THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES LECTURES ON HISTORY, DELIVERED IN THE NOMMAIL SCIIOOJL Of PJRIS^, JBV C. F. YOLNEY, AUTHOR or THE RUINS OF EMPIRES, MKMBER OPT H'S NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF FRANCE, &C. &C. '' ■ ,". I , i .'" . !=3i TRANSLATED FR03I THE FRENCH. S.onOoiTy Printed at Hxc Oriental PicG>, by Wi ls o N Sc Co. /f7W Court, FOR J. RIDOWAY, YORK STKri:!, SI'. James's squark. 1800. .'^T;"f ^'. ., . ■ '..;:; "!.:•■.!-.?■,;. 'Uu jiv.-' I f^s^or«^ of the Normal ^School lectured from fome brief notes. only, in the trrannerof Speakers I'rt piiBlic ' alfcmbjies. Their worijs were iak^h ' - i-^i > .1 believe, {herefore, \\mi t ' sliSMd render an eminent sei*vice to 'rfij ^eoiih- . try, if. this book should sha^e 'that' i^e- specifor Hislory \Y\iich.^Vii become a dogma- vu dogma in European education — if, be- coming the Universal Preface of every s History, it should put the reader on his guard against the empiricism of authors and the ilhisions of his own mind — if it should induce all thinking men to , submit eyery narrator to a sever than from ourselves ? 2, Whether, since we form false and A 4 impcr- MSI impee fe€*t(«r inforaaetl oi^" wiKit ^ftSfie]^; ^iK^g passed, at great distances 'Of time or piace^? ^,1^9^* iui «-^-*. Whetlier, since we baTe mom than one present example c^ equivocal or fiilse facts being transmitted to posterity with all the passports of truth, we have reason to suppose tliat men in former times w^ere less daring, or more consci- entious in their transactions {^.imt-^^^..--^ ., .4. Whether, since in the mtdst 'pf 'factions the historian is menaced by every party his writings offend, poste- rity, or the present age, can expect that lie should make sacrifices which would be rewarded only by accusations of im- prudence, or the barren honour jjc^ a funeral pomp? - ^ i- > • -.•.?;: 5. Wliether, fiirtce it wblild "be im- prudent. proticnt, and jklfliest inipossiWe itly . collects. i>^4j3'§^^|>«i I shall be very happy if even the im- perfections of my work should give oc- casion to the accomplishment of a bet- 1;er, and determine some philosophic rmind' to' treat profoundly .the iro- *portant questions which I have only pointed out, particularly those of tfie avthority of testimony, and Uie con- ditions requited for certainty; sub- jects which have never been pro- fpedj discussed, but which form the pivot ifid ^^t of Mmoet all our knowledge, or, according, to-the phrase of Helve tiias, of our acquired J^norance. .^J^'^'^IP^V^ ^' ^'Fof' my part, the comparison of the 'prejudices and habits of different in- 5flividiial& and nations, has convinced, 'find' nearly freed me of those of my education and my country. Having travelled from one country to another, aiKl traced the alterations and various shades of rumours and statements, the origin of which I had wisnessed ; hav- *ittg (Observed very false notions of events ^<>hnectcd with the French revolution entertained in the United States, and m the like manner recognized the tfrror* 'of those generally received in France with respect to many circum- stapcee of the American revolution, .1 .... which which '2tve already dHguised by iKitional pride> or thie apiiit of pfart j, I ' cannot avoid confessing thut I be<5oi«^ daify more inclined to refuse my confidence to Mstorians aiul to history: Indeed I know nrot whethci^ I am most asto^ nished at the cardes&ness with which even thinking men believe on the most frivolous grounds, or their obstinacy in acting from their first impressions.— Every day I see new reasons for con- cluding that the disposition of mind most favourable to instruction, the discovery of truth> and the peac*e and iiapprness of individuals and nations, is to Mleve with difficylty. in taking advantage, therefore, of my title of Pro- ye55or,w ith which the Government has honowred me, were I to reconmiend any &RJC j^^^cept to ^rcnts^ wha are the .);ii/oi:^-'o:wt natural X44I pupiis. - do -^^-- roagislemi a*itkoi»ii5^ — n^%* ' to habituate th««» to ftr> impliqit peU-*^ ance in the rek.tions of others, to the beHef of what thej do not understands On the contra r}', I would warn them against that double inclination to cve- dulity and confidence, the influence of which is the more powerful in conse- quence of its being derived from the ignorance, the indolence, and the pride natural to man. In a word, I would advise them to establish the system of instruction and education, not on tlie facts of any Ideal World, the aspects of which are constantly varying and sul>ject to endless controversy, but on ^]\<^ ^Cti^i^f the Physical World, the ■ ,- -. ' 2 knowledge XIV knowledge of which being always redu- cible to thedeinqnstratipn Qf evidence, presents a certain basis -fef judgment or opinion, and alone merits the name of Philosophy and Science. jo. ; it 1 *? -^ ' t w; Pit* oshci ■^Z: i.^-^-:>di i^i '\ t; l-ir -uyi'd ii.:n '"di «tu CONTENTS. V.(X LECTURE I. VROGRAM. Object, Plan, and Distribution of the Study of His- tory ^ Fajre I LECTURE IL The literal meaning of the word History is an Examina- tion or Inquest of Facts. — Modesty of the ancient, and Temerity of the motlern Historians. — The His- torian who writes on Testimony, performs the Part of a Judge, and remains an intermediate Witness with respect to his Readers.— Extreme Difficulty of prov- ing the real State of a Fact — Difficulty, on the part of the Spectator, of accurately observing it — Difficulty, on the part of the Narrator, of accurately describing it. — Numerous Causes of Error, originating in De- ception, Prejudice, Negligence, Omission, Partiality, SiC , .^ Page 8 b LECTURE XVI LECTURE III. Continuation of we same Smjject^— Four principal Classes of Historians, with the diiFerent degrees of authority that belong to eadl.' 1. Historians who have acted a part in the events they record. 2. His- torians who only have -witoGssed those events, s. Historians who have received their information from witnesses. 4. Histori^pspn hearsay or tradition. — . The inevitable corruption of accounts transmitted by "reporr.-^Abfurdtty of the Traditions of di-stant rimes, - oammon to-all nations— They have tlieir origin m rfie nature of the human understanding. — The character of History always proportionate to the degree of ig- norance or civilization- of » -'people. — Character of History araong the Ancients, and among Nations un- acqaairrted witli tfie Art of Printiug^. — ESeiiS? of the Press upon History — The change it hai podbced in modcnr Historians. — The temper of mind'^iesft «iwed ■"'to' the Study- of History. — The absurdity* «f dbiiBt- -- irrg every thing, less dangerous t-Ran-that'df- daubt- ing! nothing;— Reasons for being caotrou*' in otf lie- lief ,.;... ...............;.. .... .... .P«J^2o The^ grcceding Subject resumed. — What is the uti^^ty that may be derived from History ? — That utility di- vided ami- vided intd three kinds : 1, The utility oF good cxam- pjies« more than. counterbalanced by the bad. 2,. Trans- mitting facts relative to the Arts and Sciences. 3,, Political consequences of the operation of laws, 'and of the nature of governments, on the fate of nitions. — Tlic ftudy of History under this last point of view belongs properly to but a small number of persons : it is only suited to youth, and to the greater part of the r -various, classes of society under the first. — Well written hfavels are preferable .../....-.. .-. . ,' . . . . Page 1 ^,,^,' LECTURE V. Of the Art of studying History wfth advantage. — Th^t Art not attainable by Youth. — The Study of History without proper Instruction more injurious than useful to young Minds. — Of the Art of teaching Tthe-StMdy of History. — Views of the Author on a course of Historical Studies. — Of the Art of writing History. — Examination of the Ptinciples of Lucian and Mably Pn^r 87 LECTURE VI. Continuation of the same Subject. — Four methods of composing Htstoi^. 1. According to the ordi^r of time (as in Annal-s and Chronicles.) 2. By atfoptihg a dramatic .or systematic arrangement 8. Bv rrearin"- b i the XT 111 the different subjects separately. 4. By an analytic or piiilosoghic arrangement. — Illustration of those dif- ferenfc,^ejhQ^.rrSuperiority of the Isst.i^lt's^'coh- " nectlon with politics and legislation. — It adrhits none ' but ascertained facts, and is only suitable to modern times. — Facts recorded of ancient times, cannavcr pos- sess a higher evidence than that of probability. — Ne- cessity, on this account, of recomposing ancient Histo- ry, and plan of Literary Society for collecting ancient documents in every part of Europe. — Prejudices would be destroyed by disclosing their origin. — Influehce qf History. — On the conduct of governments, and the fate of nations. — Effects of the Jewish writings on Europe. — Effects of the introduction of the Greek and Roman writers into education. — Conclusion . Pa^^" i24 •» -0 -t LECTURES ^ ON MISTO RY. LECTURE I. PROGRAM. Object J Pho2, and Distribution of the Studij of Histori/. History, considered as a science, differs essentially from the physical and mathe- matical sciences. In physical science the facts are permanent : they may he i>aid to live, and are capahle of being presentetl to the spectator, or re-exhi- bited to the witness. In history the facts exist no longer : they arc dead, and cannot br resuscitated to the view of the spectator, U nor c>. f^y^^Uie witness. Pliy si- -pati bilitji? ^dtb ph}- gicaHafetii of the 6a«t\e species 'Still exiMmg and known — Tliis constitutes possibility. '■'■ : 2. That G. CChat of Kcrntinizing the nan-ators and iii^itiiesses with regard to their moral facul- \4ies, tlieir means of information, and their impartialit}' — This constitutes moral pro- bability. This operation is a comphcated judgment fon»ed from a twofold consi^ iteration ^ aad the fleeting nature of the J)ohjects renders the decision very delicate, iiiffid ^soepctibif oti a -aiultipii^t^iOiVei'- Applying those observaHons to the most eminent of ancient and modern histo- rians, we propose, in the course of these X-ectures, to examine what character history maintains among different nations, and, particularly, what character it has assumed during the preceding century. We shall likewise point out the remarkable differ- ences which have occurred in the historical genius of the same nation, according to the gradation of its mathematicai and physical knowledge. From these inquiries a num- j ribec of important questions will arise. B 2 1, V/liat i , I.\\[hat degree of certain tjj, or whit ■CohiSdehco ought w6£ol;^tB.ch.to Historical narrations, hatk in genejrai and an, paiti^ ^urar cases? " > . * r 2. VVnat importance ousjht \ve .to-attri- •mjte to historical facts: and what advan- itage jor inconvenience results, irpni, oiir er^Etiv^ ••_ , . , I) jnTuii^nl^ opinion or that importance r* ,,j-j^ ., - r>. '''*^ ,„, -11 y^ aj^^'-^U''^^' '^-'^ * . 3. Vviiat social and practjcal utility may we propose to ourselves, either in the teaching, or the studying of history ? '^ . .I?f Tiesolving these questions, we shall •have occasion to inquire what rank the study of history ought to hold in public instruction ; whether that study is pro- per for primary schools ; and what parts of history ate best suited to the dif- lerent ages or professions of t;lie stu- dents. , We shall next consider what men ought ro devote themselves to the instiuc)^\ng. of ethers in history: what method is preier- iible for teaching it ; from what sources ■ ; liistoncal I iejipe..„ ^-.. ....^. ; what requisites the historrah ought to possess, and what precautions he ought to exercise; in what manner the subject oughl5 to be treated ; how the different subjects should be distributed; and, finally, whajt is the influence which historians possess over tl\e opinion of posterity, the operations of government, and tlie fate of nations. •ho'- 9BOI^- : After examining history as a narrative of facts, and the facts themselves as jv course of itvcoluniary experiments which manlmid tcndergo, we shall endeavour to take a rapid view of universal history, in order to collect its most interesting triftlig^' 'l*hen, turning our attention to the nationsf most celebrated for knowledge and civili- zation, we shall trace the rise and the pro- gi;css, ^^ ^^ 1/ Ot the arts— such as ao-ri culture* commerce, navigation: 2. Of diflcrcnt .sciences — such as astro- B 3 nomy. miomyf 1 geography, cxpierimental , philoso- phy4. .bjit>4iiiiiii .ba3£4ruiji*; t»d yBn}«#. f(r>^iv» S. Of private and pubfic mof^lsf e»- arhiiiing: at the same time what ideas have been entertained on those subjects at differettt ■penods^'tiitTiit^^di yrih'^^hlhm^. 4. Finallyj we shall observe the march ^nd the progress of legislation : we sliall mark the rise of the most remarkable civil and religious codes: we shall inquire in what order those codes have been trans- mitted from natioji to nation, and from generattiofl to generation ; what effects they have produced on the customs, the manners, and tlie character of nations; what analogy the manners and the cha" lacter of a people preserve with the cli- mate and the physical state of the soil which they inhabit ; what changes are produced in their manners, by transmigra- tions, and the intermixture of different races : and, taking a general view of the present state of the globe, we shall con- clude by proposing the examination of (the two following questions : — \ . 1. What ^i: What is the degree of civilizatieHafiti^v Avliich it may be estimated mankind haVtv' • 2. What general indicafcicms result ifioni history, for perfecting civilization, andfoM ameliorating the condition of the hiwiiau species? "^^ }f£f{2 3,7r.t;:j[Tlfinri .^ iiih 3ldi;>iThmf>'j i^nm -oih lo ^♦;»it 3fft 'AiPAti ''■'km ''■ i'.iii B4 ii'^" tECTlTRE a H. i **o fiff; OJ. nc:.-;:...':- ; :, ,; . • : ; ' . "., .VieJiterql^meaninjg of the word History ^ iii JEj^^;AH^'ATION ^r^ iNftJXEST of ^Fu^^.s^— 'Modesty of the ancient^ an4 ^^l^Mmerity of the modern. Historians.'— x'yThe Historian who writes on Testimony , performs the pairt of a Judge, and re- .,-. mains an intermediate Witness zmth re- , ■ spect to his Readers. — Extremel>igiculty V £/ proving the real state of a Fact— ^ Difficulty, on the part of the Spectator, ,; of accurately observing it — Difficulty, oji ii ^^^ /i«r/ of the Narrator, of accurately ,, describing it. — Numerous Causes of Er- ,^ror, originating in Deception, Prejudice,, J Negligence, Omission, Partiality^ 8^(^ r We have briefly indicated the c6ur3e we propose to pursue. Theplan will perhaps appear" w^U conceived, both ^^^^th r-cspect to its extent, and its object ; but, at the -same tin^e^ th^ difiiculty of* the execution . , .. . -i ..- .. cannot 5^ cannot be dissembled. This difficulty; consists chiefly in three points : — 1. The novelty of the Subject; for we shall not confine our attention to one or a few nations, on which every interest is ac* cumulated, while all others are despised,, and no reason assigned for such conduct, , except that of voluntary neglect. This certainly will be a new metl^od of ti-eating, history. ', ;. ? 2. The complication which naturally arises from the extent, as well as the im- portance, of a subject embracing so many facts and events — a subject which consi- ders the whole human species as one soci- * ety, and nations as individuals; and which retraces the existence of those individuals to collect numerous and repeated facts, the results of which constitute what are called principles and rules ; for principles in morals are not fixed and abstract cri- tei^ia existing independently of human nature. On the contrary, principles arc summary and general fants^ resulting from the addition of particular tacts, and B 5 thereby ; 1*6 tliefeby>1bee<^lti4iig ttot tyramikal rules of conduct, j-;l)ttfc-t}iB bases rcft* calculations Approx^iiHAting likeliliood and probability*. C/" 3. The nature of the subject; foFj as f ,uOi!h-,- :Hv ')i:.:/nq oJ -l!?! '^•' Ifr^lie oth^r sciences which are taugtit ' th this amphitheatre, the path to be pur- sued is already marked out, either by tlie ''^riattlTal dfrderof the facts, or by the well- digested methods of the authors. In his- tory, such as we regard it, the path is new, .1 and Ikis no model. We have some hooks ' *liat bear the title of Univer.ml .Histories ; but bcsixles the declamatory styfe «which tUstihgulshes the most celebratc<^ 'Works of this kind, they have the §tin \grearcr fault .: of h^ing Quly the partial Jmjtorks,Oi c & tribes, tribes, or the. panegyrics of families. Thel classical writers of Eu/Dpeliavc. tfieateii'r only of Greeks, Romahs, andJews ; ber/v cause, if we are not the descendants, \v9m are at least the heirs of those people, with;/ respect to civil and religious laws, lanr-!^ ■ guage, scieace, . and territory. Thus Jtft appears to me, that history has not yet r heen treated in that comprehensive man- q aier which ought to distinguish it as ai science, particularly in a mition that has jisen to so eminent a degree of knowledge and philosophy as to despise the savage [» and ferocious selfishness by which the an-n cieuts concentrated as it were the uni^ ::■ verse in a city or a. tribe, and consecrated "b thdr hatred of every other people under = i the ^ame o^ patriotism, instead of regaixlr iiig them with the aspect of fraternity ; a disposition of mjnd, which, while it does not u ; preclude a juiit self-defence, makes room, tq for ajU th^.,tipiy,v sewti">ettts.,Qf fi^injly and : . kiiijdred. jj^., .. ^.c^i r. >'■■ ^ui\ ti ThctliflE^'^J^t.i^'s >^xhfivcj)tl('scril>ed, render .'>,', ' it it iiiglily necessary^ to observe 6tc1er an^' methocl in treating a subject so extensive*'^ As a fji'st step, let us inquire what we ought ' to understand by the word history : for words, being signs of ideas, possess more importance than is sometimes attached to "^ them. They are like the titles, df books, ^• which frequently mislead : it is always prudent to open them, if we would judge ' rightly of their contents. The word history appears to have had a ' different acceptation among the ancients, ^^ from that which it has obtained in modern' ' times. The Greeks, \A\o framed it, un- dcrstooil by it a minute inquiry, a carcfui examination. In this sense it is employed by Herodotus. Among the moderns, on '^ the contrary, the word history is applied' to Marratite or recital, even when it has no pii^ence to veracity. The ancients search- ed t'ov truth; the mmlerns pretend they ])ossess it. This is a rash conceit, when ^ ' we co)isidcr how diOicuU truth is to be found in every investigation, and particu- larly u iarly in those which relate to politiiSal o^i^ currencOs. idpi^ itrais, ^doubtless, this , i->:jUoiii c With respect to their essence, facts, .ts they are to be found in nature* or in the system of the universe, have but one man- ner of existence, — a. manner which is con- stant and uniform, and which renders the rule of decision simple and invariable. If the facts related be consistent with the known laws of nature ; if they be in the order of existing or possible things, they acquire, in the eyes of the historian, likelihood or probability: but hence ori- ginates a difterence in the decisions which may be pronounced on the same facts j for every one judges of probability and hkelihood according to the nature and the extent of his knowledge. To reason by analogy on an unknown fact, it is ne- cessary to know some fact to which it may be compared. A correct measure iiiust be applied to it. Thus the sj here of of analogies Is extended, or narrowed, itf proportion to the degree of knowledge' already acquired. This tends in many^ cases to diminish the circle of judgment, and" consequently of certainty : but this, per-- haps, is no great inconvenience ; for,, as an eastern proverb justly observes. He •who much believes, is much deceived. If, there be a right, not to yield belief to what the conscience rejects, and to doubt when we cannot comprehend, will cer- tainly be allowed to be one. Herodotus has set us an example which deserves to be quoted on thjs occasion. Speaking of the voyage of a Phoenician vessel, which Kechos king of Egypt dispatched by the Red 3ea, and which three years afterwards returned by the Mediterranean, he says^ / ' The Phoenicians related, on their return, that, in sailing round Libya, they had the sun upon their right : This story seemed to me by no means credible ; but perhaps it may, be believed by others." Thiscir- cumstajice is with" us the stroHgest proof of the fact, and the conduct of Herodotus, 4 who who decided erroneously upon it, appears to me highly commendable ;^lsf, fair re- porting it without any addition or altera- tion ; 2d, for not having exceeded the bounds of his own information, and for not believing, on the report of others, what h^ could not comprehend by his knowledge. Ancient historians and geographers, who were more presumptuous, Strabo for ex-; ample, have, upon their imperfect know- ledge, decided that the story was false : But their error, which is now demon- strated, is a useful warning to us to avoid pronouncing judgment from the dictates of prejudice, and with imperfect information. The maxims of prudence require tliat w.e iJipuld withhold our assent from proposi- tions which we do not understand. This'is really a natural right, a duty of , reason ; for the nieasure of conviction ought to be the.only rule of Our judgment; and, when- ever we .exceed, its bounds, m e arc hurried from tljie belief. of what we .know not to what is improbable, and tVom improbability ""'.... to to extravagancies and absurdities ofevery The second point of \^iew under which £ict* ought to be examined, i^ that of their proof. This investigation is much more difficult » and complicated than the former. Tlie rules in this case are not fixed and constant, like those of nature ; on the contrary, they are variable, as those of the human understanding, which may be compared to those mirrors Avith crooked and irregular planes, that have amused you (when you attended lectures on natural philosophy) by the fantastic appearance^ under which they represent objects. This comparison will perhaps appear to you the more just, as it is capable of a twofold application: for if, on the one hand, as is unfortunately too often the case, na- tural objects, which are always regular, should appear distorted when painted on the understanding ; on the other hand, the caricatures which tlie mind has pro- duced, when re-submitted to reflection, ina}% by- the sime rules, be corrected in an* inverse manner, and recover the ratkwftal" forms of their first type, which was Nature, The understanding may be regarded as a moveable wave, Avhich disfigures objects by its various undulations ; first, and most frequently, by those of passion, and next? l)y those of negligence, imperfect judge- ment, and ignorance. These are points on which the searcher of truth, the his- torian, ought constantly to interrogate his witnesses. But is he not also liable to the 5am e errors ? He is a man ; and are not negligence, ignorance, and prejudice, al- ways the attendants of human nature? "Consider, fora moment, what happens with respect to accounts that reach us from the third or fourth hand. Do you not imagine that you see a natural object which is re- flecterl by a first glass to a second, by the second to a third, and so on from glasa to glass, acquiring new shades, deviations, and undulations from eich ? Can you sup- pose that, under such circumstances, a'eor- rcct rect representation will be transmitted ta you? Must not the niere translatioh* frbtir one. language into another produ^^^ti^ considerable alteration in the shades 't^f thought, without taking into the accountf those verbal mistakes which frequently occur? Eut mark what happens everyi day,tittix the sasme^^ language, *te^-^i^ni^ country, and under your own t^yee^. ""AW event occurs in the very city in whicfir you live — Listen to the accounts whicli- dilFerent witnesses give of it. — Frequently^ no two agree as to the circumstances, and- sometimes they differ with regard to tltit^ most material facts. This may be expe-^ rienced in a manner sufficiently amusing in 1 travelling. A transaction takes pla^e ji^ one town ; you have even witnessed^ it yourself I but advance ten league, kri^d^ you Irear it related in a new mamii^r;' eqhoed from town t j town, you at last find it.;sjat oC possible to recognize the of i gin of the^ story, and, struck at tlie coiVfid^ence of others, you are 'tempted to 'distrust your own. ^-jiiui^ u s'-^ v^-^-'^*'-- '•*' ' ■■'■ Now^ 21 .]|^9Jf>f'^f *^ ^^ difficult to. prove the pre- ci^!^,^x:i9tenQCy that is ta say, the truths of (acis thiit occur among ourselves, ho\r much greater must this difficulty have been among the ancients, who had not ^he means of arriving at certainty that we possess ? I .shall not at present enter into the details connected with this part of my subject, as I intend to treat of it more fully in another Lecture. But, after hav- ^' ing touched on the natural difficulties of discovering truth, I shall take notice of djat wliich rises out of the passions of the relator and the witnesses, or what is called partiality. This I shall divide into two branches, viz. Voluntary par- tiality, and Cwnpulsory partiality. The latter, which is inspired by fear, necessarily exists in all despotic states, where the publication of facts would be a perpetual censure on tlie government. In such states, if a man have the courage to relate the most notorious truth, and what public opinion most decisively proclaims, his book cannot be printed, or, if printed, it cannot be eg he circulated : thus it becomes a natural Xiousequence of the existing order of things, that no man dare divulge his thoughts on |)uMic aftairs through the medium of the t^i^ss ; or, if he Ul'idertake so hazardous ;^n enterprize, he must write equivocally, -and practise concealment, dissimulation and falsehood. Such, however, is the icharacter of the greater part of histmuesi 3^^^ The effects of voluntary partiality ^e "istill more extensive. The causes which, 1^ the former case, produce silence, are in •tthis motives for writing ; and the author ;who acts under their influence feels a .pleasure in propagating falsehood and ^j^fjoj*. , In -the former case, the author is ;4?pnstant;ly menaced hy tyr^n^^ ;. iit.the ^w^ilatter, they encourage him. They pay for ..his praises, and stimulate his cxertionii ; .^^nd, having imposed upon their- own times ,hy their actions, tliiey . i;npose upoi> poste- *jL'i^3(.^^y.ih^rUwqd panegyrist^jij &«>•'" lorXiw^ihgJi aiiutk(i-to an: involuhtai^-, j.,::- hut but not less powerful kind of partiality ; I i»ean that which arises fram tfce civil oar religious prejudices in "which we are edu- xatod. In taking a general view of authors, it is difhcult to discover any who havje Ijecn totally free from prejudices of this nature. The imfluence of prejudice ope- .jated powerfully even among the ancients. Indeed, when we consider that in our tenderest age every thing that surrounds us conspires to impregnate us with pre- judice — that opinions And ideas are in- fused mt6 us by halat, by affection, by force, by persuasion, by tlireats and by promises — that our reason is encir- cled by sacred boumlaries, over which ^VT are prohibited to step; it is not sur- prising that the human mind sliould be- come 2. fabric of error. But when, upon examining ourselves, w-c.see reason to be- lieve tliat under similar circumstances 'we should have adopted the errors of others — and that if we have drscovered truths, we perliaps owe our good fortune only to the accidental advantages wc possess over tliose those "who preceded us, far from entertain- ing sentiments of pride, or testifying a contempt for other times, we should re- joice that we live in a period of liberty, in which men are permitted to think agreeably to the dictates of nature and conscience. Fearing, however, from the example of others, that even conscience itself may be under error, we should not make a contradictory and tyrannical use of the liberty we enjoy ; but, if unity of opinion cannot be obtained, we ought at least to seek, in toleration, the common utility of peace. In the next Lecture we shall inquire what materials for history, and what means of information were possessed by the ancients, and, comparing their civil and moral state with that of the moderns, we shall point out the revolution which the press has produced in that branch of study, and in knowledge in general. Z.ECTUIIE 25 LECTURE III. Continuation of the same Subject. — Four principal Classes of Historians, with tha different degrees of authority that be- ' ia7}g'to each, 1. Historians who have acted a part in the events tkey record. .'Z. Historians xvho only have witnessed - thost etents. 3. Historians who have received their information from witnesses. AtM Historians on hearsay or tradition. — • 'The inevitable corruption of accounts • If^ansniitted by report. — Absurdity of the Traditions of distant times, common to all nations — They have -their origin in the nature of thehujnan understanding. — 7 he charJi.) c.t:'.'\.. ;>.i,f?; ;.■)?!'■,' '1^ " f ".[>! p ".•";■'' i' jinittecli' tlxat, in estimating the certainty of liiistorical; facts^ it- is necessary to> cau- .^iderwell what>is the- cliaractei? of the re- iatoifs^ g.nterests.an4;airectioas.:7rffiroi}n J r i'^;^^, tljiat of >CQH8tCa*ft^, V . t^^t^Qf ^^^^ jfiftdf tlifat of the/pji;ejud^Gesjbf f^birth and , ieducation : this last,-> however excusahie ;, jjtjf.may- appear^ , is , ex<>e6tliiigly;- powerful, and pernicious, invitsrjnfl\iea>€©,' sittce- the paSiSions and interests of ^ whole nations arc at once its o rig iji and ; support ; and, na- tions, )fcU»3o])stinate, and furmorc^ exeicisQ oy^r; tiil^ir rnqnoers the most; ar- T^ti;^r^; W^ • t^PjVp^ive of despotlsuisl^that of iiatipual pveju^icey wliet!i& cMt^^^ /_.t ■';. I ; ': f W^ sliiiU, hay£ inore than on^ Oceanian; ^to : cp'Asjidpr, t}i^ different gradatioriSi tllit; t^l^;^ap&- iii[ the value of evidence :''-Jt= jtff^s^n^ CQpitiouing tadevelppe the same, q^e^tiftn^^ we sjpiaj,! ex^ii^ine the degree of? authority tliat helongs to testimpliy^ ac- cording to its greater or less distance from 'gu:;t^^nd.ea'eiit;$» In investipratino: the character of tire dif- f^en^ti\v^tJie3»e^,04.\relators ,of iiistoric^il oc- ' curi';dijcAs^Av;£^ niay be divided iiitOf "^seVeriilgradualaijd successive cly,sscs, y/hich, 'arAprDpoitiQu^ny.nipre or less, entitled to. 'Qur', helief,. The, Ilistpviau'. who' records. trapisq^i-'tiQxt^, ip,, ^v:h^eh he hi;?, perfiirnied, X p.artj , r'ai^^s,; ir^ the,' first^■cIas.V^: C)f this, iii'ud iie tii\e^'greatei\ part of thfe'^bliith^r^ ' c 2 • —^- "■% ^■^■■^cy ■ '• ''J no iiiediat<^1j froiijrautjiors of tbis/des<^'i'ipti0$^{ are li'^ble t(^ jthi^, least i^iisreprescntationirt) th(|,trpjis^n;j,i^^ioj^, ybe relation possessestto higlie^f. jjl^git^p ,C|f; authenticity. jrbiiJtn^wrl belief jri^ i^ ou^hp , sti^lj,;tpi be subject Mtfi^r all tbe moral considerations of interest;! aifection, and sagacity, of which we haveii spoken : these considerations will always^ diminish the credit of a Historian writingii under the influence of the highest degreeri of pei-3t\ia^ qur confidence; i^ invioluntai/ly\<*^ gi yeji, i^Oc^ jic^ ; ^u^hqrs/ ai^;d ;W^) IP ay 'be said*l to . recqgni^^* ;i^ their ^-c^tioois, the stmip oj^d ' /r^V//^jOj;iVatHi^ ;l?hat, of c&^mmeG* , ^-.i-S^J : r '• "'""' * - ••. 2. Tlic 4f clf'gt^fe of ciredibility,^ histbvical rela^piis U4u!et»o air the iuclicial formalities of i\\e hearinsT and' exarhmdtioii. of witnesses, ^¥hich'aiong and'abcttnuiiaii^d hxpenbnve h^ iHtrbdHeeti^^llitt^ tlvc^ur" or* nations: Gonsd^iui^ntly, on6 author,' life ' oiie- witness, has no right to require oilt, •iniph#fet' Caesar had pergonal motives 'fprdis- jgjCiising the truth. A^^T'l^j''?^ gi ifj1>fe j^econd class is tHat of authors -^llb -IfekVcC: witnessed the transactions they re- cord, but who have not been actively en- 'gaged in them, and whose -(vritings arfc ftherefore less liable to the su-spicion of be- ting composed under the influJ6nce of ipeF- -jBjonal interest. Their tiestimoriy, m -niRM; 1t!ases, inspires miich more confidetlde-ffen -^Iiat of authors of the forHier'He4 -silbfect -!tQ|the;iCdnditions of probability, ^nd -fe 'to lite judged, 1 . ac(?0rding to 'thte -quaitif Ity i iofl ^Yidence,; ^. according to 'tile ct^Ttb- v^oiJatioiir -erf t evidence; ,:3.iicc6rdiiig 'fo itheimlispensable rui^:i(ii1i the mdutlis of ^nt- ^iS^S^Js!^' ' Wf6yUf^ ^Jir^ety-rfe^r -t^ thfe fir^t ,^Mf^^ W-itell^eWye ; '^ 'fliei-e % ^siild- ^fiiMf ihtycftlu<*ed, 'ift'tHis eiasfe, "aftiaierfel difference as to the correcth^ss 'df 'the hari'ative, and the precision of the pic- Wr(^l?khihited. ^'f?e' witnesses h<'ive seen •^tifd 'h;err?Tr;:r;f5i,ir:ij'i1 oiM^-^unLij ^^■^-[tf, ., . . figured, 53 Bjjmred,., out as it has been 6onunitted to -off ^rrrr.^ ^>{fr ;^r;^i ^.•v.i.g .ut;;!} jj^iiii/. paper, so It J. remains; and if,,, ^s it tre- .quently l^ppens, cljgferent mmds give to •it ^iffeieht iiiterpretation^i they are still obliged to recu^ .to that type which, if ^ot original, i*. at least positive ; besitles,* jeyerV^ritten. cldc\imei)t poss'esses- thiS far- ther aciyaptaffe, that, notwithstahdina: the intervals or time and space, it transmits lacts i^ii mediately as they existed, or as they have been recorded : it briim-s the . author before us; it. summons him from amon*; the dead ; and, at the distance of fV . . .... r ... , thousands of v ears, introduces, us to/ a •convei"sation with Cicero, IJopier^.Cojifiir- cj^s^ &Cj. NAthiug more i^ pec^ssary thc|^H ,tc^proye^ that. -the writing .is not appcry'r "pliaJ, ami that it is really the wot^k of the person whose name it bears. 'If it is'aho- nvmous^ jt loses a degree of authen^jcjty : as its author is concealed, its testmiQ.- .nVf should ,be submitted to the in vest i- gatioit or a severe criticism,, and it will fteccssarily be liable to, all the, suspicion jWhij^li^ clandestine' transactions' lie vcr fail c i. to •it 'Ig^^s nothing of ifts aiifeheriticitj^j;.''l«Bfc «n passing from oae khguageito anothec, idhe fadts are removed onedegi'ee fei-fheik' :fo-om their ouigin, and 'they always rec'etv^fe a colouring, which is inore' or less -faint- o!r stfliuidy *^according to ihe diipdsieion 'dnd lability of fthe ti^nslator: still, hdiveveii, '^e have the opportunity of examining thfe i*Miginal, and rectifying any mtj-^tatfeiUfehl^ ^hat may have been made. :_' .i:;_i u ,?v1j«rf *!o /foHnuT^o' H'!T'>mfnr fie H(f^ -i'fn 'the transmission of facts by speech ^a*? tradition, we are deprived of thiST'ttj- seurce. In this case, all the c^rices,- all ♦the eccentricities of the human mind arfe •brought into action. It iseaisy to -cOtr- ^V-e?,' 't^at faicts which are transmitteii tft^di*! ■ m&tith to^moufhj and from genera- JtiotA to generation, mu^t tind^rgo consi- ^l^ValAe alterations, when tv^ i^reqwintly We =airinr fcdings. Gori- '^ivu'ff. 1 i:; ^ fidence fid^'ce Irif hiditidn-is, tlfefefdfe, g^iiet^llj- ifefcned, iii'd be6i5rafe lii'orei tmj^f doiiabfe In fo-djpidrtidh "as it;7s*remo"ved:T5y '^reat: i'n> tef vtils of fihfe'iind' pfece froin'itWdfigi'im source. 'We may at any'f im'e'Kave iii'don- troS'ertible proofs of {He '^ihiapuui'ady 'of iraditicm.' "Tk^^eVer will fake 'the t^T)u1ile Jfo'coJieifty'tttliCT mlcbiiDfry' vji diKi^'BSjii ihe fradrtfdiis of the olH jbeopte ^ajfcwe to ' the events of 'the "age .of IJoiiis aIV, or even of a later period, wilt fTud an 'immense corrujjtioh of facts, a jccaafusiofi >df circumslances, /aiid a c^m- -plete 'ihcohsJstency established betweeii Ithe fciiffieceiit 'Xvitliesses and 'the 'diter&nt tiiarfatdrs. A strikingproof of this vavi- -SEtibn' ^sts in the history of tlie balileicff iKjiitendy, of which we "have a ^jUItltujle ~cf irrcconcilcabie accounts. Now, if ($iiQ'}i -ere iKe 'aits are 'ia"th«r infaiicy OFTilecayj --■?;' Q 6 whcic moraT system, auH where ,tliei;i^jj^r^i;fa]l§j4^ indiiFerence to jcvery tliing €xj:^ept a^^^ fjf the fifsV necessity ? 'J'he ,t€s,tirp,o»y;i9f: the most accurate travellers of our owij. times, relative to savage nations, or even' Siich as are called civilized, affor :cans, is only capabre'of "exhibiting 'the hash or principal point of facts, and leaves ^MHe^dirlecy' M^'c\rt\LrtisUnces and con* ^^it>ti5 *in "mi^ettiiifyir "^'m^^'^sitt'^M Ittidt thfe Urts '<)f 'Vntiiigarid'of language ^^e the fesiilt'df the 'sbciar state, which is StSfelf: fee offspring of circumstances^>^k ^tttej it'h eViMt that alilMt e«liScct# ^nts sutid circiiinstanices, '6f'&ft&B,^^d~>m l^^iUlilistitutioris, has preceded 'the IITji^ |ii£fe>i^rwritfen history.. - ^i : >- ,'joiioq "Y^eanWhile it may he reiriaifc'^d, i^s't the i^ii^ei^e -proof of iluHo * pliysicfeit te'fs i^^t^even iii the nature of this first itla-' li^e'h^i^e saM^ iit^belx^gs; to €Kd-c(!vttstitt^ iJDTi ilf 'vth%;ihlmian niirid ofteii^t^ i^C^ii^c? the imtcges.ofi'a!^t&lvev^fiii3LCCi^ and to i^tfer tliciii in prdportioh as it 'is unin- formed tfeiitttea-aba* !&iafed ; that -their 'dietciils -are chltneHt^ lSkhd'ieJitrtiY^ga:rit,'lh ilrdpdftibh^^th^ *^- ^jcttdto i^eHddsdf gi'ttlt 'aritiiftiity/^nti affe ^hn^dted'\vith'the'brigih 6f ifdtions : 'oil Hhtrcdtitfiity, "Efs Uinitory d^jproaehes-^b •khO^vix Vtihi€«, f^ a^es iii HVhidi -thfe ^f^rieilciE:^ Thus, ill comparing tlic history of all cotiiff •tries, Ave ui^riveat this conclusion, tliat ita representations ite iriconsi^teiit 'With na^ •ture and -reason, in 'proportion as^tlie't^oa-j , ;•;•; i:. dition .vageS) which is the primitive state oJ^qvery Pf.9jRiej , , aji4j . th^t, . (^q ^ the ^ coii t r^r;!^, . , its irepresentati<^:^^^r,e pipre . analogous to. tljp .5)rcier with ) which we are acquainted, in *j^YPP?.^|;^^9s ^'^ i thoj^ nations becomef,^nr ^gfeteii^4>->P^ii^^^?4 ^^^-rk^f^ j3i§,obvi9ji^,jvhen;We arriyie at those ages ia .yjbi^ll^th^ arts and sqiences begin to flour ^l:^j^^:fjq!^^w^then find that a mukitude ^^of piif*^qul9i^S^^yents, prodigies, an^ raoa- j^^^yf)^, ,?v^ry Jiind,^ disappear befe ^^ir> lustre, a^ the phantom^, gh9sts, iina ^^pectres with; which, a sickly and -tilnii^ ,.^iiiagination peoples the obscurity an^clsi- g'f j.J.et jptheu establish^ ^.^nq,?: j|jl,;pjr^^atjt ^m.^> *' people m. eral, , -r: - ■+ )-^-'- i v- .Orj- -5te period' of its com^osmi^^!^-W^'' ^t . ^ ,b!}*r ; i -if Ji.'f i dy , d J Iv/ labjio Tentiori to the comparison '6t' two Ver-^ important periods, in which history hak peen composed under very opposite cir- cumstances, and with very different means of information.: ^-lJ mean the.; period of Manuscript, and the period of printed his- tory. You know that until towards the coijclusion of tlie fifteenth century all "books were in manuscript — that it was only in 1440 ■ that John Guttemberg, of immortal memory, made his first essay in the art of printing. He was followed by his associates Fusth and Schefit^'er, whp made theii^ first characters iti wood, and afterwards in -nretal ; and by this sitn^le and ingeriio'u^ invention instantaneously obtained an infinite nUmber.of iepetitions or copies of the lir^t model. Tlri^ fort u- nate 1^ importance to Tcm^,:^^^ ^-^^^ Q^^ which books qould be produced, t^a^^^me T^hw^h' stfchf a- kborious dpc^atji^n/^ ^m^ '^ttd the ebf pence Xt^hich'itj^.t^caBlS^d, 2fendered copies cjiceedirtgly st'atre 'and *Sefeir. Wof ks df' literature, of qoiij|e^ .:*rei^e ^f^te(i Xv'ith ^niueh 'diffidult^;, >jki|,iea3Uy tdekrciyeid. 'Oofe Cbjiylst 'Slo^ljr ;b>a\|^{t •fdkh 'mi 'i^di'ciStSdl bbok'; 'tl:^ ;|>r<4^;i!|4'Ja rfhbnient gives birth to ia ginerdtim. fiieri(ie -the' procuring of books, and, cotj- ^eciuentty, ' opportAinities of iin'StrVi;cri(i.nt';of Myjefy * ^iiid, Were ^ppos^ed "by AUtO'^.^> iyiffiCUlties of the n>08t di&c<>uragih^ tti^- ^tiirfe. Original <'^^^ ^biifined -to -the-pos^ssiOn Of rich ihdivi- -f^^ifejs -or public -libraries, the liumbep Of -^'^^ohs^ho'could colkct'inatei"ials for tlve •tjtot-'io'itabk to -b'e ^^eat^ofifed ^s -thd^e^^Jf hbbun modem 'circle' of tlieir readers betiigVky'iio^fiWe<^, 'fheir juHges and censors ^rcre prdporrioir- ■^'bly feSv. There ^fas no puliKc oj^iWbn ; -assion "dldtife :^flufenic^a^the jtidgitten*.-»'^i^<^ ^'i> i>/<'« 'On 'ttie ^btitrdi^^^-snit'fe' tfie' flfsc'if ei^ 'iif ^h'e ■ ai't of ■ printing, a Svdrk ' ottc'e * protfeH H&^he aiithehtic iiiay,-by the rrlultiplicatioti "of cft^iei, Ve 'sii'bhiitted to - an ' c^terfsi^e %k%lhlfiatFlrth/and tb the Critidal'dri^dufesioh df an immense number of readers. • -To Vitiate the text of an author, and to avoid ^tef^^ld'A, m*Vit)' Idhg'er idh eai^y'tiisl^j "ami 'tli\i^^hf^f6ri3 _c:: jiu. .^tuf -It^Mi^ bfe^'cdfi-fbss^ed, 'fh^^tHe'HhiW^r W 3*eai^ -M^rdfi^the l^dmpbsitidn'of U '-bo^k '•^i{{^\'k\^mMgi\ie'kH\Cieriti, aHH tHB^lfl ■ifeg^V -tffitfe 'fiV<^es>diy ^fdf ^ ''' forded ibrjded the opj>ortanitv <)f jcjiy.ulgif^^jyifii^ H^'dWd^the greater part of ^ tho^e^ \j^lj|>j.^'^|^ inti^estecl in tlie narration; ancl.t]iuSfCl^i|ff^ dcrstme publication wa§ favourabJ^^tQ^l^^T 4i^ical vera^^y : jmp ^^>K^i9l^s^^-ff^n cOiiragetherit ]t.o partiaji^y..; If ejj:ofjv^)j'eg^, thus establislied, at became less ,ea§y,][^9 vt§^^{ fute'tbem, as there were few who had t|}^p. i^ieans of investigatlijg tliem^. But,P;\i^fit^[' circulation being eqiuilly iiji the.fKx^^^pj^- .tbe nibdern;s, while^they possess jtjjie ij^s^jf};^ ^ ,ojf combating its inconye^ienc(^^,^|tlj^,jfij([^'j z vantage appears to be entirely. ,^,,tj^gjf^y ^^^^'.cn.UV/L ro i.Mfii;;.; ^^ii3:!^m im^'V>i^ \ . ^, The nature of . -the ; circumstances, ^ •wliibh 1 have spoken, tended,: among the , ancients, to concentrate both t^ie, 3t&^f%H€-^i^ek^SLiid Romai^y Kisf6Vian^' \^ere generals, magistrates, ai^\ iTreri'6f fortune or of flistinoruisiied rank/, In 'ihe 'eWtern countries, priests, that class ^ M'Wcf, ' By tii6 exclusive'pds^se^si^h of leaj'^.V-^ irrg and tliie' distribution of knowledge^f I had invested themselves with the most.) p5\i'^rflirt of art monopolies, were almost ;r the orily historians. Hence that character >, of" 'dignity and elevation; which distitt-'r| gtii^estli^^'k^hbrs of antiquity, ii^d^v M'hft^^^as'me* natural and even necessary .^ cott^ueiic^'bf the cultivated educatioh they had received. . . ■ - ■ - *■ Yh6^ii¥^6f printing having incrcase4i ;/ aii^ 'fabirrf^td thie means of 'readino- and . ^ coitrprosTtiritT^ a!uthorship has become an'..^ object' l(^f (6oniThcrcc, and modern writers - havt? - a^sltmed a, mercantile boldness, a, . , j rash 'c'drilidefii'fe,' which frequently debases -,5 hisior)-]" ahd' prc^fdrics tW sanctity pf Jt^V^r ol)i^. ^^'I'^'i' *«"^''''-^'^^'' .: . . y- ; ^ .J It fj^tjo-ue. o£ cc^pying, their,>vo4^,,Pjrpy^t|4f the. i^m]^, fen^ 4^,seeAding; . tp . ^^Qt^. yejjy, ^er jpius inQ^Q veftipnce^ ,— ^ t\}^ t|>^^H7> fp^pded. su^fjicion;, of. an a4^Q^|HiiVi,yji(^i^7, ^We. p4rtiaUt>^, , 1, hy the spirit, qf, P^fi9fl{Tr ^Jity, the r^nii6,9a,tfiQps, of which-e^l^fjp, . in proportion as the wrij;er^ h^ he^7^^% lively engaged in the transaction^ he re- \ .^ family qf, t^e;Fabii,/or th^i S^ijiip^i . "«^§. tran^inittecl: troin ^ge; to; dgfe 2 by, irtlDjcjitAiK^ ;. aji a^ leis*- powjerfijJ: f9?i>ily a,, n^anusctipt. "v^chi t§Q^ed.tp:dispj-Q,vkri9ftt>i s^liii - %': w:hi<;h. t}i^; Qreek^, aftcli li^m^wfH^i .. t^e '^nemiep of th<3 iiiniyefs^^ wer-erprop^p^-: , ed tQ destroy; tjie Wiritings;, of. oflicrr ndr. tton!i, and thus dcpiive 115 of: the plead:' i/i^^i'^!''the'pMHfifi^^ the cekk^i^iedi x*!^ of ' tlft^ij' tttpwe. . Iji' thla^ n^mm- hkve th^y iiUifiost rendf r^d.us aqeionipjywaest; in their tyranny, by the giddy admiration aft(l; secret ' eii^ulatif)n: with • A^^kdi . t^r <:d(ni&al.triujtiphj5 in,spire| t^iff' ' - 'i^. ' " 0ati amoilg'^^><6 iiiJ<)'d<*i7Jsi:' in* VQ^rt . J«f m . '"* sii[)portcd supported by the Credit of wealth, defend-^i etl by the si^irit of faction or family, aiil^ protected by ail the power of aiithorityitt The investigation of a single day, th^' slightest opposition, is siithcient to raise doubts, and to overthrow an edifice of falsehood which the labour of years may^ have beeu necessary to erect. Such is the* signal service the liberty of the press ren-^^ ders to truth, that the most obscure indi-**' Vidual, if he have the virtues and the taL-;;"^ lents of an historian, may brave the indig-*^ nation of nations, while he censures theif^fe errors and condemns tlveir prejudices "5?^ though, indeed, it will perhaps be founds ^ that the errors, the prejudices and the re-*l sentments which are generally ascribed td^ nations, belong, in reality, not to the^^ people, but to their governorsr u*'i?wfi ''jtp.M Accustomed • as we sre'tty th^' utl^fd^Jfi ^ influence of the press, we are not suth-"' ciently sensible of all the moral and poli- tical advantages it prodncem To estiftrate the effects of its privatioH, it isneecssary to 49 to ha.ve lived in a country ^vhere the art:' of printing does not ekikt. There 'iV'e sobif fepl what confusion in accounts, absitrdityf^ in. reports, uncertainty in opinion«^^6bsta*' eles to information, and general igriW-? ranee, the want of books and wewspape^? creatQ8(fti ^ Histoiy ' oWeh ^ bfenetlicf ioiife ^^ him who first pubHshcd articles* of iAt^Tfi*"^ geiicc in Venice, for the little^ pri"ec'e^"6^P money called a ^azetta ; the name of wliicit* journals of news still bear. Gazettes,' m-^ deed,. are historical monuments of infinite* importance-: they are histructive and V^^ luable even in their deviations from sfricfc^ impartiality ; since they tliereby exhibit^ the prevailing spirit of the times in M'hich^ they were published; and their contntdic-"' tioas always afford materials for the elucN'^ dation of facts. .Thus, when we areinfonn^'^ ed that the first thing the Anglo-Ameri-' cans do in forming their new establish- ments is to cut a road and to commence^ a newspaper, it appears to mev that, in this double operatioii, they attain the object,*' and exhibit the analysis, of every good- *) social spcial system .: for society is nothing more than the easy a.nd free commwiicathn^iniFl persons and thoughts; and all the. aj;t of government consists in preventing those violent shocks which tend to its destruc- i tion. As a contrast to this people, civil- ised as it were in the cradle, let us take a view of the nations of Asia, which have passed from infancy to decay, and, through every stage of their progress, have still been ignorant and barbarous. Doubtless they have been confined to this condition, because they neither knew the, art of printing, nor were capable of constructing roads of canals. , , . ^ -l -, Such is the power of the press-xrsuch it* influence upon civilization— -that is to sajr, ciu the, deyelopement of all the fi^ulties of man in the manner most useful to so- ciety — that, the epoch of its invention divides the political and moral state of nations, as well as their history, into two distill Ct and different systems. Its existr ence so precisely marks the possession of 1 . know- ?1 tnowlelig^, *ll!a^ tb know whether a pifeo- ple be civilizea or barbarotis^jj^it^ is only necessary to aslc the following questions r Does the art of printing flourish among them? Have they the liberty of the press? - j ? •■i'.vf ..^kjf^a^ ■<^:'iVJ oJ leun! ni,o ^ ,?, A . noi;f ■ ^ J^oWy as it is certain that tlie sif liation 9]?* the ancients very much resembled me present state of Asia ; as, even in couri*- tries considered free, the governments were always influenced by a mysterious spirit of party or faction, and privileged interests, which detached them from the people; and as they had the means of pre- venting or paralyzing every publication that might give them displeasure ; it is reasonable to suppose that the authors of those times wrote under the influence of partiality, either compulsory or voluntary. How, for example, can it be* expected that Titus Livy should have dared to paint in true colours the odious policy of the Ro- man senate, which, to divert the people from their claims long made" with justice ajjd moderation, forhcnted wars that, dur- P 2 iug: ing five hundred years^ spread destructiojfcf^ over the earth ; and whieh, when the plunder of the universe was amassed in Home, as in the den of a banditti, hnisW ed its career by presenting the disgusting spectacle of robbers intoxicated with their enjoyments, and still insatiable, i»lurdering one another at the division of the booty ! Turn over the pages of Dio- nysius lialicarnassius, Polybius, and even^ Tacitus himself; and you .will not meet with those emotions of indignation which the picture of the horrors they have trans-, mitted to us ou<>ht to have excited. How unfortunate the historian who docs not* feel such emotions !- — llow miserable the age that compels him to suppress, tliem ft; From all these considerations I conclude, that, in the study of History, it is a d^-^ licatc task to seize, and a dithcult one to establish, tbe precise point of truth ; antt that the degree of certainty we may, ad- mit, cannot be rational, unless it be sub- mitted to a calculation of probability. , I have ' liave 'd^<'elt iipohtlie. necessity pf 'tins .cM^ *<>ulation, becauise I ain sensible of its"imr ■^rtance;. hot ifi an abstract and spccuta^- ■^ve point of view, but as a useful niaxini; applicable to every circumstance of lifci: ^f-evyry individual life" is a personal liiih ^ory,' itf whrcb the event* of yesterday bt> ic'ome the subject of reflection to- day, and of resolution to-riiorrow. Now,, if it be true that happiness depends upoii those re- 'sohitions, and ^the. resolutions on the • l^Oundness of th^ reflecfifiris,- '4t4srof iin- portance to consider what dispQsitiQn of mind is best calculated" for these opera- 'tioris; Here three alternatives present them- ghYye'S^i-^id believe everj/ thing — to believe ?wthitig--r-'OT; toibelicve by calculation. 'Byerj one, in making his selection, from these jditfiit^nt htodeSj is influenced by ta^te; of, t should rather say," by habit and temperlment;' for temperanient governs the fbiflk 6£ mankind, and aqts more power- fully in consequence of, their not perceiv- ing its effects. Sonie meu exer<^ise , the powerk of 'abstraction 'so far aS'to do'ubt V 3 the the evidence of their senses; Such, it li «aid, was Pyrrhp, whose celebrity in this kind of error has procured for it the ap- pellation of Pyrrhonism'. But if Pyrrho, ^ihovSOj much doubted his owa^^xistence as to display no uneasiness when about to perisii in a storm, and who regarded death and life with so much indifference that he did not commit suicide merely because he could not find motives to determine hia choice, received from the Greeks the title of a Philosopher, he has received from phi- losophers that of a Lunatic, and from phy- sicians that of a Valetudinarian. Indeed, rational medicine teaches, that this apathy and perversity of mind is the physical coa^ sequence of a nervous system, blunted or exhausted by the fatigues of a life too contemplative, and divested of sensations, or by the excess of passions too ardent, and too powerfully excited, which leave nothing behind them but the ashes of a consumed sensibility, j ^i^.;, ^^ ^jc^ii^i^ bfiiiEhitilf iPyrrhouism is a chronical malady .iiieixioxlii 1 1 which 4rliich seldom oc^cuts; attaches itself onif to iTiinds and teTn|>eraments of a feeW* kind, and is at worst merely fidiculou^; doubting nothing, on the contrary, is '^ mwe common and a much mdre dangeroti^ disease. It is the violent fever of an ener- getic constitution, which acquires by exr ample a co itagious intensity, and ter- minates by exciting the convulsions of enthusiasm and the phrensy of fanaticism. Such are the periods of the progress 6f this malatl}- of the understanding, that an opinion being ©nee admitted from in- dolence or neglect, the mind becomes at- tached to it, and maintains it to be just from habit: It is defended from' obstinacy 'tintl self-love ; and, soon passing from tlie 'defence to- the attack, the believer, in'- (flUenccd by that self-esteem called pridCy tdnd that > 'C^> 5 bv ^,* Sfe the is: Ctu-ptcr of rlie Iworan,- 1st aiKi-succreding verses. hy this first proposition, man is at once deprived of the free exercise of his wilV and his understanding : He is devoted to- slavery; b,ut, as A reward for rendering, himself a slaye^ the true believer is made the minister of the prophet; and, receiving from Mahomet the Sabre and the Koran, he becomes a prophet in his turn, and says, * ' There is no doubt in this book : Believe in zV," that is to say, thi?ik as I do; or die ! A convenient doctrine, it must be confessed, since it dispenses with all labour and study. It has likewise this advantage, that while the sceptic calculates and ex- amines, the fanatical believer acts and executes. The first, perceiving several /^oads at once, stops to examine where tji^y would conduct him. The last, seeing .jonly the path which is immediately before hiui, pursues it without hesitation : he , runs straight forward, like those obstinate .animals whose sight is circumscribed by pieces of leather attached to their bridles, in order to prevent them from turning to [ fjb^ ^^^y pr the left, and, above all, to conceal ^JOi tbftdeaf from tlieir view tfi^ whip wliicS Corrects theiri : Biit ' ti nfortunate isr tM driver if they become unruly ; for, alrei'd^ half-blind, thcv rush headlesslv for^'ardj and at last precipitate him and themseivdi down the first precipice they mee^: Such, Citizens, is the fate v^Mcn 'pr^ sumptuous confidence prepares for ignoha}i\ crcdulitxf. On the contrary, the advan- tage resulting from an observing and cif- ^dtitttspcCt system of doubting is such, that, *^^f^ reserving in the mind roomf fof 'ih^w jJrdofs, it is constantly disposed to 'Correct a first judgment, and to acknow- ledge former errors. Thus, if, as it may ^be expected, I should, either oil tllfs or ^feii^tiy other subject, divulge ^ri teri-M^e- ^'6as opinion, the principles which I profess leave me the resource, or give me the courage, to say, with the ancient philoso- ^' phcr, / am a man, and nothing that be- longs to h^nian nature isjdreign to me/ ' r invite you, Citizt^ns,' to searcfe foi-'ind j> 6 collect collect the best observations that have been made on the subject of this Lecture. Unfortunately they are scattered through many volumes, and overwhelmed with* a multitude of futile and paradoxical questions. Almost all the authors who have treated of Historical certainty, have regarded it with that partiality and pre- judice of which I have spoken : they have exaggerated that certainty, because upon it almost all religious systems have had the imprudence to build their dogmas, instead of establishing them on natural facts capable of proof. It is desirable that this subject should be treated in ^ new and methodical manner : this would'. )be rendering a real service, not only to literature, but to the moral and political sciences.. ;.^:^* l^^.v*.'^ LECTURE the utility that may be derived froni^ History? — That utility divided intotkre^\ kinds: 1, The tctility of good examplesy more than counterbalanced by the bad, 2, Transmitting facts relative to the. Arts and Sciences. 3, Political conse- quences of the operation of lazvs, and of the nature of governments, on the fate of 7mtions. — The study of Histoid , under this last point of view belongs prO' perly to but a small number of per- so)is : It is only suited to youth, and tp the greater pbrt of the various classes of : \ society under the first. — Well written . Novels are preferable. Hitherto our attention has been con- fined to the consideration of the nature of liistorical certainty. Our researches on this subject may be recapitulated in the following propositions ; 1. That 1. Tliat historical facts'/ thW is'^^ilj sl^\^ related facts, reaching i^s i!)tfly thrdugli! the medium of the senses of others, cari-^ not possess that degree of evidence, nor procure in us that conviction, which we obtain from our own senses. ■ i'^ixi£'| *'>■ 21. That though, as it really happens, our S^Wn senses should deceive us, and though their testimony frequently requires exami- nation, it would be absurd, and injurious to our liberty and to our right of opinion, to attribute greater authority to the sen- sations of others than to our o^rtf^ '^^7^*'^ ' '3. That, consequently, historicaf fticts '^I^VerCatl attain the two first degrees of tertaint}^, which are those arising from phy- ''sical sensation, and the recollectidn of ihdt ^^^^nsation ; that they reactr b'nly" tb the ¥hird degree, which is' tli'^t of analdgy, 6t 'the comparison of the sensations of Others with our own ; and that their cer- tainty divides into different classes, ac- ^<')idii^g* to'the greater oi* less likelihood of ^iht facts, accordina^ to the distance of ^'tiiiid and place betWten tl^ cyceurr^nces ^'f'-'^- and $5 and the narrator, and according to the passage they have made from one reporter to another. ^lathematicians having suc- ceeded in submitting all those conditions to precise rules, and forming therefrom a particular branch of knowledge called the calculation of probabilitieSy to that science I refer you to complete your ideas on the question of historical certainty^^ ^, We come now to the question of utility j and following the method pointed out in the program, we shall consider what social and practical usefulness may be expected either from the studying or the teaching of history. I am sensible that this man- ner of treating the question is not the most methodical, since it supposes the principal fact already established and proved ; but it will be found the most economical in point of time, and conse- quently the most useful, since it will ' greatly abridge the discussion. If I suc- ceed in specifying the kind of utility which may be derived ft'ora history, I shall liave have proved ^ ^fetenti6|''t)'iSt^Hver'e l^W question that litilitj^," it %bur4 fefe rfects^-^ sary, in the first platjej'^^tb' state tli^dil^' tinction between history such as we tiow^ find it, and such as it might be treated t^ Next the distinction between the 'works 6f different historians ; and perhaps'^ i should have been embarrassed to pfdVe that any utility resulted from Som^ of those which have received the highest ifeputation, and possess the greatest in- fluence; but I should thereby have had an opportunity of starting a question suf- ficiently interesting, viz. fVhcther Histori/ has not been more injurious than useful ? Whether it has not occasioned more evil than good, both to nations and individualsy by the false ideas, the erroneous notions/ arid the prejudices of every kind which it has transmitted and consecrated? This thesis would have had the advantage over oui-s^ off taking possession of our own facts, to prove that k/Z/zYj/ never was either the end of ^ the primitive object of history; that the first motive of the rude traditions from which ^'h'iclih has sprung, was that mechanical desire, on the part of the narrators, which all men feel for describing their sensations, for expressing them as an instrument ut- ters its sounds, and for recalling the image -when the reality is absent or lost — a desire "which is the peculiar passion of that age which has ceased to experience other enjoy- ments, and the foundation of all conver- sation among men who are unaccustomed to think ; tliat, on the other hand, on the part of the auditors, the motive was cu- riosity, a second and not less natural de- sire, v/hich we feel for multiplying our sensations, and for supplying the want of realities by images — a desire which converts every narration into a spectacle, or, if I may use the expression," into a magic lantern, the picture of which af- fords pleasure to the most rational of men, as -well as to children. This thesis would remind us that the first essays in history, composed without art and without taste, have been collected without f^Ithout diseernmerft Wd'ipi^tliotit aTiy bl&5 . jeet ; that history was at first only W eoni^ fused mass of incoherent arid riiatvelloiis xeports calculated to excite the attention ■bf rude minds ; that it was not until they had been fixed by writing, and be^ come numerous, that facts more precise ant? more natural produced reflections and comparisons^ the results of which were ap- plicable to similar situations; that finally. It is oilly in modem times, and almost exclusively within a century, that history has assumed that philosophic character which searche&V in the series of events,' for a srenealoirical order of causes and effects, to deduce therefrom a theory of regulations and principles calculated tQ^ ditect individuals and nations totvardsthe object of their preservation or their im^- provement^ V fiut, in proceeding to similar questions^' I should have dreaded giving too much oc- casion to regard History under the relation ifiPitsiii^HVeniences and faults. A cxiticism \^ - over ever profound may sometimes be mistaken for satire ; and as instruction possesses a character so sacred that it ought not to ad- mii the sports of paradox, I have avoided every appearance of that kind, and have thought it right to confine mvself to the consideration of an utility already existing^ or at least one which possibly may be found* In studying History with the inten- •tion and desire of deriving a practical advantage from it, there appear to me three kinds of utility which deserve to be separately considered : — ' The first is applicable to individuals, and may be called moral utility. The second belongs to the arts and sciences, and it I denominate scientific utility. The third, which applies to nations and their governments, I ndxae political uiility. If Indeed, if we analize the facts of which History is composed, it will be found that they H they naturally resolve th"i?tnse!ve^'mt6thi^ clj^fees'i One, |iHvafe 6cciii-rfences, or th^ fransactionkof individiials; another, publite occurren'c'es, or the social order of gd- vernment; and die third, facts connected i^K 6c1cui-^^cerfn tfhe arts and gcience^ or operations of the' mind." 'i ^'-■yy-'*^^"--- ^\»:v '•-*' i,.;.. -in "ff DITi::! "^li^'I 'i^'With Tegard to the firsV Class; ex^ty 'oWe hiay haVe Observed, thatj in perusing historical works; either on account* of the pleasure which the bon^ant variety of their pictures afford, or the knowledge which may be gleaned from the experience of former tinges, it uniformly happens that Ver' ihUke a self application of "the indi- vidual actions we find recounted ; that-w^i, i'n a manner, identify ourselves with the personages of the stOry ; and that we exs- ercise our judgment, or our sensibility, on bvery thing that occurs to them, deducing therefrom consequences which influence our dwn cond uct. ThuSy I ih, perusi n g the histories of ancient Greece and Italyy^ ilveiy i'cadet attaches a paiticular interest 't>^';^J to ® to certain character^ ; follows; with at* tention the private or public life of Ari»7 tides or Themistocles, Socrates or Alcibi- ades, Scipio or Catiline, Cicero or Caesar; and, from a comparison of their conduct aiid their destiny^ forms reflections and precepts which influence hi^^ owiii actions.. This kind of influence, or, if I may so^ call it, tutorship of History, chiefly exists ip the^ biographical part, or. descriptions of the -lives of men whether public p^- private, tin the manner of Plutarch and, Cornelius Nepos. But it must be conr, fessed tlrat this kind of History, is liable^ to more than one objection. In tji'e first place, it may be accused, of frequently ap;- proaching to, the nature of romance ;, for ij is .obvious.. t^iat nothing is more difficulty than to prove with certainty, and .retracq with truth, the actions and character o£ any man whatever. To accomplish tliat object, it is necessary to have known him* intimately, to have followed and habitually studied him ; and, in every jcimncctioh of life^ wc kiiow kow difficult it is to avoid those those passions of friendship or hatreS which are obstacles to Impartiahty. Bio» graphical works are almost always pane-^ gyrics or satires. This assertion is suf- ficiently proved and supported by memoirs published in our own times, with respect to several points, of which we may be abld to speak as well informed witnesses.' ' ' ^^Ih general, individual histories cannot be expected to possess accuracy and truth, unless when a man is the writer of his owa life, and composes it with a conscientioui fidelity ; but if we consider what clrcuhi-' stances and qualities are necessary for this task, we will acknowledge that it is difficult, and almost impossible, to finar them united in one person. If the writef be a Vicious and immoral man, how caii he be expected to publish his own sliame? and what motive can we have for believ- ing that he possesses the probity which this act requires ? If he be a virtuous man, why e^cposd himself to the charges of pride and falsehood, with which vice and envy will I-". not gui^hed^ jby vulgar foibles, can be, bfe ex- pected to possess, ]l^l\^ ^piirage iiece^atyv^« EliofTT')!';! "•' '^ '.■■.■■». -f.T-y r,i:n ;>'='iVr»*!(T ViKl'' -t :^Jn examining, tben, all tlie motives^ ^hich men may bave for publisbing theiP lives, it appears tbat tbey may be reduced eitber to a wounded self-love, wbicb de- fends pbysical or moral existence against the attacks of malevolence and calumny,* ^^ this is the most legitimate and rational of motives— or to an ambitious self-love>i which wishes to manifest the titles it pos-* sesses to glory and consideration, or by^ which, it believes itself worthy of them.^^ Such is the influence of this vanity, that* assuming every form, it conceals itself even, Mnder those acts of religious ancj cenobitical humility, according to whichi, the confession of past errors is the indi- rect and tacit eulogium of present wis^ dQm; and the effort which thtit confession; is supposed to require, becomes the neces-5 sary and interested means of obtaining* pardon, pardon, favour, or reward. Of this the sease of the Bishop Augastin is a striking ^nd appropriate illustration It was indeed reserved for pur age to- exhibit another example in which self-love is immolated solely to the pride of e.iecutw ^ipg an enterprise which never had a model ;l ho/' displaying to his contemporaries a man tjoho resembles none of them, and who, hav- ing no parallel in his kind, calls himself^ ^kowtxer the man of nature*; as if fate ^|i^d decreed that a life passed in paradoxes should terminate by obtaining admiration- ^|d .s^m^i^t; worship t> on account of hav- ''■^;.. -..«'• ''^^■^ "/ • - • ■ ing ^'!. ; s-a-' '■''. • See beginning of the Confessions of J. J. Rousscaa*- ^iicre is, perhaps, no book in which as much pride has iJj^n collected in so few lines as in the first ten of that fifj'^i^r',;: yv' : ... ifrvthls characteristic difference between Roosscati ' and Voltaire, considered as chieftain i of opinions, rhar if you attack Voltaire before his partizans, jthey- defend hira by reasoning or pleawntxy* but without passion, and at u>CK>t only regard you a^ a person of bad ■3/-' IS) *'M ^g.., exhibited, ^'(SAUtiuuedf series of illu- mm vO^» t)»e;!faiicyfr ;au4 errors «f.i;:tfoe ^^*rt. : I.: Tlus l^^ tas|e : Bu^sif ypu attack Rousseau before his dis- ciples, you Excite in them a religious horror, and they regard you as a monster. In my youth I experienced ^liose^ impressions myself ; and having sought to discover the cause, it appeared tome, that Voltaire, addressing .LJB^lf 40;t^e imagipatioa rather than to the heart, to «|ie judgpxent jt;at|iejr.than to the feelings, does not heat the muid with any passion ; and as he employed himself mote in combating the opinions of others than in establishing ^is-mm,' fte produced thi^ habit oF doubting rather than •that of afR^nation,— a dispositioB-of mind which al- "'%• — This leads' »Sj^ ^i^f(?(Jl^c.Oiis.icieratiQn ^futke subject, -SJVfhiqh 1 13, ^ li^t, im i a#i^- i^ngr the verlke'^foiiv in fictitious adventures, Ave only .Esteem the. art which ei^^hibits vice more -i^^moved from, happiness than virtue. If, ^tti^n^ th^X&\ eijcast a ho.dk in ;which a man, regarded as yirUiQu^,- andalmpstfelevated into the patron of a sect, should dccribe Jijjnsplf as the most unfortunate of beings ; jf, that man, ccmfesshig the transactions of jbis liie, stated- a:mtiltjtiude of instances o^' J>j$^»3§a^^ne»s, infidt^lit^: jand ingra$itud€-rr \h ^bfi I id^i Jiejgi yes of. ;bis, tciiiper be fret> f^jijiuspiicious. and envious^ — it^ not ^n- tjgj|t with revealing the faults which be- longed to himself, he discloses those of others which belonged mt to him—ii\ this H 3 acquired mo4^^*^^^^^^^*^y '^^ pliilosopher — -if^^A^uSed.tb^e ad vantages only to pane- <^j^izSeigiiotati;<5e; detract from the social «€aie, and to bring men back to their ori- iginal savage condition— if the doctrine of /OliiaiV revived under the mask of his ifl*rt(^f>and his principles scFve to incul- Jta^e the inutility of the arts and the sci- 'ttier 'of -Utility in this too real history. ■ .)6n:j iU ijii}. . .,■■..[ ; h^^ft' Will pferhaps be agreed, that tlie iif^" formation thus obtained is purchased at i:oa high 1a price, and that in an individual organized' ih a ^4ftg th^t : tliveatens to ^hock our 4elaca€i>%' r 'Fioni what has been -B!^yAl co.,; ;j,:).ii,. ^. >(:'«> oni tw ,:.aui£ i J The second kind : of utility ielates to cthe arts and scieneesf.>.?, Its sphere isf more 'Varied, more extensive, and ii^volves fewer inconveniences thaji that of .which we •have just spoken. History,, regarded under ilhi& point of view, is a- fruitful mine, in 'to smcc'. ,?j"ir!T'/o ■*?-.! f) ^uo'i-^mun ((eicploring tinaersfanain$; x:a\lta/oifyrommenfC6, is a>ery difficult 'proljlem, wlilcli reiquires 'tKe tifrited poweri of meditinc 4id pHJlbibplty'for'its^bWHohi^ii (ti .^>!ai:.;J UiO cxploi^ti^^hiCJj *«!&er.V m<\ ividnaJ liM^i i ilf<| tmtetiih4tt^lJiaiir-'daktt*d to. the.'sdonce or wEtn tf>*\\^lichhe:is devoted, or whie-i). he is de*- sirous of cultivating. KescaicliLe3,of' thrs-:: kind possess the inestimable advantage of a hvws -tJi rowi mg x rxjai liglit on ^tlie s ubj et t under discussion, eitrlieri btj?! confronting-, the ditferent.pn>cesses or methods adopted at different periods among different peo>-. pie; by tiie exliilaitix)n of errors formerly* comTnitted,. aadi trhe cornparisjon of expe?' riment^^ whix^h it :is always possible to repeat; ox, finally, by the. knowledge alone of the track which; the human mind has followed in the in.vention and progress of the art or scienxre to which you direct your attention ;-:-a traxrk wliidi indicates- by analogy that which ouglit to he foi-r lowed- in. ad v-ancln g towards peifection-i ; i Td^^lchi i^*ctH'<>he?j a&the^eweaKt ifir dci'bted for numerous discavericSj some, of- wliich are original, others only revived;, but for which their ^uthoi-s always merit our thanks: by their means,, uiediciiue. has i: 3 procured procured for us methods and Tcmcdies';« surgery, instruments ; mechanics, 'toolBJ and machines ; architecture^ decorations' and utensils, 'o .i ..; jd The tkh'd kind of utility which History^ affords, is what I call political or social utility. It consists in collecting and me-) ditating on all the facts which relate t6) the formation of societies and the mechas-'. nism of governments, with the view of obtaining general or particular resultsjt calculated to serve as terms of comp^riaoifl in analogous or similar cases. In thisi^ light, History, considered universally, -is- «? v^dSt collection of moral and sO'cial.^xp©^ f}iriei^tsf\^hich mankind make iiivc>luiita>J rk^^^iifd ''very: expensively £ la*,ii|g €l9T^7^jE§x£id\*nfJ.;^-: tjsimiBetl pviijeipl€8 pf ^egisj^^pii,. pc^jijiiq^j. eoQiOOwiy, ^ni^ g]pve;rnm«nt It is nat,ip[^^^ cessary to poiot out all the advantages of^ such a labour. Unfortunately it is liable^ to too many difficulties in the execution i^ first, because the greater number of histo-, ries, particularly the ancient, afford onlv imperfiect or vicious materials ; next, be- cause tlie application made of those ma- terial, and the reasoning founded upon them, Cftn oi(ily be right in proportion as th^ occurrences are correctly represented^ , .W« all knoAf how difficult it. is to obtain true:; wnd precise det^iils of private anc( preiiwinany trapsactions ; at^dj in his^ryj, it-is iiol Uievgreat $.m} stiiklng events ^tha^ are iiL-jtrujutivf,^ .. but jtb^ acc'^t's^a.vyr Av^ts or the ciiX!ul{'.s^UBCjq^ tj3at,_,\iav§. pr^p^a;ed t: 4 or Qi-*; produced tlrefif.H^IPhi^ is-' evid^ewt,' 15^* oause^' ife isi^i^^Iy' fcy^'a - k^rto^le^d^ of th^^ p^ire^aMtor-y-dl^*tiitikfihc€s' tliat we can be' eftabled' to avoid oi* to- obtain similiir re-' suits. It is not froHi the issirc of a battle' that \v*e're^eiv^instiiK!tiow, ^'ut'^ohi th^ dife'Giit; riiovegiients thatUead'tb it^^ded^^ si^ri, ■vvhkli/ though le^S sfjlerididj ar^ limvfevei- the causes, ^'^h lie the event is* only tlic e^ffect^. Such^ is the importance^ o^f^ thbie derails,- tlM*,- Wi*h6^tV themV t^lif^ tt?rMi ei^ coM-^i'i-ioqii-is-^iliodsr am?'?^ia3%b^ ai>alogy^ ^ w^tth^ tlie obj^t' to" ' whSdh ^'^^ wotald apply it! This error^ so s^fdu? ift^' itsconseque^ices; is however habitual, and* afliTfifOSt^ general, iii History: fa*i!ts'are ad*- ii*itt-nthou* 'cRs^^ Ssion ; Coiiibi^ at^bns^ f^Tltt M^Is dfl riegTOciations on which tMe'i^fe'^t;) events of peace, and war depend, are all very in-strqiftivef;; historical facts, as they disclose the secret movements q£j . pas'feion and intrigue; but those facts will always be little k'novv'n, because the honour or the intirest of the agents st!d6hf pcrm?fV thditi^to re'h'dc*' 'a faithful ^ctclvirft of their'' ' iasF^nfeeci^fWjWifq sQj^ioi^^f- relation ex ists^y, lwj3»otlKses tlj|i$ rl^are, no foundation form-i edj And iHij«st :applicutions made. Hence^ those enorsof aart, and may be called the kighl i^t^^erf^^ii^ xjf^ History. .hi? -vi.; ?:]'■ '-^i Th^s€s rVarious- considerations, instead of n being digU'essions from my subject, facili- tate the solution of the greater part of the ^ questions connected with it. If it'bt' ask<*d whether' 11 istory ought to form a " pait of ' 'tlie iifstructioii 6^ the primary*^ schools i^P 18 very qbnous tliai this stud^j^^'^ is not suited- to them, • because thosp.;? sthooid are composed of youths whose'i F. 5 under- wjtip^^re incapable of judging of the ocf . Citirrences of the soqial state. It is equally^ evident, tliat this kind of knowledi^e i^. only calc}jl^t^4 . tp give the^^j. f^l^e fi,u^ erroneous ide^ 1^, inspire th,pi>vith.pj>^^ j^dices, and to make. them idle prattlers,^ ai\^the vicious system of education has,*. clurjng two centuries, sufficiently proy^^ in,,every. corner of Europe. Wh^tq^^.ij^v;^ learn,, in pjAi infancy, froixi tJsfe Kistf^xi^f-^ of Livy and Sallust, the Commentaries o^ Csesar, or the Annals of Tacitus, ^^hi^}^^ ai:e so prematurely put into our hand^^ What advantaare, what instruction, hay.ft we (T^nved from them ? ^Tlif^jTjp^^J^ ^J>f)^'6\ instructors of youth werp so, %;eU coi^^, \^jnccd pfTthe errors of this pract^^pi.ljm^j iiQtwi|;hstJuiding their desire to intJ^pducip. tjie^ reading of the Iicbre\v bpoks int.oth^r, SYrStem of education, theydarst not.V^n^, the Ilistorii of the People of Vod. Be- sides, as the greater.part.of; th^i puoils of " * - 3 • the cletbt^4hcm»el\^es to;arts-^ iititl' Jji-BfessioW^/^ tlie practice of \vhich must iibs6rB the^ ■srhole of their time, it is absurd to direct^ their attention to a science which thejr* never cah liatr ati' bjiportunity of cuM-^ vating, which indeed it will be necessarjf^ for them to forget, and \vhich wouldonly^ inspire them with that false pretension to* knowledge which is ahvays worse than ig- norance. Primary schools, then, ought to reject the study of History under its' great political relation. They should ad- mit it, however, with respect to the arts," because there are several which are adapted to th^ understanding of youth, and tli^' picture of their origin and progress* itiay inspire the desirie of analyzing tliemV but it would be necessary to compose books dn purpose for this kind of study, and it fs* pi-obable that the advantage thus ob-' trained Would iiotr be worthy the trouble and the eXp^nce of siich aiji Underti^king.' ~/l >.-i..f i'_; i;>u- . .i/i y; ,^. V v> . r ■. 1. i Kij) IneoHly Kind of historjr that appears e6 ta to. nfe suited to' youth h'th^ ^ia^il^iif^ or that of the lives of- public and privafc^i men. Experience ha^ pro\^ed, that read-t iiig.of that kind pra<3tisecl in: the midst o^r famihcs' produces a> powerful efifeet ovit young minds: It inspires diepfi with tjiatri desire of imitation- wfhicii/ is? ^f physicals attribsuter of pur nature, and' determines^'t ii^pst of our actions. The impressions rer^j ceived .from such reading^s often decifelei^ tlie business and inclination's pf a wholeq life. These impressions acquire jSioveforc^f in consequence of their not being, prepave^^' by art; for the pupil) in making a ref}ecH*'V tion and forming a judgment^ possesses a^ti feeling of liberty, and believes himself neirS th,er governed nor. inflaenced' byva^siiperioftii autl^ority. Our ancestors , were wfiU ood-ru vipced of the poAver of, such: im{)r(?!6!sions^jj when, to give curren;ey to their yhiohi£t tlipy^ cal led j the JLk^^s ^, , tkf, , ^^l^t^.-. > ilhc mu^t iiQt bp; i^njagine-d t^>a<^ pq^i^o^jfionw-i: of thiit Kind exhibit no merit or taients : on ,:the,_^j(^outrary, m^^ny of ^ th^nv^i^?. w-rit- .-. ten ten ^'idi intic4»"apt-,. and'a' jjlroibmid ISfffli^ le^g^ of t4ife huiw&i8ltehrt*f: 'ihw i^'^trtMH cient?ly pyoved^ by their frcqftehtlj^ ftittiiii^i ing' their object— ^tdiat of impriitrini^f acf raovement on thetramdiinrtdiieiimwiSetaiMitf disengtiged from religdous ideas, they havg^ proceeded towank's of a philosophic an^' poHticaA kind; and the rilustriousf'Me'Tr dtb PltTtarch^ and' Cornelius Nepois* hawe otJ*-v ta^neda piefe'tnce over the ]\^{rtyT*$ atitebi Holy Fathers^ of tiic DexrP. Ihose mcM/' dels', it cannot' he* den iedy aye hotter fit tigdi*r for the use of men in society.': btftv dlBjT^ have still the inconvenience of removing' us too far from the manners of our owti'*' times, and giving rise to vicious compari- ' sons, capable of leading us into very seri- ous errors. Models of biography should be drawn from amongst ourselves, and from the present times; and if they do not exist, they ought to be created. Here the principle I have advanced, of the uti- lity m lity of novels being superior to that of history, more particularly applies. It is desirable, that the governmeTit shoulcl en- courage elementary books of this kind ; but as they belong more to morals than to history, I shall only call to the recolle'c- » tion jof their authors two fifincli^^ntal IHinciples of the art, from wliicH t^ey Wfe- vcr should deviate — brevity 2ind clearness. An overflow of words fatigues the minds of youth, and renders them empty de- claimers. Concise tracts, on the'c6nWa^, interest them, and render therii^fi^nkers. They will always profit less by Yeflectiohs made for them, than by those which thevj inake themselves. '-'^ ■''■''' ^^^^'^"^^ 33iih io Hi^my.ii.m fn'u bhif .b^visedo -fir oj nhi^m M%^i^^ii£ - ^^ijtniiu 'iu gboii •>fnovo<-- o'i '-y-'fLU-ln .biwyyi aih ; aliiiibivili "ilqtp .iyilfh SiJi li»iii , c^rf-^ioofci bns^ ihrjiii zs ,pi<.\ :fc'j>iiojfjr bfiii tru; 'nil oJ oldiio bnuot 0(1 ot t)!!] auiiiiilii oaoiiJ Ho laiiibii -fiooiii illiv/ b^'hiiOiJiinii 'lOii ,U\'*j,yc 3^iii ic 'iMiuyni Ji d£ bfu. .xlUrjiilily briii 3-j«tjmuY i)li^ilJp':>■!^i fiiobfJiia'Jif} dinim oi Ij'^aioi^ 4'U o* I^CTURE ei ll -gMlqnr, yhaiuoairxi mom ,'{tai8irf hfff>f -' ': • ^ , -r —- ^^--r— > (l)^ tMj^rt ofstudijing History withAdvan^i ,tf^fi*:-zTlmt ,^rt not attahiable by Youth^l , TT-Tk^ Study of History without propejf^ Instruction more injurious than useful f(h ymng Minds.— Of the Art of teachings ^.the Study of History. — Views of th^ Autfwr on a course of historical Studies»-y -— (4r, the Art of writing History. — E.r^ » \itminqtion of the Principles of Luciani isTomcAL facts, as we have already observed, yield the materials of three kinds of utility. The first, relative to in- dividuals ; the second, relative to govern- ments and societies ; and the third, appli- cable to tlie arts and sciences : but, as neither of those utilities are to be found at first sight, nor unattended with incon- venience and difficulty, and as a peculiar art, joined to mucl^ precaution, is requisite ^8^ t6 collect them/ Ave havercommenced tlioal examination of the ruleSjiofhthatiarti aiidiu shall now continue to- deveiope tliem hy>d dividing them into two branches, 1. ther> art of studying histkjry; 2. tlie art O^i writing history; 3d ^I'HaVeaiVeady s^fed, that tM'&f ndr o£ 3 history is in no point of view suited tow early youth. The fact* of which it isv/ cdmposetl' re(^uire sb fund- of e'xperienceiiT and a maturity of judgment incompatiblefi ■\\*ith' that ag-ei Obiigcd'to believe iOntlial^ authority of others, the young' ttraycon tfie child of wisdom, is the friendof- peace. - The eloquent Athenians were only' a na-* tion of squabblers, but the silent Spartans- were a wise and dignified people. The Ancients honoured Pythagoras with the title oi' T/ie If^'he, doubtless because he had^ elevated silence into a virtue. In the progress of education the minds/ of youth are more enlarged, and become^ more capable of receiving that instru<:tioa> which history affords. If, however, we' call to our recolleetioa ti>e impressions of* • our OUT earfy years, W^itm2^«fc^^4'I^i«|^ that the kintl of retaliti^ wM^li'imri^m^y us most was, for a long p^-fml, accountisi^ of battles and military anecdotes. Irfi perusing the ancient history of Rollin, 6^f the history of Trance by VelH, we may; '- recollect that we were accustomed to glide, rapidly or linger carelessly over the partS' relating to manners, laws, and politic^^'^ until we arrived at descriptions of sieges,-^ engagements, or private adventures; but even in adventures and personal histories^ it is usual to prefer those of great warriot^ to the biography of legislators and phil<>^ sophers. . — -^-''^ " These considerations lead to t^tb'V^fle<*A^ tibnscbmej that it is long beford tVit stadj^^ (^ history can be rendered useful to ybuth^^ with whom it has few points of contact; the other, that, as it touches them chiefly on the moral side, andlnoie'partrcidtii-ly aUow. tUe^.n ^o apply,vto„fel^is.iiiu,d^ without- a guide. Me cuu-i-Q^iyA pcu^, ii^ Uwt-hv hamU hands histories which are prepared ox se-^j lected for them ; but in this .case, do w% teach them liistory ? Do we not then ex-, hibit facts such as we wish them to ,se|^^. t^enii JTi^tjier than as thej really are*,^ , -j ^^ Doubtless this mode of education has its advantages.; but it may also be attend**-, ed with inconveniences. If our ancestor^;; deceived themselves by adopting a moral,. whiph, instead of directing, opposed all the inclinations of nature, it is to be feared tjjiat the present age also deceives itself in adopting one which tends to inflame and not to moderate the passions — It is to be- feared that in passing from one extreme tp>, i^iother, frppi a blind credulity^ tq^ a savage incredulity, from a misanthropical^ apathy; tp ardcvouring cupidity, from ^ f If norb!S^ory,^i^q. general, transactions statcjj jij tl\e light in which the writers have viewed them? and in this case, may we not apply to them the Words of Fonfenclle : Hisfoty is' tht Vomdnfe of the hui^taH m'.nd, and romanc^t are the butor^ of the humaK heaff f J '> 'jbliiji X m servik patience to a* diespofic '^& nri^oeir". able pride, w^ shall db 'rib Mdi^ WstH change otie fanaticism for a'tiother, and', iri abandonins: that of the Goths of the ninth ccntLuy, return tothat of tlie children of Odin, the Franks, and the Celtce, from whom we are descended. Such must (Cer- tainly be the effect of thac modern doc- trine which tendsto inflame the-4iassionSi andto push courage beyond the object of defence and preservation which nature ^'indicates for its boundary — a' doctvin^' which only inculcates warlike" virtues aticf Av^rlike manners ; as if virtue, whose es- sence is to preserve, could connect itself with the idea of war, whose essence is to destroy — a doctrine which- callfe" a savjtge^ hatred to every other nation patriotunt', as if the exclusive love of our own tribe* were not the special virtue of wolves and tigers; as if, in the great society of human kind, th^re were a differeiif justice and a. different virtue for nations ancl for indiv^,^, duals; as if a warlike and conquering people differed from a turJbulent ancl wick- ed 313 ,ccl incjividual,, ■\^J^ fyikes po5sei^i<¥i of his neighbour's property , because he is t)\e stronger — finally, a doctrine which only tends to lead back Europe to the ferocipus .^jiij^^^s of the Cinibri and the Te,utQitfS,.' ' .. , ;>. - . :. i\i':iO This doctrine is .the more dangerous on a,c:QO,uflt f^f i.ts .powerful influence -on the nJii^^d5. of jroudi, who eagerly adopt its .precepts, and become heated with military ejith|jsiasm. J.psJ:a'u.ctojs,of ,the nation, :v^'^igh|Wplla_fact/which parses before your eyes ! Xi' jtbe'^^resent genei;ation, educated in gentle manners, and which, in infancy, knew no other toys than dolls and paper QustkSy has, in so short a time, taken a direction to sanguinary manners*, what may be expected from that which is rising up in the midst of rapine and carnage, and * When I wrote this, in Ventose of the year 8, I. had Just crossed France from Nice to Paris. During my •joutney' I frequently observed the' children hanging cats on lamp j>ost<, and goillotining poultry, in imitation of liie revolutionary tribunals. Jana which makes the horr(9ft^fc MvMt the sports of its youth?'^^^^^"^^^ hoiti^n vived among us the extravagant effects of ^he phrensy which the doctrine of Odin formerly produced in Europe ; a phrensjr fof Avhich the Danish school, established by ra^ governor of Jomsburgh in the tenth century, presents an example worthy of being cited. I take it from one of th^ best works of the present age, the Histoi^ bf Danemark,.by Professor Mallet. HaV'i ing in his introduction, lib. 4. described fhe passion which the Scandinavians, in common with the Ccltse, entertained for #ar," Rhd traced it» cause in Ihdf ikH^i ffiei?i^ofc^tibn,' and in their religion, he icMeS'the ftillbwing story^^^''^ ''''' "^'^^^-* '^'^ ''"history informs us that Hardfd, ktr^ of D'ariemark; who reigned about the irii^'^ die of the tenth century, founded a town 6ix the 'e(iast bf Pdmarania; called Julih or i^on^burgh; Hei^e'he formed a c6lohy of ""'■<> ^^- young jyoung Danes, and app(ni>te4t |r! P^I9i9fi^ named Palnatocko gaycrnor. This ne^ Lycurgus made another Lacedicmon of his settlement. The education of }^outh was solely directed to the object^ of ,n}ak» ing them soldiers. .;rTh9,rcoj9ffiS|tf;jWc^r9 prohibite4 from mentioning the word feafi f^e^)jl> the most imminent dangers. No ^habitajat of Julin was allowed to yield '^ i> limbers. He was taught to fight in- |n^i41y, without flying, however superior ^SjijBijfray; might be. The certainty of instant d^th only served to stimulate him to thq;;C,^mbat. .; It appears that this legis- lactor hiad^^ucceeded in effacing from the breast^ .of. the greater number of his dis- ciyil^ e;V^r^- .sentiment of that passion,, s^ pqwerjEtti ; and so natural, which makes ua dread our dissolution. Nothing can be a more convincing proof of this than the f^^lQWHigjstfr^',, which deserves to.bere* '%fi4 l^lfe3q|^j^^q^^t 9f its siiigula|:it^.-,^ riv/oj B h-jhffijt'i ,'/aacy ;of tUeir;>:i^- ^^stauce. A number of the Aiiost distin- guished . of tlie party havii;ig been made prison^js,. .were, agree^ibly to the cu-^toni jSif |;he times, coiidemnejd ;tQ.4ea,th. T^is -i5f».tetice, in5tead.,of .a,ftecting them, iu- ft^pired them> wi4;h joy. ,The^ iir$t conte.n t- 'i^ lvms«elf ^v:ith .$ay i^g, iwkliout eJ iangii>g ;jw$ cQunte^aflice qv testifying -.the lea^ ■;4jjpj:k ,pf ,,alar^i-Tf/if^I% shm^d- mt the ^^ 'ipfj^mg., happen io me Jti^t Jn^ppaieddo myj^^ j^^SJik<^dkdy ^^ndiLmust Se ak^^-,^ ^ ^4 ; afe" AUoldier, oiamed .Tor^hjl, -wjUoiCut off tlieir. heads, having asked jthe^trsecond what yxt thought of his fate, he rephed, that he ^«0.w!^lie laws of Jiilia t£W)?,FeUj:o -pror ftouimaeaay word that ijidkated fear.;.. > .5;:£w^*Xq; the, same question the thirvh^ tjker he feared vleath^^^r ' J jpft^$i<< ywillitig-i ly,' said he,; '.sinpiQiin d.oii)gso 1. fulfil the gTeat duty of life, ?yi4 since I have seen those die whoni ,1 cs^nnot survive. , I only, .beg of y.Qu to ta,ke. cave that no slave ipay tpueb my ;lw,, au4 tliai aa^y, lilq^^^jj]^^ not stain it." '<«;''>-lH^'4*t>5*fi«t^4f{.i- ,.^T|iis story is a gpocl exaraple; of tlie in- fl^en.ce.pf educMiQn on Jivujifiu contkict.- It at the same time shews the abuse which mav be made ,o^* historya .wbjph PXJtnstantly ejf hibits scem^ of folly;,^ vj^p^ .^^ crjj^eg^, and, .^cp:^s^q]Liently, se^y^s a^. the model a^cl -the apology of the m9^t famiHarize us with it, and to harden itis in i'ts pravtkt h\f the excuse which the e^xarnple Jlirnish^s^' This arises fl^dm the s'ame physical mechanism by which, an oh- scene story disturbs the chastest mi fid, and which proves to us, that the best means of }>rcs*erving virtue is to withhold from i^ the images of vied* "'^•*' ' ' v-'^jj) .5^ Kvt- The \Hsest conduct with regard ' tp youth, ' is Tlht ■ to direct their attentioii to the study of history until the}' are capa:ble erf" jiidginj^, iti some degree, for them- s^lVe^. They' S^'^u Id then be' hrdre able to derive advantage fl-om i^; dri'd theii* minds \V*(itdd' not' bend before' the lirejiidices \diicli an ohlihary education' inspires. F 2 Were ^^te <^fj0^ kffEqe ^aj pibn-fof ^ studies of, ^ this kind, after requiring these conditions, tjie follGiv'ing appears to me, the mode best ^alcid^ted for carrying jt jiatja ex.eGutioja»j ' ■.,\i[ Iji the first place, I would require that jipy: pupils should possess a preHminary ;^owledge of the demonstrative sciences, s^ielt as ^lathematics, natural phjlosopliy, jjstionomy, Sic. that is .to say, tli^t^ they may have their minds stored with the means ■4iiid the terms of comparisons^ i^^q r^uable them to judge of the facts they find stated m history. I have mentioned astronomy, because without some idea of that science we can know but little of geography^ and ■ if destitute of geographical knowledge we kn^ow not where to place the scenes of liistoxy, which float in the mind like icIoud» in the air. I do not consider it necessary tliat my pupils should study the detail^ of these scierices deeply. , { IxfWould not even expect them tote eoti/ely. free from moral and religious prejudices.. It will be^^ sufficient if they are not too ■ ,.] , strongly s^ ^1^1 ^k'therr mintf^ are bpen to' cotificfibli ^fth-this disposition I have no doubt that the Varied spectacle of historical coiit^d- dictions will rectify their ideas, by' ex- tending thienr. '.^He -H^'bas ' lii^Hed ^hi^ acquaintance to the nai^fotr^ciTc^b' of 'fMs ■Own telatrons or party rsf bbstinatej^^'lfe <\vho knows- no ci*eed but thdt of his mt-ti fburi^h, is intolerant; for' dbstinacy' and '^tolerance arcalwa}'^ the'ft'cfits of '* Sfelf- ^h ignOranxje : biit^^heu \y6 inix with the %orld, when we have compared a number of opinions, we perceive that every man ^Ja's^hi^ value, and CA'Cry opinion its rea- •6b&s^ ' Thus w^ ^^ taught to sfmooth the 'sharp angles of vanity, that we tnay roil 'gently along with the torreht of society. This fruit of experience, which may be f^o well gathered in travels, history also at- ^ fckds"^' for' Mstody is an agreeable journey, iin which, iMithou^ dangers^ or fatigue, we may travel through the i universe of time •4nd placej :>^: ^'wiritbi ^/- r- -v-:! :■ F a But tjojijp,^ baUpou: if]^ an,unknQ^u and ixkr ^cc,essible coujitry, tp procjeecl thence to the Jiajjital^le par t$ , of the earth ; neither If9ul^3 JLj^wish »>y pupil* ip. hi^tQry tp plnn^e^ oii^ iijto the night of antiqyity^ j^i|;h, the v^ei*^ of turning rapidly to the ;^'es contiguous to our own, which have tio resemblance to the former. They will therefore avoid all those histories, which, at a single bound, transport us to the ori- gin of the world, calculate its eppch a^ if it were an aifair of yesterday, and declare, that this is a subject on which reason i^ not to be employed, and whiclv ^Hust bfi believed ,>Yithout any prqipf,> ^ 'vabib..^-1mi i^ ji^ jeas,9n, however, is a loadstone which we ought not to abandon, let us leave thos^ inhabitants of the antipodes in their ow^Tegipu, and, like prudent navigators, ^.^ke 9Ut i depai^ure frpni a knpwn point] ^ail from shor^ to shore, and advance only as we become acquainted with the coast ,TVjp^^fH'9iuld e*|^lore. \ye. ought first to ,, ■■.,.,,,. i V study ^^^fi \^Vt bo^'ttfrfr ?n whitli We' afi^ tlestineft to liv€, and iviiete we can obtain the hHt. evklence tespectihg the f^ct^we u-ish td^ inv^Stie^at-^, an4 exaininie the 'ob^edts' Vi^ wish to Compare. ' r^lkleiTrti?a ftifeUwtl Which !sh6illil <^@flih«ti4*fe with the liistory of a. for^ij^it. touTiti-^'. Th6 aspect <>t' an ovder of thins^^/ ctt»te acoitstbilied, has? a ipowerful €^^t if* m^Hnpting the cul'rent v World. According to my pnn- ciple,,Qf always proceeding from the fcnwvfr" to th^ p.nknpwn, and from the iiearto the' remote, I would not have him tiuv^l intb' distant, times until he has obtained a com-' Plete jH^ste ifea of ;tb© present. This'ldie^i65i^ft j..acquif€d, lie may embark for a^iqiiS^y*' £bp>t with caution, advancing step By '^^tej^j, k^t he should lose himself on a sea with- out shores, and where not a star isr:to^^e sce?i,to direct his courseb-V7oai?i ^imitmmir vfjArrived thns'at the' farther" con fitf^s'W l^istorical times, we hud some ascertamed epochs ; we fix upon them as promontoriesy- from which we endeavour to discover, in tlie gloomy ocean of antiquity, a f&w of thcse^ prominent points which rise like ishitd^ above the waves of events. "VVlthotf^" kay4i>gJan(l, we ascertain by different cal- ciil^p^ns,"2ks hy tnangles, the distance^ c/l" sojue,- points, which become a chronolb^-Ti cal, base, ! that serves to measure the dis- tance of others. While we can see thes'e^*' kppwn points, and can measure the inter- v4lB' between -them, we advance with- the clue, in Qur hands; bnt ^^'heii^ef^fee no- thing ex eqitjiiists^^ and clouds, arid w\\cfi the ^raniers of cosmogonies and mythblrV-' gi^ijf step forwacd and c*P.V'r to cond 'Jct u.V ■r :' I- J to S9 ftrMp4'pf i?T^^^mm96Mm9s§c^'m t^of^ ,)fie^ «lioulcl trac# ])3.ck oy ri steps ;, ffn tho^e ^guides u&ually require this conxii* tj^.n, tl^^ttl^ey shall put aMudage oves oj^i:.§Xjf&tj.^^d tfeen |her€. ibjno. knowing where one goes : besides, they, usually ihspute among themselves who sliall have i^he honour of leading their disciple ; and ^^i^ paying too dear for a little, science iJjpi jgi^rcbasg.it; at the price of peacQ»'.v- ,/,n^t|f£{> Impressed with the&e considerations, my pupils would return from the chrono- logy of the Assyrians and Egyptians, witji their minds full of doubts. They .would ^9t pretend to know wi,tbiji;i an bun4r^ ;v^^j8, .,?it lea3(t, the period. of the, siege, of Xvpyj and would be very much inclined ^,^(3. dpubt the pretended human existence gi allthe demi-gpds, as, well as the deluge rof De\ijC^Uon, the ship of tl>e Axgon^Utes, r,t|ie Oj^e hundred and fiftee^i ye«trts^of.|tJ)e .reign, of the Chinese Fphi, 4n4jal]l4be Ip- ^i\j:x¥J^tin^^rfk?ithmetie, and designis^i^ Q^t^|ic^y;e]Why they ought likewise totr qe.|a^yghjt'. mathematics, which calculatoi tJbe jpropertief pf bodies — geometry, whichi measures them— r^experimental philosophy^ I which renders their qualities obyioySrrrrt elementary medicine, which teaches us t!»3 regulate our own machine, and to preserve I (my health — geography, which makes u^I a$:;c|uaint^.d with the point (>f the univcrse<^ oij, which ,^e are placed, orjin 3v|wich »?e>l mu%tje?«:ist./ AU these kinds of instruetioaD are,,iienil?red necessary by the. ordinary"/ a^i practical events, common to everj^^ piEiftcl qf hfe and every conciitioa in socu^ ety.;^Tke utility of those studies is ineon^I tesi^ible, beiQause the ^littbjw^ts of tten: areX con^antly.pr^se.nt ito nian»:and .<:ionstantly n ae^ji^gi#p»(i)ift him. He cannot withdraw.ii hifljftelliifipa) thfiP >laFSix.^^J^*^ wiU^ iw?>' m elude 4:.h€iF power by reasoning or sophism^ The fact is preset. -It:i8 under his finger; He touches it, and its existence cannot be disputed. But in history, in that fan- tastic picture of vanished events, the sliadows of which only remain, what is the necessity of studying those fleeting" forms which have perished, and which never will live again? Of v>'hat importance is it to the labourer or the artizan, the tradesman or the merchant, that there has existed an Alexander, an Attila, a Tamer- lane, an empire of Assyria, a kingdom of Bactriana, a Republic of Carthage, of Sparta, or of Rome ? Will it add to his knowledge any thing necessary for his conduct, or useful for his happiness^^? Would he be less comfortable or less hap- ^ py though he knew not that there had '^• existed great philosophers, or even great ' legislators, called Pythagoras, Socrates^ Zoroaster, Coi^fucius, Mahomet? Th^ - men aregone^ tlRir maxians remain-; but ' itia the maxims which are of importance touf^A^fi p^nt^cin we* ought to form ouf - ; .- opinion opmic^,' withmtt" ?rcga*rdin^ i the rncftcliJi which prockieed' them, awd lyhtdl mattijfe herself has, doubtless for otir instructioil',1 broken. She has not however (destroyed' the models; a»d if the maxims interest,^ they KTdybe'e6i*fr6kited with natural facts^^ ^heir similarity -or dise^duncc will deoid4 the question ^* error or truthl>'i^' t^^i^^s^i^f^^ hlr/ T'-i- the necessity of stitdying- to acquire a knowledge of facts which net -l<^gei^fM* i&t> and I perceive much inconVeni^^?^ in making* that study an^ nniversaidfld ordinary occupation. One bbVious ifl^ emivenience is; /the anploying so much tkfie amd wasting so- much attetiti0tt%ld©li might be much better applied to^' the?*^*E!i^ M sciences. The difficulty of asCCT^aiil^ ieg^ the truth or faisehoodi of MstoriKM sjtatehi ents is an othei'. in conrenien ce; whp^ jaf 6rd8- aii -inlijt^ to all the- chicam^r^^bf ^^- ghn)eiit::a^(Mii By this habit ' tn&n^ a^^e^l^d :$,^isub*^itiite fbl^ fthe- |>alpa'Me deirftestf a^ Hiftn oi ihe -senses, tlk vagiie stntimetits of ;r'yrf7- . ' privatc m pnvaise (5pinionand persuasion. Such are always the reasons of those who never reason at all, and which, being applied tof error as M^ell: as truth, are only the expres- sion of that self-love which is liable to e^t^ asperation on the smalkst contradiction,' and to engender the spirit of party, en^' thusiasm, and fanaticism. viip 3:^' - There is stiH another' inconvenience in history, which is, that it is only useful hi results, the elements .of which are'socoitv-' plicated, so uncertain, and so much cal- culated to mislead, that there can never be an absolute confidence or certainty of Avoiding error. I persist, therefore, in regarding histoiy, not as a scicncCj" b^^* cause, m my opinion, ■ that title is* bnljr applicable to the demonstrative branchvay§j^ exists the possibility of error. This jei>.^ ders their application and comparison to o^hex, occurrences a delicate ; opemti^B, wjijiich r^uires , niinds mucli, exercised ii>; j thi^t kind, of study^ and endowed witl^i gfe^t acuteness of penetration. It i^-^ tr^e^, th^t ui^der tlus la^t cpnsi4erati.on Jf{] paf tf cqfa^y ali^^? to t tjp^, j^^}\%id}ip\l]^yir[ of J?j|tpry,. and }I, confess tlia^, i^^m^ ^^hh njpn^.i^l^. utility i^xtjt? .proper. an^rrpHl^a ,y^l ^ ment m^ht of the arts and sciences, appeai^^^*^ me oirly accessary utilities. • The pi'incipal^ dtyeet, the fundamental art, is the appli-"^ cktion of histoty to government, to legis-' lation, and to all tlie political economy of^ societies. I wt)uld therefore willingly de- ' nominate history the phi/shlogicai sciencP of govermnent, since by a comparison' 6?^ the pflst it teaches us to know tlie presentf"' and future state of political bodies, the ' jyymptoms of their disorders, the intlicar^ J.H>n^' of their health, the diagnostics of^" their agitations i^nd of their crises, and, "^ finally, the remedies which, in such cases^'^ may beappUjcdj!,,, ^; ,v , ; ;; ;;^ , ; ' -^ .,,%^lty^% tdoubtless, from a conviction bf^* the diilic'ultie* w« have described, ^thsrtf'' the study of history was, among the art- ^ cients, confined to men who were destined i for pubHc employments. Indeed, the best'' historians of antiquity, as well as of mo^^ I dern times, have ijeen what are called^ statesmen; and iti; China, ah ehmpfre famed' for many wise institiitions; a spfecial col-^ lege IThe Chinese ha\^ not nt))%!s»^i|fll^^<99ilfl^ |5osecl, that the business of colkctirig an^ t*ap:sn>ittia^g the facts which oonetitht€ the life of a governtiieTtt and a nation^, ought not tf) be abantloned td hazkr^l SBf^t to the caprice of -indiv-idviafe. '< ttJias apJ* peared to tliem, that the (Dftinpofeilioa ujif history would form a Tnagistr/icj^ -^M^^li might exercise themost powerful ift'Muente t^nthe conduct of nations and govern- ments. They tlftve, ' *thei^fore, becw de**' sirous that men, "selected for their kiiowti ledge and their virtues, shoidd be chargeiS with the task of collecting the events ctf each reign, and tlmt, without communt- ijating' with each othe*^, theyshocfM'fl'^d^ sifc their notes'or memoitindumsitttd 'Sealed boxes, Avhich are not opened imtil the ideath of the prince or* the expiration of his dynasty. I shall not here investigate the jMirantages of this institutroiL'.' It is sui^ ^ieiit for me to* > indicate its- correspond- ence with the elevated idea I haTc* formed ma of lustory. 3 come now to tiie art of hasfi toxical composition. ?<-»ftHavrwrt Jea©fa^asii - Twttrdhtinguished aiithors have irvitteii on the subject of historicat composition, %e fills* is LAidian, born at Samosata/i in- -tliL- ] L'ign of Tjajan, whose treatise is diw yiiieci into criiticism and precept. In the fijst part he ridicules, with that lively wit "which is peculiar to himself, the bad taste of a multitude of liistorians, to whom the war of Marcns Aurelius against the Pap- thians; gave birth, and who perished, as fee says, like a 5 warm of butterflies after ^ atorm. Amocg tiie faults with which he reproaches tliem, he particularly notices their amplification of 5tyle, aftectation of learned words, and superfluity of epithets, as well as, by a natural consequence of so corrupt a taste, falling into the opposite extremes of trivial expression, low and disgusting details, intermixed with daring falsehoods and base flattery. In short, the epidemical corruption with which the Roman writers of the second century were were attacked, was distinguished By 'the same symptoms as that of which m6<:lern Europe has exhibited numberless examples .^jixong every people. - -j; ^^^;a ai on^ni.- viBln the second part, Lucian describes the qualities and the duties of a good histf>^ rian : he would have him endowed -witll sagacity ; capable of thinking justly, an^ of disclosing his thoughts ; experienc^^d in politics and in war ; free from fear'^aM ambition, and alike inaccessibte^to^i^ seductions or the menaces of Power |^kl»- posed to declare the truth, without^ difl^v dence, and without acrimony ; just with^ ijut severity ; prepared to censure, but-dis^ :^aining to calumniate; and ncitiTfetni&i fluenced by a partiy.nor a national >s^iHf.i^ Idfi a word, he would have him^aieits^i^it i)^ 4:he world, subject to no master, obey*- Bi«g no law, regardless of tiie opinions' of his own times, and looking only 'foi^tiVe esteem of the wise and the suffrage of posterity.. babo'^ ^iiK y^ Asj fio r^the -. stylef <*f history, ' Lu6ian itfl^ ^Qtnaneiid^ tl>at it - should .be eaayi^. purej t^fXM'i 3^m 'oratOrieal, \ Siiyds ti^w^ declamatory. The reflexioivs; p^ght}><(a be shart, the materials well -dis* tj'ibuted, and the evidence well scrutinized^ Ii> a word, the mind of the historian, ks he observes, should be a faithful mirror; reflecting \faqts without distorting them. If he state a marvellous occurrence, -be should simply describe it without affirma* t^on or denial, that he may not be respon* sjtiiefoj its, truth or falsehood :. he ought t(?i l^v«, f>0 pbject but truth, no motive hut the clesirCiO^" being useful, and^no>rei. eoHvpeni:j£; in expectation, but tlie approi bation of those who are the best judges af hjs iiibftiwcs. .Such is the substance of thd' "io o^aihiia jdl bnh. dti^f t>iij io in'i>')3«3 The second author is Mably, Av^ho ha^ given to his work the form of a dialogue, and swid divided it tntlo twd > idottV^ Wc are at first somewhat stirptisecKiy^Sl^ three Greeks discussing the ii^su^rlecti^dii' of the /Americans against the l^^ngh'^fe' Lucian would have laughed a* this incon- gruity, but the severe Mably did riotift^ derstand raillery. . In the fiitst Converisdr^ tion, he treats of the different kind^ af history, and first of universal history a!nd^ it» preliminary study. In the second, he? treats of particular histories, of their oW ject, and makes some observations- (Jttrt!^* mon to all the kinds, f :^,i'iu^i^'}i:^ii-)*ii 'U-;4l ' 'Oa opening the firfet ccttiversa'^femj ^Wt^ fxnd that it is necessary to be born a his-*' torian^ We are astonished to discov6¥ such^ arvmaxina in a brother of CMidinales shmii^ff* study politics, of which he point's oiit' two kinds : One fbuTided on ^th&§e Va^s whicli nature has testa blislifd;fois^ix!>mrfin^* /.jij . happiness ^{)pmess to men, that is ttrs^^.whatdnii ^^ffj^^ a4arWie^*i»4t«i?c. I Tki otber^ thh WQfk^ii:m^ni\i>iyiit\M)^ vjiluiable and corir* v^ntionoi l^ws,i Avhtcli are the oifsprimg of p^^^i^U^ Qt' injifcstiQ^. aad at* force;; and ii^m.w\^fih there' result mily.iuctitioust gpoi), aiul iin;;uch certain evi}. Thefiirsb ^ffor^ the liiirfKwiaRjiQuiid ideas of j«istite>1 ^^,|jhei.Ji»tilations of meii) aiid of tlie mean* 0^. rejantU»ely7 admires; but not- w ithstaiidhigi'thijuattacbment, . .he. prcfed redaadattt v/oiiv of jjMiibly, composed with no attention^ to lAyle or method, is unworthy af t4»e -,':-..^: author mi aiithw oilffwliitt©ftations oji^the History!) €il^ Frarice. • It '46ei^ rtot possess ; thafer di*} flactic ^ro'ity which ottght to ha\'e beelaf>i its principal merit, and which indeed.t Liician alsjo AAaiits. The one hundred aiidi! eighty pages of Mahly may- be- eaailjr^^tiij^j; duced to twenty good pages' of precepts?:^. The reader would then save eight-ninths of// his time, and he relieved from the pain whic?|. > the authors splenetic satire excites. Let u»i>v not, howevcrj accuse him with that as *1 1 c^HHe, «^-eit formed his torment: thougtta | men are Hot borne historians^ they riiri^d ]>erbaps borne good humoured or moroseflj aad unfortunately the culture of lettersfr a sedeHtary life, and laborious studies, ar^tt calcidated to tliicken the bile, to prodttc^o obstructions, and to disorder the stomach^! -. which is always the source either of gaietji'T or cliagrin. Literary men are condemnetif v when they ought to be pitied. They ar^. j reproached for passions, which form pcifi* ' haps the talents iw which they are ad** > mired. They have but 4Dne fault, that o^,, labouci^g; joort^ii^r .ihe benelit of othci:Sy' f.^r, G thau tlmn fori tlieniselves. Hitherto they hw^&P- toob tiittch .neglected the' phj^ical'^kltbt^t* ledgHi'cjf theii* m\rn bodies, of that an|i^^' nialed ihachine/by which they live. Thej^^^ hive: heglected the laws of physiology-l andi regimen, which are the fundamental^'-' scieitees : of the aflfections. This sfiidy^ Woiddbe peculiarly proper to the writers -* ori)i^rional history, and would give td^- them aJkind of utility as new as importanti^ ' If anJobser\ier, at once a moralist and {ihy^-i^ siologist, studied the relation^ whiieh d^tiSJtf ■ bftween the dispositions of his body* an^i^* tlje 'temper of his mind— if heexaitim^^H with are are .st;:i}^mg ,er%^|H5)lea:3t;—^4iur:^ methods of t'^miposiiig History — 1. Ac-i _0rding to , the order of time^ as in ^«f > , mis and Chronicles — 2. By adopting i^^, dramatic, or systematic arrangement--^^ 3. By treating , the different. suhJiecis^JieT^ paratelyrT"^ B^. an analytic or philpsoTi; ^J>hic arrangenient.-r-Illustratiqn axf ikT^ Vtqi}\r*^S^;''iMt knowledge ''he ^ i^ti{iim'^^hit'^!^\\X8h'h}yho the laVs of iftl^crti ^^'i\fd pVsoif al rights ' whether na- hlrdl'di-factitl^iii art d con veil t ion al, whi(?h forfiied hU favourite and particular study. ^ l^*e' fell bj^ct^ appears by no nieans eS:- hkfiVt^dt'- Aft'M': shait add to the precepts otVth^tsc^iltlAoi'f'So^ife'l^ on the art or^ltkte^tlftg 't&'nd'i^rdeohli^ historical ^'l^^%&i^^fe^JHi6i'^'tlM't^^ are four mcthdd'g bf tvSi^hg hycJry^'^''^e first, in ^'hrclv the 6ti^ bf time' is followed, I ■'""'■' c3 call icafl* the-:di4actic or chronological methocr. :The second, which is founded on the coti- -jiieetion or co- relation of facts, I cHI the dramatic or systematic method. The thircl rjs arranged in the order of the differerit .suhiects- Th^. fourth consists ifi an "iOia- Jj^^,ie;5KpOSiti^n of the whole physl^aVai:^ 9?^(^|f^^.t^|of a people. This I call t& -^«i^^''<^¥ pMosqp,liij9 ingj^#3^i :v^;st41 -ns^Tbe JTietliQ^ in .the prder of time is^ ,f^]^f^\€iji .a^^ cl^3sifiqation of events apr [cording to , their dates. The style i« t^a^ ipf pure and simple narrativ^^. intermix^ i>vfcth few or no reflection?. Those who si^ilev^jy thing thai is rud^ ^n4 ^^tkss mff(W^m»^y gl^^ that name to this ?jie- 5li«)d ii.bvtt. thsQfie who never fail to discoj -uer the :han4 of naturi^.in eY^ry.produo - tion, with the sole difference of more pr i less skill and combination, will xlenomi- . jl^ftt^ t^sc#)^Q^, th^.i^iQSt ^im|.H rte ^.l.eaift c«m|>lieAtfi4:ftn^,.f^q»*f»'ii?g the least ;L.*eg56e iif .{5tAtdy ^d, ta^^»k m the Qpn^T J position : 8lf7 'V < iwajfeeof Afinals'ana Gnf onici^, this x-rtri^l ©f lustory has jaiways bceii the first hi ^-everv nation. But ^Ven iii this liiodt^t ^rfiape it has sometimes risen ' -^©^'f^-Srrfty high degree bf meiit, ; ^hkhkl X)f cbrtposition" deserves ali'tiiat coiit^iipt "'which is. coffiinoni^* bcst'oW«i'T» ibodis XM8 e Bearing the titlie of chronicles. Such com- f^sitioiis are 'only^ Hide draughts, without ASthy embelhshm^nt; and tlioiigh the nra- J^lferials may be well chosen and complete, ijlhify' reform only the ^rst step towurits tlie Aether kinds of historyvWId^^'. ;5i1$fpfie siecoricJ method, which I call dram- 'MtiC'Oi systematic, 'consists in reilderihg Ml dpisodes or accessary narratiori's suli- fte^icn-t " tb t^ inahi stoiy/ ' and^'inTt^ljo^- isnecting and blending- aHi the tbdlfit&^i •liransactions with the principalev^'nil'^^We -Jhave.a characteristic example'bf this>rae- Iftfood in the History df Herodoius ^'^Itne eifeasis of which is the War of the J^e'f Si^ifs 'l«M^:Gt^ek«; and -the- author MS^k'b W- f: ranged the incidents, that, coiiim'eiicfftg -l^blhe origin of both nations, he t¥k sb^rc^es all the "streams that lose themselwis in a prihcipal rivd". ^ By . a aeriesi of ''iihcid^nts: . skilfully inti'c?- ' .ijtts-vfl .ii;- :o laorqo^-'t'?^'jJ> '!• ■- (luced; 821 ijBeunjI^^ \»rt^^ of ^|ie Ly,(UAH^, }8tc iriedes,! thcj^abylouians subdued by j'fcyrus ; theii the Egyptians: conquered 1^'^ fCambyscs ; next the Scythians ,ivtt^.c}<;e/l by Darius; then the Indians; and in treating, their history,' he falce*^ a general view of the extremities of the. wpr^'as- ^no^vTl at that time. He retuinis at |aat to his leading subject; terminates it with the tvinm})h of the little Greek states over ^tlxe immense multitiules of Xerxes, when i^ytioiigitt at Salamina and Thermopyh^j This is the capital event which forms the catastrophe, of the work. In this method, the autlior disposes of his materials^ asiie pleases, and his. success entirely dej^ends -upoo*! 1:1*3 ajtfe and. talent' u\ eonnectiwg; Huspeiidiug, and. combining the principal t^yei^ts of ijis itt^ivy, so- as to ]Moducc :aii Unijty.,^i:,^oj:rei^oadeq<^Q of all t]ierpart$ 5vJtli..tSc , .^^icile. , vl ljyftylSO vWhich term i nates a series, and>ii^>^ki^ii9la« tion> of all that precede it, the gradual "increase of interest which is thus excited 'gives to the wark a dramatic, character. Tliis >is the kind of history which is best adapted ^fp■^3collspiracies, where every thing is eac- plained, and terminated at a final point.' ^^'♦B.ftv^ ■Inlfe^'ifj' rTyi^Hi(¥jA'ioi^ mil H) m^wir b; 'Those diiferetit' anA^^ts,'^n•d:;^^l*. .8i!fen^es.^'' ' N6 choity^bf'-^ Mlj^cl^^^^ M^ idjwe i^iikJ^ophic, hiit tittfert^te^ 3tt<>hiir><^ou4d have been less j^loiofiW^l^ i ^ifmn^ed. Before recurt^iftg- t-O t1^ 'm^ -iff Xoalh for the origfn of la'#^/ ^rt^ ytjtft- -wrfeBce'Sy'^and 'evciy soci^f '«ifstrt;ifttiiAii*5fe .*0uld Hf e rbten i^m- W Mv^'»tii«i^fc^ •whetlieFi«ueh'-4;lya^& dM *tibt^6Virtit^#^ iiJie whole •fe^c(i -of KistBfy^^^tlift^,*^ adc^itTgprlirritivc fticts cohtradiGt'oV^^rto experieftce and probatbilityi' and iii^€4vfe)^fBerosns-— a'l^t^ thology of the same nature as the mytli^ J^gies of all other nations, in which astro^ liomical facts disguised are taken -^«^ l>ti?a^;Of physical facts, and in which thf pretended history of the earth is onlyMtii^ iistory of the calendar. But were ev^^^ thi» negative proved, it would still he ri^I diculous to assume for a text the Hebrew^- peiiod from the deluge to Jacob, while il^ if V^taite^yfiUed up with facts of Egyptiatt,^^ %*ij^ -Chaldean, Greek, Indian, ^ -and- Cfeiiies<3 origin. Indeed, were those iactsi wibII %|ialysed-Aand compared, they wouk^- pctia^;? j'#^it^(^u^isate; 'that; itlierusai^j^dj. c^^;t)£>^an\je, ;t^L Ji^man -sacrifices, p^p y^i^^0tii^l^Vj0m)y 1 Bdcame^ : the. ^vdcunt,.: iLoihjAa and ^9 .^ar^^' customs of the Druidic and l\n- taDM'oislvp, whicii at that time /expended froju tlie pillars of. liejxiiles tothe Seris-r a worship, uJiicli is-prccisciy the system of. But^ism, and aucieot and modt^rn J^amisnv tteii^e^^9^.^?H^?c)|->We .li:ind )vq m^-ji^ naw consideiing. I allude to the liis.toi"yf of ^i^ieut Astronomy, by Bailly, who^ vjr^tues aad talents have received a reeon%*i lie^iCjeifrpm tjip Revolution, which will notr b^ e0j)§ideried as one of the slightest staioSi c^ thaf ;sanguinary period. I ^hali.iij^oq w^^jaifntjow, .ja^ hijitories arranged, acft cpj/dingi tO>wthe. ^Qcder of the subj^l^ l)r... teueys iJiistory of England^ /dC^^ Hpb^'ts&ri[$: Disquisitions concerning tjbj^ 'lu-9d^.-;ofj.J«ndJa^i the. History of t^^jpi^r unices :o^ Ffjnatcc by Fprbonnjiisj^; jthe^^sHi^rv.'^ tQcy of J^tidi$m.by;Plwiuet,;^bp,i witlic hisii Dictiooary of Jif r^ies,i.. hafc3.pteprg.fe4 ;, : . excellent ^fcxcelleilt materials for anotfrer histof^ df -^e same kind, the History oiFanaticisfA. 4^0 subject is more capable of -cmiTieii'tly nmititig history tirith philosophy. 'Fanktf- Hfe^ism embraces a part of the theory of the '^nsations, of the judgment, of the convic- a^on, atidof the persuasion common td'err^V JiHid to truth— of that double dispositiohrdf i;he mind, which, sometimes passive arid credulous, receives the yoke as a slave, antfj 'sometimes active and zealous, imposes *it as a tyrant. Such a history would also aifofd the opportunity of considering", ift ^11 nations, that terrible malady of th& ttiitid, which, influenced sometimes by persons, sometimes by opinions, and as- naming alternately religtm^^ pdUiictit^-AXK^ '*^r<«/denominatiorw; h *till the i^me both iB^ith respect to its tiltture and its consie* The 16 ^BheifcJurtb, that is, the analytic or phi- •Josdi^uc method^ is tlie same as the Jaat ■^tb TG$pect tb the managementittrf-diiie rsubject: but it difieis in tliis, that,-,iil- Maid of treating a single art, science^ br ^fossion,- &c. it embraces a poUticai body in all its parts. , Considering nations as ibidividuaJs, it ^follows them through all tkc duration of their physical anxl moral existence, with this characteristic circum- stance,, .that it. first establishes in' their lorder all the facts relative to that exist- *i«cjjf;>ffor the purpose of afterwards ^e^- Uacing from their reciprocal action th?J causes and effects of the rise, the grandeuFi, and the decline of that kind of moral conir bination called a political state or govenftr merit. Thfts this kind of history utay^ i'egarded as the biography of a. natiQi^ 3mfl the I physiological st udy.' otVitUe law^ of tlie growth and 4ecay; oofT^ H^. . ^oidi hody^'iili yd i^liu/ i^'nuH^^atteiudoti'to ^Ai ^♦f.'4i"^'''^o woirlv/ivfi f)cli has. ,aoiim^ %'i ^/; li cBimdibf pewit, fht^tiityfimodbVMl tht% niethody because I knoN? no ^rork that.has r been M^^^eik-u new ipedes; ofwTiidi Ilia^ aftity fo^me'd ia complete id^a" within fhese -ftw years. Obliged to idopt a method for drawing up my travels ii^ Syria, I was led, ^ife* it were by iiistiwdl^i rt© cfescribe, in the c^rst place, thepliysical'stateof tlie countiiy, Itoid to indicate all tlie circumstances (2* lits soil and climate^ so different from our*,, and without wliich it would have been im- possible to understand a ii umber of its la\v^ and customs. On this basis, as on tlie ground- work of a picture, is ranged the population, the diflberent kinds of which I had to consider, their origin to trace, their 'distribution to follow : This distrb- batiQ%conducted me to tlue political state aaif^tfiilic^uaiti^,',cohsid£redjA\dtHresp^ me^f6rni of the aroverjimeut, the oixler trf* Jldministration^ the souixe of the laws;;' icwr. reiijyious^na cuar opinions: JL po-, serv. j\Iantesqui£u>:4 iVvms.CbJiT^i^LCfidutbat he ■•^ . ...had £3^ion which spin0iij|gi<^|ft|^f^l]|ilosopbcrs,^ •j^nd particularly Hip']^CFat€«, maintained. -JBi a sense much more jast and precise. I 950U^^ I have j^ffoycfd the trtith of his.o^sertigiiS; mth ijregarti to the influence which those three ^caanents exercise on the constitution and ^eoBperament. I perceived that a portiaa , ijpfi the physical and moral habits of thcipeot- i^le whom I studied, were indicated by the -^ate of their soil, whether arid or marshy, ftevel or moimtainous, barren or fertile, ^nd 1;^ the quantity and quality of their flOiiments. I concfcived that all those, cp- ;cumstances entered as so many data into -ttoe> solution of my problem, and from that dime J have constantly had in view the ecoBsideratijon of the folio wing, questioa-r^ sff What influence over the mannei-5 and •ithe charactj^v c^fe »j pieto^le/ aaay yb[?;aa^iibed Ito the physical, state of their . ^i^jjqonsi- tderediuader all thexjircumstaaGes.^f heat and €okl, (kyRCss and buiiHdUy, .4oFn(59s ^pd elevatieii, ^fartility and barrennesdj [^diiied tO' the quality of ifcs productioiys?'' ■:,;.;-.;■ _.;-. , ,^^. ^ ..:■/>• •■•■-. ' ' .^ ^^I^V^ understood the ^ord climate^' te ' tshould llave said so, and then tli^re'woultf li^ve been no dispute on the subject. ^jLv^ry i^y Xiew fectfe aceviinuJUite, which ,(#^bjistrate that the above circumstances fMSW^rtully and vartously modify the phy- sical and moital constitution of natioiig^ jj-nd produce Contrasts in neighbouring^ ftnd resemblances tn distant countries-^^ ^hat a people who mig^rate preserve for la long tiitie habits which are discord^Lnt "^JKhhitheir'toew residence, because ^hn«e 'habits proceed from an obstinate mecfaifc- "Trrsm of organization — that, finally, even lit th^ same country, ao-d under the same *i|EiUhi^i<^i' the disposition atid temperament "^gf the inhabitaiits vary -aCjCording to their "tiii§toms, cxerciseSj regimen, and aliments. " The knowledge of-thoeo physical iaaw '"fecjBi therefore, a necessary element in [» the mi «ftie sconce of governing and of oi'gani** ^ ing^a Social -body in confonnity with the movement of nature. Political' legisldTs tion, properly understood, is only the apW plicatiOn'O^ -^le -laws of nature. Facti-- itious and^coA-ventiotial laws ought, theiSfQ^ fore, to be only ifeiB expression 6f'phyi^j(^df • and, natural laws, ';ind not the expreSs^^' ;6f >the<;apjii€si€^ivsi;^nll of all individtid,-^!^ partyy 'Of «vcn^ a nation --i a. will whic;!^' tho|igh prpiiouHc^l by thci gftat majotit^- - of all mankind^ ■■ might still 'he^ erroneous-V" biitasifl |0ps«ardie*i0tfttiie-kind, and iWdi-'- -science .which^i^^ybt m itsififaricy. it is df ^^ importance' to "iklmit: nothing tliat pai-^ '^' tajkes of the spiritof system p I'sMil State the inn Oi\f 0f ' proceetl i ii g w'h i ch appear-s fc**6P ^ me.thc b)&st cakiiiuted to lead to trulhi«#^^- ^'^*uoq^tt***^i^l>'^t- ■ -itm ''■^Hai;»i%i':^b0&tl*Jil^toita particular pcopfe^'^ amlweoiiiit8?J>f-'^>ife'ftij^tfec€ssary in tlie -iksl'"-* pliicjfrjlj^jj^esctribe the cl i mate ; a n aqueous,, , and wheth^cr. ^^ha^- wjuXgts consist of marshes, rivers^ pr la^es^p — ^to f h* * ■'- sea, ,i^>jWcil as the declivities of large p' masses of caith towards different ppints of.jkjie Ja,ori^pn — to examine the nature of r tbf>4*%fi^,nti ^^tUt-and strata which conitf^^ pp^tl)i^i^i^^(li»tinguishing its qualitiei^^'l whe^Jie^; argiJUaccQus, . cakarjeouSj Bandy^'/.^ rocl|tjt,.^lp*piy,. , or. vegetable ; its h^nks p!^]' sc)4^jiV]^:jits f^amUSyia^bleSy mines, ▼oKrj' i iri; r. canoes, m illigUVk^iSt rlb!^€«ribecl its v^gdtifcbld ^^^JttP ' d^WK^^ p'roHtlct>f0n8, such as the trees, plants, grains,' and fruits of every kind-^rts hWih; qiiJrtlhiped^, fish<^,-'and>rfptilesr iW- a^«ford/:ii<>tHing thaft btl&ngs' to^^tke^lftp*^ sieal- i9ti*^it)f - thc^ country ouj^ljn rlJiB^^ '■1; :;;a *frior| o:t yina^S'ODn si ii^icc oriitla ^ v^i^'^diitrd ^^o^k^ ^ee Bi^, -*hc T^^t^ ol^ei^W 6binsrdi^ratidh-is tWe- Mmtfi s^^' cf^^'^'^ft^vte*^^ cftipf- ff^tL t^^'Bc* taken qF tte'^enenfli^tciT^ei'itiiwnt oif' 'the inhal)i- tants; ne^ki^ ^ht*?f local modifica'tions^- thc: kind^ and (|udtitity of their aliments, lirt' thte-most^stl-iMn^'6f th^ir'WoT^l-fend physi>7- eil'^uAiiti^': ihetV, embnuein^ thfe maui-'d^! pbpt^ktiiyh iiia Jp»6lit?cafl-poftrt Wxieir^^''- sfi«^)tffil cbh^td^^it*^fii-(fi<^^rir.itJi(fi'y' 'i'From such a picture ^ of wdf^astifr^aifilftf*^ facts th^cu^oukP, in^the fii'st pf!actf,resiilb^ all the dtrttt ntcessJtrf fdr ' actjkr/i^i^^^^ft^^*' acfeUfffte^ knowledge of the itior^l imdfp^^ lit^cal constitution of a natJoiif "whife t1^ action and reaction of tHe'^ettTcd p^acHi^ ott eiAtho^kiet would prescntah interesting* siihjeef fbt* reflection', and-^exhfbit'cbrtii*^' bitiations bii^hly useful in the pr><:^o'ir:iiiil| -^ tHfJOTy of ^ie^i^al^ion: artd gtvwnmctitirfMiF ^I^ctwc«i&f^thf^'kili;i}'\v^uld''4te']bb«iiiii^^* arfy^ Wmrti'ctiVc*, Snere ' thiey 'th'd^ r^rt^ri'^^" ati6rt?5> bfi*^* fstlte tff *difrdrrt:^t a)^|^ t9 d^c^^er. This rematlsr i« not sugj^,^ g^s^ed by the comparison so often ma^tl^ of the.du,ra.tian of political spcietics.tO/ tbe' lives of individuals, according to which allthejphasp of ,you^l?i/|m^turity, and old ag^^,^pj t^Q.h^ founxi| in l^he rjse, splejidoi|^ .. a)a^^ jdp^9^y of enig^re»v .,T]>is comparisonj^t ; whfpl;i is i^ P^^ry r^^eqt: vicious, has a veryj^ PStft^^ffMi^^R^fiy-i^^? j^^^?s us %fi /'I3WO.i ' - ^"^^^^ consider the (lissoUition of political ^IS^ dies as an iiiKivoifhihie ne ■'-^ity. wh-it^vet may be the nature of tlieir < ^* T-hat dissolution, however, is ;..,./ uie ctiect of a radical error in 'tht* ^yst^m- c^' legislation, which has hitherto bteff S\i\j (lirected to one of t*iies<» ofciJ^ct^,"*^ Ctmt^ t '.7?;?, or to (H^ertfw/ktp j'^thtft is^o Say, ir liiib only embraced Ohe' of the^^thre6 periods of which the existCntf^- of every thing is composed. To detefttVirte the *5oiicomitant pli^ibmend of e^h eff those threie periods, ill ordj^f to fcftm.'^ g^^ ral theory, embracing all the tas^s "df a political body in its different phases of vi- gonr or plenitude, of weakness or vacuity^, and describing the different kinds of refgf- trterr-Buitable to an overflow or defid'eii6l^ fFfpopuliitibii, ^rould be a science equal!|^ new and important. — Such ought 'to^b'e the object orhistoiy: but it must be con- fessed that tlirs object cannot be well ac- comf)4fslied, e^Lcept Avith' inspect to eiti^t- iu^ nations and ih rrrodern times,' which aCorfttHh^V ttieans oi^ collectiiig "ill ahalo- xyons facts/ i '1 liaxte .tllerefoie. andne' than ii)ice tiiGuglitltliatJ trav^^k,7uiidertaken far l^rsobjectj won Idbje' t;he hieans of pro- tniringexcdlcntinutcriais^ for history; and not nvock'ni liistory only, but also that of andeat tiniest ITijeyiwoukl scrv^ to goU lect and asctTtaiu a imiititude of sctitteti' ed factwS, which are so many living nioniit ments of anticiuity. These monuments too are much more numerous than is ge- nera Wyimagiucd i. Besides the ruins, iar suriptions, medals, ; and even m^anuseripts M'hich are ijrcquently discover^d;^ we have it 5till in: our power to examine custoni^i mannei's, i-eiigions, and particulcirly lan- . g4tager' the cegiistTu^ction of which Ia a ^tvmpNte rhi&tbri/. qfi'^tvery people, an^ujits jtsfeC)oitft4r)nsiiaod^;analo«jie>ii thCi tcluei fot" ;^vkchie'ift*f ' ri«lioii$t:au- .v a.iijj Lnorrr -^^niih \iiL ^.ba:A^m\j^o vioj^id srfj ^o donind Men have been too eager in the com«- ^jiifetil^it'Of ifBiwei-aalhiatdrksjiffiisibre $6ch Vti"^; eSii^cies 'vereodtectdd^iritLWOukisiiaYe l*©en properto iiavejpreparcdallthe dctaiis, j' .wii -r li and anth ttftfcave cracidated tlic diflrcroni{Jlet<3 history of each nation, or at k^uHt. all tl»e tVagments wC' possess should havc^'been. cbllected and pHit;;'m;ior(dcr, that ratiottalcoiiclusions might liave been '::ri'>mui:'.)r •^■i-':^f''T '■ >• *-^tr^-U' ^'■'^■- ^-.-v,^ -WehAve paid too much deference to the Greeks aiid Romans : we have servilely 4h\{oxv&4i^ narrow and exciosive method, wteiclv prefers every thing to the system of 3i¥!iii?v! o''-' if','*'^^> "^'/q:.' '!i*\'/i r>itwnly ^thut Tiye have ventured to step oirt of this putlij a«d th& ^loHzon is ahffady so mucliLim^ ^''- II 2 lary;( (1. iarged, that the most distant boundary qF iOjur classical .histofies presents only the last Jfeerm of a career of anterior time, in which Thebes, which preceded all the kingdoms of £gypt, had flourished and fallen— in whieh Asia had witnessed the dissolution Df Baetria, Tibet, -and: ^several Indian states then renowned for their antiquity —in which hordes of Scythians had mi- gi-ated from the sources of the Ganges iind the Sfimpou. to Grqat Britain and JDanemarK'T—?in, which -^h^ religious sy^ '^r^Stof Bramism, Lamism, and Buddism^ ^Jbieh .js still more ancient, prevailed— r iiil^at^brd, in which there h^d occurred -ail theuvarious events of a period which -exhibits thjB -ancient Continent,^ from : the I^tremity of Spain to the confines of Taft- ^ary, coveued with one forest, and peopled with. the same species of wandering savage .i;rtbes, utnder; th« different nanjes of .CeitQS, 'mng:^%H^ English wi^|e*s 4». thoatejprefotind i^searches, wbiiJ^-rJaave Jliajdp :tiavac*juaiiiteii; with ^iei^aq|:e4i J^i^ l^iiii .. ;I^ 'i.i ■ of of t M*HlM rt^| the' Vedami»HMliMiid|M» and tii^<^hasthins— f)nticnt '^iKiey?t)^«i^tortw tributiiig to ifiake'^H^e'^eUpfe^ (Jf>iev(^*y ebnntry regard each other afe hrothfel^ir-bv producing titles of gen eulogy '^vhkh Jirovt; the epochs aini the degree of their cousanguinitj'. ^imuuB iq} .fefUBffnOiill " -" ^* It^'^s 'iJh vibiis- that a work' of^thi^ ; kifad ^^ifai^iio't he executed by one individual, '^and that it requires the united exertions of a number of fellow-labourers. There is wanting a numerous society,* -vv^ck, >Hi- vided into sections, would methodically tbliow every branch of one identitai 'fjlun ' of research. I see the elements of tirljis ^«6circ6i-ph«^,<)i*ro- ^jphlc so^; Jjian^^r.^^f^t ]w, /cfijiji- ecl nicn Qt' Pfter^I^iirgh, ,j\av^>i ck^^?<^„?r;ijtji respect to Russi;j,;aiu|;'l>rtfJiif ;>;;;. ,tli^^^ ,J^,Djg- lish Society ot" CulcHi^ta.t<^>)-;jIn4i^ ;^'|WfM' aiid Ti bet ; an^ i itlie, 3a€}i^^Mj ^! j^ W'ft^f^ Germans for ancient Gerin^jH^, a^jtl 89,5- matia. To those recent labours we alx? laheady indel)ted for works which, ii^^! de- scending to posterity, will do honour; ^o '.the individuals who executed tlieni, laJid jihc governments which favoured and ej^- -icourageil them. a^i^J^n'-riiiifli'^^ffi^iiii'^ ki >ihe researches would be a^rotied ta irty^; 1 principal sections. 'Hie first, uudt;r,tlie 'jnamc: of; tlK. Celtic, wou Id have j'iy^a.<\\ie 'Sribject 'Q^' its investigatio» aUi tljiflrjlftn* ;'g:uag:es .and .all the nations wliichr. ^^ith i ij^araptci:^: of aOin ity rendered dai^y i^Oje hftppar^n^j, T^tppeai^tp lkivA-|>eent spyea4 pv^^c - 4md, (ii!mt.%itaii^ilf|iij5'?f^^';|ll G^m^y, as- f^r ia,^:liIix5'ji;)^sqi-tf^p|<(^il|ab^i^aTa»©4 §^r- iivati?> . '-JL'fJji^lii^^^^ir^^Qh slH^ujdj^;,atta^|^d . $i«; «ttW'y^flt^.^lfi the. cUj^e^MQ^ >|^i^J9h.^^t^^j have, i*rjt^ii^ these thirty yeaj^s, provedjsv^ t]}^it\}eiJ^hQxigiqp$x^f IJurope ^nd of:> Greece consisted of one ra^^pi of savagesr^ri devoted to a pastoral, hunting, or wander-^o ing life, and speaking a language radi-^-g cally the same. It bec^pmes dajly. mqvjj^ ^^4 ^2^ WA^^hi %t .the,,;(g}^;;fl|in i^^t!£^^K|jge);^6j)piie originally ^^^^ ^uig^:^vijiph^j|}^^rj^any was called th^^ Teulpnic,; ,iuiv^e,,more northern parts of Hurcpe- the Got;hip, in Thrace theScythic, aii^ j^^^^QkpIP., ^nc} Jtaly. t,h^ P^Jasgici T|c|S/3.,,j^TaPH^^ViJP^!^s^i» : fioin wliom th^^i' real ciuns, who, as Hcrodcittts insinuates, pre- sea'ved served the ScytBiah idiom, and were coi qiiently a Getic6t G'uthic'isxeX'^^',%^^ names Getae, Gdtthi, and Scyfhn?, tTie cients meant the same "kind of people. identity, it is true, is nbt^ apj^avcnt to us in^- the word Scph ; but it was sufficiently ob- vious to those who pronounced it s-koutny a word composed of the article s, which-. in the Gothic is equivalent to oiir article' the, and koiith, th^t i^ td ' say, Gotfi^ot]^ Gffetfi, which, irf a nuiiib^r of ancient ana<[ mo*dem dialbct^: ^ornifle^ awarri6r 6r nian" of cjourage*, and by transition, aw'ealthy^. generous,- or good manf. The wari'io^^^ v/ho was brave and powerful, W<5\imMa"t'a- rally be styled rich, generous, and good,^' i^ •^ontfedistitfctibn- to the CVits '^hicii'' aff ended a ^t^fe of poverty 'dtrd' 1ve to^."^ '^; thff#:iEsci»blef w'the pit>iianda4«»h 0f'K>ur'fV'»as«*gtitt6t'a!'jf.i gut to: O^m^f^ and ^flA/*,- is Wb¥tHy^ that tlie Greek has. a; striking affinity to th^. ancient GoUiic, both with j|pfspe^t to the. words and the syntax. Q^fhus the enthusiastic admirers of the ..j^Jreeks are exposed to the alternative of paying a part pf th^ir devotion t(>>thc j^fhracians and Scythians,* or pf withdravry ^iiyg it from their favourites, upon discover- .ji^g them to he t:he , brethren of, theilk^&i>)dals i:^dj.f^p^th%^ ..,^.; .^v^^ >^ i>,|ii t; ,i, >;.: -£ii:^|y>S: ^^sariguinity ferms a pomtfiof ^rCCH^tmA-, ,)*fk^ce a second division- ajiaes. yThis division, which I call X\\q Ihllmistic ';Secti<^, embraces the Greek- ai^d Latin -^angi^^ whiqh \i^\^ fon descending .4>r^»ch^ all the . idipjws of^.t^'^lS)Olttlv(()f .-Mi^f? ^ipi^ope, : th^ Eortugueze, , ^anish, French, ami Itali^^ find aii the -terms of '. u science itft' ®«i*bp*? a!lriift>iigi~*'ho]r.' as well as tl\e if^ilA6^hf't^!^thr those two* fett^ua^es '>Ut^ intent»4xeci %itl> the ahciertt Oothlc. 'Their asceiv^Tlhg branches are a mixtui^ of Xihe Pelajigic idiom, with the Phoenicia^, i Egfi^jiliaii, Lydiari' ^aiKp^onic M'oidsl ' ifi- tFOfhieedhy the Asiatic cofonies, the fit§t -Stfttlements of Avhich liave given rise to *tlie fabulous stories of Danaus and Cad- ''^itt^^ It appears that the people of those - < g #l ik < tt» »wfef e to Greece and Italy, Avhat -t^Cf Ewropeftn emigrants have been to Asia •^amt Anterica ; that they (Carried with thefii the arts and sciences of polished Asia, and became a stock of population which somc- : times identified itself with the original inha- bitants/ and sometimes cxth^ated or^bsorh- «iied thenv. Their migration n^ay be ti^c'^d by •the alphabet. Daring the Trojan war, t^-.e ? flumber oi the Greek letters was kicieaj'^d by three or fo^t Ly^f*n or Trisjafh^ ch^ai^- tersf' iwie »f 'Si^hieb^isffctilt^ttf -b^ 4cHtki#in -the Armeflia«a|j>habeli)^-^^ -'^f^^ -^ioa-ii'i '^ 6 The tl ^}ie Information iiecessaiy to elucidatfi, le labours of this section slxould be dQm rive4 from a third, which, under thef> name of the Phgenician, ought to embrac;^; - the study of the following idioms — The anr,^ cient Hebrew, or the Samaritan ; theHebre"«n{ of the sei^ond age, or the Chaldean; th^j ^f,%A¥r^^ ft?^^^^^^ ^S^' ortheSyriac; the mor|^mQdern dialects of the Coptic and &ypti£U]^ which are a mixture of the Greek with the old Egyptian ; the Arabi^t and Ethlopic, which differ only in the cha-Tj rac;^r. T9 tl],is section it would belon^l to anake researches respecting Carthage^a andjt^ colonies in Spain, Siqily and Afric9i.A Recent., res^aij'ches l^ve discavpred,,soiiiftI 1 emarkaj^le.rjjraj^s i ^of, t}iQse,^ettleipe^t& iflR; tlje^|Higd(^i§^,p^f i'e?, au4 :D4oy^cc9. n.)i^ would inform us to wh^t branch we &lj^ui4i> refer the singular idiom of the Biscayens, which appears .to have, been -at one tiniG sp^otken^^ over , all^ ,Sp.£),i.n^. ^^ud ^hi<u Ifas the same syntax as the modern iFcr'^iiEiti^ which is founded on the larfguaj^e 4Df 'thb ancient Parthians, who were a Scythian people ; and: that a number of words in the most common use are alike in both i4ioms. It would explain >taii lis nrhy, in Sweden and Denmark, tliere is a^^st num- ber of geographical names which are also found among the Moguls, and throughout India — why the Tartar of the Crimea, quot- ed by Busbeck ambassador from the Emv peror to Soliman II. resembles the.Ma3sDi gothic of Ulphilas ; that is to say, why a dialect of the Mogul tribes of Tchin- ^uizkan is similar to a dialect of the ancient i^ythian iM" Gothic, of which I ha.ve.'alw tfady spofeeai j yd in^m'KiQ'tn'oijra'^uQ.'i.^ io !E0r this section there woiridrheTeserved Ihftioltition of many interesting probleins^ upftuctiltcjiirst data jof . wlwehiJTweTtoje-e.^hifc |J^e8$^i:t oi^t^eone part connects thisi system ^viti^.;q tha* posterity, now called Tartars, still pre*-"^^ serve their dogmas and rites — and that thi^ ^ worship has sometimes occasioned schis^^^''^ matic wars among themselves, sometimel '- armed them against foreign unbelievers : * wheB we consider all those things, it ap**^* peam probable that some hordes who • had^^ emigrated from the deserts of Chamtt* *' and liuckaria, have been gradually driveit-^ to the Cimbric Chersonesus, by an im-"-^^^ pulse similar to that which conducted t\\&'^> present Turks from the mountains of Altsrt^ » ' and the sources of the Irtich, to the bartkJi ^^ of the Bosphorus. i If this conjecture bfe' < well founded^ the/^^wedish Chronicle^' quoted ^QDted m the Ilistixry, of llJcbiu^iij^l^g^, may have been correct in stating^ th^t ;^^ it wiil be obvious, that ^he sfcucty; )of the ancient languages of Persia, Zend and i^hieve, and perhaps the Median, should likewise be allotted to this section : hut it will require farther labours to deter- mine whether the Sclavonic, spoken in -JBohemia, Poland, and Russia, h«^s really ■been transported from Mount .Caucasus and the country of Mosques ; as the^ Asia- tic manners of the nations that speak-it .'Vould induce us to believe. To futur^e la- Jbou^S: it wiU also belong to distingt^is^j tlic >^yi^gol from those of the Galmuc^nd Hi^^ {^bIq bi'iiitches, dialects of which aie-sj>okeii -in;F}nlandj Lapland and Hungaiiyj todete^- ;Ulline whether the ancient language of India, fj^e Sanscrit, is not the ptiinHiiveidijilect qI" :iXibet; aftd Jn<|o§tar),> ^*td.tUei,ptigia;;Qf tMimvil^n4^ioM'mimtjp ^il ^"^'m a fi<> iUs?p vf r j^4!^-^ngy-agc; isoT.^ouj[ii<^ctet|(: xyjtb. the. c^ine$^-ji<^ii ^tti therefore persuaded that the study 'b^f language is that which will enable tts to ascend farthest in the genealogy of'na- tion-jf : bv successively deductiuij: what "each nation has bonowied or supplied, we J should at last be conducted '*o one dr i©- ^Veral pfimitive and or^inbl languages, tile -''iiaalysis of which would even- eiucidurte -llic wonderful rnverfctio» of apeech*»Jiii^ ^'^'■>^'i historic.ll historical f e6eapclie»r Every one kno"w^ the. effect produced on the mind of Alexander by the Iliad, which is a history in verse.^ The son of Philip becoming the enthu4 siastic admirer of the valour rof Achilles^' made it his model, and/ carrying the iiis#* torical poem in a golden box, nourished by its perusal hb lailitajry passion. Ix^ . i tracing tracing effects to their causes, it is not absurd to suppose that the conquest of Asia depended on this simple occurrence flf the reading of Homer by Aleixander: the conjecture at least is probable. But another fact, which is not less memorabler, and more certain,* is, that the History of Alexander, written by Quintus Curtius, was the principal cause of the terrible wal-s which agitated all the north of Europe at the end of the last and the commence- ment of the present century. All of you have read the History of Charles XII. King of Sweden, and you all know that it was the work of Quintus Curtius that inflamed him with the desire of imitating Alexander* jThe effects of this passion^- wiiich first siiook, and finally consolidated'^ the Russian Empire, may be said to hav^ transplanted it from Asia to Europe ; for, had it not been on account of the war A^thi. Sweden, -Peter *-Irf. would • probably- iiave remained at Moscow, and never havV? thought of founding Petersburg!! : but hadr' thfi hi«turianj and the^ poet accompahicil '^.•.-^-ii their tiieir narmtixms^'V'itli juciici^atg^jceftaebidns Ibn ^bc'iiTiisery •wrMch conquests protlucc, 'atid, mstcatl of profaning the iitime of Tt^irtue -by applying it to military affjiirs, pointed' out the extravagance and crimi- nality ''of* war, it is probable that th6 minds of the two young princes, of whom we have spoken, would have received ano** ther direction, and tliat their activity would have been employed in the acquisi- tion of solid glory, of which the Czar Peter, notwithstanding the defects of his exlucation, had formed by far the most/ j«i*| and noble idea* •'. 'r^^./c im=ijx*> jiotad j.%T ihave* fited individuM 'exdrnples ■; = > I shall no w^oticfe popular am^ ftatW)W^'m'-> stances of* this ' infl uen^i' ^^"» Whoever hAi read with attention thtf Ff istory ' df the iEastern and Western Empires, and that of Modern Europe, must have observed,' that in ail the convu-l^icins of nation^ Id nil the wars; in'^ alt" the ti'^iies- of peace and alliance that have taketl'i^tece withiiil fifteen centuries, there has invariably been a reference '0M7 arBBtsBArae^ta'triiiisactioiis recorded in thft Ijeooks of title Hebrews; iriif Popes pretend to anoint and consecrate Kings, it is in ijBiitation ot'Mclchiscdeck and Samuel. If limpcrors do penance for their sins at the feet of JBontiiS^s, it is in imitation of David and Hezckiahin iltfts in riiiitation of the J«»5S,iftiiat Enropda'ns make war upon In^ fields It is ill imitation of Ahod, Eglon, and Judith, that individuals assassinate princes tio ol>tain the palm of niartyrdonii In the?iiftecnth century, M'lien the art of primt^n:^ promulgated those works which before existed only in manuscript, and rendered them books of general use, this mfliiett'ee Wfts double, and produced an epidenjiic niania of imitation. You ktiow the dread fill' effects to which this passion jj^^veriisanrWrlhe wars promoted by Lutlier in CifPinanyi,. ia those which Cromwell cioiukjH/fe/i% :England, ^nd in those ^f tlWiJe^M f^hid* /was. tennihated hy ilen^yjIyVH-ifK^^ft mtourown times,- we have 90im a striking bcan>plfc:of /the r power of .:;.,';:/ ^i..i ';w:; ,<^ -: i.; r;;-;') .7 those those effects exhibited in the war of tkm^ i^^mericans against Oreat Britain. The passages of the Bible in which Moses and •^muel expose the abuses of royalty, served fjaot a Httle-tio §vipport the insurrection, as Jthey had formerly assisted in overthrowing t|^f tljrpne of Charles. Thus, the prin^ ^^^palinover ©f.the destiny of theuniversc^. i the Normal rule of an immensityi of gene- ?j'ations, has been drawn from the history of va petty natiop, lalmost lujiknown to' anti- l^i|tgc,^^^d.iwhpse twelve ['tribes, consist? t^ing of a mixture of Arabs and Phoeniciansy f ^habited onlyS/j* square leagues. Even . Salomon, in the height of his glory, never i'gpsspssed more than 400 leagues of tcrri-' -^rj>l ^"SOjC/half of which was desert ; and S||^ver gQveyned; moue'than 800,000 people; ^nd consequently, commaiided only 200, 000 > jioldicrs. Suppose those books had never il^^a known,,, then the system of Maho- |«jBtj^%^i»i<^ is p-m- it^itation o^ { tiiat of Mf>^Q^,f would never have existed n/fhe i||!^a^iuent>.^ ,4.he iioman world for those y$immmM€^ 'fmi''wm^'\tA^^^d a dif- ferent flfrecHoiij* Sttp^josfe' likewise tllat the rufvt Presses hud '^en 'jjii-th only to gf)od moral and f)tyJitrcal x(Drks, the spirit '^f ftati«ms aiitJ^ijorenimtfitsAfoald have Nft?ceiv^d anothei' impnlsioti. .-' At h^t true ph!I(t^'4%' l^^^^^P^^y lirWcH is the friend of peace and of uiii- '^^T^r^P tolerance, had extinguished the *feiTnent, and the eighteenth century seemed to approach the finest epoch of •humanity ; ^\'hen a new tempest, hurrying jneh's minds in an opposite extreme, has "Overthi-oveEe4 hensioa^i : .Jie .»becon;^s . inspired] with the bliad pafl3iqfjie»ltiiusia6m. We have ■■ seen f7V *ecn tikis: eiithii9iasrnj;^4f ^Hft^^^in'eiie^' mi^itjOf the pr^scfrt agb^ihv^mfes't' Itself 'ili^ rt'rWiculou's adiihii'ation of"i}ie'ii1?erabit'^' ami «rt9 of the Ancients.- Other err ciirili' stiui^ts have na#'H;urh^d"this ad^iratibii" towards politics; ' In* T^h^H^' ^ ■ di^]kfi^'%, v^htrniCHce' propoiirioh^tl it^'^t^e ' i^lftcrcst^ tliat are'-brouglit into aci!5oii.'^*^^aHed ict its fomi, in it^ name, ana'ii'i^^tkobjecitj it is 'stitt? the same passi^^; 'SO thatNve have €lo(n?e inothins: fh^rfe' tli^ii'to dlranff^' idolB, and substitute' a new worghfp fot' that x)f our ancestors.' ■ We reproach them iur their superstitious adoration of the Jews, '^•aiid we are guilty of an adoration ma? less superstitious of the Greeks and Uoinans.^ Our ancestors swore- by Jeru^ »alem and. the Bible; and the new »ect» siKcaEib^ii^stayiJUiiens, and Titus LivyU^ J r' (fib- >i» 116*:^^ little remarkable that the apoatiias/'of^ tl^is new.religipn are far from hihrmg' U'j^mt rdea of thc{ doctrine they^ iA- ciiicat^i >.aiUi t^e mo(k4« 'they propose tdi u^}ma<^iiite «tt«sdflS4«t*?it 'ivith rhe object /i;5i I 2 thev t)^^ i\iWfi{f: :i^ud. .sp i lit oi' fck| aajj^^ ^H^^li^^^ flrexiukil}>iM.^©Biie ajul Greece ;- bat tki^j^, %'^jfc Jtlx^'M Spiirta an ai-ietociaey oiP th^irt^ thQn$cmd nobles \iQ\A Uiw hundred'' tliousand scrfS'Undet a yoke of the niostj^ IjbbbjOod.^of^ persons. This is soniewhat less fhah ' 1 Ow 5to -the square leagde, and is the proportion ot tRose- coiflitri^^ Which ''^'o^nsMred " '(^e ' mbsff ^pojAiioust^* r apjjf itm'iHe'^oit ''6f>fe/e^te, in'order ' tKa^"!"^ ma^j^^ h§ve nd <^isj^iil^ q^^rljsf su^j^i'^iitfethe" adrnifet-s' ovarii - W3' aiiibassadors of Athens; ^Spartac ^h^'feb^tttif*' who speak in Poljrbins, Livy, and Thudy^ (lides, like the ambassadors of Attikaiicfi^ of Tehiiiguizkan. They have forgotteh thttt^; the same iimnners and the^ gamfe'goV^i^ff*^' raent prevailed in what is called- the' *hb# glorious days of the republie ; thitt 'thfeP pretended republic, varying according W its epochs, was alu^ays an oligarchy, coiits sisting of a noble and sacerdotal ordet^ possessing almost excltisirely tht !&ti|Ji> aiuV pvf^Hc employments, and a plebeiaii^ raas3^ oppressed with usurers, having only^ four acres of ground a-head, and differing** frpiji their slaves only by the right of tlog-^^ ^B^md ' ' ing* ^ru.;.' ■. ...... . / ■ :< '■r.'^ .'.■'.,.■ .^■:C ti,jujtj'. It is, bciidcs, the most flivoyrable proporti<>BQ llrr. modem Greece. According to the calculations maifrf* w^thmuch industry and knowledge by Felix the Consul^ of Satonica,.Mai;e,000,OQO, or 500 persons to the square league ;'*jf>-A:j; prcportlon somewhat greater than tliaf o/Sp^n, ; ; .i''|V/.§ 1 3" mi ga^-denrSiOf. tlieiv centi^rioo^, 4a;itjlt^,sl^i^f§}:^ ofcj^njps, ancl,im tjip mi(lst of iiiilitarjm-'- piri^j tliftt iu tl\Q§g stet^s, pretended to b^., foui)rip4. oft,libci;ty and equality, all polit^rij c^l rightf^^v^|-e-XPtK:qnti'at;ed:iij ,tM, liaj>d%^ of tije infio].e;ife a^4 fap^ipusiiiLhabitiuUs.Qi^ tl^e Qapitftjs, ^yho viewM their allies aftcj^l «||^giat^§,Q^^ i^l tkf^lj^^^pf.t^ihjdtur'ics., [4 ^Xhe pi<)je.i.4^\:q studied tl^e cel^brat)5J;;s .q^{ the ]V|amIou|:s;3 pf Egypt and the Deys of; Algiers 4q npt djij^eivessent^jUl^ifrpui tes^i of Sparta and of Rome ; and that the preej^s! and Romans, we so much venemte^ iwarit- only the n,ames of Huns and Vamlals tof, €5«,ci.te in u^. the ideas we have been taugh^, to form of t}ios&,ijiiitioiis, Etej-jxal Miars^i/ the m«rcler ejf prisoners, raa^sacrea of wo-^' T»en sm^ chilclren, bte^ch .oi'iMtk,iaiQ ternal fjactions, domestic tyranny andTofi; rejgn ^ oppression .. ai:e the nj,03t. stJciking .featiires.qii^ l>ii?teftfi£ ^<5«^- a#4 toJ^ ,3qq::Vr v * during pouPtmyed to us byThueydkles, Fdlybiiis, • and Xitiis Li vy. The war against Xerxes, . tke only ju8t and bonourableone in whlcBv'i the Greeks were= ever engaged, was scarce^ ly finished wheathig' insolent vexations of? Athens on the sea commenced; nexlfc^ coi»es the horrible Peloponnesian war ;: thetit^f tbe Theban ; to.t^esie &nce6ed the wars a^ Alexander; and hi^ successors ; then foUo^ifn tUo^ ot' tiiOf'Roi*ansi without, affording^- tljjp; mind tljp aiatisfaction ©€ rep©»e ovefd hftlf f a .g««Btir^ikw. a£i peac^; . ; i ^ > .• .. ■ i / ' ; i'l* '43^|ife.fegi$latiti>n^af7tbe Amcients) has heen^h IttgW^ {>»ai8ied trr-'bwt whjtt was its object^*! w^^fcC it* effects ? It waSicaktiilatecbtxaibtiBtet men f increase in popujiatiori or territory; a.i:cs g^iriajf.i(^; ^W£J^^iJ,: o| t)^ JJ^i^s -^f^it^t Trappe. Greek and Roman 'modelis are proposed to us :— but what analogy eximsd between a country like France, ■ consistings^j ofi27)000 square leagues, and containing^^f 25, 000, 000 of people, and Greece ? ThSj, Peloponnesus contained six federal inde-fis pendent states within 700 square leagiiest*^ of territory. Lacedacmon, which, ac-M» cording to Thucydides, formed two-fiftb*r* of the Peloponnesus, consisted only of 280 l^a^'des. -Attica, including* the 20 leagues ^ of-Megai'is, consisted onlyof 165 leagues<^| The whole Grecian continent, includin^4i Macedonia, did not extend beyond 385{)d square leagues, that is to say*, ■ one>sixth of q France, consisting of. a territoi-y^^vhich ^ not- generally fertile. What ^^orHpaiisoiijt can there be formed between the manner&ff and habits of the inhabitants of a numbet^ of -small and semi- barbarous state&^*j poOlfA ••»>Kpw that I h^ve seen the Bav}ges:RJC;iijn^c), JQ^ api imore conviuced of the propriety of - thjs, cp^parisooj^^^ ITie firft book of Thucydides, and all his descriptions', of the manritrs of the LaCedajmotiiaris, is so well .snUed t&t^c 'Five ^'iri^!/T, ^t i 'iro^e^^^flllhgly cafl th^ Sf^jfpigiA^iA^ Jroquoii of the old world. btt»lfc'^'^Hl4*-by^#«§ttcfi<^'e — arid (me gfeaivl cC^I^Jidiitetl nat4on' which is tl»e first in his*'-' tOjyittt-cxhibit a population of 125,000, 000,"* si^ekking the same language, following thc^ same customs, and whose various eonvaW^ si^tt§i-,;^i;'* !>;ii.:-;vo.; .r ,;.vjr; ;,;'.;■ ..■;;'> r>{\l 'iQ /llje modern Lycurguscs have spofcerif;' to us only of bread and of iron. The ir<>ii/ of |>ikes produces nothing but blood, and'' brtad is only produced by the iron oiPr ploughs'; —The poets step forward to cele**^ / bra te ^wiiat ^ they denominate warlike vitVf tue**iJ^l5^t us reply to the poets hy th<^^ hb^Tingsof the A\^olves, and screams of tliesp vultures, that gather the dreadful harvesi-'" of battles ; or by the lamentations of wiv- clows and orphans, expiring with hunger oh 'tlie'''tornhs "of thoii- husb'aitds and' fa- tner.s. — W ntcrs Iia vc enueavourea to dazzle , Uf \\\i]\ the glorijCs of , war : But unfprtjJt-\t^ fiati^. arc t(i& penpUu /lo .^jiC.A/uUh greatesLt the. herOe§ of : th^ ch-ahk, tliemf^#bl4!l^ {^ ' ?5R^*f&ieii"ds;:©f the ^i?te have bbeft" ^^M^ CQcj; by: the magiiificieiice of soriie fttibilehit' wpl^Jks^ but the^^foi-gct that m' taxes,\ aiacl to produce . ex- peudqcl t on bigUways and ca*ials' ibie 4,600,000,000 livrcs which his palace, al- X£?Ldy ifi decay, cost |:, Fpance wmild itei- tj^jL'fi liave. knoAvn the bankruptcy of Law, iiQiv4|«,?ui|ioiw consequences now reprodu* G^4jvfinipM^HS.-:v»,B,:3Ulii/^v. ->"'^:^ .•^^^'*^. •^■^'^^* ,J^t,.i|S cease, tiien, to admire those An^" cie^lts whose constitutions were ohgarchies,-^ wjl^^, policy consisted in the exclusive lo x^'^i'^l^^i^ •^" privileges; hi? not lar^* bat a tnillioh, and not a parish whl^h b^s . noi4iid-%ut' sixty or eighty thousand francs in the con- sBlIctien of * church, 1 am inclined to believe that France ha5^\f^tedjjt>Mi,millionsiin piling up those useless mbtin^tk"' oi^tpnp. , .Tl;!}^, j»um, however, is equal to thg arti6Uikt^ of four years «f our present revenue, and dou|>,k? tl]a^ti^> the 'time' of tlic building. Siich is the wisdpnj pf.natpnsj and governments ! * ' ' + There existed in the house of the old intcnJant of of buildings (d'Angi-\iUcrj a manuscript volun&c suiperMy bound, coi^aining a j^egis^^^ of -, t.he .ftxpcncea atjtei*ii«giT the building of Versailles, the recapitulation of whicbf ial' the last page, amounted to l,40t>,0t)0,000 J. » but silv«r was then at l6 fraiKS the roacc, and now it t$ 52 francs.'' i "^rfvileg^S t)f cities, and whose ilibralrtjr "^as founded on the law of force, and the Itaitred of all foreign nations. Let ub no longer ascribe to a ferocious and super- stitions antiquity, a -science of goveni- * inent with which it was not acquainted ; for in modern Euro|>e have arisen the grand and ingenious principles -of the re- presentative S3^stem, of the division and equilibrium af powers, -and thoise profound analyses of the social- state, which, by an evident and simple sei*ie$ t?f facts,, demon- strate that there are no riches but in the productions of the eaatli, which feedj clothe, and shelter man — that those fruits are only to be obtained by labour — that T labour being painful, it ca;ti only be. sti- .i^ulated among a free people Tj^ithe^at^ ■ traction of enjoyments, that is to say, by • the security of property — and that; the maintenance of that Bceurity requires the public force called govertimeat. Govein- -*nent may therefore be dcfi»^"g^''^^'- Jovs,. howeyer, ttp assassuiation of tyrants w'as in^iU culcated and protected : among Christians it Ijgs befpfj^ taught and recommended by St. Thomas Aquinas* r and by ttie Jesuits, who practised tlieir doctrine oii . Princes who were not tyfants. Two Emperorsi who are po^ alajrmed at this doctrine since it has got into oth^f^'^ ^ads, wi^h to re-establish the oxdi^i of the Jesuitic m "^yejsf tljey to succeed,, they wqu^^ qnf ^jyr ijpdiflVQr^ic difficuity in getting rid of those iMorthj fqiheri than,rf the kings of France, Spain, and Portugal formerly expt. ■ rienced; for tbeywouH not'be' issisW'bf Vcntaires, Helvfetiascis, 'D- Alemberts and other arrtiEtxattcaf phrtor'^'* sopji^rs, who iare j^oav abhorred, by «MBe.;*iWffre4gfl«j ^ tlMmjh. Fpedeikk n., was ofth^r Jivml^e^tii J.J... • . W3 of^; %h^. ^ribHJXCs tliere was . no longer an e^Hili]H'*H*i^ (,>A powers; because the caprice oji,|]»^,p.o.umu people byeciime the law of tte)S^e; ibevaus pr^cedijig pagep contaiji the wJiole of th* Legates op tli^tojy, published by Qiuzcn Voloepf: in the beginning ol the present year at Paris, with the exception of some observations on the construc- tion of rooms for the accommodation of legislative? bodies, or any of tl>ose greait assemblies in which public speaking is pra£lised. In a long note, ac- companied by a Plan, the Author has proposeda vaf- riety of ipiproveroenu in tb$^ archite6ture of bn^iltj"^ ings of this kind ; but as his remarks relative to that" objedl are not connected with tlie subjeft of his 'Leflures, and as the engraving of the Plan would have added considerably to the expence, and very little to the value of the book, it has been judged proper to omit both in the traijslation. In othef reapect^' tb« text oi the Author has been fegularly,, a^k(^ it. if hpped, accurately followed. FINIS. Printed by Wilson & Co. Wild Coi»rt, Lioqola't Ino BckUt triples I have laid down to the most emi- l>ent . of ancient and modem M'orks, and _^.;^