14; Jar. xlviii. 31; Hos. vii. 14; and besides, n^ta^'^ Job xxiv. 21 ; once even in Impf. Kal Si'i^"] Ps. cxxxviii. 6 from 'S'Yi . This anomaly was caused by mistaking, from a superficial view the Yodh of the simple form for a part of the stem. §71. VERBS IS. Third Class, or Contracted Verbs "^S. Here are reckoned those verbs ''S of the first and second classes, whose Yodh is not resolved into a vowel, but is assimi- lated like a Nun. In some verbs this is the invariable usage, e. g. 5?2;;i to spread under, Hiph. ^'^^n, Hoph. ^^T^\ ; in'l'^ to burn up, Impfiy^"}, Hiph. Ti'^^t} • in others, such sharpened forms occur along with the weaker ones of the first and second classes, e. g. ps; to po7ir, Impf pk^i and p2^] (1 Kings xxii. 35) ; '^T^ to form, Impf nit-i^T and "i^^ (Is. xHv. 12; Jer. i. 5); m»;i to be straight, Impf ^t^*! and 'r^'} (1 Sam. vi. 12). The learner may easily mistake these for forms of a verb 'S ; and when such an one is not found in the lexicon, he should look for a verb ""S . The Paradigms jffand L exhibit the characteristic forms of the first and second classes ; those of the third conform wholly to verbs fs, ami are, moreover, of very rare occurrence. ^72. VERBS I'sJ. 127 §72. FEEBLE VERBS ^'b. (E. g. 0>ip to rise up. Paradigm M.) 1. The middle stem-letter 1 gives up its consonant sound in these verbs (with the exception of a few stems, see Rem. 10), and is lost in the sound of the chief vowel of the form ; and this not only in the more usual cases (§ 24, 1) where Sh'^va precedes or follows, as TlJi2 hosh for ICiS b^vosh, but also where the Vav stands between two full vowels, as Dip Part. Pass, for Dip, Dip Inf. abs. for Dip. The stem is, therefore, always monosyllabic. 2. The vowel of the stem thus contracted is, essentially, the vowel of the second syllable, which almost every where, in the verb, contains the characteristic of the form (§ 67, 2). This vowel, by its union with the Vav, gains greater fullness and stability ; e. g. Inf. and Itnp. Dip for Dip. It cannot, therefore, be displaced ; but it may be shortened, as in ri'Qp (with short a) from Dp, and in the Jussive Impf. oi Hiph. Dp^ shortened from D^P;^ (from D^lp^). The Pe?f. Kal, in intransitive verbs middle E, takes the form tra (from ill's) he is dead; and in verbs middle O, the form lii5 (from "liSJ) luxit, 1213 (from ffiis) he ivas ashamed. Comp. Rem. 1. 3. The preformatives in the Impf. Kal and Peif. Niph. and throughout H'iph. and Hoph., which before the monosyllabic stem form a simple syllable, take instead of the short vowel of the regular form the corresponding long one (§27,2). E.g. Dlp^* for Dip^ ; D^pH for D^lpH ; Dpin for DIpH. This vowel is mutable, and becomes ShH'a when the tone is thrown forward ; e. g. before suff. ^Jniri"^ he will kill him, and in the full plural form of the Impf. 'iniri'i they will die. The only exception is the ^ in Hophal, which has become a firm and unchangeable vowel ; as if, by the transition of 1 to the first syllable. D^pri had become Cplti, and then Cl^in. 4. In some cases, forms of the regular verb not now in use lie at the foundation of those of which we are treating. E. g. Impf Kal Dip;! for Dip;? (see § 67, 6), Part. Dp , either for Dip (after b'Jp , the original form of btsp , Chald. and Arab, qutel, § 9, * For the a sound under the preforuiative, see No. 4. 128 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. 10, 2, and § 50, 2), or for 01)5 (after the form of the verbal adjec- tive btpip, comp. § 84, No. 1. Those which conform to the regular Hebrew verb, are generally the most unfrequent, as tCiD"^ (after the form TiJiS';!), The o in Nlph. comes from loa (= ?m), as DIpS from D^I??, hn})/. Dip>^ from ^y^'^. 5. In the Perf. Niph. and Hij)h. the harshness of pronuncia- tion in such forms as J^'JSipS, Pi'Opri, is avoided by the insertion of i before the affbrmatives of the first and second person. For the same purpose '^~ is inserted in the Inipf. Kal before the ter- mination nS (comp. § 67, 4). These inserted syllables take the tone and shorten the preceding vowels, as Q^p?, tii^^p? ; CpDj riibipn, or i^i'a^pH, also riiiapn ; np'b^pn. But in some cases the harder forms, without the inserted syllable, are also in use. Thus Impf. Kal ^ptliln Ez. xvi. 55 (also nj'^^'iun in the same verse); somewhat oftener in Iliph., as npisEri Ex. xx. 25, but also inis-^jn Job xxxi. 21, njaBln Job xx. 10, once i^J^'^pn Jer. xliv. 25. The Imp. has only the harder form ■^J'sp , tijXJ^ii. 6. The tone, as in verbs ^y, is not thrown forward upon the afTormatives n_, ^, ''_, as STap, ^'Op, except in the full plural form l^'aip';' . On the accentuation of i and "i— , see No. 5. Where these are not inserted, the accentuation is regular, as ri'Qp ; so always in Hophal, as n'apin, 7. The conjugations Piel, Pual, and Hithpael are very sel- dom found in feeble verbs 1^. The only instance in which 1 appears as a consonant is ^.vl? to stirround, the Piel of 1^^ (but see Rem. 10). In some others 1 has become '^, as in d))p from Dip, 3.^n from iirt ; a formation which belongs to the later He- brew, having been borrowed from the Aramaean. On the con- trary, the unfrequent conjugation Pilel (§ 55, 2), with its passive and reflexive, is the common form employed in the signification of Piiil and as a substitute for it. E. g. Q^ip to raise uj), from Dip; Diail to elevate, Pass. D'ai■^, from Dll ; TliS^fin to rouse one^s self, from "11^. Less frequent is the conjugation Pilpel (§ 55, 4), e. g. ^3^3 to sustain, to nourish, from biS. Remarks. I. On Kal. N. B. 1. Of verbs middle E and O, which in the regular verb also have their Perf. and Part, the same (§ 50, 2), the following are exam- ples ; viz. Perf. ria (for W^) he is dead, 1st sing, •'in^, Istplur. liH'a, %'72. VERBS IS. 129 2d phir. ^T\h; iria (for laia) he was ashamed, "^PiitJl, I3iaa, viJia ; "lix he has shined ; Part, na dead ; D'^IlJia ashamed Ez. xxxii. 30. The form DJ? . as Perf. and as Part., is very seldom written with K (the Arabic orthography), as BXj5 Hos. x. 14, D'^tJNb despising Ez. xxviii. 24, 26, comp. xvi. 57. The Part, has rarelythe Ibrm Dip instead of Dp 2 K. xvi. 7, and even with transitive signification, as tiib occultans Is. XXV. 7 ; Zech. x. 5. 2. In the Inf. and /hi/), of some verbs, 1 always quiesces in Cholem, as Xia, aiw, "lix. In most verbs, however, it quiesces only in Shia^eq; but even in these the Inf. absol. has i in the final syllable (after the form ^113)5), as laiip^ Dip surgendo surgent Jer. xliv. 29. Those verbs which have i in the hif. retain it in the Imp/., as xia"; he will come. In one verb alone the preformatives of the Impf. have Tsere, viz. ttJia, Imp/, ^ia;; (for TiJia";). See No. 4. 3. In the Imp. with afformatives {'''O^p , ^"n^b) the tone is on the penultima, with a few exceptions as in Judges v. 12. The lengthened form, on the contrary, has the tone usually on the last syllable (rtatip , iiaiittj) with a few exceptions where the word is Milel (Ps. vii. 8 ; Jer. iiL 12 ; xl. 5). N. B. 4. The shortened Imp/, as Jussive (§ 48, 4) has the form Dpi (very seldom Dip^, Dp^). E. g. au5|; lei him return Deut. xx. 5-8; aiD'j bx let him not return Ps. Ixxiv. 21 ; T^b'^) 1 Kings xxi. 10 and lei him die; in poetic language, as Indicative, d'"i1|. Din, he, it shall be high, Num. xxiv. 7 ; Micah v. 8. With Vav consecutive, and before words of one syllable, the tone is also drawn back upon the penultima, and the vowel of the last syllable is shortened to Qameis-chaiuph, as Dj^^i, T]^ D|5'; Job xxii. 28. In Pause, however, the tone remains on the last syllable, as nb^l ; comp. Gen. xi. 28, 32, with v. 5, 8. With a guttural or a Resh, the final syllable may take Patiach, e. g. "iD*i and he turned aside Ruth iv. 1 (from "ilD). The full plural-ending 'i^i has the tone (according to No. 6 of this sec- tion) ; hence ■jWJSPi Gen. iii. 3, 4, I^ID^IS': Ps. civ. 7, )A:i^'\'! Joel ii. 4, 7, 9. II. On Niphal. 5. Anomalous forms are : Perf. Dni^'s? ye have been scattered Ez. xi. 17 ; XX. 34, 41, 43 ; Inf. constr. irsi'^n Is. xxv. 10. Comp. Rem. 9. III. On Hiphil. 6. Examples of the Perfect without the inserted i: t\ti\r\ thou wavest Ex. XX. 25 ; nn^n thou killest, and even Dnart Num. xvii. 6, &c. 7. In the Imp., besides the shortened form Dpli, occurs also the lengthened one T^io'^pii . N. B. The shortened Impf has the form Dp^, as IG^'J that he may take away Ex. x. 17. With Vav consecutive the tone falls back upon the penultima, as W^^"] ; ys^l and he scattered. The final syllable when it has a guttural or Resh takes Patiach, as in Kal, e. g. ^0)^1 and he removed Gen. viii. 13. 9 130 PART II, PARTS OF SPEECH. V. In General. 8. On account of the intimate relation between verbs liy and /s (§ 67) it is necessary, in analyzing ibrms, to note particularly the points in whicli these classes differ. Several forms are exactly the same in both, 6. g. Imjif. Kal with Vav consecutive ; Pilel of IS and PoH of SJJ . Hence it is that they often borrow forms from one another, as in Kal TS he despised (Per/, of T^a, as if from TT3) Zech. iv. 10, ntt he besmeared (for nra) Is. xliv. 18. 9. In common with verbs s's" (§ 67, 5), those of this class have in Niphal and Hiphil the Chaldee and Rabbinic formation, which has, instead of the long vowel under the preformatives, a short one followed by Daghesh forte. This form and the common one are often both in use. E. g. ri^Sii to incite, Imp/. rr^S"! (also riiGH, n^D^) ; inj;T and he shows the way 2 Sam. xsii. 33 (and in"; Prov. xii. 26) ; sometimes with a dif- ference of signification, as n"^3.fn to cause to rest, to give rest, H'''?'!) Impf. niiD to set down, to lay down ; Y^l to spend the nighty to abide ; yh^_ , 'I'liiig, to he headstrong, rebellions. Other examples: Niph. bi523 (from h'TQ, not ^535) to he circumcised Gen. xvii. 26, 27; xxxiv. 22, with a guttural nis'S Zech. ii. 17 ; Hij)h. ^"'•tn to despise Lam. i. 8, ^T^^;] they depart Prov. iv. 21. Here, too, may be classed some forms of verbs Pe guttural with Daghesh forte implied, which others would derive from a stem of a dif- ferent form, or emend ; viz. '0'nv\'\ for ^nnl and she hastens (from tJW) Job xxxi. 5, us'^i, OSPil 1 Sam. xv. 19 ; xxv. 14, from '^^S , 1:12) to rush upon. 10. Verbs whose middle stem-letter remains a consonant Vav are, in respect to this letter, perfectly regular. E. g. ^in to he white, Impf. "i^l!! j "^Vi to expire, Impf 3']^''_ ; particularly all verbs that are also 'rib, as ri'iS, PiM nj^ to command, njp to wait, &c. . §73. FEEBLE VERBS '^'S?. (E. g. I'^a to perceive. Paradigm N.) 1. These verbs have the same structure as verbs 13^, and then* 1 is treated in the same manner as the 1 of that class. E. g. Ferf. Kal ma (for X^y^J) he has set, Inf. n^llj, Inf. absol. n-'T^ (for n'lTZJ), Imp. mo. Impf. i^'^V'^, Jussive ^V.'^, with Vav cons. ntD^n. But the Perf. Kal has, in several verbs, still a second set of forms, which resemble a Hiphil shortened at the beginning, e. g. inirn (same as inirnn) Dan. ix. 2, also ^33 Ps. cxxxix. 2, rii:3''n thou contendest Job xxxiii. 13, also PiS'1 Lam. iii. 58. Often also full forms of Hiphil occur, e. g. Perf. ^^n, Dnis^nn, Ivf. ]^nn (also ^^3), Imp. "j^n (also ^^3), Part. V^^ j so likewise l^n^ (also .1: §73. VERBS "^S. 131 ^n), U^tSIZ setting (also DTI?), f'^Sia glittering^ also in Perf. f2. Moreover, as Passive we find a few times Hoiih. Imjif. ItO^"^ *from "liT» ^0 sing^ ntj^"' from nip ^o set. 2. These Hiphil forms are as easily traced to verbs lb, and may in part belong strictly to that class. The same is true of Niph. 1123, Pil. ].:^:3 and Hithpalel l.sisnn (is if from 1^3). In every respect, these verbs are closely related to verbs lb. Hence, several verbs occur, proraiscuousl}^ and in the same signification, as iy and "'y ; e. g. ^h {denoin. from b^b) to spend the night, Inf. also )^b ; D^TJ? to set, Inf. also DW, l7?ipf. D^©;^, once DITS;^. In other verbs one of the two is the predominant form, as b^a to exult (bl5 only in Prov. xxiii. 24). But few are exclusively ''V, as riiTp to set, I'^l to contend, iD'^iZ) to rejoice ; to which should be added bs (in Arabic middle Yodh) to contain, to measure Is. xl. 12, and the denom. f j5 (from y^J?) to summer Is. xviii. 6. The older grammarians did not recognize this class of verbs, but referred all the forms to verbs 13? . This may, in some instances, be quite right ; the later Arabic has an exactly corresponding abbreviation of the Hiphil (Conj. IV) in verbs IS. On the contrary, the Arabic, as well as ^thiopic, has also actual verbs "'S; nor is the Hebrew without such, in which Yodh even retains its consonant power, as a^N to hale, and Ji;;^ tofainl. There is certainly to be assumed a vacillation among etems so nearly related, and encroachment of one upon the other. The Paradigm N is placed in connection with that of verbs IS, iu order to exhibit more clearly the parallelism of the two classes. The conjugations which are omitted in it, have the same form as in Para- digm M. Remarks. 1. Examples of the Inf. ahsol. are 2'i liligando Judges xi. 25, PtlJ ponendo Is. xxii. 7, but also a'^'i Jer. 1. 34. 2. The shortened Impf. is '2^ ; with retracted tone it takes the form ii 3"!^ Judges vi. 31. So with Vav conseciUive, ciu^l and he set. "a'^i and he perceived. 3. As Pari. act. Kal we find once "jb passing the night Neh. xiii. 21 ; Part. pass. n"'b or D>ib (a various reading) 2 Sam. xiii. 32. 4. Verbs ih., Rem. 13), H— : n'ba, (fee. The Part. Pass. Kal forms the only exception, in which the original "^ appears at the end, "^^^5, as also in some derivatives (§85, Y). The Inf. const?', has always the feminine form in T\, viz. in Kal nib5, in Piel ni>a, (fee. In explanation of these forms we observe : That in the Per/. Kal, fiba stands for "'^a according to § 24. 2, c ; so in Niph. and Hophal. Piel and Hithp. are based on the forms bssp , ^ai^nn {§ 52, Rem. 1), Hiph. on the form baprt after the manner of the Arabic aqtala (§ 53, 1). The Impf. Kal., i^^?"^, is an Impf. A for "^bs'^ (according to § 24, 2, Rem. a), whence also are such plural forms as ^"'bs';! (see Rem. 4). The same is true of the other conjugations, all of which have, even in the regular verb, in connection with the usual form, another with Pattach in the final syllable. See § 51, Rem. 2, § 54, Rem. The Tsere of the Imp. l^ba is, at any rate, a shorter vowel than the accented Seghol, with its broader sound, in the Impf. nba^ ; comp. the construct state of nouns in n^:, § 89. 2. c. 2. Before the afformatives beginning with a consonant (tl, 2), the original "^ remains, but not as a consonant. Properly it would here form with the foregoing u. {Pattach) the diphthong ai ; which, however, in the Perf., is first contracted into e i^—) and then farther attenuated into « (§27, Rem. 1), but in the Impf and Impt. passes into the broad and obtuse "^-^ . Thus in Perf Piel, from T^'j''^^ (after J?'?^)?) comes first S^'^^S, and then by atten- uating the e into i H'^^S ; in the Impf Piel np^JH. In the pas- sives the e is always retained ; in the actives of the derived con- jugations and in the reflexives e and i are both used (see Rem. 7, 0, and 13) ; but in Kal (the most frequent of all), only i is found. Accordingly : The Perfect of Kal has i, as T)^^^ ; Perfects of the other active as well as reflexive conjugations have promiscuously e and i, as ri'^^S and riiJii ; §Y6. VERBS nil. 135 Perfects of the Passives have only e, as 'D'^f^ ; Imperfects and Imperatives have always '^—, as <"ip?3, JlS'i^Stn. In Arabic and ^Ethiopic, the diphtbongal forms have every where resisted contraction, which talves place only as an exception and in the popular idiom. In Chaldee and Syriac. the contracted forms prevail, though the Syriac has e. g. ri';i^5 in Kal, and so also the Chald. along with niba. 3. Before the afformatives beginning with a vowel (^, ''— , <^— ), the Yodh, together with the preceding vowel, is usually displaced, e. g. ^b5 (for l^ba), ^b^n C^^b-^n), Part. fern, nba, j)hir. O^bh ; yet it remains in ancient full forms, particularly in pause, as '^^^'y'} (see Rem. 4 and 12). Before suffixes also it falls away, as ^b3 (Rem. 19). 4. The Yodh disappears also in the 3cZ Perf. sing, f em., when D— is appended as feminine ending, namely rib5. But this an- cient form is become rare (see Rem. 1) ; and to this mark of the gender, as if it were not sufficiently clear, a second feminine ending H— . has been appended, so as to form nriba. So in all conjugations, e. g. Hiph. nb^n, common form nrib^fi, in pause nnbsin. See analogous cases in § 70, Rem., § 91. 3. 5. The formation of the shortened Imperfect, which occurs in all the conjugations, is strongly marked in verbs of this class, and consists in casting away the •!— , by which still other chan- ges are occasioned in the form (see Rem. 3, 8, 10, 15). A short- ened hnperative is also formed, in some conjugations, by apocope of then- (Rem. 11, 15). Remarks. I. On Kal. 1. In the 3fZ Perf. fern, the older and more simple form rts (from f^-H' comp. the verb xb, § 74, Rem. 1), is almost entirely banished from common use (see above, No. 4). An example of it is nbs she makes Lev. xxv. 21. So in Hiph. and IJoph., e. g. t'^'nti she paijs, Lev. xxvi. 34, f^bsn she is carried captive, Jer. xiii. 19. But with suffixes it is always used, see Rem. 19. .2. The Inf. absol. has also the form iX'n videndo Gen. xxvi. 28. As Inf. constr. occurs, rarely, Mit"! Gen. xlviii. 11, nl!JX 1. 20, or i'lU? xxxi. 28, as well as the feminine form fijiii^ io see Ez. xxviii. 17, like nbap ) 45, 2. letter b. N. B. 3. The shortening of the Impf. (see above. No. 5). occasions in Kal the foUowinsr chancres : 136 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. a) The first stem-letter most commonly takes the helping-vowel Seghol, or, when the middle radical is a guttural, Pattach (§28,4). E. g. bs^ for \TI '■> "?!^ ^'^'^ /'6 built ; 5?ui^ let him look, for "liJV 6) The Chireq of the preformative is also sometimes lengthened into Tsere (because it is now in an open syllable), as N"!7. ^^^ ^'■'^'"' ^^^ from nx'n , tnsni from ntiB ^0 become weak. c) Elsewhere, and chiefly in the cases mentioned in § 28, 4, the helping- vowel is sometimes omitted ; e. g. S'iJ'I'T and he took captive Num. xxi. 1, t)^J^ and he drank, Tjl'^l and he wept. The verb ns , as ^bS for •'Vas made Job xli. 25, >isa xv. 22. 6. Rare are such defectively written forms as ri^«^ 2 Sam. xv. 33, njiysn Job v. 12, and the pronunciation n3iX"in Mic. vii. 10. II. On Niphal. 1. In the Perf. 1st and 2d pers., besides the Ibrme with '^-^ are found others with '^— :; as ^li'^b'jJ 1 Sam. xiv. 8, Pi^pJD Gen. xxiv. 8. 8. The apocope of the Impf. occasions no other change than the rejection of n-;;, as PJI' from J^V.^"? 5 but in a verb S guttural we find a Ibrm with ( — ) shortened to (^r), viz, ns"] (for na'^) Ps. cix. 13. Simi- §75. VERBS n"i). 137 lar in PUl is ^Stn (ti-oni 'T^Sf?) Ps. cxli, 8, and in Hithp. S'lrin (from nsnnn) Prov. xxii. 24. III. On Piel, Piial, and Hithpael. 9. In the Per/. Piel, the second syllable has the less prolonged Chireq instead of the diphthongal '^— in the greater number of examples, as n'^B'7, ■^P'^'^ip?, and always before suffixes, e.g. n3n"'3^ Ps. xliv. 20. In the Paradigm, the older form with "^-n- is placed first. Hithp. has "i — . but sometimes also ^— (Ps. xxvi. 10; IK. ii. 26 ; Jer. 1. 24); Pual, on the contrary, always retains '^— . 10. The Lnpf. loses, after the apocope, the Daghesh forte of the second stem-letter (comp. § 20, 3, a) ; hence Piel l^'^l and he com- manded ; Hithp. bsn^l and he uncovered himself Gen. ix. 21. Less fre- quently is the Pattach then lengthened into Qameis, as in^^ and he scrawled 1 Sam. xxi. 14, ixri'^ he desires Ps. xlv. 12. Comp. Rem. 8. 11. In Piel and Hithp. are found also apocopated forms of the Imp., as D3 for n&5 prove Dan. i. 12 ; bnnrt /e/g-?! thyself sick 2 Sam. xiii. 5. 12. Examples of Yodh retained in cases wliere more commonly it is omitted : Impf. '^31153'in will ye liken me Is. xl. 25, i^^pa'^ they cover them Ex. xv. 5. IV. On Hiphil and Hophal. 13. In the Perf Hiph. the forms ni^.?in and n^^?"! are about equally common; before suffixes the latter is used as somewhat shorter than the other. In the Paradigm, the older form with "i— is placed first. Hoph. has always '^-^_. 14. In the Inf. absol. Hiph. ?^^3v] Tsere is the regular vowel (as in bispn) ; but to this the Inf. absol. Hoph. also conforms, as in ni]a" Lev. xix. 20. The verb nan to multiply, has three forms of the Inf. Hiph., viz., nanri much (used adverbially), na";ri used when the Inf. is pleonastic [see § 131, 3, a], ma"ir! the Inf. constr. Comp. Gen. xli. 49 ; xxii. 17 ; Deut. xxvili. 63. 15. The shortened Impf Hiph. has either the form "^"^^ let him subdue Is. xli. 2, BS^ let him enlarge Gen. ix. 27, piiJ^l! and he watered, or (with a helping-vowel) b^7. (for ^^;;) ; as b^^l and he carried captive 2 Kings xviii. 11. "iS"1 and. he made fruitful Ps. cv. 24. Examples with guttu- rals : bi'^l Num. xxiii. 2, ^?Xi, &c., which can be distinguished from the Impf. Kal only by the signification. The Imp. apoc. has invariably the helping-vowel Seghol or Pattach, as nnn mnltiply, for S^ifli •^5";^ Ps. li. 4 [C^ri], q'nn rfesis^ for l^-in , nenn Deut. ix. 14, b?n for nbsn Ex. xxxiii. 12. 16. The Impf. with Yodh retained occurs only in ')!i''5n Job xix. 2, from nj^ V. /?i General. 17. In the Aramaean, where, as before remarked, the verbs X b and nb flow into one another, both classes terminate, in the Impf and Part. of all the conjugations, without distinction, in X-^- or '^-^. As imitations 138 PAKT IL PARTS OF SPEECH. of this mode of formation we are to regard lliose forms of the Inf.^ Imp. and Impf. in n— , more seldom X— and i— , which are found in Hebrew also, especially in the later writers and the poets. Inf. Ti'^^ti, to be Ez. xxi. 15 ; Imp. Nin he thou Job xxxvii. 6 ; Impf. 'n'^ptrh^ jer. xvii. 17, xah-bx folloxo not Prov. i. 10, nbrn'^X do not 2 Sam. xiii. 12 ;* Piel Inf. isn Hos. vi. 9. The ending in ^— occurs (also a Syriasm), in place of ti— in the Impf. Kal. as "^itPi^ Jer. iii. 6, and even (according to others) in place of n— in the Perf. Hiph. "^^nt^. he made sick Is. iiii. 10 ; comp. the Plur. l*'pBf7 they caused to melt Jos. xiv. 8. ■"8. In three verbs is found the unfrequent conjugation PileU or its reflexive (§ 55, 2), Avhere the third radical, which the conjugation re- quires to be doubled, appears under the form m ; viz. ^1X3, contracted njN3 to he beaut fid, from nX3 ; Diini:?: the archers Gen. xxi. 16 ; but especially nniy to boiv, Pilel iiind, hence the reflexive ninniun to how one^s self to prostrate one's sef 2d per s. T^'^— and f)*''— , Impf nifirnii^, apoc. sinn\a*1 for inn^''^ (analogous with ' (see No. 4), yet with a short a, as in the regular verb, e. g. tPi^S for "inn^S Zech. V. 4 ; \n pause I3nb^ Job xxxiii. 4. VI. Relation of Verbs til'b and x'b to each other. 20. The verbs of each of these classes, in consequence of their inti- mate relation (see second paragraph of this section, and Rem. 17), often borrow the forms of the other, especially in the usage of the poets and of the later writers. 21. Thus there are forms of verbs x'b, a) Which have adopted the vowels of verbs Tib, e.g. Perf. "^nN^s / restrain Ps. cxix. 101 ; Part. XiiiPi sinning Eccles. ix. 18 ; viii. 12 ; Piel Perf. sfep he fills Jer. li. 34J '^nxEn I heal 2 Kings ii. 21 ; Impf ftS5';i he swalloweth Job xxxix. 24; Niph. Perf . fern. nnx^JEJ was ex- traordinary (after nnb;;) 2 Sam. i. 26 ; Hiph. Perf. fern, nnxsnn she concealed Jos. vi. 17. 6) Which retain their own vowels, but are written with n, e. g. Imp. ns'i heal Ps. Ix. 4 ; Niph. !^?t^^! to hide one's self 1 Kings xxii. 25 ; Piil Impf 'rk:q') he will fill Job viii. 21. * The examples of the Lnpf. here quoted have the Jussive signification, and their agreement in pronunciation with the Imp. (in the -^ common to both), can certainly be exphiined on this ground. But this will not apply to other examples ; and the reading, moreover, varies in most passages between — and -^. See Gen. xxvi. 29 ; Lev. x^nii. 1 ; Jos. vii. 9 ; ix. 24 ; Dan. i. 13 ; Ez. v. 12. §76. VERBS DOUBLY ANOMALOUS. 139 c) Which in all respects have the appearance of verbs ri' b , e. g. nas thou thirstest Ruth ii. 9 ; lb?3 they are full Ez. xxviii. 16 ; Inf. i'jri to sin Gen. xx. 6 ; Impf npenn they heal Job v. 18 ; Part. fern. ^"T^ Eccles. X. 5 ; Part. pass. liiiUJ Ps. xxxii. 1 ; Niph. i^no")? Jer. li. 9 ; Hithp. n"'33niri thou prophesiest 1 Sam. x. 6; Inf. niasnn 1 Sam. X. 13. ' ' 22. On the contrary there are forms of verbs rt"b which, in some respects, follow the analogy of verbs x"b. E.g. in their consonants, ^Vii-l it is changed Lam. iv. 1 ; «311J 2 Kings xxv. 29 ; X^np and he was sick 2 Chron. xvi. 12 ; in their vowels, nbsin 1 Kings xvii. 14 ; in both, DilStbm 2 Sam. xxi. 12. § 76. VERBS DOUBLY ANOMALOUS. 1. Such are verbs which have two stem-letters affected by the anomalies already described, with the exception of those occasioned by gutturals. These verbs exhibit no new changes ; and even in cases where two anomalies might occur, usage must teach whether the verb is actually subject to both, or but one of them, or, as sometimes happens, to neither. Thus from Ti; tojlee are formed Impf "i'"^"^ Nah. iii. 7, and Tn"^ Gen. xxxi. 40 (all;er the analogy of verbs '|2), Hiph. nsn (as a verb SS), but in Impf. Hoph. I^;' (as IB). 2. The following are examples of doubly anomalous verbs, and of difRcult forms derived from them : a) Verbs 'iS and xb (comp. §§ 66 and 74) ; e. g. Xb; to bear, Imp. Xia, Inf. conslr. nsb (for nxtj), also nxb (comp. § 74. Rem. 3), Impf. iisian for njN'in Ruth i. 14. b) Verbs ^S and !ib (comp. §§ 64 and 75), as naa to bend, iId; to smite. Hence Impf Kal na^, apoc. is'^l and he bowed, t^l and t'^i and he sprinkled (from nij) ; Perf. Hiph. nsn he smote, Impf ns";, apoc. T\2, t^^V so also T''l ; Imp. i^'2'n , apoc. T\n smile ; Inf. m'Sii ; Part, MSa. c) Verbs NS and n"b (comp. §§ 6S and 75), as nnsj to come, fiSX to bake. Hence Impf. nsx"i, plur. ^lEJX", xn;^i Deut. xxxiii. 21 for nnN*_^ ; Impf apoc. rx?:: Is. xii. 25 for P5i"'nNn Is. xxi. 14 ; Impf. apoc. i'S'il and he adjured 1 Sam. xiv. 24, from nbx . d) Verbs ''"s and ii'h (comp. §§ 67, 70, and 74), as NS;| to go forth, Imp. N^ , Inf. nxa , Hiph. xi:£in /o bring out. e) Verbs "I's and Ti'b (comp. §§ 69, 70, and 75), e. g. rTi; to throw, in /ri/j/i. to profess, to praise, properly l"s, and rrn'j to throw, ns;j to be beautiful, 140 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. which are really ''3. Inf. nn", nin^ ; Imp. >in'i ; Impf. ?|i*5, with suff. n'i'i? \De shot at them (from iTi^), Num. xxi. 30 ; Piel ^I'n^l for ii'n^l'ii (§69, Rem. 6); Hiph. tTiin "trnin, /jz/. nhin ; /mp/. n-iii, apoc. "ii'»i . /) Verbs IS and xb, particularly the verb Xia to come; Per/, xa, nX2, once !l3a for >13i/t. Ni3fi , inxnn . and r kian ; //?!/)/. "las for X'^ax Mic. i. 15; /??jj;. "^an Ruth iii. 15; /?bp/i. Pait. xa^ia 2 K. xxii. 4. So ''3^ he refuses, Hiph. from X^D Ps. cxli. 5. Deserving of notice also, §■) is the verb "^^ri i^o live, which is treated as a verb sis, and hence has 1)1 in the 3d Perf Kal, Gen. iii. 22. In Hebrew it occurs only in this form, the synonymous and kindred stem iTin, as a verb iib. beinof the one in common use. h77. RELATION" OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS TO ONE ANOTHER. 1. Several classes of irregular verbs, e. g. those IS and ''S, xb and Jib, iy and W, stand in a very intimate relationship, as appears from the similarity in their meaning and inflection, from the forms which they have in common, and from their mutual interchange of forms. The relation is based, as a rule, on the essential sameness of two firm stem-consonants, to which the common signification attaches itself (the hiliteral root, § 30, 2), the third weaker radical not being taken into account. Thus 1\y^ , -f ^1 , iiS'n all mean to smite, to beat in pieces ; ^15 and TlS tojlee. In this manner are related in form and signification, 1. Verbs IS and s'sJ (in which the essential stem-letters are the first and last), e. g. T^>153 and T\^_^ to become poor; iti^iri and "OiTTa to feel, tr touch; 1>13 and 113 to fee. 2. Verbs ^S and 'jS (in which the two last are the essential stem- letters), both to each other and to the former class. They are related to each other in the verbs as^ and as3 to place, ttJp: and 'iip^ (yaqosh) to fowl; to the former class, especially to verbs 1», in "iia and "i3|^ to fear; aia and ai2^ to be good ; n's'^ and fi'iQ to blow ; "j^BJ and y^B to dash in pieces. Verbs XS are more seldom found connected with these classes, as U^i< and D^;;; to be destroyed ; UJlit and 0*11 to thresh, &c. 3. Verbs xb and tib (in which the first two consonants properly form the stem), both to each other and to (he former classes ; to each other in N^'i and nM to crush; X"i|^ and tii;? to meet ; to verbs of the former classes, in ns^ and "j^aia to suck, nni and Hill to thrust, &c. §78. DEFECTRrE VERBS. 141 §78. DEFECTIVE VEEBS. It often happens, when two related hregular verbs are in use in the same signification, that both are defective, i. e. do not occur in all the verbal forms. As these, however, are not gene- rally the same in both, the two taken together make out a perfect verb, as in Greek tQ/Ojiiat, Aor. iiXi^ov, Fut. aXtvOojuai, and m Latin, /ero, tuli, latum, f err e ; with this difference, that in Hebrew these verbs are almost universally related in form as well as signification, like the Greek ^aivco, Aor. 2 k^r]v\ from the same stem ^cc-co. Of these verbs the following are the most common : laia to be ashamed, Hiph. tj-^an , but also d-^lsin (from UJn^), espe- cially with the intransitive signification to feel shame. aia to he good, Perf ma, Imjf. nai'i (from nD';i). Hiph. S'^ain (from "y^J^). ^5; to fear. Impf ^^la; (from ^^la). as^j and aS3 to place, neither used in Kal. Niph. :333 to stand. Hiph. and Hoph. aisn and 32n . Hithp. as'^nn. ySD to dash in pieces. Impf. f^ti'^ (from ysis). Imp. y^lQ . Niph. yiSi . Piel yQ3 (from fDD). Pil. ysi's (from ysiQ). Befea:. ysisnri . Hiph. ys_ri . Pilpel yssQ Job xvi. 12. "i"is and i:£^ to he strait. Hence Perf. *ib ^^ I am in a strait, lit. it is strait to me, from "I'nS. Impf. "i^;; (from "is;;) and ^S»1. Hiph. ■isn, "i:in, Zo hring into a strait, to distress. The related form "i^S is transitive, i"> Impf. Hoph., he will he able, used for Impf. Kal which is wanting. C]D;j he has added, borrows its Inf. and Impf from Hiph. Ci'^O'in. TUas to approach. Perf Niph. 12353 for the Perf. Kal which is not in use; but Impf "6^^^, Imp. ira, and Inf. nm, all in Kal. Rem. 2. The early grammarians often speak o^ mixed forms (formis viixtis) in which, as they maintain, are united the character and signifi- cations of two tenses, genders, or conjugations. On correct grammatical principles most of the examples adduced are at once set aside (e. g. 142 PART II. PAIITS OF SPEECH. nDan;^ , § 47, Rem. 3) ; in others, the form seems to have originated in misapprehension, e. g. T^^niDa thy hidlding Ez. xvi. 31 (where the plural sufHx is appended to the ending ni, which had come to be regarded as plural). Others again are merely false readings. CHAPTER HI. OF THE NOUN. §79. GENERAL VIEW. 1. In treating of i\\e formation of the noun, it s necessary tc keep in view its relation to the verb, since most nouns may be derived from verbs (namely, the 3c? sing. Perf. as the stem-form, according to §30, I); and even those which are not, whether primitives or derived from other nouns, follow the form and ana- logy of the verbals. On this connection, moreover, is based the explanation of the forms by which the gender of nouns is- distin- guished (§ 80, comp. § 94). The adjective agrees entirely with the substantive in form, though it is manifestly only by a metaphor that forms with an abstract signifi- cation can be treated as adjectives (§ 83, Rem. 1). 2. The Hebrew has no proper inflection of the noun by cases ; some ancient, almost wholly extinct remains of case-endings (§ 90) being barely traceable. The relation of case is either known merely from the position of the noun in the sentence, or is indicated by prepositions. The form of the noun suffers no change ; and the subject belongs, therefore, to the Syntax. (See § 117.) On the contrary, the connection of the noun with suf- fixes, with the feminine, dual, and plural terminations, and with a noun following in the genitive, produces numerous changes in its form ; and to these is limited the inflection of nouns in He- brew.* Even for the comparative and superlative the Hebrew has no appropriate form, and these relations must be expressed by circumlocution, as taught in the Syntax (§ 119). * This has been eulleJ the declension of the Hebrew noun. § 80. THE GENDER OF NOUNS. 143 § 80. OF FOEMS WHICH MAEK THE GEXDER OF NOUNS. 1. The Hebrew, like all the Semitic languages, has but two genders, the masculine and fertiinine. Inanimate objects pro- perly of the neuter gender, and abstract ideas, for which other languages often have a neuter forin, are regarded in Hebrew as either masculine or feminine, most commonly the latter (Syntax § 107, 3). 2, The tnasculine, as being the most common and important form of the noun, has no peculiar mark of distinction. The ending for the feminine was originally ri_, as in the 3d sing. Perf. of verbs (§44, 1). But when the noun stands abso- lutely, i. e. without a genitive following (§ 89), the ri— usually appears in the truncated form n_, or is shortened to an unac- cented ri^. The original Jl— very seldom remains, except when the noun is in close connection with a following genitive or pro- nominal suffix. Except in this case (for which see § 89, 2, 6, §91, 4), the feminine ending is, therefore : a) most usually, an accent&l H— -, as C^O Jiorse, noiD m,are ; h) an unaccented ri^, after a guttural Vi-l (which also remains unchanged before the genitive), as btlp, fe9Ji. f^^pp killing, ^y\'^,fem. ny'liia acquaintance. Here the final syllable of the word follows the manner of segholate forms (§ 94, 2). When the masculine ends with a vowel, a simple Sn takes the place of n.^, as ^n«i^ Moabite, n^3Xi^ Moabitess ; mn sin- ner, ri55^n sinfulness, sin. The vowel-changes occasioned by these endings are shown in § 94.* Remarks. 1. The feminine form in T^—r, is, in general, less frequent than the other, and seldom occurs except when the other is also in use. It is only in the Participles and Infinitives, that it is found more frequently than the otlier (e. g. nbb'p oftener than n^^p, n";!? than iT^^) ; it is employed, moreover, in common with n-^, as a form for the construct state (§ 95, 1). 2. Unusual feminine terminations : rt) ri— accented, as rip'ia emerald Ez. xxviii. 13, nxj? pelican Is. xxxiv. 11, rrsu." crowd 2 Kings ix. 17, and often in proper navies among the ■■■ the feminines not distinguished by the form, see § 107, 1, 3, 4. 144 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECK Phcenicians (in whose language ri-7 was the prevailing form, § 2, 2) and other neighboring tribes, as ns'i2 Sarepla, n^'^X jElafh in Idumea, on the Arabian Gulf^ 6) n— , almost exclusively poetical, e. g. rints help Ps. Ix. 13, but in prose also is found n'nna morrow Gen. xix. 34. c) N — , Aramaean orthography for rt— , found chiefly in the later writers, e. g. N3ia sleep Ps. cxxvii. 2, !ftnT|^ baldness Ez. xxvii. 31, X'^Mia mark Lam. iii. 12. d) Very rarely n-:;. a weakened form of n— (§ 27, Rem. 4), as triilT for nn^T Is. lix. 5. e) rw, without the accent, as irjn'n Deut. xiv. 17, nnsJ'a ^^isn biirning oven Hos. vii. 4; comp. Ez. xl. 19; 2 Kings xvi. IS. In all these ex- amples there should be the usual accented i^— ; but the Punctators, deeming the feminine-ending unsuitable here, sought to conceal it by the retraction of the tone. Their opinion, however, is not binding on us. The accentuation of nb'^H night seems to indicate a masc. form, especially since it is always construed as masc and as h'^h , 'b'h are concurrent forms. Of a similar character are the forms (also con- strued as masc.) f^OIHvi the sun Judges xiv. 18 (elsewhere D"in), nbns brook Ps. cxxiv. 4, nni^tt death Ps. cxvi. 15, and some others. But there is much here that is yet doubtful.* /■) nn^ in poetry, properly a double ending (as in ntixtn this f = nx-Tii Jer. xxvi. 6 KHhibh, and in the verbal form f^nba, § 74, 4), e. g. "^ri^T? help (=n'it5;, rrnTS), nnsv::'^ salvatmn ( = 'niw'^_), nn^i? wickedness ( = n?3'is); see Ps. iii. 3; xliv. 27; xcii. 16; Job v. 16; Ex. xv. 16, and other passages.f 3. It is not at all to the purpose, to regard the vowel-ending «^— J as the original termination of the feminine, and the cotisonant-ending n— as derived from it. The .lDN imprisoned, H^ltJ^ anointed, "I'^DX prisoner, H'^'iJa anointed one. With an active signification also, in intransitive verbs ; as T^5^ small, C!iS^ strong. Some words of the form b"iL3p express the time of the action, as "i"'^!^ time of cutting, harvest, UJ'i'in time of ploughing, like the Greek verbals in log, e. g. ap-ijTog, ago- Toc, properly the being harvested, or ploughed. The feminines are prone to take the abstract signification (Synt. § 107, 3, b), e. g. MS-lllJi deliver- ance {the being delivered,). 6. bap (Arabic bs<^P), with vowels unchangeable (§ 25). In Arabic it is the usual intensive form of the Participle, and hence in Hebrew expresses what is habitual, e. g. nj3 apt to butt, XSp (also ^iip) jealous, Natl sinner (ditf. from Xah si7ining), 335 thief; so of occupations, trades, e. g. n2D cook, \I3'nn (for iiJ'nn)/a&er. Here again the feminine (nb^p or * Under the regular verb we here include the verb with gutturals, ^§ 63-65, a? well as the stronger forms of the irregular verb. 148 PAET n. PARTS OF SPEECH. n^.^i5) often takes the abstract signification, as nxan female sinner and sinfulness, sin; fii^fn burning fever, with a guttural n??!? signet. Such intensive forms are also the three following. 7. bllSiD. ^i'^ls;?, of which forms are most adjectives in the Chaldee , as p'^'n^ righteous. "'"'2N strong, ')l3n compassionate. In Hebrew, of in- transitives only. 8. biiip, as "liS'^ censurer, listti drunken one, "liaa strong one. hero, seldom in a passive sense, as liiJ"^ born. 9. bap indicates very great intensity, often excessive, bo as to become a fault or a defect, e. g. "las hunch-hacked, n'np bald-headed, DSX dumb, "iJiSJ blind, nas Za?He, "iJ"!n f/eq/1 UJ|32J perverse. The abstr. signification is found in the fern., as n^HN perverseness. II. Nouns after the manner of Infinitives of Kal* 10. bup, bi^p , bbp (with changeable vowels), are with No. 11 the simplest forms of this class, of which the first and third are employed in the verb as Infinitives, the former being a rare and the latter the usual form (§ 45. 2). As nominal forms they are unfrequent, e. g. "iSJ man, "iNS ornament, pn^ laughter. Far more frequent are the nearly related forms. 11. biap, ^Ljjp, bt3p, the so-called segholate forms. E. g. T\^h king (for T^baj 'r^_-q', §27, 'Rem. 2, c), nso (for nso) feooA:, llJ'ip (foriaYp) sanctuary ; these have the characteristic vowel in the first syllable, and the helping-vowel Seghol (§ 28, 4) in the second. When the second or third stem-letter is a guttural, Pattach is used instead of Seghol, as STT seed, T\'l\ eternity, bi'Q work. Examples of feminines. iisb^a queen. ns-i'i fear, n,yv help, naan wisdom. In masculines as well as feminines the abstract is the proper and pre vailing signification, yet not unfrequently the concrete occurs, especially in the form bap, e. g. Tjbb king, "i?D a youth, "isa brutish, 13S servant, bsa /ore?, "135 ??ian. In such forms, either the concrete sense is secondary and derived from the abstract, as in "iS3 prop, hrutishness, 1S3 prop. season of youth (comp. Eng. youth and a youth) ; or the form of the word is shortened from another with a concrete sense, as Tjb'^, 13?! from par- ticipial forms, meaning riding, serving.] But altogether, the meaning of these forms is very various ; e. g. even for the instrument, as a'ln sword, Li"in graving-tool, and passively 5"is a web. In the passive sense the form bop is more common, as ^ys, food; and also in the abstract sense, as "is 5 a youth, "i?a" youth. 12. bap, like No. 1, fern, ^^bap, both very frequent with the abstr. sense. E. g. 'Z^'^ hunger, Qizjjj guilt, S3ia satiety (with the concretes 3^'n * All these forms are found, mutatis inutandis, in the Arabic as Infinitives, or 80-called nomina actionis. \ Such an origin of "nbxi may be proved from the Arabic ; and in some other nouns it is obvious. Comp. "1"I5 as the name of a town with the appellative "ITJ a wall, and the shortening of C|n3 (in the constr. state) from rjns shoulder. § 84. IN^OUNS FflOM THE REGULAR VERB. 149 hungry, ndx, ?3b);/em. nj^'i:: righteousness, n^^: vengeance. More rare is the form ^M)5, as "istti tenieiiim, 335 uva. 13. b-Jp, iiiJp, bi::p, bi::p, brjp, all witli an unchangeable vowel (§ 25) between the second and third radicals, and a S/i^va under the first, as 3n3 book, 3XT woZ/J b-^^d u-ay, nibn dream, b^iaa boundary ; sometimes with il/epA prosthetic, as si"iTi< =Si-i'r ar?re, H'iSN ftroorf. The corres- ponding /e??? mines will suggest themselves; the forms ■"ibiDp, i^hrcp coincide with those of feminines in No. 5. 14. b:::|552 , the Aramaean form of the Infinitive, e. g. I2S12J^ judgment. Related forms are : "li'STD song, 1521-153 desire, nipba ioo;?/, h'^h-q-o king- dom, rr\ii'-iyq wages. Under this form, besides tlie action itself, is ex- pressed very often the place of the action, as naf^J altar, "la*!^ (from ~i3^ to drive) place of driving, i. e. to ichich cattle are driven, wilderness ; and the instrument, as nbsxa knife, sbt^a fork, nPiSa key. 15. libDp. l^ap, and other similar forms, with the terminations )i and 1—, as ■,'i-iriQ interpretation, "Jtibd table, 'jS'ip offering ; but there are also forms like '|i-i3t remembrance, ']i"'jn prophetic vision. For IT there is a truncated form 1, written also ri, which occurs especially in proper names, as il^^ and li'^a^ , nb'bd for "I'iia'b^U (comp. nXuiav, Plato). In Patronymic and Gentilic nouns (§ 85, 5) the Aim is retained, e. g. '^3'^ia from n'bid the city Shilo (still Shilun). 16. "With the feminine ending nsi, e.g. r^^h'2'q folly, nsiNS"^ healing. In the Aramtean, this is a usual termination of the Infinitive in the derived conjugations (comp. No. 28). It comes into frequent use only in the later books of the Old Test. As a synonymous ending, n^— is found occasionally in earlier use, as nili^TlJ remnant. Comp. the deno- minative nouns § 86, 6. Til. Participials of the derived Conjugations. 17. From Niph. bapD, as nlxbsa (pliir.) wonders. 18. 19. From PiUl and Hiph., e. g. rrnstis snuffers, fT^53t3a pruning- knife. 20. From Poel, as bbiy (abbr. from hhivn Is. iii. 12) and bbis c/jzYtZ. 21. From Pilel V::^,fem. fi^'^p, and 22. bbup, for the "most part adjectives of color, as thi<,fem. nia'ix red, 'fiS'i green, liXTU quiet.* 23. brabup, bbbi^p have an iterative sense, as 'T^sasn flexuosus, bhbna versutus, and are forms of adjectives with a diminutive significa- tion (§ 55, 3), as B^a'ix reddish, -iITinizJ blackish; hence in a contemp- tuous sense (like wase?', misellus, Germ. Gesinde, Gesindel), as tl&SOS (with the passive form, after Cl^Ox) collected rabble. ^ ' IV. Infinitives of the derived Conjugations. 24. From Al/j/i. of the form Dib^flS! plur. struggles. 25. From Piiil, like yS3 dispersion, more frequently in the fern., as nil3|3a request, with Qamets unchangeable. * No. 21 may be regarded also as a mere modification of No. 3. 150 PART n. PARTS OF SPEECH 26. ^IMp, and 27. ^^Jpn, ^''^pfl, likewise Infinitives of Piel (tiir latter the common form in Arabic), e. g. D^i^O requital ; p^^T] folding of the hands; b^iastn requital; Tp'l'^n mantle. 28. From Hiph. of the form IT^StN rememhrance-offering ; nsiSOUJf] annunciation (with unchangeable Qamets), Aramsean Infinitives. 29. From Ilithp. bn^nn register. 30. From PoeZ, like nb^in/oW?/, and perhaps also 31. like "^iss'^p smoke, p2''J£ prison. 32. From Pi'/eZ "i"""!?!© ^eavy ram, tJ^SXi adultery. 33. nipni^Q opening, Inf to No. 23. 34. bt?p5ii?, e. g. nanbia^^ame (comp. § 55, 6;. 35. Q,uadriliterals, like BSbO locust. §85. NOUN'S DEEIVED FROM THE lEREGULAR VERB. These are formed in the same maimer as those of which we have already treated, with few variations, except such as are occasioned by the pecuUarities of irregular verbs. Accordingly we shall refer these forms to the corresponding ones already described, mentioning only such as exhibit some important irre- gularity. I. From Verbs "lE. To the Inf of Kal belong (14). in^ gift, tiss^ overthrow; to the Inf. of Hiph. (28), rtban deliverance. — The noun 5>'ia knoxcledge, from S"!^ ; see § 71. II. From Verbs yb . From the Part. Kal (1), an upright (like bW|5), commonly with Paltach (to indicate the sharpening of the syllable), b'n abject, S'n much, fern, n^^, nsn ;* (21 ryqfal. From the /i?/". (10, 11), ta booty, y^ favor, ph law, fern, ii^^a worrf, n^sn law; (14), is^ fastness, at?-a that which surrounds {environs), fern. ^1^553 roZZ. The form 3D^ sometimes, by retraction of the tone, becomes a segholate form, as "i^t; bitterness (from n-iT3), "l^a timidity (from Ti?"^). (27), i^^nf!" praise, S^^sn prayer, with the segholate form also, as D^n a melting away (from OD53), "jn'tn 7«asi (from I?"! ^0 9/raA:e a tremulous sound). From Pilpel {§ 55, 4), b^^a wheel, from b^a ifo roZ/, bp'bp . III. From Verbs US a?2rf ''S. The Participial forms are regular. To the Infinitives belong : (10), ?'n, fern. n:y'n, m^'n knoivledge, riss counsel. (13), *iio for lio"^ * On the formation of feminines without the Bagliesh, see § 94, Rem. 2. §85. NOUNS FROM THE IRREGULAR VERB. 151 divan. (14), K'li'O fear, "Opi^ snare, nnbi^ birth, IDW punishment ; from verbs prop. "'S, 'y^'^'O the best. (27). airin inhabitant, nn^in g-e??e- ration, I'^in iAe south. IV. F?-o);i Fer&.9 is" antZ '^S'. Participles: (1), ^^ foreign; (2), ""S stranger, tTiy a witness, testimony , (3), 2ia ^oorf, nni:: ■jc/m^ j's g-ood. Infinitives: (11): various segholate /orms. as inii death, and tr^a house ; hip voice, ni"! spirit ; feminines, nWj and nbis et-iY, nuJi shame ; (14), nivOj/ey/;. nniiXJ 7'esi, Dip^ p/ace, also LJiTi;^ oa?' (trora L:>i;iJ) ; (27), nJiinPi intelligence, irili'n testimony; (28), nnan res^ V. From Verbs Tib, Participles: (2), nB;j /a;>, nup? hard, fern. nS";, Htt3;5. Some lose the n-^, as IPi sign, for "^1.^. (4), i1N"i seer, fern, nbis burnt-offering. (5), "1^03 covering, "^pj pz/re, "^35 poor. — Infinitives: (11). the segholates in different forms ; not often with the n-^ retained, as in fiSS a weeping, nsn friend, nm, ni<'"i vision, revelation (Is. xxviii. 7, 15), commonly without it, as S'l (for nsn). Sometimes the original ^ or 1 appears. The "^ then quiesces in Chireq (comp. on ''fi'^ , § 75, Rend. 3), as in "^IQ fruit, ''Vn sick)iess. The i also quiesces, as in ini£ waste. In masculines the third radical rarely remains a consonant, as in "^l^ sickness, though in feminines it is always so, as in iij^ui rest. Ti'^ib garland. (13), ino ■u^m- ter, ''p^.fem. n^nuj a drinking ; f em. T^i^ part, fii^in the half, 'n^n^ and n^nd p?7. (14). nsp^ possessio7is, t^N'i'? appearance ; fern. JnliJ^ command. Apocopated form, b>^ height, for n^3)'2 . (15), "J^pp jpeaZ^/t, ■ii"'|3 destruction. (27), nibnri annihilation, ri''32la building, n^tsi'npi 6roocZ. (28), Tj'^X ZesZicZe, for nsai-^i , from riDlU. VI. From doubly anomalous Verbs. We present only some cases of especial difficulty to the learner: 1. From a verb IS and xb, niU elevation for riNb, from Xi^3, Job xli. 17. 2. From a verb "^S and nb , nyin instruction, lav), fiSia s/o-n, prob. from rtS^. 3. From a verb x'y and fib, nd tunmlt, Num. xxiv. 17, for rxB, from 4. From a verb llJ and tnb, I'n a watering, for '^'I'l, from '^5'^ ; "'X island, for "''ix, from MIX to dwell ; ITiX s/^u for nix, from tilX; Ij^ corcZ, from n'|5; xn chamber for IPl. from Hin to dwell; *'15 people, from riia. Arab, to flow together. To the learner the stem is often obscured also by contraction, when it originally contains Nun, Daleth, or He, e. g. ns wine-press for PiSJ nsj"^, from "i?;; ; CjX a?io-er for vipx ; r.'Q'!< fidelity, for ns^X. from "jON ; rs ?i/He for iTii;, from Tvrs ; "il brightness, for 1^'^T, from nfij. 1 52 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH, §86. DENOMINATIVE NOUNS. 1. Such are all nouns which are formed immediately from another noun, whether it is primitive, or derived from a verb ; e. g-. 'ji^'lj? eastern, immediately from D*!^ the east, which is itself derived from the verb Q^JP. 2. Most of the forms which nouns of this class assume have already been given, the denominatives (which seem in general to be a later phenomenon of language than verbals) being formed in imitation of nouns derived from the verb. The verbal with 1Z prefixed, e. g. was employed to express the place of ati action (§ 84, No. 14) ; accordingly this )2 was prefixed to a noun in order to make it a designation of place (see No. 3). In Greek and German also, the verbals and denominatives are exactly analogous. The principal forms are the following: 1. In imitation of the Part. Kal (No. 4 of the verbals), ^3>iiJ porter, from "1?^ gote ; ^J^S herdsman, from 1)^3 cattle; CilD vinedresser, from n"|3 vineyard. 2. Like verbals of No. 6, r^p archer, from n^.^ bow ; n^a seaman, from Tihh salt, (sea). Both these forms (Nos. ], 2) indicate one's busi- ness, trade, &c., like Greek nouns in rrjs, teii-;, e. g. nolU)]?, yqa^fiaTixq. 3. Nouns with '^ prefixed, e.xpressing the place of a thing (comp. No. 14 of tlie verbals) ; e. g. "';^'52 place offoimtains. from ''^b fountain; nibjnia , riirxn^, place about the feet, — about the head, from bsn, Tax'l ; napri lor fiiivip^ feld, of cucumbers, from XTBp ciicumber. Comp. ufim- Aoj»', from ufinnXoi,. 4. Concretes formed by the addition of "ji, 1—, as T'i'^Tp eastern, from ^"!p. ) "I'i"''^^ hinder, from inx ; ")t^^!i^ V)ound, hence coiled animal, ser- pe7it, IVoni rrjlb a winding. 'i and "i*! form also diminutives like the Syriac "ii, as ']i"iJ"'X little man (in the eye), apple of the eye, from ilJiX ; isi-i^nrj'^ the dear, good people (from "1*1113'^ = "iia'^ upright, good), a term of endearment for Israel ; perhaps also. 'jiS'^Sia little snake. 5. Peculiar to denominative nouns is the termination "i— 7, which con- verts a substantive into an adjective, and is added especially to numerals and names of persons and countries, in order to form Ordinals, Gcntilics, and Patronymics. E. g. ^'naj strange, from "isb" any thing foreign; ''UJW the sixth, from u3u six; •'asji'a Moabite, from nxia ; i^Nnia"^ Israelite, from bx'iiU^. When the stem-substantive is a compound, it is commonly resolved again into two words, e.g. "is^xiyja Benjayninite from "jiri'^sa. For the use of the article with such forms, sec § 111, 1, Rem. Rarely, § 87. THE PLURAL. 163 instead of "'— we find a) the ending "^-r (as in Aramaedn), as "^bis deceitful, and in proper names, as ■'^n? (ferreus) Barzillai ; and h) the parallel n-^, as n32b (prop, milky) slorax-tree. 6. Abstract nouns formed from concretes by the addition of T\'!\ and n"^— (comp. the Eng. terminations dom, hood, ness, &c.) ; e. g. r>i3b?2 A-iVjo-- rfoTO, immediately from T\?.^. ; niDJsbx widowhood, from "i^sbx , njTDbs , widower, widow; niiuxn principium, from TL'X") ;= 12Ji<"i princeps. (See the verbals No. 16). §87. OF THE PLURAL. 1. The juZwra/ termination for the masculine gender^ is D''— , e. g. DID horse, flnr. D'^p^D horses, seldom written defectively D— , as in Gen. i. 21, Qp^sR. Nouns ending in "^— take U''^— in the plural, as D^^^nny Hebreivs from ^n^y (Ex. iii. 18) ; but usu- ally a contraction takes place, as D'''^3y (§ 93, YIII), D""?!? crimson garments from '^3'©. Nouns in ln_. lose this termination when they take the plural ending, e. g. nth seer, plur. W'Y'n. This ending iin is also prevalent in Phoenician, e. g. D5TS Sidoiiii; m Aramtean it is in, in Arabic un (nominative) and in (oblique cases), in iEthiopic dn. It is, moreover, identical with the ending "|1 in 3d pers. plur. inasc. of verbs. Comp. also the verbal-ending "j^.* Unusual terminations of the plur. masc. are : a) "i"^ — _ as in Chaldee and Syriac, almost exclusively in the poets and later writers, e. g. "pa^^ kings Prov. xxxi. 3 ; T^^i; days Dan. xii. 13, defectively 'j'^iX islands Ez. xxvi. 18. Comp. Judges v. 10; Job xv. 13; xxiv. 22; xxxi. 10 ; Lam. i. 4 and other places. h) ^— (the n cast off, as in the Dual iT^ for □'^1'^ Ez. xiii. 18 ; comp. the constr. slate, § 89, 2), e. g. "'3'2 chords, Ps. xlv. 9 for Q"i352 (unless this be the true reading) ; ^'B'S peoples 2 Sam. xxii. 44 (for which the parallel passage Ps. xvi^i. 44 has WS , but the other form occurs also in Lam. iii. 14 and Ps. cxiiv. 2). This ending is by many called in question, in single passages (see also 2 Sam. xxiii. 8, comp. 1 Chron. xi. 11 ; 1 Sam. xx. 38 K^thibh). or altogether ; see Gesenius, Lehrgebaude der Heb. Sprache, S. 524 ff.— Still more doubtful is— c) ''—z (like the constr. state in Syriac). Here are reckoned, e. g. "''nln white cloths Is. xix. 9; ^yii pritices Judges v. 15, "'i'i^H windows Jer. xxii. 14. But this last is perhaps Dual (§ 88, 6, Rem. 1)'; '^'ib may be my princes (with suff.), and "i— 7 in "i"!!!! may be a formative syllable. Farther, iBlbn in Is. xx. 4 is constr. state; but in '^'nd (prob. = "''nia after the form bap) the Mighty One, and in ■'2'ia locust-swarm Nah. iii. * On the identity of all these endings, see Dietriches Abhandlungen zur hcbr. Grauimatik, Leipz. 1846, S. 62 ff. 154 PART II. PARl^ OF SPEECH. 17 (from nari), the ''— belongs to the stem ; and finally, in ''SiliS! the Lord (prop, my Lord, from tJipX Lord) it is originally a suffix, see §121, Rem. 4. d) t3— , obsolete and rare ; e. g. DS3 =tiS3 g7iats [Ex. viii. 13] ; C^D ladder [Gen. xxviii. 12] from b^O , prop, steps, comp. English stairs* 2. The jilural termination for the feminine gender is HI. Tliis takes the place of the feminine termination ri— , ri— , H— . appended directly to the form of the singular ; as nbnpi song of praise, -plur. ni^nn ; JTias letter, plur. Sni"i5X ; "li?2i a uwll, plnr. ni"i^{3. Feminines in lni_ form their plural in 'TiV—, and those in fl% in ni''— ; e. g. !rii"i2'5a Egyptian woman, plur. ni'^nst'a ; in^Db'a kingdom, plur. ni'^Db'a. These plural terminations have, however, for their basis, the endings n^— and H^— in the sin- gular. It is only from a neglect of the origin of the terminations M and H"^— :< that the plural-ending Di— is appended to some words which end Avith them ; e. g. rT^ili spear, plur. D'^n'^Dn and niniDO ; nsst whoredom, plur. D'TiilSt ; DiniJ^bi? widoichood, and many other instances. Strictly in the manner of the Syriac is the formation of the plural ni"::; (edh^-vdth) laws, with Vav as a consonant, from the singular n*!'!?.' . This ending rii (-r'th) stands directly for -dth, as it is sounded in Arab.. ^Ethiop., and Chald. (see, on the corruption of the d sound to 6, § 9, 10, 2) ; and -nth is, properly, nothing but the prolonging and strengthening of the sing. fern, ending -dth (§ 80, 2). The strengthening was intended to denote plurality. But this ending was then, by a still farther application of it, appended also to nouns Avhose singular does not terminate in -dth. How the changeable vowels are affected by the addition of the plural endings, is shown in §§92-95. 3. Words which are of two genders (§80, 2, h, § 107, 3) have often, in the plural, both the masculine and feminine termina- tions ; e. g. tl3s5 sonl, plur. DiTJ?B3 and nillDBS. Both forms may be employed as masculine or feminine ; but their gender must be determined by observing the usage of the language in respect to each word. This is also true of several other words of both gen- ders and. both {masc. and fern.) terminations, e. g. li'^ an age, masc, plur. U^yil and fiili'^ ; HSID a year, fern., plur. Di:© and niDffi. The gender of the singular is here retained in both the plural forms ; e. g. "^Hb!; tnasc. a lion, ini">'li? masc. Zeph. iii. 3 ; ni'ni'n masc. Job xlii. 16. * See the Adverbs in c— § 100, 3, and Dietrich, vbi supra, S. 66 ff. §88. THE DUAL. 155 Sometimes usage makes a distinction between the two plural forms of the same word. Thus fi'^a^ days, and D'^SIU years, are the usual, f^ia^ , ni3^ the unfrequent and poetical forms. This distinction appears especially in the use of several words which designate members of the human body. The dual of these words (see § 88) is employed as the name of the living members themselves, while the plural in ri (which here corresponds to the neuter) represents something similar, but inani- mate. E. g. ti'}h'2 hands, niss handles, manubria ; o"^?"!]^ horns. rii5"i|5 cornua allaris ; B";'3"'5? eyes, vS'il'S fountains. 4. A considerable number of masculines form their plural in tli, while many feminines have a plural in D'^— . In both cases, however, the gender of the singular is usually retained in the plural. E. g. DJ< father, 'plur. fii^SJ ; Wt natne, niasc, -plur. T&iytD_ ; on the contrary, T^12 word, fern., plur. D'^^'a ; TB5i'?5 co7i- ciihine, fern., plur. D'^IBIS^B, &c. 5. It is chiefly in the adjectives and participles, that the dis- tinction of gender is maintained in the use of the plural endings ; e. g. Q'^litS honi, flilit: bonce ; D'^^pp masc, tib'dp fern. ; as also in substantives of the same stem, representing objects in which there is a natural distinction of sex, as d'^SS fHii, lni:a filice ; D'^pb'a res^es^ f^'i^b'a reginm. Rem. 1. In some few words, to the plural form in ni is added the other termination of the plural Di^- (before the genitive "^ — , comp. § 89, 2), or that of the dual 'Q']^ ; e. g. fi^a height, plur. rri^a, construct slate "^niaa ; b^ixia ''niil\y'n^ from at iheheadofiiaul, 1 Sarn. xxvi. 12; nrin wall, plur. m'TaiPi mcenia, dual Wjhi'nin double wall. This double designation of the plural appears also in the mode of connecting the suffixes with the plural forms in ni (§ 91, 3). 2. Some nouns are used only in the plural, e. g. t2''ri5a men (the .iEthiopic has the singular, met, man); some of them with the sense of the singular {§ 108, 2), as ci5Q face. The plural of the latter can be expressed only by the same form ; hence, D"^DQ means also faces, Ez. i. 6. OF THE DUAL. 1. There is a modification of the Plural in the Dual form. In Hebrew, however, it is found only in certain substantives (not at all in adjectives, verbs, and pronouns). The Dual termina- tion for both genders is U"^^, appended to the singular ; as D'^'l'^ both hands, D^ioi'i tivo days. The original feminine ending ath is always retained here, with long a in an open syllable ; as nsto 1^6 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. lip, D'l'infito both lips ; from feminines with the ending fi— , e. g msn;, the Dual has the form D^PTZJn: double fetters. The shortening of the vowels, occasioned by the compara- tively heavier dual ending, is in some cases rather greater than with the plural termination, especially in the segholate forms (§84, 11); as b^-) foot, plur. W'b^'}, dual D^b'^n ; but also DtiSnp (along with Q!^?"!)?) from 1"lj5 horn, ^^'iTJb from Tib cheek. Bern. 1. Unusual forms of the dual, mostly found only in proper names : a) )^^ (as in Chald.) and contracted )—, as yiy^ Gen; xxxvii. 17 and "i^^ 2 Kings vi. 13 (name of a place, prop, fwo loells) ; 6) n— and O"^— . as nps, C3? (proper names). B"'3^ t^oo in the combination -,b:y ni;d ticeh-e ; c) i— (c cast off), i*!; Ez. xiii. 18, probably also "'Jiin (double windoxc) Jar. xxii. 14. 2. The words D";^ water, n-^aia heaven. B7?i2i!i-i*i or nb'iun'i Jerusalem, are dual only in appearance. The first two are plurals from the lost forms "'Ja , i:Q'a ; the third is a protracted form for the older D^^!i"i'^ ,* comp. the shorter form Dbir Ps. Ixxvi. 3, and the Chaldee DbTUIT^ . 2. The Dual in Hebrew, besides the numeral forms for 2, 12, 200, &.C. (§ 97), is used chiefly of such objects as are, by nature or art, connected in pairs ; e. g. D']'"!^ both hands, D^ITX both ears, d'l^lllj teeth (of the tivo rows), D^b;?3 pair of shoes, D";5T55'^ pair of scales ; or at least are conceived as forming a pair, as W^I^S"^ two days together, biduuni, D^riDTiJ tivo years (in succession), bien- nium, D^riTSS tivo dibits. In the former case the dual is used also for a greater number of objects, either indefinite, or limited by a numeral ; e. g. W^tz^ TL'ffi si.v ivings Is. vi. 2, Ez. i. 6, "b3 D^ilna all knees Ez. vii. 17, D^Pb^iia cymbala Ezra iii. 10, D:^r)STri forked hooks Ez. xl. 43. With some degree of emphasis, the dual takes also the numeral tivo, Amos iii. 12 ; Judges xvi. 28. See other remarks on the use of the dual, in § 87, Nos. 3, 5 (Rem.). It cannot be questioned that the Hebrew, at an earlier period, em- ployed the Dual more freely and to a greater extent, and that the above limited and fragmentary use of it belongs to a later phase of develop- ment in the language. The early Arabic forms the Dual in the noun, pronoun, and verb, to about the same extent as the Sanscrit, or the Greek ; but in the modern, it disappears almost wholly in the verb, pro- noun, and adjective. The Syriac retains it only in a few forms, but not as a living element, somewhat as the Roman in duo, ambo. So also it disappears in the younger Indian languages. On the Germanic Dual, see Grimm's d. Gramm. I., S. 114, 2 Ausg. * See Qesenii Thesaurus Ling. Hebrsese, p. 629. § 89 GENITIVE AND CONSTRUCT STATE. 157 §89. " THE GENITIVE AND THE CONSTRUCT STATE. 1. The use of case-endings* no longer appears in Hebrew, as a living element of the language. The relations of case are either not indicated by any external sign, like that of the nomi- native and for the most part of the accusative, or are expressed by prepositions (§ 117) ; that of the genitive being shown by subordination and close annexation to the governing noun. Thus the noun, which as genitive serves to limit another, retains its own form unchanged, and is only uttered in closer connection with the preceding nomen regens. In consequence of this con- nection, the tone hastens on to the second of the two nouns 1 (the genitive), and the first, or governing noun, is thereby com- monly shortened, either in its consonants or its vowels (when mutable), or in both ; e. g. 13'n ivord^ D'^H"^^ "13'n word of God (a sort of compound, as we say in reversed order, God's-word^ landlord^ fruit-tree)] ^'^ ha7id,1\^1^T\ ^\^ Jiand of the king ; D'i"in'7 words, oyn '^'yy^ loords of the j^eople. Thus in Hebrew, the the noun which stands before a genitive suffers the change by which this relation is indicated, and in grammatical language is said to be in the construct state, while a noun which is not thus followed by a genitive is said to be in the absolute state. Such words are often connected by Maqqeph (§ 16, 1). The insertion or omission of it, however, does not affect their relation to each other, and depends merely upon the accentuation. On the further use of the constr. slate see the Syntax §§ 114, 116. 2. The t;oi^e^changes which many nouns exhibit in the co7i- siruct state are shown in §§ 92, 95. There are also terminations peculiar to this form of the noun : thus, ff) in place of the plural and dual terminations D"!— and d^l-, it has always (by throwing off the m) simply i— . (comp. Rem.) ; e. g. D^C^D horses, nbns ''D^,D the horses of Pharaoh; D":?^? eyes, 'C'^Ntri "i^iy the eyes of the man ; h) the original /ew. ending H— . is always retamed m this connec- tion with the genitive (instead of n_ which has become the * On some traces of obsolete case-endings, see § 90. f In accordance with the universal tendency of the tone, in the Hebrew lan- guage, to hasten towards the end of words (§ 29, 1). 168 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. usual ending" in the absolute state) ; as nsb'a queeii^ i^^ll^ Snabia queen of Sheha. When the same word has also the termina- tion '^z—i this form of it is adopted in the construct state (§ 80, i, Rem. 1) ; c) nouns in ri_ fiom verbs Jib (§ 85, V) form their construct state in n_ ; but nouns in "^-^ change this termination to '^— . Exs. ns'"l, const r. nX"! seer ; "'H, constr. ^T] life; and so also i{^5, constr. fi^''5 valley. On the endings i and '^— in the construct state, see § 90. Mem. The liquid sound of D was lost at the end of a word, just as in Latin the final m before a vowel was slurred over in the language of common life and in poetry. Q,uinct. Inst. Orat. IX. 4. §40. So also dis- appears the corresponding n of the plural ending in Arabic and Aramaean, as well as in the plural ending '^l of the Hebrew verb (§ 44, 1. and § 47, Rem. 4). The final vowel i, after the rejection of the m. was strength- ened by an a sound preceding it (the China of Sanscrit grammar), whence the diphthong ai, which is contracted to e (§ 7, 1 and § 9, 6). Instead of this "^-^ the Syriac still retains "^-^^ of which there is in He- brew also a clear trace in the union of .suffixes with the plural noun (§ 91, 2) ; and probably the example Pi'iJ ^S^bn Is. xx. 4 also belongs here (according to others Judges v. 15. The dual ending "^-^ obvionsly arose from "> — . §90. REMAIN'S OF ANCIENT OASE-EKDINGS.* rV— local ; *^— and 1 as endings of the construct state. 1. As in Arabic three cases are distinguished by terminations, so the Hebrew noun has three endings, which correspond to those of the Arabic in sound, but have mostly lost their original signi- jQcance. They are mere fragmentary remains of a nlore full and vital organism, than the language exhibits in the stage at which we find it in the Old Testament, when it no longer knew the regular distinction of cases by appropriate endings. In Arabic, the case-endings are : -u for the nominative, -i for the genitive, and -a for the accusative (answering to the three leading vowels). In modern Arabic tliese endings have almost wholly disap- peared ; and when now and then used, among the Bedouins, it is without rule and with no distinction of the endings ( Wallin. in Zeitschrift der d. morgenl. Gesellsch. Bd. V. 1851, S. 9.). Even in the Sinaitic inscrip- * The so-called paragogic letters. — ^Tb. § 90. RE^FAINS OF AXCIEMT CASE-ENDINGS. 159 tions, their regular use is found already impaired (Beer, Studia Asiatica, III. 1840, p. xviii ; Tuch, in Zeitschr. der d. m. G. Bd. III., S. 139 f.) ; and still, among the Arabs of the Peninsula of Sinai, ^ammuk {thy uncle, nominative) is heard also for 'ammick (gen.) and for ''aminak (accus.). The ^thiopic has preserved only the -a; employing it, however, not only in the whole sphere of the accusative, but also (withoui distinction of case) for the ending of the conslr. state in connection with a following noun. 2. The relation of the accusative, in the toneless ending n-_ appended to substantives, is the one most clearly retained in Hebrew. It is used, a) most frequently, to express direction to, motion towards;* e. g. rrs^ towards the sea, ivestivard, niis^ toivards the north, northward, rni^X to Assyria, nbns to Babylon, Hi'ns to the earth, l^^i"'! homeward, ritnjy to Gaza (from n^y) Judg. xvi. 1 ; with the article, rnnr; to the mountain, X\TT]%X\ into the house, nbns^n to, or into, the tent [Gen. xviii. 6, xxiv. 67] ; with the plural, n'a'^'lTIJS to the Chaldeans, TMr^h^T^ toicards the heavens ; even with the construct state followed by a genitive, wjpii X\Tp% into the house of Joseph, pTS^'l "^f ■^'^''^ t^ the wilderness of Damascus, liJ^aiZJ nn")T'a {^oith the tone, an exception to the rule) toivards the rising pf the sun, east- ward ; b) sometimes in a weaker sense of the H-., Avith only a general direction to the place where an object is,t as S^^^Si at Babylon Jer. xxix. 15, nbnT in the habitation Hab. iii. 11 ; comp. also tyiz% there Jer. xviii. 2 (oftener thither) ; c) the significance of the ending H— is still more obscured, when a preposition is prefixed to the word, as nbj^tjb to the world below Ps. ix. 18, nby'bb uf wards, HS^fs in the south Josh. XV. 21, f^b:|3'a from Babylon Jer. xxvii. 16, tlpSi?. 1? unto Aphek Josh. xiii. 14. The local reference, in this ending, is the prevailing one (hence the nTime n_- local) ; but there is also, rarely, a refer- ence to time, as perhaps in T\T\V noiv, at this time (from 1P5?), r\)a'''a^ D''^^''? from year to year. Peculiar is the form iTlb'^bn, prop, ad profanum ! = absit ! We have the accusative of the object (though bordering on the local reference) in 'j'lblT "S'nS * See, on this signification of the accusative, the Syntax, § 118, 1. •j- So also the accusative ■without this form, § 118, 1. 160 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. and "ibna? n^"iN is. viii. 23, t^bt^r^ Ez. xxi. 31 ; comp. Job xxxiv. 13. Being regularly without the tone, it has commonly no effect on the vowels of the word (as shown in the above examples), except that in segholate Ibrms the helping vowel becomes Sh'va (§ 93, 6). and also the Chireq in D'^bd. — The ending n— is itself sometimes shortened to n— . as nni: to Nob 1 Sam, xxi. 2, comp. Ez. xxv, 13. 3. More rare, and almost confined to poetry, are the other two endings, which like the accusative "_ seem to correspond to Arabic case-endings ; viz. '^— for the genitive, and i (also ^ in proper names) for the nojninative. But here, the recognition of the relation of case is wholly lost in the language ; and it treats these forms as archaisms, employed in poetry or other more ele- vated style, and found also in many compound names, the relics of an earlier age. As in such names, so elsewhere, these endings keep their place only in the closest connection of noun with noun, namely in the construct state* a) The ending "'— is not very unfrequent in the construct state, and commonly has the tone. Exs. "JSkn i^Tb forsaking the flock Zech. xi. 17, HSp ^3pi2J diueller in the thorn-hush Deut. xxxiii. 16 ; with the feminine, nb'^b "^innSii stolen hy night Gen. xxxi. 39 (in prose), tSElZJ'a ''t^J^^'a plena justitice Is. i. 21, p'1^-i2b'a ^tn'T] by after the maimer of Melchizedek Ps. ex. 4 ; oftener with a preposition following (comp. § 116), as ^t"}^*^ D^in:! mistress among the nations Lam. i. 1, "jS^b i"lpi5 bind- ing to the vine Gen. xlix. 11, comp. Is. xxii. 16, Micah vii. 14, Ps. cxiii. 5-9, and other passages ; so also with many particles, which are strictly nouns in the construct state, as ir^bn; ( == nb^T) besides, ^p^ ( = TO) from, '•nba not, and in com- pound names, as p'lS""'3b'a (i. e. king of righteousness), b!^'^"iaa (man of God), bx'^^n (favor of God), and others ; comp. the Punic name Hannibal, i. e. byi''3n (favor of Baal). h) The ending i is much more rare, in prose only in the Penta- teuch, and that in elevated style, as Gen. i. 24, Y")^. '^^^H the beasts of the earth for f "li? rfiT] (the same word repeated from * In old, cslablislied combinations of words are often preserved ancient end- ings, whicli are otherwise lost or have become rare ; e. g. the fcm. tcrmiuatiou n , -with the noun in connection with a following genitive (§89, 2, b), and with the verb in union with suffixes (§ 59, 1). So also much, that belongs to the ancient form of the language, is preserved in proper names and by the poets. § 91. NOUN WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. ICl that passage in Ps. 1. 10, Ixxix. 2, civ. 11, 20, Zeph. ii. 14, Is. Ivi. 9) ; still other examples, 1^3 i:2 the son of Beor Num. xxiv. 3, 15, Q;*''? r.y_i2 foimtain of water Ps. cxiv. 8, and per- haps bsy iirs? the soul of the sluggard Prov. xiii. 4. The effect of these endings on the vowels, is seen in the above exam- ples. The Paltach of the feminine ending n— sometimes becomes vocal Sh^va, and sometimes Qamets. Rem. The relation of case being entirely lost in the terminations "i— and i, they can no longer be regarded as case-endings. Yet the proba- bility is, that as such they were once living elements of the language, no less than the other termination n— (no. 2) ; especially, as the Old- Arabic has precisely the corresponding endings, which, like the Hebrew, it subsequently lost (see above). The same phenomenon is often repeated in other languages. In the Latin, e. g. we find a fragmentary use of the casus localis, with the same ending as in the Sanscrit (in names of towns, ruri, domi, &c.); in the plural endings an and hd of the modern Persian, lie ancient case-endings, but wholly extinct as such : to say nothing of the Romanic and Germanic tongues.— Even where, in Old-Arabic, the case-endings have penetrated the word-stem, and hence take stronger sounds, as in !13K , "^as , X2X {co)istr. state of ai< father), the modern has indeed all the three forms, but without distinc- tion of case. Accordingly, in the Hebrew constr. state "^ns, "^nSj a properly genitive ending should be recognized, and a nominative ending intheChald. ^3J{, the Heb. ^n?a (nbcw?a), ^atJ (bs^rmi), ^5Q (^x^ss) ; and hence, the more readily, the occurrence of both the forms ^S'^SC and bNi3S, "^ainx and "{bBinst. §91. THE NOUN" WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. In the union of the noun with pronominal suffixes, which are here in the genitive (§ 33, 2, b), there are two things to be con- sidered (as in the verb, § 56 foil.), namely, the form of the suffix itself, and the effect on the form of the noun. Here we are con- cerned chiefly with the former, as the latter will be considered in connection with the paradigms of nouns, in §§ 92-95. A general view of the suffixes is given also in Paradigm A. We treat of the suffixes as they appear, first, in connection with the singular, and then with the plural and dual of the noun. 1. The suffixes, as appended to the singular, are : 11 162 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. Sitigular. 1 C0771. '^— my. 1 ^ j m. ^,T]_, in pause 7^_ 1 / ^, ^^ Xthy. 2; ,j f 971. ^n, 1 ; ini_, i, ri 1 /• 0= ^^: ^'-r his. 3 her. Plural, com. ^D, ^Dl_ m. DD, D5— w. on , D— , poet. ilS-^ /. in. li K our. your. their. Rem. 1. There is less variety of forms here than in connection witii the verb, and their use is as follows : a) The forms without a union-vowel are joined to nouns which end with a vowel, as ^"^^ij, wix and I'^nx, f7"^2!$, ^3''3i$, B?"'^'*., "l?''??^) Dri"i2X, "niax . But nouns ending in H— and n-^ (see below, no. 4) do not come under this rule. 6) The forms with a union-vowel (§ 58, 3, 6) are attached chiefly to nouns ending with a consonant, which are by far the most numerous. As to the union-vowel, the a sound is the prevalent one in the 3(i sing. 1, ri (contracted from *T\—), fern. PT— , and 3d plur. D— , 'i'3-7, )—, and here e is very rare (e. g. ifTnis his light Job xxv. 3) except with nouns in ti— ^, (the closing vowel-sound being combined with that of the union-vowel or displaced by it), as Wib hisjield, fiN'i^a her aspect, O"'^ her field ; on the contrary Tj — , ^3-^: are the customary forms, while T]— , 'is^ are of rare occurrence, see Rem. 2. 2. Rare forms are : Sing. 2d pers. m. n2^, e. g. MSSS thy hand Ps. cxxxix. 5 ', fi'm. Tj"^— Ez. V. 12, ■'a^ Ps. ciii. 4, once ^3-^ Nah.ii. 14 (in several MSS. ns^, ii^7 prob. = "^—7), also T\— Is. xxii. 1. — 3d pers. ri , e. g. in the frequent ri^nx Gen. ix. 21 ; xii. 8 ; xiii. 3 ; xxxv. 21 ; tikp 2 Kings xix. 23, for which we find isjp Is. xxxvii. 24, nmo Gen. xlix. 11 (A'Vi iniiD). P/zir. 1st pers. ^3^. as >i3^'^p Job xxii. 20. and so Ruth iii. 2, Is. xlvii. 10. —2d pers. njD Ez. xxiii. 48, 49.— 3d pers. m. cn^ 2 Sam. xxiii. 6 for nin— (whence also, by contraction, the usual form D— ). /^e»i. "^JH" 1 Kings vii. 37, nj-^ Gen. xli. 21, f^3-7 Ruth i. 19, elsewhere chiefly in pause ; '\T\ also is rare (Is. iii. J7), usually "|— . 2. When suffixes are appended to the plural masc. in D'^— and the dual in D?— , these endings must take the form of the construct state in i— (§89,2). This termination is combined with the suffix, and hence the following forms : SUFFIXES OP PLURAL AND DUAL NOUNS. Singular Plural. com. ''— my. 1 C0771. '^^"'^ our. m. Tj'i — Xthtj. y your m. 1''—, poet. ^fT'— :7 his. her. I m.nn^— ,poet.W^ ■ their ) § 91. NOUN WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. 163 In most of these forms, the ending of the j)hiral construct "'— remains unchanged, as 'in|''D^D, 'i:|''D^,D, DDJ'^DID ; in some it takes Seghol in place of Tsere, as ^I'^D^D, •n|''r>1D ; in three forms with very short suffixes it has P attach (§89, Rem.), as '^.^D^iD from "jiD^D, ^f^D^D from ^I^D^D (comp. §28,4), ^DID siisa'i contracted from susai-i. Rem. 1. The Yodh, which distinguishes these suffixes, is occasion- ally omitted in most of the persons, e. g. 5^2.'7'^ for ^i"^?'^'^ thy ways Ex. xxxiii. 13, !!rt|;n for IfT'?"] his friends Job xlii. 10, nnr^^ after their kinds Gen. i. 21. This is most frequent in the siiff. 3d pers. m. sing.. which is very often written 1—, but is almost always changed in the K^ri to T^— ; e. g. isn Ms arrows Ps. Iviii. 8, K^ri I'^an. 2. Unusual forms : sing. 2d pers./! "X^-z Eccles. x. 17, '^3';'— r Ps- ciii. 3, 4, 5 ; 3d pars. m. ini (a strictly Chaldee form) Ps. cxvi. 12 ; 3d fern. xnil_ Ez. xli. 15.— Plur. fern. i^;V~ ^z. xiii. 20, n^n''— Ez. xl. 16, run-'— Ez. i. 11. T V 3. On ia"'^ see farther in § 103. 2, Note. 3, That the Yodh, in these stiffi,xes to plural nouns, belongs to the ending of the construct state, is clear and beyond doubt. But this was so far lost sight of, in the use of the language, as to give rise to this strange anomaly (inaccuracy, indeed) of speech, viz. that suffix-forms with the plural ending '^~ were attached to the feminine plural in fii, thus making a twofold designation of the plural ; e. g. ^s^nic^o, ^^nioiD, i^nio^D.* N. B. This is the rule ; but tlie naked suffix (as in No. 1) is also attached to the ending ni, as ■^ni']3| Ps. cxxxii. 12, ?jni353 Deut. xxviii. .59; indeed, with the 2Aplur. this is the more common form, e. g. cn"i2X ^/iei>/ai/iera, oftener than sninhx, as also nni53'r their names, Dni-i^ their generations. 4. In order to give a clearer view of what has been said, we now present the following paradigm of the masctdine and femi- ni?ie nouns ; selecting for it a w.ord whose stem-vowel is un- changeable. In place of the feminine ending !l— in the singular, appears the ending of the construct state, viz. ri_ , Its Pattach is retained before QD, 'JD, but is lengthened to Qamets before the other suffixes, where it comes into an open syllable (§ 89, 2,6). * See an analogous case iu §8*7, 4, Rem. 1 Comp. the double feminine ending in § 80, Rem. 2, /. 164 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. 1 c. 1 2m 91 6 5 2/ 3 m l3/ ^Ic. 2 m. 3 m. 13/ 1 C. 2 m. i 2/ 3 m 13/ ^Ic. 6* 2m 2/ 3 m 13/ Masculine Noun. SINGULAR. D^D equus. "^pID equus Tneus. Tfp'lD equus tuus. •JD1D equus tuus, f. iOlD equus ejus (suus). ?1D1D equus ejus (suus), f. ^DD'.D equus noster. DDDID equus vester. ■JDDID equus vester, f. DD^D equus eorum {suus). ■JD'lD equus earum {suus). PLURAL. 1D1D e^'^Az mei. tfliDID equi tui, f. T^D'lD e^'i^i ejus {sui). ri''p^D e^-^a e/M5 (sui), f. ^3'iD'lD eg^j^i nostri. DD'^p'lD e^'^fi vestri. P'^P^D e<7?fz vestri, f. DH'^P^O e^'i^i eorum {sui). 'jn'^pID eg'7fi earum {sui). Fembiivie Noun. iriD^D eg-wa mea. tfriDTO equa tua, f. ino^D equa ejus {sua). firiD^D e5'?lD ''^bij? "^IT^ • T t grave suff* Q3D^0 QS'abis? c?Tp3 B5'?=^1 Plur. absol. D^WO D^)3bi2> t3''T)?S d^nn^ constr. ID^D i^bi> ''I'^ps '''D^'7 light suff. ID^D '^^biy ''ITS - T I grave suff. DDiD'lD dD'i^bi^ Q^^'I'^pS) ds'^r^n'i Dual absol. Dtittii B'?'nl?b'a • - \ I n?B53 constr. (two days) (pair of tongs) (two weeks) (wings) VI. r d. e. f. g- h. S'm^. aftsoZ. ^fl J^?? b?J3 V T »T?T (a youth) (perpetuity) (work) (death) (olive) constr. ^?l ns5 b?J3' nitt m light suff. ^'^t) ''n^!? ''b^B •iriiii ''in'^l grave suff. D3'l?5 03^!^? dsbJs dDini-a l=?J^^T Plur. absol. d'ln:?^ u-^rih d'lbis d^nia d'^ri'^'r constr. "•t???? V^^ *• t: it iriitt ^TPy. light suff. ^^^r^ inis iby& - T : ''initt ''^\'f grave suff. ^T^h B^'^t)^? !=?''!??& ds'^riiia 03''^?''! Dual absol. i3?b?5 (sandals) (eyes) constr. "•^S? "^r? * By grave (i. e. the more strongly accented) suffixes, are meant most suffixes of the 2d and 3d persons; viz. for sing, nouns, d3 , "jS , on . ")n (but not D— , ia- ) ; § 93. PARADIGMS OF MASCULINE NOUNS. 167 Masculine Nouns. IV. VI. b. f a. b. c. 1 a. b. c. T T VI m •• T n>^ "^50 ^'^p (sage) (elder) (shoulder) (court) (king) (book) (sanctuary) D?H m fl^l "l?'^ 1^% ^5? '^'ip ''^sn iSj?T ""^V"}. ""S^^ • I • ^'<^1'^ D?^?*!! t3?rl?T ^T^V^. £333^^ ts^'isp DDTB'I]? o'liasri Q^'SpT D^"??" • T : d'l'ii&D aiT^i]?^ ''^^'l 15|?T ''^^^n ■ ''?^^ ^y^^ ^tn - T -: ^5J5T '^'D^il - T : I'lSD ^tp... 03^'K?Dn D3^3]5f D5''':?^ri DDiDbU t3?'''DS0 cp^'isil? Q^iibin o'r?':?? D?^!! D??S3 t3??f;i'? (hips) (thighs) (feet) (two folds) (loins) ''Sbn .'•^a'l 'lintt VI. VII. VIII. IX. L a. b. 1 — a. b. c. • : n?i5 DtO T . Bi? ph njh (fruit) (enemy) (name) (sea) (mother) (statute) (seer) T^^ =i:?i^ DT» Q!! Q$ -Pri riTn ""Tk Itt© h^h 'i^X '^l?^? im to^i'is D?;i?i5 DD^T^ t33tl^ ^!?^^ Q?)?0 B?|n a^^is: • : ni^TO fi^^:? niriii: d'-j^n d^iTh (gazelles) •• < nitt© '^^:: ni^si. ''i?*^ "'in - I ini^ti lis;) 'T&ii'i^ ^Wl 'im t3?'';i;'i5 QD'iriittTiJ 03^^:: dD^niiz^ C3?''I5n M'^in • - T J I3!?51^tt D^SX d;>2T» (cheeks) (p lair of scales) (nostrils) (teeth) •^STSia '^fibK ''.l^ xl forjoZwr. nouns, OS''—, 1?"^—, t^ri*'— , 'jll'^— (but not 'i^''— ). Tlie others nit, i!Ied light suffixes. , 168 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. §93. PARADIGMS OF MASCULINE NOUNS. Masculine nouns may be most conveniently arranged, with reference to their vowel-changes, in nine classes, as in the pre- ceding table. The necessary explanations are subjoined. We here only remark in general, a) that all feminines without a distinctive termination (§ 107, 1, 3) are inflected like masculine nouns, e. g. S")l1 sKwrd ; with only this distinction, that they commonly take the plu- ral ending rii ; e. g. ijIut. ahsol. riil'ntn, consti'uct state mnnn, where with suffixes the more perfect shortening always re- mains, as seen in the Paradigms oi feminine nouns, § 94 ; b) tliat in the plural, all light suffixes are attached to the ahso- lute, and grave siiffixes to the construct state. EXPLANATIONS OF THE PARADIGMS. 1. To Parad. I. belong all nouns whose vowels are immuta- ble (§ 25). Of course there are no vowel-changes in this Para- digm, and it is inserted only for comparison with the others. E. g. according to § 25. 1, T^^ cily, hip voice, HJ^inb garment, SiiT arm ; . § 25, 2, D|? for DN|5 standing tip, 15 for "i''r< stranger; § 25, 3, "liaa Ae/'o. pn^^ -nghieous, "iisn merciful, niPlira destruction; § 25, 4, TUns for TIJS'nQ liorseman. Here belong, therefore, the classes o^ verbal nouns given in § 84, Nos. 6, 7, 8, 13, 26, 27. 2. To Parad. II. belong nouns which have a inutahle Qamets in their final syllable, and are either monosyllabic or have the preceding vowels immutable. E. g. 1^ hand, HDis star, "^^yo wilderness. Witli the suffix 133 there is the normal shortening, as in Bap^l'y ; but "i;! becomes DD"7;| (for DDT^), and tn becomes D3^':i ; see § 27, Rem. 2, 3. Of course, nouns whose final Qamets is unchangeable. Avhich resem- ble, in form, the above examples, do not belong here ; e. g. forms like Vjf?, b-Jp (§ 84, Nos. 6, 13), 0^3 as Part, of verbs IS, &c. Derivatives from verbs iib also commonly retain their Qamets, e. g. !!<'^pa assembly, plur. constr. "isni:?^. 3. Parad. III. embraces those nouns which have an immuta- ble vowel in the final syllable, and a mutable Qamets or Tsere (pretonic vowel, §26,3) in the penultima. Exs. bina great, "jilSl lord, D^iy strong, l^'QX, plur. W'Z'^'CiVi, faithfulness, l^yyS') famine. § 93. PARADIGMS OF MASCULINE NOUNS. 166 pIST remejnhrance. The last two take in the construct state the forms X^1'$'\ and pnDT. There are also nouns of the above forms, which have a firm Qainels before the tone-syllable. Exs. ^■''^3 for yi'ns tyrant, y^^n for y^i'^n diligent (see verbal nouns, § 84, No. 7) ; also lU'^blU chariot-warrior, pliir. Qiiaib^, Ex. xiv. 7. Many are not uniform in this respect; e. g. 'S^'2^ week, see the Lexicon. 4. Parad. IV, embraces nouns of two syllables with a muta- ble Qamets in both. Sometimes one, and sometimes both are shortened, according to the change in the place of the lone (§92, 2). Nomis of this form are very numerous. The influence of a guttural, especially on the form of the plural construct state, is seen in the second of the two examples given in the Paradigm. Other examples are : ntlT gold, HST tail, and with a guttural DT^iJ guilt, '2.T\ faniine. In like manner are declined nouns of the less frequent form bT:];?, e. g. 3Db heart, "^DTI' strong drink ; with a guttural, "lyil? hair, 333? grape. Some nouns of this class take a segholate form in the sing, conslr. state J e. g. 2'^S (rib) constr. 'Sh%, but also "sh^. 2 Sam. xvi. 13 ; and so -ID3 (foreign) constr. 135 Deut. xxi. 16, iSb (hair) constr. "i^U and i?b, before Maqqeph once ""jab (for "3b) from ')ab white Gen. xh'x. 12, ""irj (ornament) constr. 'Titi and itFi Dan. xi. 20, "JIU^ (smoke) conslr. 'jiiis and liyj.; Ex. xix. 18 (comp. No. V, and "ina together with naj § 84, Nos. 10 and 11). Qamets is immutable in both syllables of i-Jnn (faber) for UiN'Tin and ^'^}^ (horseman) for 'lUX'nQ , § 84, No. 6. 5. Parad. V. is properly a mere variation of the preceding one. The final Tsere is treated like the final Qamets in Parad, IV., except that in the construct state ^J^T stands for "jpT . Some nouns, however, take the segholate form (No, VI.) in the con- struct state; e.g. 5riri| shoulder, constr. st. '^^7)2 for vl^S ; "Tia u^all, constr. st. I'll! for Tl3 ; Tf°}^ thigh, constr. st. 1\~\\ for tj"?';^. Still more rare is the occurrence of both forms, as 132 (lieavy) constr. St. 1D5 Ex. iv. 10 and 133 Is. i, 4 ; biy (uncircumcised) constr. st. bl? and biy . Rare exceptions are forms like "bSN Ps. xxxv. 14 (followed by Maqqeph) constr. state of b3X mourning. Other examples of the first kind are : iri^ il^eg), 1?^ neighbor, Sib (sated) constr. state "30. ^lij? Some nouns of this form retain their Tsere in the plur. constr. state ; ^- »• "l^'^ (sleeping) plur. conslr. ''i'a'} ; so also ibnN monrning, "^n?^ rejoicing, ^'r\'^,^_ foigi:tti)ig ''^sn desiring. 1 70 PART II. PAR'm OF SPEECH. 6. To Paiad. VI. belongs the large class of nouns denomi nated Segholate forms (§ 84, No. 11). The chief peculiarity in their inflection is, that before suffixes and in the construct state of the plural and dual, they appear in their original monosyllabic form, with the stem-vowel (a, ?, 0) under the first stem-letter ; e. g. '^3'?^, '^"iSD, 'i^^'li?- B'^it ill (^lie absolute state of the plural, an a. sound comes in before tbe tone of the ending (in an open syllable, hence Qa?Jiets)^ whilst in the proper place of the stem- vowel (under the first radical) there is only a vocal &7i''va ; e. g. ^jb-a (king) plur. D"^Dbl2. Comp. §92, 2. These forms may be arranged in three general classes, the first having A, the second E, the third O, in the first syllable. The Paradigm exhibits under a, b, c, derivatives of the regulai verb ; under d, e, f, forms which have a guttural in the final syllable ; under g, h, derivatives from feeble stems '^^ and '^V ; and under i a derivative from a verb nb. Comp. §85, IV. No. 11,V. No. 11. Remarks. 1. In the form T\^h (for Tj^^. § 27, Rem. 2, c) appears the original A of the first syllable not only before suffixes, as in "'S^'?, but also mostly in pause (§ 29, 4), e. g. D"!? in pause C^^S, and before n— local (§ 90. 1) as ni£"ii<. In the Septuagint, also, proper names like ^^h, rsf are regularly written with A in the first syllable, as 'A^sk, 'f(x(pi&. The word 7")5<, with the article, is constantly written ']-"iXfi ; derivatives from verbs l'^ also take Qamets for their first vowel, as r\in. The word K"^? valley has the original monosyllabic form. Many of these scgholates retain the .S'eg7(o/ of the first syllable in pause, e.g. T\?,^. p'lS, N^Q, uip ; on the contrary. 1^23, rJ^llJ , n"in. The latter form is most frequent, and with a guttural is the prevalent one. There are, however, nouns of this form, which take r instead of a, whether from shortening the a to that degree, or from passnig over entirely to the form "id6 ; e. g. I3p grave (in pause 13^). "'")^P, plur. constr. "^"Iiap ; "Ua womb, "'SDa ; n53 garment, "^"laa (bigh^clhi). varying from the usual form ''S^^ , the Daghesk required by rule in i being omitted in this word; P7.^ righteousness. '^P'lS ; n3T sacrifice. "TiaT. In some words, both forms occur, as ^b"| child, "^"^h"^ Hos. i. 2 and "'"ib"^ Is. Ivii. 4. Nouns of the form T^h, when their third stem-letter is a guttural, are sounded as nST sacrifice, "^t seed, 2."b6 rock; when the second stem-letter is a guttural, as bn: brook. i?? (see Parad. d). seldom like onls bread. It is to be observed, moreover, that in the hard combination (viz. where the second radical has ciuiescent Shh-a. and the ihird radi- cal would take Dnghesh lenr, as in '^3b'2) simple Slfva may be retained § 93. PARADIGMS OF IMASCULINE KOUKS. 171 here also, as in '^onb ; on the contrary, tiae forms corresponding to "^5^.0 (§ 21, 2, a) are always pointed as ■'bnj , ^nSJiZJ. 2. The form ISO, nS3 (6, e). when its first letter is a guttural, takes Seghol before suffixes in the singular and in the phir. conslr. ; e. g. bss calf. ""^5^, '^^??. The monosyllabic form appears in NlJn. With ti— local, Tsere is retained, as S "^iViV for nbS i3(!i IS would be expected, unless we assume an inaccuracy of expression. Others explain it : some- thing conceived beyond ten, from n\lJ5 to think, to conceive. \ § 98. NUMERALS.— II. ORDINAL NUMBERS. 181 D'^ib© 80, D'lyTlDn 90. Tioenty is expressed by D^-licy, plur. of ito? ten* They are of comtnon gender, and have no construct • state. When units and tens are written together, the earlier writers commonly place the units first (e. g. tioo and twenty, as in Arabic) ; but in the later writers the order is almost invariably reversed {twenty and two, as in Syriac). Exs. Num. iii. 39 ; xxvi. 14 ; 1 Chron. xii. 28 ; xviii. 5. They are always connect- ed by the conjunction. The remaining numerals are as follows •: 100 HiJ'a fern, constr. inX'a, jilur. inis'sa hundreds. 200 D^nxi? dual (for D^niJTaj. 300 tr\'&'q th'^, 400 niK^'yanx, &c. 1000 vjb^, constr. ^^^, plur. Q'^S^ij! thousands. 2000 D^sbX dual. 3000 n^sbi? ntJ'sTS , 4000 Q^&bi)! n?a^s< , &c. 10000 nnn^in laterwritersni=in,Xi2n \ iv^^^^ltit^flvluj. " = ■ [ riii53n ten thousands. 20000 Dinia-l cZwaZ. 30000 nisian ttjbis, 40000 nisan ya'is, &c. i?ew.. L The dual form occurs in some of the units, with the eflfect of the English/oZrf; as Ci'ins'3'i N /oi«r/bZd 2 Sam. xii. 6 ; Ci';ins:;t3 sevenfold Gen. iv. 15, 24 ; Ps. Ixxix. 12. The plural ^inx means some, some few, and also the same {iidem) ; niiiUS decades (not decern), Ex. xviii. 21, 25. 2. The suffixes to numerals, as with other nouns, are properly geni- tives, though we translate them in the nominative, as cSFiTabia ye three, prop, your triad. §98. NUMERALS.— II. ORDINAL NUMBERS. The ordinal numbers from 2 to 10 are expressed by the cor- responding cardinals with the termination ''— (§ 86, No. 5), in addition to which another '^— is commonly inserted in the final syllable. They are as follows: ^-^t, ^•^'hlt, ^T'^T}, ''^^n and i^W, ^'ffilZJ, '^r^T^, ^T^^^, TTiJIi^, ^TW.- The ordinal ^rsHs * The plural forms D"'-lil35;, Q'^S21U, D'^^»ri, from the segholates, ibs, Saia, ydn , take in the absolute state the shortened form, which, in other words of this class, appears first in the construct state. Analogy would require D'^'ltJ? . 182 PART n. PARTS OF SPEECR expressed by "jilDii'l (for 'jiTiJ''i?1 , from 'Ciil head, beginning, with the termination ]i (§ 86, No. 4). The feminine forms have the termination ni—., more rarely t^^— , and are emplo3'ed also for the expression of numerical parts, as fT^IBian fifth 'part, iTT^TilJ? and n^"l'iTlJ? tenth part ; in which sense are also used such forms as "it^ii fifth part, yS"! and ^''2'! fourth j)art. For the manner of expressing other relations of number, for which the Hebrew has no appropriate forms, see Sj^ntax, § 120. CHAPTER lY. OF THE PAETICLES. §99. GENERAL VIEW. 1. The particles, which in general are signs of the subordi- nate relations of speech, expressing the close connection of words with one another, and the mutual relation of sentences and clauses, are most of them borrowed or derived forms from the noun, and in part also from the pronoun and verb (§ 30, 4). Very few of them can be regarded, with certainty, as primitive, 2. Of those which are not primitive, the origin is threefold : I) they are horroioed from other parts of speech ; i. e. certain forms of the verb, noun, or pronoun, are employed as particles, retaining more or less of their original signification, like the Lat. verum, cansa, and the Eng. save, lieve, fain ; 2) they are deri- ved from other parts of speech, either a) by the addition of for- mative syllables, like D'ai"' by day from Di"" (§ 100, 3), or most commonly b) by abbreviation occasioned by the frequent use of these words. This abbreviation is effected in various ways ; and in many of the forms resulting from it, the original one can no longer be recognized ; e. g. ^X only (prop, certainly, certe) for Compare in German, gen from gegen, Gegend ; seit from Seite ; weil (orig. a particle of time like the Eng. while) from Weite ; in English since (old Eng. sithence), till, contr. from to while. §100. ADA^ERBS. 183 Such words suffer still greater changes in the Greek and Latin lan- guages, and in those derived from the Latin ; e. g. (mo, ah. a ; H, ex. e ad Fr. d ; ant.^ Fr. ou, Ital. o; super. Ital. s«.* In some instances the particle has been so niuch abbreviated that it has lost its character as an independent word, having dwindled away to a single consonant prefixed to the following word (like the preformatives of the Imperfect, §47, 1, 2); e. g. b from bx (§ 102). That this reduction of a whole word to a single letter belongs actually to the history of the language, in its -"ocess of formation, is evident from the fact, that in the later Hebrew ana the Aramtean (that is, in the pro- gressive history of the Semitic stock), such abbreviations become greater and more frequent. Thus the shortening of "ld^( to ''.^ and even to \a. becomes more and more common in some of the latest books of the Old Testament, and afterwards in the Rabbinic writings, nearly supplanting the full form ; from "''^ of the Biblical Chaldaism comes the later form "n ; the modern Arabic has, e. g., hallaq (now) from hdhcaqt. Ush (wherefore ?) from li-ayyi-sheiin. and many others. This is shown also by the above analogies from the western tongues. Such, indeed, is the natural pro- gress of all languages. The use of the simplest particles belongs, how- ever, to the earliest epochs of the Hebrew language ; at least to the oldest of its monuments that have come down to us. It is not strange that the derivation of these particles, which often differ widely from the original form, should sometimes be obscure. This is the case, however, with but k\v of them ; and, in regard to these. there is at least the general probability of a similar derivation. 3. Less frequently, particles are formed by composition ; as y^Ta wherefore 7 for y^^^TTa Jtow tanglit 1 i. e. qua ratione ductus 1 comp. Ti jLtad-cov ; '''l?'?^ besides, from bs and "^'It ; T^)^'ab'Q from above, from "J^, b, nb^is. More frequent is the combination of two or more words without con- traction ; as "D ^"ins, 13 TiN . CX 13, p h'J ''S . §100. ADVERBS. 1. As primitive adverbs, may be regarded the negative Js^b, and perhaps some particles of place and time, as Ut there, TX then. * Even short phrases are coutracted to one word, e. g. forsitan from fors sit an, Fr. peui-itre. In the Chinese, most of the particles are verbs or nouns ; e. g. iii, to give, employed as a ^ign of the dative; \, to make use of, hence for ; net, tht interior, hence in. 184 PART 11. PARTS OF SPEECH. So at least we may regard them, for the immediate stand-point o{ grammar, though a reference to still other roots, particularly the pro- nominal, is possible. 2. Examples of other parts of speech, which, without any change of form, are used adverbially, are : a) Substantives with prepositions ; e. g. ^Ji'a^ [with might), very, greatly ; inb alo7ie (prop, a part), with suff. ^'l^^ I alone ; n'j'Z'Q within ; ^7^? (^-^ o?ie), together. b) Substantives in the accusative (the casus adverbialis of the Semites, § 118), comp. tjjp ccqxW- ^xs. "755^ {might), very, greatly ; DB!S {cessation), no more; Di'^Pi {this day), to-day ; in^ {union), together. Many of these substantives very seldom exhibit their original signification as nouns, e. g. 1*^:10 and plur. nin'^np {circuit), around; others have wholly lost it, as nns {length), long ago ; W {repetition), yet again, farther, longer. c) Adjectives, especially in the feminine (answering to the neuter), as )'2 recte, ita (proj). rectum), HDiTiJX"! {primum), at first, formerly, T'\2'\ and ran {jjiultimi), much, enough, nii^bB? wonderfully (pi"op. mirahilibus, sc. inodis), fT'SI? the second time, ni'lin;' Jewish, i. e. in the Jewish language. d) Verbs in the Infinitive absolute, especially in Hiphil, which are also to be regarded as accusatives (§ 130, 2) ; e. g. na'in (prop, mtdtum faciendo), much, ^ e) Pronouns, as HT (prop, this (place) = at this place), here. For a list of the most usual adverbs, arranged according to their signification, see § 149. 3. Some adverbs have been formed by the addition of the formative syllable D— to substantives ; as DS'aS and D?'52S truly, from XQ^ truth ; D2n {gratiarum causa), gratis, in vain (from ]n); D)?"'") vainly, fi-ustr a ; D'OT by day, from oi"'. Comp. also Diart* \rear\j, behind, after ; bss {side*), at the side of, by ; X'^ {intermediate space, onidst*), between ; lya , 1^3 {hiterval of space, distantia), behind, about ; flb^T {removal, vmnt), without, besides; 'J^^ {object), on account / of; ^'^ before, over against ;_.1'Q {]}art), from, out of ; iy\ 1/ {that ivhich is before), before, over against ; 1? {progress, duration*), during, until; by {upper part [space above]), * The original signification of the noun is enclosed in parentheses, and marked with an asterisk if it is still in use. On the like usage in other languages, see W. von Humboldt uber die Kawisprache, Bd. III. S. 621. 186 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. upon, over ; D^ {cofinectloii, also IT)?!!?, JTayb), with; riHP {under part* \sj)ace beneath]), nnder, in 2>lace of. b) Substantives in the construct state with jirepositions (spec. . the inseparable) ; as ''SBb {in face of), before ; ''SS, ''B^ {after the 'nio\Uh, i. e. the command*), according to ; ^^^3 {in the matter), on account of, 'j^'O^ {for tlie purpose), on account of. 2. Substantives used as adverbs very readily take, in this manner, the construction of prepositions. E. g. '''?3S, 'J''i?3, DBS?3 {in the want of), loithout ; liys {in the continuing of), during ; '''IS, I'lS {for the need), for, according to. §102. PREFIX PREPOSITIONS. 1, Of the prepositions given in the preceding section, "j^ is frequently written as a prefix, yet without wholly losing its Nun, which is represented by a Daghesh forte in the following letter, as 'ST^y^ from the forest. The different forms of this preposition are used as follows, a) The full and independent form yo is employed chiefly before the article, as ]^"ixrt 'i^i ; but also, especially, before the feebler letters, as ts "j^ Jer. xliv. 18, ■'Ja "i^a 1 Chr. v. 18, and elsewhere in the later books (as in Syriac). There is, besides, a poetic form "i?^ (comp. § 90. 3, a), b) Most frequent is the form '53, viz. as q. prefix with Daghesh forte in the fol- lowing letter, which can be omitted only when the letter has Sh^va {§ 20, 3, b). Before gutturals this becomes p {§ 22, 1), e. g. n'lxa , osa . and also 53 before n, as ywri, 'Jin^a Gen. xiv. 23. 2. There are also three other prepositions, the most common in the language, which have been reduced by abbreviation (§ 99, 2) to a single prefix consonant, with the slightest vowel {Sh^va) ; namely, 3 in, at, on, with (from fT^3, "^S), b towards, to (from bss), 3 like, as, according to (from "JS).* * The derivation of h immediately from ^X, and more remotely from a stem meaning appropinguavit, accessit (Heb. and Aram, nib , Kl^ adhccsit, se adjunxii, Arab. "^bT accessit) is beyond question. On the derivation of a from n'^a, in Aram, also ^a, proj). /». tlir fiou.te, hence in (not from "J'^a between), see Gesenius, Man. Lex. art. 3, "SvU' ;ii the end. The signification of 3 (from "ja) is properly, so ; doubled 3 — 3 as — k". § 103. PREPOSITIONS WITH SUFFIXES. 187 The pointing of these prefixes is as follows : a) They have properly simple Sh'va, which is varied, however, according to § 28, 1, 2, e. g. "'isb to fruit, '^'^i*? as a lion; and before feeble letters according to § 23, 2 and § 24, 1, a, e.g. "i^xb for "i^Jtb, 6) Before the article they usually displace the !i and take its point- ing, as "imS for "jSrta in the garden. See § 35, Rem. 2. c) Immediately before the tone-syllable, in monosyllabic or dissyl- labic words with the tone on the penultima, they also take Qamets {PrcBtonic, § 26, 3); not always, however, but only in the following cases : «) before Infinitives of the above-mentioned form, as nnb to give, 1'^'ib to judge, f^l^b to bear, except when the Iiif. is followed by another word as its subject or object § 133, as niljja Num. viii. 19, ri2ii:2 Judges xi. 26 ; /5) before many pronominal forms, as ilta, us. n { m. '^'B'Q , in pause 'TiWZ ) . . OS'S ) ^ ( /. 1\i)2 '" ' \f^^^'^ ^^^^' 13^ Yfrom you. \ m.^3^^,poet.^n2'a,^in3)2/rom/im. Dn)?, poet. DM ] from \ f.T\^WZ from her. IJiyQ ) them. The syllable I'a in "^Sias (in Arabic N« = Heb. na what, prop, ac- cording to what I, for as /) is in poetry appended to the simple prefixes 3, 3, b, even without suffixes, so that 1533, i?03, I'Tsb appear again as independent words. In this case, poetry distinguishes itself from prose by the longer forms ; but in the case of ya it has adopted the shorter ones, resembling those of the Syriac. In the table of yo with stifi.ves, >i3-aa from him is contracted from !irt"Da5a (according to § 19, 2, e.vlr.), and coincides in form with >i2S;a from us, which comes from ^i~i72'0. The Palestinian grammarians pro- posed to distinguish the latter by writing it *1353^, which Ibn Esra justly censures. The form n2^?3 is always written without Mappiq, and comes from rj'SH^ . 3. Many prepositions, especially those which express relations of space and time, are properly plural nouns, like the Germ, we- gen [and the Eng. besides]. For the ground of this, see § 108, 2, a.t They occur (some of them exclusively, while others have also the singular) in the plural construct state, or in connection with those forms of the suffixes which belong to plural nouns (§91,2). These are: * The use of "^3 for ^— , in this case, is merely euplionic. \ Some of these words, which come from stems fib , namely "'blX , 'O^ , '''IS , might indeed be referred to singular forms, as "'bs , ^by , i"]? ; but the analogy of the others makes it more probable that these are also to be regarded as plurals. Comp. the plural forms ''Ja from "jS ; ''S'l , ?J'^?1) j *^*^* ^om ST . 190 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. ini^, more frequently '^'^Hi? (pi'op. space behind, rear), hehhid, with suff. always "^inx behind me, ^''^ns behind thee, T^'^H^, "yX, poet, also "^^Si {regions, directions), towards, to, with suff. always ^bx ^o me, ^^^S5, ^,^bx, DD'^bi?. 1"iSl {interval of space), between, with 5Z(^. "^T%.-, ^P'^^j but also ^''ra, DD^S^a, li^rii:^^, QS^is^a (from O^i^a, nii'^a, intervals). 1^12 from, out of, seldom ''I'Q {pltir. constr. state), Is. xxx. 11. ny {progress, duration, from n'ly) a.? /ar as, tmto, jjlur. (poet.) -^-T?, but w'lih suff. ^^V, TJ?, 1^^5 0?^^:? (the last also with Qamets). b? ?«jt>ow, over, constr. state of b;^ that r^hich is above (from nby ifo ^0 ?«;?), pZ^ir. (poet.) "^b?, but with 5?(/. also in prose '^by, T]i5y, T'by, Dn''by, for which i'a'iby is also frequent in poetry. mnp under (prop, ^/mif 7Z?Aic/i is beneath), with sm^. in the plural ''rinn, Tnnn, but also in the singular DPnr). §104. CONJUNCTION'S. 1. Conjunctions serve to connect words and sentences, and So express their relation to each other. Most of them were origi- nally other parts of speech, viz. a) Pronouns, as "itJi!; and "^3 that, because, for, the former being at the same time the common relative pronoun, the latter also derived from a pronominal stem {h 36). 6) Adverbs, as b^« (not), tliat not, DS? (num?), if. Also ad- verbs with prepositions ; e. g. D'nba {in the not yet), before that ; or with a conjunction added, as "^3 Cl^ there is added that= much less or much more. c) Prepositions which are fitted by the addition of the con- junctions ITSilt and ■'S to show the connection between proposi- tions ; e. g. Ili'S? "jy^ because (from )?"}_ on account of), prop, on this account, that, "itOX inx after that, "11^X3 according as, 1]?? ■^3 and "itJS? ipy {in consequence, that), for the reason that, be- cause. The preposition may still be employed in this manner, even when the conjunction is omitted ; e. g. by (for "iffiX by) be- cause, ]3'b? (for llCS'lS'by) on this account that, because. In like manner, all prepositions before the Infinitive may be trans- lated by conjunctions with the finite verb (§ 132, 2). §105. INTERJECTIONS. 191 2. Even those words which are no longer in use except as conjunctions, seem to have belonged originally to other parts of speech, particularly the noun, and they generally betray their affinity with verbal roots. Exs. iS (prop, desire, choice, from niS to desire, comp. Prov. xxxi. 4) or, like vel, ve, kindred with velle ; "JS {a turning away, from n:s) that not. Even the only prefix conjunction '1 and, must perhaps acknowledge relationship with 11 a bijiding or fastening, a nail. The pointing of l is in several respects analogous with that of the prefix prepositions 3. 3, b (§ 102, 2) ; but it has also, as a feeble letter, some peculiarities. a) It has commonly a simple Sh^va (1 ). b) Before words whose first consonant has simple Sh^va (excepting the case c), the Vav is sounded w, as bbbi and to all. It is also sounded thus (with the exception of the case d) before its cognate letters, the labials 3, 53, 3, as Ti^.^^i ; and even before a Chateph (under letters not guttural), as 3riT!i Gen. ii. 12. c) Before 1 the Vav takes Chireq. e. g. "'li"'; (for ''H'?!'' comp. § 28, 1, and § 24, 1, rt) ; before n and n it takes Chireq and Seghol, as BH'^'^r)'] Jos. viii. 4, and '"i|;n."! Gen. xx. 7 (comp. § 63, Rem. 5). c/) Immediately before the tone-syllable, it often takes Qamets, like 3 3, h, and with similar limitations (§ 102, 2. c) ; especially when words are connected in pairs, as ^iiiifi ^inn Gen. i. 2. nb';i^1 CV viii. 22, but chiefly at the end of a short clause, hence rs5T cni DW Gen. vii. 13, "^b?31 Difibx 1 Kings xxi. 10. But the case is different, Avhen it stands in close connection with words following, as ns 1^^ ^^^t^i ^"^t* Ps. Ivii. 5 ; and hence, especially, with certain monosyllabic words, whose nature it is to attach themselves to that which follows ; so always, iiTl, nxi. sbl. D51 and the like. §105. INTERJECTIONS. 1. Among the interjections, there are several which are merely natural soimds expressed in writing, as i^T}i^., HX ah! "^in, lis? wo ! nsn lio ! aha ! 2. Most of them, however, like the other particles, were bor- rowed from other parts of speech, which, in animated discourse, gradually came to be used as interjections ; as )T\ or nsH behold ! (prop, here) ; <^3n, jjlur. I^n (prop, give, Imp. from 3^1^) for age, agite, come on! HDb, isb (prop, go), in the same sense ;* ~'?''^n ri3n and Jisb are also used, in this form, with the feminine and with the plural ; a proof that they have wholly taken the nature of interjections. 192 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. far he it ! prop, ad j)rofana ! "^3 (perhaps for ''l^Sl entreaty), 1 beseech, hear me ; Kp (iq) ! come on ! in ^Ethiop. an Imp. go to ! come on !), pray now ! a particle of incitement and entreaty (al- ways subjoined).* * The particle N3 serves for the expression of various shades of meaning, which are exhibited in different places in the Syntax. A brief view only is given here. It stands a) after the Imp. in command as well as entreaty (§ 130, 1, Rem.) ; h) with the Impf. as well the first as the third person (§ 127, 3, b, and § 128, 1); c) once with the Perf. (§ 126, 4, Note) ; d) with various particles, as X3 tlSfl behold 710W ; particularly with conjunctions, as XJ bx ne qiiceso, and Ni'DX if now, tinoTE, t/ with a courteous or modest limitation. — In courtly language, these par- ticles are heaped together in every way ; Gen. xviii. 3, xix. Y, 8, 19, 1. 1*7. PART THIRD. SYNTAX. CHAPTER I. SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. §106. RELATION OF THE SUBSTANTIVE TO THE ADJEOTIYE, — OF THE ABSTRACT TO THE CONCRETE. In the Hebrew language, there is a want of adjectives in proportion to the substantives, and some classes of adjectives (e. g. those of material) are almost wholly wanting.* This deficiency is supplied by substantives, and especially in the fol- lowing ways : 1. The substantive employed to express some quality in ano- ther is placed after it in the genitive. So constantly in designa- ting the mateiial of which a thing is made, e. g. ClDD ^bs vessels of silver = silver vessels ; '^V "jilX ark of wood = wooden ark. like des vases d'or ; in like manner Dbiy ri-jHS an eternal j^os- sessio7i, Gen. xvii. 8, "iSp'O "^TP^ tneji of nnmher, i. e. feio men Gen. xxxiv. 30, "JH I^X a py'ecions stone Prov. xvii. 8. This construction was also employed, even in cases where the language supplies an adjective ; e. g. 'C'l'pfl I'l^S the holy garments, Ex. xxix. 29. Comp. un homt?ie de hien. Rem. 1. Less frequently, the substantive which expresses a quality in another is followed by it in the genitive ; as T]'^!^^? "I'Ti^a the choice of thy vaUeya, i. e. thy choicest valleys, Is. xxii. 7, comp. xvii. 4, xxxvii. 24; Gen. xxiii. 6 ; Ex. xv. 4. But with the substantive Vs (the) lohole, for all of all, this is the usual construction (see § 111, \. Rem.). The place of an adjective, when it would be predicate of the sen- tence, is sometimes supplied directly by the substantive ; e. g. Gen. i. 2, and the earth was desolation and emptiness ; Job iii. 4, let that day he * There are a few adjectives of this kind formed after the manner of passive participles, as T^iiK of cedar, ttJWS of brass, comp. cM?ieates (wedge-formed). 13 194 PART m. SYNTAX. darkness; Ps. xxxv. 6, Ixxxviii. 19, ex. 3, Is. v. 12, Job xxiii 2. xxvi. 13 More seldom the substantive takes a preposition ; as in Ps. xxix. 4, the voice of Jehovah is fisa with power, for powerful. 2. Adjectives which denote a property, quality, or habit, where they would stand by themselves as substantives, are often expressed in Hebrew by a periphrasis, in which an abstract noun lesignating the attribute is preceded by one of the following wouiis denoting its subject ; viz. a) By IIJ'^N ma??, e. g. D"'"}3? ''^''X an eloquent man, Ex. iv. lU; r.v^ li^X a wise man, Prov. xxiv. 5. b) By b>'3 master, possessor, e. g. -iSb bs3 hairy, 2 Kinops i. 8 ; ma'bnr! b:^2 the dreamer. Gen. xxxvii. 19. c) By "iS son and na daughter, e. g. b'^fl"']? a valiant man, 1 Kings i. 52; D'li?"")^ a?i inhabitant of the East, Gen. xxix. 1 ; n3^"")3 one year old, Ex. xii. 5 ; ni^:— |a doomed to death, 1 Sam, xx. 31 ; ^?!!^a ria a worth- less icoman, 1 Sam. i. 16. It is a bolder construction, and found only in poetry, when the ab- stract is used directly for the concrete, as bs*^a worthlessness, for worth- less, like scelus for scelestissimus ; and at the same time for the plural, as n\^|3 boiD for bowme7i, Is. xxi. 17. T'Si? harvest for harvesters, xvii. 5. On this, as a common characteristic of language, see § 83, Rem. 1. Bern. That, on the contrary, forms of adjectives and concretes often lake the abstract signification, especially in the Feminine, has been shown in § 84 ; comp. ^ 107, 3, b. We may here remark also, that the poets employ certain epithela ornatitia (which are at the same time pei^petna) alone without the sub- stantive ; e.g. "i'^35< the Strong, i.e. God; i"^a5< the strong, i.e. the bullock, in Jeremiah the horse ; ip the Majestic, August, =^ihe Prince; nsab pallida i. e. Iu7ia. In Arabic this is yet far more common. Comp. merum for vinum. vyqi] i, e. the sea. Odyss. 1, 97. §107. USE OF THE GEFDERS. Whether the Hebrew regarded a substantive as feminine is known partly from the feminine ending (§80, 1, 2), partly from its construction with a feminine predicate, and in most cases, though there are many exceptions (§ 87, 4), from the feminine plural form. We are now to show in what manner the designa- tion of gender was employed. 1. The most natural use of it was with reference to the phy- sical distinction of sex in men and beasts, but with several gra- dations, according as this natural distinction is more or less strongly indicated. The principal cases are the following ; viz. § lOT. USE OF THE GENDERS. 195 a) when the male and female are designated by entirely differ- ent words, and the latter, of course, requires no feminine ending, as father, mother, in Heb. 3S, D&5 ; b'^i? rani, bnn eive, li'an ass, llnx she-ass ; h) w4ien the female is designated by the addition of the feminine ending, as flSJ brother, ininx sister ; Obj) young 7nan, "Tab? young woman ; '\^ juvencus, TTy^ juvenca ; ^yj vitu- lus, nbSiy vitula ; c) when the feminine gender is shown only by the construction (communia), as in 6, tj /Sovg ; 6, r) :i:atg ; e. g. b'aa camel, masc. Gen. xxiv. 63, but fem. xxxii. 16 ; "ijps ma^c. male cattle, Ex. xxi. 37, but fem,. for female cattle. Job i. 14 ; d) when, without regard to the natural distinction of the sexes, only one form is employed in the same gender to designate both [epiccena), as in 6 Xvxog, t) ^tXibcov ; e. g. b^3tj i^ masc. a bear robbed of her young, Hos. xiii. 8 (but construed as femi- nine in 2 Kings ii. 24) ; vjlbi? masc. ox, Ps. cxliv. 14, where the female of the ox-kind is meant. OCten, in cases where the language makes the distinction of genders as in a, 6, and c, writers neglect to do it, and employ the more general and indefinite terms. E.g. "H^ari and b^X as fem. for 'inx and <^^*X, 2 Sam. xix. 27, and Ps. xhi. 2 ; also "ii'3 a youth, for f^^??, in the Pent, and in Ruth* ii. 21, comp. Job i. 19. Compare in German Gemahl for Gemahlin ; in Arabic also, the older written language shuns the use of feminine forms (e. g. ribra viistress, hbns bride), which become more and more common in later usage. This sparing use of the distinctions of gender appears also in other examples ; viz. "[i^X masc. architect, Prov. viii. 30, where wisdom (fem.) is meant (comp. artife.x omnium natura, Plin. 2, 1); rxj a dead body (masc), spoken of the corpse of a woman, Gen. xxiii. 4, 6 ; tJ'^h'bs for a goddess, 1 Kings xi. 5 ; so in Eng. instructor for instructress, and in Lat. aicctor, martyr. Among epiccBue nouns are found names of whole species of animals, which the mind conceived as masculine or feminine, according as they appeared strong and powerful, or weak and timid. E. g. masc. 2^3 dog. 2ST xoolf ; fevi. n:ii dove, nnipn stork, njs;; na ostrich, nasnx hare. 2. The designation of the feminine gender, by its appropriate ending, is most uniform in the adjectives and participles. (§ 87, 5.) 3. Besides objects properly feminine, there are others (nearly the same which in Greek and Latin are neuter), for which the feminine form is preferred, viz. a) Things wiliiout life, for which the feminine, as the weaker, seemed to be the most suitable designation, as T]"}^ side (of the human body). thigh, ns"}^ side (of a country), district ; nsx; brow, ^n::^ greave (from the resemblance). 196 PAET in. SYNTAX. b) Hence abstract ideas, which at least decidedly prefer the feminine form, even when the masculine is also in use ; as Bj^J, '^'2f33 vengeance^ ">?.?> i^"]!? help (§ 84, 11, 12). Adjectives when used in a neuter sense as substantives (like to aaXov). commonly take the fem. form, as njis? the right, Ps. v. 10 ; so also in the plur. nibHs great things, Ps. xii. 4. c) The feminine is sometimes applied as a designation of dignity or office, which borders on the abstract sense, as niSTQ Princes (like High- nesses)', in like manner nbn'p cojzcronaior (applied to king Solomon,^ the preacher Wisdom) ; comp. nisb as the name of a man, in Neh. vii. 57, Ezra ii. 55. Even in the fem. plur. form n'iSN fathers, the reference to dignity seems not improbable. These words are construed, agreeably to their signification, with the masculine. This usage is more extensive in Arabic, jEthiopic and Aramtean, e. g. in Chalipha {Caliph) •nS'^bn. There is a remote likeness in the Lat. magistratus. Ger. Herrschaft, [Eng. lordships for Herr [Eng. lord\ Obrigkeit for Oberer. Ital. podestd, &c. d) Collectives, as ri'iN wanderer, traveller, nrnij? caravan, prop, that which wandereth, for the wanderers ; nbl's (from the masc. >^^^5) the com- pany of e.xiles ; T\'yS"5 lord, master, with suf. often 1"^^^3 his master, rr^bsa her master.X Rem. 1. The use of the plural, as given under letter 6, is confined within very narrow limits, not extending beyond the words above quoted ; and these, moreover, have the same use in the singular. On the con- * A trausferring (in mathematical language) of an expi-essiou for arithmetical (iuanlity to geometrical (coiui). Rem. 1). The language has other examples of the designation oi great and manii by the same word (as a"! , DilSS)), \ Comp. the same use of Ihe^^wr. in t« ari^pa, tot i'wtm, pracordia, cerviccx, fauces. \ Somewhat similar is the use of we by kings in speaking of tliemselves (Ezra iv. 18, vii. 24, comp. 1 Mac. x. 19, xi. 31), a form which is then transferred to (Jod (Gen. i. 26, xi. 7; Is. vi. 8). Such a plural the Jewish grammarians call ninbri "^ilS"! {pluralls virium or virtuttwi) ; the moderns call it pluralis excellen- Ike or pluralis majestaticus. The use of the jilural in modern languages, as a fonn of I'espectful address, is more remote from the Hebrew usage. § 108. THE PLURAL, AND COLLECTIVE ^OUNS. 199 struction of these plurals witli adjectives, see § 112, 1, Rem. 3; with verbs, § 146, 2. On '^jns, used of God. see § 121, Rem. 4. 2. The u.-;e oC the plural given under a is also, in common prose. limited to a few words ; but in the poets it is somewhat more extensive. e. g. Diadn tenebrce (of dark places), D'^53?n delicicB, Q'^i-'Cii failhfuliies.'!, and many others. 3. When a substantive is followed by a genitive, and this compound idea is to be expressed in the pknal, it is done a) most naturally by the plural form in the governins' 7iomi, as b^t] i"i33 stroJ7g heroes (prop, heroes of might) ; so also in com- pounds, as ''p'a';'"'j3 Benjcmiinite, phi?'. '^r'^'Q'} ''33 1 Sam. xxii. 7 ; b) in both, as C^^H I'liiil 1 Chron. vii. 5. C'^'ibp ''na prisoti hous- es, Is xlii. 22, and hence W'bii i23, Ps. xxix. 1, sojis of God ; c) even in the noun governed alone, as 3S rii3 father^s honse, family, riinx rr^a ancestral houses, families Num. i. 2 foil., ''IS D'''75''2 precious fruits Cant. iv. 16, vii. 14. On this observation, which has hitherto been overlooked by grammarians, compare also Judges vii. 25 [the head of Zeeb and Oreb, for the heads), 2 Kings xvii. 29 ; Dan. xi. 15. Here the two words by which the compound idea is expressed, are treated directly as a nomen com posi film* The union with suffixes is also conformed to letter c, as "'?::' S OS eoriim for ora eorum Ps. xvii. 10, UT^'O'^ Ps. cxliv. 8, where we also say their mouth, their hand. 4. To the modes of expressing plurality belongs also the repetition of a noun, with or without the copula. By this is indicated the whole, all, every, as CT" WV day by day, every day, 1»iK ir-^S every man, and ffi^NI ffi^S? Ps. Ixxxvii. 5, D'PT oii Esth. iii. 4, lilT li^ every generation Deut. xxxii. 7 ; hence distribu- tively, as iinb "iiy I'ly each flock by itself Gen. xxxii. 17 ; also a great multitude, even with the plural form. Gen. xiv. 10. ^tin r.l'ii^a rrnss asphalt-pits in abundance, nothing but as- phalt-pits, 2 Kings iii. 16, Joel iv. 14 ; finally (with the copula) diversity, more than one kind, as bs signifies all and every kind ; e. g. "juK^ "jnx iivo kinds of iv eights Deut. xxv. 13, 3bl sb a double heart Ps. xii. 3, 1 Chron. xii. 33. Impassioned repetition, in exclamations, e. g. Jer. xxii. 29, Is. vi. 3 * All three are found in Syriac and Ethiopia See Hoffviann, Gram. Syriacii, p. 254; Ludolf, Gram. zEthiopica, p. 139. 200 PART III. SYNTAX (with little emphasis in many writers, however, to whom it has become habitual, e. g. Is. xl. fF.) is a rhetorical usage, and does not belong here. JRem. 1. Substances cohering in masses are mostly conceived as a unity, and hence very seldom occur except in the singular, as SfiT gold, ClpS silver, fSi wood, "j";^ wine; though D"a water is plural, but in Ara- bic this also is singular. But when portions of a substance are meant, the plural form is used, as 0"'S0I3 pieces of silver Gen. xlii. 25, Q'^^S ligna (for building or for fuel). So of grain, as niin wheat (growing in the Jield), c^an wheat in the kernel. 2. Even in cases where the plural form is regarded as merely poetic, we are to connect with it the idea of real plurality, e. g. Job vi. 3, D'^a;^ the seas for the sea, comp. Gen. xli. 49 ; Job xvii. 1, the graves are my portion, equivalent to hurying-place, many graves beiro^ usually found together ; xxi. 32. §109. USE OF THE ARTICLE. The article ('n, n §3.5) was originally a demonstrative pro- noun (as in other languages, e. g. the Romanic, comp. 6, r], to in Homer), yet with so little force that it was scarcely used ex- cept as a prefix to the noun. Its stronger demonstrative force {this) it has still in some connections, as oi'iH this day, hodie ; ■^^'I'^'l this night, to-night; DSBri this time. To this original, demonstrative signification points, especially 1) its occasional use for the relative before the verb, e. g. siXSTSSrt that are found 1 Chron. xxix. 17. xxvi. 28, Jos. x. 24, Ezra viii. 25 ; comp. Gen. xviii. 2.1, xlvi. 27, Job ii. 11 ; so also rj"'^.?'! = O""^? ^^^^ 1 Sam. ix. 24 ; 2) when it serves, mostly with a participle, to form a connec- tion with a previous subject-noun, repeating it once more ; e. g. Ps. xix. 10, the laws of Jehovah are truth . . . . v. 11, ni'i^Dnsn they, that are precious, — where the article has nearly all the force of natn avxol. So also in Ps. civ. 3 (three times), Is. xl. 22, 23, xlvi. 6, Gen. xlix. 21, Job xli. 25 ; and still stronger, Ps. xviii. 33, b^n in-txan bxn the God that girds me with strength; ver. 48, Jer. xix. 13, Neh. x. 38. The article is employed with a noun, to limit its application, In nearly the same cases as in Greek, German, and English ; viz. when the subject of discourse is a definite object, 'previously mentioned (Gen. i. 3, God said. Let there he light, lix, verse 4, and God saw the ligJit, liSHTii^ ; 1 Kings iii. 24, brinsr me a sword, and they brought the sword), or already known Eccl. ix. 15 ; (nb'bllj tjb'an the king /Solomon), or the only one of its kind (ffittisn the sun, fnijn the earth). § 109. USE OF THE ARTICLE. 201 In such cases the article can be omitted only in poetry, where it is used, in general, less frequently than in prose ; e. g, tjb'a for ^b^n Ps. xxi. 2, f-iX for l^nsjn Ps. ii. 2. Special cases in which the article is -commonly employed, are : 1. When an appellative is used collectively, denoting all the individuals of the class ; as the righteous, the unrighteous, Gen. xviii. 25 • the woman for the female sex, Eccl. vii. 26 ; the Ca- naanite. Gen. xiii. 7, xv. 19, 20 ; as in Engl, the Russian, the Turk* 2. When an appellative is applied by way of eininence to a particular person, and thus becomes a kind of proper name, as 6 TtocrjTrjQ (Homer). E. g. "JTato adversary, X4^'*^ ^he adversary, Satan ; bya lord, b?^n (prop, name of the idol) Baal ; D^^H ^^^^ first man, Adam ; bi?«7, D^nbifin d {)t6g,, the only, true God = nini (though this word, from its frequent occurrence in this sense, is often so used without the article, approaching the na- ture of a proper name, § 110, 1) ; ^T\iT\ the river, i. e. the Eu- phrates ; I33n the region around, viz. around the Jordan. 3. Hence it is also used with actual proper names of rivers, mountains, and of many toivns, with reference to their original appellative signification (comp. the Hague, le Havre, la Plata) ; as "ii5^n the Nile (prop, the river), li'S^n Lebanon (prop, the white mountain), lyn the town Ai (prop, the stone-heap). But its use in connection with names of towns is unfrequent, and in poetry is generally omitted. (Comp. §110, 1.) Rem. 1. The Hebrew article certainly never stands for the indefiniie article ; but the Hebrew conceives and expresses many ideas definitely, which we are accustomed to conceive and express indefinitely. This is most commonly seen, a) In comparisons, where the imagination pictures lo itself a definite image of the object; e.g. white as the wool, as the snow, red as the scarlet Is. i. 18 ; as the sheep Ps. xlix. 15 ; he hurls thee like the ball Is. xxii. 18; the heavens are rolled up like the scroll xxxiv. 4; comp. x. 14, xxiv. 20, xxvii. 10, liii. 6, Ps. xxxiii. 7. See instructive examples in Judges xiv. 6, xvi. 9, Is. xxix. 8, 11. But where the noun used for com- parison is already made definite by an adjective, the article is omitted as when a genitive follows, e. g. 1(33 Is. x. 14, but n^o^ )p3 xvi. 2 ; comp. Ps. i. 4 with Is. xxix. 5. Exceptions are rare, as "11353 Job xvi. 14, 2N3 xxxi. 18. * And so among the Attics, 6 'A&rjVaiog, 6 2vQax6n li^n Ps. xii. 8 ; especially when the noun is made definite only by a suffix, as rtibN ^""^a? 1 Kings x. 8 ; comp. Ex. x. 1, Jos. ii. 20, Judg. xvi. 5. 6, 15. Purposely indefinite is inyn ens'! Gen. xxxvii. 2, evil report respecting them (i^^'^D -^^'^ would be their evil report); xlii. 19, inx dDinst = one of your brethren. k 112. CONNECTION OF THE SUBSTANTIVE WITH THE ADJECTIVE. 1. The adjective, as an appendage of the substantive and subservient to it, stands after it, and agrees with it in gender and number ; as bi^5 Tlji5<, ns^ !^1?^. On the position of the article, see § 111, 2. Rem. 1. It is very seldom that the adjective, as an epithet of the sub- stantive, stands before it, as when some emphasis rests on it ; Is. xxviii. 21, liii. 11, Ps. Ixxxix. 51, cxlv. 7; compare also Ps. xviii. 4. Merely poetic is the form of expression n'^sa^a '')1?''S!!<, Job xli. 7. strong among the shields for strong shields (comp. ver. 21 ; Is. xxxv. 9) ; or with §113. APPOSITION. 205 a collective noun instead of the plural, fi'isj ^5''ai< the poor among men = the poor. Is. xxix. 19 ; Hos. xiii. 2. Comp. the Latin construction ca- nuni degeneres. 2. When substantives of the teminine gender or those which incline to it (§ 107, 4) take two adjectives, the feminine form sometimes appears only in the one which stands nearest the substantive ; as njn^] "^^xb^ Diajl 1 Sam. xv. 9; p^n) nb'ia m-\ 1 Kings xix. 11 ; Ps. lxiii.2. Comp. § 147, Rem. 1. N. B. In respect to number, nouns in the dual take adjectives in the plural (comp. § 88, 1) ; as ni'ri'n O'^i^^' lofty eyes Prov. vi. 17 ; Ps. xviii. 28, Job iv. 3, 4, Is. xxxv. 3. Moreover the constrrictio ad sensum is frequent. Collectives are construed with the plural, as in 1 Sam. xiii. 15, Jer. xxviii. 4; the so-called pluralis majestatis (§ 108. 2. 6), on the contrary, with the singular, as p'^'nS D'^li'^X Ps. vii. 10. Is. xix. 4; (but with \heplur. 1 Sam. xvii. 26.) 2. An adjective, when its application is limited by a substan- tive, is followed by it in the genitive case,* as iXPrns';' beautiful inform Gen. xxxix. 6, D'I'BS ""p? pure in hands Ps. xxiv. 4, "'laiJi? T^SD sorroioful in spirit Is. xix. 10. Participles and verbal ad- jectives are often construed thus, though they also govern the cases of their verbs ; see § 135. 3. On the adjective as predicate of the sentence, see § 144 foil. § 113. OF APPOSITION. 1. By this is meant the placing together of two substantives, when one of them (commonly the second t) serves as a limitation or restriction of the other. E. g. n:'abs5 niCi? a looman (who is) a roidow 1 Kings vii. 14 ; nb^nn nn?: a damsel (who is) a virgin Deut. xxii. 28 ; rrai? O'l'l^i* icords (which are) truth Prov. xxii. 21. The first of the two substantives sometimes takes the form of the construct state (§ 116, 5). Two 'adjectives may also be placed in apposition, when the first modifies the sense of the second ; as nisab nins ninns pale while spots Lev. xiii. 39 ; in verse 19, nB'nia'ix njnb rnna a ichile-red (clear red) spot. * lu Greek and Latin the genitive is employed in the same manner, as tristes animi ; see Ruhnkcn. ad Veil. Paterculum, 2, 93. f The first only in certain formulas, as T^l^ Tj^.San , ria'^l^ '=1^-'?^ ' ^"^^^ ^™ the king David, the king Solomon ; where the arrangement "l^V.^.n "''^I'J j 2 Sam. xiii. 39, like Cicero Consul, is of rare occurrence. 206 PART III. SYNTAX. §114. OF THE GENITIVE. 1. It has already been shown (§ 89) that the relation of the genitive is regularly expressed, by attaching the genitive noun to the preceding nomen regens in the construct state. A geni- tive can be thus annexed to u)nly one governing noun.* The language also avoids attaching to one such noun several geni- tives connected by the conjunction and, sometimes by repeating the nomen regens ; as Gen. xxiv. 3, 'f'}^'*} '^T?^'^^ C'^l^^n '^n"bx, the God of heaven and the God of earth. Several genitives may indeed follow one another, each dependent on the preceding one. This repetition of the construct state is often avoided, how- ever, by adopting a periphrasis of the genitive (§ 115) ; but not always, e. g. "^ni^X "^.^n "^Dp '^12'} the days of the years of the life of my fathers, Gen. xlvii.9 ; inp-^.:3 ^"liaa ni^J^-ISD^ nST» the remnant of the number of the hoios of the mighty ones of the children of Kedar, Is. xxi. 17. In these two examples (comp. also Is. x. 12. Job xii. 24 and others) all the substantives, except the last genitive, are in the construct state. But there are also examples, where a genitive subordinate to the leading idea, and serving only as a periphrasis for the adjective, stands in the absolute state, while only the genitive that follows is dependent on the leading idea. E. g. Is. xxviii. 1, ')'::: ''^^ibn Q-^aailJ N'-a the fat valley (prop, the valley of fatness) of the smitten ofivine, 1 Chron. ix. 13; Ps. Ixviii. 22. Similar is the unusual case, of a substantive followed immediately by an adjective, and then by a genitive ; as 3.'&^ ^^''z^. 15^. U7ihewn stones of the quarry, 1 Kings vi. 7. The usual arrangement is, rina? nVSj ant a great crown of gold, Esther viii. 15. 2. The noun in the genitive may stand not only for the sub- ject, but sometimes also for the object. E. g. Ez. xii. 19, O'ari n-i^Tjrj^n the wrong which the inhabitants have done ; on the con- trary, Obad. ver. 10, 'n^'HiJ Can tlie wrong against thy brother ; Prov. XX. 2, tfb'a n'a''N the fear of the king ;f QIO rip5^T the cry * It would be a violation of Hebrew idiom to say, ni'n nisai "'32 Jilii et filicB Davidis ; it would be necessary to say, T^rSS^ Tl'l '''^ii filii Davidis ejusque filiw. \ In Latin there is the same use of the genitive after injuria (Cbbs. B. Gall. 1, 30), metus (as metus hostiiim, metus Pompeii), apes, and other words. Comp. Aul. Gell. 9, 12. In Greek compare nlattg tov Osov, loyog tov atavQov 1 Cor. i. 18. ^115. EXPRESSION OF THE GENITIVE. 207 concerning" Sodom, Gen. xviii. 20 ; 12 i?'!2TiJ the rumor concern- ing Tyre, Is. xxiii. 5 ; '^''5'!'^ ^^1^ jirceda hostihns tiiis erepta Deut. XX. 14. Comp. further § 121, 5. Other applications of the genitive are : f3? 1\y^ ivay to the tree, Gen. iii. 24, DID "'IJ'^Sp judges like those of Sodom, Is. i. 10, D'^Jlbi^ "'fl^^T sacrifices accejj- table to God, Ps. li. 19, nin^' ^?^1^ an oath sioorn by Jehovah 1 K. ii. 43. 3. Not unfrequently the genitive relation supplies the place of apposition, as tTiE '^T\'2 fluvius Eujihratis. See further, § 116,5. Rem. 1. In very rare cases, a word intervenes between the nomen vegens and the nomen rectum, as in Hos. xiv. 3, 2 Sam. i. 9, Job xxvii. 3 (after ^3, in all these passages ; comp. also Is. xxxviii. 16). 2. "Wiih. propernames, which are generally in themselves sufficiently definite, the genitive is seldom used for limitation or restriction. In- stances of it occur, however, in geographical names ; as D'^'nbB "i^lN Ur of the Chaldees Gen. xi. 28, C'^'irtS cnx Aram of the two rivers = Meso- potamia ; in like manner nixas nitr^ Jehovah of hosts ^ov Jehovah the Lord of hosts. §115. EXPEESSIOX OF THE GENITIVE BY CIRCUMLOCUTION. Besides the expression of the genitive relation by subordina- tion to the governing noun in the construct state (§ 89, and § 114), there are modes of expressing it by j^criphrasis, and chiefly by the preposition b, which means 2^crtai7iing or belonging to, and thus expresses a relation not unlike that of the genitive. Thus we find — 1. b "ittJX, used principally for the genitive of possession, as "iKSf] ti"^25nn'n if/lcice : a) in answer to the question whither ? after verbs of motion,* as T\i'^T\ X2iD let lis go out into the field, 1 Sam. xx. 11, T^^'^nn n^bb to go to Tarshish, 2 Chron. XX. 36, Ps. cxxxiv. 2 ; b) in answer to the question where !■ after verbs of rest, as '!T'3X n^S in the house of tJiy father, Gen. xxxviii. 11, bni^n T\rj^ in the door of the tent, xviii. 1. It is then employed also c) with reference to sj}cice and measure, in an- swer to the question how far 7 Gen. vii. 20, the water rose fifteen cubits. In the cases a and h, especially the former, the noun often takes the accusative endind M— , on which see § 90, 2. The first relation may also be expressed by bi)^ (as it commonly is with reference to persons), and the second by 3 ; but we are by no means to suppose that Avhere these particles are omitted the construction is incomplete. 2. In designations of time : a) in answer to the question whe7i ? as Dl'^n the day, i. e. on the day, then, or on this day. to-day ; H'n? at evening, Hb^b noctu ; D^'ir.2 at noon Ps. xci. 6 ; ^'TTQ T\yiD n-iil):^ tht the thirteenth year {in the thirteenth year) they revolted. Gen. xiv. 4 ; Di"li?iEi "ii^p nbnn at the beginning of barley harvest, 2 Sam. xxi. 9 (K^thibh) ; b) in answer to the question how long ? U'^p'^ ^^.'^. six days {long) Ex. xx. 9. 3. Where we say in respect to, according to, (fcc. and in other adverbial limitations : Gen. xli. 40, b'l.^X N&3n pn only in. respect to the throne icill I be greater ; 2 Sam. xxi. 20, four and txoenty "lED^ in number (comp. rgti^ dqcd (.lov three in number); 1 Kings xxii. 13, inx ns loith one mouth i. e. with one voice ; Zeph. iii. 9, they served God ini? DDTIJ with one shoulder i. e. with one heart. With a following genitive, nxi"^ T'affi for fear of thorns. Is. vii. 25 ; Job i. 5, he brought burnt- 2 Sam. xi. 25, Neh. ix. 32, and even 1 Sam. xvii. 34), there is rather to be under- stood a loosely governed accusative, — as is certainly the case in its connection •with the Passive (§ 143, 1, a). — In Ez. xlvii. 17, 18, 19, nx stands for m'T unless indeed the passage is to be so emended ; comp. vs. 20. * In Greek, this use of the accus. is exclusively poetical; II. 1, 317, xr/tr?; (5' ovoavov ins. 212 PAET III. SYNTAX. offerings D^3 ISp'a according to the number of them all. Here belong also such cases as '7\0'2 nptp'a the double in money Gen. xliii. 15, D^nh?to nS^N an ephah of barley Ruth ii. 17, D^'a^^ D:'n3T» two years' time Gen. xli. 1. Comp. also § 116, Rem. h. See analogous cases of the accus. in connection with a verb, in §§ 138 and 139. By this same process, carried still farther, many sub- stantives have come to be distinctly recognized as adverbs (§ 100, 2, &). Rem. Such a reference to place, time, &c., the noun may have, when it is connected with 3 (as, according to, after the manner of), though then the preposition 3 alone is in the accusative, while the noun is to be conceived as the genitive after it. So, a) o{ place ; B'^3']3 as in their pasture, Is. v. 17, xxviii. 21 ; "jaxs after the manner of the stone i. e. as into stone (the water contracts in freezing) Job xxxviii. 30, xxx. 14 ; ttJinb 1^3 as in gorgeous dress Job xxxviii. 14 ; nibns as in a dream, Is. xxix. 7, comp. xxiii. 15 ; b) of time, especially in the combinations ni'^3 after the manner of the day = as on the daxj, Is. ix. 3 ; Hos. ii. 5 ; "^HiB as in the days of — , Hos. ii. 17, ix. 9. xii. 10 ; Amos ix. 11 ; Is. Ii. 9, c) In other relations : e. g. Job xxviii. 5, m i733 after the manner of fire = as by fire ; Is. i. 25, I fuse away thy dross "I'ss as with lye. Rarely, another preposition is used after such a 3, e. g. njiUX'nnS Is. 1. 26 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 14. The substantive with 3 may, of course, be the accusative of the object, or the nominative. §119. MODES OF EXPRESSING THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLA- TIVE.* 1. When the comparative is to be expressed, the particle l^ (•'0) is prefixed to the word with which comparison is made ; e. g. 1 Sam. ix. 2, oyJI'bS'a ?|lh5 taller than any of the people ; Judg. xiv. 18, ^y^^ 'P'^'^'9 sweeter tJian honey ; so also after a verb, especially such as express a quality or attribute, as 1^311^5 XSSTrbyQ and he luas taller than any of the people, 1 Sam. x. 23 ; T^ia'bS'a v|Dii"nX nns he loved Joseph more than all his (other) so?ts. * In Arabic, there is a strengthened form for the comparative and superlative, which in Heb. would be iopX. To tliis, perhaps, belonged originally "Itas cruel, 3t3S deceitful (of a failing brook), and its opposite 'jH'^X (contr. from aitan) ■unfailing, perennis. These forms have, indeed, lost their force and stand like solitary fragments ; somewhat as the Latin comparative dies out in the Italian, and still more in the French, and its place is supplied by periphrasis (with pitl, plus). § 120. SYNTAX OF THE NUMERALS. 213 In other cases also the particle "jO often expresses pre-eminence (s- g- I'? f'liri';! excellence above, Eccles. ii. 13, comp. Deut. xiv. 2). which the Hebrew conceives as a separation from, a c/e-signation. Compare the Latin ablative with the comparative ; also the etymology of the Latin words e.vimins, egreg-ius, and in Homer ey. Ttdriav (iuliaTu, II. 4. 96. and merely bk naamv, 18, 431). Hence the signification more than con- nects itself with the fundamental signification out of. (Compare the use of \>'3 in comparisons, Job xxiii. 2 ; Ps. cxxxvii. 6.) The predicate is sometimes not expressed, and must be sup- plied from the connection. E. g. Is. x. 10, pbiWlT'O DPl^b'^pS their idols are more numerous (mightier) than those in Jerusalem : Job xi. 17, D'l'^n^'a clearer than the noonday. The correlative comparatives, greater, less, are expressed merely by great, little, Gen. i. 16, 2. The several modes of expressing the superlative are in principle the same : thus in all of them the positive form, by means of the article, or a suffix, or a following genitive, is made to designate an individual as pre-eminently the possessor of the quality expressed (comp. le plus grand). E. g. 1 Sam. xvii. 14, and David was "J^llO ihc small (one) i. e. the smallest, and the three great {ones), i. e. greater, &c. ; Gen. xlii. 13 ; Jon. iii. 5, Oiup Tyi Q^'lilia from the greatest among them (lit. their great ones) even unto the least among tliem ; 2 Chron. xxi. 17, ]il2)5 T'Jil the youngest of his sons. A kind of superlative, in substantives expressing quality, is made by the construction D''UJTI^_ iIJIp (he holiest of all, prop, the holy {holiest) among holy things. §120. SYKTAX OF THE NUMERALS. 1. The numerals from 2 to 10 (which are properly substan- tives, but may also be used adverbially, §97, 1), are connected with substantives in three different ways. They stand either a) in the construct state before the substantive (the object num- bered being therefore in the genitive), D'^'a^ '^^^V three days, prop, triad of days ; or h) in the absolute state before it (the object numbered conceived as the accusative or in apposition), D'^31 mcbtp three sons ; or c) in the absolute state after it, and in apposition with it (in the later books, where the adverbs also are so placed), \lJiblJ3 rii:a three daughters, 1 Chron. xxv. 5. 214 PART m. SYlsTAX. In like manner, the constructions nJlL" Hiir: Gen. xvii. 17, and fijia MSB XXV. 7, 17. a hundred 7/ears, are equally common. 2. The numerals from 2 to 10 are joined, with very few exceptions (e. g. 2 Kings xxii. 1), with the plural form of the substantive. The tens (from 20 to 90), when they precede the substantive, are regularly joined with the singular (in the accu- sative), and when they follow it in apposition, with the plural. The first is the more frequent construction. E. g. Judg. xi. 33, -li;;? wySS'S^ twenty cities ; on the contrary Dili!)?' ni'Di^ tioenty cubits, 2 Chron. iii. 3 seq. The plural may be used in the first case (Ex. xxxvi. 24, 25). but the singular never occurs in the second. The numerals from 11 to 19 are joined to the singular form (in the accusative) only with certain substantives, which there is frequent occa- sion to number, as Di'' day^ HSUJ year. 'd'^X man. &c. (comp. '■•four foot deep.^^ ^' a thousand pound,'''') ; e.g. Di"' "ib-S nS3"iN . 'proY^. fourteen day Ex. xii. 6. With this exception, they are joined to the plural ; and in the later books may then stand after the substantive (1 Chron. iv. 27, xxv. 5). 3. Numerals compounded of tens and units (as 21, 62) take the object numbered either after them in the singular (accusa- tive), as n;TD D'^'ilSTiJI D^rilT sixty-two years Gen. v. 20 ; or before them in the plural, as in the later books (Dan. ix. 26) ; or the object is repeated, with the smaller number in the plural, with the larger in the singular, as Gen. xii. 4, TO© D'^ynTyi U^'lt TlJ)2n seventy five years Gen. xxiii. 1, a^2T^ ^2X5) npTS D^"lilJ?1 HDT^ nx)a 07ie hundred and twenty-seven years. 4. Beyond 10 the ordinals have no peculiar fowms, but are expressed by those of the cardinals, either before the object num-. bered, or after it in the genitive ; as Di"' "iil?y ~y3t^3 on the seven - teenth day Gen. vii. 11, S'SlO'l D'''?W W^3 in the twenty-seventh year 1 Kings xvi. 10. In the latter case, the word nsiS is some- times repeated, as in Gen. vii. 1]. 2 Kings xiii, 10. — In num- Itering days of the month and years, the forms of the cardinals are used, even for the numbers from 1 to 10, e. g. W]T\'!D ri3TJJ3 in the second year, tJib© ri?TilJ3 in the third year 1 Kings xv. 25, 2 Kings xviii. 1 ; TiJ'inb nytdna on the ninth of the month, 1T}^^ ili"inb on the first of the tnonth, Lev. xxiii. 32, Gen. viii. 13. Rem. 1. The numerals take the article when they stand without a substantive, and refer to subjects mentioned before, as C^?^'?] the two Eccles. iv. 9, 12. The case Qia^ri risa\r the seven days .Tudg. xiv. 17, is to be explained on the principle stated Mil; 1. § 121. USE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 21 5 2. Certain substantives employed in designations oi" weight, measure. opof ime. are commonly omitted after numerals ; e. g. Gen. xx. 16. tlbx t]!53 a thnusdnd {shekels) of silver ; so also before "tit gold 1 K. x. 16; Ruth iii. 15. n''"ii>b i::a sz.r (ephahs) of barley ; 1 Sam. xvii. 17, nnb nna? ?e« (loaves) of bread. Tiius oi"' is omitted Gen. viii. 5, and liJ^n, viii. 13. — Tlie number of ciibils is often stated thus : naxn i1NT2 a hu7idred cu- bits, prop, a hundred by the cubit, Ex. xxvii. 18. 5. Numbers are expressed distrih^itively by repetition of the cardinals, as O^ITIJ Q'!';!^ ^?co by tivo, Gen. vii. 9, 15. 0/?e «^i/«e, 07«ce, is expressed by Jnnx D^B (piop. a tread), D';''C?;e ^?i--o times, tivice, □"''ays ffiibtC thrice. These may also be expressed by the fein. forms of the cardinals, as inx once, W;^'^ twice, TlJibiC thrice ; also rinX3 once. Num. x. 4. The ordinals are used in the same manner, as fT^2TlJ a second time Gen. xxii. 15, Jer. xiii. 3, Ez. xxi. 19. CHAPTER II. SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. §121. USE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 1. The personal pronoun as subject of the sentence, like any other word in the same relation, requires for its union with the predicate no separate expression of the copula, when this is merely the substantive-verb to be (§ 144). E. g. ns""in id:X /(am) the seer 1 Sam. ix. 19, ^;n:N Dips upright (are) ive Gen. xlii. 11, nr\S D^^n blameless (wast) tltou Ez. xxviii. 15, DH D^TSI'^y "'S that naked (were) they Gen. iii. 7, X^n inx Dibn one dream (is) it Gen. xli. 26. 2. The pronoun of the tldrd person often serves to form a connection between the subject and predicate, and then supplies in some measure the; place of the copula, or of the verb to be. E. g. Gen. xli. 26, the seven good kine ~:n U^'.t! y^'iT seven years (are) they ; Eccles. v. 18, X'^n n"^n'5S npi'a oT this is a gift of God. — Sometimes such a pronoun of the third person refers to a subject of the first or second person ; e. g. '^S^'O S^n nriS< thou art my king Ps. xliv. 5, where S'^H points at the same time 216 PART ni. SYNTAX. to the predicate and gives it prominence (prop, thou (art) he, mp king) ; Is. xxxvii. 16, Neh. ix. 6, 7, Deut. xxxii. 39. (Comp. in Chaldee, Ezra v. 11 ; so in the Coptic.) 3. To the ground-rule (s33, 1), that the separate pronouns express the nominative and the suffixes the obhque cases, tliere is but one exception, viz. when there is an emphatic repetition of the personal pronoun in an obhque case (me, me ; of tJiee.^ of thee) ; it then takes, the second time, the separate form of the pronoun, in the same case as the preceding 3 let us j)ass through. I pray thee ; c) to express an object or design, when it is commonly joined by 1 to a preceding Imperative ; Gen. xxvii. 4, hring it hither, ribDi?'! and I will eat =that I may eat ; xxix. 21. xlii. 34, Job x. 20. More seldom, d) it stands in conditional sentences with if, though, expressed or implied, Job xvi. 6, xi. 17. Ps. cxxxix. 8. It also stands, e) frequently after Vav consecutive (§41, 2). In Jeremiah, it is used to give force and emphasis of almost every kind; iii. 25, iv. 19, 21. vi. 10. 2. The shortened Imperfect (the Jussive) is used principally. a) in the expression of command, wish, as if.%'yp\proferat Gen. i. 24 (on the contrary, Indicative, X'^SZin prnferet Is. Ixi. 11); Dp;;' sistat Jer. xxviii. 6 ; ""^^ lb utinam sit xxx. 34 ; and joined to an Imperative by 1 (comp. No. 1, c), Ex. viii. 4, entreat Jehovah "IC^I and let hifii take away= that he may take away ; x. 17. Judg. vi. 30, 1 Kings xxi. 10, Esth. vii. 2 (toS'n'i) ;* 6) in prohi- bition and negative entreaty, as lUJn sb thou shalt not hring hack, Gen. xxiv. 8 ; rnttJri"bs do not destroy, Deut. ix. 26 ; in the tone of request, "^^JSTiS n^^ri'bx do not turn me away [1 K. * On these two cases (a and 6), see § 127. h and c. § 129. BIPERFECT WITH VA V COXSECUTIVR 231 ii. 20] ; of warning, yo^^ bi5 iie conjidat Job xv. 31, xx. 17 ; c) often in conditional clauses (the usage of the Arabic) both in the piotasi.? and apodosis. E. g. Ps. xlv. 12 {y&TT^), civ. 20 (nrp and ■'n^l), Hos. vi. 1 {V.): Is. 1. 2 (nbn), Gen. iv. 12 (^oh), Lev. XV. 24 (■'nn . . . Di?), Job x. 16, xiii. 5, xvii. 2, xxii. 28, 1 Sam. vii. 3 (^S?!^'l) ; d) after Vav conseMtive (§ 49, 2). As the distinction of the Jussive from the common form of tlie Imper- fect, 'hy its orthograpliy. is very far from universal (§ 48, 4, and § 127. 3, b. c), it is sometimes uncertain how this tense should be understood ; especially as, in the poets, the shortened form occurs, now and then, where the common one might be used without essential ditierence in the sense ; e. g. Ps. xxx. 9. The Jussive then expresses rather a subjective view, it may be. it might, should^ could be, as the sense and connection in each passage require. §129. USE OF TIIE IMPERFECT WITH YAV CONSECUTIVE. 1. The Imperfect with Vav consecutive (Vl3j5^1 cind then kill- ed he. § 49, 2), stands only in close connection with what pre- cedes. Most usually, a narration begins with the Perfect, and is then continued by Imperfects with Vav consecutive. This is the usual way of relating past events. E. g. Gen. iv. 1, and Adam knew i^Tl) Eve his ivife, and she conceived and bare (~'"n!] "i«!?J?!!) Cain ; vi. 9, 10, ifcc, x. 9, 10, 15, 19, xi. 12, 13-15, 27, 28, xiv. 5, (fee, XV. 1, 2, xvi. 1, 2, xxi. 1, (fee, xxiv. 1, 2, xxv, 19, 20. (fee, xxxvi. 2-4, xxxvii. 2.* But where there is a connection with earlier events, the Impf. with Vav consecntive may commence the narration, or a division of it. Very often, it begins with Tl''^ {xcd tyivtro) and it happened Gen. xi. 1, xiv. 1, xvii. 1, xxii. 1, xxvi. 1, xxvii. 1 ;t nin;> l''?^'''] and Jehovah said, xii. 1. * Sometimes, the preceding Perfect is only imphed in the sense ; e. g. Gen. xi. 10, Sem (was) a hundred years old l^.'i'^ "'^'^ ^^^^'^ ''■^ begat ; x. 1. So also in the following sentence : on the third da>/ ^'^I'^VTii. xi^^l then he lifted up his eyes; fully expressed : it happened on the third day, and then — ; Gen. xxii. 4, Is. xxxvii. 18, vi. 1. \ This connection is the usual one, when a designation of time is to be introdu- ced; e. g. Gen. xxii. 1, nS5 DTlPSrjn i^^Xin ni"i3'nl-t nns inil and it happened after these thinrjs, that God tried; xxvi. 8, Clpd*1 n''53lin c\li ib ^iDnx -3 ""tTyy; xxxix. 13, 15, 18, 19, Judg. xvi. 16, 25. See the numerous passages in Gesenius, Thes. Ling. Hebr. \>. 3'72. In lite manner we find n^lHI used of the future; see § 126, Rem. 2. 232 PART III. SYNTAX It stands also, especially, a) after the protasis ; e. g. after because. as in 1 Sam. xv. 23, hecmise thou hast rejected the loord of Jehovah, ^CN^"^^ therefore he rejects thee; Gen. xxxiii. 10 ; after since ("'3) Job iv. 5 ; b) after an absolute substantive, e. g. 1 Kings xii. 17, as for the children of Israel, Q^'Srt'i cnibs T(^'3'?5 Rehoboam reigned over them; ix. 21, Dan. viii. 22.* In such sentences as the following, -1 may be rendered that : Ps. cxliv. 3, what is man iS^S'jni that thou regardest him ! (comp. Ps. viii. 5 where ""S is used); Is. li. 12, who art thou '''^'^''n^ ihat thou shoiddest fear ? Bui here, the thought is properly : G^hovv little account is man ; and yet, thou dost regard him. 2. As to the relations of time denoted by it, the Imperfect of consecution refers, according to the tense which precedes it, ei- ther — a) To present time ; namely, in continued description of it, with a preceding Perfect (as a Present ; Gen. xxxii. 6, Is. ii. 7, 8, Job vii. 9, xiv. 2) ; or Imperfect (as a Present ; Job xiv. 10, 1 Sam. ii. 29) ; or Pai^ticiple ; Nah. i. 4, 2 Sam. xix. 2, Amos ix. 6. b) Or, less frequently, to futurity ; with a preceding Perfect (as a Future; Is. v. 15, 16, xxii. 7, S, Joel ii. 23, Micah ii, 13, Ps. cxx. 1) ; or Jussive (Joel ii. 18, 19) ; or Imperative, Ps. 1. 6 ; also, when joined to a clause without a verb, Gen. xlix. 15 ; or to an absolute substantive, Is. ix. 11 ; or leading back to the future. Is. ii. 9, ix. 13. In the apodosis after X^ib stands ■^rj!!! Is. xlviii. 18, 19, for then had been; and i'3Xl in a conditional clause, Ps. cxxxix. 11, for and (if) / should say ; comp. the common Imperfect § 127, 5. § 130. OF THE IMPERATIVE. 1. The Imperative expresses not only command in the proper sense, but also exhortation (Hos. x. 12), entreaty (2 Kings v. 22, and with X3 , Is. v. 3), wish (Ps. viii. 2, and with "^ Gen. xxiii. 13), permission (2 Sam. xviii. 23, Is. xiv. 11). It is employed especially in strong assurances (comp. thou shalt have it, Avhich expresses both a command and a promise) ; and hence ill pro- * On the sentences ■which begin with the Infinitive or Participle and then pro- ceed with this Future of consecution, see ^ 132, Rem. 2, and () 134j Rem. 2. § 130. THE IMPERATIVE. 23?- plietic declarations, as Is. vi. 10, thou shalt make the heart of this jyeople hard for thou wilt make. These may be either a) 'promises., Ps. cxxviii. 5, thou shalt see (f^i?"?) the jirosperity of Jerusalem ; Is. xxxvii. 30, Ixv. 18, Ps. xxii. 27, Gen. xx. 7 ; or 6) threatenings* Is. xxiii. 1, wail, ye ships of Tarshish, for ye shall (vnll) wail ; vs. 2, 4, x. 30, xiii. 6. In all these cases the use of the Imperative approaches very near to that of the Im- perfect, which may therefore precede (Gen. xx. 7, xlv. 18) or follow it (Is. xxxiii. 20) in the same signification. A more lively expression is given to the Imperative, in almost all its senses, by the addition of the particle N3 age ! (§ 105) ; particularly, in command, as well its milder form (do now, this or that) Gen. xxiv. 2, as that of rebuke and menace. Num. xvi. 26, xx. 10 ; and in entreaty, S3 "inriN Gen. xii. 13. Tauntingly permissive is NJ "'l':^', Is. xlvii. 12, persist now ! 2. We may, from the above, explain the peculiar use of two Imperatives usually connected by and : a) where they are em- ployed in a good sense, the first containing an admonition or exhortation, and the second a promise made on the condition of obedience implied in it (like divide et impera! Engl, do loell and have well). E. g. Gen. xlii. 18 T'T)'] TO2? rii?T this do, and (ye shall) live ; Prov. xx. 13, keep thine eyes open (be wakeful, active), and thou shalt have 2)lenty of bread; Ps. xxxvii, 27 (comp. ver. 3), Prov. vii. 2, ix. 6, Job xxii. 21, Is. xxxvi. 16, xlv. 22, Hos. X. 12, Amos v. 4, 6 ; b) where a threat is expressed, and the first Imperative tauntingly permits an act, while the second declares the consequences ; Is. viii. 9, '^.T\h'\ D''1Q? '^5?1 rage ye people, and ye shall soon be dismayed ; xxix. 9. In the second member, the Imperfect also may be used ; Is. vi. 9, viii. 10, 1 Sam. xvii. 44. Hem. 1. How far the Perf. and Impf. may also be employed to express command, has been shown in § 126, 6, c, and § 127, 3, c, § 128, 2. 2. It has been incorrectly asserted by some grammarians, that the form of the Imperative is used, in certain passages, for the third person (let him kill). E. g. Gen. xvii. 10, ^3}-^^ ^'^^ ^'^'^H ^^'^ ^^^^^ '"^^'^ among you be circumcised. (In verse 12 bia']' is used. But hiizii is the Infinitive, which gives the same sense, § 131, 4, b). Ps. xxii. 9 (bj Infin.) ; Gen. xxxi. 50, Judges ix. 28, Is. xlv. 21 (in the last three passages are actual Imperatives of the 2d person). * Analogous is the form of contemptuous menace in the comic writers, vapula- Tercnt. Phorm. V. 6, 10, vapulare tejubeo Plant. Curculio, IV. 4, 12. 234 PART III. SYNTAX. § 131. USE OF THE INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE. The Infinitive absolule is employed, as has been remarked in §45, 1, when there is occasion to express the abstract idea of tlie verb by itself, neither in connection with what follows, nor in dependence on a preceding noun or particle.* The most impor- tant cases in which it is used, are : 1. When it is governed by a transitive verb, and consequently stands as an accusative. Is. xlii. 24, 'ijibn '^IJ^ i^b they would not go; vii. 15, niiaa nina^ ^-\^ cisia in^^lb tmtil he learn to refuse the evil and to choose the good ; Jer. ix. 4. Here, how- ever, the ////. constr. is oftener used, either with or without a preposition, according to the construction of the preceding verb, § 142, 1, 2. In the same construction is Is. xxii. 13, behold ! joy and gladness 'lJ1 "JNIS ain'a'i "ip3 ailii the slaying (prop, to slay) oxen, the slaughter- ing sheep, the eating Jiesh, the drinking wine (where the Injin. is a mere accusative governed by behold!); v. 5, I will tell you what I xoill do to my vineyard^ ii'iS "j'ilQ . . . ins^iba "iDin the taking away {to take aivay) its hedge and the tearing down its wall. — q. d. that will I do. 2. ."When it is in the accusative and used adverblalli/t (the Latin gerund in do) ; e. g. litS'^n bene faciendo, for bene, n3"in multuni faciendo, for inulttmi. Hence, 3. When it is used emphatically, in connection with &, finite verb. a) It then stands most commonly before the finite verb, to which it adds, in general, an expression of intensity. 1 Sam. xx. 6, "'f'B'a bxir: bi^llJ; he urgently besought of me ; Gen, xliii. 3, he strictly charged us (T'S^H "IlS^n). A very clear example is in Amos ix. 8, I will destroy it from the surface of the earthy * Where the Inf. constr. is always used. But when several successive infini- tives are to liave a preposition, it is often written only before the first, and the second (before which it is to be mentally supplied) stands in the absolute form ; as inilJI bbxb to cat and (to) drink, Ex. xxxii. 6 ; comp. 1 Sam. xxii. 13, xxv. 26. Jer. viL 18, xliv. 17. This case is aualogous.with that explained §121, 3. Comp. also No. 4, a, of this section. f On the Accusative as a casus advcrblalis, see § 118. In Arabic, iu this case, it takes expressly the accusative ending. In most cases (see Nos. 1, 2, 3, of this section), the Inf. absol. answers clearly to the Accusative of the Infinitive, and to this No, 4 also is to be referred. § 131. USE OF THE INFTNITIVE ABSOLUTE. 235 excejit that I will not utterly destroy (I^^T^i? ^^^^^l i^b). Judg. i. 28. Its effect is often merely to give a certain promi- nence to the thought contained in the finite verb, — which in other languages is done chiefly by the expression of the voice or by particles, — as in assurances, questions (such especially as express excitement in view of something strange and im- probable), contrasts; Gen. xliii. 7, could we (then) know? xxxvii. 8, ^S'^by ^'biari tjib'an wilt thou (haply) riile over us 7 [is that likely to happen !] xxxi. 30, if thou wouldst needs he gone* (^pbn 'Ffibn), because thou so earnestly longest (51033 ri&DDD) ; Judg. XV. 13, loe will bind thee, hut we will not kill thee ; 1 Sam. ix. 6, 2 Sam. xxiv. 24, Hab, ii. 3, b) When the Infinitive stands after the finite verb, this connec- tion generally indicates continued or lasting action. Is. vi. 9, yi^aia '^'Slli: hear on continually ; Jer. xxiii. 17 ; Gen. xix. 9, taiSTC tSSTC'li and he must he always playing the judge ! Two Infinitives may be thus used ; 1 Sam. vi. 12, 'Tjibn ^Dbn ly^'l they went going on and lowing, for they ivent on lowing as they went ; 1 Kings xx. 37. Instead of a second Infini- tive is sometimes used a finite verb (Jos. vi. 13), or a partici- ple (2 Sam. xvi. 5). Rem. 1. This usage in regard to the position of the Infin. is certainly the common one, though not without exceptions. Il sometimes follows the finite verb to which it gives empliasis and intensity, where the idea of repetition or continuance is excluded by the connection. Is. xxii. 17, Jer. xxii. 10, Gen. xxxi. 15, xlvi. 4, Dan. x. 11, 13. hi Syriac, the Infin. when it expresses intensity stands regularly before, and in Arabic always after, the finite verb. — The place of the negative is commonly between the two (Ex. V. 23), seldom before them both (Gen. iii. 4). 2. With a finite verb of one of the derived conjugations may be con- nected not only the Infin. absol. of the same conjugation (Gen. xvii. 13 xl. 15), but also that of /laZ (e. g. O'nb Ci'to Gen. xxxvii. 33 ; Job vi. 2) or of another of the same signification (Lev. xix. 20, 2 Kings iii, 23). 3. In expressing the idea of continuance (letter &), the verb t]^ii is frequently employed, with the signification to go 07i, to continue on, and thus denotes also constant increase. E. g. Gen. xxvi. 13. b'lji Ti'ibii T\^v\ and he became contimialJy greater and greater. 2 Sam. v. 10 ; Gen. viii. 3, ailijl '^ibn .... n-^^an ^labjl and the waters fiowed of continually. (The participial construction is also frequent here : e. g. 1 Sam. ii. 26, "1?:^ '^'^'^) '15'^ TjV^ ^i^.'^^Tii the child Samuel went on increasing in stature and * That is, I understand why thou art gone, namely because of thy earnest longing. Vulgate : csto, ad tuos ire cupicbas. 236 PART in. SYNTAX. in goodness; 2 Sam. iii. 1). A similar mode of expression is found m the French : le mal va loiijours croissant, la maladie va tovjours en augmen- tant el en empirant^ grows worse conlinually. 4. When it stands in place of the finite verb. We have here the two following cases, viz. a) When it is preceded by a finite verb. This is frequent, espe- cially among the later writers, in the expression of several successive acts or states, where only the first of the verbs em ployed takes the required form in respect to tense and person, the others being in the Infinitive with the same distinctions implied. (Comp. j 121, 3.) E. g. with the Perf. Dan. ix. 5, "lici ^TTpIl we have rebelled and (we have) turned away ; Gen. xli. 43, he caused hiin to ride in the second chariot, ins< 1'if^?'] and placed him ; 1 Sam. ii. 28, Jer. xiv. 5. With the Imp/. Jer. xxxii. 44, they will buy fields for money (Impf.), and write and seal bills of sale, and take loitnesses (three Infinitives) ; Num. xv. 35. 6) It may stand at the beginning of the sentence, without a pre- ceding finite verb ; for the Infinitive (the pure abstract idea of the verb), serves as a short and emphatic expression for any tense and person which the connection requires. E. g. it stands a) for the Perf. in lively narration and descrip- tion, like the Latin infinitivus historicns ; Is. xxi. 5, ^i"ll^ rVTi^D biDN n^San nb^ ]nbwr\ to prepare the table, to set the watch, to eat, to drink (sc. this they do), for they prepare, (fee. lix. 4, Hos. iv. 2, Ez. i. 14, Job xv. 35 ; also /j) for the Impf. in the sense of the Future ; 2 Kings iv. 43, blDX *iriini to eat and to leave thereof (sc. this ye shall do) ; y) most frequently for the emphatic Imp. (as in Greek) ; Deut. V. 12, "li^TO to observe (sc. thou art to, ye are to) ; so Ex. xx. 8, "list to remember (oughtest thou) ; hence, with the full form, yT\rmv\ ni'aTr, Deut. vi. 17; nSTPi nbT, vii. 18. For the Cohortative Is. xxii. 13, iritOI bi2ij to eat and to drink ! (sc. let us eat and drink.) 1 Kings xxii. 30 to disguise my- self and go (I will disguise, ^i'}^ xSab UJpt^n and. the sun %vas about going down. Hence it serves for a periphrasis of the Imp/. 2 Chr. xxvi. 5, n^n'bx ^"i1^ '^'lll and he served God J without ti'n, Is. xxxviii. 20, "^Dspdinb nin^ Jehovah saveth me; xxi, 1, Eccles. iii. 15, Prov. xix. S, comp. xvi. 20. 2) It is to do for it must be done (comp. Eng. lam to give for I must give). Jos. ii. 5. ^f}']'^ Tiaob "i^^'i"! and the gate was to shut for was to be shid. More commonly fi'^n is omitted ; 2 Kings iv. 13, nib?.^ TMO what is to be [can be] done; 238 PART III. SYNTAX. 2.Chr. xix, 2. Also 3) He was able to do (comp. the Lat. non est sol vendo). Judges i. 19, laininl; xb he coidd not drive out.* 2. The Hebrew writers frequently pass from the Infinitive construc- tion (described in No. 2) to the use of the finite verb, before which the mind must then supply a conjunction answering to the preposition before the Infinitive. Thus the Per/, is connected with the Iirftn. Amos. i. 11, liTani rn'l3i — "is^ii h'S because he pursued — and stifled his compas- sion ; Gen. xxvii. 45 ; the Imp/, with Vav. consec. Gen. xxxix. 18, K^pXl "^bip •'53"''nn3 when I raised my voice and cried; Is. xxx. 12, xxxviii. 9. Most usually the Imp/, with the simple 1 prefixed, as in Is. V. 24, X. 2, xiii. 9, xiv. 25, xxx. 26. Comp. the similar succession of the participle and finite verb, § 134, Rem. 2. § 133. CONNECTION OF THE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCT WITH SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 1. The Infii^tive may be construed directly with the proper case of the verb, and hence, in transitive verbs, with the accusa- tive of the object. E. g. Num. ix. 15, "jSTlptin-nX n^pT} to set up the Tahernacle ; 1 Sam. xix. 1, ^'I'H'fli? J^'^'^Jl^ to kill David; Gen. xviii. 25, p'^'lIS ri'i'arib to kill the righteous ; 1 Kings xii. 15, XV. 4, 2 Kings xxi. 8, Ez. xliv. 30 ; Lev. xxvi. 15, "^STiii niiu? ■'niS'a to do all my commands ; Gen. xix. 29, Diiyn"^^? ^f^na lohen he overthreio the cities ; Prov. xxi. 15, t22ffi'a hito to do justice ;\ with the accusative of the pronoun, 'TfiTiSi D'^pH 'j^'ab in order to establish thee, Deut. xxix. 12 ; ''plS'^t^n to bring me back, Jer. xxxviii. 26 ; '^35i"in'? to slay me, Ex. ii. 24 ; iDtJpab to seek me, 1 Sam. xxvii. 1, v. 10, xxviii. 9, 1 Chron. xii. 17 ; OKi? ri'lbs quiim {mater) eos luireret. So if the verb governs two accusa- tives, as : ns isx nm nx what I do, for what I will do. Gen. xix. 13, xli. 25, 1 K. i. 14. * In Syriac aud Chaldee it is more frequently used thus than in its proper signification as a participle. § 135. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. 241 Also c) the Past, especially when it stands connected with the statement of past and contemporaneous circumstances. Job i. 16. tit lis 6t2 nn la"!^ the one (was) still speaking when another came ; ver. 17. Gen. xlii. 35, Ex. ii. 6, Judges xiii. 9, 1 Sam. xvii. 23, 1 K. i. 5, 22. But it is also used with reference to past time, and even for the perfect Pre- terite, without any such connection ; e. g. Deut. iv. 3, nixnn DDii"^? your eyes which have seen* With the verb fTJfi it serves as a periphrasis of the Imperfect.f Job i. 14, niiDTh ii'^H i)^2ri (as in English) the oxen icere ploughhig ; Gen. XV. 17, Judges i. 7, xvi. 21. Rem. 1. In all the three cases, a, 6, c, riSii is employed before the participle for awakening special attention. E. g. (a) where the Part. stands lor the Present, IT^rt T^Sii behold ! thou (art) with child Gen. xvi. 11. xxvii. 42, Ex. xxxiv. 11 ; 6) for the Future, Gen. vi. 17, Is. iii. 1. vii. 14, xvii. 1 ; c) for the Past, Gen. xxxvii. 7, xli. 17. 2. Often, the construction is changed, from the participial form to that of the finite verb ; the pronouns who, or v)hich, &c. (iiyN.) implied in the participle, must then be mentally supplied before the verb. E. g. the Part, and Per/, in Is. xiv. 17, icho made (Db) the earth a wilderness. and (who) destroyed (C^i^) the cities thereof; xliii. 7 ; Part, and Impf (Present), with or without ) before the second clause, e. g. Is. v. 8. iiai'ip;: iTiia:? iria n^aa r^'^n '''?"'a73 lin woe to those who connect house with house, and (who) join field to field ;. vs. 11, 23, xxxi. 1, 1 Sam. ii. 8, Prov. xix. 26; also with Vav consec, e. g. Gen. xxvii. 33. xa^l TiS nsn who hunted game and brought it ; xxxv. 3 ; Ps. xviii. 33. (Compare the strictly analogous change from the Infinitive-construction. § 132. Rem. 2.) §135. CONSTEUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. When participles are followed by the object of the action which they express, they are construed in two ways : 1) as ver- bal adjectives having the same regimen as the verbs to which they belong ; e. g. 1 Sam. xviii. 29, Tl'lTli? DI^K David's enemy (prop, one that hated David) ; 1 Kings ix. 23, 0^3 D'^'7"in they who rule over the people; Ez. ix. 2, D'^'IS TlJ^^b clothed ivith linen garments : 2) as noims followed by a genitive (§ 112, 2) ; e. g. Gen. xxii. 12, DTl'bii X'l'" one that fears (a fearer of) God; Ps. Ixxxiv. .5, ^n"!! 'iDTC'i they that dwell in (inmates of) thy house ; Ez. ix. 11, D'^'^SJl 12J^3b the one clothed with linen gar- * For the use of the article here before the predicate, see § 110, 3, Rem. f In Syriac, the Present and Imperfect are expressed, directly, by interficiens ego (comp. letter a), and interjiciens fui = interjicicbam. 16 242 PART III. SYNTAX. ments ; D^'l?^ '^??'^p those whose garments are rent, 2 Sam. xiii. 31 ; "jiy '^'^IC? he whose guilt is forgiven, Ps. xxii. 1. This latter construction with the genitive is properly confined to active verbs (§ 138). The participle of tiie verb Si3, to enter in, is also construed thus, as this verb is followed by the accusative (comp. ingredi portam); e. g. Gen. xxiii. 10, i?"«l3 "^NS those who enter in at the gate. But there are also examples of the participle followed by a genitive, in cases where the verb to which it belongs is construed only with a pre- position. E.g. I"''??', '^'3|^ those who rise 2ip against him, — against me, for 1''^?, "^^^ Di^;? Ps. xviii. 40. 49, Deut. xxxiii. 11 ; 25irs ""Sia they who turn away from transgression. Is. lix. 20. 2 The two constructions, explained in No. 1, are found also in connection with suffixes. The first is followed in '^Diflb he loho made -me, the second in lilpb my maker. §136. EXPEESSION OF THE OPTATIVE. We have already seen (§ 127, 3, h) that the Imperfect, espe- cially the cohortative form with the ending <1— , and with the particle 552, is employed to express the Optative. It remains to mention two other forms under w^iich it is expressed by periphra- sis, namely : 1. By questions -expressive of desire. E. g. 2 Sam. xv. 4, ^'Q "JSilJ '^?^TiJ'? loho ivill make me jtidge 1 i. e. woidd that I were made judge! Judg. ix. 29, ''^1'2 ""n Qyii'nx "{T^^ "''a would that this people were placed under my hand ! Ps. Iv. 7, Job xxix. 2. In the phrase "jri^ "')2 the proper force of the verb is often wholly lost, and nothing more is expressed than loould that ! {utinam !) God grant ! It is followed a) by an accusative, as Deut. xxviii. 67, 1127 '}ri'?"'^''3 would it loere evening ! prop, who loill give {will make it) eveni?ig ? b) by an Infinitive, as Ex. xvi. 3, 'iniTa ')ri"'"'''2 would, we had died ! c) by a finite verb (either with or without ^), Deut. v. 26, DHb HT Dinb n^HI ^T^'^-^'Q O that they had this heart ! Job xxiii. 3. 2. By the particles DSi si, O si ! ^b O si ! especially by the latter, Ps. cxxxix. 19. The particle is followed by the Impf Gen. xvii. 18, by the Part. Ps. Ixxxi. 14, seldom by the Imp Gen. xxiii. 13. When it is followed by the Perf. the desire expressed has reference to past time ; as Num. xx. 3, IS^'lJi 'i? would we had died ! § 13Y. PERSONS OF THE VERB. 243 §137. PERSONS OF THE VERB. 1. In the use of the persons of the verb there is sonietnnes a neglect of the distinctions of gender : especially are the mascu- line forms (as most readily occurring to the mind) employed with reference to objects which are feminine. E. g. DPl^l'!' Ez. xxiii. 49 ; Dln'iTlJy Ruth i. 8 ; ri'ipm thou (fem.) hast viade a league Is. Ivii. 8 ; comp. Cant. ii. 7. Compare the analogous use of the pronoun, § 121, Rem. 1. 2. The third person (most commonly its tnasc. form) is very often employed impersonally. E. g. '^n'^l and it liappeiied ; ib "^^l and ib "l2;;iT (lit. it loas strait to him) he urns in trouble ; ib DH and ib Dri^l he became war?n. It is also employed thus in the /em., e. g. 1 Sam. xxx. 6, Tl'lb isril and David was in trouble ; Ps. 1. 3, Jer. X. 7. The Arabic and ^thiopic commonly employ here the masc, and the Syriac the fem. form. 3. The indeterminate third person (Germ. nia7i, Fr. ou, Engl. thei/, one, or simply the passive voice) is expressed, a) by the 3d pers. singular, e. g. J?"!]? thei/ called Gen. xi. 9, xvi. 14, 1 Sam. xix. 22, xxiv. 11 ; b) by the 3d pers. plural, as Gen. xli. 14, ^n:£i"i^1 a?id they brought him in haste, for he was brought ; c) by the 2d person, e. g. Is. vii. 25, rTDTU i^inrrsb there shall no one go thither ; so in the common phrase ^^2. ^y or '^Xia tmtil one comes ; d) by the passive voice, as Gen. iv. 26, ^"^Ipb bn^n Ti< then they began to call upon .* Rem. 1. In the first case (letter a) the force of 11J"'S (impersonal, as we use one, men, Ihey) is implied. The full construction occurs in one instance, 1 Sam. ix. 9, \L'i5 prop, to give or grant one to do a thing. Gen. xx. 6, SSSb ?]'^rin3 Nb / have nol permitted thee to toitch. § 142. TWO VERBS TO EXPRESS ONE IDEA. 249 remarked, however, that in poetry the h is often omitted where it is used in prose, as iT^H to be willing, with h , Ex. x. 27, with the mere Inf. Job xxxix. 9 ; Is. xxx. 9, xlii. 21.* 3. It has, like the first, the form of the finite verb ; they are then construed — a) With '1 before the second verb, agreeing with the first in tense, gender, and number, both forming one idea, as in Nos. 1 and 2. [Comp. in Engl. '^ make haste and come dowiV^ = make haste to come down.] Judg. xix. 6, 'yh") n3"bsin he ^pleased now and tarry all night ; Jos. vii. 7. Gen. xxvi. 18, isn?!) ^^^^ and he returned (repeated) and dug, for he dug again ; xxxvii. 7, 2 Kings i. 11, 13 ; Gen. xxv. 1, he added and took a ivrje, for he again took a ivife. Esth. viii. 6, Ti'^iil'^'l ^3^i5 '^?7'''^ how should I he able and witness, for hoio should I he ahle to witness. Cant. ii. 3, Eccles. iv. 1, 7. The construction may also begin with the Impf. and be continued by the Perf. with ^ (according to § 126, 6) ; as in Esther (above quoted) ; Deut. :;jxxi. 12, that they may learn {Impf.) and fear {Perf), for to fear ; Hos. ii. 11, Dan. ix. 25 ; and vice versa, it may begin with the Perf and be continued in the Impf. with ^, as in Job xxiii. 3. b) Without 1 and (dovi^dsrcog), the second verb connecting more nearly with the preceding one, and the first (as in letter a) agreeing with it in tense. Deut. ii. 24, liJ'^ bnn begin, take pos- session, for begin to take ; Hos. i. 6, Dtini? Cl''pis isb / will not go on and pity, i. e. / will no longer pity ; 1 Sam. ii. 3, bx llS'iri ^la'^n multiply not and speak = speak not much ; Lam. iv. 14, ly^';' ^bpl"! iiba so that they could not touch ; Job xix. 3, Hos. V. 10. This construction is more poetical than the one under letter a. Comp. e. g. C]''Oin followed by "i in Gen. xxv. 1, xxxviii. 5; but Avithout it in Hos. i. 6, Is. lii. 1. — It occurs, however, in common prose, as in Josh. iii. 16, Neh. iii. 20, 1 Chron. xiii. 2, Jos. iii. 16, Deut. i. 5. c) Also d6vv8i:TCog, but with the second verb in the Imper- fect, as being more strictly dependent on the first, which we may express by the conjunction that. Job xxxii. 22, !n.3DN! ''py'1^ ikb I know not how to flatter (prop. I know not what to do, that 1 * So after words which include an analogous verbal-idea. E. g. X12b ')''S it is not permitted to enter in; t]"!? T^N (poet.) there is nothing to be compared to thee, Ps. xl. 6 ; TTliJ ready, prepared, commonly with b , without it in Job iii. 8. 250 PART III. SYNTAX. may flatter = I cannot flatter). 1 Sam. xx. 19, "inn nir^ffil and cause on the third day, (that) thou come down, for on the third day come down. Is. xlii. 21. In Arabic and Syriac this construction is very common ;* in Hebrew rare, but was necessary at least in those cases, where the second verb was to be distinguished from the first in person or number. Is. xlvii. 1, Ti^"^^1P'? "'BiDin xb thou shall not add (that) they shall call thee, for thou Shalt not continue to he called; Num. xxii. 6, ^S'a-ijxi 1■3-■'^^^ b?'!^ "'^IX perhaps I may be able, (that) we shall smite him, and I shall drive him out. All three constructions (letters a, b. c) and still another nearly like that under letter c, are found together in some verbs in the Syriac. He could go may be expressed by potuit et ivit (letter a), potvit ivit (.-etter 6), potuit et iret (not in Hebrew), f)o/m7 ?Ve/ (letter c). See Agrell. Suppl. Synt. Syr. p. 33. 4. It takes the form of tlie Participle ; Is. xxxiii. 1, Tj^'^nTO TlitJJt when thou shalt cease as a destroyer, i. e. to be a destroyer -=■ to destroy ;t 1 Sam. xvi. 16. In the same manner is construed also the verbal adjective, 1 Sam. iii.2. his eyes m'ns ^iinn began (to grow) dim. Of this construction is Gen. ix. 20. n^ixti d-'X nb btri and Noah began (to be) a husbandman. Rem. 1. In very many of the above examples the first verb only serves, in effect, to qualify in some manner the second, and hence we translate it by an adverb. Compare also Gen. xxxi. 27, n'inb nxanj nab wherefore hast thou secretly Jled ; xxxvii. 7, your sheaves stood around and bowed, for bowed around; 2 Kings ii. 10, bxdb n-^apn thou hast dealt hardly in asking, i. e. hast made a hard demand. The verb which qualifies the other may also occupy the second place, but never without special cause ; e. g. Is. liii. 11. 'S'si'C'] a^p \£>, volehat tolleret (Luke xviii. 13), he would lift tip, but oftener with the conjunction that, ]Z)J9 j-b. he would come. The Latin also may omit the conjunction in this case : Quid vis faciam ? Ter. Volo hoc oratori conlingat, Cic. Brut. 84. So in German, Ich ivolltc, es ware ; Ich dachte, es ginge, I toould it were, -iB bx n^n-nx 3\2J!i'='l and they brought Moses back to Pharaoh. Lev. xvi. 27, Jos. vii. 15, 1 K. ii. 21. b) It does not agree (as often happens) in gender and number with the noun, even when preceded by it (comp. § 147) ; for it is not, in the Hebrew conception, the subject of the passive verb, but is governed by it in the accusative as its object. Is. xxi. 2. "^h'^^t} H;y|5 x\^^'n visionem diram nunciarunt viihi (the noun in the accus.) ; Dan. ix. 24, septua- ginta septimanas destinarunt (TiP-HJ?) ; 1 K- ii- 21. Is. xiv. 3. Gen. xxxv. 26, Hos. x. 6.* 2. The efficient cause, after a passive verb, most frequently takes b, and is therefore in the dative (as in Greek); as •J^'13 bi^b blessed of God (rw Oicp)^ Gen. xiv. 19, Prov. xiv. 20. More rare, but entirely certain, is the same use of "I'Q (prop, out from, by which origin, source, in general, is often denoted) ; Ps. xxxvii. 23, Gen. ix. 11, Job xxiv. 1, xxviii. 4 ; "^DSTS a parte. Gen. vi. 13 ; 3 hy. Num. xxxvi. 2, Is. xiv. 17 ; and sometimes of the accusal. instrum,enti (comp. § 138, 1, Rem. 3) without a preposition, Is. Comp. Olshausen, Emeudationea zum A. T., S. 24, 25. 252 PART III. SYNTAX. i. 20, ^bssn nnn hy the sword shall ye he devoured^ comp. Pa xvii. 13. Rem. Many neuter verbs are sometimes used as Passives, in conse- quence of a peculiar application of their original meaning. E. g. in;;! to go rfoion,— spoken of a forest, to he felled; r\h'S for to he brought up, to be laid upon (the altar) Lev. ii. 12, to he entered (in an account) 1 Chron. xxvii. 24 ; XS'; Lo be brought out of Deut. xiv. 22. CHAPTER IV. CONNECTION OF THE SUBJECT WITH THE PKEDICATE. § 144. MAiTNER OF EXPRESSING THE COPULA. The union of the substantive or pronoiui, which forms the subject of the sentence, with another substantive or adjective as its predicate, is most commonly expressed by simply writing them together without any copula, 1 Kings xviii. 21, nirT^ D''n"bs:ri Jehovah (is) the true God ; Gen. ii. 4, nilbin n^N this (is) the history ; ii. 12, nil: Xinn f-jxn nriT the gold of that land (is) good ; Is. xxxi. 2, DDH i?^n 03 he too (is) wise. — The fre- quent use, in this connection, of a pronoun of the third person referring to the predicate, for marking more distinctly its union with the subject, has already been noticed, j 121, 2. More seldom the copula is expressed by the substantive-verb rr^n. Gen. i. 2, and the earth was (nn'j'n) luaste and empty ; iii. 1, the serpent loas (n^n) cunning ; ver. 20. Also by 1X5'^ and ']''i!5 (which include the idea of the substantive-verb) when the subject is the pronoun and the predicate is a participle (see § 134, 2, a). On the gender and number of the copula see § 147. Rem. Instead of the adjective the Hebrew often employs the abstract substantive as a predicate (§ 106, 1, Rem. 2) ; especially when there is no adjective of the signification required (§ 106, 1), e. g. y? Iinliip his walls (are) roood = of wood, wooden. The sense is here the same, as if the substantive, which stands as subject of the sentence, were repeated in the conslr. state before the predicate (ys nit^p T'tiinip) This full construction occurs Job vi. 12, "^nb tJ'ijnx ri3 DX is my strength the strength of stones! Similar examples are: Cant. i. 15, Dilii T^'^3''? thy § 145. PARTS OF SPEECH IN A SENTEKCE. 253 eyes (are) fZores'-eyes ; Ps. xlv. 7, BTl'^J* 'l^P^ '% throne (is) a throne o/" G'orf = a divine throne ;* second member (with the full construction) ?]n!lDb73 •^'yii niijia t:3tt3 d righteous sceptre is the sceptre of thy dominion. This occurs, especially, with 3 of comparison ; as Ps. xviii. 34, nib^JXS "^bsn my feet after the manner of hinds = lii^e feet of hinds ; Is. Ixiii. 2, ^"'7.22 riSS '!T;)'i3 thy garments (are) like the garments of one who treads the \oine-press ; xxix. 4 ; Jer. 1. 9, "i2J3 1'^^n his arrows like the arrows of a mighty man. § 145. AERANGEMENT OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN A SENTENCE; CASE ABSOLUTE. 1. The most natural order of words, in the simple sentence in calm discourse, is this : subject, copula, predicate ; or, when the predicate consists of the verb with its object, subject, verb, object. Adverbial qualifications (of time, place, for example) may stand either before or after the verb ; a negative always immediately before it.f But the Hebrew can, at pleasure, render either of these mem- bers prominent, by giving it the first place in the sentence ; e. g. a) The verb : Prov. xxviii. 1, there flee, token there is no pur- suer, the wicked. Gen. xlii. 30. This is its common position, when there is implied in it an indeterminate subject (the im- personal construction, § 137, 3), as Gen., i. 14, riilS^'Q "^T}'} let there be lights, D'^l^Sj! TVlV they howl (to wit) the jackals, Is. xiii. 22 (comp. il vient des hommes) ; and also wherever the sentence or clause is connected with a preceding one by 1 (of course where the Imjif. cons, is employed), "ITiJi? or ""S ; as Gen. iii. 1, all beasts ""^ nicy "niJX which Jehovah had made ; ii. 5, "^^ "I'^'^'^ri ^^ ^^for Jehovah had not caused it to rain. b) The adjective : this, when it is the predicate, is commonly placed first as the most important member of the sentence. Jer. X. 6, ^lailJ bin^l nriS bins great art thou, and great is thy name. c) The object of the verb : the verb then immediately follows, as Prov. xiii. 5, lying tvords hates the righteous man ; [Judges * Philology requires, ho-wever, no other than the simple and natural construc- tion, " Thy throne, O God !"— Tr. \ Rarely is the object interposed between the negative and the verb (Job xxii. 7, xxxiv. 23, Eccles. x. 10), or the subject (2 Kings v. 26), or an adverbial qualifi- cation (Ps. vi. 2). 254 PART III. SYNTAX. V. 25, nilna Dbn b^t^ W^IZ ivater he asked ; milk she gave.^ Very rare is the arrangement in 2 Kings v. 13, some great thing had the pi'ophet commanded thee. Ex. xviii. 23. d) The adverbial qualification, which is then immediately fol- lowed by the verb. Gen. i. 1 ; Jos. x. 12, ^jtiT\^_ ^5"!? TS ; Judg. V. 22. Another arrangement, viz. subject, object, verb, which is common in Arameean (Dan. ii. 6, 7. 8, 10), is seldom fcund in Hebrew, and only in poetry. Ps. vi. 10, ni?'^ "^ri^En ^)^') \ xi. 5; Is. xiii. 18; xlix. 6. See Gesenius, Comm. zu Jes. xHi. 24. 2. But the greatest prominence is given to any substantive in the sentence (whether it 'is the genitive, or accusative of the object, or employed by way of limitation, or qualification of any kind) by permitting it to stand, absolutely, at the beginning of the sentence, and then representing it, in its proper place, by a pronoun ; (compare c^est moi, qii'on a accuse.) E. g. the geni- tive, Ps. xviii. 31, i31'l Di'an b^n God — perfect is his way, for the loay of God is perfect ; xi. 4, civ. 17 ; the accusative, Ps. Ixxiv. 17, winter and summer — thou hast made them, for thou hast made ivinter ajid smnmer ; Gen. xlvii. 21, "I'^^JJn Ql^nTiS ink the people — he transferred them ; xxi. 13. comp. Jer. vi. 19.* The suffix may also be omitted, Ps. ix. 7, and the connection indicated by '1 (as sign of the apodosis). Ps. xviii. 41 (comp. 2 Sam. xxii. 41). Job xxxvi. 26, n;>n ^\ ™ IBD^, sc. QHb the number of his years — there is no searching (to them) ; iv. 6, xxiii. 12, XXV. 5, Gen. iii. 5, 1 Sam. xxv. 27, 2 Sam. xv. 34. The participle, when placed thus at the beginning of the sentence, resembles the Latin ablative absolute. Prov. xxiii. 24, n^bil can l^i"' he who begets a wise son (i. e. xchen one begets, &c.) then he may rejoice, 1 Sam. ii. 13, "jn'sn "i?3 N^!! naT nat ;ai5<-b3 ^chen any one brought an offering, then came thepriesOs servant ; ix. 11, Gen. iv. 15. § 146. RELATION OF THE SUBJECT AND PPvEDIOATE IN RESPECT TO GENDER AND NUMBER. The predicate (verb, adjective, substantive with copula) con- forms, regularly, to the subject in gender and number. From this rule, common to all languages, there are many deviations, * Such an absolute case may also be introduced by Ip [in respect to), e. g. Gea xvii. 20, Ps. xvi. 3, Is. xxxii, 1. § 146. RELATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 255 partly occasioned by regard to the sense rather than the gramma- tical form of words {constructio ad sensum), partly by the position of the predicate before the other members of the sentence. In respect to the first cause, we remark : — 1. Collective nouns, e. g. Qy, "^13 jjeoplc, Ti'^a family, and nouns used as such, as it'^^ men (see § 108, 1), are usually con- strued {ad scnsiim) with the plural. Judg. ix. 55. ~i:^S. ^S'l*'^ bsn'Tl?;! and the men of Israel saio ; xv. 10. 1 Kings xx. 20, D"1X ^Dp^T ; Prov. xi. 26. So when the collecvive is itself /ew. but represents individuals which are of the Ttiasc. gender ; e. g. 2 Sam. XV. 23, D^D13 V")«0"^l (^e ichole land (i. e. its inhabit- ants) wept ;* 1 Kings x. 24, Gen. xlviii. 6, 1 Sam. ii. 33, xvii. 46 ; and vice versa, Job i. 14, riiTZJ"in T'T\ 1]p3n the cattle (kine) were ploughing. For examples of the predicate with the sin- gular form in such cases, see Gen. xxxv. 11, Is. ii. 4 (comp. Mic. iv. 3). Often the construction begins with the singular (especially when the verb is placed first, § 147, a), and then, when the col- lective is introduced, proceeds with the plural. Ex. xxxiii. 4, ■^.baNniiT . . . D:?n yatJ^l a7id the people heard . . . and mour?ied ; i. 20.' 2. On the other hand, plural nouns with a singular signifi- cation (§ 108, 2) are construed with the singular, especially the so-called pluralis e.vcellentics. Gen. i. 1, 3.t Ex. xxi. 29, T^^^S r\'QV his oivner shall be put to death. So feminine forms with a masculine signification are construed with the masculine ; Eccles. xii. 9, CDH r!5rip n^n the preacher was wise. 3. Plurals which designate beasts or things (but not persons), whether they are masculine or feminine, prefer the construction with the feminine singular + (comp. the feminine form with the * Sallust. Jngurth. 14, jiars in crucein acti, pars bestiis objecti. •j- C^n'^S is construed Avith the plur. only here and there in the older biblical books, and in certain forms of expression which perhaps had their origin in poly- theism. Gen. XX. 13, xxxv. '7, Ex. xxii. 8, Ps. Iviii. 12. The later writers studiously avoid this construction as polytheistic; comp. Ex. xxxii. 4, 8, with Neh. ix. 18; 2 Sam. yii. 23, with 1 Chron. xvii. 21. See the lexicon. J Perfectly analogous is the Gi'eek construction tw tiqo^uth ^uiiet, where the Attics admit the plural only when persons are designated : ju urdQunodu I'lu^ov. In Arabic, such a plural is called pluralis inhumanus (i. e. not used of men) and is construed chiefly with the feminine singular, like all its so-called pluralia fracta (collective forms). 256 P^^T ni. SYNTAX. collective signification in § 107, 3, d). Joel i. 20, ^'^^^ hi'ona ^"i"^?^ the beasts of the field pine for . Job xiv. j9, s|bT2?ri }l"in"'2p its floods wash axoay. Jer. xlix. 24, nr\Trii|! D''!?^)! pains have seized upon her. Ps. xxxvii. 31, Job xii. 7. The same principle applies to pronouns in connection with their antece- dents ; Job xxxix. 15, Is. xxxv. 7, 2 Kings iii. 3. 4. Moreover, those plurals also which designate persons are construed with the singular, when, instead of the whole sum of individuals spoken of, the attention is directed to each one of them (comp. Isb for omnes and omnis). Num. xxiv. 9, ^''D'lS'a "111X ^"^"it^fi^l 'FJ11D loho bless thee, let him be blessed ; who cnrse thee, let him be cursed. Gen. xxvii. 29, Ex. xxxi. 14. Prov. iii. 18, "TSiiia tn'^D'ain happy (is every one of) those who retain her ; xxvii. 16, n'Ti"'jB:i; nilBi ; xxviii. 1. 5. Dual substantives have their predicates in the plural, as verbs, adjectives, and pronouns have no dual form (§ 88, 1). Gen. xxix. 17, riis'l nsjb liiyi and Hie eyes of Leah were weak ; Ps. xviii. 28, Is. xxx. 20, 2 Sam. xxiv. 3. 1 Sam. i. 13, ni5?2 \l''f?siri her lips moved ; 2 Chron. vii. 15, nil^J? ^STXI ninns r^T)"} ^3iy ; vi. 40 ; Micah vii. 10, npx'ir^ "^S'^y tny eyes shall see. Jer. xiv. 7, Is. i. 16, Job X. 8, xx. 10, xxvii. 4, Ps. xxxviii. 11. Seldom is the rule in No. 3 of this section extended also to the dual ; e. g. Mic. iv. 11. §147. SUBJECT AND PEEDIOATE IN RESPECT TO GENDER AND NUM- BER (Continued). A frequent cause of deviation from the general rule, is the position of the predicate at the beginning of the sentence. The subject, to which it would regularly conform, not being yet ex- pressed, it often takes its simplest and readiest form, viz. the masculine singular, even when the subject, which comes after, \s feminine or plural. The predicate in this case is not subject to inflection. E. g. a) The verb : Is. xlvii. 11, nyn 1\iyS X3 there comes upon thee evil ; Mic. ii. 6, ini'sbs yo'] sib reproaches shall not depart. Ps. Ivii. 2, Deut. xxxii. 35 ; Esther ix. 23, D-'^^n;'?! bap) and the Jews adopted : 2 Kings iii. 26, rranbiGn pTn ha7-d was the battle ; 1 Sam. xxv. 27. Often, the verb may here be regard- § 14Y. RELATIOIS' OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 257 ed as impersonal, as in il vient des homines, il a paru deux volumes (§145, 1, a). More seldom before the plur. fern,, we find (at least) the masc. plwYil ; Judg^. xxi. 21, ^S2;;;~DS n'b">T^ in*:3 ivhc7i the daughters of Shiloh come forth. b) The adjective : Ps. cxix. 137, T'^?^''? "l^?^ righteous are thy judgments ; ver. 155, WW^ . . . pin"! /a?* aivai/ (is) salvation. (The German also neglects, in this case, the inflection of the adjective : gerecht {sind) deine Gerichte.) c) The participle as substantive : Gen. xlvii. 3, ^''l^? l&^Sr nyh shepherds (are) thy servants. Also d) The copula belonging to the predicate-substantive, when it precedes the subject.* Is. xviii. 5, H^p '^'^XT] ^'03 ^p3 the hlossoin becomes a ripening grape ; Gen. xxvii, 39, xxxi. 8 If the construction is continued after the introduction of the subject, the verb must conform to it in its gender and number. Ez. xiv. 1, \D^b ^'21t>^ D^CDij: ^bx ^^'2.'^^ ; Gen. i. 14, Num. ix. 6. Rem. 1. In general, the language is sometimes sparing in tlie use especially of the feminine forms (corap. § 112, 1, Rem. 2), and, when a feminine substantive has more than one predicate, contents itself witli giving to the nearest one the appropriate feminine form. This is well illustrated by the following examples : Is. xxxiii. 9, "p'lX ■^^t'^l!* ^35* the land mournelh and languisheth ; xiv. 9, 0*^X3"! ?I^ ^l^is .... njSn rnn^ bx'r Sheol beneath is moved . ... it stirrelh zip the shades to (meet) thee. Examples of the masc. form in remote predicates, Gen. xxxii. 9, xlix. 15. Lev. ii. 1, V. 1, xx. 6 ; in such as stand in dependent sentences. Job vi. 10, Vbrj'^ ikb (n^x) "^"^na ; xx. 26 ; after "isi, vi. 20. On the same principle pronouns, which refer to plural nouns, take the form of the singular when they stand remote from their antecedents. Job xxxviii. 32 ; Deut. xxi. 10. 2. The cases where the predicate follows the subject without con- forming to it in gender and number, are mostly those in which a passive verb must be conceived as impersonal, and as construed with the accu- sative (§ 143, 1. Rem.) or where the predicate is a participle used as a substantive ; e. g. Gen. iv. 7, j'?"! nsan ntisb at the door (is) si7i, a lurker (as it were, a lurking lion). — Eccles. ii. 7, "^h n^^ri n';i2~''3a vernce mihi sunt (where ''h n^n is to be understood as I have). Gen. xv. 17, n^ii Jiabs;; aiid darkness, there became (with a special emphasis on the noun, — the verb standing impersonally). * Independently of this arrangement, the pronoun KW, representing the copu la, is retained between the jo^wr. and the /cm. unchanged. Josh. xiii. 14, "^"^ ''VBii inPHi a^il . . . the offerings of Jehovah . . . that is his inheritance. Comp. Jer, x. 3. 17 258 PART m. SYNTAX. §148. CONSTEUOTION OF THE COMPOUND SUBJECT. 1. When the subject is composed of a nominative and geni- tive, the verb sometimes conforms in gender and number to the genitive instead of the governing noun, viz. when the word in the genitive expresses the principal idea. E. g. Job xxxii. 7, Srasn IS^i'l''^ D'^STC I'l the multitude of years (i. e. many years) should teacli luisdom ; Gen. iv. 10 ; 2 Sam. x. 9, ''32 T^bs S^J^^n ntinbisn the front of the battle was against him. Is. vi. 4, Job xxix. 10, xxxviii. 21. With the substantive hb the whole, and the numerals, this construc- tion is almost universal ; e. g. Gen. v. 5, CiN '^'3';'"b3 ^T!*! and all the days of Adam were — ; Ex. xv. 20, Gen. viii. 10. 2. When several subjects are connected by the conjunction and^ their common predicate usually takes the plural form, espe- cially when it follows them ; Gen. viii. 22, . . . dHt 1p1 I'^Spl :?nT ^nsip^ seed-ti?ne and harvest, and cold and heat . . . shall not cease ; if the subjects are of different gender, it takes the masc. form ; Gen. xviii. 11, CSpT 'rniO'} DH'iaS Abraham and Sarah (were) old. Deut. xxviii. 32, 1 K. iii. 17. When it precedes, it often conforms in gender and number to the first (as being the nearest) subject. Gen. vii. 7, TSII nb Xin^T there loent in Noah and his sons ; Ex. xv. 1 ; Num. xii. 1, ]i"ini<1 D^'i'a "i^'lPI there spake Miriam and Aaron : Gen. xxxiii. 7, xliv. 14. More rare is the singular form, after more than one subject ; Prov. xxvii. 9, ab"n^tD';i fr^tsp.l '\Q^ ointment and perfiime rejoice the heart (where the masc. also is preferred). If the construction is con- tinued, it is always under the plural form ; e. g. Gen. xxi. 32, xxiv. 61, xxxi. 14, xxxiii. 7. CHAPTER Y. USE OF THE PARTICLES. § 149. Up the particles, as connected with the system of forms and inflections (§§ 99-105), we have already treated in their relation to the other parts of speech. We are now to consider the signi- §160. THE ADVERBS. 259 fication and use of these words, which are so necessary to the exact perception of the sense, and hold so important a place in the philosophical treatment of the language. We shall present. in a general view, their most important peculiarities, leaving the more complete representation, as well as the necessary proofs, to the lexicon. §150. OF THE ADVERBS. The most important adverbs, classed according to their signi- fication, are : — 1. Adverbs q/';j/ace ; U^ there ; .IS, TTS. trr and Hta, hie, here, Q'bn and njti hither, the latter also here (from the Chald. 'jfi this), nxbn thither, farther on (prop, to a distance), hence «^3ni ?]53^ {from thee hither) on this side of thee, and "^ij^vj)! ^5?^ {from thee farther on) beyond thee, 1 Sam. xx. 21, 22, 37, Is. xviii. 2 ; bs, more commonly b?52a above, nliPia below, ii^y^ upwards, tils'O downwards, yw outside, ysin^Q on the outside, ni3?a and fT3''?Q within, oip. , Cilsa before, on the east, "linx be- hind, niS'ihx backwards, 123 over against, "pa^ to the right, V^a^^a on the right, tfiiz on the west (prop, on the side towards the sea), i"'3D and -"'aS'3 around, n^'^aaip upright. To many of these adverbs "'O is prefixed, or the accusative ending H— appended, indicating respectively the relationsyro?/i and toxoards. E. g. n;a thei^e, Diaa ^Ae;ice, n:ao thither ; yw outside, nsw outwards. There are several which occur only with rt— appended, as fiti^, nxbri. But these additions, however, express also the relation of rest in a place, as ii^B sometimes there (not merely thither), T^'3*'? on the right (not yro??t iAe right). The rt— is in both cases ihe accusative ending (§ 90, 2), and "(o properly denotes hanging off from an object, and hence being upon the side of it, like a dextra et sinistra, a latere, a tergo, and in French dessous, cZessus, (/edans, f/ehors.* 2. Adverbs of time: these are in part the same with those which have been mentioned as adverbs of place, and which, by an easy transi- tion, are made to express relations of time ; as Dili then, like ixu ; nis now ; n5ii"']''i< Joseph was not in the pit ; Num. xiv. 42, iiin"; "px n33lp3 Jehovah is not among you. The same formulas are expressed positively with IJJ" and negatively with 'J'^N as Gen. xxxi. 29, i"!^ bxb-ia"; it is in my poxcer (in the power of my hand) ; Neh. v. 5, IS'i'; bxb ^ix it is not in our power. It follows, moreover, a) that the personal pro- nouns, when they are the subject of the sentence, are appended to *px as suffixes ; as "'?3''i< I am not, I was not, I shall not be, ^SDiX, dJ'^X, &c. /5) When the predicate is a verb, it almost universally takes the form of a participle, the verb to be being implied in T^X ; Ex. v. 16, "itlS )'^i< "(an stravf is not given ; ver. 10, "jna ''33"'i< / will not give ; viii. 17, Deut. i. 32. Y) As ^^ signifies being, existence, so V!!? expresses the opposite, viz. not being, non-existence ; ^ti}^^_ he was not {no longer) existing = was no more, Gen. v. 24. From T^X is abbreviated the privative syllable ''N, employed in a few compounds as a prefix, as in Job xxii. 30. "^pj""^*? not guiltless. lu ^thiopic it is the most common form of negation, and is there prefixed .also to verbs. On the origin of the interrogative "^S from yiti, see § 153, 1. •^ribab (prop, constr. state with the ending i— , § 90, 3, a, from nba want, non-existence, stem-word S^ba) is most frequently employed before the Injin. when it is to be expressed negatively with a preposition ; as bbii), T^3 betioeen, 132? o?i the other side of beyond. |i3) Of motion. '|T0 from, bx and h to, toioards, ^'S_ unto, — and also (from the former class) 3 to {usque ad), b? iipon, towards. b) Very many of the above-mentioned prepositions express also relations of time, as 3 i7i, within, ']'0, bx, IS, &c. c) Of those which denote other relations we may mention, 3 as (113. "^23 according to), dS> together with. with. ^\^f , "^"l^bs besides, if}b3 without, besides, 'j?'^, )^_'oh on account of 3:i^ (prop, as a reivard) for, because. 2. The composition of these particles exhibits a great degree of dexterity, and accuracy of discrimination, in expressing those relations which are denoted by prepositions. Thus those of mo- tion are set before others denoting rest, so as to express not only a cliange of relation, but also the local one which was existing previously to the change, or which follows as the result of it ; (comp. in Fr. cle chez, cVmqjres.)* E. g. a) With '\i2 : irii?'52 aioay from behind, "{""S^ out from between, ^Ti2 away from upon or above, D5''53, nx'a de chez quelqu'un, nnriTp aivay from under. b) With bx (more seldom) : "i-ini? b&« in behind or after ; b ^Mni without, i. e. on the outside of, b Y'^T\12 bs forth without, Num. V. 3. Adverbs, moreover, which are compounded of prepositions, take after them b (more seldom 'I'O), and thus again become pre- positions. E. g. ^TCi (adv.) above, b bTQ (prep.) above, over, nrfriia (adv.) beloiv, b nnn'a (prep.) below, under, b f'^ITQ (prep.) without, isb (adv.) separately, aside, ]'52 lib (prep.) aside from, besides. * When the Hebrew says, he took the offering n3t5ail bsa from upon the altar [away from the top of the altar), he presents the idea fully; while it is but haK expressed iu the Fr. il prend le chapeau s^ir la table, the Germ, cr nimrnt den Hut vom Tische weg, and the Eng. he takes his hat from the tabic ; the Fr. omitting one relation, the Germ, and Eng. another. § 154. THE PREPOSITIONS. 267 This accessory preposition may also precede the adverbial form ; e. g. T3^a= 1^ lib besides, ''l?^?^ without^ Syr. ^ r^^ '■>* "^ore rarely it is wholly Avanting, as rinti^ for h nnpi^, Job xxvi. 5. 3. We will now present a few prepositions, — such as occur most frequently and have the greatest variety of meaning, — with their principal significations, in order to explain their construc- tion with verbs (§ 140), and the most important idioms connected with them. _ a) 2, which has the greatest number and variety of significations, denotes, 1) prop, rest in a place (fV), hence in with reference to time, and to state or condition, as V"'^3) ni2;si"i3. niblTJa. — with reference to a company, or number of individuals, among, e. g. D'^'i^? ? — with reference to bounds or limits, within, as Q'''iS^3 xcithin the gates, — of high objects, upon, as D'^p'iSa upon horses. Is. Ixvi. 20 ; rarely, it has these significa- tions after verbs of motion = tig (like ponere in loco). The Hebrew says «) to drink in a cup (for. to drink Avhat is in it). Gen. xliv. 5 (so in Arabic and Chald., Dan. v. 2, iv noTrj^ioj, iv j^^fffw nlvtiv Xen. Anab. vi. 1, 4, 3, Ezra iii. 6, in ossibus bibere in Florus, French boij-e dans une tasse); /5) in the manner, in the model or rule, for after the manner or model (comp. iv rw vofxo), hunc in modum), as 's "i^TS according to the command, 'a nsSJa according to the counsel of any one, iiJn^i^'iS ^iJiabsa in {after) our image, after our likeness Gen. i. 26 ; ver. 27 and v. 1, 3, Adam begat a son i^bss in^ijjna ; somewhat differently, Gen. xxi. 12, in Isaac (pns';'3) = after Isaac shall thy seed call themselves. Deserving of special notice are the passages, where ;') the grammarians assume a so-called 2 essential, to be translated by as, tanqiiam (Fr. e»). Ex. vi. 3, I appeared to Abraham, &c. "^^liJ isxa as the mighty God. Is. xl. 10, the Lord will come Pjns as a strong one. The most striking use of it is before the predicate-adjective after the verb to be {= conduct ov behave as), Eccles. vii. 14, in the day of joy 211:3 n;]ii be thou joyfid ; Ex. xxxii. 22, thou knowest the people XmH S"ia "^S that they are evil; Job xxiii. 13, 117x2 xsin he is one alone. (In Arabic this idiom is fre- quent ; see Thes. Ling. Heb. p. 174.) 2. Nearness, vicinity (Lat. ad, apud), at, by, on ; nnsa = ev noxaftM, by the river, Ezek. x. 15; '^S'^sa in the eyes of= before the eyes of one (iV ocp&alfiolg, II. 1, 587). In this sense it frequently indicates motion (Lat. ad), to, unto; differing, however, both from bx to, towards (where the object is not necessarily reached), and from 1? unto, usque ad (with the attainment of the object), namely where the act of touching tipon, striking against, reaching unto and the like, is meant. Gen. xi. 4, a * In the Syr. —ie '^.S^^, is a preposition, over, \^:^ — iiO an adv., above; (see Hoffmann, Gram. Syr. p. 280 ima). The Hebrew iu like manner says "jab from (a starting-point) onward, precisely the Lat. usque a, usque ex, comp. also i7ide. 268 PART III. SYNTAX. tower D7'3\B2 1l23x"i whose top may reach to heaven. Hence it expresses the relation of verbs of motion (and others analogous to them) to their objects, where in Lat. and Germ, verbs compounded with ad, in and an are used. E. g. 3 tns to lay hold on, 3 553 to touch, 3 bsia to ask at, to consult^ 3 N"!!? to call tipon, 3 nx'n to look upon, 3 S^iij to hearken to. Verbs having the signification of the last two, often include the idea of the pleasure or pain with which one sees or hears any thing. Gen. xxi. 16, I coidd not look upon the death of the child! Hence, in a tropical sense, in respect to, on account of, our over, as 3 n?aia to rejoice over, i. e. to have joy in a thing. With the idea of vicinity, nearness, that of accompaniment, and of help, instrumentality {with), readily connects itself Gen. xxxii. 11, loith my staff {'^h'p'Oi^) I passed over this Jordan. Ps. xviii. 30. icith thee (~i3) have I rushed upon troops. Verbs oC coming and going; with 3 (to come, or go, with) express the idea of bringing ; e. g. Judg. xv. 1, Samson visited his wife with a kid, brought her a kid. Deut. xxiii. 5. — b) bs , signifies upon (ejil) and over (iinig) ; very frequently of mo- tion (down, up) upon or over a thing. In the sense of (resting) upo7i, (coming) itpon, it is used after verbs signifying to be heavy, i. e. burden- some, afflictive (prop, to lie 'i1 — 3; according to, after, from the idea of conformity to a model or rule ; as a designation of time, about (circa). Of the pleonastic 3, or Kaph veritaiis as the grammarians called it, there is no certain example; it has, every where, the sense of comparison. It is true, indeed, that :22J'23 is = 1:5x5 little, but it is prop, as a scrap; Neh. vii. 2. for he was trax 'U'^J^S as a faithful man must be. 4. A preposition (like the negatives, § 152, 3) may be omitted when the relation which it expresses is repeated, as e. g. in the second member of the poetic parallelism. E. g. 3, is. xlviii. 14, he ivill execute his will on Babylon (^5?^), and his power on the Chaldeans (O^^iU? for 0^^1233). Hab. iii. 15, Job xii. 12. So also ^, Job xxxiv. 10, Is. xxviii. 6 ; "jTa, Gen. xlix. 25, Is. xxx. ^ : nnn, ixi. 7. §155. OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 1. The Hebrew language, considered with reference to the number of its conjunctions, frequently consisting of several words combined, and its ability to form still others from most of the prepositions by the addition of 11^5? and ""S (§ 104, 1, c), exhibits no small degree of cultivation and copiousness compared with its usual simplicity. But writers often neglect these means for accu- rately expressing the relations of sentences and members of a sentence, contenting themselves with less perfect modes of con- nection ;* and hence the numerous significations which certain favorite conjunctions have in the Hebrew (particularly 1, ""S, "112351!), or at least by which they must be translated in our west- ern languages, wliere we are not permitted (see No. 3) to retain the loose and indefinite connections sometimes made by these particles. Of the most extensive application is 1, 1 (§ 104, 2):t a) Properly and usually copulative (and), connecting single words as well as whole sentences. When three or more words stand in con- nection, it is used either before every one after the first (2 Kings xxiii. 5) or before the last only (Gen. xiii. 2) ; rarely after the first only (Ps. * Comp. § lOT, 1, Rem. § 147, Rem. 1. f See Gesenius, Tlies. I. p. 393 seqq. for a more complete view of the use ol Vav copulative. §155. THE CONJUNCTIONS. 271 xlv. 9). In certain phrases it is commonly omitted, as yesterday (and) the day before = heretofore, Ex. v. 8. The tone of animated description or narration may also occasion the omission of it {conslriictio asyndeta) ; as Judg. V. 27, at her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay. Job xx. 19, Cant. ii. 11, V. 6, Is. xxvi. 17. As a connective oC words it is often explicative (like isque, et quideni). 1 Sam. xxviii. 3, i~i''3?'2l tra-ia in Ramah and (= namely) in his own city, 2 Sara. xiii. 20, Amos iii. 11, iv. 10; even when the second idea is subordinate to the first, and would properly be expressed as the genitive after it (the "ev 8ta dvoTf of the grammarians); as Gen. iii. 16, / will vudtiply '^pn'i 'r]3ha:y thy pain and thy conception, i. e. the pains of thy pregnancy, — the pains connected with thy pregnancy. When it connects sentences or parts of a sentence, it is either conlinu- ative (so, then), hence placed before the apodosis, and after absolute desig- nations of time (Gen. iii. 5, Ex. xvi. 6, Prov. xxiv. 27} ~n"'3 ^^^"^^ "^T^^ afterward, then build thy house ; or it expresses heightening, enhancement, as Job V. 19 in si.v troubles he ivill deliver thee, yea in seven there shall no evil befall thee; or even comparison (and so), Job v. 7 inan is born to trouble, and so the sons of lightning soar on high, for, — just as these ( = birds of prey) fly up; xii. 11, xxxiv. 3, Prov. xi. 16, xvii. 3, xxv. 3, 25. b) Adversative {and yet, ivhen yet) ; Judg. xvi. 15, how canst thou say I love thee ""FIX 'pN J^abl and (yet) thy heart is not with me (i. e. when yel), Gen. xv. 2, xviii. 13, Ps. xxviii. 3. c) Causal {for, because) ; Ps. v. 12, let them ever shout for joy, because {when, since) thou dost defend them. Is. xliii. 12, ye are my witnesses Sx-i35<1 a7id /(am) God, that I am God. Gen. xx. 3. d) Inferential {then, so then, therefore) ; Ez. xviii. 32, I delight not in the death of him that dieth — ^^''llJrtT therefore turn ye. In this sense it may stand even at the beginning of a sentence, when it implies an infer- ence of some kind from circumstances already mentioned ; 2 Kings iv. 41, and he said n'Op-mp^ then take meal; Ps. iv. 4, ^V^^ hnow then; ii. 6, 10, 2 Sam. xxiv. 3. e) Final {in order that, that) ; in this sense chiefly with the cohorta- tive or jussive (§ 127). Of scarcely less extensive application are the two relative conjunc- tions "iU3n and ''S = on, quod, quum, that, because, — running almost parallel with each other in their significations, except that "I'iJX is at the same time and radically a relative pronoun and takes prefixes, while ''S occurs as a conjunction far more frequently, and in a greater variety of senses. Both are prefixed, like quod, to a whole clause, standing in place of an accusative, and governed by the preceding active verb as its object. Before i^JN, indeed, is j)laced the accusative particle r.X ; Josh. ii. 10, nin-i u:iSin~i;rN nx ^is:?^?^ we have heard it, that Jehovah hath dried up, — more commonly ili3x ''SS^^, and still oftener "^s siSi'^ad. Hence the following uses of "'S ; a) it is employed before words directly quoted, like the Gr. on (very seldom IIJJX, 1 Sam. xv. 20) ; 6) it is iemporal = oTf, prop, (at the time) that, (at the time) when, hence as, when, some- 272 PART III. SYNTAX. times strongly distinguished from the conditional DX if (see, on this point, the very instructive chap. Ex. xxi.). sometimes nearly approach- ing to it, as in Job xxxviii. 5. comp. vs. 4 and 18 (^i^K here also seldom. Lev. iv. 22, Deut. xi. 6) ; c) causal, eo quod, because, fully "^S "J?^ , n^ix ')?r ; pivpterea quod, also /or = yuQ ; repeated ("'3 — "^s, Is. i. 29,30, "^Sl — "'3 because — and because, Job xxxviii. 20), Avhen more than one cause for the same thing is assigned. Only "^3 is used, d) adversatively after a negation, 6m/ (on the contrary), — prop, but it is because ; e. g. thou shalt not take a wife for my son from the daughters of the Canaanites — but thou shalt go to my native land, =^for thou shalt go ; and also where negation is only implied, e. g. after a question which involves denial (§ 153, 1, 2), when it may be rendered nay but,— for surely («AAa yuQ), Mic. vi. 3, what (injury) have 1 done to thee ? . . . .for surely I brought thee up, dec. Job xxxi. 18. See on DX i3 below in No. 2. i. 2. We will now arrange the remaining conjunctions in the order of their significations ; but, as many of them have several meanings, the different uses of each will be given in connection with it, where it is first mentioned. We must here confine our- selves to a brief general notice, leaving the more complete view, with the references and proofs, to the lexicon.* a) Copulative : besides '] , 1 , the properly adverbial forms ca also, and v|X, denoting accession, yea more, also, even, once combined DSTiS'i and even also, Lev. xxvi. 44. The first is often used with plural forms emphatically, to include all, e. g. D'!'?^ da both the two, Vs ca all together. It also merely gives emphasis to the following word, as Gen. xxix. 30, and he loved hryrT^^rui Rachel (not, also Rachel) more than Leah ; 1 Sam. xxiv. 12. — "'S Cjx is prop, add that, hence not to mention, nedum, — according to the connection, much more, much less. b) Disjunctive : especially ix or (etym. free will, choice, hence prop. vel, but also aut exclusive, 2 Kings ii. 16). Sometimes it stands elliptic- ally for ■'S iX or (be it, it must be) that, Is. xxvii. 5 ; — hence the transi- tion to the conditional sense, if but if Ex. xxi. 36 (the LXX. iav di, Vulg. sin autein), if haply, 1 Sam. xx. 10, which has been contested without reason (comp. on '^\^^, § 150, 3, Note). Repeated, lit — ii<, sive — sive, it is the same as DX — DX. c) Temporal : ^'3 , "iCX = ore, quum (see above), for which more rarely is used the conditional particle DX (Is. iv. 4, xxiv. 13) ; 1? , "HUX 15 , 13 IS until that, also CX IS , DX lUX IS until that when, 1? also during, so long as, lira, the same, iiijx ''^inx after that, txa (for "im txa) si7ice that, nnoa and D'lis before, n^^i;? for iiax M^^I? before (Pe. cxxix. 6). * See especially the Hebrew and English Lexicon, translated from the Latin ol Oesenius, by Dr. Robinson, fifth edition, 1854. — Tb. § 165. THE CONJUNCTIONS. 273 d) Causal: (besides "^S and nr.s, No. 1. e, c) n-^x 13 bs because, or merely ■)? b?, with the omission ofn^X (§ 104, 1, c), Ps. xlii. 7, xlv. 3. •jB-bs-iS (Gen. xviii. 5, xix. 8, 2 Sam. xviii. 20), and ")3-by niTN (Job xxxiv. 27), == 13 13-b?, niax 13"b?;*"im 13^ b'j, ^wx ninix bs. prop, for the circumstances that =^for this cause that, and emphatically -lias ni'lis bs bs/or ^/t/s very cause that, "iffix -liinSiB, (prop, oti the account, that), iiax "|?V "^3 nnn {therefore that), eo quod, because, 13 aj^S the same (prop, as a reward that), e) Final : "iias -jl^^ab tb (rarely ^^^), if The first (which is also a particle of interrogation, § 153, 2) is purely conditional, leaving it uncertain whether what is expressed by the verb is actually so, is actually done, or not (rather the former^, — as, if I do — have done — shall do ; on the contrary, ibf expressly implies that it is not so, is not done (if I should do — had done), at least that it is very uncertain and even improbable. Hence fiit niay properly stand where lb might also be used (Ps. 1. 12, cxxxix. 8, Hos. ix. 12), but lb cannot be used for DX . Especiallj' in solemn asseveration, expressed under the form of condi- tional imprecation, DX is always employed ; as Ps. vii. 4-6, init3s"DX '^T^ Ci^'^1 — nxT if I have done this — then let the enemy persecute me, &c. The speaker assumes it as possibly and even actually the case, that he has done this or that, in order that he may offer himself for the severest punishment, should it prove to be so. Ps. xliv. 21, Ixxiii. 15, cxxxvii. 5. These particles (ex and >ib) retain their distinctive character when combined with negatives, as Xb DX, Stb^ib, ^blb. Of DX it is to be remarked, moreover, that after forms of swearing, e. g. MJtT^ Ti as Jeho- vah liveth, it has the effect of a negative particle (hence Kb DX is affirmative) ; 1 Sam. xiv. 45, 2 Sam. xi. 11, xx. 20. There is here an ellipsis, which is sometimes actually .supplied, as in 2 Sam. iii. 35 ; DX CjiOi-i rr2') Dinbx ib-nu5Si nb so do God to me, and more also, if—. Hence, in general, after verbs of swearing, adjuring, DX has the force oinot (Cant. ii. 7. iii. 5). and elsewhere in the poetic style. Judges v. 8. Is. xxii. 14. Respecting ix, i3, "iilJX, which sometimes a^^sume the character of conditional particles, see No. 2, b, and No. 1, c, b. g) Concessive: DX. with the Perf, even 7y(:= though) I am, Job ix. 15, with the Tmpf {though one were), Is. i. 18, x. 22 ; b? (ibr "iii;x bs;. although, Job xvi. 17 ; ^3 Da even when, although. h) Comparative: "illJS3 as, quemadmodum, with 'S in the second member, as — so, Is. xxxi. 4, Iii. 14, 15. — "^1^X3 may be omitted in the * See on these much disputed groups of particles, Gesenius, Thes. II. p. 682. f !lb , fully -written X>lb , is originally not different from xib , xb , not ; hence, uttered as a question, it became first an optative particle {^ 136, 2), as rtini ^b nonne vivat ? for that he were alive, and then a conditional pai'ticle, if he were alive (implying tl.e contrary). 18 274: PART III. SYNTAX. protasis, Is. Iv. 9, Ps. xlviii. 6, and "jS in tiie apodosis, Obad. 15. Exact conformity is expressed by 'V nsS'bs in all points as, Eccles. v. 15. i) Adversative : (see on the adverbs. § 150, 3). Decidedly belong here, ''3 OSN only that ^= but, nevertheless, and the difficult combination ax ■'S, prop, that if , for if most frequently hut if in the sense of i3 explained under No. 1, e, d, but united with DX to form a connection with the verb. Ps. i. 1, happy the man rvho walks not (if he walks not) in the counsel of the ungodly .... 2, but {/"(DS ^'3) his delight is in .... Then simply b^it, Ps. i. 4, Gen. xxxii. 29 ; but if but when = unless, Gen. xxxii. 27, and merely but = except (after a negative), xxxix. 9, xxviii. 17. k) On the interrogative particles, see § 153, and Z) The optative particles, above under letter /. 3. A certain brevity and incompleteness* of expression (see No. 1) appears in this among other things, viz. that instead of the compound conjunction, by which the relation is fully ex- pressed, may be used one or the other of those composing it. Thus instead of the full form "IT^S? 'pj^ on the account, that= be- cause, we have the shorter ]?!;' or ItOJ} ; instead of "^tDi^S as (conj.), 3 Is. Ixi. 1 1, and "ITIJ^ Ex. xiv. 13, 1 Kings viii. 24. 4. This brevity of expression is sometimes carried so far, that the conjunction, which is required to show the relation of one sentence or part of a sentence to another, is omitted alto- gether. This occurs, a) In conditional clauses : Gen. xxxiii. 13, should one drive them hard, they looiild die, — for, if one should drive, &c. Job vii. 20, (if) I have sinned, what have I done unto theel Gen. xlii. 38. 6) Where comparison is expressed : Ps. xiv. 4, Dlnb ^bpx iTS!^ ^bDJ? who devour my people (as) they ivould eat bread, prop, (as) those who eat bread. Job xxiv. 19, drought and heat bear off the snow-water, IS^Ifin biXTT (so) Sheol (those who) sin. Jer. xvii. 11. c) In members which are usually dependent on the relative con- junctions. Gen. xii. 13, say PK Tihil! thou art my sister, commonly PVK "'tlhs "iS. Ps. ix. 21, [that] they may learn, * More rare is pleonasm, or au unnecessary fulness of expression ; e. g. DX "'S , for if, Ex. xxii. 22, conip. old Gemi. wctut, dass (prop, if it is that) and old Eng. if that. On the contrary, a degree of pleonasm in the particles is quite character- istic of the Chaldee ; e. g. "''n"bnp~b3 (German «Wdieweil) wholhjfor-that = be- cause, X^'i'^~h'yp~h'3 just for this = therefore. Emphatic, not pleonastic, is the repe- tition of the conjunction in '{SJ^ZA "S^ because, even because, Lev. xxvi. 43. — — §156. THE INTERJECTIONS.— — --^— - 27-5 they are men. Is. xlviii. 8, for I knew, thou art utterly faith less. Ps. xvii. 3, / have purposed, my mouth shall not sin. In all these cases, the second member stands properly in the accusative ; comp. § 142, 4, Rem. 2. § 156. OF THE INTERJECTIONS. The interjections which correspond to our ah! oh! alas! woe! expressing denunciation as well as lamentation (f^riil!, '''ii?, ■^in), are connected with the object of the threatening or lamen- tation either by the prepositions b?, bii, b, or without any inter- vening particle ; as IDb lix qcoe to us ! ""iil ''in icoe to the people ! Is. i. 4 ; '^nx lin alas, my brother! 1 Kings xiii. 30. — On the construction of nsfl with suffixes, see § 100, 5. A. THE PER. NOMINATIVE OP THE PRONOUN, OR SEPARATE PRONOUN. Singular. 1. com. ^iDDJ^, in pause "j ^'dS^ ; 'iii; , in pause I /. 2. < rm. nn» (riK), in-" pause nri^ /. ri5< (^m'prop. ^ffl 3. m, Kiin /. i^'^n Plural. 1. com. ilDriDiJ; (il5ri3), * thou. he. she. > we. /• • > > we. rm. UU, iVSih 3. J f. in, nsn /Aey. ACCUSATIVE OF THE VERBAL SUF- A. Simple Form. me. !?I , ft— , in pause ft^ (^— ) ^ (Dfl), D; D-, D^,l i:Q^* (eos) (eas) you. > them. * The forms with an asterisk are exclusively po- 276 SONAL PRONOUN.* PRONOUN, OR FIX. B. With D Demon- strative. not used. iinj^, il3^, (13) T V aot used. not used. GENITIVE OP THE PRONOUN, OR NOMINAL SUFFIX (PRON. POSSESSIVE). With Nouns Singular. ''— my. S , S— , in pause "j iin,i; ^n^, i(ri) ^i* [^ejics ^ suus. Ti ; H— ; In— Acr. T T T T ^15; il5^; (^15^) our. ?> 15-' > D5 15' 1? your. dri; D- T > their. B. With Nouns Plural and Dual. ^ — my. thy. r-, 1-, iin^.* his. tV^ her. ^5h!L our. your. >■ their. etical, and those in parenthesis are of rare occurrence. 277 B. REGULAR Kaij. NIPHAL. PIEL. Perf. 3.m. bt2pp* ^^15* "• T bpp* 3./. inbtig* mns* ^^pp?* nbtDp* 2.m. nb^j:* T : -"T ^b§)??* nb^p * 2./. '^M ri"5? ^^^1?? nS^p 1. c. "Tibtsp '^1^?? '^^Sp? ^nb^p Plur. 3. c. ^%P. : IT 'Sipp? iibtpp 2.7W. Dnb^i?* Dnins* dPib^p? DiDb'^P 2./. IPi^'^P i^?i? I^^^P? I^^^^P 1. c. ^3i^l? : — T ^i^^P? ^Spp Inf. bbp* btJpri* bpp* Inf. absol. biti^* bbp?,bbj5n* b^p, bbp * Imp. w. bbp* xi^* btign* bpp* / ^btip* ^ini* "^PE^* ^bt3p=' Plur. m. ^btip ^ids) iibtipn ^bt?p /. ^jV^l?* {15753* nDbtspn* T : "(t • n;bS)p * Impf. 3.m. bbp^* 1^3^* bpE?* bpp'* 3./. bbpn insn bti]3n bt?pn 2. m. bbpn nn3n bts^n bppFi 2./. "bppn* ^nniri* 'btpp^n* 'btf pn ' 1. c. bt:p^^ i^P^ bpp^ bppti Plur. 3. OT. ^btpp;- snip': ^bpjs": ^btop:^ 3./. nib^pri* nrabn* njbtipn* TObfepri* 2. 7W. 5b^pri "^i^in 5bto]3n "^^btopn 2./. nib^n riDbtJpn T ; ••It • nsbrspn 1. c. ''bbpp "l^?? ^t?)$? ^'^"^12? Impf. shortened (Jtwsiue.) Part. bttp* 113 •• T bttpa* btsp5?* .^..^.'^R!... 278 VERB. §§ 42—54. PUAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. HITHPAEL. btDp* nytjpri* nb^^pri* ^b^ppji nbt:pn* ^5§p6* nSt:pn iiiS^pn ^btppn Dr)b^p6 nbtip^ri* nb^pnn* ni^pnri ■]nS"^pnri iiDblpinri btojD* b'tppn* b^t:pn* bt:i?M* btopmn^ wanting ^yt)pri* wanting riDbtjpn* '^btaprirr rabt)pnr;= btDp^* b^t:p^ * b::p^* bt2pn^ * btipn b'tppn ^Ppi) bt?priri btopin b^t:pn btipn bt:pnn ^btapn* ^b^tipn* 'bppn* ^btDpinri=- - b'^pi< b't?p5< ^^P^ '^^PP^ ^btap-^ iib^tjp ^bpp; ^btoph'^ nDb^pn* J^jbtjpn* rob^pn* rijbtjpnri* ^iiStDpn ^b-^ppn tppn "^bt:prri HDbSpn ^pP!?^ HDb^pn T : — ': T nrbSptiP b^j^5 b^t)J53 ^^I?5 ^'■^pb? ^^i?:* b^jDi:* b"t?p)-3* b^p^* btapr^j* 279 0. REGULAR VERB Suffixes /or 1 Sing. 2 Sing. m. 2 Sing. f. 3 Sing. m. F^n..Kal.S.m. ^?Hbp ^bti]^ tjb^I? ''^^l 3./ ^pinHbl? ^t??biD tinHb]? -"^I^gj^j 1. c. — ^'Pi^^I? T^^^^I? 'i"'^^^!? PZwr. 3. c. ^p^HbjD ^l^bttp 1. c. 2. /. ^?^nbt:p !rj^D^t2p Ij^i^t:!? ^n^D^Jt:]? II! Ill m ^^m Imp, ITaZ. ^??^B ^nHbg Impp. Kal. 3. wj. 3. 7n. with Nun demonstrative , Plur. 3. m. ^n^b'bp'; Peet. Piel' ''PJ^P ^btap ^^?P ibtflj? 280 1 WITH SUFFIXES . §§57—61 • 3 Sing.f- 1 P/wr. 2 PZwr. wi. 2Plur.f, 3 PZwr. m. 3 Plur.f. ^^?1? ^5t:p T t): t35bt:f l?^^l? Dbt:p T t); 1^?)? nnHbi? iiinbbp ^?^^?I? I?^^?I? Drjbbp Vf^P. nnbt:)D ^Dnb^i? Dnbt:p V)^\^ trvba^^ iirnbtii: D'Pl^^l? T^^^l? O'^^^i? D^^nbt:]? l?'^^^l? D^nbts]^ 1^nbt:j:3 ^]iib*t2j:5 Di^bt:]? 1?^^?1? D^bt:]^ 1^^?1? n^ribt:p T : — *: ^iD^nbt:]? D^nbt:]: I^nbt:!^ ni!ba]? 05^3^^!? 15^5^^!? n^iDbt:]? I^^^^l? '^^^1? ^5?PI? dibtjp 1?^^1? «=^?1? I^^i? T : 'T '^ ^3?r^i? °5?^l? St:p^ ) ^^^^i?? ^?^?I?' 15^?!?: Dbtpi^': 1^?i?r nsbpp^ ^sHbp: T : ': • iis^b'bj^^ d^^bt))?;' 1?^^?!?" Qilbtpl?^ i^'^^i?: y^btfip ^5b^t?p t35^^)? 1?^^P DbtDp i^^i? 281 D. Verb PE Guttural . §63. KAL. NIPHAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. Perp 3.m. 1)J5> ^2$^ * T'ayn* i7j3?n=^ 3./. m/jy m7J5>D * ni^7j5>n riTjyn* 2.m. ni7j5> ni705?5 ni7:j5>n ni7j3>r) T : — T T : — t: it 2./. ni/25> ni7^5)D rn535?n r\rQ:^n 1. c. ^rn:a3? ^ni7jyD ^riTjyn ■nTj5>n Plur .3. c. ill'/SS? ^17:3?3 in^7j3?n in7jyn 2.m. Dm^j3>* Dni7jyD c:rn7j5>n Dn'i^jyn 2./. 1S?Ti2?* WW- ■jnn^^yr; "pTjjn 1. c. : — T ^Dl^JJD ^377jyn : -jt: IT Inf. iw* 1533>n* T7J5>n* 152 3>n Inf. ahsol. T -:r ^'5-2>;rj* Imp. m. lb?* ptn* 77j5>n* i7j:>n* /• "7?? ^pm ^i53yn ^7^/2yn wanting Plur. m. mi siptn ^i^iyn ^-i^^js^n /• nra?* ^l^Itl* T : •• T •• T : ••-: 1- Impf. 3.m. "I'^s?"* Pin;.* 112T * • -:r — TIT 3./. "i53?n ptnn n7jyn i^7;]:5>n 173 2>n 2.m. 2./. ^i7jJn i^7j>r, i7:35>n ^i^7:iyn TO^n* 1. c. I'^S'??* Pltl¥^ tj:>5^ "I'7J3?J^ — T IT Plur . 3.m. TO?;* ^pm:]* ^""^?,T 3./. 2.m. ina^n ^pTnn ^i7j3>n ^i^7j5>n ni2yir\ 2./. T : -: 1- T»: — v: iv n5i7j5?n n5i7j5>n T : ••-: 1- T : — T IT 1. c. 153^5 pmj. 17J5>3 112^11 Impf. . ihorten ecZ {Jussive."^ "l'-??- Part . aci. T:a:??j* 1)2^)2* ^V 17J3>5 * pass. T 282 E. Verb AYIN GuTT URAL. § 64. KAL. NIPHAL. PIEL. PUAL. HITHPAEL. ntsntj ntiniTD nsnn msnin n^nnnti ntsn^ij nt:ni23 n5^:=i niD^ia ns-nmni-; 'Tit^nis ^nt:r!T233 ^nsnn ^ni-is TOnntin ^r^m* ^tiTOD* ^Dnm ^iDnh ^^^nnn Dnt:nT2j Dnt:nT2J5 un^^iL Dniih fins^snn : — T 1^?^^ ^3?^^ : — T : • TO^n* wanting TO^"* nitpnii T : — T • T : — T T : — T : • TO'* TO^ TO^?* nstinidh nitsnujn riDS-inn ffisnnn nsiinnn ^Dniijn iit:n^n ^s^nn ^s^hn iii^isnn n^tinirn nDt:ni2n riD^Dnnn niinhri riDiDnnrin tinir? ^:^5? TO? TO^? impf. with suff. ^ntsnp;^ T t:nT2JD TO?* TO?* TO'^?* 283 F. Verb LAMEDH KAL. NIPHAL. PIEL. Perf. 3.m. nbia nbuJD nbTiJ* 3./. nnbia nnbuji nr(^i3i 2.m. nnb^ia nnb^irs nnb"^ 2./. nnbiij * Pinb'^iji* nrib'ir * 1. c. ^TiP^i ^nnb'Ti] ''nn^j Plur. 3. c. \rtt ^nbiri iirib'ia 2.m. Dnnbuj Dnnbir^ annbir 2./. 1. c. Inf. nbiB* rt>m* nbia* Inf. absol. — T nb^p* nbia* Imp. m. nbifl* nb^n* nbta* / ^nbtij ^nb^ii ^nbiB Plur. m. iiriS^ iinStiri sinS^a /. ninb""-© T : — : T : ~ T • ininlir* Impf. 3.m. nbuj^* nbis^* nbis^' 3./. nbirh nb¥r. nbirri 2. m. nbi^n nb^n nbirn 2./. ^nbirn ^nb^n ^nWn 1. c. nSi25x nSiin nb^r^^ Plur. 3. OT. ^nbiij^ iinbiJS'' ^nb^'' 3./. niinb'icn* ninbyn* nDn^u:n* 2. m. "^ribtan '^rib^n ?rib^ri 2./. nsnb'irn riDnb'isn TOnS'^n 1. c. " nbir? — T- " "nbTij? Impf. shortened (jMS5Jve) Impf. tm7A (Si{/. ^snbuj'^ Part. aci. nViD'* nbtsD nbtfiS3* pass. mbTi:* — T 284 Guttural. § 65. PUAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. HITHPAEL. n)>ifi n^bm* rbm nbnw* nn^ nn^HTijn nnb^'n nnbmr"!! Ttnim nnb'iin nnb'ujn nnbriisn nhfiz:* nrib'iiin* nnbiir;* r\ra5s. T 286 BLED (5>3>). §67. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. POEL. POAL. ncn* nwn* nnio* nnSo* nnDi-i* n:aD^in* ronio nnniD ninon* nino^n* nnnio nnniD ninDii ni:iD^n nnniD niiio "riiicn ^niiD^n ^nnn'^D ^nnniD iQon ^SD^n ^nnio ^nnio dt-iiscn DM^D^n dnnnSo cnnniD siiiipq iiiiipiin ncn* •■ T np^n* nniD nsi'D non* nniD wanting wanting j^rl^n* riDnSio no^* np^ np^h* (np.;^) niio;^ nnio^ son no^n nnlDD nnicn s&n np^n nsioFi nnion "^aon* ^SD^n* ^nnion ''nnicn npi5 np^5< niioi^ niioi^ sq6^ !l^D^^ iinniD^ ^nnio^ nrmcn* nriDiin* nDiiiori riDnniori ^l^DD ii^iD^n ^niion ^nnion nr:?iDri TO^^Dsin nsnnion nDn£icn np5 ip^D ^^^ nnio? ^^.^y ^?|pr (D5^P^) '?=i?'io;' =15^* T niiog T : 287 H. Verb PE NUN (■}l). § 66. KAL. NIPHAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. Perf. S.m. i2J:;5 i2:r.5* ir^^fi* i2:r.n* 3./. ni2J53 ni2j^Bn ni233ri 2. m. ni235D n;2JBn m2:Bn 2./. ni2J3D nmti ni2JBn 1. c. Plur. 3. c. regular ^ri-jpBri ^i2j'^Bn ^i2J5ri 2.m. cinirsD Dni2:5n Dniij-in 2./. "p^ii? IPl'^^ri "p^sn 1. c. ilil^lp iiDi^Bri ^:"i2:Bn : - \ Inf. m^a* m^r^ ^^^Ti* i2jan* Inf. absol. ^i-nj T • i2j^ar]* Imp. wi. m* m^n i2jan* Plur. m. ^i25i3n in2:^Bn wanting /. nj^l n3i2j5sn T : "T • n3i2:3n T : •• — Impf. 3. wi. ^a^* i2j:^r ^^-h * 12Jr* — .. 3./. 2. m. i2J^rin i2j'^an i2jan i2japi 2./. "^•in ^uj^an ^iran 1. c. Plur. 3. m. regular 125a« 3./. 2. m. n5i2J3n iiuj'^Bn 2./. 1. c. MBn njirBri — •. Impf. shorted (Jussive) ^3^* Part, ac^ v::^ i2:m* 12:^^)2* izja^j* paw. T 288 I. Verb PE ALEPH («3). § 68. 1 KAL. NIPHAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. Perf. 3. m. — T ^^W ^'?5jn* bs«n* — t: it Like the Verb Pe Guttural, in Paradigm D. Inf. Inf. dbsol. T bbjJri b^S5in* 3./. n^^l* ™p5* n^^pn* tl')2pTl* 2.WI. ^^1* ni/^^pD* riis]"pri* ni^^n* 2./. piP12 mi-^^pD nii2^pn n^jp^n 1. c. ^p>^& ^no2^p:i ^in^is^pn •^ri-iip^n Plur. 3. c. ^^I? ^^ip5 il7J^pn ii:ap^n 2.7W. Qp)^12 Dr)i-2^p5 l30'^''^Tn Dn^^p^n 2./. 15?I2 ",ni7j^p3 TT^i'^'pn in^jp^n I.e. iii^^p ^Di^^pi ^i'^'pn i!D>9l^n Inf. mp* Dipn* D^pfl* Dp^n* Inf. aJsoZ. Dip* D^pn* Dpn, D^pn * Imp. m. D^p* Dipn* t=K* /. ^53^p* ^52ipr;* ^5a^pn* PZwr. m. ^^'J^j: ii^^^pn ^)2-ptl wanting /. ™j5* nyqft] •^2?K Impf. S.m. D^p;* Dip: * DV* '•T Dpi]^* 3./. D^pn Dipn D^pn Dp^n 2.OT. D^pn DIpPl D^pn Dp^n 2./. ^?^^pn* ^32ipri* ^12^pT\ ^53p^n 1. c. D^pjJ Dlpi? D^p« Dp1i5 PZar. 3. m. ^^Jlp^^ ^■aip: si^-'p; ^^p^^ 3./. rimpT}* n^/jpn n;5;pn* njap^n 2.m. ^"a^pT) ii?jipn iiri^pn "^tjpiin 2./. nr^a^pn riD^jpn nj^spn n;53piin 1. c. mp5 D^p? D^P5 Dpiii Impf. shortened dp;* OK* Impf. ici/^ 1 cows • t3p^j,Dp;v t3)??r Impf. ici^A ^is/jr ri&^ii)j=* 2./. Jn5^i£52 nijn* nii^^^an* lrj55<2it3ri* 2.m. ii^^is^^n ^s^ii^n iij^si^n 2./. n5«^)in iii^^is^n nii^2i53n 1. c. ^1)2': •• T • i<^l2^ Impf. shortened {Jussive^ Impf. with Svff. ^'ii^'S.'rr Part. act. pass. iia)2 ^1)2: Jj^2S5a?J 294 ALEPH i^b). § 74. PUAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. HITHPAEL. ^'^12* i^^iS52n 5<2:an* i!^T2t\in nu^st^j n5^^2/jn Tii^Tcn tii^T2tin miiS^s* n5^2"an* ns^rjn* tn5^2i/::nn* t\'^Ta IMi^TQtl nj^ii/jji 5nj^2i/^nn ^t^i!i,^l2 ^t^i* ^1?^* nb^i^'j* nb:;53* ••• : T nbari52* 297 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR EXERCISES HEBREW GRAMMAR, HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. PREPARED WITH KEFERENCE TO THE TRANSLATION OF DR RODIGER'S SEVEN TEENTH EDITION OF GESEMUS HEBREW GKAMW" BY THOMAS J. CONANT, PBOFISSOR OF HKBREW IK EOCITESTEK THEOLOGIOAL SKMINABT. NEW YORK : D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 310 & 348 BROADWAY. 1859. The plan proposed for the use of these Exercises, is as follows. In going over the Elements for the first time, only those parts of the Grammar need be studied, which are indicated at the head of the fol- lowing sections, other portions being consulted when reference is made to them. The exercises in each section should be thoroughly mastered, in connection with the sections of the Grammar there referred to, before any farther advance is made in the Grammar. When the first five sections of the exercises have been gone over, the whole of Part First in the Grammar may then be studied with profit. By this method, teachers will find their own task lightened, and the progress of their pupils greatly facilitated. The Grammar is referred to for the statement of principles, which, as far as practicable, is avoided in the Exercises and Chrestomathy. A summary is occasionally given for the learner's convenience, the particulars being supplied in the Grammar. The student should beware of hurrying over the elements, from an impatience to commence translating while he is yet spelling his way over Hebrew forms. He will otherwise find himself embarrassed with petty difficulties, when his whole attention should be directed to other objects. — The practice of reading TIebreiv aloud is too much neglected ; and hence few acquire the habit of reading with ease and fluency, so necessary to the full understanding and appreciation of a writer's senti- ments in any language. *^* The sign ^ is used in references to the sections of the Gram- mar ; those of the following pages are indicated by the abbreviation Sect. EXERCISES m HEBREW GRAMMAR. SECTION I. EXERCISES ON THE MANNER OF WRITING AND PRONOUN- CING THE CONSONANTS AND VOWELS. On §§ 5—8, and § 12. The following examples will accustom the student to the forms of the consonants, and their sounds as given in the alpha- bet and in § 6, 2, and to the manner of writing and pronouncing the consonants and vowels in connection. — The jiromiscuous examples are to be studied for recitation. *j^* Every syllable begins ivith a consonant ; see §26, 1, where the only exception is given. The tone {accent) is com- monly on the final syllable (§ 15, 2) : when it is on the penulti- mate, this is indicated by the sign ['], as in the Grammar (§15, Rem. 3). An open syllable is one which ends with a vowel ; a closed syllable is one which ends with a consonant ; §26, 2, a, c, and d. For the signs used to represent the sounds of the Hebrew vowels, see the first Note to §8. — For the effect of the point in certain lettera (2 &c.) see Note to p. 20. a) Open syllables (see the table of vowels, p. 24) : First class, of the A sound ; letter a), iinchangeahle d{— = S?_, §9, 1, 1), I? (for X)5) q&, p (for X3) nu, "} (for wSn) rd, n (for xn) ta ; changeable a (its proper use), "q ma, sa, t2 ta, 5 gu, 5 na, b Id, 1 za, ^ ya, 3 ba, TS sa, XD sha, ij i1 AAe, p se, to 5e, to she, "! ye ; letter d), short e, to 5/i^, '^ rS, 3 6e, p se, to se. Pi /e, b /d". Third class : U sound ; letter a), ^b H, IT ;2;m, ^12 mu, '^T\ tu; letter 6), short u (its proper sound), 5 7iu, T 2;m, & pit, to 5/w*, 3 M ' but also 7mchangeable li {— ='^ defectively written),* 2 (for ^2) tsu, p (for ^'a) mzi, 3 (for ^3) 6^2; to (for ito) s/izi; O sound; letter c), unchangeable d (— = i defectively written), p (for ip) 56, 3 (for i3) 60, S (for ii) ^56; changeable 6 (its proper use), 3 A'd, b 50, ^ c?d, ri to, "I ?'d, T 2:0 / letter d), short d, 3 b6, T a^d, P. t6 ; letter e), obtuse e (from n or 0), i? it^, ins, 0^7, i^a'b, s^ir:, "ji^, b'ls, nj^-', oiro, m^;?, irisi-i, an, >-ib,' n;^b, m©, 'i^^, biia, w, ipn, fa^, ";?, "isn, qD|n, TOb, "^n;!, n-i'T [zd-yith), in'', n;?;', fn'ty, ^jip, dt», nto, nps, Dip, 1)2p (§8, 4, a), XSiS, "in, DTI?. SECTION II. EXERCISES IN SYLLABICATION. On §§ 10 and 26. The uses of Slfva as a half-vowel (§ 10, 1), or as merely marking the division of syllables (§ 10, 3), depend on the theory of the syllable exhibited in § 26 ; it is found most convenient, therefore, to present the subjects of these two sections in connec- tion. Sh^va, vocal and silent. Simple ShVa (.) is the sign either of a half-vowel, as e. g. under the first letter of bbp q^-tol, where it forms a prefix half- syllable (§ 26, 4) ; or of a mere division of syllables, as undei * A consonant can be doubled in no other position. EXERCISES IN SYLLABICATION. 9 the second letter of "'bpp qit-li, where it stands at the end of a syllable, and is not sounded (silent Sh^va). Sh^va is, therefore, vocal only under the first of tivo conso- nants before a full vowel. There is but one case, in which the learner finds any difficulty in determining whether Sh®va is vocal or silent ; viz. when it stands between two full vowels^ as nbt:]?^ njiap. In this case the letter, under which it stands, might be the final consonant of a closed syllable, as !"i3)ap qom-nd (silent Sh^'va) ; or it might form with the Sh®va a prefix half-syllable, as Jlbpp qa-f-la (vocal Sh'-'va). This is determined by the na- ture of the syllable, as taught in 5 26. A vowel-sound is natu- rally prolonged, unless interrupted by a consonant. Hence an open syllable has properly a long vowel (§ 26, 3). A syllable closed by a consonant, though its vowel is most naturally short, may have a long vowel when the tone (accent) causes the voice to dwell upon it (§ 26, 5 and 7, Rem.). Accordingly, c^s a gene- ral rule, — Simple &7i%a is silent under a final letter, and under a letter lohich is preceded by a short vowel or an accented long vowel ; in all other cases it is vocal. E. g.* Silent Sh^a : tj"n dakh, tjbi ye-lekh, ribtpj? qd-tult, S"i'' yirb, nsbia mul-ka, ?JJ?nj5 quhh-tekh, "I'^p''? muq-tar., ^j"?? 'Ser-vuth. roiap qom-na, n:b''6pn tiq-tol-na, pTO";! yesht^ "^li nei^d, "^"Cpy^ sdni-tl, ''innys bt-:^"thuth-nl, '^:rim ^a-sath-nl, ''?ri??i^ "Ar/ta- Idth-ni, nby'a mCCS-ld, J^yi^ yd-dhd'S-td. Vocal Sh'va : ^3 b^-khd, ikb) vUo, r.:rib no-thUid, HDbD ne- l^-khd, '^ini ii-bhUie, ^TZJnnn tidh-r^-shii, ^5?pnD nibh-q^-'^ii, niniry)? ma'i-s-'-roth, ^blpp (= ^btplpp, see § 12, 1, V) qit-f-lu, ^^l^ (§ 12, 1, note) = ^'I'l^ tslv-v^-khu.\ The composite Sh'^vas. The composite Sh'^vas are always vocal (§ 10,2, § 26,7, Rem.), and of course always form a prefix half-syllable. E. g. 'HTiJS? Vi"-sher, itJSi:? ka-^''-shSr, ttr.^, m'-nosh, f ^2^13 ve-m^jiHts, ^i?:" ya-T-nu, ^ay '^''-bhi, D^ns^ tsipp^-rim, ib^D sidj-b^-lo. * Teachers will observe, that the rule here given is intended merely to guide the learner, at first, in the division of syllables. Comp. Rem. to § 26, 1. The ex- ceptions are few, and need not be noticed till the application of this general prin- ciple has become familiar. f It will be perceived, that in this and the preceding example, the written Sh«va follows an implied silent Sh«va, and is therefore vocaL 10 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAilSIAR. Exercises on the use of the composite Sh^vas are furnished by the paradigms of nouns, of verbs with guUurals. &c. Promiscuous examples, for recitation : ^'nS^^'l, '^npB:, "ritOXI, bbbi,' ?jina,' ^is^aj ^bp, '^^nx^, s^nsia^ab, 'isriD, ?jb5in, ^n^ai^. ^::>'i.':, ^a'lpa, ^n^na," ^snn^. ^e?n. The exceptions mentioned in §26, 3, a — e, exhibit no essential deviation from the general principle. Thus in the forms given under a, -"!"!! T|^^. ; tor example, are nearly equivalent to xfir'hh, mcl'kh. the first vowel of which, in rapid pronunciation, strikes the ear nearly as if uttered in a closed syllable. In all the remaining cases, the voice (under the influence of the tone, or of the half-accent Methegh, §16.2) dwells upon the vowel, so that — though not strictly long. — it may properly stand in an open syllable. SECTION III. DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS : ASPIRATION OF THE MUTiS. On §§ 20 and 21. Distinctio7i of the doubling point and the hardening jyoint {Daghesh forte and Daghesh lene). It will be perceived, by comparing the two sections, that — DagJiesh forte is always preceded immediately hy a full vowel, which is never the case with Daghesh lene. E. g. Daghesh forte : 13'j^ y^-dhuh-her, D%'^ mish-sham, Ti'^"} ylq- (juhh, nriX i^at-td, n^S tsiv-va, ''"ITIJ shad-day, y^'^'C mih-hm. Daghesh lene : UZtt'i yush-kem, nafl' yiz-b&hh, Wa g^-shii, 'iTsnn tir-g^-zii. Examples, for recitation: ^V\^,yi, bbsn^, iS3. IlST^ni, nan. i:ii-Diu, bn^-*, br5^i, nnn, ''ny|ii?:, wn. '^Dnann', Trp_ (§14, l)i tins, "Ifn^l 0, §10, 3, e-iVr.). Use of Daghesh lene (§21). The learner will observe, tliat the hard sound of the letters 3, 5i, T, D, S, m, is the original one (i. e. they are properly Mutes, § 6, 3), and tliat it is the intermingling of a preceding vowel-sound which produces the softer or aspirated pronuncia tion (§ 21, first 1). By comparing Nos. 1 and 2 of § 21, he will QUIESCENCE OF THE VOWEL-LETTERS AND BREATHINGS. ll perceive that the statements which they contain may be briefly expressed thus : These letters take Daghesh lene, except ivhen preceded hy a full vowel or a half-vowel [vocal Sh^va). A vowel in which one of the feeble letters quiesces (the vowel-sound alone being heard in this case), of course aspirates the following nuue in the same manner as a pure vowel. Often, as in the following examples, the aspirated letter be- gins a word, and the vowel-sound which produces the aspiration closes the preceding one, — the two words being uttered in so close connection that the effect is the same as if they were but one. E. g. "^^2 ■>"13'1 tvords of the sons of . Sometimes, however, the two words are so separated in pronunciat.'on, that the closing vowel-sound of the first does not affect the proiuincia- tion of the following mute. E. g. "lUJXS lii'^l and it happened, when ; "^i^i^a I ipXl and as for nie, ivhen I came. Promiscuous examples : ^37^?, i^HST^^, iM, ''SDiDS, DPS'"};', 'jn'^i, D^n^sn, Dp^-^s^a, nar^i, pssnn, ^m':^, onn?^', onxn^, SECTION IV. ClUIESCENCE OF THE VOWEL-LETTERS (l, "^ ) AND OF THE BREATHINGS (S?, H). On §§ 23 and 24. The letters 1 and "^ often lose their consonant power,* and are sounded strictly as voivels (§24, 1st 1"). Of a different na- ture is the so-called quiescence of H and &§. The former repre- sents no vowel-sound ; the latter only that of long a, for which, however, it is very rarely written (§23, 3, Rem. 1). These two letters are sometimes lost to the ear, when preceded by a vowel, merely in consequence of their feebleness, and not of any natu- ral affinity with a vowel-sound. Compare h in hah ! eh ! where * The sound of T is more nearly represented by w (better stiU by the Germ, w) than by v ; bnt the latter is employed for representing the consonant power of l , on account of the difficulty of making our to heard as a consonant afler a vowel. In English, w and y have •wholly lost their consonant power at the cud of a syllabi''. where they are always sounded as vowels, or, in the language of Heb. grammar quiesce. The Hebrew follows the same law, except in its univei-sality. 12 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. final h is sounded, and in «/i, oh, where it is lost to the ear. Hence (with the single exception of SJ occasionally used for long a), they are not treated as hotnogeneous with the vowel in w^iich they quiesce (p. 26, note *), or as rendering it immutable (§25, 1 and 2). — But the two cases may properly be treated together, as in both the effect on the pronunciation is the same (i. e. the sound of the consonant is not heard separately from that of the vowel), and instances of quiescence are distinguished in the same manner. For convenient reference, we here present these letters in connection with the vowels in which they resjiectively q.uiesce. 65 in all the vowels (§ 23, 1) ; i<3 bo, X:£ tsu, S«S tsd, i5B ;je, «n rl, ifh la (§23, 2, extr.), «B j)u, Xis p6, S^TT shi, S^3 kii (§23, 3, Rem. 3). C Cholem, n in^ Glamets, .^^ ...^ ^^^ 23. 4, and 2d T I Ibeghoij 1^ Tsere, \ Cholem, I Shureq, [ Chireq, ■• in -< Tsere, ( Seghol, The following rule will enable the learner to determine, 6y the punctuation, where these letters are quiescent, and where they retain their power as consonants : The feeble letters are to be regarded as quiescent, in the midst of a word, ivhen they have no full voicel or Sh^va ; and also, at the end of a ivord, when preceded by vowels with which they are homogeneous. This rule is founded on the principle (comp. § 10, 1, 3) that every consonant must have either a full vowel or a ShVa. When the feeble letter stands at the end of a word, where ShVa is usually not written. the character of the preceding vowel must determine whether it is to be sounded or not. He Mappiq (fi, §14. 1) of course retains its power as a consonant, whatever vowel may precede. Examples of quiescence : S'Ji'' yi-tdbh, fl^'lS V-rith, Sta'^'a me-tabh, n""? beth, TT^'Q'^ ya-ma-ha, bs^i yo-khel, isis: tsOn, TO ko, CHANGES OF VOWELS. 13 fliia tsdth, "^"yy^ dlbh-re, t^S'n rush, "niiS jni-ra, "ilS he-ri, Sib ^6, iito sa, Ni ^56, ll'ttJNI rl-shon, Sib Zw, i«i-i2 i^-;^', ^S'lSb lu-dho-ni {a, § 24, 2, e.r/r.), ib /d, ''b /^, nb^:^ ^o-Za. Compare, with the above, the punctuation of these letters in the following examples, where they retain their power as conso- nants : an hem, 2t2J5|i yei^-tubh, v|bx;;i ye-^^-soph, tii^^ v^-'&oth, qnn.'i ySh-doph, tiSlT^ ya-h"-r6gh, bbsi: i<'-kh6l, 11 vav, ^^j day, t^^" yah (§ 14, 1). Let the learner point out, in the following examples, the instances in which these letters are quiescent, and those in which they retain their power as consonants, and give the pro- nmiciation of the words : 1SS% DTl'bNI, nbiy, I'j^, m, ins^l, nix, n2i5>, nib, ia, ^^t^r^, its, nis5, n^'i^' iidtu, tJiiisi, ^ibii, nsa, "ii^, nb^5, I'np, 1:2;?, ^i«, i'^ni^i (_=(3), "iipi, ip, rpib, iTDii^i, 1^, xis^K, ^^nis^5, ^n^i, isn;'i, is, is, s'^ibni, ip^-i, infi^s, ii2r;ii, ffiS3, isn, ns^^is, ima(_=6). SECTION V. THANGES OP VOWELS IN THE INFLECTION OF NOUNS AND VERBS. On § 21. [IneludiDg references to §§ 9, 25, and 26.] The following brief outline (collecting into one view the lead- ing points scattered through several sections of the grammar), will aid the learner in understanding and applying the principles of inflection in Hebrew. The more minute details and specifi- cations are supplied in the grammar. The system of vowel-inflections in Hebrew, first fully developed by Dr. Rodiger, is very simple and perfect. The deviations from general laws, occasioned by accidental influences on a living tongue, or by the imperfection of traditional pronunciation, are fewer than in most other languages. A few points, it will be seen, are supplied in the following outline of it, but entirely in harmony with his views. The changes of vowels, in inflection, are all founded on the natural laws of utterance and intonation. E, g., when the form bpip qd-tal takes the accented syllable DH at the end, the tone of the word is thrown forward one syllable : and as the voice con- sequently delays less on the first part of the word, the vowel o( 14 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. its initial syllable (if changeable) is shortened to a half-vowel* (vocal Sli^va) ; thus ^'d^ qd-tdt becomes orib^p (f-tal-t^iii . On the contrary, when the unaccented syllable "^r is added, the tone not being thrown forward, the vowel at the beginning retains its full sound ; as ''n^'Pj? qa-tdl-ti. Again : when the sound i (with the accent) is added to the end of ^l3j?; it unites the final b in a syllable with itself (as a syllable cannot begin with a vowel in Hebrew, § 26, 1), and the second syllable of the word thus becomes an open one, requiring naturally a lo7ig vowel ; the tone is also thrown forward, lessen- ing the sound of the initial syllable ; thus bt^jp qd-tdt becomes "ib'jp cf-td-l6. It is the application of such simple and natural laws of vocal- ization, that constitutes the chief part of Hebrew inflection. But the vowels, in Hebrew, do not all yield to these natural laws of utterance, some being unchangeable on account of their peculiar origin, and retaining, therefore, the same form in all situations. A classification of the vowels is made in \ 9, according to iheir origin and the nature and character of their sounds, show- ing what vowels are subject to change, and how they are affected. These classes are here presented together, as follows : 1.) Unchangeable voivels, which remain the same in all situa- tions (comp. §25). 2) Voivels jirosodially long, or tone-long, i. e. long by the influ- ence of the totie and rhythm ; viz. such as stand in the tone- syllable or next to it, and become either short vowels or half- vowels on the removal of the tone. 3) JS'hoi'i vowels. A table of the long vowels subject to change, and of the corresponding nhnri ones, is given on p. 58 of the grammar. LaiDS of the Vowel-changes. The changes of vowels, in inflection, arc caused — I) By a change in iheform of the syllable (viz. of an open to a closed syllable, or of a closed to an open one). * Compare in Eng. pusilldnimous and pusillanimity, philanthropy and philan- thropic ; where the a of the accented syllabic becomes (in utterance) a half-vov/el, when the tone is thrown forward. In Hebrew, such a change from a full to a lialf-vowel is indicated by a change in the written sign for the sound. CHANGES OF VOWELS. 15 2) By a change in the position of the tone of tlie word, when it is removed one or more syllables. 3) By a change in the division of syllables. The laws of the syllable, in Hebrew, are stated in § 26, Nos. 3 and 5, and may be thus grouped in one view : 1) An oj)en syllable requires a long vowel. 2) An open syllable lias usually Qaniets (less frequently Tsere) when immediately followed by the tone-syllable ; hence the name Pretonic vowel, § 26, 3. 3) A closed syllable has naturally a short vowel, and can take a long vowel only when it has the tone. On these principles, and on the necessary effect of a change in the division of syllables, are founded the following rules for the vow^el-changes, as given in § 27, and here collected together. Rules. r) A short vowel is lengthened, when the syllable is changed from a closed to an open one (see No, 1, above) ; as '2.T\ hubh, ^nn hd-bhu. \i) A Pretonic vowel ( Qamets or Tsere, § 26, 3) becomes a half- vowel when the tone is moved forward a full syllable (No. 2) ; as bap qd-tai , UT)^'^'^ (f-tal-tini; "ip^ yd-qdr , "0)?'? y^-kd-rd . On the contrary, when the tone is moved forward only a Aa//"-syllable. the pretonic vowel retains its place ; as ^^|5, nbtip? qa-i^-la . in) A long vowel is sliortened, when the syllable is changed from an open to a closed one without the tone (No. 3) ; as "^BD se-pher {book), i"i&p siph-ro {his book). iv) A long vowel, in a closed syllable, is changed to its corres- ponding short vowel when the tone is removed (No. 3) ; as bDp qit-tel', ^)^p. qit-tef-khd {tel% § 21, 2, b). v) When the tone is moved forward two syllables, the ultimate and penultimate vowels are shortened as much as is possible ; viz. the former to a half-vowel, the latter to short I (Chireq) ; as ISi"! dd-bhdr {ivord), aoi'nn" dlbh-re-khSm' {ivords of you) your loords. This is the utmost shortening of the wofd, since a vowel is necessary under the first of these consonants, and Chireq is the shortest of the vowel-sounds (comp. §27, 1. remark). 16 EXERCISES m HEBREW GRASIMAR. vi) The vowel of a final closed syllable, when an addition is made wliich unites the final consonant in a syllable with itself, is shortened to a half-vowel in inflection of the verb bi/ gender, miQnher, and person, as well as by cases when the vowel is prosodially long ; but in inflection of the noun (and of the verb by cases, with the above excejDtion) it is re- tained. E. g. (inflection by persons, &c.), bp]? he killed, <"'^'Cl)? qd-f-ld, she killed, l'5t3j5 qu-f-lii, they killed: (by cases), ibtpp (f-ta-lo , he killed him ; (bbp';^ he unll kill, tone-long o), iJlblSp^ yiq-f-U-hu, he will kill him; H^ hand. 'TX^ his hand. Rem. 1, The most perfect amalgamation is effected by the shorten- ing of the vowel to a half^vowel ; and hence its use in the inflection of verbs by person, gender, and number. In the other case, viz. the union of suffix pronouns (the genitive and accusative) with nouns and verbs, a less perfect amalgamation is required.* 2. In Kal Imp. of some classes of verbs (see Parads. B, D, F, I, K. L, O), this inflection brings three consonants before a vowel. In the utter- ance of these, a slight vowel-sound (namely «, the shortest of the vowels) is heard after the first. This the punctators have indicated by Chireq, as they have done in the analogous case, §28. 1. In Parad. E. the guttu- ral causes the a sound to be heard before it. Full illustrations of these principles are furnished in the Paradigms of nouns and verbs, and of the verb with suffixes. E.g. Rule I.) §95, Parad. A, light suff. (comp. §27, 2, a); so TtC breast, "^"IT^ sha-dhdy {tny breqsts) ; ^S^i^ i^ets-bd^ {finger), iyass i^Sts-ba-Vo [his finger); ya^i? ^dr-bO^ {fo2ir). plur. a-'OTi?, mr-bd-^im. Rule I. & II.) Parad. 0, Pe?-/. 3 m., with tlie si/ffi. in all the per- sons, except 2 plur. m. c5*/. Rule II.) Parad. C, Peifi. 3 m., with 2 plur. in. ^ /. suff.; Parad. III. ; Parad. IV, sing, light i^uff., plur. absol. ; so 2ab heart, "^^^b my heart. Rule III.) Parad. VI, 6, c, and e, sing, light and grave suff. Rule IV.) Parad. C, Imp/. 3 m., with 2 sing. m. srff. and with 2 plur. m. (S^ f. suff. : Perf. Piel, with 2 sing. m. suff. and * The table, on p. 82, shows the inflection of verbs by formative additions. These arc the same, in all the conjugations and in all classes of verbs. CHANGES OF VOWELS. 17 wilh 2 'jiliir. m. 6f f. stiff. ; Paiad. II, IV, and V, sing, grave stiff.. VII, sing, grave suff.* VIII, a, b, and c. Rnle V.) Parad. II. IV, and V, pbir. constr. and grave stiff. (In Farad. II, the penultimate vowel is iinchaugeahle.) Rule VI.) Inflection by persons, ij'c. .* Parad. B (in all conj. ex- cept Hiphil), Per/, sing. 3/., phir. 3 c. ; Imp.] sing. f.. and plur. m. i^f. ; Imp/, sing. 2/., jylnr. 3 m. and 2 m. — Inflec- tioti by cases (viz. of nouns and verbs with the genitive and accusative, § 33, 2, a and b) ; Parad. II, IV, and V, sing, light suff., j/lur. absol. and light stiff. ; Parad. C, Per/. 3 m. with all stiffixes except 2 j)lur. m. lnr. ntimher. — These two state- ments should be impressed on the memory by comparison with the Paradigm. * This Paradigm vacillates between the Verbal onA Nominal mf[Qci\on ; follow- ing the latter in sing, grave snff., and elsewhere the former. f See above, Rule vi, Rem. 2. \ See § 28, 4. § The characteristic vowel of the form being exchanged for the customary pre. tonic a, in an open syllable next before the tone (§ 26, 3). Compare, however. Rodiger's statement of the principle, p. 170, No. 6. 18 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAiyiMAR. SECTION VI. EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS.* (After the study of Part Second of the Grammar.) 1. '^'Citdb, to my name: DTS name, Parad. VII ; "^-^ my (§91, 1, table),' ^flis my name; h to (§102, 2); -^^liib, i^aisb (§28, 1). — Analyze, in like manner, the following combinations, (the nouns are of Parad. VII) : "^"fSD^b ; rt^yi^b (H, § 14, 1, suff. § 91, 1, ta- ble) ; Q^nsi^bl (^, conj.'l, § 104, 2, a and b, § 26, 1 ; D-i-, § 87, 1) ; ibpttni (p without Dagii. §20, 3, 6; n uuV/i, §102, 2). 2. ^'l^'S, «w my hand: S, §102, 2; -;;' hand, Parad. II. — Write in Hebrew, in our hand, in thy (m.) hand, in thy (f.) hand, in your (m. S'ecif. Vj Rule VI. Give the forms with other suffixes. 22. ''pDT^b, that I may diuell (there), lit. /or {in order to) my divelling; V, P^ (^«/ co?istr. of ]2W) ■ b (§ 102, 2, § 132, 2). 23. ^nilJSia (_ =d, p. 31, 1, a), Ti\s: (§ 8, 2, 2d H) Parad. VI, c. —Analyze : '^b™'? (5nS) ; n, § 22, 4 ; !s^ (_ =e), Methegh, j 16, 2, a. ^^v^a, n, §22, 4, e/ic/. 24. ^DbsmtJ, loho, in our Jiumiliation : •'it, for ItTS?, §36, §19, 3, a, and 2, 6 ; a ; bsiij, Parad. VI, h ; suff. 25. nn'iT;! ; % Sl04, 2', c; see No. 5.— "jn^T^. 26. inabn)21, and of their fat: ^, No. 3 ; ^, No. 4 ; in^bn, plnr. constr. of mbn (Parad. VI, Z), § 93, Expl. 6, i^em. 2), com- bined with the suff. §91, 2, and defectively written, ibid. Rem. 1 ; a hardened (irregularly), compare Parad. VI, a, phir. grave suff., and §21, 2, a; (but softened (3), in some editions of the Heb. Bible.) 27. asiana, when they are {were or shall he) created, lit. i/i their being created: 3 ; S^'I^H, A'iiyjA. //?/. constr. of S?'i3 Parad. O ; with s7/ff. {nominal, §61, 1), Di<'i|n, 'i, A'ec^f. V, i??^/e vi. 28. Drii"^n3, lohen they are {were or shall be), lit. in their be- ing : a ; ni"'n, ^aZ //?/. constr. from n^n, a verb Pe guttural and Lamedh He (§41, Rem.); Parad. D must, therefore, be consulted for the initial Aa/f-syllable, and Parad. P for the final syllable, and so in all cases, when a verb belongs to more than one class ; with the prefix 2, fli"'?!^ § 63, Rem. 5 ; nominal suff. §61,2. 29. '^ri5"in^1, and then he sleio him: .V"lfl^, Kal Impf from yy), Parad. D ; •'l, Vav consecutive of the Imjif. §49, 1 and 2, and Rem. ; with the suff'. '^ftl-, the final tone4ong o is short- ened to a half-vowel {Sect. V, Rule vi, p. 16), hence 'H^nn^l, and then ^ninni^l, §28, 3 ; i^ (not 5), §21, 2, a. 30. T^pi^?"); (^^id unto thee: conj. ; jjrep., originally a noun (of space) §101, 1, in the plnr. implying extension, § 103, 3 and § 108, 2, a ; hence with a suff. to a. plur. noun ; see p. 190, 4th line, and comp. the inliection of Parad. II. It is originally a noun, in the accusative of place whither, § 118. 1, a ; lit. and to the region of thee = and towards thee, and unto thee. HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. SELECTIONS FOR CHRESTOMATHY. SELECT PORTIONS TO BE EEAD IN THE HEBREW BIBLE. NOTES. I. General account of the creation, Gen. i.-ii 3. Page 25 n. More particular account of the creation of the first human pair, and of the circumstances in which they were placed. Gen. u. 4-25. 31 HL Temptation and fall of man, Gen. iii, 35 rV. Death of Abel ; immediate descendants of Gain, Gen. iv. 89 V. Account of the flood. Gen. "vl-viii. 43 VL Jotham's parable, Judg. ix. 1-21. 48 VII. Raising of Samuel, 1 Sam. xxviii 3-25. 49 Vni. Nathan's parable, 2 Sam. xii. 1-14. 61 SELECTIONS IN POETRY. Preliminary remarks on the form of Hebrew poetry, 68 IX. Charge to the night-watch in the temple, and their response, X. Profession of humility, XI. Preciousness of fraternal union, XIL A general psalm of thanksgiving, Xni. The captivity, a commemorative psalm, XIV. Rewards of piety, XV. Assertion of Jehovah's supremacy; security of those who trust in him, Ps. cxv. 62 XVI. God's exaltation above all, and his care for the lowly, Ps. csdii. 63 XVIL Worth of wisdom, Peov. iii 13-24 64 Ps. CXXXIV. 68 Ps. CXXJO, 59 Ps. cxxxiii. 59 Ps. cxxxvi. 60 Ps. cxxxviL 61 Ps. cicsvii. 62 21 I^OTES SELECTIONS FOK CHRESTOMATHY. The student is supposed to be already familiar with the elementary principles taught in Part I. of the grammar, and fully illustrated in the preceding Exercises. The following Notes are strictly limited to the wants of the learner, and are intended to supply the place of oral instruction, in acquiring the elementary knowledge of the language. The instruction is given, as far as possible, by references to the grammar and lexicon. — References to paradigms of verbs include the §§ quoted at the top of the page ; referen ces to paradigms of nouns include the explanations subjoined. An attempt is made to interest the learner in the neglected use of the accents. Of course, the more difficult laws of their combination are reserved for maturer study. — It is recommended to the learner, to mark in the grammar every passage to which his attention is directed in the following Notes. Hahn's and Theile's editions of the Hebrew Bible are referred to, as being in common use in our schools. The references to the lexicon, are to the fifth, improved edition of Dr. Robinson's translation of Gesenius' Hebrew Lexicon, 1854. I. GENERAL ACCOUNT OP THE CREATION. Genesis, ch. i. — ii. 3. V. 1. tr^m^% ; a, §102, 2 ; rr^Csn, §86, Rem. 6 ; position in the sentence, § 145, 1, d. The little circle on 3 (§17) refers lo the margmal note, which means Beth magnum. See the clavis notariim masorethicarum at the end of the Hebrew Bible, where these marginal notes are alphabetically arran- ged and explained. In this instance, look for m in Hahn's ed. (in Theile's, for Tisi , and the word there referred to). 26 HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. ii'na, Parad. O : sing, with plur. subject, §146, 2 ; position before the subject, § 145, 1, d. Ci^'^N ; from •jl'i^S?, Parad. I ; P attach furtive, §22, 2, 6/ 6 defectively written in the plural, § 8. 4 ; use of the plur., § 108, 2, h. rx, sign of the definite occns. ; oiig. form and meaning, § 117, 2, and Note. D"'121!l;"n ; §88, 1, Rem. 1; article, §35, 1st 1, §109, 3d 1. 7"}^^^ ] art. § 35, 1 ; f "IS (monosyll. root, 7"*^?), Parad. VI, a, with Eiyl 6, and (for — under S) Rem. 1, fifth hne. iS'illuq (not Methegh), § 15, Refji. 4, Note *. Soph-pasnk, § 15, A, I, 1. This verse is divided by the accents (§15, spec. No. 3), as follows: a double hyphen indicating the connection of words by a conjunctive, and a dash the great division in the middle of a verse by Athnach [breathing): In-the-beginning, created=God — the-heavens, ancUthe-earth. More literally: Jji-principio, creavit=Deiis — ipsum-caelum^ijysam^^ue^ terram. In this manner, every acliierbial limitation of time, place, or other circumstance, the action and its subject, and the object of the action. are presented separately, each by itself, as a distinct idea. But the Hebrew accent has also a rhetorical use ; a pause in utterance being often indicated after the subject (especially if it is the name of the Divine Being), as in this verse, and in each of the three clauses in the next verse. Here, it is a greater pause than usual, as it falls in with the grand division of the verse. V. 2. nn^in, Parad. P ; Methegh, § 16, 2, a. ^nn and ^ns are prop, of Parad. VI, c (the O sound), and i (viz. with a final vowel-letter) ; comp. §24, 1, 6, p. 151, V, 15, and p. 171, Rem. 6. Use of the substantive as predicate in place of an adjective, §106, Rem. 1, 2d H ; omission of the copnla, §144; the ^r^^ accent marks the tone-syllable; ), §104, 2, d. 1\tin (§8, 2, 2d 1), Parad. VI, c. "5^, §101, 1, a, §154, 3, b ; Maqqeph, § 16, 1. — -''DS (lex. rOE), Parad. IX ; pbir. § 87, 5, i?em. 2, and § 108, 2. a. — — D'inri, Parad. I ; ri softened by the closing vowel- sound of the preceding word, p. 11 of the Exercises. Jim (§22, 2, b), Parad. I. risnnia, from ^lin, Parads. D and E, Piel Part. (— in a sharpened syll. §22, 1, §64, 3); with /ew. ending, §80, 2, b, and §94, 2, b; syntax, § 134, 2, c. D^i:n, §88, 1, Rem. 1 ; Qamets m. pause, §29, 4, a. V. 3. -i^S5''T, Parad. O ; -T, §49, 1 and 2, §129, 1 ; "i^ for 1)2 (viz. obscure — for the clear — , when, the syllable loses the accent), comp. §27, 1, with Rem. 2, and §68, 1, extr. ; sing. with 2)lur. subject, as in ver. 1 (1 and 2) ; position, § 145, 1, a ; L ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION. 27 W7ij. accent Merka (§ 15, table, 21) connecting the verb with its subject. "^Ty}, from n^ri (Parad. P), Kal Impf. apocopated (§ 48, 1, 2, and 4 ; § 75, Remarks, 3, i) ; used as a Jussive, § 128, 2, comp. § 127, 3, c. — — '^Ty^'y ; the same, with Vav consecutive, §118, 1, c^; omission of doubling- point in '^, §10, 3, c, Rem.; Methegh, § 16, 1, a. V. 4. X-i:!l ; from nxn (Parads. D, E, and F), Kal Impf. aj)oc. § 75, Remarks, 3. c ; conj. accent Darga (No. 26), connecting verb and subject. tli? as in verb I (4) ; orig. vowel shortened before Maqqeph (§ 16, 1, and § 27, 1) ; comp. table of vowel-signs, p. 24, 3d class, e. — - nisn, art. § 35, 1. — nit3, Parad. I. Ad- jectives are inflected like substantives. Saw, that good (was it) : the copula is not usually expressed in Hebrew (§ 144) ; nor is the subject, when it would be a pronoun referring to something just mentioned. ^"^"^y] , from b'12 , Hiph. Impf. apoc. ("•— short- ened to —J § 48, 4), with Vav consec. § 53, Rem. 4. )'^2'^ • • • V? (^, § 104, 2, 6) ; prop, the constr. state of X!% (Parad. VI, h), in the accus. § 118, 3; loith a division, or separation. Lit. and inade a division, with a separation of the light (to one side, in time), and with a separation of the darkness (to the other) ; = divided between the light and the darkness. 'iJT^nn ; art., form §35, 2, A, a, syntax § 109, 3d H. The place o? Athnach {breathing) is properly about the middle of the verse, which it divides into two nearly equal parts (§ 15, A, I, 2), gener- ally corresponding to a division in the sense. See, e. g. verses 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 14, 17, 20. When, however, the first member of the verse con- sists of several minor divisions, and the second member is short in com- parison, Athnach then stands nearer the end, as in verses 7, 9, 11, 12, 15 ; and vice versa, it is nearer the beginning, when the second member ia made longer by embracing several divisions. V. 5. Cti'JX has two accents, viz. the conj. No. 24, and the disj. No. 20. The latter shows its relation to the sentence ; the former is added to mark the tone-syllable, which the other, from its position, would not do. lixb (lixrib) ; §35, 1, and Re?n. 2, §102, 2, b. nv, §96 : 5/;^ o-. /of Parad. I ; plur., of Parad. II. ^T?n^); ), ), -0, ami ;|Tyn. rh->}{b'^'^, Parad. VI. h) ; ri— . obsolete accusative ending § 90, 2 ; b in 2)ause, § 29, 4, a. — — ''T^'^^, as in ver. 3. 1"?:? and "ij^a, Parad. VI, a and c. "ins, cardinal for ordinal, lex. 2. Meaning: And there was evening (i. e. evening came on, the close of a period of light), 28 HEBREW CHRESTOMATHT. and there ivas morning (the close of a period of darkness), a first day (comp. § 111, 2, a). The letter S marks a section in the Jewish division of the text. See the Clavis Not. Masoret., letter 's. 3, in Hahn^ and rvO'^ti in Theile. V. 6. ^ryi, as in ver. 3. TT^ (§22, 2, 6), of the form No. 5, §84 ; Parad. III. -lina ; 3, and constr. state of 1\)T\ Par- ad. VI, ^. a:^^n, §88, l', Rem. 2; 13, § 29, 4, a. "^ri'il ; for "^n^l , then "^n;''] §28, 1, then ^rr^^ §24, 1, a; Jussive, § 128, 2, aH(Z let it be. '^'^'^n'a, from b'la iifi/jA. Par/., Parad. B ; let it be dividing = let it divide. D'^'a^ ; b for b, §102, 2, c, /. b , . . "j'^a, iz;i/A a separation of waters towards waters, i. e. so that each body of water should be opposite to the other, facing towards it. — See another explanation in the lex., X!"^. 1, mid. V. 7. (1) from ntoy, Pe guttural, and Lamedh He (see Par- ad. D for initial^ and Parad. P for final syll.), Kal Impf. apoc. with Vav consec, §75, Remarks,'^, d. Snfi^, as in ver. 4. TVT^ ; art., form §35, 1, syntax §109, 3d 1 ; the accent (No. 4) is postpositive (§ 15, Retn. 2), and the tone-syllable must be learned where it is marked by another accent (as in the preceding verse), or from the structure of the word (§ 22, 2, b, and Note). -^ b tT\T\12 ; I'D part of, constr. state of the noun y&, § 154, 3, c ; rinn, space beneath, § 101, 1, a ; b (b in foil, word, § 102, 2, c), belonging to, § 115, 2 ; which are o/(lit. p>tirt of) the under-space belonging to= which are beneath. b b^ia ; ya § 102, 1, b, by § 101, \, a ; part of the upper space belonging to= above. And it becaine so (a fixed, established thing). V. 8. rp"?^ ; ^, \l, §35, 1, and Rem. 2, § 102, 2, c. ^5©, §98 ; a second day, § 111, 2, a. V. 9. ^^1?:^ ; ni)?, Parad. P (comp. §72, Remarks, 10), M/^A. Impf. ; for the /m;j. 3 j)ers. § 127, 3, c ; reflexive, § 51, 2, a. bx, §103, 3, §154, 3, d. Dipia, of the form No. 14, §84 (comp. §85, IV, 14), Parad. III. ^i^"}^) ; !^i?t' {Pe guttural, Ayin guttural, and Lamedh He, Parads. D, E, P) ; Niph. Impf. for the Imp. 3 pers. ; passive, § 51, 2, d : the full instead of the shortened form, § 127, 3, b, extr. •^l?^!!^ ; art., and fern, of the adj. mi (§ 84, 6), like /} '^rjQa. V. 10. nij?iabl ; ni;?ti, of the form No. 14, §84 (comp. §85, V, 14), place of collecting, see the verb, ver. 8 (3) ; constr. state, Parad. IX. n'^^1, Parad. VIII, Expl 8, 1. 1. ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION. 29 V. 11. KtiJnn, Parad. O, Hiph. Impf. apoc. §128, 2. nte?, Parad. VI, h, Expl 6, Remarks, 2. T"}]"^, Hiph. Part. ; syntax §138, 1, Rem. 1. S?"?!, Parad. VI, a, §22, 2, a. "ins, Parad. VI, i, syntax §106, 1. ''"IS liiDV {^6-sep-p^-ri). § 20, 2, a ; nfey (D and P), Kal Part. 'i|3^'a|V ia , § 103, 2, a ; ia . . . ItDX in which, § 123, 1. Above the earth (aloft over), in reference to its towering trunk. V. 12. (1), from TO^, §76, 2, d [Pe Yodh. first class, §69, and Lamedh Aleph ; see Parad. K for the initial, and Parad. O for the final syll.) ; Hiph. Impf. apoc. with Vav cons. § 128, 2, d. b, 1^)3, ^rC:, table, §91, 1. Xn^^r ver. 4, (1). V. 13. {ult.), § 98. V. 14. (3), ver. 3, (3) ; position, § 145, 1, a ; number, § 147, a. (4), "\to (from niK to shine, § 84, 14, comp. § 85, IV, 14, place of shining-, or of giving light) ; defect, written, § 8, 4 ; masc. noun with /em. plur. ending, §87, 4. bi'ianb ; b, lex. C— nb;'>n, see ver. 5. W1 (n;'^), ^aZ Per/ 3 jw^-, with Vav cons. oV the Pe?/ § 49, 1, and § 126, 6, c. nhi«b ; b, lex. A, 2 ; riix, with /em. plur. ending, defect, written (§8,4), in both syllables. n^l'ia (§84, 14, comp. §85, III, 14), Parad. VII ; 'I, § 155, a, 2d T {hendiadys). In the next word (Di'^, ver. 5), 1 is explicative [ibidem), and indeed = namely. And let them be for signs of set periods, even for days and years. D'^2TS , plur. of riDTD ; see § 95, Parad. B, a, and compare lex. V. 15. (1), as in preced. verse. For lights ; ^, lex. A, 2. TSinb ; b, and Hiph. Inf. constr. of ni«, Parad. M. . V. 16. (1), as in ver. 7, (1). ''StD , § 97, 1, and table ; constr state, prop, twain of, comp. §91, 3, Rem. 2. The two lights ; art., see § 111, 1. D'^^'ljin (Parad. Ill), lit. the great ones, an expression of the superlative, § 119, 2 ; positio7i, § 112 1. The greater light, — and the lesser light ; § 119, 1, 4th H For the ruling of the day ; tb^WZ, constr. state of ribtj'a'a (§ 95, Parad. B, and Expl. 1, 3d 1), fern, of the form No. 'l'4, § 83 (comp. § 94, 2, a). [ult.) Parad. II, accus. after i»?:'1 . V. 17. (1), inp, Pe Nun verb, Parad. H, Kal Impf (§66, 2), with Vav cons. QC^; § 103, 1, Rem. 1 ; comp. § 121, 4, Rem. extr. 30 HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. V. 18. (1), % b, bic^. (2), a-, -n, niv (3), ), a n, nb-'b. Y. 19. {nit.) §98. V. 20. y^W, §138, 1, Rem. 1 : comp. lex.'pffi, 1. — "iJ^.? lex. 4, and H^H lex. 3, living animal (collect, animals), in oppo- sition with Vnir. qeir ; q^5>, Parad. M, Pi/eZ Imjjf. (§55, Remarks, 2).-^— ''5S, ver. 2 ; b?, lex. 3, h. V. 21. l^sn, of the form No. 7, § 83. n^nn (lex. n^n, 3), art. § 111, 2, a. bs (bb, Parad. VIII), followed by the art. § HI, 3d 1. Disj. accent Pesiq, table, No. 20. ^iO^""^^ 5 art. §109, 2d H, 2 ; Kal Part. with. fern, ending, §94, 2, b. "itCi?, accus., ivith which the waters creep, or swarm ; comp. references on ver. 20. 5153, Parad. IV ; syntax §106, 1, fowl of wing = winged fowl. V. 22. (1), Parad. E, Piel Impf with Vai consecutive ; with retracted tone § 29, 3, a, and shortened final vowel § 27, 1 ; comp. § 64, Rem. 2, h. (2), see ver. 17. ibi^b (b, nbx, Parad. I), §23, 2 ; a sort of Gertmd {dicendo, §45, 3), in sayings saying. ^15 (and foil, word), Parad. P. Observe the par anomasia, in the three verbs connected by ^. U'^'lZ'^^ ; 3, -n, Q"^, Parad. yill, -in': (nn*!, Parad. P), §75, Remarks, 3, a; comp. §26, 3, a; Jussive. V. 24. (3), comp. ver. 12, (1); here, it is the Jussive. in^m (n^n, §95, Parad. A) ; orig. fern, form n;:n (§80, 2) with the obsolete constr. ending i, §90, 3, h, and Rein. V. 26. (3), §108, 2, b. (5), 3, Qbs, Parad. VI, a, ^5_. (6), n^^^, Parad. I ; §84, 16. ^'^^^^ ; nr^, Parad. P. ra^a ; 3, nW, §95, P^rad. ^, a ; r^ soft, §21, 2, a. V. 27. in"^, see veryi7, (2). nsT, Parad. IV. V. 28. (1), ver. 22. Onb, §102, 2, c, /3, and §103, 2, a, [table.) ™^P^ ; TZJaS, Kal Imp. 2 jylur. 1T1J33, with svff. P (toftZe §58, it,fem. for ??ez«;., comp. §80, 1); — for 1 defectively written, § 9, 9, b, and § 8, 4, i?em. a. V. 29. "'nn:, §66, iZem. 3. DDb, comp. ver. 28, (5). — - ?nT ; 3?nt, Kal Part. Parad. F. i3-^tD^{, comp. on ver. 11. — ^3>nT (see ver. 11), §29, 4, a. {ult.) b, lex. A, 2, mid. ; nbps (1 =d),/em. of bDi5 (§94, 1, £a;5. ParacZ. VI), §95, Parad. d'c, Expl 2. II. ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION. 3l V. 30. n^n m) breath of life; lex. 11JS.3,-1, and n^n, 3. bs-lriK, governed by "^I^rip, ver. 29, (4). 'p''\';, syntax §106, 1, Rem. 1 ; every green herb (lit. all greenness of herbs), viz. of all kinds, §111, 3d T V. 31. littt, §100, 2, 6. (iilt.), §111, 2, «. Ch. II. V. 1. (1); nbs (Parad. P), intrans. to be complete; Piel, causative, to make complete (§ 52, 2, b) ; Pual, j)assive of Piel (§39, 4, table, § 52, 1), ^o be made complete, to be finished; here, Pnal Impf with Far? consec, . . . ^Ai«5 were finished. {lilt.), Parad. IV (final vowel affected in some of its forms by the quiescence oi ^). V. 2. (1), Piel Impf. {p^p^) apoc, §75, 5, and Remarks, 10. (5), from HDSb'a ; for inflection, comp. § 95, ExpL 1, 3d 1". The proper form of the noun is '^^5<^^ (/e^'i- of the form No. 14, §83), Parad. B. c, in §95. But the sound of X is lost to the ear, and its vowel is consequently heard in connection with b, which it unites in a syllable with itself, §23, 2. The short, closed syllable before it, losing the sup- port of its final consonant, becomes a half-syllable ; comp. Sect. V, Bute vi. — On the seventh day. The meaning is : that the beginning of the sev- enth day closed the work of the preceding days, which continued through the sixth, and closed on (i. e. with the beginning of) the seventh. It might appear superfluous to remark this, so obviously consonant with the simplicity of the style ; had not inattention to the writer's manner led to a change of the text (seventh to sixth, in the Sept. »fec.), lest the sanctity of the Sabbath should seem to have been violated by its Author. ( Ult.), b, nils?, a kind of gerundial form, § 45, 3. • • • i^na niicyb created in making, i. e. made by creation ; the first verb qualifying the second, § 142, 4, Rem. 1. II. MORE PARTICULAR ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION OF THE FIRST HUMAN PAIR, AND OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES IN WHICH THEY WERE PLACED. Genesis, ch. ii. 4—25. The first three verses of this chapter belong to the general account of creation given in ch. i, and should have been included in it. V. 4. (1); §34, table ; phir, to correspond with the noun. (2), of the form No. 27, § 84, comp. § 85, III, 27 ; lex. 2. — (5), 32 HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. a, i{'ia?l, Niph. Inf. constr. with suff. D— , §45, 1 ; shortening of the final, prosodially long vowel. Sect. V, Rule vi ; in their being created = when they were created (§ 132, Nos. 2 and 3). The circle on T\ (§ 17) refers to the note in the margin {He par- vum). Lit. in the day of Jehovah God's making earth and heaven. The Inf. has here its subject in the genitive ; this fol- lows first, and then its object in the accusative ; see § 133, Nos. 2 and 3. V. 5. bs is followed by a verb with a negation (contained in D^lt?) ; any plant of the field was not yet in the earth = there was yet no plant of the field in the earth. See § 152, 1, 2d 1". Plant of the field = fie]d-p\sint, viz. wild plants; lex. fTlte, 1, extr. n^lto, Parad. IX. ^DTJ {7wt yet, lex. 2), with the Impf § 127, 4, a, and Note t. ^'''^^^ {Hiph. Perf) ; posi- tion, §145, 1, d. X!^., lex. 2, and Note at the end. 1h?b for tilli?ig, § 45, 3. {idt.), § 95, Parad. B, c. V. 6. The Impf. nbs?;' (nb:?, Parads. D and P), expresses the continued ascent of vapors, from time to time (§ 127, 4, b) ; on the contrary, the watering of the ground (as a single act, com- pleted at once), is expressed by the Perfect tense, . . . and it wa- tered, &c. The Vav is here a simple conjunction. V. 7. (1), from "IS^ of the second class of verbs Pe Yodh, Parad. L, see § 69, 2d H ; lex. (both under one root) No. 2. The proper to7ie of the word (on the penultimate, § 29, 3, a), is not marked here by the written accent (the co?ij. little Telisha, No. 28) ; see § 15, Remarks, 2. Final syll. as in ver. 3, (1). D'IbJJI, art. §109, 2. IBS', of dust, accus. of material, §139, 2,' 2d 1.- ^ns^l, from'ns;, Parad. H.- ^^B«^ ; ^, B« (contr. of Sl3i<, § 19, 2, a, and 2d l, §93, E3:pl. 8, 2), Dual with suff. §91, 2 ; i7ito his nostrils, lex.vji? (II). •^'312?? ; here in the ong.feni. form (§ 80, 2, 2d If) for the constr. state (§ 89, 2, b) ; Parad. A, p. 175, the first syllable being unchangeable by posi- tion, §25, 3, and Note. D'l^n, Parad. VIII, §93, Expl. 8, 1 ; plur. §108, 2, a; breath o/ Zi/e == life-breath. {tdt.), see lex. m:, 4, and n^H, 3. V. 8. (1), 5?t:5, Parads. H and F.^ — -)^, Parad. VIII, Expl. 8, 1. ni)^, )12, § 154, 3, c; lit. part of the east, 07i the east, viz. of the writer and the readers whom he had in view. n. ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION. 33 t3TC^T ; d^te and Q'TC, Kal Impf. §73, 2, mid. Observe the division of the verse, and the correct accentuation of each word, by the accents. V. 9. (1), Hiph. Impf. apoc. (§ 65, 1, last IF), with Vav cons. §128, 2, d. "im, Niph. Part., §134, 1, at the end. nsn^', § 84, 14, Parad! IX. ^Di?^, ibid. Parad. II. D^t'nn ; lex.' "^n (Parad. VIII), B^ subst. plur., §108, 2, a; art. §111, 1. ^ina, ver. 6, (5). n?^ (S?'!^ Parads. K and F), Kal I?if. with fern, ending-, §69, 1, 4th IF, and 3, Ref?i. 1 ; used as a verbal noun (§ 83, 1 and 2), § 85, III, 10), and as such governing the case of its verb (here the accus.), § 133, 1. 2d IF. (nit.), ), §104, 2, d; y^, §29,4, a. V. 10. (1), Parad. IV. (2), X2^, Kal Part., syritax § 133, 2, c. (4), njpffi, Parad. P, H^ip/i. /n/. with b ; comp. §52, 3, Rem. 7. nii^] 1, yn, DTB, §150, 1, and '2d T '^nB^ M/:>/i. Impf. This is analogous to the case given in § 127, 4, a ; thenceforth having the same influence on the use of the tense, whether referring to space or time. "^^0% §125, 6, a. (wZ^.)f lex. TCS5-I (I), prop. TC^JT, Parad. VI, c ; hence, pliir. D^T2?iJ"l, Expl. 6, Rem. 3, 2d 1, and tlien W'm'} § 23, 2, of Parad. I. For the /orm and gender of the numeral, see § 97, 1. V. 11. (1), Parad. VII. (2), ver. 5, {iilt.) (3), §84, 15. (5), 130, Parad. G, Kal Part, with art. ; syntax § 110, 3, Rem. That traverses, lex. 2. ^Z^ #Ae la^id of Havilah ; art. with the gen. § 111, 1 ; bb followed by the art. § 111, 3d IT. mr...niCS, in Theile, and '0,-3, /?), in Hahn. V. 16. 'i^'i^'y) i^^l: Parads, P and D), Hiph. Inf. ahsol. ; see § 75, Remarks, 14, where by the pleo7iastic Inf. is meant (more properly speaking) its intensive use in § 131, 3 ; / will with tmiltijilying multiply = 1 will greatly multiply.; T-^^?, of the form No. 15, §83; Parad. III. linn (comp. §83, 15); Parad. I. Thy pai7i and thy conception {hendiadys, § 155, 1, a, 2d 1^) = thy pains of conception, i. e. consequent upon it. 22? , Parad. VI, a ; lex. 3. 'I'lbn ; 'lb;', Parad. K, § 69, 1.— 'o^sa, §96, 'J3. njpwn (§ 85', IV, 27), Parad. A; de- sire (or, resort), indicating dependence. (penult.), btij, shOl, without the tone, §16, 1, §27, 1. (tdt.), §103, 2, table, a; a, §140. V. 17. T\^^T\if.,fe?n. (see masc. in ver. 14), § 94, 1, III ; jyosi- tion, § 145, i, b. ^ij^a3?|3 (n for n, §29, 4, b, extr.), see lex. I^ay, A, 2. Another solution : I'lay the act of passing or of being passed (from one to another) ; with 2 pretii (lex. 3, B, 3), n^aya/or ^/ie exchange of = in exchange for ; then, more gene- rally, on account of. HsbDiin ; suff. § 58, 4 ; prosodially long vowel shortened, Sect. V, Rule vi ; 5, comp. p. 34, at the top, b. V. 18. n^nn, a Pilpel form, § 85, II, at the end. ?yb (in pause), § 103, 2, table, a), 2, ?7i ; dative of the one affected. V. 19. (1), TOT, Parad. A ; of the form No. 10, § 85, III. (So lex. ; Fiirst (concordance), of the form No. 2, § 85, IV ; but par- tially retracted in his hebr. u. cliald. Handworterbuch.) (2), see ii. 7, (10). (3), with retracted tone (as shown by the ac- cent), §29, 3, b. nnb, p. 170, last H. ^'ird, Parad. M ; §132, 1. "^3; see lex. ''S (I), A, (whence thou wast taken-, § 123, 1) ; but the signif. for (lex. B, 2, a, mid.) is equally perti- nent. V. 20. (ult.), lex. A, 1. V. 21. (1), see i. 7, (1). ni;n| (k6th) ; lex. n:h3, nearly as Parad. D, b ; see the forms in the lex. The j^lur. constr rV. DEATH OF ABEL. 39 takes in the first syllable a slioitening of the radical vowel sound; comp. §61, 1. {^ilt.), tJ^b, Hiph. Impf. with Yax consec, and siiff. D— §58, 1, table. V. 22. (4), lex. in (II). "JS, ver. 3, {pemdt.).- ^m ; i^n, Parad. G, Kal Per/, with Vav consec, as also the two pre- ceding verbs. (ult.), Parad. II. Behold, the man is become as one of us, to know good and evil ; as one of us in respect to this. To know for himself is the meaning ; to decide for himself what is good and what is evil, and to make his own choice irrespective of his Creator's will. In this respect, man had becoine as God to himself, his own will being now his supreme law. V. 23. (1), nbtD, Piel Imp/., with Vav consec. and siiff.; prop. nb'lB'^ (^65, 1, c), tone-long vowel shortened before suff., Sect. V, Ride vi ; on the contrary, Kal Impf. nb©^ (short — ), with suff. '^pnbtp';'. Rule i ; !l, therefore.^ analogous to the case in § 129, 2, Rem. a. [idt.\ see ii. 10 ; with the sign of relation.^ § 123, 1. Y. 24. (1), Parad. E, Piel; ?, §22, 1, and 5, a. b D'!]^^, at the east of {ox simply, before) ; lex. d*!)?, 2 init. ; lit. part of the east = on the east ; b q/", § 115, 2. ^^"^S, Parad. I. lanb, §106, Rem. 1 ; the glittering sword, art. §111, 1. The use of the article here, and with the preceding noun, shows that these terms represented well known and familiar conceptions. ^Sn, to turn ; Hithp. Part, (with fern, ending, §94, 2, 6), reflexive, § 54, 3 ; art. § 109, 2d ^, 2. Way to the tree, § 114, 2, near the end. IV. DEATH OP ABEL : IMMEDIATE DESCENDANTS OF CAIN. Genesis, eh. iv. V. 1. nnni ; rr\r\, §75, 3, d. "ibni, iii. i6, (9). 'TT'S]?, Parad. P. ©"'X, lex. 1. TX. prep., ivith. lex. nx (11);2. V. 2. (1), 51D^, Parad. K, Hiph. Impf apoc. ; ^7S, table, with the following Inf. as its complement. § 142, 2. (2), ^b^, §69, 1, Inf.; with b, §102. 2, Rems. c, a. T^HS, §96. — - 22 " ' 40 HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. niTI, Parad. IX, constr. state of Kal Part. Parad. P ; syntax §135, 2. 1iil% §108, 1. Y 3. Vi?^ ; lex. p, 4, c, and 71? (§85, II, 2, Parad. VIII), 2. Days ^ some days, § 124, Rein. 5. {penult.), Parad. A. {ult.), §102, last II. In this sentence, one qualifying- circumstance (of time) is placed before the verb, and another (of material) after it ; compare §145, 1. V. 4. nilbril2; ^^, §154, 3, c, lex. 1, b.^ And of their fat : "jri—. for ']rii— . , snff. to a j)lur. noun defectively written, §91, 2, Rem. 1. The 5?/^. refers to nilba ; and the noun is plural, because the fat of more than one is meant, as in Levit. ix. 19. It has been rendered ya^/m^5 of them, i. e. of the flock (1^2), but improperly. i^Vt, Kal Impf. V. 5. "IH!*!?? lex. ?|, ^; suffi.v used objectively, § 121, 5 ; /or my wound, i. e. a wound inflicted on me. [ult.), my, as before. V. 24. (2), see on ver. 15. Should Cain be avenged, § 127, 5. -• — {penult.), § 97, 3. The order, usual in the earlier writers {ibidem), is reversed in order to give seventy the emphatic position. The oldest specimen of the poetical form of composition. It is the language of one glorying in an act of revenge ; and boasting that the sevenfold vengeance, promised to Cain, should be light compared with what he would inflict. It seems to have been preserved as an expres- sion of the spirit of the time. V. 25. "liy, §100, 2, 6.- Tit, see on iii. 15, (2). "^S, relative pronoun, giving a relative sense to the following stiff. (§ 123, 1) ; see lex. ''3 (I), A, mid. But if we take this clause as the explanation of the narrator, the signif. /or is appropriate. V. 26. {jirst clatise), §121, 3, extr. bn^n ; bbn, Parad. G, Hophal, impersonally (§ 137, 2), it was begun, cosptuni est, = men began. This case is distinguished, by the nature of the act, from the one in § 127, 3. d. 3 nyb ; lex. «np (I), 2, g, /?. V. ACCOUNT OF THE FLOOD. 43 |I3^ It is not intended to make any further allusion, except in special cases, to the numerous points already explained by reference to the grammar ; and the student should, therefore, carefully review them all. before he proceeds. This will be an easy task, if the passages referred to have been marked in the grammar, as recommended. V. ACCOUNT OF THE FLOOD. Genesis, chs. vL-viii. Ch. vi resumes the account of the two lines of descent from Adam, through Cain (ch. iv), and through Seth (ch. v), and describes the effect of their union by intermarriages, in the universal corruption of the hu- man race. Y. 1. (3), see iv. 26, (11). nib ; nan, Kal Inj, ; §142, . nisa, §96, na. V. 2. (1), 1 that; §129, 2, Note *. Sons of God; his worshippers, lex. "ja, 9, c (not angels, letter a ; an opinion based on a false theory of the passage). The descendants of Seth are meant ; among whom, as a people, the worship of the true God had thus far been maintained. Daughters of man. is the appropriate designation for the females of the other race, who were not worshippers of the true God. tiab ; lex. ait2, 1, a, a ; observe the prevalence of the scriptio defectiva, throughout these earliest specimens of Hebrew writing. '^np^'1, ii. 15, (1) ; )?, §20, 3, h. Of all whom they chose, probably indi- cates the abuse of the marriage relation, by the introduction of folygamy, among the descendants of Seth ; which is the most natural, though not the necessary, meaning of the words. Y. 3. 'ji'l^ (comp. § 72, Remarks, 2, and 4), from ']1^ or 'ji'1 = Y"^, §73, 2. See lex. 'j'^'^f, 2, and letter a. Here it means, to act the part of a judge, or magistrate, in rej)roving and pnnishing. nil , lex. 4, the last two offices there ascribed to it. DatJa, for their transgressing; a, lex. B, 5, b ; WIS (lex. 2), Parad. G, Kal Inf. § 67, Remarks, 3 ; suff. D— . Compare John xvi. S, and 2 Peter ii. 5. The meaning is : this course of proba- tionary and punitive discipline shall not continue on without end. "^i?? ; \i\s frailty axid mortality dixevaedini; comp. lex. 44 HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. 2 and 3. ^'^n, § 126, 4. A hundred and twenty years ^ this period shall still be allowed him, for repentance and refor- mation ; comp. 1 Peter iii. 20. V. 4. (1), see lex. b^Bp, at the end. The literal meaning is given in the ancient Gr. version of Aquila {ol tncTviTVTOVTtQ), and the sense in that of Syinmachns {ol /ScaTot), as there quo- ted. Men of violence, the article denoting a known and dreaded class ; comp. also § 109, 2. Q^'^j 5 122, 1. ~D^1 and also, lex. 2 (not 3). After (it was) so that = after that ; see lex. nnx, Plur., 4, and mOi|t, B, 1. lNh;;i, §76, 6 ; comp. on ii. 19. Then they bore to them = bore them sons, the verb used absolutely; 1 before the apodosis, §155, a, 3d 1^. ^'^'Oj § 122, 1, 2d TI ; {2(lt.), §111, 1. • The mighty men, — the men of name = m,en of renown (lex. DTI?, 2, a, mid.) ; the predicate here requires the art., as a particular and well known class of men are designated. V. 7. From — to, lex. ']12, 3, a. V. 8. {penult.), X^V, Parad. VI, h. Here begins one of the greater sections in the Jewish division of the text, marked by the triple S (see Clavis Not. Masoret., letter S, 3, in Hahn, and n^^S in Theile), and followed by the number two (2 3), being the second in order ; the third begins with the twelfth chapter. V. 9. (2), comp. on ii. 4, (2). (6), adj., as an epithet, placed after the subst. (§112, 1, and Rem. 1) ; (7), as predicate, is placed first in the clause ; perfect icas he. rii{, lex. rs (11)^ 2. -^bn, Hithp. 2. V. 10. (3), §97, 1, §120, 1, h. V. 11. (3),lex.n2S, '' with preps.,'' 1} A, h,2A%,h. {nit.), the second accus. after the Pass, of a verb governing two (§ 143, 1, §139, 2). V. 12. (6), for the new, penultimate syllable. see §29, 4, b ; comp. ii. 25, {iilt.). ^^2'\'] : 1\y},. Parad. VI, a. V. 13. X3, ver. 4, (10). Before me ; see ver. 11, (3)- liere as in b, 1st H, at the end. — — Is full of, with the accus., §138, 3, b. DH^pBtl, lex. F, 2. -"DSn, §98, 5. About to destroy, § 134, 1. V. 14. (4), 7?, § 108, 4, Rem. 1, and lex. 2, Plur. D'-sp ; for the construction, see TVSiV, 2, a, extr. (§139, 2); but also, §118, 3, loith cells shalt thou make the ark. f^!"^^ ; lex. n^a, 7. {penult.), pn, 2, c. {ult.), § 109, 3, Re7n. b. V. ACCOUNT OF THE FLOOD. 45 V. 15. STBi?, §118, 3 ; th7-ee himdreds, by the cubit ; i. e with the cubit as the unit of measure. '^^n'l (^n'l). V. 16. (1, 5, & 6), see lex. ins. (6), ii. 2, (1); §58, 4. nb^^b^ ; lex. byw (II), 4. finsa (T^, §93, Expl. 8, last 1, §27, i?em. 3). Dl'rinn and the two foil, words ; §86, 5, §93, Expl. 8, 3, syntax § 118, 3 ; with loioer, second, and third (stories) shalt thou make it (or, with a different construction, § 139, 2). V. 17. (1), § 145, 2, contrasted with ver. 21, (1). (2), nsn, § 100, 5, §75, Remarks, 19, §20, 3, b; ^ex. 2d 1, mid. ^ D^^, the adverbial accus., § 118, 3, at the end. -Wiri'a ; see on i. 7 and 9.^ {ult.), §72, Remarks, 10. V. 18. (1); to7ie, §49, 3 ; comp. § 126, 6, Rem. 1. ^m, § 103, 1, Re7?i. 1. V. 19. (2) ; art. with — , comp. §35, 2, A, a. The asterisk refers to the marginal note (' the He with Qamets ') ; Clavis, letter n, 1 and 2. bs followed by art. § 111, 3d 1. Aiid of all the living- of all flesh, tioo of all shalt thou bring. f^'^nnb | n^^n, Parad. P; b, §45, 3. V. 20. (1) ; 1^, § 102, 1, Rem. 6 ; n, § 35, 2, B, a. V. 21. (1), contrasted with ver. 17, (1). (2), § 66, Rem. 2. bDiJi, § 127, 3, d. And collect, § 126, 6, c. (tilt.) ; b, lex. A, 2. V. 22. A7id Noah did (it); §121, 6, Rem. 2.' {seco?id clause) ; arrangement of words, § 145, 1, a, at the end. Ch. VII. V. 1. Thee, § 145, 1, c, § 121, 3, Rem. Before me, lex. D, 1. V. 2. (3), adj. with art. § 111, 2. Seven, seven (= by sevens), distributively (§120, 5) for seven of each. A male and its mate, lex. i2?''X, 1. Which not clean (is) it = which is not clean, § 121, 2. V. 4. For nnto days yet seven (that being the limit of time, at which the act should take place) = in seven days ; comp. lex. b, B, 2, c. rr^ (in the sing.), § 120, 2. — Dip;"?! ; art. §35, i, at the end. b:PT3. § 154, 2. V. 5. {pemilt.), with suff. nn_, §75, Rem. 19. V. 6. "ja, § 106, 2, c. n:TC ; the object numbered is con- ceived as the accusative (§ 120, 1, b), six Jiundreds by the year (§ 118, 3), viz. as the unit of measure. And the flood icas 46 HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. ( = when the flood came) ; waters upon the earthy dli'a being in apposition with b^^'sn. V. 7. (1), § 148, 2. From before (with the idea ofjlecin^ or escaping impHed) ; lex. n:s, F, 1, V. 8. "IT^X gives a relative sense to the following suff. pron., § 123, 1. — - ^SD\^?, § 100, 5. V. 9. (1 & 2), § 120, 5. V. 10. rynicb (§97, 1), to the seven of clays (= a week), viz. the one named in ver, 4 ; hence the art., § 120, 4, Rem. 1 ; for b, comp. on ver. 4, (2). Observe the septimal division of time, through- out this account of the flood. '')ai ; '^ . § 152, a, 3d 1. y. 11. In the year of six hundred years, i. e, in the year that completed that number of years ; but comp. § 120, 4. Of the life of Noah ; 5, § 115, 2, b. t^nb ; b, § 115, 2, c. V. 12. (2), the heavy rain just before referred to, by the open- ing of the windows of heaven ; hence the art. § 109, 3d ?I. V. 13. (1), §124, Rem. 3, mid. V. 14. {ult.), of every wing (§ 106, 1), i. e. of every species. V. 15. In ivhich was the breath of life ; lex. tl^"!; 1, h. V. 16. (1), § 109, 2d 1, § 145, 2, a 7nale and afeinale, of all flesh, came they. {ult.), lex. 2, mid. V. 17. "^W^ ; iito: (§ 76, 2, a), to without Dagh. § 20, 3, b. U'yP\^ ; UT\ (lex. 1), Kal Impf. apoc. with tone retracted by Vav consec, § 72, Remarks, 4, mid. V. 19. ^^T.l] r\iD'2,FualIfnpf Dinnn (nn, Parad. VIII) ; art. §3.5, 2, B,'a.-^V. 21. Cjiys ; lex. S, 2, c. V. 22. "iTiJiH gives a relative sense (§ 123, 1) to the suff. in T^SS? (see on ii. 7); H'affiD, lex. 2 ; iii ivhose nostrils was the breath of the spirit of life, i. e. the breath that sustains the spirit of life, the vital principle. {penult.), 3, §102, 2, b; art. §35, 2, B, b. {?ilt.), §72, Remarks, 1. V. 23. (1), nn'a, Nlph. Impf. apoc, § 75, Remarks, 8 ; syn- tax §143, 1, a. V. 24. {penult.), §120, 1, Rem. Oh. VIII. V. 1. {penult.)', ^DTT, Parad. G, Kal Impf V. 3. ni^l tribn, § 131, 3, Rem. 3. V. 4. (1), n^3, Kal Impf. apoc, §72, Reniarks, 4, at the end. V. 5. "^iDn"! libri, § 131, 3, Rem. 3 ; here in the accus. used V. ACCOUNT OF THE FLOOD. 4t adverbially (see No. 2 of that § ), and with the subsL verb ex pressing state or condition, — were continually decreasing. V. 6. The loindow ; art., as in Engl, and other languages, V. 7. The raven, with the art. as the name of a class or species. Went forth, with going forth and ivith returiiing (§131, 3, 6), i. e. continued to go out from the ark and to return to it, till the drying up of the waters. ^^2? (^r?^), § 69, Rem. I, at the end. V. 8. The dove ; art. as in ver. 7. ^>;?n ; bbjp, Kal Perf.^ lex. 3. ^V. 9. nn]5!'1 ; with suff. H-, iS'ect V, Rule vi. V. 10. (1), from b^n and b^n (§73, 2, mid.), Parad. N, Kal Impf. apoc, with retracted tone ; for signif. see lex. No. 6. qD^1,see §78,qD\ V. 11. (4), b, § 154, 3, e, 2d "H ; lex. B, 2. '^''^^j see § 96, HS ; all the forms are given in the lex. V. 12. (1), from bn^, Niph. Impf (with tone retracted); see §69, Rem. 5. V. 13. "ilTCSina, on the first (§98), viz. month. nc^l ; I^D, Hiph. Impf apoc, §72, Remarks, III, N. B. V". 17. Niin, Hiph. Imp. ; the points belong to the marginal reading (§ 17), comp. § 70, 2 ; the pointing of the text would be X2in. ^2:nTC1, Kal Perf with the force of the Imp., §126, 6, c ; and let them swarm in the earth, i. e. scatter abroad and occupy it. And let them be fruitful, and let them multiply on the earth ; nns and 3nn , in Kal Perf. with Imper. sense, as before ; tone (of the second word), § 49, 3. V. 20. (1), npa, §75, Remarks, 3, a. (3), Parad. VII, Expl. 7, a. (4), § 102, last T by>^ ; nby, Hiph. Impf apoc. n'bi) ; lex. nbi), 2. V. 21. (1), nil, Hiph. Impf apoc, §72, Remarks,!!!,^. B. nh^p, noun of Parad. I; art., §111, 1; the siveet fra- grance, namely of the sacrifice just mentioned. ?lDi5 {script. defect., §8, 4, Rem. b); see ver. 10. ^bbp, Piel Inf.; comp. §67, 1, at the end. "i^a?3 ; comp. on in. 17. "T^nS?? (y — >y, p. 29, 9, b), § 108, 2, a. nisnb (nap, Parads. H & P) ; § 142, 2. V. 22. (1), lex. ^iy, 3 ; yet all the days of the earth {accus. of time how lotig, § 118, 2, 6), i. e. so long as they continue. — — • The succeeding words are grouped thus, by the accents (day 48 HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. and night distinguished from the seasons by a greater pause) ; seed-time, and harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter, — and day and night, — shall not cease. f'?)?) l^^- ^- nb'i'b (old accus. form used as nominative), p. 144. Note *, 3. nniij, lex. 2. VI. jotham's parable. Judges, ch. ix. 1-21. V. 1. (1), Vav consec. §129, 2. nT2?T)3 (lex. DD», 3); accus. local, § 90, 2, a (lex., erroneously, STOpTJ? ; comp. Rodiger, Thes. p. 1408). ^ni|!, §96, HiJ ; kindred, lex. 2. And to all the family of his mother'' s ancestral house, i. e. to which it belonged ; see lex. ti^3, 11, and nnStC^, 2. V. 2. N5, p. 192, Note, a, § 130, 2d 1. b:?a, lex. 3. biij^n ; n, § 100, 4, i?ew. 2 (Da^A. omitted, §20, 3, h) ; Db?— ri, utrum — an, § 153, 2. Comp. § 133, 2, at the end. And re- member, § 126, 6, c. {ult.), §29, 4, h, at the end. V. 3. 'T'by (§ 103, 3), lex. b?, 2, e. 13?1 ; npp (§76, 2, h), Kal Tmpf. apoc. ; final vowel lengthened, § 20, 3, a ; see lex. 3, at the end. V. 4. (1), )t}2. ^Seventy, (fcc, § 120, 4, Rem. 2. House = temple ; lex. 4. b^3, lex. 5, a. V. 5. nnnSi? (/o Ophra) accus. local, §90, 2, a. nns (in pause; see §96, If^i*) ; construed as an adjective, §97, 1. "in^, M;jA. T?npf. The youngest, § 119, 2. (zfZ^), iVi^jA. Perf, reflexive, § 51, 2, a. V. 6. (1), Niph. Impf Xi!3)3, lex. b. Made A. king, here with l^"!?^, pleonastically ; lex. ^jbia, Hiph. mid. 05?, 6y, lex. 2. The oak, 2|, § 106, 2, 6, lex. bya, 4. That I may go, § 128, 1, c. {pemilt.), lex. 'J''?, 2, c. ^V. 8. <^bib, acciis. oi time when (§ 118, 2, a) ; see p. 44, Note *, 3. ''''310)5 (marg. note, Vav is superjlvous) ; the pointing is for '^'53p|5 [qb-s^-mi), with the final o sound partially preserved (p. 34, 2d H), the corres- ponding short vowel being supplied before it, as in Parad. E. For the form in the text (final vowel retained), comp. the analo- gous case in ? 47, Rem. 1, c. "^^^5 ^ 123, 2, at the end. yq^, §68, 2. V. 9. The second "itOS? is a relative conj. that (lex. B, 1). ^i^^']r^,art., §109,1. nnx, §134, 2, «. ■'n, lex. A, 1, mid. DS,' § 155, 2,/, 2d 1[. xi'^^ (nnp), Kal Impf., with siiff. § 75, Re7n. 19 ; the Dagh. (p) is euphonic, § 20, 2, 6 ; marg. note, the p dagheshed. V. 12. (1), § 75, Remai^ks, 3, c. i^or ^Aoi< art Said ; 1, § 155, 1, c. Her terror indicates the actual appearance of the prophet, and unex- pectedly to herself. The suggestion (Thenius in loc.) that she feigned terror, in order the more effectually to deceive Saul, is an assumption merely, and is contradicted by the whole pasi^age. From the well known relation of the two parties, thus confronted again by a divine power, she inferred the person and rank of her visitor. V. 13. bx, § 127, 3, c. -t3-'nbS5, lex. B, 5, '' a godhke form." Strictly : / see a god ascending out of the earth (i. e. a being superhuman, in her view accounted a god). D'^bj? ; Hby , Kal Part. nbl>, Parad. IX. nx'n, Parad. VI, /. -niy, see lex. 2. Ip^l ; lex. Tip (II) ; loith the face earthward. {iilt.^, see § 75, Remarks, 18. V. 15. 12 ; T\'t (lex. 2, c), Perf. 3d sing., used impersonally, § 137, 2. ■ D^n'bKI ; x:i, §23, 2. ^^V12 ; see lex. by, C, ^TQ (II), 2, at the end. "S<"?pi<3 (^ §49, 2, a), Kal Impf, cohor- tative form (with n_ for n_), §48, 3, Rem. ; syntax § 128, 1, e. 3?^^ ; with suff. §61, 1. V. 16. bs©n, with suff., Sect. V, Rule VI. Why then shonldst thou ask me, when Jehovah has turned away from thee, and is become thine enemy'} YIII. NATHAN'S PAEABLE. 51 V. 17. na^, §52, Rem. 1, at the end. "jn^l, with suff. (tone-long vowel shortened, Sect. V, Rule vi). In the Avords, hath done to him. David is naturally implied ; but some prefer the reading ^b, for which there is some authority. V. 18. (1), because ; see ItpSS, 1, c, in the lex. after the article 3. His fierce anger ; the suff. belongs to the complex idea, § 121, 6. Y. 20. (1), § 64, 3. (1 ^"?'- see §108, 2, 6, end, and lex. Plur. House of Israel, 5ari niTU. The differ- ent interpretations of this title are given in Gesenius' Lexicon. The one proposed by him (and approved by De Wette, Bib. Repos. vol. iii. p. 477), fails unless it is applicable to every psalm in the collection ; for why should any other be reckoned a psalm of gradations in that sense, a name founded solely on the structure of the psalm ? There is more probability in the suggestion, Lex. 4, a, /5, viz. that this was a collection, made from psalms already in use, of such as were X., XI. HUMILITY— FRATERNAL UNION. 59 adapted for the devotions of those who went up to the annual feasts, both while on their way and during their stay at Jerusalem. On this supposition, it is not necessary that every one of the number should have a direct and specific reference to the occasion, as if written ex- pressly for it ; it is enough, if the devotional spirit of the psalm is in harmony with it. — They may properly be called Pilgrim Songs. X. PROFESSION OP HUMILITY. Psalm cxxxi. V. 1. Tl*!^ ; ^ [Lamedh auctoris), § 115, 2, a, end, Jnaa, §75, 3d l.-^-^m (Din), lex. 1, a. 3 1\)>7) (lex. Piel, 1), to go about in = to concern one's self with. In great matters ; fern, as neut.^ §107, 3, and letter h. {penult.), ^'"^, Niph. Part.} lex. Niph. 2. (nit.), §103, 2, c; )^, §119,' 1, and lex. 5, b ; too difficult for me. V. 2. (1 & 2) ; § 155, 2,/, 2d 1. (3), § 72, Remarks, 10. -(4) ; nm, Poel, § 55, 1. — b^a (lex. b)35, II, 1), Kal Part. pass. As one weaned (as a weaned child) upon its mother, — or, with its mother (lex. by, 3, d) ; as a weaned child is my spirit within me (letter e). V. 3. (1), bn^, Piel Imp. ; hope, O Israel! bs, indica- ting the direction of hope, to the source of the expected blessing. XI. PRECIOUSNESS OP FRATERNAL UNION. Psalm cxxxiii. V. 1. niTS (nc;^, Kal Inf.), § 133, 2. — D5, makes the fol- lowing word emphatic (§155, 2, a); in union. V. 2. As the precio7is ointment ; see the description and use of this "holy anointing oil," in Ex. xxx. 23-33. The second member should close with flH^, as indicated by Athnach and required by the sense. ■ nn^T» ; -tD for n^CX, § 36. "^S ; lex. ns, 2, mid. — r\ya, lex. 2. V. 3. Second member : Tl^tD •, 3 is here implied from tlic 60 HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. preceding member (§ 154, 4), the pronoun including antecedent and relative (§ 123, 2) ; as that which descends. "l^n, Parad. IV, plur. constr. XII. A GENERAL PSALM OF THANKSGIVING. Psalm cxxxvi. The Psalm consists of three parts ; in which God is praised, 1) as the Supreme God and Creator (vs. 1-9), 2) for national blessings (vs. 10-25), 3) for his universal bounty (ver. 25). V. 1. (1), nn^, Hiph. Imp. For good (is he); see on Gen. i. 4. V. 3. (2) ; marg. note : i< movable {m,obilis, p. 26, note *), in distinction from "^Hi?^, § 23, 2. at the end. V. 4. (2), see lex. xbs, Niph. 3. i^nb, see on Gen. ii. 18. , V. 6. (1), Kal Part. co?istr. §65, 1, c, Rem. ^V. 8. For dominion over the day ; — (ver. 9) in the plur., referring to the separate dominion of the moon and of the stars. V. 10. (1), nD3 (§ 76, 2, b), Hiph. Part., Parad. IX. (3), a. lex. B, 5. V. 11. (1), transition from the Part, to the finite verb, § 134, Bern. 2. (3), ))2, 1\)r^ (Gen. i. 6), D_. V. 12. (4), nt23, Kal Part. pass. fern. V. 13. (4), b, lex. A, 2. V. 14. (1), as in ver. 11. V. 15. (1), (lex. "i?3 , II), Piel Perf., § 64, 3 ; shake otit, as one shsikes out the contents of the lap ; see Neh. v. 13. V. 16. (1), § 69, Rem. 8. V. 18. (1), as in ver. 11. V. 19. (1), b, § 154, 3, e, end ; lex. A, 3, g. (3), § 109, 1. V. 21. (1), And he gave (or made), begins a new construc- tion. (3), b, lex. A, 2. V. 22. (2), b, sign of the dative (§117, 1) with the first signif ofins,— or of the gen. (§115, 2) with the second. V. 23. (1), -ID §36, a, bsTC Parad. VI, b, snff. ^2- ; who, in our humiliation ; viz. under the Babylonian power. (3), §103, 2, a; b, as in ver. 19. V. 24. (1), p-?B, Kal Impf. with suff. ; tone-long vowel shortened, Sect. V, Rule vi ; § 129, I. (2), -12, lex. B, 1, Parad. VIII. V. 25. (1), giving = who giveth — the giver of. ym THE CAPTIA^ITY. 61 XIII. THE captivity: a commemorative psalm. Psalm cxxxvii V. 1. (1), § 154, 3, h, lex. 3, a. ba3, the province (lex.) through which the captives were dispersed. ^3"lp|a ; §61, 1, § 132, 2. V. 2. (2), lex. nnr II. hi her midst; for the fern, see § 107, 4, a. {ult.), masc. with fern. plur. ending, §87,4. The weeping willow is here meant, which grew by the water-courses (Is. xliv. 4, XV. 7, Job xl. 22, and Lev. xxiii. 40). The last reference suggests the particular occasion of the incident alluded to in the follow- ing verses ; viz. the great feast of tents after the harvest, the festival of thanksgiving for the fruits of the earth, and also of commemoration for the deliverance from Egypt (Lev. xxiii. 39-43), when willows of the brook (ver. 40) were gathered as a part of the joyful pageant. This season of festivity Avas now turned to mourning ; and the willow, so asso- ciated with it, need not be taken (as by Lengerke and others) for an ideal symbol. Such a season of mourning seems alluded to in Ezek. iii. 15, compared with Lev. xxiii. 41. V. 3. (3), bit© ; see § 64, Rem. 1, and comp. § 59, 2, table, plur. 3d com. ; with two accusatives, § 139, 2. The first mem- ber of this verse should end with this word. (4) ; HiT^, Kal Part., Pa,rad. IX, with the norninal suff. (§135, last H) ; o^ir captors bbin ; and our oppressors. '^'^l&'a ; ))2, lex. 1, b, /?. ^ V. 5. (3) ; proper pointing, ObiBin^ ; see lex. 2d 1, at the end. Let my right hand forget, i. e. become forgetful, — lose its skill. V. 6. (3), 1\n , Parad. VIII. ^pnSTS : S2if. (unu- sual form) §91, 1, Rem. 2. ^^bs^^, Hij)h. hnpf.; cause to ascend ot'er = place above. liJSi, lex. 2, d; chief of joy (§106, 1, Rem. l)=chief joy ; with suff. (§121, 6), my chief joy- V. 7. (3) ; b, sign of the dative ; to the sons of E., i. e. against them. Tlie day of J. (of its capture and destruction), lex. Di'', 1, b. They who said (§109, 2d H) ; comp. Obad. vs. 1-14, Ez. XXV. 12 (comp. ver. 3). iny ; nn^, Piel Imp.; retraction of the tone in pause, § 29, 4, h, at the end. V. 8. (1), poetical personification of a city or country, § 107, 3, rf, lex. 5, at the end. (3), T1T», Kal Part. pass. = Lat. GZ HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. Part, in -ndus (§ 134, 1), vastanda, vastationi devota ; but see lex. Kal, at the end. (4), see lex. ItDK, Parad. VI, a. The genitive here, is the antecedent implied in the foil. IT^S (§ 123, 2) ; O the happiness of him, 2cAo = happy he, who, (fcc. (5), DbtD, Piiil, e; final vowel, §27, 1. ^^^'05, (kc. see lex. b^a, Kal, at the end. V. 9. (2), ^m and in)k^ ; §68, 1. (3), fB3, Piel Per/., §126, 6, a. {ult.), the stone, referring to the well known manner of immolating the infants of a captured city ; compare 2 K. viii. 12, Is. xiii. 16, Nah. iii. 10. XIV. REWARDS OF PIETY, Psalm cxxvii. V. 1. (1), comp. above (XIII) ver. 9. (3), § 135, 1st t, 2. {penult.), §109, 2d IF. V. 2. ''3, inserted, like enim, after other words in the clause, lex. B, 2, a, end of 1st 1^.- (5), happiness of thee! = happy thou ! :iil3, lex. B, 2. V. 3. (1), §95, Exp)L 3, Rem. It has jSeghol with Aleph only in this instance. (3), STiS, Kal Part, fern., §75, Remarks, 5. — — (4), HD'l';', Parad. B, c, Dual constr., lex. 2. Olive- plants, §106, 1. In the circuit 0/"= around ; lex. 3''30, 1, mid.; b, §115,2. V. 4. Lit. Behold, that thus, &c. = Mark well, that thus, &.c. ^13, §29, 4, a; marg. note, Q,amets ivithout Athnach and Soph-pasuq. V. 5. And see thou = an(\ thou shalt see, in the sense of a promise ; § 130, 1, a. 3, lex. B, 4, a ; § 154, a, 2, end. XV. ASSERTION OP JEHOVAh's SUPREMACY : SECURITY OF THOSE WHO TRUST IN HIM. Psalm cxv. V. 1. (2), §103, 2, a. ^3, Gram. p. 272, d ; lex. 3, a. ^Pi, § 66, Re7n. 3. by, lex. 2, d. The first minor divi- sion is made by Merka-malipakh. V. 2. N3, comp. Gram. p. 192, Note, and lex. 5 ; here tauntingly used : ichere now, pray i XVI. EXALTATION OF GOD. 63 V. 3. (1), 1 adversative (§ 155, 1, h, lex. 2), and yet, hut yet, hut ; i. e. notwithstanding the adverse circumstances^ on which this reproach is founded ; our God is still supreme over all, and has done his own pleasure in our humiliation. V. 4. (1), lex. nsy. V. 6. {ult.)] H^T, Hiph. Imp/., the original full form, §47, Rem. 4. V. 7. (1), absolutely, — as for their hands. For the use of 1 after an absol. subst., see § 145, 2, at the end. V. 8. (1), § 103, 2, and table, h. (3), § 135, 2. V. 9. {penult.), "jaia, Parad. VII. V. 12. Divided first by Merka-mahpakh, and then by Ath- nach. V. 13. (2); X")^, phir. cojistr. ; p. 60, mid. V. 14. (1), § 78, t|p^, add upon = make additions to ; Jussive form : Jehovah increase! -V. 15. (3), b, §143, 2. V. 16. The heaven, heaven, is Jehovah's (b, § 113, 2), emphatic repetition ; or, as it may be construed. The heavens are JehovaKs heavens, which is favored by the omission of the art. V. 17. (3), p. 10, at the top, §20, 3, c, end of 2d 1. Jn^ poetic form ; see lex. {ult.), § 118, 1, a. XVI. god's exaltation above all, and his care for the LOWLY. Psalm cxiii. V. 2. (x;. Jussive. (4), § 64, 3, end, § 27, table. V. 3. Praised (be) the name of Jehovah; bbji, Part, of the regular conj. Pual, §67, Rem.. 10. V. 5. Like Jehovah, viz. both in his majesty and in his care for the lowliest ; the construction, in the following verses, shows that both ideas are included here. (4), Hiph. Part, of f^sa, § 75, 3d 1; § 90, 3, and letter a, followed by a prep. {ibid, and § 116, 1) ; he who sits (enthroned, lex. 3®^, 1, b) o?i high ; he who, § 109, 2d IF ; sits on high, § 142, 4, Rem. I. {ult.), § 29, 4, a. V. 6. He who looks far doion, oti the heavens and on the earth ; lit. inakes loro in seeing, references as before. — V. 7. 64 HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. (1), §90, 3, a, comp. § 116, 1. {penult.), § 134, Rem. 2. V. 8. (1), the l7if., as a verbal noun (§ 45), takes the ending "^-^ ; references as above. ^ V. 9. (1), ''— , as before. (2 & 3), the barren (one) of the house, — as required by the constr. state and the accentuation ; only the proper mistress of the house, can be meant by such a form. Causes . . .to sit, the rejoicing mother of children ; the verb to sit is the appropriate one here, expressing the quiet contentment of her now favored lot. XVII. THE WORTH OP WISDOM. Proverbs iii. 13-24. V. 13. (1), comp. above (XIII), ver. 9. Who findeth, . . . who getteth (lex. p^B (II), Hiph.), Perf and Impf. used indif- ferently in the sphere of the abstract presejit (§ 126, 3, 2d H) ; omission of the relative, §123, 3, a. V. 14. See lex. "llnD, and pnn, 1, b. "j^, § 119, 1. V. 15. (3), pointed for the margin ;%ee lex. D^ppS. (5), lex. fSH, 2. V. 16. (4); quadriliteral, § 30, 3 ; see lex., Note. V. 18. (tilt.), "IT?^?, Pual Part.; sing, with jilar. subject, §146, 4. V. 19. tSiS; y^, Pil. Perf- — V. 20. (3), lex. yj?3, Niph. 2. — (4), priTD, Parad. VI, d. (penult.), §138, 1, Ref}i. 2. V. 21. (3) ; let them not depart from thine eyes (i. e. keep them ever in view), — the masc. form, though referring to subjects which are both /em. (§137, 1, comp. §147, Rem. 1). (5); (lex. 12p, 2, mid.), §66, Rem. 1. {penult.), lex. 3. {iilt.), lex. 3. V. 22. (1), masc. as before ; and they shall be life to thy sold, and grace to thy neck, — an inward life, and an out- ward ornament. To thy neck ; where precious metals and jewels were worn, for ornament, and as a badge of honor and dignity ; see ch. i. 9, Gen. xli. 42, Dan. v. 7. V. 23. (1), § 127, 4, a. Note *. (3), b, B, 3 ; § 102, 2, c, y. {ult.), ?l?i3, 3. V. 24. (1), i/" thou shdlt lie down = when thou liest down. -(5), 1 intensive (lex. 1, cc), — yea, thou shalt lie down (§ 126, 6, a). {penidt.), lex. S^^^ (IV), 1 ; and 9weet shall be thy sleep. 6 - " 1 1 .0 URL V-V^ 1 vJ m UNIV- \UFORMlA M UCLA-Young Research Library PJ4564 .G33hE y L 009 527 772 9 OCT 16 1947 J Ml DEC 1 4 ]m > JAN 7 1952 FEB 13 rn^'i 1 6 1953 ^CT g a 1Q53 DEC 1 2 1953 FEB rrr. "* iECU JUL 2 195i Main Loan BmR 25nt-2, '43(5205) n^^ DEC 9 JAN 3 1 ipei A.M. 959 360 ,CEI VED Jin loan desk JM8I9 m^ i96t r MAR 2 196: LD URU a 1^ 1S6S I nlll |12lll2l3t4|5|6j| 7 I96r ifte^** CO ^C'O ) A n. OCT 311973 RtC'U LU-UKL . .NQV 1 \n !-~ORiMte UCLA-Young Research Library PJ4564 .G33hE y m L 009 527 772 9 i x^^v ^, 4 1974 MAR 91976 OlSGHARG^ [ h^ ^^ i VI Sv>r ^ '^ REt Form L9-Series 444 .o..n!tf)^ 25m-2, ■43(5203) „^ T^^ %\%^ f EB 2 3 1983 "V"^,:^'^ FFR 171984 n 0. REC'D LD-^RL JUN 6 3989^ m UCLA-Young Research Library PJ4564 .G33hE L 009 527 772 9 I UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. |984 m UCLA-Young Research Library PJ4564 .G33hE y L 009 527 772 9