THE ORIGIN AND PERMANENT VALUE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT JFfCtg'Cettt Price 50 centi each net. Pottage additional. The Social Message of the Modern Pulpit By Rev. CHARLES REYNOLDS BROWN A Study of Christian Missions Sixty Years with the Bible By Prof. WILLIAM NEWTON CLARKE, D.D. The Bible, Its Origin and Nature By Prof. MARCUS DODS, D.D. The Origin and Permanent Value of the Old Testamen t By Prof. CHARLES FOSTER KENT, Ph.D. The Gospel and the Church By ALFRED LOISY The Apostolic Age By Prof. JAMES HARDY ROPES Outlines of the Life of Christ By Prof. W. SANDAY, D.D., LL.D.. Litt.D. The Passing Protestantism and Coming Catholicism By Rev. NEWMAN SMYTH, D.D. A Model Superintendent By Rev. H. CLAY TRUMBULL Sermons to Young Men The Story of the Psalms By Dr. HENRY VAN DYKE Epochs in the Life of Paul Epochs in the Life of Jesus By Prof. A. T. ROBERTSON, D.D. The Faith of a Modern Protestant By Prof. WILHELM BOUSSET God's Choice of Men By Rev. WILLIAM R. RICHARDS, D.D. Theology and Human Problems By Prof. EUGENE W. LYMAN, D.D. Thoughts for Every-Day Living By Dr. MALTBIE DAVENPORT BABCOCK, D.D. Faith and Sight By Rev. WILLIAM P. MERRILL The Sources of Religious Insight By Prof. JOSIAH ROYCE Charles Scribner's Sons, New York THE ORIGIN AND PERMANENT VALUE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT BY CHARLES FOSTER KENT, PH.D. WOOLSEY PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE IN YALK UNIVERSITY e sftall ftnofo ity Erutij anB tye STrutij make gou free" COPYRIGHT, 1906 BT CHARLES SCHIBNER'S SONS Published April, 1906 IJflRABY UNIVERSITY O^ CALIFORNI SANTA BARBARA PREFACE DURING the past generation the Old Testament has commanded equally with the New the enthusiastic and devoted study of the great body of biblical scholars throughout the world. Two out of every three graduate students in our universities who specialize in the general field of biblical literature choose the Old as the special centre of their work. At the same time the tendency of the rank and file of the Christian church within the past decade has un- doubtedly been to neglect the older Testament. Preachers as a rule select less than a fourth of their texts from it; the prevailing courses of Bible study devote proportionately less time to it; and teachers and scholars in the great majority of cases turn to the Old Testament with much less enthusiasm than they do to the New. Why are these two great currents set- ting in opposite directions, and what are the causes of the present popular neglect of the Old Testament? If the Old Testament should be relegated to a second place in our working vi Preface canon of the Bible, let us frankly and carefully define our reasons. If, on the other hand, the prevailing apathy and neglect are due to igno- rance of the real character and value of the Old Testament, let us lose no time in setting our- selves right. The present volume has been suggested by repeated calls from ministerial bodies, popular assemblies, and groups of college students for addresses on the themes here treated. The aim has been to give in concise, popular form an- swers to some of the many questions thus raised, with the conviction that they are in the mind of eveiy thoughtful man and woman to-day, and especially on the lips of earnest pastors, mis- sionaries, and Sunday-school teachers. There are indications on every side of a deepening and far more intelligent interest in the needs and possibilities of religious education. Its vital importance to the life of the Church and the nation is being understood as never before. Earnest and fruitful efforts are being put forth to improve the methods and courses of instruc- tion. The first essential, however, is a true understanding and appreciation of that Book of Books, which will forever continue to be the chief manual "for teaching, for reproof, for Preface rii correction, for instruction in righteousness, that the man of God may be perfect, completely fitted for every good work." The supreme importance and practical value of the New Testament are recognized by all, but we usually forget when we quote the familiar words of Paul that he had in mind simply the Scriptures of the Old Testament. In divine Providence mighty forces have been quietly at work during the past century remov- ing false rabbinical traditions and misconceptions that had gathered about these ancient Scriptures, while from other sources has come new light to illumine their pages. The result is that in the Old Testament the Christian world is discern- ing a new heritage, the beauty and value of which is still only half suspected even by intel- ligent people. This fact is so significant and yet so little recognized that one feels impelled to go out and proclaim it on the housetops. The Old Testament can never be properly presented from the pulpit or in the class-room while the attitude of preacher and teacher is apathetic and the motive a sense of duty rather than an intel- ligent acquaintance with its real character and genuine admiration and enthusiasm for its vital truths. The irresistible fascination which has viii Preface drawn many of the most brilliant scholars into the Old Testament field is a proof that it has lost nothing of its power and attractiveness. Al- ready the circle of those who have rediscovered the Old Testament is rapidly broadening. Ob- servation and experience confirm the conviction that all that is lacking to make that devotion universal is a right attitude toward it and an intelligent familiarity with its real origin, con- tents, and teachings. The sooner this is realized the sooner some of the most difficult problems of the Church, of the Sunday-school, and of popular religious education will be solved. As the repository of a great and varied litera- ture, as a record of many of the most important events in human history, and as a concrete revelation of God's character and will through the life and experiences of a race and the hearts of inspired men, the Old Testament has a vital message marvellously adapted to the intellectual, moral, social, and spiritual needs of to-day and supremely fitted to appeal to the thought and imagination of the present age. This little volume is intended to be simply a very informal introduction to it. Since of the two Testaments the New is by far the more easily understood and the better known, it is Preface be made the point of departure in the approach to the more complex field represented by the Old. Many unexpected analogies will aid in under- standing the intricate literary history of the older Scriptures. The point of view assumed throughout is that of the busy pastor, mission- ary, Sunday-school teacher, and scholar, who have little time for technical study, but who are not afraid of truth because it is new and who firmly believe that God is ever revealing himself more fully to men and that his truth shall make us free. It is hoped that this general survey will prove for them but an introduction to a far deeper and more profitable study. To the Reverend J. F. McFarland, D.D., of the Methodist Book Concern, to Mr. John H. Scribner of the Presbyterian Board of Publi- cation and Sunday-school Work, to Mr. M. C. Hazard, Ph.D., of the Pilgrim Press, and to the Reverend F. K. Sanders, Ph.D., of the Con- gregational Sunday-school and Publishing So- ciety, who have generously read the manuscript of this book, I am deeply indebted, not only for their valuable suggestions, but also for their strong expressions of personal interest in the practical ends which it seeks to con- serve. I am also under great obligation to i Preface the Reverend Morgan Millar, of Yale, for his untiring vigilance in revising the proof of a volume written within the all too brief limits of a Christmas vacation. C. F. K. YALE UNIYIKSITY, January, 1906 CONTENTS PAOB I. THE ECLIPSE AND REDISCOVERY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT 1 II. THE REAL NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT 19 III. THE EARLIEST CHAPTERS IN DIVINE REVELATION 85 IV. THE PLACE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT IN DIVINE REVELATION 49 V. THE INFLUENCES THAT PRODUCED THE NEW TESTAMENT 63 VI. THE GROWTH OF THE OLD TESTAMENT PROPHETIC HISTORIES 85 VII. THE HISTORY OF THE PROPHETIC SER- MONS, EPISTLES, AND APOCALYPSES . . Ill VIII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT LAWS 123 IX. INFLUENCES THAT GAVE RISE TO THE PRIESTLY LAWS AND HISTORIES . . . 143 X. THE HEBREW SAGES AND THEIR PROVERBS 161 XI. THE WRITINGS OF ISRAEL'S PHILOSOPHERS 177 XII. THE HISTORY OF THE PSALTER .... 189 XIII. THE FORMATION OF THE OLD TESTAMENT CANON 208 xii Contents PAGE XIV. THE INTERPRETATION OF THE EARLY NAR- RATIVES or THE OLD TESTAMENT . . 223 XV. PRACTICAL METHODS OF STUDYING THE OLD TESTAMENT 245 XVI. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION THE FUNDA- MENTAL PROBLEM OF TO-DAY 259 THE ECLIPSE AND REDISCOVERY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT THE ECLIPSE AND REDISCOVERY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT THE opening chapters of the Gospels record Jesus' study only three or four meagre facts regarding the Testament first thirty years of Jesus' life. The real his- tory of those significant years ran so far beneath the surface of external events that it completely escaped the historian. The history of the men- tal and spiritual life of the Master is recorded in his mature character and teachings. The fugi- tive hints, however, vividly illustrate the su- preme fact that he ever grew stronger, becoming filled with wisdom ; and the grace of G-od wa* upon him (Luke ii. 40). They reveal a soul not only in closest touch with God and with human life, but also in eager quest for the vital truth re- garding God and man recorded in the Scriptures of his race. It requires no imagination to pic- ture the young Jew of Nazareth eagerly study- ing in the synagogue, at the temple, and alone by himself the sacred writings found in our Old Testament, for this fact is clearly recorded on every page of the Gospels. 4 Origin and Value of the Old Testament HisfamiU- The events of Hebrew history, and its heroes 'ail part* Abraham, David, Elijah were all familiar to him. The Old Testament was the background of a large portion of the Sermon on the Mount. From Deuteronomy vi. 4, 5, and Leviticus xix. 18 he drew his marvellous epitome of all law and duty. In the wisdom literature, and especially in the book of Proverbs, he found many of those practical truths which he applied to life with new authority and power. From the same store- house of crystallized experience he derived cer- tain of those figures which he expanded into his inimitable parables ; he adopted also, and put to new use, the effective gnomic form of teaching of the wisdom school. As in the mouth of his herald, John the Baptist, the great moral and spiritual truths, first proclaimed by the ancient prophets, live again on the lips of Jesus. At every point in his teachings one recognizes the thought and language of the older Scriptures. At the mo- ments of his greatest temptation and distress, even in the last agony, the words of the ancient law and psalms were on his lips and their con- soling and inspiring messages in his mind. Attitude of What is so strikingly true of Jesus is equally the apottlet , ,. true of the apostles and disciples who have given us the New Testament books : the atmosphere in which they lived, the thoughts which they The Eclipse and Rediscovery 5 thought, and the language in which they spoke, were those of the Old Testament. Not bowing slavishly before it, as did their Jewish contem- poraries, but with true reverence, singling out that which was vital and eternal, they made it the basis of their own more personal and perfect message to humanity. But for them, and for the early Church, until at least the middle of the second Christian century, the only scrip- tures regarded as authoritative were those of the Old Testament. Even then, only gradually, and under the pressure of real needs, were dif- ferent groups of Christian writings added and ascribed an authority equal to that of the older Scriptures. Throughout the Middle Ages and in the eyes Attitude of of the Protestant reformers the two great divi- sions of the Bible continued to command equal p respect and attention. From the Old Testa- ment and its reflection in the teachings of Paul, Puritanism and the theology of the past three centuries derived most of that which revealed their strength as well as their weakness. From the law, the prophets, and the book of Proverbs they drew their stern spirit of justice, their zeal for righteousness, and their uncompromising con- demnation of everything that seemed to them wrong. Their preachers nobly echoed the thun- 6 Origin and Value of the Old Testament ders of Sinai and the denunciations of an Elijah, an Amos, and an Hosea. They often failed, however, to recognize the divine love which prompted the stern words of the prophets, and to see that these denunciations and warnings were simply intended to arouse the conscience of the people and to make them worthy of the rich blessings that God was eager to bestow. Misinterpretation of the spirit of the later Old Testament reformers, who dramatically por- trayed Jehovah's hatred for the abominable heathen cults in the form of commands to slaughter the peoples practising them, frequently led the Puritan fathers to treat their foes in a manner neither biblical nor Christian. To this narrow interpretation of the letter rather than the spirit of the Old Testament, and the emphasis placed upon its more primitive and im- perfect teachings can be directly traced the worst faults of that courageous band who lived and died fighting for what they conceived to be truth and right. Reaction It is undoubtedly true that during the past a $?bhof e two decades the Old Testament has in fact, if Puntanum not j n theory, been assigned to a secondary place in the life and thought of Christendom. This is not due to the fact that the Christ has been exalted to his rightful position of command- The Eclipse and Rediscovery 7 ing authority and prestige. All that truly exalts him likewise exalts the record of the work of his forerunners which he came to bring to com- plete fulfilment and upon which he placed his eternal seal of approval. Rather, the present eclipse of the Old Testament appears to be due to three distinct causes. The first is con- nected with the reaction from Puritanism, and especially from its false interpretation of the Bible. Against intolerance and persecution the heart of man naturally rebelled. These rang true neither with life nor the teaching of Jesus. Refuge from the merciless and seemingly flaw- less logic of the earlier theologians was found in the simple, reassuring words of the Gospels. The result was that, with the exception of a very few books like the Psalter, the Old Testament, which was the arsenal of the old militant theol- ogy, has been unconsciously, if not deliberately, shunned by the present generation. Within the past decade this tendency has Doubts been greatly accelerated by the work of the 'tlTwlrk of so-called " Higher Gritics." Because it presents more literary and historical problems, and be- cause it was thought, at first, to be farther away from the New Testament, the citadel of the Christian faith, the Old Testament has been the scene of their greatest activity. With what 8 Origin and Value of the Old Testament seemed to the onlooker to be a supreme disre- gard for the traditions long accepted as estab- lished by the Church, they have persistently applied to the ancient Scriptures the generally accepted canons and methods of modern his- torical and literary study. In their scientific zeal they have repeatedly overturned what were once regarded as fundamental dogmas. Unfor- tunately the first reports of their work sug- gested that it was only destructive. The very foundations of faith seemed to be shaking. Sinai appeared to be enveloped in a murky fog, instead of the effulgence of the divine glory; Moses seemed to become a vague, unreal figure on the distant horizon of history; David's voice only faintly echoed through the Psalter; and the noblest messages of prophet, sage, and psalmist were anonymous. The mit- Little wonder that many who heard only from critics' '' af ar t ne ominous reports of the digging and delving, and vague rumors, all the more ter- rifying because vague, either leaped to the conclusion that the authority of the Old Testa- ment had been undermined or else rallied in a frantic effort to put a stop, by shouting or com- pulsion, to the seemingly sacrilegious work of destruction. "When the history of the Higher Criticism of the Old Testament is finally writ- The Eclipse and Rediscovery 9 ten, it will be declared most unfortunate that the results first presented to the rank and file of the Christian Church were, as a rule, largely negative and in many cases relatively unimpor- tant. In their initial enthusiasm for scientific research scholars, alas ! sometimes lost the true perspective and failed to recognize relative val- ues. The date, for example, of Isaiah xl.-lv. is important for the right understanding and in- terpretation of these wonderful chapters, but its value is insignificant compared with the divine messages contained in these chapters and their direct application to life. Moreover, instead of presenting first the testimony and then patiently pointing out the reasonableness and vital signifi- cance of the newer conclusions, scholars some- times, under the influence of their convictions, made the fatal mistake of enunciating those con- clusions simply as dogmas. History demonstrates that established reli- Resulting gions and churches always hold tenaciously to in the 'Old old doctrines, and therefore regard new conclu- sions with suspicion. This tendency is clearly illustrated in the experience of Jesus ; for with all his divine tact and convincing authority, he was not able to win the leaders of Judaism to the acceptance of his revolutionizing teachings. Yet one cannot escape the conviction that if in 10 Origin and Value of the Old Testament this age of enlightenment and open-mindedness, the positive results of modern scholarship had been presented first, this latest chapter in God's revelation of himself to man would have been better understood and appreciated by the lead- ers of the Church, and its fruits appropriated by those whose interests are fixed on that which is of practical rather than theoretical import. At least many open-minded people might have been saved from the supreme error of writing, either consciously or unconsciously, Ichabod across the pages of their Old Testament. Difficulties The third reason why the Old Testament has Standing it suffered temporary eclipse in so many minds is more fundamental; it is because of the diffi- culties in understanding it. The background of the New Testament is the Roman world and a brief century with which we Western readers are well acquainted ; but the background of the Old is the ancient East the age and land of wonder, mystery, and intuition, far removed from the logical, rushing world in which we live. The Old Testament contains a vast and complex literature, filled with the thoughts and figures and cast in the quaint language of the Semitic past. Between us and that past there lie not merely long centuries, but the wide gulf that is fixed between the East and the West. The Eclipse and Rediscovery 11 With three such distinct and powerful cur- The new rents reaction, suspicion, and misunderstand- ing bearing us from the Old Testament, it ments might be predicted that in a decade or two it would lie far behind our range of vision. Other forces however are, in divine providence, rap- idly bringing it back to us again, so that we are able to understand and appreciate it as never before since the beginning of the Christian era. The chasm between us and it is really being bridged rather than broadened. The long cen- turies that lie back of the Old Testament have suddenly been illuminated by great search-lights, so that to-day we are almost as well acquainted with them as with the beginning of the Christian era. From ancient monuments have arisen, as from the dead, an army of contemporary wit- nesses, sometimes confirming, sometimes correct- ing, but at all times marvellously supplementing the biblical data. Now the events and characters of Old Testament history no longer stand alone in mysterious isolation, but we can study in de- tail their setting and real significance. At every point the biblical narrative and thought are brought into touch with real life and history. The biographies and policies, for example, of Sennacherib and Cyrus, are almost as well known as those of Napoleon and Washington. 12 Origin and Value of the Old Testament Modern aids in in- terpreting the Old Testament The prophets are not merely voices, but men with a living message for all times, because they primarily dealt with the conditions and needs of their own day. The vital relation and at the same time the infinite superiority of the religious teachings of the Old Testament to those of earlier ages and peoples are clearly revealed. Interpreted in the light of contemporary lit- erature and language, most of the obscurities of the Old Testament melt away. Modern re- search in the fields of Semitic philology and syn- tax and the discovery of older texts and versions have put into the hands of translators new and valuable tools for making clear to all the thoughts in the minds of the original writers of the Old Testament. Studies in comparative religion, geography, and modern Oriental life and cus- toms have illuminated and illustrated at every point the pages of the ancient writings. To utilize all these requires time and devotion, but he who is willing to study may know his Old Testament to-day as well as he does the New. Rejection of Fully commensurate with the great light that tradition* nas ^ een sae ^ upon it from without, is that which has come from a careful study of the testimony of the Old Testament itself. Until recent times the Church has been content to The Eclipse and Rediscovery 13 accept blindly the traditions of the late Jewish rabbis regarding the origin, history, and inter- pretation of their scriptures. Handed down through the Church Fathers and interwoven with creeds and popular beliefs, they have been identified in many minds with the teaching of the Bible itself. Yet, when we analyze their origin and true character, we find that many of them have absolutely no support in the Scriptures, and in many cases are directly contradictory to the plain biblical teachings. Too often they are but the fanciful conjectures of the rabbis. Developed in an uncritical age, and based upon the unreliable methods of inter- pretation current among the Jews in the early Christian centuries, they are often sadly mis- leading. A close analogy is found in the tradi- tional identifications of most of the Palestinian sacred sites. To-day the Oriental guide shows the skull of Adam beneath the spot where tra- dition places the cross of Christ. If the travel- ler desires, he will point out the very stones which John declared God could raise up to be children of Abraham. Every question which curiosity or genuine interest has raised is an- swered by the seemingly authoritative voice of tradition. Investigation, however, proves that almost all of these thousand identifications are 14 Origin and Value of the Old Testament probably incorrect. The discovery is a shock to the pious imagination; but to the healthy mind uncertainty is always better than error. Furthermore, uncertainty often proves the door which leads to established truth. Acceptance Even so the modern historical and critical monyj/^^e spirit has led men to turn from the generally Old Testa- accepted but exceedingly doubtful rabbinical ment regard- ing its origin traditions regarding, for example, the date and authorship of many of the Old Testament books, to the authoritative evidence found in those writings themselves. In this they are but fol- owing the example of the Great Teacher, who repeatedly appealed from the same rabbis and their misleading traditions to the same ancient Scriptures. The saddest fact is that many of his followers, even to-day, hesitate to follow his inspired leadership. Fortunately, as the varied strata and formations of the rocks tell the story of the earth's early history, so these early writings furnish the data for reconstruct- ing the illuminating history of their origin, growth, and transmission. Often the testimony of the facts differs as widely from the familiar inherited traditions as the conclusions of mod- ern science from the vague guesses of primitive man regarding the riddles of existence. Neither may represent absolute and final truth, and yet The Eclipse and Rediscovery 15 no serious-minded man can question wiiich. is really the more authoritative. To-day one of the most vital issues before the Christian Church is whether it will follow the guidance of its Founder and accept the testimony of the Bible itself or cling blindly to the traditions of the rabbis and Church Fathers. The student of history at once recognizes in Historical the modern movement, of which the watchword O fthe is, " Back to the testimony of the Bible," the direct sequel to the Protestant Reformation. The early reformers took the chains off the Bible and put it into the hands of men, with full permission to study and search. Vested interests and dogmatism soon began to dictate how it should be studied and interpreted, and thus it was again placed practically under lock and key. It is an interesting fact that a young Zulu chief, a pupil of Bishop Colenso of South Africa, first aroused the Anglo-Saxon world to the careful, fearless, and therefore truly reveren- tial study of its Old Testament. With this new impetus, the task of the Reformers was again taken up, and in the same open, earnest spirit. For two generations it has commanded the consecrated energies of the most thorough scholars of Christendom. Those of England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Germany, Austria, 16 Origin and Value of the Old Testament Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, America, and Canada have worked shoulder to shoulder, dividing the work, carefully collecting and classifying the minutest data, comparing re- sults, and, on the basis of all this work, form- ulating conclusions, some assured and some hypothetical, which best explain the facts. The unveil- Often, to those who have not followed the l <$d Testa- detailed steps, these conclusions have seemed only destructive. Many of them are assuredly so; but the vital question which every honest man should ask is, Do they destroy the Bible, or simply the false traditions that have gathered about it? Fortunately, most of the leaders of the Church and most intelligent laymen have already discerned the only emphatic answer to this question. The Church is undoubtedly pass- ing quietly through a revolution in its con- ception and attitude toward the Bible, more fundamental and far-reaching than that repre- sented by its precursor the Protestant Reforma- tion ; but its real significance is daily becoming more apparent. Not a grain of truth which the Bible contains has been destroyed or permanently obscured. Instead, the debris of time-honored traditions and dogmas have been cleared away, and the true Scriptures at last stand forth again in their pristine splendor. The Eclipse and Rediscovery 17 Freed from the misconceptions and false tra- The true ditions which have gathered about it, the true ment Old Testament rises from amidst the dust and din of the much digging and delving. To those who have known only the old it is a fresh reve- lation. Its literary beauty, its naturalness, its dignity, its majestic authority are a surprise to those who have not followed its unveiling. The old vagueness and mystery have in part disappeared, and instead it is found to contain a thousand vital, living messages for to-day. Its human as well as its divine qualities com- mand our interest and attention. Through it all God speaks with a new clearness and au- thority. Thus, that which we thought was dead has risen, and lives again to inspire us to noble thought and deed and service. n THE REAL NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT n THE REAL NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT TURNING from the Jewish and mediaeval tra- A large ditions and theories which so easily beset us, ftj ra ry" lp we ask, What is the real nature of the Old Testament as it is revealed in this new and clearer light? The first conclusion is that it is a library containing a large and complex literature, recording the varied experiences, political, social, ethical, and religious, of the Israelitish race. The fact that it is a library consisting of many different books is recog- nized by the common designation of the two testaments. As is well known, our English word Bible came originally from the Papyrus or Byblus reed, the pith of which was widely used in antiquity as the material from which books were made. It was natural, therefore, that in the Greek a little book should be desig- nated as a billion. About the middle of the second Christian century the Greek Christians (first in the so-called Second Epistle of Clement The record of God'* vital, per- sonal rela- tions to the Israelitish race 22 Origin and Value of the Old Testament xiv. 2) began to call their sacred scriptures, Ta Biblia, the books. When this title was trans- ferred to the Latin it was, by reason of a natural and yet significant error, treated as a feminine singular, Biblia, which reappears in English as Bible. This most appropriate name emphasizes the fact that the books thus de- scribed are a unit and yet a collection of little books, selected from a larger literature and given their present position of preeminent authority. The term Testament suggests not the form and authority of the books, but their theme. It is the English translation, through the Latin and Greek, of the Hebrew word, lerith, usually rendered, covenant. It means a bond or basis of agreement. It implies a close and binding contract between two parties, and defines the terms to which each subscribes and the obliga- tions which they thus assume. The Old Cove- nant or Testament, therefore, is primarily the written record of the origin, terms, and history of the solemn agreement which existed between the Israelitish nation and Jehovah. The early narratives preserve the traditions of its origin; the lawgivers endeavored to define its terms and the obligations that rested upon the people ; the prophets interpreted them in the life of the nation, and the sages into the life of the indi- Nature and Purpose of the Old Testament 23 vidual; and the historical books recorded its practical working. The signficant fact is that back of the Old Testament records exists some- thing greater and deeper than pen can fully describe : it is a vital, living connection be- tween Jehovah and his people that makes possible the unique relation which finds ex- pression in the remarkable history of the race and in the experiences and souls of its spiritual leaders. Thus through life, and in the con- crete terms of life, God reveals himself to the life of humanity. In the light of this truth the Jewish and med- Written in iaeval dogma that every word, and even every human letter of Scripture, was directly dictated by God himself, seems sadly mechanical and bears the marks of the narrow schools of thought in which it took form. Hebrew was not, and probably will never be, the language of heaven ! Not on skins and papyrus rolls, but in the life of the Israelitish race and on the minds and consciences of enlightened men, God wrote his revelation. History and the character and consciousness of the human race are its imper- ishable records. Fortunately he also aroused certain men of old, not by word and act only, but by the pen as well, to record the revelation that was being perfected in the life of their 24 Origin and Value of the Old Testament nation and in their own minds and hearts. He did not, however, dictate to them the form of their writings nor vouch for their verbal inerrancy. In time, out of their writings were gradually collected and combined the most sig- nificant passages and books, and to these was finally attributed the authority that they now rightfully enjoy. Secondary The ultimate basis of that authority, however, tources of , . . , , - , . -.. . its authority is not their presence in the canon of the Old Testament. At the same time their presence there is deeply significant, for it represents the endorsement of many ages and of countless thousands who, from the most varied points of view and amid the most diverse experiences, have tested and found these ancient scriptures worthy of the exalted position that has gradu- ally been assigned to them. It is not the sup- port of the Church, although this also for the same reason is exceedingly significant. It is not the calm assumption of authority that ap- pears at every point throughout the Old Testa- ment, although this is richly suggestive; the sacred writings of other religions make even more pretentious claims. It is not that its com- mands and doctrines come from the mouths of great prophets and priests, like Moses, Samuel, Isaiah, and Jeremiah. This fact undoubtedly Natwc and Purpose of the Old Testament 25 had great weight with those who formed the final canon of the Old Testament, and the authority of a strong, noble personality is su- premely impressive ; but divine authority never emanates primarily from a man, however great be his sanctity. Furthermore, to establish the authority derived from a Moses or a Samuel it is necessary in every case to prove that the books attributed to them by late tradition actu- ally came from their pens. Even if this could in every case be done, some of the noblest pas- sages in the Old Testament remain avowedly anonymous ; for the tendency of the great majority of its authors was clearly to send forth their messages without any attempt to associate their own names with them. The ultimate authority of the Old Testa- Its ultimate ment, therefore, is not dependent upon devoted authority canon-makers, nor the weighty testimony of the Church, nor upon its own claims, nor the repu- tation of the inspired men who have written it, nor the estimate of any age. Its seat of authority is more fundamental. It contains the word of God because it faithfully records and interprets the most important events in the early religious history of man, and simply and effectively pre- sents God's revelation of himself and of his will in the minds and hearts of the great pre- 26 Origin and Value of the Old Testament Christian heralds of ethical and spiritual truth. Back of the Old Testament is a vast variety of vital experiences, national and individual, politi- cal and spiritual, social and ethical, pleasurable and painful. Back of all these deeply signifi- cant experiences is God himself, through them making known his character and laws and pur- pose to man. Its authority Students of the rediscovered Old Testament ethical and . religious, also recognize, in the light of a broader and more not scientific careful studV) the fact> 8Q often and &Q f ata Uy overlooked in the past, that its authority lies not in the field of natural science, nor even of history in the limited sense. Time and patience were destined to increase man's knowledge in these great departments and also to develop his mind in attaining it. The teaching of the Old Testament is authoritative only in the far more important realm of ethics and religion. Paul truly voiced its supreme claim when he said that it was profitable for teaching, for re- proof, for correction, for instruction in right- eousness, that the man of Grod may be perfect, completely fitted for every good work (II Tim. iii. 16, 17). The assertion by the Church in the past of claims nowhere made or implied by the Old Testament itself is unfortunately still a fertile source of perplexity and dissension to Mature and Purpose of the Old Testament 27 many faithful souls. Their salvation is to be found in a clear and intelligent appreciation of the real nature and claim of these ancient writings. One dominant aim determines the form of Its dominant each book and the selection of individual pas- sages and binds together the whole : it is effec- l tively to set forth spiritual truth and to mould in accordance with God's will the characters and beliefs of men. It was the supreme bond that bound together prophets, priests, sages, and psalmists, although the means by which they accomplished their common purpose differed widely. Many a current tradition, and the crude conceptions of the ancients regarding the natu- ral world, are recorded in the Old Testament; but they are not there merely to perpetuate history nor to increase the total of scientific knowledge, but rather because they concretely illustrate and impress some vital ethical and spiritual truth. Such singleness of religious purpose is paralleled nowhere else except in the work and teachings of Jesus and his apostles. The ever-present evidence of the divine au- thority back of the spiritual teachings of the proof of \ts Old Testament as a whole is that they ring true to life and meet its needs. By their fruits we know them. It is the demonstration of the 28 Origin and Value of the Old Testament laboratory. We know that they are inspired because they inspire. The principles under- lying the social sermons of Amos are as appli- cable to present conditions as when first uttered. The sooner they are practically applied the sooner our capitalistic civilization can raise its head now bowed in shame. The faith that breathes through the Psalms is the faith that upholds men to-day in the midst of temptation and trial. The standards of justice, tempered by love, which are maintained in the Old Testa- ment laws make good citizens both of earth and heaven. As long as men continue to test the teachings of the Old Testament scriptures in the laboratory of experience and to know them by their fruits, nothing can permanently endan- ger their position in the Christian Church or in the life of humanity. Neglect and indifference, not Higher Criticism, alone permanently threaten the authority of the Old Testament as well as that of the New. Significance Recognizing the real nature and purpose of these ancient records, the true student neither denies nor is disturbed by the marks of their human authorship. As in the case of the Gos- pels, the variations between the parallel narra- tives are all evidence of their genuineness and of the sincerity of their purpose. They demon- \ncont\tttn- CtM Nature and Purpose of the Old Testament 29 strate that God's revelation is adapted to the needs of life and the comprehension of man, because it was through life and expressed in the terms of life. Their individual peculiari- ties and minor errors often introduce us more intimately to the biblical writers and help us to understand more clearly and sympathetically their visions of truth and of God. Above all, they teach us to look ever through and beyond all these written records to the greater revelation, which they reflect, and to the infinite Source of all knowledge and truth. The inconsistencies and imperfect teachings The record which are revealed by a critical study of the Old Testament are also but a few of the many indices that it is the record of a gradually unfolding revelation. Late Jewish tradition, which is traceable even in the Old Testament itself, was inclined to assign the origin of every- thing which it held dear to the very beginnings of Hebrew history, and in so doing it has done much to obscure its true genesis. For- tunately, however, the history of God's gradual training of the race was writ too plainly in the earlier Old Testament scriptures to be com- pletely obscured by later traditions. The recog- nition that God's all-wise method of revealing spiritual as well as scientific truth was progres- 30 Origin and Value of the Old Testament sive, adapted to the unfolding consciousness of each succeeding age, at once sweeps away many of the greatest difficulties that have hitherto obscured the true Old Testament. Jesus with his divine intuition appreciated this principle of growth. Unhesitatingly he abrogated certain time-honored Old Testament laws with the words, Ye have heard that it was said . . . but I say to you. His own interpretation of his re- lation to the sacred writings of his race was that he came to bring them to complete fulfilment. Rearranged in their approximately chronological order, the Old Testament books become the harmonious and many-sided record of ten cen- turies of strenuous human endeavor to know and to do the will of God and of his full and gracious response to that effort. The beatitude of those who hunger and thirst after righteous- ness was as true in the days of Moses as it was when Jesus proclaimed it. It* different Finally, the right and normal attitude toward very' differ- the ^^ Testament leads to the wholesome con- ent values c i us i oll that its different books are of very dif- ferent values. The great critic of Nazareth again set the example. As we have just seen, certain of the Old Testament laws he distinctly abro- gated ; others he quietly ignored ; others, as, for example, the law of love (Deut. vi. 5, and Lev. Nature and Purpose of the Old Testament 31 xix. 19) he singled out and gave its rightful place of central authority. A careful study of the Gospels, in the light of the Old Testament, demonstrates that a very important element in his work, as the Saviour of men, was in thus separating the dross in the older teachings from the gold, and then in giving to the vital truth a clearer, more personal, and yet more universal application. For the intelligent student and teacher of to-day the Old Testament still re- mains a great mine of historical, ethical, and religious truth. Some parts, like Genesis, Deu- teronomy, Hosea, Jeremiah, Isaiah xl.-lv., and the Psalter, are richly productive. Others, like Numbers, Chronicles, and Esther, are compara- tively barren. Since the Old Testament is the record of a Application progressively unfolding revelation, it is obvious ^ thlt truth that all parts do not possess an equal authority. To place the example of the patriarchs or of David, who lived when ethical standards and religious beliefs were only partially developed, on an equality with the exalted ideals of the later prophets, is to misinterpret those ancient Scriptures and to reject the leadership of the Great Teacher. At the same time, studied from the newer point of view, the examples of those early heroes are found to illustrate vital prin- The Old Testament not a fetich but a spiri- tual guide- book 32 Origin and Value of the Old Testament ciples in human life and to inspire and warn the child of to-day as effectively as they did far back in the childhood of the race. In these later days God has taken the Bible from the throne of infallibility on which Pro- testantism sought to place it. By a gradual and yet benign process, which we were never- theless at first inclined bitterly to resent, he has opened our eyes to its true character and pur- pose. Again, he has pronounced his Thou thalt not to the natural and yet selfish human desire to transfer moral and intellectual responsibility from the individual conscience to some external authority. Again, he has told us that only in the sanctuary of the human soul is the Infallible One to be found. Yet in order that we each may find him there, the cumulative religious experience of the countless thousands who have already found him is of inestimable value. The Old Testament contains not merely the word of God, but, together with its complement the New, is the great guide-book in finding and knowing him. It blazes the way which the pilgrim of to-day, as in the past, must follow from his cradle to the throne of God. At each point it is richly illustrated by the actual religious experiences of real men and women. Their mistakes and their victories are equally instruc- Nature and Purpose of the Old Testament 33 tive. From many vantage-points reached by prophets and priests and psalmists, we are able to catch new and glorious visions of God's char- acter and purpose for mankind. Through its pages sometimes dimly, sometimes brightly, but growing ever clearer shines the divine light of God's truth and revelation, culminating in the Christ, the perfected revelation and the supreme demonstration that man, though beset by temptation, baffled by obstacles, deserted by friends, and maligned by foes, can nevertheless, by the invincible sword of love and self-sacrifice, conquer the world and become one with God, as did the peerless Knight of Nazareth. Ill THE EARLIEST CHAPTERS IN DIVINE REVELATION m THE EARLIEST CHAPTERS IN DIVINE REVELATION SINCE the days of the Greek philosophers the The nature subject of inspiration and revelation has been a t fertile theme for discussion and dispute among scholars and theologians. Many different theo- ries have been advanced, and ultimately aban- doned as untenable. In its simplest meaning and use, inspiration describes the personal influence of one individual upon the mind and spirit of another. Thus we often say, "That man inspired me." What we are or do under the influence of that intellectual or spiritual impulse is the effect and evidence of the inspira- tion. Similarly, divine inspiration is the influ- ence of God's spirit or personality upon the mind and spirit of man. It may find expression in an exalted emotional state, in an heightened clarity of mental perception, in noble deeds, in the development of character, indeed in a great variety of ways ; but its seat is always the mind ff man and its ultimate cause the Deity himself. 38 Origin and Value of the Old Testament Tn the Old The early Old Testament expression most commonly used to describe inspiration was that the Spirit of God rushed upon the man, as it did upon Saul, causing him to burst forth into religious ecstasy or frenzy (I Sam. x. 6, 10), and upon Samson, giving him great bodily strength or prowess in war (Judg. xiv. 6, 19, xv. 14). Skill in interpreting dreams and in ruling was also regarded as evidence that the Spirit of God was in a man like Joseph (Gen. xli. 38) ; but above all the prophetic gift was looked upon as the supreme evidence of the presence of the Spirit of Jehovah (Hos. ix. 7 ; Micah ii. 7, iii. 8). The word spirit as thus used in the Old Testament is exceedingly suggestive. It means primarily the breath that comes from the nostrils. Though invisible to the eye, the breath was in the thought of primitive man the symbol of the active life of the individual. In the full vigor of bodily strength or in violent exercise it came quick and strong ; in times of weakness it was faint; when it disappeared, death ensued; the living personality was gone, and only the clay remained. The same Hebrew word, ruach^ de- scribed the wind unseen, intangible, and yet one of the most real and irresistible forces in all the universe. Thus it was a supremely appropriate term to describe the activity of The Earliest Chapters in Divine Revelation 39 God, as it produced visible effects in the minds and lives of men. In the later Old Testament literature its use was extended, so that to the Spirit of God was ascribed activity in the natu- ral world and in human history. Of the two terms, revelation is broader than Nature of inspiration. Sometimes it is used collectively, r6 to designate the truth revealed, but it more properly describes the means or process whereby it is made apparent to the human mind. It implies that truth is always existent, but only gradually recognized. Inspiration is one of the chief means whereby the human vision is clari- fied so as to perceive it. Natural phenomena, environment, and above all experience, are also mighty agents in making the divine character and truth clear to the mind of man. The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews declares, with true insight, that Q-od spoke in divers man- ners. All the universe, all history, and all life reveal him and his ultimate truths, for each is effective in opening the mental and spiritual eye of man to see the realm long awaiting him as conqueror. For countless ages electricity has inscribed its Man's r6it magic tracery on the storm-cloud and performed process of its all-important functions in organic life, but revelatton not until men's eyes were opened by experience 40 Origin and Value of the Old Testament and trained observation to recognize its laws, was it practically applied to the needs of civil- ization. Similarly, unchanging moral and spirit- ual laws have existed through all time, but they have not become operative in human life until the eye of some seer is opened by a great expe- rience, or under the direct influence of the Spirit of God he is led to see and proclaim them. Thus God is in all and reveals himself through all nature and life, but it is only through the mind and on the lips of his highest creature, man, that truth is fully appreciated, formulated, and applied. The revela- In the broader sense all revelation is divine, ^ or & reveals God and his laws ; and yet it is obvious that there is a real difference between the revelation recorded in a scientific book and that of the Bible. It is a difference both in subject-matter and in the ends to which the truth thus made manifest shall be applied. The one relates to the objective world, the world of things ; the other relates to human beliefs, emo- tions, and acts. It* breadth Moreover, it is evident that the spiritual reve- lation which is in part recorded in the Bible was not limited to the Israelitish race or to the twelve centuries represented by the Old and New Testaments. The biblical writers them- The Earliest Chapters in Divine Revelation 41 selves assume this fact. According to the early Judean prophetic narratives, Enoch, who lived ages before Abraham and Moses, was a worship- per of Jehovah (Gen. iv. 26). Cain and Abel are both represented in the familiar story of Gene- sis iv., as bringing their offerings to Jehovah. One of the chief teachings of the earliest stories in the Old Testament is that men from the first v knew and worshipped God and were held v. responsible for their acts according to their ,/ moral enlightenment. History, science, and the Bible unite in testifying that the revelation of spiritual truth to mankind was something grad- ual, progressive, and cumulative ; also that it is dependent upon the ability of men to receive it. This capacity of the individual to receive is, after all, the determining factor in the process of divine revelation ; for God's truth and his desire to impart it are always the same. Hence, when- ever conditions favor, or national or private experiences clarify the vision of a race or group of men, a revelation is assured. In the light of ancient history and the result Antiquity of e , . ., . ., , human civil- of recent excavations it is possible, now as never i^tion and before, to study the varied influences and forces reli 9 lon employed by God in the past to open the spir- itual eyes of mankind to see him and his truth. The geological evidence suggests that man, as 42 Origin and Value of the Old Testament man, has lived on this earth fifty, perhaps one hundred thousand years. Anthropology, going further back than history or primitive tradition, traces the slow and painful stages by which early man learned his first lessons in civiliza- tion and religion. From the beginning, man's instincts as a religious being have asserted themselves, crude though their expression was. The oldest mounds of Babylonia and Egypt contain ruins of ancient temples, altars, and abundant evidence of the religious zeal of the peoples who once inhabited these lands. The earliest examples of human literature thus far discovered are largely religious in theme and spirit. Primitive All these testify that early man believed in unfolding of ., , . . , , the innate a power or powers outside himself, and that his chief passion was to know and do the will of his god or gods. Jesus himself bore witness in the opening words of the prayer which he taught his disciples, that this is the essence of religion. It was natural and inevitable that primitive man, with his nai've view of the uni- verse, should believe not in one but in many forces or spirits, and that he should first enthrone the physical above the ethical and spiritual. It is the instinctive tendency of the child to-day. The later identification of the divine powers The Earliest Chapters in Divine Revelation 43 with the sun, that gave light and fertility to the soil, or with the moon, that guided the caravans by night over the arid deserts, or with the other heavenly bodies, that moved in majes- tic array across the midnight sky, was likewise a natural step in the evolution of primitive belief. Civilization and religion in antiquity devel- Reasons oped, as a rule, side by side. The two great / on f a devel- rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, command- ing the trade of the north and the south ; prox- 2atttoriei 108 Origin and Value of the Old Testament Kings. These cany the record of Israel's life down to the Babylonian exile. The opening chapters of First Kings contain the conclusion of the Judean prophetic David stories. Fortu- nately the rest of the biblical history to the exile was largely compiled from much earlier sources. As in most of the historical writings, the later editors, also, quoted verbatim from these earlier records and histories, so that in many cases we have the testimony of almost contemporary wit- nesses. The titles of certain of these earlier books are given : The Book of the Acts of Solo- mon, The Chronicles of the Kings of Israel, and The Chronicles of the Kings of Judah. Earlier A careful study of the books of Kings sug- iources , , . _ , quoted by gests many other ancient sources. For the re ig n f Solomon, state annals, temple records, and popular Solomon traditions appear to have been utilized. The graphic account of the divi- sion of the Hebrew empire was probably drawn from an early Jeroboam history. In the latter part of First Kings appear citations from an early Ahab history and a group of Ephraimite Elijah stories. The political data throughout First and Second Kings were probably drawn from the annals of the northern and southern kingdoms. Furthermore, in II Kings ii.-viii. The Old Testament Prophetic Histories 109 appear long quotations from two cycles of Elisha stories, centring, respectively, about the ancient northern sanctuary of Gilgal, near Shiloh, and about Samaria. The rest of the book includes citations from sources which may be desig- nated as a prophetic Jehu history, temple rec- ords, a Hezekiah history, and a group of Isaiah stories. These valuable quotations the late prophetic Influence* editor of Kings has arranged in chronological duced thi$ order and fitted into a framework which gives p the length of each reign and the date of acces- ttor y sion of the different kings, according to the chronology of the other Hebrew kingdom. To this data he adds a personal judgment upon the policy of each ruler, thereby revealing his pro- phetic spirit. History is to him, as to every true prophet, a supreme illustration of fundamental spiritual principles. Clearly the influence that led him to compile and edit his great work was his recognition of the fact that the record of Israel's national experience as a whole was of deep religious import. The same motive un- doubtedly guided him in the selection of material from his great variety of sources. Only that which was essential was presented. Thus he, or a later editor of his book, traced Israel's remark- 110 Origin and Value of the Old Testament able history down to the middle of the Baby- lonian exile (560 B. c.), and completed that wonderful chain of prophetic narratives which record and interpret the first great chapter of divine revelation through the chosen race. VII THE HISTORY OF THE PROPHETIC SERMONS, EPISTLES, AND APOCALYPSES VII THE HISTORY OF THE PROPHETIC SERMONS, EPISTLES, AND APOCALYPSES To understand and rightly interpret the pro- Real char- phetic writings of the Old Testament it is nee- a ^ s "" essary to cast aside a false impression as to the P r P hett character of the prophets which is widely preva- lent. They were not foretellers, but forth- tellers. Instead of being vague dreamers, in imagination living far in the distant future, they were most emphatically men of their own times, enlightened and devoted patriots, social and ethical reformers, and spiritual teachers. Their characteristic note of conviction and authority was due to the fact that, on the one hand, they knew personally and distinctly the evils and needs of their nation, and that, on the other hand, their minds and hearts, ever open to receive the truth, were in vital touch with the Infinite. Thus, just as Aaron became Moses' prophet to the people, publicly proclaiming what the great leader imparted to him in private (Ex. vii. 1, 2), so the Hebrew prophets became Jehovah's her- 8 114 Origin and Value of the Old Testament aids and ambassadors, announcing by word and life and act the divine will. Influences While the historians were perfecting their prophets to histories certain prophets also were beginning "their s" to commit tneir sermons to writing. The oldest recorded address in the Old Testament is prob- ably that of Amos at Bethel. His banishment from the northern kingdom under strict injunc- tion not to prophesy there (Am. vii. 10-17) may well explain why he resorted to writing to give currency to his prophetic message, though like Paul in later days, he undoubtedly regarded writing as an inferior substitute for the spoken word. Jeremiah appears to have preached twenty years before he dictated a line to his scribe Baruch, and then it was because he could not personally speak in the temple (xxxvi. 1-5). Sometimes complete sermons of the prophets are preserved, but more often we seem to have only extracts and epitomes. In some of the prophetic books, like that of Jeremiah, there are also popu- lar reports of a prophetic address, and narrative sections, telling of the prophet's experience. The editing Evidences of editing are very apparent in the earlier prophecies. Sudden interruptions, and verses or clauses, in which appear ideas and literary style very different from that of the immediate context, indicate that many of the Prophetic Sermons, Epistles, Apocalypses 115 prophecies have been supplemented by later notes, some explanatory and some hortatory. Other longer passages are intended to adjust the earlier teaching to later conditions and beliefs and so to adapt them to universal human needs that they are not limited to the hour and occasion of their first delivery. Some of these passages come from the hands of disciples of the prophets and often contain valuable additional data; others are from later prophetic editors and scribes. A detailed comparison, for example, of the Hebrew and Greek versions of Jeremiah quickly discloses wide variations of words, verses, and even long passages, added in one or the other text by later hands. All these additions testify to the deep interest felt by later generations in the earlier writings, even before they were assigned a final place in the canon. It is one of the important tasks of biblical scholars to distinguish the original from the additions and thus determine what were the teachings of each prophet and what are the contributions of later generations. Many of the later additions possess a value The back and authority entirely independent of that ]>Q^ sessed by the prophet with whose writings they have been joined by their original authors or later editors. Thus the sublime chapters ap- snded to the original sermons of Isaiah contain 116 Origin and Value of the Old Testament some of the noblest teachings in the Old Testa- ment. The different themes and literary style ; the frequent references to the Babylonians, not as distant allies, as in the days of Isaiah the son of Amoz, but as the hated oppressors of the Jews; the evidence that the prophet's readers are now exiles far from Judah ; the many allusions to the conquests of Cyrus, all these leave little doubt that chapters xl.-lv. were written in the latter part of the Babylonian or the first of the Persian period. Interpreted in the light of this back- ground, their thought and teachings become clear and luminous. Similarly, the varied evidence within the chapters themselves seems to indicate that Isaiah Ivi.-lxvi. contain sermons directed to the struggling Jewish community in Palestine during the days following the rebuilding of the temple in 520 B. c. The order The prophetic sermons, epistles, and apoca- 'the prophetic typses fall naturally into five great groups. The books prophets of the Assyrian period were Amos and Hosea, who between 750 and 734 B. c. preached to Northern Israel ; also Isaiah and Micah, whose work lies between 740 and 680 B. c. Nahum's little prophecy, although much later, echoes the death-knell of the great Assyrian kingdom which for two or three centuries dominated south- western Asia. The prophets of Judah's decline Prophetic Sermons, Epistles, Apocalypses 117 were Zephaniah (about 628 B. C.), Jeremiah (628-590), and Habakkuk (609-605). To the same period belong Ezekiel's earlier sermons, delivered between 592 and 586, just before the final destruction of Jerusalem. The prophets of the Babylonian exile were Obadiah, whose origi- nal oracle belongs to its opening years; Eze- kiel (xxv.-xlviii.), who continued to preach until 572 B.C., and the great prophet whose death- less messages ring through Isaiah xl.-lv. The prophets of the Persian period were Haggai and Zechariah, whose inspiring sermons kept alive the flagging zeal of those who rebuilt the second temple ; the authors of Isaiah Ivi.- Ixvi. ; the author of the little book of Malachi ; and Joel. To this list we may perhaps add the prophet who has given us that noble pro- test, found in the much misunderstood book of Jonah, against the narrow and intolerant attitude of later Judaism toward foreigners. With the exception of Ezekiel, Haggai, Zech- Growth of ariah, and Joel, all the prophecies which come anoTapoca- from the centuries following the fall of Jeru- ^ lc lttera ~ salem in 586 B. c. are anonymous. The worship of the authority of the past had begun, and there is evidence that the belief was gaining currency that the days of the prophets were past. Hence the natural tendency to resort to anonymous au- The histor- ical back- ground of the book of Daniel 118 Origin and Value of the Old Testament thorship or else to append a later message to an earlier prophecy. Chapters ix.-xiv. of the book of Zechariah illustrate this custom, chapters which apparently come from the last Old Testa- ment period, the Greek or Maccabean. The habit of presenting prophetic truth in the highly figurative, symbolic form of the apocalypse also became prominent in later Judaism. This has already been noted in the study of the growth of the New Testament, and is illustrated by the book of Revelation. It was especially adapted to periods of religious persecution, for it enabled the prophet to convey his message of encourage- ment and consolation in language impressive and clear to his people, yet unintelligible to their foreign masters. To the mind of one who has carefully studied the book of Daniel in the light of the great crisis that came to the Jews as a result of the relentless persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes, between the years 169 and 165 B. c., there re- mains little doubt that it is in this period the wonderful apocalypse finds its true setting and interpretation. The familiar examples of the heroic fidelity of Daniel and his friends to the demands of their religion and ritual were su- premely well adapted to arouse a similar resist- ance toward the demands of a tyrant who was Prophetic Sermons, Epistles, Apocalypses 119 attempting to stamp out the Jewish religion and transform the chosen people into a race of apostates. The visions found in the book trace rapidly, in succession, the history of the Baby- lonian, Median, Persian, and, last of all, the Greek kingdoms. The culmination is a minute description of the character and reign of the tyrant Antiochus Epiphanes (xi. 21-45). He is clearly the little horn of chapter viii. But suddenly, in the midst of the account of the persecutions, the descriptions become vague and general. Nor is there any reference to the suc- cess of the Maccabean uprising; instead, the prediction is made that Jehovah himself will soon come to establish his Messiah's kingdom. The inference is, therefore, that the prophecy Date of , ' , ,. . the book was written a short time before the rededication of the temple in 165 B.C. This conclusion is confirmed by many other indications. For ex- ample the language, in part Aramaic, is that of the Greek period. The mistakes regarding the final overthrow of the Babylonian empire, which was by Cyrus, not Darius, and brought about not by strategy, but as a result of the voluntary submission of the Babylonians, are identical with the errors current in Greek tra- dition of the same late period. Here, as in the early narratives of Genesis, a true prophet has 120 Origin and Value of the Old Testament utilized earlier stories as effective illustrations. He has also given in the common apocalyptic form an interpretation of the preceding four centuries of human history, and showed how through it all God's purpose was being realized. The book concludes with the firm assurance that those who now prove faithful are to be richly rewarded and to have a part in his coming Messianic kingdom. The common Thus, from the minds of the prophets come the earliest writings of the Old Testament. They consist of exhortations, warnings, messages ^ encoura g ement; 5 or else stories intended to illustrate a religious principle or to present, in concrete form, a prophetic ideal. The funda- mental motive which produced them all was identical with that which led the disciples and apostles to write the Gospels and Epistles of the New. In the case of the historico-prophetic writings, like Samuel and Kings, the desire to inspire and mould the minds and wills of their readers was combined with the desire to pre- serve in permanent form a record of the events which, in their national history, revealed most clearly Jehovah's character and purpose. In this respect they correspond perfectly to the Gospels and Acts of the New Testament. It is easy to see, therefore, that kindred aims and Prophetic Sermons, JSpistles, Apocalypses 121 ideals actuated these unknown prophetic writers and their later successors, Matthew, Mark, and Luke. Their literary products differ only be- cause their subject-matter is different. The one group records Jehovah's revelation of himself through the life of the Messianic nation, the other through the life of the perfect Messiah. It is interesting to note, in conclusion, that The New from the point of view of the Old, all the literature of the New may be designated as pro- the P r p jo r writings phetic. The three distinct groups of writings found in the New, namely, the Gospels and Acts, the Epistles, and the Apocalypse, correspond exactly to the three types of prophetic litera- ture found in the Old : the historico-prophetical writings, direct written prophecies, and apoca- lypses. If the final canon of the Old Testa- ment had been completed before the days of Josiah, there is every reason to believe that it also would have contained little beside pro- phetic writings. In divine providence it was not closed until seven centuries later, so that, as it has come to us, it is a comprehensive library, representing every stage and every side of Israel's development. It is, however, in perfect keeping with the spirit of the Master that the New Testament should contain sig- nificant facts and broad principles rather than 122 Origin and Value of the Old Testament detailed laws or even the songs of worship. He whose ideals, teachings, and methods were in closest harmony with those of the Hebrew prophets, naturally begat, through his immedi- ate followers, a group of distinctively prophetic writings. VIII THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT LAWS vni THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT LAWS IP the canon of the New Testament had First the remained open as long as did that of the Old, there is little doubt that it also would have eon- tained many laws, legal precedents, and eccle- siastical histories. From the writings of the Church Fathers and the records of the Catholic Church it is possible to conjecture what these in general would have been. The early history of Christianity illustrates the universal fact that the broad principles are first enunciated by a great prophetic leader or leaders, and that in suc- ceeding centuries these new principles are gradu- ally embodied in detailed laws and ceremonials. Also the principles must be accepted, partially at least, by the majority of the people before the enactments based upon them can be en- forced. This important fact, stated in Old Testament terms, is that the prophet must and always does precede the lawgiver. 126 Origin and Value of the Old Testament Meaning of Torah, the common Hebrew word for law, word for comes from a Hebrew word meaning to point out or direct. It is probably also connected with the older root signifying, to cast the sacred lot. The torah, therefore, was originally the decision, rendered in connection with specific questions of dispute, and referred to Jehovah by means of the sacred lot. Thus the early priests were also judges because they were the custodians of the divine oracle. Origin of Here we are able to trace, in its earliest He- bdiefmike brew form, the universal belief in the divine d flaw Tigin ori g in of the law - In the P rimiti ve laws of Exodus xxi.-xxiii., in connection with a case of disputed responsibility for injury to prop- erty, the command is given : the cause of both parties shall come before (rod; he whom God shall condemn shall pay double to his neighbor (xxii. 8, 9). In ancient times all cases of dispute were thus laid before God and decided by the lot or by God's representatives, usually the priests. When, in time, customs and oral laws grew up on the basis of these decisions, a similar divine origin and authority were naturally attributed to them. Individually and collectively they were designated by the same suggestive term, torah. When they were ultimately commit- ted to writing, the legal literature bore this Development of Old Testament Laws 127 title. In the Hebrew text it still remains as the designation of the first group of Old Testa- ment books which contain the bulk of Israel's laws. A belief in the divine origin of law was Its ultimate held by most ancient peoples. In connection with the tablet which records the laws of Ham- murabi, we have a picture of Shamash the sun- god giving the laws to the king. In the epilogue to these laws he states that by the command of Shamash, the judge supreme of heaven and earth, he has set them up that judgment may shine in the land. The statements in the Old Testa- ment that Jehovah talked face to face with Moses or wrote the ten words with his finger on tablets of stone reflect the primitive belief which pictured God as a man with hands and voice and physical body ; still they are the early concrete statement of a vital, eternal truth. Not on perishable stone, but in the minds of the ancient judges, and in the developing ethical consciousness of the Israelitish race, he inscribed the principles of which the laws are the practical expression. If he had not revealed them, there would have been no progress in the knowledge of justice and mercy. The thesis of the Old Testament, and of Hammurabi also, is funda- mentally true. The vivid forms in which both Origin and Value of the Old Testament expressed that thesis were admirably fitted to impress it upon the mind of early man. Method in The early Israelitish theory of the origin of which Hebrew law law provided fully for expansion and develop- ment to meet the new and changed conditions of later periods. Whenever a new question pre- sented itself, it could be referred to Jehovah's representatives, the priests and prophets; and their torah, or response, would forthwith become the basis for the new law. Malachi ii. 6, 7 clearly defines this significant element in the growth of Israel's legal codes : the torah of truth was in the mouth of the priest . . . and the people should seek the torah at his mouth. Similarly Haggai commands the people to ask a torah from the priests in regard to a certain question of cere- monial cleanliness (ii. 11). Until a very late period in Israelitish history, the belief was uni- versal that Jehovah was ever giving new deci- sions and laws through his priests and prophets, and therefore that the law itself was constantly being expanded and developed. This belief is in perfect accord with all historical analogies and with the. testimony of the Old Testament his- tories and laws themselves. Not until the days of the latest editors did the tendency to project the Old Testament laws back to the beginning of Israel's history gain the ascendency and leave Development of Old Testament Laws 129 its impression upon the Pentateuch. Even then there was no thought of attributing the lit- erary authorship of all of these laws to Moses. This was the work of still later Jewish tra- dition. The earliest Old Testament narratives indicate Moses clearly the real historical basis of the familiar i sra elitish later tradition, and vindicate and help us in the law effort to define the title, Law of Moses. The early Ephraimite narratives describe Moses as a prophet rather than as a mere lawgiver. In Exodus xviii. they give us a vivid picture of his activity as judge. To him the people came in crowds, with their cases, to inquire of God (15). In 16, to his father-in-law Jethro, he states: whenever they have a matter of dis- pute they come to me, that I may decide which of the two is right, and make known the statutes of God and his decisions (tdrdth). Jethro then advises him to appoint reliable men, gifted with a high sense of justice, to decide minor cases, while he reserves for himself the difficult ques- tions involving new principles. The origin and theory of Israel's early laws are vividly pre- sented in Jethro's words to Moses in verses 19, 20 : You be the people's advocate with God, and bring the cases to God, and you make known to them the statutes and the decisions, and show 9 130 Origin and Value of the Old Testament them the way wherein they mutt walk, and the work that they must do. Historical It appears from these and other passages that tradition of Moses* traditional title as the father of Israelitish authors A; legislation is well established. As a prophet, he proclaimed certain fundamental principles that became the basis of all later codes. As a judge, he rendered decisions that soon grew into cus- tomary laws. As a leader and organizer, he laid the foundations of the later political and institu- tional growth of the nation. Furthermore, it is probable that he taught the people certain sim- ple commands which became the nucleus of all later legislation. Naturally and properly, as oral laws subsequently grew up and were finally committed to writing, they were attributed to him. Later, when these laws were collected and codified, they were still designated as Mosaic, even though the authors of these codes added many contemporary enactments to the earlier laws. Thus the traditions, as well as the theory, of Israelitish law fortunately raised no barrier against its normal growth. It was not until the late Jewish period, when the tradition became rigid and unnatural, that the rabbis, in order to establish the authority of contemporary laws, were forced to resort to the grotesque legal fictions which appear in the Talmud. Development of Old Testament Laws 131 The earliest Hebrew laws, like the traditions, Evidences were apparently long transmitted in oral form. i 8t ; a ^ The simple life of the desert and early Canaan were oral required no written records. Custom and mem- ory preserved all the laws that were needed. Also, as we have seen, before the Hebrews came into contact with the Canaanites and Phoenicians, they do not seem to have developed the literary art. Instead, they cast their important com- mands and laws in the form of pentads and decalogues. The practical aim seems to have been to aid the memory by associating a brief law with each ringer of the two hands. The system was both simple and effective. It also points clearly to a period of oral rather than written transmission. The nucleus of all Israelitish law appears to The earliest have been a simple decalogue, which gave the terms of the original covenant between Jehovah and his people, and definitely stated the obliga- tions they must discharge if they would retain his favor. The oldest version of this decalogue is now embedded in the early Judean narrative of Exodus xxxiv. There is considerable evidence, however, that it once stood immediately after the Judean account of Jehovah's revelation of him- self at Sinai, and was transposed to its present position in order to give place for the later and 132 Origin and Value of the Old Testament nobler prophetic decalogue of Exodus xx. 1-17. Its antiquity and importance are also evidenced by the fact that it has received many later in- troductory, explanatory, and hortatory notes. Exodus xxxiv. 28 preserves the memory that it originally consisted of simply ten words. The slightly variant version of these original ten words is also found in Exodus xx. 23, xxiii. 12, 15, 16, 18, 29, 30. Furthermore, it probably once occupied a central position in the corre- sponding Northern Israelitish account of the covenant at Sinai. The oldest With the aid of these two different versions, decalogue ^ Q ^ ^^ and ^ Qf fche g^^ ^ . g possible to restore approximately the common original : I. Thou shalt worship no other God. II. Thou shalt make no molten gods. III. Thou shalt observe the feast of un- leaven bread. IV. Every first-born is mine. V. Six days shalt thou toil, but on the seventh thou shalt rest VI. Thou shalt observe the feast of weeks and ingathering at the end of the year. VII. Thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leaven. Development of Old Testament Laws 133 VIII. The fat of my feast shall not be left until morning. IX. The best of the first-fruits of thy land shalt thou bring to the house of Jehovah. X. Thou shalt not seethe a kid in its mother's milk. These laws bear on their face the evidence Its date of their primitive date and origin. They define religion not in the terms of life, as does the familiar prophetic decalogue of Exodus xx., but, like the old Babylonian religion, in the terms of the ritual. Loyalty to Jehovah, as the God of the nation, and fidelity to the demands of the cult is their watchword. Their antiquity and the central position they occupy in Old Testa- ment legislation are shown further by the fact that all of them are again quoted in other codes, and most of them four or five times in the Old Testament. Three of them apply to agri- cultural life ; but agriculture is not entirely un- known to the nomadic life of the wilderness. Possibly in their present form certain of these commands have been adapted to conditions in Canaan, but the majority reflect the earliest stages in Hebrew history. In all probability the decalogue in its original form came from Moses, as the earliest traditions assert, although XXII 134 Origin and Value of the Old Testament comparative Semitic religion demonstrates that many of the institutions here reflected long antedated the days of the great leader. The Judg- Although in part contemporary, the next Exodus xxi., stage in the development of Israelitish law is represented by the civil, social, and humane decalogues in Exodus xx. 23 to xxiii. 19. The best preserved group is found in xxi. 1 to xxii. 20, and bears the title Judgments, which recalls Hammurabi's title to his code, The Judg- ments of Righteousness. Like this great Baby- lonian code, the Hebrew Judgments deal with civil and social cases, and are usually introduced by the formula, If so and so, followed by the penalty or decision to be rendered. They are evidently intended primarily for the guidance of judges. The parallels with the code of Hammurabi are many, both in theme, form, and penalty, although there is no conclusive evidence that the Hebrew borrowed directly from the older Babylonian. Undoubtedly many of the striking points of resemblance are due simply to common Semitic ideas and institu- tions and to the recurrence of similar questions. But on the whole, the Hebrew laws place a higher estimate on life and less on property. They reflect also a simpler type of civilization than the Babylonian. Development of Old Testament Laws 135 When three or four obviously later additions Their ar- have been removed, the Judgments are found to anTcon" consist of five decalogues, each divided into two tents pentads which deal with different phases of the same general subject. They are as follows : first Decalogue : The Rights of Slaves. First Pentad : Males, Ex. xxi. 2, 3a, 3b, 4, 5-6. Second Pentad : Females, xxi. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. Second Decalogue : Assaults. First Pentad : Capital Offences, xxi. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16. Second Pentad: Minor Offences, xxi. 18-19, 20, 21, 26, 27. Third Decalogue: Laws regarding Domestic Ani- mals. First Pentad : Injuries by Animals, xxi. 28, 29, 30, 31, 32. Second Pentad : Injuries to Animals, xxi. 33-34, 35, 36; xxii. 1, 4. Fourth Decalogue : Responsibility for Property. First Pentad : In General, xxii. 6, 6, 7, 8, 9. Second Pentad: In Cattle, xxii. 10-11, 13, 14, 15a, 15b. Fifth Decalogue : Social Purity. First Pentad : Adultery, Deut. xxii. 13-19, 20- 21, 22, 23-24, 25-27. Second Pentad : Fornication and Apostasy, Ex. xxii. 16, 17, 18, 19, 20. Many of these laws anticipate the settled Their date agricultural conditions of Palestine. Society, 186 Origin and Value of the Old Testament however, is very simple. The decalogue and pentad form also points clearly to an early period, when the laws were transmitted orally. Many of the laws probably came from the days of the wilderness wandering, and therefore go back to the age of Moses, in some cases much earlier, as is shown by close analogies with the code of Hammurabi. Although in their present written form these oral Judgments bear the marks of the Northern Israelitish prophetic writ- ers who have preserved them, the majority, if not all, may with confidence be assigned to the days of David and Solomon. The early The remaining verses of Exodus xx. 23 to humane and ceremonial xxin. 19, contain groups of humane and cere- monial laws. In the process of transmission they have been somewhat disarranged, but, with the aid of the fuller duplicate versions in Deu- teronomy, four complete decalogues can be restored and part of a fifth. The following analysis will suggest their general character and contents: HUMANE AND CEREMONIAL LAWS First Decalogue : Kindness. First Pentad : Towards Men, Ex. xxii. 21a, 22- 23, 25a, 25b, 26-27. Second Pentad: Towards Animals, Ex. xxiii. 4 Development of Old Testament Laws 137 [Deut. xxii. 1], Deut. xxii. 2, 3; Ex. xxiii. 5 [Deut. xxii. 4], Deut. xxii. 6-7. Second Decalogue : Justice. First Pentad : Among Equals, Ex. xxiii. la, Ib, 2a, 2b, 3. Second Pentad : On the Part of those in Author- ity, xxiii, 6, 7a, 7b, 7c, 8. Third Decalogue : Duties to God. First Pentad : Worship, Ex. xx. 23a, 23b, 24, 25, 26. Second Pentad : Loyalty, Ex. xxii. 28, 29a, 29b, 30, 31. Fourth Decalogue : Sacred Seasons. First Pentad: Command to Observe them, xxiii. 10-11, 12, 15a, I6a, 16b. Second Pentad : Method of Observing them, xxiii, 17, 18a, 18b, 19a, 19b. Here the primitive ceremonial decalogue has Period rep- been expanded into the third and fourth group I given above. Like the Judgments, these deca- code * logues bear testimony to their northern origin, and probably they also have had much the same history, although their relation to the primitive decalogue and the fact that they are prefixed and added to the solid group of Judgments, would seem to indicate that they were some- what later. These two collections, together with their older prototype, the ancient deca- logue, represent the growth of Israel's laws 138 Origin and Value of the Old Testament during the four centuries beginning with Moses and extending to about 800 B. c. To distin- guish them from later collections they may be designated as the Primitive Codes. The need The eighth and seventh centuries before Christ * which brought to the Hebrews great crises and revolutionary changes in both their political and religious life, witnessed the epoch-making work of Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah. This re- markable group of prophets proclaimed so many new principles that a fundamental revision and expansion of Israel's primitive codes became necessary in order to adapt the latter to the new needs of the age. The reactionary reign of Manasseh had also brought out plainly the contrast between the older heathen cults, still cherished by the people, and the exalted ideals of the true prophets. If the prophetic teach- ings were to become operative in the life of the nation, it was also seen that they must be expressed in concrete legal enactments, which could be universally understood and definitely enforced. Application Accordingly, a group of prophets, disciples of principles to the older masters, and inspired by the spirit of *the peop reform, devoted themselves to this all-important task. The results of their work are represented by the prophetic law-book of Deuteronomy. Development of Old Testament Laws 139 Through its pages glow the new ethical teachings of the prophets of the Assyrian period. The ele- ments of Hosea's doctrine, love to God and love to men and kindness to the needy and oppressed, in their new setting and application, make it one of the evangels of the Old Testament. Its lofty standards of justice and social responsi- bility reflect the impassioned addresses of Amos and Hosea. Since the new laws, as a whole, represented the practical application of the mes- sages of the prophets to life, they were justly and appropriately placed in the mouth of Moses, the real and traditional head of the nation and of the prophetic order. A comparison of this prophetic law-book with Relation to the older primitive laws shows that the latter / a ^ were made the basis of the new codes, since most of them, in revised form, are also found in Deu- teronomy. The prophetic lawmakers, however, in the same spirit that actuated Jesus in his attitude toward the ancient law, freely modified, supplemented, and in some cases substituted for the primitive enactments, laws that more per- fectly embodied the later revelation. The nature of the reforms instituted by Jo- Promulga- siah, according to II Kings xxil, clearly prove date of the that the laws which inspired them were those of Deuteronomy, and that this was the law-book 140 Origin and Value of the Old Testament discovered in the temple by Hilkiah the priest and publicly read and promulgated by the king in 621 B. c. Originally it was probably prepared by the prophetic reformers as a basis for their work ; but it incorporates not only most of the primitive codes, but also many other ancient laws and groups of laws, some doubtless coming from the earliest periods of Israel's history. It also appears to have been further supplemented after the reformation of Josiah. In general it represents the second great stage in Old Testa- ment law, as it rapidly developed between 800 and 600 B.C. under the inspiring preaching of the remarkable prophets of the Assyrian period. Their his- These laws represent, in many ways, the permanent high- water mark of Old Testament legislation. value Every effort is made to eliminate that which experience had proved to be imperfect in the older laws and customs. The chief aim is to protect the rights of the wronged and depend- ent. The appeal throughout is not to the fear of punishment in a large number of laws no penalty is suggested but to the individual conscience. Not merely formal worship is de- manded, but a love to God so personal that it dominates the individual heart and soul and finds expression through energies completely devoted to his service. These laws required strict justice, Development of Old Testament Laws 141 but more than that, mercy and practical charity toward the weak and needy and afflicted. Even the toiling ox and the helpless mother-bird and her young are not beyond the kin of these wonderful laws. Under their benign influence the divine principles of the prophets began to mould directly the character and life of the Israelitish race. The man who lives in accord with their spirit and injunctions to-day finds himself on the straight and narrow way, hal- lowed by the feet of the Master. IX INFLUENCES THAT GAVE RISE TO THE PRIESTLY LAWS AND HISTORIES IX INFLUENCES THAT GAVE RISE TO THE PRIESTLY LAWS AND HIS- TORIES THE Babylonian exile gave a great oppor- influences tunity and incentive to the further develop- "^ t e * * ment of written law. While the temple stood. duc * d written cere* the ceremonial rites and customs received con- mmicd laws stant illustration, and were transmitted directly from father to son in the priestly families. Hence, there was little need of writing them down. But when most of the priests were carried captive to Babylonia, as in 597 B. c., and ten years later the temple was laid in ruins and all sacrifice and ceremonial wor- ship suddenly ceased, written records at once became indispensable, if the customs and rules of Israel's ritual were to be preserved. The in- tegrity and future of the scattered Israelitish race also largely depended upon keeping alive their distinctive traditions. Torn from their altars, the exiled priests not only had a 10 146 Origin and Value of the Old Testament strong incentive, but likewise the leisure, to write. The ritualistic zeal of their Babylonian masters doubtless further inspired them. The result was, that during the Babylonian exile and the following century most of the cere- monial laws in the Old Testament appear to have been first committed to writing. Eztkitl't Even Ezekiel, the prophet of the early exile, yielded to the influence of his early priestly training and the needs of the situation. In 572 he issued the unique code found in chapters xl.-xlviii. of his prophecy. It provides for the rebuilding of the temple, and defines the duties of its different officials and the form of ritual that is to be observed. The whole is intended primarily to emphasize, through the arrange- ment of the sanctuary and the forms of the cere- monial, the transcendent holiness of Jehovah. Ezekiel also proclaims, through this elaborate program for the restored community, the cer- tainty that the exiles would be allowed to return and rebuild the temple. He evidently reproduces many of the proportions and regula- tions of the first temple, but, with the same freedom that characterizes the authors of the Deuteronomic codes, he unhesitatingly sets aside earlier usages where something better has been revealed. The Priestly Laws and Histories 147 Ezekiel's code was never fully adopted by the Genesis and later Jews, for much of it was symbolic rather I than practical ; but it powerfully influenced sub- Code sequent lawmakers, and was indicative of the dominant tendency of the day. Even before he issued his code, some like-minded priest had col- lected and arranged an important group of laws, which appear to have been familiar to Ezekiel himself. They are found in Leviticus xvii.- xx vi., and have felicitously been designated as the Holiness Code, because they constantly empha- size the holiness of Jehovah and the necessity of the people's being holy in thought and act. In chapters xvii.-xix. most of the original laws are still arranged in the decalogue and pentad form. This strong evidence that they had been transmitted by word of mouth from a much earlier period is supported by their contents. They resemble and supplement the primitive laws of Exodus xx. 23 to xxiii. 19. Many of them probably came from the early periods of Israelitish history. Most of the laws, like those of the prophetic codes in Deuteronomy, are ethical and humane rather than ceremo- nial. The code, as a whole, is a remarkable combination of prophetic and priestly teach- ing. It marks the transition from the age of the prophets, represented by Deuteronomy, to that of 148 Origin and Value of the Old Testament the priests and ritual, represented by the priestly codes proper. Like every important early col- lection of laws, it also has been much supple- mented by later editors; the original Holiness Code, however, may be given a date soon after the first captivity in 597 B. c. The influences represented by Ezekiel and codes the Holiness Code have given us the remaining laws of the Old Testament. These are found in Leviticus i.-xvi., xxviii., and, excepting Exodus xx.-xxiii., xxxiv., in the legal sec- tions of Exodus and Numbers. They deal almost entirely with such ceremonial subjects, as the forms and rules of sacrifice, the obser- vation of the annual religious festivals, and the rights and duties of priests. Many of them incorporated laws and customs as old or older than the days of Moses. An early and impor- tant group, technically known as the Priestly teaching (Lev. i.-iii., v.-vii., xi.-xv. ; Num. v., vi., xv., xix. 14-22), is repeatedly designated as the torah of the burnt-offering (Lev. vi. 9), or the torah of the meal-offering (vi. 14), or the torah of the unclean and clean beast or bird (xi. 46, 47). It is evidently based upon the toroth, or deci- sions, rendered by the priests concerning the various ceremonial questions thus treated. The recurring phrase, according to the ordinance, The Priestly Laws and Histories 149 probably refers to the fixed usage observed in connection with the first temple. The atmosphere and point of view of these Their dot* priestly laws as a whole are the exilic and post- exilic periods. The ritual has become much more elaborate, the position of the priests much more prominent, and their income far greater than before the exile. The distinction between priest and Levite, which was not recognized before the exile, is clearly defined. The annual feasts have increased, and their old joyous char- acter has largely disappeared under the dark shadow of the exile. Sin-offerings, guilt-offer- ings, trespass-offerings, and the day of atone- ment (practically unknown before the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B. c.) reflect the spirit of the later Judaism which sought to win Jehovah's favor by its many sacrifices. Within these priestly codes there is also evidence of devel- opment. The older collections, such as the priestly teachings, were probably made early in the Babylonian exile. Others represent the gradual expansion and supplementing of these older groups, the process apparently continuing until the days of Nehemiah and Ezra. The whole, therefore, is the fruit of the remarkable priestly literary activity between 600 and 400 B. c., and possibly extending even later. 150 Origin and Value of the Old Testament X)B. c. Adoption of The Jewish community which Nehemiah found in Palestine was still living under the Deuteronoraic law, and apparently knew noth- ing of the very different demands of the priestly codes. His reform measures recorded in Nehe- miah v. and xiii., as well as his effective work in repairing the walls, prepared the way for the sweeping innovations which followed the public acceptance of the new law-book, brought accord- ing to tradition by Ezra. Five out of the eight regulations specified by the oath then taken by the leaders of the nation (Neh. x. 30-39) are found only in the priestly codes ; one of them, indeed, is not presented elsewhere in the Old Testament. Henceforth the life of the Jewish race is moulded by these later codes. It is, therefore, safe to conclude that they consti- tuted the essence of the new law-book solemnly adopted by the Jewish community as its guide somewhere about 400 B. c. Inasmuch as the interest of the priests centred m ceremonial institutions and the history of the \&\f ra ther than about individuals and politics. it was natural that they also should write their own history of the race. Their general purpose was to give an introduction and setting to their laws. As might be anticipated, this priestly history incorporates the traditions of the lato Aim and narratives The Priestly Laws and Histories 151 priestly school, and therefore those current long centuries after the events recorded transpired. As in the case of the prophetic narratives, the aim is not primarily historical, but doctrinal. The peculiar vocabulary, language, and theo- logical conceptions are those which distinguish the post-exilic priestly editors of the latest Old Testament laws. Their history begins with the majestic ac- Their sketch count of creation in Genesis i. 1 to ii. 4a. God history does not form man from the dust, as in the primitive prophetic account, but by a simple word of command; and by progressive acts of creation he realizes his perfect plan, which cul- minates in the creation of mankind. The liter- ary style is that of a legalist: formal, precise, repetitious, and generic. The ultimate aim of the narrative is to trace the origin of the in- stitution of the Sabbath back to the creation. The genealogical history of Genesis v. connects this account of creation with the priestly version of the flood story which leads up to the covenant with Noah. The priestly genealogical histories of Genesis x. and xi. 10-27 trace the ancestry of the Hebrews through Abraham. Regarding this patriarch these later historians present only a brief sketch; in Genesis xvii., however, they expand their narrative to give in detail the 152 Origin and Value of the Old Testament origin of the rite of circumcision, which they associate with him. Jacob is to them chiefly of interest as the father of the ten tribes. From Egypt The history of the experiences of the Hebrews in Egypt is briefly outlined as the prelude to the traditional institution of the feast of the pass- over. Sinai, however, is the great goal of the priestly narratives, for about it they group all their laws. It is their concrete method of pro- claiming the antiquity and divine origin of Israel- itish legislation. The period of the wilderness wandering is also made the background of many important legal precedents. The priestly his- tory concludes with an account of the conquest of Canaan and the allotment of the territory to the different tribes. The lack of In these late priestly narratives the historical perspective perspective is sometimes considerably shortened and sometimes lengthened. Moreover, their representation often differs widely from that of the parallel but much earlier prophetic histories. The original traditions have also assumed larger proportions, and the supernatural element is much more prominent. This is evidently the result of long transmission, in an age that had largely lost the historic sense, and among the priestly exiles, who were far removed from the real life of Palestine. The Priestly Laws and Histories 153 The wide variations between the older pro- Variation* phetic and late priestly accounts of the same ratives events might be illustrated by scores of ex- later nar " amples. The following parallel account of the exodus will suffice : Early Judean Prophetic Account Ex. xiv. 19b. Then the pillar of cloud changed its position from before them and stood behind them. (20b) And the cloud lighted up the night ; yet throughout the en- tire night the one army did not come near the other. (2lb) And Je- hovah caused the sea to go back by a strong east wind all the night, and made the bed of the sea dry. (24b) And it came to pass in the watch before the dawn that Jehovah looked forth through the pillar of fire aud of cloud upon the host of the Egyp- tians, (25) and he bound Late Priestly Account of the Exodus (21a, c) Then Moses stretched out his hand over the sea, and the waters were divided, (22) so that the Israel- ites went into the midst of the sea on the dry ground; and the waters were a wall to them on their right hand and on their left. (23b) And the Egyp- tians went in after them into the midst of the sea, all Pharaoh's horses, his chariots, and his horsemen. (26) Then Jehovah said to Moses, Stretch out thy hand over the sea, that the waters may come again upon the Egyptian*^ upon their chariots and. 154 Origin and Value of the Old Testament Inferior hit- torical value of the priestly narrative* their chariot wheels, so that they proceeded with difficulty. Then the Egyptians said, Let us flee from before Is- rael ; for Jehovah fight- eth for them against the Egyptians. (27b) But the sea returned to its ordinary level toward morning, while the Egyptians were flying before it. And Jehovah shook off the Egyp- tians into the midst of the sea, (28b) so that not one of them re- mained. (30) Thus Je- hovah saved Israel that day out of the power of the Egyptians; and Israel saw the Egyptians dead upon the sea-shore. No one can doubt for a moment that the older, simpler, and more natural version is, from the historical point of view, the more accurate. The normal man to-day has outgrown the crav- ing for the grotesquely supernatural. The om- i " Student's Old Testament," VoL I., 175, 176. their horsemen. (27a) So Moses stretched forth his hand over the sea, (28a) and the waters returned and covered the chariots, and the horsemen, even all the host of Pharaoh that went in after them into the sea. (29) But the Israelites walked upon dry land in the midst of the sea, the waters being a wall to them on their right hand, and on their left. 1 The Priestly Laws and Histories 155 nipotent, omniscient, loving Creator, who reveals himself through the growing flower, commands our admiration as fully as a God who speaks through the unusual and extraordinary. Every- thing is possible with God, and the man is blind indeed who would deny the Infinite Being, who is all and in all, the ability to pass beyond the bounds of that which we, with our extremely limited vision, have designated as natural. The real question is, How did God see fit to accom- plish his ends? Our judicial and historical sense unhesitatingly inclines to the older and simpler narratives as containing the true answer. In distinguishing these different strands of nar- rative, it must be acknowledged that modern biblical scholarship has performed a service in- valuable alike to the student of literature, of history, and of revelation. In passing, it is instructive to note that, almost Recognition without exception, Ingersoll's once famous ex- defects and amples of the mistakes of Moses were drawn real e from the priestly narratives. It is safe to pre- dict that had that learned jurist been introduced, when a boy, to the Old Testament, as revealed in modern light, he would have enjoyed a very different popular fame. In the divine economy, however, even the sledge-hammer of ridicule may play an important r6le in shattering false The eccle- siastical history of Chronicles and Ezra- Nehemiah 156 Origin and Value of the Old Testament claims and the untenable theories which obscure the real truth. It is wholesome to apply the principle of relative values to the Bible, since one cannot fully appreciate the best without recognizing that which is inferior. These priestly narratives come from a school which, in its reverence for the form and the letter, had begun to lose sight of the vital and spiritual. Its still later product is that ritualistic Judaism which stands in such unfavorable contrast to the perfected spiritual revelation which came through Jesus. At the same time, the recogni- tion of the defects of the late priestly school should not deter us from appreciating the rich religious teaching of a narrative like the first chapter of Genesis, nor from accepting its great message, namely, that through all natural phe- nomena and history God is revealing and per- fecting his gracious purpose. The long ecclesiastical history found in I and II Chronicles and the original sequel of these books, Ezra and Nehemiah, were written from the same general point of view as the late priestly narratives, but in a much later period. The same peculiar literary style and conceptions, which recur throughout these four books, show clearly that they are from one author and age. Since they trace the history to the beginning of The Priestly Laws and Histories 157 the Greek period and speak of the kings and events of the Persian period as if they belonged to the distant past, it is evident that the anony- mous author, who is usually designated as the Chronicler, lived after the conquests of Alex- ander. The internal evidence all points to the middle of the third century before Christ as the date of their composition. From the author's evident interest in the Its general .,,,, , , . ,, ., point of view ritual of the temple, and especially its song ser- vice, it would appear that he belonged to one of the guilds of temple singers that became prominent in the post-exilic period. His his- tory centres about the sanctuary and its ser- vices. Since Judah, not Israel, is the land of the temple, Northern Israel is almost completely ignored. Like the late priestly historians, his chief aim is to trace the origin of the cere- monial institutions back to the beginnings of Hebrew history. Thus he represents the song service and the guilds of singers as having been established in the days of David. Living as he did under the glamour of the great Per- sian and Greek empires, he, in common with his contemporaries, idealized the past glories of his race. As we compare his versions of early events with the older parallel accounts of Samuel and Kings, we find that iron has become gold, Sources of I and II 158 Origin and Value of the Old Testament and hundreds have become thousands, and de- feats are transformed into victories. No men- tion is made of the crimes of such kings as David and Solomon, tdnce they are venerated profoundly as the founders of the temple. The basis of I and II Chronicles is the pro- Chronide* phetic history of Samuel and Kings ; from these the author quotes verbatim chapter after chap- ter, according as their contents are adapted to his purpose. This groundwork he supplements by introducing the priestly traditions current in his own day. Possibly he quotes also from cer- tain somewhat earlier written collections of tra- ditions, for to those, following the example of the author of Kings, he frequently refers his readers for further information. In some cases these later traditions may have preserved au- thentic, supplemental data; but when the rep- resentation of Chronicles differs, as it frequently does, from that of Samuel and Kings, the older and more sober prophetic history is undoubtedly to be followed. In Ezra and Nehemiah the author has pre- served some exceedingly valuable historical material, for he has quoted, fortunately, long sections from two or three older sources. One is the document in Ezra iv. 7 to vi. 14, the original Aramaic of which is retained. The older sources quoted in Ezra- Nehemiah The Priestly Laws and Histories 159 This appears to have been a temple record, dat- ing from the middle or latter part of the Persian period, and tells of the interruption of the temple building in the days of Darius and the finding of the original decree of Cyrus sanc- tioning the restoration of the shrine of Jerusa- lem. Still more important is the wonderful memoir of Nehemiah quoted in Nehemiah i., ii., iv. to vii. 5, xii. 31, 32, 37-40, and xiii. 4-31. Here we are able to study the events of an ex- ceedingly important period through the eyes of the man who, by his able and self-sacrific- ing efforts, did more than any one else to de- velop and shape later Judaism. Less important, yet suggestive, citations are taken from the priestly traditions regarding the work of Ezra. The final editor has apparently rearranged this material in order to give to the work of Ezra the scribe such precedence over that of Nehemiah the layman, as, from his later Levitical point of view, he deemed proper. Restoring what seems to have been the original order (i. e., Ezra vii. viii., Neh. vii. 70 to viii. 18; Ezra ix., x. : Neh. ix., x.) and studying it as the se- quel of Nehemiah's essential pioneer work, the obscurities of this period begin to disap- pear and its significant facts to stand out in clear relief. 160 Origin and Value of the Old Testament Value of the Thus we find that, quoting largely as he does, "hepnestlu from much older sources, the author of this great school ecclesiastical history of Judah and the temple has given us, in Ezra and Nehemiah, some exceedingly important historical data. His writ- ings also clearly reveal the ideas and institu- tions of his own day; but otherwise it is not as history that his work is of permanent value. Rather it is because, in common with all the great teachers who speak to us through the Old Testament, he believed firmly in the moral order of the universe, and that back of all events and all history is an infinitely powerful yet just and merciful God who is constantly revealing himself to mankind. While these later priestly writers were not in such close touch with fact and life as were the prophets, and while they were subject to the defects of all extreme ritu- alists and theologians, they were faithful her- alds of truth to their own and later generations. Behind their symbolism and traditions lie cer- tain great universal principles which amply reward an earnest quest. THE HEBREW SAGES AND THEIR PROVERBS THE HEBREW SAGES AND THEIR PROVERBS IN the days of Jeremiah and Ezekiel (Jer. Role of the xviii. 18; Ezek. vii. 26) three distinct classes of religious teachers were recognized by the ll people: the prophets, the priests, and the wise men or sages. From their lips and pens have come practically all the writings of the Old Testament. Of these three classes the wise men or sages are far less prominent or well known. They wrote no history of Israel, they preached no public sermons, nor do they appear to have been connected with any sanctuaries. Quietly, as private teachers, they appealed to the nation through the consciences and wills of individuals. Proverbs viii. 1-5 reveals their methods : Doth not wisdom cry, And understanding put forth her voice? On the top of high places by the way, Where the paths meet, she standeth ; Beside the gates, at the entry of the city, At the coming in at the doors, she crieth aloud : 164 Origin and Value of the Old Testament Unto you, O men, I call ; And my voice is to the sons of men. O ye simple, understand prudence ; And ye fools, be of an understanding heart. At the open spaces beside the city gates, where legal cases were tried, at the intersec- tions of the streets, wherever men congregated, the sages of ancient Israel could be found, ready and eager to instruct or advise the inexperi- enced and foolish. Their func- The wise man or sage is a characteristic Oriental figure. First Kings iv. 30 speaks of the far-famed wisdom of the nomadic tribes of northern Arabia and of the wisdom of Egypt. The sage appears to have been the product of the early nomadic Semitic life, in which books were unknown and the practical wisdom gained by experience was treasured in the minds of certain men who were called the wise or sages. In our more complex western life such func- tions have been distributed among the members of the legal, medical, and clerical professions, but even now, in smaller towns, may be found an Uncle Toby who is the counterpart of the ancient Hebrew sage. To men of this type young and old resort with their private prob- lems, and rarely return without receiving real help and light. In the East, sages are still to Hebrew Sages and their Proverbs 165 be found, usually gray-bearded elders, honored and influential in the tribe or town. Of the three classes of Israel's teachers the Source of sages stood in closest touch with the people. ec ige anT They were naturally the father-confessors of in ' s P iration the community. Observation was their guide, enlightened common sense their interpreter, and experience their teacher. The great book of human life, which is one of the most impor- tant chapters of divine revelation, was thrown open wide before them. The truths that they read there, as their eyes were divinely opened to see it, are recorded in the wisdom books of the Old Testament, Proverbs, Job, The Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes. It is significant that neither Israel nor the The object* nation is mentioned in all the wisdom litera- attention ture, and that man is spoken of thirty-three times in the book of Proverbs alone. Man was the object of their study and teaching; the nation, only as it was made up of individuals. In this respect the sages stand in contrast with the prophets, whose message usually is to the nation. They also have little to say about the ritual or the forms of religion. To them the fear and knowledge of God is the beginning of wisdom, and its end a normal relation to God, to one's fellowmen, and to life. Their message 166 Origin and Value of the Old Testament is directed equally to all mankind. The sub- jects that command their attention are of uni- versal interest: the nature and tendencies of man, and his relations and duties to God, to society, to the family, and to himself. Every- thing that concerns man, whether it be the till- ing of the soil, the choice of a wife, the conduct of a lawsuit, or the proper deportment in the presence of a ruler, commands their earnest consideration. Their aims The Hebrew sages, however, were not mere 'rai lut retl ' students of human nature or philosophers. practical Knowledge to them was not an end in itself, but only a means. Their contribution to Israel's life was counsel (Jer. xviii. 18). Their aim was, by the aid of their tried maxims, to so advise the inexperienced, the foolish, in- deed, all who needed advice, that they might live the fullest and best lives and successfully attain all worthy ends. While their teaching was distinctively ethical and religious, it was also very practical and utilitarian. As pastors and advisers of the people, they drew -their principles and ideals from Israel's prophets, and applied them to the practical, every-day problems of life. It is obvious that without their patient, devoted instruction the prepara- tion of the chosen people for their mission Hebrew Sages and their Proverbs 167 would have been imperfect, and that without a record of their teachings the Old Testament would have been incomplete. The proverb was the most characteristic Their teach- literary form in which the sages treasured and sem^Tzn imparted their teachings. Poetical in structure, P roverbs terse, often figurative or epigrammatic, the proverb was well calculated to arouse individ- ual thought and make a deep impression on the mind. Transmitted from mouth to mouth for many generations, like the popular tradi- tion or law, it lost by attrition all its un- necessary elements, so that, ' like an arrow, ' it shot straight to the mark. Based on common human experience, it found a ready response in the heart of man. In this way crystallized experience was transmitted, gathering effective- icss and volume in each succeeding generation. Job viii. 8-10 speaks of this accumulated wis- dom handed down from the former age, that which the fathers have searched out. They shall teach man and inform him, and utter words out of their heart. Job xv. 18 also refers to that which wise men have told from their fathers and have not hid it. A proverb thus orally trans- mitted not only gains in beauty of form but 30 in authority, for it is constantly being tested in the laboratory of real life and re- 168 Origin and Value of the Old Testament ceives the silent attestation of thousands of men and of many different generations. Expansion When the sages desired to treat a many-sided proverb subject, as, for example, intemperance, they still used proverbs, but combined them into brief gnomic essays (r wisdom in the thought of succeeding generations. Such stories also indicate, as do the other early ex- amples of the work of the wise, the conception 170 Origin and Value of the Old Testament of wisdom held in that more primitive age. Such wisdom does not necessarily include ethical righteousness or even practical exe- cutive ability, for the true Solomon of history was lacking in both; but rather a certain shrewdness, versatility, and keenness of insight which enable its possessor to discern what is not clearly apparent. First Kings iv. 29-34 contains the later popular tradition of Solomon's wisdom : (29) And God gave Solomon wisdom and insight in plentiful measure, and breadth of mind, even as the sand that is on the seashore, (30) so that Solomon's wisdom surpassed the wis- dom of all the eastern Arabians and all the wisdom of Egypt. (31) For he was wiser than all men: than Ethan the Ezrahite, and He- man, Calcol, Darda, the sons of Mahol, and his fame was in all the surrounding nations. (32) And he uttered three thousand proverbs, and his songs were five thousand. (33) And he spoke of different varieties of trees, from the cedar that is in Lebanon even to the hyssop that springs out of the wall ; he spoke also of beasts, of birds, of creeping things, and of fishes. (34) And there came some from among all peoples to hear the wisdom of Solo- Hebrew Sages and their Proverbs 171 mon, deputed by all kings of the earth, who had heard of his wisdom. A popular proverb, like a primitive oral law, Reason why ,, , .all ancient usually grows out of common human experi- proverbs ence, and is gradually formulated and moulded ^j f^hir* into its final literary form by successive gen- erations. No one man can claim it as his own, and even if he could, the ancient Semitic East, which cared so little about authors' titles, would have quickly forgotten his name. That Solo- mon did utter certain brilliant aphorisms, em- bellished by illustrations drawn from animal and plant life, cannot be doubted; and that some of them have been preserved in the book of Proverbs is probable. These facts and the popular tradition that tended to exalt his wisdom clearly explain why all Hebrew prov- erbs were attributed to him (Prov. i. 1), in the days of the final editing of the book of Proverbs. That our present book of Proverbs is the work Evidence e , , . , ,. , that Prov- of many unknown sages, and consists of a col- er b s com es lection of smaller groups coming from different -^j periods, is demonstrated by the superscriptions wr ^ ters which recur throughout the book, such as, These are the proverbs of Solomon (x. 1), These also are the sayings of the wise (xxiv. 23), These are the proverbs of Solomon which the men of 172 Origin and Value of the Old Testament Hezekiah king of Judah copied out (xxv. 5), The words of King Lemuel (xxxi. 1). The same proverbs also recur in different groups, in- dicating that originally they were independent collections, gleaned from the same field. When the first collection was made, the title Proverb of Solomon evidently meant a popular maxim handed down from antiquity and therefore natu- rally attributed to the most famous wise man in Israel's early history. It is an instructive fact that later proverbs, the immediate super- scriptions to which plainly state that they come from many different sages, are still called Prov- erbs of Solomon; it betrays an exact parallel to the similar tendency, apparent in the legal and prophetic literature, to attribute late an- onymous writings to earlier authors. This is also further illustrated by such late Jewish books as The Wisdom of Solomon or the Psalms of Solomon. Testimony The individual proverbs confirm the general vfJua/prou- conclusion that they come from many different erbt authors. Those which commend fidelity to one wife and kingly consideration for the rights of subjects, qualities in which Solomon was sadly lacking, do not fit in his mouth. Many are written from the point of view of a subject, and describe what a man should do in Hebrew Sages and their Proverbs 173 the presence of a ruler. Furthermore, the ethi- cal standards upheld are those of prophets who lived and taught long after the days of the Grand Monarch who fascinated his own and succeeding generations by his brilliant wit rather than by his sterling virtues. The book of Proverbs is far more than an Real nature epitome of his versatile sayings : it represents at ^ least ten centuries of experience divinely guided, but won often through mistakes and bitter disappointments. It contains the many index hands, set up before the eyes of men to point them from error to truth, from folly to right, and from failure to success. Like most of the Old Testament books, it embodies the contri- butions of many different teachers writing from many different ages and points of view. Their common aim is well expressed by the sage who appended to Proverbs the preface : To acquire wisdom and training, To understand rational discourse, To receive training in wise conduct, In uprightness, justice, and rectitude, To impart discretion to the inexperienced, To the young knowledge and insight ; That the wise man may hear and add to his learning, And the man of intelligence gain education, To understand a proverb and a parable, The words of sages and their aphorisms. The first edition of Proverbs Dates of the other collections 174 Origin and Value, of the Old Testament The structure and contents of the book sug- gest its literary history. Like the New Testa- ment, it appears to have passed through different stages, and to have been supplemented repeatedly by the addition of new collections. The origi- nal nucleus is probably found in x. 1 to xxii. 16; this is introduced by the simple super- scription, The Proverbs of Solomon. The form of the proverb is simple ; the atmosphere is joy- ous, prosperity prevails, virtue is rewarded; a king who loves justice and righteousness is on the throne (xiv. 35, xvi. 10, 12, 13, xx. 8, xxii. 11) ; the rich and poor stand in the same rela- tion to each other as in the days of the pre -exilic prophets ; and the teaching of their prophets righteousness is more acceptable than sacrifice is frequently reiterated (xv. 8, xvi. 6, xxi. 3, 27). While this long collection doubtless con- tains many proverbs antedating even the begin- nings of Israel's history and possibly some added later, the indications are that they represent the original edition of the book which the Jews car- ried with them into the Babylonian exile. This early collection was perhaps made under the in- spiring influence of the reign of Josiah. Undoubtedly the remaining collections also contain many very ancient proverbs, but as a whole their literary form and thought is more Hebrew Sages and their Proverbs 175 complex. The descriptions of the kings sug- gest the Persian and Greek tyrants who ruled over the Jews during the long centuries after the exile (cf. xxv. 1-7, xxviii. 2, 12, 15, 28, xxix. 2, 4, 16, xix. 14). The age of the prophets has apparently been succeeded by that of the priest and the law (xxix. 18). Already the Jews have tasted the bitterness of exile (xxvii. 8). There are also certain points of close contact with proverbs of Ben Sira, writ- ten about 190 B. c. The sages as a class are very prominent, as in the later centuries be- fore Christ. These and many other indications lead to the conclusion that the different col- lections were probably made after the exile, and that the noble introduction, i.-ix., and the two chapters in the appendix were not added until some time in the Greek period, not long before 200 B. c. The date, however, when these proverbs arose and were committed to writing is comparatively unimportant, save as a knowledge of their background aids in their interpretation, and as they, in turn, reveal the life and thought of the persecuted, tempted Jews, whose religious life centred in the second temple. Probably in the Greek period also a poet-sage Teaching of collected and wove together certain love and fSon/s 176 Origin and Value of the, Old Testament wedding songs of his race. The result was called the Song of Songs, that is, the Peerless Song. According to one interpretation, it pre- sents, in a series of scenes, the heart struggle of a simple country maiden with the prompt- ings of a true, pure love for a shepherd lover and the bewildering attractions of a royal marriage; and true love in the end triumphs. Whatever be the interpretation, it is clear that this exquisite little book, so filled with pictures of nature and simple country life, was intended to emphasize the duty and beauty of fidelity to nature and the promptings of the human heart. This thought is expressed in the power- ful passage which seems to voice the central teaching of the poem: Love is strong as death ; Jealousy is as cruel as Sheol ; Its flashes are flashes of fire, A very flame of Jehovah. Many waters cannot quench love, Neither can floods drown it : If a man would give all the substance of his house for love, He would utterly be contemned. XI THE WRITINGS OF ISRAEL'S PHILOSOPHERS XI THE WRITINGS OF ISRAEL'S PHILOSOPHERS AN intense interest in man led certain of Discussions T -i i tf ^e prob- Israel s sages in time to devote their atten- i e m of evil tion to more general philosophical problems, such as the moral order of the universe. In the earlier proverbs, prophetic histories, and laws, the doctrine that sin was always pun- ished by suffering or misfortune, and con- versely that calamity and misfortune were sure evidence of the guilt of the one affected, had been reiterated until it had become a dogma. In nine out of ten cases this doctrine was true, but in time experience proved that the tenth case might be an exception. While most of the teachers of the race denied or ignored this exception, certain wise men, faithful and un- flinching in their analysis of human life, faced the fact that the innocent as well as the guilty sometimes suffer. Their quest for the answer to the eternal question, Why? is recorded in the books of Job and Ecclesiastes. 180 Origin and Value of the Old Testament The primi- The basis of the book of Job is undoubtedly a primitive story. Traces of a tradition some- what similiar have recently been discovered in the Babylonian- Assyrian literature. The Baby- lonian treatment of the moral problem that it presents is even more strikingly similar. Eze- kiel also refers to a well-known popular Hebrew version of the story of Job (xiv. 14): though these three men, Noah, Daniel, and Job, were in it (the guilty land), they would deliver simply their own lives by their righteousness, saith the Lord Jehovah (cf. also xiv. 20). Evidently in Eze- kiel's day these names represented three ancient worthies, each conspicuous for his superlative piety. The Hebrew word here used also indi- cates that the righteousness attributed to them was conformity to the demands of the ritual. This agrees closely with the representation of the prose version of the story found in Job i. ii. and xlii. 7-17; here the supreme illustration of Job's piety is that he repeatedly sacrifices burnt-offerings, whenever there is the least pos- sibility that his sons have sinned (i. 4, 5). Also in describing his perfection (i. 1), the same unusual term is employed as in the priestly narrative of Genesis vi. 9, where Noah's righteousness is portrayed. It seems probable, therefore, that the ancient The Writings of Israel's Philosophers 181 story of Job was committed to writing by some Original priest during the Babylonian exile. Since Job application and his friends live out on the borders of the^*"" " Arabian desert to the east or southeast of Palestine, it seems clear that the tradition came to the Hebrews originally from some foreign source ; but in the prose form in which we find it in Job, it has been thoroughly naturalized, for Job is a faithful servant of Jehovah and the law. Ignoring for the moment the poetical sections (iii. 1 to xlii. 6), we find that the prose story has a direct, practical message for the broken-hearted exiles, crushed beneath an overpowering calamity. Jehovah is testing his servant people, as he tests Job in the story, to prove whether or not they fear Grod for nought (i. 9). If they bear the test without com- plaint, as did Job, all their former possessions will be restored to them in double measure (xlii. 7-17). This prose story has apparently been utilized The prob- and given a very different interpretation by a p^tical sec- later poet-sage in whose ears rang Jeremiah's tlon$ S Job words of anguish, found in chapter xx. 14-18 of his prophecy (i*to ^ ie m i n ds of his primitive readers a subject that early man ^as taxed to the utmost the resources of the world's greatest philosophers 'and theologians. The task was comparable to that which fell to the Master when he sought to make clear to his untutored disciples the real nature of the mighty tempest of temptation that raged in his soul at the beginning, and, indeed, later in his ministry. The method adopted was strikingly similar in each case. If the language of modern philos- ophy and psychology had been at the command of these great religious teachers, it would have but obscured the great truths. These truths must be made objective ; they must be expressed in the familiar language of the people. Even the inner struggle of conflicting motives must be presented in words so simple that a child could understand. Pictorial The second and third chapters of Genesis ?/' '-awn from record the effective way in which a great tradition ear ^7 prophet dealt with his difficult problem. From the lips of the people he took fragments of ancient Semitic traditions. Almost all of the elements which enter into the story of man's fall Interpretation of its Early Narratives 231 have been traced to far earlier sources ; but the narrative in its present unity and suggestiveness never has and never will be found outside the Bible. How far the prophet adapted to his higher purpose the current Hebrew version can not be absolutely determined. The fact alone remains that it is one of the truest bits of his- tory in the Old Testament, and this not because it is a leaf from the diary of Adam and Eve, but because it concretely and faithfully portrays universal human experience. In the simple language of popular tradition Creation of it proclaims, among other truths, that Jehovah, ements net Israel's God, created man, breathing into him from his own nostrils the vital principle of life and making him the commanding figure in the universe ; then that the Creator graciously provided all that was needful and best for his true physical and spiritual development. Incidentally the prophet calls attention to that innate and divine basis of the marriage bond which Jesus re-emphasizes (Matt. xix. 4-6). Physical death, according to the story in its present form, was not a necessary part of Jehovah's plan; the implication is that man would not die while he remained in the garden and ate of the life-giving tree. Temptation is not in itself evil, but necessary, if man is to 232 Origin and Value of the Old Testament develop positive virtue, for beside the tree of life grows the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, with its attractive, alluring fruit guarded by the divine prohibition. The struggle The elements of the temptation are all pre- woman's sented in chapter ii., but the serpent, the crafti- est of animals, in his conversation with the woman is required to make clear and objective the real nature of the conflict within her mind. The r6le of the serpent is the opposite of that of Balaam's ass, which figures in a story which comes from the same early Judean prophetic school. In the conversation between the woman and the serpent the true character of all temp- tation is revealed: it is the necessity of choos- ing between two courses of conduct neither of which is altogether bad. Curiosity, which is the guide to all knowledge, the beauty of the apple, which appeals to the aesthetic sense, and physical appetite, not in itself bad, all these powerfully attracted the Oriental woman of the ancient story. On the other side she felt the compelling power of love and gratitude and the definite divine command. The eucnce The prophet saw clearly that all the elements of* all temptation of temptation are within man a truth some- times obscured in later Jewish thought. Milton has also led us astray in identifying the crafty Interpretation of its Early Narratives 233 serpent with the Satan of later Judaism. The prophet graphically presents another great fact of human experience, namely, that what is one man's temptation is not another's, that the temptation to be real must appeal to the one tested. The crafty serpent is not represented as speaking to the man ; he would probably have turned away in loathing. His wife, she who had already sinned, the one whom Jehovah had given him as a helpmeet, herself appeals to the sense of chivalry within him. Hence the conflict rages in his soul between love and obligation to Jehovah and his natural affection and ap- parent duty to his wife. Thus in all tempta- tion the diviner impulses struggle with those which are not in themselves necessarily wrong but only baser by contrast. Duty is the call of the diviner, sin is the yielding to the baser, motives. The Hebrew word for sin, which means the The reat i - i' wa * ur * f missing of the mark set up before each indi- sin vidual, is the only altogether satisfactory defi- nition of sin ever devised, for it absolutely fits the facts of human experience. Deflection from the moral standard set up by each man's con- science, even though his resulting act seem in itself noble, is for him a sin. Although the influences which led the man and woman of 234 Origin and Value of tfie Old Testament the story to disobey were exceedingly strong, the higher standard had been set up, and in falling short of it they sinned. Thus sin is not God's but man's creation, and results from the deliberate choice of what the sinner knows to be wrong. 7'A effects In the same simple yet powerful way the prophet depicts the inevitable consequences of sin. At every point the picture is true to uni- versal experience. The most appalling effect of a wrong act is that it destroys peace and purity of mind. It also makes cowards of brave men, and the presence and tender affection of the one wronged suddenly become intolerable. Sin also begets sin. To the cowering fugitives Jehovah comes, as he always does, with a mes- sage intended to evoke a frank confession which would tear down the hideous barrier that their sin had reared between himself and them ; but, like most foolish, blind Adams and Eves, they hug their crime to their breasts and raise the barrier heaven high by trying to excuse their guilt. Thus they pronounce their own doom. For God himself only one course of action re- mains : it is to send them forth from his pres- ence and from the life-giving tree, out into the school of hardship and bitter pain, that there they may learn the lessons which are necessary Interpretation of its Early Narratives 235 before they can again become citizens of the true Garden of Eden. Two simple yet exceedingly significant touches The sequel lighten the gloom of this universal tragedy of o/wan'sya/ human life. The one is that for the guilty, un- repentant pair, Jehovah himself made tunics of skins to protect them from the inclemency of their new life, evidence that his love and care still went with them. The other is the impli- cation that the true garden of Eden was still to be found on earth, and was closed simply to the guilty and unrepentant. The Bible is the record of how men learned the all-important lessons in the painful school of experience. Israel's teachers, each in his characteristic way, led their race on toward the common goal. The Gospels tell of how a man, tempted in all points as we are in a distant day and land found his way again into the abiding presence of God. He was one with the Father, not because he did not meet temptation in all its power, but because, unlike the actors in the primitive story, and all other participants in the drama of life, he yielded only to the guidance of divine im- pulses. Not content with achieving the goal himself, he gave his energies and his life to showing others how they also might overcome the baser impulses within them and find their 286 Origin and Value of the Old Testament way to God's presence and become one with him. Thus, because of what he did and said and was, he forever vindicated his title of Saviour of Mankind. No other early Old Testament narrative is Tnqs'of'other P 6 ^? 8 so full f r i cn spiritual suggestion as early ttoriea the one just considered, and yet each has its valuable contribution. Even such a story as that of the killing of Abel by Cain forcibly teaches the great prophetic truth that it is not the form of the offering, but the character and deeds back of the sacrifice, that determine Je- hovah's favor or disfavor (iv. 7). Graphically it sets forth the spirit that prompts the great- est of crimes. In contrast to Cain, defiant yet pursued by haunting fear of vengeance, it also presents the divine tenderness and mercy in granting him a tribal mark to protect him from the hand of man. The similar story of Noah, the first vineyard-keeper, preaches the first temperance sermon in all literature, and also suggests the inevitable consequences of moral depravity so forcibly illustrated in the history of the ancient Canaanites. Even the prosaic table of the nations in Genesis x. emphasizes the conception of the unity of the human family which was destined in time to become the basis of Israel's belated missionary activity. Interpretation of its Early Narratives 237 When we pass to the twelfth chapter of Idal$ pre- Genesis the independent stories coalesce into s r i y p^. cycles, and each cycle, as well as each narra- tive, has its own religious purpose. In defi- nite outlines each successive group of teachers painted the character of Abraham, the tradi- tional father of the Israelitish race, and held it up before their own and succeeding genera- tions as a perpetual example and inspiration. In the early Judean prophetic narratives he is pictured as the friend of Jehovah. His own material interests are entirely secondary, as illustrated in his dealing with Lot. Without hesitation he leaves home and kindred behind, for his dominating purpose in life is simply to know and do the will of Jehovah. To this end he rears altars throughout the land of Canaan. His chief joy is in communion with God and in the promises to be realized in his descend- ants. Through warring, hostile Canaan he passes unscathed, for his eyes are fixed on things heavenly. It matters little whether or not, far back in the primitive days of Israel's history, a Bedouin Cfl sheik anticipated in actual character and life all that was gradually revealed to the prophets of a much later age. The supremely significant fact is that the noble ideal of Israel's earliest 238 Origin and Value of the Old Testament teachers was thus vividly and concretely em- bodied in the portrait of him whom the Hebrews regarded with pride and adoration as the founder of their race. In Hosea and Jeremiah, and less imperfectly in the nation as a whole, the ideal in time became an historical reality. Later por- The early Ephraimite school of writers pic- traits of A i i i ,r* i Abraham ture Abraham as a prophet (Gen. xx. 7), and therefore as an exemplification of their highest ideal. In the remarkable fourteenth chapter of Genesis he is a courageous, chivalrous knight, attacking with a handful of followers the allied armies of the most powerful kings of his day. Returning victorious, he restores the spoil to the plundered and gives a princely gift to the priest of the local sanctuary. In the later priestly narratives the picture suddenly changes, and Abraham figures as the faithful servant of the law, with whom originates the rite of cir- cumcision, the seal of a new covenant (xvii.). Later Jewish and Moslem traditions each have their characteristic portrait. One, which pic- tures him as in heaven the protector of the faithful, is reflected in the New Testament (Luke xvi. 23-30). Thus each succeeding age and group of teachers made him the embodi- ment and supreme illustration of its noblest ideals, and . it is this ideal element that gives Interpretation of its Early Narratives 239 the Old Testament stories their permanently practical value. Having noted the teachings that each indi- Practical vidual story and the cycle as a whole conveyed ffo to the minds of their first readers, it only re- stories mains for the teacher of to-day to translate them into modern terms. Some of the most important implications of the Abraham stories thus interpreted are, for example : (1) God calls each man to a high mission. (2) He will guide and care for those who are responsive. (3) To those who seek to know him intimately, and to do his will, he will reveal himself in fullest measure, and for such he has in store his rich- est blessings. (4) He that findeth his life (Lot) shall lose it, and he that loseth his life (Abraham) shall find it. The Jacob and Esau stories contain marvel- Significance lously exact and realistic portraits of the two acferof races (the Israelites and the Edomites) that they Esau respectively represent. Of the two brothers, Esau is in many ways the more attractive. He suggests the open air and the fields, where he loved to hunt. He is easy-going, ingenuous, and impulsive. His faults are those of not being or doing. As long as he had enough to eat and was comfortable, he was contented. He is the type of the world's drifters. Since Aram was 240 Origin and Value of the Old Testament far distant he disregards the wishes of his par- ents and marries one of the daughters of the land. No ambition stirred him and no devotion to Jehovah or to the ideals of his race gave con- tent and direction to his life. Thus he remained a laggard, and the half-nomadic, robber people that he represented became but a stagnant pool, compared with the onrushing stream of Israel's life. Jacob't Jacob's faults are also presented by the early ' au prophets with an astonishing fidelity. Rarely does a race early in its history have a portrait of its weaknesses as well as its strength held up thus prominently before its eyes. Jacob is the antithesis of Esau. While his brother was hunting care-free in the fields, he was at home plotting how he could further his own interests. When the opportunity offers, he manifests a cold, calculating shrewdness. To make good the title to the birthright thus acquired he does not hesitate to resort to fraud and lying. Then he flees, pursued by his own guilty conscience, and, tricked by Laban, he serves as a slave four- teen years to win the wife whom he loves. At last, again a fugitive from the consequences of his own questionable dealing, he returns with quaking heart to face the brother that he had wronged. Interpretation of its Early Narratives 241 The character is far from a perfect one, and The dementt yet the ancient stories suggest its elements of *fael's strength. By nature he was selfish and crafty; character and yet he has what Esau fatally lacks : energy, persistency, and a commanding ambition. From the first his ambition looks beyond himself to the future of his descendants. Measured by our modern standards, his religious professions seem only hypocrisy; but as we analyze his character we find that a faith in Jehovah, narrow and selfish though it be, was ever his guiding star. Out of the tortuous windings of his earlier years it ultimately led him to a calm old age. Imperfect though his character was, like that of the race which he represented, the significant fact is that God ever cared for him and was able to utilize him as an agent in divine revelation. Even more obvious and universal are the The noble practical lessons illustrated by the Joseph the Joseph stories. In the early prophetic narratives, stories Abraham is the perfect servant of God, Jacob the type of the Israelitish race, but Joseph is the ideal man of affairs. Graphically the suc- cessive stories picture the man in his making and reveal his true character. He is simple, affectionate, and yet strongly ambitious. His day-dreams make him odious, as in the case 16 242 Origin and Value of the Old Testament of many a boy to-day, to his unimaginative brothers. A seemingly hard fate rudely snatches him from the enervating influences of his child- hood home and places him in the severe school of experience, where he is tested and trained. It also opens wide the door of opportunity. Fidelity to every interest and an unselfish re- sponse to every opportunity for service soon bring him into the presence of the Pharaoh. His judicious counsels, diplomacy, and organiz- ing ability win for him the highest honors Egypt can confer. With modesty and fidelity he endures this supreme test success. Toward his brothers, who had bitterly wronged him, he is nobly magnanimous, and to his kinsmen, who belong to the shepherd class especially despised as boors by the cultured Egyptians, he is loyal and considerate. Above all, not by professions, but by deeds, he reveals the true source of his strength, a natural faith in the God of his race and an unfailing loyalty to him. Conclusion In the same way Moses, the exodus, and the great men and events of Israel's dramatic his- tory, all have a religious importance and signifi- cance far surpassing the merely historical. At the same time the methods of modern literary and historical investigation reveal rather than conceal the deeper spiritual truths that they Interpretation of its Early Narratives 243 illustrate. The more light that can be turned upon them the more clearly will their essential teachings stand forth. Like the Old Testament as a whole, they grew up out of real life and truly reflect and interpret it, and therefore have a living, vital message to life to-day. Any in- terpretation that does not ring true to life may well be questioned. Finally, the authority of these ancient narratives depends not upon the historical or scientific accuracy of the individual story that is used as an illustration, but upon the fact that through the experiences and hearts of those who employed them God. was seeking to make men free by the knowledge of the truth. XV PRACTICAL METHODS OF STUDY- ING THE OLD TESTAMENT XV PRACTICAL METHODS OF STUDYING THE OLD TESTAMENT THE Old Testament may be studied as litera- The various ture, as history, as the record of an important approach stage in the evolution of religion, as the revela- tion of God to the race, or as a practical aid to the individual in living the true life. Each angle of approach calls for different methods and yields its correspondingly rich results. Studied in accordance with the canons of modern literary investigation, a literature is disclosed of surpassing variety, beauty, and fascination. After the principles of historical criticism have been vigorously applied, the Old Testament is found to contain some of the most important and authentic historical data that have come down to us from antiquity. To the gen- eral student of religion there is no group of writings that equals in value those included in these ancient Scriptures. As a simple, clear revelation of the character and will of the Divine Ruler, present and regnant in all life, the Old Testament is surpassed by only one 248 Origin and Value of the Old Testament other volume, and that is its complement, the New. The supreme It is, however, as the guide to right thinking, "Testament an ^ b^g* an ^ acting, that the man of God may study fo p er f ec t t completely equipped for every good work, that the Old Testament is and always will be studied by the majority of people. In so doing they will be realizing its primary and supreme purpose. Like true religion, it is not an end in itself, but simply an effective force, drawing and binding individual men to God and to the right. Any method of study that fails to attain this definite and practical end does not achieve the chief aim of the Old Testament writings. Necessity of This practical and personal end, however, studying the , . . . _. . Old Testa- cannot be attained at a leap. It is impossible to achieve the best results by taking a truth or hole a passage nere and there and applying it at once to the individual. Both the Old Testament and the individual are something organic. Each book has a unity and a history that must be understood, if a given passage is to be fairly interpreted or its truths intelligently applied. Individual books are also related to others and to their historical background. Also, as has already been shown, to appreciate fully the vital message of a given writer it is necessary, Practical Methods of Studying 249 not to know his name, but his place in history, his point of view, his method of expression, and his purpose. The Old Testament and Israel- itish history as a whole are the best and most essential interpreters of individual books and passages. The most serious handicap to the ordinary Bible teacher and scholar is the lack of this broader, systematic, constructive knowl- edge. Much earnest, devoted study, especially in the Old Testament fields, is deficient in inspiration and results, because it is simply groping in an unknown land. It is all impor- tant, therefore, to ascend some height and spy out the land as a whole, to note the relation of different books and events to each other, and to view broadly the great stream of divine reve- lation which flows out of the prehistoric past on through the Old and New Testaments to the present. In order effectively to apply the truths of the Remarkable Old Testament to life, it is also necessary to regard the point of view of the individual to be taught. This fundamental principle of all ed- a 9 es and f * . . . * degrees of ucation was fully appreciated and applied by moral Israel's great spiritual teachers. The result is ct that the Old Testament contains truths marvel- lously adapted to every age and type of mind. The importance of the religious culture of the 250 Origin and Value of the Old Testament child is emphasized by the comparatively large proportion of writings especially fitted to hold the attention and arouse the imagination and shape the ideals even of the youngest. Nearly half of the Old Testament consists simply of nar- ratives. Those inimitable stories, which come from the childhood of the race, have a perennial fascination for the child of to-day. They find him on his own mental and moral plane, as they did the primitive child, and by natural stages lead him on and up to the higher stand- ards and broader faith of Israel's later prophets and sages, and thus prepare him to understand and appreciate the perfected life and teachings of Jesus. In the modern use of the Old Testament, the faithful application of this fundamental prin- Blble ciple also leads to a most practical conclusion ; the stories peculiarly adapted to children are not the mature, legalistic narratives of the late priestly writers, but the early prophetic stories, which begin in the second chapter of Genesis. If children are taught only these, they will not be disconcerted by widely variant versions of the same events. Above all, they will be de- livered from the inconsistencies and erroneous impressions which are often the cause of stum- bling to the child. The later process of unlearn- Practical Methods of Studying 251 ing, which is always dangerous, will be avoided. If the problems presented by the priestly narra- tives be reserved until they can be studied from the broader and truer point of view, they will be readily solved, and the great positive teach- ings of these later didactic stories will be fully appreciated. The subject-matter, therefore, supremely suit- The prophets able for the earliest moral and spritual culture storytellers of the child, is clearly the simple and yet pro- found prophetic stories of the Old Testament. It is very questionable whether the many ex- cellent paraphrases now current are a gain or a hindrance. The ancient prophets and the gen- erations who have retold them were inimitable story-tellers. To attempt to improve upon their work is futile. A simple, clear translation is all that is required. 1 The interpretation and application of their practical teachings can best be left to the intuition of the child and the direction of the intelligent parent and teacher. It is also astonishing how readily even a little Their ^fee- child appreciates the essential lessons, as, for ^presenting example, those regarding the nature and con- trvtht sequences of sin, presented by the story of the Garden of Eden. Under the charm of the at- 1 A Children's Bible is now being prepared according to the plan suggested above. 252 Origin and Value of the Old Testament tractive personalities that figure in them, and the stirring achievements, so dramatically pre- sented that they command breathless attention, the early prophetic narrations unconsciously and, therefore, all the more effectively, instil into the mind of the child the most essential truths regarding God and life and duty. At the same time, as they study in order the deeds of the heroes and makers of Israel's history, they are becoming familiar with the real back- ground of the earlier revelation recorded in the Old Testament. The present Therefore scattered throughout Genesis, Ex- Ce'rtc^L odus > Numbers, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel, Kings, and the older sections of Ezra, Nehe- miah, and I Maccabees, are to be found in rich profusion the material for the earliest years of Bible study. These should naturally be sup- plemented by the stories of the prophets, found in such books as Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Haggai. Their sequel and culmination are the corre- sponding stories in the Gospels and Acts. Study of the In connection with the earliest study of the sonaf teach- achievements of Israel's heroes and spiritual l ofd 5rta- lexers, many of their greatest teachings would be appropriated and applied, but when the years of early adolescence are reached, the prophets in their sermons, the priests in their laws, the Practical Methods of Studying 253 sages in their proverbs, and the psalmists in their psalms, each have certain personal mes- sages, superbly adapted to the critical, for- mative years, when childhood begins to unfold into maturity. To make this material available, judicious selection and interpretation are re- quired. The organism of each book and of the child must both be carefully regarded to make the adjustment perfect. Naturally this most vital line of study would be the introduction to a corresponding study of the direct, personal teachings of Jesus and the apostles. This intensely practical work could profitably Study of the be preceded or followed by a study of the origin wtl"ot 'the and growth of the different books and groups of Old Testament writings and the gradual stages whereby these Scriptures attained their present form and authority. The guides in this investigation should not be the Jewish rabbis or even the traditions of the Church Fathers. We have been misled too long by the pious guesses of the mediaeval saints; but rather the testimony of the Bible itself and the evidence of contemporary writings should be the guides. The spirit should also be frank and constructive. The results cannot fail to be practically helpful in a great variety of ways. Thus on the basis of facts, in the light of his- 254 Origin and Value of the Old Testament tory, and by the use of those methods of re- search which alone command respect and acceptance in other kindred lines of inves- tigation, the questions which come to every thoughtful boy and girl will be fairly and truly answered. In this way those experi- ences which are inevitable in this critical age will deepen and broaden rather than destroy the foundations of individual faith. Thehistori- With this general introduction, many stu- Tpproack dents and classes will find it profitable to ap- proach the Old and New Testaments from the distinctively historical point of view. Begin- ning with the unfolding of the civilization and religion of ancient Babylonia, they will study in conjunction the history, the strong personali- ties, the literature, and the thought of each suc- cessive period. The advantages of this method of study are many. Each book will be read and its messages interpreted in the light of the conditions and forces that constitute its true background. The different characters will live again, and the significance of their work and words will be fully appreciated as they are viewed in the clear perspective of history. Its practical Above all, such a synthetic study of the un- folding of the supreme truths of revelation lays a foundation for the individual faith as broad as Practical Methods of Studying 255 'human experience. This is to attain one of the chief aims of all study, which is to put the in- dividual into practical possession of all that is vital and best in the experiences and achieve- ments of the past, that, thus equipped, he may go forth to fight the battle of life, valiantly and successfully. This last course of study would call for its natural several years, and, more than that, for enthu- se<}uet siasm, devotion, and real work. It would also take the student in time through the New Testament period, with its literature and com- manding personalities and events, and perhaps beyond to the great epochs of Church history. Many would not stop until they had studied the latest chapter in Church history, the noble mis- sionary activity and achievement of the past and present century. When the Bible had thus been studied, the Advanced scholars in our schools would not be ready to 1%%%' graduate, but rather to enter upon that still deeper and more fundamental study which would mean an ultimate conquest of the broad field that it represents. Then it might be safe and profitable to adopt the topical method and study some one of the vital themes that are treated from many different points of view in the various parts of the Bible. 256 Origin and Value of the Old Testament Study of It will, however, probably be found easier menthTttory an< ^ tnore natural next to take up in succeed- ing years the detailed study of the nine or ten great groups of writings which are found in the Bible. The natural and easiest method of approach to those of the Old Testament would be through a careful, constructive study of the history of the Israel itish race, perhaps begin- ning with the definite historical period of Saul and Samuel and concluding with the advent of Rome. Far better than any modern history of Israel is that marvellous history written by its own historians, which begins with the book of Samuel and ends with I Maccabees. Ana- lyzed and arranged in their chronological order, these narratives tell the story with rare fascina- tion and suggesti veness. 1 Study of the On the basis of this detailed study of the his- *ana' earlier torical background, the work and teachings of narratives ^ e p rO phets could next be traced in their true and chronological order. No Old Testament field is more neglected and none is more in- tensely interesting, when once the student un- derstands the problems and aims of each great prophet. None has a more practical message 1 Volume II of the " Student's Old Testament " con- tains the narratives from Samuel through I Maccabes, thus arranged. Practical Methods of Studying 257 for to-day, provided its supreme truths are interpreted into modern terms and conditions. After becoming intimately acquainted with the Hebrew prophets, it would be possible to go back and study with a new understanding and appreciation the early narratives which gather about the beginnings of Hebrew history. Then the intricate problems of the first eight books of the Bible would vanish in the light of a fuller knowledge. Above all, that which is essential and permanent would stand out in clear relief. From the earliest fruits of prophetic activity study of the it would then be profitable to turn to the later, ^at^e represented by Lamentations and the Psalter. Here the best results require a classification of the different psalms according to their themes, so that their teachings can be studied systemati- cally and as a whole. In this field of study the student comes very close to the heart of the Old Testament and the heart of the God who speaks through it. Less spiritual and yet intensely interesting study of and practical is the great department of the Old g d m Testament known as the wisdom literature. He that walketh with the wise shall be wise (Prov. xiii. 20) is as true to-day as when first uttered. This literature is a great mine of truth, almost entirely neglected by the Christian world. Sys- 17 258 Origin and Value of the Old Testament tematic classification is the first requisite for the profitable study of the Proverbs and the later Wisdom of Ben Sira. From these the student may pass on to the fuller treatment of the omni- present human problem, so sublimely presented in the book of Job, and to the many fundamental questions raised by Ecclesiastes and the Wisdom of Solomon. Study of the Last of all a year might well be spent in the ment laws study of the unfolding and concrete application f ls instlttt ~ and illustration of Israel's ethical and religious principles in the legal codes and institutions of the Old Testament. Many of these have found a higher expression, some are but symbolic, but others still have permanent authority and value. Studied as a whole and on the basis of a logical classification, this little understood field would also cease to be a jungle, and instead would 3 7 ield its own practical spiritual fruits. XVI RELIGIOUS EDUCATION THE FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEM OF TO-DAY XVI RELIGIOUS EDUCATION THE FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEM OF TO-DAY THIS very brief and fragmentary outline of The practi- methods and possibilities of Old Testament fan of these study is not an impossible dream. In col- P osslblhttes leges and in a few Bible schools it is already being tried with the gratifying results that might be anticipated. To put it at once into force in most of our Sunday-schools would be absolutely impracticable. It is presented simply as a suggestion of a definite and practical goal toward which to work. With careful adjust- ment, these courses, adapted to different ages, could be arranged so that at least the inter- mediate grades in the Sunday-school would be studying in the same field at the same time. This plan provides for no graduation from the school of the Bible. It assumes that the Chris- tian world is at last awakening to the real sig- nificance of religious education and to a recogni- tion of the fact that the ultimate solution of our The over- da h -schools 262 Origin and Value of the Old Testament gravest national and social problems is to be found only in the inculcation of the true ethical ideals in the mind of the individual. It also assumes the fundamental principle that no worthy ends can be attained without real work, enthusiastic devotion, systematic methods, and above all a definite and worthy goal. It rests on the belief that the sense of gradual conquest and the attainment of practical results will alone inspire permanent devotion and evoke faithful work, and in the end prepare the individual scholar for the intelligent and loyal service of God. Frank confessions are good for a cause as well as f r the soul. We must admit that most of our Sunday-schools, with their vast resources in opportunity, in financial support, and in the de- votion of the teachers and officers, do not per- manently hold their scholars, and in the great majority of cases do not give them a thorough or systematic knowledge, even of the most vital teachings of the Bible. The ignorance of its literature and history on the part of even the more intelligent students who enter college, is almost past belief, as many of us can testify from personal observation. The limitations in time and equipment of the Sunday-schools are undoubtedly great in comparison with those of Religious Education 263 the secular schools; and yet the responsibility now thrown upon the Bible schools is even greater than upon the latter. Parents have ceased to instruct their children in spelling and the multiplication-table because they have found that the teachers can do this better. Without justification, but by analogy and be- cause they are themselves often unacquainted with the Bible, or uncertain regarding its in- terpretation, they are more and more leaving the religious education of their sons and daughters to the Church and the Sunday-school. It is safe to say, and this without reservation, The tran- that the most fundamental problem in England L and America to-day is the problem of religious ^ education, because this lies at the roots of all else political, social, and theological. When the Christian world awakens to its profound significance, and when its ideals and methods are raised, even to a level with those of the public schools, the other grave problems will be near their solution. If the individual is thoroughly taught during the impressionable years of childhood and youth, the fundamental principles of ethics and religion, society and the state will have no difficulty in meeting their problems ; but if not, these will perforce continue to remain unsolved. 264 Origin and Value of the Old Testament Important It is a time for all earnest men of every de- that the Old -4.- i *. - .T_- Testament nomination or creed to unite in meeting this be tauyht in nee( j. i n the Old Testament, Jew and Chris- the public schools tian, Catholic and Protestant, stand on com- mon ground. The modern inductive historical methods of study have prepared the way for union; for they aim to support no denomina- tional interpretation, but simply to attain the truth. The last reasons, therefore, why the lit- erature, history, geography, and ethical teach- ings of the Old Testament should not be taught in our public schools are rapidly disappearing, and the hundreds of reasons why any system of secular education is incomplete without it are coming to the front. With this fundamental basis of knowledge and instruction, the work of the Sunday-schools could also at once be placed on a far more effective plane. It is a consummation for which every intelligent citizen should earnestly work. The task of The achievement of the last century was to the present^ 1 complete the work of the Protestant Reforma- tion and re di SCO ver the Bible. The task of the present century is to instil its essential teach- ings, thus revealed, into the mind of the indi- vidual, so that they will become controlling factors in human life. Here lies the great re- sponsibility and opportunity of the Christian Religious Education 265 Church. If it is to renew its hold on modern men, it will be through the mind as well as the heart, and its most efficient method will be as it always has in reality been religious education. Horace Bushnell proclaimed the watchword of the Church triumphant: "Chris- tian culture." His, however, was no new discovery. The The exam- Hebrew prophets, priests, and sages were not pri- j^jkis 'and marily preachers, but teachers. The prophetic Jesus messages which fell on deaf ears, instilled into the minds of a few humble disciples, in time won acceptance from the nation. Jesus him- self was not so much the preacher as the Great Teacher. His earliest public preaching was but the net cast to catch the few faithful disciples. When these had been secured, he turned his back upon a popular preaching min- istry, and devoted the best part of his brief public work to instructing a little group of disciples. History completely vindicates the wisdom of his method. Only by following closely on his footsteps can the Church hope to realize its true mission, especially in this age, when the heart and will must be reached through the mind. In this respect, it must also be con- fessed that the Roman Catholic are far ahead of the Protestant churches and Sunday-schools, 266 Origin and Value of the Old Testament where the preaching still overshadows the teaching. The call for To inspire and direct thorough religious in- struction, carefully trained leaders are needed. The demand to-day is for a teaching as well as a preaching ministry, with an apostolic sense of a mission and a message. Men with natural gifts and the most thorough preparation are wanted to raise the standards and to organize and transform, as they alone can, by personal contact, the teaching corps of our Sunday- schools into effective forces. Such men and women certainly can be found. It is a con- viction, based on a wide experience, that many of the ablest students in our colleges and uni- versities, who for many valid reasons do not feel the call to a preaching mission, would gladly and enthusiastically devote themselves to the work of religious instruction, could they be sure of a field, when their preparation was complete. Our universities and seminaries al- ready have the facilities and could readily as- sume this important responsibility. As soon as our large city churches and the federated churches in our smaller towns, demand a teach- ing pastor as the permanent director of their Sunday-schools, and of the religious educational work under their charge, they will enter upon a Religious Education 267 new career of permanent conquest. The needs are undoubtedly great, the volunteers are at hand, thorough preparation can be assured ; but the call must come from the Church, united and awake to its supreme opportunity and re- sponsibility. It must also be confessed that our religious The anti- educational systems if such they may be ^fhods of called are still in the experimental stage. onr , Su schools They are far inferior in every respect, except in the self-sacrificing devotion of the teachers and officers, to those of the secular schools. What is most vital to our national and indi- vidual life is most neglected. Instead of the latest and best pedagogical methods, the most antiquated largely prevail. Saddest of all, the Bible which is being taught in the majority of our schools is the Bible of later Judaism and the Middle Ages, not the Book of Books which stands forth in the light of God's latest revela- tion, as a message of beauty and life to the present age. It is not strange that there is a growing distrust of the Sunday-school among many intelligent people, and an appalling apathy or distaste for Bible study in the mind of the rising generation. If we shut our eyes to these facts, they will remain ; but if we frankly face them, a decade 268 Origin and Value of the Old Testament The crying of intelligent and devoted work will effect a " great transformation. The first step is obvi- ous ly along the line of improved courses and methods of study. Many different courses are at present in the field. All have their merits, and to those who have developed them highest praise and credit is due. Some have been pre- pared to meet immediate and practical needs, but ignore the larger unities and the historical background, and in general neglect the results of modern educational and biblical knowledge. Some have been worked out in the study and have a strong academic flavor, but do not meet the needs of the average scholar or teacher. Others are models of pedagogical perfection, but lack content. Progressive Sunday-schools are trying one system after another, and mean- time the note of discontent is rapidly rising. The crisis is too serious to admit of personal rivalries or prejudices. How to meet The moral of the situation is simple : that which will fully meet the needs of the present must be a combination of all that is good in existing courses, and embody what is best in the scholarship and methods of to-day. Like the most effective systems in the past, it must be wrought out in the laboratory of practical ex- perience. It must lx planned tron: tht point Religious Education 269 of view of actual needs and conditions. It must also have a worthy and definite goal and a high ideal. It should emphasize the impor- tance of fundamental religious instruction, as well as preaching. All that is practical and per- manent in modern educational methods should be utilized. It should preserve the existing superb Sunday-school organization, and, as far as possible, the unity of the splendid system now under the direction of the International Committee. Finally, it should incorporate the positive and illuminating results of modern con- structive biblical research. The task cannot be accomplished in a moment, nor by one man nor a small group of men. It is certainly im- portant enough to command the best experi- ence, the ripest scholarship, and the most unselfish devotion. When this task has been thoroughly per- The advent formed, and the ablest of our educated men and women have been enlisted in our Bible ^ f the , Kingdom of schools, the cause of religious education will God command the respect of the world, not merely because of the fundamental need which it aims to meet, but also because it is effectually meeting it. The Christian Church will also find itself in sympathy and touch with that which is best and most significant in modern life and thought. 270 Origin and Value of the Old Testament Religious teachers and scientific investigators will work shoulder to shoulder in a common study and interpretation of God's many-sided revelation. Pastors will feel the solid founda- tions of historical truth beneath their feet. Leaving behind the din and distractions of the transitional period, the disciples of the Great Teacher will go forth with fresh zeal to make the eternal truths of the Bible reg- nant in the lives of men, and the kingdom of God a reality in human history. '-{0 .f UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY A 000 994 746 6