UC-NRLF 
 
 $B 3Db ^2^ 
 
 Correct English 
 
 IN 
 
 The School 
 
 Twelve Golden Helps 
 
 BY 
 
 Josephine TurckBaker 
 
r \ GT OVER. 
 
C. A. CLOVER. 
 
COERECT ENGLISH IN THE SC]i06li^ 
 
 TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 
 
 BY 
 
 JOSEPHINE TURCK BAKER 
 
 AUTHOR OP 
 
 CORRECT ENGLISH : A COMPLETE GRAMMAR 
 
 TEN THOUSAND WORDS : HOW TO PRONOUNCE THEM 
 
 ART OF CONVERSATION : TWELVE GOLDEN RULES 
 
 THE CORRECT ENGLISH DRILL BOOK 
 
 AND EDITOR OP THE MAGAZINE 
 
 CORRECT ENGLISH : HOW TO USE IT 
 
 CORRECT ENGLISH PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 
 
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 Copyright 1909 
 
 BY 
 
 Josephine Tubck Baebb 
 EDUCATION DEIHY 
 
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CORRECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 
 
 GOLDEN HELP NUMBER 1 
 
 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs — How to Distinguish Them. 
 
 Pupil. — I still have some difficulty with transitive 
 verbs. Now, of course I understand such constructions 
 as, *'John struck James;'' that is, I know that struck is 
 transitive, because it has a direct object to receive its 
 action; James being the object— -the receiver of the 
 action. 
 
 Teacher. — That is right. Now, can you not formulate 
 a simple rule for transitive verbs ! 
 
 Pupil. — A transitive verb is a verb that has an object 
 to receive its action. I suppose, then, that transitive 
 verbs are always followed by object nouns; that is, 
 nouns in the objective case that receive the action of the 
 verb. 
 
 Teacher. — No; that is not so. A better rule is as 
 follows : ** A transitive verb is a verb that has a receiver 
 for its action." 
 
 Pupil. — ^V\/liy is that wording of the rule better than 
 mine? 
 
 Teacher. — Because it is broader in its application, 
 
 5 
 
e COERECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 for the reason that the receiver of the action may he 
 either the object noun or the subject noun. 
 
 Pupil. — That is just the point which confuses me. 
 You mean, that whenever there is a receiver for 
 the action, — subject .or object noun — the verb is then 
 transitive. 
 
 Teacher. — That is right. Now give some examples 
 in which the subject is the receiver. 
 
 Pupil. — *'John was struck by James,'' — John, the 
 subject, is the receiver; **The pupil was reprimanded 
 by his teacher," — pupil, the subject, is the receiver. 
 
 Teacher. — ^When the object receives the action, what 
 is the voice of the verb? 
 
 Pupil. — The active voice; and, of course, when the 
 subject of the verb is acted upon, receives the action, 
 the verb is in the passive voice. Somewhere, I have seen 
 the rule that some verbs in the passive voice are fol- 
 lowed by predicate complements. I know now why I 
 have never understood that. It is because I have always 
 thought that a verb was transitve only when the object 
 noun received the action, and I could not see how a verb 
 could have an object noun, and a predicate complement 
 at the same time. 
 
 Teacher. — But you can understand .how the verb in 
 the sentence, *^ He was elected president," can have a 
 receiver for its action in the subject he, and at the same 
 time have a predicate complement in the noun president 
 
 Pupil. — Yes ; I see that now, but I used to think that 
 transitive verbs were never followed by predicate com- 
 plements; and so, formerly, I should not have called 
 elected a transitive verb. 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 7 
 
 Teacher. — You understand perfectly now wliy it is? 
 
 Pupil. — Yes ; because it has a receiver for its action 
 in the subject he. 
 
 Teacher. — ^And why is president the predicate com- 
 plement? 
 
 Pupil. — Because it denotes the same person as the 
 subject. 
 
 Teacher. — Now, give me further examples of transi- 
 tive verbs that may be followed by predicate comple- 
 ments. 
 
 Pupil. — ^^He was made secretary and treasurer;'' 
 '*The boy was named John;'' *^The baby was christened 
 Mary," 
 
 Teacher. — So we see that a transtive verb is not nec- 
 essarily followed by an object noun ; that it may be fol- 
 lowed by a predicate complement, and that when it is, 
 the subject noun is the receiver of the action. But of 
 course, you understand that when the receiver of the 
 action is the subject, the verb is not necessarily followed 
 by a predicate complement. 
 
 Pupil. — Oh, yes ! I understand that perfectly. 
 
 Teacher. — Give some sentences in which the transi- 
 tive verb is not followed either by a predicate comple- 
 ment or by a direct object. 
 
 Pupil.— ** John was punished by his teacher;" **The 
 door was opened softly." I see that whenever a noun 
 in the objective case follows a transitive verb that has 
 the subject noun for the receiver of its action, then the 
 noun in the objective case is always the object of a prep- 
 osition, and not the direct object of the verb. 
 
 Teacher. — There is an apparent exception to this rule 
 
8 CORRECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 in sentences like these: *^He was given a benefit;'' ^^The 
 nations should have been given warning;'' but construc- 
 tions of this kind are censured by grammarians, for the 
 reason that the indirect object is made the subject and 
 receiver of the action. Thus : in the sentence, * * He was 
 given a benefit," the real meaning is, **A benefit was 
 given to him." In the sentence, **The nations should 
 have been given warning," the meaning is, ** Warning 
 should have been given to the nations. ' ' In other words, 
 in the original constructions, there are apparently two 
 receivers for the action, namely, the subject and the 
 object noun, whereas there is in reality but one. It is 
 better, probably, to avoid forms of this kind, and make 
 the subject the indirect object. 
 
 Pupil. — Oh! There is one construction that I must 
 not forget to ask you about. In the sentence, *^I gave 
 the child an apple," there seems to be two direct objects. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes; but there is only one, namely, the 
 word apple, child being the indirect object, the object of 
 the preposition to understood; thus: **I gave to the 
 child an apple." 
 
 Teacher. — Now give sentences exemplifying all the 
 points considered in this discussion. 
 
 Pupil. — **John was struck by James." (The subject 
 is the receiver of the action, and the verb is followed by 
 on indirect object; that is, the object of a preposition.) 
 *^John struck J antes J' (The object noun is the receiver 
 of the action.) ^^He was appointed secretary." (Sub- 
 ject is the receiver of the action, and the verb is followed 
 by a predicate complement ; that is, a noun that denotes 
 or refers to the same person as the subject.) *^They 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 9 
 
 called him John/' (The object is the receiver of the 
 action and is followed by a noun that denotes the same 
 person as the object.) 
 
 Teacher. — Now we must discuss the last construc- 
 tion; that is, where the object is the receiver of the 
 action, and is followed by a noun in the same case. 
 
 Pupil. — Grammarians seem to have some trouble in 
 agreeing upon the name to give the noun that follows 
 the object noun in constructions of this kind. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes, some grammarians call the noun 
 under consideration the factitive object; some call it the 
 supplement, but whatever its name, it denotes or refers 
 to the same person or thing as the object. I see that 
 you understand this perfectly. Now tell me what is the 
 difference between the factitive object, or supplement, 
 and the predicate complement. 
 
 Pupil. — The factitive object, or supplement, denotes, 
 or refers to, the same person or thing as the object, while 
 the predicate complement denotes, or refers to, the same 
 person or thing as the subject. 
 
 Teacher. — That is right. Then the factitive object 
 is in the objective case, while the predicate complement 
 is in the same case as the subject. 
 
 Pupil. — Then it is always in the nominative case, 
 isn't it? 
 
 Teacher. — ^Yes, unless we designate as the predicate 
 complement the noun or pronoun that follows the infini- 
 tive to he when the infinitive has a subject. 
 
 Pupil. — Oh, yes. In such sentences as **I supposed 
 it to be him," him is in the objective case, for the reason 
 that it is in the objective case. It is, of course, in the 
 
10 COERECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 objective ease, because it is the subject of the infinitive 
 to be. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes; there are two rules involved in that 
 construction: Eule 1. The subject of an infinitive is 
 always in the objective case. Eule 2. The noun or pro- 
 noun after the verb to be is always in the same case as 
 the noun or pronoun before the verb to be. 
 
 Pupil. — Some grammarians always call the predicate 
 complement the predicate nominative. How, then, can a 
 noun in the objective case be a predicate complement? 
 
 Teacher. — Grammarians differ as to the application 
 of these terms. In such constructions as ^*I supposed it 
 to be him," we might call him simply the complement, 
 and use the term *' predicate complement'' only when 
 it can be used synonymously with the term predicate 
 nominative. It is necessary for us to adopt specific 
 terms and then to use them understandingly. 
 
 Pupil. — I should like to adopt the terms used in Cor- 
 RECT English, in the chapter entitled ** The Complement." 
 
 Teacher. — Now define an intransitive verb. 
 
 Pupil. — An intransitive verb is a verb that expresses 
 existence, state (condition), or action that requires no 
 object to receive it. 
 
 Teacher. — Give some examples of intransitive verbs. 
 
 Pupil.— '^I am he"; '^I feel sad"; **He looks ill." 
 
 Teacher. — That is correct. Now, do not forget that the 
 distinguishing characteristic of the transitive verb is 
 that it always has a receiver for its action, — the receiver 
 being either the subject or the object noun, — while the 
 intransitive verb either stands alone, or is followed by 
 some word that modifies it or is related to the subject. 
 
GOLDEN HELP NUMBER II 
 
 The Infinitive Noun Clause the Receiver of the Action. 
 
 Pupil. — I wonder whether I thoroughly understand 
 such constructions as, * * They made him president, ' ' 
 **They chose him captain." Do these sentences mean, 
 ^^They made him to he president,*' **They chose him to 
 he captain"! 
 
 Teacher. — Virtually, yes; but grammarians, gener- 
 ally, do not so construe sentences of this kind. 
 
 Pupil. — In one of the text-books, in the Library, I find 
 the rule: Verbs of choosing, calling, naming, making, 
 and thinking, may take two objects referring to the same 
 person or thing. 
 
 As I have said, this second so-called object is named, 
 by some grammarians, the factitive object ; by others, the 
 predicate objective or the complementary object. An- 
 other grammarian calls it the supplement. Whenever it 
 is possible, we should supply the verb to he and then 
 construe the words that follow the principal verb as con- 
 stituting an infinitive noun clause. This clause can then 
 be regarded as the object and receiver of the action. 
 
 Pupil. — Then you would not regard the noun that 
 follows the verb, the object noun. 
 
 Teacher. — No; because while it might be in accord- 
 ance with the grammar of the language to do so in some 
 instances, there are many constructions where the so- 
 called object noun or pronoun can not be so construed, 
 
 XX 
 
12 CORKECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 Pupil. — That is so; for in the text-book to which I 
 have just referred, under the same rule, — Verbs of 
 choosing, calling, naming, making, and thinking, etc., the 
 example, ^*I thought him a rascal,'' is given to show 
 that the verb think can take a direct object him, and a 
 complementary object rascal. 
 
 Teacher. — This instruction is incorrect. As Correct 
 English indicates, the verb think can not have a pro- 
 noun as its object. One can think thoughts, but one can 
 not think him; one can, however, think him to be a rascal. 
 In other words, **him to be a rascaP' can be construed as 
 the receiver of the thought, while him alone can not be 
 so construed, for the reason that the result does not 
 make sense. 
 
 Pupil. — Then, I suppose, you reason that the word 
 which follows the verb in such sentences as, ' ' They made 
 him president'' and ^^They chose him captain," should 
 not be construed as the object. 
 
 Teacher. — It would be logical to regard the infinitive 
 noun clauses, ^*him to be president" and **him to be 
 captain" as the real objects and receivers of the actions. 
 You will get my meaning if you will compare these sen- 
 tences with the following: *^She made a dress;" **I 
 chose this ring." You can see that while the nouns dress 
 and ring are the objects, respectively, of the verbs made 
 and chose, in the other sentences, the pronoun him is not 
 in itself the receiver of the action, and, hence, the entire 
 clause (infinitive) should be construed as the object. Of 
 course, some of the verbs in your list may be said to take 
 a direct object ; as, for example, the verb call. Thus : in 
 the sentence, ^^They called him John," him may be con- 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 13 
 
 strued as the receiver of the action, and hence, as the 
 direct object; for in this sentence, there is really an 
 ellipsis of the modifying phrase, *^by the name of^' — 
 **They called him by the name of John." 
 
 Pupil. — What shall we do then about these variant 
 sentences ^ 
 
 Teacher. — To avoid confusion, I should regard the 
 verb, whenever possible, as followed by an infinitive noun 
 clause, which is to be construed as the direct object of 
 the verb and receiver of its action; while in such sen- 
 tences as, '^They called him John," for convenience sake, 
 John can be parsed as a complement in the objective case 
 to agree with the pronoun /itm, to which it refers. 
 
 Now, for a drill you may dispose of the words that 
 follow the verb in these sentences from our text-book : 
 
 1. The nobles made the prince their king. 
 
 2. Caesar appointed Brutus governor of a province. 
 
 3. I thought him a gentleman. 
 
 4. The judge deemed him a criminal. 
 
 5. The club chose Thomas secretary. 
 
 Pupil. — I think the infinitive should be, by all means, 
 supplied in the sentence, **I thought him a gentleman;" 
 and in all the other sentences, I think it simplifies mat- 
 ters to supply the infinitive. 
 
 Teacher. — I see that you understand my meaning per- 
 fectly. Then instead of calling the word that follows the 
 infinitive the supplement or the factitive object, etc., we 
 shall call it simply the object complement (in the objec- 
 tive case) to distinguish it from the predicate comple- 
 ment — the complement in the nominative case. 
 
14 CORRECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 Pupil. — What shall we do with the adjectives in such 
 sentences as, **He made the child quieV^I 
 
 Teacher. — Eegard quiet as an adjective modifier of 
 child thus: **He made the child to be quiet,'* quiet being 
 the complement in the infinitive noun clause ** child to 
 be quief 
 
 The Omission of the Sign of the Infinitive. 
 
 Teacher. — A few minutes since, we discussed ail such 
 constructions as, '*They elected him president,*' **They 
 thought him a gentleman;" and, in analyzing the sen- 
 tences, we supplied the infinitive to he; thus: **They 
 elected him to he president;" ''They thought him to he 
 a gentleman." Now, can you give me some examples of 
 sentences in which only the sign of the infinitive, the 
 preposition to is omitted? 
 
 Pupil. — Do you mean such constructions as, ''I shall 
 go," ''You may go," "He must go," "He can go"? I 
 remember reading in one of our text-books that the sign 
 of the infinitive, the preposition to, is omitted after the 
 verbs may, can, shall, will, and must, and that these verbs 
 are now regarded as auxiliaries, while the infinitives are 
 parsed as the principal verbs. 
 
 Teacher. — I did not have in mind constructions of this 
 kind, for we no longer think of the sign of the infinitive 
 as being omitted; thus: "I may to go," "I can to go," 
 etc. I meant such sentences as, "I let him go,'' "You 
 dare not go,'' etc. 
 
 Pupil. — Oh, yes! I was studying the rule that gov- 
 erns these constructions only to-day. I think I can 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 15 
 
 repeat it : The sign of the infinitive, the preposition to, 
 is omitted, in special constructions after the verbs let, 
 dare, do, bid, make, see, hear, feel, need, etc. Thus: ^^I 
 let him go'^ {to go) ; '*You dare not do if {to do) ; **I 
 made the child waW {to walk); **We heard the lion 
 roar'' {to roar) ; *^I felt her heart beat'' {to beat) ; ^* You 
 need not go'' {to go), etc. 
 
 Teacher. — That is right. Now parse the infinitive in 
 the sentence, **I let him go;" in fact, you may analyze 
 the entire construction. 
 
 Pupil. — **I let him go," is a simple sentence, of which 
 **I" is both the complete and the simple subject; ^*let 
 him go," is the complete predicate; let is the predicate 
 verb, and him to go is the object and receiver of the action 
 expressed by the verb let; ^^him to go" is an infinitive 
 noun clause, of which him is the subject and to go is the 
 verb ; him is in the objective case because it is the subject 
 of an infinitive. Eule. — The subject of an infinitive is in 
 the objective case. 
 
 Teacher. — There is something very peculiar about 
 this construction, and others of a like nature. Can you 
 tell me what it is! 
 
 Pupil. — No ; I can not. 
 
 Teacher. — There is an incongruity in your analysis. 
 You called the sentence simple, and you also said that 
 *^him to go" was an infinitive noun clause; now how can 
 you reconcile your two statements? 
 
 Pupil. — ^I suppose I should have called ''him to go" 
 an infinitive noun phrase. I note that, in one of our text- 
 books, the infinitive verb with its subject is called a 
 phrase. 
 
16 COEEECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 Teacher. — That is incorrect; for, if we concede that 
 the infinitive is a verb when it has a subject in the objec- 
 tive case, then the infinitive and its subject constitute a 
 clause. Now, if it is true that the infinitive and its sub- 
 ject should be regarded as forming a clause, it is evident 
 that the sentence, *'I let him go,'' is not a simple sen- 
 tence. 
 
 Pupil. — Surely, grammarians regard all such con- 
 structions as those which we are discussing, as simple. 
 
 Teacher. — That is wherein the incongruity lies. In 
 strict analysis, inasmuch as the infinitive is a verb, and, 
 with its subject, constitutes an infinitive noun clause, and 
 as sentences in which other noun clauses such as **I know 
 that I shall go," are regarded as complex, it should seem 
 that constructions like the foregoing should be regarded 
 as complex. 
 
 Pupil. — Shall I call these sentences complex? 
 
 Teacher. — I should call them complex, for there are 
 really two clauses, — a principal and a subordinate clause; 
 thus : in the sentence, **I let him (to) go,'' **I let him go" 
 is the principal, and '*him (to) go," is the subordinate 
 clause. 
 
 Pupil. — But there is no connective. 
 
 Teacher. — Not every complex sentence contains a con- 
 nective. Thus: in the sentence, **He said, 'I shall go to 
 the city to-morrow,' " there is no connective between the 
 subordinate clause, ^^I shall go to the city to-morrow," 
 and the principal clause, **He said," etc. 
 
 Pupil. — ^In connection with the verb need, is not the 
 form of the third person always the same as that of the 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS It 
 
 second and the third? In other words, isn't the ^'s^' 
 usually omitted; as, **I need go,'' *VYou need go," **He 
 need go "I 
 
 Teacher. — Yes; when need expresses necessity, the 
 **s" is usually omitted before the infinitive. 
 
GOLDEN HELP NUMBER III 
 
 The Infinitive as a Modifier and as an Object: How to Dis- 
 tinguish Them. 
 
 Pupil. — Although you have explained some special 
 uses of the infinitive, I still fail to see, or rather to dis- 
 tinguish, the difference between the infinitive when used 
 as a modifier of the verb, and the infinitive when used as 
 an object noun. 
 
 Teacher. — You understand, do you not, that when the 
 infinitive is used as a modifier, — adjective or adverbial, it 
 is then construed as a noun with the preposition for un- 
 derstood, but not expressed? 
 
 Pupil. — I have no trouble with this, but there are some 
 special constructions that bother me. 
 
 Teacher. — Give me some examples in order that I may 
 better understand your difficulty. 
 
 Pupil. — In CoKKECT English, the infinitive to learn is 
 given as an adverbial modifier of tried in the sentence, * * I 
 tried to learn this;'' while, in the sentence, **I like to 
 sing," the infinitive to sing is given as the object of the 
 verb like. Now, why is not to learn the object of triecfi 
 I do not see any difference between the verbs tried and 
 like. 
 
 Teacher. — Like is a transitive verb ; that is, it requires 
 a receiver for its action ; tried, when used in the sense of 
 endeavor, is an intransitive verb, and, hence, it can not be 
 
 18 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 19 
 
 followed by an object ; that is, it has no receiver for its 
 action. For example, if I say, **I like," the question 
 arises, '^whatT' ^^What or whom do I like?" In other 
 words, I must have an object to like; as, **I like him;'' 
 ''1 like this book." When I say, ^^I try" or ^^I en- 
 deavor," I do not require an object to receive my action. 
 I am making this effort in order to accomplish something. 
 In other words, I am trying or endeavoring for the pur- 
 pose of accomplishing something. Do you not see that 
 while I can like him or like this hooJc, 1 cannot try or 
 endeavor him or try and endeavor this book? Conse- 
 quently, the infinitive that follows the verb try or 
 endeavor is used as a modifier ; it completes the meaning 
 of the verb by expressing its purpose. 
 
 Pupil. — Sometimes we use such expressions as, **He 
 tries my patience," **I am going to try my luck." Isn't 
 try a transitive verb in these sentences? It surely has an 
 object in each case to receive its action. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes; but try in these sentences is used in 
 the sense of ^ * to put to the test or proof ; ' ' while in the 
 sentence given in Cokkect English, try is used only in 
 the sense of endeavor. 
 
 Pupil. — It seems to me that, in some dictionary or 
 text-book, I have seen try given as a transitive verb when 
 used in the sense of endeavor. 
 
 Teacher. — ^Yes; but that doesn't make it transitive. 
 My explanation shows conclusively that there is no re- 
 ceiver for the action when try is used in the sense of 
 endeavor. Century Dictionary gives the correct expo- 
 sition of this. Under try (intransitive use) it says: 
 Try. — Intransitive: To exert strength; make an effort, 
 
20 CORRECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 endeavor; as, *^to try for a situation;'' while under 
 endeavor (intransitive) it says: Endeavor. — Intransi- 
 tive: To labor or exert one's self to do or effect some- 
 thing; try; make an effort; followed hy an infinitive. 
 
 You can readily see that any other version or expo- 
 sition of the infinitive after try or endeavor is incorrect, 
 no matter in what dictionary or in what text-book it may 
 be found. 
 
 Pupil. — Why do grammarians differ so from one an- 
 other? I should think that in a case of this kind, they 
 would all agree. 
 
 Teacher. — One would think so; but not all gram- 
 marians are logical ; sometimes they are inconsistent ; but 
 they all have one point in common, namely, they are all 
 human, and hence are apt to err. 
 
 Pupil. — There is another point with which I have 
 difficulty. I cannot tell when an infinitive is a verb, and 
 when it is a modifier. For example, in the sentence, **I 
 brought water to drink," I don't know whether to drink 
 is a verb in the infinitive mode or an adjective modifier. 
 It is preceded by a noun in the objective case, and for 
 this reason, the infinitive has the appearance of a verb; 
 on the other hand, it does not seem to be different from 
 the infinitive in the sentence in Correct English, ** Water 
 to drink is scarce." To drink is given as an adjective 
 modifier of water in this sentence, and so it should be 
 regarded as an adjective modifier of water in the sen- 
 tence, **I have some water to drink,' ' 
 
 Teacher. — It is a modifier of water in both construc- 
 tions, the meaning being ^* water (for) to drink" — water 
 for drinking purposes. 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 21 
 
 Pupil. — Well, in the sentence **I told him to sing/' 
 why is to sing given as a verb in the infinitive mode? 
 It cannot be merely because it is preceded by a word in 
 the objective case, for the reason that the infinitive in 
 the sentence, **I have some water to drink," is also pre- 
 ceded by a word in the objective case. 
 
 Teacher. — The reason why the infinitive is a verb in 
 the sentence, *'I told him to sing,'' is because an action 
 is to he performed hy its subject. In other words. Mm 
 is going to sing; while in the sentence, **I have water 
 to drink," the water is not going to do the drinking. 
 
 Pupil. — Then, whenever the noun (or pronoun) that 
 precedes the subject is going to perform an act, the 
 infinitive is a verb. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes; or if some condition or state is ex- 
 pressed of the noun or pronoun; as, **I supposed it to 
 be him." 
 
 Pupil. — Then, in the sentences given in Coeeect Eng- 
 lish, — **I asked him to return home," ^^I invited him 
 to call," the infinitives are verbs, for the reason that in 
 each case him is going to do something. 
 
 Teacher. — ^Yes; and in the sentence, ^^The ability to 
 laugh is peculiar to mankind," the infinitive is not a 
 verb, for the reason that it is not going to do the 
 laughing. 
 
 Pupil. — I think that I understand this much better 
 now that you have explained it fully. 
 
GOLDEN HELP NUMBER IV 
 
 The Gerund (Verbal Noun) and the Participle : How to 
 Distinguish Them. 
 
 Pupil. — I have difficulty in distinguishing the differ- 
 ence between participles and gerunds. I know that they 
 are both verbals ; that is, words formed from verbs and 
 having a double function, and I know also that the noun 
 or pronoun preceding the gerund must be in the pos- 
 sessive case ; but how can I tell when the gerundial con- 
 struction is required, and when the participal? for you 
 see, without an understanding of this difference, one 
 cannot determine when to use the possessive case before 
 the verbal. 
 
 Teacher. — Let us cite some examples. Which do you 
 think is correct: **I am surprised at John going,'' or 
 **I am surprised at John^s going"? 
 
 Pupil. — I suppose that the second construction is 
 correct. 
 
 Teacher. — Can you tell why I 
 
 Pupil. — I suppose it is because the speaker is sur- 
 prised at the going of John, and not at John himself. 
 
 Teacher. — Now give a sentence in which the posses- 
 sive case is not required before the verbal. 
 
 Pupil. — ** John, going to the office unexpectedly, found 
 that it was closed.'' 
 
 Teacher. — Now, why is it not John's going"? 
 
 22 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 23 
 
 Pupil. — Because it is John, and not going, who found 
 that the office was closed. 
 
 Teacher. — You see, then, that in order to determine 
 when the verbal is a participle, and when a gerund, it is 
 necessary only to ascertain the meaning to be conveyed. 
 Of course, one rarely has difficulty with the participial 
 construction ; it is the gerundial that troubles one. Now, 
 tell me why it is so necessary to distinguish the participle 
 from the gerund? 
 
 Pupil. — Because the noun or pronoun preceding the 
 gerund must be put into the possessive case. 
 
 Teacher. — ^You may add, ^* while the noun or pronoun 
 preceding the participle must be in either the nominative 
 or the objective case." Now, let us formulate the rule 
 and give several examples. 
 
 Eule. — A noun or pronoun preceding a participle is 
 always in either the nominative or the objective case; 
 while a noun or pronoun preceding a gerund is always in 
 the possessive case. 
 
 Examples, 
 (the participle.) 
 
 John, leaving home without the permission of his 
 parents, soon began to regret his folly. 
 
 Mary, going to the office unexpectedly, found that 
 her employer had returned. 
 
 (the gerund.) 
 
 I am surprised at John's leaving home without the 
 permission of his parents. 
 
24 CORRECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 I see no reason why Mary's going should affect your 
 plans. 
 
 We may formulate another rule : 
 
 Eule. — The gerund itself is always in either the 
 nominative or the objective case, while the participle 
 does not possess the property of case, it being always 
 construed as a modifier. Thus : 
 
 THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 Singing merry songs, the child whiled away many a 
 weary hour. 
 
 THE GERUND. 
 
 Singing merry songs caused the child to forget his 
 loneliness. 
 
 Pupil. — Yes; I see. In the sentence, *' Singing merry 
 songs, the child whiled away many a weary hour, ' ' sing- 
 ing would be regarded as an adjective modifier of child ; 
 that is, *'a singing child." 
 
 Teacher. — Yes; or the participial phrase, ^^ Singing 
 merry songs," would be parsed as an adjective modifier 
 of child; singing, being formed from a transitive verb, 
 has an object in the noun songs; for, of course, as you 
 know, a participle possesses the functions of both a verb 
 and an adjective ; while a gerund possesses those of both 
 a verb and a noun. Because of their verb nature, when 
 derived from transitive verbs, they always require a 
 receiver for their action. 
 
 Pupil. — Hitherto, I have always had difficulty in dis- 
 tinguishing between the gerund, when used as an object 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 25 
 
 of a transitive verb, and the participle when used to 
 modify a noun in the objective case. 
 
 Teacher. — Give me some examples. 
 
 Pupil. — My difficulty, formerly, was in constructions 
 like these : 
 
 I enjoyed John's playing, 
 
 I saw John playing ball. 
 
 Now, I could never tell which was the gerund, and 
 which the participle. Of course, I know now. 
 
 Teacher. — The test is Eule 1 ; a noun or pronoun pre- 
 ceding a participle is always in either the nominative 
 or the objective case, while a noun or pronoun preceding 
 a gerund is always in the possessive case. 
 
 Pupil. — Now, I want to go one step farther. Suppose 
 that I am in doubt as to the construction in question ; for 
 example, suppose that I wish to revise manuscript for 
 others, as I intend doing after I am graduated. 
 
 Teacher. — Examine the construction by the following 
 test: If you can expand it so as to make the verbal a 
 verb proper y then the verbal is a participle; otherwise, 
 it is not. Thus, the sentence, ^*I saw John playing ball,'' 
 may be expanded to mean, **I saw John, and he was 
 playing hall,^^ or **I saw John while he was playing ball;'' 
 while the sentence, **I enjoyed John's playing," cannot be 
 so expanded, for it is evident that the meaning is, **I en- 
 joyed the playing done by John." In other words, in the 
 first sentence, the object of the verb is *^John;" in the 
 second it is playing. Now, you can readily see that, inas- 
 much as the gerund is always a noun, if it is preceded by 
 another noun or a pronoun, that noun or pronoun must 
 
26 COREECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 be converted into an adjective modifier, and, hence, must 
 be in the possessive case. 
 
 Pupil. — ^Yes; I see that perfectly. Now, in the sen- 
 tence, **I admired her dancing, *' is her in the objective 
 case, or is it in the possessive 1 In other words, is dancing 
 a gerund or a participle ? 
 
 Teacher. — ^You tell me. 
 
 Pupil. — Let me see. I must determine that by ex- 
 panding the construction: ^^I admired her, and she was 
 dancing.*' No, I didn't admire her, I admired her 
 dancing; that is, I admired the dancing done by her; 
 dancing, then, is a gerund, and not a participle; so, of 
 course, her is in the possessive case. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes, that is right. Of course, the form of 
 the possessive and the objective case is the same for the 
 feminine gender. One would not have the same trouble 
 in construing the case of pronouns in the masculine 
 gender. Now, give another example, but make the pro- 
 noun masculine. 
 
 Pupil. — ^*I saw him running down the street." This 
 can be expanded, **I saw him, and he was running,'' 
 etc., or '^ while he was running.'' It is evident that run- 
 ning is a participle, and that the objective form of the 
 pronoun is correct. It is evident, too, that the gerund 
 itself is either a subject noun, an object noun, or a predi- 
 cate complement, and hence is always in either the nomi- 
 native or the objective case. I see very plainly that if 
 the gerund is preceded by a noun or a pronoun, that noun 
 or pronoun must be put in the possessive case. 
 
 Now, for a drill, you may correct the errors in the 
 following : 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 27 
 
 I must not forget how, at the age of seventeen, I 
 became a landowner, thanks to my name being on the 
 roll of Colonel Clark's regiment. — Winston Churchill in 
 The Crossing. 
 
 There was no chance of Hamilton moving at present. 
 -^Ibid, 
 
 **The common report was, I believe," pursued the 
 lawyer, 'Hhat the old man didn't know of the place being 
 for sale until he heard the auctioneer's hammer on the 
 lawn, and that his mind left him from the moment — this 
 was, of course, mere idle talk." — Ellen Glascow in The 
 Deliverance, 
 
GOLDEN HELP NUMBER V 
 
 The Nominative or the Objective Case After Than and As: 
 When to Use It. 
 
 Pupil. — I often have difficulty with the conjunction 
 than; that is, I do not know, in all cases, when to use 
 the nominative after it, and when to use the objective. 
 
 Teacher. — The nominative form is required after than 
 when there is an ellipsis of the verb following the noun 
 or pronoun expressed. The objective form is required 
 after than when there is an ellipsis of both subject and 
 verb after than. Thus : 
 
 * * I like her better than /le ( does ) . " * ^ I like her better 
 than him (I like her better than I do him)." 
 
 Pupil. — I understand this perfectly; but that is not 
 my difficulty. I have trouble with such constructions as, 
 **I saw a tree larger than a house," Now, tree is in the 
 objective case, it being the object of the verb saw; now, 
 should not house be in the objective case, too? Is it not 
 connected with tree by the conjunction than' ^9 
 
 Teacher. — No; for the reason that the conjunction 
 than, unlike the conjunction and or or (or nor), for 
 example, does not connect ivords; it connects clauses. 
 The sentence expanded reads, **I saw a tree taller than a 
 house is.'' 
 
 Pupil. — ^Why can we not expand it to read, * * I saw a 
 tree taller than I saw a house''? In this construction, 
 house would be in the objective case. 
 
 28 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 29 
 
 Teacher. — But this is not the meaning. You can 
 readily see that the construction should be expanded so 
 as to read, **I saw a tree taller than a house is, if you 
 will compare it with the sentence, *^I saw a man taller 
 than he/' Now, it is evident that the meaning is **than 
 he is/^ and not *^I saw a man taller than I saw him." 
 
 Pupil. — I see this plainly now. I can also see that if 
 than connects words instead of clauses, house and he 
 would be in the objective case. 
 
 Teacher. — Some grammarians do not bring out this 
 point fully that than is always a conjunction, and that it 
 always connects clauses. 
 
 Pupil. — I remember reading in some text-book that 
 than had the appearance of a preposition in such con- 
 structions as, ** Satan than whom none higher sat,'' but 
 that *Uhan whom" was idiomatic. 
 
 Teacher. — ^As indicated in Corkect English, although 
 **than whom" does not conform to the grammar of the 
 language, it does to its usage, and, in consequence is 
 recorded as correct, for it not only has had the literary 
 sanction of classical writers for centuries, but also has 
 the sanction of the best literary employment of the 
 present time. 
 
 Now, for a drill on the use of the proper case after 
 than you may diagram these sentences. 
 
 It was no other than he. 
 
 He is taller than I. 
 
 I like him better than him. 
 
 I saw a tree taller than a house. 
 
 He took longer steps than mine. 
 
 It can be regarded in no other way than as a calamity. 
 
30 COERECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 There is no other reason for his going than this. 
 
 Pupil. — I fear that I shall not be able to diagram 
 mine. Does the construction mean *Hhan my steps 
 were''? 
 
 Teacher. — Yes; but you may diagram mine as in 
 the nominative case, — the subject of the verb were 
 understood. 
 
 Pupil. — But mine is possessive in form. 
 
 Teacher. — That is true, but the forms mine, thine, 
 ours, yours, theirs and sometimes his and hers, though 
 possessive in form have come to be used only in the 
 nominative and objective cases. 
 
 Pupil. — How should mine be parsed? 
 
 Teacher. — Mine is a personal pronoun, first person, 
 singular number, nominative case, subject of the verb 
 were. 
 
 Pupil. — ^But how can mine be in the singular number, 
 and its verb, in the plural? 
 
 Teacher. — Grammarians hardly know what to do in 
 cases of this kind, for mine refers to one person the same 
 in the sentence **His steps were longer than mine'* as it 
 does in the sentence, **This hat is mine,*' It would 
 probably be best to say ** singular number, but used for 
 the time being in the plural.'' We have a like difficulty 
 in parsing You, in the sentence, **You are my pupil." 
 Now you refers to only one person, and yet it is the sub- 
 ject of a plural verb. It is also true that, in the sentence, 
 **Your steps are longer than mine," mine refers to but 
 one person, and, hence, is virtually singular. 
 
GOLDEN HELPS NUMBER VI 
 
 The Adjective and the Adverb After Verbs of Inaction: How 
 
 to Use Them. 
 
 Pupil. — I know that the adjective is required after 
 verbs of inaction, when the reference is to the condition 
 of the subject, as, **feel or look sad, glad/' but there are 
 some peculiar constructions that trouble me. I have made 
 out a list of them : 
 
 1. I always feel warmly at such a time. 
 
 2. I always feel warmly on this subject. 
 
 3. His friends looked coldly on him. 
 
 4. We were sitting quietly around the fire. 
 
 5. He sat silently until she breathed more calmly. 
 
 6. She looked coldly on his offer of marriage. 
 
 7. Don't feel so hadly about it. 
 
 Are these sentences correct, and are Nos. 1, 2, and 3 
 parallel? Are 4 and 5 parallel? 
 
 Teacher. — So far as the- grammatical construction is 
 concerned, the first three sentences are parallelisms ; but, 
 while one would say, *^I feel warmly on the subject,'' just 
 as one would say, **I feel deeply on the subject, one would 
 hardly say, **I feel warmly at such a time,^^ In other 
 words, warmly does not lend itself to the meaning to be 
 conveyed. One might say, *^I feel deeply at such a 
 time," meaning that my feelings are deeply aroused on 
 
 31 
 
32 CORRECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 such occasions. The rule that governs constructions of 
 this kind is as follows : 
 
 Kule. — ^When action is expressed by the verb, the 
 adverb is required; when action is not expressed, — the 
 verb being used in the sense of be {am, was, is, etc.), the 
 adjective is required. The following comparatives are 
 illustrative of the rules involved: 
 
 **I always feel warm in the summer.'' (I am warm.) 
 
 *^I always feel deeply (intensely) at such a time;'' or, 
 **I always feel warmly (deeply, intensely) on the subject 
 of religion," action being expressed by the verb feel. 
 
 Note that one would not say, **I am warm on the sub- 
 ject of religion;" on the other hand, **I am enthusiastic 
 on the subject," or ^^I feel enthusiastic on the subjject," 
 is correct. 
 
 *'The water looks deep.'' (Is deep.) 
 
 *^He feels deeply on the subject." (Feels to a deep 
 degree.) 
 
 * * He feels awkward in company. " (Is awkward. ) 
 
 *^He felt awkwardly in his pockets for his ticket." 
 (Felt in an awkward manner.) 
 
 **The air feels keen." (The air is not doing the 
 feeling.) 
 
 *^He felt the disgrace keenly." (Felt it in a keen 
 manner.) 
 
 In many instances, only the adjectival form of a word 
 can be used, — not its adverbial. Thus : 
 
 ''I feel sorry about this." (Happy, sad, glad, angry, 
 grateful, enthusiastic.) 
 
 3. ^^His friends looked coldly upon him," is correct. 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 33 
 
 Compare with, ^^His friends looked suspiciously at him.'' 
 Note the following : 
 
 *^He looks cold,'' (Appears to be, or is cold.) 
 
 **He looked coldly at her." (Looked at her in a cold 
 manner.) 
 
 ^*He looks suspicious,'' (Appears to be an object of 
 suspicion.) 
 
 '^He looked at her suspiciously," (Looked in a sus- 
 picious manner.) 
 
 4. **We were sitting quietly around the fire,'' is cor- 
 rect, if the meaning is, making no movements of the body. 
 Quiet is required when the reference is to the person ; as, 
 **He sat quiet or silent until the speaker had finished." 
 
 5. ''He sat silent," not silently, is correct, because 
 the subject Tie is modified. (He was silent,) Note that 
 while one may sit quietly, one cannot sit silently, as 
 silently means without speaking. 
 
 6. The application of same principle as in No. 3. 
 
 7. 'Neither *'feel badly" nor *'feel bad" is in accord- 
 ance with the genius of our language ; but, because of the 
 universal employment of had in the sense of ill, ''feel 
 had" may be sanctioned. When used, however, ly should 
 not be added, for it is the subject, and not the verb that 
 is modified. Note that the feeling is not done in a had 
 manner. 
 
 Pupil. — How about "The sun shines hrightf" Is it 
 hright or hrightly? 
 
 Teacher. — Some authorities distinguish as follows: 
 Use hright when shine is construed as meaning is; use 
 hrightly when shine is regarded as expressing action; 
 thus: "The sun shines hright" (is bright); "The sun 
 
34 CORRECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 shines brightly (in a bright manner). Brightly would 
 be obligatory in the following ; * * The sun shines brightly 
 on the hill-tops/' 
 
 Adverb or Adverbial Phrase After the Verb To Be. 
 
 Pupil. — There is another point about which I wish to 
 speak. Grammarians tell us that the verb to be can not 
 take a modifier. If the verb to be can not take a modifier, 
 what shall we do with the adverb or adverbial phrase 
 in such constructions as, **He is here;'' **I was there;'' 
 **He is in the wrong;" **He was here last week" 9 
 
 Teacher. — The adverb that follows the verb to be in 
 sentences of this kind, is construed as a predicate comple- 
 ment ; that is, as an adjective or adjective phrase in the 
 predicate referring to the subject noun or pronoun and 
 modifying it. 
 
 Pupil. — Then, in the sentence, **He is here," here 
 must be regarded as the predicate complement, • and so 
 must be parsed as an adverb used, for the time being, as 
 an adjective modifier of the subject he. That seems to be 
 a queer disposition of the adverb here. 
 
 Teacher. — It is ; but you can see wherein the difficulty 
 lies. If we concede that the verb to be, when not used as 
 an auxiliary, is a mere copula, or '* joiner," how can we 
 regard it as being modified as are verbs that are used not 
 merely to connect or to assist in expressing a state or con- 
 dition of the subject? You can readily see the dilemma 
 that grammarians are in, and why a special disposition 
 must be made of adverbs that follow the verb to be. 
 
 Pupil. — Then we are to parse here as an adverb, used, 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 35 
 
 for the time being, as an adjective modifier of the subject 
 he, in the sentence, **He is here/' Of course, there must 
 be disposed of in the same way in the sentence, *^He is 
 there;" and, in the sentence, *^He is in the wrong,*' the 
 phrase in the wrong must be parsed as an adjective 
 phrase and modifier of the subject he. But what shall I 
 do with the words last week, in the sentence, **He was 
 here last weeWl Of course here is the predicate comple- 
 ment — the equivalent of an adjective, and modifies the 
 subject he, — ^but last week — I shall have to ask you to 
 dispose of these words. 
 
 Teacher. — A preposition is understood before the 
 words last week; as, ^^He was here during last week.'* 
 Now, can you parse this phrase as well as the adverb 
 
 Pupil. — Here is an adverb of place, and during last 
 week is an adverbial phrase of time. They seem to have 
 the same grammatical relation to the subject, and I sup- 
 pose that they should both be parsed as the equivalent of 
 adjective modifiers of the subject; that is, for the time 
 being. Is the rule : ^^The verb to he can not take a modi- 
 fier," applicable in all instances! 
 
 Teacher. — Yes ; it is uniform in its application. 
 
 Now give me sentences in which the verb to &e is fol- 
 lowed by an adverb that must be construed, for the time 
 being, as an adjective. 
 
 Pupil. — *^He is away;" *^He is in" 
 
 Teacher. — That is right. Now give me sentences in 
 which the verb to &6 is followed by an adverbial phrase 
 that is used, for the time being, as an adjective phrase. 
 
 Pupil. — **He is in the next room;" ^*She was on the 
 
36 COREECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 other side of the street;^' ^'She will be in the city to- 
 morrow," 
 
 But what shall I do with **on the other side of the 
 street "1 * * On the other side ' ' is, I suppose, the predicate 
 complement, — the adjective modifier of the subject; but 
 what about **of the street'^? 
 
 Teacher. — It is a pure adjective phrase and modifies 
 the noun side. 
 
 Pupil. — ^What about the adverb to-morroiv in the sen- 
 tence, *^She will be in the city to-morrow"? Of course, 
 ^4n the city'' is the predicate complement, and so is an 
 adjective modifier of she, but to-morrow, — isn't to- 
 morrow an adverb? 
 
 Teacher. — It is both an adverb and a noun. In your 
 sentence, you can parse it as adverb used as an adjective, 
 or you can parse it as a noun with a preposition before it 
 understood; as, **She will be in the city on to-morrow;" 
 the phrase **on to-morrow" can then be parsed as an 
 adverbial phrase used for the time being as an adjective 
 phrase and modifier of the subject. 
 
 Pupil. — ^Why can I not make it an adverbial phrase 
 modifying the meaning of the verb will he and the com- 
 plement * ^ in the city " ? 
 
 Teacher. — It seems as if it should be so construed; 
 but, on the other hand, the two phrases are really in the 
 same grammatical relation to the subject. This you can 
 see by substituting the verb go for the v.erb mil he and by 
 changing the preposition in to the preposition to; thus: 
 **She will go to the city to-morrow." You can see that 
 the adverbial phrases, or the adverbial phrase and the 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 37 
 
 adverb, each modify the verb go; in other words, they are 
 of the same grammatical construction. 
 
 Pupil. — Now, if a real adjective follows the verb as in 
 the sentence, **I was happy once," what shall I do with 
 the adverb once? 
 
 Teacher. — Some grammarians would dispose of once 
 by making it an adverbial modifier of the meaning 
 expressed by the verb and the predicate complement 
 (adjective) happy. 
 
 Pupil. — I should think that once could be parsed as a 
 predicate complement having the same relation to the 
 subject / as the predicate complement happy has. 
 
 Teacher. — Possibly, some grammarians would so con- 
 strue the adverb ; but it seems to me that when an ' * adjec- 
 tive proper'' follows the verb, and is thus the true com- 
 plement, it would be better to dispose of the adverb 
 as suggested ; namely, to make it modify the meaning of 
 the predicate verb and the complement. By so doing, we 
 can discriminate between the ** adjective proper'' and the 
 adverb used, for the time being, as an adjective. In other 
 words, when possible, let us not change the construction 
 of the adverb, but let it modify the predicate verb and the 
 complement rather than to think of it as an equivalent of 
 the true adjective in such constructions as **I was happy 
 once." 
 
 Pupil. — I think that I follow the drift of your thoughts. 
 In the sentence, *^He is happy," happy is the predicate 
 complement and is a true adjective, — adjective modifier 
 of the subject he. In the sentence, **I was happy once,^^ 
 once is an adverb and modifies the meaning of was happy. 
 
38 CORRECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 In the sentence, ^^He is there/' there is an adverb and is 
 regarded only for the time being as an adjective modifier 
 of the subject. In the sentence, **She will be in the city 
 to-morrow, ' ' the adverbs have the same grammatical rela- 
 tion to the subject as do the adverbs to the verbs in the 
 sentence, **She will go to the city to-morrow." 
 
 In many of our text-books I find no reference whatever 
 to this subject. 
 
 Teacher. — It is not an easy subject for one to discuss, 
 and, at the same time, to be logical as to the disposition of 
 all the elements. I refer, of course, to the disposition of 
 the words and phrases that follow the verb to be when 
 that verb is a mere copula. 
 
 Now, you may analyze the sentence, **In the lexicon 
 of youth, there is no such word as fail.'' 
 
 Pupil. — *^In the lexicon of youth," etc., is a complex 
 sentence, of which *^In the lexicon of youth, there is no 
 such word" is the principal clause, and **as fail (is such 
 a word)" is the subordinate clause. 
 
 Of the principal clause, word is the real subject, modi- 
 fied by the adjective modifiers no and such; there is an 
 adverb, used, for the time being, as a mere expletive or 
 introductory word ; is is the predicate verb ; in the lexicon 
 of youth is the predicate complement (phrase used as an 
 adjective modifier of the subject word) ; as is a subordi- 
 nate conjunction, used to connect the subordinate clause 
 with the principal clause; fail is the subject of the sub- 
 ordinate clause; is (understood) is the predicate verb; 
 word (understood) is the predicate complement modified 
 by such and a (understood). 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 39 
 
 Teacher. — The construction could be expanded so as to 
 make as a relative pronoun; as, **In the lexicon of youth, 
 there is no such word as is fail.'' As would then be the 
 predicate complement ; fail would be the subject ; and is 
 the predicate verb. In fact, after such and same, it is 
 customary to parse as as a relative pronoun. 
 
GOLDEN HELP NUMBER VII 
 
 If It Is and If It Be; It It Was and If It Were: How to Use 
 
 Them. 
 
 Pupil. — Do I understand that when a supposition is 
 merely ^* thought of — that is, when it is subjunctive — 
 we are to say, ''li I be/' ''U it be/' *^If he be/' **If he 
 see/' and other like forms? 
 
 Teacher. — I am pleased to have you ask this question, 
 for it is one that perplexes all students of English and 
 many teachers as well. The special forms to which you 
 refer are passing into disuse ; thus, instead of the present 
 subjunctive forms: **If I be/' *^If you be/' **If he be/' 
 **If we &e/' *^If they be/' and, in the case of other verbs, 
 **If he find/' *^If it rain/' etc., the indicative forms are 
 being very generally employed. 
 
 Pupil. — Then it is correct to say: *^If I am/' *^If you 
 are/' ''U he is/' ''li we are/' ''li they are/' ''If he 
 finds/' ''If it rains/' etc., even when the supposition is 
 stated, not as a fact, but as merely ** thought of." 
 
 Teacher. — That is right. 
 
 Pupil. — Eecently, when reading a novel entitled, **Eed 
 Pottage,'' I noticed this construction: *^It was an even 
 chance,'' etc., '*but if it is he." 
 
 Teacher. — In the sentence to which you refer, the sup- 
 position expresses doubt and hence is subjunctive. But, 
 as I have indicated, inasmuch as the subjunctive form **If 
 
 40 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 41 
 
 it &e/' is now rarely employed even by the best speakers, 
 it is no longer obligatory to use the form '^liitbe/' On 
 the other hand, the subjunctive forms *^If I were/^ and 
 **If he, she, or it, were/' are employed by the best speak- 
 ers and writers. To say, **If I was going to Europe, I 
 should study French, '^ would be incorrect, **If I were/' 
 etc., being the correct form. To exemplify the construc- 
 tion further, we say **If I was in the wrong (indicative 
 mode, meaning I was in the wrong), why, I apologize.'^ 
 *^If I ivere in the wrong (subjunctive mode, meaning I am 
 not), I should be willing to apologize.'' This distinction 
 in the use of the subjunctive and the indicative mode is 
 made by the best speakers, while *^If it is'' is now used 
 for both the indicative and the subjunctive form. You 
 can readily see that, inasmuch as ^^If it be he'' is not 
 employed or is now rarely employed, even by the best 
 speakers, and that '* If it is he" was used in a soliloquy 
 in the extract to which you refer, it would be incorrect to 
 insist upon the employment of ^^If it be/' even though 
 the subjunctive form might be expected. 
 
 Pupil. — Does not the subjunctive present tense some- 
 times indicate future time? 
 
 Teacher. — Yes; the present tense of the subjunctive 
 mode may refer to either present or future time. The 
 past tense of this mode refers to present time ; the past 
 perfect to past time. I will write some examples on the 
 blackboard : 
 
 If it be he, I shall speak to him. (I do not know 
 whether it is he.) 
 
 If it were he, I should speak to him. (It is not he, 
 therefore I shall not speak to him.) 
 
42 COERECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 If it had been he, I should have spoken to him. (It 
 was not he, therefore I did not speak to him.) 
 
 Now, in connection with the last sentence, note that 
 the principal clause, **I should not have spoken to him,'* 
 also takes the subjunctive form, the rule being that the 
 principal clause in a conditional statement takes the sub- 
 junctive form when it refers either to what is future and 
 contingent or to what is past and uncertain, or denied. 
 
 In connection with the future tense form should, of 
 the subjunctive mode, note that it is interchangeable in 
 its use with the present tense of the subjunctive mode 
 when the latter refers to future time. Thus, if one pre- 
 fers to use the subjunctive mode to express doubt or 
 uncertainty, one may say, **If this he in accordance with 
 your approval," etc., or **If this should be in accordance 
 with your approval." 
 
 Pupil. — I think that the so-called future perfect tense 
 of the subjunctive mode is very confusing; for example, 
 '^I should go to Europe if I had the money," is a con- 
 struction that conveys the idea of contingent futurity; 
 but the future perfect tense as in the sentence, * * I should 
 have gone to Europe if I had had the money," seems to 
 me to convey, not future perfect, but past perfect tense= 
 
 Teacher. — It does in a sense, for it expresses what one 
 would have done in the past, had one been able to perform 
 the action. 
 
GOLDEN HELP NUMBER VIII 
 
 Is Come and Has Come; Is Gone and Has Gone. 
 
 Pupil. — I have trouble in disposing of the participle in 
 such constructions as, *^The box is come/' **The teacher 
 is gone/' Now, of course, I know what to do with the 
 participle when has is used, — ^^The box has come/' '^The 
 teacher has gone/' for come and gone are the principal 
 verbs, and has is, in each sentence, the auxiliary; — but 
 ''is come" and ''is gone,'' what shall I do with these 
 forms % 
 
 Teacher. — I must let you tell me. 
 
 Pupil. — But I don't know about these constructions. 
 Now, if the verb were transitive, as, **The teacher is 
 loved by her pupils," I should know, of course, that loved 
 is the principal verb and that is is the auxiliary, for the 
 verb love is in the present tense and the passive voice, 
 the noun teacher being the receiver of the action, — but 
 "is come" and "is gone," — I can not tell how to dispose 
 of these forms. 
 
 Teacher. — What kind of verbs are go and come? 
 
 Pupil. — Intransitive. 
 
 Teacher. — Are they in the passive voice? 
 
 Pupil. — No; because intransitive verbs do not have 
 voice. 
 
 Teacher. — Why do they not have voice? 
 
 43 
 
44 COERECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 Pupil.— Because, while they express action, they do 
 not express action that is received by any thing. 
 
 Teacher. — That is; in the sentence, **The teacher is 
 loved/' the noun teacher receives the action of the verb, 
 and, hence, is in the passive voice; whereas, in the sen- 
 tence, **The teacher is gone/' the noun teacher does not 
 receive the action of the verb, and, hence, is not in the 
 passive voice. In fact, it has no voice at all, because it is 
 an intransitive verb. 
 
 In the sentence, **The teacher is loved,'' what is loved 
 and what is is f 
 
 Pupil. — Loved is the past participle of the verb love 
 and is used as the principal verb ; is is the auxiliary. 
 
 Teacher. — Now, whenever the past participle of a 
 transitive verb is used transitively and is preceded by 
 the auxiliary *4s," the two form what kind of verb? 
 
 Pupil. — A verb in the passive voice. 
 
 Teacher. — Now conjugate love, present tense, active 
 and passive. 
 
 Pupil. — *^I love," '^you love,'' *'he loves," — active, 
 present ; * ^ I am loved, " * ^ you are loved, " * * he is loved, ' ' 
 — passive, present ; same in the plural. 
 
 Teacher. — Now, conjugate come and gone, in the pres- 
 ent tense. 
 
 Pupil. — Active, ^^I come," ''you come," ''he comes;" 
 same in the plural. Passive, "I am come," — but I recol- 
 lect, — come and gone are intransitive and so can not 
 be conjugated in the passive voice. 
 
 Teacher. — Then if they can not, what shall we do with 
 is 1 It is evident that it is not an auxiliary, for if it were, 
 it would form with the participle, a transitive verb in the 
 passive voice. 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 45 
 
 Pupil. — Why, we must call is, in each sentence, the 
 principal verb. 
 
 Teacher. — And what shall we do with the participles 
 gone and cornel 
 
 Pupil. — Why, if is is the principal verb, it becomes 
 necessary to construe the participle as the predicate com- 
 plement. That seems strange. 
 
 Teacher. — ^Yes; but grammatically, that is what we 
 must do, unless for the sake of convenience, we dispose 
 of ^4s gone'' and *4s come'' as intransitive verb phrases, 
 having the appearance of intransitive passives. 
 
 Pupil. — I should think that such forms as ^Hs gone" 
 and '^is come" would be regarded as incorrect. Why not 
 say, ^^has gone" and '^has come"? 
 
 Teacher. — We do use these forms, but^^is gone" and 
 *^is come," and like constructions, are the remains of 
 the regular formation of the perfect tense of the intransi- 
 tive verb by the assistance of the verb **to be." Bain 
 suggests that, inasmuch as have originally belonged only 
 to transitive verbs and that as we have the two construc- 
 tions has and is, it would be well to restrict have to uses 
 where there is an active subject, and is where there is an 
 inanimate subject; thus: ^*The teacher has come;" but, 
 *^The box is come." 
 
 According to some grammarians, the participle in such 
 constructions as *4s gone" and *4s come" would be con- 
 strued as the predicate complement, the equivalent of an 
 adjective in the predicate, used as a modifier of the 
 subject.* 
 
 ^Correct English: a Complete Grammar, p. 64, note. 
 
GOLDEN HELP NUMBER IX 
 
 Progressive Active and Passive Forms: How to Understand 
 
 Them. 
 
 Pupil. — I never in the world can understand all about 
 tenses ; at least, I cannot understand about them from a 
 study of our text-book. 
 
 Teacher. — I fear you are like the woman that always 
 had bad neighbors, and in consequence felt obliged to 
 move every year. You seem to have trouble with all your 
 text-books, and especially with your grammar. You might 
 study the conjugation of the verb see in Cokkect English, 
 and thus familiarize yourself with all simple and progres- 
 sive tense forms of this verb. 
 
 Pupil. — Yes ; but there are so many tenses that they 
 confuse me. 
 
 Teacher. — A very simple way to study the subject is 
 as follows: (1) There are three main tenses, called 
 primary tenses, namely, present, past, future; thus : pres- 
 ent, **I see;" past, **I saw;'' future, **I shall see." (2) 
 These primary tenses have each a completed form called 
 the perfect tense, namely, present perfect, past perfect, 
 future perfect; thus: present perfect, **I have seen" (ac- 
 tion completed up to the present time) ; past perfect, **I 
 had seen" (action completed up to past time) ; future per- 
 fect, '*I shall have seen" (action completed up to future 
 time). 
 
 46 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 47 
 
 Pupil. — Either have or had seems to be used in all the 
 perfect tense forms, but omitted in all the simple or pri- 
 mary tense forms. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes; but in the third person, singular, of 
 the present perfect tense you will note that has is 
 required; thus: ^*I have seen,'' **You have seen,'' **He 
 (or she) has seen." 
 
 Pupil. — I note that you gave ^^You have seen," for 
 the second person singular. I thought that ^^Thou hast 
 seen" was the correct form. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes; in poetry and in occasional utter- 
 ances ; but, inasmuch as you is required for the singular 
 as well as for the plural number, I think that we should 
 really conjugate the verb in this way. 
 
 Pupil. — Then have or has is always used in the pres- 
 ent and future perfect tense forms, and had in the 
 past perfect tense forms. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes ; or you can remember the very simple 
 rule: Use have, has or had with the participle, and 
 remember that these words must not be used with words 
 spelled with a. Thus : I began ; I have begun. I drank ; 
 I have drunk. I sang ; I have sung. I came ; I have come. 
 
 Pupil. — ^In other words, the two a's must never be 
 used together. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes; now let us discuss the progressive 
 tense forms : (3) Each tense has a progressive form ; or, 
 as we may say, a continuous form, showing that the 
 action, or state is in progress, or is continuous; as, ^^I 
 am seeing/' 
 
 Pupil. — Do I understand you to mean that every; 
 
48 CORRECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 tense form whether primary or perfect has a progressive, 
 or continuous form? 
 
 Teacher. — Yes ; that is, every tense form in the active 
 voice; thus: the primary present tense, *^I see,'' becomes 
 the progressive present tense, **I am seeing;" the pri- 
 mary pasty **I saw,'' becomes the progressive past, **I 
 was seeing;" the primary future, ^'1 shall see," becomes 
 the progressive future, **I shall be seeing." Now, can 
 you give the progressive tense forms of the perfect tense ? 
 
 Pupil. — The present perfect tense, **I have seen," be- 
 comes the present perfect progressive, '^1 have been see- 
 ing;" the past perfect tense, *^I had seen," becomes the 
 past perfect progressive, ^*I had been seeing ;" the future 
 perfect tense, **I shall have seen," becomes the future 
 perfect progressive, **I shall have been seeing." 
 
 Pupil. — The examples that you have been giving are 
 all in the active voice ; that is, the action is not performed 
 on the subject. Now, when the verb is in the passive 
 voice, that is, when the subject is being acted upon, can 
 all the tenses take a progressive tense form? 
 
 Teacher. — No ; only the present and the past tense in 
 the passive voice have a progressive form; thus: ^*I am 
 being seen," and '*I was being seen," etc. 
 
 Pupil. — I know that there has been, and is, more or 
 less controversy relative to the progressive form being 
 when used in constructions of this kind. Why do some 
 critics object to such constructions as, **The house is 
 heing built," '*I am heing seen," and like sentences? 
 
 Teacher. — Mainly, because it is only in the present 
 and past tenses that the progressive form can be used; 
 that is, when the verb is in the passive voice. Critics say 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELr>S 49 
 
 that it is an innovation not based on the grammar of our 
 language; but it has been clearly shown that these con- 
 structions have been in accordance with the best usage of 
 the language for a century. Before their introduction 
 into our language, there was no tense form that discrimi- 
 nated between an ^^ activity^' from without and one from 
 within unless the letter **a'' might be said to indicate this 
 difference. Thus, even in Anglo-Saxon, the sentence, 
 ^^The house was a building," did not correspond to our 
 present construction, ^*The house was being built.'' The 
 use of these present and past progressive tense forms has 
 greatly increased the versatility of our language, for it 
 has enabled us to indicate action from without as differ- 
 ent from action from within; thus: the simple present 
 tense form in the active voice as in the sentence **The dog 
 is shooting, ' ' or the simple present tense form in the pas- 
 sive voice ' * The dog is shot, ' ' certainly cannot express the 
 idea of present progressive passive action as in the sen- 
 tence ^^Tlie dog is being shot.'' 
 
 Pupil. — Then we are to regard these constructions as 
 correct, and in accordance with modern grammar. 
 
 Teacher. — Certainly. The critics who object to this 
 * innovation" as unwarranted, have no form that they 
 can substitute for this construction. The present and 
 past progressive uses in the passive voice have become 
 grammatical and are so recorded in our authoritative 
 text-books on English. 
 
 Standard Dictionary, in its supplement, sanctions this 
 construction, and quotes from Fitzedward Hall as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 *^ Prior to the evolution of is being built, and was 
 
50 CORRjecl? ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 being built, we possessed no discriminate equivalents of 
 aedificatur and aedificabatur ; is built and was built, by 
 which they were rendered, corresponding exactly to 
 aedificatus est and aedificatus eratJ' 
 
 Pupil. — I am glad that we have had this discussion, 
 for I was aware that such critics as Eichard Whately, 
 George P. Marsh, and Eichard Grant White had objected 
 greatly to this construction; but I know now that their 
 criticisms are unwarranted. 
 
 Teacher. — That is so ; for you can readily see that the 
 grammar of our language and the best usage of the best 
 writers and speakers must be in accordance with each 
 other; or what better expresses the thought, the gram- 
 mar of our language is in reality based upon its best 
 usage. 
 
GOLDEN HELP NUMBER X 
 
 The Noun Clause and the Relative Clause : How to Distinguish 
 
 Them. 
 
 Pupil. — I have difficulty in determining when that 
 is a relative pronoun, and when it is a conjunction. In 
 one of the exercises that I sent in a few days since, I 
 diagrammed that as a relative pronoun in the sentence, 
 * ^ I know that he is the man, ' ' and when my papers were 
 returned, I found that you had marked that as a con- 
 junction. Now, why is that a conjunction in the sen- 
 tence, **I know that he is the man," and a relative pro- 
 noun in the sentence, ^*I know the man that called here 
 yesterday"? 
 
 Teacher. — A relative pronoun is always used as a 
 pronoun and a conjunction at the same time. The con- 
 junction is used merely as a connective. Thus, in the 
 sentence, *^I know the man that called here yesterday," 
 that is a relative pronoun, because it relates to an ante- 
 cedent (man). In the sentence, **I know that he is the 
 man," that is used as a conjunction to connect the noun 
 clause, *^that he is the man," which it introduces, with 
 the principal clause, **I know that he is the man." In 
 other words, that is construed as a relative pronoun 
 only when it relates to an antecedent. It is construed as 
 a conjunction, when it introduces a noun clause or is 
 used in the sense of *4n order that," **for the purpose 
 
 51 
 
52 CORRECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 that/' 'Ho the effect that," or to introduce a reason {in 
 that, because), or a result or consequence (so that). In 
 constructions where the relative pronouns who, which, 
 etc., introduce a noun clause, as in the sentence, **I know 
 whom you mean,'' whom still retains, in a sense, its func- 
 tion as a relative pronoun, for the reason that there is 
 always an implied antecedent, as, **I know the person 
 whom you mean." Of course, in diagramming this con- 
 struction, ''whom you mean" is diagrammed as a noun 
 clause, object of "know." You is the subject; do mean 
 is the verb ; whom is the object. 
 
 Pupil. — I wish that you would give me some test that 
 will enable me to determine when a word is a pronoun, 
 and when it is merely a conjunction. 
 
 Teacher. — ^You can always tell the difference between 
 a relative pronoun and a conjunction by the following 
 test: 
 
 When the word in question is used both as a pronoun 
 and as a conjunction at the same time, it is a relative 
 pronoun. When it is used, not as a pronoun, but merely 
 as a connective, it is a conjunction. Now, a pronoun is 
 always used in the place of a noun ; and as a noun must 
 always be either a subject, an object, or a predicate com- 
 plement, the relative pronoun must always be used in 
 the same way. In the sentence, "I know the man that 
 was here yesterday," note that that is used as the sub- 
 ject of the verb was, while in the sentence, "I know that 
 he is the man," that has the function only of a connec- 
 tive, as it is used as neither a subject, nor an object, nor 
 a predicate complement. Now, compare the following 
 constructions : 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 53 
 
 **I fear that he is ill-/^ ^^I am acquainted with the 
 man that ivas here yesterday/' 
 
 Now, for a drill, give ^yq sentences in which that is 
 used as a conjunction, and five sentences in which it is 
 used as a relative pronoun. Be sure to bear in mind that, 
 unless that relates to an antecedent, and can be dia- 
 grammed as the subject, the object, or the predicate 
 complement, it is not a relative pronoun. 
 
 Pupil. — Yes, I see. In the first sentence, that is a 
 conjunction, because it introduces the noun clause, ^ ^ that 
 he is ill," and at the same time connects it with the 
 principal clause, *^I fear,'* etc. In the second sentence, 
 that is a relative pronoun, because it relates to an ante- 
 cedent man, and at the same time is used as the subject 
 of the verb was. 
 
 DEILL. 
 
 In the following sentences, that is used as a con- 
 junction : 
 
 1. I fear that I cannot go. 
 
 2. I doubt that he will come. 
 
 3. I know that he likes her. 
 
 4. I know that he is honest. 
 
 5. I discovered that the house was on fire. 
 
 In the following sentences, that is used as a relative 
 pronoun : 
 
 1. This is the boy that brought the trunk. 
 
 2. This is the book that I borrowed. 
 
 3. This is the man that called yesterday. 
 
 4. It is I that am mistaken. 
 
 5. It is she ^/laHs in the wrong. 
 
GOLDEN HELP NUMBER XI 
 
 Concord of Verb with Antecedent of Relative Pronoun: How 
 to Determine It. 
 
 Pupil. — I have much difficulty in determining the 
 number of the verb when it has for its subject a relative 
 pronoun. I am familiar with the rule, — The verb that 
 has for its subject a relative pronoun is singular or plural 
 according as its antecedent is singular or plural ; but my 
 trouble is that I cannot always determine what is the 
 antecedent. 
 
 Teacher. — Let us cite examples wherein the verb has 
 for its subject a relative pronoun, and in this way we can 
 arrive at an understanding of the points involved. In 
 the sentence, **This is one of the best books that have 
 ever been written," why is **have been," and not **has 
 been," the correct form? 
 
 Pupil. — Because the antecedent of the relative pro- 
 noun that is the plural noun hooks, and hence, the verb 
 must be plural. 
 
 Teacher. — And the rule? 
 
 Pupil. — A verb that has for its subject a relative pro- 
 noun, is singular or plural according as its antecedent 
 is singular or plural. 
 
 Teacher. — Now tell me why hooJcs, and not one, is the 
 antecedent of the relative pronoun that. 
 
 Pupil. — Because one of the best books could not ever 
 
 54 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 55 
 
 have been written. The meaning is that of all the books 
 that have ever been written, the one cited is of the best. 
 
 Teacher. — Now in the sentence, * * This is the only one 
 of the books that is worth reading," why is is, and not 
 are, correct? 
 
 Pnpil. — Because the antecedent of the relative pro- 
 noun is one. 
 
 Teacher. — ^Why is it one^ and not books? 
 
 Pupil. — Because the meaning is, that of all the books, 
 this is the only one that is worth reading. 
 
 Teacher. — In the sentence, ^*She was one of those 
 ladies who were here yesterday," why is were correct! 
 
 Pupil. — Because the antecedent of who is ladies. 
 Whenever the word those is used, does it follow that the 
 verb is plural ? 
 
 Teacher. — No, not necessarily. Of course, in the sen- 
 tence, *'She was one of those ladies who called yester- 
 day," it is evident that the relative pronoun can refer 
 only to the antecedent, ladies, and not to one. Thus, the 
 maid says to her mistress, **A lady called when you were 
 away." The mistress asks, **Whol" The maid 
 responds, '*It was one of those ladies who were here 
 yesterday." Now, on the other hand, let us assume that 
 the maid says to her mistress, indicating a group of ladies 
 in the drawing room, **One of the ladies who called yes- 
 terday is here again to-day. ' ' The mistress asks, * * Which 
 one!" The maid responds, '*It was one of those ladies 
 in the corner who was here yesterday. ' ' 
 
 Pupil. — It does not seem difficult to ascertain the 
 antecedent. It seems necessary only to get at the real 
 meaning. Why, I am sure that I shall have no difficulty 
 
56 COBEECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 hereafter in constructions of this kind. I see, too, by 
 the inflection of your voice that, when the emphasis is 
 especially on the word those, as in the sentence, **It was 
 one of those ladies who was here yesterday,'' the verb 
 should be singular. This determines the number of the 
 verb in spoken language, but how can we decide the 
 matter when we encounter the construction in literature? 
 
 Teacher. — By examining the context, just as we de- 
 cided a few minutes since that the plural verb was 
 required in such constructions as, **This is one of the 
 best books that have ever been written.'* Take further 
 examples. **It is one of those libraries which have been 
 erected by Carnegie." **It is one of those happy inci- 
 dents which occur only once in a life time." **It is one 
 of those unfortunate accidents which happen now and 
 then." **It was one of those novels which are found only 
 in the libraries of the cultured." 
 
 Pupil. — Then, in referring to the characters in a 
 novel, — I can see why the construction given in Correct 
 English is correct. ''It is one of those characters which 
 have been dragged in." It is evident that, inasmuch as 
 one could not point out the characters in the sense that 
 one would point out the ladies in the drawing room, the 
 reference is not singular. 
 
 Teacher. — By amplifying the construction, one can 
 readily see why the plural verb is required: Thus: 
 ** Betty Brown was one of those characters which have 
 been dragged in by the author, for the purpose of giving 
 a touch of humor to the story." 
 
 Pupil. — After all, as I said a few minutes since, it is 
 necessary only to understand the real meaning. 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 57 
 
 Teacher. — Let us have a little drill on this point. 
 You see, it is only a case of logic ; for you can arrive at 
 the conclusion very readily, if you will only stop and 
 think. Now, is the singular or the plural verb required 
 in the following: 
 
 **This is one of those problems which are or is easily 
 solved. ' ' 
 
 **She is one of the best women that have or has ever 
 lived.'' 
 
 **It is one of the most beautiful pictures that were or 
 was ever painted.'' 
 
 '*He was one of those men who seem or seems^io find 
 fault without any provocation. ' ' 
 
 Pupil. — Undoubtedly, the plural verb is required in 
 each construction. 
 
 Teacher. — Now, give me some sentences in which the 
 singular verb is required. 
 
 Pupil. — *^This is the only one of the problems in 
 arithmetic that seems difficult." 
 
 Teacher. — ^Very good. 
 
 Pupil. — ''She was the only woman among all those 
 present who was able to give the correct answer." 
 
 '*It was one of the beautiful pictures of Millais' that 
 was on exhibition." 
 
 I am sure that I shall never again have difficulty with 
 constructions of this kind, but I am not so confident that 
 I shall know when to use the singular and when the plural 
 verb in sentences where the antecedent is a personal 
 pronoun. 
 
 Teacher. — ^When the antecedent of the relative pro- 
 noun is a personal pronoun, the verb agrees with that 
 
58 COERECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 antecedent in both person and number. Now give me an 
 example. 
 
 Pupil. — '*It is I wlio speak/ ^ Is it speak or speaks? 
 
 Teacher. — ^What is the antecedent of who? 
 
 Pupil.— 7. 
 
 Teacher. — Then, of course, speak, and not speaks, is 
 correct. Give some more examples. 
 
 Pupil. — **It is I who am to blame." 
 
 **It is you who are in the wrong." 
 
 *'It is he who is at fault." 
 
 Teacher. — Very good. 
 
 Pupil. — ^When the relative pronoun has a compound 
 antecedent connected by or or nor, should not the verb be 
 singular ! 
 
 Teacher. — ^Yes, if both the nouns or the pronouns are 
 singular as in the sentence : * * It is either he or she that 
 has made this error." 
 
 Pupil. — Then, I suppose if the nouns or the pronouns 
 were plural, the verb would be plural, as in the sentence : 
 '*It is either we or they that have made this error." 
 Now, suppose that only one of the nouns is plural, should 
 the verb be plural f 
 
 Teacher. — Eeasoning from analogy, we find that the 
 plural verb would be required; and then, of course, the 
 plural noun, and the pronoun when possible, should 
 immediately precede the relative pronoun, as in the sen- 
 tences: **It is either he or his friends who have made 
 the error;" *'It is either he or they that have made this 
 error." 
 
 Pupil. — ^Which is correct, am or is, in the sentence, 
 **It is either he or I that am (or is) to go"? 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS 59 
 
 Teacher. — Eeasoning from analogy, we find that the 
 sentence should read, **It is either he or I that am to go," 
 for the reason that, in the simple form, the construction 
 should read, ^^ Either he or I am to go"; but all con- 
 structions of this kind are awkward; it is better to use 
 the compound form, * * Either he is to go, or I am to go. ' ' 
 The construction, **It is either he or I that am to go" is, 
 of course, very awkward; but, according to the rules of 
 logic, as I have just indicated, if *^ Either he or I am 
 to go" is grammatical, — and it is, — then, **It is either 
 he or I that am to go," must be correspondingly cor- 
 rect ; but all sentences that are grammatical are not nec- 
 essarily in accordance with the best usage of the lan- 
 guage. This statement may sound paradoxical, but what 
 I wish to express is, that a construction may be gram- 
 matical so far as it conforms to the rules of grammar, 
 and yet it may not be in accordance with the rules of 
 rhetoric, which require that a construction shall be not 
 only grammatical, but euphoneous. 
 
 Pupil. — Now, in the case of nouns in apposition used 
 as explanatory nouns, what should be regarded as the 
 antecedent of the relative pronoun? 
 
 Teacher. — Strictly speaking, the noun or pronoun to 
 which the appositional noun is apposed, is the antece- 
 dent ; thus, ' * It is I, your teacher, who am in the wrong. ' ' 
 
 Pupil. — But somewhere I have seen the rule that, 
 for the sake of emphasis, the verb sometimes agrees 
 with the appositional noun, which would make the con-' 
 struction read, **It is I, your teacher, who speaks to 
 you." I think that the example given is, ^*It is I, your 
 father, who speaks/' 
 
60 COEEECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 Teacher. — Yes; but the noun in apposition agrees 
 in person, as well as in number, with the noun or pro- 
 noun to which it is apposed. Consequently, even if for 
 the sake of emphasis, the verb were to agree with the 
 appositional noun, the number and the person would be 
 the same; thus: **It is I, your father, who speak' ^; ^*It 
 is I, your teacher, who speak to you." It is safe to make 
 the verb agree simply with the noun or the pronoun to 
 which the appositional noun is apposed, and then it will 
 not become necessary to construe the person of the appo- 
 sitional noun. Now, you may give some examples 
 exemplifying this rule. 
 
 *'Can you not trust me, I who am your friend!" is the 
 verb am correct ? 
 
 Teacher. — ^Yes, but the pronoun 1 is incorrect. 
 
 Pupil. — Oh yes, it should be me, according to the 
 rule, — A noun or pronoun in apposition with another is 
 in the same case. But me who am! That seems a queer 
 construction. 
 
 Teacher. — ^What is the number and person of mef 
 
 Pupil. — Singular number, and first person. 
 
 Teacher. — So what number and person of the verb is 
 then required! 
 
 Pupil. — Singular number, and first person. 
 
 Teacher. — That is correct. Now give further ex- 
 amples. 
 
 Pupil. — *'It was Mr. Blank , the Superintendent, who 
 was in the office"; **It is you, my teacher, who are 
 instructing me." 
 
 Pupil. — Now, as to the predicate complement; we 
 have decided that the predicate complement is the ante- 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELPS •'''--'> ^^-^ \ 
 
 cedent of the relative pronoun in such constructions as, 
 '*I am the man who is doing the work for you." 
 
 Teacher. — ^Yes; the antecedent of the relative pro- 
 noun is man. 
 
 Pupil. — Then the verb should be is and not am. 
 
 Teacher. — Yes; the verb should be is, for the predi- 
 cate complement man would be parsed as being in the 
 third person. 
 
 Pupil. — It would seem that, if the appositional noun 
 should be parsed as in the same person as the noun or 
 pronoun to which it is apposed, then the predicate com- 
 plement should be regarded as in the same person, for 
 the predicate noun always denotes the same person or 
 thing as the subject. 
 
 Teacher. — But it is impossible always to regard the 
 predicate noun and the subject noun as in the same per- 
 son. Thus: In constructions like, **It is I, your 
 teacher," **I," the predicate complement, is in the first 
 person, but the subject pronoun is in the third person ; so 
 you see it is impossible, even though the predicate noun 
 and the subject noun denote the same person and thing, 
 to construe these parts as being of the same person. 
 
 If, in the case of a noun in apposition, you will regard 
 the noun to which it is apposed as the antecedent of the 
 relative pronoun, and if you will parse the predicate noun, 
 and all nouns except the appositional nouns, as in the 
 third person, you will have no difficulty in construing the 
 number and the person of the verb that has for its ante- 
 cedent a relative pronoun. 
 
GOLDEN HELP NUMBER XII 
 
 Who, Which, and That: How to Use Them. 
 
 Pupil. — I wonder whether I shall ever understand just 
 how to use the relative pronouns, who, which, and that. 
 I know that grammarians prefer that when the sense is 
 restrictive, and who or which when a new fact is added ; 
 but, somehow, I cannot fully comprehend this subject. 
 
 Teacher. — Commit this rule: Use that unless the 
 meaning is **and he,*' **and she," or **and if In the 
 latter case, use who or which. "We say, * * This is the man 
 that called yesterday ; " * * I gave the money to the driver, 
 who will give it to his employer ;'* *^I brought her a book 
 from the library, which she enjoyed very much." You 
 will observe that in the sentences where who and which 
 are used, '*and he" and *'and it" can be respectively 
 supplied; and, again, that in writing out the sentences, 
 the comma is used before who and which, showing that a 
 new fact is added. 
 
 Pupil. — I see that *'and he" cannot be substituted for 
 that in the sentence, ' * This is the man that called yester- 
 day, ' ' but that these words can be substituted for who in 
 the sentence, **I gave the money to the driver, who will 
 give it to his employer;" for one can, with equal pro- 
 priety, say, '*I gave the money to the driver, and he will 
 give it to his employer." So, too, in the sentence, *^I 
 brought her a book from the library, which she enjoyed 
 
 62 
 
TWELVE GOLDEN HELf>S 63 
 
 very much," one may substitute ''and .. it;'' as, ''I 
 brought her a book from the library, and she enjoyed it 
 very much." 
 
 Teacher. — Now, you may give a few illustrative sen- 
 tences. 
 
 Pupil. — I have studied the lessons that you gave me. 
 The boy that was here yesterday called again to-day. 
 I gave the book to your brother, who will return it, I 
 wrote several letters, which you will find on my desk. 
 The man, whose name I cannot recall, says that he is 
 related to me. The dog, which is a St. Bernard, saved 
 the child's life. 
 
 Teacher. — Very good. There are a few instances 
 where the general rule is hardly applicable. Coerect 
 English gives the following: 
 
 Who and which are preferable to that in the following 
 cases : 
 
 (a) Who is preferable to that when its antecedent is 
 already restricted. Thus, ''My friend from New York 
 whom. I had invited to visit me, is unable to come." The 
 antecedent of whom is friend. Friend is limited by my, 
 hence, whom is preferred to that, 
 
 (h) Which is preferable to that when it is necessary 
 to repeat the pronoun in a subsequent clause in such con- 
 structions as, "The book which you lent me and to which 
 you have just referred," are preferable to "The book 
 that you lent me and to which/' etc. 
 
 (When a preposition is not required, that is prefer- 
 able; as "The book that you lent and that I have just 
 finished," etc.) 
 
 (c) Who is preferable to that after indefinite pro- 
 
64 CORRECT ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 nouns. Thus, *' There are many who could not come." 
 ** There are several who are absent." ** There are those 
 who would hesitate to accept such terms, while there are 
 others who would not." 
 
 Pupil. — Of course, all these clauses are restrictive; 
 that is, **and he," **and she," or *^and it" cannot be 
 used in the place of the relative pronoun. If it were not 
 for the exceptions, how easy it would be to learn the 
 rules I 
 
 Teacher. — That is true; but you need have no diffi- 
 culty in this instance, as the exceptions to the rule are 
 few and easy to understand. 
 
 {d) If the relative is separated from its verb, who 
 or which is preferable to that; thus: '* There are men 
 who, although tempted, never fall, and who, no matter 
 what influences surround them, never compromise with 
 their ideals." 
 
 {Which is more euphonious than that in such con- 
 structions as, ''The objective complement is the word 
 that completes the meaning of the verb which it fol- 
 lows.") 
 
rtj J642^ 
 
 54i;<58 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA UBRARY