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LONDON: WILLIAM SHOBERL, PUBLISHER, 20, GREAT MARLBOROUGH STREET. 1850. iEntcrcU at Stationers!* I^all. LONDON : PRINTED BY G. J, PALMER, SAVOY STREET, STRAND. o CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. CHAPTER I. Pretender taken — Trial — Pleads guilty — Sentenced to trans- portation — Translation of his statement — Charges made against the Colonial Government — Colonel Forbes' pamphlet — Gun, dog, and road-ordinance considered — Bishop of Co- lombo's letter to Lord Grey — Alleged misinterpretation of laws — Present state of priesthood— Alleged connivance of authorities at rebellion refuted — Court-Martial — Priest shot in his robes — Result of agitation similar to Ireland — Pro- posed location of Malabar — Coolees on forfeited lands — Position of the government — Concluding remarks— List of English Governors. .... Paffe 1 CHAPTER IL National costume of the Kandians and Cingalese — Classical mode of arranging the hair — Beauty of the ornaments — Value — Personal appearance — Native belle — ^The half-castes, or Burghers. . . . . . .31 CHAPTER in. National religion — Antiquity of Buddhism — Transmigration of souls — Fabulous beings — Mythology of the Cingalese — Hea- IV CONTENTS. vens — Hells — Gods — Demons— Devil-dancers, their origin — How practised — Punishments — A.ccount of the last Buddha that appeared — Bitth, marriage, life, and death of Goutama Buddha — Tenets of Buddhism — Commands of Buddha- Doctrines inculcated. . . . . .42 CHAPTER IV. Buddhism, when introduced into Ceylon — Wihares and dago- bahs — Contents of dagobah that was opened near Colombo in 1820— Dalada relic brought to Ceylon, a.d. 310 — Taken possession of by us in 1818 — Publicly worshipped under the sanction of our government — Given up in 1847 — Lord Tor- rington's despatch on the subject — The capital, during the reign of the Kandian kings, when the Dalada was exhibited — The principal Buddhist temple in Ceylon — Shrine of the Da- lada — Buddha — The priesthood — Buddha's commands to the laity — Worship of Buddha — Worship of the gods — The Kap- puralles — Conjoint worship of Buddha and the gods. . 87 CHAPTER V. Religious festivals in honour of the gods — Alootsaul-mangalle, or festival of New Rice — Awooroodu-mangalle, or festival of the New Year — the ordination of Upasampadas — Parra- harrah — Present and former magnificence — Karttie-mangalle, or the feast of the Fortunate Hour — Adam's Peak — The Buddhists' and Mahomedans' account of the mountain — The pilgrim's worship of the Sree-pada — Legend of the Deiya-guhawa — Description of Adam's Peak — Worship of ancestors — Worship of planets — Ulama, or the Demon Bird. . . . . . .123 CHAPTER VL Buddhist marriages — Kandian customs — A daughter murdered by her father — Native laws regarding the marriages of slaves CONTENTS. V —The age when marriage can be lawfully contracted — Poly- andry — Brother husbands — Associated husbands — Beenaand Deega marriages — Kandian proverb — Divorces — Marriage preliminaries — Marriage-feast and ceremony — Marriage of Protestant natives of high caste in the maritime provinces — Marriage of Roman CathoHc natives of good caste — Ceremo- nies observed at the marriages of the Kandian kings — Nam- ing children — Funeral rites of the high and low castes — Obsequies of a monarch — Tombs of the Kandian kings — Electing the sovereign — Investing the king with the attributes of royalty. . . . . . • 1 56 CHAPTER VII. Origin of castes — Their number and divisions — Outcastes Gattaroo and Rhodia — Traditions — Native laws respecting Rhodias — The Veddahs, or aborigines of Ceylon — Forest and village Veddahs — Ludicrous occurrence in a court of justice — Historical account — Legend of Kuwani — Native govern- ment — Rules for the monarch's guidance — Reception of am- bassadors — Mode of addressing the sovereign — Sanus, or deed of gift — Royal amusements — Native laws — Trial by ordeal — Slavery — Kandian proverbs — Tenures of land — The present system of jurisprudence in Ceylon — Mr. Langslow — Proposed modification of the criminal laws — Capital punish- ment not dreaded by the Cingalese. . . . 206 CHAPTER VIII. Encouragement given by the sovereigns of Lanka-diva to science and literature — The Cingalese language — Education — Native literature — Poetical specimens — Tradition of the king and poet — GascOj the poet-lover of the queen — Musical instru- ments — Musicians — Sculptors — Painters — Lacker-painting — Casting in metal — Ivory carving — Carved and inlaid woods — Goldsmiths — Lapidaries — Anecdote — Blacksmiths — Wea- VI CONTENTS. vers — Potters — Architecture— Palace at Kandy — Ecclesias- tical architecture — Healing art, chemistry, surgeons — Dis- eases prevalent in Ceylon .... 248 CHAPTER IX. The state of Ceylon anterior to the Christian era — Anooradha- poora, when built — Circu^nference of city walls — Native his- torical record — Account given by Fa-Hian, the Chinese traveller of the fourth century — Bridge of devils — Mode of shaping and ornamenting granite 2000 years ago — Unicorn known to the Cingalese — Maha-Wihare — Lowa-Maha-Paya — Ruwanelli Saye — Tradition — Glass pinnacle used as a non- conductor, A.D, 243 — Abhaayagiri Dagobah — Toophaaraa- maya Dagobah — ^Tanks and wells — Tomb of Elala — Rock temples of Dambool — Dimensions of the Maha Rajah Wihare — Decorations, paintings, and statues of the gods and kings — Curious descriptive inscription on the rock — Anecdote of the sacred water — Worship in the cave — A loot Wihare — Maha Dewo Dewale — Smallest rock temple — Dimensions and decorations — Exterior of Damboola Gcilla — Summit of the rock — ^Ancient rock fortress of Sigiri — Ruins of a nunnery at Minigiri — Tradition — Dewinoowara, the city of the god — Ramayana, the oldest epic poem extant, comraemmorates the conquest of Ceylon by Rama — Remains of antiquity seen around Dondera — The priest's tale — Antique statue at Belh- gama — PoUanarooa — Remains of tank, palace, religious edi- fices, rock temple, and colossal statues — Dagobah of the golden umbrella — Stone roof — Ancient inscriptions — Mass of stone removed by men — Extraordinary piece of sculpture — Sanus, or deed of gift .... 282 CHAPTER X. Population — Excess of males — Three Classes, Cingalese Ma- labars, Moors, the latter the Jews of Ceylon— Difference CONTENTS. VU between personal appearance and character of Kandians and Cingalese — Revenue, sources of — Land sales formerly in- cluded therein — Tariff' — Pearl fishery, amounts of income under Dutch and English — Protection of banks — Shark charmers — Chanks, income, retail trade partly opened — Land revenue, mode of collection, proposed abolition, income — Stamps, amount of — Fines and forfeitures, amount of — Car- riage tax — Arrack and toddy farms, income of — Road tax — Post-office, revenue of — Custom dues — Loan — Economy in public service ordered — Suggestions for reductions in revenue establishment — Currency, paper, amount of, silver coinage, gold, native money — Course of exchange — Cash balances of treasury — State of government paper currency — State of government funds — Revenue and expenditure — Military charges — Estimated revenue and expenditure for 1849 — Prin- cipal articles imported during 1845 — Principal articles ex- ported — Internal resources undeveloved — Conclusion . 338 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. CHAPTER I. Pretender taken — Trial — Pleads guilty — Sentenced to ti'ansportation — Translation of his statement — Charges made against the Colonial government — Colonel Forbes' pamphlet — Gun, dog, and road-ordinance considered — Bishop of Colombo's letter to Lord Grey — Alleged mis- interjjretation of laws — Present state of Priesthood — Alleged connivance of authorities at rebellion refuted — Court-Martial — Priest shot Ib his I'obes — Results of agi- tation similar to Ireland — Proposed location of Malabar — Coolees on forfeited lands — Position of the government — Concluding remai-ks — List of English Govenaors. It was not until the 21st of September that the Pretender was taken, notwithstanding the nu- VOL. II. B I CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. merous parties which had been sent out in pur- suit of him, and the large reward offered for his apprehension. It appears that he was arrested in consequence of information given by the man who took him his daily supply of curry and rice, and who becoming greatly alarmed for his own safety, proceeded to Captain Watson, and pro- mised to show where the king was, provided he should be afforded assistance, but stating that no European could be of the party. Accordingly, six Malay soldiers were dis- patched with him, dressed as natives, and accom- panied by two moodliers and a headman. The party left Matele in time to arrive at the place of concealment at sunset, which was the usual period at which the pretender's food was taken to him. The guide entered the cave first, taking with him the accustomed supply of curry and rice ; the Malays crept in afterwards, and, in the midst of his repast, they seized the impostor; he resisted, and succeeded in getting on the side of the rock, but was shortly pulled down, bound, and escorted to Matele, where he arrived about nine o'clock the same evening. The cave where the Pretender was discovered is situate in a very large rock concealed in the centre of a thick jungle, distant about eight miles from Matele, and commanding an exten- sive view of the surrounding country. The Pretender bore the appearance of being CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 6 much jaded and harassed when he was taken, and was only attended by one individual, who was stationed on the top of the rock, but is sup- posed to have fallen asleep at his post, and to have been awakened by the noise occasioned in arresting his lord. On the 27th of December following, Gonegalle- godde Banda was indicted for high treason before the regular session of the Supreme Court holden at Kandy, to which charge he pleaded guilty ; a verdict was returned accordingly, and sentence of death was passed upon him ; he was, however, recommended to mercy by the court, and Lord Torrington accordingly commuted the sentence to transportation for life, and a severe public flogging in Kandy previously to his departure. The following is a literal translation of a written statement which was read by the Pretender in open court, when he was called upon in the usual form to show cause why sentence of death should not be passed upon him. " I, Gonegalle-godde Banda, prostating myself before this high tribunal, and making my obei- sance one million of times, most humbly beg leave to submit to the judge, who presides over the administration of justice in the Supreme Court, the following circumstances, namely : — " In consequence of some disagreement at our house at Gonegallegodde, in Oodunneuvere, I was induced to so and live with the elder sister B 9. 4 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. of my fatlier-in-law, who lives at Cadoowella, in Matele ; and, whilst living there, persons who were in office acquainted the poor people that Mr. Buller had established thirty-two new taxes, on which account the people of the four pro- vinces formed themselves into a rebellion. " At this time I was living at Matele, and it is true that one Dingeralle, of Hangoorankette, and the people of Matele collected themselves together, having imposed upon me by false and fraudulent stories, misled me and went with me to Dambool, where the following persons, namely, Lenadora Aratchille, Pallegawa Aratchille, the priest, Giranagama Unanse, Elleherra Corale Aratchille, of the same village, Ratteralle of the same village, Neyarepola Odeharame of Cadoo- wella, Badalmohandirama of the same village, Melpitirge Corale, and all others of Matele, having conspired together, presented to Lenadora Aratchille three cloths, one jacket, and a silk cloth to be used as a turban, and requested him to dress me with the same, which being done, they then procured a palanqueen, and nominated me as their head, notwithstanding my refusal, and conducted me from Dambool to the estate of Wariapoola. " The people attempted and wanted to set fire to the Tappal station between Dambool and Gongavvella, to destroy the people therein living, and to plunder, but 1 did not allow them to com- CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. O mit those wrongful acts ; but those people came almost to Gongawella, and plundered the property there. I hastened after them, and directing them not to plunder property, flogged them with fire rattans until they were smashed to pieces ; but, seeing that they could not thereby be prevented, I cut two men in their hands with a sword, which put a stop to it. " The people also wanted to destroy the court- house, the cutcherry, and the people, but I allowed not an opportunity for carrying those in- tentions into effect. I was requested by them to come to Kandy, but 1 refused, saying, ' You have acted according to your own will without listen- ing to what I said, that no injury should be done to any.' Saying so, I went to the estate of Wa- riapoola. A gentleman was then brought there by them whom they wanted to kill, but 1 saved his life, and did not permit him to be killed. Having come to know, that in consequence of my having prevented them from committing all these aggressions, and chastised the people of their own party, and thereby })revented the plunder, that they intended to take away niy own life, and conspired together to constitute some one else as their chief, I deserted them. " This is all the offence or wrong; I have com- mitted. Both your lordship's soul and my own were created by one God. Your lordship is a supreme being over this island. Your lordship's 6 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. soul and my own will have to communicate toge- ther before the same God. Therefore I implore, in the name of the God who created your lord- shij), in the name of his doctrines, in the name of her Majesty, in the name of her crown, in the name of all the churches established in different countries subject to British dominion, in the name of the priests who officiate in each of them, in the name of his Excellency the Governor of Colombo, in the name of your lordship's royal father and royal mother, and in your lordship's own name, that I may be pardoned for the said offence or wrong, and that I may be discharged for the sake of charity. " Besides this, having got money from my father-in-law, Gonegallegodde Menickrale, I bought buffaloes for him ; these buffaloes, toge- ther with his household property, were taken by government, and his house set on fire : I pray that the same may be restored to him. (Signed) " Gonegallegodde Banda." We must confess that there is little to admire in the tenor of this statement, as few can sympa- thize with a leader, so devoid, by his own show- ing, of courage, dignity, or influence over his followers. The troops which had been brought from Madras returned, part in the middle of Sep- tember, and the remainder at the commencement CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 7 of October. On the 10th of October, martial law ceased in the Kandian districts by proclamation, and on the 23rd of the same month an ordinance was passed by the legislative council to indem- nify the Governor and all persons acting under his authority for all acts done during the exist- ence of martial law. Such were the features of the Kandian rebel- lion of 1848, and the principal events connected with it, which have excited so much public at- tention, and have led to the appointment of a committee of the House of Commons to investi- gate the affairs of the colony. Many charges have been brought against the local government by the Colonial press, and their supporters in this country, and very recently Colonel Forbes has published his view of the case in a pamphlet, entitled " Recent Disturbances and Military executions in Ceylon." * That the colonial go_ vernment has been faultless, would be an absur_ dity to maintain, but the charges preferred against them are of too sweeping a nature, and many at present are totally unsupported by evi- dence. Colonel Forbes, from his long residence in the island, and the official position he held in the colony, ought from his experience to be well qualified for the task he has undertaken ; but, with every respect for his honesty of purpose, * Blackwood and Sons, 1850. 8 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. we cannot shut our eyes to the fact, that his charges against the autliorities, and the defence he has made for the Kandians, are the offspring of a very prejudiced mind. In referring to the complaints raised against the government, we will for convenience take them in order as they appear in Colonel Forbes' pamphlet, as they are in substance similar to those preferred by his predecessors. These are seven in number, and have been reduced by the author into the form of interrogatorif."?, which he starts by answering collectively in the affir- mative. The Coloners first query is, " Were not unjust taxes rashly enacted, recklessly supported, and lightly abandoned ?" This having been answered in the affirmative generally, is then particularly considered, omitting the word " unjust." The dog, gun, and road-ordinances are then discussed, and the first is declared to be " absurd because im- practicable ; impolitic because irritating; and would have been ludicrous had it not been mis- chievous ; it was enacted before, and abandoned aftei- the disturbances of 1848." There are no further reasons given for the writer's assertions, and therefore they may fairly be questioned. The natives are in the habit of keeping a number of dogs, and besides these there are an immense quantity of pariah dogs, which have no owners ; it therefore became ne- CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 9 cessary to legislate upoa the subject, and as the preamble to the ordinance in question states, "to keep down the number of dogs in the island." The law was passed to enable the people to protect such dogs as they wished to preserve, by registration at the trifling cost of one shilling, while all unregistered dogs might be shot by the police. The reader may decide if such a law could be unjust, impracticable, or impolitic. The writer then proceeds to the gun-ordinance which he designates as " impolitic and irritating," and as a reason shows that fire-arms were not prohibited, because gunpowder was kept at the principal stations, and sold to the natives by the officers of the British government. This is very true ; but, according to his own statement, the law required the permission of the government agent to entitle a native to be pos- sessed of, or to carry arms ; and, although the law was not strictly enforced, still it existed, and the new law was only to regulate the registration which before existed. The Governor gives rea- sons in detail in a despatch, page 291, of the Blue Book, for altering this law by striking out the word annual, and rendering only one regis- tration and one payment necessary. The case is clearly made out, however, that these two laws were passed without sufficiently con- sidering the details, that the former was foolishly abandoned altogether, and the latter was modi- B 5 Jo CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. fied, after the disturbances; but the Colonial government cannot be expected to be wiser than her Majesty's ministers, who not unfrequently propose and pass laws without due consideration of their mode of working. The road-ordinance is that with which Colonel Forbes and others are most wroth. The only portion of the charge against the government in reference to this law with which we can concur is, that it " has been amended since the disturb- ances" to remove what was termed " an insult to the religion of the people," by exempting the Buddhist priesthood from compulsory labour. But our ground of objection is because this inju- dicious measure, similar to many others con- nected with our colonies, is likely to be pro- ductive of much evil, in the impression which it is calculated to produce upon the minds of the followers of Buddha, who are all aware that the Christian government of the colony has not given the same relief to the ministers of the Gospel of Christ. We feel that we cannot better express our opinions upon the subject than by quoting the following letter, addressed by the Lord Bishop of Colombo to Earl Grey : — " Colombo, Ceylon, November 13, 1848. " My Lord, " Having no more legitimate mode of bringing my opinion on any points affecting the religious CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. M condition of this colony, before your lordship, I am compelled thus formally to express to your lordship my unfeigned sorrow that, in an Ordi- nance which has just passed the Legislative Council, entitled " An Ordinance to Alter in certain respects, the Ordinance No. 8, 1848, &c." a clause (No. 9) has been introduced, exempting all Buddhist priests from the labour required under that Ordinance, and from all payments in commutation of such labour, on the ground that the tenets of " Buddhism prohibit the priests of that religion performing labour of the descrip- tion contemplated, and forbid to such priests the acquisition of money or other property," while the like exemption is not granted to Christian ministers. " Admitting even that, to a statesman, such an exemption may on political grounds seem expe- dient, as far as regards the Buddhist priests, (though not at all assenting to this opinion,) I would press earnestly upon your lordship the conclusion which follows, that on religious grounds the same immunity should be extended to Christian ministers. " 1. Because the British Government, having only last year so solemnly disavowed and for- mally discontinued all connexion with the Budd- hist religion, it is neither equitable nor consistent now to exclude Christian ministers from privi- leges granted to Buddhist priests. 12 CEYLON AN'D THE CINGALESE, " 2. Because the exemption being granted only to priests, as spiritual person?, and to none other, it cannot be treated as a merely political question, or divested of a religious bearing. If therefore, political reasons require the exemption of one class, religious principles require the same for the other. " 3 Because the exemption being shared by Buddhist priests with his Excellency the Right Hon. the Governor alone, as the representative of her Majesty, and her Majesty's troops, it cannot fail to be considered by them and their followers as a high and distinctive tribute to the excellence of their religion. " 4. Because so honorary a privilege will, for its own sake, be greatly esteemed by a people wholly uneducated and incapable of discrimi- nating between truth and error, and will not fail to be used by a designing priesthood for the purpose of upliolding their own false system. " 5. Because such an impression on the native mind cannot but be most prejudicial to the cause of Christianity, and must act as a positive dis- couragement and hindrance to all Missionary efforts for the diffusion of truth, and for the en- lightenment and real improvement of the Sin- ghalese people. " 6. Because a Christian government in its un- restricted and equal toleration of all religious opinions cannot confer special immunities on the CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 13 professors of a false creed without disparaging those of the true religion. " Were I disposed to object to the measure on any other than purely religious grounds, I might urge — " That, in a financial point of view the pecu- niary gain to government must be beneath con- sideration when so important a principle is at stake. The whole number of Christian ministers of every denomination in the island, European, Native, and American, by the last published return, does not exceed 100. The annual pay ment of 3s. each would amount to an annual aggregate of £15. " I might urge, too, the well-known fact to which the records of many Courts of Law in the island will bear testimony, that whatever may be the professed tenets of Buddhism, the priests not only inherit and possess property, but claim, as subjects, the protection of the law for its pos- session. " Whether the property so claimed be of cor- porate or personal tenure there can be no in- justice in requiring that the property itself should contribute towards the maintenance of the go- vernment, which protects its possessors in their rights. " But I forbear altogether from the use of such arguments, further than in illustration of the real merits of the case. The single ground of 14 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. ray appeal is the religious tendency of the mea- sure. No conscientious scruple or political ob- jection is urged; no professional jealousy is felt, no private or personal feeling is entertained. As the original Ordinance stood, the clergy wil- lingly acquiesced in the pecuniary payment, and do so still ; but the amendment just past having introduced into it an element of a directly reli- gious character, I am unable to suppress my conviction, that its provision is one as irrecon- cilable with the principle of sound legislation as repugnant to those of true Christian faith. " I need not press upon your lordship the ob- vious and great necessity on the part of our rulers of extreme caution in legislating for an illiterate and superstitious people, lest any measure be adopted which may even seem or be so perverted as to give direct countenance to a system of religious falsehood, believing as the Cingalese Buddhist does, the mysterious and inherent sanctity of his religion to be such that the British power, though invincible in arms, is feeble and futile for its overthrow, and inter- preting therefore all its acts as an involuntary homage to the superiority of his own faith. "I appeal, therefore, with confidence to the Imperial Government of Great Britain, as a Christian country in which the true principles of toleration are not only understood but carried out ; and where it is not a mere profession or CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 15 conventional form, but a great practical principle exemplified every day ; and I intreat your lord- ship, for the sake of truth and OMr common faith, not to sanction the enactment as it at present stands, lest you give the entire native population of Ceylon reason to think the British Govern- ment indifferent to the holy cause of Chris- tianity. " Should it, for political reasons, be thought necessary (which, however, I do not either in principle or opinion admit) to confer civil immu- nities or privileges of any kind on Buddhist priests, 1 entreat that the Christian clergy may look for an equal measure of consideration from her Majesty's Government. " 1 should not press this important matter so earnestly on your lordship if I did not really believe the cause of the Christian religion, and the prospective dissemination of Divine truth among an unconverted and uneducated people to be seriously jeopardized by this enactment. " I have, &c., (Signed) "J.Colombo. "The Right Hon. Earl Grey, &c. &;c. Sec." As to the charge that this ordinance esta- blishes a general system of slavery for the poor of Ceylon, we consider that the idea is absurd to call that slavery, which only imposes the labour 16 CEYLOM AND THE CINGALESE. of six (Jays in the year, or the payment of three shillings ; and no one can deny that the native, who is unable to pay the penalty, is much more usefully employed for six days out of 365, than lying sleeping away his energies both of mind and body, or squatted in the shade chewing betel. But let us see what the well-disposed amongst the natives think upon this question ; in an ad- dress presented to the Governor from the in- habitants of Megodetike, a place in the neigh- bourhood of Kandy, we find the following para- graph : — " As regards the recent Road Ordinance, we cannot hide from your Excellency the fact of our having been some time ago most erroneously informed of the intentions of governuient in re- spect thereof, as also of the false reports which gained circulation in our country in respect of the other alleged imposts. Hence the very great alarm "we once felt; but now seeing what are the real intentions of government, and knowing that we of all the other districts are mostly in want of a public road, we feel quite satisfied of the urgent necessity of having such a road opened through our country, and have already expressed to government our readiness, through our ratra-mahatmcer, to commence operations in regard to the forming of that road imme- diately. We have no doubt that, with some little sacrifice of our time or money towards this CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 17 object, the road now traced by our government agent will be soon completed. If our offer to commence work immediately be approved of by government, we are every way inclined to do so, even before the ordinance comes into opera- tion." See Blue Book, page 215. From another address presented to his ex- cellency from the inhabitants of two other dis- tricts within the Kandian province, we have taken the following extract : — " As to the Road Ordinance, we are of opinion that it is calculated to do much more good to the people than to the government. We had for- merly worked for the government four months in the year, and cannot now complain as a hardship our being obliged to work six days in the year." See Blue Book, page 216. Again at page 237. " It is deserving of notice, that the people are at this moment busily and cheerfully occupied of their own free will, and without either remuneration or compulsion on the part of government, in repairing and open- ing some of the neglected lines of road in the neighbourhood of Kandy, (the government only finding tools,) and that no less than three hun- dred men have been for a short time employed in clearing an unfinished canal." Away, then, with this absurd outcry about com- pulsory labour, by which means alone the great trunk lines of road were formed in the island. 18 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. Roads are necessary to facilitate coranmnication, and carry civilization into districts where Euro- peans have never been seen, except on hunting excursions, and, therefore, the benefit to be de- rived by the native population from opening com- munication into unknown regions is incalculable. The whole community are called upon to con- tribute to this great and essential undertaking, and the most beneficial aid which the natives can bestow, as well as the most practicable for them- selves, is the required limited labour. In addition to the willingness expressed in the addresses above quoted, on the part of those who signed them to comply with the ordinance in question, we have the testimony of Sir Emerson Tennent, who went on an official tour through the island. He collected the people of the vari- ous districts through which he passed, and found that the law had been almost in every instance misrepresented to the inhabitants, who were led to believe that it was the restoration of the Raja- Karia, which was abolished in 1832. But, when Sir Emerson Tennent explained to them that they were totally dissimilar laws, that by the latter they were required to give un- limited labour, by the former it was limited to six days — by the one, they were taken from their harvest ; by the other, they would not be required until after their harvest — by the one, they were compelled to work at every description of labour ; CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 19 by the other, only in the construction of roads and the repairing of tanks — under one, they might be taken to the most remote parts of the island ; under the other, they would be required to work only in their immediate neighbourhood — under one, they were compelled to work for the govern- ment, by the new law for themselves and the im- provement of their lands and villages — by the one, the chiefs and headmen were exempt ; by the other, every one was included, except the Governor — and lastly, by the one, they weredriven by their chiefs and headmen ; by the other, they would elect their own district committee, who were to recommend and regulate the labour. When he explained this, "in no single instance did the people fail to declare, that they had been entirely misled and deceived, and to express their satisfaction with the ordinance, and their percep- tion of the benefit it was calculated to confer on the district." See Blue Book, page 161. The second query of Colonel Forbes is, " Have not former laws and proclamations, by which the Kandian people were ruled, been publicly misrepresented to them, and then contrasted with new ordinances?" We must confess that the answer is rather rambling, and not very clear. -But, as to misinterpreting the former laws, the Kandians are better judges than Colonel Forbes can be, and it is a great satisfaction to us to find that there is no charge against the government 20 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. for misinterpreting the new laws — but the reader may judge of the manner in which this charge or query has been answered by the concluding sen- tence of the author which is as follows, — " I have studied this document," (Sir E. Tennent's report above quoted,) " and have only space to record my dissent from many of its statements, and nearly all its conclusions. Whether relating to times past, present, or prospective ; to questions historical, political, or topographical" — yet U is upon this document that the charge is founded. The third query is, " Has not the British faith been violated in the matter of the religion of the people, and justice been denied to the claims of the priesthood ?" We are told that no one can deny that since 1847, these points must be answered in the affirmative. We leave it to a Christian public to determine whether it was rio'ht or wrong in the British o^overnment to relinquish the official custody of the object of Buddhaical worship — for it is the resigning the custody of Buddha's tooth to the priests, which is above alluded to by the expression " since 1847." Our author continues, " The Buddhist priests, at an audience, told the present Governor, and it is not gainsaid, ' that the authority of the heads of the establishment was gone, the offices of chief priests were still vacant, their controlling authority was annihilated, and even the temple CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 21 tenants refused to do the services whicli were necessary as the condition of the tenure of their lands.' " This is a subject to occasion deep reg-ret and sympathy on the part of professing Christians, and to form the grounds of a charge against the government ! The remainder of the answer to this query is composed of various topics, including the licens- ing of taverns, the loss attendant upon litigation, and the acquittal of four priests who had been tried for high treason, none of whicli have any reference to the charge. Then follows the fifth query: " With the know- ledge of the British authorities, and without mo- lestation from them, were not gang-robbers, thieves, and prison-breakers, permitted to conspire and to intimidate or entice a portion of a justly- discontented people into riots which were put down as a rebellion ?" To prove this in the affirmative, we are shown how very actively the Colonel exerted himself and succeeded in anesting a professional impos- tor-prince. That he believes the disturbances which took place in 1823 and J 824 were connived at, and probably instigated, by a person holding an influential situation under the British govern- ment. And a little further on he says, " I do not doubt, that the native chief who is superin- tendent of ])olice there — Loco Banda, as he is generally called — knew from first to last every 8 22 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. minute particular of what was passing at Matele,"" and then proceeds to give an extract from a letter of this officer, dated the 5th July 1848, and ad- dressed to the Governor's private secretary, in which he states — " After some consultation with the government agent, and the district judge, just now, we have come to the resolution of keeping quite quiet about it until they, the mob, assembled, would commit some disturbance, so as to enable the authorities to bring them to justice." . ..." I have reason to believe that some prisoners, who were either acquitted or absconded from the o-overnment gaols, are, by joining with some low country Cingalese and desperate Kandians, now disturbing the villages." See Blue Book, page 176. But what does this establish? Nothing fur- ther than that there was not sufficient proof or evidence to bring persons to justice, who were suspected of, or reported to be, plotting against the public peace. The mind of the Colonel is evidently impressed with a belief o^ certain facts which he starts with, and which he either cannot, or does not, choose to establish by evidence. The fifth query is, " Did not hundreds of per- sons fall by the rifle-bullet, or sink under the Malay cris? And were not eighteen persons tried, convicted, and executed, by tribunals ano- malous, unnecessary, and illegal ?"" That a nuuj- CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 23 ber of individuals lost their lives in the conflicts at Matele and Kurnegalle is of course clear, and it is also clear that eighteen persons were executed by sentences pronounced by courts- martial. The charge, preferred by Colonel Forbes of the illegality of these courts, is too serious a one to be lightly passed over. The subject must form a portion of the inquiry now pending before the Committee of the House of Commons, and the evidence contained in the Blue Book is insufli- cient to enable any one to form a correct judg- ment. These courts should have been general courts- martial, consisting of thirteen members, whereas it is reported that only three or four officers sat upon them. Again the sentences seem to have been carried into immediate execution, without approval or confirmation, which was certainly illegal. There does not appear to have been any judge advocate; the sentences were not in conformity with the statute law of England, and the charges were loosely and illegally framed. We cannot agree with those who go the length of asserting that courts-martial were unnecessary, but it appears to us, that as the special sessions of the Supreme Court were holden at Kandy on the 28th of August, it was unnecessary to conti- nue the former down to the 22nd of September, more particularly as the regular sessions of the 24 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE Supreme Court were bolden at the same place at the latter end of November following. The sixth query is, " Were not the crimes charged against some of the prisoners criminally brief, even were the sentence proved to be death, and execution immediately followed ?" Tin's we will pass over, as the answer to it is contained in the consideration of the last query. The seventh query is, " Was not martial law rashly proclaimed without sufficient cause, and long adhered to without conceivable excuse ?" The necessity of proclaiming martial law, and the holding of courts-martial, are questions which depend upon one another, and should be con- sidered together: we have already given our view of the continuance of martial law, but this brings us to a subject, which has caused so much controversy, namely, the shooting of Kadahapola Unanse, a Buddhist priest, in his yellow robes, which has been laid as a serious charge against government. The Governor reports in one of his despatches, that " statements have been voluntarily made by the chief priests of the two great Wihares in Kandy, the Malwatte and the Asgera, which show that the execution of a priest in his yellow dress is not considered in any degree as an indig- nity offered to the order of the priesthood, or to the Buddhist religion." Colonel Fories disbelieves that the chief CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 25 priests made any sucli statement, and if they did do so, he would consider them as utterly unworthy of credit. We are at a loss to understand this singular conviction of his, as in the next line he acknowledges that, by the religion of Goutama, " Corporal inflictions cannot defile the pure in spirit," from which it might very fairly be argued, that Kadahapola Unanse, having been pure in spirit, when he was shot in his yellow robes, was not defiled, and not having been defiled it was no disgrace to his order. But because it is stated officially, " This priest was shot in full robes in Kandy," Colonel Forbes says," this surely implies that lie had some other dress — at all events, that the Governor believed he had. This I also believe." Such a declaration most certainly surprises us, coming from one, who was so long resident in Ceylon. During our sojourn we never saw or heard of a priest being clad in, or using, either day or night, other than the yellow robe. As to the propriety of the sentence, that is ano- ther question altogether, and is dependent upon the proceedings of the court-martial : the whole evidence will, we apprehend, be soon before the public, when the committee of the House of Commons make their report, and without more satisfactory evidence it is impossible to form a correct opinion. Colonel Forbes has omitted all notice of the VOL. II. c 26 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. "Observer" newspaper, and those persons who were so actively employed in instigating the natives to insubordination, if not to violence. We regret to find, that the results of political agitation in the Island of Ceylon are so similar to those which have too frequently characterized the sister kingdom. Thus the European agita- tors, or instigators, have escaped unscathed, while their unfortunate dupes have become their sub- stitutes, and suffered the last penalties of the law. Colonel Forbes is very indignant, it would appear, on account of a proposition on the part of the government to " locate a race of Malabars in these important positions, on lands forfeited by the rebels " — (Blue Book, page 200) — because " complaints have been made of their pilfering and vagrancy by the villagers" — and because the superintendent of police has stated, " That when the country was disturbed, Malabar coolees, in some instances, ]>lundered the villages." The proposition of the government he calls a "pro- posed reward to these strangers." The Colonel having been a coffee-planter himself, ought to know the great difficulty experienced by the pro- prietors in getting sufficient, or any labourers, on their estates, from the unwillingness of the Cin- galese to work, and therefore the proprietors are wholly dependent upon the periodical visit of these Malabar coolees. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 27 Now it appears to us that upon every imagina- ble ground, the proposed location of Malabars in Kandy is founded on sound policy, not only to secure a certain amount of labour on the spot, but to prevent the necessity of strangers being permitted to march in large companies through the Island, which would effectually stop the com- plaints of pilfering and vagrancy, by converting these "strangers" into members of the commu- nity with fixed habitations, subject to the super- intendence of the police. We have shown in another chapter the unjust position in which the merchants and growers of Ceylon were formerly placed by the export duties upon cinnamon and coffee. Yet Colonel Forbes complains that " the trifling duty for- merly paid on this article of export (coffee) was remitted in the face of a deficient revenue," and that the obnoxious taxes which were imposed before the rebellion were to make up the defici- ency. We cannot suppose that he will be sup- ported in this complaint, by the advocates for free trade. We cannot conclude this chapter without di- recting the reader's attention, to the position of the government of Ceylon at the period of the outbreak in Kandy. Ceylon is not properly a colony, but partly a ceded and partly a conquered dependence. The Kandians, differing as they do from the low c 2 28 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. country Cingalese, possess great nobility of soul, are daring and courageous. Continual insurrec- tions, or attempts at insurrection, had been made for a series of years. Chiefs were dissatisfied at having lost their unlimited power over their de- pendents, and priests at their loss of connection with the o^overnment. The circumstances of the evacuation of Kandy by Major Davie being fresh in their minds, were constantly adverted to by the natives, and urged as an argument for the possibility of re-capturing rheir country. The cost attendant upon the rebellions and retaining the country, if our memory be correct, was up- wards of a million, if not two millions of money, to say nothing of the number of lives which were lost. Those who know the Kandian character must admit that under such circumstances most strong and vigorous measures had become necessary to put an end to insurrectionary movements, and protect the lives and properties of Britisli sub- jects. We agree v.ith Colonel Forbes, that it has now become indispensable that t'.iere should be a real inquiry into the nature of these mea- sures; but we cannot, as impartial observers, agree with him, that the accusers are to be the o-ily wit- nesses, as no sound or constitutional verdict can be given without hearing both sides of the ques- tion. Besides, it is just possible that some of the individuals who now appear in the chliracter of CEVLON AND THE CINGALESE. 29 prosecutors, should themselves be placed in the dock. Our duty as historians compels us to censure severely the conduct of various English malcon- tents, who, to a great extent, excited, by inflam- matory articles in the local papers, the spirit of dissatisfaction and rebellion manifested by the Kandians, How these men, professing Chris- tianity, can gloss over to their consciences the various acts which incited the natives, and caused the sacrifice of human life, and destruction of pi'operty, we know not. By all thinking men, such characters are condemned, and held in ab- horrence We may pity the heathen ; but woe unto the Christian instigator of rebellion. The Kandian pretender worked upon the super- stitions and religious feelings of his countiymen, causing himself to be crowned king of Kandy by a priest, who stated to the pretenders' followers that they were fighting for the preservation of their religion ; and the first interrogatory put was, " Are you for the Buddhist religion, or for the government ?" If any hesitated, the priest would refer to the Kandian prophecy, or tradi- tion, which is, that when a bridge should be built across the Mahawelle-ganga, Kandy should fall into the hands of foreigners, and the people of Ceylon be totally subdued; but, when the bridge should begin to decay, then the Kandians would throw off the foreign yoke, and Lanka-diva's sons 30 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. be restored to their native mouarehs, and pris- tine laws, driving the usurpers from their be- loved shores! The bridge at Peradenia, over the Mahawelle-ganga, having been built entirely of satin-wood, has shown symptoms of decay ; but we trust, for the love we bear our fellow-men — blacks, browns, or whites — Christians or hea- thens — and the horror we have, in common with philanthropic men, of bloodshed and war, that the prophetical tradition may be false. For ever may the Cinnamon Isle flourish, and be the brightest gem in Great Britain's diadem, is our heartfelt desire ! The following is the list, with dates of their appointments, of English Governors of Ceylon up to the present time : — The Hon. the Governor of Madras in Council . 1796 Hon. Frederick North . . . .1 798 Lieut.-Gen. Right Hon. Sir Thomas Maitland . 1805 Major-General John Wilson, Lieutenant-Governor . 1811 General Sir Robert Brownrigg . . .1812 Major-Gen. Sir Edward Barnes, Lieut.-Governor . 1820 Lieutenant-General Sir Edward Paget . . 1823 Major- Gen. Sir James Campbell, Lieut.-Governor . 1823 Lieutenant-General Sir Edward Barnes . . 1824 Major-General Sir John Wilson, Lieut.-Governor . 1831 Right Honourable Sir Robert "SVm. Horton . . 1831 Right Honourable J. Alexander Stewart Mackenzie . 1837 Lieutenant General Sir Colin Campbell . . 1841 Lord Viscount Torrington .... 1847 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 31 CHAPTER II. National costume of the Kandians and Cingalese — Classical mode of arranging the hair — Beauty of the ornaments — Value — Personal appearance — Native belle — The half- castes, or Burghers. The national dress of the chiefs and nobles varies in the Kandian and maritime provinces ; in the former, the chiefs wear a large white cloth cap of a round shape, bearing a strong similitude to a well-stuffed pincushion, a white jacket with short sleeves (of the form called by ladies gigot) reaching to the elbow, and these extuberances are stuffed with cotton, as well as the cap, to keep them in due form. Around their middle innumerable yards of white cloth or muslin are twisted, which reaches to their ankles, forming a species of petticoat open in front. This topetty, or petticoat, is fastened round their middles with a gold or tinsel belt, in which is placed their betel box, handkerchief, and coca- 32 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. sionally a knife, or dagger. Their legs are en- cased in white trousers, which are tied around their ankles, and ornamented with a deep frill. It would be impossible to express the ludicrous appearance of the chiefs in their full-dress cos- tume, (which we have just described,) and it was with the utmost difficulty that we maintained be- coming gravity, and restrained our risible propen- sities, when we saw a jury of these extraordinary specimens of dusky humanity, assembled in the Court- House at Kandy. The adikars, or prime ministers, (the last of whom was Mollegodde, who died in January 1846,) habitually wore a large ring on the third finger of the left hand, which was emblematic of their high rank, and their caps, instead of being round, were pointed in the centre, on the apex of which a precious stone was affixed. For full dress, this cap was made of crimson silk, elabo- rately embroidered in gold, and over the jacket was worn a kind of small cape, or tippet, which was also ornamented with golden flowers; in all other respects, the costume was similar to the chief's. Chains of gold, bangles, and rings, are now worn alike by all the Kandian nobles, chiefs, and wealthy men, but, under the native dynasty, none could use golden ornaments without the monarch's sanction. In the maritime provinces the nobles, or mood- liars, who are also generally in the service of our CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 33 government, adopt a dress of a most heteroge- neous nature, as they have engrafted European fashions upon their national costume — all wear the comboy, or petticoat, but it is closed in front, as they do not wear trousers of any description, and over this is worn a species of frock-coat, which reaches nearly to their heels, with a stand- ing collar, trimmed with narrow gold lace.* The Moodliars wear shirts, in contradistinction to the Kandians, who do not appear to think this article of attire necessary, but expose to view their dingy, hairy breasts. Their long hair is combed back from their faces, and twisted into a peculiar knot at the back of the head, which is confined by a high tortoiseshell comb, whilst a smaller comb, of a semicircular form, is placed in the front hair. In full dress the Moodliars wear a short sword, which is attached to a cross-belt, made of cloth and edged with narrow gold lace ; this sword is the property of the government, and is returned by the Mood liar on retiring from of- fice, or by his family at his decease. This dress to European eyes is as outre as the Kandian costume, and we shall not readily forget our astonishment at the extraordinary appearance of the native nobles and chiefs, as they mingled * This coat was introduced by the Dutch, when they be- came masters of the maritime provinces in the I7th century, and we presume it might possibly have been at that period Court costume, and bien comme ilfaut. c 5 34 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. with the throng of military men, and civilians, who flocked to the Queen's House on her Ma- jesty's birthday. It is customary to invite the nobles and chiefs to the ball, which is invariably given by the Governor on the anniversary of her Majesty's birth ; and we overheard the late Go- vernor, Sir Colin Campbell, say to a lady who had then recently made her debut in Ceylon, and who was all amazement at the strange amalga- mation of masculine and feminine attire, " Well, Mrs. , you seem quite surprised to see gen- tlemen in combs and petticoats." The national custom is, for none save those of royal blood, to wear any covering on their feet. In Kandy some few of tlie chiefs occasionally wear a kind of sandal, but all other classes go barefooted. The Moodliars, when attending to the duties of their offices, wear both shoes and stockings, but immediately upon returning to their own domiciles, they throw off these encum- brances ; the remainder of the natives, both male and female, do not wear any covering on their legs or feet. The middle classes in Kandy wear a comboy, which reaches either to, or below the knee, ac- cording to their caste, the very lowest wearing- only a small piece of cloth, or a handkerchief, which they gird about their loins. In the mari- time provinces, the men of middle rank usually wear a jacket, made either of cloth or cotton, the kANDIAN WOMAN. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 35 com boy being the same as that which is worn in Kandy. The high comb is invariably used in the maritime provinces by all ranks save the poorest and lowest — but the Kandians, although their hair is allowed to grow to a great length, merely draw it back from the face, and twist it into a knot at the back of the head. The men oc- casionally wear a cotton handkerchief, tied round their head, to protect them from the sun, and, al- though the sun's rays in Ceylon are most power- ful, deaths amongst the natives, arising from coup de soleil, are very rare. The dress of the Kandian women consists of a comboy bound tightly round the person, and a scarf, which is most gracefully thrown around them, and over the shoulders, so as entirely to conceal their bosoms. Their hair is drawn from their faces, and twisted into a knot at the back of the head, where it is confined, either by gold or silver pins, which are usually most exquisitely chased. This style of arranging the hair is adopted in Ceylon by every native woman, and the coiffure of the hair at the back of the head is classically elegant. All women, whether of high or low degree, who are natives of Lanka-diva's verdant shores, draw their locks from off their brows and twist them into a knot at the back of their head ; the hair being maintained in form by tortoiseshell, silver, or golden pins. Two of these pins, some- 36 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. what the shape of an arrow, are inserted into the centre of the knot, in a transverse direction ; and one jjin with a flat semicircular head is placed on either side of the knot close to the head. Words will not convey an adequate idea of the exquisite effect produced by this style of ornamenting the head, which is as simple as elegant. These pins do not assimilate, in the most remote degree, with the bodkins used either by the Russian, Swiss, or Italian peasantry, and are equally dissimilar to those worn by the Chinese ; and in no part of the globe in which we have been, have we seen anything resembling them in form, or beauty. The Cingalese pins, are made either of carved tortoiseshell, lined with silver (the glittering of the white metal in the interstices of the perfora- tions, contrasting finely with the dark shell), of silver richly worked in chasing or fillagree, or of embossed gold studded with precious stones. The tortoiseshell and silver pins vary in price from five rix dollars (7s. 6d.), to 30 rix dollars or £2 5s. ; these are worn by the females in their ordinary attire, the golden pins being only used in full dress, by the wives and daughters of the Moodliars, or chiefs. These are extremely costly, their value being estimated by the weight of me- tal, perfection of workmanship, and beauty of the gems, wherewith the bodkins are studded. The Kandian ruby is considered by the natives of the island as the most valuable precious stone, CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE, 37 and when these rubies are free from defects, eitlier of colour or form, the wealthy Cingalese will give enormous prices for them. We knew a chief's Vvife, whose four hair ornaments studded with thege gems cost 3500 rix dollars. Our surprise has been great, that some of our own lovely countrywomen have not adopted these classical and becoming ornament for their tresses. An ill-natured friend has suggested that Britain's fair daughters, will not patronize any fashion or mode which does not emanate from that emporium of good taste and paradise of ladies, designated Paris. During the Kandian monarchy, we have been informed, that the court costume of the ladies differed but little from the chief's, save in the head-dress. In the maritime provinces, the wo- men wear a short loose cotton jacket, which scarcely reaches to the waist, and too often leaves the bosom completely exposed to view, and a comhoy exactly similar to that which is worn by the males. The jacket was introduced by the Portuguese, and under the native monarchs all women, save those of the highest caste, were for- bidden to wear any covering over the bosom, consequently the whole of the ])erson, from the waist upwards, v\as exposed. The length of the comboy was also determined in the same arbi- trary manner, a high caste woman could wear her drapery down to her heels, but a low caste 38 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. female had scarcely sufficient covering to answer the purposes of decency. Can we wonder at wo- men, thus habituated to the exposure of their persons, are vitiated in morals and depraved in feeling? Our government most correctly abo- lished these laws, and it is disgraceful both to the Portuguese and Dutch, that they did not do so, as they had posession of Ceylon long before us ; but we regret to say, that many women of good caste will merely throw the jacket over their shoulders, whilst those of the lower will go with- out it entirely, not substituting any covering in its place. We have elsewhere observed the marked dif- ference which is apparent in the character, phy- sical and mental qualifications of the inhabitants of Ceylon — the natives of the mountainous dis- tricts, namely, the Kandians, being superior in every respect to their brethren of the lowlands, who are called Cingalese. The personal appearance of the natives is ra- ther pleasing, and, although generally the men are under the middle size, their average stature being about five feet six inches, they are well proportioned, neatly made, and their muscles are well developed ; but they seldom put forth their muscular powers, as a more indolent race does not exist in Asia than the natives of Ceylon. Their complexions vary in colour, from a clear yellow brown to black, and their hair and eyes are of an CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 39 ebon line ; the Kandians liave darker com- plexions, possess greater muscular power, and are better grown than the inhabitants of the low- lands, and maritime districts. The features of the natives of Ceylon are good, and the counte- nances of many of the chiefs, and high caste men, are remarkably expressive and intelligent. The shape of their heads differs from that of Euro- peans, inasmuch as it is longer, but this pecu- liarity is essentially Asiatic. Many of the women, when very young, are re- markable for the beauty of their faces and forms, but the comeliness of their persons quickly passes away, and by the time they attain the age of twenty-five years, all traces of good looks, both in countenance and figure, have entirely disap- peared. The natives profess to be great judges of female beauty, and one of their works contains the following lines, which perfectly convey their ideas of feminine loveliness: — " A woman's tresses should be abundant, as voluminous as the tail of a peacock, and as long- as a palm leaf of ten moons' growth, her eye- brows should be arched like the rainbow, her eyes long as the almond, and the colour dark as midnight when there is no moon. Her nose should be slender as the bill of the hawk, her lips full, and the colour of red coral, her teeth small, even, closely placed together, and tlie colour of the pearl when it is newly taken from the oyster 40 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. and cleansed. Her throat should be thick and round, like the stem of a plantain-tree in full bearing. Her chest should be wide, her bosom full and the form of a young cocoa-nut — and her waist small, round and taper, so slender that it could be clasped within two outstretched hands — her hips should be large and round, her limbs slender, and the soles of her feet without any arch or hollow, and the surface of her person should be soft, delicate, smooth, and I'ound, nei- ther bones, sinews, or angles being visible. Not a blemish should be found on her skin, the tint of which should be bright and brown." The half castes of Ceylon, or Burghers, as they are called in the island, adopt the European cos- tume. We allude only to the males, the women blending in their dress a strange mixture of the European and native attire. The male half castes are far below the Cingalese both in physical povver, stature, personal appearance, and mental capabilities ; their complexions are less clear, their features ill formed, and the expression of their countenances is heavy and sensual, being as deficient in corporeal attractions as they are des- titute of moral rectitude and probity. The females of this class in early life are re- markable for their beauty, but all traces of which are totally lost before they are thirty years of age, then they are either shapeless masses of flesh, or reduced to skin and bone. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 41 It is most extraordinary, but all those who have been in the East frankly admit that among the half castes is to be found every vice that dis- graces humanity, and nowhere is this axiom more strikingly exemplified than in the male and female Burghers of Ceylon. In making this statement, we do not mean to assert that all are destitute of good feeling, as we have known two or three men who possessed kindly feelings and cultivated minds, but unfortunately such are the exceptions to the general rule. 42 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. CHAPTER III. National religion — Antiquity of Buddhism — Transmigration of souls — Fabulous beings — Mythology of the Cingalese — Heavens — Hells — Gods — Demons — Devil-dancers, their origin — How practised — Punishments — Account of the last Buddha that appeared — Biith, marriage, life, and death of Goutama Buddha — Tenets of Buddhism — Com- mands of Buddha — Doctrines inculcated. The national system of religion in Ceylon is Buddhaical, and although there are many of the natives who profess either Protestantism or Ca- tholicism, we have been assured by a Moodliar holding a high official appointment, there is not one of the professed converts who does not make offerings to the gods, temples, and priests. We shall now proceed to give an outline of the system of Buddhism, its belief, rewards, punish- ment, and other matters connected with this form of worship. Tradition cannot trace back, nor history assist in fixino; the date, when Buddhism first asserted CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 43 its sway over a vast portion of the human race ; but it is certain that, from the earliest ages, Ceylon, China, India, Thibet, and Burmah, ac- knowledged the yoke of the Buddhaical religion ; and deeply is it to be deplored that, at the pre- sent day, millions prostrate themselves before the shrines of Buddha, in the portions of the world before named, acknowledging the code of mora- lity prescribed by this system as their sole guide through life. Buddhism, it is asserted by ancient records, was first promulgated in a region of Northern India, called Magadha, and the language in which the sacred books are written, now termed Pali, is affirmed to have been the language of the people of Magadhi ; this language is looked upon as being of great antiquity — Buddhists de- claring that it is the root of all other tongues. In Kachayana's grammar of Pali, we read, page 22 of the introduction — " There is a language which is the root of all languages ; men and Brahmins, who never before heard, or uttered a human sound, spoke it at the commencement of the creation. The Buddiias themselves spoke it — it is Magadhi." The Buddhists do not believe in the existence of a Creator, but are absolute materialists, asserting that all created things are formed of the four elements — their gods, demons, men, and animals, all proceeding from the same source. In " Davy's Ceylon," p. 188, we read — 44 CEYLON AND THE CIN'GALESE. " Prani and Hitta, life and intelligence, the most learned of them seem to consider as identi- cal. Seated in the heart, radiating from thence to different parts of the body, like heat from a fire — uncreated, without beginning, at least that they know of, capable of being modified by a variety of circumstances, like the breath in different musical instruments — and, like a vapour, capable of passing from one body to another — and like a flame, liable to be extinguished, and totally annihilated." Thoy believe in the transmigration of souls; that a good man may become a god, a bad man a demon, and that nian may be a god, demon, animal, or reptile, in various stages of existence; that when death seizes on one body, the principle of life immediately enters another form ; that when a man or god has become perfection, the principle of life is totally nnnihilated, which, with Buddhists, is the highest altitude of bliss. The belief in the transmigration of souls is fre- quently curiously illustrated in the present day, for when a criminal is condemned to death for murder, he will at times threaten the judge that he will next assume the form of a wild beast, or venemous reptile, for the purpose of being re- venged. Destruction of life is also forbidden by the Buddhist religion ; therefore a good Buddhist will not take life, even from animals or reptiles. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE, 45 affirming that it is impossible to be assured that one of their near rehitions may not have assumed that shape. The Buddhists state that the world never had a beginning-, never will have an end ; that the universe is composed of innumerable worlds, each one like the other, but that the whole number of these worlds are constantly un- dergoing alteration ; that when they have arrived at the highest state of perfection they decline ; that when again reduced to chaos, they are re- invigorated, and gradually again arrive at perfec- tion, again to undergo the same change, or revo- lution. Each world, according to the Buddhist, is a system of heavens and hells, seas, rocks, and islands, being inhabited by gods, demons, and fabulous beings, who are mortal, having the same passions and desiies as ourselves. The heavens, or places of bliss, vary, and before their gods can attain the highest heaven, they must undergo death, appearing in our world under a human form ; then, if they are perfection, they go first to the highest heaven ; after millions of ages have elapsed, they become totally annihilated. The gods and goddesses in these heavens are stated to be gigantic in stature, well formed, of a red complexion, very beautiful, and rays of light emanate from their bodies ; as these beings are gradually promoted from one heaven to another, so do they increase in stature, beauty, and efful- 46 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. gence, until in one of the heavens the light which emanates from a single finger, is equal in daz- zling splendour to ten thousand suns shining at mid -day. In the various heavens, the natures of the gods vary ; in the higher ones, the sense and enjoy- ment of existence are more keen, the bodily powers greater, the physical beauty extreme, and all passions are subjugated more than in the lower ones, until in the highest heaven life itself is an- nihilated, being absorbed into space. The centre of these series of worlds they believe to be a rock, Maha-meru-parwate, which is placed under the lowest heaven, there being in all twenty-five heavens. We cannot give a correct idea of this system of worlds, heavens, and hells, without quoting from a most interestingly curious ancient Cingalese work, which has been most obligingly placed at our disposal : — " The mountain of rock, which has ever existed before time was, and has been, for millions of ages, called Maha-nieru-parwate, stands in the centre of the universe, under the lowermost of the twice ten and five heavens. This rock re- poses half in ether, and half in the water, and measures more leagues in circumference than man could number, were he to count from ihe morning until the evening meal, or from the rising of the sun until the setting. This stupen- dous, beauteous rock, is of five colours, and has 10 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 47 four sides ; that which is nearest the sun when he rises is the colour of the heavens ; the northerly, of the talipot-flower in full blossom ; whilst the centre is of the colour of a stream of molten gold. Maha-meru-parwate is supported by three rocks ; under these three rocks is the abode of the serpents, whose varieties no living man can tell, nor the beauty of their skins. The serpents' dwelling--place is called Naga-bhaw-na, and is twice ten thousand leagues in circumference. Naga-bhaw-na rests upon a rock, which rests upon the water, which water rests upon air : thus the world is finished by air. " Around Maha-meru-parwate are five and two rocky circles ; between each circle runs bound- less, bottomless salt water ; and around the whole of these five and two circles, on the outside, is again the salt water. Who couh] measure its depth or width ? Beneath this mighty body of waters are twice five places of torment : they are called Aivichi-maha-nara-he. About these twice five hells are twelve times ten minor places of torture : the name of these last is Osooput- narake." It is most extraordinary that so irrational a system should have subsisted for ages. Every Cingalese and Kandian scholar is as perfectly acquainted and conversant with this system, as he is with the household names of his gods and 48 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. family. When asked to give some definite reason or explanation for this fabulous, unreasonable ac- count, they will quote some Pali record, or say they know not why they believe the tale, but their fathers said it was all true. Maha-meru-parwate belongs to the god Sacrea, who sometimes quits his heaven to reside there in his beautiful ivory palace, which is surrounded by a garden, in which is a tree, a white cow, and an elephant of the same colour The cow and tree possess the power of gratifying the desire of all those who wish as they gaze upon them.* The white elephant has the power of flight, and can pass from one heaven to another, when Sacrea wishes to visit his brother gods, provided that the heaven visited is inferior to the one in which Sacrea dwells, as the power of ascending stops when the elephant has reached Sacrea's dwelling-place. On Maha-meru-parwate reside the attendants of Sacrea, who are all accom- plished musicians : these bear the human form ; but those which serve as the body-guard of the god Sacrea, have square faces, one eye in the middle of the forehead, a hawk's bill for a nose, whilst wings issue from their shoulders. The king of one tribe of the gods who dwell under the rock of Maha-meru-parwate, at one * In the poetical works of Ceylon, a kind, charitable man is invariably compared to the umbrageous tree in the garden of Sacrea. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 49 period, a paroxysm of rage, swallowed the sun and tlie moon, and now causes eclipses by stretch- ing forth his left hand. In the Naga-bhaw-na dwell the snakes, who when on earth, in the form of man, were good and pious people, and were almost worthy to be made gods ; but the sin of malice crept into their nature, and they will be snakes for a thousand million of ages, when they will become a superior race of gods. The snakes dwell in well-furnished houses, have a king, temple, and worship, according to the rites pre- scribed by Buddha : their castes are numerous, and the beauty of the females extreme. A flame plays about the bodies of these snakes, so there is no darkness in their region at night. What- ever they desire immediately appears before them ; but if it is food it assumes the shape of a lai'ge frog. If these snakes were irritated they could exterminate the whole race of man, by one blast of their poisonous breath; but, being kind and benevolent by nature, they only allow a small portion of breath to escape from their nostrils ; and only when mankind are acting sinfully, by neglecting the ordinances of Buddha, then a slight blast ascends to the earth, which causes disease. The beings or gods which dwell in the other rocks are of a ditferent race; but as their history is of the same fabulous nature, we shall omit their names (which, although jaw-breaking, might VOL. II. D 50 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. easily have been simplified by giving all, the one generic cognomen of legion), and proceed to describe the demons and places of torment, or hells. There are five ranks or classes of demons. Those of the first class, Rawks-ha-sa, resemble men in form, but are of gigantic stature, being as tall as palmyra trees. Their propensities and dispositions are most savage, being furnished with lion's teeth, they seize and devour human beings, avoiding the seat of life to enable them to revel in the screams of their victims as they eat them. When men cannot be procured to be devoured, they eat earth. These demons can walk upon and under the sea, but they cannot fly or ascend in tlie air. The Yak-shy-aya-yre are the second class : these demons possess neither the strength nor stature of the preceding ; they have not the power of walking, but float upon the air. These creatures are found to inhabit houses, jungles, and caves, making hideous wailings and noises ; they suck the blood of men and animals, causing sick- ness and death. The third class are the Bhoo-ta-yo : these demons are formless, resembling a blast of hot air ; they reside in tombs and the jungles, their suste- nance being dirt ; and their power is limited to causing alarm by their hideous yells. The fourth are the Pray-ta : these demons are CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 51 hideous skeletons, with a ta\Yny skin, through which every bone and muscle can be seen. They float upon the air; and, although suffering continually from hunger and thirst, the food which is always before them vanishes as soon as they attempt to touch it ; and their power of doing evil confined to alarming old people by their appearance. The fifth and last are the Pi-sat-cha : these demons are numberless, and resemble a blue cloud : their desires and powers are the same, in every respect, as the preceding class of demons. These evil spirits are worshipped by the Cin- galese ; and dances, called devil-dances, are con- tinually taking place, to appease the wrath of some offended demon. Thus, if one of the family fall sick, or misfortune attends their undertakingfs, they call in a priest of the devil, offerings and dances being given to allay the anger of the demon. These devil-dances were introduced into Ceylon, in the third century of the Ciiristian era, by one of the kinos, Sri Sangabo, who attributed a plague and famine which desolated the island of Ceylon, to the aroused malignity of a red-eyed demon ; and this superstitious worship of the devil was then established, and remains in use to this day. When a village or district is said to be under the influence of a demon, one or two pulpits are erected, which are made by tying together split bamboo : these are decorated with various orna- D 2 52 CEYLOJS AND THE CINGALESE. mental devices, formed with the leaves of the cocoa-nut tree and flowers. The priest of the devil makes offerings of money, fruit, and flowers to the demon, in the name of the whole village. Tom-tom beaters attend — the kapua, or dancers, being also priests of the devil, who dance, in honour of the demon, before the pulpit, where the first-named priest reads a species of incanta- tion, imploring the demon to be appeased, and depart from the village. The kapua, or devil-dancers, are usually well- grown, active men, and wear on their arms and ankles several hollow brass rings : they keep time to the tom-tom beaters by shaking their head, whilst the clanking of the bracelets and anklets makes a species of accompaniment. The evolu- tions of the dancer are rapid ; his gestures lasci- vious and indecent ; as he becomes excited with the music and the dance, his flesh will quiver, his eyeballs become fixed and staring, as if he could, or would, discern the form of the offended demon ; whilst in this state, he will predict the cause of the aroused wrath of the demon, the fate or for- tune of individuals. These dances are held at night, by torchlight ; and no scene can be imagined moie painfully impressive than to witness the frantic gestures of the devil-dancer, with his long, dishevelled hair streaming over his shoulders, the blue flame from th3 torches flickering and casting an unearthly CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 53 light on all around, whilst the dusky spectators remain motionless, gazing, with staring eyes, on the dancer; the huge tropical trees waving over tiie heads of all, as if calmly deriding, although com- pelled to witness, the unhallowed rites and vicious orgies, which invariably wind up a devil-dance. When a member of a family is sick, and a devil- dance is held, to mollify the tormenting demon, it usually takes place in the garden which is attached to every dwelling in Ceylon, however humble. A temporary altar is erected and decorated as before described — ^the same rites being enacted, the same scenes of vice too frequently ensuing. Whilst sojourning in the land of the heathen, how frequently have our hearts mourned over our domestic servants, when they have solicited permission to attend a devil-dance : remonstrance was useless, for if per- mission were not granted, they would quit the service rather than forego attending this unhallow'ed rite. Missionaries boast of the multitude of converts made in Ceylon. Alas ! alas ! strangely do they omit to mention the number of these professed con- verts who attend devil-dances, and make ofTerino-s to Buddha, his temples, and priests. The places of torment are described to be a series of hells, made of copper, and of a square form, piled one above the other. In these burn unextinguish- able fires of intense heat and fury; each hell in descending becoming a degree hotter than that which is immediately above, until the lowest is reached, where " the fire is more intense than can 54 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. be even thought of; for could we convey the idea to our mind, we must inevitably be consumed by the reflection of the thought." * Those who have trans- gressed the laws of Buddha are condemned to different hells of greater or less heat, according to the uiagnitude of their crimes. Thus, those who have only erred in thought are placed in the hell of the lowest temperature ; and as the crimes deepen in turpitude, the culprit is placed in the hotter hell, until the one which is the hottest is allotted to the murderer. Every sin has punishment assigned, usually of a retributive nature: thus, for murder, the culprit is condemned to be butchered perpetually by the same means which were used to deprive his victim of life. Thieving is punished by the thief having continually before him what appear to be jewels and gems of inestimable value ; by an irresistible impulse he is compelled to seize them, when they turn to fire in his grasp. Adultery is punished by the man being compelled to climb up a tall and jagged tree after the partner of his guilt, who allures him up the tree, by standing on its topmost branch, which he no sooner gains than she eludes his grasp, and appears at the foot of the tree, which he quickly slides down, tearing his flesh fearfully in the descent; when the bottom of the tree is attained, the female again is at the topmost branch— this scene being perpetually re-acted. The adulteress is perpetually punished, by attempting to throw herself into the arms of her * Thus writes a Cingalese sage. CEYLON AKD THE CINGALESE, 65 paramour, who immediately becomes a venomous snake, inflicting a painful wound on her breasts. Those who have drunk spirituous liquors, or indulged in drunkenness, have constantly a molten stream of burning lead poured down their throats. Liars have their tongues perpetually gashed with burning shears ; in short, every offence has its own peculiar punishment allotted. Those who have broken Buddha's laws one hundred times, or, as the Cingalese express it, " on ten times ten occasions," are to endure continual hunger and thirst, to be impaled on red hot stakes, to be chopped and chipped like wood, and to have the eyeballs, hair, and nails, plucked out with burn- ing pincers. Those who have sinned more frequently are to be very fat and fleshy, their tormentors being ravenous beasts of prey, who will tear out their bowels without injuring a vital part; and this last punishment is added to the former ones. The most terrible of all the places of torment is the Locarnan-tarika-nariky. This hill is made of moist clay ; no light being admitted, the criminals here suffer from intense cold, darkness, ravenous hunger, and consuming thirst, which compel them to tear each other to pieces; devouring the living flesh to appease hunger, and drinking the warm blood to allay the unquenchable thirst. They suffer the pangs of death constantly, immediately afterwards returning to life, to undergo the same torments, which never diminish in duration or agony. Those who are condemned to suffer in this 56 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. place of torture, are criminals who have committed unpardonable sins, such as those who have defied or scotFed at Buddha or his ordinances, defiled or injured his temples, or opposed his worship, did not worship the gods, or murdered a priest, parent, or teacher — all these offences are looked upon by the Buddhist as the most heinous sins which human nature is capable of committing. In accordance with the preceding irrational system are the physical causes by which, the Cingalese con- tend, that the universe is governed, every pheno- menon of nature, they affirm, being produced by the means or with the concurrence of, various gods, or because it was to he — never attempting to adduce reason or proof in confirmation of their assertions. The sun, moon, stars, meteors, and the whole of the heavenly bodies are asserted to be various gods, who live in magnificent mansions, which are continually illuminated, and are drawn about from place to place in the heavens, at fixed periods, by deer, horses, and elephants; thus, when the sun rises, he is commencing a journey ; when setting, he is gone to the other side of Maha-meru-]}arwate, which is under the water ; and the same theory is applied to the moon, stars, meteors, planets, comets, and the whole host of heavenly bodies. When the gods quarrel one with the other, then storms, or whirlwinds are produced, by the elements being set in commotion, through the noise and turmoil which are occasioned by the loud voices of the gods. Their will or caprice causes rain to descend CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 57 In a genial shower to refresh vegetation, or to de- luo-e the earth with torrents, which cause floods, destroying plantations, and inundating houses. A shooting star they affirm to be the spirit of a god which has just quitted the body, and is about to enter another form ; the milky way is produced by a huge snake, who leaves in the path already traversed innumerable illuminated scales, or portions of skin. The phenomena of the tides is accounted for by the Cingalese in the following unreasonable, absurd manner — thev state that over the uppermost hell is an immense pit, which could contain the whole ocean if necessary, and by this means, prevent the land from being inundated ; the water which is in the pit is heated from the fire that burns in the up- permost hell ; the tides being produced by the heat and vapour, arising from the hot water mixing with the cold, as the former leaves the pit. The system of the constant changes of the various worlds is thus accounted for — as man becomes wicked, so the world degenerates, until all is in- volved in ruin ; then a new world arises from the chaotic mass, which gradually reaches perfection as mankind improve in virtue. When arrived at the highest acme of perfection, man is sure to become wicked, when the world again degenerates ; between each chaos and regeneration millions of ages elapse, which, let them be defined by numbers as they will, no mortal can duly estimate. The period which elapses between one chaos and another is called D 5 58 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. Mnha-Kalpe. We must again resort to the ancient Cingalese work before alluded to, to give an ade- quately correct idea of this extraordinary and singular system, which, from its very strangeness, we believe and trust will prove as interesting to our readers as it has to ourselves: — " Maha-Kalpe is ended by chaos; this is caused by fire, water, and the wind, which destroy all ; but fire will consume to a cinder all vestiges of the world which wind and water have left unscathed. No part of the world is spared the Brach-mea-lo- ches.* The fire burns for ten millions of years; the rain then descends from JBrach-mea-lo-ches, which inundates the earth, and extinguishes the flames. For ten centuries does the rain fall ; after that time it ceases, and the whole earth is a mass of mire and rocks. In due time the flower Na-loonf pushes its graceful stem from out the earth. Upon the branches of the N'a-loon, which grows until it reaches the Brach-mea-lo-ches, are suspended robes and clothing for the Buddhas, which are to appear in this world during the Maha-Kalpe; the number of Buddhas may be five, or it may be a single one. When Na-loon has reached Bracli-mealo-ches, then ten gods descend to the earth. The gods are soon actuated by the same desires which dwell in the heart of men. Are not lust, gluttony, and anger, inherent to the heart of men? The gods catch these passions from dwelling on earth. The gods' per- * This is one of their numerous heavens. f A most beautiful species of the pink lotus. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 59 sons assume the human shape — sou)e are males, some are females ; they eat of the fruits which spring up spontaneously. Children are born, these multiply ; families soon are numerous, they choose rulers and chiefs, laws are made, castes are formed, and the human race goes on multiplying in numbers, and increasing in sin, until for their crimes all earthly things degenerate ; the Maha-Kalpe ends, again all things are chaos." In a Maha-Kalpe to come, they believe that men will become sinful in the extreme. Buddha s laws will be neglected, and his shrines desecrated ; murder, rapine, and plunder, will take place at noonday. The number of man's days on earth will gradually decrease until his age will not exceed twice Jive years ; then a scroll will be found affixed to a virgin talipot-tree that has never borne fruit, on which will be written the following words : — " In five and two days a mighty rain will deluge the land ; all those upon whom this rain falls will be changed into ravenous beasts of prey, and devour each other ; those that have but one seed of virtue remaining, keep your bodies dry." In those parts of the world where a virgin talipot-tree is not to be found, then a sonorous voice will be heard to an- nounce the warning. Nearly all will be wetted with the rain, be changed into wild beasts, and will devour each other; the few that remain on earth will gradually amend their ways, and, as they im- prove in virtue, their lives will be prolonged until they attain immense length of days, powerful mental GO CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. capabilities, and extreme personal beauty, combined with gigantic stature. According to the Cingalese belief, nothing re- mains stationary. When arrived at perfection, mankind will again degenerate, until all again is involved in destruction and chaos, again to be re- newed. We have endeavoured to give, as briefly as possible consistent with necessary information, an outline of the fabulous history of the Cingalese system of worlds, which we believe will be found interesting alike to the antiquarian and general reader. Buddha is a derivation from the Pali word £udu, which sigeifies wisdom; and this term is applied to a man, or men, who is, or are, distinguished beyond his or their fellows for mental capability, learning, and piety. The Cingalese belief is, that in every Maha-Kalpe a certain number of Buddhas are to appear on this earth, who from their good example will cause mankind to reform, and restore religion to its prinjitive purity. The Buddhists compare their religion to a tree, which is occasionally in full health and vigour, bearing leaves, flowers, and fruit : at other times the tree is destitute of verdure, leafless and almost lifeless ; and this natural comparison is simply and beautifully poetical. We liave previously remarked that the introduc- tion of Buddhism into the world is buried in the obscurity of past ages; but from the early period at which Buddhaical tenets reigned dominant in the breasts of a large portion of the human race, no CEVLON ASID THE CINGALK8E. 61 doubt can remain in the mind of the inquirer, that Buddhism was one of the earliest, if not the earliest, of all human religions, codes of morality, and forms of worship. The Buddhist asserts that the laws and system have been handed from generation to generation, by a succession of prophets, who ap- peared on earth at fixed intervals ; centuries elaps- ing between the visits of these prophets, or Buddhas. Six hundred years before the Christian era, twenty-four of these prophets or Buddhas had visited this world, when the son of one of the kings of Northern India, for his learning, piety, and sin- less life, was raised to the rank of Buddha ; through him the ancient religion was restored to its original purity ; he instructed priests in its tenets ; and, when he quitted this world, to be absorbed into the first principle of all things, these priests remained to in- struct the world, and inculcate the principles, doc- trines, and laws of Buddha. It is utterly impossible to affirm whether the twenty-four prophets or Buddhas whicli appeared on eai'th, are fabulous beings or not; but the two last Buddhas, prophets, (what cognomen to apply to these beings we know not,) were men and mor- tals, is fully proved from history. Kassapo was the Buddha which appeared before Goutama, whilst Goutama, the last Buddha which appeared, did not become Buddha till the sixth century antecedent to the Christian era. We read in Knighton, p. 66: — " Whether the preceding Buddhas had a personal existence or not cannot now be decided ; but we 62 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. can scarcely doubt of tlie humanity and substan- tiality of the last two — Kassapo and Goutama — inasmuch as the faith of the first had extended to China before the appearance of the second ; whilst the latter was, in fact, unknown in that vast em- pire till about the second century of the Christian era."* Five Buddhas are to appear in the present Maha- Kalpe ; four have appeared, the last being Gou- tama ; the one to come is Nitr a- Buddha, who is predestined to appear on earth at a stated period, but the precise time is not known. The last Buddha, Goutama, is the chief object of venera- tion and worship with rigid Buddhists, although the whole number of Buddhas, with many of the gods, are worshipped by multitudes. To give a correct idea of the belief and principles of Budd- hism, we must sketch an outline of the life of the last Buddha ; by so doing, we shall impart informa- tion concerning the history of the preceding three Buddhas, as the principal occurrences in their lives exactly coincide. The history of Goutama Buddha is most volumi- nous, the Cingalese asserting that ten hundred thick books have been written, and they do not contain the whole history of his life. The style of the work, like most Asiatic writings, is high- 's: This interesting fact is proved by the account of Buddhism as then existing in China, given by Fa-hian, in his collection of Buddhist tracts. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 63 flown and hyperbolical, abounding in extraordinary relations and exaggerations. The being who became Goutama Buddha previ- ously underwent every variety and stage of exist- ence, having been born many millions of times. To confirm this assertion, the Cingalese writer says, — " Were the bodies collected merely in each in- stance of abortion, which occurred to him in the common course of things, they would form a mass which would surpass in size the magnitude of the earth." In the state of being which preceded that of Buddha, he was a god of Toasitadewialoche, his name being Swata-katu. A thousand years be- fore Swata-katu became Buddha, a man with a golden branch in his hand flew through ten thou- sand worlds, announcing to the gods that Buddha would appear at the expiration of one thousand years. As soon as this intelligence was heard, the gods in a body went to the heaven where Swata- katu dwelt, to inform him that the period had arrived when he must quit his heavenly abode, and descend to earth to become Buddha, as his piety, learning, and spotless life had qualified him to fill that post. Time does not exist in the heavens of a Cingalese, thousands of years being but as a moment, and mil- lions of ages but as one week. Thus no sooner had the gods heard the messenger proclaim that Buddha would appear on earth in a thousand years, than 64 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. the prescribed time had elapsed. On receiving the deputation of the gods, Swata-katu desired a mo- ment for reflection, to be enabled to examine him- self as to his fitness and capability for becoming Buddha, After due deliberation, Swata-katu de- clared his willingness to become Buddha, more espe- cially as mankind now lived to be one hundred and twenty years of age; therefore they must be virtu- ous, or they would not have attained the privilege of living unto that advanced age — consequently, the world was in a fit state to receive benefit from pious precepts and example. Swata-katu declared that he should be born of the queen Maha-ya-davea, the wife of Sodo-den Rajah-Roo, who lived at Kapilla-wastoo poora, and that the world in which he should become Buddha should be Damba-diva. Immediately afterward Swata-katu vanished from his heaven, and entered the womb of the queen, Maka-ya-davea. Towards the termination of the period of gestation, the queen, whilst walking in one of the pleasure-gardens of the palace, felt an irresistible desire to gather some flowers that grew beyond her reach : scarcely had the wish flashed across her mind, when the bunch of flowers fell over towards her hand. The instant the flowers touched her person the pangs of childbirth commenced. Immediately the queen Maha-ya-davea was surrounded by gods ; and in one instant the child was born, who, the moment he was in the world, walked seven steps forward in a CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 65 Straight line ; but to the assembled circle of gods, the child appeared to be advancing towards each in- dividual god. The king, Sodo-den, lost in amazement and con- sternation, sent for his most renowned astrologers to unravel the meaning of these remarkable circum- stances. After much deliberation, the astrologers declared that the child then born would be either Buddha, or a god. A renowned astrologer, who dwelt in a far distant part of the kingdom, called Ilie-male, whilst gazing on the heavens, heard sounds which were expressive of great joy — the gods proclaiming that the child just born, which was called Sid-harte, the son of Sodo-den, would become Buddha. The sage hastens to the court of Sodo-den, and entreats that he may be allowed to see the precious infant. As the sage was a good man and renowned astrologer, Sodo-den granted his request, ordering his attendants to fetch the new-born infant. As soon as the child was brought into the king's presence, Sodo-den tried to make the infant salaam the sage, by joining the little hands together ; but the child, instead of salaaming the sage, placed his feet upon the head of the good man. The sage then examined the infant, and found upon his person the distinguishing marks of Buddha — namely, the thirty-two spots of beauty on his body, and two hundred and sixteen emblems on the soles of his feet, and the eighty inferior symbols, which were indicative of his destiny. 66 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. The aged sage wept tears of joy and sorrow ; of joy, at beholding the infant which which was to become Buddha— of sorrow, because he must quit this life before the child should become Buddha. " Know, mighty Sodo-den, Rajah-roo, that thy son, Sid-harte, before he can arrive at the felicitous honour of becoming Buddha, will forsake the world, giving up thy kingdom, and all its attendant grant deur, to prepare himself, by meditations, for the great honour which has been in store for him for tens of millions of cejituries. Four events will cause thy son Sid-harte to quit the luxuries which surround him and thee. When he beholds a man debilitated by disease and sorrow, an aged man whose hair will be white as the running stream,- a lifeless body, whereon the land-crabs are banquet- ting, and a Tapissa,^ then will Sid-harte, thy son, leave thy dwelling never more to gladden thy sight." The astrologer then departed on his home- ward journey, and shortly afterwards died. Sid-harte grew up, was a dutiful son, studied deeply, and paid profound respect to the good and learned. At that period, the religion of Brahma was th*e one that was followed by Sodo-den .and his subjects : the king, not appreciating the high des- tiny to which his son was called as Buddha, and wishinor him to ascend the throne after his death, ex- erted his authority and influence to prevent Tapissa from gaining access to the young prince — bearing the prophecy in mind, S<>do-de7i caused the sick and * An order of the priesthood. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 67 aged people, and those who were likely to die, to be moved outside the city walls: every rampart was put into a thorough state of repair, and fifteen hun- dred men were stationed at each of the four (rates to prevent the ingress of the sick, aged, or Tapissas. Sodo-den sought to bind Sid-harte to the world by every possible means ; thus when his son had entered his seventeenth year, the king sought the liand of a most beautiful and fascinating princess, to be to him given in marriage. This princess was called Yassa-deva-davie, and was the only daughter of the king: whose realms bordered on those of Sodo-den. She was so exquisitely lovely in face and form, that no mortal man ever gazed upon her without becoming the slave of her fascinations. The marriage was celebrated with all due solemnity, and great rejoicings took place on the auspicious occasion ; but these rejoicings were redoubled when, in nine months and three days after the marriage, the lovely Princess Yassa-deva-davie pi*esented Sid- harte with a son The king, Sodo-den, now was happy, and in his felicity appeared to forget the sage's prophecy and his former fears, and for years nought occurred to cause him an uneasy thought. Upon the day the Prince Sid-harte had entered his thirtieth year, he determined to visit a member of the royal family to acknowledge the gorgeous present which had been sent him. Sid-harte, who had lesolved to pay this visit in all due form, desired the attendance of the chief or prime minister, Chan-na. As Sid-harte was about to enter his 68 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. howdah (wliich was borne by his favourite elephant, who was most richly caparisoned, the trappings being one mass of gold and precious jewels), his gaze was attracted and arrested by the appearance ofan aged man, whose tottering, attenuated limbs appeared unecpial to the task of supporting his body, Sid-harte asked Chan-na to explain to him the meaning of this wonderful spectacle. " Know, mighty and powerful prince," said Chan-na, '• that the spectacle thou beholdest, al- though new to thee, is what ordinary mortals wit- ness daily ; that tottering man is but borne down by the weight of many years. He is old, Sid-harte, and all born of woman must become infirm under the burden of numerous days." The words of Chan-na sank deep into the heart of Sid harte, for his mind was filled with the thought that all he loved — wife, children, niother, and father — now revelling in all their full bodily powers, must even become a piteous spectacle, like unto the aged, infirm, tottering man whom be had just seen. The visit was paid, but Sid-harte returned to his father's palace with a saddened brow. On the first day of the following moon, Sid-harte resolved upon visiting his favourite pleasure-garden. On his way thither, attended by the chief officers of his household, he beheld a man lying on the ground, moaning pite- ously. " Why does that man give utterance to those sounds ?" inquired Sid-harte of the minister, Chan-na. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE, 69 " Because, mighty master, he is sick and racked by agonizing pain. All that are born of woman are liable to disease and sufFering." " I go not to my garden to-day — my heart is sad. My adored wife, my beloved offspring, my honoured and revered parents, may be suffering from bodily agony, whilst I might be enjoying and inhaling the sweets diffused around from the perfume of my flowers." On the last day of the same moon, Sid-harte yielded to the solicitations of Yassa-deva-davie, and ordered the court to attend him on an excursion of pleasure to his favourite garden. The gorgeous retinue stopped at the entrance of the garden; the co\mng of Sid'harte had not been announced, there- fore guards were not at the gate to receive him. Lying before the garden-entrance was the putrify- ing body of a man, the features completely de- stroyed by the filthy and abhorrent land-crabs, who were desporting in myriads over and about the body, on which they had feasted. " What horrible object is that which meets my eye ? The eyeless sockets appear to glare on me, as the reptiles creep from out the cavern of the skull, unfold to me this mystery, learned Chan-na?'' " Sid-harte, that horrible object which meets thine eye is the putrifying body of a dead man ; the cas- ket, that now is a disgusting and unsightly object to gaze upon, but one moon ago was full of life, energy, and vigour. Know, mighty prince, that all that are born of woman must die. Some live for many years 70 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. — some only to the jDeriod Avhen the mental and bodily powers are at the zenith ; but old and young, high-born and humble, the strong and the weak, the learned and the ignorant — all alike are born of woman, and must die." As Sid-harte, wrapt in profound thought, prepared to enter his howdah, a Tapissa passed by, dressed in the robes of his office. " Of what caste is that man, and why is he thus attired ? Canst thou answer me these questions, learned Chan-na ?" " Powerful prince, that man is a Tapissa, and he wears the robes of his office. By a spotless life, meditation, and benefiting his brother man, he seeks to overcome the five great evils which attend man — disease and pain, old age and infirmity, and the loss of life. All, Sid-harte, that are born of wo- man are subject to these evils." " Then, learned Chan-na, if a spotless life, prayer, meditation, and performing acts to benefit mankind, can overcome these five great evils, it were well did I and thou follow in the Tapissa's steps. I, Sid- harte, the son and heir of the mighty king Sodo-den, devote the remainder of my days to overcome these five great evils ; I, Sid-harte, the son of Sodo-den, will become a priest. I have said it — who shall try to make me lie, or attempt to induce me, by per- suasion or force, to break ray word ?" The retinue of the prince returned to the palace. Sid-harte, buried in profound thought, sought the privacy and solitude of the innermost chamber of CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 71 his princely abode. The noise of rejoicing and re- veh'j resounded through the pakice, for the king had ordered the attendance of his nobles, the most cele- brated dancers, singers, and musicians, as he now gave an entertainment, by which he hoped to dispel the melancholy of his son. When the shades of evening fell on all around, Sid-harte desired his chief eunuch to summon the minister, Chan-na, into his presence. The summons was obeyed. Before Sid-harte, in an attitude of salutation, stood the faithful minister. " Chan-na, I am about to leave my palace, to be- hold it no more — wilt accompany me?" " Mighty prince, I am but the slave of thy bid- ding — thou hast but to command, I to obey." " Chan-na, the sight of age, disease, and death dwell on my mind — I must conquer these great evils. Ought I to dwell here, surrounded by all which can minister to my pleasure, whilst my fel- low-men suffer?" " Mighty prince, it is thy destiny ; thou art the son of the powerful king Sodo-den — care and sorrow dare not molest thee." " Hold thy peace, Chan-na; wouldst turn flat- terer ? Though I, Sidharte, am the son of the mighty Sodo-den, am I not a man born of woman — therefore subject, like all human beings, to disease, old age, and death? I tarry here no longer — fol- low me." " Sid-harte, mighty master, this night canst thou not depart. Heardest thou not the song of joy, 72 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. sang by the princess' women, to celebrate the birth of thy son? This night the great Yassa-dei'a-davie has brouglit into the world an infant. Sid-harte, thy humble slave, Chan-na, greets thee — thou art again a father." "Chan-na, this intelligence saddens me ; but my resolve remains unshaken. I depart — but I dare not see my beloved spouse or my children ; I can leave them, but I cannot say farewell. "The sight of my new-born son, nestling on his beauteous mother's bosom, would unfit me for my task — perchance my babe might entwine his tiny fingers around mine — I could not withstand this silent appeal to my heart. The little fingers, that one rude pressure could snap in twain, would prove to me more binding than chains of adamant or iron. My beloved wife might speak of the future bliss that we were to share — together ; for Yassa-deva- davie and Sid-harte there can be no future — we are twain. Wife, children, parents, throne — I sacrifice at the shrine of duty. The flood-gates of ray heart are opened — tears of agony roll down my cheeks at the bitter thought, that I no more shall behold the cherished, beloved wife of my bosom, my offspring — and her children — the honoured parents who gave me birth, and all I hold dear; but, Chan-na, I, Sid- harte, must throw aside all human feehng, to be enabled to conquer the five great evils, to which all born of woman are subject. " Let my steed, Kan-dek- ha, await me at the eastern portal of ray private garden. Adieu, all that I love ! CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 73 Sid-harte thou ne'er will see more ; but the memory of past happiness is enshrined in the inmost recesses of iny heart's core. Wilt thou follow me, Chan-na ? To exile and poverty I lead thee." " To the portals of suffering and death will I fol- ^w thee. Should thou, Sid-harte, enter the portal, 1, Chan-na, thy humble, unworthy slave, tread in thy footsteps." Mounted on his favourite black steed, Kan-dek-ka, Sid-harte, and Chan-na quitted the city — the gate through which they passed flying open to allow them free egress. Sid-harte allowed his horse to follow which path he chose : on bounded the noble Kan-dek-ka until he came to the river Anoma- ganga, which the horse sprang over, then volun- tarily stoj)ped Sidharte and Chan-na alighted: the prince then cut off his long tresses with his scimitar, throwing the severed hair towards heaven ; the god Sacrea caught the tresses, and caused them to be sent to Toosita, to be preserved in a Dagobah, Sid-harte then proceeded to take off his royal robes : in a minute the king of a tribe of gods, called Maha-Brachmea, stood at his side with the necessary apparel and equipments for a priest. These consisted of two sets of yellow robes, a scarf to gird about the loins, a girdle, a bowl to contain food, a coarse cloth through which water was to be strained, a razor to shave the head, and a coarse needle to enable Sid-harte to repair his own robes. All these articles had been taken from the flower VOL. 11. E 74 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. Naloon, at the commencement of the Malia-Kalpe, and been carefully preserved by the god Malta- JBrachmea. Sid-harte attired himself in the priestly robes, so- lemnly abjuring rank, power, and grandeur; and ordered the minister to return to the palace, inform- ing the king that he had abjured for ever his former position, and had become a priest ; and to bear the royal robes to Yassa-deva-davie, as a f\ij'ewell gift from him who had been her husband, but who now was a priest. Chan-^na implored his master to allow him to follow him, but Sid-harte would not accede to this ; but insisted that Clian-na should return, and desired him to mount Kan-dek-ka. Being com- pelled to obey, the minister returned to the king Sodo-den, and imparted the sorrowful intelligence. Deej) was the grief that filled the hearts of Sodo-den and Yassa-deva-davie when Chan-na told then) they ■would not again behold Sid-harte^ and nought but sounds of wailing were heard in the palace. Sid-hurte now wandered from place to place ; his only means of support being the alms that were be- stowed upon him by the charitable. He performed various acts of devotion, such as remaining motionless for a lengthened period, looking upon the sun at noon- day, standing in the midst of fires, and, at times, for weeks together, ate nothing save the leaves of trees. These acts of devotion or penance are termed tapass ; and it was whilst performing a most painful tapass that Sid-harte had five dreams, which led him to believe that he speedily would become Buddha. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. /O The deiT.ons tried to seduce Sid-harte from the path of virtue by every means in their power, and, when alhirtments failed, intimidations were resorted to ; but these proved as unavailing as the temptations. One night Sid-harte was assailed by the demons, who showered upon him missiles of every descrip- tion ; bul the gods came to his aid, the deuions be- ing completely vanquished and subjugated Before the morning dawned, Sid-harte had become con- versant with every description of knowledge ; he had gained the wisdom which made him Buddha ; he could recite the whole number of his previous births, his acquirements, and great virtues; he had the faculty of diving into the secrets of futurity, and unravelling the events of past ages; the keenness of his perception, and great wisdom, enabled him to understand every thought of the human heart, and all sciences; ail lust and worldly desires were sub- dued or banished from his heart, and the capability to appreciate the extreme bliss of his present condi- tion was bestowed upon him. Sid-harte was now called Goutama Buddha, having twelve thousand other appellations, which we will not attempt to give. For the first nine weeks after becoming Buddha, he took no food or sleep, remaining wrapt in meditation. Disciples and adherents flocked from every part of the world to become followers of Goutama Buddha — many miracles were worked by him, and his life was most exemplary. The principal part of Goutama s latter days were passed at Kassa-ratta, living in a mag- E 2 /h CEYLON AND THR CINGALESE. nificent temple which had been built for him by one of his wealthy followers. Here he passed his time in inculcating the doctrines of Buddhism, and benefiting mankind. Occasionally he travelled into strange lands, and visited Lanka-diva^ Ceylon, three times; and upon quitting Ceylon the last time, he left the impress of his foot upon the highest mountain in the island, which is called Adam's Peak.* Davy's " Ceylon," p. 215, contains the following account of Goutama Buddlta : — " His days he devoted to men, in preaching to them, and converting them, and his nights to the gods, who assembled to listen to him. He was so successful in convincing those whom he addressed of the truth of his doctrines, that he often daily converted many Ason heyas (a number too immense to be comprehended.) The powers which he exer- cised in reforming mankind were more than human, and were quite miraculous. He could assume any form he chose. He could multiply himself many liundred times, or produce the appearance of many hundred Buddhas, in every respect like himself, with rays of light issuing from every pore of their skin, differently occupied, some standing, some sitting, and some preaching. He could go any distance in a moment, even as fast as thought, through the air, under the water, or under the earth. " When he preached, his face appeared to all the * A full description of Adam's Peak will be given in due course. CEYLON AND THK CINGALESE. // andience, thou<^h surrounding liim in a circle.* People of all languages understood liini ; and all, however distant, heard him distinctly, excepting those who were as the deaf, and though close to him heard nothing." A learned man who followed him, during six months, to ascertain if he were the true Buddha, never saw the impression of his foot, nor even a flower bend on which he trod, or a cushion pressed on which he sat. His good qualities, his extraor- dinary powers, are said to have been boundless, and to baffle description. Gautama died in his eighty-ninth year, after having been Buddha forty-seven years, during which period he had made many converts, and re- formed a large portion of his fellow-creatures. The god Sacrea attended the death-bed of Goutama Buddha, and promised to watch over his religion for five thousand years. At the expiration of that period, Goutama promised to re-appear on earth to perform miracles; after which the elements of his being would become absorbed in space, and anni- hilated for ever. As soon as Goutama Buddha died, his body was deposited in a golden coffin, which was placed upon a pyre of sandal-wood one hundred and thirty cubits in height.-f' The flames did not consume the whole of the body — a tooth was preserved ; some of the flesh became particles * Does the reader remember the miracle of his birth ? t A cubit in Ceylon is the length of a man's forearm, mea- suring from the elbow to the top of the middle finger. 78 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. of gold, a portion of the bones, pearls, the re- mainder being distributed about various parts of the world, more especially Ceylon, wliere the relics are preserved in a dome-topped building called Dagohah ; and a Dayohah is considered as sacred as a Widhare. or temple which is dedicated to the service of Buddha. Tradition states that Goutama Buddha is now in Ni-wane, which is the ultimate reward and rest- ing-place of all Buddhas and good men. The priests will not give any definite idea of Ni-wane, saying that it is a religious mystery which they are forbidden to enter upon, or discuss. Ni-wane is a compound of two Cingalese words, ni and wane — the first signifies " no," the last " thirst." Some suppose that Ni-wane means utter annihilation ; and from the opinion we have heard expressed by Cingalese scholars, who were learned men and rigid followers of Buddha, we coincide in the defi- nition of the term. The state of supreme bliss is invariably alluded to as complete absorption or annihilation ; and the natural conclusion must be, that one who from his virtues had become Buddha, must enjoy the most superlative degree of happiness promised by the sacred writings. This heathen idea of bliss appears extraordinary to a mind which has been blest and enlightened by the truths of the Christian religion: the Buddhist looking for reward and bliss in absolute annihilation of spirit and being — the Christian, in dwelling to all eternity in the mansion prepared for the pardoned sinner. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 79 The Cingalese date from the death of Goutama Buddha ; and, although it is difficult to ascertain the exact year in which he listed or died, we believe that the year 1850 is reckoned by the Cingalese as 2394 after Buddha. We will now proceed to give an outline of Budd- hism, the tenets and principles which were incul- cated by Goutama ; and, as far as it is practicable for a heathen code of morality or religion to be good, we believe Buddhaical doctrines and precepts to be the best pagan religion known. The prin- cipal tenets of Buddhism are, that mind and matter are both immortal ; that mankind have come into their present condition from a numberless series of transmigrations, which extend backwards for an immense period ; and these transmigrations will continue for ever. We have previously stated that Buddhists are absolute materialists — the dogma of eternity of matter being continually inculcated ; they believe this world always has existed, and will exist for ever ; that it will be frequently destroyed, and will be re-produced. In one respect the religion of Buddha resembles that of the Christian — the Buddhist affirming that sin, sorrow, disease, and death, were not always the portion of mankind, but were caused by the ungovernable passions of disobedience, lust, avarice, and lying, being indulged in by man. The gods, according to the Buddhist, are spirits of an im- mortal nature, whose power and knowledge, al- though vast, are limited ; and, although far superior 80 CEYLON AND THE ClNGALEbE. to mankind in intelligence and wisdom, are immea- surably the inferiors of the successive Buddhas which have apjaeared on earth. In a Cingalese work, entitled " Suttra Pitaka," which contains some of the precepts and sermons of Goutama Buddha, we read the following accounts of the gods : — " Living beings first appeared by an apparitional birth, subsisting on the element of felicity, illumi- nated by their own effulgence, moving through the air, delightfully located, and existed in unity and concord. This was the original condition of man ; but human nature could not remain in this condi- tion — sin and lust entered the world, and man be- came a wicked creature. Twenty-four god-like men appeared in succession, whose lives were holy and pure. In the revolutions of countless ages they ap- peared ; their sojourn on earth, although fraught with misery to themselves, did not materially bene- fit mankind, when I, Goutama Buddha, appeared on earth in my present form. I am the most exalted in the world — I am the chief in the world — I am the most excellent in the world. This is my last birth ; hereafter there is to me no other generation. One more Buddha is yet to come — then shall cease the present order of things." It is stated that Goutama did not write out either his precepts or discourses, and that written records did not appear until centuries after his decea!?e. The Cingalese antiquarian scholar affirms, that Goutama s doctrines, precepts, and traditions, were CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 81 handed down by his disciples froiu one generation to another, until, in the reign of Wallagam Bahoo, king of Ceylon, which was four centuries after Gou- tama JBuddhas death, the whole of his precepts, dis- courses, and doctrines, were collected and transcribed by learned priests, who dwelt in Aloolena, in the dis- trict of Matele. The works, although rare, are still to be found in Ceylon, and these sacred writ- ings are the authorities resorted to by the Buddhist in all disputed or doubtful points in their religion ; and the Cingalese maintain most positively that the establishment of their temples, mode of worship, and doctrines, are in strict accordance with these works. The number of these sacred works are five — the names as follow : — Sangoot-Sangia — the valuable collection ; Ango- ira-Sangia — the elementary collection ; Dlk'Sangia — the long collection; Meduon-Sangia — the mid- dling collection; Koodoogot-Sangla — the remaining collection. The whole of these works are written in countless volumes, and are complete, with the exception of the Angotra-Sangia, which was in twenty-five volumes, but unfortunately some of the volumes are missing. The life of Goutama was in strict accordance with Buddhaical tenets ; he was chaste, temperate, and humble ; he went from village to village preach- ing his doctrines, and permitted his disciples and followers to write down his discourses. The doctrines inculcated by Goutama were faith in the Buddhas, confidence in the gods, and the efficacy of £ 5 82 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. charity and good works. Invariably followed by multitudes, and attended by innumerable priests and disciples, Goutama travelled from place to place, asking no alms, but receiving all that were freely offered ; simple in manners, humbly austere in deportment, he courted not the smiles of the great, nor did he heed their frowns, when he deemed it necessary to administer rebukes, or ad- monish them concerning their sinfully licentious lives. The discourses and doctrines of Goutama Buddha would not have disgraced a more enlight- ened age; he inculcated the necessity of subjugating the passions, charity to our poorer brethren, good will to our neighbours, and kindness to animals. We subjoin a few of his precepts, and the substance of one of his discourses. The precepts are extracted from the Damma Padan, or the Footsteps of Reli- gion : — " All the religion of Buddha is contained in these three precepts : ' Purify thy mind ;' ' abstain from vice ;' ' practise virtue.' " " He is a more noble warrior who subdues him- self, than he who in the battle conquers thousands." " True nobility is not of one's parentage, but is the offspring of a virtuous mind and spotless life." " Relio;ion is the road to immortalitv ; irreligion the road to death. A religious man dies not; but he that is irreligious is, even whilst in this world, as one that is dead." "A wise man will so establish himself in industry, perseverance, prudence, and mental control, that CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 83 he is never borne away by the turbid waters of licentiousness." "Shun the practice of irreligion ; shun sensuality; shun the evil speaker : by shunning these sins man is a gainer, for the religious and meditative expe- rience supreme happiness." "As the mighty rock Mahu-meru-imrwate remains unshaken by the storm, so is the wise man unmoved by praise or disapprobation." " To the virtuous, all is pure ; therefore think not the going unclothed, being defiled with dirt, fasting, lying on the ground, or remaining motionless, can make the pure impure — for the mind will still remain the same." " Let those who bestow all their thoughts and attention on their bodies, gaze upon the skeletons of those departed; then let them say if their carcase is worth the care. Kings, their pride, greatness, and grandeur decay ; but truth is immutable and eternal." " Conquer anger by mildness, evil by good, ava- rice by liberality, falsehood by truth. Evil passions cannot be eradicated all at once ; it is a slow work, and must be done gradually, just as the jeweller removes rust from gold." "The wicked man is like a decayed leaf; the har- binger of death is near, and yet the sinner stands at the gate, without having made provision for his fu- ture life." " Know, oh ! sinner, that wicked actions cannot be hid ; avarice and wrath will bring long suffering upon thee." 84 CKYLON AND THE CINGALESE. " No flame burns so fiercely as that of lust; nought has a grasp so powerful as hatred ; no net is equal to the meshes of folly ; no flood is so inipetuous as desire." " Men ever have been, and ever will be, subject to unjust praise and unjust censure ; and that man is the most skilful of all charioteers who can guide the chariot of his mind." " Sin is oft-times clothed in the garb of virtue, but the effects unclothe it speedily ; then vice is seen in its naked hideousness." " Mental control and the subjugation of the pas- sions is the road to happiness and eternal bliss." "Man should perform those deeds which time will not cause him to repent ; therefore be not desirous of disco vering the faults of others, but zealously guard your own." The following extracts are from a discourse en- titled MangalcB : "Thou art not to serve the unwise, but to attend on the learned, and to make offerings to those who are worthy of homage ; thou shouldst live in a reli- gious neighbourhood, to be a performer of virtuous actions ; thou must be well informed in religion, mild in manners, subject to discipline, and of plea- sant speech ; thou must honour thy father and thy mother, provide for thy wife and children, follow a sinless vocation, give alms to those who stand in need, act virtuously, assist relatives, and lead a blameless life. To be free from sin, abstain from intoxicating drinks, to persevere in virtue, to be CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 85 respectful and kind, contented, grateful, and to listen at proper seasons to religious instructions ; to be mild, subject to reproof, to have access to priests, and to converse with them on religious sub- jects ; to have a mind unshaken by prosperity or adversity, inaccessible to sorrows, free from im- purity, and tranquil; these are the chief excellences. They who practise all these virtues, and are not overcome by evil, enjoy the perfection of happiness, and obtain the chief good." The following prohibitions or commands were deli- vered by Goutama Buddha : — " Abstain from fornication and adultery ; abstain from stealing; abstain from taking life from man, bird, beast, or reptile ; abstain from coveting; ab- stain from all foolish conversation ; abstain from betraying the secrets of others; abstain from all evil wishes to others; abstain from slander; abstain from lying; abstain from all unjust suspicion." The precepts, discourses, and commands which we have quoted will show that the doctrines inculcated by Goutama Buddha are those of purity and strict morality. Although reason convinces us there is much fable intermixed in the account of his birth and life, still historical facts prove that the son of a powerful monarch did abandon his throne, and, in the full vigour of health, manhood, and intellect, became a wandering pauper, roaming from place to place, inculcating piety and virtue. Can we feel astonished that the being called by the Cingalese Goutama Buddha, is looked upon as a prophet, and 8 86 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. worshipped as a god ? In " Knighton," page 79, we read, "The rise and progress of a later faith may convince us that there was nothing improbable in his (Goutama) assuming the character of a prophet, and, still less, in his being received as such. In the prime of manhood he renounces the pomps and vanities of the world, retreats to an unfrequented forest, and there submits to want and privation, re- gardless of the hopes of ambition, or of the softer feelings of affection." We believe that we have given a clear outline of the Buddhist religion, and in future chapters pro- pose describing the gods, priesthood, ceremonies, and all matter that is connected with the Budd- haical form of worship. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 87 CHAPTER IV. Buddhism, when introduced into Ceylon — Wihares and dago- bahs — Contents of dagobah that was opened near Colombo in 1820— Dalada relic brought to Ceylon, a.d. 310 — Taken possession of by us in 1818 — Publicly worshipped under the sanction of our government — Given up in 1847 — Lord Tor- rington's despatch on the subject — The capital, during the reign of the Kandian kings, when the Dalada was exhibited — The principal Buddhist temple in Ceylon — Shrine of the Da- lada — Buddha — The priesthood — Bviddha's commands to the laity — Worship of Buddha — Worship of the gods — The Kap- puralles — Conjoint worship of Buddha and the gods. Buddhism was established in Ceylon during the reign of Tisso,* the fifteenth king, and this event is supposed to have taken place about 235 years after the death of Buddha. Cingalese history states, that a priest of Buddha, of extreme sanctity, was sent by the monarch of a country, called Maddadisay, which was situated eastward of Ceylon, to convert the natives of Lanka-diva. The priest met the king, Tisso, as he was returning from hunting the * This monarch is called also Dewinepatisso. 88 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. wild elephant ; the monarch and his train, unaccus- tomed to the sight of a man, with head and eye- brows shaven, clad also in a dress they had never before seen — namely, the yellow robes of a {Driest of Buddha, thought that a spirit of evil stood before them, and not a human being. The priest informed the king for what purpose he had been sent to Ceylon, and put the following queries to him, to ascertain if his mind were suffi- ciently enlightened to understand the tenets of Buddhism : — Have you relations ? Many. Have you people not related to you ? Many thousands. Besides your relatives, and those who are not re- lated to you, are there others in your realm ? There are no others in my realm, but there is one other, and that other one is myself. The priest, being fully satisfied of the intellectual capabilities of Tisso, by these prompt and sapient re- plies, commenced a discourse, illustrating in flowery language the sublimity and purity of the religion and actions of Buddha. The monarch listened at- tentively, and, approving of the doctrines inculcated, became a convert within a short period, many of his subjects following his example. The king of Mad- dadisay had given a branch of the bo-tree* to the * The bo, or sacred tree, (Ficus religiosa,) is most magnifi- cent, being clothed in luxuriant foliage, bearing an exquisitely odoriferous bell-shaped flower, of a white hue. The Buddhists affirm that each successive Buddha had attained supreme wisdom whilst sitting under some peculiar tree ; and that Sid-harte, or Goutama Buddha, reached the pinnacle of heavenly knowledge. CEYLON AND THE CINGALILSE. 89 priest, which was to be phinted in Ceylon, if the natives became converts to BudUhisni ; and, in ac- cordance with this couimand, tlie branch was planted at Anooradhapoora, which was the ancient capital of Ceylon, where it miraculously grew and flourished ; and the Cingalese now point out a bo-tree at Anoo- radhapoora, which they declare to be the tree origin- ally brouglit into Ceylon. The priest also brought part of the jaw of Goutania Buddha, wiiich Dewine- patisso caused to be deposited in a dagobah, wliicii was one hundred and twenty cubits in height : wi- hares, or places of worship, dedicated to the service of Buddha, were built, and the national system of religion was declared to be that of Buddha. Although we disbelieve the miraculous giowth of the sacred ti-ee, and many other fables connected with the arrival of the first priest of Buddha in Ceylon, still, from historical records, and the mag- nificent ruins of wihares, and dagobahs, that are to be seen at the ancient seat of government — namel} , Anooradhapoora — we feel fully convinced, that it was in this part of Ceylon that the first wihare, or temple of Buddha, and the first dagobah, or edifice to contain relics, were erected. It is a curious and interesting fact, that in all countries, where Bud- dhaical doctrines are followed, the monumental buildings, which have been erected to contain relics* of Buddha, are invariably of the same form — namely, whilst reposing under this tree, which is held sacred by all Buddhists in Ceylon at the present time. * These relics are either hairs or small portions of bone. 90 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. a bell-shaped tomb, which is surmounted by a spire. In Ceylon, these receptacles for the sacred relics are built over a hollow stone or cell, in which the relic is deposited, enclosed usually in a thin plate of gold, or in a wrapper of fine, white rauslin ; with it are also deposited images of Buddha, pearls, and gems. Tiiese edifices in Ceylon are solidly built with bricks, which are usually covered over with chunam ; and we subjoin an account of a dagobah which was opened in 1820, near Colombo, by Mr. Layard, the father of the enthusiastic explorer, and talented author of" Nineveh and its Remains," In the centre of the dagobah, a small, square com- partment was discovered, lined with brick, and paved with coral, containing a cylindrical mass of grey granite, rudely shaped into a vase, or karandua, which had a closely-fitting cover or cap of the same. * This vase contained an extremely small fragment of bone, pieces of thin gold — in which, in all probabi- lity, the bone had originally been wrapped — pieces of the blue sapphire, and ruby, three small pearls, a few gold rings, beads of cornelian and crystal, and pieces of glass, which resembled icicles in shape. In the compartment with the vase were also placed a brazen and an earthen lamp, a small truncated pyra- mid, made of cement, and clay images of the cobra * The contents of this vase are very similar to one that was discovered at Benares by Mr. Duncan, who concluded, from an inscription that he found in the same place, that a temple of Buddha existed there above 700 years ago. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 91 capella, oi* hooded snake. In an historical account of Ceylon, we read : — " Tlie characteristic form of all monumental Bud- dhistical buildings is the same in all countries, which have had Buddha for their prophet, lawgiver, or god ; whether in the outline of the cumbrous mount, or in miniature within the laboured excava- tion, the peculiar shape, although variously modified, is general, and enables us to recognise the neglected and unhonoured shrines of Buddha, in countries where his religion no longer exists, and his very name is unknown." The relic, which is considered most valuable by rigid Buddhists, is the Dalada relic, or tooth of Buddha, * which was brought to Ceylon during the reign of Kitsiri Majan, from Northern India, by a princess, in the year 310 of the Christian era; and in the 853rd year after the death of Goutama Buddha, to prevent the relic falling into the hands of a neighbouring monarch, who had made war for the express purpose of obtaining possession of the Dalada. Buddhists affirm that in whatever country the relic is to be found, that country will be taken under the special protection of Buddha; the nation, therefore, becoming, in the estimation of all pro- fessors of Buddhism, a sacred one — thus Ceylon is termed by the Cingalese, the sacred island. The Cingalese believe also, that their country never • In a native work, still extant, and much prized by the Cingalese, called the " Dathadhastu-Wanso," the history of the relic will be found. 92 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. • could have been completely subjugated, until a foreign power had obtained possession of the relic. In 1818, Sir R. Brownrigg, after the Kandian rebel- lion, took possession of the Dalada relic, and Dr. Davy, who was in Ceylon during the whole time of the war, thus writes : — *' Through the kinilness of the Governor, I had an opportunity of seeing this celebrated relic, when it was recovered, towards the conclusion of the rebellion, and brought back to be replaced in the Dalada Malegawa, or temple, from which it had been clan- destinely taken " Here it may be remarked, that when the relic was taken the effect of its capture was astonishing, and almost beyond the comprehension of the en- lightened ; for now they said, the English are indeed masters of the country; for they who possess the relic have a right to govern four kingdoms : this, for 2,000 years, is the first time the relic was ever taken from us. The Portuguese declare that in the sixteenth century they obtained possession of the relic, which the Cingalese deny, saying, that when Cotta was taken, the relic was secretly removed to Saffragam. They also affirm, that when Kandy was conquered by us in 1815, the relic was never surrendered by them to us, and they considered it to be in their possession until we took it from them by force of arms. The first adikar also observed, that whatever the English might think of having taken Pilimi Talawe, and other rebel leaders, in his opinion, and in the opinion of the people in general, CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 93 the taking of the relic was of infinitely more n)o- ment." The relic was kept by us from 1818 until 1847, and during that period was exhibited by the servants of a Christian monarch, to the priests and followers of Buddha, who came to worship the Dalada. On the 28th of May, 1828, the Dalada was publicly exhibited at Kandy to the worshippers, under the sanction of our government, the whole ceremony being conducted with great splendour ; also on the 27th of March, 1846, there was another public ex- hibition of the relic to the Siamese priests, who had come from their own country to worship the tooth. In 1847, however, orders were most correctly sent, by the home government, desiring the relic to be given up to the priests, to dispose of as they chose. Some of the chiefs and priests, it was stated at that time in Ceylon, proposed sending the relic to Eng- land, to be placed in the custody of the Queen of Great Britain, but this request, for obvious reasons, could not be acceded to by a Christian government. The superstitious belief of the Cingalese Bud- dhists is so well known, that during the late insur- rection, a])prehensions were entertained that the ringleaders might make the possession of the Dalada subservient to their own purposes, and in Lord Torrington's despatch to Lord Grey, dated from the Queen's House, Colombo, August 14, 1848, we read : — " As the possession of the Buddhist relic, or tooth, has always been regarded by the Kandians, as the 94 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. mark of sovereignty over their country, and it was stolen and carried about in 1818, being used as a signal for rebellion, which only terminated with the recovery of it, it was judged right, by the command- ant, to demand the keys of the temple, as well as of the shrine of the relic, which had been delivered by me into the charge of two priests and a chief, about a year ago. He then assured himself that this object of veneration had not been removed from its accustomed position, and converted into a signal of rebellion. But not trusting any longer to the integrity of the priests or chiefs, by whom the insurrection has been organized, the keys have, for the present at all events, been retained in the possession of the commandant." The Dalada relic is placed in the principal tem- ple at Kandy, which is attached to what was the palace of the Kundian monarch — in fact, the Da- lada Malegawa was the domestic wihare of the royal family. This temple is considered by all Buddhists as the most sacred in tlie island of Ceylon, from the foct that the Dalada relic, or tooth of Buddha, is enshrined within its walls ; and, during the reigns of the kings of Kandy, the people flocked from all parts of the island to wor- ship the relic, on the various occasions of its public exhibition. The time for the exiiibition of the Dalada was named by the monarch, and the nation looked upon that period as one of rejoicing — the chiefs flocked to the capital, attended by numerous followers ; CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 95 elephants were to be seen bedecked with their richest trappings, their masters reclining- luxuri- ously in the howdahs, which in many instances were attached to the bodies of" the elephants by broad bands, studded with pearls and precious gems, Palanqueens, bandies, haccories, and every description of vehicle, were also called into requi- sition, to bear the inhabitants of distant villages to the scene of rejoicing. When tlie appointed day arrived, the monarch, accompanied by the whole of the royal family and chiefs, all clad in their costliest jewels and robes of state, went to v.orship the relic, which was exhi- bited by the priest of the highest rank, who reve- rently raised it above his head, to enable the assembled multitude to gaze thereon. As soon as the vast assemblage caught a glim])se of the sacred relic, they salaamed most lowly, giving utterance simultaneously to the exclamation of praise — " Sad/iu" — this word was i-epeated by those who stood in the back-ground, until the air was replete with the sounds of adoration, and the joyous expression was re-echoed from hill to hill. Festivals and rejoicings succeded in the palace and the hut, until the excitement and enthusiasm which had been called into action by the exhibition of the relic had subsided — then, and not till then, did the mighty throng of chiefs and peoj)le, who dwelt in distant villages, depart for their respective homes — and tranquillity again reigned in Kandy. The Dalada Malegavva is an edifice of two stories 96 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. with a curved sloping roof, built somewhat in the Chinese style of architecture, and is approached by a double flight of stone steps. Upon entering the temple, the walls are found to be covered with sacred emblems, and decorations of brass : a flight of steps lead to the sanctuary, which is situated on the upper story : this room has folding doors with brass panels, on either side of which curtains are suspended — the apartment is about twelve feet square, and without windows, consequently the sun's cheering rays can never illumine this abode of superstition. The walls and ceiling are hung with gold bro- cade, and white shawls with coloured borders ; a platform, or table, about four feet high, occupies the principal part of the room; this table is also covered with gold brocade ; on this shrine are })hiced two small images of Buddha, the one of gold, and the other of crystal ; before these idols, offerings of odoriferous flowers and fruit are placed — .'our caskets about twelve inches high, enclosing relics, are arranged on the shrine, in the centre of which stands the casket, or harandua, which con- tains the sacred tooth. This casket is in the form of a bell, being made in three pieces, and is about five feet high, the diameter at the base being nine feet six inches, and it appears to be made of gold, but vre were informed by a Kandian chief, that it was composed of silver, richly gilt. The chasing of the karandua is simply elegant, and a few gems are dispersed about it, the CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 97 most costly of which is a cat's-eye, vvliich is set on the summit. Although the workmanship of the casket is unpretending, yet the various ornaments and chains which are suspended about it, are of the richest descriptions, and the most elaborate designs. These ornaments have been presented from time to time by various worshippers of the god, in token of gratitude for favours supposed to have been conferred by him, and the wealthy devotees of the present day frequently make additions to these valuable embellishments. The most exquisitely beautiful of all thtse orna ments, is a bird which is attached to a massive and elaborately- chased golden chain. The body of the bird is formed of gold, and the plumage is represented by a profusion of precious gems, which consist of diamonds, emeralds, rubies, sapphires, and cats'-eyes. Description is inadequate to con- vey a correct idea of the extreuie and extraordinary effulgence and exquisite beauty of these elaborate decorations, which the limners art alone could faithfully delineate. The karandua is opened by a small door, which is placed in the middle of the casket.* This precious tooth of Buddha, it is affirmed by Europeans, is an artificial one, made of ivory, which is perfectly discoloured by the hand of time ; but most assuredly, if a natural one, both from its * Until 1847j the Christian government agent of the pro- vince, as well as the Buddhist chief priest, used each to have a key of the karandua. VOL. II. F 98 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. size and shape, this tooth could not have been carried in the jaw of a human being; but that it might have belonged to some ancient alligator, many centuries a[go, is extremely possible. This discoloured memento of superstition is wrapped in a delicately thin sheet of virgin gold, and depo- sited in a box of the same precious material, which is of the exact form of, and only sufficiently large to receive, the relic. The exterior of this delicate bijou is studded with precious stones, which are arranged in symmetrical order: this box is placed in a golden vase, which is decorated with diamonds, emeralds, and rubies, in a style similar to the box, and, being wrapped in rich brocade, is enclosed in a second vase of gold, which is encircled with folds of pure white muslin. This vase is then located in a third, which is put into a fourth, both being formed of the same precious metal, and similarly folded in muslin. The last vase is nearly eighteen inches high, and the workmanship, delicate chasing, and the tasteful manner in which the gems are arranged, in the whole series of vases, is most exquisite. The fourth vase, with its content!^, is deposited in the shrine or karandua, and is taken from thence at stated periods to be worshipped, and none but the chief priest ever presumes to touch the Dalada relic. When we saw the relic, it was placed in the centre of an exquisitely beautiful pink lotus, the flowers of the bo tree being strewed around, and tastefully arranged on the shrine ; but it was most CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 99 pitiable to behold the benighted Buddhists, many of them learned mei) and good scholars, prostrating themselves before a piece of discoloured bone. Tiiere is also a smaller, and most exquisitely beauti- ful casket, or karandua, studded with precious stones, in which the relic is placed, when it is borne in the religious processions, or when the chief priest, in troublous times of commotion, or war, should think it necessary to iusure the safety of the Dalada, by removing it from the temple. Above the shrine, and attached to the wall, are plates of gold, on which are inscribed sacred em- blems and characters : on either side of the princi- pal shrine there are smaller shrines, which are covered with gold and silver cloths, on which are placed gilt lamps, and offerings of flowers and fruit; and the effluvia arising from the cocoa-nut oil, with which the lamps are supplied, combined with the perfume of the votive flowers, renders the atmosphere of this unventilated apartment most oppressive. A contiguous staircase leads to a similar apart- ment, which is decorated in the same manner as the one we have described, where is to be seen the re- cumbent figure of the god Goutama Buddha, the size of life ; the features are well delineated, and the figure is gilt, with the exception of the face and hands. Near him are placed figures of other gods and the goddess Patine, the shrine being decorated with golden ornaments, many of which are studded with precious stones. f2 100 CKYI^ON AND THE CINGALESE. The god Buddha is represented by the Cinga- lese in three attitudes — namely, standing erect, with one hand raised, as if |)reparing to step for- ward seated on a cushion, with the legs crossed : and reclining on his side, his hand placed under his head, which rests upon a pillow. We had two figures of Goutama Buddha presented to us; the one in the act of advancing, from which the illus- tration is taken, is of ivory, about five inches in height; the hair, eyes, lips, and palms of the hands, being coloured to represent life, whilst the drapery is relieved by stripes of vermillion. The other figure is of bronze, about three inches and a-half in height, and represents the god seated cross-Ieggfd ; the ornament, or sacred emblem, which is placed on the crown of the head of each of these idols, is used solely to designate Buddha, as the emblem of the other gods is of a totally different character. In the Malegawa, a most valuable seated figure of Buddha was to be seen in 1847 (and we presume it is there now), which had been presented by the Siamese priests; it was nearly eleven inches in height, and was carved out of a cat's-eye. Having had the good fortune to have been conducted over tlie Dalada Malegawa, by a Kandian chief, we were sliown all that was considered either curious or magnificent. Amongst the most valuable or valued of the curiosities was the aforesaid image ; and, not having the slightest feeling either of reverence or fear for Buddha, we attempted to take up the cat's- eye figure for the purpose of examining it minutely. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 101 and most unluckily we took it up by the shoulders. At this act, both our conductor and the priest started back in affrig-ht, as it is considered the greatest breach of decorum to raise an image of Buddha by any part save the base, and then both hands must be used to perform the operation ~a fact of which we were not previously cognizant ; otherwise, we should have refrained from outraging their prejudices, as we deem it bad taste to set the customs of a nation at defiance, even though they be idolaters ; consequently, we pleaded our igno- rance, and our apologies were accepted. In many of the Buddhist temples, the images of the idol are gigantic, and the robes in which he is clad are generally of a bright yellow : occasionally puce or violet colour is used, which, although ca- nonical, is not considered so orthodox as yellow. Buddhists declare, that the statues of Budtliia are not placed in the wihares for the purj)ose of adora- tion, but to recall more forcibly to the minds of his followers, the precepts which he inculcated, and the example which he set them in his blameless life. We had also handed to us Buddha's betel-box, his bowl for holding rice, and his chatty for containing water; all of which were composed of virgin gold, which was so extremely pure and ductile, that these vessels could be bent with the most perfect facility, re-assuming their pristine form with equal ease. The vessels are ornamented with most delicately-chased figures, the designs and workmanship of which are incomparable, and these ornamental articles are 102 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. carried by the attendant priests in all religions cere- monies, and processions. There are also at Kandy two other Buddhaical temples, namely, the Asgirie and Malwatte Wihares, in the latter of which is to be seen a gigantic recum- bent figure of the god, which is nearly thirty feet long, clad, in yellow robes ; there are several smaller figures of Buddha, both seated and standing, and two of them are robed in violet-coloured draperies. The ceilings and walls of this temple are painted in arabesque, the most brilliant colours imaginable having been used; and, although they have lost some of their brilliancy, yet the design is excel- lent, and the effect produced is pleasing in the ex- treme. Near to the Malwatte Wihare is a small temple, in which is a seated image of Buddha of the natural size : it is a well-proportioned figure, the face being remarkably handsome, the expression most benig- nant, and the features well defined ; in short, the figure is well executed in every respect. In no part of the world was the combination of church and state more completely apparent than in Ceylon, under, or during, the Kandian monarchy. We have shown that the temple in which the most precious articles in the world, in the Buddliist's estimation, were enshrined, was attached to the king's palace; the monarch, his family, ministers, and household, going there constantly to worship. We shall now proceed to give an account of the priesthood, their ordination, and the mode in which CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 103 Buddlia is worsbippetl, by wl)icli we will further exemplify the union of church and state. The Malwatte and Asgirie Wihares at Kandy, are the ecclesiastical colleges, to one or other of which every priest in the island belongs ; it is im- possible to give an accurate account of the number of priests; for, although the names of the priests are registered when they are ordained, no record is kept of their deaths. Each of these colleges is governed by a chief priest, who was formerly appointed by the king, and these two individuals alone, of all the priesthood, held official rank. The title of the chief of the Malwatte college is Maha-niakoo-unanci ; and of Asgirie, Anna-niakoo-unanci : the word niakoo is indicative of high rank, whilst that of unanci is applied to the priesthood generally, and is a term of respect. Superiority over their followers is allowed to no others of the body, unless they are especially learned and pious : the chief priests rule their respective colleges from a written code of regulations, which they affirm were framed by Gou- tama Buddha. The order of priesthood may be said to be divided into three classes, although the third class are not regularly ordained : the first class, called Upasam- pada, which signifies almost full of religion, are dis- tinguished by the honourable title of Tirunnanse ; tiie second class, or Samenero, or the son of the priest^ bear the title of Ganinnanee. What we term the third class, are pious men of low caste, who practise celibacy, and lead the life of priests, and 104 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. are called Silvat; but, although they are permitted occasionally to jaerfonii priests' duties, are neither ordained nor allowed the rank of priests. The priesthood is principally composed of high caste men, called, in Kandy, Goewanse, and in the mari- time and low country districts, Wellale ; for, al- though the tenets of Buddha do not exclude the low castes yet the pride of th.e high caste men will not allow them to associate with, or pay the respect, which a priest ought to receive, to an individual of low caste. A regular course of study is gone through, before a priest can be ordained, a noviciateship being served, before a candidate can become a Samenero, and be- fore the individual can become an Upasampada, he must pass examination ; and, formerly, the approval of the king of Kandy was required, before a man could become an Upasampada. At an early age, the noviciateship is commenced, the parents, or nearest relations of the lad, placing him under the superintendence of a priest, whom he is bound to obey as a master, the priest in return becoming his instructor; if the conduct of the novice is satis- factory, at the expiration of three years he is made a Samenero. The following ceremony is gone through when a novice is admitted into the priesthood : he first has his head and eyebrows completely shaven, and per- forms his ablutions ; his person is then besmeared with ointments which are especially prepared ; the novice having made ready his yellow robes, (and the CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 105 various articles which Sidharte had when lie became a priest, prior to his attaining that wisdom which made him Goutama Buddha,) kneels before his tutor and master, and entreats, in Pali verse, to be ad- mitted into the lowest order of the fraternity. The novice is examined, and if his literary attainments are approved of, he is admitted into the priesthood, being clud with great ceremony in his yellow robes. As Samenero, he attends the temples, taking part in the subordinate ceremonies ; but although a priest, he is still under the guidance of his tutor, who superintends his studies, and to whom he must evince the greatest respect and obedience. When the Samenero has attained the age of twenty years — reckoning from the beginning of his present state of existence, which they date from his conception, and not from his birth — if sufficiently qualified, and permitted by his tutor, he may make application to become a Upasampada. Tiie candi- date now throws off his yellow robes, clothing him- self in a pure white garment, and is then examined before an assemblage of the senior and most learned priests, the number of whom must not be less than twenty. If he passes this examination he is made a Upasampada, and assumes the yellow robes, which slightly differ from those which are worn by the Samenero. Formerly, it was necessary to obtain the king's consent before a Samenero could be made a Upasampada ; and, when the royal licence was obtained, the successful candidate used to be paraded through the streets of Kandy, seated either f5 106 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESK, in a hovvdah, which was borne by an elephant, dedi- cated to the service of the temple, or mounted on a horse. Each priest is an incumbent of, or appointed to, one especial temple, or wihare, and is supported either by the donations of the charitable, or the pro- duce of the lands which may be attached to the wihare. The number of priests which belong to a temple vary from one to twenty, according to the value of the land belonging to, and the size of, the temple. A wihare usually descends from tutor to pupil ; but the head priest of any wihare has it in his power to appoint his successor; but, should he die without nominating a priest whom he wishes to succeed him, then the temple devolves to the senior pupil. The office is held for life, and, in many in- stances, is a most lucrative one, as the donations, and lands, which are made to, and possessed by, the incumbents of the larger wihares, are frequently of considerable value ; and constant law-suits are car- ried on by the priests, one against the other, to esta- blish titles or right of possession to temples. In fact, the natives of Ceylon — belong they to what caste they may — are the most litigious nation on the face of the earth. During the Kandian monarchy, the chief of the principal temple of Buddha, or the Dalada Mala- gawa, at Kandy, was not appointed by the College of Priests, nor did he belong to the priesthood, but the office was in the gift of the monarch, who inva- riably appointed a layman of high rank, Tvho also, CEYLON AKD THE CINGALESE. 107 generally held some official post of importance ; and the appointment was only held during royal plea- sure. The title of this chief was Malegawe-diwa- Nilimi ; and subject to his authority there was a lekammaliatmeer, or deputy, and several subor- dinate officers, as well as a large number of Pattea people, who performed the menial offices of the temple, and cultivated the temple lands. The duties of Malegawe-diwa-Nilimi were, to as- sist at the religious ceremonies, and see that all the rites and observances which were ordered by Bud- dha, were duly performed. Occasionally this chief had to present offerings to Buddha, and, before he approached the shrine, it was required that he should have lived entirely on vegetable diet for at least twenty-four hours, have performed his ablu- tions by immersing his person in a pure running- stream, and be attired in perfectly clean or new garments. The offerings which were made in the morning consisted of flowers, rice, and vegetable curry ; whilst in the evening, betel leaves, and a beverage prepared either from coffee or rice, were presented. The custom of making offerings morn- ing and evening, the Buddhists affirm, arose from the fact, that Goutama Buddha never ate save at these tin)es ; and at the present day it is the na- tional custom to take but the morning and evening meal. It is impossible to say how many wihares there are in the island, but we know they are very nume- rous, as nearly every small village has one ; the 108 CEYLOM AND THE CINGALESE. larger districts more. Every ecclesiastical estab- lishment is similar, and consists of a wibare, in which there are one or more images of Buddha, and frequenfly effigies of the gods who especially watch overparticular temples; adagobah, a poega, or building where the priests hold their meetings, and read the sacred writings, and a pansal, or dwelling-house for the priests. Invariably, in the vicinity of a wibare, is to be found the magnificent bo, or sacred tree, diffusing its perfume around, and filling the atmosphere with the delicious aroma of its exquisitely delicate and beautiful blossoms. These religious establishments are generally built in some secluded spot, frequently near a running stream, amidst groves of graceful palms and luxuri- ant fruit-trees, audit would be impossible to describe the romantic beauty of many, or the glorious mag- nificence of the scenery in some parts of Ceylon. Oft-times, whilst sojourning in Lanka-diva, we have been tempted to coincide in the opinion expressed by many natives, that in their sunny isle was situated the garden of Eden. The duties of the priesthood, both in their sacred and social character, are carefully laid down by Goutama Buddha, and they are required to pay rigid obedience to the Treweededooscharitie, or pro- hibitory commandments, and the Pratipitti. The prohibitions are ten^ and are the following: taking- life ; committing adultery, or fornication ; stealing ; lying ; eating more than two meals a-day ; indulg- ing in amusements of any description ; accepting CEYLON AND THE CINGALRSE. 109 gold or silver ; wearing flowers or ornaments ; drun- kenness; and reposing upon an elevated couch, or bed.* The Pratipitti commands the priests to evince and pay the same attention and respect to the relics and images of Buddha tliat was paid to him during his lifetime, the same to the sacred writings, and to honour the senior priests in like manner as their parents. The priests are also enjoined to worship Buddha three times a-day: at sunrise, noonday, and sunset : the mode of worship prescribed is the repetition of certain prayers, and the presentations of flowers and fruit, which are to be placed on the shrine, before the image of Buddha. The sacred books, and senior priests, are also to be worshipped ; the former are to have flowers placed around them, and an obeisance must be made to them before they are opened for perusal — during the time the Ola is in the hands of the priest, he is forbidden either to converse or smile. The priests also are forbidden to sit down, unless the sacred books are placed either on a shelf or table. The worship which priests are enjoined to pay to their seniors consists in asking their blessings, which the suppliant is to beg upon his bended knees, with his hands upraised, and his head bowed to the earth. The blessing is then to be given by the senior priest, who is to lean forward, with clasped hands, ■>' The custom of the natives being to sleep on a mat, which they place on the ground, beds being only used by the higher ranks since their intercourse with Europeans. 1 10 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. uttering a prescribed form of words : both sacred books and priests are'also to be worshipped three times a-day. Four holydays, or pohoya, are in each lunar month, when the priests are ordered to preach to the assembled people the duties of their religion, and to inculcate lessons of morality : these days are ordered to be observed in like manner with our Sabbath ; but this injunction is not obeyed by the great mass of Buddhists. Every fifteenth day, the priests of each wihare are ordered to assemble in their poega, and listen to the rules which are laid down for their guidance : the senior priests read the prescribed form, first saying in a loud voice : " If any of our body be present whose sins will not per- mit him to sit whilst our doctrines are repeated, let him depart." The sins which render a priest unfit to remain whilst the doctrines are read, are, murder, fornica- tion, stealing, and lying. If an individual has been guilty of any of the above, he must quit the assem- bly, and afterwards be tried by the priesthood ; when, if he be found guilty, he is punished, sus- pended, or expelled the priesthood. Should any of the fraternity have committed a minor offence, and we believe nearly one million are named in Bud- dhaical laws, he is to rise immediately after the pro- clamation is made, and confess his guilt: the senior priest is then to reprimand and admonish the culprit, who, after he expresses contrition, is allowed to resume his seat. CKYLON AND THE CINGALESE. HI Annually the chief priest of each college ought to order the priests belonging to that institution to assemble, and listen to his exhortations and adnioni^ tions. Celibacy and chastity are strictly enjoined by Goutama Buddha upon the priesthood, and, should they break tlieir vow, they are " to be pun- ished with exclusion, expulsion, or penances ; the offender is not to be restored except by the unani- mous consent of an assembly of twice ten senior priests." A priest is forbidden to sit on the same seat with a female, where they are excluded from observation, "which if not so excluded as to allow of his break- ing one of the fundamental laws of his faith, is still sufficiently secluded to permit of his holding, unheard by others, improper conversation." A priest is also forbidden to speak more than five sen- tences to a female, if she be alone, or visit her abode unaccompanied. Although celibacy is strictly en- joined by Buddha's laws to the priesthood, they are permitted, if they find it impracticable to keep their vow of perpetual chastity, to withdraw from the fraternity, lay aside their yellow robes, and marry. Goutama Buddha orders that during the rainv season priests are not to be absent from their abodes more than six days, as travelling is attended with many difficulties during this season, and it is consi- dered derogatory to the dignity of a priest to be seen in wet or soiled robes. This period is called wasswass-sana, and some priests of great piety will neither leave their abodes, nor utter a sound, during 112 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. the whole period, which we believe to be about nine or ten weeks. The people of each village or district supply the priests with provisions (which they carry to the temple) during this season, and at the termi- nation of the rains, the priests are presented with new robes. On the last evening of wasswass-sana, a general preaching takes place all over the island, which is most numerously attended, two pulpits being especi- ally constructed for the occasion. These temporary buildings are erected by the devotees of each parti- cular wihare ; and we never saw a more pleasing spectacle than these light and elegant structures, which were tastefully decorated with flowers, the leaves of palms, and bunches of the luscious yellow plantain, arranged in fantastic devices. Two of the senior priests, attired in their full canonicals, are carried to the pulpits by their junior brethren; the younger of the two priests recites portions of the sacred writings, which the other expounds, and comments upon, exhorting the people to practise piety and virtue, to subdue their passions, to be pure in thought as well as deed, to endeavour to re- semble Buddha in their actions and course of life ; that they may obtain the same rewards both in this world and the next. As Christians, we are compelled to admit, that the precepts of Buddha inculcate practices which must be beneticial to every class of the community; and, to prove our assertion, we cannot do better than quote one of Goutama's discourses, which will be found in the Kassapa : — CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 113 " There are seven sections of moral science, which have been fully taught, meditated upon, and prac- tised by me, and which are necessary for the attain- ment of wisdom, knowledge, and deliverance from transmigration. These seven are — the ftscertain- ment of truth, contemplation, extinction of desire or passion, tranquillity, equanimity, contentment, and persevering exertion." Next to Goutama Buddha, the rank of a priest is considered the most exalted : not even a monarch should remain seated in the presence of one ; and, like their god Buddha, j)>'iests are entitled to, and receive worship. The priests of Buddha are consi- dered superior to the gods (of whom vve shall give an account hereafter), but the priests, when they preach, invite the gods to form part of the congre- gation, that they may particijiate in the benefit, which is inseparably connected with having Bud- dha's doctrines expounded. As a body, the Buddhist priesthood in Ceylon are moral and inoffensive, and some of them are good scholars, being well versed in the literature of their country : thus presenting a pleasing contrast to their brethren in the Celestial Empire, who gene- rally are the most depraved and ignorant set ima- ginable. The only point of resemblance between the priests of Buddha in Ceylon and China is, that they are all supported in indolence, eithei- by the donations of the charitable, or from the lands which appertain to each temple. The laity are not conversant with Buddhaical 114 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. doctrines, much less with the mysteries of their reli- gion, neither are they required to observe the whole of the Triwededoos-charitie ; but the laws of Buddha state, that his followers must believe in the Tisarana, and implicitly obey the Pancheseele. The Tisarana gives three commands, Buddha-sarana, or to wor- ship Buddha, acknowledging him to be all good, wise, and powerful; Dharmesarana, or to have faith in his doctrines, as the means of attaining ultimate bliss, or niwane, and avoiding eternal punishment ; and the third commandment is Sangho-sarana, or, to believe that priests are disciples of Buddha, and qualified to point out the method of obtaining salva- tion. The Pancheseele, meaning literally the five good qualities, is the same as five of the prohibitory commandments, which are enjoined to the priest- hood, and have been named by us in the Triwede- doos-charitie. There are also some moral practices enjoined by the laws of Buddha to the laity, such as giving alms to the poor and sick, loving others as ourselves, contemplating the uncertainty of all mundane affairs, passing our time in a manner beneficial alike to our fellow-creatures and ourselves, despising riches, if wealth can only be obtained by mal- practices, sub- jugating the passions, subduing unlawful desires, kindness to animals, and many other excellent maxims of the like nature. The most unreflective person must allow that the Buddhaical religion prescribes a code of morality of a most perfect nature, which is unequalled by any CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 115 Other heathen religion, and which closely approxi- mates to the practices enjoined by our own blessed faith. The laity make offerings to Buddha, whenever they go to worship, which consist of fruit, the blossoms of the bo-tree, and other odoriferous flowers. These simple offerings are handed to the officiating priest, who arranges the various gifts on the shrine, which is invariably placed before the god. The worshipper then kneels before Buddha, bows down the head, raises the haml in an attitude of supplication above the head, and repeats after the priest, " I worship Buddha, and believe him to be all good, all wise, all powerful, all just. I have not broken Buddha's commands; I do not commit adultery ; I do not steal ; I do not deprive any creature of life," &c. It is rather a singular fact, that the Cingalese women worship Buddha more constantly, and apparently more devoutly, than the men ; yet in no part of Asia are the female portion of the community so unchaste as they are in Ceylon. Formerly, when a gift of land was made to a wihare, it was requisite to obtain the king's consent, as the monarch lost the dues, which all cultivateeriod when he was last seen with the deceased, and that of his apprehension. The jury found him guilty. Sentence of death was passed, which he listened to with the greatest indifference conceivable, and, at the conclusion stated, that lie did not care, as he knew that he would become in his next state of existence a cobra- capella, and in that form he should return and have the satisfaction of stinging the judge, jury, and advocate. This youth made a full confession of his crime : he first knocked his victim on the head, and then cut and maimed herwithhisknit'e; heafterwards hid the body amongst some underwood, but, fearing it might too readily be discovered in that situation, he had drajioed it a considerable distance, and thrown it into the stream where it was found. He also acknowledged the murders of two other children of ages corresponding with her's for whose death he was to suffer, and stated that in each in- stance he had been actuated by the sole motive to possess himself of some insignificant sum of money, * Some of the natives have this peculiar sensibiUt)', and they describe the odour of human blood as essentially different from that of any other animal. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 245 or trinket, possessed by them. Appoo Yapa uiaiii- taiued to the last, the same indifference which he evinced at the trial, and his execution produced little effect upon the spectators. On another occasion, when a prisoner was asked in the usual fbriu, if he had any cause to show why sentence of deaih should not be passed upon hiui, he replied that he was quite contented to die, and did not wish to avoid it, because he knew that in his next stage he would pass a life of ease and quiet, and have all iiis wants sujjplied, as he should become a coffee-bush, and would thus have ])leiity of good water, bear abundant crops of the berry, and consequently be taken the greatest care of, without any personal trouble, or inconvenience. On a recent occasion, two high-caste Cingalese men were condemned to suffer death at Colombo, for murder ; each of them confessed the crime, and one of them appeared to be somewhat impressed with the heinousness of his ofi'ence. But the other one evinced great hardihood, and said, when the rope was around his neck, that immediately the breath had quitted his body, he would be born again as a demon, and torment the moodliar through whose endeavours he had been apprehended, and kill his wife and children ; and, after satiating his vengeance in that form, he would die, and his soul would inhabit the carcase of a rich man, and in that capacity he would oppress the poor and needy, or, as the wretched criminal expressed himself, "suck the blood of the people." 246 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. In addition to these facts, we are supported by the admission of Lord Torrington, who says, "The dread of ^ranspor^a^ion among the natives is almost greater than that of death." — Blue Book, p. 297. Under such circumstances, with such convictions of their future state, need we pause to consider, if death can be any punishment to the felon, or be a warning to the spectators — or again, if the evil it occasions to the former exceeds the good he antici- pated from his crime. On the contrary, death is looked upon by such, in nine cases out of ten, as the entrance into a state of existence of a more blissful nature than that which they have hitherto enjoyed ; and their anticipated happiness consists in the ex- pectation of passing into a form, where all their animal or natural wants will be supplied with little or no bodily exertion. From this we draw, as a very natural conclusion, that the greatest and most terrible punishment which could be inflicted upon a felon, who is a fol- lower of Buddha, and one of this inert nation, would be perpetual slavery in the island, where he should be compelled to work for his bread ; and the labour, which we would propose to subject such an one to, Avould be the repairing of the ancient though dilapi- dated tanks, and the formation of roads, to open out the resources of the colony. Many of the treatises written upon the principles of criminal law concur in regarding perpetual slavery as a most effectual punishment for the cri- minal, and most wholesome terror to the spectators. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 247 In this belief, so far as the heathen natives of Cey- lon are concerned, we most fully concur ; repeating, however, that we are no advocates for the total abo- lition of capital punishment. We must also admit, as is apparent, that the partial modification we have suggested is a question surrounded with difficulties ; yet it is one, as we submit, which is worthy the consideration of states- men, particularly of Sir Robert Peel, owing to the large share he has had in amending the criminal code. The question we propose is whether it may not be advisible so far to modify the law. as to enable the colonial judge to pass sentence of perpetual slavery, or hard labour in the colony, instead of death. 248 CEYLON AKD THE CINGALESE. CHAPTER VIII. Encouragement given by the sovereigns of Lanka-diva to science and literature — The Cingalese language — Education — Native literature — Poetical specimens—Tradition of the king and poet — Gasco, the poet-lover of the queen — Musical instru- ments — Musicians — Sculptors — Painters — Lacker-painting — Casting in metal — Ivory carving — Carved and inlaid woods — Goldsmiths — Lapidaries — Anecdote — Blacksmiths — Wea- vers — Potters — Architecture — Palace at Kandy — Ecclesias- tical architecture — Heahng art, chemistry, surgeons — Dis- eases prevalent in Ceylon. The sovereigns of Lanka-diva adopted the judi- cious plan of giving every encouragement to those who devoted their time, either to the advancement of literature, or science ; and in the native annals, accounts are to be found, wherein are set forth the revenues, which were appropriated by the monarchs, for the reward and maintenance of men of talent. One curious poetical composition, dedicated to the monarch, has a species of commentary attached to it, in which the author informs us, that his munifi- CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 249 cent patron, the king, had bestowed upon him, in consideration for the time which he had devoted to the composition of the poem, the command and revenues arising- from a certain district, for his life. Many of the sovereigns were noted for their learning, and in a native work, called the Ratna- cara, are enumerated the attainments of Prackra- mabahu the Third,* who reigned in the thirteenth century, and was celebrated alike for his piety, and mental acquirements. From Cingalese records we learn, that Prackramabahu was thoroughly well versed in Religion, History, Physics, Rhetoric, Grammar, Poetry, Oratory, Agriculture, Philology, Astronomy, the Occult Sciences, War, Jurispru- dence, Natural History, and Music. The fame of this Prince's learning extended to the continent of India, in consequence of which several disputes, that arose between foreign sovereigns were referred to him for arbitration, and his daughters w^ere sought in marriage by their sons. Presuming that many of the above sciences vveie but imperfectly understood by the Cingalese, yet the mere mention of them is sufficient to prove the enlightened state of a nation, which at that remote period could thus evince a thirst for, and just ap preciation of, intellectual knowledge and mental attainments. It is deeply to be deplored that for several cen- turies, the Cingalese have been retrograding in all * This king is known to many Oriental scholars by the cog- nomen of Kalikala, but he is more generally called Prackrama. JM 5 •250 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. which appertains to a high state of civilization ; for, that at an early period of, if not anterior to, our era, they had made considerable advances in the arts, sciences, and literature, is clearly proved by foreign, as well as native historical records, and the remains of ancient grandeur extant and dispersed over the island. Would it be possible for history to produce an account of an European sovereign during the thirteenth century, who could be said to surpass, or even equal in learning, the Cingalese monarch Prackramabahu 1 The native sovereigns supported colleges for the gratuitous education of their people, built and en- dowed hospitals, and asylums, for the relief and refuge of the sick and destitute, appointed medical practitioners, who received fixed salaries, to attend to particular districts, and administer relief to all, who might require their aid, for the amelioration of those ills to which suffering humanity is liable. Al- though many of the kings devoted much of their time to the affairs of state, and the welfare of their subjects, their leisure hours were frequently passed in studies, tending to enlarge the mind, and strengthen the intellect. Thus we read, that in the fourth century the monarch, Jettatissa, excelled in the sculptor's art, that his successor was tho- roughly acquainted with medicine, and wrote a treatise on the healing art in Sanscrit, which is still extant, and most highly prized. The greater number of their monarchs were deeply versed in their system of theology, their native literature and CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 251 erudition, whilst many of them were poets, and painters. The decline of a high state of civilization, in all countries, is generally attributable to internal com- motions, or warfare with foreign powers ; thus it has been in latter ages with Ceylon ; the rulers being harassed with frequent rebellions, invasions of pretenders to their thrones, and wars with Euro- pean states, had neither inclination nor opportunity to devote attention to the cultivation or pursuit of science, literature, and the industrial and fine arts ; and the emulation of the people not being excited by the approbation and rewards, which had been formerly bestowed by their monarchs, gradually ceased to feel an interest, or desire to excel in, those pursuits which aggrandize a nation ; and, as a natural consequence, when not engaged in war- fare, sank into a lethargic state. Since the island has been ruled- by the mild go- vernment of Great Britain, seminaries and schools have been established for the education of the na- tives, and every endeavour has been made to arouse them from the comparative state of semi-barbarism and indolence, into which they had gradually fallen. The result, upon the whole, has been successful ; nevertheless, much still remains to be done, and the most strenuous exertions are requisite, before the mass of the people can be made to comprehend the value of, and advantages attendant upon, industri- ous habits, and a liberal education. Necessarily this must be a work of time, but even the most san- 252 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. guine can never hope to behold the arts, science?, and learning, cultivated and flourishing in Ceylon, to the extent which they formerly did, under the native rulers. The Cingalese language is most euphonious, the compound words extremely significant, and the grammar regular, although complicated. Some authors have asserted that the national language of" Ceylon resembles that of Siam, but this is in- correct, as the root of the Cingalese is evidently taken from the Sanscrit. The colloquial language is not the same as that which is used in the native literature, which is designated Elu, or high Cinga- lese, and is only understood by the educated. The talented author of the Cingalese dictionary, Mr. Clough, states his conviction, that the Elu was the national language of Lanka-diva, previously to the conquest of the island by Wijeya, but whether the Elu resembles the dialect which is now sjioken by the forest Veddahs, we are unable to determine. The Cingalese employ distinct modes of expres- sion, when addressing their superiors, priests, and equals, and it has been aptly remarked, that their language appears to have three vocabularies. They use also what they call a high and low dialect; the former is especially used in Kandy, and frequently when a native of the lowlands is called upon to translate, he will confess his inability to do so, say- ing, " the language is too high foi- me ;" but the na- tives of the high lands generally understand the low dialect of the maritime provinces. CKYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 253 The greater number of the males can both rea 1 and write, but until our government established seminaries for their education, their own language was the only subject the majority of natives in the interior were conversant with. We regret to say, that among the female portion of the community, education is uncommon, and too frequently women of the highest caste are unable either to read or write. Schools have been established for their gra- tuitous instruction, but a piejudice exists among the higher castes ay-ainst sending their female chil- dren to these establishments ; although the lower orders, from a mercenary feeling, allow their off- spring to attend tlie schools, as they are made effi- cient needlewomen, and consequently at an early age can contribute towards the support of their parents. The written characters of Ceylon are of two dis- tinct species, the letters of one are of a square form, and are found inscribed on many stone tablets of great antiquity, which are dispersed over the island — this kind of writing is called Nagara, but unfor- tunately it has been obsolete for ages, and the key of its alj)habet is buried in the tomb of the past. Could the inscriptions be read which are found on many monumental tablets in Ceylon, they would undoubtedly prove most interesting to the scholar and antiquarian, and would elucidate and connect facts in history which are now nan ting. It ha-^ boen asserted that in some parts of India inscrij)- tions have been found, the letters of which bear a 254 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. Strong resemblance to the Nagara; if this be correct, most valuable service has been rendered to the anti- quarian scholar by Mr. Prinsep, who, in 1837, pub- lished in the Asiatic Journal of Calcutta, an alphabet of the letters which are employed in several inscrip- tions that are scattered over India. The written characters, which are now used, are of a round form, particularly neat, clear, and ele- gant, and the letter of an educated high-caste native is a perfect specimen both of caligraphy and com- position. The national mode of writing is upon the leaf of the palmyra palm, which is cut into slips of a convenient size, the letters are inscribed with a short-pointed iron style, and the writer supports the leaf on his left hand, whilst writing ; when the epis- tle is concluded, they rub over the characters a dark- coloured solution, which is prepared from charred gum, and this blackens the letters, and renders them distinctly visible. All books are in manuscript, written upon the leaves of the tala, or talipot-tree, and those leaves, which are intended for the purpose, are first tho- roughly dried -in the sun, and then cut into slips from two to three inches in width, and from eighteen to twenty-six in length. The covers of these books are made of thin pieces of timber, which are neatly ornamented, either by lackering, gilding, or painting; holes are drilled about three inches from either extremity, through leaves and boards, and into these orifices, string, made from the fibre of the cocoa-nut, is passed and loosely CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 255 tied. It is said that the leaves of some of the ancient native books are composed of thin plates of copper, but as we never saw one we cannot vouch for the veracity of this statement. The talipot leaf being imperishable, and the solu- tion, which is rubbed over the characters, preserv- ing it from the attacks of the insect tribe, works of extreme interest and antiquity are handed down from generation to generation. Books are still ex- tant in Ceylon in most excellent preservation, which are dated antecedent to our era ; and the accredited historical records of Ceylon extend over a space of twenty-three centuries. These annals give a co- pious account of their sovereigns, the construction of magnificent cities, temples, dagobahs, and tanks, the remains of which are still to be seen in the is- land, and the inscriptions upon them, fully corrobo- rate the historical records. Many works have also been written, which pro- fess to be the history of Ceylon, prior to the inva- sion of Wijeya, and the Rajah Walia asserts, that the island was inundated and reduced to one-half of its former size, about the time that our most eminent chronologists believe the deluge to have taken place. This coincidence is most remarkable, especially when we combine the annals of the Chinese of that date, which state, that during the reign of the Emperor Yaou the deluge occurred ; which statement will be found in the writings of Confucius, their celebrated philosopher of antiquity. All Buddhistical and religious works are written 256 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. in the Pali or Sanscrit, and some of the Upasarapa- das, or chief priests are good scholars, and tho- roughly well versed in the literature of their coun- try. Among these works are to be found what are termed Buddhistical revelations, which contain an account of the creation of the world, the fall of man, &c., and which, strange to say, in some parti- culars coincide with the Mosaic account, as the tree of life is mentioned. The Cingalese have works also upon the geography of their island, astrology, the origin of castes, grammar, medicine, jurispru- dence, natural history, and philosophy. The phraseology of their poetical compositions does not accord with our ideas of fine composition, as they indulge in unnatural comparisons, and are partial to extreme intricacy of style. Some of the poetical writings are regarded as chef-d'oeuvres, because they admit of many readings ; thus, whe- ther they are read from the left to the right, in columns, or crossways, they will still aflford intelli- gible meanings. The most learned poets introduce into their conipositions, both Pali and Sanscrit, and a composition to be perfect, according to Cingalese notions, ought to have the number and position of the letters in each line to correspond. The following enigma in verse was composed by one of the native kings, Kumara Dhas, a prince of great learning, who reigned a. d. 517, and both riddle and answer are looked upon as masterpieces, as the number and position of the letters in the original, in both enigma and reply, strictly agree, CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. -o7 the latter being written by Kalidlias, the celebrated poet and friend of the monarch. Naturally in trans- lation the peculiar beauty is lost, but we give it as a curious and interesting poetical specimen : — The riddle of Kumara Dhas : — " By beauty's grasp in turmoil, uncomposed He is kept a prisoner, but with eyes unclosed." The elucidation by the poet Kalidhas: — " Although closed at night, the lotus keeps the bee The dawn will see him gay, unhurt, and free." The circumstance which occasioned these lines is thus recorded in the native annals; the king was in the habit of visiting a courtezan, celebrated alike for her wit, beauty, and captivating manners, and one evening, whilst in her company, remarked a bee alight on a pink lotus, which closed upon, and imprisoned the insect. The monarch immediately wrote the two lines on the wall, intending to com- pare his own situation with that of the captive bee, as lie was enthralled by the woman's wiles; stating that whoever would complete the stanza should have any request granted which they miglit choose to prefer. Shortly after the monarch quitted the courtezan's abode, and Kalidhas, who was also in the habit of visiting the woman, entered the house, and, seeing tlie writing on the wall, immediately concluded the verse in the same style. The wretched woman, to obtain the promised reward, murdered the poet, and buried him under the floor ; but when the monarch 258 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. saw the reply, he immediately recognised the style and writing of his favourite Kalidhas. The murder was discovered, the corpse disin- terred, and, by order of the king, a most magnifi- cent pile was prepared, whereon the body was to be burned with all the rites and ceremonies which be- longed solely to royalty. When the funeral pyre was ignited, the grief and mental agony of Kuraara Dhas, at the loss of his friend, overcame all other feelings, and he rushed into the flames, and w^as consumed with the body of the poet, Kalidhas. History also records that the five queens of Kumara Dhas voluntarily immolated themselves on the same spot shortly afterwards, and we believe this to be the only record of royal widows in Ceylon sacrific- ing themselves at the tombs of their spouses. The poet's works which are the most voluminous, and in vogue amongst the Cingalese, are those of Gasco, a Portuguese, who was taken prisoner by the Kandians when a child, and subsequently became a great favourite with the king. Rajah Singha the Second, who made him his prime minister, or adikar. His poems have many of the defects we have al- luded to, as the construction is intricate, the mean- ing obscure, and the arrangement confused ; never- theless some of his lines, addressed to the queen, possess power and feeling. Gasco excited the jea- lousy of the king, as the queen evinced undue fondness for the adikar, and the unfortunate poet- lover, whilst in the vigour of manhood, was con- demned to death; we believe justly, as the follow- CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 259 ing lines, which he addressed to the queen, after liis condemnation will prove : — •'Those thou hadst smiled on found a tomb. Whilst love requited lights my doom, Not for soft look, nor low-breathed sigh, I boldly dared, and now justly die." * The poetical compositions of the Cingalese are generally sung or recited in a species of recitative, the most favourite tune being one which is desig- nated " horse trotting," from the fancied resem- blance of the air to the sounds produced by the horse when trotting. The singer usually accom- panies himself upon a drum, or tomtom, producing sounds most dissonant to European ears, although the natives evince the most intense delight, whilst listening to these inharmonious noises, " for nought," they say, " is so soothing as sweet poetry, when sung to the accompaniment of the dulcet and me- lodious udakea." f The native musical instruments consist princi- pally of various kinds of drums, or tom-toms, of different shapes and dimensions, which are either struck with the fingers, or sticks ; one particular sort of tom-tom is only used in the temples and for * This translation was made from the original, by one of the best Cingalese scholars of the present day. f So desperately annoying to Europeans were " the dulcet sounds of the sweet udakea " found to be, that a local ordi- nance was promulgated, forbidding the natives to beat this me- lodious instrument in their dwellings between the hours of eight p. M. and eight a.m., without a licence. 260 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. religious ceremonies. The frame -work of these insti'uments is either composed of wood, or brass, and they are covered witli deer's skin. The Kan- dian pipe, or Horanawa, sends forth shrill notes, which are a strange combination of the sounds pro- duced by the Highlanders' bagpipes and the whis- tle of a locomotive engine ; the mouthpiece of this instrument is made from the talipot leaf, and the remaining- parts are composed of jack-wood and bra^s. The other native wind instrument is made from the chanque shell, the extremity of which is ground down and formed into a mouthpiece, and this in- strument, when performed upon by a man rejoicing in strong sound lungs, sends forth a volume of sound, which almost deafens the unfortunate and unhabituated listener. A facetious friend of ours declares that the music of the chanque shell can only be compared to the bellowings of an enraged buffalo, alternated with the howling of a hungry dog, tantalized with food placed just beyond his reach. The Cingalese use but one description of stringed instrument, and this a rude kind of two stiinged violin, the body of which is formed of the moiety of a cocoa-nut shell, highly polished, and drilled with holes, on which the skin of the guana is stretched, by way of sounding-board. One string of this in- strument is made of horse-hair, and the other of a coarse desci'iption of flax ; the strings of the bow are of the former material, to the extremity of CEYLON AND THE CINGALE^SE. 2G1 which two bells are attached. Tlie sounds produced from this machine are extremely weak and unpleas- ing ; nevertheless, it is a great favourite with men- dicant musicians, with whom it is principally in use, who wander through the country, seeking a preca- rious subsistence by the exertion of their musical abilities. As sculptors, the Cingalese evince much taste and judgment in the disposition of the drapery; and, although the anatomical proportions of the figures are frequently incorrect, still the effect produced is generally good, and many of the statues of Buddha denote alike ma esty and benevolence. Some of the statues are of gigantic proportions, and, as it is the custom to colour these images, many of them present a most pleasing and animated ap- pearance ; it is also the practice to give a pupil to the eye, which is considered a mystical operation, and is performed in the presence of the priests, with much ceremony. Immediately after the com- pletion of the eye, the artist presents offerings to the god, as he then, and not till then, regards the image as the representative of Buddha. Most singular does it appear to us that a being gifted with reasoning powers should fall down, and worship the image which is the work of his own hands ! Artists are only allowed to depict Buddha in three attitudesj, namely, either seated cross-legi^ed, reclining on the left side, or standing with one hand raised, as if in tli<^ act of advancing, and the attire is invariably the priestly robes ; and, were an artist 262 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. to attempt the slightest innovation upon these esta- blished rules, it would not be countenanced, but his act would be regarded as one of impious presump- tion. The Cingalese are not proficients in the painter's art, being unacquainted with the effects of light and shade, and the rules of perspective. They use but few colours, which are of the most brilliant nature, and these preparations retain their bright hues for a lengthened period : red, yellow, dark blue, black and white, are the principal colours used, and these pigments are invariably mixed with a large propor- tion of gum. It was affirmed by a Kandian scholar, that for- merly the art of oil-painting in all its branches was understood by the natives, but, if this be correct, it is no less certain that their previous knowledge is now entirely lost, as they manifestly evince at the present day total ignorance upon this branch of the fine arts. The aim of a Cingalese artist appears to be gaudiness of effect, and, although the human figure is rarely drawn correctly, yet, as they blend their colours judiciously, and copy the attire cor- rectly, their paintings please the eye, and are valu- able, as depicting faithfully the habits and national costume. The Kanditms excel in the art of lacker-painting, and bestow extreme care in preparing the lacker, which is procured from a shrub, found in almost every part of the island, and is called by the natives kajjpittia, the sap of which exudes, and coagulates 10 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 263 upon the branches ; this gum is gathered, and pu- rified with extreme care : after this operation it is dried, placed in a cotton bag attached to a stick, and held over a strong fire until the kappittia is melted, which is allowed to droj) through the cotton, whereby it is cleansed from all impurities, and ex- traneous njatter ; thus refined, the resinous substance is exposed in a shady spot to harden. The natural colour of the kappittia varies from a clear pale gold to a muddy brown, but the natives artificially prepare four distinct hues, namely, green, yellow, red, and black, and their mode of amalga- matino- the colouring: matter with the softened resin is by repeated blows from a wooden mallet. The Kandians are peculiarly expert in this art, and many of the designs traced by them upon the various articles which they lacker, are extremely beautiful. In the chief's houses the wooden pillars supporting the roofs of the verandahs are oft times thus adorned, and it is the custom to ornament spears, bows, arrows, walking-sticks, boxes, covers to books, and fans in this manner. The brilliancy of ihe colours, and durability of the lacker, aie extreme, being coequal with the article thus orna- mented. The mode of applying the lacker is remarkably simple, the artist using as a spatula the thumb-nail of his left hand, which he allows to grow to a great length, for the purpose ; when about to exercise his calling, the artist ignites a charcoal fire in an earthen vessel, and seats himself on the ground 26-1 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. near to it ; he then places conveniently around hira portions of the various colours of the kappittia, and a small cane, to one end of which he attaches a portion of the particular coloured resin he desires to heat ; he has also near at hand a piece of the leaf of the palmyra palm, which is used to polish the newly- lackered article. The ware about to be ornauiented is first care- fully cleansed, the design is then traced upon it, after -which it is heated ; the kappittia is warmed and drawn out into filaments of various sizes, and applied with the thumb-nail to the heated article, to which it instantaneously adheres : when the whole surface is covered, the artist uses the palm leaf, which removes all inequalities and imparts a brilliant polish. It is impossible to describe the delicacy of some of tlieir intricate designs, or the skill and good taste which are evinced by the first- rate artists. We are not aware if this resinous sub- stance* has been introduced into Great Britain, but we should presume that it might be most benefici- ally used in many of our manufactures. The Cinoalese most perfectly understand the art of casting figures in metal, and there is at Kandy a copper statue of Buddha the size of life, which would not discredit an European artist of high standing. We have in our possession a brass image of Buddha seated, about six inches in height, both • For the information of those who may wish to try an ex- periment, we inform them that the botanical name of the Kap- pittia is Croion lacciferum. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 265 the proportions of the figure, and the neatness of the execution are most admirable. Some of their ivory carvings are peculiarly beau- tiful and chaste in design, but we regret to say this art is falling into decay and disuse, as at this period in the Kandian districts alone is the ivory carver's calling practised, and this but rarely. The most perfect specimen of ivory carving, which we saw during our sojourn in Ceylon, was the representa- tion of a cocoa-nut palm in flower ; the graceful leaves hung pendant over the clustering blossoms, which drooped elegantly from the slender stem, and the former being imperceptibly attached to the latter by rivets, when this fragile handiwork was held in an inverted position, the leaves fell enclosing the blossoms. This delicate specimen of art was about eight inches in height, and the proportions in every respect were strictly correct. The Kandians formerly used drinking-cups of ivory, which were so extremely thin, as to be ren- dered perfectly transparent and pliable ; a friend having one of these remarkable vessels in his pos- session, we were most desirous to obtain a similar specimen, but to our dismay were informed by a Kandian chief, that he knew but of one old man, living in the interior, who could fabricate these curious cups, and that he was too ill to work. A short time afterwards we heard of the death of the old man in question, and with him the art is said to have died, as he refused to impart his secret to any living being, and we can only hope for the sake of VOL. II. N 266 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. posterity, that our informant had been misled in this respect. Many beautiful specimens of carvings in wood are to be found in Ceylon, and the artisans of Galle are peculiarly expert in this branch of art ; ebony chairs, couches, and jewel-caskets, are most elabo- rately and deeply carved, and the designs, which in many instances consist of fruits and flowers, are bold and excellent. The wood most prized by the native and European inhabitants of Ceylon is a peculiar close-grained timber with stripes, which vary in colour from a bright light brown, to a shade which approximates closely to an ebon hue. This wood is called Calamander, and the enormous prices, which are given for well-carved articles of furniture manufactured of this timber, would astonish many of the uninitiated. Like all else in Ceylon, the art of carving in wood is fast falling into decay, and now we never find executed by modern artists, the same exquisite description of delicate tracery, which is to be seen upon the wooden pillars, supporting the roof of the Audience Hall of the former Kan- dian monarchs, now used by us as the Court House. At Galle are also manufactured those exquisite inlaid articles, which far surpass any specimen of Tunbridge ware that has yet been produced— ivory and various coloured native woods, are inlaid upon ebony, and as the designs are well defined, the effect produced is magnificent. Tables of various sizes are manufactured of ebony, whose centres are 8 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 267 composed of these woods ; the edges and pedestals of these exquisite specimens of handicraft, are usu- ally most elaborately carved. This manufacture is most tedious, and, as the Cin- galese are generally extremely indolent, and do not practise a division of labour, it frequently happens that one man will take from three to six months to complete a small occasional table for which he will receive a hundred rix-dollars, or seven pounds ten shillings of our money ; and we knew an instance of one, who held a high official appointment, having been compelled to wait a year and a-half for a loo- table, for which he paid thirty pounds. The great drawback to the exportation of these decorative articles of furniture is, that the inlaying is extremely liable to start, the seams to open, and the wood to warp, when subjected to the atmospheric variations of an European climate. The native jewellers evince considerable taste, and some dexterity, in their gold and silver work; we have elsewhere remarked upon the great deli- cacy and beauty of the filagree work decorating the gold and silver pins, which confine the ebon tresses of the native women ; and the apparatus used for the manufacture of trinkets is of the most simple and portable description. It is customary for the goldsmith to receive a certain portion of either of the precious metals, and to manufacture the required articles upon the premises of his em- ployer,* and squatted in the verandah, the artist * This custom is adopted throughout the East, as the natives N 2 268 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. arranges around him the following simple imple- ments of his calling, — a round earthen vessel filled with charcoal, a bamboo blow-pipe wherewith to arouse the fire, a small clay pipe, one end of which is adjusted near the centre of the fire, and through which the artist directs the blast of the bamboo blow-pipe, a few crucibles formed of the fine clay of the white ant hills, some three or four small ham- mers, a pair of tongs, files of various dimensions, an anvil, and a few small pointed brass and iron rods, of about two inches and a-half in length; and these are the only tools which are used by the natives for the most elaborate and delicate designs. When a steamer arrives at Point de Galle en route to China or Calcutta, the goldsmiths flock on board, each one striving to be the first to bid for the spare sovereigns, which the passengers may be inclined to exchange for rupees, for nearly the greater portion of the precious metal, which is manufactured into trinkets, has originally been the current coin of the realm of Great Britain. Gold will frequently bear a high premium, and during our residence in Lanka-diva, we have known sove- reigns, on which were the impress of the dragon, sell at a high premium, fetching twelve rupees, or twenty-four shillings,* whilst those which bore the are in the constant habit of alloying both gold and silver to an extent which is most prejudicial to the interest either of purcha- ser or employer. * In Ceylon, the value of the rupee is fixed at two shillings ; whilst in India and China the value constantly varies. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 2(J9 impress of our gracious Monarch's head, were inva- riably sold below par, being frequently valued at nine, or nine and a-half rupees. The natives give as a reason for this capricious value of the respec- tive coinages, " That the dragon sovereign got silver inside, Victoria sovereign too plenty copper have got," meaning, we presume, that the former is alloyed with silver, the latter with un undue propor- tion of copper. The precious stones which are found in Ceylon are numerous, and a fine Kandian ruby will fetch an enormous price. The finest coloured and most per- fect gems never leave the island, as the chiefs and moodliars give immense sums for them, and either a ruby or cat's eye of fine colour, without defects or flaws, is valued at a much higher price, than it would produce in Europe. In no part of the world are cat's eyes found to equal those which are pro- duced in Ceylon ; we have seen one, set in a little finger ring, which was perfect in every respect, and, although the gem was small, was valued at ,£75. The native style of cutting precious stones is not good, arising probably from the fact, that the lapi- daries have had comparatively little practice, as during the native monarchy, it was the fashion for the king and his court to wear all the precious stones uncut. Some images of Buddha are carved out of precious stones, and in the Dalada Mala- gawa at Kandy are to be seen small figures of the god carved out of cat's eye, amethyst, and rock crystal — the natives use the latter also for the lenses 270 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. of their spectacles, and many ornamental pur- poses. The traffic in precious stones is principally con- fined to the Moormen, who are excellent judges of the value of gems, and are great adepts at fre- quently palming off as most valuable, stones replete with defects, and pieces of coloured glass. Whilst at Point de Galle, a friend called upon us to request the loan of sundry dozens of quart bottles, as he had just purchased a hogshead of " Bass's Pale," and desired to bottle the refreshing beverage forthwith. We expressed our deep regret at being unable to comply with his request, as our servants had lately caused the empty bottles to disappear, avec une Vitesse vraimtnt extraordinaire, and those which did not evaporate bodily, were broken through their negligence. " And are you green enough to believe all this humbug? — don't you know that your fellows steal your bottles to sell them ?" " Well," we replied, " but they cannot make use of broken ones." " Never more mistaken in your life; they sell all the broken to Moormen, who select the clearest pieces, cut, and pass them off upon the unwary tra- veller for emeralds." Upon inquiry we found this to be correct, and our Appoo told us in his broken English, " That Moor- man buy hit bottle, cut, and sell steamboat gentlemans, who tink bit glass plenty good." Therefore, if any of our perusers have made the CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 271 overland journey to or from China or Calcutta, and have been induced to purchase at Point de Galle a curious massive gold ring, in which is set a remark- ably fine emerald, or a gem somewhat darker than an emerald, we advise him, or her, as the case may be, to submit the same to a lapidary's inspection; from whom he may possibly learn, to his extreme satisfaction, that he has paid a good round sum, and has been displaying to the admiring gaze of his numerous friends and acquaintances a fragment of a green bottle, which, in all probability, once con- tained, before such fragment was encircled with the precious metal, liquid gold , under the cognomen of Bass's pale ale. The Cingalese are tolerably skilful blacksmiths, and we have seen produced by them, door-locks and hinges, gun-locks and barrels, the workmanship of which far surpassed anything of the description, which is manufactured by our continental neigh- bours. As all iron and steel articles are peculiarly liable to rust in Ceylon, the natives adopt the following simple preventive ; they spread a thin coating of bee's wax over the articles, which most effectually preserves them from corrosion, even should the implements be exposed to damp. The natives state that they learned the art of manufactur- ing gunpowder from the Portuguese, and, although they never attempt to granulate it, the gunpowder made by them is tolerably good, and explodes strongly. The loom used by the natives is of the most pri- 272 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. initive, and rudest construction imaginable, and we have been informed that it exactly resembles that which is to be seen in many parts of India: the weaver sits upon the ground, and generally a hole is dug in the earth for the reception of his legs and feet. The cotton cloth of which the priests' robes are made, is invariably of native manufacture, but since the Cingalese have had intercourse with Europeans, all other classes, even the poorest, en- deavour to obtain calicoes of our manufacture ; although the texture of the native cloth is coarse, it far surpasses our own, for strength and durability. The Cingalese potters, or earthenware manu- facturers, have not yet learned the art of glazing their wares, and, although all the vessels are made of a coarse red clay, the beauty of the antique classical forms, of many of their chatties and vases, frequently causes the mind to revert to the remains of Greece and Rome. The mode adopted for the manufacture of his wares by the Cingalese potter is simple enough, consisting of three articles, a flat stone and wooden mallet, and a circular board or stone of some twenty inches in diameter, working horizontally upon a centre pin, on which latter is placed the prepared and plastic clay. Several ham- lets near Hangwelle are inhabited chiefly by potters, and it is the custom amongst them when the eldest son marries, for his father to present him with the stones, called koo-dao-galle, which will last with ordinary care for half a century. In many other parts of Ceylon are also to be found artisans congre- CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 273 j^ated, who follow a particular calling— thus, in Galle, we find the best inlayers and carvers; at Caitura the most skilful lapidaries; at Morottoe the most clever carpenters and cabinet makers ; whilst in Kandy alone are the lackerers and ivory workers to be met with. The domestic architecture of Ceylon is of a most unassuming character, owing possibly in a great measure to legislation, as during the Kandian monarchy the chiefs were only permitted to build or inhabit dwellings of one story in height ; none save the chiefs and nobles were allowed to use tiles in roofing their dwellings, the mass of the people being compelled to thatch them, and plaited cocoa- nut leaves were then, and are still generally used for the purpose. The abodes of the chiefs and moodliars are built in gardens, and are in the form of a hollow square ; the front and back of the dwel- ling being protected from the sun's rays by veran- dahs, which are supported by wooden pillars. The eating-room usually runs across the full width of the house, on either side of which are the smaller and sleeping apartments, which communicate one with the other. The domestic ofiices and servants' apartments being small detached buildings, which are situated in the rear of the dwelling. These habitations are generally built of kabook, their floors are composed of chunam, and the walls are whitewashed ; under the native kings, however, lime was not permitted to be used in any buildings, save the temples and royal palaces. The abodes of N 5 274 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE, the poorer classes are small huts, the walls of which are constructed of mud, which are plastered within and without with a peculiarly white clay — the floors are composed of a mixture of cowdung and clay, the natives declaring the former to be most efficacious in keeping away insects. * The only tolerably perfect specimen of a royal dwelling to be seen in Ceylon is at Kandy, and this we regret to say is fast falling into decay, and has been most wantonly defaced. This edifice must for- merly have presented a most imposing appear- ance, as it covered a considerable space, the front of the palace exceeding eight hundred feet in length. At one extremity, is still to be seen the octagonal tower, on the balcony of which the king used to exhibit himself to the gaze of his subjects, on certain stated occasions of public rejoicing and festivity. There still remain some beautiful carvings in stone on the walls of the palace, and in the Dalada Malagawa, which forms part of the building; and no delicate chiselling of Greece can surpass that which ornaments the stone framework of the doors. Upon the walls are carved numbers of elephants, suns, moons, and stars, which were the emblems and insignia of royalty. Near the palace and in the centre of an artificial lake, which was constructed by command of the last king, stands a small building in the Chinese style, which was used as a pleasure-house by the sovereign * We believe this assertion to be strictly correct. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. "275 and his queens ; this is now used as a powder maga- zine. The town of Kandy was planned by the adikars, under the superintendence of the same monarch ; its various streets run in parallel and transverse lines, one of them retains to the present day its original name of Malabar-street, which cognomen was bestowed upon it during the reign of Sri Wikrama, owing to the circumstance that the Malabar relatives and dependants of the monarch, were the exclusive inhabitants of this portion of the town. The position of Kandy is both romantically beautiful, and sublimely grand, being surrounded by hills, which are clothed in rich verdure from their bases to their summits, and with mountains which vary in height from three hundred to two thousand feet. The ecclesiastical style of architecture varies materially, as the Wihares or temples of Buddha strongly resemble the Chinese, whilst the Dewales or temples of the gods reminded the observer of Grecian architecture. Some ruins in the Hindoo style are occasionally met with in the island, and the rock temples, stupendous and magnificent monu- ments of man's ingenuity, enterprise, and industry, still remain to astonish the wondering beholder, * The Wihares and Dewales are generally buildings of one story; the exterior of these buildings is whitewashed, whilst the interior is adorned with * These extraordinary excavations ought to be classed amongst the " wonders of the world." 276 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. paintings of the gods, many of which have a strong resemblance to the Egyptian deities. Near to every Wihare is a Dagobah, (or building which is said to enclose a particular relic of Buddha, such as a piece of bone, or one of his hairs,) which is invariably a bell-shaped monument surmounted by a small spire. Knox alludes to some of the ancient religious edifices of the Cingalese in the following words: " Many of them are of rare and exquisite work, built of hewn stone and engraven with images and figures, but by whom and when I could never learn, the inhabitants themselves being ignorant. But it is quite certain they were built by far superior artificers to the Cingalese of the present day ; for many buildings having been defaced during foreign invasions, none among the natives have had skill enough to repair them." It is most singular, that in a number of old buildings the arch is found with- out the principle of the arch, being formed of stones laid horizontally, which project one beyond the other on each side until they meet above; whilst, in comparatively modern buildings, the arch is to be frequently found regularly constructed with the key-stone. The Cingalese practice and knowledge of the healing and chirurgic arts, according to European ideas, are very imperfect, and, as they consider handling a corpse to be the height of pollution, this prejudice alone has been sufficient to render it im- possible for them, either to acquire, or possess, a correct knowledge of anatomy, or the structure of the human frame. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 277 When a native practitioner is called in, a bargain is struck between him and the patient, or his friends- So soon as the stipulated remuneration is agreed upon, if the practitioner has any doubt of the pro- bity of his employers, he requires that the fee, whether it consist of money, jewellery, clothes, or grain, shall be placed in the hands of a third per- son. The usual stipulation is, no cure no pay, but, where a practitioner is called in to a doubtful case, or where the patient is moribund, he invariably receives his fee in advance. To be well-skilled in astrology, is a most requi- site branch of a good physician's education, as he must be able by such knowledge to pronounce with- out hesitation, whether the disease owes its origin to deranged humours, or is a just punishment in- flicted for crimes committed in a former stage of existence — in the latter case, the unfortunate patient is left to the mercy of the gods — in the former, the practitioner endeavours to bring the malady to its height, " or ripen it,'''' after which he uses remedies for its cure. Their medical works treat of five hundred and seventy diseases to which the human frame is sub- ject, the greater number of which they represent to arise from derangement, or humours of the flesh, blood, skin, fat, bones, marrow, phlegm, bile, or wind. The physician's knowledge should therefore enable him to determine from what exciting cause, and derangement of what particular function, the disease has sprung. Occasionally he will take, pos- 278 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. sibly for effect, some hours to determine the name of the patient's complaint, and, when this very knotty point has been decided, he administers the remedy, for every practitioner prepares and admi- nisters his own medicines. It is their custom to prescribe and compound a great number of ingre- dients for the most trivial cases, which renders it somewhat difficult to decide which particular drug ameliorates or subdues the disease. Their Materia Medica consists of numberless simples, and a few metallic preparations, such as arsenic in the form of white oxyde, and mercury, which is invariably mixed with oleaginous matter ; gold, silver, and copper, are administered in the form of powders. The native chemical practice consists of distillation, preparing decoctions, infu- sions, extracts, oils, and powders. Many of their practitioners are excellent oculists, and are thoroughly conversant with numerous me- dicinal drugs (unknown to Europeans) which pro- duce a speedy effect in relieving ophthalmia. In Ceylon, ophthalmia is alike prevalent amongst human beings and animals, but there is one form of this distressing complaint which is solely confined to quadrupeds. A minute worm is either engen- dered or received into the watery humours of the eye, which causes the eyeball to enlarge : as soon as the swelling subsides, the colouring matter of the pupil assumes a bluish tint, and total loss of vision speedily ensues. The vegetable remedies used by the natives appear to cause the animal acute pain, CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 279 but, when they are judiciously applied hy a skilful practitioner, invariably restore the vision, and effect a complete cure. The surgeons are extremely dextrous in opening boils, from which both Europeans and natives suffer alike severely in Ceylon, and they understand cau- terizing and phlebotomy. We have been informed that when a native surgeon amputates a limb, the operation is performed with a knife, which has been heated to a dull redness. As we never beheld the operation of reducing a dislocation, we are indebted for the following nar- rative to one who did, and upon whose veracity we can place reliance : — " During our journey, one of the coolies fell down, and dislocated his ankle joint. On reaching the next village, the surgeon was sent for, who, after a careful examination of the injured limb, ordered the patient to be assisted to a planta- tion of cocoa-nut trees, and some coir, or rope, to be brought to him. He then placed the patient against a tree, to which he securely fastened him by the shoulders, whilst the foot of the injured limb was tightly attached by a noosed rope to another tree. Through the noose, the surgeon passed a short, but strong stick which he repeatedly twisted until the rope was completely tightened, and the limb stretched out to its fullest extent ; he then suddenly withdrew the stick and allowed the cord to untwist itself The patient, who had bellowed and squealed like a mad wild dog during the opera- tion, was then released, and upon examination the 280 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. joint was found to be reinstated, and, after a few days' rest, the patient regained the perfect use of his foot." Those complaints from which the natives of Ceylon principally suffer are ophthalmia and severe cutaneous diseases, both elephantiasis and leprosy * being constantly met with in their most malignant forms, and Doctor Davy states that there is scarcely one disease of the skin, which is mentioned in Doctor Bateraan's Synopsis, that he has not seen an instance of amongst the Cingalese. Fever, ague, diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera morbus (which latter proved most fatal in Jaffnapatam during 1846), and diseases of the brain f- are likewise extremely pre- valent, and attack alike the native and European. There is an extraordinary feature in the fevers of Ceylon, as the symptoms differ materially in the highlands and lowlands, and we cannot do better than quote the words of Dr. Davy, who writes, " The fever of almost every year and season, and place, has something peculiar to mark it ; in the endemic of one place or season there may be a strong tendency to delirium, in that of another to intermission and relapse, and disease of the spleen : in that of a third to change of disease, from fever to dysentery." And it is dysentery following fever, which usually proves fatal to numbers of our coun- * Our government have established an hospital for the recep- tion of those who are afflicted with this terrible malady. t A lunatic asylum has also been established, which is su- perintended by a talented surgeon. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 281 trymen. It has been remarked by many who have studied the medical history of Ceylon and India, that infectious fevers are unknown, as both the plague and typhus are never heard of to the east- ward of the Indus. There is a disease termed Beri-beria, stated by pathologists to be aluiost peculiar to Ceylon, and which, when it makes its appearance, causes great mortality amongst the natives, and baffles all the efforts of our medical men to arrest its progress. The nosological name given by Dr. C. Rogers to this disease is hydrops asthmaticus, and the symptoms are thus described by him, " This terrible disease commences with general debility and op- pressed breathing, the extremities become distended with watery effusion, paralysis ensues, whilst other symptoms of dropsy display themselves, often run- ning their course with great rapidity. There is frequently anxiety, also, with palpitation of the heart, and occasionally vomiting and spasms are present." We never heard of an European suffer- ing from this disease. 282 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. CHAPTER IX. The state of Ceylon anterior to the Christian era — Anooradha- poora, when built — Circumference of city walls — Native his- torical record — Account given by Fa-Hian, the Chinese traveller of the fourth century — Bridge of devils — Mode of shaping and ornamenting granite 2000 years ago — Unicorn known to the Cingalese — Maha-Wihare — Lowa-Maha-Paya — Ruwanelli Saye — Tradition — Glass pinnacle used as a non- conductor, A.D. 243 — Abhaayagiri Dagobah — ^Toophaaraa- maya Dagobah — ^Tanks and wells — ^Tomb of Elala — Rock temples of Dambool — Dimensions of the Maha Rajah Wihare — Decorations, paintings, and statues of the gods and kings — Curious descriptive inscription on the rock — Anecdote of the sacred water — Worship in the cave — Aloot Wihare — Maha Dewo Devvale — Smallest rock temple — Dimensions and decorations — Exterior of Damboola GaUa — Summit of the rock — Ancient rock fortress of Sigiri — Ruins of a nunnery at Minigiri — ^Tradition — Dewinoowara, the city of the god — Ramayana, the oldest epic poem extant, commemmorates the conquest of Ceylon by Rama — Remains of antiquity seen around Dondera — The priest's tale — Antique statue at Belli- gama — Pollanarooa — Remains of tank, palace, religious edi- fices, rock temple, and colossal statues — Dagobah of the CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 283 golden umbrella — Stone roof — Ancient inscriptions — Mass of stone removed by men — Extraordinary piece of sculpture — Sanus, or deed of gift. It is evident that, at a period anterior to the Christian era, Ceylon had attained a high state of civilization and refinement, whereof the gigantic ruins of Anooradhapoora and Pollanarooa (the former capitals of Lanka-diva), the stupendous tanks, religious edifices, and various other massive architectural remains, which are scattered over the cinnamon isle, bear ample witness. Bertolacci, in allusion to these evidences of high civilization, re- marks, "We must therefore say, that the further we go back towards the remotest antiquity, we find this island rising in the ideas it impresses upon our minds, respecting its civilization and prosperity." In allusion to the tanks this author most justly remarks, " In this work we find then, incontestible signs of an immense population and an extensive agriculture. This gives us the idea of a very popu- lous country, and of a flourishing nation." In Mr. Upham's most excellent work on the " Sacred and Historical Books of Ceylon," after alluding to the beneficial influence, that the intro- duction of the mild tenets of Buddhism, had upon the Cingalese, he writes, " There is another point we can dwell on with pleasure, viz., the rapid and remarkable progress of the Cingalese in every branch of national refinement. They scarcely appear in these narrations to have entered on the career of civilization, ere we find them under Panduwasa and 284 CFA'LON AND THE CINGALESE. his successors founding cities, building temples, and above all formino; immense lakes for facilitating; the operations of agriculture — the true riches of a state. These extraordinary excavations rivalled the most remarkable labours of antiquity, and were hardly surpassed by the kindred wonders of Egypt. The remains of these national monuments demonstrate an amount of population, and a state of prosperity infinitely superior to what exists at present, or has for a long period existed in Ceylon. Not less strik- ing than these lakes are the vast mounds, temples, and mausoleums, which are generally adjacent to their borders, and the remains of which, at this present day, attest the former splendour of the state." Believing as we do the veracity of the native historical records, relative to the former prosperity and grandeur of the isle, finding these statements are fully corroborated by the stupendous and mag- nificent architectural remains, which are to be seen on the bosom of Lanka-diva's verdant soil, we con- ceive it must be evident to all who reflect upon this interesting topic, that the forefathers of this people, whom for a lengthened period we looked upon as savages, were a civilized, and a comparatively re- fined nation, at a period anterior to the discovery of Great Britain, and her then semi-barbarous deni- zens. Although now, the greater portion of the native population of Ceylon, are too frequently in- dolent, ignorant, servile, and cowardly, their ances- tors would appear to have adopted as mottoes for CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 2S5 their guidance, "Par sit fortuna laboris." — "Au- dentes fortuna juvat." Tradition, supported by the native chronicles, asserts, that from tlie most remote periods of anti- quity the plain on which the city of Anooradha- poora was built, was regarded as sacred ground, from the circumstance of the first Buddha of the present era, having visited the spot; when he found the place hallowed by the observance of the reli- gious rites and ceremonies, which had been prac- tised by preceding generations, in obedience to the commands of the Buddhas of former eras, who had also honoured and consecrated the spot by their presence. One of Buddha's commands forbids taking life from any creature, '' From the smallest and most noxious insect up to man thou shalt not kill," and we believe, that few natives have suf- ficient temerity to kill any animal near the spot, which their records aflirm had been sanctioned by the presence of their god Buddha; consequently, game of all descriptions abounds in the jungles around Anooradhapoora. Anooradhapoora is first mentioned in Cingalese records about five hundred years before the Chris- tian era, where it is stated to have been then a vil- lage, which was presented by the King Panduwasa to his brother-in-law for a residence. In the same century, this monarch's successor determined to make this spot the capital and seat of government, which it continued to be, except during the reign of an usurper, until the eighth century, when the 286 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. seat of govern Qient was transferred to Pollanarooa. Anooradhapoora was known to Ptolemy, and may be found correctly placed and marked in his map, under the name of Anuragrammum. In succeed- ing centuries, various relics of Goutama Buddha were brought here, and magnificent Dagobahs were erected for their reception, and a branch of the Bo, or sacred tree, under which tradition asserts he had reposed, was planted. After Anooradhapoora had ceased to be a capital, the monarchs deemed it a paramount duty to keep the various religious edifices in repair, and this custom was observed until the commencement of the thirteenth century, when the invader, Maagha, governed Ceylon, during which period he demo- lished many of the religious and public buildings, and attempted the destruction of the native histo- rical records. Superstition appears to have insti- gated the King Panduwasa in the selection of Anooradhapoora for the capital, and, when the seat of government was removed in after ages, it is to be presumed that all the chiefs and most wealtky inha- bitants followed in the monarch's train. From historical records we learn, that the final desertion of the city, its attendant decay, and pre- sent desolation, arose in a great measure from the unhealthiness of the neighbourhood, which was principally attributable to the artificial lakes and tanks being allowed to remain unrepaired. The number of the inhabitants having been greatly diminished, the remainder were either unable, or CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 287 unwilling, to maintain in due order, the stupendous embankments of those artificial sources of wealth and plenty in one case, or of want and sickness in the other ; the latter being caused by the waters overflowing and breaking their boundaries, forming stagnant and noxious swamps, instead of irrigating the surrounding fields with their refreshing waters. The decline of Ceylon may be dated from the eighth century, the sun of her prosperity appears to have been then upon the wane, and her annals ex- hibit in after ages a fearful array of domestic feuds, foreign invasions, wars, pestilences, and famines ; nevertheless, in the twelfth century, we find many noble public works completed ; and the native annals affirm that the number of males at that period in the island, amounted to three millions four hundred and twenty thousand. Although the number may be exaggerated, it is self-evident from the magnitude of the public works which were then constructed, that an immense population at the same time must have existed in Ceylon. Our go- vernment have located some officials at Anoorad- hapoora, have caused roads to be constructed, and in some spots, the dense jungle to be cleared away ; but the station is one of the most unhealthy in the colony ; so much so, that many enthusiastic anti- quarians, in their endeavours to behold the remains of Lanka-diva's palmy days, have been foiled in their researches, and prostrated by severe attacks of fever and ague. We feel assured, however, that Anooradhapoora 288 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. could not formerly have been insalubrious, or it would not have continued to be the seat of* govern- ment for more than twelve hundred years. In the first century of our eraj about the year 63 or 64, the monarch, Waahapp, completed the walls of the city, which enclosed a space of two hundred and fifty-six square miles. The walls were sixty-four miles in extent, built in a quadrangular form, each side being sixteen miles in length. The following in- teresting description of the capital is extracted from the native historical records : — " The glorious and magnificent city of Anoorad- hapoora is gorgeously refulgent from the many temples and palaces, whose golden pinnacles glitter in the sky. The sides of the streets are strewn with dark- coloured sand ; whilst the centre is sprinkled with sand which is white as the interior of a young cocoa-nut. The streets are spanned by arches, made from the young pliant bamboo, which are covered with the choicest flowers, and ornamented with golden and silver flags, glittering amidst the many- coloured blossoms ; on each side are vases filled with fragrant oils, and in alcoves are images hold- ing gold and silver lamps. " In the thoroughfares are to be seen throngs of men, who are armed with bows and arrows. Among these people are men of lofty stature, who carry large swords ; the strength of these godlike beings is so great, that with one blow of their mighty weapon, they can sever the body of an elephant. Myriads of people, elephants, horses, bullocks, pa- CiiYLON AiND THE CINGALESE. 289 lanqueens, and Iiaccories, are constantly passing and re-!)assing. Among this busy multitude devoted to occupation, may be found many wlio make the plea- sure of others tlieir employment, as there are necro- mancers, dancers, and musicians of far-off nations, whose chanque shells and tom-toms are ornamented with cloth of gold. The gates of the city are far asunder ; the distance of the principal gate to the southern entrance is four gaws ;* and fiom the northern to the southern gate, is it not also four gaws? The principal streetsf are three; their names are, Great King-street, Great River-street, and Moon-street — in the latter are more than twice five thousand dwellings, the greater number being goodly-sized houses. The lesser streets in this vast city are countless. The king's palace is a stupen- dous edifice, and has immense ranges of buildings, some of two and three stories in hei"ht. The subterranean apartments are of great extent. What man can tell the space of ground they cover?" Although the style of this account is essentially oriental, the remains of this magnificent city fully corroborate the above statement ; as the ruins of the walls, public buildings, stupendous tanks, and religious edifices, bear evidence of the enormous * A gaw is four Enp;lish miles. t We refrain from giving the Cingalese names of the streets, out of compassion to our beloved selves, as all the typographers vi'hom we come across will persist in adopting their own spelling, instead of ours, in Asiatic proper names. VOL. II. O 290 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE, poj)ulation wliicli must have been required, to un- dertake, and complete, these gigantic structures. Tlie learned Chinaman, Fa-Hian, visited Ceylon in the fourtli century, and he gives a most graphic description of the condition of the island, and the glories of Anooradhapoora. He comments upon the flourishing condition of the country, and informs us that the capital was inhabited by the monarch, his courtiers and nobles, numerous magistrates, who administered the laws with justice, and merchants who were largely engaged in commerce with dis- tant and foreign states. Fa-Hian also expatiates on the magnitude of the public buildings; the size and style in which the abodes of the nobles and wealthy were ornamented ; the length of the streets and roads, which, he says, "were wide and straight;" and concludes his account by expressing the joy it gave him, as a devout follower of Buddha, to see the numberless halls which were solely used by the priests to preach in, and expound the laws of Budd- ha ; and that the eighth, fourteenth, and fifteenth days of each moon were devoted to the " great preachings," when crowds of people of all grades, from the highest to the lowest, filled these buildings. Near Anooradhapoora are the remains of a stone bridge, called, by the natives, the Bridge of Devils, as they declare that none but demons could have hewn and placed such immensely massive stones in the form of a bridge. But it appears evident, from their ancient structures, that the Cingalese, more than two thousand years ago, made use of the CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 291 wedge to wrench blocks from the parent rock, afterwards forming the huge masses into tlie re- quired shape by means of the chisel, and adopted various methods, not only in the formation, but also in the embellishment, of massive granite jjillars, which have been introduced into this country as improvements during the present century. Robert Knox, in 1679, whilst making his escape from the Kandians, after one-and-twenty years' captivity, saw these ruins, and thus alludes to them : — Here and there, by the side of this river (the Malwatte Oya, or flower-garden river), is a world of hewn stones, which, I suppose, formerly were buildings ; and in three or four places are the ruins of bridges built of stone ; some remains of them yet standing upon pillars. It is singular, that among the ancient sculptures of the Cingalese, which portray the monarclis of the forest, an animal resembling the heraldic unicorn i^; frequently delineated ; this creature has the head, body, and limbs of a horse, and from the centre of the forehead a tusk-shaped horn protrudes. The natives affirm that the unicorn, in former days, was oft-times found in the jungle ; but, as no remains of this animal have ever been discovered, many regard this assertion as a fable. Nevertheless, it must be regarded as a most extraordinary fact, that an ani- mal should be introduced into their ancient scnlj)- ture whose form perfectly corresponds with a crea- ture which has been considered, by the greater number of naturalists, as purely ideal. Some o 2 292 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. authors presume that the sculptor intended to portray the rhinoceros ; but we cannot for one moment entertain this supposition, as the natives aie, and more especially the ancient artists were, faithful copyists, and could never have confounded the slender body of the animal called by them Kan- gewana — by us, unicorn, with the unwieldly form of the huge rhinoceros In ail the ancient architectural remains of the Cingalese, extreme simplicity of design is the prin- cipal feature; nevertheless, some of their chiselling in granite, both for sharpness and depth of cutting, would compete with, if not rival, European work- manship of the present day. All the ancient sculp- tures which have been discovered in Ceylon, at Anooradhapoora, and other places, far surpass the works of native modern artists, as the figures pro- duced by the old masters are frequently correct in their proportions, and invariably full of animation ; whilst considerable artistic skill is evinced in the arrangement of the subjects. The Maha-Wihare, or great temple of Anoorad- hapoora, was built in the third century antecedent to our era, and, although it is now in ruins, many of the steps, leading to the principal entrance, are in complete preservation, and are most exquisitely chiselled; the elephant, lion, and buJSalo being re- presented, respectively, with extreme fidelity, and grpat spirit. These ruins are still decorated with small stone ornaments, the carvings on which evince good taste and considerable skill, and it is CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 293 most remarkable that notwithstanding their expo- sure to the elements for centuries, the greater num- ber of these carvings are as well defined, and the lines as sharp and clear, as if they had been newly chiselled. Some idea may be formed of the ground origi- nally covered by this enoruious building, from the dimensions of the enclosure, surrounding the court of the Bo tree, which occupies a space measuring three hundred and forty feet in length, and two hundred and fourteen in breadth. In the middle of the court stands the Bo, or sacred tree, which tradi- tion asserts is a branch of the tree under which Goutama reposed, when he became Buddha; and devout Buddhists of the present day travel immense distances to pay homage to the tree under whicii their god had slumbered. In fact, this is the chief object of veneration and worship to the countless pilgrims, who visit Anooradhopoora annually. In front of the Maha-Wihare stands the Great Square, one side of whicli is covered with the ruins of the Lowa-Maha-Paya, or brazen palace, so called from the material with which the roof of the build- ing was covered. This noble structure was erected by Dootoogaimoonoo, who reigned one hundred and forty-one years before the present era, as an abode for priests ; it was of a square form, each of its sides being two hundred and thirty-four feet; its height was two hundred and seventy feet. This building contained nine stories, on each of which were one hundred apartments, the uppermost story 294 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. being occupied by those priests who were most cele- brated for their piety and learning ; whilst the lower ones were appropriated to the pupils and sub- ordinates. The ruins now consist of sixteen hundred granite pillars, in a greater or less state of preservation, which, being placed in forty parallel lines, form a square. These pillars vary in height, some being eleven feet above the ground, whilst others are eleven and a-half ; those standing in the centre are delicately, but not elaborately chiselled, whilst the exterior ones are plain, and only half the thickness of those in the centre, which are nearly two feet wide, and one and a-half thick ; on these pillars tlie stupendous fabric rested. From native records we learn that the interior of this spacious edifice was gorgeously decorated, the hall in the centre of the building being profusely ornamented with gilt statues of elephants, lions, and buffaloes; at one end of the hall, upon a platform, was a carved ivory throne, on either side of which were ranged golden suns, silvery moons, and stars, these being the attri- butes of royalty. Although some sceptics profess to disbelieve the historical records of Ceylon, surely the relics of past generations, which are to be seen at the present day, bear ample testimony to the verity of the native accounts, concerning the former glories of Lanka- diva. Within a mile and a-half of these ruins, are the gigantic remains of several dagobahs, which rear CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 295 their towering crests above the lofty trees in the surrounding jungle : these monuments are solid structures of brick, and were originally covered witii chunam,* but this incrustation has now fallen otf the greater number of these edifices. The Ruwan- vvelli-saye is a Dagobah of peculiar sanctity, and was commenced by Dootoogaimoonoo: tradition states that this mausoleum owes its erection to the following circumstance. During the time the brazen palace was being built, a stone pillar was found near the spot where the Dagobah now stands. On this pillar a prediction was inscribed, which stated, that where the stone was found, a superb Dagobah of one hundred and twenty cubits in height would be built by a good monarch, who would be rewarded by Buddha for his piety both in this life and in the next. Whether piety, or a desire to be rewarded in accordance with the prediction, induced the monarch to undertake the construction of this monument, we cannot determine, as upon this point history is silent, but the Dagobah was commenced, and nearly completed, the spire alone being wanting, when the monarch died, and his successor finished the l)uild* ing. History further records that when Dootoogai- moonoo found that his life was drawing to a close, he * This is a preparation from lime, cocoa-nut milk, and the glutinous juice of a fruit-tree indigenous to Ceylon. The mix- ture is of a milk-white hue, and adheres readily to any sub- stance on which it may be laid. Chunam will bear a high polish, and strongly resembles marble in colour and durability. 296 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. entreated his brother to have a model made of the spire ; the dying monarch had his wish complied with, and a wooden spire covered with white cloth was placed upon the Dagobah. The expiring king- caused himself to be conveyed to the sacred edifice, that he might see tlie structure completed (appa- rently) before he quitted this world ; and a granite slab, surrounded with pillars, marks the spot where the monarch's palanqueen rested. Near to this slab is a stone trough, of the size and shape of a man's body, which according to tradition was used by the the king as a bath, when he was suffering from the sting of a black scorpion. The Dagobah stands in the middle of a square platform, whose sides are each five hundi-ed feet in length, the whole being surrounded by a moat seventy feet wide. The platform is paved with large slabs of granite, and the slopes towards the fosse are ornamented with massive pieces of sculpture, repre- senting the heads of elephants, which project, as though the sculptor intended the beholder to ima- gine, that the 'bodies of these huge creatures sup- ported the superstructure. On the embankment stands a deep-suiik pillar, which is fifteen feet high, and four in diameter, and, although the surface of the stone is now smooth, the priests declare that it formerly bore the prophetic inscription, which caused the erection of the Dagobah. The Ruwanwelli-saye is now a conical mound of brickwork, overgrown with brushwood; still this stupendous ruin, which is one hundred and eighty CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 297 feet high, is regarded with peculiar interest both by the antiquarian and man of science, as it was to the spire of this Dagobah, that Sanghatissa the First, who reigned a.d. 243, phiced -a pinnacle of glass, to seroe as a protection against lightning. This account will be found in the Maha-Wansa, which was written in the middle of the fifth cen tury, between 460 and 480, thus clearly proving the advanced state of science among the ancient Cinga- lese, and the knowledge they possessed of the non- conducting property of glass. The ruin of the largest mausoleum which was ever built in Ceylon, is to be seen at Anooradha- poora ; it is called Abhaayagiri-dagobah, and was built by AVallagam Baliu, in the century preceding our era. The original height of this gigantic struc- ture was four hundred feet, the platform and moat being in proportion ; the ruin is now two hundred and twenty feet high, and the outer wall exceeds one mile and a-half in length. Trees of lofty stature cover this ruin, the only portion of brick- work perceptible being towards the summit ; and few sights can be conceived more sublimely grand, than the spectacle presented by this huge conical mass of luxuriant vegetation. The finest specimen of a mausoleum in Ceylon, although of smaller proportion than the preceding, is the Dagobah which is built over the collar-bone of Goutama Buddha. This edifice is called Zoophaa- raaraaya, and was built by Dewenepeatissa, who reigned three hundred years before the Christian o 5 298 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. era. Native annals declare that Zoophaaraamaya, was beauteous to behold, the slender pillars and ornaments being like the precious gems around the throat of a youthful matron ; and the ruins fully justify the eulogium. The Dagobah is low, broader at the summit than at the base, and is surrounded by four lines of slender stone pillars, six-and-twenty being placed in each line. The pillars are twenty- three feet high, have circular capitals, octagonal shafts, and square bases — the latter being narrower than the capitals. These graceful columns are ornamented with the most delicate and elaborate chiselling conceivable, and are so arranged on the platform of granite as to form the radii of a circle, of which the Dagobah is the centre : and all anti- quarians agree in admitting, that this Dagobah is the most elegant specimen of architecture in the island. At Anooradhapoora there are eight large tanks, and many smaller ones, which are entirely cased with hewn stone. In some of the smaller tanks there are cells on one side, about five feet high, ten long, and seven broad, which the priests state were formerly used by their order as places of prayer and contemplation. These chambers are also cased with slabs of granite, and are so constructed, that the floor of each cell would have been level with the water, when the tank was full. There are many wells also, which are cased with granite; the largest and deepest is near the Ruwanwelli-saye, and the stone- casing is so built as to form a flight of steps, which gradually diminish in size towards the bottom. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 299 What motive could have actuated the builder in thus arranging- each course of masonry, has formed a matter of conjecture to many. Europeans say the casing was thus constructed to facilitate the operation of cleansing the well, in which opinion we cannot coincide, leaning towards the native tradition, which states, that at the bottom of the well there is a secret entrance to the Ruwanwelli- saye. This tradition is supported by their histori- cal records, which refer to a secret entrance to this Dagobah, stated to have been known solely to the reigning monarch, and the chief priest for the time being, by which the king used to enter when he desired to worship the relics of Buddha, wiiich were therein entombed. Near Anooradhapoora there is a spot which is looked upon with extreme veneration by the pil- grims, being the tomb of the Malabar king Elala, who was slain on the spot by Dootoogaimoonoo.* « In the Maha-Wanso will be found the whole account of this combat, and we subjoin that portion. After a lengthy statement regarding the causes which led to the fight, the native historian says — "The king Dootoogaimoonoo then made this proclamation 1)y beat of tom-toms — No other per- son, save myself, shall spoil the valiant Elala. The king tiien accoutred himself for mortal combat, and, mounted on his well- bedecked and courageous war-elephant Kandooloo, he pursued Elala, and found him near the southern gate." The monarchs then agreed to the terms of the battle, and the history pro- ceeds ; — "The two kings entered into personal combat near the .southern gate of the city, within sight of their men-of-war, chiefs, and nobles ; and the arms and raiment of the might\' 300 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. The Malabar had obtained possession of certain parts of the island, and had erected various for- throng beamed like the sun at noonday. Then began the battle. The king Elala hurled his spear — the magnanimous sovereign Dootoogaimoonoo avoided it, and, causing his ele- phant to charge with his tusks the other elephant, and hurling at the same time his lance at Elala, he and his elephant both fell together. Then the conquerer, surrounded by his martial men and nobles, entered the capital, and summoning within the walls of the city the inhabitants of the neighboui'hood who dwelt within four gaws (sixteen miles), he held a solemn feast, in honour of the Malabar king, Elala. Consuming the corpse in a funei'al pile of sandal-wood, on the spot where he fell, he ordained that a magnificent tomb should be erected. The glorious monarch also ordered that the mausoleum should receive honours, like unto those that are conferred upon tri- butary kings ; and this command was engraven upon a pillar. Unto this day, the monarchs who have succeeded to the king- dom of Lanka-diva, on reaching that quarter of the city, leave their palanqueens, whatever the procession may be, and silence their musicians. Would any man of lower degree presume to do that which mighty kings refrain from doing ? If he dare disobey this solemn injunction, will he not merit and receive the severe displeasure of Buddha in this life, and in his suc- ceeding one ?" Among the ruins of Maagama is to be seen an octagonal pillar, nine feet and a half in length, and eight in circumfer- ence ; to this the state elephant was chained, when the city was a royal residence. This pillar is called the Stone of Kandoola, the name of Dootoogaimoonoo's favourite war-elephant. The marks of the chain are distinctly visible, as they have nearly obhterated the inscription — the word Sri-royal, being the only one that can be deciphered. The ruins of the palace, wihares, dagobahs, and other antiquities about this spot, are extremely interesting. Historical records first mention this city, b.c. 280. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 30l tresses, which were successively taken by the Cingalese monarch. At length, Dootoogaimoonoo challenged Elala to single combat, which he accepted, and they conjointly agreed that the conqueror should take possession of the territories of the vanquished. On the appointed day, the respective monarchs met at this place, both being mounted on a war- elephant. After a severe combat, victory declared in favour of Dootoogaimoonoo, who slew Elala with a lance ; and on the spot where the latter fell he was buried, and a monument was erected to his memory by the Cingalese monarch. Near the tomb was placed a pillar, on which was in- scribed a prohibition, forbidding any one of high or low degree, under a penalty of incurring Buddha's displeasure, from passing the tomb in a vehicle of any description, and tom-toms, and other musical instruments, were likewise forbidden to be played upon in the vicinity. Although more than twenty centuries have elapsed since the Malabar king, Elala, was slain, the natives declare their monarch's injunction has never been disregarded by a Cingalese. We believe this to be correct ; for it is a well-known fact, that in 1818, after the rebellion in Kandy, when Pilimi Talawe, who was a descendant of the royal family, and the king of Kandy's Adigar, was attempting to escape from our government, he alighted from his palanqueen as he approached this spot, and not knowing the exact place where 302 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE, the tomb stood, walked a considerable distance, although almost exhausted with mental anxiety, and bodily exertion. The celebrated Buddhist rock temples are ex- cavations in the Dambooloo Galla, or Rock of Dambool, which is of vast extent, and nearly insulated.* Some scanty patches of stunted vegetation are dispersed over its surface, but the general aspect of this huge mass is desola- tion and barrenness. Although the exterior is thus forbidding, the sight of the extraordinary and wonderful excavations in the interior, and works of art, have caused numerous enlightened individuals to gaze in speechless amazement around them ; for these sacred fanes of Dam- bool may be regarded as specimens of man's patience, ingenuity, and skill in past ages, and are to be classed with the caves of Elephanta in India, and the pyramids in the sandy plains of Egypt. These rock temples are vast in magnitude, tlieir decorations, in a high state of preservation, are characteristic, and are maintained in thorough order by the attendant priests. The rock of Dam- bool is elevated five hundred and twenty feet above the surrounding forests ; the northern side of the rock is especially barren, the four temples being situate in a vast cavern partly natural, on * There are numerous rock temples scattered over the island, but none either so large, or in the same state of preservation, as these at Dambool. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 303 the southern side, which rises about three hundred and fifty feet above the plain : by immense labour and skill the stony mass has been excavated, and formed into these wondrous works of art. The approach to the temples is on the eastern side, the precipitous path passing- over a narrow shelving rock, which leads to a modern stone arch- way, that forms the entrance to the platform in front of the temples. The interior of the fanes of Dauibool is concealed by a wall, four hundred feet in length, which is pierced for the reception of windows and doors ; this wall is sheltered by the overhanging rock, as well as by a thatched verandah, which is supported by wooden pillars of modern date, and rough workmanship. Wallagam Bahu was the king who founded the rock temples, and the largest of these excavated religious edifices was commenced by him eighty- six years before the Christian era, and is called the Maha Rajah Wihare, or the Great King's Temple, in honour of the monarch. We learn from historical records, that the king personally superintended, and occasionally assisted the work- men in the formation of this sacred fane. This magnificent cave is entered by an arched portal, on either side of which stand stone statues, which appear to scowl on the inquisitive in- truder ; the length of this excavation is one hundred and seventy-eight feet, the width eighty, and the roof is twenty-five feet high at tjje loftiest part, which is at the front wall ; the 6 304 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. height of the cave gradually decreasing to the opposite wall, thus forming a complete arc of a circle. The whole surface, walls, and roof, are painted in the richest and most brilliant colours imaginable, which appear perfectly fresh, although they have not been renovated for more than half a century. The paintings represent incidents in the life of Buddha, and historical subjects. Some of these are peculiarly interesting, as they illustrate the early his- tory of Lanka-diva. The first represents the voyage of Wijeya and his seven hundred followers, the conquerors of Ceylon : the monarch and his train are represented in vessels totally devoid of sails, and having only lower masts, the ships are en- compassed with fishes and sea monsters, rather out of proportion we confess, being nearly of equal size with the craft, but to compensate for this inaccuracy, green lotus leaves of the natural size, float on the tranquil bosom of the ocean. In another painting is portrayed the dedication of the island to Buddha; the peace and good feel- ing inculcated by his doctrines are exemplified under the allegorical symbol of a king patronizing agriculture: the monarch is seen guiding a plough, which is drawn by elephants, priests following, who throw the grain into the furrow This series of his- torical painting is continued down to the period of the arrival of the Bo-tree, the Dalada, and other relics of Bnddha; the building of Anooradhapoora, and its rer!giou<5 edifices, being likewise duly set forth. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 305 Tlie best painting, botli as regards proportion and animation, is the one which describes the combat between the Cingalese monarch, Dooloogaimoonoo, previously alluded to, and the Malabar king, Elala ; the moment of defeat is the one selected by the artist, Elala being depicted falling from his ele- phant, in his death agony, after he has been pierced by the lance of his adversary. The expression of triumphant joy, in the Cingalese king's face, forms an admirable contrast to the pain and dejection that are portrayed in the countenance of the wounded man. As the temple is well lighted by numerous win- dows, every detail in the paintings and decorations can be brought under immediate inspection, and the whole are well finished, evincing both taste and skill. This sacred temple is dedicated to Buddha, and contains forty-eight statues of the god in differ- ent attitudes, which are of various dimensions, the greater number of them being larger, but none less than the natural stature of man. There is also an exquisitely proportioned Dagobah, reaching to the roof, whose circular pedestal is embellished with four figures of Buddha, seated upon coiled cobra- capellos. There are statues likewise of the gods, Vishnu and Samen, the goddess Patine, and the kings Walla- gam Bahu, and Kirti Nissaangha. The first statue is peculiarly interesting to the antiquarian, as it is stated in the records that the costume * is the same * The comboy was of fine muslin, or cotton, the necklace of yold. 306 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. which was worn by the first kings of Ceylon ; the attire consists of the comboy or petticoat, girded about the loins with a scarf, and neither embroidery nor ornament is depicted upon either ; the ears of the figure are considerably enlarged, and have a square hole in the lobe, in the Malabar style. Around the neck is a double-headed serpent, whose body is coiled midway about the throat, and a head of the reptile is passed through the hole in either ear, thus forming unique ornaments. Although the carving of this figure is not highly finished, the expression of the statue is a combination of majesty, kindness, and dignity. Kirti Nissaangha was the monarch, who in 1193 repaired the dilapidations of the rock temples, which had experienced much damage from the Ma- labars, during their invasions, re-gilded the various statues of Buddha, and gorgeously ornamented the excavations, whereby, according to the native annals, he expended in decorations alone, six hundred thou- sand pieces of gold. An inscription in the characters of the twelfth century, records the name of the monarch, and the date of the repairs, and orders that from thence- forward Dambooloo Galla shall be styled Swarna Giriguhaaya, or the cave of the Golden Mountain.* * Part of the inscription on the rock. — " The sovereign lord , and munificent monarch, of the dynasty of Kaalinga, sur- named the Heroic and invincible Royal Warrior, gloriously endued with might, majesty, and wisdom, like the beauteous and placid moon, radiant with cheering and benignant qua- CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 307 The greater number of statues are placed in rows, at a trivial distance from the inner walls and sides of the caves, but at the western extremity, the figures are arranged in double files, whilst the images of the two monarchs stand near the outer wall. At the eastern end of the temple is a square space, railed in, and sunk below the level of the fioor. In this is placed a chatty, or vase, to receive the water which continually drips fiom a fissure in lities." The inscription goes on to state how the island had suffered from the invasions of foreigners and the mismanage- ment of her native rulers, and that the monarch, after conquer- ing his enemies, and accepting ransom for the chief prisoners, which ransom consisted of " Young and royal maidens, ele- phants and horses, then caused obelisks of victory to be set up as lasting monuments, and ordered alms-houses, wihares, and dewales to be built. Having also a perfect knowledge of the doctrines and tenets of Buddhism, he promoted the cause of religion, and the interests of science, by restoring the ruined fanes, and the highways, which had been destroyed in conse- quence of the calamities which had befallen the land during former reigns, and rebuilt the wihares in the city of Anoorad- hapoora, and many other places, and expended vast riches thereon. Within this Wihare, he caused to be made seventy- two statues of Buddha in the erect, the sitting, and the recvim- bent postures, and having caused them to be gilded, he cele- brated a great rejoicing at the expense of seven lacs of golden money. As it is thus recorded on this stone the mighty mo- narch gave to this cave the name of Swarna Giriguhaaya. He also caused gardens and fields to be cultivated, and dwellings for the priests to be formed in this mountain, which was known to our fathers by the name of Damboola (ialia." 308 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. the rock ; although this water is extremely pure, no native will venture to taste it, as they believe that they would inevitably incur the immediate and se- vere displeasure of Buddha, should they presume to use the fluid which was exclusively to be appro- priated to religious purposes. One of our country- men, who ought to have been a disciple of Father Mathew from his affection for the pure element, after indulging in a hearty draught from the chatty, turned to the attendant priest, and telling him the water was deliciously cool, jested with him on his superstitious belief, saying, that no misfortune would befall the drinker, he felt quite assured, be his creed what it might. " All that may be very true," said the Buddhist ; " you and your countrymen may, for aught I know, drink the whole chattyful daily with impunity, but of this I am quite certain, that if one of us were io touch a drop of that water, in the next life he should be either a ravenous dog, or a hungry cow !" What man would run these risks for the sake of a drink of cold water? Few people have ever heard the Buddhist service gone through in these primeval temples, but those who have, describe the scene as being sublime and impressive in the extreme, and we cannot do better than give the account of an eye-witness, who at- tended a former governor of the island in an official capacity : — " Before we quitted this temple, in which it was pleasant to remain on account of its cool atmosphere, CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 309 we had an opportunity afforded to us, to witness the manner in whicli Buddha was here worshij)ped. The service was performed at his Excellency's re- quest, under the direction of the chief priest, who evinced not the slightest hesitation, but instantly intimated the wish to the people, and supplied them with flowers. Each person on receiving his flowers, laid them before an image of Buddha, accompany- ing the oflFering with a pious ejaculation. " When the offerings were all made, and the peo- ple arranged in a line before the images, and kneel- ing, the priest stood in the middle, and with a clear voice, sentence after sentence, recited the common obligations of their religion, the congregation re- peating each sentence after him. The united voices of at least one hundred men in the highest key of recitative, or rather of the loudest exclamation, made the cavern resound, and had a fine awful ef- fect, producing a thrill through the system, and a feeling and sentiment not to be described." The cave temple, which, although the most mo- dern, stands next in size and beauty of decoration to the preceding, is the Aloot Wihare, or new temple. It was constructed by the last royal patron of Dani- bool, namely, the Monarch Kirtisree Rajah Singha, whose reign terminated in the year 1780. This Buddhaical cave is eighty-eight feet long, seventy- six wide, and the sloping roof at the highest part is thirty-two feet from the ground, the walls and roof being entirely covered with brilliantly coloured de- vices. In this excavation there are fifty figures of 310 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. Buddha, none less than life, most of them are co- loured bright yellow, and some few have violet-co- loured robes ; the god is portrayed in three atti- tudes, standing, sitting, and reclining. Some of the erect figures are ten feet high ; but the princi- pal statue is a gigantic recumbent figure of Buddha, which is thirty feet long ; the proportions of this statue are admirable, the drapery gracefully ar- ranged, the features handsome, and the expression of the face benevolent and calm. At the western extremity there is a statue of the King Kirtisree, which is well executed, and represents the monarch in his robes of state—and the costume closely ap- proximates to the court dress worn by the last king of Kandy. The cave temple called the Maha Dewo-dewale, or the great god's shrine, is dedicated to Vishnu, and the image of the god is regarded with great veneration, as tradition states that Vishnu person- ally assisted at the construction of his own resem- blance. This cave is seventy-three feet in length, twenty in width, and twenty-two in height, and con- tains a finely proportioned recumbent figure of Buddha, forty-six feet long. The couch and pillow on which the statue reclines, are carved in the solid rock, and both the figure and accessories are admirably executed. At the feet of the statue stands a favoured disciple ; in a corner opposite to the face, the statue of Vishnu is placed, and the priests assert that the last moments of Goutama are thus depicted, and that as he drew his last breath, CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 31 1 Vishuu appeared to Ijim. This cave is dark in the extreme, and the lamps, which are carried by the priests, scarcely illimiinate the surrounding ob- scurity, therefore it requires but slight imaginative powers in the beholders, to fancy that a being whose spirit has just departed is lying before them. The dimensions and adornments of the smallest rock temple are inferior to the preceding, although in this, as in the others, the roof and sides are painted in rich colours and pleasing devices. This cave is fifty-two feet long, twenty-five wide, and at the loftiest part of the shelving roof about twenty- three feet high, and contains a Dagobah eleven feet high, and several coloured statues of Buddha as large as life. These temples are under the charge of a certain number of priests, whose abodes, of a superior de- scription, are below the caves on the south side of the rock, and are attached to the Asgiree Wihare at Kandy : the priests say, that the whole of the flat country, which may be seen from the summit of the rock are temple lands, and they can produce a sanus, or royal deed of gift, to prove their assertion. In defiance of this statement, we have been in- formed, that not more than twenty villages belong to them, and that they can only command the ser- vices of fifty men. Above the entrances to these temples, there are inscribed on the rock several short sentences, in the Nagara, or square characters, which were used by the ancient Cingalese ; and on the platform, which 312 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. extends the whole front length of the temples, a bo-tree and several cocoa-nut palms have been planted, and, notwithstanding their unfavourable position, being exposed alike to the burning sun, parching droughts, and tempests, combined with the arid nature of the soil, they have reached ma- turity, bearing flowers and fruit most abundantly ; and the air around is frequently replete with the perfume of the graceful blossoms of the sacred tree. On the western side of Dambooloo Galla, are the remains of the Samo Dagobah, the building of which was completed by Wallagam Bahu, the founder of the largest rock temple. In past cen- turies, on the summit of the rock of Dambooloo, there stood three large mausoleums, but exposure to the elements and the hand of time have caused them gradually to crumble away, and it is with some difficulty their sites can now be traced. Fifty feet below the summit of the rock is a pool of delicious water, and the natives declare that it was never known to be dry, although in seasons of long-continued drought, the streams for miles round have been devoid of a vestige of water. The summit of the rock commands a magnificent and extensive view of the surrounding districts, and with a cloudless atmosphere, the greater part of the mountains and valleys of Matele, the Seven Korles, the wooded plains and rugged rocks of Newara Kalawia are distinctly visible to the naked eye, whilst the mountain of Rittigalla, rising above the CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 313 surrounding plains two thousand foet, appears, when the day is slightly misty, to blend with the heavens. Two of the most interesting and conspicuous spots to be seen from the sunnnit of" Dambool, are Dahiyakande and the circular rock of Sigiri. The first is near the fort of Vigittapoora, celebrated in Cingalese history for the long siege which it sus- tained more than two thousand years ago ; the se- cond was once the capital of the island, and was renowned for its vast fortress. In the year 478 this spot was made the seat o-f government by Sigiri Kasooraboo, who murdered his father to obtain possession of the throne ; and this monarch is styled by some authors Kaasyapa, the Parricide. Few Europeans have visited these ruins, which were discovered by Forbes, who gives the following graphic description of the place : — " To form the lower part of the fortress of Sigiri, many detached rocks have been joined by massive walls of stone, supporting platforms of various sizes and unequal heights. We perceived, at a consi- derable distance overhead, a gullery clinging to the rock, and connecting two elevated teiraces at oppo- site ends, and about half the height of the main column of rock The ascent to the gallery is by a double line of small steps; four square holes visible above, have probably contained supports for a platform to project over this hazard- ous pathway, from which missiles would descend with such force and certainty, as effectually to pre- vent hostile intrusion. . . . The gallery had VOL. II. p 314 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. been formed by cutting grooves in the rock, where it was not quite perpendicular, and these served for the foundation of the parapet w^all and floor ; and one hundred yards of this gallery reniains entire. In several of the huge masses of rock, included in the ramparts, tanks have been excavated ; they are neatly ornamented, and in size vary from twelve to twenty feet in length. " On the plain towards the north-east, and con- nected with the elevated terrace at the east end of the rock, stood the royal buildings, that part which was on the level ground being surrounded with a wet ditch faced with stone. The town lay around the palace, to the north of the rock. Many small steps leading to the summit of the rock may still be perceived, but they are in too dilapidated a state for any one to attempt the ascent. We found the gallery, which wound along the rock, had been formed of brick, originally coated with cement, so durable, that large portions of it still remain. From the rock above, and overhanging this passage, much stone has been removed by fire and wedges. The projecting rock above the gallery within reach, had been painted in bright colours, fragments of which may still be perceived in places sheltered from the heavy rains." The natives say that formerly a tank was formed, and is still to be seen, on the almost inaccessible summit of the fortress ; and, although this spot has been abandoned for centuries, there is a vast tank in the neighbourhood, which might be put in repair CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 315 at a very trivial outlay. Near the rock of Sigiri is a cave-leniple, which the priests say contains two statues of Buddha, carved in the solid rock; but, as the temple is filled with rubbish, it is impossible to ascertain the truth of the statement. Close to the temple are the remains of a large dagobah, and thirty- four stone pillars in good preservation, which formerly supported the assembly-hall of the priests. Near Sigiri there are the ruins of a large Bud- dhaical establishment, called Minigiri, which the priests state was formerly a nunnery, or residence for the priestesses, which appears extremely pro- bable, as it is a well-established fact that there for- merly were priestesses of Buddha in Ceylon. Few native laymen will approach this spot, owing to a tradition that is still extant, which declares that none save women and priests, can visit Minigiri without incurring the vengeance of Buddha and the gods. We presume this must have originated with the priests of former days, who were naturally anxious to prevent the inmates of tlie hallowed spot being intruded upon by males. Although the building has long si;;ce fallen into decay, and the inhabitants have departed from the earth, still the superstitious belief prevails, notwithstanding the cause which gave rise to it, is but an " echo of the past." Dondera, or Dewinoowara, the City of the God, is five miles from Matura, and is the most southerly part of the Ceylon coast. The temples and reuniins which are here to be seen are peculiarly interesting p 2 316 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. both to the antiquarian and oriental scholar, as the rnins of an ancient edifice, situated on a rocky })oint, couinieraorate the conquest of Ceylon by Rama, supposed by some to be a fabulous being. A solitary stone pillar, is all that remains perfect of this magnificent edifice. The shape of this sole memento of the past is remarkably singular, as the stone is formed alter- nately into squares and octagons. Sir William Jones, the eminent Oriental scholar, fixes the date of Rama's existence about eighteen hundred and ten years before the Christian era, and writes, " Rama, who conquered Silan [or Ceylon] a few centuries after the flood." The Cingalese annals assio-n the date of 2387, B.C., as the period of Rama's reign in Lanka-diva. In the RamayHna, ti>e oldest epic poem extant, i> contained the earliest notice, to be met with in Oriental literature, of the Cinnamon Isle. This j>oein celebrates the reeds of Rawana, the King of Ceylon and Southern India, and Rama, the Prince of Yodhya, or Oude. Seeta, the lovely wife of Rama, was carried off by Rawana. in revenge for the insults which had been inflicted upon his rela- tives by the latter, Rawana bore Seeta to the interior of the island, and concealed her in the jungle. Rama, enraged at the loss of his beauteous spouse, resolved upon regaining her, and inflicting condign punishment upon her ravisher ; and, ac- cordingly, proceeded to Ceylon, where he landed, accompanied by a host of martial followeis. Afrer CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 317 a series of battles, which endured for a period of twelve years, Rama conquered Rawana,* regained his wife Seeta, and obtained possession of the island. Tradition affirms, that the edifice alluded to at Dondera, was built to commemorate the event. The Ramayaua states that Rama bore his wife in triumph to his native land, " to live a king, and die a god," leaving one of his faithful adherents to rule the conquered island. The hero Rama is wor- shipped in Ceylon under the name of Samen, and his statues are invariably painted blue. Although the Ramayana is diffuse, and the events detailed frequently bear the impress of improbabi- lity, our admiration is irresistibly commanded by the multitude of exquisite passages contained in the work ; and it is deeply to be regretted that the whole of this beautiful poem has not been trans- lated into English.f We subjoin an extract, which, for beauty of composition and sublimity of thought, * The Hindoos believe, that the Queen of Rawana, to be- guile her time, during this tedious siege, invented the game of chess. The game is well-known to the Cingalese, who use the same number of pieces as Europeans. Native scholars say^ that chaturangu, chess, is nearly as old as their island. f This poem contains 610 sections, to the best of our belief, but 143 have been translated. By some the Ramayana is compared to the Iliad of Homer, as each poem details the same events— the abduction of another's wife, the attempt of the enraged husband to rejoin his spouse, the long and bloody wars that ensued, and the ultimate recovery of the fair dame. The similitude of the respective images in the Hindoo and Greek poems must be apparent to every reader conversant with both. ^lO CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. we believe to be unsurpassed by the poets of either Greece or Rome. The brother of Rama is bewail- ing the recent death of their aged father ; and the hero, after condoling with him upon their mutual loss, rebukes him for indulging in useless lamen- tation, saying — # # # * * All compounded substances hasten to decay — all that are elevated must fall — all things compacted will be dissolved, and all who live must finally die. As there is no other fear respecting ripe fruits, besides their falling, so death is the grand thing feared by all who are born of woman. A large and firm edifice, when it becomes aged, decays, and eventually falls into ruins ; so the old, subjugated by death, sink into dissolution. The night once past never returns — the waters of the still Yamoona run into the sea, who can arrest their progress .'' Days and nights are passing away — the period of life appointed for all living is continually evapo- rating, as the rays of the summer's sun draw to- wards them the earth's moisture. Grieve for thyself — why shouldst thou mourn for others? What has that man to do with what continues, or with what passes away, whose own life is every instant departing ? Death always accompanies ns — death stays with us, having travelled to the greatest distance — death ends our course. When the visage is full of the wrinkles of time and care, when grey hairs cover the head, when decrepitude seizes on man, why should man be anxious to live ? Enjoy- ments must then be passed. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 319 Men rejoice when the sun is risen, they rejoice also when it goes down, whilst they are unconscious of the decay of their own lives. Men rejoice on seeino" the face of a new season, as at the arrival of one greatly desired. Nevertheless, the revolutions of seasons is the decay of human life. Fragments of drift-wood meeting in the wide ocean, continue together a little space ; thus parents, wives, chil- dren, relatives, friends and riches, remaining with us for a short time — then separate, and the separa- tion is inevitable. No mortal can escape the com- mon lot, he who mourns for his departed relatives has no power to cause them to return. One standing on the road, would readily say to a number of persons passing by, I will follow ye. Why then should a person grieve when journeying the same road, which has been assuredly trodden by all his forefathers ? Life resembles a cataract rushing down with irresistible impetuosity. Knowing the end of life is death, every right-minded man ought to pursue that which is connected with happiness, and ultimate bliss ; even the practice of self-denial and virtue. At one period there was a magnificent temple at Dondera, dedicated to Vishnu ; its remains con- sist of a large square gateway, which is composed of three stones, most elaborately and deeply chiselled, and four granite window-frames of similar design. The present Temple, in which the stone frames are sunk, is a mud edifice, to which thousands 320 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. of devotees flock in the month of July, to worship Vishnu, as this spot is looked upon with peculiar sanctity by his votaries, many believing that the fiod was incarnate in the person of the hero Rama. The scenery in the neighbourhood of this mud temple is peculiarly interesting ; for mingled with the native huts, majestic drooping palms, and grace- fully waving bananas, are to be seen several hundred upright stone pillars in excellent preservation. These have been hewn into divers forms, and different subjects are sculptured upon them, amongst which the Hero God Kama, with his bow and arrow, is constantly recurring. The priests state, that these pillars were formerly a part of the Vishnu Dewale. From the mud edifice, where the god is now worshipped, a wide path or avenue, oversha- dowed by lofty trees, leads to the sea shore, where stands a group of plain stone pillars. Close to the Dewale of Vishnu is a Wihare and Dagobah, the walls of the former being covered with brightly-tinted paintings of the gods, among whom is to be seen a creature having the attribute of man in all save the head, which is that of a bird, with a long and pointed bill. This divinity resembling the bird-headed deity of the Egyptians, called Toth, is to be met with in many Buddhist temples in Ceylon. Around the exterior of the Wihare there are some beautiful miniature specimens of masonic art, in the form of animals, dmonjyst wliich are a male elephant and rat, their relative proportions being CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 321 most exquisitely maintained. Within a short dis- tance of these temples, inland, stands a stone build- ing, called Galgana, which consists of two apart- ments, the roof and walls being of granite. On the top there formerly stood a Dagobah, but the ruin is now completely covered with small trees, and flowering- creepers, which wave gracefully to and fro, as the wind plays amongst them. The native annals state, that in the year 686 of the present era, Daapuloa the Second restored these Buddhaical remains. As we lingered amidst the lovely and sublime scenery of Dondera, we wandered towards the sea- shore to gaze upon the setting sun, whose brilliant hues were reflected upon the bosom of the blue ocean. We pointed to a rock standing out a short distance from land, against whose barren sides the sea was dashing in foaming waves, their creamy spray flying about in all directions, and asked the chief priest who had accompanied our party, if they had a name for the rock. The man replied that all the natives called it the Englishman's Rock, as near that spot an English ship was wrecked at the commencement of this century. Our curiosity be- coming excited, we begged the priest to furnish us with this melancholy history, and the priest of Buddha, leaning against an areka palm, threw his yellow robe gracefully over his shoulder with the dignity of a Roman senator, and commenced the following narrative : — " I am not certain about the dates of the Chris- p 5 322 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. tians, but I tliink it was in the year called by your people 18 — , that at sunset a goodly ship, owing to adverse winds, dropped anchor off this coast. When the morrow dawned, some of our hardy fishermen pushed off in their canoes, to see if those on board this mighty vessel required fish or vegetables ; but no traffic could be carried on with the strangers, as they neither spoke nor understood our tongue, and not one of Buddha's followers could utter a syllable of your language ; the laden canoes therefore re- turned full, " When the sun was midway in his career of light, a small vessel, guided by many men, who used a long sort of paddle, approached our landing place. Six men came on shore, who shouted long and loudly. Attracted by these boisterous noises, I, attended by my subordinate brethren and pupils, approached them. Their laughter grew more loud, as they pointed deridingly to our flowing robes, and shorn heads, symbols of the meek and radiant Buddha. I addressed them in a soft tone, and pointed to the trees bearing the green cocoa-nuts, and refreshing citrons, to inquire if they wisiied for them. They laughed at me, then I bethought the strangers understood not our tongue. So I ordered fruit to be gathered, and laid on young banana leaves; these I presented to them with a lowly salaam, and a kindly smile, for I thought that all men understood kindness. They seized the fruit quickly. I thought they were hungered, and ex- pected to see them eagerly devour the refreshing 7 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 323 viands, but to my amazement tliey laughed and shouteds and then hurled the fruit at the heads of myself and followers. " I turned away in sorrow, as I had leained a sad lesson, for I found that all men did not understand kindness. " I walked towards my temple, your countrymen followed me, they entered the sacred place, and their unseemly mirth polluted the shrine of our god. They examined the walls, statues, and doors, on which were depicted Buddha and the gods. With wonder in their visages they looked at these paint- ings, talked loudly, then walked towards our dwel- lings. I trembled lest they should discover the place, where the sacred writings were concealed from profane eyes. The strangers entered all our abodes, roughly turning over every article they found. They raised their shoulders high, and with vehement mirth appeared to deride the poverty of Buddha's disciples. Poverty was the chosen lot of our god — dare his devout followers amass wealth or possess this world's riches? The strangers returned to their little vessel, and toour great joy I saw them paddle towards the goodly ship. Before the shrines of Buddha and the gods, did I make thanks- offerings of fruit and flowers for safe deliverance from these turbulent men. " The sun was setting in serene glory, and J was preparing for evening worship, when my followers rushed into the Wiliare, calling aloud on me. I rebuked them, but before my sentence was eon- 7 324 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. eluded. T heard niany voices, speaking in a strange tongue. Your countrymen had returned, accomjsa- nied by several men, one of whom carried a small chest in his hand. The chief men spoke together outside the temple, when one, who appeared the head man, examined the doors, looking at them where they were attached to the frame-work. He then addressed the man, who had charge of the chest — the lid was raised, and implements whose names I know not were taken therefrom. These he applied to the frame-work of the door. In the time of a passing thought, the beauteous entrance of our god's temple was wrenched from its supporters — another thought, the glorious gates were on the shoulders of twice five men ; and the strangers turned towards their landing-place. " Aghast I saw this, I scarcely believed my senses, I could not breathe. Our god's temple had been pillaged, whilst I, the chief priest, stood by. I ordered my followers to seize the doors — they attempted to do so, but the white strangers were many and strong, they beat back Buddha's chil- dren. I threatened the marauders with the god's vengeance, they laughed scoffingly, appearing to jeer at my impotent wrath. In my angei- I cursed them, and with uplifted palms called upon Buddha for vengeance. They neared their landing-place, I he gates were laid in the small vessel, in my an- guish I tried to rush after them, but your country- men rudely thrust me back. The strangers shouted, laughed, and pointed the finger of scorn at me, as they paddled towards their goodly ship. CEVLON AND THE CINGALE.SK. 325 " In mute despair I stood on tlie shore, and saw the beauteous gates of our Wihai'e borne up by (he side of the goodly ship, I watched that ship until the shades of night made all black around. In anguish, I returned to my dwelling, resolving with the mor- row's dawn to appeal to the authorities. I well knew the English Government would not sanction the pillage of a sacred building. 1 only feared the winds might change, and bear the goodly ship to distant lands In despair I called upon our god to avenge the desecration of his temple. " At midnight, the heavens were black, no moon illumined the skies — a mighty temjiest arose — the sea roared — the winds howled — strong fi'ees were snapt asunder, like weak saplings — the gods ap- peared to have set at liberty the hurricanes of ages. I thought of the strange mariners in the goodly ship, and although they had desecrated our god's temple, I pitied them. When the dawn appeared, the storm abated. I went down to tlie landing- place — the goodly ship was not to be seen. I strained my eyes with gazing around the horizon, hoping to see the goodly ship — bat I looked in vain. The murky waters were still troubled, and as I stood they dashed over me. 1 drew back hs a mighty wave slowly rolled towards the shore — it retreated, and left behind it a piece of wood. " When the sun was high in the heavens our shore was strewn with fragments of the goodly ship, which proudly rode at anchor, when last the sun went down. Buddha had avenged his cause; but 1, his 326 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. servant, was very sorrowful, as I thought upon those in distant lands, who would watch in vain from sunrise to sunset for the return of the strong men, who h;id gone forth full of health and hope, in that goodly ship — and I grieved, that I had cursed the strangers in my wrath, when they plun- dered our gods' temple, and scoffed at me, his lowly slave. I have no more to tell." Making a low salaam, the old priest walked slowly away, and our party returned to Matura, somewhat saddened by the history, but bearing with us vivid and pleasant recollections of the sublime scenery around Dondera, and the kindly sentiments, which had been expressed by the aggrieved heathen, towards his Christian aggressors. Near Belligamma, fourteen miles from Matura, is a curious statue of a monarch, called the Kustia Rajha, or leprous King. This figure is twelve feet high, and is sculptured, in bold relief on a rock, the head-dress and attire being those which were worn by the Cingalese monarchs up to, and, during the twelfth century ; the coiffure consists of a conical tiara, on which figures of Buddha are chiselled. It is impossible to ascertain with certainty, when or by whose order this figure was executed, as no in- scription was found upon the rock. Some priests say, this statue represents the Indian prince, who introduced the cocoa-nut palm into the island, and instructed the Cingalese in the manifold purposes to which it might be applied. Others state, that a king, who was suffering from the most loathsome CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 327 species of leprosy, made costly offerings to the Agra Bodi Wihare in tlie neighl)onrhood, imploring Buddha to relieve him, and that as his prayer was heard, in gratitude he caused his statue to he carved near the spot, where his cure had heen effected. From the comparatively fresh appearance of the statue, and the costume, we cannot helieve that it is a work of a remoter date than the twelfth, or early part of the thirteenth century, especially as the statue of the monarch, Kirti Nissaangha, in tiie largest cave Temple of Dambool, is attired in a corresponding style, and from concomitant historical circumstances it has been proved, that the latter figure was completed between 1186 and 1198, therefore we cannot entertain the idea, that the statue at Belligarama was intended to pourtray the Indian introduction of the cocoa-nut tree. Cingalese history states, that at Pollanarooa,* in the time of Upatissa the Second, whose reign began A.D. 369, a large tank, called Tapaweeva, was con- structed by this monarch. In a.d. 651, Sirisangabo the Second built a palace and resided there, during the short period he was compelled to resign his throne to a usurper. During the reign of succeed- ing monarchs, Pollanarooa was their occasional residence, Anooradhapoora remaining the seat of government, until the termination of the eighth century, when the latter was abandoned, and Polla- * In some ancient records this place is called Pulastya-pooi a, and under this name it is mentioned in the Ramayana. Polla- narooa is now generally designated Toopare. 328 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. narooa was then declared the seat of government and capital of the island. Until the twelfth century the city gradually increased in size; and its days of brilliant splendour were daring the reigns of Prack- rama Bahu the First, surnamed the Grand, who ascended the throne a.d. Ii53, and Kirti Nissaan- gha ; as it was by those nionarchs that the chief public edifices were either completed or constructed.* PoUanarooa was regarded as the capital (although many of the buildings had been despoiled by Ma- labar invaders) until a.d. 13 18, when it was finally abandoned, and all the magnificent structures, which then remained entire, were suffered to fall into decay. The seat of government was then re- moved from place to place, according to the caprice of the reigning monarch, until Wimala Dhaarma ascended the throne in a d. 1592, when Kandy was declared the capital, and the court was not again removed by the native kings. Although the city was less extensive, and the buildings of smaller dimensions than those of Anooradhapoora, the ruins are more interesting, as they are in a higher state of preservation. Like those at Anooradhapoora, the remnants of departed grandeur at PoUanarooa are surrounded by forests, and for several miles around, in the thickest jungles, granite steps, hewn * Prackrama constructed a succession of tanks, artificial lakes, and canals, which extended a distance of one hundred miles. The monarch gave his name to this stupendous and useful work, and the remains of the " rivers of Prackrama " can be still seen, and traced for a considerable distance. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 329 stones, and other pieces of chiselled masonry, recall to the traveller's mind, that here man once reigned triumphant, where now, the huge elephant seeks shelter from the noonday sun. The king's i)alace is now a vast mass of ruins, overgrown with brushwood ; this royal abode is erected on the embankments of the tank Tapeweeva, the waters of which were conducted under-ground the palace. The king's bathing place is still percep- tible, which is of a circular form, and about seven feet in depth — the excavation is lined with granite, one round stoue in the centre being raised above the pavement, on which the monarch sat or stood, whilst the royal bath-keepers poured water from golden chatties over the sovereign's head. This palace was built by Prackrama, who also formed an extensive garden, in which was erected the coronation hall, three stories high, and built a rampart around the city. Historical records state that it was during this king's reign, Pollanarooa rose to its meridian of glory, the principal thorough- fares then extending to six gaws, or twenty-four miles, and the lesser streets to four gaws from the city into the suburbs. The most noble ruin, and that which is in the best state of preservation, is the religious edifice, called Jaitawanarama ; whose archi- tecture approximates somewhat towards the style observable in the early ecclesiastical buildings of Europe, the edifice having two rows of gotliic win- dow-frames. Tiie native annals affirm this temple to be afac- 330 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESK. simile of the one which was erected for Gontaraa Buddha. Before the temple there is a low mound, over which groups of pillars are scattered ; this leads to the grand entrance, and on either side of the gateway stands a polygon pillar, nearly fifty feet high. These pillars gradually taper to the summit, which is terminated by a square, the pro- portions, and chasteness of the chiselling being most exquisite. The building contains two apartments, and facing the gateway a gigantic, well-proportioned figure of Buddha, as high as the pillars, projects from the wall. The length of this structure is nearly one hundred and sixty feet; the height now about sixty, but what it was originally it is impos- sible to determine. The walls are extremely thick, and are entirely composed of bricks and mortar, but there are the remains of a stone moulding, which formerly ornamented them. It would appear that the whole building was formely covered with white chunam, a preparation resembling marble, as por- tions of the cement still adhere to the walls, pillars, and statue of Buddha. Near the Jaitawanarama is an immense rock, on the perpendicular face of which are chiselled, in the boldest relief, three enormous statues of Buddha. These figures are in the three orthodox positions, namely, erect, seated, and recumbent. The piopor- tions of these colossal images are remarkably well preserved, particularly in the reclining figure, which is thirty-eight feet long. A cavern temple has been excavated in the solid rock, between the erect and CEYLOiN AND THE CINGALESE. 331 seated figures, and in front of this wihare, two pil- lars have also been cut out of the stony mass. In the interior of the temple a portion of the rock was left, which has been exquisitely chiselled, and this laborious specimen of the sculptor's art, represents a throne with Buddha seated upon it. This Wihare, by some called Isuramuni, by others, Kalougalla, was constructed by Prackrama Bahu, but authors disagree as to whether the Jaitawanarama was built, completed, or only repaired by Kirti Nissaangha. The loftiest building at Pollanarooa is the Ran- koot Dagobah, which was built by the second queen of Prackrama Bahu. This mausoleum is covered with brushwood, and the slender form of the spire can be distinctly seen from a considerable distance, as the height of the ruin, from the platform to the extremity of the sj)ire, is above one hundred and fifty feet. The records state the height of this Da- gobah originally to have been one hundred and twenty carpenters' cubits,* from the platform to the top of the spire, on which was placed a golden umbrella. Eight small chambers or chapels are placed around the base of the Dagobah, and be- tween each there is a small ledge, or projection, which is ornamented with sculpture. Kirti Nis- saangha, who beautified the building, and removed the umbrella, changed the name from Rankoot to Thooparama, as the original cognomen was then no longer appropriate, ran, signifying gold, and koot, a fan-like termination. * A carpenter's cubit is two feet three inches. 332 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. The Dalada Malagawa, or palace of the tooth, was also built by Prackrania: its style of architec- ture is simple, the building is small, and is com- posed entirely of stones. Tradition states the granite roof to have been added by Nissaangha, who per- sonally superintended the workmen, and the num- ber of artificers employed was so great, that the roof was joined together between sunrise and sunset. The interior of this tempie is nearly full of rubbish, therefore it is impossible even to conjecture what the decorations may have been. In the neighbourhood of the Jaitawanarama there are the effigies of two serpents carved in stone, namely, the polonga, and the cobra or hooded snake. The native legend states, that in ages be- fore the flood, these snakes fought a battle in this place ; that the name bestowed upon the city is a corruption of their respective designations in the Cingalese language, uamely, polon and na, and that on the rocks in the centre of the tank, the figures of the bellipotent reptiles have also been carved. The Satmahal Praasada was originally seven stories high ; this building is of a pyrauiidical form, but the remains do not convey the idea of its former altitude. The Bannagee was an edifice appropriated to the public reading of the Buddhaical writing; and the ruins are rendered reinarkable by the ex- traordinary enclosure surrounding them, which is constructed of upright pillars of hewn stone, into which are inserted two rows of horizontal stone bars CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 333 The remains of many other buildings are to be seen at Pollanarooa, but as these are not in fine preservation, a description would be useless ; to the oriental scholai* and antiquarian, however, these relies are peculiarly interesting, as the sites occu- pied by them, and the inscriptions engraved upon them, perfectly coincide with the native annals, which give an account of Pollanarooa, the position and the period when these buildings were erected. Numberless inscriptions are found engraven upon pillars and tablets, some large stones being com- pletely covered with them. These inscriptions are generally well executed, the letters and ornaments being clearly defined and sharply chiselled ; the characters, although Cingalese, contain many let- ters which are totally obsolete, the most erudite scholars being unable to determine their significa- tion ; nevertheless the data which these inscriptions supply are most valuable, as they confirm the vera- city of the native historian. One inscription re- cords the lands and dignities which were bestowed by the monarch on a chieftain named Kooloondoot- tette, Albanawan, and his bosom friend, Kumbu- daluawan, who was also a noble. These men " had done the state some service " in many ways, and had also been instrumental in placing the monarch on the throne of Ceylon. The most interesting in- scription is extremely lengthy, being engraved upon a rock twenty-six feet in length, four feet and a half in breadth, and two feet thick. This huge mass was brought fi-oui Mehintalai, 334 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. which is distant more than eighty miles from Pol- lanarooa, and it is impossible even to conjecture what motive could have instigated the monarch to have this tablet brought from so remote a place, when quarries and rocks abounded around Pol- lanarooa, from which masses of stone had then already been riven by wedges, which had been hewn, and formed into buildings, pillars, and sta- tues. It has also been an enigma which never has, and, in all probability, never will be solved, how, and by what means this rocky mass could have been transported over mountains and across streams, until it was finally deposited at Pollanarooa. Tra- dition informs us, this huge piece of rock was ]*e- moved by men, if so, the amount of human strength required for the purpose must have been immense : and the inscription on the tablet corroborates the traditional report. The shape of this tablet is pe- culiarly elegant ; it is most exquisitely ornamented, and the minute characters thereon are beautifully chiselled. The form is slender, resembling the leaf of a native book, and the characters are so inscribed as to leave a wide margin, which is embellished with a border of birds. The inscription on one side commences with " Adoration to Buddha the lion, and the noblest individual of the race Saaka ;" it then goes on to state the lineage of the god, and the munificent acts of the reigning sovereign, who reduced the taxes, bestowed alms upon the needy, built tanks, repaired watercourses, and endowed wihares, and concludes CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 336 by stating " that his majesty, wearing the regal head-dress and ornaments, caused himself, his chief queens, his son and daughter, to be weighed in a balance, and by bestowing five times their weight of goods on the priests, the blind, the crippled, the deformed dwarfish, and other destitute and friend- less beings, who thronged from ten countries, made all happy. For these deeds the gods blessed the land with refreshing showers." On the opposite side the inscription states that the monarch made a tour of the island, built wi- hares, made costly offerings to the Ruwanwelli Saye at Anooradhapoora, repaired and gilded the statues in the cave temples at Dambool, built numberless wihares and alms-houses, dedicated his son and daughter to the Paatra and Dalada relics, then redeemed them by offering a solid gold dagobah and other valuables. The monarch expresses his hopes that future rulers will govern with equity and mildness, and will maintain the established religion of the country, and that if they should observe these precepts, they might aspire to the felicities of both worlds, the inscription concluding with the following words, " Future sovereigns are thus affectionately exhorted by Kaalinga Nissaano- ha, King of Lanka-diva — This engraved stone is the one which the chief Adigkar Unaivooman-danawan caused the strong men of the mighty Nissaangha to bring from the mountain Saegiri'* at Anooradha- * This is the ancient name for Mehintalai. 336 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. poora, in the time of the Lord Sri Kaalinga Nis- saangha Chakkrawarti." These two last inscriptions were engraved between A.D. 1187 and 1197, and, notwithstanding the lapse of centuries, and exposure to the elements, the mi- nute letters and embellishments are as sharp as if the sculptor had just completed his task. The in- scription regarding the grant of land was executed during the reign of Saaliasamallawa, who ascended the throne about the year a.d. 1205. We have elsewhere remarked upon the number of inscriptions, that are scattered over the island, which cannot be deciphered, as they are composed of characters which none can translate. There is one piece of sculpture at Pollanarooa which affords a wide scope for the inquiries of the antiquarian, and no clue has yet been obtained to elucidate the meaning of the subject, which repre- sents a man standing in a supplicatory attitude, be- tween a dog and crow. Some suppose that it is a patent conferring nobility or lands upon some favoured subject, whilst others imagine, that it re- presents a malefactor whose soul, for some heinous crimes committed in this world, was predestined iu his two succeeding lives to inhabit successively the bodies of these creatures. In ancient days the monarchs of Ceylon, when thev bestowed grants of land upon their favourites, used to threaten any person, who unlawfully at- tempted to obtain possession of these gifts with Buddha's vengeance, and a sanus is st'll extant on CKYLON AND THE CINGALESE, 337 which is inscribed, " So long as the sun, moon, and stars, so long as the Aetagalla* and Andagalla rocks shall endure, for that time this grant is made. Should any one presume to violate this edict, he will inevitably arouse Buddha's vengeance, and the audacious mortal's spirit, when he is next born, will inhabit the body of a crow, or dog." Our limits will only allow us to glance at a small portion of the remains of civilization, refinement, and grandeur, which are dispersed over the bosom of the " Pearl of the East,'' and much yet remains untold of the wonders of the Cinnamon Isle. * This rock is six hundred feet high, and bears a strong similitude to a tusk elephant. VOL. II. 338 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. CHAPTER X. Population — Excess of males— Three classes, Cingalese, Ma- labars, Moors, the latter the Jews of Ceylon — Difference between personal appearance and character of Kandians and Cingalese — Revenue, sources of — Land sales formerly included therein — Tariff — Pearl fishery, amounts of in- come under Dutch and English — Protection of banks — Shark charmers — Chanks, income, retail trade partly opened — Land revenue, mode of collection, proposed abolition, income — Stamps, amount of — Fines and for- feitures, amount of — Carriage tax — Arrack and toddy farms, income of — Road tax — Post-office, revenue of — Custom dues — Loan — Economy in public service ordered — Suggestions for reductions in revenue establishment — Currency, paper, amount of, silver coinage, gold, native money — Course of exchange — Cash balances of treasury — State of government paper currency — State of govern- ment funds — Revenue and expenditure — Military charges — Estimated revenue and expenditure for 1849 — Principal articles imported during 1845 — Principal articles exported — Internal resources undeveloped — Conclusion. The population of the island is very inconsidera- ble in comparison with what it must have been in CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 339 former days, and it is a difficult matter to arrive at the true amount, particularly in the interior. We find there are some places from which returns were not made in the last census, taken in the year 1844, by which it appears, that the total population then amounted to 1,442,062, whereof 7, 1.33 were Euro- pean. This gives us a population of 5869 to the square mile. Of the native population the males are very nearly one-tenth more than the females, which seems a very large preponderance. It is rather remarkable that this extraordinary disproportion is most apparent in the poorest districts of the island, where the population is least numerous, and where naturally the inhabitants find it most difficult to ob- tain the means of subsistence. It is also a fact no less singular, but one which is well known in Ceylon, that in many of the fishing hamlets, where food is abundant and cheap, the number of females exceeds that of males. The island is thinly inhabited, but its internal resources are adequate to support a dense popula- tion, as it did, in fact, in ages past. The popula- tion of the high lands, and Kandian provinces, is considerably less in proportion than that of the low lands and maritime districts. The inhabitants of the island may be divided into three classes, namely, the Cingalese, Mala- bars, and Moors ; the Malabars reside principally in the northern and eastern maritime districts, and ti 2 .340 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. the greater number of them are professed Budd- hists, and they fiequently intermarry with the Cin- galese; whilst the Moors are dispersed over the whole island, residing permanently or sojourning in any town or district, where money is to be made. Many people most appropriately style the Moor- men, the Jews of Ceylon, as they exhibit great per- severance in their pursuit after wealth, and traffic in every commodity whereby money is to be made ; there is not, therefore, a saleable article, from the most valuable and precious gem to the most trivial article of food or attire, which may not be obtained from a Moorman. As many of them are extremely wealthy, they are the money lenders of Ceylon, and the rates of interest which they charge in most instances are enormous ; numbers of them perambulate the island, like our hawkers, witli various descriptions of articles for sale ; the richer are attended by one or more coolees, who carry their bundles of goods, and these packages will frequently contain a splen- did Cashmere shawl or scarf, worth more than a thousand rupees, or £100, according to the value of the rupee in Ceylon, and papers of needles, pins, threads, and tapes. The poorer class of Moormen vend every article by which they can ob- tain a pice, and frequently European produce, such as cheese, pickles, and biscuits, can be purchased of them at a very low rate. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 341 Although the Moors have lived among the Cin- galese for centuries, they rigidly follow and observe their own religion and customs, and intermarry only with their own people ; indeed, we cannot re- call to mind ever knowing, or having heard of, an instance of a Moorman, or Moorwonian, having been married to a Cingalese, or Malabar. The inhabitants of the highlands and lowlands in Ceylon, differ most essentially both in physical and mental attributes. The Kandians, or natives of the highlands, are a larger race, and although subjugated by us, retain their love of independence and freedom, and are both noble and brave; whilst those of the lowlands and maritime provinces, or Cingalese, as they are called in contra-distinction to the Kandians, are of small stature, servile, sycophantic, and cowardly in character. The revenue of Ceylon has heretofore been de- rived from the customs, stamps, salt monopoly, pearl fishery, arrack farms, land sales, land reve- nue, and rents exclusive of land — and the total amount of the year 1845 was £454,140, while the expenditure of that year was £448,2-3"2, leaving an excess of revenue amounting to £5,914. In 1847, however, we find the revenue decreased to £437,502, while the expenditure increased to £476,192, leaving thus a deficiency of £38,690. With this large deficiency, and the heavy ex- penses attendant upon the rebellion of 1848, the colonial government must be crippled to a consi- 342 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. derable extent, particularly when we reflect that up to the year 1848 land sales had always most erroneously been included in the annual revenue; but they have been classed since that date under the head of extraordinary resources, for the pur- pose of being applied to the construction of roads, and other public works, amongst which latter we trust the tanks will have their due proportion. The whole tariff of the island has been re- modelled, by an ordinance passed in November, 1847, whereby a fixed duty, instead of one of five per centum ad valorem, which theretofore existed, has been established upon all articles imported, with the exception of goods, wares, and merchan- dize, not specified in exemptions, which are still charged a duty of five per centum ad valorem. The exempted articles are books, copperah, seeds, live stock, ice, manures, regimental accou- trements, and specimens of natural history. Of the exports, cmnamon pays a duty of fourpence per pound, and all other articles are free ; while goods or wares, the produce of the island, fi^rmerly paid two and a half per cent. It is scarcely possi- ble to judge of the result of the new tariff, business and trade having sustained so much interruption from the insurrectionary movements in Kandy, and the consequent expenses incurred by the govern- ment. The revenue, however, of the first nine months of the year 1848, was £315, 103, and the expenditure <£324,'277, which gives an excess for that period of £9,279. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 313 The pearl fisheries have become of late years very unproductive, and as it was supposed that this was attributable to their too frequent occur- rence, they have been discontinued for some years. The first record we find of a pearl fishery is in the year 1668, under the Dutch government, but the amount thereby realized is not stated. The earliest account extant of the produce arising from this source of revenue is in the year 1746, which is stated to have been £4,766 13s. Ad. The amount of the fishery in the following year was £21,400 ; the year succeeding was £38,580 ; while the next year amounted to £68,375. These fish- eries then decreased, until we find that they again increased in the year 1796, when the first under the English government produced £60,000; that of the following year realized £110,000; and in the year 1798 the produce amounted to £140,000, which last appears to have been the largest amount realized in any one year. Since that period, however, the produce of each fishery considerably decreased, until, in 1844, it only realized £105, which was the last which took place ; and it is not expected that any will be allovved for many years to come. The pearl banks are protected, and the natives within a certain dis- tance, are prohibited under penalties from posses- ing nets or implements which might be used to the injury of the banks. It would be unnecessary to describe the mode 344 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. adopted in diving for pearls, as many writers iiave treated the subject most ably ; but we are not aware that the following superstitious practice is generally known. No sum of money, however large, no temptation held out sufficiently strong, would induce the divers to descend into the ocean unless two shark charmers were present, who, as they believe, by means of their charms and potent spells, can prevent the finny monsters of the deep from injuring the pearl seekers. One of these imposters goes out in the pilot's boat, and remains at the head of it, muttering a prescribed form of incantation as each man de- scends to brave the perils of the vasty deep. The other shark charmer remains on shore, where he is shut up in a room in a state of nudity until the boat's return with the divers. A large brazen bowl is left with him filled with water, in which are placed two silver fishes, and it is affirmed that the moment a shark appears in the vicinity of the divers, these fishes agitate the water, and if an accident is about to happen, one fish will bite the other; when he perceives such indications, the charmer immediately " binds the shark " with a potent spell, and thus compels the creature to ab- stain from injuring the divers. These shark charmers reap an abundant harvest during the fishery, as the natives believe that unless they are liberally remunerated, they will exert their powerful spells to make the sharks injure CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 345 them, instead of compelling the monsters to re- main quiet until the pearl fishery is over. It is rather singular, that although sharks are frequently seen by the divers, an accident rarely happens, and numberless fisheries have taken place without a single accident occurring. We presume this circumstance arises from the well-known fact, that a shark is compelled by the position of his mouth to turn on his back before the prey can be seized, which gives the destined victim time to escape; consequently, the moment the monster is descried by the divers, a general rush is made for the boats. Although their escape is effected by their own agility, the superstitious natives believe the shark charmers have prevented the creatures from injuring them. The chanque farms formerly produced a revenue amounting to nearly £4,000 per annum, but of late the demand has been so small, that it has dwindled down to £200. The chanque {valuta gravis) is of two sorts, red and white, called by the natives respectively payel and pattee ; but they are more commonly known by the name of cowries, and are used as a circulating medium amongst the natives on the continent of India. They are also worn by the Indian women and children in a greater or less quantity, according to their wealth. The valve ot a chanque usually opens to the left, but one having the peculiarity of the valve opening to the right, is estimated in India, as we have been informed by a Q 5 346 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. Malabar, at five thousand rupees ; formerly six or seven hundred divers used to be constantly em- ployed in this fishery under the surveillance of a government officer, but the fishery is now aban- doned, and the income at present derived by government does not amount to £200, and arises from permission to dig for the dead shells, which are to be found in considerable quantities in the sand. The salt monopoly has produced an income of £42,000 per annum : the retail trade has lately been thrown open from the Kaymel river, situate in the western province, to the district of Matura in the southern province. Salt is interdicted to be imported into the island, except under the spe- cial licence of the Governor, as regulated by an ordinance passed in 1840. The land revenue, or paddy tax, varies in amount from one half to one fourteenth of the pro- duce. In the maritime provinces this tax was generally collected in kind, and an annual assess- ment made on the produce of each harvest until 1826. This tax, and the manner of its collection, are most heavily felt by the natives. The tax is sold, as the tolls upon a high road, and when the crop is sufficiently matured, its value is assessed by a government officer, who makes a return to the government agent of the province, who then disposes of the tax of each district to the highest bidder. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 347 The grower is compelled to give a notice to the renter five days previously to the cutting of the crop, and two day's notice should he abandon his intention. And again, should the crop not be trodden out immediately on being cut, a further notice is requisite, and any omission or infringe- ment of these regulations on the part of the grower is under pain of a penalty recoverable in the dis- trict court. The system is proved to be most de- trimental to the interests of the colonj^, from the fact, that by the returns for many years past, it appears that the cultivation of paddy remains about the same, while that of every other descrip- tion of produce has increased to a considerable extent. A commutation of this tax took place in Kandy by the annual payment of a stipulated quantity of grain, which remained in force until 1830, at which date the growers were given the option to pay in kind or in money. And in the year 1835 the pro- prietors were allowed the option to continue the com- mutation by annual money payments, for twenty-one years, or to redeem the tax by ten years' purchase at the same rate, and many availed themselves of the permission to redeem the tax. Sir Emerson Tennent has recommended the abolition of this tax altogether, and proposes that a moderate acreable tax, to be levied upon all lands, shall be substituted in its stead, which he proposes shall be collected by the officers of govern- 348 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. raent. This treasure he considers will compel jobbers in land either to dispose of their estates or to cultivate them, will abolish the exemption of headmen from the paddy tax, will modify in some measure the servile tenure and degradation of the tenants of temple lands, and include cinnamon and coffee plantations. It would be most desirable, no doubt, to equalize thus the land tax, and compel all descriptions of agricultural produce to bear their quota: but we fear that the redemption of some of the lands in Kandy from the old tax will he found a great obstacle in the accomplishment of this object. The paddy tax amounts to thirty -six thousand one hundred pounds. Under the head of land revenue is also included the tax on fine grain, which is a tenth of the pro- duce, and amounts to three thousand per annum. A similar tax upon gardens produces between four and five thousand per annum. To these is to be added a tax upon forest timber, amounting to some two hundred pounds per annum. Stamj)s and judicial receipts amounted to some twenty thousand pounds ; during the past year, however, a new law came into force, whereby stamp duties were re-modelled ; it was estimated that they would realize thirty-six thousand pounds. The fines and forfeitures under decrees of the supreme and district courts used to amount to an average of one thousand pounds ; however, during CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 349 the last year we must give a very large margin for this head of revenue, which must be considerable, from the forfeitures in consequence of the rebellion of 1848. The tax on carts used to amount to a sum some- what similar to the last item ; but under this head a considerable addition will be made, as by a re- cent ordinance all carriages and boats used for the conveyance of goods or passengers for hire shall be licensed, paying each an annual sum of six shillings. Arrack and toddy farms, with the duty on stills, produces between fifty and sixty thousand pounds ; and the assessment upon houses for the mainte- nance of the police amounts to five thousand pounds. These are the principal sources of revenue ; but for the purpose of making up the deficiency occa- sioned by the new tariff, a tax was imposed upon dogs and guns ; the former has been wholly aban- doned, and the latter modified, requiring only a single registration instead of an annual one ; as a source of revenue, therefore, it is inoperative. A road-tax, however, is raised by way of poll-tax, of three shillings, in lieu of personal labour, upon every male above eighteen years of age. The receipts of the post office, in 1846, were £7,576, and the expenditure was £7,448. Owing to a recent reduction, the inland postage of a single letter to any part of the island is only sixpence, in 350 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. lieu of one shilling. Newspapers, price currents, and pamphlets, not above an ounce in weight, are charged only one penny. The postage of an over- land single letter is one shilling to Colombo, the China steamer calling at the Point de Galle for letters and passengers. Custom dues paid in all Ports of Ceylon on Exports and Imports. Years. Amount. Years. Amount. Years. Amount. £ £ £ 1833 64,419 1838 135,196 1843 124,932 1834 103,030 1839 116,901 184 4 154,843 1835 114,394 1840 — 1845* 144,423 1836 141,049 1841 107,321 1846 140,379 1837 134,958 1842 91,635 1847 150,080 From the financial difficulties of the colony, government were obliged to raise a loan from the Oriental Bank, amounting to .£50,000. The home government has directed that the strictest economy should be observed in every branch of the pubhc service, and that reductions should be made wherever practicable. It is very certain that many offices might be beneficially dispensed with, and in all probability the public service would be in consequence more efficiently discharged. In one branch alone of the civil service we will * Expenses of the Customs' Establishment during 1845, £9,256. 14s. CEYLOX AND THE CINGALESE, 351 give an instance of the means whereby a saving of £5,040 per annum might be effected, namely, the revenue establishment. Ceylon is divided for revenue purposes into five provinces, namely, the western, southern, eastern, northern, and central, over each of which there is a government, and an assistant-government agent ; but in addition to these there are three local assistant-government agents in the western province, three in the south- ern, one in the eastern, one in the northern, and two in the central. We should recommend the reduction of the assistant-government agent for the western province, and the government agents for the southern, eastern, northern, and central pro- vinces, whereby the saving above specified would be'effected. The assistant-government agent at Colombo is a useless office, and the duties of the government agents in the four other provinces could be as efficiently discharged by the gentlemen who hold the office of assistant-government in the respective provinces, and who at present have little or nothing to do. Paper currency was first introduced into Ceylon under the Dutch government, by the Governor Vander Graff, in the year 1782, as an expedient for adding to the " ways and means'" of the colony, the revenue falling far short of the expendi- ture, and the American war rendering an increased military force necessary. All the government 8 352 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. payments were made in paper, while he directed gold and silver money to be sold by public auction. When the British received the island from the Dutch, we adopted their debts by calling in their notes, and issuing British government certificates in their stead. No silver coinage was then to be found in the colony, and it is very probable that the copper currency would have been also ex- changed for necessaries, had it borne any resem- blance to that of the Indian continent. The out- standing government notes amount to the value of £87,450. The silver coinage in circulation is the rupee, the current rate of which was fixed by Sir Wilmot Horton at two shillings, at which it continues to the present period. This plan was adopted by Sir W. Horton to ensure the return of the coin to the country, after it had been carried away in exchange for rice, as its value in sterling is ouly Is. lOfof. The dollar also passes at 4s. 2c?. Gold is not in circulation, being only used as an article of commerce, which bears a premium, vary- ing from ten to fifteen per centum. The coin in general use amongst the natives is copper, the names and relative value of which are as follows, namely, 144 challies make 48 pice, which make 12 fanams, and these amount to one rix dollar, of the value of one shilling and sixpence of our money. CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 353 A silver coin, called a rix dollar, was issued in 1808, which was alloyed ten per cent, more than the rupee, with a hope of preventing the with- drawing of it from the island. It has not had the desired effect, as the coin is rarely to be met with. The native currency formerly consisted of gold, silver, copper, and lead coins. The gold, copper, and lead, were of a circular form, whilst the silver coin resembled a fish-hook, the ends of which were engraven with figures and characters. As it was the custom of the people to barter one commodity for another, money was rarely used, and the quantity of coined metal in posses- sion of the wealthiest nobles was comparatively small. Some idea may be formed of the quantity of specie likely to have been in the possession of individuals, when we inform our readers that the amount of money revenue of the last king of Kandy, who was most avaricious, and exacted to the utmost extent from his subjects, did not amount to seventeen l)undred pounds per annum. The following is the course of exchange. With England , . ]s. 6d. per rix dollar. With Calcutta . '28. \d. per sicca rupee. With Madras . . ]s. \ld. per rupee. With Bombay . . Is. 1 1^. per ru|)ee. With China, Penang,and the Mauritius . 4». 4d. per Spanish dollar. 354 CEYLON AND THE CINGALESE. 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