TJ 
 
 IC-N 
 
GIFT OF 
 
r 'U 
 
 Henry Disston^ Sons 
 
 Incorporated 
 
 Keystone. SawlooLSted 'and 'File Works 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 

 
THE FILE 
 
 Its 
 History, Making, and Uses 
 
 A description of the develop- 
 ment of the file from the earliest 
 times to the present day; a brief 
 statement of the modern method 
 of file making; a description of 
 the great variety of files and the 
 numerous uses to which the tool 
 is adapted. 
 
 It is hoped that those who 
 read this description of the de- 
 velopment and uses - of the file 
 will come to appreciate better 
 the importance of the tool and 
 to value it more highly. 
 
 COPYRIGHTED 
 
 FIRST EDITION, DECEMBER, 1920 
 
 SECOND EDITION, NOVEMBER, 1921 
 
 BY 
 
 HENRY DISSTON & SONS INC. 
 
 Keystone Saw, Tool, Steel, and File Works 
 PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. 
 
HENRY DISSTON 
 
 "H 
 
 E created a new American 
 industry. He gave to the 
 United States the greatest saw 
 works in the world, and thus founded 
 an industrial university wherein a 
 dozen useful trades are taught. Not 
 only did he redeem us from all de- 
 pendence on foreign countries, but 
 turned back the tide and made them 
 accept his products, and this simply 
 by peaceful demonstration of superior 
 skill in manufacturing." 
 
FOREWORD 
 
 There are few tools more essential 
 in the development of industry than 
 the file. Perhaps for the very reason 
 that it is so universally used and so 
 absolutely indispensable, the file does 
 not commonly receive the attention it 
 deserves, as a tool, from craftsmen 
 and students. 
 
 This book is dedicated to those 
 innumerable men to whom the file is 
 an everyday friend and a necessity 
 the tool which enables them to dp 
 more and better work with less labor. 
 
 There has been no guide for the 
 compilation of the material in this 
 book. Information has been obtained 
 from every available source. It is 
 possible, therefore, that the wide 
 circulation of the book will bring to 
 light some omissions, which, we hope, 
 will be passed with tolerance in view 
 of the difficulties attending the com- 
 pilation of the facts. 
 
 5078IG 
 
STONES USED BY ANCIENT PUEBLO INDIANS FOR 
 POLISHING AND STRAIGHTENING ARROW SHAFTS 
 
 (See Page 6) 
 
THE FILE 
 
 ITS HISTORY, MAKING, 
 AND USES 
 
 ALTHOUGH the history of 
 the file can be traced back 
 into the remote past, its age 
 is by no means as great as 
 the saw. Scientists believe, in fact, 
 that the artificial file was a natural 
 development from the saw, the 
 notched edges of stone and metal 
 implements leading to the invention 
 of a tool having teeth for abrasive 
 purposes. 
 
 Abrading instruments, while dat- 
 ing from many centuries before 
 Christ were at first composed of 
 some natural substance which 
 might be said to have ground off 
 the surface rather than to have cut 
 it, as do the files arid rasps of today. 
 
 As in many other things, Nature 
 herself has taken precedence over 
 man in the origination of files.. 
 There is a type of mollusc having ai 
 rough tongue with which it rubs or 
 files through the shells of othei 
 molluscs on which it feeds. The 
 wasp, also, has a rasp-like organ 
 with which it abrades dry wood, 
 afterwards mixing the dust with a 
 glutinous saliva to form the paper 
 from which it builds its nest. The 
 cat's tongue, and that of the cow, 
 are familiar examples of abrading 
 organs in the animal kingdom. 
 
 Prehistoric man made handles for 
 his weapons by sawing or splitting 
 wood, rough-shaping the pieces as 
 well as he could by primitive meth- 
 ods, and finally finishing and pol- 
 ishing them by means of the partic- 
 ular abrasive material found in his 
 vicinity. A remarkable connection 
 between these ancient times and 
 the most modern, is found in the 
 present-day use of sandpaper and 
 emery cloth. These are only a mod- 
 ified form of the first stone abrading 
 
 instruments used by primitive man, 
 proving that many of our primor- 
 dial instincts are still existent. 
 There are few of us, in fact, who 
 have not, at some time in our lives, 
 scraped up sand with a shell, or 
 used a stone to drive a nail both 
 survivals of the Stone Age, and 
 illustrating man's intuitive employ- 
 ment of the things Nature placed 
 ready to his hand. 
 
 To abrade, or file, ancient man 
 used sand, grit, coral, bone, fish 
 skin, and gritty woods, also stone 
 of varying hardness in connection 
 with sand and water. 
 
 Crude as were these abrading in- 
 struments, and slow and laborious 
 as must have been their use, they 
 nevertheless served primeval man 
 well throughout the Stone and 
 Bronze Ages. Up to the time of 
 the discovery of iron, natural abra- 
 sives were used extensively. Cop- 
 per, and later, bronze, did not per- 
 mit of sufficient hardening to be 
 used as a material for the making 
 of artificial files, although attempts 
 were made to use both for that pur- 
 pose. 
 
 M. Adrien de Mortillet, in his 
 classification of prehistoric tools, 
 gives first place to cutting tools, 
 and second to rasping tools, which, 
 of course, include the file and rasp, 
 thus showing the importance of the 
 file since earliest times. And yet, 
 with its important standing, there is 
 a remarkable scarcity of both his- 
 tory and relics as compared with 
 other examples of the handiwork 
 of man. 
 
 Strange as it may seem, the 
 North American continent has 
 yielded more examples of the na- 
 tural files of the ancients than any 
 
The Ffile }In^^toi^\ \ \ ... : 
 
 other part of the globe. Among 
 the Mound Builders and Cliff Dwell- 
 ers of America, those ancient and 
 prehistoric peoples of whose com- 
 ing and going so little is known, 
 stones were used for abrading pur- 
 poses. Although both races left 
 traces of their familiarity with cer- 
 tain kinds .of metal, from which 
 they made tools, ornaments; and 
 other articles, neither race, appar- 
 ently, was acquainted with the artifi- 
 cial file. Nothing of the kind has 
 ever been found, so far as is known, 
 but several examples of the stone- 
 file have been unearthed. 
 
 Fig. 1 shows one of these stones 
 which was found in a Mound Build- 
 ers' cemetery in Tennessee. From 
 the peculiar grooves in this stone 
 it would appear that it had been 
 used for smoothing arrow shafts. 
 
 Early Indians 
 
 Used Abrasive Tools 
 
 The ancient Pueblo Indians, who 
 inhabited the Calisteo Basin in 
 Western North America, left, 
 among many other crude tools and 
 pieces of pottery, specimens of 
 stone which archaeologists say were 
 also used to smooth and polish 
 arrow shafts. Some of these are 
 preserved in the American Museum 
 of Natural History in New York. 
 Three good examples of these 
 stones are shown in Fig. 2 (frontis- 
 piece). The material appears to be 
 soft sandstone, of varying grades 
 of fineness, in which deep grooves 
 have been worn by drawing them 
 along the wooden shafts. As proof 
 of this use, it may be said that 
 Eskimos of the Arctic regions 
 today use stones to smooth and 
 sharpen their spear-heads. Captain 
 George Comer while on an expedi- 
 tion in the far north secured a speci- 
 men of stone, pictured in Fig. 3, 
 which was used like a file by the 
 natives. It measures about eight 
 
 inches in length, one and a half 
 inches in width, and three-quarters 
 of an inch in thickness. 
 
 It is discoveries such as this that 
 have greatly aided scientists in un- 
 raveling the tool mysteries of the 
 earth's early inhabitants. In fact, 
 study of the customs and tools 
 of the savages of today give a very 
 clear idea of the tools used, and 
 the manner of making those tools, 
 in prehistoric times. The South 
 Sea Islanders, for instance, aptly 
 illustrate this, for, in these days 
 of wonderful tool development, 
 they are still using pieces of coral 
 as rasps. 
 
 The remarkable resemblance 
 between the tools used in bygone 
 ages in different parts of the earth, 
 and by dissimilar peoples, occa- 
 sioned much comment in the past, 
 but the modern scientist has real- 
 ized that, as Major Powell, the 
 great ethnologist, once said: "The 
 mind of man is everywhere the 
 same; the difference of its products 
 are evidences of differences of 
 growth, or different conditions of 
 environment." In other words, 
 man's progress has depended solely 
 upon his needs and what was at 
 hand to progress with. His inven- 
 tive tendencies, once aroused, de- 
 veloped along parallel lines limited 
 only by the material and facilities 
 for carrying them out. Implements 
 are more or less alike because man's 
 
 Pig. 1. Filing stone from the Mound 
 Builders' Ruins in Tennessee. 
 
 [6] 
 
$tie', F$e> fn History 
 
 needs are alike. This in itself would 
 cause a similarity of tools the world 
 over. 
 
 In spite of a civilization claimed 
 to antedate that of the East, the 
 development on the Western Hem- 
 isphere in ancient times did not 
 
 used, many still clung to their stone 
 tools. This is believed to have been 
 especially so with the poorer classes 
 who could not afford the more 
 costly metal implements. Indeed, 
 it is well known that in the mines 
 of Spain and Sardinia stone ham- 
 
 Fig. 3. Stone used as a file by the Nectchillic Eskimos 
 
 seem to go beyond a certain point. 
 So, while we find the earliest speci- 
 mens of the file on the American 
 continent, we must turn to the 
 Eastern countries for the beginning 
 of what we have termed the artifi- 
 cial file. 
 
 Evolution 
 Of The Ages 
 
 The Stone Age, with its natural 
 files, slowly gave way to the Age of 
 Copper, and this in turn to the 
 Bronze Age. Tools, weapons, and 
 other articles found a wider devel- 
 opment with the coming of these 
 metals, but, as stated before, the 
 file is a tool of exceedingly rare 
 occurrence in copper or bronze, 
 though not absolutely unknown in 
 deposits belonging to the close of 
 the Bronze Age. It is sometimes 
 difficult to place the dates or ages 
 of many stone and metal imple- 
 ments found among the ancient re- 
 mains, for Europe remained far 
 behind Asia in this particular for 
 many years. In 2500 B. C., while 
 all Asia shared in the knowledge of 
 Bronze, Europe was still in the 
 Stone Age. Then, too, long after 
 metal was fairly well known and 
 
 mers were in use during historic 
 times. 
 
 Of prehistoric files recovered, the 
 greater number have been of bronze 
 from the "hoards" of that period. 
 A "hoard" is a deposit or collection 
 of bronze objects. Investigators 
 have found them in many places 
 all over Europe several ancient 
 cemeteries appearing to have been 
 favorite hiding places. 
 
 The theory of these "hoards" is 
 that they were used as storage 
 places, and were sometimes the 
 property of individuals, sometimes 
 of traders, and sometimes of bronze 
 founders. The latter surmise is de- 
 rived from the fact that many of 
 the "hoards" contained broken and 
 worn tools, lumps of metal, and 
 moulds for casting, as well as num- 
 erous perfect tools. 
 
 In a prehistoric cemetery at Hall- 
 statt, in upper Austria, an imple- 
 ment of a very hard grayish alloy 
 was found. This was believed to 
 have been an anvil, and with it was 
 found a bronze file. In fact, several 
 files of bronze, and one of iron, 
 have been found in this same ceme- 
 tery. The bronze files are from five 
 to ten inches long. A few of these, 
 while flat for the greater part of 
 
 [7] 
 
The Ftie In $ia(6r^\ \ i ^ 
 
 their length, are drawn down for 
 about two inches at the end into 
 tapering round files. In a "hoard" 
 found in Bologna were several frag- 
 ments of files, including one of a 
 half-round file. 
 
 Sir William Wilde states that he 
 found among a collection of bronze 
 tools in the Museum of the Royal 
 Irish Academy, a "bronze circular 
 file, straight, like a modelling tool." 
 
 The early form of file is much 
 the same as that of a very broad 
 saw, the toothing coarse, and run- 
 
 Fig. 4. File from the prehistoric lake- 
 dw.ellings o f Switzerland. 
 
 ning at right angles across the 
 blade. A very good illustration of 
 this is the iron file found in the re- 
 mains of prehistoric Lake-Dwell- 
 ings in Switzerland. Fig. 4, giving 
 an outline of this file, is taken from 
 Munro's "Lake-Dwellings of Eu- 
 rope.'' Note the well-defined tang. 
 With the ancients, Crete was 
 famed for the skill of its people in 
 working metal. It had become a 
 well-known art there before the 
 people of the North knew anything 
 of metal. Among the earliest 
 known examples of the artificially 
 made abrading instruments of 
 metal, for which a date can be 
 fixed, is a bronze file (see Fig. 5) 
 which was dug up in Crete by an 
 expedition from the University of 
 Pennsylvania, and is now in the 
 Museum at Candia. This file has 
 a rounded back and a flat surface 
 for rubbing. The astonishing like- 
 ness to the half-round file of today 
 will be noticed at once. It is be- 
 lieved to have been made about 
 1500 B. C. Its length is 3^ inches, 
 width y% of an inch, and thickness 
 1 A of an inch. 
 
 Fig. 5. Ancient bronze file from 
 Crete. 
 
 Rasps Used 
 1200 Years B. C. 
 
 The Egyptians of the Lisht 
 Dynasty, about 1200 to 1000 B. C., 
 made small rasps of bronze, as sev- 
 eral specimens have been found 
 which could be more or less ac- 
 curately connected with that time. 
 These rasps are shown in Fig. 6. 
 They are 1^ to 2*4 inches in 
 length, and appear to have been 
 made from sheet bronze. Holes 
 were punched through the metal 
 with a sharp-pointed instrument. It 
 was then coiled into the form of a 
 cone-shaped cylinder with the 
 rough edges or projections of the 
 holes on the outside. These acted 
 as the teeth. It is uncertain what 
 these crude rasps were used for. 
 The softness of the material must 
 have made their use extremely lim- 
 ited. Some suggestion, however, 
 may be obtained from another rasp 
 
 Fig. 6. Bronze rasps used by the 
 Egyptians 1200-1000 B. C. 
 
 [8] 
 
The Fifo 'In* History 
 
 of a somewhat similar nature which 
 was found in the Rammesseum in 
 Egypt. This little rasp, about two 
 inches long, and a half inch thick 
 at the base, is made out of sheet 
 copper with holes punched as pre- 
 viously described. In fact, refer- 
 ence to Fig. 7 will show that these 
 rasps, found at different times and 
 places, are very much alike. As 
 
 is found in I Samuel: xm: 21, which 
 is supposed to relate to about the 
 year 1093 B. C. This reads: 
 
 "They had a file for the mattocks, 
 and for the colters, and for the 
 forks, and for the axes, and to 
 sharpen the goads." 
 
 The word "file" here is the in- 
 correct rendering of "petsirah pirn," 
 which means notching of the mouth 
 
 Fig. 7. Copper rasp found in the Rammesseum, 
 Egypt. 
 
 the Egyptians in the Rammesseum 
 used to work in gold it may safely 
 be surmised that this little rasp was 
 probably used in a manner similar 
 to the jewelers' rasp of today. The 
 rasp shown in Fig. 7 is now in the 
 Museum of the University of Penn- 
 sylvania. 
 
 These rasps may have had a 
 wooden handle inserted in them. 
 While no trace of such handles was 
 found, -this supposition arises from 
 the curious resemblance between 
 these rasps and those made by the 
 American Indian of more or less 
 modern times which will be de- 
 scribed later. As the Bronze Age 
 is believed to have been at its 
 height about 4000 years before the 
 Christian Era, we may safely as- 
 sume that bronze files were in use 
 long before these specimens just 
 described. 
 
 That there were iron files in Solo- 
 mon's time may be inferred from 
 his statement: "Iron sharpeneth 
 iron; so a man sharpeneth the 
 countenance of his friend," but the 
 first historical mention of artificial 
 files that can be definitely identified 
 as referring to such implements as 
 are now understood by this term 
 
 or edge of tools, i. e., to remove the 
 bluntness or dullness (and so 
 sharpen the edge) of these agricul- 
 tural implements by abrasion in 
 consequence of the lack of smiths 
 to sharpen them by forging out the 
 points. 
 
 Files are also mentioned in 
 Homer's Odyssey. They were 
 doubtless very crude in form and 
 inefficient in operation as compared 
 to present-day files, but the fact 
 that they were mentioned in these 
 early writings is proof that they 
 were held in high esteem by work- 
 men of ancient times. 
 
 As both of these citations refer 
 distinctly to the use of files in metal 
 working, it is quite apparent that 
 the ancients knew how to make use 
 of these tools for much the same 
 purposes as they are most fre- 
 quently employed today, viz,, the 
 fitting and finishing of metal work. 
 Wood finishing, as practiced by 
 prehistoric man, and his immediate 
 successors, was easily accomplished 
 by the use of natural abrasives, but 
 cutting implements with sharp 
 teeth were required when tools and 
 weapons came to be constructed of 
 iron. 
 
 [9] 
 
The F$ 
 
 Evidence Of Iron 
 In The Early Ages 
 
 The date at which iron first 
 became known to the early races 
 of man is still a matter of dispute. 
 A Chinese, Fuh-he, records in that 
 extraordinarily ancient volume, the 
 "Book of Historical Documents," 
 that he accidently smelted iron 
 when clearing forests about 3200 
 B. C. The blue color used in de- 
 picting knife blades in drawings on 
 the tombs at Thebes, Egypt, would 
 seem to indicate that it was known 
 among the Egyptians as early as 
 1565 B. C. Remarkably fine speci- 
 mens of early iron work, however, 
 
 Fig. 8. Assyrian file, made in the 
 7th Century, B. C. 
 
 have been taken from the ruins of 
 Memphis and Thebes. As 'these 
 cities are so old that their origin is 
 lost in the remote past, the knowl- 
 edge and use of iron might even 
 have existed at a much earlier 
 period. The Greeks are supposed 
 to have known iron before the 
 foundation of Troy in 1537 B. C. 
 Their poetry, fables, and mythol- 
 ogy contain many references to 
 iron. Homer tells us that at the 
 siege of Troy the leaders and great 
 heroes carried swords of bronze, 
 while the common soldiers were 
 armed with iron weapons. In spite 
 of the fact that the Greeks are sup- 
 posed to have known and worked 
 in iron before the foundation of 
 Troy, Dr. Schliemann, in his book 
 "Illios," claims that files were not 
 used in the cities of Troy and My- 
 cenae. During all his explorations 
 he found absolutely no trace of 
 them at these places. We read that 
 David, about a thousand years 
 before the Christian Era, "prepared 
 iron in abundance for the building 
 of his temple." 
 
 That the people of India knew of 
 iron at an exceptionally early date 
 is proved by their skill in working 
 the metal long before the Christian 
 Era. At one of the gates of the 
 temple of Katub, near Delhi, is a 
 wrought iron pillar 23 feet 8 inches 
 high above the ground. Its total 
 height, however, is believed to be 
 about 60 feet. It is 16.4 inches 
 across at the base and 12.05 inches 
 at the top. Its weight is estimated 
 at seventeen tons. A Sanskrit in- 
 scription places the date of its erec- 
 tion in the tenth century before 
 Christ. While no definite date can 
 be set, it is certain that the knowl- 
 edge of the manufacture of iron 
 spread from Asia into Europe. 
 
 Daimachus, a writer who was 
 contemporary with Alexander the 
 Great (about 300 B. C.), enumerates 
 four different kinds of steel and 
 their uses. The Chalybdic, Syno- 
 pic, Lydian, and Lacedaemonian. 
 From the latter, he states, were 
 made files, augers, chisels, and 
 stone-cutting implements. 
 
 The crucible method of melting 
 steel is one of the oldest forms of 
 melting iron and steel, being men- 
 tioned in all early writings. 
 
 As a matter of fact, the posses- 
 sion of iron weapons among nearly 
 all the races at this early time would 
 suggest the use of iron or steel 
 abrading instruments in their manu- 
 facture, but no examples can be 
 found. Even though they had ex- 
 isted, jt is highly probable that the 
 oxidizing action of the elements 
 would have destroyed them during 
 such a long lapse of years. There 
 is no doubt that the great bulk of 
 the objects of iron belonging to 
 antiquity have totally disappeared. 
 In proof of this disappearance of 
 iron and steel relics may be men- 
 tioned numerous cases where the 
 gold ornamentations of iron and 
 steel swords and helmets have been 
 unearthed while the sword or hel- 
 
 [10] 
 
The File In History 
 
 met itself is only represented by a 
 slight trace of rust. Only in those 
 parts of the world where an ex- 
 tremely dry, sandy soil existed can 
 we find any relics. And even when 
 these are found, they have, in many 
 cases, become so thoroughly oxi- 
 dized that they crumble to pieces 
 on coming into contact with the air. 
 We touch at some length and de- 
 tail upon iron because the real be- 
 ginning of the modern file and rasp, 
 like many other things, must have 
 had its inception in this metal. Yet 
 with the beginning of the use of 
 iron and steel for the making of 
 files, both records and relics almost 
 disappeared. The file by that time 
 had become such an everyday tool 
 among artisans that few, if any, 
 writers thought it worthy of spe- 
 cial mention. At the same time, the 
 well-known corrosive qualities of 
 these metals, which we have just 
 touched on, gradually eliminated 
 practically all the early examples 
 of this kind of file. 
 
 First Iron Rasp 
 Made By Assyrians 
 
 The Assyrians, who were about 
 the first race to profit by the dis- 
 covery of iron, made a straight rasp 
 of iron .of which an excellent ex- 
 
 Fig. 9. Indian rasp for 
 smoothing arrow shafts. 
 
 were in their tool making is further 
 proved by the investigations in 
 Egypt of Prof. Flinders Petrie. In 
 one of his books on that country, 
 he says: 
 
 "A set of iron Armourers' tools 
 was found at Thebes with a copper 
 helmet of Assyrian form, and there- 
 fore probably left by the expedition 
 under Asshur-bani-pal in 666 B. C. 
 These tools comprise flat chisels, 
 
 Fig. 10. Indian rasp for boring out cane. 
 
 ample has been found. Reference 
 to Fig. 8 will show that the form 
 is exactly like that of modern times. 
 As this rasp definitely dates back 
 to the seventh century, B. C., it will 
 be seen how clever the ancients 
 were in originating tools which have 
 preserved their essential form down 
 to the present day. 
 
 How clever the Assyrians really 
 
 mortise chisels, saws, a punch, a 
 rasp, a file, a twist scoop, and two 
 center-bits. The forms of most of 
 these tools have already attained 
 to the modern types; but the file is 
 only slight and irregular, and the 
 center-bits are only fit for hard wood. 
 The edges of these tools are of steel, 
 probably produced by case-hardening 
 the iron." 
 
 [11] 
 
The File In History 
 
 Fig. 11. Examples of primitive files. 
 
 Early Uses 
 Of Tools 
 
 To illustrate the workings of the 
 primitive mind in various parts of 
 the world at different times, and to 
 give an insight into the methods 
 probably in use in very ancient 
 times, of which neither history nor 
 relics tell anything, we picture in 
 this article several peculiar forms 
 of files that are connected with 
 quite modern times. In Fig. 9 is 
 shown a rasp used by the American 
 Indians in making arrow shafts, 
 etc. This rasp, which is in the 
 Museum of the University of Penn- 
 sylvania, was obtained by them 
 from the Indians in 1908. It had 
 been in use for a considerable 
 period. The rasp is made of a 
 piece of sheet iron with holes 
 punched through. The sheet was 
 then bent over like a book cover, 
 with the rough edges of the holes 
 on the inside. The article to be 
 filed was run through the interior. 
 The use of sheet iron has only been 
 known to the Indians for about 
 eighty or ninety years, so it will be 
 seen that this rasp is comparatively 
 modern. 
 
 The Indians of later times made 
 a blow gun out of a species of cane 
 which much resembled bamboo. To 
 clear these out and smooth the 
 joints they had a special form of 
 rasp (see Fig. 10) mounted on a 
 long thin stick. This rasp, too, was 
 made by punching holes in a piece 
 of tin with a sharp instrument, and 
 then coiling the tin in a conical 
 form somewhat similar to that of 
 the ancient Egyptians, as illus- 
 trated in Figs. 6 and 7 on pages 8 
 and 9. As the Indians could have 
 no knowledge of the methods used 
 by the Egyptians several thousand 
 years ago, the similarity in these 
 rasps is striking. 
 
 Belden, in his book, "The White 
 Chief," gives several interesting 
 
 [12] 
 
The File In History 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 1. Heavy rasp, blade 13 inches long, 1 inch wide. China. 
 
 2. Square file, 11 inches long, 5/16-inch square, cross cut on all four sides. China. 
 
 3. Pointed rasp with a curved face. Blade 14 inches long. China. 
 
 4. Smaller rasp, blade 7 inches long, cross section elliptical, but cut on only one 
 
 side. China. 
 
 5. Heavy wood rasp. Made of wood with 42 steel blades set into it. China. 
 
 6. Smaller wood rasp. Same character but with only 15 blades set in a straight 
 
 surface. China. 
 
 7. Knife-shaped file. The wide end is finely cross cut on both sides. The narrow 
 
 [13] 
 
The File In History 
 
 end is flat on one side and curved on the other, cross cut on both surfaces. 
 China. 
 
 8. Small file. Blade only two inches long, one side flat, the other curved, cross 
 
 cut on both surfaces. China. 
 
 9. Crude hand-cut file from Indo-China. 
 
 10. Thin flat file, 8% inches long, 1^4 inches wide. Cut only on the edges on 
 
 both sides. China. 
 
 11. File with a thin diamond shape cross section, finely cut on all four sides. 
 
 Indo-China. 
 
 12. Small file, cross cut on the two flat faces, but not on the edges. Japan. 
 
 13. Dried tail of a fish, probably a Skate or Ray. used as a wood rasp. Yucatan. 
 
 14. Knife-shaped file, cross cut on both sides and single cut on the back. China. 
 
 15. Small file, blade thickest in the middle, finely cut on all four faces. Japan. 
 
 16. Rasp, single cut only about half the length of the blade. Indo-China. 
 
 descriptions of primitive tool-mak- 
 ing which still existed among the 
 Indians of North America in the 
 first half of the last century. Fol- 
 
 lowing is his description of the 
 process of making files: 
 
 "The most curious process was 
 making files and rasps. To do this, 
 an alderberry stick was taken and 
 split in two. The pith was then 
 scraped out, and into the groove 
 thus formed was poured glue mixed 
 with pounded flint. When dry, the 
 particles of flint formed the teeth 
 of the rasp or file. If the file be- 
 came dull, it was only necessary to 
 wash it in hot water, which re- 
 moved the top layer of glue and 
 worn flint, bringing new flint to the 
 surface. These files were very 
 handy and of vast use to the 
 Indians. What steel is to iron, they 
 are to the wood and stone used by 
 the Indians. When ponies' hoofs 
 
 Pig. 13. Typical heads of ancient stone hammers. 
 
 (Courtesy Am. Museum of Nat. History ) 
 
 [14] 
 
The File In History 
 
 became too long, or splintered, they 
 were trimmed down by these rasps. 
 Axe handles, tepee poles, and iron 
 even were rubbed down with them." 
 Another primitive form of file 
 has also been brought from Aus- 
 
 China, Japan, and Yucatan are most 
 interesting. Fig. 11 shows some of 
 these files very clearly. In Fig. 12 
 is illustrated a number of old-time 
 primitive files from China about 
 which comparatively little is known, 
 
 Fig. 14. Entrance to the Notre Dame Cathedral showing iron work on doors. 
 
 tralia. It was made by fastening 
 sharp fragments or plates of stone 
 to a stick by means of a tenacious 
 gum. It affords a good illustration 
 of the manner in which flint and 
 other flakes were mounted for use 
 as files by the early inhabitants of 
 Australia. This file is in the col- 
 lection of the Peabody Academy of 
 Science, Salem, Mass. 
 
 Interesting Collection Of 
 Files In Philadelphia 
 
 A most remarkable collection of 
 primitive files is preserved in the 
 Philadelphia Commercial Museum. 
 These come from all portions of the 
 globe, but those from China, Indo- 
 
 but their different forms and cuts 
 are interesting. 
 
 While this digression has brought 
 us for the moment to comparatively 
 modern times, it serves to illustrate 
 the extraordinary variations in tools 
 used at the same period, but in 
 widely different places, and shows 
 how difficult it is now to assign 
 regular progressive stages to the 
 development of implements and 
 weapons in early times. 
 
 In this connection, the remarks 
 of Mr. Wilfred H. -Schorr, Secre- 
 tary of The Commercial Museum, 
 relating to the collection in that 
 institution will be of especial inter- 
 est: 
 
 "These specimens in our collec- 
 
 [15] 
 
The File In History 
 
 tion are all of comparatively recent 
 date, and their primitive character 
 is due simply to the fact that they 
 come from countries still in a primi- 
 tive stage of civilization. For that 
 reason, they illustrate, so far as 
 they go, earlier conditions in na- 
 tions now in a more advanced stage 
 of civilization. In actual time, we 
 do not suppose that any of the 
 specimens shown would be more 
 than thirty to thirty-five years old, 
 and a number of them, of course, 
 would be more recent. 
 
 "The progress of ethnological 
 knowledge is, necessarily, depend- 
 ent, in great degree, on modern in- 
 stances just such as these, of tribes 
 and races that have remained rela- 
 tively undeveloped, while other 
 races were becoming civilized, and 
 in that way any specimen of a 
 present-day primitive tribe is valu- 
 able as indicating what our own 
 ancestors may have been ten cen- 
 turies ago." 
 
 Until the beginning of the Chris- 
 tian Era even the blacksmith con- 
 tinued to fashion weapons and 
 implements of iron almost entirely 
 with a stone hammer, and no men- 
 tion seems to be made during this 
 
 exceptionally efficient. So, while 
 he used a variety of tools, he still 
 clung to his hammer as the chief 
 instrument of his trade. The black- 
 smith's hammer, in fact, remained 
 his most important implement for 
 many hundreds of years. 
 
 While slight mention is made of 
 files in medieval times when they 
 must have seen their first great de- 
 velopment we know that much of 
 the iron and steel work turned out 
 could not have been accomplished 
 without the aid of files. 
 
 During the Middle Ages, St. 
 Dunstan, a monk born in Glaston- 
 bury, England, who is considered 
 the patron of the blacksmith, pro- 
 duced many wonderful things, and 
 greatly aided in the improvement of 
 metal tools. While there is no 
 record to that effect, the nature of 
 his work would imply that the file 
 received sortie benefit from his ex- 
 traordinary genius. He died in 988. 
 
 Monk Wrote Book 
 On File Making 
 
 Another monk, Theophilus Pres- 
 byter, of the Benedictine Cloister, 
 Helmeshausen, gave to the world 
 
 Fig. 15. Roman knife flies found at Tilehester, 
 Roman site, A. D. 43 to 300. 
 
 intermediate period of the use of several recipes for tempering iron 
 files. The rapid appearance in instruments. He also wrote a very 
 slightly later times, however, of iron interesting description of file-mak- 
 
 tools is shown by the discoveries 
 at Pompeii, where the only tools 
 of the present time which the black- 
 smith lacked were the vise and 
 metal-cutting saw. His files were 
 
 ing in Germany about the end of 
 the eleventh century. Among the 
 simpler forms of files which he men- 
 tions are those made of soft iron, 
 which were afterward hardened. 
 
 crude, and it is presumed were riot After the file had been forged to 
 
 [16] 
 
The File In History 
 
 the desired form it was made 
 smooth by a plane and then pro- 
 vided with grooves and teeth. He 
 describes the hardening process 
 very clearly, and, curiously enough, 
 
 wanted to discover how the work 
 was done. Numerous theories were 
 advanced, one of which affirms that 
 the iron was cast, "and then treated 
 with a file." This shows that the 
 
 Fig. 16. Half-round flies unearthed in London. Period unknown, 
 on the order of rasps. 
 
 They are all 
 
 it does not differ greatly from some 
 present-day methods. 
 
 The men who worked in iron, 
 and were the chief users of such 
 tools as files, had become at this 
 time the most important of the arti- 
 sans. A guild of blacksmiths was 
 formed in Florence in the thirteenth 
 century, while in England the 
 guilds of the blacksmiths were 
 started in 1434. It is only natural 
 to suppose that these men did much 
 to develop the efficiency of the file 
 in the course of their daily work. 
 
 The earliest point at which a defi- 
 nite thread in its history can be 
 regained is when the Notre Dame 
 Cathedral was built in Paris in the 
 thirteenth century. A smith named 
 Biscornette was employed to deco- 
 rate the doors of the great cathe- 
 dral with iron work. He performed 
 this work, which was wonderful 
 in its beautiful effects, secretly, by 
 a process known only to himself. 
 Bits of this iron were broken off 
 at various times by people who 
 
 file at that time was becoming a 
 necessary part of the smith's equip- 
 ment. It proves, too, that it must 
 have reached a very high state of 
 perfection to have enabled a man 
 to do such fine work in metal. 
 
 It was not until the fourteenth 
 century, however, that those who 
 practiced art in ironwork began to 
 use other tools, besides heat and 
 the hammer, regularly. 
 
 We read that "file and saw, vise 
 and drill were called to his (the 
 smith's) aid." 
 
 The use of these tools gave 
 greater command over the metal 
 as well as better results in the work. 
 This, too, would tend to show a 
 steady improvement in the file, 
 rendering it more applicable to 
 heavy work in metal. 
 
 Again, we find a reference to the 
 fourteenth century grille in the 
 Cloister of LePuy-en-Velay. Con- 
 tinuing his description of this, the 
 writer says: 
 
 "The caps and bases are pro- 
 
 [17] 
 
The File In History 
 
 duced by the hammer without the 
 use of the file processes soon 
 afterwards abandoned." This again 
 would seem to indicate the growing 
 importance at that time of the use 
 of the file in metal work, the rough 
 finish obtained from the hammer 
 alone being replaced by the 
 smoother effects acquired by filing 
 down the rough parts and joints. 
 
 Germany Led 
 In File Making 
 
 In the middle of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury Nueremberg was the foremost 
 place of production of files, but 
 when the thirty-years' war para- 
 lyzed the industry of Germany, 
 Sheffield, England, became the cen- 
 tre of file manufacturing. Tradition 
 says that from the earliest times 
 the manufacture of files has been 
 carried on in Sheffield. This is, no 
 doubt, true, because we know that 
 Sheffield held front rank in the 
 manufacture of tools for hundreds 
 of years. However, there is a rec- 
 ord which states that the first file 
 was made there in 1618. 
 
 When the Calvinists were driven 
 from France, and the Netherlands, 
 in 1685, a great number emigrated 
 to Reimscheid, in the present 
 Rheinish-Prussia, and this district 
 soon became the headquarters for 
 the tool industry of the world. An 
 auxiliary cause for this was the 
 abundance of water power to be 
 had in this district, and Reimscheid 
 has ever since sent out files to all 
 parts of the world. 
 
 Files at that time were classified 
 according to their size, the way 
 they were packed, their form, and 
 also the purpose for which they 
 were intended. The "coarse" files 
 were heavier, as well as deeper cut, 
 than the "finer." With the "coarse" 
 files were counted the "hand" files, 
 "arm" files sometimes as heavy as 
 
 20 pounds and the "packing" files. 
 They were also frequently called 
 the "straw-files," because they were 
 shipped tied together with straw 
 ropes. Fleischman, in Reimscheid, 
 made a "coarse" file to order that 
 had two hinges, and weighed forty- 
 six pounds. 
 
 All these files were made for 
 rough work and were bastard-cut, 
 or so-called "Jack-files." The finer 
 files were generally named after the 
 shape of their cross-cuts, and were 
 also known as dozen files, because 
 usually packed by the dozen. 
 
 The continued absence of exam- 
 ples of files of even this later pe- 
 riod can be accounted for not only 
 through the inevitable rust and con- 
 sequent disintegration, but also 
 from the fact that steel was still 
 so valuable that when a file was 
 worn out, it was probably used to 
 make some other implement. 
 
 The Swiss began the manufacture 
 of files at a very early date, but 
 just when this was is difficult to 
 say. They have always been noted 
 for the excellence of their files, but 
 they made a specialty of the very 
 fine files used in the manufacture 
 of jewelry, and, in later times, by 
 watch-makers. 
 
 File Cutters 
 
 Among The Colonists 
 
 In America, during the days of 
 the early colonies, most of the files 
 that might be required were im- 
 ported from abroad, though a few 
 artisans who had learned the trade 
 in their mother countries may have 
 produced some for local use. It is 
 claimed that in 1698 there were in 
 Philadelphia "artificers of many 
 kinds, among them cutlers, gun- 
 smiths, locksmiths, nailers, and file- 
 cutters." The records also show 
 that a concern named Broad- 
 meadow & Company was making 
 files in a small way at their factory 
 
 [18] 
 
The File In History 
 
 in Pittsburgh, Pa., about 1829. 
 With this exception, prior to 1840, 
 the manufacture of files was practi- 
 cally unknown in the United States. 
 About 1845 the making of files 
 on a small scale was begun at Mat- 
 teawan, N. Y., by John Rothery, 
 an Englishman. It is reported that 
 he made excellent files, and his sue-- 
 cess induced others to enter into the 
 business of making files. From 
 
 that time the manufacture of files 
 took a firm foothold in this coun- 
 try, but until about 1864, Europe 
 continued to supply the greater 
 number of files used in America. 
 It was a long uphill fight for the 
 American file manufacturer, for 
 most of the mechanics had come 
 from abroad and were naturally 
 prejudiced in favor of the files they 
 had learned to use at home. 
 
 [19] 
 
The File In History 
 
 . 17 Half-round file discovered in Hood Hill, Dorset, Romano-British site. 
 
 Period B. C. 50 to A. D. 50. 
 
 Fig. 18. Combined flat and round file discovered at Ilallstatt. Date about 600 B. C. 
 
 Fig. 19. Cranked file found among the Roman remains at Silchester. Date 300 A. D. 
 Teeth 5 to the inch, rather shallow, apparently filed in. 
 
 Fig. 20. Rasp and knife-shaped files discovered by Prof. Flinders Petric, at Thebes. 
 
 Date about B. C. 670. 
 
 Fig. 21. Chisel for large rough files. Chisel for small fine files. Showing 
 
 angle of cuts. 
 
 [20] 
 
The File In History 
 
 PART II 
 
 MAKING THE MODERN FILE 
 
 THE manufacture of files, 
 until comparatively recent 
 times, was done entirely by 
 hand. Just what methods 
 the ancients pursued in making 
 their files it is hard to say, but they 
 must have followed similar meth- 
 ods to those in vogue up to about 
 sixty years ago. 
 
 In cutting files by hand, the 
 necessary tools are so simple, that, 
 without doubt, those in use in the 
 later days of the art, were similar 
 to what the hand cutters of past 
 generations must have used. 
 
 Roman files that have been found 
 at Alis, Halstatt, and Come- 
 Chandron, particularly those found 
 at Halstatt, are of especial interest 
 as they show one of the earlier 
 methods of producing the teeth. 
 That is, in some of the early files 
 the teeth themselves were formed 
 by filing. The files mentioned 
 above gave every evidence of hav- 
 ing been used for this purpose. The 
 filing of the teeth, however, seems 
 soon to have been replaced entirely 
 by cutting. A chisel made of good 
 steel made it possible to manufac- 
 ture the file much quicker than by 
 the filing method. 
 
 Preparing The 
 File Blank 
 
 In preparing the file blanks for 
 cutting by hand the early stages 
 were much the same as today. The 
 blanks were forged to shape out of 
 bars of steel that had previously 
 been rolled. The forged blanks 
 were then annealed to make them 
 more susceptible to the cutting edge 
 of the hard steel chisel. 
 
 After the annealing process the 
 surfaces of the blanks were cleaned 
 and leveled so that the entire sur- 
 
 face was accurate. This was done 
 by grinding and filing. The usual 
 practice being to file the small 
 blanks and grind the large ones. 
 
 Then the blank was slightly oiled 
 to allow the chisel to slip over it 
 easily. It was then ready for the 
 file cutter. This man was seated 
 before a square iron anvil, usually 
 solidly mounted on a heavy stone 
 base. Provided with blocks of lead 
 having appropriate grooves to fit 
 files of various forms, h*e selected 
 the one required and placed it on 
 the anvil, adjusted the file blank in 
 the groove, with the tang toward 
 him. To hold the blank in place 
 while being cut leather straps were 
 used. These passed over each end 
 of the file, and the ends were held 
 down by the workman's foot. 
 
 The cutter would select a chisel 
 suitable for the cuts to be made. 
 See Fig. 13 A and B. Then with a 
 hammer and this chisel he would 
 cut the teeth in the blank by a rapid 
 succession of blows, each time mov- 
 ing the chisel a < slight, but regular 
 distance, toward himself. The 
 workman was aided in gauging this 
 distance by the slight ridge or burr 
 raised in advance of the tooth being 
 cut, at each blow of the chisel. This 
 is shown quite clearly in Fig. 13 C. 
 For each new tooth the chisel was 
 slid until it met this ridge, when it 
 was ready for the next cut. 
 
 The chisel, held at an angle, cuts 
 the groove and at the same time 
 raises one edge of the metal, thus 
 forming the tooth. 
 
 The hammer used in file cutting 
 was of peculiar shape and weighed 
 sometimes as much as six pounds. 
 This caused great bodily exertion, 
 which, in conjunction with the con- 
 strained position of the file cutter 
 over the anvil, was very injurious 
 
 [21] 
 
The File In History 
 
 to health. All this has been done 
 away with by the use of machines 
 which will be described later. 
 
 Where double cut files were being 
 made the first cuts (so-called "over- 
 cut") had to be oiled over to allow 
 
 Fig. 22. These are typical hammers 
 used by hand-file cutters. The grooves 
 in the handle of the smaller hammer 
 have been worn in by the grasp of the 
 hand through many years' use. 
 
 The peculiar shape gives better di- 
 rection to the blow and puts the weight 
 at the lower end of the hammer-head, 
 providing greater ease in working. 
 
 the chisel to slip over the surface, 
 which would otherwise have been 
 too rough. First cuts were 
 smoothed over with' a file so the 
 chisel would work freely. 
 
 During this operation of hand 
 cutting the file became slightly bent. 
 To eliminate the danger of break- 
 age, the file was treated to a red 
 heat before being straightened. It 
 was then ready for the hardening, 
 which was, of course, performed ac- 
 cording to the individual ideas of 
 the maker. The method, however, 
 was substantially the same as used 
 today with the exception that open 
 fires were used. 
 
 The tangs were softened a little 
 
 after this operation to prevent 
 breakage. 
 
 Hand-made files were produced 
 with an astonishing degree of dex- 
 terity which was only to be ac- 
 quired by long practice. The burrs 
 cut on a file with a sharp-edged 
 chisel were produced at the rate of 
 150 to 200 per minute. While 
 traced by the sense of touch alone, 
 the lines were nearly as straight as 
 though cut by a machine. Such 
 skill was long thought to be proof 
 against the aggression of machin- 
 ery. As a matter of fact, the 
 wholesale introduction of machin- 
 ery into file making would prob- 
 ably have been deferred until a 
 great deal later date than it was 
 had it not been for the chronic dis- 
 content of the file makers them- 
 selves. In those days 
 strikes for higher wages 
 were very frequent and the 
 manufacturer was eventu- 
 ally compelled to choose 
 between labor-saving machinery or 
 loss of trade. This brings us to the 
 history of file-cutting machines. 
 
 Cutting Files 
 By Machine 
 
 As stated, the file cutters them- 
 selves were mainly responsible for 
 the final adoption of machinery in 
 the manufacture of files. 
 
 While it was not until around 
 1860 that this change began to take 
 place, the efforts of inventors had 
 been directed toward. the perfection 
 of a suitable machine for several 
 centuries. It is a well-known fact 
 that the ancients showed remark- 
 able mechanical genius and pro- 
 duced the basic ideas for many 
 modern tools and machines. Yet 
 there is nothing in history to show 
 that they ever dreamed of cutting 
 the file in any other way than by 
 hand. The first authentic record of 
 a machine for the cutting of files 
 
 [22] 
 
The File In History 
 
 has been chained from a manu- 
 script left by the great Italian 
 painter, Leonardo da Vinci, who 
 was also famous as an engineer. 
 In 1503 he was appointed chief en- 
 
 make the machine independent of 
 crank and "manpower." A weight 
 and rope set the main shaft in mo- 
 tion. The length of rope and 
 height of weight (giving length of 
 
 Fig. 23. Copy of sketch by Leonardo da Vinci, illustrating his invention of a 
 file-cutting machine, 1505 A. D. 
 
 gineer and architect of the Duke 
 Caesar's army, and it was during 
 this service that he conceived the 
 idea of a file-cutting machine. Fig. 
 14 shows a reproduction from his 
 drawing of this machine which he 
 invented some time before 1505. An 
 examination of this drawing shows 
 that all parts of the machine have 
 been carefully carried out and it is 
 complete in all details. According 
 to his description, he intended to 
 
 ultimate downward travel) to be 
 according to the length of file to 
 be cut. 
 
 This device shows his wonderful 
 inventive capacity and mechanical 
 skill, since even sixty years ago we 
 had not advanced much farther 
 than the design here shown. 
 
 Mathurin Jousse in a work en- 
 titled, "La Fidelle Ouverture de 
 1'Art de Serrurier," published at La 
 Flesche in Aujon, 1627, gives a 
 
 [23] 
 
The File In History 
 
 drawing and description of one in 
 which the file is drawn along by 
 shifts by means of wheel work, the 
 blow being given by a hammer. 
 
 Another machine was invented 
 by a French mechanic- named 
 Duverger. It has been stated that 
 he produced this machine about 
 1735, but according to the Journal 
 des Savants, published by the 
 Academic des Sciences in 1702, he 
 brought out this machine and pre- 
 sented it to the Academic in 1699. 
 The description in this journal is 
 very complete, and it seems that 
 the machine attracted wide atten- 
 tion at the time. 
 
 In 1725, another file-cutting ma- 
 chine was invented by Fardonet. 
 Thiout in his "Traite de 1'Horolo- 
 gie," published at Paris in 1740, 
 describes still another machine. 
 Brachal and Gamain also produced 
 machines in 1756 and 1778. 
 
 James Watt, the famous Scottish 
 engineer and inventor of the mod- 
 ern condensing steam engine, en- 
 deavored to make a file-cutting 
 machine. He was not successful 
 because he did not have a "pressure 
 foot." This is a device which holds 
 the file firmly in place during the 
 cutting operation, and it was not 
 until it was perfected that a 
 machine became really serviceable. 
 
 While these machines were crude 
 and only partially successful, they 
 showed the way for other inventive 
 minds. One of these later inventors 
 who met with more practical suc- 
 cess was another French mechanic 
 named Raoul. In 1800, he pro- 
 duced a machine which made excel- 
 lent files. He obtained a reporr o,n 
 them from a committee of the 
 Lycee des Arts in which it was 
 stated that they were equal to the 
 best English hand-made files. His 
 machine, however, was only used 
 to make watchmakers' files. 
 
 At first sight, it would appear 
 from the simplicity and continual 
 
 repetition of the movements re- 
 quired in file-cutting that it was an 
 operation especially adapted to be 
 performed by machinery. Never- 
 theless, it was not until many years 
 after the first inventor of a file-cut- 
 ting machine had patented his de- 
 vice that file-cutting machines were 
 successfully used, and that machine- 
 cut files could compete with the 
 hand-made product in the market. 
 Over two centuries passed between 
 the suggestion and the perfection 
 of the file-cutting machine. 
 
 The advent of the file-cutting 
 machine was marked by a great 
 deal of opposition, for most file 
 makers claimed that high-grade 
 files could not be made by machine. 
 The early failures bore them out in 
 this contention, for when first made 
 by machine, the machine had a 
 tendency to curl the tooth. This 
 prevented the tooth from being 
 sharp, and the file failed to do its 
 work, but today, one wonders how 
 a file could ever have been prop~ 
 erly made by hand. 
 
 Machine Cut 
 Files Are Best 
 
 It has been said that the early 
 failure of many machine-made files 
 was caused by lack of care in the 
 selection of the material used, not 
 entirely by the lack of efficiency in 
 the machines, for with a machine- 
 made file the teeth are of equal 
 height and every tooth cuts. In the 
 hand-made file the teeth vary 
 sometimes to a considerable extent. 
 A machine-cut file will really do 
 more work and last longer than a 
 hand-cut. It took time to prove 
 this, however. 
 
 The Swiss, always famous for the 
 quality of their files, especially the 
 small sizes for dentists, watchmak- 
 ers, etc., are said to have been 
 among the first to use machinery. 
 
 While hand-file makers claimed 
 
 [24] 
 
The File In History 
 
 that the peculiar angles at which 
 the chisel must be held precluded 
 the same results with machines, in- 
 vestigators discovered that the re- 
 sults obtained from the action of 
 the chisel were only according to 
 natural laws which machines could 
 easily produce. 
 
 The failures of the early file-cut- 
 ting machinery, however, discour- 
 aged mechanics, and led them to 
 believe that nothing could ever 
 equal the hand-cut file. 
 
 The first effort to build a suitable 
 file-cutting machine in the United 
 States, so far as can be ascertained, 
 was made by Morris B. Belknapp, 
 of Greenfield, Mass. On January 
 16, 1812, he patented a file-cutting 
 machine which did not prove com- 
 mercially successful. A certain 
 William T. James also patented a 
 file-cutting machine in the same 
 year. 
 
 In 1836, Captain John Ericsson, 
 then in England, patented a file- 
 cutting machine which is described 
 in Holzapffel's work on "Mechani- 
 cal Manipulation," where it is stated 
 that one machine could do the work 
 of ten men. This was followed in 
 1847 by an ingenious machine in- 
 vented by George" Winslow, of 
 Boston. 
 
 First Machines 
 Greatly Imitated 
 
 As in the case of many other in- 
 ventions, as soon as the first ma- 
 chine appeared there came a rush 
 of imitators. There was, as a con- 
 sequence, quite a lengthy list of 
 patents taken out on file-cutting 
 machines around this time. It 
 would be useless to name them all. 
 Therefore, only those possessing 
 the most meritorious points, or 
 which laid the foundation for future 
 improvements, have been men- 
 tioned. 
 
 The first really practicable ma- 
 
 chine was that invented by E. Ber- 
 not, of Paris. This machine, which 
 is shown in Fig. 15, was used to 
 some extent with success in France 
 and Belgium, and about 1860 was 
 introduced into Great Britain. It 
 was patented in the United States 
 July 24, 1860, and later was brought 
 into the country. 
 
 Fig. 24. Machine invented by E. Bernot 
 the first practical file-cutting machine. 
 
 In 1862, M. D. Whipple, of Cam- 
 bridge, Mass., made a number of 
 improvements for file-cutting ma- 
 chines, but the biggest step forward 
 was when, in the same year, some 
 enterprising capitalists in Baltimore 
 secured the right to make and use 
 Bernot's file-cutting machine in this 
 country. Nine of these machines 
 were kfcilt with slight modifications 
 and set up in Pawtucket, R. I., 
 where they ran with great success. 
 
 On January 16 and June 13 in 
 1864/ patents were again issued to 
 Morris B. Belknapp, of Greenfield, 
 Mass., for a new machine for cut- 
 ting files and sickles. This machine 
 cut from five to six dozen twelve- 
 
 [25] 
 
The File In History 
 
 inch files daily. On April 11, of this 
 year, patents were also issued to 
 Charles Hesser and Amos Paxson, 
 of Philadelphia, as well as to Wil- 
 liam T. James, of Greenwich, N. Y., 
 for file-cutting. 
 
 In 1865, W. T. Nicholson, of 
 Providence, R. I., invented a file- 
 cutting machine, which, 'as im- 
 
 Pig. 25. A Disston File-Cutting Machine 
 the finest type of modern machine. 
 
 proved and modified from time to 
 time, is still extensively used in the 
 United States. 
 
 Disston's Begin The 
 Manufacture Of Files 
 
 In the sharpening of saws, a 
 great many files are used. During 
 the War of the Rebellion, Henry 
 Disston & Son (this being the firm 
 name at the time), unable to obtain 
 files which would give satisfaction, 
 found it necessary to make files for 
 their own use. This becoming 
 known, it was not long before re- 
 quests were received from custom- 
 
 ers that they be supplied. The de- 
 mand increasing, it was decided to 
 enter the field of file-making, and 
 in 1866 a plant was equipped and 
 additional skilled workmen em- 
 ployed to turn out high-grade files. 
 As with his saws, Henry Disston 
 always wanted to turn out the best, 
 so he gave his attention to the pro- 
 duction of a file that would be su- 
 perior in quality, shape, and cut- 
 ting power of teeth. Although his 
 first files were made by hand, he 
 realized early the necessity of ma- 
 chines in the production of perfect 
 files. 
 
 As none of the machines so far 
 invented were considered exactly 
 perfect, the Disston Works carried 
 on extensive experiments for the 
 production of file-cutting machinery 
 that would be adequate to meet 
 every demand. Their efforts were 
 successful. In 1877, the Disston 
 Works started to make files by the 
 aid of their own machines. Con- 
 stant improvements were made 
 from year to year until today the 
 teeth of Disston files are cut upon 
 the most perfect file-cutting ma- 
 chines. 
 
 In 1866, the Sheffield Telegraph, 
 of Sheffield, England, held a con- 
 test to reach a final decision as to 
 whether machine or hand-cut files 
 were best. One side of each file 
 used was machine-cut, and the other 
 hand-cut. After exhaustive tests 
 the firms trying out these files with- 
 out a knowledge of which side was 
 which, decided in favor of the ma- 
 chine-cut files, which forever set- 
 tled a controversy that had been 
 waged for two centuries. 
 
 As has been shown in the fore- 
 going history of the file, many of 
 the present forms of the file were 
 substantially originated in the ear- 
 liest days of its history. These 
 have been modified and added to as 
 the knowledge of file manufacture 
 increased, and new and different 
 
 [26] 
 
The File In History 
 
 uses were discovered. There are 
 today a large variety of files being 
 made. These various forms will be 
 taken up in the later parts of this 
 article, but we will first consider 
 the making of the modern file. In 
 describing its manufacture the word 
 
 methods therefore, will give a clear 
 idea of the manufacture of the mod- 
 ern file. 
 
 There are, of course, quite a num- 
 ber of points upon which the high- 
 grade file depends for its superior- 
 ity. The principal ones are: 
 
 Fig. 26. Steel room, cutting to multiples or sections. 
 
 file is used in its broad sense as 
 applied to both files and rasps, irre- 
 spective of either size or form. 
 
 Disston Company Make 
 Greatest Variety Of Files 
 
 Although not the oldest manu- 
 facturers of files in this country, 
 the Disston File Works today is 
 well equipped, and turns out the 
 greatest variety of files made. A 
 general description of the Disston 
 
 Tough steel of a high grade suit- 
 able for the purpose. 
 
 Proper forging and annealing. 
 
 Sharp and well-formed teeth. 
 
 Thorough hardening. 
 
 Careful inspection at every stage 
 of the work. 
 
 The real basis of the file is the 
 steel. All manufacturers endeavor 
 to obtain the very finest steel pos- 
 sible for the purpose, but the qual- 
 ity of the steel is bound to vary 
 to some extent unless the manufac- 
 
 [27] 
 
The File In History 
 
 turer has some way of controlling 
 the output. Steel for making files 
 requires a high percentage of car- 
 bon to obtain the requisite hard- 
 ness. This carbon-content is apt 
 to vary unless the "mix" is carefully 
 regulated. 
 
 where the chemical and physical 
 tests of the steel are made. Con- 
 stant experiments with proper in- 
 gredients to maintain and enhance 
 its quality, are conducted in con- 
 nection with the steel works. 
 
 After the special steel has been 
 
 Fig. 27. Forging. 
 
 Make Their 
 Own Steel 
 
 Henry Disston & Sons began to 
 make crucible steel as early as 1855 
 so that when they took up the man- 
 ufacture of files they were in a 
 position to obtain steel of a high 
 and uniform quality. The Disston 
 Steel Works, which includes the 
 melting department, rolling mills, 
 steam hammer shop, and trimming 
 room, occupies several commodious 
 buildings. There are laboratories 
 
 carefully and properly melted, it is 
 poured into moulds. When the 
 steel is cool, the mould is removed 
 and the ingot which has been 
 formed is then turned over to the 
 rolling mill, where it is reheated 
 and rolled into large bars. These 
 bars are then cut into smaller 
 pieces, and the pieces are again 
 heated and run through different 
 size rolls, which reduce the diame- 
 ter, but increase the length. The 
 last roll through which the steel 
 passes reduces it to the particular 
 
 [28] 
 
The File In History 
 
 size and imparts the shape or form 
 desired, such as round, half-round, 
 flat, three-square, etc., each thick- 
 ness and shape being specially 
 rolled. 
 
 It may be of general interest to 
 learn that in rolling steel for a 14- 
 inch flat file, which is approximately 
 
 size and shape required for the file 
 and is then approximately 50 feet 
 in length. This long bar or rod of 
 steel is cut in ten or twelve-foot 
 lengths and sent to the file works, 
 where it is cut into multiples the 
 length of the file to be made. 
 The first step, then, in the actual 
 
 Pig. 28. The annealing ovens where the blanks are softened before cutting the teeth. 
 There are eighteen of these ovens in this same room. 
 
 1 7-16-inch wide by 2^-inch thick, 
 the bar, as referred to above, meas- 
 
 manufacture of the file is the cut- 
 ting of these long rods of steel into 
 
 Tang of a file. 
 
 . 
 
 Wiftii'tttttitiii - . *'iWjj&&SEtBSBSS 
 
 ures 4 inches by 4 inches, 24 inches 
 long. This is heated and rolled 
 through one roll after another con- 
 tinuously, until it is reduced to the 
 
 pieces or sections of the required 
 length. The pieces of steel thus 
 formed are termed file blanks. 
 The file blank is then "tanged." 
 
 [29] 
 
The File In History 
 
 The tang is the smooth, pointed end 
 on a file which may be fitted to a 
 handle when in use, although very 
 frequently the file is employed with- 
 out the handle. The tang, while 
 forming part of the file, is never 
 included when measuring the 
 length of a file. 
 
 a certain degree of heat. Forging 
 the tang requires a certain amount 
 of skill, but so expert are the men 
 who do the work and so quick 
 their actions, keeping time with the 
 rise and fall of the power-driven 
 hammer, that the tang is formed in 
 less time than it takes to describe it. 
 
 Fig. 30. Grinding file blanks. 
 
 Forging 
 The Tang 
 
 For the tanging operation the 
 blanks are taken to the forging 
 room where one end is heated and 
 forged or shaped into the tang. 
 The operator is seated before an 
 automatic hammer with a small 
 furnace close at hand, in which the 
 blanks are inserted and one end 
 heated, the temperature of the fur- 
 nace being uniformly maintained at 
 
 In the case of some of the shapes 
 of files, after the tang is formed, 
 the other end of the blank is heated 
 and forged to shape or rounded. 
 
 Before the blanks can be ground 
 and the teeth cut it is necessary to 
 soften the metal. This is called 
 annealing, and is the next step in 
 their manufacture. To do this the 
 blanks are put in air-tight metal 
 boxes, placed in an oven, and sub- 
 jected to a predetermined degree of 
 heat for a number of hours. When 
 
 [30] 
 
The File In History 
 
 taken out of this oven they must 
 remain in these boxes until cold. 
 Otherwise the whole annealing- 
 process would be useless, for the 
 files would become hard again if 
 allowed to cool in the open air. 
 
 These various heating and re- 
 heating operations through which 
 
 are "stripped." This operation 
 takes away the glaze left after 
 grinding and prepares the surface 
 for cutting. By a special process 
 the file blank is rubbed down, or 
 filed by a finished file especially 
 made for the purpose. This work 
 is done on a machine, but it is 
 
 Fig. 31. "Stripping" and "Cutting" small flies. 
 
 the file blank has passed cause it 
 to warp, or twist, and it is neces- 
 sary next to take them to the 
 straightening department, where 
 they are made level for the grinding 
 operation which follows. This 
 grinding operation is quite an im- 
 portant factor in the making of a 
 file, for the blank must be ground 
 to remove the scale and oxidizing 
 and made perfectly even, or else 
 when toothed the teeth will not be 
 uniform. 
 
 After being ground, the blanks 
 
 necessary for the operator in at- 
 tendance to rub on, constantly, a 
 preparation which renders the sur- 
 face of the blank even, flat, smooth 
 and firm. 
 
 Cutting 
 The Teeth 
 
 After the stripping process the 
 blanks go to the cutting room 
 where the teeth are cut in them. 
 This operation was formerly done 
 slowly and laboriously by hand, as 
 
 [31] 
 
The File In History 
 
 we have previously described. It 
 is now done entirely by machine 
 in the Disston Works, except for a 
 few classes of odd shapes of files 
 which must be cut by hand. Mod- 
 ern practice has demonstrated, how- 
 ever, that the hand-cut file cannot 
 possibly possess the same high em- 
 
 one side and the second cut, or 
 "upcut," is put on, the teeth run- 
 ning in an opposite direction. On 
 some machines the chisel is turned 
 instead of the bed. On page 26, 
 Fig. 16, is illustrated one of the 
 machines on which Disston files 
 are cut. This style of machine 
 
 Fig. 32. "Cutting" large files. 
 
 ciency that a machine-cut file does 
 for the reason that the machine will 
 do the work uniformly from the 
 beginning of the day to its close. 
 During the cutting operation the 
 blank is secured in a "bed" which 
 travels back and forth under a 
 chisel that "raises" the teeth at a 
 speed the eye can hardly follow. 
 When double-cut files are being 
 made the blank is put through the 
 machine and "overcut." Then the 
 position of the bed is shifted to 
 
 represents the highest development 
 in file-cutting machines, and is one 
 of the many reasons why Disston 
 files are so superior, both in the 
 efficiency and endurance of the 
 teeth. Aside from the machines 
 being differently constructed, the 
 main difference between cutting 
 files and rasps lies in the chisel 
 used. For files the chisel cuts an 
 angle all the way across the file at 
 one stroke, while the bed moves 
 steadily. In cutting rasps, however, 
 
 [32] 
 
The File In History 
 
 a pointed punch of peculiar form 
 is used. This punch travels back 
 and forth across the blank, the bed 
 moving only after each row of 
 teeth is completed. 
 
 In cutting half-round files the 
 chisel cuts the teeth in rows, length- 
 wise of the file blank instead of 
 
 After passing inspection the file 
 is "cropped" or cut to exact length. 
 This operation consists of cutting a 
 small portion off the point of the 
 file to bring it to proper length. 
 When "cropped" the file is stamped 
 with the famous Disston brand on 
 the end just above the tang. 
 
 Fig. 32. Where files are hardened. 
 
 straight across, the bed being 
 moved back and the position of 
 the blank changed as each row is 
 finished. 
 
 Disston Files 
 Rigidly Inspected 
 
 When the teeth have been cut the 
 files pass into the inspecting room 
 where a thorough examination is 
 made of the teeth. If these are not 
 absolutely perfect the file is re- 
 jected. 
 
 With the very small sizes of files 
 it is necessary to straighten them 
 after the teeth are cut. This is done 
 by placing the file on a lignum vitae 
 block and striking it a light blow 
 with a lead hammer, which will 
 straighten the file without affecting 
 the teeth. 
 
 The file is then covered with a 
 paste that protects the edges of 
 the teeth during the heating for the 
 hardening process, which is one of 
 the most important operations. The 
 coated file is heated by being im- 
 
 [33] 
 
The File In History 
 
 mersed in molten lead, withdrawn 
 and plunged deep in a bath, moved 
 back and forth a few times until 
 somewhat cooled. While the file 
 is still hot it is given a final 
 straightening. 
 
 from the file the paste that was put 
 on to protect the teeth during the 
 hardening. In the second, the files 
 are washed in lime water and are 
 dried by holding them in steam. 
 The next and last operation in 
 
 Fig. 34. Section of superfine file department. 
 
 Putting On 
 
 The Finishing Touches 
 
 From a comparatively soft state 
 the file has now become so hard 
 that an attempt to bend it will 
 cause it to break. Files are never 
 tempered, but hardened to a par- 
 ticular degree which gives greatest 
 durability. After this comes the 
 "scrubbing" and "drying." The 
 first of these operations removes 
 
 the making of a file before the final 
 inspection, is "blueing" the tangs, 
 and oiling the file. This "blueing" 
 operation toughens the tang 
 against breakage when putting on 
 the handle. It is done by heating 
 and dipping the tang into a prepa- 
 ration that is maintained at a cer- 
 tain degree of heat. 
 
 The files are then oiled, neatly 
 arranged in wooden trays, and sent 
 to the inspectors for final examina- 
 
 [34] 
 
The File In History 
 
 tion and test for straightness, cut- 
 ting qualities, and durability. 
 
 Successfully passing the exami- 
 nation, they are proved as to cutting 
 quality by the inspector drawing 
 the "prover" a piece of steel 
 90 degrees hard according to the 
 Brinell tests over each side of the 
 file; if the file "takes hold" of this 
 it is next given the "ring" test, the 
 inspector dropping one end of the 
 file on a block of steel and deter- 
 mining by the ring if it is sound 
 and true. The files are now ready 
 for the final step packing. 
 
 Making Hxira 
 Pine Piles 
 
 In the manufacture of superfine 
 files, of which Henry Disston & 
 Sons make a specialty, the majority 
 of the operations are similar to the 
 methods we have been describing. 
 Steel of the same quality is used. 
 It is cut into multiples in the usual 
 manner, followed by the "tanging," 
 "annealing," "straightening," and 
 "grinding" operations with which 
 the reader is now familiar. 
 
 The method of manufacture dif- 
 fers slightly after the grinding 
 operation. The superfine file blank 
 is put through a "shaping" process 
 which corresponds in effect to the 
 "stripping" operation in the case of 
 the larger files. 
 
 To do this the file blank is se- 
 cured in a vise, and the soft surface 
 (the blank not having been hard- 
 ened as yet) is smoothed down with 
 a finished file made especially for 
 the purpose. 
 
 As in the "stripping" operation 
 described for regular files, this 
 process is necessary to make the 
 surface of the blank smooth and 
 even before the cutting operation, 
 which follows. 
 
 Owing to the fineness of teeth 
 and the different shapes in which 
 the superfine files are made, the 
 "toothing" operations are also 
 somewhat different. 
 
 On files that are made for extra 
 fine work, such as those for jewel- 
 ers', dentists', and surgeons' use, 
 the teeth are "etched" in. This 
 method of toothing a superfine file 
 is done with an apparatus of very 
 peculiar construction. It differs 
 radically from the methods used 
 in cutting larger files, involving a 
 greater amount of hand work, but 
 this is necessary on account of the 
 fineness of the teeth. 
 
 In cutting the teeth of a half- 
 round superfine file it is necessary 
 to use two "beds." The file blank 
 when fitted in the "groove" of the 
 first "bed" is nearly on edge with 
 the flat side toward the operator. 
 The teeth' are then "raised" or cut 
 in narrow rows at an angle to the 
 line of the file blank, but only half 
 way around. Another "bed" is then 
 substituted. This also stands the 
 file blank nearly on edge, but with 
 the round side toward the opera- 
 tor. The teeth are cut toward the 
 center until they meet the last row 
 of teeth cut from the other side. To 
 shift the "bed" so that the chisel 
 can cut each row, a worm-gear, 
 adjusted by the operator is used. 
 
 In the case of a single-cut file 
 the cutting of the teeth would now 
 be finished, but in cutting double- 
 cut files the operation is gone over 
 again. This time the center of the 
 chisel is over the spot where two 
 rows of teeth connect. In this way 
 the chisel "upcuts" over half of 
 each row the "upcut" teeth run- 
 ning in an opposite direction to the 
 first teeth. 
 
 After the toothing operation, the 
 superfine files go through another 
 straightening process before the 
 hardening. This straightening is 
 also done with a lead hammer so 
 
 [35] 
 
The File In History 
 
 that the teeth will not be damaged low, is done in the same manner as 
 
 in any way. with larger files. 
 
 They are then taken to the hard- The files are then sent to the in- 
 
 ening room and hardened, which specting room where, before being 
 
 operation,. together with the packed, they are given the final 
 
 "straightening," "scrubbing," "dry- inspection and tests similar to those 
 
 ing," and tang "blueing" that fol- described for regular files. 
 
 [36] 
 
The File In History 
 
 PART III 
 
 FORMS AND USES OF FILES 
 
 THE foregoing closed the his- 
 tory of the file as well as the 
 details of its making. To 
 make this article more com- 
 plete, however, it will be extended 
 to embrace a general description of 
 
 or form of teeth. Many files of 
 different shapes have teeth of simi- 
 lar form, as there are only a cer- 
 tain number of standard forms of 
 "cut." For this reason the varia- 
 tions in the "cut" or form of teeth 
 
 SINGLE CUT 
 
 Particularly adapted for saw filing, also used on lathe work by machinists and 
 by SQine classes of wood workers, carriage builders, etc. 
 
 Rough 
 
 Middle 
 
 Bet. bastard & middle 
 
 Bastard 
 
 Second-cut. 
 
 Smooth 
 
 Fig. 35. These "cuts" are in general use for 12-inch files. On files longer than 12 
 inches the "cut" is made proportionately coarser and finer on shorter lengths. 
 
 the forms and uses of the modern 
 file; for so widespread is the use of 
 this tool so interwoven with the 
 industries of the world that it has 
 become indispensable. 
 
 Files, according to the purposes 
 for which they are intended, differ 
 in shape and thickness, and in "cut" 
 
 will be considered first. With a 
 thorough understanding of this, 
 later references will be much 
 clearer. 
 
 In the first place, the term "cut" 
 refers to two characteristics of the 
 teeth and is a general term that 
 must be supplemented with a more 
 
 [37] 
 
The File In History 
 
 DOUBLE CUT 
 
 Fig. 36. Especially adapted for use in machine shops, locomotive works, 
 foundries and similar classes of, work. 
 
 Rough 
 
 Middle 
 
 Bastard 
 
 Second-cut 
 
 Dead smooth 
 
 Smooth 
 RASP CUT 
 
 Fig. 37. Used by blacksmiths, horseshoers, plumbers, cabinet makers, 
 wood workers, etc. 
 
 Horse 
 
 Rough 
 
 Middle 
 
 Bastard 
 
 Second-cut 
 [38] 
 
 Smooth 
 
The File In History 
 
 definite designation when an exact 
 description of the file is intended. 
 The kind or character of the teeth 
 in a file, as well as the degree of 
 coarseness or fineness, are both 
 embraced in the general term "cut," 
 but each of these characteristics has 
 its separate classification. The 
 character of the teeth is described 
 under three main divisions, viz.: 
 single cut, double cut, and rasp 
 cut. 
 
 The single cut file has one un- 
 broken course of teeth or chisel 
 cuts across its surface, parallel to 
 each other, but usually at an ob- 
 lique angle to the length of the file. 
 Chisel-like, it makes a smooth cut. 
 A few patterns of files, however, 
 have the teeth cut square across the 
 face of the file and more widely 
 spaced. This is called the float 
 cut and is used for filing lead, 
 babbitt, or other soft metals, and 
 also for cork and wood. The wide 
 space between the teeth is neces- 
 sary that the file may free itself of 
 the cuttings, which in a finer cut 
 file would fill up and clog the teeth. 
 
 The single cut is used on the 
 majority of mill files, taper saw 
 and other saw files. 
 
 The double cut file has two 
 courses of chisel cuts crossing each 
 other, both oblique across the file 
 blank. The first course is called 
 the "over-cut" and the second 
 course the "up-cut." Its direction 
 being across the first course, the 
 chisel cuts through the over-cut. 
 Consequently the teeth of double 
 cut files are "points," and those of 
 single cut files are chisels. The 
 double cut is used on all machinists' 
 files, such as flat, hand, square, 
 round, half-round, etc., with the ex- 
 ceptions of the round bastard files 
 10 inches and under in length, and 
 second cut and smooth files 16 
 inches and under in length which 
 may be single cut. 
 
 Rasp cut differs from both the 
 
 above in that the teeth are not 
 placed in parallel rows across the 
 file, but are staggered, each tooth 
 being put in separately by a pointed 
 tool or punch. While cutting uni- 
 formly, rasp teeth, because they are 
 larger and raised higher, cut much 
 faster than either single or double 
 cut teeth. 
 
 The illustrations of "cuts" on the 
 preceding pages are engraved from 
 files and rasps 12 inches long; if 
 longer than 12 inches the cuts will 
 be coarser, and if shorter, they will 
 be finer in proportion. 
 
 Varying Degrees 
 Of Coarseness 
 
 The degree of coarseness is de- 
 noted . by the names bastard, sec- 
 ond-cut, and smooth. In. addition 
 to these there are coarser cuts 
 known as rough and coarse; also 
 a finer cut identified as dead 
 smooth. 
 
 The name bastard as applied to 
 the cut of a file comes from the 
 days when files were entirely cut 
 by hand and it is supposed to have 
 been given to a cut between what 
 was termed rough cut and the 
 finer grades of cutting, and the file 
 became a standard, taking the place 
 of rough oj coarse cuts and has 
 been known since then as the bas- 
 tard cut. The same is the case 
 in the names of flat bastard and 
 hand bastard files; while both are 
 the same as to cut, they vary a little 
 in shape and both are often used 
 for the same purpose. 
 
 The various groups or classes 
 of files have certain accepted stand- 
 ards for the cuts to be used. Ref- 
 erence to the explanation above of 
 the single and double cuts as well 
 as to the illustrations will afford 
 a fairly complete index to these. 
 It is well to bear in mind that a 
 "rough-cut" or coarse file has the 
 least number of teeth to the inch, 
 
 [39] 
 
The File In History 
 
 while the "smooth-cut" or fine file 
 has the greatest. 
 
 Exceptions to the standard 
 forms and cuts of files are some- 
 times found in the various trades. 
 To meet certain conditions peculiar 
 to a business special forms and cuts 
 are sometimes necessary. 
 
 saw works and handle department 
 and machine shops they are in an 
 exceptionally favorable position to 
 judge the results- obtained from all 
 classes of teeth. The standards 
 which they have adopted, therefore, 
 may be taken as the final word re- 
 garding the shape and number of 
 
 PRINCIPAL FORMS OF FILES 
 
 Half-round 
 
 Cant or lightning 
 
 Mill 
 
 Flat 
 
 Pillar 
 
 Great American Horse rasp Shoe rasp 
 
 Fig. 38. The above are actual-size sections of different types of flies of the 
 length given on each section. The illustrations of files following, however, are con- 
 siderably reduced in size, but show comparative shape. 
 
 In this connection it is well to 
 state that while there are accepted 
 standards for the character of the 
 teeth, there is no established rule 
 fixing any certain number of teeth 
 to the inch for any particular cut. 
 Consequently there is more or less 
 of a variation in the number of 
 teeth cut to the inch by different 
 manufacturers. Owing to the very 
 large quantity of files used in the 
 shops of Henry Disston & Sons 
 over 35,000 dozen annually in their 
 
 teeth to the inch necessary to ob- 
 tain the highest efficiency from a 
 file. 
 
 Varieties 
 Of Files 
 
 Having explained as clearly as 
 possible in the foregoing, the differ- 
 ences in the teeth of files, we will 
 now take up the varieties of files, 
 together with some of their uses. 
 
 [40] 
 
The File In History 
 
 Mill file 
 
 Mill file with Blunt 
 
 one round edge mill file 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 Narrow point 
 mill file 
 
 Modern files, though employed 
 chiefly in the forming and finishing 
 of metals and wood, are also used 
 to a considerable extent upon other 
 substances, such as bone, leather, 
 celluloid, hard rubber, etc. The 
 general use of files is in shaping 
 
 small pieces, or in finishing sur- 
 faces which are already of approxi- 
 mately correct form. In machine 
 shop practice the use of the file fol- 
 lows the work of the lathe or planer 
 tools. 
 
 Files are graded by shape, size, 
 
 [41] 
 
The FUe In History 
 
 and fineness of cut, and the forms 
 given to them, as well as the sizes, 
 run into many hundreds. Of all 
 
 Double tang Chisel tooth Pit saw Cant 
 mill file file file file 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 tools known there are none used 
 for so many purposes and of so 
 many styles as files. There are 
 
 .;..-;.-;: :. , .;./ 
 
 several hundred types of regular 
 files and several thousands of regu- 
 lar and special combined, all of 
 which are designated by a name 
 according to the length, shape, and 
 grade of the cut; besides the hun- 
 dreds of special names for the pur- 
 poses for which the}' are made and 
 used. 
 
 The sizes range from the fine, 
 wire-like jewelers' file to the large, 
 heavy machinists' file from the 
 tiny superfine broach file, 3 inches 
 long, and less than 1-32 of an inch 
 in diameter, which weighs only .008 
 of an ounce, 1800 to the pound, to 
 great circular facing files which 
 weigh 135 pounds each. 
 
 In the character of their teeth 
 they vary even more greatly, from 
 the deep, coarse rasp-cut files used 
 by farriers to the dead-smooth sur- 
 faces of the delicate little imple- 
 ments employed by jewelers. Files 
 are classified as to coarseness and 
 fineness principally by the "cuts" 
 described on pages 37 and 38, and 
 upon these are based the variations 
 which are required by the class of 
 work to be performed. 
 
 On page 40 are shown sections 
 of some of the files in general use. 
 These basic forms, with slight de- 
 viations, control the forms of the 
 principal files now manufactured. 
 Reference to these sectional views 
 and the "cut" illustrations will be 
 of considerable aid in following the 
 descriptions of files that are to fol- 
 low. 
 
 Under the general heading of files 
 are found four groups, viz.: regular 
 files, rasps, superfine files, and 
 special files. These four groups 
 in turn resolve themselves into 
 other divisions which embrace $ a 
 great variety of files. fo 
 
 In picturing and describing th 
 different files, the group of regui 
 files will be taken up first. 
 
 There are two divisions of regu- 
 
 [42] 
 
The File In History 
 
 lar files saw files and machinists' 
 files. 
 
 As the name implies, saw files 
 are particularly adapted for sharp- 
 ening saws and also for work simi- 
 lar to filing the edge of plates or 
 sheets, for which the double-cut 
 files are not suited. They are sin- 
 gle-cut and in degree are usually 
 b a s t a r d-c u t, second-cut, and 
 smooth-cut. 
 
 The class of work performed in 
 machine shops necessitates a differ- 
 ent character of "cut" from the 
 above hence machinists' files are 
 usually double-cut and in degree 
 rough-cut, bastard-cut, second-cut 
 and smooth-cut. 
 
 The repetition above of the word 
 "usually" may appear peculiar, but 
 it is used advisedly, for it may 
 truly be said that in no other line of 
 manufacture are there so many 
 variations from regular as in the 
 file business. 
 
 Of the class of saw files the one 
 having the widest range of shapes, 
 sizes, and cuts, is the mill file. 
 
 Mill files derive their name from 
 the fact that they are used prin- 
 cipally for filing mill saws and for 
 sharpening planer knives. They are 
 also used, however, for sharpening 
 mowing and reaping machine 
 knives, as well as for certain kinds 
 of work by mechanics, such as 
 lathe work, draw-filing, etc. They 
 are used, too, for finishing combina- 
 tions of bronze and brass. Having 
 chisel teeth they leave a compara- 
 tively smooth surface, which 
 double-cut teeth do not, though 
 double-cut teeth cut faster. All mill 
 files are single-cut. 
 
 Mill files are forged tapering 
 from near center to point. This 
 applies to both width and thick- 
 ness, as they are slightly thinner 
 and narrower at the point. 
 
 Mill files are also made with one 
 and two round edges, single-cut 
 
 both on the sides and edges. The 
 round edges make the mill file 
 more adaptable for filing the teeth 
 in circular and other mill saws. The 
 use of the round edge prevents the 
 formation of sharp corners or 
 notches in the gullets between the 
 saw teeth. 
 
 Blunt mill files are parallel in 
 both width and thickness. This 
 gives the full width of the surface 
 for the entire length of the file. 
 Otherwise they are the same as 
 those just described. These are 
 rarely used by millmen, but are 
 mostly in demand for machine shop 
 work. 
 
 The narrow point mill file is 
 another variation of the mill file. 
 There is no particular advantage in 
 the extra narrow point, it being 
 simply a .matter of preference. 
 Very few narrow point mill files 
 are sold in the United States. The 
 majority of those manufactured go 
 to Canada. 
 
 There is also a special mill file 
 having what is called a fine bas- 
 tard cut. This is a cut between 
 the bastard and the second-cut, 
 and is used by many who prefer a 
 file that will meet certain require- 
 ments in saw filing which a bas- 
 tard or second-cut file will not. 
 
 The double tang mill file is 
 meant for use with two handles. A 
 man can then grasp it conveniently 
 with both hands. It is used chiefly 
 for draw filing. 
 
 A saw file which departs some- 
 what from the standard form is the 
 chisel point file. This is made 
 especially for use in sharpening the 
 points of inserted tooth circular 
 saws. 
 
 The pit saw file is used for filing 
 the teeth in pit saws and frame 
 saws. When used for the latter 
 purpose it is sometimes asked for 
 under the name of frame saw file. 
 
 The cant or lightning file is 
 frequently used for sharpening the 
 
 [43] 
 
The File In History 
 
 teeth of wood saws, or, as more 
 commonly known, buck saws. Its 
 principal use, however, is to 
 sharpen the teeth of cross-cut saws 
 having M-shaped teeth, and to 
 sharpen the raker teeth of cross-cut 
 saws. 
 
 Necessity For 
 Special Files 
 
 Great Stave Field's 
 
 American saw pattern 
 
 cross-cut file stave saw 
 
 "saw file file 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 Round 
 file 
 
 [44] 
 
 A very strong example of how it 
 is necessary to make special files 
 for special purposes is furnished by 
 the Great American cross-cut saw 
 file. 
 
 In this case, as well as in many 
 others, almost any file could be 
 used with a certain degree of suc- 
 cess. This, and numerous other 
 special files, however, have proved 
 by long and extensive use that no 
 other file can completely answer the 
 purpose for which a special file is 
 intended. 
 
 The popular cross-cut saw known 
 as the "Great American" was origi- 
 nated, and the name trade-marked, 
 by Disston. The special form of 
 the teeth on this saw necessitated 
 a file being made to suit them. 
 This was done and it was also 
 trade-marked "Great American." 
 
 By referring to the diagram of 
 the teeth of a "Great American" 
 cross-cut saw on page 45 it will 
 be seen why this special form of 
 file is necessary. When the file is 
 in the spaces marked A, while fil- 
 ing the bevel on the teeth, it will be 
 seen that only a wedge-shaped file 
 like the "Great American" could be 
 used to advantage. On the other 
 hand, for filing the gullets marked 
 B, a specially formed broad and 
 rounded edge is necessary on the 
 file. 
 
The File In History 
 
 This detailed explanation, while 
 applying, in this instance, to one 
 particular file, affords an insight 
 into the causes which have made 
 necessary so many varieties of files. 
 
 The stave saw file is somewhat 
 similar to the mill file with two 
 round edges. It is formed on 
 slightly different lines, however, to 
 make it suitable for the purpose for 
 which it is intended filing the teeth 
 on cylinder s'aws. A special stave 
 saw file of peculiar form is that 
 known as field's pattern. This 
 somewhat follows the lines of a 
 three-square file, except that one 
 edge is broad and rounded. 
 
 Round files are made for vari- 
 ous purposes, such as enlarging 
 holes, etc. These are generally 
 tapered, but sometimes they are 
 made parallel or of uniform diame- 
 ter from heel to point. The latter 
 are called round blunt files. A 
 round blunt file for mill use is 
 the round gulleting file. Owing 
 to the tapering form of the round 
 files, they are frequently referred 
 to as rat-tail files. 
 
 Another gulleting file is known as 
 the square gulleting file. This is 
 blunt, square in form, and single- 
 cut on four faces. 
 
 The topping file is a file similar 
 to the mill file, but of heavier 
 stock. 
 
 There are several files especially 
 made for band saw use. These are 
 along the lines of the taper file, 
 and, in fact, taper files, regular 
 and slim, for band saw use are reg- 
 ularly made. About the only differ- 
 ence between these and the regular 
 taper saw files is that they have 
 the corners or edges more rounded 
 and have three rows of cuts. The 
 "cut" is the same as given the reg- 
 ular taper file. Band saw files 
 
 include the blunt and machine 
 band saw files. The machine file 
 fits in a band saw filing machine 
 which sharpens the teeth automati- 
 cally. These machine files are 
 usually about four and one-half 
 inches in length and are made both 
 heavy and light as shown in the 
 illustration (page 47). 
 
 Files For 
 Small Saws 
 
 This completes the list of single- 
 cut files adapted to mill require- 
 ments. Single-cut saw files in- 
 tended for hand saws and other 
 small saws will now be taken up. 
 Heading the list of these are the 
 taper saw files. Taper files are 
 three-cornered files, similar to the 
 three square files, but usually 
 smaller in length. The principal 
 difference between them is the fin- 
 ishing of the edges. Taper files 
 have the edges slightly rounded, 
 to leave a round bottom in the gul- 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 let of the tooth, and these edges 
 are cut as well as the sides. The 
 three-square file, which is always 
 double-cut, on the other hand, has 
 the edges left quite sharp, and un- 
 cut. The taper saw file is usually 
 single-cut and is used generally for 
 sharpening hand saws. For this 
 
 [45] 
 
The File In History 
 
 reason there is probably no other 
 file so widely used, or so well 
 known. 
 
 Taper files are divided into three 
 classes: the regular taper file, the 
 slim taper file, the extra slim taper 
 file, and some are made extra extra 
 slim. The slim taper files are of 
 the same general shape as the regu- 
 lar taper file, but are made of a 
 narrower section of steel for the 
 same length. They are preferred 
 by many on account of the greater 
 sweep or stroke obtained from the 
 same thickness of file. The slim 
 taper file is particularly adapted for 
 filing fine tooth saws. 
 
 The extra slim and extra extra 
 slim taper are files similar to the 
 slim taper files, but are made of 
 narrower stock and are adapted for 
 filing the very fine toothed saws. 
 
 A variation of the taper file is 
 the reversible taper saw file. These 
 files are forged tapering from the 
 center toward both ends and are 
 single-cut in the same way. This 
 gives the advantage of two files in 
 one. 
 
 Still another variation is the 
 blunt saw file. This is triangular 
 in form, but parallel in thickness 
 instead of tapering to a point. It 
 is "cut" similar to a taper file. 
 
 The Little Wonder saw file (il- 
 lustration page 48) is preferred by 
 some mechanics for filing hand and 
 other saws on account of its special 
 shape and the thumb rest on the 
 end. 
 
 Hunt's chrome special three- 
 square file is particularly adapted 
 Slim French Stubbs' Perfection for filing fine tooth hand saws, 
 taper tile taper pattern shear tooth 
 
 cut to tile double cut file A *u i i r j 
 
 point saw gig Another special saw file formed 
 
 Fig. 43. along the lines of the cant or 
 
 [46] 
 
The File In History 
 
 Round Square 
 
 blunt gulleting 
 file file 
 
 Topping Blunt band Machine Machine 
 
 saw file saw file band saw band saw 
 
 file, light file, heavy 
 Fig. 44. 
 
The File In History 
 
 Slim Extra slim Reversible 6-inch cant Little Blunt 
 
 taper taper taper saw safe back Wonder saw tile 
 
 saw file saw file file file saw file 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 [48] 
 
The File In History 
 
 lightning is the cant safe back 
 file. This is similar in shape, an 
 irregular triangle, but is cut only 
 on the broad side, the other two 
 sides being "safe" or uncut. This 
 file is particularly adapted for filing 
 the Disston No. 120 Acme Hand- 
 saw, which is specially ground and 
 toothed to run without set. 
 
 The climax file is another file 
 especially made for its purpose 
 that of filing wood saw blades and 
 similar blades. 
 
 The two last mentioned files are 
 of special form, and, by their use, 
 the original shape of the saw teeth 
 will be retained. 
 
 Before closing this description of 
 single-cut saw files it may be well to 
 call attention to two taper files 
 which vary slightly from the usual 
 forms. These are made principally 
 for export, as there is no great de- 
 mand for them in this country. 
 
 One of these is a taper file cut 
 to the point. That is, the "cut" is 
 carried to the extreme end, or point, 
 of the file, instead of leaving a 
 small portion of the point blank. 
 This difference can be seen by com- 
 paring the illustrations on page 46 
 with those of regular tapers. 
 
 The other is the French taper 
 file which is similar to the regular 
 file in all respects save that the sec- 
 tion of steel from which it is made 
 is much heavier. 
 
 Double Cut 
 Saw Files 
 
 In taking up double-cut files 
 under the division of saw files it is 
 to be noted that many of the forms 
 
 of files which are generally single- 
 cut, and were described under that 
 heading, can also be obtained as 
 double-cut files. Mill files and 
 taper saw files are typical of this; 
 also, in a limited way, cant and pit 
 saw files. While the double-cut 
 files cut faster, the single-cut make 
 a much smoother cut. 
 
 One of the exceptions to the rule 
 that saw .files are single-cut is the 
 Stubbs' pattern taper saw file. 
 This file is double-cut down to the 
 point and is principally used for fil- 
 ing saws that are harder than usual, 
 such as hack saw blades. The most 
 noticeable difference in the Stubbs' 
 pattern file is found in the tang and 
 the short taper to point. Instead of 
 having a shoulder where the body 
 of the file usually drops sharply 
 to the small diameter of the tang, 
 the tang gradually tapers off with 
 the three edges carried all the way 
 to the point. 
 
 As practically all saw files are 
 single-cut this description of 
 double-cut saw files completes the 
 list of this class of file, except those 
 used on metal-cutting saws. Files 
 of this nature, however, require a 
 superfine tooth. 
 
 The next sub-division to be con- 
 sidered under the heading of regu- 
 lar files is machinists' files. These, 
 like the saw files, are also divided 
 into single and double-cut, but the 
 majority are double-cut, just as sin- 
 gle-cut predominates in the saw 
 files. This is because the greater 
 part of machine shop work requires 
 fast, heavy cutting, which is only 
 obtainable from a double-cut file. 
 The exception is in the mill file, 
 which is single-cut, and is used for 
 lathe work, draw filing, and finish- 
 ing. 
 
 [49] 
 
The File In History 
 
 The special single-cut file to be 
 mentioned under this heading, how- 
 ever, is somewhat of an exception 
 to this statement. This file is called 
 the Perfection shear tooth file. In 
 form, it is usually like the narrow 
 point mill file, while its teeth are 
 much coarser and farther apart than 
 in the ordinary file. These teeth 
 vary in size according to require- 
 ments, and are known as coarse, 
 medium, or fine cut. (Illustration 
 page 46.) 
 
 The shear tooth file is adapted 
 for quick work on metal, such as 
 soft steel, iron and brass castings, 
 as well as wood and marble. It is 
 especially valuable to machinists 
 and for lathe purposes. In action 
 it makes a shear cut, filing rapidly 
 and giving clean, smooth results. 
 
 This style of tooth can be given 
 almost any shape of file when 
 ordered. 
 
 Taper Hunt's 
 
 saw file chrome 
 
 three- 
 square 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 Climax 
 file 
 
 Quite a long list of files are found 
 under the double-cut heading for 
 machine shop use. The leading 
 files for this work are hand, flat, 
 half-round, and square for bench 
 work, and the mill file for lathe 
 work, as referred to before. These 
 and the other files following are 
 usually made in "cuts" bastard, 
 second cut, and smooth. 
 
 Hand files are not so named be- 
 cause they are made or used by 
 hand. The name is merely a tech- 
 nical one, designating a particular 
 style of file. They are parallel in 
 width, and from about two-thirds 
 of the length taper thinner to the 
 point, and are made with one edge 
 "safe" or uncut. These files are 
 used chiefly by machinists and en- 
 gineers for finishing flat surfaces. 
 
 Flat files are tapered both in 
 width and thickness, and are gen- 
 
 [50] 
 
The File In History 
 
 Flat file 
 
 Half-round 
 file 
 
 Hand file 
 
 New angle 
 or lathe 
 cut file 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 Square 
 file 
 
 Knife 
 file 
 
 [51] 
 
The File In History 
 
 erally double-cut on both sides and 
 single-cut on both edges. They 
 are sometimes made blunt in form 
 
 Feather 
 edge file 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 Three- 
 square file 
 
 (parallel both in width and thick- 
 ness), and can also be obtained with 
 one or two round edges if required. 
 Flat files are made in various de- 
 grees of "cut" rough, middle, bas- 
 tard, second cut, smooth, dead 
 smooth, double dead smooth. 
 
 In addition to their being largely 
 used in machine shops, flat files are 
 in great demand by mechanics in 
 nearly all lines of work. 
 
 The half-round file, which di- 
 vides machine shop honors with the 
 hand and flat file, is, as its name 
 implies, half-round in form and 
 tapers to the point from about two- 
 thirds of its length. This shape 
 makes it a most useful file for gen- 
 eral machine shop work. While 
 usually tapered, the half-round file 
 can also be obtained as a blunt file. 
 
 Round files, already referred to 
 on page 45, are also largely em- 
 ployed in machine shops. They are 
 chiefly used for enlarging holes. 
 The round file in blunt form is 
 used on the heavier class of work. 
 
 There is another special cut file, 
 the hand bastard for brass, the 
 first course of teeth being straight 
 across and the up-cut more oblique 
 than on most files. 
 
 Resembling the hand files in 
 shape is the new angle, or lathe 
 cut file. On this file the first, or 
 "over-cut," is almost straight 
 across, instead of at an angle, while 
 the second, or "up-cut," is placed at 
 a much greater angle than is usual. 
 The result of this is to get a much 
 larger cutting surface on the file 
 at one time, making it fast cutting 
 and fine finishing. This file is much 
 in demand for lathe work. 
 
 Square files are used by nearly 
 all classes of mechanics for filing 
 apertures or dressing out square 
 
 [52] 
 
The File In History 
 
 Equaling 
 file 
 
 Pillar 
 file 
 
 Plotting 
 
 file, 
 
 bellied, 
 
 rough 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 Slotting 
 
 file, 
 smooth 
 
 cut 
 
 Taper 
 
 cotter 
 
 file 
 
 [53] 
 
The File In History 
 
 Arch 
 file 
 
 Warding 
 file 
 
 Planer 
 knife 
 file 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 Oval 
 
 tumbler 
 
 file 
 
 Cross 
 file 
 
 [54] 
 
The File In History 
 
 Lock 
 file 
 
 Half 
 round 
 
 file 
 for solder 
 
 Hand 
 bastard 
 
 file 
 
 for brass 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 Flat 
 
 aluminum 
 file 
 
 Half 
 
 round 
 
 aluminum 
 
 file 
 
 [55] 
 
The File In History 
 
 corners. While they are regularly 
 made slightly tapering on the 
 point, they are also obtainable in 
 the blunt (parallel) form. 
 
 The knife files are forged taper- 
 ing and are quite similar in shape to 
 the blade of a pocket knife. They 
 are made in lengths from four to 
 fourteen inches, but can be made 
 in all sizes. They are usually 
 double-cut on both sides and the 
 upper edge left safe or uncut, the 
 thin edge single-cut. Knife files 
 are mainly used on metal and for 
 special forms for which the shape 
 is particularly adapted, such as die 
 work, etc., having acute angles. 
 
 For purposes somewhat similar 
 to the above the feather edge file 
 is used. This file is parallel in 
 length, it's thickest part is in the 
 center, tapering to a thin edge at 
 each side. It is used for truing up 
 V-shaped grooves, filing special 
 shaped teeth in saws, slots, etc. 
 
 The Three 
 Square File 
 
 The three-square file, which has 
 been referred to on several occa- 
 sions, is a three-sided file formed 
 along the same lines as the taper 
 saw file. Its form, in fact, is the 
 basis for the taper saw file. 
 
 The three-square file is tapered, 
 the teeth are cut all the way to the 
 point, and it is always double-cut 
 on all three sides. The edges are 
 uncut and left very sharp. It is a 
 popular and much used file in the 
 machine shop, but is employed 
 chiefly in cleaning out sharp angles 
 and square corners, and filing cut- 
 ters, taps, etc. While resembling 
 the taper saw file so closely that 
 a person not familiar with files 
 might mistake one for the other, 
 they are entirely useless as saw 
 
 files. The three-square file is 
 sometimes made in the blunt form. 
 
 The equaling file is used in ma- 
 chine shop work. It is somewhat 
 thinner than the hand file, is paral- 
 lel in length and thickness and is 
 cut on both sides and edges. It is 
 usually ordered of a size suitable 
 for the work intended similar to 
 truing up slots and sometimes re- 
 quired with both edges "safe" or 
 uncut. While used for the same 
 purpose as a slotting file, they are 
 considerably wider, regularly made 
 four to twelve inches in length, 
 whereas the slotting file ranges 
 from ten to eighteen inches in 
 length. They are mostly made 
 with "cuts" bastard, second cut, 
 and smooth. 
 
 The pillar file is one much like 
 the hand file in section, but nar- 
 rower. It is cut on both sides and 
 one edge, the other being safe or 
 uncut. Reference to th sections, or 
 forms, of files on page 40 will ex- 
 plain the difference much more 
 clearly than it could be written. 
 While tapered, the taper is very 
 slight, and only for a short space 
 toward and on the point. It is used 
 in machine shops on narrow work 
 such as slotting, or cutting grooves 
 for cotters, and keys or wedges. 
 
 There are two other files made 
 for this work. First, slotting files, 
 one type of which is made blunt or 
 parallel in width and thickness, and 
 the other slightly bellied; that is, 
 with a curvature which runs from 
 the point to the tang. They are 
 made from ten to eighteen inches 
 long, cut on both sides and one 
 edge, the other left safe. Second, 
 taper cotter files, narrow flat files 
 which taper to points and are cut 
 on the sides and edges. 
 
 The arch file is of peculiar 
 shape, being thickest at the center, 
 
The File In History 
 
 tapering thinner to heel and to 
 point (see page 54). It is widest at 
 the center, slightly rounding to a 
 narrow point and heel, and is cut on 
 both sides and edges. Though some- 
 times square, the edges are usually 
 
 for locks. It can also be used for 
 making a round hole into an oval 
 shape. 
 
 The cross file, sometimes called 
 the "shadbelly," is a file which is 
 
 Fig. 52 Block or valve file. 
 
 rounded. It is used on work in ma- 
 chine shops where this curvature is 
 desirable. 
 
 The warding file is a very thin 
 file from four to fourteen inches in 
 length, and is used in slotting work 
 by both jewelers and machinists, 
 but especially by locksmiths for 
 putting the slots or ward notches 
 in keys. 
 
 Files For 
 Special Work 
 
 A sort of connecting link between 
 single and double-cut files is the 
 planer knife file. While it is 
 sometimes made double-cut on 
 both sides, in its regular form each 
 side is half single-cut and half 
 double-cut. This file is for sharp- 
 ening planer knife blades while on 
 the machine. This is a quicker and 
 easier job than taking the blades out 
 and grinding them. 
 
 A file of somewhat peculiar form 
 is the oval tumbler. This is used 
 principally for filing the tumblers 
 
 sometimes used in place of the 
 half-round file, on the same sort 
 of work. In this file both sides are 
 rounded out, but one side, which 
 resembles the half-round file, is 
 higher than the other. This gives 
 a varying curvature on the same 
 file. 
 
 The lock file is special in form, 
 which will be understood better by 
 referring to the illustration on page 
 55, than through any printed de- 
 scription. The lock file is used 
 for slotting work, mainly in connec- 
 tion with the making of locks and 
 key work. 
 
 For the filing of brass and other 
 similar metals, owing to the soft 
 nature of the material, it is neces- 
 sary to use files with teeth of spe- 
 cial open or coarse cut. Otherwise 
 the filings will be retained between 
 the teeth, quickly clogging up the 
 file and causing it to ride over the 
 work without cutting. 
 
 The "hand bastard for brass" is 
 specially made for the purpose. It 
 
 [57] 
 
The File In History 
 
 has deep teeth, is a fast cutter and 
 practically a self-cleaner. The 
 "over-cut" is on a longer angle than 
 usual, while the up-cut is almost 
 straight across. This special angle 
 cut can be furnished on any shape 
 file desired. 
 
 A special open cut is given the 
 "half-round file for solder," a file 
 for soft metals, and experience has 
 demonstrated this to be the best for 
 the purpose. 
 
 Coming under this class also, and 
 previously referred to, is the Per- 
 fection shear tooth file, which is 
 adapted for quick work on soft 
 steel, iron, brass castings, wood, 
 marble, etc. This extra wide cut 
 can be made on all shapes of files. 
 
 A special file for machine shop and 
 foundry use is the aluminum file, 
 designed particularly for filing 
 aluminum patterns. This comes in 
 both the flat and half-round forms. 
 
 This completes the list of files 
 in general use for the heavier work 
 in machine shops. 
 
 many additional pages. For in- 
 stance, there is the triple valve 
 file, for filing sliding valve seats. 
 This file is tanged on one end. The 
 
 Special Shape 
 Piles 
 
 Of course, there is quite a variety 
 of other shapes of files used by 
 machinists and machinery builders, 
 to describe which would require 
 
 [mill 
 
 Fig. 53. "Cut" used for filing handles. 
 
 Flat wood 
 file 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 Cabinet 
 file 
 
 [58] 
 
The File In History 
 
 Fig. 55. Kleen-spark tool. 
 
 
 Fig. 56. Midget magneto file. 
 
 3 OISSTON 
 
 DiSSTON 22 
 
 Fig. 57. Manicure files. 
 
 Fig. 58. Flexible milled shear tooth file. 
 [59] 
 
The File In History 
 
 Flat wood 
 rasp 
 
 Half round 
 
 wood 
 
 rasp 
 
 Round 
 
 wood 
 
 rasp 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 ouud 
 cabinet^ 
 ; rasp 
 
 . Saddle tree 
 rasp 
 
 [60] 
 
The File In History 
 
 other end is forged with a shank, 
 measuring over all 14J/2 inches. It 
 has a square body, and is made in 
 sizes ranging from 34/64-inch to 
 1J4 inches, with a cutting surface 7 
 inches long. It is cut on two sides ; 
 the other two are safe or uncut. 
 The blank is machined for the rea- 
 son that files for this character of 
 work must be absolutely true. 
 
 Another style is the valve file, 
 an oblong block of steel, 4 inches 
 long, l l / 2 inches thick, with counter- 
 sunk screwholes for fastening on a 
 handle with screws. 
 
 Separate and distinct from metal- 
 cutting files are those adapted for 
 filing wood, but the latter do not 
 comprise anywhere near the variety 
 of sizes, shapes, or "cuts" as the 
 former. The teeth in files for wood 
 are widely spaced, but are not as 
 coarse as those for filing soft metal. 
 
 Files for Woodworking. 
 
 In woodworking there are three 
 shapes of files principally used, the 
 flat, half-round, and the cabinet. 
 
 The flat wood file is formed 
 on practically the same size blank 
 as the flat file for metal, but naturally, 
 owing to the softer nature and 
 fibrous character of wood, the teeth 
 for these files are larger and more 
 widely separated. It is double-cut 
 on the sides and single-cut on the 
 edges. This file is mainly used for 
 finishing after the rasp has done 
 the preliminary work. 
 
 The half-round wood file is the 
 same as a regular half-round file, 
 except for a difference in the "cut." 
 
 Excepting that it is somewhat 
 wider and thinner, the cabinet file 
 is similar to the half-round, with 
 slightly finer teeth. 
 
 Worthy of special mention in the 
 group of woodworking files is the 14- 
 
 inch half-round saw handle file, 
 with special cut. 
 
 This particular style of file was 
 used by some of the older men when 
 in England, where they learned their 
 trade. When these men came to this 
 country, they brought this file with 
 them. It has been used in the Disston 
 Works ever since. 
 
 The cut is what may be termed 
 "float-cut." It is widely spaced, has 
 very sharp cutting edges, as shown in 
 the illustration on page 58, and the 
 particular shape of the teeth makes 
 possible an easy, very rapid, smooth 
 shearing cut. 
 
 Referring again to metal-cutting 
 files, the comparatively new but stu- 
 pendous business automobile manu- 
 facturing and repairing led to the 
 making of a number of special files. 
 First among these came the spark 
 plug file which is similar in shape 
 to a manicure file. The "Kleen 
 Spark" is a tool which is a combina- 
 tion of knife and file. The end of 
 this file is chisel-shaped for cleaning 
 gummy, oiled surfaces. The mag- 
 neto file, and its small brother, the 
 midget magneto file, complete the 
 group. 
 
 These are used to clean spark plugs 
 on engines, magnetoes, ignition coils, 
 contacts, etc., and are of a thickness 
 allowing them to be used as a gauge 
 in obtaining the proper spacing be- 
 tween the points of a spark plug. 
 
 In the building of automobile bod- 
 ies there is a special file used termed 
 flexible milled shear tooth file. 
 This is fastened on a wood handle, 
 the file itself being 14 inches long, 1^ 
 inches wide. The teeth, 10 or 12 to 
 the inch as required, are milled in, 
 making them strong and sharp. 
 This is used for fast filing of soft 
 metal. 
 
 [61] 
 
The File In History 
 
 Entirely different in use is another 
 group of files, manicure files, which 
 need no special explanation. These 
 are made in a variety of styles and 
 sizes the light flexible, heavy flex- 
 ible, files with cleaner point, with 
 diamond point, plain point, cutter 
 point, double end file with pencil 
 sharpener, etc. 
 
 Belonging to this group is the corn 
 rasp, of which mention is made fur- 
 ther on. 
 
 Along a somewhat similar line is 
 the corrugating file. These are made 
 in several degrees of cuts and are 
 used to corrugate the blades of bar- 
 bers' shears, to prevent the hair from 
 slipping when being cut 
 
 Rasps, Different 
 Prom Files 
 
 While always considered under the 
 general head of files, rasps are really 
 in a class of their own. The principal 
 difference, of course, is in the teeth, 
 which are detached, that is, not run in 
 a continuous line, and not formed 
 like the teeth on single and double-cut 
 files. As described on page 39, in- 
 stead of being cut with a chisel, rasp 
 teeth are raised with a punch. They 
 are much higher than the ordinary 
 file teeth, set well apart, and stag- 
 gered. In this manner they are en- 
 abled not only to cut uniformly, but 
 very quickly; each tooth taking a 
 larger "bite" than the ordinary file 
 teeth. 
 
 There are several different styles of 
 rasps, each used for different pur- 
 poses. They are all so important in 
 their respective lines that it would 
 be hard to say positively which vari- 
 ety takes precedence over another. 
 
 Probably the most widely used of 
 
 all rasps, however, are those for 
 wood. These are employed by wheel- 
 wrights, carriage builders, plumbers, 
 cabinet, saddle-tree, pattern and last 
 makers, gunstock makers, and fine 
 woodworkers generally. 
 
 Flat wood rasps are forged simi- 
 lar in form to the flat file. This kind 
 of rasp is single-cut on the edges, 
 with punched teeth on the sides. 
 
 The half-round wood rasp is 
 formed like a half-round file, but has 
 punched teeth on both the flat and 
 round sides. 
 
 The round wood rasp is used by 
 cabinet makers, and for other wood- 
 working purposes. It is round in 
 form, with punched teeth clear out to 
 the point. It is interesting to com- 
 pare the illustration shown of the 
 modern round rasp with the pictures 
 on page 8 of the ancient Egyptian 
 rasp. In the case of this particular 
 rasp the changes which have taken 
 place in the intervening thousands of 
 years appear to be very slight. The 
 round rasp is frequently used for 
 other kinds of wood-working in addi- 
 tion to cabinet work. 
 
 Another rasp for woodworking, 
 and intended especially for cabinet 
 work, is the cabinet rasp. This is 
 a half-round rasp, but thinner than 
 the regular half-round rasps and files. 
 This rasp is punched on both the 
 round and flat sides, and has the 
 edges single-cut. 
 
 The saddle-tree rasp is another 
 special half-round rasp which is used 
 in the manufacture of saddles. This 
 resembles the cabinet rasp just de- 
 scribed except that the teeth are 
 slightly larger and set a little farther 
 apart. The teeth are cut in rows 
 running obliquely across the rasp. 
 The edges are not cut 
 
 [62] 
 
The File In History 
 
 Last 
 
 maker's 
 
 rasp 
 
 
 
 Flat shoe 
 rasp 
 
 Half round 
 shoe rasp 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 Oval 
 shoe rasp 
 
 
 
 111 
 
 Improved 
 shoe rasp 
 
 [63] 
 
The File In History 
 
 The great shoe industry, one of 
 the largest in the world, has several 
 rasps made especially for its use. 
 
 The last makers' rasp is a rasp 
 used in the making of the lasts upon 
 which shoes are made. It is similar 
 in many respects to the cabinet rasp 
 described above, except that the 
 edges are 'very thick and not cut; and 
 the rows of teeth are cut on curved 
 lines. The flat shoe rasp has 
 parallel sides and square ends. The 
 sides only are cut. Beginning at the 
 center, the teeth run in opposite direc- 
 tions. It is used for filing the soles 
 of shoes. 
 
 Another rasp used for both the 
 soles and heels of shoes is the half- 
 round shoe rasp. This has punched 
 . teeth on half of one side and double- 
 cut teeth on the other half. It is also 
 cut on the ends. This rasp is most 
 in demand in the United States. 
 
 The oval shoe rasp is half-round 
 on one side, and slightly rounding or 
 bellied on the other. This affords 
 two surfaces of different curvature, 
 making them especially useful in 
 forming the heels on shoes, for which 
 work they are principally used. This 
 is another rasp that is cut on the 
 ends, but in this case the end is 
 beveled. 
 
 A shoe rasp that is used altogether 
 abroad is the improved shoe rasp. 
 This rasp has a shoulder at the 
 center, one-half being thinner than 
 the other. The teeth on each half 
 run in opposite directions. 
 
 Rasps are widely used by horse- 
 shoers, several patterns being made 
 for their special use. 
 
 The plain horse rasp is of 
 
 parallel form, single-cut on the edges, 
 and rasp-cut on each side with the 
 teeth running in opposite directions 
 from the center. 
 
 The tanged horse rasp is of the 
 same form, but has a tang on one 
 end, and the teeth all run in the same 
 direction away from the tang. The 
 regular horse rasp is parallel in shape, 
 with one end square and the other 
 slightly rounded. The edges are 
 single-cut, while the sides are rasp-cut 
 on one half, and double-cut on the 
 other. The teeth are cut from each 
 end to the center. 
 
 The beveled edge horse rasp has 
 the teeth running in opposite direc- 
 tions from the center, and each half 
 is beveled on the opposite sides. The 
 edges, including the bevel, are single- 
 cut. 
 
 Blacksmiths or farriers and vet- 
 erinary surgeons, both use what is 
 called a horse-mouth rasp in dental 
 work on horses. This consists of a 
 long handle (some have a screw joint 
 in the center for compact carrying) 
 with a short rasp at the end. This 
 also comes in a slightly different 
 form known as the horse tooth file 
 and rasp. In this case there is an 
 adjustable holder at one end in which 
 is secured a short combination file 
 and rasp called a float. This float 
 is rasp-cut on one side and double- 
 cut on the other. It is held in place 
 by two screws. 
 
 There is another rasp which is 
 usually classed among manicure files. 
 This is the corn rasp. It is made 
 in various sizes from 2 l / 2 inches to 6 
 inches in length, and is very light in 
 weight. It is a double-end rasp, with 
 a curved depression on each side at 
 
 [64] 
 
 
The File In History 
 
 
 U'lSSTQiiil 
 PHILA 
 
 :%%*>>: 
 
 t 
 
 ' 
 
 ! A A 4 A A 
 
 m. 
 
 DISSTON 
 
 PHILA 
 
 Horse rasp, 
 plain 
 
 Horse rasp, 
 tanged 
 
 Horse rasp, 
 one-quarter file 
 
 Horse rasp, 
 beveled 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
 [651 
 
The File In History 
 
 Horse tooth file 
 
 and rasp with 
 
 adjustable holder 
 
 Horse tooth 
 
 rasp and 
 
 handle 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 Corn 
 rasp 
 
 [66] 
 
The File In History 
 
 the center, where a grip is obtained 
 with the thumb and forefinger. 
 
 Riffler Files 
 
 The next in order are riffler files, 
 that is those rifflers which are given 
 
 the regular file and rasp cuts. Rif- 
 flers are also made with superfine 
 "cut," which will be taken up with 
 other files under that class. 
 
 Regular rifflers are usually double- 
 ended with curved working surfaces 
 
 14 DISSTON 
 
 Fig. 63. Regular rifflers. 
 
 W//////////////IIIIIIIIH'' 1 '' 
 
 Fig. 64. Gin saw flies. 
 
 Fig. 65. Bent riffler file. 
 [67] 
 
The File In History 
 
 Fig. 66. Circular and straight files, for filing 
 beet shredder knives 
 
 [68] 
 
The File In History 
 
 and a smooth center for handhold. 
 They are made in various lengths, 
 shapes, and cuts, and are generally 
 used on sculpture for stone and wood 
 carving, by toolmakers and diesinkers 
 for dressing indented or depressed 
 surfaces. 
 
 While all rifflers are bent or 
 curved, there is another group which 
 for the sake of distinction is termed 
 bent rifflers. These are furnished 
 with wood handles, as illustrated, and 
 are principally used for filing cavities. 
 They are usually furnished in sets of 
 six assorted shapes, either file, rasp, 
 or superfine cut. 
 
 In the ginning of cotton, by which 
 process the seeds are removed, a gang 
 or number of small circular saws are 
 used in each machine. These saws 
 have teeth of peculiar shape for the 
 sharpening of which a special pat- 
 tern of circular file is used. There 
 are a number of different machines 
 made for the purpose, each requiring 
 its own particular shaped file, of 
 which we illustrate three patterns. 
 
 In addition to the above there are 
 several patterns of straight files used 
 one is knife-shaped, others triangu- 
 lar, or like the tapered file shown on 
 page 67. These are made of any 
 thickness or cut desired. 
 
 Another class of files is that used 
 in the beet sugar industry for the 
 sharpening of beet slicing knives or 
 shredders, as they are sometimes 
 called, which have serrated edges. 
 
 The straight files for this purpose 
 are made in the forms of square, 
 hand, and equaling some with double 
 
 beveled edges and of special "cut." 
 They range from three to five inches 
 long and are tanged on one end. 
 
 Circular files cut on edge are also 
 used for sharpening of these knives 
 They are made of any size, thickness, 
 or shape of edge to suit the knives 
 in use. 
 
 Superfine 
 Files 
 
 The next division in the listing of 
 files comes under the head of super- 
 fine, by which is designated that 
 group having extremely fine teeth. 
 These include a long range of varie- 
 ties, running from the tiny files used 
 by watchmakers and jewelers on 
 many of which the teeth are so fine 
 that the files feel almost perfectly 
 smooth to the hand to the compara- 
 tively large and heavy files with the 
 superfine cut, used for finishing work 
 in machine shops. 
 
 They were originated in Switzer- 
 land or France, the records at hand 
 pointing more strongly to the former, 
 and were used especially by watch 
 and clock makers and by manufactur- 
 ers of machinery and dies for this 
 delicate class of work. 
 
 On page 70 are shown illustrations 
 of the various superfine cuts. These 
 begin with what is termed the No. 00 
 cut and run down in fineness to that 
 known as No. 8. 
 
 The majority of the larger super- 
 fine files are shaped in a manner simi- 
 lar to the regular files which have 
 
 [69] 
 
The File In History 
 
 The different cuts of superfine files 
 
 No. 00 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 No. 2 
 
 No. 3 
 
 No. 4 
 
 No. 5 
 
 No. 6 
 
 No. 7 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 [70] 
 
 No. 8 
 
The File In History 
 
 Flat 
 file 
 
 Crochet 
 file 
 
 Barrette 
 
 file 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 Slitting 
 file 
 
 Drill or 
 joint file 
 
 [71] 
 
The File In History 
 
 Shapes of needle flies 
 
 Round 
 
 Half round 
 
 Flat 
 
 Oval 
 
 Knife 
 
 Square 
 
 Three square 
 
 Equaling 
 
 Barrette 
 
 Joint 
 
 Slitting 
 
 Marking 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 [72] 
 
The File In History 
 
 Escapement files 
 
 Marking Slitting Joint BarrettelEqualing ^ ^Square Knife J^j Oval Flat Round 
 
 Pig. 71. 
 
 [73] 
 
The File In History 
 
 been described throughout this article. 
 This makes it unnecessary to illus- 
 trate more than a few which show 
 slight variations from these standard 
 forms. The principal difference lies 
 in the "cut" or teeth, which can be 
 seen readily by comparing the illustra- 
 tion of superfine cuts shown here 
 with the standard cuts of regular files 
 shown on pages 37 and 38. 
 
 The flat file, it will be noticed, 
 differs from the shape of regular files 
 by tapering to a point, which also 
 applies to the round, half-round, 
 square, etc. Other forms, such as 
 hand, pillar, etc., follow the regular 
 shapes. 
 
 A file of peculiar shape is the cro- 
 chet file. This has both -edges 
 rounded and cut, and tapers to a 
 point. 
 
 The barrette file is somewhat simi- 
 lar to the three-square file, but is 
 more flattened in form and is gener- 
 ally cut on the wide side, left safe or 
 uncut on the two narrow sides. This 
 file as well as the one above is em- 
 ployed for filing on any fine or close- 
 fitting work, like die-making. 
 
 The slitting file is diamond 
 shaped; that is, wide at the center and 
 tapering to a thin edge on both 
 edges. 
 
 The drill, or joint file, is parallel 
 in width and is furnished with either 
 round or square edges, as preferred. 
 As the name indicates, it is used for 
 filing drills. 
 
 These constitute the large super- 
 fine files and range from two to 
 twelve inches in length. 
 
 Needle Files 
 
 Needle files are small, slender files 
 from four to six and a quarter inches 
 in length (measured over all), and 
 are made in all the different forms. 
 Only half the length is cut, however, 
 the balance of the file being. formed 
 into a long, round tang or handle. 
 These little files are used for jew- 
 elers' work principally. 
 
 Closely following the needle files 
 in form and in shape of ends is the 
 group of escapement files. These are 
 usually five and one-half inches long 
 measured over all, and are made with 
 a square handle. They derive their 
 name because they are used chiefly 
 for filing the escapements for 
 watches and clocks. 
 
 A few additional files which are 
 used by clock-makers are the screw- 
 head file, made with or without 
 tang, two to four inches long; the 
 balance file, ratchet, right hand, and 
 the double-end pivot files, the latter 
 being made right or left "cut" and 
 with either sharp or conical corners. 
 The forms of these files will be seen 
 in the ilustrations, which are actual 
 size. 
 
 Another group of straight files is 
 the die sinkers'. These are similar 
 in form to the larger superfine files; 
 but are usually made in two sizes, 
 three, and three and a half-inches in 
 length, formed with a tang for 
 handle. They are furnished in sets 
 comprising the same shapes as needle 
 and escapement files, and in "cuts" 
 Nos. 0, 1, and 2. The name implies 
 their use. 
 
 A special file that has attained a 
 more or less standard form is the 
 
 [74] 
 
The File In History 
 
 1! 
 
 Screwhead 
 
 Right hand 
 pivot 
 
 Balance 
 
 Ratchet 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 f75] 
 
 Douuie-eiid 
 pivot 
 
The File In History 
 
 Special rifflers 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 [76] 
 
The File In History 
 
 riffler, used by sculptors, silversmiths, 
 die sinkers, etc. This form consists 
 of a long, straight center for hand 
 hold, while the ends for a short dis- 
 tance are file cut. The chief variation 
 in these matters lies in the shape of 
 the end and size. 
 
 These are made in three sizes, 
 large, medium, and small. The me- 
 dium size is illustrated in reduced 
 length the regular length for each 
 being six and one-half inches. They 
 differ only in the thickness of the 
 stock. 
 
 The individual types are too nu- 
 merous to reproduce here, but a very 
 good idea of the sizes and general 
 forms may be had by comparison of 
 the regular riffiers shown on page 
 67, which are eight inches long, with 
 the special rifHers, which are slender 
 in stock and about six and one-quar- 
 ter inches in length. The illustration 
 being about three inches less than 
 actual size. 
 
 Slightly longer than the above, but 
 considerably heavier in stock, with 
 more cutting surface, are the French 
 rifflers, the set composed mostly of 
 rasp-cut from fine to coarse. 
 
 Coming next in size and in greater 
 variety of shapes are the die sinkers' 
 rifflers, which are seven inches long 
 and somewhat heavier in stock. 
 
 Then follow the silversmiths' 
 rifflers. These are seven and a half 
 inches long and narrower on the cut- 
 ting ends. 
 
 There is also a form of riffler that 
 has but one end curved, shaped and 
 cut, the other end -being formed into 
 a tang to fit in a wood handle. This 
 
 is the style previously referred to as 
 the bent riffler. 
 
 The bench filing machine files 
 differ from the files just described in 
 that they are especially adapted for 
 use in power-driven machines. 
 
 They are made in a variety of 
 shapes as shown on page 78; and 
 with cuts Nos. 00, 0, 1, and 2. 
 
 Similar as to shapes, but longer 
 and wider, are the parallel machine 
 files, which are formed with a tang. 
 These are made in all "cuts." 
 
 During the late war the House of 
 Disston manufactured for use on 
 glass tubes in laboratories over fifty 
 thousand glass files. These files are 
 now a regular product. One style is 
 flat, 2 inches long, cut only on one 
 edge. Another style is 3 inches 
 long, 3 square with teeth cut on the 
 edges only. 
 
 Another group of files is the kit 
 for filing shoe machinery. This kit 
 consists of twelve blunt files, 3^2 
 inches long. These files are : 1 equal- 
 ling file with two safe edges, 1 equal- 
 ling file with one safe edge, 1 equal- 
 ling with both edges cut, a large and 
 a small square file, a large and a 
 small slitting file, one scoring file, one 
 screw-head file, one joint file, one 
 ratchet file, and one square edge 
 joint file. 
 
 To name the industries in which 
 files are used would be almost like 
 compiling a trade directory of the 
 world, for there are few that do not 
 need some form of file. This gives 
 rise, of course, to a number of special 
 shapes that are invented and manu- 
 factured to meet the peculiar needs of 
 some particular line of manufacture. 
 
 [77] 
 
The File In History 
 
 Fig. 74. Bench filing machine flies. 
 
 Barrette 
 
 Three 
 square 
 
 Auriform 
 
 Oval 
 
 Half 
 round 
 
 Round 
 
 O H 
 
 Pippin 
 
 Knife 
 
 Crochet 
 
 Pillar 
 
 Lozenge Square 
 
 It would be impossible to show all 
 of the various forms of special files, 
 and needless, too, because many are 
 turned out to meet certain conditions, 
 or as experiments. 
 
 This brings to a close the story of 
 the file from the time when history 
 first recognized its existence, down to 
 modern times when its use has be- 
 come indispensable to almost every 
 form of manufacturing business. Al- 
 
 though many foreign countries still 
 manufacture files, America long ago 
 took the lead in production. 
 
 In addition to using annually over 
 35,000 dozen files of their own manu- 
 facture in their saw works, handle 
 factory and machine shops, The 
 House of Disston sends enormous 
 quantities of their files, not only all 
 over this country and Canada, but 
 to almost every country in the 
 world. 
 
 [78] 
 
THE BINGHAM COMPANY 
 PHILADELPHIA. PA. 
 
RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT 
 TO* 202 Main Library 
 
 LOAN PERIOD 1 
 HOME USE 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 
 
 1 -month loans may be renewed by calling 642-3405 
 
 6-month loans may be recharged by bringing books to Circulation Desk 
 
 Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date 
 
 DUE AS STAMPED BELOW 
 
 NOV. 
 
 RET'D OCT 2 8 981 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY 
 FORM NO. DD6, 60m, 3/80 BERKELEY, CA 94720 
 
 s 
 
Photomount 
 Pamphlet 
 
 Binder 
 Gay lord Bros. 
 
 Makers 
 Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 PAT. JAN 21, 1908 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY