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CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE ;
THEIR
HISTORY, GOYERNMENT, AND RELIGION,
THE
ANTIQUITIES, INSTITUTIONS, PRODUCE,
REVENUE, AND CAPABILITIES
OF THE ISLAND;
WITH
ANECDOTES ILLUSTRATING
THE
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
OF THE
PEOPLE.
BY
HENRY CHARLES SIRR, M.A.,
OP
Lincoln's inn, b arrister-at-law,
AND
LATE DEPUTY QUEEN'S ADVOCATE
FOR THE
SOUTHERN CIRCUIT IN THE ISLAND OF CEYLON.
VOL. II.
LONDON:
WILLIAM SHOBERL, PUBLISHER,
20, GREAT MARLBOROUGH STREET.
1850.
iEntcrcU at Stationers!* I^all.
LONDON :
PRINTED BY G. J, PALMER, SAVOY STREET, STRAND.
o
CONTENTS
OF THE SECOND VOLUME.
CHAPTER I.
Pretender taken — Trial — Pleads guilty — Sentenced to trans-
portation — Translation of his statement — Charges made
against the Colonial Government — Colonel Forbes' pamphlet
— Gun, dog, and road-ordinance considered — Bishop of Co-
lombo's letter to Lord Grey — Alleged misinterpretation of
laws — Present state of priesthood— Alleged connivance of
authorities at rebellion refuted — Court-Martial — Priest shot
in his robes — Result of agitation similar to Ireland — Pro-
posed location of Malabar — Coolees on forfeited lands —
Position of the government — Concluding remarks— List of
English Governors. .... Paffe 1
CHAPTER IL
National costume of the Kandians and Cingalese — Classical
mode of arranging the hair — Beauty of the ornaments —
Value — Personal appearance — Native belle — ^The half-castes,
or Burghers. . . . . . .31
CHAPTER in.
National religion — Antiquity of Buddhism — Transmigration of
souls — Fabulous beings — Mythology of the Cingalese — Hea-
IV CONTENTS.
vens — Hells — Gods — Demons— Devil-dancers, their origin —
How practised — Punishments — A.ccount of the last Buddha
that appeared — Bitth, marriage, life, and death of Goutama
Buddha — Tenets of Buddhism — Commands of Buddha-
Doctrines inculcated. . . . . .42
CHAPTER IV.
Buddhism, when introduced into Ceylon — Wihares and dago-
bahs — Contents of dagobah that was opened near Colombo
in 1820— Dalada relic brought to Ceylon, a.d. 310 — Taken
possession of by us in 1818 — Publicly worshipped under the
sanction of our government — Given up in 1847 — Lord Tor-
rington's despatch on the subject — The capital, during the
reign of the Kandian kings, when the Dalada was exhibited —
The principal Buddhist temple in Ceylon — Shrine of the Da-
lada — Buddha — The priesthood — Buddha's commands to the
laity — Worship of Buddha — Worship of the gods — The Kap-
puralles — Conjoint worship of Buddha and the gods. . 87
CHAPTER V.
Religious festivals in honour of the gods — Alootsaul-mangalle,
or festival of New Rice — Awooroodu-mangalle, or festival of
the New Year — the ordination of Upasampadas — Parra-
harrah — Present and former magnificence — Karttie-mangalle,
or the feast of the Fortunate Hour — Adam's Peak — The
Buddhists' and Mahomedans' account of the mountain —
The pilgrim's worship of the Sree-pada — Legend of the
Deiya-guhawa — Description of Adam's Peak — Worship of
ancestors — Worship of planets — Ulama, or the Demon
Bird. . . . . . .123
CHAPTER VL
Buddhist marriages — Kandian customs — A daughter murdered
by her father — Native laws regarding the marriages of slaves
CONTENTS. V
—The age when marriage can be lawfully contracted — Poly-
andry — Brother husbands — Associated husbands — Beenaand
Deega marriages — Kandian proverb — Divorces — Marriage
preliminaries — Marriage-feast and ceremony — Marriage of
Protestant natives of high caste in the maritime provinces —
Marriage of Roman CathoHc natives of good caste — Ceremo-
nies observed at the marriages of the Kandian kings — Nam-
ing children — Funeral rites of the high and low castes —
Obsequies of a monarch — Tombs of the Kandian kings —
Electing the sovereign — Investing the king with the attributes
of royalty. . . . . . • 1 56
CHAPTER VII.
Origin of castes — Their number and divisions — Outcastes
Gattaroo and Rhodia — Traditions — Native laws respecting
Rhodias — The Veddahs, or aborigines of Ceylon — Forest and
village Veddahs — Ludicrous occurrence in a court of justice
— Historical account — Legend of Kuwani — Native govern-
ment — Rules for the monarch's guidance — Reception of am-
bassadors — Mode of addressing the sovereign — Sanus, or
deed of gift — Royal amusements — Native laws — Trial by
ordeal — Slavery — Kandian proverbs — Tenures of land — The
present system of jurisprudence in Ceylon — Mr. Langslow —
Proposed modification of the criminal laws — Capital punish-
ment not dreaded by the Cingalese. . . . 206
CHAPTER VIII.
Encouragement given by the sovereigns of Lanka-diva to science
and literature — The Cingalese language — Education — Native
literature — Poetical specimens — Tradition of the king and
poet — GascOj the poet-lover of the queen — Musical instru-
ments — Musicians — Sculptors — Painters — Lacker-painting —
Casting in metal — Ivory carving — Carved and inlaid woods
— Goldsmiths — Lapidaries — Anecdote — Blacksmiths — Wea-
VI CONTENTS.
vers — Potters — Architecture— Palace at Kandy — Ecclesias-
tical architecture — Healing art, chemistry, surgeons — Dis-
eases prevalent in Ceylon .... 248
CHAPTER IX.
The state of Ceylon anterior to the Christian era — Anooradha-
poora, when built — Circu^nference of city walls — Native his-
torical record — Account given by Fa-Hian, the Chinese
traveller of the fourth century — Bridge of devils — Mode of
shaping and ornamenting granite 2000 years ago — Unicorn
known to the Cingalese — Maha-Wihare — Lowa-Maha-Paya
— Ruwanelli Saye — Tradition — Glass pinnacle used as a non-
conductor, A.D, 243 — Abhaayagiri Dagobah — Toophaaraa-
maya Dagobah — ^Tanks and wells — Tomb of Elala — Rock
temples of Dambool — Dimensions of the Maha Rajah Wihare
— Decorations, paintings, and statues of the gods and kings
— Curious descriptive inscription on the rock — Anecdote of
the sacred water — Worship in the cave — A loot Wihare —
Maha Dewo Dewale — Smallest rock temple — Dimensions and
decorations — Exterior of Damboola Gcilla — Summit of the
rock — ^Ancient rock fortress of Sigiri — Ruins of a nunnery
at Minigiri — Tradition — Dewinoowara, the city of the god —
Ramayana, the oldest epic poem extant, comraemmorates the
conquest of Ceylon by Rama — Remains of antiquity seen
around Dondera — The priest's tale — Antique statue at Belh-
gama — PoUanarooa — Remains of tank, palace, religious edi-
fices, rock temple, and colossal statues — Dagobah of the
golden umbrella — Stone roof — Ancient inscriptions — Mass
of stone removed by men — Extraordinary piece of sculpture
— Sanus, or deed of gift .... 282
CHAPTER X.
Population — Excess of males — Three Classes, Cingalese Ma-
labars, Moors, the latter the Jews of Ceylon— Difference
CONTENTS. VU
between personal appearance and character of Kandians and
Cingalese — Revenue, sources of — Land sales formerly in-
cluded therein — Tariff' — Pearl fishery, amounts of income
under Dutch and English — Protection of banks — Shark
charmers — Chanks, income, retail trade partly opened — Land
revenue, mode of collection, proposed abolition, income —
Stamps, amount of — Fines and forfeitures, amount of — Car-
riage tax — Arrack and toddy farms, income of — Road tax —
Post-office, revenue of — Custom dues — Loan — Economy in
public service ordered — Suggestions for reductions in revenue
establishment — Currency, paper, amount of, silver coinage,
gold, native money — Course of exchange — Cash balances of
treasury — State of government paper currency — State of
government funds — Revenue and expenditure — Military
charges — Estimated revenue and expenditure for 1849 — Prin-
cipal articles imported during 1845 — Principal articles ex-
ported — Internal resources undeveloved — Conclusion . 338
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
CHAPTER I.
Pretender taken — Trial — Pleads guilty — Sentenced to
ti'ansportation — Translation of his statement — Charges
made against the Colonial government — Colonel Forbes'
pamphlet — Gun, dog, and road-ordinance considered —
Bishop of Colombo's letter to Lord Grey — Alleged mis-
interjjretation of laws — Present state of Priesthood —
Alleged connivance of authorities at rebellion refuted —
Court-Martial — Priest shot Ib his I'obes — Results of agi-
tation similar to Ireland — Proposed location of Malabar —
Coolees on forfeited lands — Position of the government —
Concluding remai-ks — List of English Govenaors.
It was not until the 21st of September that the
Pretender was taken, notwithstanding the nu-
VOL. II. B
I CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
merous parties which had been sent out in pur-
suit of him, and the large reward offered for his
apprehension. It appears that he was arrested
in consequence of information given by the man
who took him his daily supply of curry and rice,
and who becoming greatly alarmed for his own
safety, proceeded to Captain Watson, and pro-
mised to show where the king was, provided he
should be afforded assistance, but stating that no
European could be of the party.
Accordingly, six Malay soldiers were dis-
patched with him, dressed as natives, and accom-
panied by two moodliers and a headman. The
party left Matele in time to arrive at the place
of concealment at sunset, which was the usual
period at which the pretender's food was taken
to him. The guide entered the cave first, taking
with him the accustomed supply of curry and
rice ; the Malays crept in afterwards, and, in the
midst of his repast, they seized the impostor; he
resisted, and succeeded in getting on the side of
the rock, but was shortly pulled down, bound,
and escorted to Matele, where he arrived about
nine o'clock the same evening.
The cave where the Pretender was discovered
is situate in a very large rock concealed in the
centre of a thick jungle, distant about eight
miles from Matele, and commanding an exten-
sive view of the surrounding country.
The Pretender bore the appearance of being
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 6
much jaded and harassed when he was taken,
and was only attended by one individual, who
was stationed on the top of the rock, but is sup-
posed to have fallen asleep at his post, and to
have been awakened by the noise occasioned in
arresting his lord.
On the 27th of December following, Gonegalle-
godde Banda was indicted for high treason before
the regular session of the Supreme Court holden
at Kandy, to which charge he pleaded guilty ; a
verdict was returned accordingly, and sentence
of death was passed upon him ; he was, however,
recommended to mercy by the court, and Lord
Torrington accordingly commuted the sentence
to transportation for life, and a severe public
flogging in Kandy previously to his departure.
The following is a literal translation of a
written statement which was read by the Pretender
in open court, when he was called upon in the
usual form to show cause why sentence of death
should not be passed upon him.
" I, Gonegalle-godde Banda, prostating myself
before this high tribunal, and making my obei-
sance one million of times, most humbly beg leave
to submit to the judge, who presides over the
administration of justice in the Supreme Court,
the following circumstances, namely : —
" In consequence of some disagreement at our
house at Gonegallegodde, in Oodunneuvere, I
was induced to so and live with the elder sister
B 9.
4 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
of my fatlier-in-law, who lives at Cadoowella, in
Matele ; and, whilst living there, persons who
were in office acquainted the poor people that
Mr. Buller had established thirty-two new taxes,
on which account the people of the four pro-
vinces formed themselves into a rebellion.
" At this time I was living at Matele, and it
is true that one Dingeralle, of Hangoorankette,
and the people of Matele collected themselves
together, having imposed upon me by false and
fraudulent stories, misled me and went with me
to Dambool, where the following persons, namely,
Lenadora Aratchille, Pallegawa Aratchille, the
priest, Giranagama Unanse, Elleherra Corale
Aratchille, of the same village, Ratteralle of the
same village, Neyarepola Odeharame of Cadoo-
wella, Badalmohandirama of the same village,
Melpitirge Corale, and all others of Matele,
having conspired together, presented to Lenadora
Aratchille three cloths, one jacket, and a silk
cloth to be used as a turban, and requested him
to dress me with the same, which being done,
they then procured a palanqueen, and nominated
me as their head, notwithstanding my refusal,
and conducted me from Dambool to the estate of
Wariapoola.
" The people attempted and wanted to set fire
to the Tappal station between Dambool and
Gongavvella, to destroy the people therein living,
and to plunder, but 1 did not allow them to com-
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. O
mit those wrongful acts ; but those people came
almost to Gongawella, and plundered the property
there. I hastened after them, and directing them
not to plunder property, flogged them with fire
rattans until they were smashed to pieces ; but,
seeing that they could not thereby be prevented,
I cut two men in their hands with a sword, which
put a stop to it.
" The people also wanted to destroy the court-
house, the cutcherry, and the people, but I
allowed not an opportunity for carrying those in-
tentions into effect. I was requested by them to
come to Kandy, but 1 refused, saying, ' You have
acted according to your own will without listen-
ing to what I said, that no injury should be done
to any.' Saying so, I went to the estate of Wa-
riapoola. A gentleman was then brought there
by them whom they wanted to kill, but 1 saved
his life, and did not permit him to be killed.
Having come to know, that in consequence of
my having prevented them from committing all
these aggressions, and chastised the people of
their own party, and thereby })revented the
plunder, that they intended to take away niy own
life, and conspired together to constitute some
one else as their chief, I deserted them.
" This is all the offence or wrong; I have com-
mitted. Both your lordship's soul and my own
were created by one God. Your lordship is a
supreme being over this island. Your lordship's
6 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
soul and my own will have to communicate toge-
ther before the same God. Therefore I implore,
in the name of the God who created your lord-
shij), in the name of his doctrines, in the name of
her Majesty, in the name of her crown, in the
name of all the churches established in different
countries subject to British dominion, in the
name of the priests who officiate in each of them,
in the name of his Excellency the Governor of
Colombo, in the name of your lordship's royal
father and royal mother, and in your lordship's
own name, that I may be pardoned for the said
offence or wrong, and that I may be discharged
for the sake of charity.
" Besides this, having got money from my
father-in-law, Gonegallegodde Menickrale, I
bought buffaloes for him ; these buffaloes, toge-
ther with his household property, were taken by
government, and his house set on fire : I pray
that the same may be restored to him.
(Signed) " Gonegallegodde Banda."
We must confess that there is little to admire
in the tenor of this statement, as few can sympa-
thize with a leader, so devoid, by his own show-
ing, of courage, dignity, or influence over his
followers.
The troops which had been brought from
Madras returned, part in the middle of Sep-
tember, and the remainder at the commencement
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 7
of October. On the 10th of October, martial law
ceased in the Kandian districts by proclamation,
and on the 23rd of the same month an ordinance
was passed by the legislative council to indem-
nify the Governor and all persons acting under
his authority for all acts done during the exist-
ence of martial law.
Such were the features of the Kandian rebel-
lion of 1848, and the principal events connected
with it, which have excited so much public at-
tention, and have led to the appointment of a
committee of the House of Commons to investi-
gate the affairs of the colony. Many charges
have been brought against the local government
by the Colonial press, and their supporters in
this country, and very recently Colonel Forbes
has published his view of the case in a pamphlet,
entitled " Recent Disturbances and Military
executions in Ceylon." * That the colonial go_
vernment has been faultless, would be an absur_
dity to maintain, but the charges preferred
against them are of too sweeping a nature, and
many at present are totally unsupported by evi-
dence. Colonel Forbes, from his long residence
in the island, and the official position he held
in the colony, ought from his experience to be
well qualified for the task he has undertaken ;
but, with every respect for his honesty of purpose,
* Blackwood and Sons, 1850.
8 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
we cannot shut our eyes to the fact, that his
charges against the autliorities, and the defence
he has made for the Kandians, are the offspring
of a very prejudiced mind.
In referring to the complaints raised against
the government, we will for convenience take
them in order as they appear in Colonel Forbes'
pamphlet, as they are in substance similar to
those preferred by his predecessors. These are
seven in number, and have been reduced by the
author into the form of interrogatorif."?, which
he starts by answering collectively in the affir-
mative.
The Coloners first query is, " Were not unjust
taxes rashly enacted, recklessly supported, and
lightly abandoned ?" This having been answered
in the affirmative generally, is then particularly
considered, omitting the word " unjust." The dog,
gun, and road-ordinances are then discussed, and
the first is declared to be " absurd because im-
practicable ; impolitic because irritating; and
would have been ludicrous had it not been mis-
chievous ; it was enacted before, and abandoned
aftei- the disturbances of 1848."
There are no further reasons given for the
writer's assertions, and therefore they may fairly
be questioned. The natives are in the habit of
keeping a number of dogs, and besides these
there are an immense quantity of pariah dogs,
which have no owners ; it therefore became ne-
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
9
cessary to legislate upoa the subject, and as the
preamble to the ordinance in question states, "to
keep down the number of dogs in the island."
The law was passed to enable the people to
protect such dogs as they wished to preserve, by
registration at the trifling cost of one shilling,
while all unregistered dogs might be shot by the
police. The reader may decide if such a law
could be unjust, impracticable, or impolitic.
The writer then proceeds to the gun-ordinance
which he designates as " impolitic and irritating,"
and as a reason shows that fire-arms were not
prohibited, because gunpowder was kept at the
principal stations, and sold to the natives by the
officers of the British government.
This is very true ; but, according to his own
statement, the law required the permission of the
government agent to entitle a native to be pos-
sessed of, or to carry arms ; and, although the
law was not strictly enforced, still it existed, and
the new law was only to regulate the registration
which before existed. The Governor gives rea-
sons in detail in a despatch, page 291, of the
Blue Book, for altering this law by striking out
the word annual, and rendering only one regis-
tration and one payment necessary.
The case is clearly made out, however, that
these two laws were passed without sufficiently con-
sidering the details, that the former was foolishly
abandoned altogether, and the latter was modi-
B 5
Jo CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
fied, after the disturbances; but the Colonial
government cannot be expected to be wiser than
her Majesty's ministers, who not unfrequently
propose and pass laws without due consideration
of their mode of working.
The road-ordinance is that with which Colonel
Forbes and others are most wroth. The only
portion of the charge against the government
in reference to this law with which we can concur
is, that it " has been amended since the disturb-
ances" to remove what was termed " an insult
to the religion of the people," by exempting the
Buddhist priesthood from compulsory labour.
But our ground of objection is because this inju-
dicious measure, similar to many others con-
nected with our colonies, is likely to be pro-
ductive of much evil, in the impression which it
is calculated to produce upon the minds of the
followers of Buddha, who are all aware that the
Christian government of the colony has not
given the same relief to the ministers of the
Gospel of Christ. We feel that we cannot better
express our opinions upon the subject than by
quoting the following letter, addressed by the
Lord Bishop of Colombo to Earl Grey : —
" Colombo, Ceylon, November 13, 1848.
" My Lord,
" Having no more legitimate mode of bringing
my opinion on any points affecting the religious
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. M
condition of this colony, before your lordship,
I am compelled thus formally to express to your
lordship my unfeigned sorrow that, in an Ordi-
nance which has just passed the Legislative
Council, entitled " An Ordinance to Alter in
certain respects, the Ordinance No. 8, 1848, &c."
a clause (No. 9) has been introduced, exempting
all Buddhist priests from the labour required
under that Ordinance, and from all payments
in commutation of such labour, on the ground
that the tenets of " Buddhism prohibit the priests
of that religion performing labour of the descrip-
tion contemplated, and forbid to such priests the
acquisition of money or other property," while
the like exemption is not granted to Christian
ministers.
" Admitting even that, to a statesman, such an
exemption may on political grounds seem expe-
dient, as far as regards the Buddhist priests,
(though not at all assenting to this opinion,) I
would press earnestly upon your lordship the
conclusion which follows, that on religious
grounds the same immunity should be extended
to Christian ministers.
" 1. Because the British Government, having
only last year so solemnly disavowed and for-
mally discontinued all connexion with the Budd-
hist religion, it is neither equitable nor consistent
now to exclude Christian ministers from privi-
leges granted to Buddhist priests.
12 CEYLON AN'D THE CINGALESE,
" 2. Because the exemption being granted only
to priests, as spiritual person?, and to none
other, it cannot be treated as a merely political
question, or divested of a religious bearing. If
therefore, political reasons require the exemption
of one class, religious principles require the
same for the other.
" 3 Because the exemption being shared by
Buddhist priests with his Excellency the Right
Hon. the Governor alone, as the representative
of her Majesty, and her Majesty's troops, it
cannot fail to be considered by them and their
followers as a high and distinctive tribute to the
excellence of their religion.
" 4. Because so honorary a privilege will, for
its own sake, be greatly esteemed by a people
wholly uneducated and incapable of discrimi-
nating between truth and error, and will not fail
to be used by a designing priesthood for the
purpose of upliolding their own false system.
" 5. Because such an impression on the native
mind cannot but be most prejudicial to the cause
of Christianity, and must act as a positive dis-
couragement and hindrance to all Missionary
efforts for the diffusion of truth, and for the en-
lightenment and real improvement of the Sin-
ghalese people.
" 6. Because a Christian government in its un-
restricted and equal toleration of all religious
opinions cannot confer special immunities on the
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 13
professors of a false creed without disparaging
those of the true religion.
" Were I disposed to object to the measure on
any other than purely religious grounds, I might
urge —
" That, in a financial point of view the pecu-
niary gain to government must be beneath con-
sideration when so important a principle is at
stake. The whole number of Christian ministers
of every denomination in the island, European,
Native, and American, by the last published
return, does not exceed 100. The annual pay
ment of 3s. each would amount to an annual
aggregate of £15.
" I might urge, too, the well-known fact to
which the records of many Courts of Law in the
island will bear testimony, that whatever may be
the professed tenets of Buddhism, the priests
not only inherit and possess property, but claim,
as subjects, the protection of the law for its pos-
session.
" Whether the property so claimed be of cor-
porate or personal tenure there can be no in-
justice in requiring that the property itself should
contribute towards the maintenance of the go-
vernment, which protects its possessors in their
rights.
" But I forbear altogether from the use of such
arguments, further than in illustration of the
real merits of the case. The single ground of
14 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
ray appeal is the religious tendency of the mea-
sure. No conscientious scruple or political ob-
jection is urged; no professional jealousy is felt,
no private or personal feeling is entertained.
As the original Ordinance stood, the clergy wil-
lingly acquiesced in the pecuniary payment, and
do so still ; but the amendment just past having
introduced into it an element of a directly reli-
gious character, I am unable to suppress my
conviction, that its provision is one as irrecon-
cilable with the principle of sound legislation as
repugnant to those of true Christian faith.
" I need not press upon your lordship the ob-
vious and great necessity on the part of our rulers
of extreme caution in legislating for an illiterate
and superstitious people, lest any measure be
adopted which may even seem or be so perverted
as to give direct countenance to a system of
religious falsehood, believing as the Cingalese
Buddhist does, the mysterious and inherent
sanctity of his religion to be such that the
British power, though invincible in arms, is
feeble and futile for its overthrow, and inter-
preting therefore all its acts as an involuntary
homage to the superiority of his own faith.
"I appeal, therefore, with confidence to the
Imperial Government of Great Britain, as a
Christian country in which the true principles of
toleration are not only understood but carried
out ; and where it is not a mere profession or
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 15
conventional form, but a great practical principle
exemplified every day ; and I intreat your lord-
ship, for the sake of truth and OMr common faith,
not to sanction the enactment as it at present
stands, lest you give the entire native population
of Ceylon reason to think the British Govern-
ment indifferent to the holy cause of Chris-
tianity.
" Should it, for political reasons, be thought
necessary (which, however, I do not either in
principle or opinion admit) to confer civil immu-
nities or privileges of any kind on Buddhist
priests, 1 entreat that the Christian clergy may
look for an equal measure of consideration from
her Majesty's Government.
" 1 should not press this important matter so
earnestly on your lordship if I did not really
believe the cause of the Christian religion, and
the prospective dissemination of Divine truth
among an unconverted and uneducated people to
be seriously jeopardized by this enactment.
" I have, &c.,
(Signed) "J.Colombo.
"The Right Hon. Earl Grey,
&c. &;c. Sec."
As to the charge that this ordinance esta-
blishes a general system of slavery for the poor
of Ceylon, we consider that the idea is absurd to
call that slavery, which only imposes the labour
16 CEYLOM AND THE CINGALESE.
of six (Jays in the year, or the payment of three
shillings ; and no one can deny that the native,
who is unable to pay the penalty, is much more
usefully employed for six days out of 365, than
lying sleeping away his energies both of mind
and body, or squatted in the shade chewing betel.
But let us see what the well-disposed amongst
the natives think upon this question ; in an ad-
dress presented to the Governor from the in-
habitants of Megodetike, a place in the neigh-
bourhood of Kandy, we find the following para-
graph : —
" As regards the recent Road Ordinance, we
cannot hide from your Excellency the fact of our
having been some time ago most erroneously
informed of the intentions of governuient in re-
spect thereof, as also of the false reports which
gained circulation in our country in respect of
the other alleged imposts. Hence the very great
alarm "we once felt; but now seeing what are
the real intentions of government, and knowing
that we of all the other districts are mostly in
want of a public road, we feel quite satisfied of
the urgent necessity of having such a road
opened through our country, and have already
expressed to government our readiness, through
our ratra-mahatmcer, to commence operations
in regard to the forming of that road imme-
diately. We have no doubt that, with some
little sacrifice of our time or money towards this
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 17
object, the road now traced by our government
agent will be soon completed. If our offer to
commence work immediately be approved of by
government, we are every way inclined to do
so, even before the ordinance comes into opera-
tion." See Blue Book, page 215.
From another address presented to his ex-
cellency from the inhabitants of two other dis-
tricts within the Kandian province, we have
taken the following extract : —
" As to the Road Ordinance, we are of opinion
that it is calculated to do much more good to the
people than to the government. We had for-
merly worked for the government four months in
the year, and cannot now complain as a hardship
our being obliged to work six days in the year."
See Blue Book, page 216.
Again at page 237. " It is deserving of notice,
that the people are at this moment busily and
cheerfully occupied of their own free will, and
without either remuneration or compulsion on
the part of government, in repairing and open-
ing some of the neglected lines of road in the
neighbourhood of Kandy, (the government only
finding tools,) and that no less than three hun-
dred men have been for a short time employed
in clearing an unfinished canal."
Away, then, with this absurd outcry about com-
pulsory labour, by which means alone the great
trunk lines of road were formed in the island.
18 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
Roads are necessary to facilitate coranmnication,
and carry civilization into districts where Euro-
peans have never been seen, except on hunting
excursions, and, therefore, the benefit to be de-
rived by the native population from opening com-
munication into unknown regions is incalculable.
The whole community are called upon to con-
tribute to this great and essential undertaking,
and the most beneficial aid which the natives can
bestow, as well as the most practicable for them-
selves, is the required limited labour.
In addition to the willingness expressed in the
addresses above quoted, on the part of those who
signed them to comply with the ordinance in
question, we have the testimony of Sir Emerson
Tennent, who went on an official tour through
the island. He collected the people of the vari-
ous districts through which he passed, and found
that the law had been almost in every instance
misrepresented to the inhabitants, who were led
to believe that it was the restoration of the Raja-
Karia, which was abolished in 1832.
But, when Sir Emerson Tennent explained to
them that they were totally dissimilar laws, that
by the latter they were required to give un-
limited labour, by the former it was limited to
six days — by the one, they were taken from their
harvest ; by the other, they would not be required
until after their harvest — by the one, they were
compelled to work at every description of labour ;
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 19
by the other, only in the construction of roads and
the repairing of tanks — under one, they might be
taken to the most remote parts of the island ;
under the other, they would be required to work
only in their immediate neighbourhood — under
one, they were compelled to work for the govern-
ment, by the new law for themselves and the im-
provement of their lands and villages — by the
one, the chiefs and headmen were exempt ; by
the other, every one was included, except the
Governor — and lastly, by the one, they weredriven
by their chiefs and headmen ; by the other, they
would elect their own district committee, who
were to recommend and regulate the labour.
When he explained this, "in no single instance
did the people fail to declare, that they had been
entirely misled and deceived, and to express their
satisfaction with the ordinance, and their percep-
tion of the benefit it was calculated to confer on
the district." See Blue Book, page 161.
The second query of Colonel Forbes is, " Have
not former laws and proclamations, by which
the Kandian people were ruled, been publicly
misrepresented to them, and then contrasted with
new ordinances?" We must confess that the
answer is rather rambling, and not very clear.
-But, as to misinterpreting the former laws, the
Kandians are better judges than Colonel Forbes
can be, and it is a great satisfaction to us to find
that there is no charge against the government
20 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
for misinterpreting the new laws — but the reader
may judge of the manner in which this charge or
query has been answered by the concluding sen-
tence of the author which is as follows, — " I have
studied this document," (Sir E. Tennent's report
above quoted,) " and have only space to record
my dissent from many of its statements, and
nearly all its conclusions. Whether relating to
times past, present, or prospective ; to questions
historical, political, or topographical" — yet U is
upon this document that the charge is founded.
The third query is, " Has not the British faith
been violated in the matter of the religion of the
people, and justice been denied to the claims of
the priesthood ?" We are told that no one can
deny that since 1847, these points must be
answered in the affirmative. We leave it to a
Christian public to determine whether it was
rio'ht or wrong in the British o^overnment to
relinquish the official custody of the object of
Buddhaical worship — for it is the resigning the
custody of Buddha's tooth to the priests, which
is above alluded to by the expression " since
1847."
Our author continues, " The Buddhist priests,
at an audience, told the present Governor, and it
is not gainsaid, ' that the authority of the heads
of the establishment was gone, the offices of
chief priests were still vacant, their controlling
authority was annihilated, and even the temple
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 21
tenants refused to do the services whicli were
necessary as the condition of the tenure of their
lands.' " This is a subject to occasion deep
reg-ret and sympathy on the part of professing
Christians, and to form the grounds of a charge
against the government !
The remainder of the answer to this query is
composed of various topics, including the licens-
ing of taverns, the loss attendant upon litigation,
and the acquittal of four priests who had been
tried for high treason, none of whicli have any
reference to the charge.
Then follows the fifth query: " With the know-
ledge of the British authorities, and without mo-
lestation from them, were not gang-robbers,
thieves, and prison-breakers, permitted to conspire
and to intimidate or entice a portion of a justly-
discontented people into riots which were put
down as a rebellion ?"
To prove this in the affirmative, we are shown
how very actively the Colonel exerted himself
and succeeded in anesting a professional impos-
tor-prince. That he believes the disturbances
which took place in 1823 and J 824 were connived
at, and probably instigated, by a person holding
an influential situation under the British govern-
ment. And a little further on he says, " I do
not doubt, that the native chief who is superin-
tendent of ])olice there — Loco Banda, as he is
generally called — knew from first to last every
8
22 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
minute particular of what was passing at Matele,""
and then proceeds to give an extract from a letter
of this officer, dated the 5th July 1848, and ad-
dressed to the Governor's private secretary, in
which he states —
" After some consultation with the government
agent, and the district judge, just now, we have
come to the resolution of keeping quite quiet
about it until they, the mob, assembled, would
commit some disturbance, so as to enable the
authorities to bring them to justice." . ..." I
have reason to believe that some prisoners, who
were either acquitted or absconded from the
o-overnment gaols, are, by joining with some low
country Cingalese and desperate Kandians, now
disturbing the villages." See Blue Book, page
176.
But what does this establish? Nothing fur-
ther than that there was not sufficient proof or
evidence to bring persons to justice, who were
suspected of, or reported to be, plotting against
the public peace. The mind of the Colonel is
evidently impressed with a belief o^ certain facts
which he starts with, and which he either cannot,
or does not, choose to establish by evidence.
The fifth query is, " Did not hundreds of per-
sons fall by the rifle-bullet, or sink under the
Malay cris? And were not eighteen persons
tried, convicted, and executed, by tribunals ano-
malous, unnecessary, and illegal ?"" That a nuuj-
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 23
ber of individuals lost their lives in the conflicts
at Matele and Kurnegalle is of course clear,
and it is also clear that eighteen persons were
executed by sentences pronounced by courts-
martial.
The charge, preferred by Colonel Forbes of the
illegality of these courts, is too serious a one to
be lightly passed over. The subject must form
a portion of the inquiry now pending before the
Committee of the House of Commons, and the
evidence contained in the Blue Book is insufli-
cient to enable any one to form a correct judg-
ment.
These courts should have been general courts-
martial, consisting of thirteen members, whereas
it is reported that only three or four officers sat
upon them. Again the sentences seem to have
been carried into immediate execution, without
approval or confirmation, which was certainly
illegal. There does not appear to have been
any judge advocate; the sentences were not in
conformity with the statute law of England, and
the charges were loosely and illegally framed.
We cannot agree with those who go the length
of asserting that courts-martial were unnecessary,
but it appears to us, that as the special sessions
of the Supreme Court were holden at Kandy on
the 28th of August, it was unnecessary to conti-
nue the former down to the 22nd of September,
more particularly as the regular sessions of the
24 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE
Supreme Court were bolden at the same place at
the latter end of November following.
The sixth query is, " Were not the crimes
charged against some of the prisoners criminally
brief, even were the sentence proved to be death,
and execution immediately followed ?" Tin's we
will pass over, as the answer to it is contained in
the consideration of the last query.
The seventh query is, " Was not martial law
rashly proclaimed without sufficient cause, and
long adhered to without conceivable excuse ?"
The necessity of proclaiming martial law, and the
holding of courts-martial, are questions which
depend upon one another, and should be con-
sidered together: we have already given our
view of the continuance of martial law, but this
brings us to a subject, which has caused so much
controversy, namely, the shooting of Kadahapola
Unanse, a Buddhist priest, in his yellow robes,
which has been laid as a serious charge against
government.
The Governor reports in one of his despatches,
that " statements have been voluntarily made by
the chief priests of the two great Wihares in
Kandy, the Malwatte and the Asgera, which
show that the execution of a priest in his yellow
dress is not considered in any degree as an indig-
nity offered to the order of the priesthood, or to
the Buddhist religion."
Colonel Fories disbelieves that the chief
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 25
priests made any sucli statement, and if they did
do so, he would consider them as utterly unworthy
of credit. We are at a loss to understand this
singular conviction of his, as in the next line he
acknowledges that, by the religion of Goutama,
" Corporal inflictions cannot defile the pure in
spirit," from which it might very fairly be
argued, that Kadahapola Unanse, having been
pure in spirit, when he was shot in his yellow
robes, was not defiled, and not having been
defiled it was no disgrace to his order. But
because it is stated officially, " This priest was
shot in full robes in Kandy," Colonel Forbes
says," this surely implies that lie had some other
dress — at all events, that the Governor believed
he had. This I also believe."
Such a declaration most certainly surprises us,
coming from one, who was so long resident in
Ceylon. During our sojourn we never saw or
heard of a priest being clad in, or using, either
day or night, other than the yellow robe.
As to the propriety of the sentence, that is ano-
ther question altogether, and is dependent upon
the proceedings of the court-martial : the whole
evidence will, we apprehend, be soon before the
public, when the committee of the House of
Commons make their report, and without more
satisfactory evidence it is impossible to form a
correct opinion.
Colonel Forbes has omitted all notice of the
VOL. II. c
26 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
"Observer" newspaper, and those persons who
were so actively employed in instigating the
natives to insubordination, if not to violence.
We regret to find, that the results of political
agitation in the Island of Ceylon are so similar to
those which have too frequently characterized
the sister kingdom. Thus the European agita-
tors, or instigators, have escaped unscathed, while
their unfortunate dupes have become their sub-
stitutes, and suffered the last penalties of the
law.
Colonel Forbes is very indignant, it would
appear, on account of a proposition on the part of
the government to " locate a race of Malabars in
these important positions, on lands forfeited by
the rebels " — (Blue Book, page 200) — because
" complaints have been made of their pilfering
and vagrancy by the villagers" — and because the
superintendent of police has stated, " That when
the country was disturbed, Malabar coolees, in
some instances, ]>lundered the villages." The
proposition of the government he calls a "pro-
posed reward to these strangers." The Colonel
having been a coffee-planter himself, ought to
know the great difficulty experienced by the pro-
prietors in getting sufficient, or any labourers, on
their estates, from the unwillingness of the Cin-
galese to work, and therefore the proprietors are
wholly dependent upon the periodical visit of
these Malabar coolees.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 27
Now it appears to us that upon every imagina-
ble ground, the proposed location of Malabars in
Kandy is founded on sound policy, not only to
secure a certain amount of labour on the spot,
but to prevent the necessity of strangers being
permitted to march in large companies through
the Island, which would effectually stop the com-
plaints of pilfering and vagrancy, by converting
these "strangers" into members of the commu-
nity with fixed habitations, subject to the super-
intendence of the police.
We have shown in another chapter the unjust
position in which the merchants and growers of
Ceylon were formerly placed by the export
duties upon cinnamon and coffee. Yet Colonel
Forbes complains that " the trifling duty for-
merly paid on this article of export (coffee) was
remitted in the face of a deficient revenue," and
that the obnoxious taxes which were imposed
before the rebellion were to make up the defici-
ency. We cannot suppose that he will be sup-
ported in this complaint, by the advocates for
free trade.
We cannot conclude this chapter without di-
recting the reader's attention, to the position of
the government of Ceylon at the period of the
outbreak in Kandy.
Ceylon is not properly a colony, but partly a
ceded and partly a conquered dependence. The
Kandians, differing as they do from the low
c 2
28 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
country Cingalese, possess great nobility of soul,
are daring and courageous. Continual insurrec-
tions, or attempts at insurrection, had been made
for a series of years. Chiefs were dissatisfied at
having lost their unlimited power over their de-
pendents, and priests at their loss of connection
with the o^overnment. The circumstances of the
evacuation of Kandy by Major Davie being fresh
in their minds, were constantly adverted to by
the natives, and urged as an argument for the
possibility of re-capturing rheir country. The
cost attendant upon the rebellions and retaining
the country, if our memory be correct, was up-
wards of a million, if not two millions of money,
to say nothing of the number of lives which were
lost.
Those who know the Kandian character must
admit that under such circumstances most strong
and vigorous measures had become necessary to
put an end to insurrectionary movements, and
protect the lives and properties of Britisli sub-
jects. We agree v.ith Colonel Forbes, that it
has now become indispensable that t'.iere should
be a real inquiry into the nature of these mea-
sures; but we cannot, as impartial observers, agree
with him, that the accusers are to be the o-ily wit-
nesses, as no sound or constitutional verdict can
be given without hearing both sides of the ques-
tion. Besides, it is just possible that some of the
individuals who now appear in the chliracter of
CEVLON AND THE CINGALESE. 29
prosecutors, should themselves be placed in the
dock.
Our duty as historians compels us to censure
severely the conduct of various English malcon-
tents, who, to a great extent, excited, by inflam-
matory articles in the local papers, the spirit of
dissatisfaction and rebellion manifested by the
Kandians, How these men, professing Chris-
tianity, can gloss over to their consciences the
various acts which incited the natives, and caused
the sacrifice of human life, and destruction of
pi'operty, we know not. By all thinking men,
such characters are condemned, and held in ab-
horrence We may pity the heathen ; but woe
unto the Christian instigator of rebellion.
The Kandian pretender worked upon the super-
stitions and religious feelings of his countiymen,
causing himself to be crowned king of Kandy by
a priest, who stated to the pretenders' followers
that they were fighting for the preservation of
their religion ; and the first interrogatory put
was, " Are you for the Buddhist religion, or for
the government ?" If any hesitated, the priest
would refer to the Kandian prophecy, or tradi-
tion, which is, that when a bridge should be built
across the Mahawelle-ganga, Kandy should fall
into the hands of foreigners, and the people of
Ceylon be totally subdued; but, when the bridge
should begin to decay, then the Kandians would
throw off the foreign yoke, and Lanka-diva's sons
30
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
be restored to their native mouarehs, and pris-
tine laws, driving the usurpers from their be-
loved shores! The bridge at Peradenia, over the
Mahawelle-ganga, having been built entirely of
satin-wood, has shown symptoms of decay ; but
we trust, for the love we bear our fellow-men —
blacks, browns, or whites — Christians or hea-
thens — and the horror we have, in common with
philanthropic men, of bloodshed and war, that
the prophetical tradition may be false. For ever
may the Cinnamon Isle flourish, and be the
brightest gem in Great Britain's diadem, is our
heartfelt desire !
The following is the list, with dates of their
appointments, of English Governors of Ceylon
up to the present time : —
The Hon. the Governor of Madras in Council . 1796
Hon. Frederick North . . . .1 798
Lieut.-Gen. Right Hon. Sir Thomas Maitland . 1805
Major-General John Wilson, Lieutenant-Governor . 1811
General Sir Robert Brownrigg . . .1812
Major-Gen. Sir Edward Barnes, Lieut.-Governor . 1820
Lieutenant-General Sir Edward Paget . . 1823
Major- Gen. Sir James Campbell, Lieut.-Governor . 1823
Lieutenant-General Sir Edward Barnes . . 1824
Major-General Sir John Wilson, Lieut.-Governor . 1831
Right Honourable Sir Robert "SVm. Horton . . 1831
Right Honourable J. Alexander Stewart Mackenzie . 1837
Lieutenant General Sir Colin Campbell . . 1841
Lord Viscount Torrington .... 1847
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 31
CHAPTER II.
National costume of the Kandians and Cingalese — Classical
mode of arranging the hair — Beauty of the ornaments —
Value — Personal appearance — Native belle — The half-
castes, or Burghers.
The national dress of the chiefs and nobles
varies in the Kandian and maritime provinces ;
in the former, the chiefs wear a large white cloth
cap of a round shape, bearing a strong similitude
to a well-stuffed pincushion, a white jacket with
short sleeves (of the form called by ladies gigot)
reaching to the elbow, and these extuberances are
stuffed with cotton, as well as the cap, to keep them
in due form.
Around their middle innumerable yards of white
cloth or muslin are twisted, which reaches to their
ankles, forming a species of petticoat open in
front. This topetty, or petticoat, is fastened round
their middles with a gold or tinsel belt, in which
is placed their betel box, handkerchief, and coca-
32 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
sionally a knife, or dagger. Their legs are en-
cased in white trousers, which are tied around
their ankles, and ornamented with a deep frill.
It would be impossible to express the ludicrous
appearance of the chiefs in their full-dress cos-
tume, (which we have just described,) and it was
with the utmost difficulty that we maintained be-
coming gravity, and restrained our risible propen-
sities, when we saw a jury of these extraordinary
specimens of dusky humanity, assembled in the
Court- House at Kandy.
The adikars, or prime ministers, (the last of
whom was Mollegodde, who died in January
1846,) habitually wore a large ring on the third
finger of the left hand, which was emblematic of
their high rank, and their caps, instead of being
round, were pointed in the centre, on the apex of
which a precious stone was affixed. For full
dress, this cap was made of crimson silk, elabo-
rately embroidered in gold, and over the jacket
was worn a kind of small cape, or tippet, which
was also ornamented with golden flowers; in all
other respects, the costume was similar to the
chief's. Chains of gold, bangles, and rings, are
now worn alike by all the Kandian nobles, chiefs,
and wealthy men, but, under the native dynasty,
none could use golden ornaments without the
monarch's sanction.
In the maritime provinces the nobles, or mood-
liars, who are also generally in the service of our
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 33
government, adopt a dress of a most heteroge-
neous nature, as they have engrafted European
fashions upon their national costume — all wear
the comboy, or petticoat, but it is closed in front,
as they do not wear trousers of any description,
and over this is worn a species of frock-coat,
which reaches nearly to their heels, with a stand-
ing collar, trimmed with narrow gold lace.*
The Moodliars wear shirts, in contradistinction
to the Kandians, who do not appear to think this
article of attire necessary, but expose to view
their dingy, hairy breasts. Their long hair is
combed back from their faces, and twisted into
a peculiar knot at the back of the head, which is
confined by a high tortoiseshell comb, whilst a
smaller comb, of a semicircular form, is placed in
the front hair. In full dress the Moodliars wear
a short sword, which is attached to a cross-belt,
made of cloth and edged with narrow gold lace ;
this sword is the property of the government, and
is returned by the Mood liar on retiring from of-
fice, or by his family at his decease.
This dress to European eyes is as outre as the
Kandian costume, and we shall not readily forget
our astonishment at the extraordinary appearance
of the native nobles and chiefs, as they mingled
* This coat was introduced by the Dutch, when they be-
came masters of the maritime provinces in the I7th century,
and we presume it might possibly have been at that period
Court costume, and bien comme ilfaut.
c 5
34 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
with the throng of military men, and civilians,
who flocked to the Queen's House on her Ma-
jesty's birthday. It is customary to invite the
nobles and chiefs to the ball, which is invariably
given by the Governor on the anniversary of her
Majesty's birth ; and we overheard the late Go-
vernor, Sir Colin Campbell, say to a lady who
had then recently made her debut in Ceylon, and
who was all amazement at the strange amalga-
mation of masculine and feminine attire, " Well,
Mrs. , you seem quite surprised to see gen-
tlemen in combs and petticoats."
The national custom is, for none save those of
royal blood, to wear any covering on their feet.
In Kandy some few of tlie chiefs occasionally
wear a kind of sandal, but all other classes go
barefooted. The Moodliars, when attending to
the duties of their offices, wear both shoes and
stockings, but immediately upon returning to
their own domiciles, they throw off these encum-
brances ; the remainder of the natives, both male
and female, do not wear any covering on their
legs or feet.
The middle classes in Kandy wear a comboy,
which reaches either to, or below the knee, ac-
cording to their caste, the very lowest wearing-
only a small piece of cloth, or a handkerchief,
which they gird about their loins. In the mari-
time provinces, the men of middle rank usually
wear a jacket, made either of cloth or cotton, the
kANDIAN WOMAN.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 35
com boy being the same as that which is worn in
Kandy. The high comb is invariably used in
the maritime provinces by all ranks save the
poorest and lowest — but the Kandians, although
their hair is allowed to grow to a great length,
merely draw it back from the face, and twist it
into a knot at the back of the head. The men oc-
casionally wear a cotton handkerchief, tied round
their head, to protect them from the sun, and, al-
though the sun's rays in Ceylon are most power-
ful, deaths amongst the natives, arising from coup
de soleil, are very rare.
The dress of the Kandian women consists of
a comboy bound tightly round the person, and
a scarf, which is most gracefully thrown around
them, and over the shoulders, so as entirely to
conceal their bosoms. Their hair is drawn from
their faces, and twisted into a knot at the back
of the head, where it is confined, either by gold
or silver pins, which are usually most exquisitely
chased. This style of arranging the hair is adopted
in Ceylon by every native woman, and the coiffure
of the hair at the back of the head is classically
elegant.
All women, whether of high or low degree,
who are natives of Lanka-diva's verdant shores,
draw their locks from off their brows and twist
them into a knot at the back of their head ; the
hair being maintained in form by tortoiseshell,
silver, or golden pins. Two of these pins, some-
36
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
what the shape of an arrow, are inserted into the
centre of the knot, in a transverse direction ; and
one jjin with a flat semicircular head is placed on
either side of the knot close to the head. Words
will not convey an adequate idea of the exquisite
effect produced by this style of ornamenting the
head, which is as simple as elegant. These pins
do not assimilate, in the most remote degree, with
the bodkins used either by the Russian, Swiss, or
Italian peasantry, and are equally dissimilar to
those worn by the Chinese ; and in no part of
the globe in which we have been, have we seen
anything resembling them in form, or beauty.
The Cingalese pins, are made either of carved
tortoiseshell, lined with silver (the glittering of
the white metal in the interstices of the perfora-
tions, contrasting finely with the dark shell), of
silver richly worked in chasing or fillagree, or
of embossed gold studded with precious stones.
The tortoiseshell and silver pins vary in price
from five rix dollars (7s. 6d.), to 30 rix dollars or
£2 5s. ; these are worn by the females in their
ordinary attire, the golden pins being only used
in full dress, by the wives and daughters of the
Moodliars, or chiefs. These are extremely costly,
their value being estimated by the weight of me-
tal, perfection of workmanship, and beauty of
the gems, wherewith the bodkins are studded.
The Kandian ruby is considered by the natives
of the island as the most valuable precious stone,
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE, 37
and when these rubies are free from defects, eitlier
of colour or form, the wealthy Cingalese will give
enormous prices for them. We knew a chief's
Vvife, whose four hair ornaments studded with
thege gems cost 3500 rix dollars.
Our surprise has been great, that some of our
own lovely countrywomen have not adopted
these classical and becoming ornament for their
tresses. An ill-natured friend has suggested that
Britain's fair daughters, will not patronize any
fashion or mode which does not emanate from
that emporium of good taste and paradise of
ladies, designated Paris.
During the Kandian monarchy, we have been
informed, that the court costume of the ladies
differed but little from the chief's, save in the
head-dress. In the maritime provinces, the wo-
men wear a short loose cotton jacket, which
scarcely reaches to the waist, and too often leaves
the bosom completely exposed to view, and a
comhoy exactly similar to that which is worn by
the males. The jacket was introduced by the
Portuguese, and under the native monarchs all
women, save those of the highest caste, were for-
bidden to wear any covering over the bosom,
consequently the whole of the ])erson, from the
waist upwards, v\as exposed. The length of the
comboy was also determined in the same arbi-
trary manner, a high caste woman could wear
her drapery down to her heels, but a low caste
38 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
female had scarcely sufficient covering to answer
the purposes of decency. Can we wonder at wo-
men, thus habituated to the exposure of their
persons, are vitiated in morals and depraved in
feeling? Our government most correctly abo-
lished these laws, and it is disgraceful both to the
Portuguese and Dutch, that they did not do so,
as they had posession of Ceylon long before us ;
but we regret to say, that many women of good
caste will merely throw the jacket over their
shoulders, whilst those of the lower will go with-
out it entirely, not substituting any covering in
its place.
We have elsewhere observed the marked dif-
ference which is apparent in the character, phy-
sical and mental qualifications of the inhabitants
of Ceylon — the natives of the mountainous dis-
tricts, namely, the Kandians, being superior in
every respect to their brethren of the lowlands,
who are called Cingalese.
The personal appearance of the natives is ra-
ther pleasing, and, although generally the men
are under the middle size, their average stature
being about five feet six inches, they are well
proportioned, neatly made, and their muscles are
well developed ; but they seldom put forth their
muscular powers, as a more indolent race does not
exist in Asia than the natives of Ceylon. Their
complexions vary in colour, from a clear yellow
brown to black, and their hair and eyes are of an
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 39
ebon line ; the Kandians liave darker com-
plexions, possess greater muscular power, and are
better grown than the inhabitants of the low-
lands, and maritime districts. The features of
the natives of Ceylon are good, and the counte-
nances of many of the chiefs, and high caste men,
are remarkably expressive and intelligent. The
shape of their heads differs from that of Euro-
peans, inasmuch as it is longer, but this pecu-
liarity is essentially Asiatic.
Many of the women, when very young, are re-
markable for the beauty of their faces and forms,
but the comeliness of their persons quickly passes
away, and by the time they attain the age of
twenty-five years, all traces of good looks, both
in countenance and figure, have entirely disap-
peared. The natives profess to be great judges
of female beauty, and one of their works contains
the following lines, which perfectly convey their
ideas of feminine loveliness: —
" A woman's tresses should be abundant, as
voluminous as the tail of a peacock, and as long-
as a palm leaf of ten moons' growth, her eye-
brows should be arched like the rainbow, her
eyes long as the almond, and the colour dark as
midnight when there is no moon. Her nose
should be slender as the bill of the hawk, her lips
full, and the colour of red coral, her teeth small,
even, closely placed together, and tlie colour of
the pearl when it is newly taken from the oyster
40 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
and cleansed. Her throat should be thick and
round, like the stem of a plantain-tree in full
bearing. Her chest should be wide, her bosom
full and the form of a young cocoa-nut — and her
waist small, round and taper, so slender that it
could be clasped within two outstretched hands —
her hips should be large and round, her limbs
slender, and the soles of her feet without any
arch or hollow, and the surface of her person
should be soft, delicate, smooth, and I'ound, nei-
ther bones, sinews, or angles being visible. Not a
blemish should be found on her skin, the tint of
which should be bright and brown."
The half castes of Ceylon, or Burghers, as they
are called in the island, adopt the European cos-
tume. We allude only to the males, the women
blending in their dress a strange mixture of the
European and native attire. The male half castes
are far below the Cingalese both in physical
povver, stature, personal appearance, and mental
capabilities ; their complexions are less clear,
their features ill formed, and the expression of
their countenances is heavy and sensual, being as
deficient in corporeal attractions as they are des-
titute of moral rectitude and probity.
The females of this class in early life are re-
markable for their beauty, but all traces of which
are totally lost before they are thirty years of
age, then they are either shapeless masses of
flesh, or reduced to skin and bone.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 41
It is most extraordinary, but all those who
have been in the East frankly admit that among
the half castes is to be found every vice that dis-
graces humanity, and nowhere is this axiom
more strikingly exemplified than in the male and
female Burghers of Ceylon. In making this
statement, we do not mean to assert that all are
destitute of good feeling, as we have known two
or three men who possessed kindly feelings and
cultivated minds, but unfortunately such are the
exceptions to the general rule.
42 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
CHAPTER III.
National religion — Antiquity of Buddhism — Transmigration
of souls — Fabulous beings — Mythology of the Cingalese —
Heavens — Hells — Gods — Demons — Devil-dancers, their
origin — How practised — Punishments — Account of the
last Buddha that appeared — Biith, marriage, life, and
death of Goutama Buddha — Tenets of Buddhism — Com-
mands of Buddha — Doctrines inculcated.
The national system of religion in Ceylon is
Buddhaical, and although there are many of the
natives who profess either Protestantism or Ca-
tholicism, we have been assured by a Moodliar
holding a high official appointment, there is not
one of the professed converts who does not make
offerings to the gods, temples, and priests.
We shall now proceed to give an outline of the
system of Buddhism, its belief, rewards, punish-
ment, and other matters connected with this form
of worship.
Tradition cannot trace back, nor history assist
in fixino; the date, when Buddhism first asserted
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 43
its sway over a vast portion of the human race ;
but it is certain that, from the earliest ages,
Ceylon, China, India, Thibet, and Burmah, ac-
knowledged the yoke of the Buddhaical religion ;
and deeply is it to be deplored that, at the pre-
sent day, millions prostrate themselves before the
shrines of Buddha, in the portions of the world
before named, acknowledging the code of mora-
lity prescribed by this system as their sole guide
through life.
Buddhism, it is asserted by ancient records,
was first promulgated in a region of Northern
India, called Magadha, and the language in
which the sacred books are written, now termed
Pali, is affirmed to have been the language of
the people of Magadhi ; this language is looked
upon as being of great antiquity — Buddhists de-
claring that it is the root of all other tongues.
In Kachayana's grammar of Pali, we read, page
22 of the introduction — " There is a language
which is the root of all languages ; men and
Brahmins, who never before heard, or uttered a
human sound, spoke it at the commencement of
the creation. The Buddiias themselves spoke it
— it is Magadhi." The Buddhists do not believe
in the existence of a Creator, but are absolute
materialists, asserting that all created things are
formed of the four elements — their gods, demons,
men, and animals, all proceeding from the same
source. In " Davy's Ceylon," p. 188, we read —
44 CEYLON AND THE CIN'GALESE.
" Prani and Hitta, life and intelligence, the
most learned of them seem to consider as identi-
cal. Seated in the heart, radiating from thence
to different parts of the body, like heat from a
fire — uncreated, without beginning, at least that
they know of, capable of being modified by a
variety of circumstances, like the breath in
different musical instruments — and, like a vapour,
capable of passing from one body to another —
and like a flame, liable to be extinguished, and
totally annihilated."
Thoy believe in the transmigration of souls;
that a good man may become a god, a bad man
a demon, and that nian may be a god, demon,
animal, or reptile, in various stages of existence;
that when death seizes on one body, the principle
of life immediately enters another form ; that
when a man or god has become perfection, the
principle of life is totally nnnihilated, which,
with Buddhists, is the highest altitude of bliss.
The belief in the transmigration of souls is fre-
quently curiously illustrated in the present day,
for when a criminal is condemned to death for
murder, he will at times threaten the judge that
he will next assume the form of a wild beast, or
venemous reptile, for the purpose of being re-
venged.
Destruction of life is also forbidden by the
Buddhist religion ; therefore a good Buddhist
will not take life, even from animals or reptiles.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE, 45
affirming that it is impossible to be assured that
one of their near rehitions may not have assumed
that shape. The Buddhists state that the world
never had a beginning-, never will have an end ;
that the universe is composed of innumerable
worlds, each one like the other, but that the
whole number of these worlds are constantly un-
dergoing alteration ; that when they have arrived
at the highest state of perfection they decline ;
that when again reduced to chaos, they are re-
invigorated, and gradually again arrive at perfec-
tion, again to undergo the same change, or revo-
lution.
Each world, according to the Buddhist, is a
system of heavens and hells, seas, rocks, and
islands, being inhabited by gods, demons, and
fabulous beings, who are mortal, having the same
passions and desiies as ourselves. The heavens,
or places of bliss, vary, and before their gods can
attain the highest heaven, they must undergo
death, appearing in our world under a human
form ; then, if they are perfection, they go first to
the highest heaven ; after millions of ages have
elapsed, they become totally annihilated. The
gods and goddesses in these heavens are stated
to be gigantic in stature, well formed, of a red
complexion, very beautiful, and rays of light
emanate from their bodies ; as these beings are
gradually promoted from one heaven to another,
so do they increase in stature, beauty, and efful-
46 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
gence, until in one of the heavens the light which
emanates from a single finger, is equal in daz-
zling splendour to ten thousand suns shining at
mid -day.
In the various heavens, the natures of the gods
vary ; in the higher ones, the sense and enjoy-
ment of existence are more keen, the bodily powers
greater, the physical beauty extreme, and all
passions are subjugated more than in the lower
ones, until in the highest heaven life itself is an-
nihilated, being absorbed into space. The centre
of these series of worlds they believe to be a rock,
Maha-meru-parwate, which is placed under the
lowest heaven, there being in all twenty-five
heavens. We cannot give a correct idea of this
system of worlds, heavens, and hells, without
quoting from a most interestingly curious ancient
Cingalese work, which has been most obligingly
placed at our disposal : —
" The mountain of rock, which has ever existed
before time was, and has been, for millions of
ages, called Maha-nieru-parwate, stands in the
centre of the universe, under the lowermost of
the twice ten and five heavens. This rock re-
poses half in ether, and half in the water, and
measures more leagues in circumference than
man could number, were he to count from ihe
morning until the evening meal, or from the
rising of the sun until the setting. This stupen-
dous, beauteous rock, is of five colours, and has
10
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 47
four sides ; that which is nearest the sun when
he rises is the colour of the heavens ; the
northerly, of the talipot-flower in full blossom ;
whilst the centre is of the colour of a stream of
molten gold.
Maha-meru-parwate is supported by three
rocks ; under these three rocks is the abode of
the serpents, whose varieties no living man can
tell, nor the beauty of their skins. The serpents'
dwelling--place is called Naga-bhaw-na, and is
twice ten thousand leagues in circumference.
Naga-bhaw-na rests upon a rock, which rests
upon the water, which water rests upon air : thus
the world is finished by air.
" Around Maha-meru-parwate are five and two
rocky circles ; between each circle runs bound-
less, bottomless salt water ; and around the whole
of these five and two circles, on the outside, is
again the salt water. Who couh] measure its
depth or width ? Beneath this mighty body of
waters are twice five places of torment : they are
called Aivichi-maha-nara-he. About these twice
five hells are twelve times ten minor places of
torture : the name of these last is Osooput-
narake."
It is most extraordinary that so irrational a
system should have subsisted for ages. Every
Cingalese and Kandian scholar is as perfectly
acquainted and conversant with this system, as
he is with the household names of his gods and
48 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
family. When asked to give some definite reason
or explanation for this fabulous, unreasonable ac-
count, they will quote some Pali record, or say
they know not why they believe the tale, but
their fathers said it was all true.
Maha-meru-parwate belongs to the god Sacrea,
who sometimes quits his heaven to reside there
in his beautiful ivory palace, which is surrounded
by a garden, in which is a tree, a white cow, and
an elephant of the same colour The cow and
tree possess the power of gratifying the desire of
all those who wish as they gaze upon them.*
The white elephant has the power of flight, and
can pass from one heaven to another, when
Sacrea wishes to visit his brother gods, provided
that the heaven visited is inferior to the one in
which Sacrea dwells, as the power of ascending
stops when the elephant has reached Sacrea's
dwelling-place. On Maha-meru-parwate reside
the attendants of Sacrea, who are all accom-
plished musicians : these bear the human form ;
but those which serve as the body-guard of the
god Sacrea, have square faces, one eye in the
middle of the forehead, a hawk's bill for a nose,
whilst wings issue from their shoulders.
The king of one tribe of the gods who dwell
under the rock of Maha-meru-parwate, at one
* In the poetical works of Ceylon, a kind, charitable man
is invariably compared to the umbrageous tree in the garden
of Sacrea.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 49
period, a paroxysm of rage, swallowed the sun
and tlie moon, and now causes eclipses by stretch-
ing forth his left hand. In the Naga-bhaw-na
dwell the snakes, who when on earth, in the form
of man, were good and pious people, and were
almost worthy to be made gods ; but the sin of
malice crept into their nature, and they will be
snakes for a thousand million of ages, when they
will become a superior race of gods. The snakes
dwell in well-furnished houses, have a king,
temple, and worship, according to the rites pre-
scribed by Buddha : their castes are numerous,
and the beauty of the females extreme. A flame
plays about the bodies of these snakes, so there
is no darkness in their region at night. What-
ever they desire immediately appears before
them ; but if it is food it assumes the shape of a
lai'ge frog. If these snakes were irritated they
could exterminate the whole race of man, by one
blast of their poisonous breath; but, being kind
and benevolent by nature, they only allow a small
portion of breath to escape from their nostrils ;
and only when mankind are acting sinfully, by
neglecting the ordinances of Buddha, then a
slight blast ascends to the earth, which causes
disease.
The beings or gods which dwell in the other
rocks are of a ditferent race; but as their history
is of the same fabulous nature, we shall omit
their names (which, although jaw-breaking, might
VOL. II. D
50 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
easily have been simplified by giving all, the one
generic cognomen of legion), and proceed to
describe the demons and places of torment, or
hells.
There are five ranks or classes of demons.
Those of the first class, Rawks-ha-sa, resemble
men in form, but are of gigantic stature, being as
tall as palmyra trees. Their propensities and
dispositions are most savage, being furnished with
lion's teeth, they seize and devour human beings,
avoiding the seat of life to enable them to revel
in the screams of their victims as they eat them.
When men cannot be procured to be devoured,
they eat earth. These demons can walk upon
and under the sea, but they cannot fly or ascend
in tlie air.
The Yak-shy-aya-yre are the second class :
these demons possess neither the strength nor
stature of the preceding ; they have not the
power of walking, but float upon the air. These
creatures are found to inhabit houses, jungles, and
caves, making hideous wailings and noises ; they
suck the blood of men and animals, causing sick-
ness and death.
The third class are the Bhoo-ta-yo : these
demons are formless, resembling a blast of hot air ;
they reside in tombs and the jungles, their suste-
nance being dirt ; and their power is limited to
causing alarm by their hideous yells.
The fourth are the Pray-ta : these demons are
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 51
hideous skeletons, with a ta\Yny skin, through which
every bone and muscle can be seen. They float
upon the air; and, although suffering continually
from hunger and thirst, the food which is always
before them vanishes as soon as they attempt to
touch it ; and their power of doing evil confined
to alarming old people by their appearance.
The fifth and last are the Pi-sat-cha : these
demons are numberless, and resemble a blue
cloud : their desires and powers are the same, in
every respect, as the preceding class of demons.
These evil spirits are worshipped by the Cin-
galese ; and dances, called devil-dances, are con-
tinually taking place, to appease the wrath of
some offended demon. Thus, if one of the family
fall sick, or misfortune attends their undertakingfs,
they call in a priest of the devil, offerings and
dances being given to allay the anger of the
demon. These devil-dances were introduced into
Ceylon, in the third century of the Ciiristian era,
by one of the kinos, Sri Sangabo, who attributed
a plague and famine which desolated the island of
Ceylon, to the aroused malignity of a red-eyed
demon ; and this superstitious worship of the
devil was then established, and remains in use to
this day.
When a village or district is said to be under
the influence of a demon, one or two pulpits are
erected, which are made by tying together split
bamboo : these are decorated with various orna-
D 2
52 CEYLOJS AND THE CINGALESE.
mental devices, formed with the leaves of the
cocoa-nut tree and flowers. The priest of the
devil makes offerings of money, fruit, and flowers
to the demon, in the name of the whole village.
Tom-tom beaters attend — the kapua, or dancers,
being also priests of the devil, who dance, in
honour of the demon, before the pulpit, where
the first-named priest reads a species of incanta-
tion, imploring the demon to be appeased, and
depart from the village.
The kapua, or devil-dancers, are usually well-
grown, active men, and wear on their arms and
ankles several hollow brass rings : they keep time
to the tom-tom beaters by shaking their head,
whilst the clanking of the bracelets and anklets
makes a species of accompaniment. The evolu-
tions of the dancer are rapid ; his gestures lasci-
vious and indecent ; as he becomes excited with
the music and the dance, his flesh will quiver, his
eyeballs become fixed and staring, as if he could,
or would, discern the form of the offended demon ;
whilst in this state, he will predict the cause of
the aroused wrath of the demon, the fate or for-
tune of individuals.
These dances are held at night, by torchlight ;
and no scene can be imagined moie painfully
impressive than to witness the frantic gestures of
the devil-dancer, with his long, dishevelled hair
streaming over his shoulders, the blue flame from
th3 torches flickering and casting an unearthly
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 53
light on all around, whilst the dusky spectators
remain motionless, gazing, with staring eyes, on the
dancer; the huge tropical trees waving over tiie
heads of all, as if calmly deriding, although com-
pelled to witness, the unhallowed rites and vicious
orgies, which invariably wind up a devil-dance.
When a member of a family is sick, and a devil-
dance is held, to mollify the tormenting demon, it
usually takes place in the garden which is attached
to every dwelling in Ceylon, however humble. A
temporary altar is erected and decorated as before
described — ^the same rites being enacted, the same
scenes of vice too frequently ensuing. Whilst
sojourning in the land of the heathen, how frequently
have our hearts mourned over our domestic servants,
when they have solicited permission to attend a
devil-dance : remonstrance was useless, for if per-
mission were not granted, they would quit the
service rather than forego attending this unhallow'ed
rite. Missionaries boast of the multitude of converts
made in Ceylon. Alas ! alas ! strangely do they
omit to mention the number of these professed con-
verts who attend devil-dances, and make ofTerino-s
to Buddha, his temples, and priests.
The places of torment are described to be a series
of hells, made of copper, and of a square form, piled
one above the other. In these burn unextinguish-
able fires of intense heat and fury; each hell in
descending becoming a degree hotter than that
which is immediately above, until the lowest is
reached, where " the fire is more intense than can
54 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
be even thought of; for could we convey the idea to
our mind, we must inevitably be consumed by the
reflection of the thought." * Those who have trans-
gressed the laws of Buddha are condemned to
different hells of greater or less heat, according to
the uiagnitude of their crimes. Thus, those who
have only erred in thought are placed in the hell of
the lowest temperature ; and as the crimes deepen in
turpitude, the culprit is placed in the hotter hell,
until the one which is the hottest is allotted to the
murderer.
Every sin has punishment assigned, usually of a
retributive nature: thus, for murder, the culprit is
condemned to be butchered perpetually by the same
means which were used to deprive his victim of life.
Thieving is punished by the thief having continually
before him what appear to be jewels and gems of
inestimable value ; by an irresistible impulse he is
compelled to seize them, when they turn to fire in
his grasp. Adultery is punished by the man being
compelled to climb up a tall and jagged tree after
the partner of his guilt, who allures him up the tree,
by standing on its topmost branch, which he no
sooner gains than she eludes his grasp, and appears
at the foot of the tree, which he quickly slides down,
tearing his flesh fearfully in the descent; when the
bottom of the tree is attained, the female again is at
the topmost branch— this scene being perpetually
re-acted. The adulteress is perpetually punished, by
attempting to throw herself into the arms of her
* Thus writes a Cingalese sage.
CEYLON AKD THE CINGALESE, 65
paramour, who immediately becomes a venomous
snake, inflicting a painful wound on her breasts.
Those who have drunk spirituous liquors, or indulged
in drunkenness, have constantly a molten stream of
burning lead poured down their throats. Liars have
their tongues perpetually gashed with burning
shears ; in short, every offence has its own peculiar
punishment allotted.
Those who have broken Buddha's laws one
hundred times, or, as the Cingalese express it, " on
ten times ten occasions," are to endure continual
hunger and thirst, to be impaled on red hot stakes,
to be chopped and chipped like wood, and to have
the eyeballs, hair, and nails, plucked out with burn-
ing pincers. Those who have sinned more frequently
are to be very fat and fleshy, their tormentors being
ravenous beasts of prey, who will tear out their
bowels without injuring a vital part; and this last
punishment is added to the former ones.
The most terrible of all the places of torment is
the Locarnan-tarika-nariky. This hill is made of
moist clay ; no light being admitted, the criminals
here suffer from intense cold, darkness, ravenous
hunger, and consuming thirst, which compel
them to tear each other to pieces; devouring the
living flesh to appease hunger, and drinking the
warm blood to allay the unquenchable thirst. They
suffer the pangs of death constantly, immediately
afterwards returning to life, to undergo the same
torments, which never diminish in duration or
agony. Those who are condemned to suffer in this
56 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
place of torture, are criminals who have committed
unpardonable sins, such as those who have defied or
scotFed at Buddha or his ordinances, defiled or
injured his temples, or opposed his worship, did not
worship the gods, or murdered a priest, parent, or
teacher — all these offences are looked upon by the
Buddhist as the most heinous sins which human
nature is capable of committing.
In accordance with the preceding irrational system
are the physical causes by which, the Cingalese con-
tend, that the universe is governed, every pheno-
menon of nature, they affirm, being produced by
the means or with the concurrence of, various gods,
or because it was to he — never attempting to adduce
reason or proof in confirmation of their assertions.
The sun, moon, stars, meteors, and the whole of the
heavenly bodies are asserted to be various gods, who
live in magnificent mansions, which are continually
illuminated, and are drawn about from place to
place in the heavens, at fixed periods, by deer,
horses, and elephants; thus, when the sun rises, he
is commencing a journey ; when setting, he is gone
to the other side of Maha-meru-]}arwate, which is
under the water ; and the same theory is applied to
the moon, stars, meteors, planets, comets, and the
whole host of heavenly bodies.
When the gods quarrel one with the other, then
storms, or whirlwinds are produced, by the elements
being set in commotion, through the noise and
turmoil which are occasioned by the loud voices of the
gods. Their will or caprice causes rain to descend
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 57
In a genial shower to refresh vegetation, or to de-
luo-e the earth with torrents, which cause floods,
destroying plantations, and inundating houses. A
shooting star they affirm to be the spirit of a god
which has just quitted the body, and is about to
enter another form ; the milky way is produced by
a huge snake, who leaves in the path already
traversed innumerable illuminated scales, or portions
of skin.
The phenomena of the tides is accounted for by
the Cingalese in the following unreasonable, absurd
manner — thev state that over the uppermost hell is
an immense pit, which could contain the whole
ocean if necessary, and by this means, prevent the
land from being inundated ; the water which is in
the pit is heated from the fire that burns in the up-
permost hell ; the tides being produced by the heat
and vapour, arising from the hot water mixing with
the cold, as the former leaves the pit.
The system of the constant changes of the various
worlds is thus accounted for — as man becomes
wicked, so the world degenerates, until all is in-
volved in ruin ; then a new world arises from the
chaotic mass, which gradually reaches perfection as
mankind improve in virtue. When arrived at the
highest acme of perfection, man is sure to become
wicked, when the world again degenerates ; between
each chaos and regeneration millions of ages elapse,
which, let them be defined by numbers as they will,
no mortal can duly estimate. The period which
elapses between one chaos and another is called
D 5
58 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
Mnha-Kalpe. We must again resort to the ancient
Cingalese work before alluded to, to give an ade-
quately correct idea of this extraordinary and
singular system, which, from its very strangeness,
we believe and trust will prove as interesting to our
readers as it has to ourselves: —
" Maha-Kalpe is ended by chaos; this is caused by
fire, water, and the wind, which destroy all ; but
fire will consume to a cinder all vestiges of the
world which wind and water have left unscathed.
No part of the world is spared the Brach-mea-lo-
ches.* The fire burns for ten millions of years;
the rain then descends from JBrach-mea-lo-ches,
which inundates the earth, and extinguishes the
flames. For ten centuries does the rain fall ; after
that time it ceases, and the whole earth is a mass of
mire and rocks. In due time the flower Na-loonf
pushes its graceful stem from out the earth. Upon
the branches of the N'a-loon, which grows until it
reaches the Brach-mea-lo-ches, are suspended robes
and clothing for the Buddhas, which are to appear in
this world during the Maha-Kalpe; the number of
Buddhas may be five, or it may be a single one.
When Na-loon has reached Bracli-mealo-ches, then
ten gods descend to the earth. The gods are soon
actuated by the same desires which dwell in the
heart of men. Are not lust, gluttony, and anger,
inherent to the heart of men? The gods catch these
passions from dwelling on earth. The gods' per-
* This is one of their numerous heavens.
f A most beautiful species of the pink lotus.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 59
sons assume the human shape — sou)e are males,
some are females ; they eat of the fruits which
spring up spontaneously. Children are born, these
multiply ; families soon are numerous, they choose
rulers and chiefs, laws are made, castes are formed,
and the human race goes on multiplying in numbers,
and increasing in sin, until for their crimes all
earthly things degenerate ; the Maha-Kalpe ends,
again all things are chaos."
In a Maha-Kalpe to come, they believe that men
will become sinful in the extreme. Buddha s laws
will be neglected, and his shrines desecrated ;
murder, rapine, and plunder, will take place at
noonday. The number of man's days on earth will
gradually decrease until his age will not exceed
twice Jive years ; then a scroll will be found affixed
to a virgin talipot-tree that has never borne fruit,
on which will be written the following words : —
" In five and two days a mighty rain will deluge the
land ; all those upon whom this rain falls will be
changed into ravenous beasts of prey, and devour
each other ; those that have but one seed of virtue
remaining, keep your bodies dry." In those parts
of the world where a virgin talipot-tree is not to be
found, then a sonorous voice will be heard to an-
nounce the warning. Nearly all will be wetted
with the rain, be changed into wild beasts, and will
devour each other; the few that remain on earth
will gradually amend their ways, and, as they im-
prove in virtue, their lives will be prolonged until
they attain immense length of days, powerful mental
GO CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
capabilities, and extreme personal beauty, combined
with gigantic stature.
According to the Cingalese belief, nothing re-
mains stationary. When arrived at perfection,
mankind will again degenerate, until all again is
involved in destruction and chaos, again to be re-
newed. We have endeavoured to give, as briefly
as possible consistent with necessary information, an
outline of the fabulous history of the Cingalese
system of worlds, which we believe will be found
interesting alike to the antiquarian and general
reader.
Buddha is a derivation from the Pali word £udu,
which sigeifies wisdom; and this term is applied to
a man, or men, who is, or are, distinguished beyond
his or their fellows for mental capability, learning,
and piety. The Cingalese belief is, that in every
Maha-Kalpe a certain number of Buddhas are to
appear on this earth, who from their good example
will cause mankind to reform, and restore religion to
its prinjitive purity. The Buddhists compare their
religion to a tree, which is occasionally in full health
and vigour, bearing leaves, flowers, and fruit : at
other times the tree is destitute of verdure, leafless
and almost lifeless ; and this natural comparison is
simply and beautifully poetical.
We liave previously remarked that the introduc-
tion of Buddhism into the world is buried in the
obscurity of past ages; but from the early period at
which Buddhaical tenets reigned dominant in the
breasts of a large portion of the human race, no
CEVLON ASID THE CINGALK8E. 61
doubt can remain in the mind of the inquirer, that
Buddhism was one of the earliest, if not the earliest,
of all human religions, codes of morality, and forms
of worship. The Buddhist asserts that the laws
and system have been handed from generation to
generation, by a succession of prophets, who ap-
peared on earth at fixed intervals ; centuries elaps-
ing between the visits of these prophets, or Buddhas.
Six hundred years before the Christian era,
twenty-four of these prophets or Buddhas had
visited this world, when the son of one of the kings
of Northern India, for his learning, piety, and sin-
less life, was raised to the rank of Buddha ; through
him the ancient religion was restored to its original
purity ; he instructed priests in its tenets ; and, when
he quitted this world, to be absorbed into the first
principle of all things, these priests remained to in-
struct the world, and inculcate the principles, doc-
trines, and laws of Buddha.
It is utterly impossible to affirm whether the
twenty-four prophets or Buddhas whicli appeared
on eai'th, are fabulous beings or not; but the two
last Buddhas, prophets, (what cognomen to apply
to these beings we know not,) were men and mor-
tals, is fully proved from history. Kassapo was
the Buddha which appeared before Goutama, whilst
Goutama, the last Buddha which appeared, did not
become Buddha till the sixth century antecedent to
the Christian era. We read in Knighton, p. 66: —
" Whether the preceding Buddhas had a personal
existence or not cannot now be decided ; but we
62 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
can scarcely doubt of tlie humanity and substan-
tiality of the last two — Kassapo and Goutama —
inasmuch as the faith of the first had extended to
China before the appearance of the second ; whilst
the latter was, in fact, unknown in that vast em-
pire till about the second century of the Christian
era."*
Five Buddhas are to appear in the present Maha-
Kalpe ; four have appeared, the last being Gou-
tama ; the one to come is Nitr a- Buddha, who is
predestined to appear on earth at a stated period,
but the precise time is not known. The last
Buddha, Goutama, is the chief object of venera-
tion and worship with rigid Buddhists, although
the whole number of Buddhas, with many of the
gods, are worshipped by multitudes. To give a
correct idea of the belief and principles of Budd-
hism, we must sketch an outline of the life of the
last Buddha ; by so doing, we shall impart informa-
tion concerning the history of the preceding three
Buddhas, as the principal occurrences in their lives
exactly coincide.
The history of Goutama Buddha is most volumi-
nous, the Cingalese asserting that ten hundred
thick books have been written, and they do not
contain the whole history of his life. The style
of the work, like most Asiatic writings, is high-
's: This interesting fact is proved by the account of Buddhism
as then existing in China, given by Fa-hian, in his collection of
Buddhist tracts.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 63
flown and hyperbolical, abounding in extraordinary
relations and exaggerations.
The being who became Goutama Buddha previ-
ously underwent every variety and stage of exist-
ence, having been born many millions of times.
To confirm this assertion, the Cingalese writer says,
— " Were the bodies collected merely in each in-
stance of abortion, which occurred to him in the
common course of things, they would form a mass
which would surpass in size the magnitude of the
earth."
In the state of being which preceded that of
Buddha, he was a god of Toasitadewialoche, his
name being Swata-katu. A thousand years be-
fore Swata-katu became Buddha, a man with a
golden branch in his hand flew through ten thou-
sand worlds, announcing to the gods that Buddha
would appear at the expiration of one thousand
years. As soon as this intelligence was heard, the
gods in a body went to the heaven where Swata-
katu dwelt, to inform him that the period had
arrived when he must quit his heavenly abode, and
descend to earth to become Buddha, as his piety,
learning, and spotless life had qualified him to fill
that post.
Time does not exist in the heavens of a Cingalese,
thousands of years being but as a moment, and mil-
lions of ages but as one week. Thus no sooner had
the gods heard the messenger proclaim that Buddha
would appear on earth in a thousand years, than
64 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
the prescribed time had elapsed. On receiving the
deputation of the gods, Swata-katu desired a mo-
ment for reflection, to be enabled to examine him-
self as to his fitness and capability for becoming
Buddha, After due deliberation, Swata-katu de-
clared his willingness to become Buddha, more espe-
cially as mankind now lived to be one hundred and
twenty years of age; therefore they must be virtu-
ous, or they would not have attained the privilege
of living unto that advanced age — consequently, the
world was in a fit state to receive benefit from pious
precepts and example.
Swata-katu declared that he should be born of
the queen Maha-ya-davea, the wife of Sodo-den
Rajah-Roo, who lived at Kapilla-wastoo poora, and
that the world in which he should become Buddha
should be Damba-diva. Immediately afterward
Swata-katu vanished from his heaven, and entered
the womb of the queen, Maka-ya-davea. Towards
the termination of the period of gestation, the
queen, whilst walking in one of the pleasure-gardens
of the palace, felt an irresistible desire to gather
some flowers that grew beyond her reach : scarcely
had the wish flashed across her mind, when the
bunch of flowers fell over towards her hand. The
instant the flowers touched her person the pangs of
childbirth commenced. Immediately the queen
Maha-ya-davea was surrounded by gods ; and in one
instant the child was born, who, the moment he was
in the world, walked seven steps forward in a
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 65
Straight line ; but to the assembled circle of gods,
the child appeared to be advancing towards each in-
dividual god.
The king, Sodo-den, lost in amazement and con-
sternation, sent for his most renowned astrologers
to unravel the meaning of these remarkable circum-
stances. After much deliberation, the astrologers
declared that the child then born would be either
Buddha, or a god. A renowned astrologer, who
dwelt in a far distant part of the kingdom, called
Ilie-male, whilst gazing on the heavens, heard
sounds which were expressive of great joy — the
gods proclaiming that the child just born, which
was called Sid-harte, the son of Sodo-den, would
become Buddha. The sage hastens to the court of
Sodo-den, and entreats that he may be allowed to
see the precious infant. As the sage was a good
man and renowned astrologer, Sodo-den granted
his request, ordering his attendants to fetch the
new-born infant.
As soon as the child was brought into the king's
presence, Sodo-den tried to make the infant salaam
the sage, by joining the little hands together ; but
the child, instead of salaaming the sage, placed his
feet upon the head of the good man. The sage
then examined the infant, and found upon his person
the distinguishing marks of Buddha — namely, the
thirty-two spots of beauty on his body, and two
hundred and sixteen emblems on the soles of his
feet, and the eighty inferior symbols, which were
indicative of his destiny.
66 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
The aged sage wept tears of joy and sorrow ; of
joy, at beholding the infant which which was to
become Buddha— of sorrow, because he must quit
this life before the child should become Buddha.
" Know, mighty Sodo-den, Rajah-roo, that thy son,
Sid-harte, before he can arrive at the felicitous
honour of becoming Buddha, will forsake the world,
giving up thy kingdom, and all its attendant grant
deur, to prepare himself, by meditations, for the
great honour which has been in store for him for
tens of millions of cejituries. Four events will
cause thy son Sid-harte to quit the luxuries which
surround him and thee. When he beholds a man
debilitated by disease and sorrow, an aged man
whose hair will be white as the running stream,- a
lifeless body, whereon the land-crabs are banquet-
ting, and a Tapissa,^ then will Sid-harte, thy son,
leave thy dwelling never more to gladden thy
sight." The astrologer then departed on his home-
ward journey, and shortly afterwards died.
Sid-harte grew up, was a dutiful son, studied
deeply, and paid profound respect to the good and
learned. At that period, the religion of Brahma
was th*e one that was followed by Sodo-den .and his
subjects : the king, not appreciating the high des-
tiny to which his son was called as Buddha, and
wishinor him to ascend the throne after his death, ex-
erted his authority and influence to prevent Tapissa
from gaining access to the young prince — bearing
the prophecy in mind, S<>do-de7i caused the sick and
* An order of the priesthood.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 67
aged people, and those who were likely to die, to be
moved outside the city walls: every rampart was
put into a thorough state of repair, and fifteen hun-
dred men were stationed at each of the four (rates to
prevent the ingress of the sick, aged, or Tapissas.
Sodo-den sought to bind Sid-harte to the world by
every possible means ; thus when his son had
entered his seventeenth year, the king sought the
liand of a most beautiful and fascinating princess,
to be to him given in marriage. This princess was
called Yassa-deva-davie, and was the only daughter
of the king: whose realms bordered on those of
Sodo-den. She was so exquisitely lovely in face
and form, that no mortal man ever gazed upon her
without becoming the slave of her fascinations.
The marriage was celebrated with all due solemnity,
and great rejoicings took place on the auspicious
occasion ; but these rejoicings were redoubled when,
in nine months and three days after the marriage,
the lovely Princess Yassa-deva-davie pi*esented Sid-
harte with a son The king, Sodo-den, now was
happy, and in his felicity appeared to forget the
sage's prophecy and his former fears, and for years
nought occurred to cause him an uneasy thought.
Upon the day the Prince Sid-harte had entered
his thirtieth year, he determined to visit a member
of the royal family to acknowledge the gorgeous
present which had been sent him. Sid-harte, who
had lesolved to pay this visit in all due form, desired
the attendance of the chief or prime minister,
Chan-na. As Sid-harte was about to enter his
68 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
howdah (wliich was borne by his favourite elephant,
who was most richly caparisoned, the trappings
being one mass of gold and precious jewels), his
gaze was attracted and arrested by the appearance
ofan aged man, whose tottering, attenuated limbs
appeared unecpial to the task of supporting his
body, Sid-harte asked Chan-na to explain to him
the meaning of this wonderful spectacle.
" Know, mighty and powerful prince," said
Chan-na, '• that the spectacle thou beholdest, al-
though new to thee, is what ordinary mortals wit-
ness daily ; that tottering man is but borne down
by the weight of many years. He is old, Sid-harte,
and all born of woman must become infirm under
the burden of numerous days."
The words of Chan-na sank deep into the heart
of Sid harte, for his mind was filled with the thought
that all he loved — wife, children, niother, and father
— now revelling in all their full bodily powers, must
even become a piteous spectacle, like unto the aged,
infirm, tottering man whom be had just seen. The
visit was paid, but Sid-harte returned to his father's
palace with a saddened brow. On the first day of
the following moon, Sid-harte resolved upon visiting
his favourite pleasure-garden. On his way thither,
attended by the chief officers of his household, he
beheld a man lying on the ground, moaning pite-
ously.
" Why does that man give utterance to those
sounds ?" inquired Sid-harte of the minister,
Chan-na.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE, 69
" Because, mighty master, he is sick and racked
by agonizing pain. All that are born of woman are
liable to disease and sufFering."
" I go not to my garden to-day — my heart is sad.
My adored wife, my beloved offspring, my honoured
and revered parents, may be suffering from bodily
agony, whilst I might be enjoying and inhaling the
sweets diffused around from the perfume of my
flowers."
On the last day of the same moon, Sid-harte
yielded to the solicitations of Yassa-deva-davie, and
ordered the court to attend him on an excursion
of pleasure to his favourite garden. The gorgeous
retinue stopped at the entrance of the garden; the
co\mng of Sid'harte had not been announced, there-
fore guards were not at the gate to receive him.
Lying before the garden-entrance was the putrify-
ing body of a man, the features completely de-
stroyed by the filthy and abhorrent land-crabs, who
were desporting in myriads over and about the
body, on which they had feasted.
" What horrible object is that which meets my
eye ? The eyeless sockets appear to glare on me, as
the reptiles creep from out the cavern of the skull,
unfold to me this mystery, learned Chan-na?''
" Sid-harte, that horrible object which meets thine
eye is the putrifying body of a dead man ; the cas-
ket, that now is a disgusting and unsightly object to
gaze upon, but one moon ago was full of life, energy,
and vigour. Know, mighty prince, that all that are
born of woman must die. Some live for many years
70 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
— some only to the jDeriod Avhen the mental and
bodily powers are at the zenith ; but old and
young, high-born and humble, the strong and the
weak, the learned and the ignorant — all alike are
born of woman, and must die."
As Sid-harte, wrapt in profound thought, prepared
to enter his howdah, a Tapissa passed by, dressed
in the robes of his office.
" Of what caste is that man, and why is he thus
attired ? Canst thou answer me these questions,
learned Chan-na ?"
" Powerful prince, that man is a Tapissa, and
he wears the robes of his office. By a spotless
life, meditation, and benefiting his brother man, he
seeks to overcome the five great evils which attend
man — disease and pain, old age and infirmity, and
the loss of life. All, Sid-harte, that are born of wo-
man are subject to these evils."
" Then, learned Chan-na, if a spotless life, prayer,
meditation, and performing acts to benefit mankind,
can overcome these five great evils, it were well did
I and thou follow in the Tapissa's steps. I, Sid-
harte, the son and heir of the mighty king Sodo-den,
devote the remainder of my days to overcome these
five great evils ; I, Sid-harte, the son of Sodo-den,
will become a priest. I have said it — who shall try
to make me lie, or attempt to induce me, by per-
suasion or force, to break ray word ?"
The retinue of the prince returned to the palace.
Sid-harte, buried in profound thought, sought the
privacy and solitude of the innermost chamber of
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 71
his princely abode. The noise of rejoicing and re-
veh'j resounded through the pakice, for the king had
ordered the attendance of his nobles, the most cele-
brated dancers, singers, and musicians, as he now
gave an entertainment, by which he hoped to dispel
the melancholy of his son. When the shades of
evening fell on all around, Sid-harte desired his
chief eunuch to summon the minister, Chan-na, into
his presence. The summons was obeyed. Before
Sid-harte, in an attitude of salutation, stood the
faithful minister.
" Chan-na, I am about to leave my palace, to be-
hold it no more — wilt accompany me?"
" Mighty prince, I am but the slave of thy bid-
ding — thou hast but to command, I to obey."
" Chan-na, the sight of age, disease, and death
dwell on my mind — I must conquer these great
evils. Ought I to dwell here, surrounded by all
which can minister to my pleasure, whilst my fel-
low-men suffer?"
" Mighty prince, it is thy destiny ; thou art the son
of the powerful king Sodo-den — care and sorrow
dare not molest thee."
" Hold thy peace, Chan-na; wouldst turn flat-
terer ? Though I, Sidharte, am the son of the
mighty Sodo-den, am I not a man born of woman —
therefore subject, like all human beings, to disease,
old age, and death? I tarry here no longer — fol-
low me."
" Sid-harte, mighty master, this night canst thou
not depart. Heardest thou not the song of joy,
72 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
sang by the princess' women, to celebrate the birth
of thy son? This night the great Yassa-dei'a-davie
has brouglit into the world an infant. Sid-harte,
thy humble slave, Chan-na, greets thee — thou art
again a father."
"Chan-na, this intelligence saddens me ; but my
resolve remains unshaken. I depart — but I dare
not see my beloved spouse or my children ; I can
leave them, but I cannot say farewell.
"The sight of my new-born son, nestling on his
beauteous mother's bosom, would unfit me for my
task — perchance my babe might entwine his tiny
fingers around mine — I could not withstand this
silent appeal to my heart. The little fingers, that
one rude pressure could snap in twain, would prove
to me more binding than chains of adamant or iron.
My beloved wife might speak of the future bliss
that we were to share — together ; for Yassa-deva-
davie and Sid-harte there can be no future — we are
twain. Wife, children, parents, throne — I sacrifice
at the shrine of duty. The flood-gates of ray heart
are opened — tears of agony roll down my cheeks at
the bitter thought, that I no more shall behold the
cherished, beloved wife of my bosom, my offspring —
and her children — the honoured parents who gave
me birth, and all I hold dear; but, Chan-na, I, Sid-
harte, must throw aside all human feehng, to be
enabled to conquer the five great evils, to which all
born of woman are subject.
" Let my steed, Kan-dek- ha, await me at the eastern
portal of ray private garden. Adieu, all that I love !
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 73
Sid-harte thou ne'er will see more ; but the memory
of past happiness is enshrined in the inmost recesses
of iny heart's core. Wilt thou follow me, Chan-na ?
To exile and poverty I lead thee."
" To the portals of suffering and death will I fol-
^w thee. Should thou, Sid-harte, enter the portal,
1, Chan-na, thy humble, unworthy slave, tread in
thy footsteps."
Mounted on his favourite black steed, Kan-dek-ka,
Sid-harte, and Chan-na quitted the city — the gate
through which they passed flying open to allow
them free egress. Sid-harte allowed his horse to
follow which path he chose : on bounded the noble
Kan-dek-ka until he came to the river Anoma-
ganga, which the horse sprang over, then volun-
tarily stoj)ped Sidharte and Chan-na alighted:
the prince then cut off his long tresses with his
scimitar, throwing the severed hair towards heaven ;
the god Sacrea caught the tresses, and caused
them to be sent to Toosita, to be preserved in a
Dagobah,
Sid-harte then proceeded to take off his royal
robes : in a minute the king of a tribe of gods,
called Maha-Brachmea, stood at his side with the
necessary apparel and equipments for a priest.
These consisted of two sets of yellow robes, a scarf
to gird about the loins, a girdle, a bowl to contain
food, a coarse cloth through which water was to be
strained, a razor to shave the head, and a coarse
needle to enable Sid-harte to repair his own robes.
All these articles had been taken from the flower
VOL. 11. E
74 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
Naloon, at the commencement of the Malia-Kalpe,
and been carefully preserved by the god Malta-
JBrachmea.
Sid-harte attired himself in the priestly robes, so-
lemnly abjuring rank, power, and grandeur; and
ordered the minister to return to the palace, inform-
ing the king that he had abjured for ever his former
position, and had become a priest ; and to bear the
royal robes to Yassa-deva-davie, as a f\ij'ewell gift
from him who had been her husband, but who now
was a priest. Chan-^na implored his master to allow
him to follow him, but Sid-harte would not accede
to this ; but insisted that Clian-na should return,
and desired him to mount Kan-dek-ka. Being com-
pelled to obey, the minister returned to the king
Sodo-den, and imparted the sorrowful intelligence.
Deej) was the grief that filled the hearts of Sodo-den
and Yassa-deva-davie when Chan-na told then) they
■would not again behold Sid-harte^ and nought but
sounds of wailing were heard in the palace.
Sid-hurte now wandered from place to place ; his
only means of support being the alms that were be-
stowed upon him by the charitable. He performed
various acts of devotion, such as remaining motionless
for a lengthened period, looking upon the sun at noon-
day, standing in the midst of fires, and, at times, for
weeks together, ate nothing save the leaves of trees.
These acts of devotion or penance are termed tapass ;
and it was whilst performing a most painful tapass
that Sid-harte had five dreams, which led him to
believe that he speedily would become Buddha.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. /O
The deiT.ons tried to seduce Sid-harte from the path
of virtue by every means in their power, and, when
alhirtments failed, intimidations were resorted to ;
but these proved as unavailing as the temptations.
One night Sid-harte was assailed by the demons,
who showered upon him missiles of every descrip-
tion ; bul the gods came to his aid, the deuions be-
ing completely vanquished and subjugated Before
the morning dawned, Sid-harte had become con-
versant with every description of knowledge ; he
had gained the wisdom which made him Buddha ; he
could recite the whole number of his previous births,
his acquirements, and great virtues; he had the
faculty of diving into the secrets of futurity, and
unravelling the events of past ages; the keenness
of his perception, and great wisdom, enabled him
to understand every thought of the human heart, and
all sciences; ail lust and worldly desires were sub-
dued or banished from his heart, and the capability
to appreciate the extreme bliss of his present condi-
tion was bestowed upon him.
Sid-harte was now called Goutama Buddha,
having twelve thousand other appellations, which
we will not attempt to give. For the first nine
weeks after becoming Buddha, he took no food or
sleep, remaining wrapt in meditation. Disciples
and adherents flocked from every part of the world
to become followers of Goutama Buddha — many
miracles were worked by him, and his life was most
exemplary. The principal part of Goutama s latter
days were passed at Kassa-ratta, living in a mag-
E 2
/h CEYLON AND THR CINGALESE.
nificent temple which had been built for him by
one of his wealthy followers. Here he passed his
time in inculcating the doctrines of Buddhism, and
benefiting mankind. Occasionally he travelled into
strange lands, and visited Lanka-diva^ Ceylon,
three times; and upon quitting Ceylon the last
time, he left the impress of his foot upon the
highest mountain in the island, which is called
Adam's Peak.* Davy's " Ceylon," p. 215, contains
the following account of Goutama Buddlta : —
" His days he devoted to men, in preaching to
them, and converting them, and his nights to the
gods, who assembled to listen to him. He was so
successful in convincing those whom he addressed
of the truth of his doctrines, that he often daily
converted many Ason heyas (a number too immense
to be comprehended.) The powers which he exer-
cised in reforming mankind were more than human,
and were quite miraculous. He could assume any
form he chose. He could multiply himself many
liundred times, or produce the appearance of many
hundred Buddhas, in every respect like himself,
with rays of light issuing from every pore of their
skin, differently occupied, some standing, some
sitting, and some preaching. He could go any
distance in a moment, even as fast as thought,
through the air, under the water, or under the
earth.
" When he preached, his face appeared to all the
* A full description of Adam's Peak will be given in due
course.
CEYLON AND THK CINGALESE. //
andience, thou<^h surrounding liim in a circle.*
People of all languages understood liini ; and all,
however distant, heard him distinctly, excepting
those who were as the deaf, and though close to him
heard nothing."
A learned man who followed him, during six
months, to ascertain if he were the true Buddha,
never saw the impression of his foot, nor even a
flower bend on which he trod, or a cushion pressed
on which he sat. His good qualities, his extraor-
dinary powers, are said to have been boundless,
and to baffle description.
Gautama died in his eighty-ninth year, after
having been Buddha forty-seven years, during
which period he had made many converts, and re-
formed a large portion of his fellow-creatures. The
god Sacrea attended the death-bed of Goutama
Buddha, and promised to watch over his religion
for five thousand years. At the expiration of that
period, Goutama promised to re-appear on earth to
perform miracles; after which the elements of his
being would become absorbed in space, and anni-
hilated for ever. As soon as Goutama Buddha
died, his body was deposited in a golden coffin,
which was placed upon a pyre of sandal-wood one
hundred and thirty cubits in height.-f' The flames
did not consume the whole of the body — a tooth
was preserved ; some of the flesh became particles
* Does the reader remember the miracle of his birth ?
t A cubit in Ceylon is the length of a man's forearm, mea-
suring from the elbow to the top of the middle finger.
78 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
of gold, a portion of the bones, pearls, the re-
mainder being distributed about various parts of
the world, more especially Ceylon, wliere the
relics are preserved in a dome-topped building
called Dagohah ; and a Dayohah is considered as
sacred as a Widhare. or temple which is dedicated
to the service of Buddha.
Tradition states that Goutama Buddha is now
in Ni-wane, which is the ultimate reward and rest-
ing-place of all Buddhas and good men. The
priests will not give any definite idea of Ni-wane,
saying that it is a religious mystery which they are
forbidden to enter upon, or discuss. Ni-wane is a
compound of two Cingalese words, ni and wane —
the first signifies " no," the last " thirst." Some
suppose that Ni-wane means utter annihilation ;
and from the opinion we have heard expressed by
Cingalese scholars, who were learned men and
rigid followers of Buddha, we coincide in the defi-
nition of the term. The state of supreme bliss is
invariably alluded to as complete absorption or
annihilation ; and the natural conclusion must be,
that one who from his virtues had become Buddha,
must enjoy the most superlative degree of happiness
promised by the sacred writings. This heathen
idea of bliss appears extraordinary to a mind which
has been blest and enlightened by the truths of the
Christian religion: the Buddhist looking for reward
and bliss in absolute annihilation of spirit and being
— the Christian, in dwelling to all eternity in the
mansion prepared for the pardoned sinner.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 79
The Cingalese date from the death of Goutama
Buddha ; and, although it is difficult to ascertain
the exact year in which he listed or died, we believe
that the year 1850 is reckoned by the Cingalese as
2394 after Buddha.
We will now proceed to give an outline of Budd-
hism, the tenets and principles which were incul-
cated by Goutama ; and, as far as it is practicable
for a heathen code of morality or religion to be
good, we believe Buddhaical doctrines and precepts
to be the best pagan religion known. The prin-
cipal tenets of Buddhism are, that mind and matter
are both immortal ; that mankind have come into
their present condition from a numberless series of
transmigrations, which extend backwards for an
immense period ; and these transmigrations will
continue for ever. We have previously stated that
Buddhists are absolute materialists — the dogma of
eternity of matter being continually inculcated ;
they believe this world always has existed, and will
exist for ever ; that it will be frequently destroyed,
and will be re-produced.
In one respect the religion of Buddha resembles
that of the Christian — the Buddhist affirming that
sin, sorrow, disease, and death, were not always
the portion of mankind, but were caused by the
ungovernable passions of disobedience, lust, avarice,
and lying, being indulged in by man. The gods,
according to the Buddhist, are spirits of an im-
mortal nature, whose power and knowledge, al-
though vast, are limited ; and, although far superior
80 CEYLON AND THE ClNGALEbE.
to mankind in intelligence and wisdom, are immea-
surably the inferiors of the successive Buddhas
which have apjaeared on earth. In a Cingalese
work, entitled " Suttra Pitaka," which contains
some of the precepts and sermons of Goutama
Buddha, we read the following accounts of the
gods : —
" Living beings first appeared by an apparitional
birth, subsisting on the element of felicity, illumi-
nated by their own effulgence, moving through the
air, delightfully located, and existed in unity and
concord. This was the original condition of man ;
but human nature could not remain in this condi-
tion — sin and lust entered the world, and man be-
came a wicked creature. Twenty-four god-like men
appeared in succession, whose lives were holy and
pure. In the revolutions of countless ages they ap-
peared ; their sojourn on earth, although fraught
with misery to themselves, did not materially bene-
fit mankind, when I, Goutama Buddha, appeared on
earth in my present form. I am the most exalted
in the world — I am the chief in the world — I am
the most excellent in the world. This is my last
birth ; hereafter there is to me no other generation.
One more Buddha is yet to come — then shall cease
the present order of things."
It is stated that Goutama did not write out either
his precepts or discourses, and that written records
did not appear until centuries after his decea!?e.
The Cingalese antiquarian scholar affirms, that
Goutama s doctrines, precepts, and traditions, were
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 81
handed down by his disciples froiu one generation
to another, until, in the reign of Wallagam Bahoo,
king of Ceylon, which was four centuries after Gou-
tama JBuddhas death, the whole of his precepts, dis-
courses, and doctrines, were collected and transcribed
by learned priests, who dwelt in Aloolena, in the dis-
trict of Matele. The works, although rare, are
still to be found in Ceylon, and these sacred writ-
ings are the authorities resorted to by the Buddhist
in all disputed or doubtful points in their religion ;
and the Cingalese maintain most positively that the
establishment of their temples, mode of worship,
and doctrines, are in strict accordance with these
works. The number of these sacred works are five
— the names as follow : —
Sangoot-Sangia — the valuable collection ; Ango-
ira-Sangia — the elementary collection ; Dlk'Sangia
— the long collection; Meduon-Sangia — the mid-
dling collection; Koodoogot-Sangla — the remaining
collection. The whole of these works are written
in countless volumes, and are complete, with the
exception of the Angotra-Sangia, which was in
twenty-five volumes, but unfortunately some of the
volumes are missing.
The life of Goutama was in strict accordance with
Buddhaical tenets ; he was chaste, temperate, and
humble ; he went from village to village preach-
ing his doctrines, and permitted his disciples and
followers to write down his discourses. The
doctrines inculcated by Goutama were faith in the
Buddhas, confidence in the gods, and the efficacy of
£ 5
82 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
charity and good works. Invariably followed by
multitudes, and attended by innumerable priests
and disciples, Goutama travelled from place to
place, asking no alms, but receiving all that were
freely offered ; simple in manners, humbly austere
in deportment, he courted not the smiles of the
great, nor did he heed their frowns, when he
deemed it necessary to administer rebukes, or ad-
monish them concerning their sinfully licentious
lives. The discourses and doctrines of Goutama
Buddha would not have disgraced a more enlight-
ened age; he inculcated the necessity of subjugating
the passions, charity to our poorer brethren, good
will to our neighbours, and kindness to animals.
We subjoin a few of his precepts, and the substance
of one of his discourses. The precepts are extracted
from the Damma Padan, or the Footsteps of Reli-
gion : —
" All the religion of Buddha is contained in these
three precepts : ' Purify thy mind ;' ' abstain from
vice ;' ' practise virtue.' "
" He is a more noble warrior who subdues him-
self, than he who in the battle conquers thousands."
" True nobility is not of one's parentage, but is
the offspring of a virtuous mind and spotless life."
" Relio;ion is the road to immortalitv ; irreligion
the road to death. A religious man dies not; but
he that is irreligious is, even whilst in this world, as
one that is dead."
"A wise man will so establish himself in industry,
perseverance, prudence, and mental control, that
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 83
he is never borne away by the turbid waters of
licentiousness."
"Shun the practice of irreligion ; shun sensuality;
shun the evil speaker : by shunning these sins man
is a gainer, for the religious and meditative expe-
rience supreme happiness."
"As the mighty rock Mahu-meru-imrwate remains
unshaken by the storm, so is the wise man unmoved
by praise or disapprobation."
" To the virtuous, all is pure ; therefore think not
the going unclothed, being defiled with dirt, fasting,
lying on the ground, or remaining motionless, can
make the pure impure — for the mind will still remain
the same."
" Let those who bestow all their thoughts and
attention on their bodies, gaze upon the skeletons
of those departed; then let them say if their carcase
is worth the care. Kings, their pride, greatness,
and grandeur decay ; but truth is immutable and
eternal."
" Conquer anger by mildness, evil by good, ava-
rice by liberality, falsehood by truth. Evil passions
cannot be eradicated all at once ; it is a slow work,
and must be done gradually, just as the jeweller
removes rust from gold."
"The wicked man is like a decayed leaf; the har-
binger of death is near, and yet the sinner stands at
the gate, without having made provision for his fu-
ture life."
" Know, oh ! sinner, that wicked actions cannot
be hid ; avarice and wrath will bring long suffering
upon thee."
84 CKYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
" No flame burns so fiercely as that of lust; nought
has a grasp so powerful as hatred ; no net is equal to
the meshes of folly ; no flood is so inipetuous as
desire."
" Men ever have been, and ever will be, subject
to unjust praise and unjust censure ; and that man
is the most skilful of all charioteers who can guide
the chariot of his mind."
" Sin is oft-times clothed in the garb of virtue, but
the effects unclothe it speedily ; then vice is seen in
its naked hideousness."
" Mental control and the subjugation of the pas-
sions is the road to happiness and eternal bliss."
"Man should perform those deeds which time will
not cause him to repent ; therefore be not desirous
of disco vering the faults of others, but zealously guard
your own."
The following extracts are from a discourse en-
titled MangalcB :
"Thou art not to serve the unwise, but to attend
on the learned, and to make offerings to those who
are worthy of homage ; thou shouldst live in a reli-
gious neighbourhood, to be a performer of virtuous
actions ; thou must be well informed in religion,
mild in manners, subject to discipline, and of plea-
sant speech ; thou must honour thy father and thy
mother, provide for thy wife and children, follow a
sinless vocation, give alms to those who stand in
need, act virtuously, assist relatives, and lead a
blameless life. To be free from sin, abstain from
intoxicating drinks, to persevere in virtue, to be
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 85
respectful and kind, contented, grateful, and to
listen at proper seasons to religious instructions ;
to be mild, subject to reproof, to have access to
priests, and to converse with them on religious sub-
jects ; to have a mind unshaken by prosperity or
adversity, inaccessible to sorrows, free from im-
purity, and tranquil; these are the chief excellences.
They who practise all these virtues, and are not
overcome by evil, enjoy the perfection of happiness,
and obtain the chief good."
The following prohibitions or commands were deli-
vered by Goutama Buddha : —
" Abstain from fornication and adultery ; abstain
from stealing; abstain from taking life from man,
bird, beast, or reptile ; abstain from coveting; ab-
stain from all foolish conversation ; abstain from
betraying the secrets of others; abstain from all evil
wishes to others; abstain from slander; abstain from
lying; abstain from all unjust suspicion."
The precepts, discourses, and commands which we
have quoted will show that the doctrines inculcated
by Goutama Buddha are those of purity and strict
morality. Although reason convinces us there is
much fable intermixed in the account of his birth
and life, still historical facts prove that the son of a
powerful monarch did abandon his throne, and, in
the full vigour of health, manhood, and intellect,
became a wandering pauper, roaming from place to
place, inculcating piety and virtue. Can we feel
astonished that the being called by the Cingalese
Goutama Buddha, is looked upon as a prophet, and
8
86 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
worshipped as a god ? In " Knighton," page 79,
we read, "The rise and progress of a later faith may
convince us that there was nothing improbable in
his (Goutama) assuming the character of a prophet,
and, still less, in his being received as such. In the
prime of manhood he renounces the pomps and
vanities of the world, retreats to an unfrequented
forest, and there submits to want and privation, re-
gardless of the hopes of ambition, or of the softer
feelings of affection."
We believe that we have given a clear outline of
the Buddhist religion, and in future chapters pro-
pose describing the gods, priesthood, ceremonies,
and all matter that is connected with the Budd-
haical form of worship.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 87
CHAPTER IV.
Buddhism, when introduced into Ceylon — Wihares and dago-
bahs — Contents of dagobah that was opened near Colombo
in 1820— Dalada relic brought to Ceylon, a.d. 310 — Taken
possession of by us in 1818 — Publicly worshipped under the
sanction of our government — Given up in 1847 — Lord Tor-
rington's despatch on the subject — The capital, during the
reign of the Kandian kings, when the Dalada was exhibited —
The principal Buddhist temple in Ceylon — Shrine of the Da-
lada — Buddha — The priesthood — Bviddha's commands to the
laity — Worship of Buddha — Worship of the gods — The Kap-
puralles — Conjoint worship of Buddha and the gods.
Buddhism was established in Ceylon during the
reign of Tisso,* the fifteenth king, and this event is
supposed to have taken place about 235 years after
the death of Buddha. Cingalese history states, that
a priest of Buddha, of extreme sanctity, was sent
by the monarch of a country, called Maddadisay,
which was situated eastward of Ceylon, to convert
the natives of Lanka-diva. The priest met the
king, Tisso, as he was returning from hunting the
* This monarch is called also Dewinepatisso.
88 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
wild elephant ; the monarch and his train, unaccus-
tomed to the sight of a man, with head and eye-
brows shaven, clad also in a dress they had never
before seen — namely, the yellow robes of a {Driest of
Buddha, thought that a spirit of evil stood before
them, and not a human being.
The priest informed the king for what purpose
he had been sent to Ceylon, and put the following
queries to him, to ascertain if his mind were suffi-
ciently enlightened to understand the tenets of
Buddhism : — Have you relations ? Many. Have
you people not related to you ? Many thousands.
Besides your relatives, and those who are not re-
lated to you, are there others in your realm ? There
are no others in my realm, but there is one other,
and that other one is myself.
The priest, being fully satisfied of the intellectual
capabilities of Tisso, by these prompt and sapient re-
plies, commenced a discourse, illustrating in flowery
language the sublimity and purity of the religion
and actions of Buddha. The monarch listened at-
tentively, and, approving of the doctrines inculcated,
became a convert within a short period, many of his
subjects following his example. The king of Mad-
dadisay had given a branch of the bo-tree* to the
* The bo, or sacred tree, (Ficus religiosa,) is most magnifi-
cent, being clothed in luxuriant foliage, bearing an exquisitely
odoriferous bell-shaped flower, of a white hue. The Buddhists
affirm that each successive Buddha had attained supreme wisdom
whilst sitting under some peculiar tree ; and that Sid-harte, or
Goutama Buddha, reached the pinnacle of heavenly knowledge.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALILSE. 89
priest, which was to be phinted in Ceylon, if the
natives became converts to BudUhisni ; and, in ac-
cordance with this couimand, tlie branch was planted
at Anooradhapoora, which was the ancient capital of
Ceylon, where it miraculously grew and flourished ;
and the Cingalese now point out a bo-tree at Anoo-
radhapoora, which they declare to be the tree origin-
ally brouglit into Ceylon. The priest also brought
part of the jaw of Goutania Buddha, wiiich Dewine-
patisso caused to be deposited in a dagobah, wliicii
was one hundred and twenty cubits in height : wi-
hares, or places of worship, dedicated to the service
of Buddha, were built, and the national system of
religion was declared to be that of Buddha.
Although we disbelieve the miraculous giowth of
the sacred ti-ee, and many other fables connected
with the arrival of the first priest of Buddha in
Ceylon, still, from historical records, and the mag-
nificent ruins of wihares, and dagobahs, that are to
be seen at the ancient seat of government — namel} ,
Anooradhapoora — we feel fully convinced, that it
was in this part of Ceylon that the first wihare, or
temple of Buddha, and the first dagobah, or edifice
to contain relics, were erected. It is a curious and
interesting fact, that in all countries, where Bud-
dhaical doctrines are followed, the monumental
buildings, which have been erected to contain relics*
of Buddha, are invariably of the same form — namely,
whilst reposing under this tree, which is held sacred by all
Buddhists in Ceylon at the present time.
* These relics are either hairs or small portions of bone.
90 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
a bell-shaped tomb, which is surmounted by a
spire.
In Ceylon, these receptacles for the sacred relics
are built over a hollow stone or cell, in which the
relic is deposited, enclosed usually in a thin plate of
gold, or in a wrapper of fine, white rauslin ; with it
are also deposited images of Buddha, pearls, and
gems. Tiiese edifices in Ceylon are solidly built with
bricks, which are usually covered over with chunam ;
and we subjoin an account of a dagobah which was
opened in 1820, near Colombo, by Mr. Layard, the
father of the enthusiastic explorer, and talented
author of" Nineveh and its Remains,"
In the centre of the dagobah, a small, square com-
partment was discovered, lined with brick, and
paved with coral, containing a cylindrical mass of
grey granite, rudely shaped into a vase, or karandua,
which had a closely-fitting cover or cap of the same. *
This vase contained an extremely small fragment of
bone, pieces of thin gold — in which, in all probabi-
lity, the bone had originally been wrapped — pieces
of the blue sapphire, and ruby, three small pearls, a
few gold rings, beads of cornelian and crystal, and
pieces of glass, which resembled icicles in shape.
In the compartment with the vase were also placed a
brazen and an earthen lamp, a small truncated pyra-
mid, made of cement, and clay images of the cobra
* The contents of this vase are very similar to one that was
discovered at Benares by Mr. Duncan, who concluded, from an
inscription that he found in the same place, that a temple of
Buddha existed there above 700 years ago.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 91
capella, oi* hooded snake. In an historical account
of Ceylon, we read : —
" Tlie characteristic form of all monumental Bud-
dhistical buildings is the same in all countries, which
have had Buddha for their prophet, lawgiver, or
god ; whether in the outline of the cumbrous
mount, or in miniature within the laboured excava-
tion, the peculiar shape, although variously modified,
is general, and enables us to recognise the neglected
and unhonoured shrines of Buddha, in countries
where his religion no longer exists, and his very
name is unknown."
The relic, which is considered most valuable by
rigid Buddhists, is the Dalada relic, or tooth of
Buddha, * which was brought to Ceylon during the
reign of Kitsiri Majan, from Northern India, by a
princess, in the year 310 of the Christian era; and
in the 853rd year after the death of Goutama
Buddha, to prevent the relic falling into the hands
of a neighbouring monarch, who had made war for
the express purpose of obtaining possession of the
Dalada. Buddhists affirm that in whatever country
the relic is to be found, that country will be taken
under the special protection of Buddha; the nation,
therefore, becoming, in the estimation of all pro-
fessors of Buddhism, a sacred one — thus Ceylon is
termed by the Cingalese, the sacred island. The
Cingalese believe also, that their country never
• In a native work, still extant, and much prized by the
Cingalese, called the " Dathadhastu-Wanso," the history of the
relic will be found.
92 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
•
could have been completely subjugated, until a
foreign power had obtained possession of the relic.
In 1818, Sir R. Brownrigg, after the Kandian rebel-
lion, took possession of the Dalada relic, and Dr.
Davy, who was in Ceylon during the whole time of
the war, thus writes : —
*' Through the kinilness of the Governor, I had an
opportunity of seeing this celebrated relic, when it
was recovered, towards the conclusion of the rebellion,
and brought back to be replaced in the Dalada
Malegawa, or temple, from which it had been clan-
destinely taken
" Here it may be remarked, that when the relic
was taken the effect of its capture was astonishing,
and almost beyond the comprehension of the en-
lightened ; for now they said, the English are indeed
masters of the country; for they who possess the
relic have a right to govern four kingdoms : this,
for 2,000 years, is the first time the relic was ever
taken from us. The Portuguese declare that in the
sixteenth century they obtained possession of the
relic, which the Cingalese deny, saying, that when
Cotta was taken, the relic was secretly removed to
Saffragam. They also affirm, that when Kandy
was conquered by us in 1815, the relic was never
surrendered by them to us, and they considered it
to be in their possession until we took it from them
by force of arms. The first adikar also observed,
that whatever the English might think of having
taken Pilimi Talawe, and other rebel leaders, in his
opinion, and in the opinion of the people in general,
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 93
the taking of the relic was of infinitely more n)o-
ment."
The relic was kept by us from 1818 until 1847,
and during that period was exhibited by the servants
of a Christian monarch, to the priests and followers
of Buddha, who came to worship the Dalada. On
the 28th of May, 1828, the Dalada was publicly
exhibited at Kandy to the worshippers, under the
sanction of our government, the whole ceremony
being conducted with great splendour ; also on the
27th of March, 1846, there was another public ex-
hibition of the relic to the Siamese priests, who had
come from their own country to worship the tooth.
In 1847, however, orders were most correctly sent,
by the home government, desiring the relic to be
given up to the priests, to dispose of as they chose.
Some of the chiefs and priests, it was stated at that
time in Ceylon, proposed sending the relic to Eng-
land, to be placed in the custody of the Queen of
Great Britain, but this request, for obvious reasons,
could not be acceded to by a Christian government.
The superstitious belief of the Cingalese Bud-
dhists is so well known, that during the late insur-
rection, a])prehensions were entertained that the
ringleaders might make the possession of the Dalada
subservient to their own purposes, and in Lord
Torrington's despatch to Lord Grey, dated from the
Queen's House, Colombo, August 14, 1848, we
read : —
" As the possession of the Buddhist relic, or tooth,
has always been regarded by the Kandians, as the
94 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
mark of sovereignty over their country, and it was
stolen and carried about in 1818, being used as a
signal for rebellion, which only terminated with the
recovery of it, it was judged right, by the command-
ant, to demand the keys of the temple, as well as
of the shrine of the relic, which had been delivered
by me into the charge of two priests and a chief,
about a year ago. He then assured himself that
this object of veneration had not been removed
from its accustomed position, and converted into
a signal of rebellion. But not trusting any longer
to the integrity of the priests or chiefs, by whom
the insurrection has been organized, the keys have,
for the present at all events, been retained in the
possession of the commandant."
The Dalada relic is placed in the principal tem-
ple at Kandy, which is attached to what was the
palace of the Kundian monarch — in fact, the Da-
lada Malegawa was the domestic wihare of the
royal family. This temple is considered by all
Buddhists as the most sacred in tlie island of
Ceylon, from the foct that the Dalada relic, or
tooth of Buddha, is enshrined within its walls ;
and, during the reigns of the kings of Kandy, the
people flocked from all parts of the island to wor-
ship the relic, on the various occasions of its public
exhibition.
The time for the exiiibition of the Dalada was
named by the monarch, and the nation looked upon
that period as one of rejoicing — the chiefs flocked
to the capital, attended by numerous followers ;
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 95
elephants were to be seen bedecked with their
richest trappings, their masters reclining- luxuri-
ously in the howdahs, which in many instances
were attached to the bodies of" the elephants by
broad bands, studded with pearls and precious
gems, Palanqueens, bandies, haccories, and every
description of vehicle, were also called into requi-
sition, to bear the inhabitants of distant villages
to the scene of rejoicing.
When tlie appointed day arrived, the monarch,
accompanied by the whole of the royal family and
chiefs, all clad in their costliest jewels and robes of
state, went to v.orship the relic, which was exhi-
bited by the priest of the highest rank, who reve-
rently raised it above his head, to enable the
assembled multitude to gaze thereon. As soon
as the vast assemblage caught a glim])se of the
sacred relic, they salaamed most lowly, giving
utterance simultaneously to the exclamation of
praise — " Sad/iu" — this word was i-epeated by those
who stood in the back-ground, until the air was
replete with the sounds of adoration, and the
joyous expression was re-echoed from hill to hill.
Festivals and rejoicings succeded in the palace
and the hut, until the excitement and enthusiasm
which had been called into action by the exhibition
of the relic had subsided — then, and not till then,
did the mighty throng of chiefs and peoj)le, who
dwelt in distant villages, depart for their respective
homes — and tranquillity again reigned in Kandy.
The Dalada Malegavva is an edifice of two stories
96 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
with a curved sloping roof, built somewhat in the
Chinese style of architecture, and is approached by
a double flight of stone steps. Upon entering the
temple, the walls are found to be covered with
sacred emblems, and decorations of brass : a flight
of steps lead to the sanctuary, which is situated on
the upper story : this room has folding doors with
brass panels, on either side of which curtains are
suspended — the apartment is about twelve feet
square, and without windows, consequently the
sun's cheering rays can never illumine this abode
of superstition.
The walls and ceiling are hung with gold bro-
cade, and white shawls with coloured borders ; a
platform, or table, about four feet high, occupies
the principal part of the room; this table is also
covered with gold brocade ; on this shrine are
})hiced two small images of Buddha, the one of
gold, and the other of crystal ; before these idols,
offerings of odoriferous flowers and fruit are placed
— .'our caskets about twelve inches high, enclosing
relics, are arranged on the shrine, in the centre of
which stands the casket, or harandua, which con-
tains the sacred tooth.
This casket is in the form of a bell, being made
in three pieces, and is about five feet high, the
diameter at the base being nine feet six inches, and
it appears to be made of gold, but vre were informed
by a Kandian chief, that it was composed of silver,
richly gilt. The chasing of the karandua is simply
elegant, and a few gems are dispersed about it, the
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 97
most costly of which is a cat's-eye, vvliich is set on
the summit. Although the workmanship of the
casket is unpretending, yet the various ornaments
and chains which are suspended about it, are of the
richest descriptions, and the most elaborate designs.
These ornaments have been presented from time to
time by various worshippers of the god, in token
of gratitude for favours supposed to have been
conferred by him, and the wealthy devotees of the
present day frequently make additions to these
valuable embellishments.
The most exquisitely beautiful of all thtse orna
ments, is a bird which is attached to a massive
and elaborately- chased golden chain. The body
of the bird is formed of gold, and the plumage is
represented by a profusion of precious gems, which
consist of diamonds, emeralds, rubies, sapphires,
and cats'-eyes. Description is inadequate to con-
vey a correct idea of the extreuie and extraordinary
effulgence and exquisite beauty of these elaborate
decorations, which the limners art alone could
faithfully delineate. The karandua is opened by
a small door, which is placed in the middle of the
casket.*
This precious tooth of Buddha, it is affirmed
by Europeans, is an artificial one, made of ivory,
which is perfectly discoloured by the hand of time ;
but most assuredly, if a natural one, both from its
* Until 1847j the Christian government agent of the pro-
vince, as well as the Buddhist chief priest, used each to have a
key of the karandua.
VOL. II. F
98 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
size and shape, this tooth could not have been
carried in the jaw of a human being; but that it
might have belonged to some ancient alligator,
many centuries a[go, is extremely possible. This
discoloured memento of superstition is wrapped
in a delicately thin sheet of virgin gold, and depo-
sited in a box of the same precious material, which
is of the exact form of, and only sufficiently large
to receive, the relic. The exterior of this delicate
bijou is studded with precious stones, which are
arranged in symmetrical order: this box is placed
in a golden vase, which is decorated with diamonds,
emeralds, and rubies, in a style similar to the box,
and, being wrapped in rich brocade, is enclosed in
a second vase of gold, which is encircled with folds
of pure white muslin. This vase is then located
in a third, which is put into a fourth, both being
formed of the same precious metal, and similarly
folded in muslin. The last vase is nearly eighteen
inches high, and the workmanship, delicate chasing,
and the tasteful manner in which the gems are
arranged, in the whole series of vases, is most
exquisite. The fourth vase, with its content!^, is
deposited in the shrine or karandua, and is taken
from thence at stated periods to be worshipped, and
none but the chief priest ever presumes to touch
the Dalada relic.
When we saw the relic, it was placed in the
centre of an exquisitely beautiful pink lotus, the
flowers of the bo tree being strewed around, and
tastefully arranged on the shrine ; but it was most
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 99
pitiable to behold the benighted Buddhists, many
of them learned mei) and good scholars, prostrating
themselves before a piece of discoloured bone.
Tiiere is also a smaller, and most exquisitely beauti-
ful casket, or karandua, studded with precious
stones, in which the relic is placed, when it is
borne in the religious processions, or when the
chief priest, in troublous times of commotion, or
war, should think it necessary to iusure the safety
of the Dalada, by removing it from the temple.
Above the shrine, and attached to the wall, are
plates of gold, on which are inscribed sacred em-
blems and characters : on either side of the princi-
pal shrine there are smaller shrines, which are
covered with gold and silver cloths, on which are
placed gilt lamps, and offerings of flowers and
fruit; and the effluvia arising from the cocoa-nut
oil, with which the lamps are supplied, combined
with the perfume of the votive flowers, renders the
atmosphere of this unventilated apartment most
oppressive.
A contiguous staircase leads to a similar apart-
ment, which is decorated in the same manner as the
one we have described, where is to be seen the re-
cumbent figure of the god Goutama Buddha, the
size of life ; the features are well delineated, and
the figure is gilt, with the exception of the face and
hands. Near him are placed figures of other gods
and the goddess Patine, the shrine being decorated
with golden ornaments, many of which are studded
with precious stones.
f2
100 CKYI^ON AND THE CINGALESE.
The god Buddha is represented by the Cinga-
lese in three attitudes — namely, standing erect,
with one hand raised, as if |)reparing to step for-
ward seated on a cushion, with the legs crossed :
and reclining on his side, his hand placed under
his head, which rests upon a pillow. We had two
figures of Goutama Buddha presented to us; the
one in the act of advancing, from which the illus-
tration is taken, is of ivory, about five inches in
height; the hair, eyes, lips, and palms of the hands,
being coloured to represent life, whilst the drapery
is relieved by stripes of vermillion. The other
figure is of bronze, about three inches and a-half in
height, and represents the god seated cross-Ieggfd ;
the ornament, or sacred emblem, which is placed on
the crown of the head of each of these idols, is
used solely to designate Buddha, as the emblem of
the other gods is of a totally different character.
In the Malegawa, a most valuable seated figure
of Buddha was to be seen in 1847 (and we presume
it is there now), which had been presented by the
Siamese priests; it was nearly eleven inches in
height, and was carved out of a cat's-eye. Having
had the good fortune to have been conducted over
tlie Dalada Malegawa, by a Kandian chief, we were
sliown all that was considered either curious or
magnificent. Amongst the most valuable or valued
of the curiosities was the aforesaid image ; and, not
having the slightest feeling either of reverence or
fear for Buddha, we attempted to take up the cat's-
eye figure for the purpose of examining it minutely.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 101
and most unluckily we took it up by the shoulders.
At this act, both our conductor and the priest
started back in affrig-ht, as it is considered the
greatest breach of decorum to raise an image of
Buddha by any part save the base, and then both
hands must be used to perform the operation ~a
fact of which we were not previously cognizant ;
otherwise, we should have refrained from outraging
their prejudices, as we deem it bad taste to set the
customs of a nation at defiance, even though they
be idolaters ; consequently, we pleaded our igno-
rance, and our apologies were accepted.
In many of the Buddhist temples, the images of
the idol are gigantic, and the robes in which he is
clad are generally of a bright yellow : occasionally
puce or violet colour is used, which, although ca-
nonical, is not considered so orthodox as yellow.
Buddhists declare, that the statues of Budtliia are
not placed in the wihares for the purj)ose of adora-
tion, but to recall more forcibly to the minds of his
followers, the precepts which he inculcated, and the
example which he set them in his blameless life.
We had also handed to us Buddha's betel-box, his
bowl for holding rice, and his chatty for containing
water; all of which were composed of virgin gold,
which was so extremely pure and ductile, that these
vessels could be bent with the most perfect facility,
re-assuming their pristine form with equal ease. The
vessels are ornamented with most delicately-chased
figures, the designs and workmanship of which are
incomparable, and these ornamental articles are
102 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
carried by the attendant priests in all religions cere-
monies, and processions.
There are also at Kandy two other Buddhaical
temples, namely, the Asgirie and Malwatte Wihares,
in the latter of which is to be seen a gigantic recum-
bent figure of the god, which is nearly thirty feet
long, clad, in yellow robes ; there are several smaller
figures of Buddha, both seated and standing, and
two of them are robed in violet-coloured draperies.
The ceilings and walls of this temple are painted in
arabesque, the most brilliant colours imaginable
having been used; and, although they have lost
some of their brilliancy, yet the design is excel-
lent, and the effect produced is pleasing in the ex-
treme.
Near to the Malwatte Wihare is a small temple,
in which is a seated image of Buddha of the natural
size : it is a well-proportioned figure, the face being
remarkably handsome, the expression most benig-
nant, and the features well defined ; in short, the
figure is well executed in every respect.
In no part of the world was the combination of
church and state more completely apparent than in
Ceylon, under, or during, the Kandian monarchy.
We have shown that the temple in which the most
precious articles in the world, in the Buddliist's
estimation, were enshrined, was attached to the king's
palace; the monarch, his family, ministers, and
household, going there constantly to worship.
We shall now proceed to give an account of the
priesthood, their ordination, and the mode in which
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 103
Buddlia is worsbippetl, by wl)icli we will further
exemplify the union of church and state.
The Malwatte and Asgirie Wihares at Kandy,
are the ecclesiastical colleges, to one or other of
which every priest in the island belongs ; it is im-
possible to give an accurate account of the number
of priests; for, although the names of the priests are
registered when they are ordained, no record is kept
of their deaths. Each of these colleges is governed
by a chief priest, who was formerly appointed by
the king, and these two individuals alone, of all the
priesthood, held official rank. The title of the chief
of the Malwatte college is Maha-niakoo-unanci ;
and of Asgirie, Anna-niakoo-unanci : the word
niakoo is indicative of high rank, whilst that of
unanci is applied to the priesthood generally, and is
a term of respect. Superiority over their followers
is allowed to no others of the body, unless they are
especially learned and pious : the chief priests rule
their respective colleges from a written code of
regulations, which they affirm were framed by Gou-
tama Buddha.
The order of priesthood may be said to be divided
into three classes, although the third class are not
regularly ordained : the first class, called Upasam-
pada, which signifies almost full of religion, are dis-
tinguished by the honourable title of Tirunnanse ;
tiie second class, or Samenero, or the son of the
priest^ bear the title of Ganinnanee. What we term
the third class, are pious men of low caste, who
practise celibacy, and lead the life of priests, and
104 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
are called Silvat; but, although they are permitted
occasionally to jaerfonii priests' duties, are neither
ordained nor allowed the rank of priests. The
priesthood is principally composed of high caste
men, called, in Kandy, Goewanse, and in the mari-
time and low country districts, Wellale ; for, al-
though the tenets of Buddha do not exclude the low
castes yet the pride of th.e high caste men will not
allow them to associate with, or pay the respect,
which a priest ought to receive, to an individual of
low caste.
A regular course of study is gone through, before a
priest can be ordained, a noviciateship being served,
before a candidate can become a Samenero, and be-
fore the individual can become an Upasampada, he
must pass examination ; and, formerly, the approval
of the king of Kandy was required, before a man
could become an Upasampada. At an early age,
the noviciateship is commenced, the parents, or
nearest relations of the lad, placing him under the
superintendence of a priest, whom he is bound to
obey as a master, the priest in return becoming his
instructor; if the conduct of the novice is satis-
factory, at the expiration of three years he is made
a Samenero.
The following ceremony is gone through when a
novice is admitted into the priesthood : he first has
his head and eyebrows completely shaven, and per-
forms his ablutions ; his person is then besmeared
with ointments which are especially prepared ; the
novice having made ready his yellow robes, (and the
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 105
various articles which Sidharte had when lie became
a priest, prior to his attaining that wisdom which
made him Goutama Buddha,) kneels before his tutor
and master, and entreats, in Pali verse, to be ad-
mitted into the lowest order of the fraternity. The
novice is examined, and if his literary attainments
are approved of, he is admitted into the priesthood,
being clud with great ceremony in his yellow robes.
As Samenero, he attends the temples, taking part
in the subordinate ceremonies ; but although a
priest, he is still under the guidance of his tutor,
who superintends his studies, and to whom he must
evince the greatest respect and obedience.
When the Samenero has attained the age of
twenty years — reckoning from the beginning of his
present state of existence, which they date from his
conception, and not from his birth — if sufficiently
qualified, and permitted by his tutor, he may make
application to become a Upasampada. Tiie candi-
date now throws off his yellow robes, clothing him-
self in a pure white garment, and is then examined
before an assemblage of the senior and most learned
priests, the number of whom must not be less than
twenty. If he passes this examination he is made a
Upasampada, and assumes the yellow robes, which
slightly differ from those which are worn by the
Samenero. Formerly, it was necessary to obtain
the king's consent before a Samenero could be
made a Upasampada ; and, when the royal licence
was obtained, the successful candidate used to be
paraded through the streets of Kandy, seated either
f5
106 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESK,
in a hovvdah, which was borne by an elephant, dedi-
cated to the service of the temple, or mounted on a
horse.
Each priest is an incumbent of, or appointed to,
one especial temple, or wihare, and is supported
either by the donations of the charitable, or the pro-
duce of the lands which may be attached to the
wihare. The number of priests which belong to a
temple vary from one to twenty, according to the
value of the land belonging to, and the size of, the
temple. A wihare usually descends from tutor to
pupil ; but the head priest of any wihare has it in
his power to appoint his successor; but, should he
die without nominating a priest whom he wishes to
succeed him, then the temple devolves to the senior
pupil. The office is held for life, and, in many in-
stances, is a most lucrative one, as the donations,
and lands, which are made to, and possessed by, the
incumbents of the larger wihares, are frequently of
considerable value ; and constant law-suits are car-
ried on by the priests, one against the other, to esta-
blish titles or right of possession to temples. In
fact, the natives of Ceylon — belong they to what
caste they may — are the most litigious nation on the
face of the earth.
During the Kandian monarchy, the chief of the
principal temple of Buddha, or the Dalada Mala-
gawa, at Kandy, was not appointed by the College
of Priests, nor did he belong to the priesthood, but
the office was in the gift of the monarch, who inva-
riably appointed a layman of high rank, Tvho also,
CEYLON AKD THE CINGALESE. 107
generally held some official post of importance ; and
the appointment was only held during royal plea-
sure. The title of this chief was Malegawe-diwa-
Nilimi ; and subject to his authority there was a
lekammaliatmeer, or deputy, and several subor-
dinate officers, as well as a large number of Pattea
people, who performed the menial offices of the
temple, and cultivated the temple lands.
The duties of Malegawe-diwa-Nilimi were, to as-
sist at the religious ceremonies, and see that all the
rites and observances which were ordered by Bud-
dha, were duly performed. Occasionally this chief
had to present offerings to Buddha, and, before he
approached the shrine, it was required that he
should have lived entirely on vegetable diet for at
least twenty-four hours, have performed his ablu-
tions by immersing his person in a pure running-
stream, and be attired in perfectly clean or new
garments. The offerings which were made in the
morning consisted of flowers, rice, and vegetable
curry ; whilst in the evening, betel leaves, and a
beverage prepared either from coffee or rice, were
presented. The custom of making offerings morn-
ing and evening, the Buddhists affirm, arose from
the fact, that Goutama Buddha never ate save at
these tin)es ; and at the present day it is the na-
tional custom to take but the morning and evening
meal.
It is impossible to say how many wihares there
are in the island, but we know they are very nume-
rous, as nearly every small village has one ; the
108 CEYLOM AND THE CINGALESE.
larger districts more. Every ecclesiastical estab-
lishment is similar, and consists of a wibare, in
which there are one or more images of Buddha,
and frequenfly effigies of the gods who especially
watch overparticular temples; adagobah, a poega,
or building where the priests hold their meetings,
and read the sacred writings, and a pansal, or
dwelling-house for the priests. Invariably, in the
vicinity of a wibare, is to be found the magnificent
bo, or sacred tree, diffusing its perfume around, and
filling the atmosphere with the delicious aroma of
its exquisitely delicate and beautiful blossoms.
These religious establishments are generally built
in some secluded spot, frequently near a running
stream, amidst groves of graceful palms and luxuri-
ant fruit-trees, audit would be impossible to describe
the romantic beauty of many, or the glorious mag-
nificence of the scenery in some parts of Ceylon.
Oft-times, whilst sojourning in Lanka-diva, we have
been tempted to coincide in the opinion expressed
by many natives, that in their sunny isle was
situated the garden of Eden.
The duties of the priesthood, both in their sacred
and social character, are carefully laid down by
Goutama Buddha, and they are required to pay
rigid obedience to the Treweededooscharitie, or pro-
hibitory commandments, and the Pratipitti. The
prohibitions are ten^ and are the following: taking-
life ; committing adultery, or fornication ; stealing ;
lying ; eating more than two meals a-day ; indulg-
ing in amusements of any description ; accepting
CEYLON AND THE CINGALRSE. 109
gold or silver ; wearing flowers or ornaments ; drun-
kenness; and reposing upon an elevated couch, or
bed.*
The Pratipitti commands the priests to evince
and pay the same attention and respect to the relics
and images of Buddha tliat was paid to him during
his lifetime, the same to the sacred writings, and to
honour the senior priests in like manner as their
parents. The priests are also enjoined to worship
Buddha three times a-day: at sunrise, noonday,
and sunset : the mode of worship prescribed is the
repetition of certain prayers, and the presentations
of flowers and fruit, which are to be placed on the
shrine, before the image of Buddha.
The sacred books, and senior priests, are also to
be worshipped ; the former are to have flowers
placed around them, and an obeisance must be made
to them before they are opened for perusal — during
the time the Ola is in the hands of the priest, he is
forbidden either to converse or smile. The priests
also are forbidden to sit down, unless the sacred
books are placed either on a shelf or table. The
worship which priests are enjoined to pay to their
seniors consists in asking their blessings, which the
suppliant is to beg upon his bended knees, with his
hands upraised, and his head bowed to the earth.
The blessing is then to be given by the senior
priest, who is to lean forward, with clasped hands,
■>' The custom of the natives being to sleep on a mat, which
they place on the ground, beds being only used by the higher
ranks since their intercourse with Europeans.
1 10 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
uttering a prescribed form of words : both sacred
books and priests are'also to be worshipped three
times a-day.
Four holydays, or pohoya, are in each lunar
month, when the priests are ordered to preach to
the assembled people the duties of their religion,
and to inculcate lessons of morality : these days are
ordered to be observed in like manner with our
Sabbath ; but this injunction is not obeyed by the
great mass of Buddhists. Every fifteenth day, the
priests of each wihare are ordered to assemble in
their poega, and listen to the rules which are laid
down for their guidance : the senior priests read the
prescribed form, first saying in a loud voice : " If
any of our body be present whose sins will not per-
mit him to sit whilst our doctrines are repeated, let
him depart."
The sins which render a priest unfit to remain
whilst the doctrines are read, are, murder, fornica-
tion, stealing, and lying. If an individual has been
guilty of any of the above, he must quit the assem-
bly, and afterwards be tried by the priesthood ;
when, if he be found guilty, he is punished, sus-
pended, or expelled the priesthood. Should any of
the fraternity have committed a minor offence, and
we believe nearly one million are named in Bud-
dhaical laws, he is to rise immediately after the pro-
clamation is made, and confess his guilt: the senior
priest is then to reprimand and admonish the
culprit, who, after he expresses contrition, is allowed
to resume his seat.
CKYLON AND THE CINGALESE. HI
Annually the chief priest of each college ought to
order the priests belonging to that institution to
assemble, and listen to his exhortations and adnioni^
tions. Celibacy and chastity are strictly enjoined
by Goutama Buddha upon the priesthood, and,
should they break tlieir vow, they are " to be pun-
ished with exclusion, expulsion, or penances ; the
offender is not to be restored except by the unani-
mous consent of an assembly of twice ten senior
priests."
A priest is forbidden to sit on the same seat with
a female, where they are excluded from observation,
"which if not so excluded as to allow of his break-
ing one of the fundamental laws of his faith, is still
sufficiently secluded to permit of his holding,
unheard by others, improper conversation." A
priest is also forbidden to speak more than five sen-
tences to a female, if she be alone, or visit her abode
unaccompanied. Although celibacy is strictly en-
joined by Buddha's laws to the priesthood, they are
permitted, if they find it impracticable to keep their
vow of perpetual chastity, to withdraw from the
fraternity, lay aside their yellow robes, and marry.
Goutama Buddha orders that during the rainv
season priests are not to be absent from their abodes
more than six days, as travelling is attended with
many difficulties during this season, and it is consi-
dered derogatory to the dignity of a priest to be
seen in wet or soiled robes. This period is called
wasswass-sana, and some priests of great piety will
neither leave their abodes, nor utter a sound, during
112 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
the whole period, which we believe to be about nine
or ten weeks. The people of each village or district
supply the priests with provisions (which they carry
to the temple) during this season, and at the termi-
nation of the rains, the priests are presented with
new robes.
On the last evening of wasswass-sana, a general
preaching takes place all over the island, which is
most numerously attended, two pulpits being especi-
ally constructed for the occasion. These temporary
buildings are erected by the devotees of each parti-
cular wihare ; and we never saw a more pleasing
spectacle than these light and elegant structures,
which were tastefully decorated with flowers, the
leaves of palms, and bunches of the luscious yellow
plantain, arranged in fantastic devices. Two of the
senior priests, attired in their full canonicals, are
carried to the pulpits by their junior brethren; the
younger of the two priests recites portions of the
sacred writings, which the other expounds, and
comments upon, exhorting the people to practise
piety and virtue, to subdue their passions, to be
pure in thought as well as deed, to endeavour to re-
semble Buddha in their actions and course of life ;
that they may obtain the same rewards both in this
world and the next.
As Christians, we are compelled to admit, that
the precepts of Buddha inculcate practices which
must be beneticial to every class of the community;
and, to prove our assertion, we cannot do better
than quote one of Goutama's discourses, which will
be found in the Kassapa : —
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 113
" There are seven sections of moral science, which
have been fully taught, meditated upon, and prac-
tised by me, and which are necessary for the attain-
ment of wisdom, knowledge, and deliverance from
transmigration. These seven are — the ftscertain-
ment of truth, contemplation, extinction of desire or
passion, tranquillity, equanimity, contentment, and
persevering exertion."
Next to Goutama Buddha, the rank of a priest is
considered the most exalted : not even a monarch
should remain seated in the presence of one ; and,
like their god Buddha, j)>'iests are entitled to, and
receive worship. The priests of Buddha are consi-
dered superior to the gods (of whom vve shall give
an account hereafter), but the priests, when they
preach, invite the gods to form part of the congre-
gation, that they may particijiate in the benefit,
which is inseparably connected with having Bud-
dha's doctrines expounded.
As a body, the Buddhist priesthood in Ceylon
are moral and inoffensive, and some of them are
good scholars, being well versed in the literature of
their country : thus presenting a pleasing contrast
to their brethren in the Celestial Empire, who gene-
rally are the most depraved and ignorant set ima-
ginable. The only point of resemblance between
the priests of Buddha in Ceylon and China is, that
they are all supported in indolence, eithei- by the
donations of the charitable, or from the lands which
appertain to each temple.
The laity are not conversant with Buddhaical
114 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
doctrines, much less with the mysteries of their reli-
gion, neither are they required to observe the whole
of the Triwededoos-charitie ; but the laws of Buddha
state, that his followers must believe in the Tisarana,
and implicitly obey the Pancheseele. The Tisarana
gives three commands, Buddha-sarana, or to wor-
ship Buddha, acknowledging him to be all good,
wise, and powerful; Dharmesarana, or to have faith
in his doctrines, as the means of attaining ultimate
bliss, or niwane, and avoiding eternal punishment ;
and the third commandment is Sangho-sarana, or,
to believe that priests are disciples of Buddha, and
qualified to point out the method of obtaining salva-
tion. The Pancheseele, meaning literally the five
good qualities, is the same as five of the prohibitory
commandments, which are enjoined to the priest-
hood, and have been named by us in the Triwede-
doos-charitie.
There are also some moral practices enjoined by
the laws of Buddha to the laity, such as giving alms
to the poor and sick, loving others as ourselves,
contemplating the uncertainty of all mundane affairs,
passing our time in a manner beneficial alike to our
fellow-creatures and ourselves, despising riches, if
wealth can only be obtained by mal- practices, sub-
jugating the passions, subduing unlawful desires,
kindness to animals, and many other excellent
maxims of the like nature.
The most unreflective person must allow that the
Buddhaical religion prescribes a code of morality of
a most perfect nature, which is unequalled by any
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 115
Other heathen religion, and which closely approxi-
mates to the practices enjoined by our own blessed
faith.
The laity make offerings to Buddha, whenever
they go to worship, which consist of fruit, the
blossoms of the bo-tree, and other odoriferous
flowers. These simple offerings are handed to the
officiating priest, who arranges the various gifts on
the shrine, which is invariably placed before the
god. The worshipper then kneels before Buddha,
bows down the head, raises the haml in an attitude
of supplication above the head, and repeats after the
priest, " I worship Buddha, and believe him to be all
good, all wise, all powerful, all just. I have not
broken Buddha's commands; I do not commit
adultery ; I do not steal ; I do not deprive any
creature of life," &c. It is rather a singular fact,
that the Cingalese women worship Buddha more
constantly, and apparently more devoutly, than the
men ; yet in no part of Asia are the female portion
of the community so unchaste as they are in Ceylon.
Formerly, when a gift of land was made to a
wihare, it was requisite to obtain the king's consent,
as the monarch lost the dues, which all cultivate<l
lands were subject to, but from which all temple
lands were exempted. The petition to the monarch
used to be couched in the following terms: — "I,
your humble slave, am desirous of making an
offering of certain lands to the wihare for my benefit,
and pray your majesty will permit me so to do, as
it is equally for your good." Buddhists believe that
116 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE,
by making- an offering to a vvihare they will reap
the advantage of so doing in their future stage of
existence, and they also believe that by an act of voli-
tion, they can share the ultimate good to be derived
from the act, or transfer the entire benefit which
may accrue to any person they choose.
The priests of Buddha, in Ceylon, declare that
the people do not obey the commands of Buddha,
or follow the precepts which are inculcated by his
doctrines, as they did in former times; but they do
not exert themselves to remedy the evil, stating
their belief that the world is drawing to an end, and
mankind must become degenerate, and extremely
sinful, before the world, which now exists, is de-
stroyed and reduced to chaos — and that destiny, or
fate, guides and governs all mankind and matter.
Connected with the worship of Buddha, a curious
practice is observed, which strongly illustrates the
national customs : there is a certain caste called
Ambattea, or barbers, and a family of that caste
had land granted to them in perpetuity by the king
of Kandy, which was held upon the condition that
the "sacred duty of shaving Buddha" should be
performed at stated periods by a member of the
family, and that in default or neglect of such duty
the land should revert to the crown. The image of
Buddha, which undergoes this ceremony, is the
large one in the Dalada Malegawa at Kandy ; a
priest holds a mirror to the face of the idol, before
whom a curtain is drawn ; the barber stands on one
side of the curtain and perforins sundry evolutions
BUDDHA AND PRIESTS.
CEYLON AND THE CINCALKSE. 117
with his razor, as if in the act of shaving a person,
and the ceremony is performed without the operator
seeing or touching the idol. To the best of our
belief, up to the present day this absurd custom is
followed by the descendants of the family to whom
the lands in question were originally granted.
There is a heavenly plienouienon, which appeais
occasionally in Ceylon, called by the natives Buddha
lights ; this faintly resembles the northern lights,
and is extremely resplendent; the priests declare
this is a sign of Buddha's displeasure, when his
followers have becon)e sinful in the extreme, and
that the light appears over the wihare, from whence
the priests suppose the phenomenon to emanate,
where those who have committed the sin, which has
aroused the god's anger, last worshipped.
Although the national system of religion is Bud-
dhaical, still Buddha is not the sole god who is
worshipped in Ceylon, as there are others whom the
Cingalese believe to be guardian spirits, who preside
over the welfare of the island and their relis'ion.
The names of these goils are, Kattragam, Vishnu,
Nata-Samen, Pittia, and the goddess Patine. The
whole of these have temples erected for their wor-
ship, which are called dewales, and it is not un-
common to see a wihare and dewale in close proxi-
mity. T'hese gods ai"e worshipped by dances,
suj)plications, and offerings of flowers, fruit, and
money ; and no worshipper can make these offerings
who has partaken of animal food for several days
previous to the time of making the oflerings.
118 CEYLON AND THE CJNGALESE.
The Cingalese supplicate Buddha alone for final
happinesSjand for favour in another state of existence ;
but the other gods are besought by them to confer
temporal blessings, and to protect them from sick-
ness and misfortune. The colours and dresses of
these gods differ; Kattragam and Pittia are deli-
neated as being of red complexions, Nata-Samen of
a pure white, Vishnu of a blue, whilst the goddess
Patine is the possessor of a bright yellow skin.
Kattragam is the god who is most feared and
revered, and his principal dewale, in the eastern
part of the island, was formerly resorted to by
numberless worshippers. The temple is situated in
the village which bears the same name as the god,
and formerly, at certain seasons of the year, used to
be crowded with pilgriuiS, many of whom came from
the remotest parts of India to worshij) the god
Kattragam.
The only curiosities in the dewale are the kalana-
madina, and the karandua ; the former is a capacious
clay chair, or couch (covered with the skin of a
cheetah), which the priests assert was constructed
by the first priest of the dewale, who, for his great
piety, passed from this world to the next, without
uuderooin'j- the agonies of death. The karandua
contains a small image of Kattragam, and an equally
diminutive pair of shoes. At Kandy there is also a
dewale dedicated to this god as well as to Vishnu,
Nata-Samen, and the goddess Patine. The approach
to the Nata Dewale, through two massive well-
proportioned archways, is remarkably fine, and as
CEYLON AMD THE CINGALESE. 119
the ground around the temple is filled with noblo
trees, whose thick, umbrageous foliage affords a
welcome shelter from the sun's rays, the coup d'ail
is pleasing in the extreme.
We regret that we cannot give an account of the
shrines of the idols, as none save the priests art;
allowed to approach the sanctuary, or raise the
curtain which conceals the door behind which the
idol is seated. The aspects of the gods we have
been enabled to describe, from having seen them in
the various temples of Buddha. Cingalese scholars
believe that Vishnu and Eiswara* are the chiefs of
the gods (called JBhoomatoo-dewis), and that they
have entrusted the gods before named, and the god-
dess Patine, with the power of governing the world,
watching especially over the religious and civil
rights of Lanka-diva.
The kappurales, or priests of dewales, are not
regularly educated for that office, neither are they
ordained, and they require no qualification save that
of caste ; as it is requisite that the kappurales of
Kattragam should be Brahmens, whilst the priests
of Vishnu, Nata-Samen, and the goddess Patine,
must be either Goewanse or Pattea people. The
manner in which the gods are worshipped is by the
kappurales dancing in their respective dewales, and
the exertion they undergo, with the contortions into
which they throw their Innbs, is most painful to
witness. Some of the assistant priests play upon
* Eiswara is the only god who has not a dewale dedicated to
him in Ceylon.
120 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
musical instruments, such as tom-toms, hollow rings
of metal, pipes, and chauk shells, which are used as
wind-instruments, producing most dissonant sounds,
which the Cingalese consider pleasing melody. *
Although the priests will not allow any one save
themselves to enter the sanctuary where the god is
])laced, they will perform the whole of their wor-
ship before strangers. These priests, unlike the
priests of Buddha, meet with little respect from the
people; nevertheless, they are supported by the
donations of the devotees, and by the produce of
lauds with which the respective dewales have been
endowed. The chiefs of the principal dewales at
Kandy are laymen of high rank, (who used formerly
to be appointed by the king,) and are styled dewale-
baysnayeke-nilamis ; who are assisted in their duties
by many subordinate officers, vvhich duties consist
of receiving and disbursing the proceeds of the lands
})elonging to their respective dewales. The dewale-
baysnayeke-nilimi never personally present their
* This reminds us of an anecdote. A fellow-countryman of
ours, who was residing near Colombo, complained to his appoo,
or head seiTant, that musical meetings held by the natives, in a
house adjoining his premises, disturbed his slumbers, and
threatened, if the practice were not discontinued, to take the
offenders before a magistrate. The appoo remonstrated with
his master in broken English — the purport of which remon-
strance was, that although Europeans could fight, and were
good scholars, they did not know what good music was, or
they never would complain that Cingalese musical-meetings dis-
turbed their rest, and much less attempt to force a discontinu-
ance of them.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 121
offerings to the gods, or join with the kappurales in
their dances, as none but officiating priests can per-
form either the one or the other of these ceremo-
nies. It is remarkable that, although Buddha's
wihare can be entered by all who desire to witness
the rites of his worship, yet the greatest mystery
is maintained in all that is connected with the pre-
sentation of offerings to the gods.
Cingalese scholars affirm, that before Goutama
Buddha visited Lanka-diva, Vishnu was the god
who was honoured and worshipped ; and whilst
some maintain that Buddha was an incarnation of
Vishnu, others believe that Vishnu will become
Niti'a-Buddha, or the Buddha who is yet to appear.
Ill the de wales, or temples of the gods, there is
invariably some relic, which usually is a warlike
weapon, such as a spear, a bow and arrow ; and
these implements are represented by the kappurales,
as having been deposited miraculously upon the
site which the god had selected for a dewale. The
will of the god having been thus miraculously ex-
pressed, the edifice was commenced, and, by per-
mission of the king, the new dewale was endowed
with lands, and possessed the same privileges and
immunities as the temples of Buddha.
The conjoint worship of Buddha and the gods
is a most extraordinary peculiarity in the national
religion of Ceylon, for the worship of the latter is
not only tolerated, but is considered perfectly or-
thodox, as frequently a wihare and dewale are
built under the same roof, and in every temple of
VOL. II. G
122 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
Buddha are to be seen some of the gods we have
named, who are looked upon as the guardian spirits
of the wihare ; but they are only worshipped in
their own peculiar dewales. Native historians
affirm, that in former times Lanka-diva was densely
populated, and most prosperous (and from the re-
mains of ancient grandeur still to be seen, we are
compelled to admit the veracity of this statement,)
that the laws of Buddha were then maintained and
observed in all their pristine purity, but that as the
prosperity and population of their country have de-
creased, so the religion and doctrines of Buddha
have gradually been neglected.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE, 123
CHAPTER V.
Religious festivals in honour of the gods — Alootsaul-mangalle,
or festival of New Rice — Awooroodu-mangalle, or festival of
the New Year — the ordination of Upasampadas — Parra-
harrah — Present and former magnificence — Karttie-mangalle,
or the feast of the Fortunate Hour — Adam's Peak — The
Buddhists' and Mahomedans' account of the mountain —
The pilgrim's worship of the Sree-pada — Legend of the
Deiya-guhawa — Description of Adam's Peak — Worship of
ancestors — Worship of planets — Ulama, or the Demon Bird.
During the Kandian monarchy there were five
national religious festivals, which were annually
solemnized with great pomp and rejoicing; but
since the dethronement of the king of Kandy, the
Parraharrah alone is celebrated with any portion
of the splendour which appertained to these festivals
in former times. The names of the five national
festivals are the Alootsaul-mangalle, or the Festival
of New Rice, which is held in the month of January ;
G 2
124 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
the Awooroodu-mangalle, or Festival of the New
Year, which occurs in the month of April; the
third takes place in the month of May, when the
priests of Buddha, who are deemed sufficiently
learned, are promoted from the rank of samenero
to upasarapada. The fourth and principal festival,
called Parraharrah, or the Procession, occurs in the
month of August; the fifth festival called Karttie-
mangalle, or Feast of the Fortunate Hour, is cele-
brated in the month of November. These festivals
are held in honour of, and dedicated to, the gods
Vishnu, Katragam, Nata-Samen, and the goddess
Patine.
We will now proceed to describe these religious
festivals in the order in which they are celebrated,
and will, therefore, commence with the Alootsaul-
mangalle, which is held in the month of January,
when the moon is in the second quarter. This
festival is intended as a propitiation to the gods, to
send an abundant harvest of the staff of life in
Ceylon (rice), and is held at the commencement of
the Maha, or great harvest.
Formerly, the king's astrologers used to fix an
hour on two distinct days, after consulting the stars,
to ascertain the most fortunate one; at the ap-
pointed hour on the first day, the new rice was to
be brought into the city, and at the hour named on
the second day, the grain was to be cooked and
eaten. These instructions were written, and the
document was called Nekat-Wattoroo, the original
being presented to the king by the royal astrologers,
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 125
whilst copies were borne, in great state, by the
chiefs, to the royal farms.
At the appointed time the new rice and paddy
(or rice in the husii), which were intended for the
use of the temples, the royal family, and the mo-
narch's storehouses, were carefiilly packed up by,
and in presence of, certain officers, who were duly
appointed to perform and Avitness the ceremony :
the rice being placed in new white mat, or cotton-
bags, whilst the paddy was put into new chatties or
earthen jars.
The grain which was intended for the use of the
Dalada-Malegawa, or principal temple of Buddha,
at Kandy, was borne by one of the king's elephants ;
that which was appointed to the service of the
dewales, or temples of the gods, was carried by
men, who walked under canopies of white cloth ;
whilst that which was destined for the use of the
palace and the king's store, was conveyed by men
of good caste, who belonged to the king's villages
or districts where the royal farms were situated.
The men who carried the rice which was intended
for the king's use, were compelled to observe a strict
silence during the period the grain was being borne
by them, and to keep a white muslin handkerchief
before their mouths and nostrils, lest their breath
should pollute the food which was to be eaten by
their monarch.
When all the various carriers were formed into
procession, jingalls were fiied, and all started from
the respective farms at the same moment, accom-
1*26 CEYLON ANJj THE CINGALESE.
panied by tom-tom beaters, men playing upon other
national instruments, and flag-bearers. Before
the several processions reached the city of Kandy,
they were met by the adikars, dissaaves, and ratra-
mahatmeers, who walked at the head of the vast
assemblage into the great square, to await the
neykat, or fortunate hour, when the grain was to
be borne to the various receptacles that had been
prepared. A salute of jingalls announced the mo-
ment when the rice and paddy were to be carried
into the respective storehouses : at the time the
jingalls were fired, the chiefs and people also carried
their grain from their fields into their storehouses,
or dwellings.
The neykat-w&iioroOi or fortunate hour for eating
the new rice, was fixed either two or three days
afterwards ; rules being prescribed by the royal
astrologers, as to the method of cooking the rice,
and in which direction the face was to be turned
whilst the rice was eaten. Offerings of boiled rice,
mixed with vegetable curries, were also made to
the gods ; these offerings were regarded as being
especially sacred, and none but priests of peculiar
sanctity were allowed either to present the offerings
or to partake of the food after it had been pre-
sented to the deities, in contradistinction to the
general custom, which permits all priests indiscri-
minately to consume the edible offerings after they
have remained on the altars a certain time. AH
the splendid paraphernalia of this festival is now
buried in the tomb of the past, and at this time the
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 1'27
priests merely name the day when the grain is to
be carried to the respective temples, when offerings
are duly made to the gods, and some slight re-
joicings take place among the people.
The Awooroodu-mangalle, or the feast of the
Cingalese New Year, is held in April, and at this
period the natives of Ceylon indulge in amusements,
and partake of all the social enjoyments which their
means will compass. Previously to the first day of
the new year, almost every Cingalese consults an
astrologer or wise man, who states the fortunate
days and hours of the ensuing year, and what
periods will be the most favourable for commencing
any novel plan, undertaking, or business; the sooth-
sayer also informs the divers into the web of the
coming year, how to avoid misfortune and mis-
chance, by the observance of certain instructions
which the sage gives. As the natives of Ceylon are
exceedingly superstitious, they pay the most rigid
obedience to the absurdities which are promulgated
by the wise men, placing imjilicit confidence in all
that is stated by these impostors, and protest that
the slightest deviation from the prescribed rule of
conduct would subject them to severe misfortune
and evil.
The Awooroodu-mangalle was celebrated by the
native monarchs with great rejoicing and splendour.
Previously to new-year's day, the royal astrologers
and physicians had to extract the juices from certain
medicinal plants for the use of the royal family.*
* We have been informed by a Kandian chief, that a thou-
128 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
The preparations were made at the Nata-Dewale,
and, when coiupleted, the medican-ents were placed
in small vases, or chatties, which were cautiously
covered, and sealed with the royal signet, and sent
to the palace, with all due form and ceremony, for
the king's inspection. The monarch then used
graciously to signify his permission, that a cer-
tain number of the vases which contained these
precious compounds, were to be sent to the various
temples. The astrologers then declared the Nekat-
VVattoroo, which set forth the day and minute upon
which the new year would commence, the propitious
hour for anointing the body with the medicinal ex-
tracts, the fortunate hours for eating, bathing, com-
mencing new undertakings, or business, and for
making presents to the temples, king, chiefs, or
superiors.
Before the arrival of the minute, which was fixed
by astrologers as the commencement of the new
year, the monarch ascended his throne, clad in his
magnificent robes of state, wearing the jewels, sym-
bols, and emblems, indicative of his rank and
power; the adikars, dissaaves, ratramahatmeers,
cliiefs, and officers of the royal household, attired in
costly court costume, surrounding the throne. As
soon as the moment arrived at which the new year
commenced, the event was announced by the dis-
charge of numberless jingalls, and immediately the
sand jars of these medicinal extracts used annually to be pre-
pared for Sri Wikrama, the last king of Kandy.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 129
vast throng which tilled the hall of audience pros-
trated themselves before their sovereign, offering
their congratulations, and making supplications for
his prosperity, happiness, and longevity.
When the hour arrived for the king to be
anointed with the medicinal juices, ten damsels of
high birth, bearing illuminated lamps and dishes o^
silver, on which were placed unboiled rice, ranged
themselves before the king ; two of the maidens
then advanced, and placed medicinal leaves on the
palms of his hands, and under the soles of his feet;
the remaining eight damsels coming forward and
anointing the sovereign's person with the extracts,
and whilst the operation was being performed, say-
ing, " Abundance of days to our sovereign — may he
live many thousand years ! Increase of age and
honours to our king, as long as the sun, moon, and
stars endure ! Increase of health and learning to
our mighty monarch as long as the earth and skies
last." The ten damsels then retired, when the
adikars, dissaaves, ratramahatmeers, and chiefs
advanced towards the king, and performed the same
ceremony in a like manner.
When the fortunate hour arrived for eating, the
monarch partook of a dish of food, which was
expressly and entirely prepared of vegetables for
the occasion, designated Dina-boejama, giving a
portion of the dish to each person present, after
which the courtly multitude were invited by the
monarch to a sumptuous banquet. The propitious
time for eating varied, the fortunate hour being in
G 5
130 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
one of the first four days of the new year ; and
until the time arrived which the astrologers had
specified as the fortunate hour, nourishment pre-
pared over fire could not be eaten.
When the fortunate hour arrived for bathing, the
monarch stepped into his bath, and was anointed by
his chiefs with perfumed oils, and the medicinal
extracts which had been prepared by the royal
astrologers and physicians within the precincts of
the Nata-Dewale, At the auspicious moment for
making presents and commencing business, the
nobles sent fruits, grain, spices, and flowers to the
royal stores, receiving gifts of a similar nature from
the monarch. All classes, at the fortunate hour,
exchanged donations, varying in value according to
the means of the donor.
The ceremony that terminated the festivities of
the new year was one of great magnificence, and
which took place within the first fifteen days of the
new year : this ceremony was the public reception
of the chiefs who had presents to offer to their
monarch. The sovereign, seated on his throne,
gave audience in succession, according to their
rank, to the nobles, who desired to evince their
loyalty by the presentation of gifts; the donor laid
the present at the king's feet, prostrating the person
three times, and kissing the earth, exclaimed —
" May your mighty and gracious majesty live as
long as the sun, moon, stars, skies, and earth
endure !" The royal treasurer then removed the
donations, and valued them : their estimated value
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 131
being deducted from the dues which each chief was
bound annually to pay to the king.
When this ceremony was ended, the monarch,
royal family, nobles, and chiefs sent offerings to the
Dalada-Malegawa, and dewales, and thus concluded
the holidays of the Awooroodu-mangalle, during the
celebration of which, by the Kandian laws, both
chiefs and people were exempted from all public
services.
The third festival is held in the month of May,
and is essentially Buddhaical, as then the sameneros
are examined, and, if qualified, are ordained and
become upasampada. During the Kandian mo-
narchy, the king's permission was required before a
samenero could be made upasampada, and when the
royal licence was obtained, the successful candidate
for the highest order of priesthood used to be
paraded through the streets of the capital, seated in
a richly-decorated howdah, which was borne by one
of the king's elephants. The priests of the temple
to which the newly-elected upasampada belonged,
and the chiefs of the district in which the temple
was situated joining in the procession, the former
on foot, the latter seated either in their howdahs,
which was attached to the elephant by glittering
trappings, mounted on horses, or borne in gaily-
decorated palanqueens by numerous retainers, or
slaves ; and we have been informed that during the
time the star of Buddhism was in the ascendant,
and a member of a favoured noble family joined the
132 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
priesthooil, it was not unusual for the uionarch to
honour this procession with his presence.
In the month of August, the great national festi-
val is held, which was invariably celebrated by
Kandiau monarchs with the greatest pomp, magni-
ficence, and splendour; and a Kandian noble h.is
stated to us that he had seen one hundred and sixty
elephants employed in the procession, and, although
the Parraharrah is now shorn of much of its regal
glory, still the spectacle to an European is a most
impressive and imposing sight.
By the Kandian laws every noble and chief were
bound to present themselves in the capital to pay
homage to the king, and join in the procession of
the Parraharrah. The kings of Kandy frequently
availed themselves of this opportunity to arrest the
nobles or chiefs whom they considered either dis-
affected, or rebellious ; as when a chief was beloved
in his dissavonie or rattie, it was invariably a diffi-
cult task, if not a complete impossibility, to seize
his person, if he chose to offer resistance by calling
in the aid of his followers and the people. The last
tiger-tyrant King of Kandy, Sri Wikrama, too often
availed himself of the opportunity thus afforded him
by the assembling of the chiefs at the Parraharrah,
to carry out his bloody projects of brutal, savage
cruelty and vengeance.
The Parraharrah is held in honour of the god
Vishnu, who the natives affirm was born in the
month of August : this festival commences with the
new moon, and terminates on the day succeeding
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 133
the full moon, the natives giving as a reason for the
duration of this feast, that the pangs of cliildbirth
seized the mother of Vishnu on the day of the new
moon, and continued until the full moon, when the
god was born. This festival is called by the priests
and native scholars Eysalakeliye, which signifies the
play of August ; but the general name given to this
religious festival is Parraharrah, which means, the
procession.
Three days before the new moon appears in July,
the priests of the four dewales at Kandy, meet to
select a young ;ack-tree that has not borne fruit,
the trunk of which must measure exactly three
spans in diameter : as soon as the tree is found, it
is dedicated to the service of Vishnu and the gods,
by smearing the whole trunk with sandal-wood oil,
and .;ther perfumed liquids. An offering to the god
is placed under the tree, consisting of a silver lamp
ythat has nine wicks, which are supplied with the
purest cocoa-nut oil, nine varieties of fragrant
flowers, and nine betel leaves of large and equal
size.
This offering remains a shorf time under the tree,
thus consecrating the tree to the gods ; the sacred
woodcutter belonging to the Vishnu dewale, having
previously bathed, and anointed his person, attired
in a new comboy, steps forward and fells the tree,
the trunk of which he divides into four equal parts,
a portion being sent to the respective dewales of the
gods Vishnu, Katragam, Nata-Samen, and the god-
dess Patine. The ])ortions of the sacred tree are
134 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
borne with great ceremony, the priests, musicians,
and attendants belonging to the respective temples,
walking in procession.
When the new moon appears, the piece of conse-
crated jack-wood is placed in the ground before each
dewale, and is decorated with garlands, wreaths, and
flowers arranged in other ornamental devices ; clus-
ters of bananas, citrons, pomegranates, and palm-
leaves, are also attached to, and entwined around,
the consecrated wood. A temporary building is
erected over the decorated timber, the roof of
which is composed of young palm-leaves, which
are plaited and placed closely together, so as
effectually to exclude the sun's scorching rays.
This roof is supported by pillars of bamboo, whicli
are also embellished with flowers and fruits in a
corresponding manner with the consecrated wood.
For three consecutive days, the priests of the
several dewales parade round the severed portions
of the tree, carrying the bows, arrows, and weapons
of defence, belonging to each god ; and which at
other times are suspended on the walls of their
respective temples. On the fifth day the arms of
each god are placed severally in a highly-decorated
ranhiligay, or palanqueen, which has a gilded dome,
supported by gilt pillars : gorgeous brocaded cur-
tains, falling in graceful festoons about the ranhili-
gay, partially conceal the arms ; and these palan-
queens are carried by the priests. The Dalada relic,
or tooth of Buddha, enclosed in the casket described
in a preceding chapter, is deposited in a most splen-
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 135
didly-decoi-iited ranhiligay, wliicb is borne by an ele-
phant gorgeously caparisoned ; the priests, attend-
ants, and people, belonging to each temple, joining
in the procession, which parades daily through the
town.
This spectacle gradually increases in splendour,
until the last night, when, from the multitude oi
chiefs in their sumptuous full dress and jewels, the
concourse of people in holiday attire, the innumer-
able priests in yellow robes, the gorgeous ranhili-
gays, and the elephants caparisoned in their richest
trappings, it becomes one most imposing and im-
pressive. Numberless musicians blowing wind-in-
struments, and beating tom-toms, singers giving
utterance to ear-piercing sounds, male dancers
(having bright yellow streaks of paint from the
roots of their hair to the middle of their noses)
clad in female costume, throwing their persons into
contortions, indulging in lascivious movements and
gestures, and rolling their eyes around in very wan-
tonness, also form part of the procession.
While we gazed upon this extraordinary ceremony,
painful reflections arose in our minds, when we re-
membered the number of absurd mockeries, which
are performed by the heathen under the name of
religion.
On the night, when the moon is at its full, and
the last of the Parraharrah, a certain number of
priests and chiefs accompany the Dalada relic,'
borne by an elephant, to the extreme limits of the
town, and remain at the Asgirie-wihare, whilst the
136 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
kappuralles, or priests of the dewales, proceed to
Ganaruwa ferry, to cut the sacred waters. The
sacred water is placed in golded chatties, or vases,
and the flowing stream is cut or struck with golden
swords; the chatties and swords being carried before
the kappuralles to the ferry, by the attendants. As
soon as this portion of the procession reaches the
ferry, the kappuralles step into canoes most elabo-
rately carved and gilded, which the attendants pull
up the river Maha-welle-ganga, a certain distance,
there to await the blush of morn.
When the sun's beams tinge the skies with orient
streaks, the kappuralles of the four dewales, simul-
taneously strike the pellucid stream, which reflects
the sun's rays, with their golden swords, forming an
imaginary circle in the flowing waters. The attend-
ants then pour the sacred waters, which had been
retained in the golden chatties from the preceding
year, into the river, outside the magic circle, refilling
the golden vessels from the centre of the ring which
had been traced by the golden swords. The kap-
puralles and attendants bearing the sacred waters,
then return to the Asgirie-wihare, where the pro-
cession is reformed, and the Dalada relic, priests,
chiefs, and people, entering the city, the tooth of
Buddha is replaced in the Malegawa, and the
golden chatties, swords, arms of the gods, and
gilded ranhiligays, are safely deposited in their re-
spective dewales.
Thus ends the Parraharrah, the chiefs returning
to their respective dissavonies and rattles, with their
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 137
followers, whilst the people disperse to their respec-
tive villages to resume their daily occupations. Dur-
ing the Parraharrah, offerings are made to Buddha
in the Dalada-Malegawa, and other wihares, as well
as to the gods in their several dewales.
Whilst in the Malegawa, observing the crowd of
worshippers that were presenting fruit and flowers
to the priests of Buddha, who received the offerings
in both hands, and then carried the floral gifts to
the altar of the god, placing them on it with rever-
ence, and arranging them in symmetrica 1 order, we
noticed a native bearing a species of helmet, not
unlike a cap of maintenance, made of split bamboo,
and this fragile frainework was entirely covered
with the delicate blossoms of the fragrant cape
jessamine, and the exquisitely odoriferous flowers
of the orange tree. The man handed this curious
specimen of ingenious handiwork to a priest, mak-
ing: a low salaam three times in the direction of the
king's palace — the priest took the helmet and hung
it up on a nail, which had been driven into the wall
— the man again salaamed towards the palace, and
quitted the temple.
Being invariably desirous of gaining information,
(more especially when our curiosity is excited by
witnessing any extraordinary occurrence in a foreign
clime,) we questioned our conductor as to the mean-
ing of the scene we had just witnessed, and the
Kandian chief stated, that land had been granted to
a noble family, who had done " the state some ser-
vice," by the king of Kandy, on the condition that
138 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE
annually, on a certain clay during the Parraharrah,
a member of the family should present the offering
we had just witnessed, to the monarch, by placing
the gift in the Dalada-Malegawa ; and that on
failure of the performance of this service, the estate
should revert to the crown ; consequently, the estate
was held by this tenure.
The mind naturally recurred to by-gone days, as
we listened to this interesting narration, and we
thought of the king of Kandy in the pride of his
power, who had granted the land in question, upon
certain conditions to be observed for ever, which
were still adhered to, although the heir and succes-
sor of that mighty monarch had been dethroned, his
kingdom subjugated and ruled by a foreign power,
whose protection the Kandians had voluntarily
sought, to save them from the savage tyranny of
their lawful sovereign, and we exclaimed, " Indocti
discant, et ament meminisse periti."
It is an extraordinary circumstance, that both in
Europe and Asia, the tenure of certain estates should
be held by the presentation of trivial articles, at
stated periods, to the sovereigns or governments of
the country, vide the silken flags presented annually
by the Dukes of Marlborough and Wellington to
the monarch of Great Britain, and the flower-
covered helmet of the native of Kandy, offered to
the ruler of his country. Lands were also granted
by the kings of Kandy to those who maintained the
elephants which were devoted to the service of the
wihares, and at this time those individuals who hold
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 139
land by this tenure, maintain tlie elephants which
are used in religioue ceremonies.
During the Kandian monarchy, the Parraharrah
was a scene of extraordinary magnificence, as every
noble and chief was compelled to come to the capital
to take part in the ceremony ; and as they were ac-
companied by their families, and attended by a
numerous retinue, many of whom were mounted on
elephants, gaudily caparisoned, the spectacle of this
vast multitude, the nobles and chiefs being clad mag-
nificently in silken robes and costly jewels, must have
been most impressive.
The monarch also used to join personally in the
ceremony during the last five days, seated in his
gorgeously gilded and carved chariot drawn by eight
horses; when his subjects caught a glimpse of his
person, they salaamed humbly, prostrating their
persons, until their bowed heads touched the earth,
in lowly, abject humility. The queens likewise
joined the Parraharrah, attended by their ladies,
each queen's gilded palanqueen being surrounded
by the matrons of high rank, ten damsels and ten
young girls of extreme beauty, who were all clad in
costly apparel and jewels, the clothing being pro-
vided for them at the king's exjjense. The wives
and daughters of the nobles and chiefs followed after
the queen's retinues, and as each chief tried to outvie
their fellows in the costly attire of themselves and
families, the multitude of their retainers, followers,
slaves, and elephants, the splendour of the Parra-
harrah in those days, according to Kandians, defies
description.
140 CEYLOM AND THE ClNGALc.SE.
These accoutils may be fully credited, for now
when the Parraharrah is deprived of all regal splen-
dour, and comparatively but few chiefs attend the
festival (and these do not allow the ladies of their
families to join it), as we have previously remarked,
the spectacle is a most imposing and impressive one;
and, from what we have witnessed, we can bring be-
fore our mental vision the monarch seated in his
gilded chariot, drawn by eight prancing steeds; the
queens in their gilded palanqueens, surrounded by
the high-born and lovely, clad in silken robes ; the
nobles and chiefs, gorgeously attired, seated in their
howdahs, the ponderous elephants who bore them,
walking majestically, and occasionally uttering their
shrill scream of joy, or squeal of defiance, as their
keepers essayed to keep them from trampling on
the crowd that pressed against their huge forms.
When the enormous elephant, caparisoned in
jewelled trappings, appeared, that bore the Dalada,
then uprose the loud cry of adoration, Sad-hu ! as
each person, from the monarch in his gorgeous
gilded car, to the poor slave, who trembled at his
lord's power, lowly salaamed to the sacred relic of
Buddha. The honoured elephant was preceded and
followed by other elephants, whose trappings were
decorated with small brazen bells and glittering
tinsel ; then came the priests and attendants of the
Dalada-Malegawa, bearing flags, shields, talipot-
leaves and fans ; these preceded the Diwa-Nilami,
or chief of the Malegawa, who walked at the head
of his followers. Next came the elephant of the
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 141
Nata-Dewale, bearing the arms of the god, attended
by the kappuralles, the elephants, priests, and people
of the other dewales following. The retinue and
slaves of each noble and chief preceded their re-
spective lords, carrying muskets and bearing ban-
ners ; and the splendour of the nocturnal procession
was materially enhanced by the innumerable flam-
beaux and torches, which threw a lurid glare over
the gorgeous costumes and jewels of the nobles and
their families.
Native historians assert, that their king Kirtisree
was the first monarch who ordered the Dalada to
join in the Parraharrah, giving as his reason, that
Buddha ought to be equally honoured with the
gods. At the termination of the Parraharrah, at
Kandy, a similar festival is held in particular pro-
vinces, on a circumscribed scale ; and in those dis-
tricts where a procession does not take place, offer-
ings are made to the gods in their respective de-
wales, of fruit, rice, and vegetable curries on the
night of the full moon.
The Karttie-mangalle, or the Feast of the Fortu-
nate Hour, is celebrated in November, on the day
preceding the full moon. The town of Kandy is
decorated with temporary arches of bamboo, around
which palm-leaves and flowers are entwined ; orna-
mental arbours, niches, and arches, are also erected
on the banks of the lake, and before the Dalada-
Malegawa. Every one of these fragile structures
is brilliantly illuminated by numbers of small lamps^
and the efl'ect produced is most pleasing, especially
142 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
near the lake, where the lights are reflected in
myriads of dazzling beams, which glitter and
sparkle on the undulating surface of the rippling
blue waters.
During the Kandian monarchy the royal astro-
logers used to declare the fortunate hour for illu-
minating the town, and the Nekat-Wattoroos, as
soon as they were prepared, were sent to the king-
On the appointed day, the lamps and oil were taken
from the royal stores, and carried to the Nata-
Dewale, where certain nobles, and the kappuralles
of the other dewales, were assembled. When the
royal gifts arrived, the kappuralles offered suppli-
cations to the gods for the prosperity of their mo-
narch and country. The mangalasta, or hymn of
thanksgiving to the gods, was then sung by the as-
sembled chiefs and kappuralles ; at the conclusion
of this hymn, the INekat-Wattoroos, oil, and lamps
were apportioned, and sent to all the wihares and
dewales at Kandy.
The palace, temples, the great square, and prin-
cipal streets, were decorated with arches, and when
the sun had set, and the fortunate hour for lighting
the lamps had arrived, all these ornamental struc-
tures were brilliantly illuminated. At midnight, the
Dalada relic, and the images of the gods, borne by
elephants, and attended by the priests, musicians,
and dancers, were paraded through the town with
great ceremony ; and, when the lamps died away
which decorated the Malegawa and the palace, then
the relic and the images of the gods were replaced
CKYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 143
in the wihare and dewales. The procession is now
shorn of its former splendour, and we feel convinced
that in a few years the observance of the karttie-
mangalle will be entirely discontinued.
In the months of February, March, and April,
many Buddhists and Mahomedans perform a pil-
grimage to the mountain called Adam's Peak, to
worship the impression of a gigantic foot, which is
delineated on the summit of the rock. This ima-
ginary impression of a human foot is equally vene-
rated and worshipped both by the followers of Bud-
dha and Mahomet — the Buddhists asserting that
when Buddha honoured Lanka-diva with a visit, he
left the imprint of his foot, as a convincing proof of
his divinity, enjoining his followers to adore and
worship the impression. In an ancient Cingalese
record, written during the reign of the king Kir-
tisree, in which the mountain called Adam's Peak is
fully described, we read : —
" Our Buddha, who acquired Niwane, who was
brought into the world, like all preceding Buddhas,
from whom we have derived the food of life, in the
religion which he taught us ; who is celebrated and
renowned for his thirty-two manly beauties, and for
the eighty-two signs connected with them, and for
the light which shined a fathom round his body, and
for the beams of light that emanated from the top
of his head ; who is the preceptor of three worlds,
who dives into the secrets of the past, the present,
and the future ; who during four asankeas of kalpes,
so deported himself as to be an example of the thirty
144 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
great qualities who subdued the demon Mareya and
his attendants, subsequently becoming Buddha. In
the eighth year from that event he rose in the air,
spread rays of light of six different hues round his
person, and stamped the impression bearing the
noble marks, Chakkra-Laksana, and the hundred
and eight auspicious tokens, on the rock Samenta-
Kootaparwate, which is renowned for the cold and
lovely waters of its streams, for its mountain-tor-
rents, and for its flowei-y groves, spreading in the
air their sweet-scented pollen. This rocky moun-
tain is the diadem of our beauteous verdant island,
like a young and lovely virgin bedecked with
jewels."
Some Mahomedans believe that when the pro-
genitor of the human race was turned out of the
Garden of Eden — which, according to native writers,
was situated in Ceylon — he was compelled to per-
form penance by standing on one foot, on the sum-
mit of the mountain, leaving the imprint of the foot
indelibly impressed on the rock. Other followers
of Mahomet declare that Adam was precipitated
from Paradise, which was situated in the seventh
heaven, and fell on the rock, where he remained
standing on one foot for ages, until the sin of dis-
obedience which he had committed was pardoned.
The following curious quotation is taken from tiie
second chapter of Sale's Al Koran :
" The Mahomedans say, that when they were cast
down from Paradise, Adam fell on the isle of Cey-
lon, or S2rendib, and Eve near Joddah, in Arabia:
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 145
and that after a separation of two hundred years,
Adain was, on his repentance, conducted by the
angel Gabriel to a mountain near Mecca, where he
found his wife— the mountain from that time being-
called Arafat ; and that he afterwards retired with
her to Ceylon, where they continued to propagate
their species."
There is every reason to induce the belief that the
Moormen of Ceylon gave the mountain the desig-
nation by which it is known to Europeans, as to
this day they call the rock Baba Adamalei, whilst
the Cingalese call the mountain Samenella, or the
rock of Samen, who is the god that has the moun-
tain and the Sree-pada, or sacred footstep of Bud-
dha, under his especial protection — the Sanscrit
name of the rock being Samenta-koota-parwate.
Adam's Peak is one of the highest mountains in
Ceylon,* and can be seen distinctly for an immense
distance at sea, as the height of this stupendous
work of nature exceeds seven thousand four hun-
dred feet. This mountain is situated on the bor-
ders of the central and western provinces, and is the
loftiest of a long ridge or line of mountains.
The form of Adam's Peak is remarkably regular
— the shape being that of a bell, which gradually
tapers until the summit is attained, the platform of
which is of an oval form, and measures nearly se-
venty-one feet in length by twenty-nine in breadth.
This platform is surrounded by a wall, between five
and six feet in height, in the centre of which ap-
* The highest mountain in Ceylon is Pedro-talla-galla.
VOL. II. H
146 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
pears the apex of the mountain, on whicli is an out-
line, which the natives call the Sree-pada, or sacred
footstep. This impression, if impression it can be
called, is a superficial cavity, which is about five feet
and a-half in length, and two feet five inches in
width — this has a border of about four inches broad,
which is made of cement, painted a dark brown
colour ; there are also small raised portions, which
are meant to delineate the form of the toes, but al-
together it is as clumsy an attempt at deception as
it is of a representation of the human foot. A brass
cover, or frame, studded with coloured glass and
pieces of valueless crystal, protects the Sree-pada
from the elements and the gaze of the curious.
We have read in a recent work on Ceylon, that
the sacred footstep is enclosed within a golden
frame, which is an erroneous statement, and we pre-
sume the author must have been misled by his in-
formant. The Sree-pada has a small temple erected
over it ; this is attached to the rock by iron chains,
which are placed at the four corners of the edifice,
the chains being fastened to the rock and the huge
trees which grow on the precipitous sides of the
cone. When the pilgrims come to worship, the
roof of this building is lined with gaily-coloured
cloths, to which are attached garlands of fragrant
flowers. There is, likewise, a small dewale dedi-
cated to Samen, who is the presiding deity of the
mountain ; and on the north-east side of the moun-
tain, there is a most luxuriant grove of magnificent
rhododendrons, which is considered sacred, as the
CEYLON AKD THE CINGALESE. 147
priests affirm that these shrubs were planted by the
god Samen immediately after the departure of Bud-
dha from Lanka-diva. The officiating priest has
also a circumscribed pansola, or dwelling, in this
aeriel region.
Cino-alese historical records affirm that the four
Buddhas, which have appeared successively, visited
the mountain, and stamped upon it the impression
of their feet, as evidence of their divinity, and, as-
suredly, if the imprint now to be seen is that of the
god's foot, it bears no resemblance to the beautiful
form of the human foot ; it is only, therefore, the
credulous who, by an elongated exertion of the ima-
gination, can fancy the mark to have been left by a
supernatural being who "wore the aspect of hu-
manity."
In the same historical writings are recorded the
visits which native monarchs have paid to the Sree-
pada, the sumptuous offerings which they made,
and the numerous retinues by which they were at-
tended. Before the pilgrims ascend the peak to
worship, they bathe in one of the mountain tor-
rents, the most favoured being the Seetla-Ganga, or
cold stream, and attire themselves in new or per-
fectly clean apparel.
The mode of worship on Adam's Peak differs
slightly from that which is adopted in the other
temples of Buddha. The priest stands on the Sree-
pada, facing the pilgrims, who kneel or prostrate
themselves completely on the ground, raising their
hands above their heads in an attitude of supplica-
H 2
148 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
tion. The upasarapada then recites the several ar-
ticles of Buddhaical taith, which the worshippers
repeat in a distinct voice after him. When he has
finished, the pilgrims shout the sad-hu, or exclama-
tion of praise, which is re-echoed again and again
from crevice to crevice, and from crag to crag. The
most interesting part of the mountain form of wor-
ship then takes place, which is called the " saluta-
tion of peace and good will ;" hushands and wives
affectionately embrace each other, reciprocating
kind wishes for mutual health and prosperity ; chil-
dren lowly salaam their parents, entreating their
benediction ; and friends embrace, expressing
kindly feelings for each other's well doing. This
ceremony is concluded by the younger part of the
assembly saluting their elders with respectful re-
verence, and an interchange of betel leaves takes
place amongst the assembled throng.
Before leaving the rock, every pilgrim makes
offering to the Sree-pada and the god Samen, the
gifts varying according to the means and inclina-
tions of the devotees — some presenting money ;
others, fruits, grain, areka-nuts, flowers, or a piece
of cloth wherewith to decorate the temple. These
offerings are placed on the imprint of the god's
foot, where they remain for a short time, and are
removed by an attendant, who is placed there by the
chief priest of the Malwatte-wihare, as these offer-
ings appertain to the chief priest, for the time be-
ing, of that temple; and these annual tributes are
most lucrative perquisites of this functionary.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 149
After the offerings are made, the priest bestows
his blessing on the devotees, exhorting them to re-
turn home and lead virtuous lives, and benefit their
fellow-creatures. The Cingalese will not remain u
night on this mountain, as they believe that none
but a priest can do so without incurring the dis-
pleasure of the gods, and that if any, save membei-s
of the priesthood, pass a night within these hallowed
precincts, misfortune, sickness, or death, will be the
inevitable result,
There is a monntain situated on the south of
Adam's Peak, which the natives call Deiya-Guhawa,
or the Cave of the God, and they affirm that no
human footstep has yet trodden upon, or polluted
the summit of this rock, and that if any attempt to
penetrate into the sacred mysteries of the Deiya-
Guhawa, they immediately arouse the god's anger,
who inflicts summary vengeance upon the intruders.
The following legend connected with this rock, is
related by the natives.
A upasampada, relying upon his sacred calling,
resolved to penetrate the mysteries of the god's
cave, and ascend to the summit of the mountain.
He ascended some distance, and the fire which he
had kindled beneath the overhanging summit of the
mountain was distinctly seen during the night by
his followers, who remained at the base of the moun-
tain. When morning dawned, the priest was found
seated at the foot of the mountain, a drivelling,
gabbering idiot, continually exclaiming, " Hide me,
hide me, from his terrible gaze !" but not an intel-
150 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
ligible account could be given of the terrible and
awful sig-hts which had shaken reason from her
throne. Since that period, no one has had sufficient
courage to attempt the ascent of Delya Guhawa, or
to penetrate into the mysteries of the god's cave.
The ascent to Adam's Peak is most difficult and
precipitous, but as the guides are very highly paid,
they evince active intrepidity, and ladies occasionally
ascend the mountain ; aged priests who feel their
end approaching, oft-times desire to worship the
Sree-pada before leaving this world, and have been
carried up the rock's perpendicular sides in light
palanqueens. The approaches to the mountain are
almost destitute of roads, and so impassable were
they, that in 1845, when Prince Waldemar of Prus-
sia was in Ceylon, and intimated his desire to visit
the renowned rock, a road was constructed for his
especial use. In some parts of the rock steps have
been cut, and in an enormous mass, which is almost
perpendicular, one hundred and forty steps were
cut by the order of Dharma Rajah, who died vvhilst
on a pilgrimage to the Sree-pada. The figure of
the monarch is to be seen roughly outlined on the
rock, and an inscription states the name of the
kino" by whose command these steps were made.
It would be impossible to convey by the pen an
adequate description of the sublime, stupendous,
and magnificent scenery of this mountain, down
whose sides torrents dash in cataracts of frothy
foam; wood-covered mountains, rising above moun-
tains, are beheld, at the base of which lie verdant
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 151
valleys, replete with luxuriant vegetation. Abysses,
the depth of which the eye cannot fathom, cause the
beholder to start back in affright, as he finds that
he has incautiously approached the edge, and the
next step forward would have dashed him down the
abyss, a mangled, bleeding corse. The terrors of
these precipices are concealed by the dense foliage,
underwood, and creeping plants, which cling to the
mountaiirs sides ; where, also, mosses, plants, and
weeds, indigenous to colder regions, are met with ;
thus combining the gorgeous vegetation of the tor-
rid, with the no less beauteous productions of the
temperate zone.
Near the summit of the mountain the ascent is
most dangerous, and iron chains are fixed to the
sides of the rock, to assist the ascenders, and woe
unto those who become nervous, or gaze below, as
by the slightest false step, the footing would be in-
evitably lost, and the fate of the unfortunate indi-
vidual sealed. We have never heard of an Eu-
ropean having met with a serious accident in this
mountain; but many natives have at different times
lost their lives — they feel alarmed, gaze below, be-
come giddy, make a false step, incautiously relax
their hold, fall, and are dashed into myriads of
atoms.
When the summit of Adam's Peak is attained,
then the adventurer is well rewarded for his toil —
in every direction, as far as the eye can reach, are
beheld mountains covered with umbrageous forests
of huge trees — over precipices, dash sparkling cas-
152 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
cades, which glisten in the sun's dazzling beams,
and the ravines are filled with rills and torrents.
In the valleys are seen the magnificent trees clad in
luxurious loliage, the tints of whose leaves are di-
versified, and the vision revels in their brilliant
hues of green, red, yellow, and brown, which glad-
den the eye, and cause the heart to rejoice. It is
in such scenes as this that man feels his own no-
thingness, and the worm man blesses the mighty
Creator, who made this beautiful world, " and saw
that it was good."
We feel that we cannot express our own senti-
ments better, than by using the following quotation,
which is written by an American author, Theodore
Jouffi'ey, and will be found in the introduction to
" Specimens of Foreign Literature :" —
" In the bosom of cities man appears to be the
principal concern of creation ; his apparent supe-
riority is there displayed ; he there seems to preside
over the theatre of the world, or rather to occupy it
himself. But when this being, so haughty, so
powerful, so absorbed by his own interests in the
crowd of cities, and in the midst of his fellows,
chances to be brought into avast and majestic scene
of nature, in view of the illimitable firmament, sur-
rounded with the works of creation, which over-
whelm him, if not by their intelligence, by their
magnitude ; when from the summit of a mountain,
or under the light of the stars, he beholds petty,
villages lost in diminutive forests which themselves
are lost in the extent of the prospect, and reflects
I
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 153
that these villages are inhabited by frail and im-
perfect beings like himself; when he compares these
beings, and their wretched abodes, with the mag-
nificent spectacle of external nature ; when he com-
pares this with the world on whose surface it is but
a point, and this world, in its turn, with the myriads
of worlds that are suspended above him, and before
which it is nothing : in the presence of this specta-
cle, man views with pity his own grovelling and
miserable conflicting passions."
Many of the Veddahs, or aborigines of Ceylon
and a great mass of the population, at stated pe-
riods, make offerings to their ancestors, and the
spirits of good men, in which mode of worship they
resemble the Chinese, who annually make offerings
to the manes of their ancestors. The natives of
Ceylon believe that these offerings both propitiate
the spirits of the departed, and relieve them from a
minor description of punishment, or piirgatory.
These ceremonies have been observed from time
immemorial, and in a work which is much quoted
by native scholars, it is stated, that a son by making
offerings to the disembodied spirits of his ancestors,
by the constant practiceof virtuous conduct in every
relation of life, combined with a pilgrimage to
Gaya, would suffice to release a parent who had not
committed murder, from the place of torment.
The natives of Lanka-diva, more especially the
Kandians, worship the planets, as they believe them
to be controlling spirits, who, unless worshipped,
will exercise a malignant influence over the desti-
H 5
164 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
nies of mankind. Their mode of worship is pecu-
liar ; the religious ceremonies are called Bali ; are
held at night, and are rarely concluded before day-
break. Food is invariably offered, and this mode of
worship is a combination of astrology with the wor-
ship of the malignant planetary spirits.
The word Bali is used to express sacrifices of-
fered to planets, malignant sj)irits, and deceased
ancestors. Balia is an image of clay, which is in-
tended to represent the planet, under which the
person who makes the image was born; and this
image is made and worshipped by an individual
who may be suffering from misfortune of any kind.
The worship and offerings are made under the be-
lief that the malignant spirit will be propitiated
thereby, and will, therefore, remove from the wor-
shipper the cause of sorrow.
Before commencing the worship of planets, the
Kandian calls in an astrologer, or wise man, who
examines his Hand-a-hana, or astrological document,
which contains his horoscope ; after which, the as-
trologer states what he conceives the best course to
be pursued to allay the anger of the malignant
spirit, and either directs in person, or gives instruc-
tions relative to the offerings which are to be made,
and the various ceremonies that are to be observed.
There is a bird in Ceylon, which the natives call
ulama, or the demon bird, which utters most loud
and ear-piercing screams, strongly resembling the
shrieks of a human being in severe bodily agony.
This bird's cries, they say, invariably prelude mis-
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 155
fortune, sickness, or death, and are regarded by
thera as a certain token of coming evil. The su-
perstitious natives believe that they can avert the
evil which this bird predicts, by uttering certain
words of defiance, to the effect, that neither they
nor any one of their household will heed the sum-
mons of the bird, or the demon who sent it. Al-
though the wailings of the ulama are frequently
heard in the interior, the natives assert that it has
never been distinctly seen or captured, and they
firmly believe that it is one of the evil spirits which
haunt their island. From the cry, we presume this
bird to be a species of owl, as there are many va-
rieties of the tribe in Ceylon. Some of these birds
are exceedingly large, and we heard from a man of
undoubted veracity, that he had shot an owl in the
interior, which measured across the expanded wings
five feet two and a half inches.
156 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
CHAPTER VI.
Buddhist marriages — Kandian customs — A daughter murdered
by her father — Native laws regarding the marriages of slaves
— The age when marriage can be lawfully contracted — Poly-
andry — Brother husbands — Associated husbands — Beenaand
Deega marriages — Kandian proverb — Divorces — Marriage
preliminaries — Marriage-feast and ceremony — Marriage of
Protestant natives of high caste in the maritime provinces —
Marriage of Roman Catholic natives of good caste — Ceremo-
nies observed at the marriages of the Kandian kings — Nam-
ing children — Funeral rites of the high and low castes —
Obsequies of a monarch — Tombs of the Kandian kings —
Electing the sovereign — Investing the king with the attributes
of royalty.
The natives of Ceylon, both Kandians and the
inhabitants of the maritime provinces, deem it dero-
gatory to intermarry with one of lower caste than
their own, consequently the members of each caste
form matrimonial alliances with individuals belong-
ing to their respective castes. Occasionally, but
very rarely, a marriage may be contracted between
a high caste man and a female of a lower caste, or
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 157
the reverse ; but these alliances seldom, if ever,
meet with the approbation of the relatives or con-
nexions of the party belonging to the higher caste.
During our residence in Ceylon, a descendant,
on the maternal side, of the Kandian royal family,
wished to form an alliance with a high caste woman
the daughter of a wealthy Moodliar, who held an
official post of some importance under our govern-
ment. Although the lady was of high caste, she
could not claim affinity with royalty, consequently
the aged mother of the bridegroom positively refused
to give her consent, or honour the wedding festi-
vities with her presence. The bridegroom sent a
supplicatory missive to his parent, pointing out the
large dowry which the lady would receive, (for the
god Mammon is as devoutly worshipped in Ceylon
as he is in England,) the high official situation
which her father held, that although the family
was not of royal extraction, still they belonged to
the highest caste ; and that manifold advantages
must accrue from the alliance.
The old lady continued inexorable, and sent a
letter, expressing great dissatisfaction at her son's
obstinacy, and enclosing a piece of coir, (or rope
made from the fibres of the cocoa-nut,) which sig-
nified that if he persisted in contracting the objec-
tionable union, he need not expect to inherit the
value of that piece of rope at the period of her
decease.
The receipt of this document exasperated the son,
who returned for answer that he neither required
158
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
nor exjaected the value of the morsel of string that
he enclosed, and which measured one inch. The
bridegroom, deeply enamoured, either of the damsel's
personal charms, or her large marriage portion,
entreated her father to allow the wedding to take
place without the consent of his mother, and the
marriage was accordingly celebrated with great re-
joicings; but during our residence in Lanka-diva,
the old lady positively refused to pardon her son's
contumaciousness, receive her daughter-in-law, or
hold communication with any part of the family.
Should a hiofh caste female form a criminal inti-
macy with a man of lower caste, it has frequently
occurred, that when the connexion is discovered by
the woman's family, the life of the paramour is
taken by the incensed relatives, who do not con-
sider the act either criminal or sinful under the
circumstances alluded to, and formerly the woman's
life was taken by the head of her family. It is
lamentable to reflect upon the excesses which a
mistaken sense of honour will lead mankind into,
frequently causing the most powerful feelings of our
nature to be sacrificed ; and we do not believe that
it can be exemplified more completely than in the
following: narrative.
The daughter of a high caste Kandian became
attached to a man of lower caste than her family.
The girl entreated her parents to allow her to marry
the man — their consent was refused, and they for-
bade her to hold further communication with her
lover, stating it was utterly impossible that they
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 169
could allow their family to be disgraced by an alli-
ance with a man of lower caste than themselves.
The maiden pleaded her devoted affection for her
lover, stating- that if her parents persisted in with-
holding their sanction, she would be rendered
wretched, for without the society of her lover, life
would be to her a dreary desert. Neither tears,
supplications, nor entreaties could move the parents
from their stern resolve, and tiie girl quitted their
presence in mute despair. Some months afterwards,
the relatives discovered that the unfortunate crea-
ture " had loved not wisely, but too well," and had
sacrificed iier honour. In vain the girl pleaded her
lover's willingness, and anxious desire to make all
the reparation in his power, by marrying her — the
father severely reprimanded her for proposing (in
his estimation) to entail increased degradation upon
the family, adding, that the only method which
remained to obliterate the dishonour which she had
brought upon her faiuily, was by giving her own
life, and that it was his fixed resolve to immolate
her.
An ancient superstition prevails in Kandy, that
when a female of high caste has formed an intimacy
with an inferior, the family honour will remain un-
sullied and untarnished if the woman be put to
death by her relatives ; and, in pursuance of this
barbarous usage, the father sacrificed his child.
Immediately this revolting murder came to the
knowledge of the authorities, a warrant was issued
for the apprehension of the assassin — the father did
160 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
not attempt to make his escape ; and when upon
his trial, openly declared that he had taken his
daughter's life, having had a perfect right so to act
under the circumstances, for the purpose of vindi-
cating the family honour ; and he firmly contended
that the British authorities had no jurisdiction over
the domestic government of a Kandian's household
or family. Sentence of death was passed upon the
man, who protested to the last moment of his exist-
ence that he had been fully justified in taking the
life of his daughter, and that we had no right to
intermeddle with family arrangements.
To those who are unacquainted with the native
character, the above narrative would naturally lead
them to form the idea, that the Cingalese are devoid
of parental affection, but this is not the fact, as all
the natives evince extreme regard for their off"-
spring ; but a mistaken notion of honour overcame
the Kandian father's love for his unfortunate child,
and she fell a victim to an erroneous idea, and zeal
for family honour — for, had she been allowed to wed
her lover, whose personal character was good, and
pecuniary resources ample, the unfortunate girl
would not have committed the sin for which her
father put her to death.
So rigid are these restrictions of caste in Ceylon,
that the native laws forbade masters to compel their
female slaves to receive against their inclinations a
man of lower caste than themselves, either as lover
or husband, whether he should be freeborn or a
slave ; nevertheless, the same laws gave a master
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 161
the power of inflicting the most severe corporeal
punishment upon his slaves of both sexes, the sole
restrictions being, that he could neither cut off a
limb, torture, nor put them to death, without the
consent of the monarch. If the slave- owner in-
fringed the above-named restrictions, he ren(Jered
himself amenable to the criminal laws of his
country.
Marrifiges in Ceylon, as in other parts of Asia,
are contracted at an early age, for by the native
laws a male arrives at the dignity of manhood when
he has completed his sixteenth year; but, should he
give a promise of marriage, or enter into a matri-
monial engagement without the consent of his
parents before that period, such promise or engage-
ment is null and void. Until a youth has com-
pleted his sixteenth year he is under the authority
and guidance of his parents, being compelled to
jierform and execute their lawful biddings and com-
mands ; but so soon as he is of age he can throw
off the yoke of parental authority, and enter into
engagements of all descriptions. As soon as a girl
arrives at maturity she is considered marriageable,
and her parents (or nearest relations, if she be an
orphan) send betel leaves and invitations to all
their friends and acquaintances, and a feast is given
proportionably great or small, according to the
entertainer's means.
Naturally, the young men are most eager to
obtain invitations to these leasts, especially when
the young lady has the reputation of being either
162 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
an heiress or a beauty, for self interest actuates all
alike: and there are not greater fortune-hunters
in Europe than are to be met with in Asia.
The only disgusting circumstance connected with
Kandian marriages is, that polyandry is permitted
and practised to a great extent ; and we have seen
a Kandian matron, of high caste, who was the
wife of eight husbands, who were brothers. We
expressed ourselves most strongly to a Kandian
chief on this revolting custom, who appeared sur-
prised at the sentiments to which we gave utterance,
saying, that he thought it a very good custom, as
it prevented litigation, a sub-division of property in
wealthy families, and concentrated family influence;
he added, that amongst the poor it was necessary,
as it was impossible for several brothers each to
maintain a wife separately, and incur the expense of
a family, which they could easily do jointly.
The offspring of these unhallowed marriages call
all the brother- husbands f.ither, and inherit equally ;
but should litigation arise concerning property,
then the children claim the eldest brother as their
paternal parent, and the Kandian laws recognise
the claim. Although when polyandry is indulged
in by the highest caste, the husbands are usually
brothers, still a man can, with the consent of his
wife, bring home another, unrelated to him, who
has all the marital rights, and is called an asso-
ciated husband. In fact, the first husband can
bring home as many men as his wife will consent
to receive as husbands, and these marriages are re-
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 163
cognised by the Kandian laws. The offspring of
these horrible unions are looked upon us the chil-
dren of the first husband, but ti;ey inherit equally
the property of the associated husbands ; and it is
necessary to remark, that associated husbands are
rarely met with among the high caste Kandians,
although a high caste woman is too frequently the
wife of two or more brotliers.
Some authors assert that polygamy is prevalent
in Ceylon, but during our residence in that island
we never met with Kandian or Cingalese who had,
or acknowledged havin":, more than one wife. The
Mahomedans, or Moormen, certainly have a plu-
rality of wives, but they can hardly be termed
natives of Ceylon, although tiieir forefathers settled
there, as the Moormen neither follow the national
religion, costume, nor habits of the Cingalese, but
rigidly adhere to their own form of worship, cus-
toms, and dress. It is in Kandy alone that Poly-
andry is practised, as in the maritime provinces the
disgusting custom is unobserved.*
In Kandy there are two distinct classes of mar-
riages, which are called respectively Beena and
Deega. In the first of these the husband goes to
the wife's residence to live there ; and when a
female is married in Beena she shares the family in-
heritance with her brothers. A Beena spouse is not
treated with much respect or consideration by his
* Accordinpr to Polybius, polyandry was practised in ancient
Greece, and in the Twelfth Book we read that it was an old
and habitual practice in Sparta.
164 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
wife's family ; and, if he gives offence to the father,
or head of the household, he can be ejected from
the abode. In reference to this precarious position,
the following ancient proverb is in general use in
Kandy : —
"The Beena husband should only remove four
articles of property to his bride^'s dwelling, and
these should be a pair of sandals to protect his feet,
a talipot leaf to shield him from the sun"'s rays, a
walking staff to support him if he be sick, and a
lantern to give him light ; thus prepared, he can
depart with safety at any hour of the day or night."
When a Deega marriage takes place, the wife
leaves her paternal home and goes to dwell under
her husband's roof-tree ; in this case the wife for-
feits all claim to a portion of her parents' property,
but she acquires a right to some part of her hus-
bands inheritance ; and the husband's authority
over his wife, when married in Deega, far exceeds
the power which he can exercise when a Beena
alliance is contracted. In a Deega marriage a
divorce cannot be obtained without the full concur-
rence of the husband; but in a Beena marriage the
unfortunate spouse can l)e lawfully expelled the
house by his wife's relatives, and a divorce obtained
by the wife, even should the husband be opposed to
the measure.
Divorces are constantly sought for by the women
on the most frivolous pretexts, and are too easily
obtained, as returning the marriage gifts is the
principal formality that is requisite. Should a child
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 165
be born within nine months from the day of tlie
divorce the husband is bound to maintain it for
the first three years, when the chihl is considered
sufficiently old to be taken from the mother. If the
marriage vow be broken by the woman, the Kan-
dian laws give the husband the power of taking the
life of her paramour, that is, if tlie husband has
occular proof of her infidelity.
Notwithstanding these stringent laws, we regret
to say, that from the highest to the lowest castes in
all parts of Ceylon, the want of conjugal fidelity
(and chastity in the unmariied) is njost terrible.
When a man divorces his wife for adultery he can
disinherit her and the whole number of her off"spring,
excluding them from all share in his property at
his death, although he may acknowledge, and feel
convinced they are his children. When a man
seeks a divorce, he forfeits all claim to his wife's
property or inheritance, and is compelled to restore
half of the property which may have been acquired
during their cohabitation.
The men are generally most indulgent, but jealous
husbands ; and it is an enigma to us that we are
totally unable to explain or solve, how, in a nation
where a plurality of husbands is recognised, and the
want of chastity in the women proverbial, this feel-
ing of jealousy should exist to the extent that it
does in Ceylon ; but such is the contrariety of
human nature, that frequently we find them uxorious
in the extreme, and ready to forgive faults which we
look upon as unpardonable.
166 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
A short time ago a Kandian claimed the interfer-
ence of the British judicial authorities, to compel an
unfaithful wife (who had quitted her husband and
children for a lover's sake) to return to her home.
The woman positively refused to leave her para-
mour, giving- as a reason that she was tired of her
husband, and disliked him. In vain the husband
pleaded his affection for her, and implored her for
her children's sake to return ; the creature turned a
deaf ear to her husband's entreaties, and coolly
asked the judge if he could make her go back.
The judge replied that unfortunately, according to
the Kandian laws, he had no authority to enforce
his wish ; but that he advised her to go to the home
of her lawful husband, as he would kindly overlook
her criminal conduct, and was anxious to take her
again to his bosom. The devoted affection of the
husband and wholesome advice of the judge were
alike disregarded, and the woman returned to her
paramour, whom she left in a short time for another.
The following curious lines are quoted by the
natives, when they allude to the infidelity or decep-
tion of women : —
" I've seen the udumbra tree * in flower, white plumage on the
crow ;
And fishes' footsteps on the deep have traced through ebb and
flow.
If man it is who thus asserts, his word you may believe ;
But all that woman says distrust, she speaks but to deceive."
* A species of fig-tree, and the Cingalese declare that no
mortal has ever yet beheld the blossoms of the tree.
6
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 167
Although the natives of Ceylon are jealous, the
husband will frequently pardon his wifjL' if .she carry
on an amour with a man of higher caste than him-
self; but should criminal intercourse take place
between the wife of a liigli caste man and one of
lower caste, and be detected by the husband, he in-
variably seeks for a divorce. Many of the murders
which are committed in Ceylon arise from the
aroused jealousy of husbands, or lovers ; and, as most
of the natives carry a knife, placed in the folds of
the dress, these weapons of destruction are too
readily applied to murderous pui-poses.
Under the native kings, the Cingalese were for-
bidden to contract matrimonial alliances with any
relation who could claim a nearer degree of affinity
than that of second-cousin ; and, if this law were in-
fringed, the parties who had contracted the marriage
were looked upon as criminals, and were punished
accordingly.
The inclination of the female portion of the com-
munity in Ceylon is rarely consulted in regard to
marriage, her parents fixing upon the man whom
she is to wed. As soon as a young woman has
attained a marriageable age, a feast is given, and
those of the same caste whose sons are desirous to
become Benedicts flock to it. In a short time after
the feast, a relative or friend of the youth who
desires to marry the girl, calls upon the damsel's
family, and insinuates that a report of the intended
marriage has gone abroad. If this insinuation be
indignantly rejected, or quietly refuted by the lady's
168 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
family, the discomfited talker speedily withdraws ;
but if, on the contrary, no dissatisfaction is expressed,
a little polite badinage is indulged in, and the gen-
tleman takes his leave, stating his intention of an-
nouncing the report to the father of the would-be
bridegroom.
After a day or two has elapsed, the father pays a
visit to the lady's parents, inquires the amount of
her marriage dowry, and many other points of
minor importance ; and, if the information he re-
ceives be satisfactory, and meets his views, he for-
mally states a wish that his son should form a matri-
monial connexion with the girl, and invites her
parents to pay him a visit, naming a day. The
visit is returned by the damsel's parents, who make
the same inquiries concerning the portion which
the young man is to receive, his circumstances, and
future prospects in life ; and, if all meets with their
approbation, they invite the father and mother of
the fortunate youth to come to their dwelling on a
certain day to see their daughter.
Wlien this visit is paid by the man's parents, the
fathers converse upon the dispositions and health
of their respective children, whilst the matrons
retire with the girl to the inner apartment, where
her person is examined by the man's mother, to see
if she be free from ulcers, cutaneous disease of any
kind, or corporeal defects. Should the result of
this inspection be pleasing to the matron, she em-
braces the girl and her mother, saying to the former
that she may expect to receive speedily the visit of
a stranger, and re-enters the outer apartment.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 169
The visitors then tiike their leave of their hosts,
thanking theui for their hospitality, and expressing
a desire to see them again shortly. When the
parents of the youth return home, they give him
permission to go and see the family of his intended
bride, but he must do so clandestinely, using a ficti-
tious name ; and, should he have the good fortune
to see the damsel, he is not allowed to address one
word of conversation to her.
If the young man be pleased with the family and
the appearance of the young lady, he requests per-
mission of the parents to send a present of betel
leaves. In a short time a relative of the bridegroom,
attended by a servant bearing betel leaves, visits
the girl's family ; and, if this present is accepted,
the engagement is looked upon as binding.
The day and hour of the wedding are then fixed
by an astrologer or wise man, the bride's horo-
scope having been previously compared with that of
the bridegroom's by the same sage, who declares if
the planetary influence will allow them to wed.
The astrologer being well paid, and, as there are
four methods by which configurations and a favour-
able result may be arrived at, the stars generally
prove propitious to the projected union.
It sometimes happens that the horoscopes of the
intended bride and bridegroom, despite the strenuous
endeavours of the astrologers, will not coincide, and
then an infant brother or relation of the brideo-room
takes his place at the wedding-least, provided his ho-
roscope will agree with that of the lady's. Such a
VOL. II. I
170 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
marriage is legal, the evasion being regarded as a
necessary concession to the will of the planets.
The wedding takes place at the bride's residence,
where a luandoo (or temporary bamboo building
covered with mats) is erected ; in this structure
the feast is prepared for the male part of the com-
pany, the ladies eating alone in the dwelling, the
roof of which is hung with white cloth. The bride-
groom sets out on the wedding-day for the lady's
abode, attended by as numerous a train of relations,
friends, and dependents as he can nmster, the latter
bearing the bridal gifts, which consist of jewels and
wearing apparel for the bride, cooked food (which
is placed in a decorated pingo, or basket, and covered
with a new white cloth), and fruits for the guests.
As soon as the nuptial train approaches the
bride's abode, her relations and friends sally forth to
meet it, servants following, bearing two trays
covered with white cloth, on which betel leaves are
sjiread, which are presented to the bridegroom's
friends. When the distribution of the betel leaves
is terminated, both parties form one procession, and
walk towards the house, the bride's relatives and
friends preceding the bridegroom's. Upon entering
the bride's residence, if the bridegroom is a chief, or
wealthy man of rank, his feet are bathed by a ser-
vant, a piece of money being thrown into the water,
which becomes the fee of the domestic. Among the
lower castes and poor, this ceremony is performed
by a younger brother, or near relative.
The host then requests the bridegroom and male
CEYLON AND TBE CINGALESE. 171
ffuests to enter the mandoo and seat themselves ac-
cording to their rank and seniority, the hostess
requesting the females to follow her into the inner
apartment, and do the same. When all have par-
taken of the good cheer and viands, and the meal
is terminated, the bridegroom's nearest unmarried
relative enters the ladies' apartments, and requests
permission to bring in the gifts. Being answered
in the affirmative, the bridegroom, attended by his
friends, enters, some of them bearing the wedding-
presents. A platform of jackwood, covered with
white cloth, is then placed in the middle of the
apartment, in the centre of which a quantity of rice
is piled up in a conical form, around which are
placed young green cocoa-nuts, bunches of bananas,
and betel leaves; various coins, either of gold,
silver, or copper, are also laid on the rice.
When the astrologer intimates that the fortunate
moment has arrived for the union to take place, a
cocoa-nut is severed in twain at one stroke, which
is given with a small implement resembling a bill-
hook ; the bride is then led forward by her mothei',
and a near relative (who is the mother of a nume-
rous family), and by them is lifted on to the pile of
rice, her face being turned in the direction in which
the astrologer states the presiding planet is placed
in the firmament.
The bridegroom then advances, bearing the
wearing apparel and jewels with which the bride is
to be decorated ; the mother of the bride then pro-
ceeds to take off the bride's trinkets, and removes
I 2
l72 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
the jewelled pins from her head, replacing them
with the jewels and pins which are presented by the
bridegroom. Lastly, the bridal cloth, or comboy, is
presented to the mother, which becomes her perqui-
site, and the value of the same can be recovered by
the husband if he should divorce his wife for infide-
lity at a future period ; but all the jewels given to
the bride on her wedding-day are her property, and
her husband can never reclaim them under any cir-
cumstances.*
As soon as the toilette of the bride is completed,
she distributes betel leaves to every guest assem-
bled ; the bridegroom then advances and pours a
little sandal-wood oil, or cinnamon-water, on the
head of the bride, and draws a thread from her com-
boy (or petticoat) with which the father, or nearest
male relative of one or other of the contracting
parties, ties their little fingers together.
The bridegroom then hands the bride down from
the jackwood platform, and they advance about six
paces, when they pull their hands apart, thus sever-
ing the thread. Occasionally, marriage-rings are
exchanged, instead of tieing the little fingers toge-
ther, but the latter is most generally adopted. The
bridegroom leads the bride to another room, where
a repast has been prepared for them and the near
relatives of both (the other guests not entering the
room) ; the newly-married couple partake of this
* The female's dowry generally consists of nnioney, house-
hold goods, and cattle, but landed property is very rarely
bestowed upon her.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 173
food from the same vessel, as a token of acknow-
ledgment that they are of equal rank. When the
repast is concluded, the bridegroom drops some
money in the vessel in which his food was placed,
and the relatives throw some coins about the table,
which are the perquisite of the washerman of the
bride's family, and the table-cloth is also given
to him.
The bride, if in Kandy, and married in Deega, is
conducted in great state to her husband's home ;
but, if married in Beena, the guests disperse, leaving
them to enjoy their newly-acquired happiness.
Until the third, and with rigid Buddhists until the
seventh day after their marriage, the newly-married
people do not lay aside their bridal garments, and
part of these garments they have about them night
and day. On the third, or seventh day, the bride's
relatives come to her dwelling, bringing presents of
fruit, boiled rice, vegetable curries, and flowers ; the
jackwood platform is again bedecked, and tiie hus-
band and wife, in their bridal attire, are seated side
by side upon it.
A relative of either party then advances, and
simultaneously pour a chatty of water on the heads
of the husband and wife. The cou))le then retire
and take off their bridal garments, and the following-
day go to bathe, after which the bride's friends pay
a last ceremonious visit, and the marriage rites are
concluded.
The marriage ceremony which we have been
describing is strictly Buddhaical, and, owing to the
174 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
enormous expense attendant thereon, can only be
celebrated by the chiefs and wealthiest men of the
highest castes, and for the same reason many of the
observances mentioned are omitted by the high
castes. The native laws forbid the low castes to
adopt the same rites, even if their wealth would
permit them so to do.
A marriage is binding among the Buddhists if
the parents give their consent, and the parties pass
a night together, and no formalities whatever are
observed. But this practice is only resorted toby the
very poorest and lowest, and it is extraordinary to
see the expense which the middle, as well as the
higher classes, will incur to celebrate a wedding.
It is also curious to observe the extraordinary mix-
ture of Buddhaical ceremonies in the marriages of
the natives who profess Christianity, whether Pro-
testants, or Roman Catholics,
We received an invitation to the wedding of a
lady of high caste, residing in a maritime province,
whose brother held an official situation under our
government, and whose family, as well as that of
her intended husband, professed to be Protestant.
They were married according the form of our
church in the morning, and in the evening some of
the Buddhaical marriage-rites were celebrated.
When our carriage entered the compound (or
grounds) the heads of the respective families came
to meet us, attended by servants bearing white
cloths, which were laid down for us to tread upon,
and held over our heads. We entered the inner
PROFILE OF CINGALESE WOMAN.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 175
apartment, the roof of which was hung with white
cloth, and found the bride seated on a platform at
one end of the apartment, with her two maids
seated on either side. The wall at the back of the
platforms was decorated with looking-glasses, over
which costly shawls were draped, which had been
hired from a Moorman for the occasion, and in the
centre of the room a table was spread, which was
decorated partly in the European and partly after
the most approved Cingalese fashions.
We walked towards the bride and congratulated
her upon her marriage ; she rose as we addressed
her, and received our compliments with downcast
eyes ; and, as she did not reply, we repeated our
words ; her brother then stepped forward and in-
formed us that it was not etiquette for a bride to
speak, save to females, on the day of her marriage.
As each guest arrived, they went to the bride, pre-
sented her with the gifts they had brought, and
wished her " much joy and happiness," but the inva-
riable reply which she made to those of her own sex
was, "I am grateful," but she did not utter one
word to the gentlemen.
When the feast was placed on the table, the bride
sat between the bridegroom and his father at the
side of the table, the newly-married couple eating off
the same plate. At the conclusion of the meal, a
large cake, made of rice-flour and the milk of the
young cocoa-nut, was placed in the centre of the
table, the cake being decorated after the Cingalese
176 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
fashion, with flowers and palm-leaves arranged in
ornamental devices, and around this cake were
placed small balls of rice. The remainder of the
table was spread with fruits, adorned with flowers,
sweetmeats, and various delicacies. Wines were
handed round, and, after the lapse of a few minutes,
the bridegroom arose, drew the large cake from the
centre of the table towards him, and divided it
equally, handing one portion to the bride, who cut
the cake into small pieces, which an attendant
handed to the ladies ; the bridegroom also cutting
up the moiety of cake which he had retained, a
servant passing the same to the gentlemen.
When all the guests had been served with a por-
tion of the large cake, the bridegroom took one of
the rice-balls and broke it in twain, handing one
half to his bride, who rose to receive it. At the
same moment both parties ate their respective por-
tion of the rice ball, and immediately afterwards the
brideo-room drew a thread from the bride's comboy,
with which his father tied their little lingers toge-
ther. The bride and bridegroom then left the table,
and walked towards the platform, when, with a
sudden jerk they released their hands, and the bride
resumed her seat.
It appeared strange to us, that people professing
Protestantism, and who had been married according
to the rites of our Church in the morning, should
think it necessary to observe a Buddhist rite, by
tieing their little fingers together in the evening,
CEYLON AND THE CINUALESE. 1//
especially as the bride wore on her third finger a
bona fide wedding ring. * The bride resnnied her
seat on the platform with her maids, whilst the
guests were requested to walk into the verandah to
witness a theatrical performance, which was to take
place in the compound.
This play was performed by a company of Mala-
bars, who had been engaged at some expense,
specially to come for this happy occasion ; and to
us it was most interesting, as we had never previ-
ously witnessed a dramatic performance of the kind.
We must remind our readers that the actors per-
formed in the grounds, walking before the verandah
of the house, and each performer carried a lighted
torch, made from the centre of a dried cocoa-nut
leaf. The female characters were pertormed by
men, and each actor informed the audience in verse,
declaimed in a singing tone, what personage he
represented. The dresses were rich and appropriate,
and glistened with mock jewels, whilst the aruis,
ankles, and throats of the lady (?) actresses weje
loaded with gilt bangles, anklets, and necklaces.
First the queen came, attended by her confidante,
and her majesty (who could not conceal her huge
whiskers) informed the audience that she was in an
interesting situation, and that the king her spouse
* Unfortunately, in Ceylon, it is " the fashion" among the
natives, especially those who hold official appointments, to pro-
fess Christianity ; but, as we have previously remarked, there is
not one of these professing Christians who does not make
offerings to Buddha and his temples.
I 5
78 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
had been murdered by his adikar, who now wished
to wed her, and thus obtain a claim to the throne,
but that she loathed the man who had murdered
her beloved lord.
As soon as her majesty had concluded this doleful
narration, a buffo actor, stuffed and padded in a
most grotesque manner (not unlike Falstaff), came
forward, and turned into ridicule all that the queen
had been saying, ending by declaring that all
women, both of high and low degree, loved a dead
husband only until they could get a living one.
This was received with shouts of laughter, which
had no sooner subsided, than the buffo passed a bag
to the guests, saying what would be equivalent to
" largess, nobles," and those who gave the largest
donation received the lowest salaam.
The confidante then stated her woes, and love for
the accused adikar, her disbelief that he had mur-
dered the king, and her firm conviction that the
queen had instigated the murder for the sole pur-
pose of marrying her beloved. The buffo again
came forward and enacted the same scene, which he
repeated after each character had finished his sing-
ing recital. There were but six characters in this
play, namely, the queen, her confidante, her nurse,
the adikar, his brother, and the buffo ; and, as it
would be tedious to give the play, we will say that
it was concluded to the satisfaction of all parties, as
it was proved that the king was not murdered by
theadikar,buthad tumbled head foremost intoatank,
and was drowned. Whereupon the queen agreed
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESIi:. 179
to wed the adikar, her confidante to transfer her
affections to that gentleman's brother, and the buffo
said that he must follow the example set him by
his superiors, and marry the nurse, although she
was old, ugly, and ill-tempered ; but then she had
influence at court, plenty of money, and old women
could not live for ever, and, as soon as she was dead,
he would come and offer his bewitching person and
purse to the youngest, most fascinating, highest
caste damsel present.
The buffo concluded by saying, that from all he
had seen, he felt convinced that the hearts of
women were like the flower that opens to receive
every insect which alights upon it ; and that as the
fair sex were known to be fickle and deceitful, he
wondered why men still persisted in loving them,
and the only excuse that he could make for a man
loving or marrying a pretty woman was, that he
could not help it.
The characters were effectively supported ; and,
although the singing declamation did not please an
European ear, the novelty of the same was amusing,
especially as each actor appeared to be absorbed in
the character he represented, and as they became
excited, wildly waved their torches to and fro above
their heads, keeping time to their recitations.
At the conclusion of the play, the guests were
invited to partake of another feast, and the ladies
were requested to inspect the nuptial chamber. The
walls and ceiling of this apartment were hung with
white cloth, on which were painted strange and
6
180 CEYLON AND THE CTNGALESE,
quaint devices of animal?, trees, and flowers, while
the room itself was brilliantly illuminated by nu-
merous lamps suspended from the ceiling, and, as
they were supplied with cocoa-nut oil, the effluvium
was most overpowering-. On a table were displayed
the jewels of the bride, and those which had been
presented to her by her relations and friends, and a
carved ebony chest, filled vvith new wearing ap-
parel; excited the admiration, if not the envy, of the
fair gazers. The drapery of the bed was of pure
white figured muslin, which was fringed with slender
shreds of young palm leaves, and to each corner of
the couch bunches of delicate and fragrant flowers
were attached A scroll written in Cingalese was
affixed to the head of the bed, on which was inscribed
" May your offspring be numerous !"
After the curiosity of our fair companion was
satisfied, we took our leave, and, as our carriage
drew up, the white cloths * were again in requisi-
tion. To this marriage the consent of the bride-
groom's father had been withheld for some time ;
for, although the lady's family was of high caste,
their genealogy was not so ancient or so pure as
that of the gentleman's ; moreover, her dowry was
small.
The father of the bridegroom was a moodliar, or
noble, and, though he honoured the wedding with
his attendance, his lady wife positively refused to
* White cloths are held over the heads of, and laid down to
tread upon, for those individuals whom the natives wish to treat
with respect.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 181
sanction the wedding with her presence, although
the bridegroom was her eldest and best beloved son.
This disagreement occasioned the bride to remain
in the dwelling of her family, as according to the
custom of the maritime provinces (where Beena
and Deega marriages are unknown) the bride does
not leave her abode, unless accompanied by the
bridegroom's mother. We feel convinced from the
number of guests invited, and the attendant ex-
penses, that the celebration of this marriage could
not have cost much less than 150/., and the family
were not in affluent circumstances.
As we had assisted at the wedding of a Cingalese
Protestant of high caste, we gladly availed ourselves
of, the opportunity, whilst enjoying the hospitality
of a friend at Colombo, to gratify our curiosity, by
witnessing some of the ceremonies attendant upon
a native Roman Catholic marriage. The girl was
the daughter of a fisherman, (which is considered a
good caste,) and the man was our friend's appoo, or
head servant, but he was of higher caste than the
damsel, and his parents would not consent to receive
the bride, or visit her parents. The abode of the
girl adjoined our friend's stable, and, hearing the
report of a gun at intervals, we inquired the where-
fore, and were informed that it was usual, in this
sphere of life, when a guest arrived who brought a
goodly gift, to discharge a gun in honour of the
donor.
The evening preceding the wedding we walked
into the wedding-house (as it is called in Cingalese),
182 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
and found the dwelling filled with the relations and
friends of the family ; some were decorating the
walls with young cocoa-nut leaves, others were
attaching what had been once a white cloth to the
rafters, but which now looked very dingy, and the
good folks were talking and laughing in a most
vociferous strain — in fact, we suppose the din we
there heard, as we entered, must have equalled the
noise which was made at the building of the tower
of Babel.
The father of the bride no sooner caught a glimpse
of our party than he lowly salaamed, and shouted
to the clamorous crew to hold their tongues in pre-
sence of their superiors ; in one moment, perfect
silence reigned around — a cessation of their respec-
tive employments ensued, and all stood staring open-
mouthed at the European party. We asked to see
the bride elect, and her mother, but were informed
that the former was absent, having gone to procure
water, and the latter to hire the bride's dress, and
borrow jewels from her friends. In a few minutes,
in walked the damsel, carrying a chatty of water on
her head, giggling and chattering, but the instant
she espied us she tried to look demure, and was
silent.
The girl was a bouncing wench of about thirteen
years of age (but looked as old, and not half so mo-
dest, as our colleens do at twenty) with a most exu-
berant bosom, which was partially exposed to view
beneath her dirty short jacket. According to our
ideas she was not good-looking, but the natives de-
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 183
clared that she was a beauty ; every one to his
taste, and ideas of beauty differ even here. Our host
presented the father with some money, upon the con-
dition that no gun should be fired, as the noise
startled a valuable Arab horse which was unwell in
the stable adjoining the dwelling. The Cingalese
looked sadly disappointed at this restriction, but, in
lieu of firing a gun, all his friends shouted most vo-
ciferously, and we doubt much if this racket did not
prove more distasteful to our host's favourite horse
than the noise of the gun would have been.
We took our leave, intimating our intention to
renew our visit on the following morning, after the
the couple had been married according to the rites
of the Romish Church. About eleven o'clock on
the morrow a gun was fired to announce the depar-
ture of the bridal party for the church, and we sal-
lied forth. In an hour after, a palanqueen carriage,
drawn by a bullock, drew up about one hundred
yards from the bride's abode, and out stepped the
bridegroom, (so sprucely attired that we could
hardly recognise him as our friend's servant) who
gallantly assisted the bride out of the vehicle.
We gazed in mute amazement at the bride, for
in truth the grub was metamorphosed into a butter-
fly, whose brilliant colours outvied the rainbow, and
the damsel whom we had seen on the preceding
evening in dirty clothing, and with dishevelled
locks, now stood before us bedizened in borrowed
finery, her tresses lustrous with cocoa-nut oil, in
which were placed gold pins ; her neck loaded
184 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
with many chains of gold, and three pearl neck-
laces.
The bridal party came from the house to meet
them ; a handsome comely matron followed by two
beautiful little girls, (her children) carried a silver
vase filled with cinnamon-water, which she sprinkled
over the bride's head, saying, ' I wish you much joy
and happiness," kissing the bride on either cheek,
all the women following her example.
A dancing-boy, dressed in female attire, performed
some fantastic evolutions, which the Cingalese term
dancing, and a tom-tom beater and singer made most
dismal noises and yellings, which they al^o call me-
lody. These performers in a few minutes salaamed^
asked for money, and addressing our party said,
" largess, nobles." We gave them a few rupees, and
the bridal procession walked towards the house,
where the bride's father and mother stood on the
threshold of the door in readiness to receive them :
the father took the bridegroom in his arms, kissing
him on the forehead, and the woman, with all a
mother's love beaming in her countenance, clasped
her daughter to her bosom, and tried to speak, but
sobs choked her utterance.
Oh ! woman, woman ! in whatever quarter of the
globe we have been, whether you be educated or
ignorant. Christian or pagan, how holy, pure, un-
selfish, and powerful, have we invariably found ma-
ternallovel On no occasion is this more strongly
displayed than on the day when the mother resigns
the care of her child to one who is to have for the
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
]85
future absolute power over her person and happiness.
And the mother fears, and how oft too justly, that
the husband never will love his wife, or evince the
same unbounded tenderness and care that her child
has been habituated, from earliest inftincy, to receive
from her.
The bride and bridegroom, hand in hand, walked
into the inner apartment, where a platform was
placed at one end, which the bride ascended with
her two little maids, and the trio seated themselves
on high stools. A table was laid out in the room,
in the centre of which was a huge pile of boiled rice,
raised on a fresh green plantain leaf, around which
were curries of all kinds, turkeys, fowls, hams,
tongues, and small chatties of arrack being also dis-
tributed about the table. The female guests seated
themselves around the festive board, whilst the
males proceeded to the mandoo to partake of a similar
repast.
When the feasting had terminated, the bride-
groom's brother entered the inner apartment, and
asked permission for the bridegroom to bring in the
gifts ; the mother stated her readiness to receive
him and the male guests, and in a few minutes
the room was filled. The bridegroom handed his
gifts to the mother, who gave them to her daughter,
substituting the jewels the bridegroom presented
for those she wore. Lastly, she attired the bride in
a new comboy, when the father stepped forward,
and handed over to the bridegroom the wedding
portion of the bride ; this consisted of five hundred
186 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
rix-dollars,* which he counted into the bridegroom's
hands, and wearing apparel of all descriptions for
the bridegroom ; he then said that he gave his
daughter two bullocks, a haccory, and some house-
hold furniture, and that, as she was his only child,
at his decease the house he dwelt in, and all his
worldly gear, should be hers, provided the bride-
groom fulfilled his agreement, and came to dwell
with them, instead of removing his daughter to his
own abode.
This the bridegroom assented to, when the father
handed him a bowl of boiled rice, of which the bride-
groom took up a small handful, and rolled it into a
ball, then broke it in two, giving one half to the
bride, and the pair ate it simultaneously. The
bridegroom immediately after drew the thread from
the comboy of the bride, and the father tied their
little fingers together ; the newly-married couple
walked a few paces from the platform, when they
drew their hands apart, snapping the thread
asunder.
We presented the bride with some money, and
quitted the scene of rejoicing, but our slumbers
were disturbed until daybreak, by the uproarious
manifestations of joy, which were evinced by the
wedding party. Whilst seated at breakfast the fol-
lowing day, a servant informed our host that the
newly-married couple, and the father, wished to
speak to him ; the servant was desired to admit
them, when in walked the bridegroom, carrying a
* A rix-dollar is valued at one shilling and sixpence.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 187
tray covered with a white cloth, on which were ar-
ranged two loaves of bread, a small bunch of ba-
nanas, oranges, and flowers, and requested our
hostess to accept the same.*
The bride and her father followed (and we must
confess, that we never saw a more unblushing bride
than this one, and we have seen a great number in
our lifetime), the former smirking and staring about
the room. The father lowly salaamed our host, and
placed a handkerchief on the ground, from which
he took some money, and began counting it out and
arranging it on the table; after telling out £22 lOs.j
the father expressed his gratitude to our host for
the loan of the same.
Astonished at this extraordinary proceeding, we
inquired the meaning of what we witnessed, and
received for reply that it was customary for folks to
borrow money, as well as clothes and jewels, when
they wished to make a grand display at a wed-
ding, and have the semblance of giving their daugh-
ter or son a large marriage portion ; and, as the man
professed to give his daughter five hundred rix-
dollars, when, in reality, he could only muster two
hundred, with the consent of the bridegroom he
borrowed three hundred to gratify ostentation, and
appear to bestow the larger sum ; in fact, using a
description o^ legal fiction.
We inquired through our friend what the cele-
bration of this wedding had cost, and the father
* It is customary for inferiors to make this sort of present to
their superiors.
188 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
said, about six hundred rix-dollars, exclusive of the
marriage portion.
Though the kings of Kandy have ceased to exist,
we consider the following account of the cere-
monies formerly observed at their marriage, will be
interesting,-.*
By the Buddhist religion, only one wife is allowed
to each man, be he monarch, or subject — the native
kings, however, never adhered to this wholesome
restraint upon men's passions, but followed their
own pleasure, and married as many wives as they
thought proper. According to the Kandian law, it
was absolutely necessary that all the queens should
be of royal blood, and of the very highest caste ;
consequently, the Kandian monarchs were com-
pelled to resort to the Indian continent, and many
of the queens were Malabar princesses.
As soon as a princess was fixed upon by the king,
a deputation of chiefs was sent to her father's court
to demand the lady's hand, and to escort her to
Kandy. Before the princess arrived, the royal astro-
logers had calculated and fixed upon a fortunate
day for the marriage, stating also what would be
the propitious hour for the various and customary
gifts, which were made by the chiefs and people, to
be presented to the king and his consort. When
the day arrived for commencing the marriage cere-
monies, the adikars, nobles, and chiefs, w ith their
* We are indebted to a Kandian chief for the account of their
weddings, funerals, and investing the monarch with the attri-
butes of royalty.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 189
wives and eldest daughters, the ladies of the royal
household, and the royal musicians, congregated in
the verandah of the apartments appropriated to the
queen elect, to await the arrival of the king.
As soon as the monarch appeared, all prostrated
themselves before him, remaining in the same pos-
ture until the king had seated himself, when all
arose, the musicians commenced playing upon vari-
ous instruments, and the nobles and chiefs advanced,
presenting fragrant flowers to the monarch ; as soon
as the floral gifts were accepted, the ladies ap-
proached the monarch singly, according to their
rank, sprinkling perfumes over the royal person.
When the bevy of fair dames had all performed this
operation, the king retired by one entrance, and the
queen elect entered by an opposite one, who seated
herself upon a low seat placed near the couch which
the king had lately occupied, and the same ceremo-
nies were gone through by the assembled courtly
throng, which had been previously observed with
the monarch.
Similar formalities were observed for seven conse-
cutive days, and, on the seventh day, the nails were
pared, and all superfluous hair removed from the
persons of the king and the queen elect.* When
these operations were completed the royal pair pro-
ceeded to their respective baths, clothing themselves
after bathing in yellow robes, the colour of the
* According to ancient Kandian custom, neither the hair nor
nails should be cut before marriage, and during the reigns of
native kings there were both male and female royal barbers.
190 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
dresses being emblematic of holiness and chastity.
These robes were exchanged for state dresses shortly
after leaving the bath, and the royal couple entered
the verandah of the apartments destined for the
queen elect, by separate doors, vehere the whole
court was assembled : the monarch then seated
himself on a couch, before which an embroidered
silken curtain was drawn, the royal bride seating
herself on a low seat which was placed on the oppo-
site side of the curtain.
The chief priest then placed two golden necklaces
upon a richly-chased plate of the same material, and
carried them to every person there assembled, each
individual iil turn blessing the necklaces in the fol-
lowing words, " May the royal pair enjoy long life
and happiness, and be blessed with numerous off-
spring !" The father, or nearest male relative of the
queen elect, stepped forward, carrying in either
hand a golden box filled with betel leaves, and a
vase containing water ; he then poured a few drops
of water on the betel leaves, saying, " I give up my
daughter ever to be the slave of the mighty king."
The mother of the royal bride, or her representative,
was then asked by the priest, if she gave her con-
sent, and, upon receiving a reply in the affirmative,
the priest handed one of the necklaces to the king,
who arose and reaching over the silken curtain,
clasped the necklace around the bride's throat, and
immediately a royal salute of jingalls was fired, to
announce the event to the people.
The curtain was now detached, and the monarch
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 191
and his bride stood side by side. The father of the
latter then advanced and drew a thread from the
bride's couiboy, and tied her little finger to the
king's. During the four consecutive days these
ceremonies were repeated, and, on the evening of
the fourth day, at the propitious hour named by the
royal astrologers, the marriage rites were termi-
nated, by the monarch clasping the second necklace
around the throat of the queen.
The following morning, the king and queen ap-
peared in public, and sprinkled each other with
perfumed waters, personally inviting the nobles,
chiefs, and their families to partake of a banquet
in the evening. At this feast, a mat of the most
delicate fabric was provided for each guest, this
was covered with white muslin, and spread upon
the ground for each person to sit upon,* and the
only receptacle for the food on these occasions
was a young green plantain leaf, which was laid
on a new white cloth. At this feast two hundred
different kinds of curries were prepared, and every
guest was expected to partake of a small portion
of each.
The king and queen honoured their guests with
their presence, talking and jesting with their fa-
+ Although the natives have retrogaded in many of their
manufactures, we do not believe it is possible for them at any
period to have made more exquisitely beautiful mats than we
have in our possession. These delicate fabrics were procured
for us by a moodliar, who had the mats made in the interior of
the country.
192 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
vourites, and nobles of high rank. As soon as
the guests' appetites were satisfied, the royal musi-
cians and dancers were introduced for the amuse-
ment of the company, and it was not considered
etiquette for any guest to retire before daybreak.
On the first day of the following new moon, the
nobles and cliiefs presented their gifts, which con-
sisted either of gold, gems, or embroidered robes;
these offerings were equally divided, one portion
being for the monarch, and the other for his royal
consort. On the last day of the same moon, the
wedding festivities terminated, by the king inviting
all those who had made presents, to a state banquet,
which was similar to the one above described, the
only variation being, that the monarch gave in re-
turn for the presents he had received, grants of land,
or gifts of equal value.
Children are first named when they are either five,
nine, or eleven months old, and this name is called
the rice name, from the circumstance that a few
grains of rice, are for the first time put into the mouth
of the infant. A wise man or astrologer selects the
day and hour when the ceremony is to be performed,
and relations and friends are invited to attend. On
this occasion it is necessary that the mother of the
child should pound the paddy* into rice which is
used, and boil the same. The women of the highest
caste do not perform this task, but the mother holds
the child in one arm, and allows the heavy pounder
or pestle, to fall on the grain seven times — her at-
* Paddy is rice in the husk.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 193
tendant couipletes the operation, when the mother
places the rice in a new chatty, and puts it on the
fire.
When the rice is boiled, the portion intended for
the infant is placed upon a young plantain leaf, which
is laid upon a new white cloth. The guests then sit
down to partake of the feast which has been pre-
pared for them, and, as soon as it is terminated, each
person lays on the white cloth, on which is laid the
plantain leaf with the child's portion of rice, some
present either of money or trinkets of trivial value.
The mother brings the infant, and places it on the
white cloth, near the plantain leaf, leaving the child
there for a few moments to ascertain if the baby will
put rice into its mouth of its own free will. Should
the child fail to do so, the mother then puts a few
grains of rice in the child's uiouih. The astro-
loger selects the infant's rice name, and the father
alone is allowed to know what that name may be —
at the moment which the astrologer declares to be
the propitious one ; whilst the mother is feeding the
child with the rice, the father approaches the baby,
whispers the rice name in its ear, and immediately
blows into it.
It is remarkable, but all Cingalese believe, that
ill-luck and misfortune would attend a child, if the
rice name were known to any one save the astro-
loger and father, and we have never yet met with a
native who could affirm what his rice name was.
As the child grows up, a distinctive name is added
to that of the family one ; and a man's name usually
VOL. II. K
194 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
indicates the caste to which he belongs, or some
personal peculiarity. Thus, if a child be particu-
larly dark they call him, Kalou, or black ; if of a
red complexion, Matou, the word signifying the co-
lour ; if he be the eldest of the family, they call him
Lokou, or the first ; if the youngest, JPunchee, or the
little one. The female children are called Etanna,
or young lady, having another name attached to it,
which is usually indicative of personal beauty.
It has been the custom since the natives have
had inteicourse with Europeans, for moodliars and
men of rank to prefix Don to the Christian name,
which they frequently assume ; and as we can well
remember our astonishment at the multitudinous
and unpronounceable cognomens which bewildered
our understanding while in Ceylon, we shall give a
single specimen for our peruser's edification. Don
David Jayetileke Abeyesiriwardene lllangakoon
Maha Moodliar. This gentleman was Moodliar of
the Attepattoo (a certain district) and interpreter
to the assistant government agent at Matura.
Among the Cingalese, especially the Kandians, a
belief is prevalent, that a corpse pollutes the house ;
consequently those who have extensive dwellings
remove the dying to an apartment which is not
under the same roof, although contiguous to the
abode. It is usual for the natives to repose with
their heads towards the East, as they afl&rra that
Goutama Buddha came from that direction ; but as
soon as the breath has quitted the body, they turn
the head towards the West, stating that it is not
CEYLOK AND THE CINGALESE. 195
correct for the dead and the living to be in the
same position. The feet of the corpse are then tied
together, the hands crossed over the breast, and the
body is attired in the best clothing that belonged to
the deceased.
The bodies of priests, and those of the highest
rank, are alone permitted to be burned, the bodies
of others being interred in their gardens, or any
spot their friends may select, with their heads in
a westerly direction ; and frequently in our jour-
neys through the maritime provinces, we have seen
graves close to the road-side. Over these last
resting-places, generally a light airy structure is
erected, composed entirely of split bamboo, which
is ornamented with cocoa-nut leaves, entwined and
arranged in ornamental devices about the fragile
edifice, and, as the split leaves become dried by the
sun's rays, they rustle as the soft breeze gently plays
among them, producing the most mournful, melan-
choly sound conceivable.
The bodies of the priests and nobles are borne to
the funeral pile on an open bier, which is carried by
the relations, friends, or retainers of the deceased,
all being attired in dark-blue clothing, which is the
mourning colour in Ceylon. This funeral procession
is usually preceded by a man, who beats a species of
tom-tom, which is only used at funerals ; the priests
and male relatives following. The funeral pyre is
composed alternately of layers of dry wood and
cocoa-nut shells, until the structure varies from
three to four feet in height : thick stakes are placed
K 2
196 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
at the sides, and a post at either of the four corners,
each post having a white cloth attached to it, and
being ornamented with green cocoa-nut leaves. The
body is placed in the centre of the pyre, with the
head in a westward direction, and the cloths being
thrown over it, the nearest male relative advances
with a lighted torch, and fires the funeral pile, the
priest repeating certain forms of prayer during the
time the body is being consumed.
When all is reduced to ashes, the relatives place
some slips of the young cocoa-nut tree around the
spot, to denote that the locality is sacred. When
seven days have elapsed, the priest and relatives
return and collect the ashes, which they either inter
on the spot, or remove in an earthen vase, or chatty,
for the purpose of being deposited near some wi-
hare, (temple of Buddha,) or of being buried in
the deceased's groun(l«. Before the ashes are in-
terred, or removed, the priest preaches a sermon,
which points out the uncertainty of life and all
sublunary bliss, and inculcate*? the necessity of
attending to religious duties, performing virtuous
actions, and benefiting our fellow-creatures, if we
desire to attain ultimate bliss.
We were informed by a native, that in one part
of the interior of Ceylon it is usual for females to
carry the corpse to the grave, and perform all the
last duties. This custom appears most strange,
especially in a country where women, from the
highest to the lowest caste, never attend the corpse
to its last resting-place.
CEYLON AND THK CINGALESE. 197
During the Kandian monarchy, after the decease
of a king, a tent used to be pitched before the Hall
of Audience, in which was placed a quantity of
paddy, a large square piece of iron, and the mourn-
ing tom-tom. The royal tom-tom beater, attired
in dark-blue clothing, then entered, and piled the
paddy into a heap, placing the iron by the side
of the pile, upon which he stood while he beat
the tom-tom, to announce to the chiefs and people
that their king was dead, and that all were to
attire themselves in mourning costume, and de-
monstrate the sorrow they felt, by uttering loud
cries and lamentations.
The following day the corpse was habited in
costly robes of state, and many jewels of value
were placed on the deceased monarch's person,
which was put into a sandal-wood coffin, over
which embroidered white cloths were thrown, and
was carried on an open hearse to the royal burial-
ground. The funeral procession consisted of the
male members of the royal family, the chiefs, no-
bles, royal tom-tom beaters, and a platform, which
was borne by four men, on which stood two youths
carrying small bags of rice. This platform fol-
lowed the bier, and the youths at certain intervals
threw handfuls of rice upon the coffin. In the
royal burial-ground the priests belonging to all
the temples of Buddha were assembled around
the funeral pyre, offering up prayers for the hap-
piness of the deceased. The coffin being taken
li'ora the hearse, was placed in a kind of box made
198 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
of sandal-wood ; this was raised upon the pile, and
blocks of sandal-wood were arranged around it.
A priest then struck the lid of the coffin with a
small bill-hook, and immediately a relation of the
deceased monarch stepped forward and fired the
funeral pile, the chiefs and nobles throwing sandal-
wood oil, perfumed pitch, and other combustible
fluids on the coffin.
When the pyre was one mass of flames, the
relations and chiefs then retired to their homes,
leaving the priests in the burial-ground, who kept
the fire burning until the eleventh day. On that
day, the chiefs and nobles returned to the burial-
ground, preceded by the tom-tom beaters, and fol-
lowed by their retainers, who carried offerings of
betel leaves, areka nuts, fruits, and flowers. The
priests then extinguished the fire by pouring on
it buffalo's milk, and the liquid which is contained
in the cocoa-nut. The ashes were collected, and
a portion thereof placed in a vase, which the chief-
priest sealed, whilst the remainder were deposited
in a grave, with the presents which the chiefs had
brought.
The vase which contained a part of the ashes
was given to a man, who was mounted on one
of the royal elephants, and who also carried a
drawn scimitar. The bearer of the urn, followed
by the nobles and chiefs, then proceded to a ferry,
called Katagastotte, where they found two canoes
lashed together, over which boughs were so ar-
ranged as to form an arbour, with leaves of cocoa-
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 199
nut and banana spread over tbem. The man dis-
mounted who bore the urn, and entered this craft,
and was drawn to the middle of the stream by men
who swam at the head of the canoes. As soon as
the deepest part of the river was attained, the
swimmers pushed the canoes forward with their full
force, and swam for the shore, the urn-bearer
taking- the urn in one hand, and the scimitar
in the other, struck the former in the middle,
immediately afterwards plunging (scimitar and
urn in hand) into the stream, and diving, came
up again to the surface, at a considerable distance
from the canoes, without urn or scimitar, and made
for the opposite shore.
The canoes were permitted to be carried away
by the current, the elephant was allowed to return
to his native jungle, the youths who threw rice
upon the coffin, and the men who carried the
platform, were taken across the stream, and with
the urn-bearer were forbidden to re-cross the same
under penalty of death. As soon as the nobles
and chiefs had witnessed the urn-bearer, youths,
and platform-carriers land on the opposite shore,
they returned to Kandy, where the successor of
the late king, surrounded by his household, await-
ed their arrival in the great square. The chiefs
then stated they had seen all the formalities duly
observed, when the monarch ordered all those
who had been at the funeral to retire to the bath
and purify themselves.
The time that mourning was worn for a deceased
200 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
king varied — if he were the father or uncle of the
reigning monarch, the king and court attired them-
selves in deeper mourning than they had worn pre-
viously to the last obsequies ; but, if the relationship
was more distant, then the royal household, nobles
and chiefs threw their mourning off entirely, the
mona'ch alone wearing a blue silk handkerchief
on his head for one lunar month.
The tombs of the Kandian kings in the royal
burial-ground at Kandy are almost in ruins; we
regret to say that many of these sepulchres have
been opened by our troops and others, either in
the hope of finding treasure, or antiquarian re-
mains. In 1847, not an entire tomb was to be
seen, and one presented a singular appearance,
having been rent asunder by the root and trunk
of a bo, or sacred tree, the seed of which we pre-
sume must have been accidentally interred with
the monarch's ashes. The spectacle of an umbra-
geous tree, with luxuriant foliage, loaded with
delicate and fragrant blossoms, bursting through
a tomb, raised to the memory of one who formerly
belonged " to the race of the sun," afforded an
ample theme for the moralist, as he took a retro-
spective glance, and reflected upon the magnificent
rites which had been observed at the obsequies of
him to whose memory the tomb had been erected.
A minute seed had caused the tomb to be rent in
twain, and a people's mighty voice had dethroned
the descendant of that powerful king — sic transit
gloria mundi. We have been informed by many,
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 201
both Kandians and British residents, that the de-
signs and proportions of several of the tombs were
most beautiful, and that the architectural design of
the cenotaph which was erected to the memory of
Rajah Singha, who reigned in the seventeenth
century, was unsurpassable for chasteness and ela-
borate workmanship.
It was not the custom to state publicly, that the
monarch was ill, until he was dead, but, as soon as
the breath had quitted the body, the ministers for-
mally stated that the king was seriously indisposed ;
although all well knew that the monarch was dead ;
it was contrary to Kandian etiquette to say so, until
the successor to the throne had been named. The
adikars and ministers having fixed upon a member
of the royal family, usually a son or brother of the
late monarch, they placed a royal guard before his
dwelling.
The ministers then caused the chiefs to be sum-
moned and informed them of the monarch's illness,
and, as they feared it would terminate fatally, it
became necessary to name an heir to the throne,
stating the name of the person whom they had fixed
upon. If the personage named was of royal descent,
and the legitimate heir to the throne, the chiefs re-
plied, " As he is the rightful heir, it is not necessary
to consult us;" if the person named was only a mem-
ber of the collateral branch of the royal family, th^
chiefs returned for answer, '" We leave all in the
hands of the Maha-ni-lamis, (or great lords)." The
adikars having obtained the chiefs' consent, sum-
202 CEYLOJJ AND THE CINGALESE!.
moned the heads of the various rattles, and the same
fomalities were gone through, the senior of the head
men, consenting to abide by the ministers' choice.
The adikars now requested, that a deputation
should wait upon the future king, to become per-
sonally acquainted with him, and obviate the possi-
bility of another being substituted. The following
day the chiefs and nobles were requested to assemble
in the Hall of Audience, the head men and people
belonging to the various ratties, being ordered to
remain outside. When all were assembled, the first
adikar informed them, that as the king was ex-
tremely ill, and not likely to recover, he wished
them to name his successor. A chief then arose,
and naming the royal person already decided upon,
stated his conviction that he was a proper and fit
person to ascend the throne and govern the nation.
The adikar replied, " We cannot refuse our consent,
as the people have fixed upon their future sove-
reign ; but, if he does not govern to your satisfaction
do not blame us, but recall to your minds that he
was the monarch selected by yourselves."
The meeting was now dissolved, and two officers
of the royal household proceeded to the abode of the
king elect, to aid him in bathing and anointing
himself, after which they assisted to attire the prince
in the jewels and robes of royalty. When the
toilette was completed, the officers ordered the
palanqueen of state to be prepared, in which the
king elect proceeded to the palace, which he entered
by the principal archway, and immediately went to
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 203
the Dalada Malagawa, to make offerings of flowers
to Buddha and prostrate himself before the shrine ;
this ceremony was invariably observed by all native
kings, to prove that they were of the established
religion of the country.*
From the Dalada Malagawa, the prince went to
the open pavilion, before which a silken curtain was
drawn, in the great square, the nobles and chiefs
standing in the square, and around the pavilion, ac-
cording to their respective ranks. At a certain
signal, the silken curtain before the pavilion was
drawn aside, and displayed the king elect seated on
a high couch ; immediately a royal salute of jingals
was fired, and the royal musicians and tom-tom
beaters commenced playing on their respective in-
struments. The assembled multitude immediately
prostrated themselves before the prince, remaining
on their knees until he bade them rise ; the adikars
now formally introduced the various chiefs and head
men to the monarch, who received them graciously ;
after which, all again prostrated themselves, and the
prince was re-conducted to the palace, where lie slept
for the first time in the royal bedchamber.
The succeeding day the death of the king was
formally announced in the manner described in a
preceding page ; when the obsequies of the late
monarch were terminated, the royal astrologers fixed
upon a name for the new king, and this name was
written upon a thin plate of gold, which was depo-
posited in the Nata Dewale.
* We refer our readers to a preceding chapter, for our re-
marks upon the union of church and state in Ktaidy.
204 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
On a day selected by the astrologers, the monarehj
attended by his ministers, went to the Nata Dewale,
and, after having made offerings to the gods, took
up the gold plate on which his name was inscribed,
and handed it to the first adikar, who read the name
aloud, sayiug, " This is the name which the gods
have selected for our mighty sovereign," The gold
plate was then tied to the king's forehead by a
member of the Pilimi Talawe family,* who also
attached the regal sword to the king's belt. When
the sword was girded on, the chief kappuralle, or
priest of the dewale, presented a vase of sandal-wood
powder to the king ; the monarch took up some of
the powder and sprinkled it over the regal sword,
and immediately after this ceremony he quitted the
dewale mounted upon his elephant, and proceeded
through the city, attended by the adikars, nobles,
chiefs, and members of the royal household. Bands
of musicians and troops of dancers preceded and
followed in the procession, and the whole capital
was most brilliantly illuminated upon this occasion.
There was no stated period fixed for the monarch
to be girded with the royal sword and invested with
the royal attributes after his election ; and occasion-
ally twelve months have elapsed between the death
of one sovereign, and the installation of his suc-
cessor. We do not believe that it is strictly correct
to term the preceding ceremony a coronation,
although it is synonymous, as from superstitious
* This office was hereditary, and the family above named
were of royal extraction.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 205
motives the natives seldom used a crowu, notwith-
standing one vras found and taken by us at Kandy,
which had belonged successively to the reigning nio-
narchs. The crown, by all accounts, resembled
somewhat our own in shape, and was made of virgin
gold, which was thickly studded with diamonds,
pearls, rubies, and emeralds.
A cap of state was usually worn by the kings, in-
stead of the crown, which was carried before them,
for the Buddhists believe, that as the gods wear
crowns, it would be the highest presumjjtion to imi-
tate them in this respect, and would draw down
their severest displeasure, unless the mortal who
presumed to adopt their ensignia also followed their
example, and led a virtuous, chaste, and irreproach-
able life. The Kandian attributes of royalty were
the golden forehead plate, the golden sword, the
golden slippers, the brush or whisk, made from the
tail of the white Thibet cow, and the white um-
brella; some of these have been considered emblems
of royalty from time immemorial, and are used by
many Asiatic monarchs at this period.
206 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
CHAPTER VII.
Origin of castes — ^Their number and divisions — Outcastes
Gattaroo and Rhodia — Traditions — Native laws respecting
Rhodias — The Veddahs, or aborigines of Ceylon — Forest and
village Veddahs — Ludicrous occurrence in a court of justice
— Historical account — Legend of Kuwani — Native govern-
ment — Rules for the monarch's guidance — Reception of am-
bassadors — Mode of addressing the sovereign — Sanus, or
deed of gift — Royal amusements — Native laws — Trial by
ordeal — Slavery — Kandian proverbs — Tenures of land — The
present system of jurisprudence in Ceylon — Mr. Langslow —
Proposed modification of the criminal laws — Capital punish-
ment not dreaded by the Cingalese.
The origin of castes in Ceylon is involved in
obscurit}^, some native writers affirming, that they
existed before the island was subjugated by Wijeya
Singha, vrhilst others declare they were introduced
by that monarch, who conquered Ceylon about 545
years before the Christian era. There are four
castes in Ceylon ; the third consists of two divisions,
whilst the fourth is subdivided until in this caste
there are sixty classes. To the general reader, a
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 207
circumstantial detail would be tedious; therefore we
shall confine ourselves to an outline of the whole,
noticing that only, which we consider interesting.
The first, or royal caste, is termed the Suraya
Wanse, or descendants of the sun ; the second is
the JBrachmina Wajise, or descendants of the Brah-
raans ; the third is the Wiepia JVanse, and is di-
vided into two classes, namely, the cultivators of
the earth and shepherds; and the fourth is tiie
Kooshdra Wanse, which is divided into sixty lower
castes.
The natives affirm, that their ancient royal race
was of the very highest caste, and some of the chiefs
and nobles claim to be descendants of former kings
of Ceylon, but the greater portion of the population
are included in the third and fourth castes, and both
divisions of the third are considered high caste
people. The higher caste of the two is the Goe-
Wanse* or cultivators of the earth, and this caste
is, by far, the most numerous, and to it belong the
principal families, nobles, chiefs, priests, and almost
all the government servants, as well as the native
Christians. Under the native king-s this caste
formed the militia, and a certain number were
compelled to take arms, when summoned by the
monarch, either to repel a foreign foe, or to quell na-
tional tumult, or rebellion. They could also be
called upon to assist at the formation of all pub-
lic works, such as making roads, forming tanks,
&c. ; and the period of this compulsory labour was
* In the maritime provinces they are called Welalle.
208 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
limited to fifteen days in each year, but, if the high
caste people chose, they were permitted to pay a
substitute to work for them, and this course was
generally adopted. The second division is the
Nille\ Mdkareya, or shepherds, but this division has
become almost submerged in the Goewanse. The
fourth caste is extremely numerous, and consists of
artificers, labourers, tradesmen of every descrij)tion,
workmen, servants and inferiors, and, as previously
remarked, these are all subdivided into classes, and
the members of distinct classes rarely intermarry.
In addition to these four castes, there are two of
outcastes, called respectively Gattaroo, and Mhodia,
and the unfortunate beings who belong to the latter
caste are shunned by their fellow-men, whocon&ider
themselves contaminated, if they inhale tiie breath
of, or are touched by, a Rhodia. A Goewanse
could be made a Gattaroo by the king's order,
and if a high caste iiian, whether noble or chief,
incurred the monarch's displeasure for real or al-
leged crimes, he was made an outcaste, but could
be restored to his former rank at the king's plea-
sure. The words used when a man was made a
Gattaroo were the following, " Let the criminal of-
fendercease from paying taxes, and be exempted from
performing all services, let no man call him brother,
no slave master, and from this day forward until I,
the mighty sovereign, revoke the sentence, let him
be considered a Gattaroo." If a disgraced man
died before his sentence was rescinded, his family
remained outcastes ; but this rarely happened, and
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 209
we do not remember, durinii- our sojourn in Ceylon,
to have met with a single family who acknowledj^ed
themselves to be Gattaroo. Not so with the
Rhodias, as this caste is very numerous in Kundy,
where many traditions prevail as to the cause,
which placed these poor creatures beyond the pale
of society, and protection of the native laws.
One tradition states that many centuries ago this
caste was composed of hunters, whose duty it was
to supply the royal table with game, and that on the
eve of a great banquet, having been unsuccessful in
the chase, they murdered a young child, and dis-
membering the body, gave it to be cooked, and this
unhallowed food was partaken of by the king. An-
other tradition sets forth, that the members of this
caste in former ages, persisted in eating beef after
the use of it as food had been prohibited. It is im-
possible to determine which of these accounts is
correct, but the former is the one which is generally
believed by the Kandians.
Whatever heinous crime the ancestors of the
Mhodias may have committed, their descendants to
the present dtiy, have been and are most severely
punished for the sins of their forefathers, and were
it not that our laws most correctly know no distinc-
tion of person, affording protection alike to the
high-born and lowly, we believe there is not a
high-caste native in Ceylon, who would hesitate to
take the life of a Rhodia, if he were offended by
the outcaste. The native laws forbid a Rhodia to
approach a temple of Buddha, or the gods, to build
210 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
houses, or live in any abode enclosed within walls,
(and even at this date their dwellings are little more
than sheds,) to cultivate the soil, or possess lands.
The same laws also declare, that when a Rhodia
meets or sees a Goewanse, he shall prostrate hire*.-
self, taking care that he does not contaminate the
passer-by, either with his touch, or breath, and that
should the path be too narrow for the outcaste to
move out of the way, he shall turn back with all
possible speed, and that any one was at full liberty
to slay or ill-treat one of those unfortunate creatures.
About the middle of the last century, a chief of the
highest caste was found guilty of high treason, and
the king of Kandy degraded his whole family, and
declared them to be Rhodias ; the severity of the
sentence was most terrific, as every native would
prefer death to losing caste.
So unaccustomed were the Rhodias to be treated
like human beings, that one of the kings severely
reprimanded a priest of Buddha, for going into a
village inhabited by these wretched outcastes to
preach to them. The reply of the Buddhist priest
to the monarch is worthy of record, and the senti-
ment expressed was most Christian-like: "Religion
and its consolation,"" said the heathen, " should be
common to all, even to the outcastes of this world."
The prejudice against touching a Rhodia exists
to this day, and some few years ago occasioned tem-
porary inconvenience to our government ; two
Rhodias were suspected of murder, w^arrants were
issued for their apprehension, and placed in the
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 211
hands of peons or policemen, but they positively
refused, " to pollute themselves by touching the
outcastes to take them into custody," but they ex-
pressed their willingness to shoot them at a dis-
tance. The natives believe that the Rhodias possess
the power of witchcraft, and can prevent the land
from yielding good crops, consequently it is cus-
tomary for cultivators to bestow a small portion of
grain upon these wretched creatures to prevent
them from exerting the power of the evil eye.
A mendicant Rhodia, since Kandy has been in
our possession, demanded alms of a wealthy Goe-
wanse, who was superintending the packing up of
an abundant crop of paddy, which was piled in a
huge heap before an outhouse. The rich man took
a small handfull of the grain, tied it up in a piece
of an old mat, and threw it to the outcaste, telling
him to take it quickly and be gone, that the atmo-
sphere might not be tainted by his breath. The
Rhodia lowly salaamed, thanked the high-caste
man for his gift, but entreated him to give a little
more from his abundant supply ; as what he had
given would not make a meal for one person, and
the poor Rhodia humbly told his tale of woe, saying
that his aged father and mother were starving, not
having eaten rice for many days. The Goewanse,
with gibes and jeers, ordered the wretched out-
caste to leave the place, and threatened to set the
dogs at him if he did not do so instantly.
Still the wretched being implored by the love the
'212 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
high-caste man had for his own parents, that a little
more grain might be bestowed upon him. The
rich man, with brutal violence, hurled a large stone
at the Rhodia, who, angered beyond endurance at
this cruel treatment, untied the matting which con-
tained the grain lately thrown to him, ran towards
the huge pile of paddy, and dashed the grain over
the heap, thereby polluting the whole mass, and
fled into the jungle. The Goewanse immediately
complained to the judicial authorities of the insult
which had been offered to him by the outcaste, and
asked for assistance " to go and shoot the Rhodia"
and appeared extremely surprised when he was
refused the required aid, and informed that if he
either assaulted or killed the Rhodia, he would be
tried, and if found guilty, would either be punished
for the assault, or hanged for the murder.
Under the Kandian monarchy the Rhodias were
bound to furnish ropes made from hides, to catch
elephants for the sovereign ; and this tribute was
placed on one side of a running stream, the royal
jailer and his deputies of the lowest caste, waiting
on the opposite shore to see them safely deposited.
As soon as the poor Rhodias had laid the tribute
down, they precipitately retired, and their headmen
(for each village had a headman, who was appointed
by the royal jailer) remained in an attitude of sup-
plication, until the jailer's deputies had paddled
across the stream in their canoes ; these functiona-
ries (who kept a handkerchief to their mouths, lest
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 213
they shoiilfl inhale the outeastes' breath) overhauled
the tribute by means of bamboos, and, if they deemed
that a sufficient quantity of ropes had been sup-
plied, they cast the tribute into the water to purify
it from the contamination which had been commu-
nicated by the touch of the Rhodias, and to insure
the purification, they attached these ropes of hide to
the stern of their canoes, dragging them through
the water as they re-crossed the stream. When the
deputies had regained the opposite shore, then the
headmen of the unfortunate Rhodias rose from their
lowly attitude, and, reverently salaaming the royal
jailer, and his attendants, returned to their respec-
tive villages.
Although the Rhodias are now exempt from
services of the above nature, and can no longer be
slaughtered or oppressed with impunity, still they
are regarded by all castes, even the very lowest,
with the utmost contempt. We have frequently
been compelled to rebuke our lowest menials, for
their brutality in setting the dogs or hurling stones
or sticks at the poor creatures, when they have
come into our compound to ask alms. But we be-
lieve our remonstrances had little weight, as the
invariable answer we received was, " Why for
master talk, he no good caste man, he too bad
caste man, he Rhodla, more low dan dog." When
we were first in Kandy, in 1846, we observed
several natives place their hands before their mouths,
and prostrate theuiselves, as our appoo, or head-
servant passed them ; we inquired the meaning of
214 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
what we saw; for, although we knew such had been
the custom, we presumed that it had fallen into
disuse, and were informed that " no Rhodia would
presume to act differently in the presence of his
superiors."
We cannot positively declare if the Rhodias
follow or observe the precepts of Buddha, as they
are not permitted to approach his temples, or make
offerings to the priests — but we are inclined to
believe, that many adopt the Buddhaical belief, as
we have been informed by those, whose veracity
was undoubted, that when some of these poor
wretches were executed for murder, whilst on the
scaffold they recited portions of the writings of
Goutama Buddha. In Kandy the carcase of a
bullock which dies, either of disease or of age, is
abandoned to the Rhodias, who will eat any de-
scription of animal or vegetable food, and fre-
quently, when pressed with the calls of hunger,
will devour all kinds of nauseous and putrid sub-
stances.
Degraded as these creatures are by the laws of
their country and custom, and left without religious
instruction, can we wonder, that they are destitute
of moral rectitude, and every principle of probity
and honour, availing themselves of each opportunity
to rob all castes save their own — for to their honour
be it said, it is currently believed in Ceylon, that
no Rhodia was ever known to have plundered one
of his own tribe, but was invariably ready to share
his last morsel with a fellow outcaste.
10
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 215
The Rhodias may be looked upon as the Gypsies
of Ceylon, as the women tell fortunes, and the
males practice every species of leger-de-niain, more-
over they frequently wander about in tribes or
parties, in search of their precarious subsistence.
We regret to say, for the sake of morality, that the
women belonging- to the Rhodias are not viewed
with the same abhorrence, which is evinced towards
the men, and as the former in tlieir youth are espe-
cially handsome, they form " The pastime of many
an idle hour." Their want of chastity is proverbial,
as the current saying in Kandy is, " That a Pariah
dog and a Rhodia woman are born unchaste."
Having given an outline of the various castes,
their divisions and subdivisions, we will now pro-
ceed to give a statement of that most interesting and
strange people, who are found in the interior of the
island, and are called Veddahs ; some of these people
are semi-savage, dwelling in hollow trees and caves,
subsisting upon game, which they kill with rudely
formed bows and arrows, wandering from jungle
to jungle, as game becomes scarce. These are
termed forest Veddahs in contradistinction to their
brethren who dwell in certain districts, and are
called village Veddahs. The latter hold slight com-
munication with the other natives of the island, but
they will neither mix, nor intermarry with them ;
and, although their language is dissimilar to the
Cingalese, yet they can make themselves understood
by those who use that language. The forest Ved-
dahs, however, will not hold the slightest intercourse
216 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
with any natives save their own tribe, and we have
been told that the language they use is intelligible
only to very few of the civilized natives of Ceylon.
Both the village and forest Veddahswe&r scarcely
sufficient clothing to answer the purposes of decency,
as the only covering they use, is a uiorsel of cloth,
which hangs down in the front of their persons, and
is tied round their loins with a piece of coir. Their
hair, beards, and whiskers are never shorn or
cleansed, and these redundant tresses hang over
their shoulders and bosom in matted masses.
Lieutenant De Butts relates the following ludi-
crous anecdote connected with the village Veddahs.
A dispute had arisen, which the decision of their
chief could not settle to the satisfaction of the dis-
putants, and they agreed to refer the cause of
quarrel to the district judge, and into the court-
house a number of them marched, and were as
speedily ejected, as most of the party were in puris
naturalihus. The judge ordered them to clothe a
portion of their persons in some manner before they
again ventured into his presence, and away the
Veddahs went exceedingly dissatisfied.
Having neither money nor desire to purchase
clothing, they begged and borrowed from the more
civilized villagers, and in a short time returned to
the court-house preceded by their chief; and such a
motley assembly was never before seen in a court
of justice. Some were swathed, like Egyptian
mummies, in rolls of country-woven calico, others
were enveloped in blankets, that covered their
I
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 217
entire persons arms included, and the awkwardness
of their movements in their unaccustomed habili-
ments, caused infinite mirth.
In vain the judge tried to look grave, preserve
all due dignity, and stifle his laughter, and, after
many efforts, finding he was in danger of being
sufibcated,he leaned back in his chair, and indulged
in a hearty guffaw.
When the decision was given, the Veddahs
thanked the judge, but added that if they were
obliged to undergo the torture of wearing clothing
when they appeared before him, they never would
again trouble him, as it was better to lose all they
had than be compelled to encumber their persons
with unnecessary articles.
The forest Veddahs have a most peculiar and
ingenious manner of preserving the game which
they do not require for immediate use. After skin-
ning the animal or bird, they besmear the carcase
all over with honey, and place it in a hollow tree,
which they fill up with clay, and we have been in-
formed that the food preserved in this manner will
remain good for a considerable time.
The forest Veddahs are very dexterous in snnring
wild elephants, and they exchange the tusks and
molar teeth of these denizens of the forest for a
mere trifle. What these uncivilized beings most
covet are arrow-heads, and they will barter both
ivory and dried deer's flesh for these articles, and
this traffic is carried on through the intervention of
the village Veddahs. The latter are rather more
VOL. II. J^
218 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
civilized, as they dwell in huts, covered with the
bark of trees, and cultivate a small quantity of
land.
The two tribes do not intermarry, as they appear
to have a mutual distrust of each other. When a
village Veddah wishes to marry, he g'oes to the
parents of the girl, and asks them to give him their
daughter, and rarely meets vv^ith a refusal. The
man then either takes the girl home with him, or
fixes a day when he will fetch her, no ceremony, or
religious rite, being observed.
These semi -barbarians seldom bury their dead,
but, as soon as they are convinced that life has de-
parted, they take the body to the jungle, leaving
it there to be devoured by wild animals. Occa-
sionally they will dig a hole and thrust the corpse
into it, but the former plan is that in general use.
In our estimation, both the village and forest Ved-
dahs are little above the brute creation, as they
appear to be totally devoid of every quality which
raises man above the " beast that perisheth." We
have remarked in a preceding chapter that the
Veddahs worship the shades of deceased ancestors,
the planets, and evil spirits.
Under the Kandian monarchy, the Veddahs used
to pay tribute in elephants' tusks, wax, and honey,
and were under the control of the chiefs of certain
districts, who possessed great influence over them.
In 1817, these headmen induced some of the Ved-
dahs to join in the rebellion against our govern-
ment, and from their extreme activity and mode of
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 219
warfare, hsirassed our troops to a serious extent.
The weapons they used were bows and arrows, and
clubs made from extremely hard timber, genersiliy
called i]"on-wood.
Although the Veddalis are uncivilized, we do not
believe them to be by nature, or practice, ferocious,
as they live very peaceably together, and never
plunder or assault either their owmi people or the
other natives of Ceylon. We have been informed
that the forest Veddahs have their own headmen,
whom they elect and obey, and that these chiefs
apportion a particular jungle as hunting-ground
for a certain number of individuals or families, upon
which no other members of the tribe will attempt
to encroach.*
It is most extraordinary how this strange race of
beings can have continued in the debased state in
which they exist, or how they should have preserved
their language and race totally pure and unmixed,
living as they do in the midst of, to them, a com-
paratively highly civilized people. It is quite cer-
tain that for more than 2,300 years, this race have
been gradually retrograding, and it is equally cer-
tain that they were originally driven into the
* The current belief in Ceylon is, that no species of wild
beast will flee from a forest Veddah, which arises from their
mode of hunting. They creep stealthily up to an animal whilst
it is either sleeping, or grazing, and shoot it near the heart. If
their prey does not drop dead, they pursue it until it falls from
exhaustion.
L 2
220 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
forests by the cruelty and oppression of their con-
querors.
The Veddahs are high caste, as they belong to
the Goewanse, and are believed to be the descend-
ants of the Yakkoos, who were the aborigrines of
Ceylon ; they are scattered principally over a tract
of country which lies between Batticaloo and the
Kandian hills. Cingalese historical records and
tradition affirm, that the Yakkoos, or aborigines,
held possession of the eastern portion of Ceylon
when Wijeya Singha and his 700 followers landed
in the island 545 years anterior to the present era ;
after Wijeya had been exiled by his father, King
Singha-bahu, from his native dominions, which
many authors presume to have been that part of
India, now known as Bengal.
As Wijeya was wandering in the forest, exhausted
by fatigue and hunger, he laid himself down to seek
repose under the shade of a palm tree ; but his
slumbers were of short duration, as he was awak-
ened by some one gently fanning him, and brushing
away the insects, which ever and anon alighted on
his face. Surprised at this unwonted solicitude for
his comfort, he opened his eyes, and found a lovely
damsel bending over him, who made signs to him
to arise, and accompany her to her father's dwell-
ing.
The girl's name was Kuwani, the only child of a
chief of the Yakkoos, who shortly yielded to the
earnest solicitations of Wijeya, and gave the damsel
to him m marriage. Wijeya's joy knew no bounds,
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 221
and he called upon the gods to be his witnesses,
that he invoked their wrath, and entreated them
to inflict upon him tiie most grievous form of lep-
rosy, if he should ever violate his marriage-vow,
or take any other woman to wife during the lifetime
of Kuwani. His followers also were hospitably
entertained by the Yakkoos, who gave their
daughters to many of them in marriage,
Wijeya now plotted to become the sovereign of
their territories, and induced his wife, Kuwani, to
betray her countrymen ; this treacherous project
was carried into execution, during the rejoicings
which ensued, upon the celebration of the nuptials
of the daughter of one of the principal chiefs of the
Yakkoos. These rejoicings were to have endured
for seven days; but, when the festivities were at their
height, Wijeya and his followers rushed upon the
unsuspicious and unarmed Yakkoos, and slaugh-
tered multitudes of the defenceless revellers, and
the Cingalese historian adds, " Their crimson blood
flooded the streets, like a mighty river swollen with
a mountain torrent."
No sooner was Wijeya master of their territories,
than he repudiated his faithful wife, Kuwani, who
for his sake had sacrificed her kindred and country,
and sent an ambassador to the Indian continent, to
demand the hand of a monarch's daughter in mar-
riage. Upon the arrival of the princess, the mar-
riage took place, and she was proclaimed the Queen
of Wijeya. Kuwani had borne two children to
Wijeya, a boy and girl, whom she confided to the
222 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
care of her uncle, when she was discarded by their
father.
Shortly after the celebration of the Indian prin-
cess's nuptials, Kuwani resolved to look upon her,
who occupied her place as wife and queen, and for
that purpose went to the town of Lanka-Poora,
where Wijeya held his court ; Kuwani had scarcely
entered the city before she was recognised by one of
Wijeya's attendants, who exclaimed, " Do you come
here to create discord, and disturb the peace and
happiness which we now enjoy ?" and struck the un-
fortunate woman a severe blow on the head, which
felled her to the earth. In a few moments, she was
a senseless corpse.
When the intelligence of Kuwani's murder
reached her uncle, he immediately fled with the
two children to the mountains, and native writers
declare that the forest Veddhas are their descend-
ants. History records, that Wijeya died in the most
excruciating tortures, suffering from leprosy, with
which the gods had afflicted him in accordance with
the wish he had expressed, when he invoked their
wrath, if he should violate his faith to Kuwani. It
appears also from the same historical record,
namely, the Maha-Wansa, that for more than a
century and a-half, the Yakkoos had their chiefs,
who were recognised by the monarch, and at times
of public rejoicing, the two principal chiefs sat
upon thrones similar to the king's. The last time
the Yakkoos are mentioned as a distinct race is
about 350 vears before the Christian era, and after
CKYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 223
tliat period, all natives of Lanka-diva have been
called Cino^alese.
The superstitious natives declare, that the spirit
of the murdered Kuvvani haunts the island, and at
times prevents the earth yielding good crops, and
causes misfortune to befall the descendants of Wijeya
Singha, whilst she unceasingly watches over the
Veddahs' welfare. Near Matele, in a most re-
mantic and sequestered spot, is a barren rock, which
bears a slight resemblance to "The human form
divine ;" this is called Kuwanigalla, or the rock of
Kuwani, and the natives believe, that as long as
that rock is to be seen, the power of the betrayed
woman to work ill, will endure — and that her in-
fluence is equally great and enduring to guard the
Veddahs from harm, as they are the descendants of
her beloved children.
The natives of Ceylon state, that it is necessary for
the well-doing of a country that the government
should be purely monarchical, and that all power
should be vested in the sovereign, affirming that even
beasts and birds have their kings, whom they impli-
citly obey. The native government was a despotic and
absolute one, the sovereign appointed every minis-
ter, officer of state, governors of provinces, and
chiefs of districts, whom he removed from their offi-
cial posts, if they incurred his displeasure ; none of
these offices were hereditary, although it occasion-
ally happened that after the decease of a favoured
chief, his post would be given to his son.
The king was the lord paramount of the land.
224 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
the produce of which he taxed, according to his
pleasure, and he could order the people of certain
castes to perform various kinds of work. When a
king ascended the throne, he solemnly promised to
follow the example of good rulers, and not oppress
the people, to observe and maintain the customs of
the country, and rigidly adhere to the rules which
had been written, and handed down from genera-
tion to generation for the instruction of kings.
These rules are written in Pali verse, and contain
numberless sage and valuable maxims, some few of
which we subjoin : —
" Let your conduct and actions be such as will
conduce to the good of your people, and let the
love which you bear towards your people equal that
which you feel for yourself. Be freely charitable to
the deserving, and mild of speech to all men. —
Injure no one to benefit another, and favour no one
to the injury of another.— Avoid doing evil through
ignorance, or the want of correct information, but
let not fear prevent your doing justice. — Strictly
observe and practise the rules of your religion,
inflict not torture, be merciful and attend to good
counsel. — Be without malice, be patient, be chaste
and temperate in all your appetites, and be munifi-
CQiit — Let your conduct be upright and mild,
reward the meritorious man, punish the undeserv-
ing, and attend to good counsel. — The observance
of these rules will ensure long life, the love of your
people, and ultimate bliss."
When a king acted in direct opposition to these
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 225
wholesome maxims, oppressed his people, wantonly
punishing them, and tyrunically sacrificing their
lives, there are instances on record, when the whole
body of people, headed by the nobles and chiefs,
have rebelled against their monarch and dethroned
him. This was the case with the last king ot
Kandy, one of the most cruel tyrants, whose actions
are recorded in history ; Sri Wikrama oppiessed,
tortured, and slaughtered his subjects, until, goaded
beyond mortal endurance by his savage barbarity,
they rose against him, and called in our aid to assist
in dethroning the monster. Had the monarch's
conduct been of a proper nature towards his people?
they would have remained true to him, and we feel
perfectly convinced that had such been the case, no
foreign power could ever have subjugated the Kan-
dians.
We have mentioned in a preceding chapter, that
the adikars apparently nominated the monarch,
but this was merely done as a matter of form, as the
throne was considered hereditarv, and the ree'ular
succession was never interrupted, except in extreme
cases, arising from the bad qualities or incapacity of
the rightful heir to the throne. When this was the
case, the monarch usually nominated one of his near
relations to be his successor ; and, if he died before
this selection had been made, then it became the
duty of the adikars to name a fitting person, whom
they submitted to the nobles, chiefs, and people,
and if their consent was obtained, then the indivi-
dual selected became their monarch. When the
L 5
226 CLYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
majority of the nobles and cliiefs disapproved of the
person fixed upon by the adikars, which seldom
occurred, they were necessitated to select a more
popular person to fill the vacant throne.
It was absolutely necessary that the monarchs of
Ceylon should be of the established religion, that is
to say, followers of Buddha, and be of the Suraya
Wanse, or royal caste, both paternally and mater-
nally ; nevertheless, we find in the native historical
records, that men of high caste, namely the Goe-
wanse, have been raised to the throne for their ma-
nifold good qualities, when the rightful heir has
been deficient in them.
The king's throne was composed of ebony, which
was nearly covered with thin plates of gold, that
were elaborately ornamented with precious stones ;
and, when the monarch appeared in joublic, or gave
audience to his subjects, or foreign ambassadors, he
was either attired in a complete suit of golden
armour, that was studded with diamonds, emeralds,
rubies, and pearls, or clad in gorgeously-embroid-
ered silken robes, and wearing a profusion of jewel-
lery.
It was the custom to give audiences at -niglit,
either for the purposes of receiving strangers, or
transacting business with the adikars ; and we can
well conceive the splendour of the scene, as the
light fiom myriads of torches flashed upon the
jewels and costly attire of the monarch and his
courtiers, causing the precious gems to glitter, from
which appeared to emanate flashes of many-coloured
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 227
flame. The most ceremonious etiquette was ob-
served at the Kandian court; when ambassadors
were received, the whole of the royal guards were
called out, the royal elephants and their keepers
lined the approaches to the city, and every avenue
leading to the palace was brilliantly illuminated.
When the ambassadors entered the hall of audi-
ence, they prostrated themselves before the three
silken curtains, which concealed the throne, whereon
the sovereign was seated. One by one these cur-
tains were slowly drawn up ; and, when the monarch's
person was completely visible, the ambassadors
literally crawled on their hands and knees to the
foot of the throne, the adikars walking at their side
with their hands upraised in an attitude of suppli-
cation ; the ministers then presented the ambas-
sadors' credentials, who were instantly dismissed,
and were compelled to quit the royal presence by
crawling out of the hall of audience backwards.
The Kandians used every stratagem to impress
strangers with the idea of their sovereign's power
and sublimity ; and it was the custom to heat the
hall of audience, when foreigners vvere to be
received, by placing burning charcoal in cocoa-
nutshells, which were most ingeniously concealed,
in order that when the unfortunate visitors became
overpowered by the oppressive atmosphere, it might
be said, that they were overcome bv the sublime
presence of their monarch. When the nobles, or
chiefs, appeared before the king they invariably
228 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
prostrated themselves, and remained in this abject
attitude, until desired by the monarch to rise.
The mode also of addressing the king was obse-
quious and absurd in the extreme, as the epithet of
Dawo, or god, was commonly applied to the
sovereign. The documents which were issued by
the monarch were truly Asiatic in their high-flown
bombastic language, and we will give a specimen
from a deed of gift, or Sanus, which bestowed cer-
tain forfeited estates upon one of the favourite
officers of the last king : —
" The most high-born, wealthy, and noble, the
protector of the true religion and Buddha's
doctrines, whose fame and power is infinite, and
universally spread over the whole world, and who
is of unsurpassing excellence, exceeding the sun's
rays — whose virtues are like the unexpanded jessa-
mine blossoms, the heavenly river, the delicate pink
and white chanques, and the stars : the perfume of
whose feet is as fragrant to the nostrils of other kings,
as the flowers of the sacred tree are to bees, and who
is our most noble patron, and god by custom. Our
mighty king is like the god Sacrea, who conquered
the Assouriahs, sitting on the precious throne of the
niagnificent and prosperous city Sengadagalla,
which possesses the beauty and wealth of all king-
doms, and is like the heavenly kingdom of the god
Sacrea, Orders, that," &c. &c. &c.
The general costume of the last king of Kandy
consisted of a silken jacket? embroidered in gold, a
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 229
comboy of the same material, and trowsers ; the
head-dress or cap, which was worn by the monarch,
had a high crown with four corners, to each of
which a tassel was suspended.
The king usually ate his meals alone, being-
attended upon by the Batwadene nilami, or royal
caterer, and his subordinates. The royal table was
covered daily with a new white cloth, on which
golden plates, dishes, vases, and drinking cups were
arranged. This table was placed under a canopy
and upon an euibroidered carpet; when all was
prepared the monarch seated himself, and a golden
plate, on which a young fresh plantain leaf was
spread, was placed before him by the Batwadene
nilami, who with a golden spoon and fork placed
the viands on the king's plate. The monarch dis-
pensed with all foreign aid to convey the food to his
mouth, as he invariably ate with his fingers; occa-
sionally, but very rarely, a favoured queen was
honoured by being allowed to perform the functions
of the Batwadene nilami, who, with his subordinates,
after they had arranged the dishes on the table,
quitted the room before the queen entered.
Historical writings affirm that the native kings,
like the Roman emperors, used to wifness and en-
courage combats between elephants, cheetahs, bulls,
and rauis, and took great delight in gladiatorial
displays; but, although the last monarch was more
cruel than most of his predecessors, strange to say
he disliked these exhibitions, and during the reign
of Sri Wikramathey fell into disuse, as he recreated
230 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
himself by listening to the royal musicians, and
singers, and passed many of liis leisure hours in
superintending the artists, who were decorating his
palace, and the workmen who were constantly em-
ployed to lay out, and keep the royal gardens and
grounds in good order. These peaceful and harm-
less amusements seem strangely at variance with
the character of a man, who delighted in mutilating,
torturing, and shedding the blood of his subjects —
and an anomaly thus presented in the dispossition
and pursuits of a human being, affords a wide scope
for the philosophical inquirer.
Under the native dynasty, no one save the
monarch could pass sentence of capital punishment,
consequently when a murderer was taken before
the dessaave, or governor of the district, and by
him was found guilty of the crime, if he were a poor
man, or not on good terms with the dessaave, he
was sent to Kandy to have sentence of death
passed upon him by the king ; but, if the culprit
were a wealthy man, the dessaave too frequently
inflicted a heavy fine, which he appropriated. High
treason, as well as murder, was punished by death,
and criminals were either trampled to death by
elephants, decapitated, or strangled.
As taking life, under any circumstance, is strictly
forbidden by the laws of Buddha, many pious
monarchs have refused to sanction the death of
criminals, but have condemned them to slavery in-
stead. Although some of their early sovereigns
carried humanity to this extent, many, who subse-
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE, 23l
quently reigned, inflicted death by the most slow
and torturing processes; we have been informed,
that a monster of cruelty had a barrel constructed
with iron spikes driven inwards, in which horrible
machine, the wretched criminal was placed, and
rolled through the capital. Malefactors were fre-
quently impaled alive, or buried in the earth,
leaving their heads only above the ground, which
were slowly smashed with bamboos. Tortures were
also inflicted, and the bodies of the wretched victims
were either hacked, or their limbs severed from their
bodies before death was allowed to terminate their
sufferings. It is strange that these cruelties should
have been inflicted by those, who profess to adhere
to, and observe the mild and humane precepts of
Buddha.
When a murder had been committed in a village,
and the culprit remained undiscovered, it was cus-
tomary to inflict a fine upon the inhabitants; but, if
the body of the murdered person was found in the
forest or jungle, then a fine was not enforced. If
a person in the full possession of his reasoning-
powers committed suicide, the inhabitants of the
hamlet were mulct in a fine ; but if a lunatic or im-
becile person deprived himself of life, then they were
not fined. Whenever a corpse was found all were
forbidden to touch it until the arrival of the
oflicer, whose business it was to examine into the
cause of death. Theft was ])nnished by a fine
equal to the value of the stolen property, by flog-
ging, and by imprisonment ; or, if the thief imme-
232 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
diately restored the property, he was only flogoed
and paraded through the village, where the crime
had been committed.
We have remarked upon the litigious disposition
of the natives of Ceylon, and it appears that it has
invariably been their character ; when two litigants
pertinaciously claimed land, and each produced in-
numerable witnesses in support of their respective
claimSjthe native judicial authorities used frequently
to refer the case to trial by ordeal. There were two
modes of ordeal, the first and most painful was per-
formed by pouring heated cocoa-nut oil on the right
hand of each claimant, who severally bound around
the arm an ola, on which the claim was inscribed,
and an affirmation that the aid of evil spirits had
not been invoked by them. Some of the heated oil
was poured upon a young plantain leaf, and if the
leaf shrivelled up, then it was satisfactory evidence
that the oil was of a proper temperature. The
hand of each party was then examined by the judge,
and if a scald were detected upon the hands of both,
the property was equally divided between them, but
if only one party had his hand burned, then the
litigated property was adjudicated to belong to the
other.
The second ordeal was performed in the following
manner, : — The litigants went into a Dewale, or
temple of a god, and each soleuinly called the god
to aid him, and bear witness that his claim was a
just one, and entreated that misfortune might fall
upon him and his household, if he then perjured
CEYLON AND THE CIiNGALESE. 233
himself. The first of the chiimants wlio suffered
from any domestic calamity, such as the death of a
parent, wife, or child, or who sustained the loss of
cattle by death, was presumed to have perjured
himself, and to have incurred the god's displea-
sure, by his presumption in invoking his aid and
ang-er; and the more fortunate individual was de-
clared to be the rightful owner of the disputed
land.
Trial by ordeal was not encouraged, nor frequently
resorted to, by the educated natives, but since Kandy
lias been in our possession, the following extra-
ordinary circumstance occurred. Two brothers,
members of a chief's family, went to law concerning
an estate, which each claimed, and both agreed that
their witnesses should swear in the dewale of Vishnu,
and before the god's statue, that they would speak
only the truth at the ensuing trial : after the termi-
nation of the trial, they again returned to the de-
wale, to call upon the god Vishnu to bear witness
they had spoken nought but the truth, and to in-
voke his speedy vengeance upon each individual
that had asserted untruths. Whilst the witnesses
ware taking their oaths, a cobra-copella, or hooded
snake, was seen to entwine itself around the statue
of the god, and this circumstance was reported offi-
cially to the district judge by the kappuralle and
peon,^ who had accompanied the witnesses.
The next day, the judge received the intelligence
* The former is the priest of a god, the latter a government
messenger and police officer.
234 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
that a daughter of one of the witnesses had been
bitten most severely by a cobra, on the day that her
father had taken an oath (which many believed to
have been false) in the temple of Vishnu. This is
one of those extraordinary and singular coincidences
that are occasionally met with in life, and which
mystify alike the scholar, the ignorant, the sceptic,
and the superstitious. Trial by ordeal, and swearing-
witnesses in the temples of the gods, were most judi-
ciously abolished by our government in 1832.
The native laws punished adultery summarily, as
the husband was allowed, if he found the paramour
in his dwelling, to cut off his ears and hair, to beat
him, and was not called to account if he slew the
man who had dishonoured him. The wife could be
divorced, sold into slavery, or flagellated in the
king's storehouse, and, although the infringement of
the marriage-vow was thus severely jmnished, in no
part of the world was, or is it, more constantly vio-
lated. Nevertheless, in one respect, the husband
had too much power over his wife's person ; for, ac-
cording to the Kandian law, he could lend his wife
to a man of higher caste than himself, if he was
under obligations to him that are specified. If a
woman, married or unniarried, formed an illicit con-
nexion with a man of lower caste than herself, her
husband or relatives were at liberty to take her life,
or hand her over to the monarch to be his slave for
the remainder of her existence.
Debtors w^ere most severely dealt with under the
native law ; when a creditor had proved his de-
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 235
niand, he could take the debtor, his wife, and chil-
dren, and make them his slaves until the debt was
paid. Although the debtor's family could not be
sold by the creditor, during the lifetime of the for-
mer, yet if he died before his debt was paid, his
children and their offspring could be sold into
bondage. There were several descriptions of slaves,
those who were the offspring of slaves, those
wlio were sold when they were infants by their pa-
rents, those who were debtors, or who sold them-
selves for a sum of money, women who lost caste
through their misconduct, and prisoners of war.
At this time, there are no slaves in any part of
Ceylon; but, although the importation of slaves into
our possessions was forbidden, or declared illegal
by our government in 1799, we could not emanci-
pate the slaves in Kandy, where slavery existed
until 1838, in which year the dessaave of Saffragam
manumitted the whole of the slaves. We have
been told by a Kandian chief, that when he manu-
mitted his slaves many of them positively refused to
accept their freedom, and insisted upon remaining
with him, and the noble declared that he could cite
numberless instances of the same nature. By the
native laws, if a man borrowed a measure of grain,
to use for seed, when the crop was gathered in, he
was obliged to return the original quantity with half
as much again added to it ; but, should he fail to
do this, at the end of the second harvest he was
compelled to return double the quantity, which he
had originally received, and this law remains in
force in Kandy to the present day.
236 CEYLON AND THE CINGALLSE.
The following curious and inteiesting account will
befoundinKnox,w ho wasmade prisoner by the Kan -
dians in 1659, and remained in captivity for twenty
years, living amongst them, and thus had full oppor-
tunity to observe their customs and laws, — "They
have an odd usage among them to recover their debts,
which is this — they will sometimes go to the house
of their debtor with the leaves of Neiingala, a cer-
tain plant, which is rank poison, and threaten him
that they will eat that poison unless he will pay him
what he owes. The debtor is much afraid of this, and
rather than the othershould poison himself, will some-
times sell a child to pay the debt, not that the one
is tender of the life of the other, but out of care for
himself, for if the person dies of the poison, the
other, for whose sake the man poisoned himself,
must pay a ransom for his life. By this means also,
they will sometimes threaten to revenge themselves
of those with whom they have any contest, and do
it too, and upon the same intent they will also jump
dow^n some steep place, or hang or make away with
themselves, that so they may bring their adversary
to great damage."
The titles to landed properties are oft-times ex-
tremely difficult to be proved, but if an individual
or family remain in undisturbed possession, and cul-
tivate the land for the space of thirty years, he or
they are considered to have a title by occupancy and
cultivation, of which custom the following Kandian
proverb is illustrative, — That an evil spirit may call
anything his own, it' he has had possession of it for
the space of thirty years.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 237
The Kandians are extremely partial fo proverbs,
and many of them are peculiarly trite and ap] li-
cable ; when conversing with a Ratramahatniec.-
concerning a verdict, which had then recently been
given against evidence, as we believed the case to
have been clearly made out, by the testimony of the
party who had been robbed, supported by a witness,
who gave his evidence and deposed to the facts in a
straightforward manner. Notwithstanding which a
jury of Kandians acquitted the accused, and we
were most anxious to learn the reason why a ver-
dict had been given against evidence, and the reply
was most characteristic, — " Our saying is, that four
eyes must see, and two tongues speak, besides those
that belong to the accuser, (meaning that he must
produce two witnesses,) as he only sees and hears
what he chooses — and we always follow our ancient
proverbs."
The monarch was considered to be the sole owner
of land, and he could decree the forfeiture of any
estate to the crown, and grant it to whom he pleased.
All forests and jungles were regarded exclusively
as royal property, and no one could either cut down
timber, or cultivate it without the king's express
sanction. The natives affirm that their sovei'eigi s
derived their title to the land from the first kinir,
who conquered and expelled the demons, who in-
habited the island. When a man obtained permis-
sion to cultivate any portion of a forest, or jungle,
the king gave him a sanus, or deed of gift, securing
the land to him and his heirs, free from taxes dur-
238 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
ing- tlie lifetime of the first occupier, who had also
full power to dispose of the land by gift or other-
wise. If the original cultivator should die without
issue, or were guilty of high treason, or murder,
then the land so o:ranted reverted to the king.
The monarch frequently endowed wihares, or
temples of Buddha, with lands which are called
temple lands, and were exempted from the taxes
imposed upon all other cultivated lands. Instances
have occasionally occurred, where the king has ex-
empted the estate of a favourite minister, or officer,
from all taxes or imposts, either for ever, or for a
limited period, the order for exemption, under such
circumstances, was however liable to be rescinded
at any time by the reigning monarch. It was the
custom of the nobles and chiefs, who were large
landed proprietors, to create tenures of services, and
their tenants were only permitted to occupy the
land while certain services were performed by them,
upon failure of which the lord re-entered.
Although the monarch had absolute power over
the liberties and lives of his subjects, the land and
its crops, the produce of pearl banks, and all mines
and precious stones, he could not dispose of or re-
move the sacred relics of Buddha, or destroy his
wihares, or dagobahs, which were regarded as na-
tional property.
The law of primogeniture,* so far as property is
* Tlie Malabar line of descent is most remarkable as well as
peculiar, neither property nor title descending to the offspring
of the last possessor, but to the male issue of the sister or
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 239
concerned, was unknown, and at the death of the
owner an equal distribution of his estate took phice
amongst his offspring, or amongst the next of kin,
in the event of his dying without issue.
The present system of jurisprudence in Ceylon is
most complicated, for whilst the inhabitants of the
lowlands and maritime districts are subject to Roman
Dutch law and local ordinances, the inhabitants of
the highlands are governed by the Kandian laws
combined with local ordinances. The Mooi'men,
or Mahomedans, are not subject either to the Roman
Dutch or Kandian laws, but justice is administered
to them by our judges in accordance with their own
peculiar laws, and customs, combined with local or-
dinances. The European inhabitants of Ceylon are
governed by Roman Dutch laws and local ordi-
nances ; a more intricate or inconvenient method,
therefore, of administering justice cannot well be
conceived, than that which is in force in the colony,
more particularly when it is taken into considera-
tion that the greater number of the gentlemen, who
fill the district benches, which are the only courts
of original jurisdictioUj have received those appoint-
ments, without having had any previous legal edu-
cation of any description.
nearest female relative of the last possessor, for they consider
that the offspring might be spurious if the descent were in a
right line ; but if the male issue of the sister be preferred, then
the grandmother's blood must run in the veins of the heir.
Nothing can prove more forcibly the prevalence of immorality
in the East than this law of descent, impugning as it does the
chastity of every woman in the eyes of the natives themselves,
240 CEYLON AND 1 HE CINGALESE,
There are thirty-four district courts and courts of
request in the colony; out of these three only have
legal men, Europeans, on their benches, two being
barristers, and one a writer to the signet ; and five
of the other benches are filled by men who have re-
ceived a legal education in the island, some of whom
are half castes, or burghers, while all the remaining
benches are filled by judges, who never opened a
law book until they received those appointments ;
consequently, they are totally unfitted for their posi-
tion.
The most efficient judge who ever filled a district
liench was Mr. Langslow, a member of the common
law bar, who was sent out after the inhabitants had
petitioned the home government to appoint a legal
gentleman to the District Court of Colombo. He
performed his duty unflinchingly, and sedulously,
administering the law to the satisfaction both of
Europeans and natives. From some unknown
cause, he incurred the displeasure of the members of
the colonial government; confidential dispatches
were written home, and Mr. Langslovv was dis-
missed without being even informed of the cause of
his disgrace.
Those who held the highest character in the
island, suitors of the court, both European and
native, stated their entire satisfaction with the de-
meanour of Mr. Langslow on the bench and his
mode of administering justice, and memorialized the
government to re-instate him, but all to no purpose;
years have rolled on, and there is no redress, and
no explanation given for this cruel act of injustice.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 241
There does not appear to be any necessity for
atlliering to the pernicious system of appointing un-
qualified and incapable individuals to such respon-
sible offices. We believe there are more than two
thousand barristers in England ; and, as Lord
Brougham has most sagely remarked, the practice
of the bar, to the many, does not offer the riches of
Goleonda, so as to induce talented and qualified
members of the profession to refuse employment
tinder the crown, for the uncerfain practice of the
bar, where few only can obtain great success, or
fame.
We could wish to see some alteration, or modifi-
cation of the criminal law as applicable to this
colony. However men of all creeds and shades of
political sentiments, may differ in opinion as to the
honesty of Sir Robert Peel as a statesman, there
ought to be but one general feeling of gratitude
evinced towards him by British subjects, for those
amendments in our criminal code, which are com-
monly known amongst the legal profession as
*' Peers Acts."
Previously to this new era in penal law, Tyburn-
tree groaned under an uninterrupted su])ply of
human victims, which in multiplicity may be com-
pared to the prolific crops of the tropics. Few as
are the crimes for which death is now the punish-
ment, there are still found persons who most zea-
lously advocate its total abolition, for which amongst
others the following reasons have been adduced.
That a penalty is inflicted for a twofold reason
VOL. II. JII
242 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
namely, as a punishment to the criannal, and a
warning, or example, to the spectators. But, add
the advocates for the total abolition of capital
punishment, the fear of death is only held in dis-
tant obscurity, and the effect of a public execution
upon the spectators is only of a momentary nature.
That it has been proved from the history of every
nation, that a particular crime increases in propor-
tion to the severity or barbarity of the punishment
inflicted for it, to avoid which the ingenuity of man
gives birth to other crimes of greater or lesser atro-
city.
That in order that a punishment should produce
a desired effect, it is only necessary that the evil
occasioned by it to the culprit, should exceed the
good he anticipated from the crime he committed,
including in the calculation the certainty of the
punishment, and the privation of the expected ad-
vantage.
We place ourselves amongst the ranks of those,
whose opinions accord with the doctrine laid down
by Montesquieu, namely, that the individual and
society have reciprocal obligations, whereby they
are mutually bound to each other, and that accord-
ingly it is justifiable and lawful to put a murderer
to death, because the law was made for his security
in common with other members of the same society,
and the condemned has experienced the advantage,
and enjoyed the continual protection of the same
law.
Notwithstanding, however, we must acknowledge
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 243
our sincere conviction that capital punishment
shouhl not be inflicted upon our fellow subjects, who
are followers of Buddha, or believers in the trans-
migration of souls. We have arrived at this conclu-
sion from personal observation, which has satisfied
us of the utter recklessness with which the benighted
followers of Buddha meet death as a punishment,
and the consequent inefficacy of the example to deter
the survivors.
In illustration of this fact, we select the following
instance, from many others, to which our own expe-
perience bears testimony, of the circumstances con-
nected with a criminal trial in Ceylon. Appoo Yapa,
aged fourteen years, was indicted for the wilful
murder of a female, two years his junior. It was
proved upon the trial that the mangled body of the
deceased had been found in a stream, a short dis-
tance from Belligamme, in the neighbourhood of
which her parents resided, who were poor but
respectable people. That on the day previously to
that on which the corpse was discovered the deceased
had been sent by her parents to the bazaar to pur-
chase rice, for which purpose she had been given an
eight fanam piece, or a shilling of our money.
Two or three of the witnesses had seen the girl
in company with the prisoner, on the day above
specified, at some distance from the bazaar, and the
information which had been given by them led to
the apprehension of Appoo Yapa.
When the prisoner was arrested, spots of blood
were found upon his comboy, which was produced
M 2
244 CEYLON AND THK CINGALESE.
in court, and one witness stated that he could swear
to those spots beinw- marks of human blood, as he
had smelt it soon after the prisoner's arrest.* Blood
was also visible upon a knife produced in court,
which had been found upon the prisoner, and the
SHUie witness swore to the fact of that beino- also
the stain of hu\nan blood. Money was also proved
to have been spent by Appoo Yapa between the
)>eriod when he was last seen with the deceased, and
that of his apprehension.
The jury found him guilty. Sentence of death
was passed, which he listened to with the greatest
indifference conceivable, and, at the conclusion
stated, that lie did not care, as he knew that he
would become in his next state of existence a cobra-
capella, and in that form he should return and have
the satisfaction of stinging the judge, jury, and
advocate. This youth made a full confession of his
crime : he first knocked his victim on the head, and
then cut and maimed herwithhisknit'e; heafterwards
hid the body amongst some underwood, but, fearing
it might too readily be discovered in that situation,
he had drajioed it a considerable distance, and thrown
it into the stream where it was found.
He also acknowledged the murders of two other
children of ages corresponding with her's for whose
death he was to suffer, and stated that in each in-
stance he had been actuated by the sole motive to
possess himself of some insignificant sum of money,
* Some of the natives have this peculiar sensibiUt)', and
they describe the odour of human blood as essentially different
from that of any other animal.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 245
or trinket, possessed by them. Appoo Yapa uiaiii-
taiued to the last, the same indifference which he
evinced at the trial, and his execution produced little
effect upon the spectators.
On another occasion, when a prisoner was
asked in the usual fbriu, if he had any cause to show
why sentence of deaih should not be passed upon
hiui, he replied that he was quite contented to die,
and did not wish to avoid it, because he knew that
in his next stage he would pass a life of ease and
quiet, and have all iiis wants sujjplied, as he should
become a coffee-bush, and would thus have ])leiity
of good water, bear abundant crops of the berry,
and consequently be taken the greatest care of,
without any personal trouble, or inconvenience.
On a recent occasion, two high-caste Cingalese
men were condemned to suffer death at Colombo,
for murder ; each of them confessed the crime, and
one of them appeared to be somewhat impressed
with the heinousness of his ofi'ence. But the other
one evinced great hardihood, and said, when the
rope was around his neck, that immediately the
breath had quitted his body, he would be born
again as a demon, and torment the moodliar through
whose endeavours he had been apprehended, and
kill his wife and children ; and, after satiating his
vengeance in that form, he would die, and his soul
would inhabit the carcase of a rich man, and in that
capacity he would oppress the poor and needy, or, as
the wretched criminal expressed himself, "suck the
blood of the people."
246 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
In addition to these facts, we are supported by
the admission of Lord Torrington, who says, "The
dread of ^ranspor^a^ion among the natives is almost
greater than that of death." — Blue Book, p. 297.
Under such circumstances, with such convictions
of their future state, need we pause to consider, if
death can be any punishment to the felon, or be a
warning to the spectators — or again, if the evil it
occasions to the former exceeds the good he antici-
pated from his crime. On the contrary, death is
looked upon by such, in nine cases out of ten, as the
entrance into a state of existence of a more blissful
nature than that which they have hitherto enjoyed ;
and their anticipated happiness consists in the ex-
pectation of passing into a form, where all their
animal or natural wants will be supplied with little
or no bodily exertion.
From this we draw, as a very natural conclusion,
that the greatest and most terrible punishment
which could be inflicted upon a felon, who is a fol-
lower of Buddha, and one of this inert nation, would
be perpetual slavery in the island, where he should
be compelled to work for his bread ; and the labour,
which we would propose to subject such an one to,
Avould be the repairing of the ancient though dilapi-
dated tanks, and the formation of roads, to open out
the resources of the colony.
Many of the treatises written upon the principles
of criminal law concur in regarding perpetual
slavery as a most effectual punishment for the cri-
minal, and most wholesome terror to the spectators.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 247
In this belief, so far as the heathen natives of Cey-
lon are concerned, we most fully concur ; repeating,
however, that we are no advocates for the total abo-
lition of capital punishment.
We must also admit, as is apparent, that the
partial modification we have suggested is a question
surrounded with difficulties ; yet it is one, as we
submit, which is worthy the consideration of states-
men, particularly of Sir Robert Peel, owing to the
large share he has had in amending the criminal
code. The question we propose is whether it may
not be advisible so far to modify the law. as to enable
the colonial judge to pass sentence of perpetual
slavery, or hard labour in the colony, instead of
death.
248 CEYLON AKD THE CINGALESE.
CHAPTER VIII.
Encouragement given by the sovereigns of Lanka-diva to science
and literature — The Cingalese language — Education — Native
literature — Poetical specimens—Tradition of the king and
poet — Gasco, the poet-lover of the queen — Musical instru-
ments — Musicians — Sculptors — Painters — Lacker-painting —
Casting in metal — Ivory carving — Carved and inlaid woods
— Goldsmiths — Lapidaries — Anecdote — Blacksmiths — Wea-
vers — Potters — Architecture — Palace at Kandy — Ecclesias-
tical architecture — Heahng art, chemistry, surgeons — Dis-
eases prevalent in Ceylon.
The sovereigns of Lanka-diva adopted the judi-
cious plan of giving every encouragement to those
who devoted their time, either to the advancement
of literature, or science ; and in the native annals,
accounts are to be found, wherein are set forth the
revenues, which were appropriated by the monarchs,
for the reward and maintenance of men of talent.
One curious poetical composition, dedicated to the
monarch, has a species of commentary attached to
it, in which the author informs us, that his munifi-
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 249
cent patron, the king, had bestowed upon him, in
consideration for the time which he had devoted to
the composition of the poem, the command and
revenues arising- from a certain district, for his life.
Many of the sovereigns were noted for their
learning, and in a native work, called the Ratna-
cara, are enumerated the attainments of Prackra-
mabahu the Third,* who reigned in the thirteenth
century, and was celebrated alike for his piety, and
mental acquirements. From Cingalese records we
learn, that Prackramabahu was thoroughly well
versed in Religion, History, Physics, Rhetoric,
Grammar, Poetry, Oratory, Agriculture, Philology,
Astronomy, the Occult Sciences, War, Jurispru-
dence, Natural History, and Music. The fame of
this Prince's learning extended to the continent of
India, in consequence of which several disputes, that
arose between foreign sovereigns were referred to
him for arbitration, and his daughters w^ere sought
in marriage by their sons.
Presuming that many of the above sciences vveie
but imperfectly understood by the Cingalese, yet
the mere mention of them is sufficient to prove the
enlightened state of a nation, which at that remote
period could thus evince a thirst for, and just ap
preciation of, intellectual knowledge and mental
attainments.
It is deeply to be deplored that for several cen-
turies, the Cingalese have been retrograding in all
* This king is known to many Oriental scholars by the cog-
nomen of Kalikala, but he is more generally called Prackrama.
JM 5
•250 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
which appertains to a high state of civilization ; for,
that at an early period of, if not anterior to, our era,
they had made considerable advances in the arts,
sciences, and literature, is clearly proved by foreign,
as well as native historical records, and the remains
of ancient grandeur extant and dispersed over the
island. Would it be possible for history to produce
an account of an European sovereign during the
thirteenth century, who could be said to surpass, or
even equal in learning, the Cingalese monarch
Prackramabahu 1
The native sovereigns supported colleges for the
gratuitous education of their people, built and en-
dowed hospitals, and asylums, for the relief and
refuge of the sick and destitute, appointed medical
practitioners, who received fixed salaries, to attend
to particular districts, and administer relief to all,
who might require their aid, for the amelioration of
those ills to which suffering humanity is liable. Al-
though many of the kings devoted much of their
time to the affairs of state, and the welfare of their
subjects, their leisure hours were frequently passed
in studies, tending to enlarge the mind, and
strengthen the intellect. Thus we read, that in
the fourth century the monarch, Jettatissa, excelled
in the sculptor's art, that his successor was tho-
roughly acquainted with medicine, and wrote a
treatise on the healing art in Sanscrit, which is
still extant, and most highly prized. The greater
number of their monarchs were deeply versed in
their system of theology, their native literature and
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 251
erudition, whilst many of them were poets, and
painters.
The decline of a high state of civilization, in all
countries, is generally attributable to internal com-
motions, or warfare with foreign powers ; thus it
has been in latter ages with Ceylon ; the rulers
being harassed with frequent rebellions, invasions
of pretenders to their thrones, and wars with Euro-
pean states, had neither inclination nor opportunity
to devote attention to the cultivation or pursuit of
science, literature, and the industrial and fine arts ;
and the emulation of the people not being excited
by the approbation and rewards, which had been
formerly bestowed by their monarchs, gradually
ceased to feel an interest, or desire to excel in,
those pursuits which aggrandize a nation ; and, as
a natural consequence, when not engaged in war-
fare, sank into a lethargic state.
Since the island has been ruled- by the mild go-
vernment of Great Britain, seminaries and schools
have been established for the education of the na-
tives, and every endeavour has been made to arouse
them from the comparative state of semi-barbarism
and indolence, into which they had gradually fallen.
The result, upon the whole, has been successful ;
nevertheless, much still remains to be done, and the
most strenuous exertions are requisite, before the
mass of the people can be made to comprehend the
value of, and advantages attendant upon, industri-
ous habits, and a liberal education. Necessarily
this must be a work of time, but even the most san-
252 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
guine can never hope to behold the arts, science?,
and learning, cultivated and flourishing in Ceylon,
to the extent which they formerly did, under the
native rulers.
The Cingalese language is most euphonious, the
compound words extremely significant, and the
grammar regular, although complicated. Some
authors have asserted that the national language
of" Ceylon resembles that of Siam, but this is in-
correct, as the root of the Cingalese is evidently
taken from the Sanscrit. The colloquial language
is not the same as that which is used in the native
literature, which is designated Elu, or high Cinga-
lese, and is only understood by the educated. The
talented author of the Cingalese dictionary, Mr.
Clough, states his conviction, that the Elu was the
national language of Lanka-diva, previously to the
conquest of the island by Wijeya, but whether the
Elu resembles the dialect which is now sjioken by
the forest Veddahs, we are unable to determine.
The Cingalese employ distinct modes of expres-
sion, when addressing their superiors, priests, and
equals, and it has been aptly remarked, that their
language appears to have three vocabularies. They
use also what they call a high and low dialect; the
former is especially used in Kandy, and frequently
when a native of the lowlands is called upon to
translate, he will confess his inability to do so, say-
ing, " the language is too high foi- me ;" but the na-
tives of the high lands generally understand the low
dialect of the maritime provinces.
CKYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 253
The greater number of the males can both rea 1
and write, but until our government established
seminaries for their education, their own language
was the only subject the majority of natives in the
interior were conversant with. We regret to say,
that among the female portion of the community,
education is uncommon, and too frequently women
of the highest caste are unable either to read or
write. Schools have been established for their gra-
tuitous instruction, but a piejudice exists among
the higher castes ay-ainst sending their female chil-
dren to these establishments ; although the lower
orders, from a mercenary feeling, allow their off-
spring to attend tlie schools, as they are made effi-
cient needlewomen, and consequently at an early
age can contribute towards the support of their
parents.
The written characters of Ceylon are of two dis-
tinct species, the letters of one are of a square form,
and are found inscribed on many stone tablets of
great antiquity, which are dispersed over the island
— this kind of writing is called Nagara, but unfor-
tunately it has been obsolete for ages, and the key
of its alj)habet is buried in the tomb of the past.
Could the inscriptions be read which are found on
many monumental tablets in Ceylon, they would
undoubtedly prove most interesting to the scholar
and antiquarian, and would elucidate and connect
facts in history which are now nan ting. It ha-^
boen asserted that in some parts of India inscrij)-
tions have been found, the letters of which bear a
254 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
Strong resemblance to the Nagara; if this be correct,
most valuable service has been rendered to the anti-
quarian scholar by Mr. Prinsep, who, in 1837, pub-
lished in the Asiatic Journal of Calcutta, an alphabet
of the letters which are employed in several inscrip-
tions that are scattered over India.
The written characters, which are now used, are
of a round form, particularly neat, clear, and ele-
gant, and the letter of an educated high-caste native
is a perfect specimen both of caligraphy and com-
position. The national mode of writing is upon the
leaf of the palmyra palm, which is cut into slips of
a convenient size, the letters are inscribed with a
short-pointed iron style, and the writer supports the
leaf on his left hand, whilst writing ; when the epis-
tle is concluded, they rub over the characters a dark-
coloured solution, which is prepared from charred
gum, and this blackens the letters, and renders them
distinctly visible.
All books are in manuscript, written upon the
leaves of the tala, or talipot-tree, and those leaves,
which are intended for the purpose, are first tho-
roughly dried -in the sun, and then cut into slips
from two to three inches in width, and from
eighteen to twenty-six in length. The covers of
these books are made of thin pieces of timber,
which are neatly ornamented, either by lackering,
gilding, or painting; holes are drilled about three
inches from either extremity, through leaves and
boards, and into these orifices, string, made from
the fibre of the cocoa-nut, is passed and loosely
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 255
tied. It is said that the leaves of some of the
ancient native books are composed of thin plates
of copper, but as we never saw one we cannot vouch
for the veracity of this statement.
The talipot leaf being imperishable, and the solu-
tion, which is rubbed over the characters, preserv-
ing it from the attacks of the insect tribe, works
of extreme interest and antiquity are handed down
from generation to generation. Books are still ex-
tant in Ceylon in most excellent preservation, which
are dated antecedent to our era ; and the accredited
historical records of Ceylon extend over a space of
twenty-three centuries. These annals give a co-
pious account of their sovereigns, the construction
of magnificent cities, temples, dagobahs, and tanks,
the remains of which are still to be seen in the is-
land, and the inscriptions upon them, fully corrobo-
rate the historical records.
Many works have also been written, which pro-
fess to be the history of Ceylon, prior to the inva-
sion of Wijeya, and the Rajah Walia asserts, that
the island was inundated and reduced to one-half
of its former size, about the time that our most
eminent chronologists believe the deluge to have
taken place. This coincidence is most remarkable,
especially when we combine the annals of the
Chinese of that date, which state, that during the
reign of the Emperor Yaou the deluge occurred ;
which statement will be found in the writings of
Confucius, their celebrated philosopher of antiquity.
All Buddhistical and religious works are written
256 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
in the Pali or Sanscrit, and some of the Upasarapa-
das, or chief priests are good scholars, and tho-
roughly well versed in the literature of their coun-
try. Among these works are to be found what are
termed Buddhistical revelations, which contain an
account of the creation of the world, the fall of
man, &c., and which, strange to say, in some parti-
culars coincide with the Mosaic account, as the tree
of life is mentioned. The Cingalese have works
also upon the geography of their island, astrology,
the origin of castes, grammar, medicine, jurispru-
dence, natural history, and philosophy.
The phraseology of their poetical compositions
does not accord with our ideas of fine composition,
as they indulge in unnatural comparisons, and are
partial to extreme intricacy of style. Some of the
poetical writings are regarded as chef-d'oeuvres,
because they admit of many readings ; thus, whe-
ther they are read from the left to the right, in
columns, or crossways, they will still aflford intelli-
gible meanings. The most learned poets introduce
into their conipositions, both Pali and Sanscrit, and
a composition to be perfect, according to Cingalese
notions, ought to have the number and position of
the letters in each line to correspond.
The following enigma in verse was composed by
one of the native kings, Kumara Dhas, a prince of
great learning, who reigned a. d. 517, and both
riddle and answer are looked upon as masterpieces,
as the number and position of the letters in the
original, in both enigma and reply, strictly agree,
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. -o7
the latter being written by Kalidlias, the celebrated
poet and friend of the monarch. Naturally in trans-
lation the peculiar beauty is lost, but we give it as a
curious and interesting poetical specimen : —
The riddle of Kumara Dhas : —
" By beauty's grasp in turmoil, uncomposed
He is kept a prisoner, but with eyes unclosed."
The elucidation by the poet Kalidhas: —
" Although closed at night, the lotus keeps the bee
The dawn will see him gay, unhurt, and free."
The circumstance which occasioned these lines is
thus recorded in the native annals; the king was in
the habit of visiting a courtezan, celebrated alike
for her wit, beauty, and captivating manners, and
one evening, whilst in her company, remarked a
bee alight on a pink lotus, which closed upon, and
imprisoned the insect. The monarch immediately
wrote the two lines on the wall, intending to com-
pare his own situation with that of the captive bee,
as lie was enthralled by the woman's wiles; stating
that whoever would complete the stanza should
have any request granted which they miglit choose
to prefer.
Shortly after the monarch quitted the courtezan's
abode, and Kalidhas, who was also in the habit of
visiting the woman, entered the house, and, seeing
tlie writing on the wall, immediately concluded the
verse in the same style. The wretched woman, to
obtain the promised reward, murdered the poet, and
buried him under the floor ; but when the monarch
258 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
saw the reply, he immediately recognised the style
and writing of his favourite Kalidhas.
The murder was discovered, the corpse disin-
terred, and, by order of the king, a most magnifi-
cent pile was prepared, whereon the body was to be
burned with all the rites and ceremonies which be-
longed solely to royalty. When the funeral pyre
was ignited, the grief and mental agony of Kuraara
Dhas, at the loss of his friend, overcame all other
feelings, and he rushed into the flames, and w^as
consumed with the body of the poet, Kalidhas.
History also records that the five queens of Kumara
Dhas voluntarily immolated themselves on the same
spot shortly afterwards, and we believe this to be
the only record of royal widows in Ceylon sacrific-
ing themselves at the tombs of their spouses.
The poet's works which are the most voluminous,
and in vogue amongst the Cingalese, are those of
Gasco, a Portuguese, who was taken prisoner by the
Kandians when a child, and subsequently became a
great favourite with the king. Rajah Singha the
Second, who made him his prime minister, or adikar.
His poems have many of the defects we have al-
luded to, as the construction is intricate, the mean-
ing obscure, and the arrangement confused ; never-
theless some of his lines, addressed to the queen,
possess power and feeling. Gasco excited the jea-
lousy of the king, as the queen evinced undue
fondness for the adikar, and the unfortunate poet-
lover, whilst in the vigour of manhood, was con-
demned to death; we believe justly, as the follow-
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 259
ing lines, which he addressed to the queen, after liis
condemnation will prove : —
•'Those thou hadst smiled on found a tomb.
Whilst love requited lights my doom,
Not for soft look, nor low-breathed sigh,
I boldly dared, and now justly die." *
The poetical compositions of the Cingalese are
generally sung or recited in a species of recitative,
the most favourite tune being one which is desig-
nated " horse trotting," from the fancied resem-
blance of the air to the sounds produced by the
horse when trotting. The singer usually accom-
panies himself upon a drum, or tomtom, producing
sounds most dissonant to European ears, although
the natives evince the most intense delight, whilst
listening to these inharmonious noises, " for nought,"
they say, " is so soothing as sweet poetry, when
sung to the accompaniment of the dulcet and me-
lodious udakea." f
The native musical instruments consist princi-
pally of various kinds of drums, or tom-toms, of
different shapes and dimensions, which are either
struck with the fingers, or sticks ; one particular
sort of tom-tom is only used in the temples and for
* This translation was made from the original, by one of the
best Cingalese scholars of the present day.
f So desperately annoying to Europeans were " the dulcet
sounds of the sweet udakea " found to be, that a local ordi-
nance was promulgated, forbidding the natives to beat this me-
lodious instrument in their dwellings between the hours of eight
p. M. and eight a.m., without a licence.
260 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
religious ceremonies. The frame -work of these
insti'uments is either composed of wood, or brass,
and they are covered witli deer's skin. The Kan-
dian pipe, or Horanawa, sends forth shrill notes,
which are a strange combination of the sounds pro-
duced by the Highlanders' bagpipes and the whis-
tle of a locomotive engine ; the mouthpiece of this
instrument is made from the talipot leaf, and the
remaining- parts are composed of jack-wood and
bra^s.
The other native wind instrument is made from
the chanque shell, the extremity of which is ground
down and formed into a mouthpiece, and this in-
strument, when performed upon by a man rejoicing
in strong sound lungs, sends forth a volume of
sound, which almost deafens the unfortunate and
unhabituated listener. A facetious friend of ours
declares that the music of the chanque shell can
only be compared to the bellowings of an enraged
buffalo, alternated with the howling of a hungry
dog, tantalized with food placed just beyond his
reach.
The Cingalese use but one description of stringed
instrument, and this a rude kind of two stiinged
violin, the body of which is formed of the moiety of
a cocoa-nut shell, highly polished, and drilled with
holes, on which the skin of the guana is stretched,
by way of sounding-board. One string of this in-
strument is made of horse-hair, and the other of a
coarse desci'iption of flax ; the strings of the bow
are of the former material, to the extremity of
CEYLON AND THE CINGALE^SE. 2G1
which two bells are attached. Tlie sounds produced
from this machine are extremely weak and unpleas-
ing ; nevertheless, it is a great favourite with men-
dicant musicians, with whom it is principally in use,
who wander through the country, seeking a preca-
rious subsistence by the exertion of their musical
abilities.
As sculptors, the Cingalese evince much taste and
judgment in the disposition of the drapery; and,
although the anatomical proportions of the figures
are frequently incorrect, still the effect produced
is generally good, and many of the statues of
Buddha denote alike ma esty and benevolence.
Some of the statues are of gigantic proportions, and,
as it is the custom to colour these images, many of
them present a most pleasing and animated ap-
pearance ; it is also the practice to give a pupil to
the eye, which is considered a mystical operation,
and is performed in the presence of the priests,
with much ceremony. Immediately after the com-
pletion of the eye, the artist presents offerings to
the god, as he then, and not till then, regards the
image as the representative of Buddha.
Most singular does it appear to us that a being
gifted with reasoning powers should fall down, and
worship the image which is the work of his own
hands ! Artists are only allowed to depict Buddha
in three attitudesj, namely, either seated cross-legi^ed,
reclining on the left side, or standing with one hand
raised, as if in tli<^ act of advancing, and the attire
is invariably the priestly robes ; and, were an artist
262 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
to attempt the slightest innovation upon these esta-
blished rules, it would not be countenanced, but his
act would be regarded as one of impious presump-
tion.
The Cingalese are not proficients in the painter's
art, being unacquainted with the effects of light and
shade, and the rules of perspective. They use but
few colours, which are of the most brilliant nature,
and these preparations retain their bright hues for
a lengthened period : red, yellow, dark blue, black
and white, are the principal colours used, and these
pigments are invariably mixed with a large propor-
tion of gum.
It was affirmed by a Kandian scholar, that for-
merly the art of oil-painting in all its branches was
understood by the natives, but, if this be correct,
it is no less certain that their previous knowledge
is now entirely lost, as they manifestly evince at the
present day total ignorance upon this branch of the
fine arts. The aim of a Cingalese artist appears to
be gaudiness of effect, and, although the human
figure is rarely drawn correctly, yet, as they blend
their colours judiciously, and copy the attire cor-
rectly, their paintings please the eye, and are valu-
able, as depicting faithfully the habits and national
costume.
The Kanditms excel in the art of lacker-painting,
and bestow extreme care in preparing the lacker,
which is procured from a shrub, found in almost
every part of the island, and is called by the natives
kajjpittia, the sap of which exudes, and coagulates
10
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 263
upon the branches ; this gum is gathered, and pu-
rified with extreme care : after this operation it is
dried, placed in a cotton bag attached to a stick,
and held over a strong fire until the kappittia is
melted, which is allowed to droj) through the cotton,
whereby it is cleansed from all impurities, and ex-
traneous njatter ; thus refined, the resinous substance
is exposed in a shady spot to harden.
The natural colour of the kappittia varies from a
clear pale gold to a muddy brown, but the natives
artificially prepare four distinct hues, namely, green,
yellow, red, and black, and their mode of amalga-
matino- the colouring: matter with the softened resin
is by repeated blows from a wooden mallet.
The Kandians are peculiarly expert in this art,
and many of the designs traced by them upon the
various articles which they lacker, are extremely
beautiful. In the chief's houses the wooden pillars
supporting the roofs of the verandahs are oft times
thus adorned, and it is the custom to ornament
spears, bows, arrows, walking-sticks, boxes, covers
to books, and fans in this manner. The brilliancy
of ihe colours, and durability of the lacker, aie
extreme, being coequal with the article thus orna-
mented.
The mode of applying the lacker is remarkably
simple, the artist using as a spatula the thumb-nail
of his left hand, which he allows to grow to a great
length, for the purpose ; when about to exercise his
calling, the artist ignites a charcoal fire in an
earthen vessel, and seats himself on the ground
26-1 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
near to it ; he then places conveniently around hira
portions of the various colours of the kappittia, and
a small cane, to one end of which he attaches a
portion of the particular coloured resin he desires to
heat ; he has also near at hand a piece of the leaf of
the palmyra palm, which is used to polish the newly-
lackered article.
The ware about to be ornauiented is first care-
fully cleansed, the design is then traced upon it,
after -which it is heated ; the kappittia is warmed
and drawn out into filaments of various sizes, and
applied with the thumb-nail to the heated article,
to which it instantaneously adheres : when the
whole surface is covered, the artist uses the palm
leaf, which removes all inequalities and imparts a
brilliant polish. It is impossible to describe the
delicacy of some of tlieir intricate designs, or the
skill and good taste which are evinced by the first-
rate artists. We are not aware if this resinous sub-
stance* has been introduced into Great Britain, but
we should presume that it might be most benefici-
ally used in many of our manufactures.
The Cinoalese most perfectly understand the art
of casting figures in metal, and there is at Kandy a
copper statue of Buddha the size of life, which
would not discredit an European artist of high
standing. We have in our possession a brass image
of Buddha seated, about six inches in height, both
• For the information of those who may wish to try an ex-
periment, we inform them that the botanical name of the Kap-
pittia is Croion lacciferum.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 265
the proportions of the figure, and the neatness of
the execution are most admirable.
Some of their ivory carvings are peculiarly beau-
tiful and chaste in design, but we regret to say this
art is falling into decay and disuse, as at this period
in the Kandian districts alone is the ivory carver's
calling practised, and this but rarely. The most
perfect specimen of ivory carving, which we saw
during our sojourn in Ceylon, was the representa-
tion of a cocoa-nut palm in flower ; the graceful
leaves hung pendant over the clustering blossoms,
which drooped elegantly from the slender stem, and
the former being imperceptibly attached to the
latter by rivets, when this fragile handiwork was
held in an inverted position, the leaves fell enclosing
the blossoms. This delicate specimen of art was
about eight inches in height, and the proportions in
every respect were strictly correct.
The Kandians formerly used drinking-cups of
ivory, which were so extremely thin, as to be ren-
dered perfectly transparent and pliable ; a friend
having one of these remarkable vessels in his pos-
session, we were most desirous to obtain a similar
specimen, but to our dismay were informed by a
Kandian chief, that he knew but of one old man,
living in the interior, who could fabricate these
curious cups, and that he was too ill to work. A
short time afterwards we heard of the death of the
old man in question, and with him the art is said to
have died, as he refused to impart his secret to any
living being, and we can only hope for the sake of
VOL. II. N
266 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
posterity, that our informant had been misled in
this respect.
Many beautiful specimens of carvings in wood
are to be found in Ceylon, and the artisans of Galle
are peculiarly expert in this branch of art ; ebony
chairs, couches, and jewel-caskets, are most elabo-
rately and deeply carved, and the designs, which in
many instances consist of fruits and flowers, are
bold and excellent. The wood most prized by the
native and European inhabitants of Ceylon is a
peculiar close-grained timber with stripes, which
vary in colour from a bright light brown, to a shade
which approximates closely to an ebon hue. This
wood is called Calamander, and the enormous prices,
which are given for well-carved articles of furniture
manufactured of this timber, would astonish many
of the uninitiated. Like all else in Ceylon, the art
of carving in wood is fast falling into decay, and
now we never find executed by modern artists, the
same exquisite description of delicate tracery, which
is to be seen upon the wooden pillars, supporting
the roof of the Audience Hall of the former Kan-
dian monarchs, now used by us as the Court
House.
At Galle are also manufactured those exquisite
inlaid articles, which far surpass any specimen of
Tunbridge ware that has yet been produced— ivory
and various coloured native woods, are inlaid upon
ebony, and as the designs are well defined, the
effect produced is magnificent. Tables of various
sizes are manufactured of ebony, whose centres are
8
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 267
composed of these woods ; the edges and pedestals
of these exquisite specimens of handicraft, are usu-
ally most elaborately carved.
This manufacture is most tedious, and, as the Cin-
galese are generally extremely indolent, and do not
practise a division of labour, it frequently happens
that one man will take from three to six months to
complete a small occasional table for which he will
receive a hundred rix-dollars, or seven pounds ten
shillings of our money ; and we knew an instance
of one, who held a high official appointment, having
been compelled to wait a year and a-half for a loo-
table, for which he paid thirty pounds. The great
drawback to the exportation of these decorative
articles of furniture is, that the inlaying is extremely
liable to start, the seams to open, and the wood to
warp, when subjected to the atmospheric variations
of an European climate.
The native jewellers evince considerable taste,
and some dexterity, in their gold and silver work;
we have elsewhere remarked upon the great deli-
cacy and beauty of the filagree work decorating
the gold and silver pins, which confine the ebon
tresses of the native women ; and the apparatus
used for the manufacture of trinkets is of the most
simple and portable description. It is customary
for the goldsmith to receive a certain portion of
either of the precious metals, and to manufacture
the required articles upon the premises of his em-
ployer,* and squatted in the verandah, the artist
* This custom is adopted throughout the East, as the natives
N 2
268 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
arranges around him the following simple imple-
ments of his calling, — a round earthen vessel filled
with charcoal, a bamboo blow-pipe wherewith to
arouse the fire, a small clay pipe, one end of which
is adjusted near the centre of the fire, and through
which the artist directs the blast of the bamboo
blow-pipe, a few crucibles formed of the fine clay of
the white ant hills, some three or four small ham-
mers, a pair of tongs, files of various dimensions, an
anvil, and a few small pointed brass and iron rods,
of about two inches and a-half in length; and these
are the only tools which are used by the natives for
the most elaborate and delicate designs.
When a steamer arrives at Point de Galle en
route to China or Calcutta, the goldsmiths flock on
board, each one striving to be the first to bid for
the spare sovereigns, which the passengers may be
inclined to exchange for rupees, for nearly the
greater portion of the precious metal, which is
manufactured into trinkets, has originally been the
current coin of the realm of Great Britain. Gold
will frequently bear a high premium, and during
our residence in Lanka-diva, we have known sove-
reigns, on which were the impress of the dragon,
sell at a high premium, fetching twelve rupees, or
twenty-four shillings,* whilst those which bore the
are in the constant habit of alloying both gold and silver to an
extent which is most prejudicial to the interest either of purcha-
ser or employer.
* In Ceylon, the value of the rupee is fixed at two shillings ;
whilst in India and China the value constantly varies.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 2(J9
impress of our gracious Monarch's head, were inva-
riably sold below par, being frequently valued at
nine, or nine and a-half rupees. The natives give
as a reason for this capricious value of the respec-
tive coinages, " That the dragon sovereign got
silver inside, Victoria sovereign too plenty copper
have got," meaning, we presume, that the former is
alloyed with silver, the latter with un undue propor-
tion of copper.
The precious stones which are found in Ceylon
are numerous, and a fine Kandian ruby will fetch an
enormous price. The finest coloured and most per-
fect gems never leave the island, as the chiefs and
moodliars give immense sums for them, and either
a ruby or cat's eye of fine colour, without defects or
flaws, is valued at a much higher price, than it
would produce in Europe. In no part of the world
are cat's eyes found to equal those which are pro-
duced in Ceylon ; we have seen one, set in a little
finger ring, which was perfect in every respect, and,
although the gem was small, was valued at ,£75.
The native style of cutting precious stones is not
good, arising probably from the fact, that the lapi-
daries have had comparatively little practice, as
during the native monarchy, it was the fashion for
the king and his court to wear all the precious
stones uncut. Some images of Buddha are carved
out of precious stones, and in the Dalada Mala-
gawa at Kandy are to be seen small figures of the
god carved out of cat's eye, amethyst, and rock
crystal — the natives use the latter also for the lenses
270 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
of their spectacles, and many ornamental pur-
poses.
The traffic in precious stones is principally con-
fined to the Moormen, who are excellent judges of
the value of gems, and are great adepts at fre-
quently palming off as most valuable, stones replete
with defects, and pieces of coloured glass. Whilst
at Point de Galle, a friend called upon us to request
the loan of sundry dozens of quart bottles, as he had
just purchased a hogshead of " Bass's Pale," and
desired to bottle the refreshing beverage forthwith.
We expressed our deep regret at being unable to
comply with his request, as our servants had lately
caused the empty bottles to disappear, avec une
Vitesse vraimtnt extraordinaire, and those which did
not evaporate bodily, were broken through their
negligence.
" And are you green enough to believe all this
humbug? — don't you know that your fellows steal
your bottles to sell them ?"
" Well," we replied, " but they cannot make use
of broken ones."
" Never more mistaken in your life; they sell all
the broken to Moormen, who select the clearest
pieces, cut, and pass them off upon the unwary tra-
veller for emeralds."
Upon inquiry we found this to be correct, and our
Appoo told us in his broken English, " That Moor-
man buy hit bottle, cut, and sell steamboat gentlemans,
who tink bit glass plenty good."
Therefore, if any of our perusers have made the
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 271
overland journey to or from China or Calcutta, and
have been induced to purchase at Point de Galle a
curious massive gold ring, in which is set a remark-
ably fine emerald, or a gem somewhat darker than
an emerald, we advise him, or her, as the case may
be, to submit the same to a lapidary's inspection;
from whom he may possibly learn, to his extreme
satisfaction, that he has paid a good round sum, and
has been displaying to the admiring gaze of his
numerous friends and acquaintances a fragment of
a green bottle, which, in all probability, once con-
tained, before such fragment was encircled with the
precious metal, liquid gold , under the cognomen of
Bass's pale ale.
The Cingalese are tolerably skilful blacksmiths,
and we have seen produced by them, door-locks and
hinges, gun-locks and barrels, the workmanship of
which far surpassed anything of the description,
which is manufactured by our continental neigh-
bours. As all iron and steel articles are peculiarly
liable to rust in Ceylon, the natives adopt the
following simple preventive ; they spread a thin
coating of bee's wax over the articles, which most
effectually preserves them from corrosion, even
should the implements be exposed to damp. The
natives state that they learned the art of manufactur-
ing gunpowder from the Portuguese, and, although
they never attempt to granulate it, the gunpowder
made by them is tolerably good, and explodes
strongly.
The loom used by the natives is of the most pri-
272 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
initive, and rudest construction imaginable, and we
have been informed that it exactly resembles that
which is to be seen in many parts of India: the
weaver sits upon the ground, and generally a hole
is dug in the earth for the reception of his legs and
feet. The cotton cloth of which the priests' robes
are made, is invariably of native manufacture, but
since the Cingalese have had intercourse with
Europeans, all other classes, even the poorest, en-
deavour to obtain calicoes of our manufacture ;
although the texture of the native cloth is coarse, it
far surpasses our own, for strength and durability.
The Cingalese potters, or earthenware manu-
facturers, have not yet learned the art of glazing
their wares, and, although all the vessels are made
of a coarse red clay, the beauty of the antique
classical forms, of many of their chatties and vases,
frequently causes the mind to revert to the remains
of Greece and Rome. The mode adopted for the
manufacture of his wares by the Cingalese potter is
simple enough, consisting of three articles, a flat
stone and wooden mallet, and a circular board or
stone of some twenty inches in diameter, working
horizontally upon a centre pin, on which latter is
placed the prepared and plastic clay. Several ham-
lets near Hangwelle are inhabited chiefly by potters,
and it is the custom amongst them when the eldest
son marries, for his father to present him with the
stones, called koo-dao-galle, which will last with
ordinary care for half a century. In many other
parts of Ceylon are also to be found artisans congre-
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
273
j^ated, who follow a particular calling— thus, in
Galle, we find the best inlayers and carvers; at
Caitura the most skilful lapidaries; at Morottoe the
most clever carpenters and cabinet makers ; whilst
in Kandy alone are the lackerers and ivory workers
to be met with.
The domestic architecture of Ceylon is of a most
unassuming character, owing possibly in a great
measure to legislation, as during the Kandian
monarchy the chiefs were only permitted to build
or inhabit dwellings of one story in height ; none
save the chiefs and nobles were allowed to use tiles
in roofing their dwellings, the mass of the people
being compelled to thatch them, and plaited cocoa-
nut leaves were then, and are still generally used
for the purpose. The abodes of the chiefs and
moodliars are built in gardens, and are in the form
of a hollow square ; the front and back of the dwel-
ling being protected from the sun's rays by veran-
dahs, which are supported by wooden pillars. The
eating-room usually runs across the full width of
the house, on either side of which are the smaller
and sleeping apartments, which communicate one
with the other. The domestic ofiices and servants'
apartments being small detached buildings, which
are situated in the rear of the dwelling.
These habitations are generally built of kabook,
their floors are composed of chunam, and the walls
are whitewashed ; under the native kings, however,
lime was not permitted to be used in any buildings,
save the temples and royal palaces. The abodes of
N 5
274 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE,
the poorer classes are small huts, the walls of which
are constructed of mud, which are plastered within
and without with a peculiarly white clay — the floors
are composed of a mixture of cowdung and clay, the
natives declaring the former to be most efficacious
in keeping away insects. *
The only tolerably perfect specimen of a royal
dwelling to be seen in Ceylon is at Kandy, and this
we regret to say is fast falling into decay, and has
been most wantonly defaced. This edifice must for-
merly have presented a most imposing appear-
ance, as it covered a considerable space, the front
of the palace exceeding eight hundred feet in
length. At one extremity, is still to be seen the
octagonal tower, on the balcony of which the king
used to exhibit himself to the gaze of his subjects, on
certain stated occasions of public rejoicing and
festivity. There still remain some beautiful carvings
in stone on the walls of the palace, and in the
Dalada Malagawa, which forms part of the building;
and no delicate chiselling of Greece can surpass that
which ornaments the stone framework of the doors.
Upon the walls are carved numbers of elephants,
suns, moons, and stars, which were the emblems and
insignia of royalty.
Near the palace and in the centre of an artificial
lake, which was constructed by command of the last
king, stands a small building in the Chinese style,
which was used as a pleasure-house by the sovereign
* We believe this assertion to be strictly correct.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. "275
and his queens ; this is now used as a powder maga-
zine. The town of Kandy was planned by the
adikars, under the superintendence of the same
monarch ; its various streets run in parallel and
transverse lines, one of them retains to the present
day its original name of Malabar-street, which
cognomen was bestowed upon it during the reign of
Sri Wikrama, owing to the circumstance that the
Malabar relatives and dependants of the monarch,
were the exclusive inhabitants of this portion of the
town.
The position of Kandy is both romantically
beautiful, and sublimely grand, being surrounded
by hills, which are clothed in rich verdure from
their bases to their summits, and with mountains
which vary in height from three hundred to two
thousand feet.
The ecclesiastical style of architecture varies
materially, as the Wihares or temples of Buddha
strongly resemble the Chinese, whilst the Dewales
or temples of the gods reminded the observer of
Grecian architecture. Some ruins in the Hindoo
style are occasionally met with in the island, and the
rock temples, stupendous and magnificent monu-
ments of man's ingenuity, enterprise, and industry,
still remain to astonish the wondering beholder, *
The Wihares and Dewales are generally buildings
of one story; the exterior of these buildings is
whitewashed, whilst the interior is adorned with
* These extraordinary excavations ought to be classed
amongst the " wonders of the world."
276 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
paintings of the gods, many of which have a strong
resemblance to the Egyptian deities. Near to every
Wihare is a Dagobah, (or building which is said to
enclose a particular relic of Buddha, such as a piece
of bone, or one of his hairs,) which is invariably a
bell-shaped monument surmounted by a small spire.
Knox alludes to some of the ancient religious
edifices of the Cingalese in the following words:
" Many of them are of rare and exquisite work,
built of hewn stone and engraven with images and
figures, but by whom and when I could never learn,
the inhabitants themselves being ignorant. But it
is quite certain they were built by far superior
artificers to the Cingalese of the present day ; for
many buildings having been defaced during foreign
invasions, none among the natives have had skill
enough to repair them." It is most singular, that
in a number of old buildings the arch is found with-
out the principle of the arch, being formed of stones
laid horizontally, which project one beyond the
other on each side until they meet above; whilst, in
comparatively modern buildings, the arch is to be
frequently found regularly constructed with the
key-stone.
The Cingalese practice and knowledge of the
healing and chirurgic arts, according to European
ideas, are very imperfect, and, as they consider
handling a corpse to be the height of pollution, this
prejudice alone has been sufficient to render it im-
possible for them, either to acquire, or possess, a
correct knowledge of anatomy, or the structure of
the human frame.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 277
When a native practitioner is called in, a bargain
is struck between him and the patient, or his friends-
So soon as the stipulated remuneration is agreed
upon, if the practitioner has any doubt of the pro-
bity of his employers, he requires that the fee,
whether it consist of money, jewellery, clothes, or
grain, shall be placed in the hands of a third per-
son. The usual stipulation is, no cure no pay, but,
where a practitioner is called in to a doubtful case,
or where the patient is moribund, he invariably
receives his fee in advance.
To be well-skilled in astrology, is a most requi-
site branch of a good physician's education, as he
must be able by such knowledge to pronounce with-
out hesitation, whether the disease owes its origin
to deranged humours, or is a just punishment in-
flicted for crimes committed in a former stage of
existence — in the latter case, the unfortunate patient
is left to the mercy of the gods — in the former, the
practitioner endeavours to bring the malady to its
height, " or ripen it,'''' after which he uses remedies
for its cure.
Their medical works treat of five hundred and
seventy diseases to which the human frame is sub-
ject, the greater number of which they represent to
arise from derangement, or humours of the flesh,
blood, skin, fat, bones, marrow, phlegm, bile, or
wind. The physician's knowledge should therefore
enable him to determine from what exciting cause,
and derangement of what particular function, the
disease has sprung. Occasionally he will take, pos-
278 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
sibly for effect, some hours to determine the name
of the patient's complaint, and, when this very
knotty point has been decided, he administers the
remedy, for every practitioner prepares and admi-
nisters his own medicines. It is their custom to
prescribe and compound a great number of ingre-
dients for the most trivial cases, which renders it
somewhat difficult to decide which particular drug
ameliorates or subdues the disease.
Their Materia Medica consists of numberless
simples, and a few metallic preparations, such as
arsenic in the form of white oxyde, and mercury,
which is invariably mixed with oleaginous matter ;
gold, silver, and copper, are administered in the
form of powders. The native chemical practice
consists of distillation, preparing decoctions, infu-
sions, extracts, oils, and powders.
Many of their practitioners are excellent oculists,
and are thoroughly conversant with numerous me-
dicinal drugs (unknown to Europeans) which pro-
duce a speedy effect in relieving ophthalmia. In
Ceylon, ophthalmia is alike prevalent amongst
human beings and animals, but there is one form of
this distressing complaint which is solely confined
to quadrupeds. A minute worm is either engen-
dered or received into the watery humours of the
eye, which causes the eyeball to enlarge : as soon
as the swelling subsides, the colouring matter of the
pupil assumes a bluish tint, and total loss of vision
speedily ensues. The vegetable remedies used by
the natives appear to cause the animal acute pain,
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 279
but, when they are judiciously applied hy a skilful
practitioner, invariably restore the vision, and effect
a complete cure.
The surgeons are extremely dextrous in opening
boils, from which both Europeans and natives suffer
alike severely in Ceylon, and they understand cau-
terizing and phlebotomy. We have been informed
that when a native surgeon amputates a limb, the
operation is performed with a knife, which has been
heated to a dull redness.
As we never beheld the operation of reducing a
dislocation, we are indebted for the following nar-
rative to one who did, and upon whose veracity we
can place reliance : — " During our journey, one of
the coolies fell down, and dislocated his ankle joint.
On reaching the next village, the surgeon was sent
for, who, after a careful examination of the injured
limb, ordered the patient to be assisted to a planta-
tion of cocoa-nut trees, and some coir, or rope, to
be brought to him. He then placed the patient
against a tree, to which he securely fastened him
by the shoulders, whilst the foot of the injured limb
was tightly attached by a noosed rope to another
tree. Through the noose, the surgeon passed a
short, but strong stick which he repeatedly twisted
until the rope was completely tightened, and the
limb stretched out to its fullest extent ; he then
suddenly withdrew the stick and allowed the cord
to untwist itself The patient, who had bellowed
and squealed like a mad wild dog during the opera-
tion, was then released, and upon examination the
280 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
joint was found to be reinstated, and, after a few
days' rest, the patient regained the perfect use of
his foot."
Those complaints from which the natives of
Ceylon principally suffer are ophthalmia and severe
cutaneous diseases, both elephantiasis and leprosy *
being constantly met with in their most malignant
forms, and Doctor Davy states that there is scarcely
one disease of the skin, which is mentioned in
Doctor Bateraan's Synopsis, that he has not seen
an instance of amongst the Cingalese. Fever, ague,
diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera morbus (which latter
proved most fatal in Jaffnapatam during 1846), and
diseases of the brain f- are likewise extremely pre-
valent, and attack alike the native and European.
There is an extraordinary feature in the fevers
of Ceylon, as the symptoms differ materially in the
highlands and lowlands, and we cannot do better
than quote the words of Dr. Davy, who writes,
" The fever of almost every year and season, and
place, has something peculiar to mark it ; in the
endemic of one place or season there may be a
strong tendency to delirium, in that of another to
intermission and relapse, and disease of the spleen :
in that of a third to change of disease, from fever to
dysentery." And it is dysentery following fever,
which usually proves fatal to numbers of our coun-
* Our government have established an hospital for the recep-
tion of those who are afflicted with this terrible malady.
t A lunatic asylum has also been established, which is su-
perintended by a talented surgeon.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 281
trymen. It has been remarked by many who have
studied the medical history of Ceylon and India,
that infectious fevers are unknown, as both the
plague and typhus are never heard of to the east-
ward of the Indus.
There is a disease termed Beri-beria, stated by
pathologists to be aluiost peculiar to Ceylon, and
which, when it makes its appearance, causes great
mortality amongst the natives, and baffles all the
efforts of our medical men to arrest its progress.
The nosological name given by Dr. C. Rogers
to this disease is hydrops asthmaticus, and the
symptoms are thus described by him, " This terrible
disease commences with general debility and op-
pressed breathing, the extremities become distended
with watery effusion, paralysis ensues, whilst other
symptoms of dropsy display themselves, often run-
ning their course with great rapidity. There is
frequently anxiety, also, with palpitation of the
heart, and occasionally vomiting and spasms are
present." We never heard of an European suffer-
ing from this disease.
282 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
CHAPTER IX.
The state of Ceylon anterior to the Christian era — Anooradha-
poora, when built — Circumference of city walls — Native his-
torical record — Account given by Fa-Hian, the Chinese
traveller of the fourth century — Bridge of devils — Mode of
shaping and ornamenting granite 2000 years ago — Unicorn
known to the Cingalese — Maha-Wihare — Lowa-Maha-Paya
— Ruwanelli Saye — Tradition — Glass pinnacle used as a non-
conductor, A.D. 243 — Abhaayagiri Dagobah — ^Toophaaraa-
maya Dagobah — ^Tanks and wells — ^Tomb of Elala — Rock
temples of Dambool — Dimensions of the Maha Rajah Wihare
— Decorations, paintings, and statues of the gods and kings
— Curious descriptive inscription on the rock — Anecdote of
the sacred water — Worship in the cave — Aloot Wihare —
Maha Dewo Devvale — Smallest rock temple — Dimensions and
decorations — Exterior of Damboola GaUa — Summit of the
rock — Ancient rock fortress of Sigiri — Ruins of a nunnery
at Minigiri — ^Tradition — Dewinoowara, the city of the god —
Ramayana, the oldest epic poem extant, commemmorates the
conquest of Ceylon by Rama — Remains of antiquity seen
around Dondera — The priest's tale — Antique statue at Belli-
gama — Pollanarooa — Remains of tank, palace, religious edi-
fices, rock temple, and colossal statues — Dagobah of the
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 283
golden umbrella — Stone roof — Ancient inscriptions — Mass
of stone removed by men — Extraordinary piece of sculpture
— Sanus, or deed of gift.
It is evident that, at a period anterior to the
Christian era, Ceylon had attained a high state of
civilization and refinement, whereof the gigantic
ruins of Anooradhapoora and Pollanarooa (the
former capitals of Lanka-diva), the stupendous
tanks, religious edifices, and various other massive
architectural remains, which are scattered over the
cinnamon isle, bear ample witness. Bertolacci, in
allusion to these evidences of high civilization, re-
marks, "We must therefore say, that the further we
go back towards the remotest antiquity, we find
this island rising in the ideas it impresses upon our
minds, respecting its civilization and prosperity."
In allusion to the tanks this author most justly
remarks, " In this work we find then, incontestible
signs of an immense population and an extensive
agriculture. This gives us the idea of a very popu-
lous country, and of a flourishing nation."
In Mr. Upham's most excellent work on the
" Sacred and Historical Books of Ceylon," after
alluding to the beneficial influence, that the intro-
duction of the mild tenets of Buddhism, had upon
the Cingalese, he writes, " There is another point
we can dwell on with pleasure, viz., the rapid and
remarkable progress of the Cingalese in every branch
of national refinement. They scarcely appear in
these narrations to have entered on the career of
civilization, ere we find them under Panduwasa and
284 CFA'LON AND THE CINGALESE.
his successors founding cities, building temples, and
above all formino; immense lakes for facilitating; the
operations of agriculture — the true riches of a state.
These extraordinary excavations rivalled the most
remarkable labours of antiquity, and were hardly
surpassed by the kindred wonders of Egypt. The
remains of these national monuments demonstrate
an amount of population, and a state of prosperity
infinitely superior to what exists at present, or has
for a long period existed in Ceylon. Not less strik-
ing than these lakes are the vast mounds, temples,
and mausoleums, which are generally adjacent to
their borders, and the remains of which, at this
present day, attest the former splendour of the
state."
Believing as we do the veracity of the native
historical records, relative to the former prosperity
and grandeur of the isle, finding these statements
are fully corroborated by the stupendous and mag-
nificent architectural remains, which are to be seen
on the bosom of Lanka-diva's verdant soil, we con-
ceive it must be evident to all who reflect upon this
interesting topic, that the forefathers of this people,
whom for a lengthened period we looked upon as
savages, were a civilized, and a comparatively re-
fined nation, at a period anterior to the discovery of
Great Britain, and her then semi-barbarous deni-
zens. Although now, the greater portion of the
native population of Ceylon, are too frequently in-
dolent, ignorant, servile, and cowardly, their ances-
tors would appear to have adopted as mottoes for
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 2S5
their guidance, "Par sit fortuna laboris." — "Au-
dentes fortuna juvat."
Tradition, supported by the native chronicles,
asserts, that from tlie most remote periods of anti-
quity the plain on which the city of Anooradha-
poora was built, was regarded as sacred ground,
from the circumstance of the first Buddha of the
present era, having visited the spot; when he found
the place hallowed by the observance of the reli-
gious rites and ceremonies, which had been prac-
tised by preceding generations, in obedience to the
commands of the Buddhas of former eras, who had
also honoured and consecrated the spot by their
presence. One of Buddha's commands forbids
taking life from any creature, '' From the smallest
and most noxious insect up to man thou shalt not
kill," and we believe, that few natives have suf-
ficient temerity to kill any animal near the spot,
which their records aflirm had been sanctioned by
the presence of their god Buddha; consequently,
game of all descriptions abounds in the jungles
around Anooradhapoora.
Anooradhapoora is first mentioned in Cingalese
records about five hundred years before the Chris-
tian era, where it is stated to have been then a vil-
lage, which was presented by the King Panduwasa
to his brother-in-law for a residence. In the same
century, this monarch's successor determined to
make this spot the capital and seat of government,
which it continued to be, except during the reign
of an usurper, until the eighth century, when the
286 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
seat of govern Qient was transferred to Pollanarooa.
Anooradhapoora was known to Ptolemy, and may
be found correctly placed and marked in his map,
under the name of Anuragrammum. In succeed-
ing centuries, various relics of Goutama Buddha
were brought here, and magnificent Dagobahs
were erected for their reception, and a branch of
the Bo, or sacred tree, under which tradition asserts
he had reposed, was planted.
After Anooradhapoora had ceased to be a capital,
the monarchs deemed it a paramount duty to keep
the various religious edifices in repair, and this
custom was observed until the commencement of
the thirteenth century, when the invader, Maagha,
governed Ceylon, during which period he demo-
lished many of the religious and public buildings,
and attempted the destruction of the native histo-
rical records. Superstition appears to have insti-
gated the King Panduwasa in the selection of
Anooradhapoora for the capital, and, when the seat
of government was removed in after ages, it is to be
presumed that all the chiefs and most wealtky inha-
bitants followed in the monarch's train.
From historical records we learn, that the final
desertion of the city, its attendant decay, and pre-
sent desolation, arose in a great measure from the
unhealthiness of the neighbourhood, which was
principally attributable to the artificial lakes and
tanks being allowed to remain unrepaired. The
number of the inhabitants having been greatly
diminished, the remainder were either unable, or
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 287
unwilling, to maintain in due order, the stupendous
embankments of those artificial sources of wealth
and plenty in one case, or of want and sickness in
the other ; the latter being caused by the waters
overflowing and breaking their boundaries, forming
stagnant and noxious swamps, instead of irrigating
the surrounding fields with their refreshing waters.
The decline of Ceylon may be dated from the
eighth century, the sun of her prosperity appears to
have been then upon the wane, and her annals ex-
hibit in after ages a fearful array of domestic feuds,
foreign invasions, wars, pestilences, and famines ;
nevertheless, in the twelfth century, we find many
noble public works completed ; and the native
annals affirm that the number of males at that
period in the island, amounted to three millions
four hundred and twenty thousand. Although the
number may be exaggerated, it is self-evident from
the magnitude of the public works which were then
constructed, that an immense population at the
same time must have existed in Ceylon. Our go-
vernment have located some officials at Anoorad-
hapoora, have caused roads to be constructed, and
in some spots, the dense jungle to be cleared away ;
but the station is one of the most unhealthy in the
colony ; so much so, that many enthusiastic anti-
quarians, in their endeavours to behold the remains
of Lanka-diva's palmy days, have been foiled in
their researches, and prostrated by severe attacks
of fever and ague.
We feel assured, however, that Anooradhapoora
288 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
could not formerly have been insalubrious, or it
would not have continued to be the seat of* govern-
ment for more than twelve hundred years. In the
first century of our eraj about the year 63 or 64, the
monarch, Waahapp, completed the walls of the city,
which enclosed a space of two hundred and fifty-six
square miles. The walls were sixty-four miles in
extent, built in a quadrangular form, each side
being sixteen miles in length. The following in-
teresting description of the capital is extracted from
the native historical records : —
" The glorious and magnificent city of Anoorad-
hapoora is gorgeously refulgent from the many
temples and palaces, whose golden pinnacles glitter
in the sky. The sides of the streets are strewn with
dark- coloured sand ; whilst the centre is sprinkled
with sand which is white as the interior of a young
cocoa-nut. The streets are spanned by arches, made
from the young pliant bamboo, which are covered
with the choicest flowers, and ornamented with
golden and silver flags, glittering amidst the many-
coloured blossoms ; on each side are vases filled
with fragrant oils, and in alcoves are images hold-
ing gold and silver lamps.
" In the thoroughfares are to be seen throngs of
men, who are armed with bows and arrows. Among
these people are men of lofty stature, who carry
large swords ; the strength of these godlike beings
is so great, that with one blow of their mighty
weapon, they can sever the body of an elephant.
Myriads of people, elephants, horses, bullocks, pa-
CiiYLON AiND THE CINGALESE. 289
lanqueens, and Iiaccories, are constantly passing and
re-!)assing. Among this busy multitude devoted to
occupation, may be found many wlio make the plea-
sure of others tlieir employment, as there are necro-
mancers, dancers, and musicians of far-off nations,
whose chanque shells and tom-toms are ornamented
with cloth of gold. The gates of the city are far
asunder ; the distance of the principal gate to the
southern entrance is four gaws ;* and fiom the
northern to the southern gate, is it not also four
gaws? The principal streetsf are three; their
names are, Great King-street, Great River-street,
and Moon-street — in the latter are more than twice
five thousand dwellings, the greater number being
goodly-sized houses. The lesser streets in this vast
city are countless. The king's palace is a stupen-
dous edifice, and has immense ranges of buildings,
some of two and three stories in hei"ht. The
subterranean apartments are of great extent.
What man can tell the space of ground they
cover?"
Although the style of this account is essentially
oriental, the remains of this magnificent city fully
corroborate the above statement ; as the ruins of
the walls, public buildings, stupendous tanks, and
religious edifices, bear evidence of the enormous
* A gaw is four Enp;lish miles.
t We refrain from giving the Cingalese names of the streets,
out of compassion to our beloved selves, as all the typographers
vi'hom we come across will persist in adopting their own spelling,
instead of ours, in Asiatic proper names.
VOL. II. O
290 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE,
poj)ulation wliicli must have been required, to un-
dertake, and complete, these gigantic structures.
Tlie learned Chinaman, Fa-Hian, visited Ceylon
in the fourtli century, and he gives a most graphic
description of the condition of the island, and the
glories of Anooradhapoora. He comments upon the
flourishing condition of the country, and informs us
that the capital was inhabited by the monarch, his
courtiers and nobles, numerous magistrates, who
administered the laws with justice, and merchants
who were largely engaged in commerce with dis-
tant and foreign states. Fa-Hian also expatiates
on the magnitude of the public buildings; the size
and style in which the abodes of the nobles and
wealthy were ornamented ; the length of the streets
and roads, which, he says, "were wide and straight;"
and concludes his account by expressing the joy it
gave him, as a devout follower of Buddha, to see
the numberless halls which were solely used by the
priests to preach in, and expound the laws of Budd-
ha ; and that the eighth, fourteenth, and fifteenth
days of each moon were devoted to the " great
preachings," when crowds of people of all grades,
from the highest to the lowest, filled these buildings.
Near Anooradhapoora are the remains of a stone
bridge, called, by the natives, the Bridge of Devils,
as they declare that none but demons could have
hewn and placed such immensely massive stones in
the form of a bridge. But it appears evident, from
their ancient structures, that the Cingalese, more
than two thousand years ago, made use of the
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 291
wedge to wrench blocks from the parent rock,
afterwards forming the huge masses into tlie re-
quired shape by means of the chisel, and adopted
various methods, not only in the formation, but also
in the embellishment, of massive granite jjillars,
which have been introduced into this country as
improvements during the present century. Robert
Knox, in 1679, whilst making his escape from the
Kandians, after one-and-twenty years' captivity,
saw these ruins, and thus alludes to them : — Here
and there, by the side of this river (the Malwatte
Oya, or flower-garden river), is a world of hewn
stones, which, I suppose, formerly were buildings ;
and in three or four places are the ruins of bridges
built of stone ; some remains of them yet standing
upon pillars.
It is singular, that among the ancient sculptures
of the Cingalese, which portray the monarclis of the
forest, an animal resembling the heraldic unicorn i^;
frequently delineated ; this creature has the head,
body, and limbs of a horse, and from the centre of
the forehead a tusk-shaped horn protrudes. The
natives affirm that the unicorn, in former days, was
oft-times found in the jungle ; but, as no remains of
this animal have ever been discovered, many regard
this assertion as a fable. Nevertheless, it must be
regarded as a most extraordinary fact, that an ani-
mal should be introduced into their ancient scnlj)-
ture whose form perfectly corresponds with a crea-
ture which has been considered, by the greater
number of naturalists, as purely ideal. Some
o 2
292 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
authors presume that the sculptor intended to
portray the rhinoceros ; but we cannot for one
moment entertain this supposition, as the natives
aie, and more especially the ancient artists were,
faithful copyists, and could never have confounded
the slender body of the animal called by them Kan-
gewana — by us, unicorn, with the unwieldly form of
the huge rhinoceros
In ail the ancient architectural remains of the
Cingalese, extreme simplicity of design is the prin-
cipal feature; nevertheless, some of their chiselling
in granite, both for sharpness and depth of cutting,
would compete with, if not rival, European work-
manship of the present day. All the ancient sculp-
tures which have been discovered in Ceylon, at
Anooradhapoora, and other places, far surpass the
works of native modern artists, as the figures pro-
duced by the old masters are frequently correct in
their proportions, and invariably full of animation ;
whilst considerable artistic skill is evinced in the
arrangement of the subjects.
The Maha-Wihare, or great temple of Anoorad-
hapoora, was built in the third century antecedent to
our era, and, although it is now in ruins, many of
the steps, leading to the principal entrance, are in
complete preservation, and are most exquisitely
chiselled; the elephant, lion, and buJSalo being re-
presented, respectively, with extreme fidelity, and
grpat spirit. These ruins are still decorated with
small stone ornaments, the carvings on which
evince good taste and considerable skill, and it is
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 293
most remarkable that notwithstanding their expo-
sure to the elements for centuries, the greater num-
ber of these carvings are as well defined, and the
lines as sharp and clear, as if they had been newly
chiselled.
Some idea may be formed of the ground origi-
nally covered by this enoruious building, from the
dimensions of the enclosure, surrounding the court
of the Bo tree, which occupies a space measuring
three hundred and forty feet in length, and two
hundred and fourteen in breadth. In the middle of
the court stands the Bo, or sacred tree, which tradi-
tion asserts is a branch of the tree under which
Goutama reposed, when he became Buddha; and
devout Buddhists of the present day travel immense
distances to pay homage to the tree under whicii
their god had slumbered. In fact, this is the chief
object of veneration and worship to the countless
pilgrims, who visit Anooradhopoora annually.
In front of the Maha-Wihare stands the Great
Square, one side of whicli is covered with the ruins
of the Lowa-Maha-Paya, or brazen palace, so called
from the material with which the roof of the build-
ing was covered. This noble structure was erected
by Dootoogaimoonoo, who reigned one hundred
and forty-one years before the present era, as an
abode for priests ; it was of a square form, each of
its sides being two hundred and thirty-four feet; its
height was two hundred and seventy feet. This
building contained nine stories, on each of which
were one hundred apartments, the uppermost story
294 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
being occupied by those priests who were most cele-
brated for their piety and learning ; whilst the
lower ones were appropriated to the pupils and sub-
ordinates.
The ruins now consist of sixteen hundred granite
pillars, in a greater or less state of preservation,
which, being placed in forty parallel lines, form a
square. These pillars vary in height, some being
eleven feet above the ground, whilst others are
eleven and a-half ; those standing in the centre are
delicately, but not elaborately chiselled, whilst the
exterior ones are plain, and only half the thickness
of those in the centre, which are nearly two feet
wide, and one and a-half thick ; on these pillars tlie
stupendous fabric rested. From native records we
learn that the interior of this spacious edifice was
gorgeously decorated, the hall in the centre of the
building being profusely ornamented with gilt
statues of elephants, lions, and buffaloes; at one
end of the hall, upon a platform, was a carved ivory
throne, on either side of which were ranged golden
suns, silvery moons, and stars, these being the attri-
butes of royalty.
Although some sceptics profess to disbelieve the
historical records of Ceylon, surely the relics of past
generations, which are to be seen at the present
day, bear ample testimony to the verity of the native
accounts, concerning the former glories of Lanka-
diva.
Within a mile and a-half of these ruins, are the
gigantic remains of several dagobahs, which rear
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
295
their towering crests above the lofty trees in the
surrounding jungle : these monuments are solid
structures of brick, and were originally covered witii
chunam,* but this incrustation has now fallen otf
the greater number of these edifices. The Ruwan-
vvelli-saye is a Dagobah of peculiar sanctity, and
was commenced by Dootoogaimoonoo: tradition
states that this mausoleum owes its erection to the
following circumstance. During the time the
brazen palace was being built, a stone pillar was
found near the spot where the Dagobah now stands.
On this pillar a prediction was inscribed, which
stated, that where the stone was found, a superb
Dagobah of one hundred and twenty cubits in
height would be built by a good monarch, who
would be rewarded by Buddha for his piety both in
this life and in the next.
Whether piety, or a desire to be rewarded in
accordance with the prediction, induced the monarch
to undertake the construction of this monument,
we cannot determine, as upon this point history is
silent, but the Dagobah was commenced, and nearly
completed, the spire alone being wanting, when the
monarch died, and his successor finished the l)uild*
ing. History further records that when Dootoogai-
moonoo found that his life was drawing to a close, he
* This is a preparation from lime, cocoa-nut milk, and the
glutinous juice of a fruit-tree indigenous to Ceylon. The mix-
ture is of a milk-white hue, and adheres readily to any sub-
stance on which it may be laid. Chunam will bear a high
polish, and strongly resembles marble in colour and durability.
296 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
entreated his brother to have a model made of the
spire ; the dying monarch had his wish complied
with, and a wooden spire covered with white cloth
was placed upon the Dagobah. The expiring king-
caused himself to be conveyed to the sacred edifice,
that he might see tlie structure completed (appa-
rently) before he quitted this world ; and a granite
slab, surrounded with pillars, marks the spot where
the monarch's palanqueen rested. Near to this slab
is a stone trough, of the size and shape of a man's
body, which according to tradition was used by the
the king as a bath, when he was suffering from the
sting of a black scorpion.
The Dagobah stands in the middle of a square
platform, whose sides are each five hundi-ed feet in
length, the whole being surrounded by a moat
seventy feet wide. The platform is paved with large
slabs of granite, and the slopes towards the fosse are
ornamented with massive pieces of sculpture, repre-
senting the heads of elephants, which project, as
though the sculptor intended the beholder to ima-
gine, that the 'bodies of these huge creatures sup-
ported the superstructure. On the embankment
stands a deep-suiik pillar, which is fifteen feet high,
and four in diameter, and, although the surface of
the stone is now smooth, the priests declare that it
formerly bore the prophetic inscription, which
caused the erection of the Dagobah.
The Ruwanwelli-saye is now a conical mound of
brickwork, overgrown with brushwood; still this
stupendous ruin, which is one hundred and eighty
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 297
feet high, is regarded with peculiar interest both by
the antiquarian and man of science, as it was to the
spire of this Dagobah, that Sanghatissa the First,
who reigned a.d. 243, phiced -a pinnacle of glass, to
seroe as a protection against lightning.
This account will be found in the Maha-Wansa,
which was written in the middle of the fifth cen
tury, between 460 and 480, thus clearly proving the
advanced state of science among the ancient Cinga-
lese, and the knowledge they possessed of the non-
conducting property of glass.
The ruin of the largest mausoleum which was
ever built in Ceylon, is to be seen at Anooradha-
poora ; it is called Abhaayagiri-dagobah, and was
built by AVallagam Baliu, in the century preceding
our era. The original height of this gigantic struc-
ture was four hundred feet, the platform and moat
being in proportion ; the ruin is now two hundred
and twenty feet high, and the outer wall exceeds
one mile and a-half in length. Trees of lofty
stature cover this ruin, the only portion of brick-
work perceptible being towards the summit ; and
few sights can be conceived more sublimely grand,
than the spectacle presented by this huge conical
mass of luxuriant vegetation.
The finest specimen of a mausoleum in Ceylon,
although of smaller proportion than the preceding,
is the Dagobah which is built over the collar-bone of
Goutama Buddha. This edifice is called Zoophaa-
raaraaya, and was built by Dewenepeatissa, who
reigned three hundred years before the Christian
o 5
298 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
era. Native annals declare that Zoophaaraamaya,
was beauteous to behold, the slender pillars and
ornaments being like the precious gems around the
throat of a youthful matron ; and the ruins fully
justify the eulogium. The Dagobah is low, broader
at the summit than at the base, and is surrounded
by four lines of slender stone pillars, six-and-twenty
being placed in each line. The pillars are twenty-
three feet high, have circular capitals, octagonal
shafts, and square bases — the latter being narrower
than the capitals. These graceful columns are
ornamented with the most delicate and elaborate
chiselling conceivable, and are so arranged on the
platform of granite as to form the radii of a circle,
of which the Dagobah is the centre : and all anti-
quarians agree in admitting, that this Dagobah is
the most elegant specimen of architecture in the
island.
At Anooradhapoora there are eight large tanks,
and many smaller ones, which are entirely cased
with hewn stone. In some of the smaller tanks
there are cells on one side, about five feet high, ten
long, and seven broad, which the priests state were
formerly used by their order as places of prayer and
contemplation. These chambers are also cased with
slabs of granite, and are so constructed, that the floor
of each cell would have been level with the water,
when the tank was full. There are many wells
also, which are cased with granite; the largest and
deepest is near the Ruwanwelli-saye, and the stone-
casing is so built as to form a flight of steps, which
gradually diminish in size towards the bottom.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 299
What motive could have actuated the builder in
thus arranging- each course of masonry, has formed
a matter of conjecture to many. Europeans say
the casing was thus constructed to facilitate the
operation of cleansing the well, in which opinion
we cannot coincide, leaning towards the native
tradition, which states, that at the bottom of the
well there is a secret entrance to the Ruwanwelli-
saye. This tradition is supported by their histori-
cal records, which refer to a secret entrance to
this Dagobah, stated to have been known solely
to the reigning monarch, and the chief priest for
the time being, by which the king used to enter
when he desired to worship the relics of Buddha,
wiiich were therein entombed.
Near Anooradhapoora there is a spot which is
looked upon with extreme veneration by the pil-
grims, being the tomb of the Malabar king Elala,
who was slain on the spot by Dootoogaimoonoo.*
« In the Maha-Wanso will be found the whole account of
this combat, and we subjoin that portion. After a lengthy
statement regarding the causes which led to the fight, the
native historian says — "The king Dootoogaimoonoo then
made this proclamation 1)y beat of tom-toms — No other per-
son, save myself, shall spoil the valiant Elala. The king tiien
accoutred himself for mortal combat, and, mounted on his well-
bedecked and courageous war-elephant Kandooloo, he pursued
Elala, and found him near the southern gate." The monarchs
then agreed to the terms of the battle, and the history pro-
ceeds ; — "The two kings entered into personal combat near the
.southern gate of the city, within sight of their men-of-war,
chiefs, and nobles ; and the arms and raiment of the might\'
300 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
The Malabar had obtained possession of certain
parts of the island, and had erected various for-
throng beamed like the sun at noonday. Then began the
battle. The king Elala hurled his spear — the magnanimous
sovereign Dootoogaimoonoo avoided it, and, causing his ele-
phant to charge with his tusks the other elephant, and hurling
at the same time his lance at Elala, he and his elephant both
fell together. Then the conquerer, surrounded by his martial
men and nobles, entered the capital, and summoning within
the walls of the city the inhabitants of the neighboui'hood who
dwelt within four gaws (sixteen miles), he held a solemn feast,
in honour of the Malabar king, Elala. Consuming the corpse
in a funei'al pile of sandal-wood, on the spot where he fell, he
ordained that a magnificent tomb should be erected. The
glorious monarch also ordered that the mausoleum should
receive honours, like unto those that are conferred upon tri-
butary kings ; and this command was engraven upon a pillar.
Unto this day, the monarchs who have succeeded to the king-
dom of Lanka-diva, on reaching that quarter of the city, leave
their palanqueens, whatever the procession may be, and silence
their musicians. Would any man of lower degree presume to
do that which mighty kings refrain from doing ? If he dare
disobey this solemn injunction, will he not merit and receive
the severe displeasure of Buddha in this life, and in his suc-
ceeding one ?"
Among the ruins of Maagama is to be seen an octagonal
pillar, nine feet and a half in length, and eight in circumfer-
ence ; to this the state elephant was chained, when the city was
a royal residence. This pillar is called the Stone of Kandoola,
the name of Dootoogaimoonoo's favourite war-elephant. The
marks of the chain are distinctly visible, as they have nearly
obhterated the inscription — the word Sri-royal, being the only
one that can be deciphered. The ruins of the palace, wihares,
dagobahs, and other antiquities about this spot, are extremely
interesting. Historical records first mention this city, b.c. 280.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 30l
tresses, which were successively taken by the
Cingalese monarch. At length, Dootoogaimoonoo
challenged Elala to single combat, which he
accepted, and they conjointly agreed that the
conqueror should take possession of the territories
of the vanquished.
On the appointed day, the respective monarchs
met at this place, both being mounted on a war-
elephant. After a severe combat, victory declared
in favour of Dootoogaimoonoo, who slew Elala
with a lance ; and on the spot where the latter
fell he was buried, and a monument was erected
to his memory by the Cingalese monarch. Near
the tomb was placed a pillar, on which was in-
scribed a prohibition, forbidding any one of high
or low degree, under a penalty of incurring
Buddha's displeasure, from passing the tomb in
a vehicle of any description, and tom-toms, and
other musical instruments, were likewise forbidden
to be played upon in the vicinity.
Although more than twenty centuries have
elapsed since the Malabar king, Elala, was slain,
the natives declare their monarch's injunction
has never been disregarded by a Cingalese. We
believe this to be correct ; for it is a well-known
fact, that in 1818, after the rebellion in Kandy,
when Pilimi Talawe, who was a descendant of
the royal family, and the king of Kandy's Adigar,
was attempting to escape from our government,
he alighted from his palanqueen as he approached
this spot, and not knowing the exact place where
302 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE,
the tomb stood, walked a considerable distance,
although almost exhausted with mental anxiety,
and bodily exertion.
The celebrated Buddhist rock temples are ex-
cavations in the Dambooloo Galla, or Rock of
Dambool, which is of vast extent, and nearly
insulated.* Some scanty patches of stunted
vegetation are dispersed over its surface, but
the general aspect of this huge mass is desola-
tion and barrenness. Although the exterior is
thus forbidding, the sight of the extraordinary
and wonderful excavations in the interior, and
works of art, have caused numerous enlightened
individuals to gaze in speechless amazement
around them ; for these sacred fanes of Dam-
bool may be regarded as specimens of man's
patience, ingenuity, and skill in past ages, and
are to be classed with the caves of Elephanta in
India, and the pyramids in the sandy plains of
Egypt.
These rock temples are vast in magnitude, tlieir
decorations, in a high state of preservation, are
characteristic, and are maintained in thorough
order by the attendant priests. The rock of Dam-
bool is elevated five hundred and twenty feet
above the surrounding forests ; the northern side
of the rock is especially barren, the four temples
being situate in a vast cavern partly natural, on
* There are numerous rock temples scattered over the island,
but none either so large, or in the same state of preservation, as
these at Dambool.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 303
the southern side, which rises about three hundred
and fifty feet above the plain : by immense labour
and skill the stony mass has been excavated, and
formed into these wondrous works of art.
The approach to the temples is on the eastern
side, the precipitous path passing- over a narrow
shelving rock, which leads to a modern stone arch-
way, that forms the entrance to the platform in
front of the temples. The interior of the fanes
of Dauibool is concealed by a wall, four hundred
feet in length, which is pierced for the reception
of windows and doors ; this wall is sheltered by
the overhanging rock, as well as by a thatched
verandah, which is supported by wooden pillars
of modern date, and rough workmanship.
Wallagam Bahu was the king who founded the
rock temples, and the largest of these excavated
religious edifices was commenced by him eighty-
six years before the Christian era, and is called
the Maha Rajah Wihare, or the Great King's
Temple, in honour of the monarch. We learn
from historical records, that the king personally
superintended, and occasionally assisted the work-
men in the formation of this sacred fane. This
magnificent cave is entered by an arched portal,
on either side of which stand stone statues,
which appear to scowl on the inquisitive in-
truder ; the length of this excavation is one
hundred and seventy-eight feet, the width eighty,
and the roof is twenty-five feet high at tjje
loftiest part, which is at the front wall ; the
6
304 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
height of the cave gradually decreasing to the
opposite wall, thus forming a complete arc of a
circle. The whole surface, walls, and roof, are
painted in the richest and most brilliant colours
imaginable, which appear perfectly fresh, although
they have not been renovated for more than half a
century.
The paintings represent incidents in the life of
Buddha, and historical subjects. Some of these are
peculiarly interesting, as they illustrate the early his-
tory of Lanka-diva. The first represents the voyage
of Wijeya and his seven hundred followers, the
conquerors of Ceylon : the monarch and his train
are represented in vessels totally devoid of sails,
and having only lower masts, the ships are en-
compassed with fishes and sea monsters, rather
out of proportion we confess, being nearly of equal
size with the craft, but to compensate for this
inaccuracy, green lotus leaves of the natural size,
float on the tranquil bosom of the ocean.
In another painting is portrayed the dedication
of the island to Buddha; the peace and good feel-
ing inculcated by his doctrines are exemplified
under the allegorical symbol of a king patronizing
agriculture: the monarch is seen guiding a plough,
which is drawn by elephants, priests following, who
throw the grain into the furrow This series of his-
torical painting is continued down to the period of the
arrival of the Bo-tree, the Dalada, and other relics
of Bnddha; the building of Anooradhapoora, and
its rer!giou<5 edifices, being likewise duly set forth.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 305
Tlie best painting, botli as regards proportion and
animation, is the one which describes the combat
between the Cingalese monarch, Dooloogaimoonoo,
previously alluded to, and the Malabar king, Elala ;
the moment of defeat is the one selected by the
artist, Elala being depicted falling from his ele-
phant, in his death agony, after he has been pierced
by the lance of his adversary. The expression of
triumphant joy, in the Cingalese king's face, forms
an admirable contrast to the pain and dejection that
are portrayed in the countenance of the wounded
man.
As the temple is well lighted by numerous win-
dows, every detail in the paintings and decorations
can be brought under immediate inspection, and
the whole are well finished, evincing both taste and
skill. This sacred temple is dedicated to Buddha,
and contains forty-eight statues of the god in differ-
ent attitudes, which are of various dimensions, the
greater number of them being larger, but none less
than the natural stature of man. There is also an
exquisitely proportioned Dagobah, reaching to the
roof, whose circular pedestal is embellished with
four figures of Buddha, seated upon coiled cobra-
capellos.
There are statues likewise of the gods, Vishnu and
Samen, the goddess Patine, and the kings Walla-
gam Bahu, and Kirti Nissaangha. The first statue is
peculiarly interesting to the antiquarian, as it is
stated in the records that the costume * is the same
* The comboy was of fine muslin, or cotton, the necklace of
yold.
306 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
which was worn by the first kings of Ceylon ; the
attire consists of the comboy or petticoat, girded
about the loins with a scarf, and neither embroidery
nor ornament is depicted upon either ; the ears of the
figure are considerably enlarged, and have a square
hole in the lobe, in the Malabar style. Around the
neck is a double-headed serpent, whose body is
coiled midway about the throat, and a head of the
reptile is passed through the hole in either ear, thus
forming unique ornaments. Although the carving
of this figure is not highly finished, the expression
of the statue is a combination of majesty, kindness,
and dignity.
Kirti Nissaangha was the monarch, who in 1193
repaired the dilapidations of the rock temples,
which had experienced much damage from the Ma-
labars, during their invasions, re-gilded the various
statues of Buddha, and gorgeously ornamented the
excavations, whereby, according to the native annals,
he expended in decorations alone, six hundred thou-
sand pieces of gold.
An inscription in the characters of the twelfth
century, records the name of the monarch, and the
date of the repairs, and orders that from thence-
forward Dambooloo Galla shall be styled Swarna
Giriguhaaya, or the cave of the Golden Mountain.*
* Part of the inscription on the rock. — " The sovereign lord ,
and munificent monarch, of the dynasty of Kaalinga, sur-
named the Heroic and invincible Royal Warrior, gloriously
endued with might, majesty, and wisdom, like the beauteous
and placid moon, radiant with cheering and benignant qua-
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 307
The greater number of statues are placed in rows,
at a trivial distance from the inner walls and sides
of the caves, but at the western extremity, the
figures are arranged in double files, whilst the
images of the two monarchs stand near the outer
wall.
At the eastern end of the temple is a square
space, railed in, and sunk below the level of the
fioor. In this is placed a chatty, or vase, to receive
the water which continually drips fiom a fissure in
lities." The inscription goes on to state how the island had
suffered from the invasions of foreigners and the mismanage-
ment of her native rulers, and that the monarch, after conquer-
ing his enemies, and accepting ransom for the chief prisoners,
which ransom consisted of " Young and royal maidens, ele-
phants and horses, then caused obelisks of victory to be set
up as lasting monuments, and ordered alms-houses, wihares,
and dewales to be built. Having also a perfect knowledge of
the doctrines and tenets of Buddhism, he promoted the cause
of religion, and the interests of science, by restoring the ruined
fanes, and the highways, which had been destroyed in conse-
quence of the calamities which had befallen the land during
former reigns, and rebuilt the wihares in the city of Anoorad-
hapoora, and many other places, and expended vast riches
thereon. Within this Wihare, he caused to be made seventy-
two statues of Buddha in the erect, the sitting, and the recvim-
bent postures, and having caused them to be gilded, he cele-
brated a great rejoicing at the expense of seven lacs of golden
money. As it is thus recorded on this stone the mighty mo-
narch gave to this cave the name of Swarna Giriguhaaya. He
also caused gardens and fields to be cultivated, and dwellings
for the priests to be formed in this mountain, which was known
to our fathers by the name of Damboola (ialia."
308 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
the rock ; although this water is extremely pure, no
native will venture to taste it, as they believe that
they would inevitably incur the immediate and se-
vere displeasure of Buddha, should they presume
to use the fluid which was exclusively to be appro-
priated to religious purposes. One of our country-
men, who ought to have been a disciple of Father
Mathew from his affection for the pure element,
after indulging in a hearty draught from the chatty,
turned to the attendant priest, and telling him the
water was deliciously cool, jested with him on his
superstitious belief, saying, that no misfortune would
befall the drinker, he felt quite assured, be his creed
what it might.
" All that may be very true," said the Buddhist ;
" you and your countrymen may, for aught I know,
drink the whole chattyful daily with impunity, but
of this I am quite certain, that if one of us were io
touch a drop of that water, in the next life he
should be either a ravenous dog, or a hungry cow !"
What man would run these risks for the sake of
a drink of cold water?
Few people have ever heard the Buddhist service
gone through in these primeval temples, but those
who have, describe the scene as being sublime and
impressive in the extreme, and we cannot do better
than give the account of an eye-witness, who at-
tended a former governor of the island in an official
capacity : —
" Before we quitted this temple, in which it was
pleasant to remain on account of its cool atmosphere,
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 309
we had an opportunity afforded to us, to witness the
manner in whicli Buddha was here worshij)ped.
The service was performed at his Excellency's re-
quest, under the direction of the chief priest, who
evinced not the slightest hesitation, but instantly
intimated the wish to the people, and supplied them
with flowers. Each person on receiving his flowers,
laid them before an image of Buddha, accompany-
ing the oflFering with a pious ejaculation.
" When the offerings were all made, and the peo-
ple arranged in a line before the images, and kneel-
ing, the priest stood in the middle, and with a clear
voice, sentence after sentence, recited the common
obligations of their religion, the congregation re-
peating each sentence after him. The united voices
of at least one hundred men in the highest key of
recitative, or rather of the loudest exclamation,
made the cavern resound, and had a fine awful ef-
fect, producing a thrill through the system, and a
feeling and sentiment not to be described."
The cave temple, which, although the most mo-
dern, stands next in size and beauty of decoration to
the preceding, is the Aloot Wihare, or new temple.
It was constructed by the last royal patron of Dani-
bool, namely, the Monarch Kirtisree Rajah Singha,
whose reign terminated in the year 1780. This
Buddhaical cave is eighty-eight feet long, seventy-
six wide, and the sloping roof at the highest part is
thirty-two feet from the ground, the walls and roof
being entirely covered with brilliantly coloured de-
vices. In this excavation there are fifty figures of
310 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
Buddha, none less than life, most of them are co-
loured bright yellow, and some few have violet-co-
loured robes ; the god is portrayed in three atti-
tudes, standing, sitting, and reclining. Some of
the erect figures are ten feet high ; but the princi-
pal statue is a gigantic recumbent figure of Buddha,
which is thirty feet long ; the proportions of this
statue are admirable, the drapery gracefully ar-
ranged, the features handsome, and the expression
of the face benevolent and calm. At the western
extremity there is a statue of the King Kirtisree,
which is well executed, and represents the monarch
in his robes of state—and the costume closely ap-
proximates to the court dress worn by the last king
of Kandy.
The cave temple called the Maha Dewo-dewale,
or the great god's shrine, is dedicated to Vishnu,
and the image of the god is regarded with great
veneration, as tradition states that Vishnu person-
ally assisted at the construction of his own resem-
blance. This cave is seventy-three feet in length,
twenty in width, and twenty-two in height, and con-
tains a finely proportioned recumbent figure of
Buddha, forty-six feet long. The couch and pillow
on which the statue reclines, are carved in the
solid rock, and both the figure and accessories are
admirably executed. At the feet of the statue
stands a favoured disciple ; in a corner opposite to
the face, the statue of Vishnu is placed, and the
priests assert that the last moments of Goutama are
thus depicted, and that as he drew his last breath,
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 31 1
Vishuu appeared to Ijim. This cave is dark in the
extreme, and the lamps, which are carried by the
priests, scarcely illimiinate the surrounding ob-
scurity, therefore it requires but slight imaginative
powers in the beholders, to fancy that a being whose
spirit has just departed is lying before them.
The dimensions and adornments of the smallest
rock temple are inferior to the preceding, although
in this, as in the others, the roof and sides are
painted in rich colours and pleasing devices. This
cave is fifty-two feet long, twenty-five wide, and at
the loftiest part of the shelving roof about twenty-
three feet high, and contains a Dagobah eleven feet
high, and several coloured statues of Buddha as
large as life.
These temples are under the charge of a certain
number of priests, whose abodes, of a superior de-
scription, are below the caves on the south side of
the rock, and are attached to the Asgiree Wihare at
Kandy : the priests say, that the whole of the flat
country, which may be seen from the summit of the
rock are temple lands, and they can produce a
sanus, or royal deed of gift, to prove their assertion.
In defiance of this statement, we have been in-
formed, that not more than twenty villages belong
to them, and that they can only command the ser-
vices of fifty men.
Above the entrances to these temples, there are
inscribed on the rock several short sentences, in the
Nagara, or square characters, which were used by
the ancient Cingalese ; and on the platform, which
312 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
extends the whole front length of the temples, a
bo-tree and several cocoa-nut palms have been
planted, and, notwithstanding their unfavourable
position, being exposed alike to the burning sun,
parching droughts, and tempests, combined with
the arid nature of the soil, they have reached ma-
turity, bearing flowers and fruit most abundantly ;
and the air around is frequently replete with the
perfume of the graceful blossoms of the sacred
tree.
On the western side of Dambooloo Galla, are
the remains of the Samo Dagobah, the building
of which was completed by Wallagam Bahu, the
founder of the largest rock temple. In past cen-
turies, on the summit of the rock of Dambooloo,
there stood three large mausoleums, but exposure
to the elements and the hand of time have caused
them gradually to crumble away, and it is with
some difficulty their sites can now be traced.
Fifty feet below the summit of the rock is a pool
of delicious water, and the natives declare that it
was never known to be dry, although in seasons of
long-continued drought, the streams for miles
round have been devoid of a vestige of water. The
summit of the rock commands a magnificent and
extensive view of the surrounding districts, and with
a cloudless atmosphere, the greater part of the
mountains and valleys of Matele, the Seven Korles,
the wooded plains and rugged rocks of Newara
Kalawia are distinctly visible to the naked eye,
whilst the mountain of Rittigalla, rising above the
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 313
surrounding plains two thousand foet, appears, when
the day is slightly misty, to blend with the heavens.
Two of the most interesting and conspicuous
spots to be seen from the sunnnit of" Dambool, are
Dahiyakande and the circular rock of Sigiri. The
first is near the fort of Vigittapoora, celebrated in
Cingalese history for the long siege which it sus-
tained more than two thousand years ago ; the se-
cond was once the capital of the island, and was
renowned for its vast fortress.
In the year 478 this spot was made the seat o-f
government by Sigiri Kasooraboo, who murdered
his father to obtain possession of the throne ; and
this monarch is styled by some authors Kaasyapa,
the Parricide. Few Europeans have visited these
ruins, which were discovered by Forbes, who gives
the following graphic description of the place : —
" To form the lower part of the fortress of Sigiri,
many detached rocks have been joined by massive
walls of stone, supporting platforms of various sizes
and unequal heights. We perceived, at a consi-
derable distance overhead, a gullery clinging to the
rock, and connecting two elevated teiraces at oppo-
site ends, and about half the height of the main
column of rock The ascent to the
gallery is by a double line of small steps; four
square holes visible above, have probably contained
supports for a platform to project over this hazard-
ous pathway, from which missiles would descend
with such force and certainty, as effectually to pre-
vent hostile intrusion. . . . The gallery had
VOL. II. p
314
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
been formed by cutting grooves in the rock, where
it was not quite perpendicular, and these served for
the foundation of the parapet w^all and floor ; and
one hundred yards of this gallery reniains entire.
In several of the huge masses of rock, included in
the ramparts, tanks have been excavated ; they are
neatly ornamented, and in size vary from twelve to
twenty feet in length.
" On the plain towards the north-east, and con-
nected with the elevated terrace at the east end of
the rock, stood the royal buildings, that part which
was on the level ground being surrounded with a
wet ditch faced with stone. The town lay around
the palace, to the north of the rock. Many small
steps leading to the summit of the rock may still be
perceived, but they are in too dilapidated a state
for any one to attempt the ascent. We found the
gallery, which wound along the rock, had been
formed of brick, originally coated with cement, so
durable, that large portions of it still remain. From
the rock above, and overhanging this passage,
much stone has been removed by fire and wedges.
The projecting rock above the gallery within reach,
had been painted in bright colours, fragments of
which may still be perceived in places sheltered
from the heavy rains."
The natives say that formerly a tank was formed,
and is still to be seen, on the almost inaccessible
summit of the fortress ; and, although this spot has
been abandoned for centuries, there is a vast tank
in the neighbourhood, which might be put in repair
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
315
at a very trivial outlay. Near the rock of Sigiri is
a cave-leniple, which the priests say contains two
statues of Buddha, carved in the solid rock; but, as
the temple is filled with rubbish, it is impossible to
ascertain the truth of the statement. Close to the
temple are the remains of a large dagobah, and
thirty- four stone pillars in good preservation, which
formerly supported the assembly-hall of the priests.
Near Sigiri there are the ruins of a large Bud-
dhaical establishment, called Minigiri, which the
priests state was formerly a nunnery, or residence
for the priestesses, which appears extremely pro-
bable, as it is a well-established fact that there for-
merly were priestesses of Buddha in Ceylon. Few
native laymen will approach this spot, owing to a
tradition that is still extant, which declares that
none save women and priests, can visit Minigiri
without incurring the vengeance of Buddha and the
gods. We presume this must have originated with
the priests of former days, who were naturally
anxious to prevent the inmates of tlie hallowed
spot being intruded upon by males. Although the
building has long si;;ce fallen into decay, and the
inhabitants have departed from the earth, still the
superstitious belief prevails, notwithstanding the
cause which gave rise to it, is but an " echo of the
past."
Dondera, or Dewinoowara, the City of the God,
is five miles from Matura, and is the most southerly
part of the Ceylon coast. The temples and reuniins
which are here to be seen are peculiarly interesting
p 2
316 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
both to the antiquarian and oriental scholar, as the
rnins of an ancient edifice, situated on a rocky
})oint, couinieraorate the conquest of Ceylon by
Rama, supposed by some to be a fabulous being.
A solitary stone pillar, is all that remains perfect
of this magnificent edifice.
The shape of this sole memento of the past is
remarkably singular, as the stone is formed alter-
nately into squares and octagons. Sir William
Jones, the eminent Oriental scholar, fixes the date
of Rama's existence about eighteen hundred and
ten years before the Christian era, and writes,
" Rama, who conquered Silan [or Ceylon] a few
centuries after the flood." The Cingalese annals
assio-n the date of 2387, B.C., as the period of Rama's
reign in Lanka-diva.
In the RamayHna, ti>e oldest epic poem extant,
i> contained the earliest notice, to be met with in
Oriental literature, of the Cinnamon Isle. This
j>oein celebrates the reeds of Rawana, the King of
Ceylon and Southern India, and Rama, the Prince
of Yodhya, or Oude. Seeta, the lovely wife of
Rama, was carried off by Rawana. in revenge for
the insults which had been inflicted upon his rela-
tives by the latter, Rawana bore Seeta to the
interior of the island, and concealed her in the
jungle. Rama, enraged at the loss of his beauteous
spouse, resolved upon regaining her, and inflicting
condign punishment upon her ravisher ; and, ac-
cordingly, proceeded to Ceylon, where he landed,
accompanied by a host of martial followeis. Afrer
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 317
a series of battles, which endured for a period of
twelve years, Rama conquered Rawana,* regained
his wife Seeta, and obtained possession of the island.
Tradition affirms, that the edifice alluded to at
Dondera, was built to commemorate the event.
The Ramayaua states that Rama bore his wife in
triumph to his native land, " to live a king, and die
a god," leaving one of his faithful adherents to rule
the conquered island. The hero Rama is wor-
shipped in Ceylon under the name of Samen, and
his statues are invariably painted blue.
Although the Ramayana is diffuse, and the events
detailed frequently bear the impress of improbabi-
lity, our admiration is irresistibly commanded by
the multitude of exquisite passages contained in the
work ; and it is deeply to be regretted that the
whole of this beautiful poem has not been trans-
lated into English.f We subjoin an extract, which,
for beauty of composition and sublimity of thought,
* The Hindoos believe, that the Queen of Rawana, to be-
guile her time, during this tedious siege, invented the game
of chess. The game is well-known to the Cingalese, who use
the same number of pieces as Europeans. Native scholars say^
that chaturangu, chess, is nearly as old as their island.
f This poem contains 610 sections, to the best of our belief,
but 143 have been translated. By some the Ramayana is
compared to the Iliad of Homer, as each poem details the same
events— the abduction of another's wife, the attempt of the
enraged husband to rejoin his spouse, the long and bloody wars
that ensued, and the ultimate recovery of the fair dame. The
similitude of the respective images in the Hindoo and Greek
poems must be apparent to every reader conversant with both.
^lO CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
we believe to be unsurpassed by the poets of either
Greece or Rome. The brother of Rama is bewail-
ing the recent death of their aged father ; and the
hero, after condoling with him upon their mutual
loss, rebukes him for indulging in useless lamen-
tation, saying — # # # * *
All compounded substances hasten to decay — all
that are elevated must fall — all things compacted
will be dissolved, and all who live must finally die.
As there is no other fear respecting ripe fruits,
besides their falling, so death is the grand thing
feared by all who are born of woman. A large and
firm edifice, when it becomes aged, decays, and
eventually falls into ruins ; so the old, subjugated
by death, sink into dissolution. The night once
past never returns — the waters of the still Yamoona
run into the sea, who can arrest their progress .''
Days and nights are passing away — the period of
life appointed for all living is continually evapo-
rating, as the rays of the summer's sun draw to-
wards them the earth's moisture. Grieve for thyself
— why shouldst thou mourn for others?
What has that man to do with what continues,
or with what passes away, whose own life is every
instant departing ? Death always accompanies ns —
death stays with us, having travelled to the greatest
distance — death ends our course. When the visage
is full of the wrinkles of time and care, when grey
hairs cover the head, when decrepitude seizes on
man, why should man be anxious to live ? Enjoy-
ments must then be passed.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 319
Men rejoice when the sun is risen, they rejoice
also when it goes down, whilst they are unconscious
of the decay of their own lives. Men rejoice on
seeino" the face of a new season, as at the arrival of
one greatly desired. Nevertheless, the revolutions
of seasons is the decay of human life. Fragments
of drift-wood meeting in the wide ocean, continue
together a little space ; thus parents, wives, chil-
dren, relatives, friends and riches, remaining with
us for a short time — then separate, and the separa-
tion is inevitable. No mortal can escape the com-
mon lot, he who mourns for his departed relatives
has no power to cause them to return.
One standing on the road, would readily say to a
number of persons passing by, I will follow ye.
Why then should a person grieve when journeying
the same road, which has been assuredly trodden by
all his forefathers ? Life resembles a cataract rushing
down with irresistible impetuosity. Knowing the
end of life is death, every right-minded man ought
to pursue that which is connected with happiness,
and ultimate bliss ; even the practice of self-denial
and virtue.
At one period there was a magnificent temple
at Dondera, dedicated to Vishnu ; its remains con-
sist of a large square gateway, which is composed
of three stones, most elaborately and deeply
chiselled, and four granite window-frames of similar
design. The present Temple, in which the stone
frames are sunk, is a mud edifice, to which thousands
320 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
of devotees flock in the month of July, to worship
Vishnu, as this spot is looked upon with peculiar
sanctity by his votaries, many believing that the
fiod was incarnate in the person of the hero Rama.
The scenery in the neighbourhood of this mud
temple is peculiarly interesting ; for mingled with
the native huts, majestic drooping palms, and grace-
fully waving bananas, are to be seen several hundred
upright stone pillars in excellent preservation.
These have been hewn into divers forms, and
different subjects are sculptured upon them, amongst
which the Hero God Kama, with his bow and arrow,
is constantly recurring. The priests state, that
these pillars were formerly a part of the Vishnu
Dewale. From the mud edifice, where the god is
now worshipped, a wide path or avenue, oversha-
dowed by lofty trees, leads to the sea shore, where
stands a group of plain stone pillars.
Close to the Dewale of Vishnu is a Wihare and
Dagobah, the walls of the former being covered
with brightly-tinted paintings of the gods, among
whom is to be seen a creature having the attribute
of man in all save the head, which is that of a bird,
with a long and pointed bill. This divinity
resembling the bird-headed deity of the Egyptians,
called Toth, is to be met with in many Buddhist
temples in Ceylon.
Around the exterior of the Wihare there are
some beautiful miniature specimens of masonic art,
in the form of animals, dmonjyst wliich are a male
elephant and rat, their relative proportions being
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 321
most exquisitely maintained. Within a short dis-
tance of these temples, inland, stands a stone build-
ing, called Galgana, which consists of two apart-
ments, the roof and walls being of granite. On the
top there formerly stood a Dagobah, but the ruin is
now completely covered with small trees, and
flowering- creepers, which wave gracefully to and
fro, as the wind plays amongst them. The native
annals state, that in the year 686 of the present era,
Daapuloa the Second restored these Buddhaical
remains.
As we lingered amidst the lovely and sublime
scenery of Dondera, we wandered towards the sea-
shore to gaze upon the setting sun, whose brilliant
hues were reflected upon the bosom of the blue
ocean. We pointed to a rock standing out a short
distance from land, against whose barren sides the
sea was dashing in foaming waves, their creamy
spray flying about in all directions, and asked the
chief priest who had accompanied our party, if they
had a name for the rock. The man replied that all
the natives called it the Englishman's Rock, as
near that spot an English ship was wrecked at the
commencement of this century. Our curiosity be-
coming excited, we begged the priest to furnish us
with this melancholy history, and the priest of
Buddha, leaning against an areka palm, threw his
yellow robe gracefully over his shoulder with the
dignity of a Roman senator, and commenced the
following narrative : —
" I am not certain about the dates of the Chris-
p 5
322 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
tians, but I tliink it was in the year called by your
people 18 — , that at sunset a goodly ship, owing to
adverse winds, dropped anchor off this coast. When
the morrow dawned, some of our hardy fishermen
pushed off in their canoes, to see if those on board
this mighty vessel required fish or vegetables ; but
no traffic could be carried on with the strangers, as
they neither spoke nor understood our tongue, and
not one of Buddha's followers could utter a syllable
of your language ; the laden canoes therefore re-
turned full,
" When the sun was midway in his career of light,
a small vessel, guided by many men, who used a
long sort of paddle, approached our landing place.
Six men came on shore, who shouted long and
loudly. Attracted by these boisterous noises, I,
attended by my subordinate brethren and pupils,
approached them. Their laughter grew more loud,
as they pointed deridingly to our flowing robes, and
shorn heads, symbols of the meek and radiant
Buddha. I addressed them in a soft tone, and
pointed to the trees bearing the green cocoa-nuts,
and refreshing citrons, to inquire if they wisiied for
them. They laughed at me, then I bethought the
strangers understood not our tongue. So I ordered
fruit to be gathered, and laid on young banana
leaves; these I presented to them with a lowly
salaam, and a kindly smile, for I thought that all
men understood kindness. They seized the fruit
quickly. I thought they were hungered, and ex-
pected to see them eagerly devour the refreshing
7
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 323
viands, but to my amazement tliey laughed and
shouteds and then hurled the fruit at the heads of
myself and followers.
" I turned away in sorrow, as I had leained a sad
lesson, for I found that all men did not understand
kindness.
" I walked towards my temple, your countrymen
followed me, they entered the sacred place, and
their unseemly mirth polluted the shrine of our god.
They examined the walls, statues, and doors, on
which were depicted Buddha and the gods. With
wonder in their visages they looked at these paint-
ings, talked loudly, then walked towards our dwel-
lings. I trembled lest they should discover the
place, where the sacred writings were concealed
from profane eyes. The strangers entered all our
abodes, roughly turning over every article they
found. They raised their shoulders high, and with
vehement mirth appeared to deride the poverty of
Buddha's disciples. Poverty was the chosen lot of
our god — dare his devout followers amass wealth or
possess this world's riches? The strangers returned
to their little vessel, and toour great joy I saw them
paddle towards the goodly ship. Before the shrines
of Buddha and the gods, did I make thanks-
offerings of fruit and flowers for safe deliverance
from these turbulent men.
" The sun was setting in serene glory, and J was
preparing for evening worship, when my followers
rushed into the Wiliare, calling aloud on me. I
rebuked them, but before my sentence was eon-
7
324 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
eluded. T heard niany voices, speaking in a strange
tongue. Your countrymen had returned, accomjsa-
nied by several men, one of whom carried a small
chest in his hand. The chief men spoke together
outside the temple, when one, who appeared the
head man, examined the doors, looking at them
where they were attached to the frame-work. He
then addressed the man, who had charge of the
chest — the lid was raised, and implements whose
names I know not were taken therefrom. These
he applied to the frame-work of the door. In the
time of a passing thought, the beauteous entrance of
our god's temple was wrenched from its supporters
— another thought, the glorious gates were on the
shoulders of twice five men ; and the strangers
turned towards their landing-place.
" Aghast I saw this, I scarcely believed my senses,
I could not breathe. Our god's temple had been
pillaged, whilst I, the chief priest, stood by. I
ordered my followers to seize the doors — they
attempted to do so, but the white strangers were
many and strong, they beat back Buddha's chil-
dren. I threatened the marauders with the god's
vengeance, they laughed scoffingly, appearing to
jeer at my impotent wrath. In my angei- I cursed
them, and with uplifted palms called upon Buddha
for vengeance. They neared their landing-place,
I he gates were laid in the small vessel, in my an-
guish I tried to rush after them, but your country-
men rudely thrust me back. The strangers shouted,
laughed, and pointed the finger of scorn at me, as
they paddled towards their goodly ship.
CEVLON AND THE CINGALE.SK.
325
" In mute despair I stood on tlie shore, and saw the
beauteous gates of our Wihai'e borne up by (he side
of the goodly ship, I watched that ship until the
shades of night made all black around. In anguish,
I returned to my dwelling, resolving with the mor-
row's dawn to appeal to the authorities. I well
knew the English Government would not sanction
the pillage of a sacred building. 1 only feared the
winds might change, and bear the goodly ship to
distant lands In despair I called upon our god to
avenge the desecration of his temple.
" At midnight, the heavens were black, no moon
illumined the skies — a mighty temjiest arose — the
sea roared — the winds howled — strong fi'ees were
snapt asunder, like weak saplings — the gods ap-
peared to have set at liberty the hurricanes of ages.
I thought of the strange mariners in the goodly
ship, and although they had desecrated our god's
temple, I pitied them. When the dawn appeared,
the storm abated. I went down to tlie landing-
place — the goodly ship was not to be seen. I
strained my eyes with gazing around the horizon,
hoping to see the goodly ship — bat I looked in
vain. The murky waters were still troubled, and
as I stood they dashed over me. 1 drew back hs a
mighty wave slowly rolled towards the shore — it
retreated, and left behind it a piece of wood.
" When the sun was high in the heavens our shore
was strewn with fragments of the goodly ship,
which proudly rode at anchor, when last the sun went
down. Buddha had avenged his cause; but 1, his
326 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
servant, was very sorrowful, as I thought upon
those in distant lands, who would watch in vain
from sunrise to sunset for the return of the strong
men, who h;id gone forth full of health and hope,
in that goodly ship — and I grieved, that I had
cursed the strangers in my wrath, when they plun-
dered our gods' temple, and scoffed at me, his lowly
slave. I have no more to tell."
Making a low salaam, the old priest walked slowly
away, and our party returned to Matura, somewhat
saddened by the history, but bearing with us vivid
and pleasant recollections of the sublime scenery
around Dondera, and the kindly sentiments, which
had been expressed by the aggrieved heathen,
towards his Christian aggressors.
Near Belligamma, fourteen miles from Matura,
is a curious statue of a monarch, called the Kustia
Rajha, or leprous King. This figure is twelve feet
high, and is sculptured, in bold relief on a rock, the
head-dress and attire being those which were worn
by the Cingalese monarchs up to, and, during the
twelfth century ; the coiffure consists of a conical
tiara, on which figures of Buddha are chiselled. It
is impossible to ascertain with certainty, when or
by whose order this figure was executed, as no in-
scription was found upon the rock. Some priests
say, this statue represents the Indian prince, who
introduced the cocoa-nut palm into the island, and
instructed the Cingalese in the manifold purposes
to which it might be applied. Others state, that a
king, who was suffering from the most loathsome
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 327
species of leprosy, made costly offerings to the Agra
Bodi Wihare in tlie neighl)onrhood, imploring
Buddha to relieve him, and that as his prayer was
heard, in gratitude he caused his statue to he carved
near the spot, where his cure had heen effected.
From the comparatively fresh appearance of the
statue, and the costume, we cannot helieve that it
is a work of a remoter date than the twelfth, or early
part of the thirteenth century, especially as the
statue of the monarch, Kirti Nissaangha, in tiie
largest cave Temple of Dambool, is attired in a
corresponding style, and from concomitant historical
circumstances it has been proved, that the latter
figure was completed between 1186 and 1198,
therefore we cannot entertain the idea, that the
statue at Belligarama was intended to pourtray the
Indian introduction of the cocoa-nut tree.
Cingalese history states, that at Pollanarooa,* in
the time of Upatissa the Second, whose reign began
A.D. 369, a large tank, called Tapaweeva, was con-
structed by this monarch. In a.d. 651, Sirisangabo
the Second built a palace and resided there, during
the short period he was compelled to resign his
throne to a usurper. During the reign of succeed-
ing monarchs, Pollanarooa was their occasional
residence, Anooradhapoora remaining the seat of
government, until the termination of the eighth
century, when the latter was abandoned, and Polla-
* In some ancient records this place is called Pulastya-pooi a,
and under this name it is mentioned in the Ramayana. Polla-
narooa is now generally designated Toopare.
328 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
narooa was then declared the seat of government
and capital of the island. Until the twelfth century
the city gradually increased in size; and its days of
brilliant splendour were daring the reigns of Prack-
rama Bahu the First, surnamed the Grand, who
ascended the throne a.d. Ii53, and Kirti Nissaan-
gha ; as it was by those nionarchs that the chief
public edifices were either completed or constructed.*
PoUanarooa was regarded as the capital (although
many of the buildings had been despoiled by Ma-
labar invaders) until a.d. 13 18, when it was finally
abandoned, and all the magnificent structures,
which then remained entire, were suffered to fall
into decay. The seat of government was then re-
moved from place to place, according to the caprice
of the reigning monarch, until Wimala Dhaarma
ascended the throne in a d. 1592, when Kandy was
declared the capital, and the court was not again
removed by the native kings. Although the city
was less extensive, and the buildings of smaller
dimensions than those of Anooradhapoora, the ruins
are more interesting, as they are in a higher state
of preservation. Like those at Anooradhapoora,
the remnants of departed grandeur at PoUanarooa
are surrounded by forests, and for several miles
around, in the thickest jungles, granite steps, hewn
* Prackrama constructed a succession of tanks, artificial
lakes, and canals, which extended a distance of one hundred
miles. The monarch gave his name to this stupendous and
useful work, and the remains of the " rivers of Prackrama " can
be still seen, and traced for a considerable distance.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 329
stones, and other pieces of chiselled masonry, recall
to the traveller's mind, that here man once reigned
triumphant, where now, the huge elephant seeks
shelter from the noonday sun.
The king's i)alace is now a vast mass of ruins,
overgrown with brushwood ; this royal abode is
erected on the embankments of the tank Tapeweeva,
the waters of which were conducted under-ground
the palace. The king's bathing place is still percep-
tible, which is of a circular form, and about seven feet
in depth — the excavation is lined with granite, one
round stoue in the centre being raised above the
pavement, on which the monarch sat or stood,
whilst the royal bath-keepers poured water from
golden chatties over the sovereign's head.
This palace was built by Prackrama, who also
formed an extensive garden, in which was erected
the coronation hall, three stories high, and built a
rampart around the city. Historical records state
that it was during this king's reign, Pollanarooa
rose to its meridian of glory, the principal thorough-
fares then extending to six gaws, or twenty-four
miles, and the lesser streets to four gaws from the
city into the suburbs. The most noble ruin, and
that which is in the best state of preservation, is the
religious edifice, called Jaitawanarama ; whose archi-
tecture approximates somewhat towards the style
observable in the early ecclesiastical buildings of
Europe, the edifice having two rows of gotliic win-
dow-frames.
Tiie native annals affirm this temple to be afac-
330 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESK.
simile of the one which was erected for Gontaraa
Buddha. Before the temple there is a low mound,
over which groups of pillars are scattered ; this
leads to the grand entrance, and on either side of
the gateway stands a polygon pillar, nearly fifty
feet high. These pillars gradually taper to the
summit, which is terminated by a square, the pro-
portions, and chasteness of the chiselling being most
exquisite. The building contains two apartments,
and facing the gateway a gigantic, well-proportioned
figure of Buddha, as high as the pillars, projects
from the wall. The length of this structure is
nearly one hundred and sixty feet; the height now
about sixty, but what it was originally it is impos-
sible to determine. The walls are extremely thick,
and are entirely composed of bricks and mortar, but
there are the remains of a stone moulding, which
formerly ornamented them. It would appear that
the whole building was formely covered with white
chunam, a preparation resembling marble, as por-
tions of the cement still adhere to the walls, pillars,
and statue of Buddha.
Near the Jaitawanarama is an immense rock, on
the perpendicular face of which are chiselled, in the
boldest relief, three enormous statues of Buddha.
These figures are in the three orthodox positions,
namely, erect, seated, and recumbent. The piopor-
tions of these colossal images are remarkably well
preserved, particularly in the reclining figure, which
is thirty-eight feet long. A cavern temple has been
excavated in the solid rock, between the erect and
CEYLOiN AND THE CINGALESE.
331
seated figures, and in front of this wihare, two pil-
lars have also been cut out of the stony mass. In
the interior of the temple a portion of the rock was
left, which has been exquisitely chiselled, and this
laborious specimen of the sculptor's art, represents
a throne with Buddha seated upon it. This Wihare,
by some called Isuramuni, by others, Kalougalla,
was constructed by Prackrama Bahu, but authors
disagree as to whether the Jaitawanarama was built,
completed, or only repaired by Kirti Nissaangha.
The loftiest building at Pollanarooa is the Ran-
koot Dagobah, which was built by the second queen
of Prackrama Bahu. This mausoleum is covered
with brushwood, and the slender form of the spire
can be distinctly seen from a considerable distance,
as the height of the ruin, from the platform to the
extremity of the sj)ire, is above one hundred and
fifty feet. The records state the height of this Da-
gobah originally to have been one hundred and
twenty carpenters' cubits,* from the platform to
the top of the spire, on which was placed a golden
umbrella. Eight small chambers or chapels are
placed around the base of the Dagobah, and be-
tween each there is a small ledge, or projection,
which is ornamented with sculpture. Kirti Nis-
saangha, who beautified the building, and removed
the umbrella, changed the name from Rankoot to
Thooparama, as the original cognomen was then no
longer appropriate, ran, signifying gold, and koot,
a fan-like termination.
* A carpenter's cubit is two feet three inches.
332 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
The Dalada Malagawa, or palace of the tooth,
was also built by Prackrania: its style of architec-
ture is simple, the building is small, and is com-
posed entirely of stones. Tradition states the granite
roof to have been added by Nissaangha, who per-
sonally superintended the workmen, and the num-
ber of artificers employed was so great, that the
roof was joined together between sunrise and sunset.
The interior of this tempie is nearly full of rubbish,
therefore it is impossible even to conjecture what
the decorations may have been.
In the neighbourhood of the Jaitawanarama there
are the effigies of two serpents carved in stone,
namely, the polonga, and the cobra or hooded
snake. The native legend states, that in ages be-
fore the flood, these snakes fought a battle in this
place ; that the name bestowed upon the city is a
corruption of their respective designations in the
Cingalese language, uamely, polon and na, and that
on the rocks in the centre of the tank, the figures
of the bellipotent reptiles have also been carved.
The Satmahal Praasada was originally seven
stories high ; this building is of a pyrauiidical form,
but the remains do not convey the idea of its former
altitude. The Bannagee was an edifice appropriated
to the public reading of the Buddhaical writing;
and the ruins are rendered reinarkable by the ex-
traordinary enclosure surrounding them, which is
constructed of upright pillars of hewn stone, into
which are inserted two rows of horizontal stone
bars
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 333
The remains of many other buildings are to be
seen at Pollanarooa, but as these are not in fine
preservation, a description would be useless ; to the
oriental scholai* and antiquarian, however, these
relies are peculiarly interesting, as the sites occu-
pied by them, and the inscriptions engraved upon
them, perfectly coincide with the native annals,
which give an account of Pollanarooa, the position
and the period when these buildings were erected.
Numberless inscriptions are found engraven upon
pillars and tablets, some large stones being com-
pletely covered with them. These inscriptions are
generally well executed, the letters and ornaments
being clearly defined and sharply chiselled ; the
characters, although Cingalese, contain many let-
ters which are totally obsolete, the most erudite
scholars being unable to determine their significa-
tion ; nevertheless the data which these inscriptions
supply are most valuable, as they confirm the vera-
city of the native historian. One inscription re-
cords the lands and dignities which were bestowed
by the monarch on a chieftain named Kooloondoot-
tette, Albanawan, and his bosom friend, Kumbu-
daluawan, who was also a noble. These men " had
done the state some service " in many ways, and had
also been instrumental in placing the monarch on
the throne of Ceylon. The most interesting in-
scription is extremely lengthy, being engraved upon
a rock twenty-six feet in length, four feet and a
half in breadth, and two feet thick.
This huge mass was brought fi-oui Mehintalai,
334 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
which is distant more than eighty miles from Pol-
lanarooa, and it is impossible even to conjecture
what motive could have instigated the monarch to
have this tablet brought from so remote a place,
when quarries and rocks abounded around Pol-
lanarooa, from which masses of stone had then
already been riven by wedges, which had been
hewn, and formed into buildings, pillars, and sta-
tues. It has also been an enigma which never has,
and, in all probability, never will be solved, how,
and by what means this rocky mass could have been
transported over mountains and across streams,
until it was finally deposited at Pollanarooa. Tra-
dition informs us, this huge piece of rock was ]*e-
moved by men, if so, the amount of human strength
required for the purpose must have been immense :
and the inscription on the tablet corroborates the
traditional report. The shape of this tablet is pe-
culiarly elegant ; it is most exquisitely ornamented,
and the minute characters thereon are beautifully
chiselled. The form is slender, resembling the leaf
of a native book, and the characters are so inscribed
as to leave a wide margin, which is embellished with
a border of birds.
The inscription on one side commences with
" Adoration to Buddha the lion, and the noblest
individual of the race Saaka ;" it then goes on to
state the lineage of the god, and the munificent acts
of the reigning sovereign, who reduced the taxes,
bestowed alms upon the needy, built tanks, repaired
watercourses, and endowed wihares, and concludes
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 336
by stating " that his majesty, wearing the regal
head-dress and ornaments, caused himself, his chief
queens, his son and daughter, to be weighed in a
balance, and by bestowing five times their weight
of goods on the priests, the blind, the crippled, the
deformed dwarfish, and other destitute and friend-
less beings, who thronged from ten countries, made
all happy. For these deeds the gods blessed the
land with refreshing showers."
On the opposite side the inscription states that
the monarch made a tour of the island, built wi-
hares, made costly offerings to the Ruwanwelli Saye
at Anooradhapoora, repaired and gilded the statues
in the cave temples at Dambool, built numberless
wihares and alms-houses, dedicated his son and
daughter to the Paatra and Dalada relics, then
redeemed them by offering a solid gold dagobah
and other valuables. The monarch expresses his
hopes that future rulers will govern with equity
and mildness, and will maintain the established
religion of the country, and that if they should
observe these precepts, they might aspire to the
felicities of both worlds, the inscription concluding
with the following words, " Future sovereigns are
thus affectionately exhorted by Kaalinga Nissaano-
ha, King of Lanka-diva — This engraved stone is the
one which the chief Adigkar Unaivooman-danawan
caused the strong men of the mighty Nissaangha to
bring from the mountain Saegiri'* at Anooradha-
* This is the ancient name for Mehintalai.
336 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
poora, in the time of the Lord Sri Kaalinga Nis-
saangha Chakkrawarti."
These two last inscriptions were engraved between
A.D. 1187 and 1197, and, notwithstanding the lapse
of centuries, and exposure to the elements, the mi-
nute letters and embellishments are as sharp as if
the sculptor had just completed his task. The in-
scription regarding the grant of land was executed
during the reign of Saaliasamallawa, who ascended
the throne about the year a.d. 1205.
We have elsewhere remarked upon the number
of inscriptions, that are scattered over the island,
which cannot be deciphered, as they are composed
of characters which none can translate.
There is one piece of sculpture at Pollanarooa
which affords a wide scope for the inquiries of the
antiquarian, and no clue has yet been obtained to
elucidate the meaning of the subject, which repre-
sents a man standing in a supplicatory attitude, be-
tween a dog and crow. Some suppose that it is a
patent conferring nobility or lands upon some
favoured subject, whilst others imagine, that it re-
presents a malefactor whose soul, for some heinous
crimes committed in this world, was predestined iu
his two succeeding lives to inhabit successively the
bodies of these creatures.
In ancient days the monarchs of Ceylon, when
thev bestowed grants of land upon their favourites,
used to threaten any person, who unlawfully at-
tempted to obtain possession of these gifts with
Buddha's vengeance, and a sanus is st'll extant on
CKYLON AND THE CINGALESE, 337
which is inscribed, " So long as the sun, moon, and
stars, so long as the Aetagalla* and Andagalla rocks
shall endure, for that time this grant is made.
Should any one presume to violate this edict, he
will inevitably arouse Buddha's vengeance, and the
audacious mortal's spirit, when he is next born, will
inhabit the body of a crow, or dog."
Our limits will only allow us to glance at a small
portion of the remains of civilization, refinement, and
grandeur, which are dispersed over the bosom of the
" Pearl of the East,'' and much yet remains untold
of the wonders of the Cinnamon Isle.
* This rock is six hundred feet high, and bears a strong
similitude to a tusk elephant.
VOL. II.
338 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
CHAPTER X.
Population — Excess of males— Three classes, Cingalese, Ma-
labars, Moors, the latter the Jews of Ceylon — Difference
between personal appearance and character of Kandians
and Cingalese — Revenue, sources of — Land sales formerly
included therein — Tariff — Pearl fishery, amounts of in-
come under Dutch and English — Protection of banks —
Shark charmers — Chanks, income, retail trade partly
opened — Land revenue, mode of collection, proposed
abolition, income — Stamps, amount of — Fines and for-
feitures, amount of — Carriage tax — Arrack and toddy
farms, income of — Road tax — Post-office, revenue of —
Custom dues — Loan — Economy in public service ordered
— Suggestions for reductions in revenue establishment —
Currency, paper, amount of, silver coinage, gold, native
money — Course of exchange — Cash balances of treasury
— State of government paper currency — State of govern-
ment funds — Revenue and expenditure — Military charges
— Estimated revenue and expenditure for 1849 — Principal
articles imported during 1845 — Principal articles exported
— Internal resources undeveloped — Conclusion.
The population of the island is very inconsidera-
ble in comparison with what it must have been in
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 339
former days, and it is a difficult matter to arrive at
the true amount, particularly in the interior. We
find there are some places from which returns were
not made in the last census, taken in the year 1844,
by which it appears, that the total population then
amounted to 1,442,062, whereof 7, 1.33 were Euro-
pean. This gives us a population of 5869 to the
square mile.
Of the native population the males are very
nearly one-tenth more than the females, which
seems a very large preponderance. It is rather
remarkable that this extraordinary disproportion is
most apparent in the poorest districts of the island,
where the population is least numerous, and where
naturally the inhabitants find it most difficult to ob-
tain the means of subsistence. It is also a fact no
less singular, but one which is well known in
Ceylon, that in many of the fishing hamlets, where
food is abundant and cheap, the number of females
exceeds that of males.
The island is thinly inhabited, but its internal
resources are adequate to support a dense popula-
tion, as it did, in fact, in ages past. The popula-
tion of the high lands, and Kandian provinces, is
considerably less in proportion than that of the
low lands and maritime districts.
The inhabitants of the island may be divided
into three classes, namely, the Cingalese, Mala-
bars, and Moors ; the Malabars reside principally
in the northern and eastern maritime districts, and
ti 2
.340 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
the greater number of them are professed Budd-
hists, and they fiequently intermarry with the Cin-
galese; whilst the Moors are dispersed over the
whole island, residing permanently or sojourning
in any town or district, where money is to be
made.
Many people most appropriately style the Moor-
men, the Jews of Ceylon, as they exhibit great per-
severance in their pursuit after wealth, and traffic
in every commodity whereby money is to be made ;
there is not, therefore, a saleable article, from the
most valuable and precious gem to the most trivial
article of food or attire, which may not be obtained
from a Moorman.
As many of them are extremely wealthy, they
are the money lenders of Ceylon, and the rates of
interest which they charge in most instances are
enormous ; numbers of them perambulate the
island, like our hawkers, witli various descriptions
of articles for sale ; the richer are attended by one
or more coolees, who carry their bundles of goods,
and these packages will frequently contain a splen-
did Cashmere shawl or scarf, worth more than a
thousand rupees, or £100, according to the value
of the rupee in Ceylon, and papers of needles,
pins, threads, and tapes. The poorer class of
Moormen vend every article by which they can ob-
tain a pice, and frequently European produce, such
as cheese, pickles, and biscuits, can be purchased
of them at a very low rate.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 341
Although the Moors have lived among the Cin-
galese for centuries, they rigidly follow and observe
their own religion and customs, and intermarry
only with their own people ; indeed, we cannot re-
call to mind ever knowing, or having heard of, an
instance of a Moorman, or Moorwonian, having
been married to a Cingalese, or Malabar.
The inhabitants of the highlands and lowlands
in Ceylon, differ most essentially both in physical
and mental attributes. The Kandians, or natives
of the highlands, are a larger race, and although
subjugated by us, retain their love of independence
and freedom, and are both noble and brave; whilst
those of the lowlands and maritime provinces, or
Cingalese, as they are called in contra-distinction
to the Kandians, are of small stature, servile,
sycophantic, and cowardly in character.
The revenue of Ceylon has heretofore been de-
rived from the customs, stamps, salt monopoly,
pearl fishery, arrack farms, land sales, land reve-
nue, and rents exclusive of land — and the total
amount of the year 1845 was £454,140, while the
expenditure of that year was £448,2-3"2, leaving an
excess of revenue amounting to £5,914. In 1847,
however, we find the revenue decreased to £437,502,
while the expenditure increased to £476,192,
leaving thus a deficiency of £38,690.
With this large deficiency, and the heavy ex-
penses attendant upon the rebellion of 1848, the
colonial government must be crippled to a consi-
342 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
derable extent, particularly when we reflect that
up to the year 1848 land sales had always most
erroneously been included in the annual revenue;
but they have been classed since that date under
the head of extraordinary resources, for the pur-
pose of being applied to the construction of roads,
and other public works, amongst which latter we
trust the tanks will have their due proportion.
The whole tariff of the island has been re-
modelled, by an ordinance passed in November,
1847, whereby a fixed duty, instead of one of five
per centum ad valorem, which theretofore existed,
has been established upon all articles imported,
with the exception of goods, wares, and merchan-
dize, not specified in exemptions, which are still
charged a duty of five per centum ad valorem.
The exempted articles are books, copperah,
seeds, live stock, ice, manures, regimental accou-
trements, and specimens of natural history. Of
the exports, cmnamon pays a duty of fourpence
per pound, and all other articles are free ; while
goods or wares, the produce of the island, fi^rmerly
paid two and a half per cent. It is scarcely possi-
ble to judge of the result of the new tariff, business
and trade having sustained so much interruption
from the insurrectionary movements in Kandy, and
the consequent expenses incurred by the govern-
ment. The revenue, however, of the first nine
months of the year 1848, was £315, 103, and the
expenditure <£324,'277, which gives an excess for
that period of £9,279.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 313
The pearl fisheries have become of late years
very unproductive, and as it was supposed that
this was attributable to their too frequent occur-
rence, they have been discontinued for some years.
The first record we find of a pearl fishery is in the
year 1668, under the Dutch government, but the
amount thereby realized is not stated.
The earliest account extant of the produce
arising from this source of revenue is in the year
1746, which is stated to have been £4,766 13s. Ad.
The amount of the fishery in the following year was
£21,400 ; the year succeeding was £38,580 ; while
the next year amounted to £68,375. These fish-
eries then decreased, until we find that they again
increased in the year 1796, when the first under
the English government produced £60,000; that
of the following year realized £110,000; and in
the year 1798 the produce amounted to £140,000,
which last appears to have been the largest amount
realized in any one year.
Since that period, however, the produce of each
fishery considerably decreased, until, in 1844, it
only realized £105, which was the last which took
place ; and it is not expected that any will be
allovved for many years to come. The pearl banks
are protected, and the natives within a certain dis-
tance, are prohibited under penalties from posses-
ing nets or implements which might be used to the
injury of the banks.
It would be unnecessary to describe the mode
344 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
adopted in diving for pearls, as many writers iiave
treated the subject most ably ; but we are not
aware that the following superstitious practice is
generally known. No sum of money, however
large, no temptation held out sufficiently strong,
would induce the divers to descend into the ocean
unless two shark charmers were present, who, as
they believe, by means of their charms and potent
spells, can prevent the finny monsters of the deep
from injuring the pearl seekers.
One of these imposters goes out in the pilot's
boat, and remains at the head of it, muttering a
prescribed form of incantation as each man de-
scends to brave the perils of the vasty deep. The
other shark charmer remains on shore, where he
is shut up in a room in a state of nudity until the
boat's return with the divers. A large brazen
bowl is left with him filled with water, in which
are placed two silver fishes, and it is affirmed that
the moment a shark appears in the vicinity of the
divers, these fishes agitate the water, and if an
accident is about to happen, one fish will bite the
other; when he perceives such indications, the
charmer immediately " binds the shark " with a
potent spell, and thus compels the creature to ab-
stain from injuring the divers.
These shark charmers reap an abundant harvest
during the fishery, as the natives believe that unless
they are liberally remunerated, they will exert
their powerful spells to make the sharks injure
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 345
them, instead of compelling the monsters to re-
main quiet until the pearl fishery is over.
It is rather singular, that although sharks are
frequently seen by the divers, an accident rarely
happens, and numberless fisheries have taken place
without a single accident occurring. We presume
this circumstance arises from the well-known fact,
that a shark is compelled by the position of his
mouth to turn on his back before the prey can be
seized, which gives the destined victim time to
escape; consequently, the moment the monster is
descried by the divers, a general rush is made for
the boats. Although their escape is effected by
their own agility, the superstitious natives believe
the shark charmers have prevented the creatures
from injuring them.
The chanque farms formerly produced a revenue
amounting to nearly £4,000 per annum, but of late
the demand has been so small, that it has dwindled
down to £200. The chanque {valuta gravis) is of
two sorts, red and white, called by the natives
respectively payel and pattee ; but they are more
commonly known by the name of cowries, and are
used as a circulating medium amongst the natives
on the continent of India. They are also worn by
the Indian women and children in a greater or less
quantity, according to their wealth. The valve ot
a chanque usually opens to the left, but one having
the peculiarity of the valve opening to the right, is
estimated in India, as we have been informed by a
Q 5
346 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
Malabar, at five thousand rupees ; formerly six or
seven hundred divers used to be constantly em-
ployed in this fishery under the surveillance of a
government officer, but the fishery is now aban-
doned, and the income at present derived by
government does not amount to £200, and arises
from permission to dig for the dead shells, which
are to be found in considerable quantities in the
sand.
The salt monopoly has produced an income of
£42,000 per annum : the retail trade has lately
been thrown open from the Kaymel river, situate
in the western province, to the district of Matura
in the southern province. Salt is interdicted to
be imported into the island, except under the spe-
cial licence of the Governor, as regulated by an
ordinance passed in 1840.
The land revenue, or paddy tax, varies in
amount from one half to one fourteenth of the pro-
duce. In the maritime provinces this tax was
generally collected in kind, and an annual assess-
ment made on the produce of each harvest until
1826. This tax, and the manner of its collection,
are most heavily felt by the natives. The tax is
sold, as the tolls upon a high road, and when the
crop is sufficiently matured, its value is assessed
by a government officer, who makes a return to
the government agent of the province, who then
disposes of the tax of each district to the highest
bidder.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 347
The grower is compelled to give a notice to the
renter five days previously to the cutting of the
crop, and two day's notice should he abandon his
intention. And again, should the crop not be
trodden out immediately on being cut, a further
notice is requisite, and any omission or infringe-
ment of these regulations on the part of the grower
is under pain of a penalty recoverable in the dis-
trict court. The system is proved to be most de-
trimental to the interests of the colonj^, from the
fact, that by the returns for many years past, it
appears that the cultivation of paddy remains
about the same, while that of every other descrip-
tion of produce has increased to a considerable
extent.
A commutation of this tax took place in Kandy
by the annual payment of a stipulated quantity of
grain, which remained in force until 1830, at which
date the growers were given the option to pay in
kind or in money. And in the year 1835 the pro-
prietors were allowed the option to continue the com-
mutation by annual money payments, for twenty-one
years, or to redeem the tax by ten years' purchase
at the same rate, and many availed themselves of
the permission to redeem the tax.
Sir Emerson Tennent has recommended the
abolition of this tax altogether, and proposes that
a moderate acreable tax, to be levied upon all
lands, shall be substituted in its stead, which he
proposes shall be collected by the officers of govern-
348 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
raent. This treasure he considers will compel
jobbers in land either to dispose of their estates or
to cultivate them, will abolish the exemption of
headmen from the paddy tax, will modify in some
measure the servile tenure and degradation of the
tenants of temple lands, and include cinnamon and
coffee plantations.
It would be most desirable, no doubt, to equalize
thus the land tax, and compel all descriptions of
agricultural produce to bear their quota: but we
fear that the redemption of some of the lands in
Kandy from the old tax will he found a great
obstacle in the accomplishment of this object. The
paddy tax amounts to thirty -six thousand one
hundred pounds.
Under the head of land revenue is also included
the tax on fine grain, which is a tenth of the pro-
duce, and amounts to three thousand per annum.
A similar tax upon gardens produces between four
and five thousand per annum. To these is to be
added a tax upon forest timber, amounting to some
two hundred pounds per annum.
Stamj)s and judicial receipts amounted to some
twenty thousand pounds ; during the past year,
however, a new law came into force, whereby stamp
duties were re-modelled ; it was estimated that they
would realize thirty-six thousand pounds.
The fines and forfeitures under decrees of the
supreme and district courts used to amount to an
average of one thousand pounds ; however, during
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 349
the last year we must give a very large margin for
this head of revenue, which must be considerable,
from the forfeitures in consequence of the rebellion
of 1848.
The tax on carts used to amount to a sum some-
what similar to the last item ; but under this head
a considerable addition will be made, as by a re-
cent ordinance all carriages and boats used for the
conveyance of goods or passengers for hire shall
be licensed, paying each an annual sum of six
shillings.
Arrack and toddy farms, with the duty on stills,
produces between fifty and sixty thousand pounds ;
and the assessment upon houses for the mainte-
nance of the police amounts to five thousand
pounds.
These are the principal sources of revenue ; but
for the purpose of making up the deficiency occa-
sioned by the new tariff, a tax was imposed upon
dogs and guns ; the former has been wholly aban-
doned, and the latter modified, requiring only a
single registration instead of an annual one ; as a
source of revenue, therefore, it is inoperative. A
road-tax, however, is raised by way of poll-tax, of
three shillings, in lieu of personal labour, upon
every male above eighteen years of age.
The receipts of the post office, in 1846, were
£7,576, and the expenditure was £7,448. Owing
to a recent reduction, the inland postage of a single
letter to any part of the island is only sixpence, in
350
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
lieu of one shilling. Newspapers, price currents,
and pamphlets, not above an ounce in weight, are
charged only one penny. The postage of an over-
land single letter is one shilling to Colombo, the
China steamer calling at the Point de Galle for
letters and passengers.
Custom dues paid in all Ports of Ceylon on Exports and
Imports.
Years.
Amount.
Years.
Amount.
Years.
Amount.
£
£
£
1833
64,419
1838
135,196
1843
124,932
1834
103,030
1839
116,901
184 4
154,843
1835
114,394
1840
—
1845*
144,423
1836
141,049
1841
107,321
1846
140,379
1837
134,958
1842
91,635
1847
150,080
From the financial difficulties of the colony,
government were obliged to raise a loan from the
Oriental Bank, amounting to .£50,000. The
home government has directed that the strictest
economy should be observed in every branch of
the pubhc service, and that reductions should be
made wherever practicable. It is very certain that
many offices might be beneficially dispensed with,
and in all probability the public service would be
in consequence more efficiently discharged.
In one branch alone of the civil service we will
* Expenses of the Customs' Establishment during 1845,
£9,256. 14s.
CEYLOX AND THE CINGALESE, 351
give an instance of the means whereby a saving of
£5,040 per annum might be effected, namely, the
revenue establishment. Ceylon is divided for
revenue purposes into five provinces, namely, the
western, southern, eastern, northern, and central,
over each of which there is a government, and an
assistant-government agent ; but in addition to
these there are three local assistant-government
agents in the western province, three in the south-
ern, one in the eastern, one in the northern, and
two in the central. We should recommend the
reduction of the assistant-government agent for the
western province, and the government agents for
the southern, eastern, northern, and central pro-
vinces, whereby the saving above specified would
be'effected.
The assistant-government agent at Colombo is
a useless office, and the duties of the government
agents in the four other provinces could be as
efficiently discharged by the gentlemen who hold
the office of assistant-government in the respective
provinces, and who at present have little or nothing
to do.
Paper currency was first introduced into Ceylon
under the Dutch government, by the Governor
Vander Graff, in the year 1782, as an expedient
for adding to the " ways and means'" of the
colony, the revenue falling far short of the expendi-
ture, and the American war rendering an increased
military force necessary. All the government
8
352 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
payments were made in paper, while he directed
gold and silver money to be sold by public
auction.
When the British received the island from the
Dutch, we adopted their debts by calling in their
notes, and issuing British government certificates
in their stead. No silver coinage was then to be
found in the colony, and it is very probable that
the copper currency would have been also ex-
changed for necessaries, had it borne any resem-
blance to that of the Indian continent. The out-
standing government notes amount to the value of
£87,450.
The silver coinage in circulation is the rupee,
the current rate of which was fixed by Sir Wilmot
Horton at two shillings, at which it continues to
the present period. This plan was adopted by Sir
W. Horton to ensure the return of the coin to the
country, after it had been carried away in exchange
for rice, as its value in sterling is ouly Is. lOfof.
The dollar also passes at 4s. 2c?.
Gold is not in circulation, being only used as an
article of commerce, which bears a premium, vary-
ing from ten to fifteen per centum.
The coin in general use amongst the natives is
copper, the names and relative value of which are
as follows, namely, 144 challies make 48 pice,
which make 12 fanams, and these amount to one
rix dollar, of the value of one shilling and sixpence
of our money.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 353
A silver coin, called a rix dollar, was issued in
1808, which was alloyed ten per cent, more than
the rupee, with a hope of preventing the with-
drawing of it from the island. It has not had the
desired effect, as the coin is rarely to be met
with.
The native currency formerly consisted of gold,
silver, copper, and lead coins. The gold, copper,
and lead, were of a circular form, whilst the silver
coin resembled a fish-hook, the ends of which were
engraven with figures and characters.
As it was the custom of the people to barter
one commodity for another, money was rarely
used, and the quantity of coined metal in posses-
sion of the wealthiest nobles was comparatively
small. Some idea may be formed of the quantity
of specie likely to have been in the possession of
individuals, when we inform our readers that the
amount of money revenue of the last king of
Kandy, who was most avaricious, and exacted to
the utmost extent from his subjects, did not amount
to seventeen l)undred pounds per annum.
The following is the course of exchange.
With England , . ]s. 6d. per rix dollar.
With Calcutta . '28. \d. per sicca rupee.
With Madras . . ]s. \ld. per rupee.
With Bombay . . Is. 1 1^. per ru|)ee.
With China, Penang,and
the Mauritius . 4». 4d. per Spanish dollar.
354
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
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CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
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356
CEYT-ON AND THE CINGALESE.
State of the Funds of the Ceylon Government
On the 1st January, 1848.
Balance due to the Ceylon Government; —
Balance in the Public Cash Chests in Ceylon : —
£ s. d. £ s. d'
In the General Treasury . . 56,097
Chests of the West. Prov. 3,446
„ North-West. Prov. 3,572
„ South. Province 9,950
„ North. Province 8,170
„ East. Province 959
„ Central Province 7,639
Balance in the hands of the Agent
General in London
Balance in the hands of the Govern-
ment of Hong Kong .
Balance in the hands of the Colonial
Agents at Bombay
In all Balances due to the Ceylon Go-
vernment .....
Balance due by the Ceylon Goverment : —
To her Majesty's Govern-
ment on Account of a
remittance received in
Specie . , £10,000
Deduct Balance due to this
Government for Ad-
vances madefor the Army
Service . . . 3,129 8 0;^
If
3
4
9
89,836 5
lOi
12,051 3
11
1,224 7
Of
903 15
8
104,015 12 6J
6,870 11 III
To the Presidencies in India . . 21,051 11 11
To the Colonial Agents at Calcutta and
Madras. 1,396 3 5^
In all Balance due by the Ceylon
Government 29,318 7 3f
Balance in favour of the Ceylon
Government 74,697 5 2|
N.B.—Balanceon the 1st January, 1848 . . . 74,697 5 2{
Deduct Excess of Expenditure between 1st
January and 30th September . . . 9,279 15 4^
65,417 9 91
636 18 Oi
Balance of Drafts and Remittances in Transit
Balance on the 30th September, 1848 . . £64,780 11 9^
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 357
on the 1st January and the 30th September, 184S.
On the 30th September, 1848.
Balance due to the Ceylon Government : —
Balance in the Public Cash Chests in Ceylon : —
In the General Treasury . . £58,911
„ Chests of the AVest. Province
„ „ North- West. Prov. 3,701
„ „ South. Province
„ „ North. Province
„ „ East. Province
„ „ Central Prov.
Balance in the hands of the Agent in
London . . . £4,180 6 11
Amount remitted in Sept.,
1848 . . . 23,000
Deduct Amount advanced
by Her Majesty's Govern-
ment to 30 September 8,482 10 2
14,517 9 10
2,731 3
oi
, 3,701 6
H
10,986 18
n
8,275 11
H
8,279 15
Ok
10,698 18
7
103,584 14
0]
18,697 16 9
Balance due by Her Majesty's Govern-
ment for advances made for the Army
Service 5,423 4^
Balance due by the Hong Kong Go-
vernment ...... 1,587 15 5|
In all Balance due to the Ceylon Govern-
ment 129,293 6 8
Balance due by the Ceylon Government : —
To the Presidencies and Agents in India 19,083 5 7^
„ Mauritius Government . . P9 8
,. Deposits in the Public Cash
Chests , 28,251 8 7
„ Oriental Bank — Amount of
Loan received . • . 17,078 12 8
In all Balance due by the Ceylon Govern-
ment £64,512 14 10^
Balance in favour of the Ceylon
Government . . . £64,780 11 9:^
358
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
Abstract of the Revenue and Expenditure of the Colony
REVENUE.
Arrears of Revenue of former Years .
Customs
Port and Harbour Dues
Land Sales
Land Revenue
Rents, exclusive of Lands
Licences
Stamps
Taxes — Assessment
Postage
Fines and Forfeitures
Sale of Government Property, including Salt
and Colonial Stores, &c.
Ration Stoppages from H.M- Troops
Reimbursements in aid of Expenses incurred
by Government .
Interest ....
Government Vessels .
Miscellaneous and Special Receipts .
Ditto by the Agent-General in London
£
23,923
90,584
2,175
4,930
36,932
17,190 17
41,151 12
20,915 11
5,277 5
6,186 13
3,329 18
40,116 11
9,323 2
lU
4i
If
11
6
10|
11
11*
11
5}
5^
613 10 9i
2,202 15 lOj
328 2 4i
8,541 2
1,380 8 3
Excess of Expenditure
315,103 17
9,279 15
41
Total
324,383 12
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
359
of Ceylon for the first Nine Months of the Year 1848.
EXPENDITURE.
Establishments —
Fixed Salaries ....
Pro^'isional and Temporary Salaries
Allowances .....
Office Contingencies
£ s.
114,043
17,100
2,795 17
3,772 14
Pensions and Retired Allowances .
Revenue Services, exclusive of Establishment .
Administration of Justice, ditto
Ecclesiastical, ditto
Charitable Allowances ....
Education, exclusive of Establishment .
Hospitals, ditto
Police and Gaols, ditto
Rent
Transport .
Conveyance of Mails, exclusive of Estabhshment
Works and Buildings .....
Roads, Streets, and Bridges
Interest .... ...
Miscellaneous Services ....
Colonial Commissariat ....
Contribution towards Military Expenditure .
Colonial Pay and Allowances
Government Vessel, exclusive of Establishment
Advances in aid of Expenditure to be
hereafter classified and brought to Ac-
count under their proper heads, viz. : —
For Roads, Streets, and Bridges
Works and Buildings
Colonial Commissariat
Colonial Pay and allowances
Other Services, including Estab'*
d.
4i
61
187,711
27,390
4,593
1,429
500
2,312
777
1,634
3,834
1,381
2,954
958
6,599
21,674
5,063
193
21,533
18,000
25,224
287
11 11
15 llj
13 10^
4 7i
16 If
10 io|
1 2
10 5J
10 lOJ
9 IH
15 9
8
18 8
19 94
18 111
10 71
9 6i
4 24
284,106 11 5i
Total
13,927
5 3f
4,698
6 4
10,607
16 11
1,111
2 lOi
9,932
9 91
2:;
.
£324,383 12
81
360
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
Statement of the Military Charges defrayed in
Ceylon hy the Queeii's Chest and the Colonial Funds
from 1838 to 1845 inclusive.
Years.
By
Queen'sChest.
By Colony.
Total.
1838
£
83,699
£
69,881
£
153.580
1839
84,244
72,635
156,880
1840
61,423
70,795
132,218
1841
55,938
68,539
124,478
1842
57,451
67,561
125,013
1843
54,818
64,993
119,812
1844
55,376
65,362
120,739
1845
50,658
75,899
126,557
Total
£503,610
555,669
1,059,280
The above colonial payment includes the cost of
provisions, forage, fuel and light, or money allow-
ances in lieu thereof, the pay of general staff otficers
and the colonial allowances to officers on duty in
general, and a part of the pay of the troops. Thus,
to a Colonel, £45 95. per month ; Lieutenant-colonel,
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 361
£32 2s.', Major, £23 195. ; Captain, £13 16s.; Lieu-
tenant, £8 5s.; Second ditto or Ensign, £6 6s.;
Paymaster, £13 16s.; Surgeon, £17 10s.; Assistant
ditto, £12 10s. Adjutant, £l0 4s. ; Quarter-master
£10 4s. An additional allowance is also made to
officers in command of corps ; also to officers in
command of garrisons, except Colombo, Trincomalee,
Kandy and Galle.
VOL. .n,
362
CEYLON A^D THE CINGALESE.
Estimate of the Revenue and Expenditure of
RECEIPTS.
Arrears of Revenue of former years
Customs
Port and Harbour Dues
Land Sales
Land Revenue
Rents, exclusive of Land
Licenses
Stamps .
Taxes
Postage
Fines, Forfeitures and Fees and Court
Sale of Government Property
Ration Stoppages from Her Majesty's Troops
Reimbursements in aid of Expenses incurred by
Government
Miscellaneous Receipts
Interest ....
Special Receipts
Receipts by the Agent General in London
£
S.
d.
. 25,000
. 100,000
. 4,000
. 6,000
. 45,000
. 20,000
, 72,000
. 36,000
. 4,950
• 7,000
3,000
. 61,000
. 13,000
650
5,900
2,800
400
1,000
Total
£408,300
Note. — The Item of £24,000 " Contributions towards the
Mihtary Expenditure" has been omitted in this Statement.
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
363
the Government of Ceylon, for the Year 1849.
DISBURSEMENTS.
Charges Specially Sanctioned by Her Majesty's Government.
Civil Estabhshments . . . £60,314
Agents of Provinces .... 32,666
Judicial Estabhshments . . . 40,6264
Ecclesiastical Estabhshments . . 9,246
Education Establishments . . . 4,144
Medical Establishments . . . 2,700
Pohce Establishments . . . 2,275
Fiscals in the Provinces . . . 6,891
Colonial Commissary . . . 3,311
Agent General in London . . . 525
Colonial Pay and Allowance
Civil Pensions ....
State Pensions ....
Military Pensions ....
Allowance to Colonial Secretary in lieu of Fees
Visitation Allowance of the Bishop
Fixed Allowance in aid of the Incidental ex-
penses of certain Churches
Allowance of the Civil Engineer for keep of
Horses .....
Allowance of Kandyan Chiefs .
Allowances of Fisher Headmen
■162,698
38,380
201,078
25,809
2,950
3,087
300
500
260
100
984
515
31,846
Half difference of Salary of a Civil Servant
Payments to Mail Coaches for conveying the
Public Mails ....
Interest on Dutch Credit Brieven
2,659
50
669
312
Charges to be voted by the Legislative Council .
Deduct probable Savings on the above Disbursements
Surplus Revenue
Total .
35,536
236 614
. 179,890
416,504
10,000
406,504
1,796
£ 408,300
364
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
Principal Articles imported into Ceylon during the year 1845.
Name of Article Imported.
Apparel, Wearing .
Arms and Ammunition
Books .
Bullion
Coal and Coke
Confectionary &Preserves
Cotton Goods
Cotton Thread
Curry Stuffs
Cutlery and Hardware
Earthenware
Fish
Furniture
Glass
Grain, Gram, and Peas
Paddy ,
Rice
\Vheat .
Gunnies and Twine
Haberdashery & Millinery
Malt Liquor
Manure
Marine Stores
Medicines
Metal, wrought and un
wTought :
Brass
Copper
Iron
Plate and Jewellery
Value.
£
3,399
4,730
3,799
441,156
13,675
2,630
234,643
3,117
5,121
11,868
9,932
16,266
2,251
4,303
8,368
71,076
380,402
6,230
6,227
27,859
16,475
1,410
2,387
3,747
6,796
7,269
5,627
2,515
Name of Article Imported.
Oilman Stores
Pepper and Spices
Provisions
Saddlery and Harness
Salt Provisions
Seeds
Shell, Tortoise
Silk Goods
Spirits .
Stationery
Sugar, Soft
Tea
Tobacco and Cigars
Umbrellas
Wines, French
Madeira
Portugal
Spanish
Teneriffe
Wood .
Woollens
Minor Articles
Value of Articles produc-
ing less than £100 duty
Value of other Articles
imported free
Total Value of Imports £
Value.
£
3,268
1,391
1,397
6,498
2,515
2,635
1,801
6,947
7,344
2,838
4,458
3,474
5,103
2,396
5,608
4,460
3,226
12,777
1,485
6,673
2,655
29,450
67,021
2,852
1,491,549
Statement of Articles producing more than £100 duty.
Name of Article E.xported.
Arrack .
Ai'eca-nuts
Cinnamon
Coffee .
Cocoa-nuts
Coir Rope
Oil, Cocoa-nut
Value.
£
5,641
31,838
40,821
363,259
6,417
8,655
15,936
Name of Article Exported.
Tobacco and Cigars
Wood . . . .
Articles producing less
than £100 duty ,
Total.
Value.
£
16,826
14,298
62,713
£566,407
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 365
Comparatively little is known of Ceylon either
of its internal resources, vast capabilities of its fer-
tile soil, or ancient remains ; and it has excited
our wonder that whilst the cry of emigration has
resounded throughout, Great Britain has been
made to send out some of our starving countrymen
to this favoured spot, where tracks of virgin land
lie uncultivated, which, if tilled, would well repay
the labourer's toil.
The capabilities of Newera Ellia, a most salu-
brious spot we noticed in the first volume of this
work, and proud and thankful shall we be should
our effort incite those who have the power to send
to a less populous part of the world where labour
is required, the peasant who here asks for work in
vain ; and who oft-times, driven to despair by the
spectacle of a starving wife and children, commits
crime in order that he may be sent from a land
where he cannot obtain work and scarcely suffi-
cient food to keep life in his emaciated body.
Into the depths of futurity none can dive, but
we do hope at no distant period to find a number
of our countrymen and their families settled at
Newera Ellia; and, although Great Britain is dear
alike to all her sons, be they rich and high-born or
poor and humble, yet we believe it is a truism,
which none will attempt to gainsay, that plenty
abroad, in company with those we hold dear, is
better than starvation at home, and seeing those
R 3
366 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE.
who are nearest and dearest to us, pine awa)' with
the sickness of hope deferred.
Enterprize and well-directed energies will enable
most men to improve their worldly condition, and
empower them to overcome what appear at first
sight insurmountable obstacles in the path of life.
And it behoves each one who cannot find employ-
ment in their native, to seek it in distant lands, if
he has the wherewithal so to do. What we
deemed impossibilities are frequently accomplished
when proper measures are used, and we cannot
exemplify this better than by referring to the
Kandian tradition, which states, " The island of
I^anka-diva never could be conquered and re-
tained by a foreign power, except two impossible
things were performed, namely, a road bored
through the bowels of the rocky mountains,
and the Mahavelli-ganga spanned by a single
arch."
These apparent impossibilities were performed
by the well-directed energies of Albion's sons ;
the rocky mountain icas pierced by a tunnel, and
a bridge, whose single arch measures two hundred
and five feet, loas thrown across the rapid waters
of the Mahavelli-ganga.
Our pleasing labours are now over, and we
shall feel ourselves amply rewarded should these
pages, and our humble efforts, draw attention to
the present undeveloped resources of the lovely
CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 367
and fertile island of Ceylon. We shall then be
able to exclaim,
" Me satis Ampla
Merces, et Mihi grande decus, sui ignotus in oevum
Turn licet, externo penitusque inglorius orbe."
THE END.
LONDON :
PRINTED BY 0. J. PALMER; SAVOY STREET, 5TRAN3),
In 2 Vols. 8vo., with Coloured Illustrations, Price 25*.
CHINA AND THE CHINESE;
THEIR
Religion, Character, Customs, and Manufactiu-es : the Evils
arising from the Opium Trade : with a Glance at our Re
ligious, Moral, Political and Commercial Intercourse with
the Countiy.
By henry CHARLES SIRR, M.A.
BARRISTER-AT-LAW.
e9})tnt0niS of tI)E \BvtSg.
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