li1llllfir/?l',[,ln?.^„9^.MF0RNIA SAN DIEGO 3 1822 01705 093 j Central University Library University of California, San Diego Please Note: This item is subject to recall. Date Due IVIAY 2 3 199^^ JUN 8 199^ CI 39 (7/93) UCSD Lb. A GRAMMAR OK THE HINDUSTANI LANGUAGE, IN THE ORIENTAL AND EOMAN CHARACTER, WITH NUMEROUS COrPER-rLATE ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE PERSIAN AND DEVANAGARI SYSTEMS OF ALPHABETIC WRITING: TO WHICH IS ADDED, A COPIOUS SELECTION OF EASY EXTRACTS FOR READING, IN THE PERSI-ARABIC AND DEVANAGARI CHARACTERS, Iff f f FORMING A COMPLETE INTRODUCTION TO THE TOTA-KAHANI AND BAGH-0-BAHAK ; TOGETHER WITH A VOCABULARY OF ALL THE WORDS, X AND VARIOUS EXPLANATORY NOTES. A NEW EDITION. By DUNCAN FORBES, LL.D., PEOPESSOR OP OKIENTAL LANGUAGES AND LITEEATUEE IN KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON ; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIEXy OF GREAT BRITAIN ANTJ IRELAND, ETC. "HE THAT TRAVBLLETH INTO A COtTNTRY BEFORE HE HATH AN ENTR.UTCE INTO THE LANQtTAGE. GOBTH TO SCHOOL, AND NOT TO TRAVEL."— BACON. LONDON: Wm. H. ALLEN & Co., BOOKSELLERS TO THE HONOURABLE EAST-INDIA COMPANY, 7, LEADENHALL STREET. 1855. /''*'•-- x*«\\ W. LEWIS AND SON, PRINTERS, 21, FINCH LANE, CORNIIIIX, LONDON. f'6 : B ELLIOT MACNAGHTEN, Ehq., Chairman, COL. WILLIAM HENRY SYKES, Deputy-Chairmax, AND THE DIRECTORS or THE HONORABLE THE EAST-INDIA COMPANY, THE FOLLOWING AVORK, INTENDED TO FACILITATE THE ACQUISITION OF THE HINDUSTANI LANGUAGE, IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED. BY THEIR MOST OBEDIENT AND FAITHFUL SERVANT, DUNCAN FORBES. London, 20tk July, 1855, PEEFACE. The following work has been compiled with a view to enable every one proceeding to India to acquire a fair know- ledge of the most useful and most extensively spoken language of that country. Of late years, a new sera may be said to liave commenced with regard to the study of the Hindustani language ; it being now imperative on every junior officer in the Company's service to pass an examination in that language before he can be deemed qualified to command a troop, or to hold any staff appointment. Such being the case, it is desirable that every facility should be afforded to young men destined for India to acquire at least an elementary knowledge of Hindustani in this country, so as to be able to prosecute the study during the voyage. A large impression of this work having been exhausted, I have availed myself of the opportunity, in this new Edition, of adopting such improvements as have been naturally suggested by several years' experience in teaching. The plan and arrangement of the work remain the same as before ; and so do the numbers of the sections and the paragraphs. The first section treats very fully of the Persi-Arabic alphabet, and of the elementary sounds of the language. In this section I have been enabled to introduce several improvements, and, if I mistake not, the subject is now so simplified that a learner of (3rdinary capacity will have no difficulty in making some progress in this elementary part, even if he should not have the aid of a teacher. The next three sections treat of the parts of speech, to the defining and explaining of which I have strictly confined myself. I have carefully avoided mixing up the syntax of the language with that part of the work which i:; and ought to be purely etymological. The \[ PREFACE. mode of tonfoumling the syntax with the etymology, which ]iievails in most grammars, I have always looked upon as highly preposterous. It is utterly absurd to embarrass the student with a rule of syntax, at a stage of his progress where he probably does not know a dozen words of the language. In the first four sections (up to p. 91), I have generally accompanied every Hindustani word and phrase with the pronunciation in Roman characters, in order that the learner might not be delayed too long in acquiring the essential rudiments of the grammar, and also to guard against his contracting a vicious mode of pronunciation. When he has made himself acquainted w^ith what is technically called the accidence — that is, the declension of the nouns and pronouns, and the conjugation of the verbs — he may, after a few verbal instructions respecting the arrangement of words, proceed to read and translate a few pages of the Selections, by the aid of the Vocabulary. This done, he may read over the Grammar carefully from the beginning ; for, in fact, the Grammar and Selections mutually assist each other. Section V. (from p. 92 to 135) treats of the Syntax of the language. This is a portion of the work, in which, if I do not greatly jnistake, I have made many improvements. I have been particularly careful in explaining those peculiarities of the language in the use of which I have observed learners most apt to err, when trying to translate English into Hindu- stani. I have also, in several instances, ventured to differ from all my predecessors on certain important points, which of course I have justified by an appeal to the language itself. In the sixth and last section, I have given a concise account of the Devanagari alphabet, together with the mode of trans- ferring the same into the corresponding Persian character, and vice versa. To this I have added an Qxplanation of the various plates accompanying the work, together with a brief account of the ]Musalman and Hindu calendars. The perusal of the plates will initiate the student into the mysteries of the manuscript character, which is much used in India, both in rilEFACE. Vll lithographed a7id printed works, to say nothing of numerous productions which still remain in manuscript. When the learner is well grounded in the NasJchi, or printed character, he should, as an exercise, endeavour to write out the same in the TaTiJc, or written character. When he has attained some facility in writing the latter, he will find it a very profitable exercise to transcribe the various phrases, etc., in my Ilindlistdm Manual, from the Roman character into the TaHik, and at the same time commit them to memory, as directed in the prefiice to that small work. An elementary grammar of a language is incomplete without a certain portion of easy extracts, accompanied by a suitable vocabulary, and occasional notes explanatory of any obscure or idiomatic phrases that may occur in the text. This is the more essential in a grammar of the Hindustani, or of any other Asiatic language, because the characters and xoords^ being totally diflEc- rent from our own, it is necessary, though it may sound strange, to learn the language to a certain extent, before the grammar can be perused to any advantage. As to the use of translations and other fallacious aids, such as giving the English of each word as it occurs at the bottom of the page or elsewhere, it is a method deservedly scouted by all good teachers. On the other hand, to put a large dictionary in the hands of a beginner is equally useless ; it is asking of him to perform a difficult work, with an instrument so unwieldy as to be beyond his strength. In order, therefore, to render this work as complete as possible, I have appended to the Grammar a selection of easy compositions for reading, commencing with short and simple sentences. All the words occurring in the extracts will be found in the Vocabulary, at the end of which I have added a few notes explanatory of difficult passages or peculiarities of the language, with references to the page and paragraph of the Grammar where further information may be obtained. In the extracts from the * Khirad Afroz,' a work which is considered to be the easiest and most graceful specimen of the Urdu dialect, I have left oflf the use of the jazm -^, except in \iii PREFACE. very rare instances, in order that the student may gradually learn to read without it. In like manner the virdma~ is omitted in the last five or six stories of the Hindi extracts. I have been careful, throughout, to give the essential short vowels, convinced that \^•ithout them the most attentive learner will be apt to com- mit mistakes in pronunciation. I have also adopted a rigid system of punctuation, the same as I should have done in the editing of a Latin Classic. There may be a few individuals so thoroughly wedded to what is foolish or defective, merely because it is old, as to feel shocked at this innovation. They will complacently ask, What is the use of punctuation, when the natives have none in their manuscripts ? I answer — The use is, simply to facilitate, for beginners, the acquisition of a knowledge of the language. A^Tien that is once attained, they will find no difficulty in reading native works, though utterly void, not only of punctuation but of vowel-points and other diacritical marks. The use of stops is merely a question of time ; four hundred years ago we had no such things for our books in Europe, and the excellent monks who had the management of these matters went on comfortably enough without them. But, after all, it was found that stops were an improvement; and so they are admitted to be even in the East. Almost all the books printed in India since the beginning of the present century have punctuation; and those who would make beginners attempt to translate from a strange language, in a strange character, without the least clue to the beginning or end of the sentences, seem to have a marvellous love for the absurd. All Oriental as well as European books ought to have stops ; the omission is a sure indication either of extreme idleness or culpable apathy on the part of the editor. In conclusion, I may safely say that I have spared no pains to render this edition worthy of the extensive patronage which the work has hitherto attained. D. FORBES. 58, Burton Crescext, Jul)/, 1855, HINDUSTANI CIEAMMAE. SECTION I. ON THE LETTERS AND SYMBOLS USED IN WRITING. 1. The Hindustani language may be printed and written in two distinct alphabets, totally different from each other, viz., the Persi- Arabic, and the Devanagari. We shall at present confine ourselves to the former, and devote a section to the latter towards the end of the volume. The Persi-Ai*abic alphabet consists of thirty-two letters, to which three more are added to express sounds peculiar to the Hindustani. These letters, then, thirty- five in number, are written and read from right to left ; and, consequently, Hindustani books and manuscripts begin at what we should call the end of the volume. Several of the letters assume different shapes, according to their position in the formation of a word, or of a combined group ; as may be seen in the following table, column V. Thus, in a combination of three or more letters, the first of the group, on the right-hand side, will have the form marked Initial ; the letter or letters between the first and last will have the form marked Medial ; and the last, on the left, will have the Final form. Observe, also, that in this table, column I. con- tains the names of the letters in the Persian character ; o 1 THE ALPHABET. II. the same in Ixoinan cliaractcrs ; III. the detaclied form of the letters, wliich should be learned first ; and IV. the corresponding English letters. THE HINDUSTANI ALPHABET. i. II. Name. S5^ dif le pe te ta se jim die he khe ddl da sal HI Detached Form IV. Power, Combined Form. '<£. Z t J J :: J J a, etc h P t t VI. Exempliticaiions. Final. Medial. Initial. Final. Medial. Initial. J t ch t h ■4 kh t d A d A V ? 1' J ...A J- o S> Lvi J. j9 THE ALniABET. I. II. Name. III. Detached Form. IV. Power. V. Combined Form. VI. Exemplifications Final. Medial. Initial. Final. medial. Initial. ^J zhe A J zh i t A J 'A ^r • * li^ sm U^ s L^ AM <»; L/^ J^ J-' CT^ shin u^ sh lA AU, .wJ uH 9 Jul; 9 4>U. sdd ^ 8 u^ ~= ^ u^ j^ jU zdd J> z u^ -=^ ^ L/^ >^ 1X0 .^> toe ]. t L k t k^ c^' J' ^> zoe li z li ^ 1^ l2i>- > ^ cr^^ am t a, etc. t X £• e-^ ^L^ c.'r^^ ghain t flh t k ^ trr^ ^r^ .a fe (-J f L_a X i * r< > J _ili Mf J h (J ii i c^ yL. jJ ._il^ Hf h cK ^ ^ 3 cr--^ r^ .•^i wdw J «r,etc. ^ ^ J P ^>- ./> he :s h a. ■{' i ji ^ U 9 v^- ye ^-^ y,etc. L5 1* ^ :*. S:S^ j^-j>. Jo 4 OF THE ALPH.\JBET. The alphabet here described is used, more or less modified, by all those nations who have adopted the religion of ^Iiihammad ; vi^., along the north and east of Africa, in Turkey, Arabia, and Persia, and by the Musalman portion of the people of India and Malacca. In pronouncing the names of the letters (column II.) let it he remembered that the vowels are to be uniformly sounded as follows: — The unmarked a is always short, as a in tooman, adrift, etc. ; a is always long, as a in war or art ; i is short, as in pin ; i is long, as in police ; tc is short, as u in hull, pull, etc. ; u is the same sound lengthened, and pronounced as u in rule, etc. ; e is sounded as ea in hear ; o is always long, as in no ; ai is pronounced as ai in aisle ; and au is sounded as in German and Italian, or very nearly like our ou in sound, or ow in cow. 2. Perhaps the best mode of learning the alphabet is, Pii'st, to wiite out several times the detached or full forms of the letters in column III. Secondly, to observe what changes (if any) these undergo, when combined in the formation of words, as exhibited in column Y. Lastly, to endeavour to transfer, into their corresponding English letters, the words given as exemplifications in column VI. a. It may be here observed that the letters ' >_^ 3 J , ',' ; ;' and J do not alter in shape, whether initial, medial, or final. Another peculiarity which they have is, that they never unite with the letter following, to the left ; hence, when the last letter of a word is pre- ceded by any one of these, it must have the detached form, column III. The letters h and 1?, in like manner, do not alter, though they always unite with the letter following on the left hand. 3. In the foregoing table, most of the characters are sufficiently represented by the corresponding English letters : it will therefore be necessary to notice only those whose sounds differ more or less from our own. POWERS or THE LETTERS. 5 C-J Tho sound of this letter is softer and more dental than that of the English t ; it corresponds with the t of the Gaelic dialects, or that of the Italian in the word sotto. It rejiresents the Sanskrit rf. "JT t3 This letter represents the Sanslait 2" ; its sound is much m^ _, nearer that of the English t than the preceding. In pronouncing it, the tongue should be well turned up towards the roof of tho mouth, as in the words tip, top. lL? is sounded by the Arabs like our th hard, in the words thick, thin ; but by the Persians and Indians it is pronounced like our s in the words sick, sin. — This letter has uniformly the sound of our ch in the word cliurck. _ is a very strong aspirate, somewhat like our h in the word haul, but uttered by compressing the lower muscles of the throat. -1 has a sound like the ch in the word loch, as pronounced by the Scotch and Irish, or the final ch in the German words schach and luch. This letter will be represented in Eoman characters by Ich, with a stroke underneath {Ich). i3 is much softer and more dental than the English d ; it represents >-»- the Sanskrit ^, and corresponds with the d of the Celtic dialects, and that of the Italian and Spanish. J This letter represents the Sanskrit '^, and is very nearly the same as our own d. The tongue, in pronouncing it, should be well turned up towards the roof of the mouth. J is properly sounded (by the Arabs) like our th soft, in the words thj and thine; but in Persian and Hindustani it is generally pro- nounced like our 2 in zeal. J is always sounded very distinctly, as the Erench and Germans pronounce it. J This letter is sounded liko the preceding, only the tip of the tongue must be turned up towards the roof of the mouth. It is very much akin to 3, with which it often interchanges ; or, more strictly speaking, in the Devanagari the same letter serves for both ; as will be seen, in the section on the Devanagari alphabet. J is pronounced like the j of the French, in the word jour, or our 2 in the word azure. It is of rare occurrence. 6 ^o^^^i:lls of the letters. J In Arabic this letter has a stronger or more hissing sound than our .V. In Hindustani, however, there is little or no distinction between it and ^^, which is like our own s. ^ is pronounced by the Arabs like a hard d or dh ; but in Hiudv'istani it is sounded like s. 1? and Ir These letters are sounded in Hindustani like C-? and J, or very nearly so. The anomalous letter 4 will be noticed hereafter. c has a sound somewhat like g in the German word sagen. About the banks of the Tweed, the natives sound what they fancy to be the letter r, very like the Eastern c . This sound will be represented in English letters by gli^ with a stroke underneath (^/^ ). V bears some resemblance to our c hard, in the words calm, cup ; with this difference, that the ^" is uttered from the lower muscles of the throat. i'^t is sounded like our g hard, in give, go ; never like our g in gem, gentle. ^ at the beginning of a word or syllable is sounded like our n in the word now ; at the end of a word, when preceded by a long vowel, it generally has a nasal sound, like the French n, in such words as mon and son, where the sound of the n is scarcely heard, its effect being to make the preceding vowel come through the nose. The same sound may also occur in the middle of a word, as in the French sans. In the Roman character, the nasal sound of ^ will be indicated by n, with a dot OTer it {n). ^ is an aspirate, like our h in hand, heart ; but at the end of a word, if preceded by the short vowel a (Fatha § 4), the i has no sensible sound, as in iC'lj ddna, a grain ; in which case it is called 1^^^'* t-?"^ hde-muJchtaf'i, i.e., the obscure or imperceptible A.' As this final h, then, is not sounded in such cases, we shall omit it entirely in the Roman character whenever we have occasion to write such words as ddna, etc. a. At the end of words derived from Arabic roots, the final a is sometimes marked with two dots thus, i ; and, in such cases, sounded like the letter lii-J t. The Persians generally convert the i into c:J ; but sometimes they leave it unaltered, and frequently they omit the OF THE I'llIMITIVE VOWELS. 7 two (lots, in which case the letter is sountled according to the general rule. Lastly, tlic Hindustani usually receives such words in whatever form they may happen to be used in Persian. h. The letter Ji or ^ is frequently employed as a mere aspirate in combination with the letters t — » ( — > c:-? c3 ^ <_ J j I" (^ and ci/; as in the words i^, plia ; \^j, tha, etc. In such cases the learner must be careful not to sound tlie pli and ih as in English ; the h is to be sounded separately, immediately after its preceding letter, as in the compound words wp-Hll, hot-house. In most printed books the rouud form of the h (i> and £) is employed to denote the aspirate of the preceding letter, otherwise the form .,^. is used ; but this rule does not apply to manuscripts, particularly those written before the days of Dr. Gilchrist, under whose auspices the distinction was first adopted. e. Much might have been said in describing the sounds of several of the letters ; but we question whether the learner would be greatly benefited by a more detailed description. It is difficult, if not impos- sible, to give in writing a correct idea of the mere sound of a letter, unless we have one that corresponds with it in our own language. \yhen this is not the case, we can only have recourse to such languages as happen to possess the requisite sound. It is possible, however, that the student may he as ignorant of these languages as of Hindustani. It clearly follows, then, as a general rule, that the correct sounds of such letters as differ from our own must be learned by the ear — we may say, by a ffood ear ; and, consequently, a long description is need- less. This remark applies in particular to the letters cJ-J ._ ^ J ^ (^ c jj and the nasal ^. OF THE PRIMITI\T3 VOWELS. 4. In Hindustani, as in many of tlie Oriental lan- guages, tlie primitive vowels are three in number. They are represented by thi'ee small marks or symbols, two of which are placed above and one beneath the letter after which they are sounded, as in the following syllables, J da^ J di, and j du ; or !> sar,j^ sir, and^ sur. S WEAK CONSONANTS. a. The fh-st is called -j and ^i. The unmarked i, therefore, in the course of this work, is understood to have the sound of i in sip and fin, in all Oriental words written in the Boman character. c. The third is called by the Arabs samma (or dliamma) iU.J (by the Persians, (j^-J pesh,) which is thus -^ written over its consonant. Its sound is like that of our short u in the words pull and push, which in Hindustani would be written ^JJ and ^JJJJ : we have also its true sound in the English words /oo^ and Jiood, which T\'ould be written iJL^J and iX&. We shall accordingly, in the following passages, repre- sent the zamma by the unmarked ^l, which in all Oriental words in the Roman character, is understood to have the sound of u in pull and push ; but never that of our u in such words as use and perfume, or such as u in smi and/ww. OF THE LETTERS \, C^, », AND ^, VIEWED AS CONSONANTS. 5. At the beginning of a word or syllable, the letter \, like any other consonant, depends for its sound on the accompanying vowel; of itself, it is a very weak aspirate, lilie our h in the words herb^ Jionoiir^ and hour. It is still more closely identified with the spiritus lenis of the Greek, in such words as airo, i-rrl, op6p6^, where the mark [ ' ] represents the alif., and the a, e, and o WEAK CONSONANTS. tlie accompanying vowel. In fact, when we utter the syllables ab^ ib^ and ub^ there is a slight movement of the muscles of the thi'oat at the commencement of utterance ; and that movement the Oriental grammarians consider to be the -^^j^ maldiraj^ or ' place of utter- ance' of the consonant 1, as in \ a\ \ «'; and \ u\ just the same as the lips form the makhraj of b^ in the syllables l1> ba^ c-j bi^ and l-> bu. Finally, the 1 may be considered as the spiritus lenis, or weak aspirate of the consonant 2s. a. The consonant c has the same relation to the strong aspirate _ that \ has to a; that is, the c , like the 1, is a spiritus lenis or weak aspirate; but the mahkraj, or 'place of utterance' of c, is in the lower muscles of the throat. Hence the soimd of the letter c , like that of the letter \, depends on the accompanying vowel ; as t_^^i ^ah, c^£ Hh, \ >"'^ '«J, which in the mouth of an Arab, are very different sounds from L__;l ah, t__Ji ih, and l-j\ uh. At the same time, it is impossible to explain in writing the true sound of this letter ; as it is not to be found in any European language, so far as we know. The student who has not the advantage of a competent teacher may treat the c as he does the \ until he has the opportunity of learning its true sound by the ear. In representing Oriental words in the Eoman character, the place of the 5. will be indicated by an apostrophe, thus, J-u»£ 'a sal. b. Of the consonants J and ^ very little description is necessary. The letter J has generally the sound of our w in we, went ; but occa- sionally in words from the Sanskrit it has the sound of our v, which must be determined by practice. The sound of the consonant ^^ is our own y in you, yet, or the German/ \njener. . c. It appears, then, that the thirty-five letters constituting the Hindustani alphabet are all to be considered as consonants, each of which maybe uttered with any of the three primitive vowels, as \ a,\ i, and \ u; S->, la, ^_^ hi, and t__?, hu, etc. : hence the elementary sounds of the language amount to one hundred and five in number, each consonant foi-ming three distinct syllables. 2 11) CONSONANTS MOVEABLE AND INERT. G. "\Mion 11 consonant is accompimied by one of the •m ^ -' 9' throo ]>rinntivo vowels, it is said to be CSjs^^ mutaharrik^ that is, ' moving or moveable,' by that vowel. Oriental grammarians consider a syllable as a step or move in the formation of a word or sentence. When, in the middle or at the end of a word, a consonant is not accompanied by a vowel, it is said to be ^^L sdJdn, 'resting or inert,' and then it is marked with the symbol - or - called *j^ jazm^ which signifies ' amputation or cutting short. ' Thus in the word ^^j^ mardum, the mm is moveable hy fatha ; the re is incrt^ having no vowel ; the ddl is moveable by samma ; and, finally, the 7nm is inert. As a general rule, the last letter of a word is inertj and in that case the mark jazm - is unnecessary. 7. Wlien a letter is doubled, the mark — , called tashdid, is placed over it Thus, in the word ci.«J!.^ shid-dat, where the first syllable ends with j (d) and the next begins with j (d), instead of the usual mode CL>jjJ!:> the two dais are thrown into one, and the mark tashdid — indicates this coalition. The student must be careful to utter each of the letters thus doubled, dis- tinctly — the first letter ends the preceding syllable, and the second begins the following; they must not be slurred over as we do it, in such words as mummy, summer. The meaning of the term tashdid, is, 'strenghten- ing or corroboration.' ' The term inert is here employed for want of a better. In most Arabic, Persian, jmd HindQstfini Grammars, a letter not followed by a vowel is called quiescent, which is objectionable, as it is apt to mislead the beginner, the term qmcscent being already applied in the English Grammar in the sense of imt sounded. For instance, the letter g is qnicsccnt in the word phlegm ; we cannot, however, say that m is quiescent in the same word, though we may say that it is inert. The student will be pleased to bear in mind, then, that a letter is said to be inert when it is not followed by a vowel. LONG VOWELS. H OF THE LETTERS \ ^ AND ^ VIEWED AS VOWELS OR LETTERS OF PROLONGATION. 8. The letters 1 j and ^? wlien inert, serve to prolong the preceding vowel, as follows. When \ inert is pre- ceded by a letter moveable by fatha, the fatha and alif ^ together form a long sound like our a in ivar, or aum . } haul, which in Hindustani might be written jlj and JU-. I !N'ow it so happens that the \ inert is always preceded by fatha : hence, as a general and practical rule, alif not beginning a word or syllable forms a sound like oui- a in loar, or au in haul. In the Eoman character, the sound of long \ will be represented by «, whilst the unmarked a is always understood to represent the short primitive vowel fatha. 9. When the letter ^ inert is preceded by a consonant moveable by the vowel zamma, the zamma and j together form a sound like our oo in tool; which in Hindustani might be wi'itten J^j, or, which is the same thing, like our u in rule, which might be wiitten jjj. The same combination forms also another sound, like our o in mole^ wliich would in the same manner be wiitten jj^, or, perhaps still nearer, like our oa in coat, which might be written cLj^. In the Arabic language, the latter sound of J viz. that of in mole, is unknown ; hence Ai-abian i ,, grammarians call it Majhid, or 'Ajami, i.e. the Unknown .> > or Persian ^ ; whereas the former sound, that of u in rule, is called Ma'riif, the Known or Familiar ^ . If the - _^ 12 LONG VOWELS AND DirHTHONGS. letter , be preceded by a consonant moveable by fatha^ Wiofatha and^ united will form a diphthong, nearly like our on in soimd^ or 02v in totvn^ but more exactly like the au in the Gorman word kaum^ which in Hindustani might be written ^^^. In the following pages the J/^'/'w/" sound will be represented by u; the Majhid by o, and the diphthong by au. If the ^ be preceded by the vowel kasra, no imion takes place, and the ^ preserves its natui-al soimd as a consonant, as in the word \y^ Suva. b. Wlien the letter ^ in words purely Persian is preceded by ^ (moveable by fatha), and followed by \ ; the sound of ^ is scarcely perceptible ; as in the word i^»^ pronounced Ichcih, not Tchawdh. When we have occasion to write any such words in the Eoman character the w will be written with a dot under ; thus, !^y>- hhwdh. 10. AVTien the letter ^ inert is preceded by a con- sonant moveable by kasra, the kasra and the ^J unite, and foi-m a long vowel like our ee in feel^ which in Hindustani might be written jli ; or, which is the same thing, like oui" / in machine^ which might be vrritten ^JrA^- The same combination may also form a sound like our ea in hea7\ which would be written J.i or like the French e in the words pre., donne, but longer ; or the German e followed by A in the words sehr, geleJirt. In the Arabic language, the latter sound of ^ is unknown : hence, when the ^ forms the sound of ea in hear, etc., it is called Yae Majhid, or Yae ^Ajarm, that is, the I)"nkno^\^l or Persian cs ; wliilst the former sound — that of ee in feel, or i in machine — is called Yae MaWiif, the Known or Familiar ^j. When the letter ^ inert is preceded by a consonant, moveable by fatha, the fatha and the ^ luiitc, and form a diphthong, like ai in the LONG VOWELS AND DirHTHONGS. 13 German word Kaiser^ which in Arabic, Persian, and Hindustani, is written j2^. This sound is really that of our own i in tvise^ su'e, which we are pleased to call a vowel, but which, in reality, is a genuine diphthong. When the letter ^ is preceded by zamma, no union takes place, and the ^ retains its usual sound as a consonant, as in the word j.^ muyaBsar. Lastly, if the letter ^$• be followed by a vowel, the above rides do not hold ; and the ^ is to be sounded as a consonant, as in the words ^,Lj htujan^ and ^l) j zii/an, not bai-an and si-an^ to represent which latter sounds the mark hamza (No. 15) would be requisite. A similar rule applies to the j . a. It must be observed, that there are very few Hindustani works, printed or manuscript, in which all the vowels are marked as we have just described ; the primitive short vowels being almost always omitted, as well as the marks Ji- jatm and _r^ tasM'ul. This omission occasions no serious inconvenience to the natives, or to those who know the language. To the young beginner, however, in this country, it is essential to commence with books having the vowels carefully marked ; otherwise he will contract a vicious mode of pronunciation, which he will find it difficult afterwards to unlearn. At the same time, it is no easy matter in printing to insert all the vowel-marks, etc. in a proper and accurate manner. In the present work, a medium will be observed, which, without over-crowding the text with symbols, will suffice to enable the learner to read without any error, provided he will attend to the following rules. 11. The short vowel fatha ^- is of more frequent occurrence than the other two ; hence it is omitted in the printing ; and the learner is to supply it for every consonant except the last, provided he see no other vowel, nor the mark jazm^ nor the ^ {huttcrfly) form of the letter he (par. 3, V) accompanying any of the consonants aforesaid. 14 rRACTK'AL RULES. a. The letter j at tlio bei;inning of a word or syllable is a con- sonant, and generally sounded like our w, as in the words {jjj^ wis, .4?* irafan. "When . follows a consonant, that has no vowel-mark or Jazin accompanying it, the_j has the sound of o long, as in the words »-) so, S Ji'o. When the consonant preceding the » has the mark :amma .J- over it, the . has the sound of u in nde, or oo in fool, as in the words ^-.- su or soo, and ^ Icii or koo ; and if the preceding con- son ant has the vowel mark fatha -^ over it, the j forms the diphthong aU) as .-J smi or sow, »i hau or coic. h. The letter ^^ at the beginning of a word or syllable is a con- sonant like our letter y, as in .^.J yih, jl; ydd. "^Tien the letter ^^ is medial or final, if the consonant preceding it has no vowel-mark or jazm, the i_j is sounded like ea in hear, or ai in fail, as in the words -J her, and -^ ser. If the consonant preceding the ^ has the mark kasra —r under it, the ^ has the sound of i in machine, or ee in feel, as -J I'lr or heer, and j-»-j sir or seer ; and if the preceding consonant has the mark fatlia _^ over it, the t_^ forms the diphthong ai as -o lair or lyre, and -»-s sair or sire. c. There are a few instances in which the letters ^ and ^ unite with the preceding consonant, as m the words ^^^ y^ swdnn, and Ui hyd ; but such combinations being of comparatively rare occurrence, they may safely be left to the student's own practice. Lastly, in a few Arabic words the final ^c occurs with an l alif written over it, in which case the i only is sounded, as m the words A-^ uhld ; JJUj ia''dld. 12. We shall uow at one view exhibit the practical application of the principles treated of in the preceding paragraphs. The vowels in Hindustani, as the student may have ere now perceived, are ten in number, the manner of representing which may be seen in the fol- lowing ten words. The upper line (1) contains ten English words in common use, in each of wliich occiu*s the con-esponding sound of the Hindustani word beneath. The lower line (3) shews the mode in wliich the Oriental EXAMPLES OF VOWELS MEDIAL OR FINAL. 15 vowels will be uniformly represented in Eoman cha- racters in the course of this work. 1. fun fin foot fall foal fool fowl fail feel file 2 cr» c^ ^^-^ J^ Jy Jy J^ c^ Jrri u^ri 3. fan fm fut fdl fol fkl faul fel f'll jail 13. We have now, we trust, fully explained how the vowels are to be represented when they folloiv an audible consonant, such as the letter uJ / in the foregoing list of words. In order to represent the vowels as initial or commencing a word, it will at once occur to the student that we have merely to annihilate or withdi-aw the letter L_i from the above words, leaving everything else as it stands, and the object is effected. This is precisely what we do in reality^ though not in appearance. The Arabian grammarians have taken into their heads a most subtle crotchet on this point, which is, that no tvord or syllaUe can begin with a votvel. Therefore, to represent what we call an initial vowel, that is, a vowel com- mencing a word or syllable, they employ the letter \ alif as a fulcrum for the vowel. We have ah-eady stated (No. 5) that they consider the \ as a very weak aspirate or spiritus lenis ; hence its presence supports the theory, at least to the ej^e, if not to the ear. In order then, to exhibit the vowels in the preceding paragraph as initial, we must, after taking away the letter uJ substitute \ in its place, which \ being nothing, or very nearly so, the process amounts in reality to the with- drawal of the letter (_J /, and the substitution of what may be considered as mere nothing, thus — 1. un in dot all 61 661 oiol ail eel aisle 2. J ^5, Lij\ jn j^i j^r j^.r ^A j^;t jA 3. an in ut dl ol ul aid el il ail 16 INITIAL VOWELS. Instead of writing two alifs at the beginning of a word, as in JU al, it is usual (except in Dictionaries) to write one alif with tlie other curved over it ; thus JT. This symbol — is called i3^* madda, ' extension,' and denotes that the al/f is sounded long, like our a in water. M. de Sacy (v. Grammaire Arahe, p. 72) considers the mark madda — to be nothing else than a * w??»?, the initial of the word madda; but our business is simply ■w"ith its practical use, and the reader if he pleases may view it as a contraction of oui' letter m, meaning ' Make it long.' 14. If, instead of \ in the above series, we substitute the letter c, we shall have virtually the same sounds, only that they must be uttered from the lower inuscles of the throat, thus — cT ^Z ^^' '^^ ^^ ^-^ ^^ i^ L^:^ Jrr^ 'an 'in 'ut 'dl 'ol 'ul 'aid 'el 'il 'ail a. It appears, then, that when in Hindustani, a word or syllable begins with what we consider to be a vowel, such word or syllable must have the letter ^ or t to start with. Throughout this work, when we have occasion to write such words in the Eoman character, the corresponding place of the p will be indicated by an apostrophe or spiritiis lenis ; thus, ^Jm-s- 'dsal, Jolc- 'dhid, iX ^ ^^ ^\:^ z. and j arc peculiar to tlie Arabic ; hence, as a general rule, a word containing any one of these letters may be considered as bon-owed from the Arabic. "Words containing any of the letters ^ i j or ^ may be Persian or Ai-abic, but are not of Indian origin. The few words which contain the letter J are purely Persian. "Words containing any of the letters t__; ^ or i^ may be Persian or Indian, but not Arabic. Lastly, words con- taining any of the four-dotted letters cL? 3 v are purel}^ Indian. The rest of the letters are common to the Arabic, Persian, and Hindustani languages. 17. As words and plu-ases from the Arabic language enter very freely into the Hindustani, we cannot well omit the follo\ying remarks. Arabic nouns have fre- quently the definite article Jl 'the' of the language pre- fixed to them ; and if the noun happens to begin with any of the tliii'teen letters cj»(-ijjjjj(j.uj^^ ^jo\s]i or ^ , the J of the article assumes the sound of the initial letter of the noun, which is then marked with tashdid ; thusjyjl 'the light,' pronounced an-nur, not al-nur. But in these instances, though the J has lost its soimd, it must always be written in its own form. Of course, when the noun begins mth the J, the J of the article coincides with it in like manner, as in the words 'i^~^^\ al-lailat, ' the night ;' and in this case the J of the article is sometimes omitted, and the initial lam of the noun ^ "^ ^ marked with tashdid^ thus, i,"JJ \ al-lailat. a. The thirteen letters (CJ etc.) above mentioned, together "wdth the letter J, are, by the Arabian grammarians, called solar or sunny letters, because the word jj^*.^ shams, the sun,' happens to begin with one of them. The other letters of the Arabic alphabet are called ARABIC WORDS AND PHRASES. 19 lunar, because, we presume, the word -^J; Icamar, the moon,' begins with one of the number, or simply because they are not solar. Of course, the captious critic might find a thousand equally valid reasons for calling them by any other term, such as gold and silver, black and blue, etc. ; but we merely state the fact as we find it. 18. In general, the Arabic nouns of the above descrip- tion, when introduced into the Persian and Ilindustani languages, are in a state of construction with another substantive or preposition which precedes them ; like the Latin terms jus gentium, vis inertice, ex officio, etc. In such cases, the last letter of the first or govern- ing word, if a substantive, is moveable by the vowel zamma, wliich serves for the enunciation of the \ of the article prefixed to the second word ; and, at the same time, the \ is marked with the symbol ss., called al^j ivasla, which denotes ' union ;' as in the words ^^^^y^ \ ^1 Amir - III - mumimn, ' Commander of the Faitliful ; ' ^9^ last letter, which indicates at once its presence and its sound ; thus, *-_Ju bdbun, ^-?b halm, bb Idhan. The last form requires the letter 1, which does 'not, however, prolong the sound of the final syllable. The 1 is not required when the noun ends with a hamza, or with the letter a, a.s'' ^J^ shai-an, - hihnatan; or when the word ends in ^ ye, surmounted by ! [ V- ] (in which case the \ only is pronounced), J^.AJb hidan. In Hindustani the occurrence of such words is not •• ... . I *^ ^ ., common, being limited^ to a few adverbial expressions, such as \s^i kasdan, purposely,' \j\Jij\ iftifdJcan, 'by chance.' In the Eoman character the letter n, with a stroke underneath [«], will be used for the nunation.' 19. We may here mention, that the twenty-eight 20 NUMERICAL VALUE OE THE LEriEKS. letters of the Arabic language arc also used (chiefly in /u recording the tarikh, or date of historical events, etc.), , (;.' for the purpose of numerical computation. The numerical order of the letters differs from that given in pages 2 and 3, being, in fact, the identical arrangement of the Hebrew alphabet, so far as the latter extends, viz., to the letter iSJ 400. The following is the order of the numerical alphabet \xiih. the corresponding number placed above each letter ; the whole being grouped into eight un- meaning words, to serve as a ' Memoria technica.' o o o o o ^«&i2 ciacr-S ir5-<3«cOM i—Cico t*t£io t? i_liJ JkjsT c:-JL^J5 j^^^sjLx-; ^J-'*^ l5^ J J-^ '^^^- ^ where \ denotes one, <_-> two, ^ thi'ee, j fom* : etc. a. In reckoning by the preceding system, the seven letters peculiarly Persian or Indian, viz. c— > t3 ^ '^ J J> ^^^ '^^ ^^^^ the same value as their cognate Arabic letters of which they are modifications, that is, of «--^ c^ ^ '^ J J' ^^*^ '^ ^ respectively. The mode of recording any event is, to form a brief sentence, such that the numerical values of all the letters, when added together, amount to the year (of the Hijra) in which the event took place. Thus, the death of Ahli of Shi'raz, who may be considered as the last of the classic poets of Persia, happened in a.h. 942 (a.d. 1535). This date is recorded in the sentence lel&l tV U>«-i iLijlj ' Ahli was the king of poets ;' where the sum of all the letters le, alif, dul, etc., when added together, will be found to amount to 942. The following date, on the death of the renowned Haidar 'Ali of Maisur (a.h. 1196), is equally elegant, and much more appropriate: ui^i J c:-'l^ilj (^^" The spirit of Biilaghat is gone.' b. Sometimes the title of a book is so cunningly contrived as to express the date of its completion. Thus, several letters written on various occasions by Abu-1-Fazl, surnamed 'Allami, when secretary to the Emperor Akbar, were afterwards collected in one volume by 'Abdu-s-samad, the secretary's nephew, and the work was entitled OF DATES. 21 ^, , or 'broken' hand, which is used in correspondence. It is quite irregular, and unadapted for printing; but not inelegant in appearance, when properly written. 22 SECTION 11. OF THE NAMES (Ul-^ asmd) INCLUDING SUBSTANTIVES, ADJECTIVES, AND PRONOUNS. 20. Oriental grammarians, both Hindu and Miisal- man, reckon only tlu'ee parts of speech, viz. the noun or name (^l-^ ^•^■''^)' ^^® ^^^^'^ (^ ^'^^' ^^^ *^^^ particle (,_J^^ Iiarf). Under the term noun, they include sub- stantives, adjectives, pronouns, infinitives of verbs, and participles. This verb agrees with our part of speech so named ; and under the general term of ' particle' are com- prised adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and inter- jections. The student will find it necessary to bear this in mind when he comes to read or converse with native teachers ; in the meanwhile we shall here treat of the parts of speech according to the classification observed in the best Latin and English grammars, with which the reader is supposed to be familiar. OF THE ARTICLE. 2 1 . The Hindustani — and all the other languages of India, so far as we know — have no word corresponding exactly with our articles the, a, or an; these being really inherent in the noun, as in Latin and Sanski-it. Hence, as a general iTile, the context alone can deter- mine whether, for example, the expression llLj l^ U-lj raja led letd^ 'regis filius,' signifies 'a son of a king,' ' the son of a king,' ' a son of the king,' or 'the son of the GENDERS OF NOUNS. 23 kiug.' When, however, great precision is required, we often meet with the demonstrative pronouns ^^ Tjili^ 'this,' and jj ivu\ 'that,' together with their plurals, employed in the same sense as our definite article. Our indefinite article is expressed in many instances by the numeral CSS\ elc, ' one ; ' or by the indefinite pronoun ^^J> ko^i^ ' some,' ' a certain one '; as^,--*) cS-^\ j^\ j,^ CSA ek mard aur ek sher^ ' a man and a tiger '; j^^--' ^^^ ko^i shakhs ' some person '; but of this we shall ti-eat more fully in the Syntax. or SUBSTANTIVES. 22. Substantives in Hindustani have two genders only, the masculine and the feminine ; two numbers, the singular and pliu-al ; and eight cases (as in Sanskrit), viz. nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, locative, instrumental or agent, and vocative. The ablative, locative, and instrumental, correspond with the Latin ablative. It has been deemed proper here to retain the Sanskiit classification of the cases, in accord- ance with the grammars of the Marathi, Bengali, and other cognate Indian dialects. 23. Gender. — To the mere Hindustani reader, it is difiicult, if not impossible, to lay down any rules by which the gender of a lifeless noun, or the name of a thing without sex, may be at once ascertained. "With regard to substantives that have a sexual distinction, the matter is easy enough, and is pithily expressed in the two fii'st lines of our old school acquaintance, Euddiman. 1. Quae maribus solum tribuuntur, mascula sunto. 2. Esto femineum, quod femina sola reposcit. 24 GENPER OF INANIMATE OBJECTS. This means, iii plain English, that ' All animate beings of the male Idnd, and all names applicable to males only, are masculine. Females, and all names applicable to females only, are feminine.' a. To the foregoing general rules, there is one (and perhaps but one) exception. The word rd. — Persian nouns derived from verbal roots by the addition of the termination ^JL— ish, are feminine. These are not few in Hindustani, and it is to such only that the rule strictly applies. Nouns from the Persian, or from the Arabic through the Persian, ending in the weak or imperceptible s h, such as '^^> "^^j Dative »i (llVl) rdton-ko, Accusative ( ^'^^ ^"^^'J' j ( j^ \jiy\j fdton-ko, ) Ablative ^«j (^y^^j rdfon-se, from the nights Locative y- ^J^ tj^iyb ^«^<'^-»*^'^> -par, in, on, the nights i Agent iJ ijy\j rdton-ne, by the nights Yocative ^j\j ^\ ai rdto, nights ! Feminine nouns ending in ^-. i, add ^\- an in the nominative plural; thus ^_^"'»j rot'i, bread,' 'a loaf,' nom. plur. ^V-ijJ rotiydn. In the oblique cases plural, they add ^.jy on as above. In like manner a fevs^ words in ^_ u, add ^\\ dn, as • ,»^ joru, a wife,' nom. ■^I'av.joruwdn or joru,dn. a. "We may now take a brief view of the formation of the cases. 28 DECLENSION. It will be seen that in the singular, the oblique cases are fonned directly from the nominative, which remains unchanged, by the addi- tion of the various post-positions. The genitive case has three forms of the post-position, all of them, however, having the same significa- tion, the choice to be determined by a very simple rule which belongs to the Syntax. The accusative is either like the nominative or like the dative ; the choice, in many instances, depending on circumstances which will be mentioned hereafter. The nominative plural adds eii to to the singular [an if the singular be in i). The oblique cases plural in the first place add oh to the singular, and to that they aflix the various post-positions ; it will be observed that the accusative plural is either like the nominative or dative plural. The vocative plural is always formed by dropping the final n of the oblique cases. Let it also be remembered that the final •. added in the formation of the cases of the plural number is always nasal. Vide letter r. page 6. Class II. — Including all !M!asculine Xouns, with the exception of such as end in \ a (purely Indian), rj^ an, and a h. Example, i^ mard, man.' Singular. o N. t)^ mard, man. G. . S- S^^ '^^ mard-M, etc., of ^ uT D. Ac. Ab. L. Ag. V. (^« mard-ko, to man. J^< mard, ] . -i, man. »i J-^ mard-ko, ) j^-j J>y* mard-se, from man. o :■*,■* i^.^ mard-men, -par, in, on, man. ij iijy* mard-ne,h^l^vllSin. ^ '', -J-* v_si ai mard,0 man! Plural. o J^ mard, men. , P-, J-\i : ,«t>-^ mardoh-M, etc., 01 men. /o •,iJ-^ mardon-lco, to men. o -^ mard, ) pj ^ o . [ o T c^>'V^ mardon-Tco, ) 3 LJ*^ Ui'^y* ^'''"'"^ow-s^, from men. o J- •.^,-« C:\*^r^ mardon-men, -par, in, on, men. o ^ji^j^'* mardon-ne, by men. • ^1 ff «' mardo, men ! This class, throughout the singular, is exactly like class I., and in the plural the only difi'erence consists in the absence of any termination added to the nominative, and consequently to the first form of the accusative, which is the same. DECLENSION. 29 All the other cases in the plural are formed precisely as before. It must be admitted that the want of a distinct termination to dis- tinguish the nominative plural from the singular, however, in Class II. is a defect in the language. This, however, seldom occasions any ambiguity, the sense being quite obvious from the context. The Geriium is liable to a similar charge, and sometimes even the English, in the use of such words as deer,' sheep,' swine,' and a few others. Class III. — Including Masculine Nouns purely Indian ending in \ a, I yi a few ending in r^\ an, and several words, chiefly from the Persian, ending in the imperceptible s or short a. ->> Example, l::^ kuttd, a dog.' N. Singular. -*• • lu^ kuttd, a dog. Ac. Ab. Loc. Aj adoE (J. ^^- ^- l^ jgii^ kutte-M, etc., " of a dog. - 1> D. ^ j:^ hutte-ko, to a doe:. I ui kuttd, V ^ ^^ kutte-ko, ^ ^:ii hitte-se, from a dog. J- -.f^* p^ kutte-meh, -par, m, on, a dog. ij, ^:^ kutte-ne, by a dog. u; Plural. ->> •-^ kutte, dogs. « _/ J- ^- 1^ -^y^ Tcutton-kd, etc., of dogs. ^ -^y^ kutton-ko, dogs. ^ji^ kutte, ^ r,y^ kutton-ko, to fcfi o y/ o'- •j*::^ kutton-sc, from dogs. \^y^ kutton-meh, -par, "^ in, on, dogs. (3 r^cSi kutton - ne, hy dogs. Voc. 1^^ L_>^ o,i kutte, dog ! j:^ o^ ai kutto, dogs ! I a. In like manner may be declined many words ending in i, as \ SJCJ handa, a slave,' gen. hande-kd, etc., nom. plur. lande, slaves,' , gen. handoh-kd, etc. Nouns in dn are not very numerous, and as the 1 final n is very little, if at all, sounded; it is often omitted in writing ; ■ thus i^ ,toj haniydli or L^ haniijd, a trader,' gen. haniyeh-kd or haniye- \ kd, which last is the more common. In the ordinal numbers, such as i^lj-jJ daswdh, ' the tenth,' etc., the nasal h generally remains in the inflection, as ^riy^*^ dasweh-kd, etc., ' of the tenth.' In the oblique 30 GENERAL RULES FOR DECLENSION. cases plural, the ^\j\ dh, is changed into ^j^ oh. With regard to this third class of words, we have one remark to add ; which is, that the vocative singular is often to be met with uninflected, like the nominative as liLj i_s\ ai beta for fJ^ o^ , son ! ' b. The peculiarity of Class III. is, that the terminations \ a and i a, of the nominative singular, are entirely displaced in the oblique cases singular and nominative plural by ,_5 e, and in the oblique cases plural by j^. oh. This change or displacement of termination is called ' inflection,' and it is limited to masculine nouns only with the above terminations ; for feminines ending in \ • ,^ or i, are never inflected, nor are all masculines ending in the same, subject to it. A consider- able number of masculine nouns ending in \ a, purely Arabic, Persian, or Sanskrit, are not inflected, and consequently belong to Class II. On the other hand, masculine nouns purely Indian, such for example as the infinitives and participles of verbs used substantively or adj ac- tively, are uniformly subject to inflection. In like manner, several masculine nouns ending in the imperceptible i^ are not subject to inflection, and as these are not reducible to any rule, the student must be guided by practice. c. Masculines in s from the Persian often change the S into \ in Hindustani; thus <^-jJ darja, grade,' rank,' becomes ^-jt) darjd; so i>y$ maza, taste,' becomes \l* mazd. All such words are subject to inflection, for by this change they become as it were Indianized.' The final i is not inflected if in a state of construction (agreeably to the rules of Persian grammar) with another word, as ^-,« i,^^ ^'^'.'■^ d'lda-i hash men, in the eye of prudence ; ' ^--^ ^•^^^^j loV J ^d'^dn-i rekhta men, in the Eekhta or mixed dialect.' 26. General rules for the Declension of Nouns. — 1. In classes I. and II. the nominative singular remains unaltered throughout, the plural terminations being superadded. 2. In class III. the nominative singular is changed or inflected into ^ e, for the oblique singular and nominative plural, and the terminations of the oblique cases plural are substituted for^ not added to^ the termination of the singular. 3. All pliu-als end in POST-POSITION. 31 ^j oh in the oblique cases, that is, whenever a post- position is added or understood. 4. The vocative plural always ends in^ o, having dropped the final ^^ h of the ! oblique. 5. Words of the first and second classes, con- j sisting of two short syllables, the last of which being ! fatha^ drop the fatha on receiving a plural termination ; j thus uJ^ taraf^ 'aside,' nom. plur. ^Jtjis prfeh^ gen. i' l^ •^^'ja tarfoh-k'a^ etc., not tarafeh^ etc. a. A few words are subject to slight deviations from the strict rule, among which we may mention the following. 1. Words ending •j iiw, preceded by a long vowel, as yU ndnw, *a name,' ylj pdhw, J *the foot,' and »jlS gdnw, a village ;' reject the »J nw, and substitute the mark hamza on receiving a plural termination : thus, l^ lo^'^ pd,oh M, etc. 'of the feet.' 2. The word t^^^ gd,e, 'a cow,' makes in y the nominative plural -^^^ gd,en, and in the oblique plural r^y^ ff^)On, I thus resembling the oblique plural of yli gdnw, 'a village.' 3. A few feminine diminutives in b- iyd, like randiyd, chiriyd, etc. form the nominative plural by merely adding a nasal n, as {\\ij^ chiriydii, ) which is evidently a contraction for chinyd,eh, the regular fonn. 4. Masculines of the third class ending in <)J ya, may follow the general rule, or change the t_f y into a hamza before the inflection ; thus ^jLj sdya, ' a shade (of a tree),' gen. 1$" ^Ls sdye-kd, or l^ ^'Ls 8d,e-kd. 5. The word '^^j rupiya, a rupee,' has generally ^,^j rwpa,e, for the nominative plural. 27. Post-position. — In this work, to avoid confusion, we apply the term post-position only to those insepar- able particles or terminations which invariably follow the nouns to which they belong. They may be united with their substantives so as to appear like the case terminations in Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, or they may be written separately, as we have given them in the examples for declension. The most useful and important of them are the following, viz. : l^ /ra, ^ ke, ^ Jc^ 32 ADJECTIVES. 'of,' the sign of the genitive ease; f Jco ' to,' the sign of the dative, and sometimes of the accusative or objective case; ^^ se 'from,' or 'with,' (also ^^ son, ^^^ sen, ^j^, si If, are occasionally met with), the sign of the ablative and instrumental ; ^ par (sometimes in poetry ^ pa), 'upon,' 'on,' 'at,' ^r*^ men, 'in,' 'into,' CJ^ taJc, lLS\j falak, cL^ kiff, 'up to,' 'as far as,' 'till,' one of the signs of the locative case; and, lastly, J, ne, 'by,' the sign of the agent. a. The post-positions require the words to which they are affixed to be in the inflected form, if they belong to Class III. ; and they are generally united with the oblique form in r^* oh of all plurals. On the other hand, an inflected form in the singular can only occur in combination with a post-position, expressed or understood ; and the same rule applies to all bond fide oblique forms in ^^j oh of the plural. There are a few expressions in which the oblique form in 1^ . oh is used for the nominative plural ; and when a numeral precedes, the nominative form may be used for the oblique, as will be noticed more fully in the Syntax. OF ADJECTIVES. 28. Adjectives in Hindustani generally precede their substantives, and with the exception of those which are pui-ely Indian words and ending in \ «, together with a few from the Persian ending in 2? or short a, they are, as in English, indeclinable. "Words purely Indian, ending in \ «, change the final \ a into ^_^ e, when they qualify or agree with a masculine noun in any case except the nominative singular (or the first form of the accusative, which is the same) ; and the \ a is changed into ^- I with feminine nouns. Thus, the adjective c-yi- ^iib-) ' good,' ' fair,' is the same before nouns of either gender or number in all cases, as Ichiih jdnwar^ ' a ADJECTIVES. 33 fine animal ;' Ichdh larlc'i, ' a fair girl '; khub randiyah^ ' fine women,' khiib ghore, ' beautiful horses.' Again the adjective i!l^ kdld, ' black,' is used in that form only before masculine nouns, in the nominative or the first form of the accusative singular ; it will become Jl^ kale^ before masculine nouns in the oblique cases singular and throughout the plural, as Jccild mard, ' a black man,' hale mard-Jcd^ ' of a black man,' Jcdle mard^ '• black men,' kale mardoh-se^ ' from black men.' Lastly, before femi- nine nouns, kdld becomes Jl^ kdli for both numbers and in all cases, as kdli rdt^ ' the dark night,' kdli rdt-se^ ' from the dark night,' kdli rdton-kd^ ' of the dark nights,' etc. a. Hence it appears, as a general rule: — 1. That adjectives, before feminine nouns, have no variation on account of case or number. 2. That adjectives terminating like nouns of the first and second classes are indeclinable ; and lastly, that adjectives, terminating like nouns of the third class, are subject to a slight inflection like the oblique I singular of the substantives of that class, h. The cardinal numbers, eh, one,' do, two,' etc., are all inde- clinable when used adjectively. The ordinals above pdnchwdn, ' the fifth,' inclusive, follow the general rule, that is, pdnchwdh is inflected into pdnchwen before the oblique cases of masculines, and it becomes pdnchw'ih before feminine nouns. c. Adjectives ending in a or short a, which are principally borrowed from the Persian ; are, for the most part, indeclinable. There are some, however, which are inflected into ^ e for the masculine, and ^- i for the feminine, like those ending in I a; " ^ O. f among these may be reckoned HiiJu rdnda, rejected,' ^tJUj sdda, plain, iu\,*x. ^umda, exalted,' ifJoS ganda, fetid,' iJjt* mdnda, tired,' if Jj^ri- Mmrinda, gluttonous,' ii^*^J^ sharminda, ashamed,' Ai-»^ kamina, ' mean,' ^Is^J lechdra, helpless,' ^lil) ndkdra, useless,' i-voli ndd'ula, unseen,' if(j1j,«L»- hardm-zdda, base-born,' 5 34 PRONOUNS. tOL: u->o yak-sulah, 'annual,' one year old,' aiLj jj do sdlah, biennial,' and perhaps a few more. d. The majority of adjectives purely Indian, together with all present and past participles of verbs, end in I a (subject to inflection) for the masculine, and ^J— i for the feminine. All adjectives in I d, purely Persian or Arabic, are indeclinable, with perhaps the sole exception of \jC9- Judd, separate,' distinct,' and a few that may have become naturalized in Hindustani by changing the final a of the Persian into I d, like \j\i fuldnd, such a one,' or so and so.' 29. Degress of Comparison. — The adjecth'es in Hindustani have no regular degrees of comparison, and the manner in which this defect is supplied mil be fully explained in the SjTitax. Suffice it here to say that when two objects are compared, that with which the comparison is made is put in the ablative case, like the Latin. Thus, for example, 'this house is high,' ^ joJj j^ -^j yih gliar huland hai ; ' this house is higher than the tree,' ^ jII; .^ c^-^.j j^ ^^^ yih gliar darakht-se huland hai^ literally 'this house (compared) with the tree is high.' The superlative degree is merely an extreme comparison formed by reference to the word <._„^-; sah, 'all,' as ^ jlb ^_^^^v-j^-^j yih ghar sah-se buland hai, ' this house (compared) with all is high,' or ' this is the highest house of all.' OF PRONOUNS, Personal Pronouns. 30. The pronouns differ more or less from the sub- stantantives in theii- mode of inflection. Those of the first and second persons form the genitive in \j r«, ^j re, and ^j rl, instead of l^ ka, etc. They have a distinct , PERSONAL rRONOUNS. 35 dative aud accusative form in ^^ e (singular), and :,.; ch (plural), besides that made by the sign ^ ko. They also form the oblique in a manner peculiar to themselves, and admit generally of the elision of the termination ^^ oh, in the oblique plural. They have the dative and accu- sative cases in both numbers the same ; and lastly, the cases of the agent are never inflected in the singular, these being always maih-ne and tu-ne or taih-ne ; never mujh-ne^ or tujh-ne. The first personal pronoun is thus declined : — :t-^ main, I.' Singular, l!?". ^^ main, I. \ ( i-:fjii-^ \jn^ merd, mere \ my, G. ( si/s^ mer'i, f. ofme D. & ( ^5t-?'* »'«/*^' ) me, or Ac. ' ^ -fs"* mujh-ko, ) to me. A. --J ^"^ mujh-se, from me. L. • .-^ -^.sr* mujh-men, in me. 1 Ag. (_J j^N--^ maih-ne, by me. Plural. *Jb ham. We. 4^uJi> i^uJi hamdrd, hamdre ) ^• ^5^Uji> hamdr'i, f. jo • ^«*♦Jl» hameh, \ }' I us, or »S *jb ham-ko, > f' ' I . , I to us. yt ^jy*^ hamon-ko, ) ^ aA ham se, ) " I , . J from us. ^e-; j2>_J'*>^ namo7i se, ) ^\j^ >Ji> ham-men, ) il^^ ■ )j'»>fi> hamon men, ) ij *J& ham-ne, \ jj i^iJ'^'^ hamon ne, ) ^ In this example we have three forms essentially distinct from each other, viz., the nominative, genitive, and oblique modification in the singular, as jw^ main, \j^ mem, ^^-* mujh ; and in the plui'al ^ ham, |^Uj5) hamdrd-, and ^ ham or ^y*jb hamon. From the oblique modifications, — ^sr* mujh, and ^ ham or ^^ hamon, — the !6 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. other oLliqiie cases are formed by adding tlie requisite post-positions, except that the case denoting the agent is in the singular J, ^,^ main ne. The second personal pronoun J tii or ,-j iain is declined in a similar manner. Singular. N. -r^ or J tk or tain, Thou. G. 4?;:^ W* ^^^^> stc, thy. D. & \ L^ ^^''^'^^' ] to thee, Ac. ( ^ -fsT tujh-ko, ) or thee. L^ -isT tujh-se, from thee. L. ^»^ -^sT ^?yA men, in thee. Ag. (J y M-??«j, by thee. V. y ^5! ai til, thou ! Plural. aJ turn, Ton. t^j- ^j- I^U^" tumJidrd, etc., your. •h*^' tumhen, to you. •,^i4.j' »i aj tum-lco, or tumhoh- j tum-meh, or ^?<»i- •..-.^ hon-meh, in you. -.j^i^" (_i ♦J timi-ne, or tiimTion- J we, by you. *j tjl ai turn, ye ! Demonstrative Pronouns. 31. In Hindustani the demonstrative pronouns, ' this, ' that,' ' these,' and ' those,' at the same time supply the place of our third person 'he,' ' she,' ' it,' and ' they.' They are the same for both genders, and the context alone determines how they are to be rendered into English. The word ^^^ yih^ ' this,' 'he,' ' she,' or ' it,' is used when reference is made to a person or object that is near; and sj wiih, 'that,' 'he,' 'she,' or 'it,' when we refer to that which is more remote. The DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 37 proximate demonstrative -,^, yili^ ' lie,' ' she,' ' it,' ' this,' is declined as follows : — ■ Singular. N. M^ yih, this, he, etc. G.^J-^J-^(jm\ u-Jcci, -ke,-Ici,oi this, him, etc. D. --j1 ^ {jj^\ is-ho or ise, to this, to him, etc. Ac. ^ ijJ\ -^j yih, is-Jco, ise, this, ^^\ him, etc. Ab. ^~j tjM\ is-se, from this, him, etc. L. ■ • .-^ (_>u^ is-men, in this, or in him, etc. ■^g- ti o^^ ^s-we, by this, or by him, etc. Plural. ^_ yis, these, they. ^S- iS- ^ tj^ in-kd, -Ice, Tii, of these, of them. \y^\ S .s\\ in-lio or inhen, or ' /• T 1 i'^^ho'nlio, to these, ^ ti)^ I ) or to them. T ^ Lii ^^' «w-^o, or «wAew, • ,-^ \ these, them. ^^ ^ in-se, from these, from them. v,--^ (jl m »ie/i, in these, in them. in-ne, by these, V u by them. In this example we see that the nominative yih is changed into is for the oblique cases singular, and the nominative plural ye becomes in for the oblique plural, just as in the English 'he' becomes 'him,' and 'they' ' them.' In the oblique cases plural, it may be men- tioned that besides the form ^\ in, we sometimes meet with ^\ ink and ^,^\ inhoh, though not so commonly. The dative singular has two forms, one by adding A-o, like the substantives, and another by adding ^ e, as is-]co or is-e ; in the plural we have in-Jco and in-lieh. The accusative is generally lil5:e the dative, but often the same as the nominative, as in the declension of substantives. 32. The demonstrative ij, 'that,' 'he,' 'she, 'it' the interrogative ^f kaim, ' who ? ' ' what ?' the relative 38 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, ETC. y=>- jo^ ' he who,' ' she wlio,' etc., and the correlative ^ so, ' that same,' are precisely similar in termination to -^_ in the foregoing example ; hence it Avill suffice to give the nominatives, and one or two oblique cases of each, thus : — Remote Demonstrative. Plural. N. Singular. hi wuh, he, she, it, or that. G. ' l^ L)*i\ us-kd, etc. I). ^^J\ ^ (jwjl us-lto, or u&e. ijr. we, they, those. l^ •, »i5 \ li ^ un-hd, or unhon-kd. \y^\ S ^ un-Tio, or unheh. G. G. N. jj4i katm, who, which li fjj^ kis-hd, etc. Interrogative (applied to persons or individuals). ■ j^ kaun, who, which. 12^ jo»T^ ^ Mj^ kin-kd, or kinhon- kd, etc. Interrogative (applied to matter or quantity). L^ Xya, what. ^jfcli kdhe-kd, etc. Same as the singular. Relative. Sinffular. »5>- JO or (oy=r y^'fwwj He who, she who, that which. G. li i/*>-=^ jis-kd, etc. D. (C**^ ji L/**^ jis-ko, etc. Plural. »;>- JO otjaun, They who, those who, or which. l> '.ijf^ ^ ^^:s^ jiti-kd, jinhoh-kd, etc. (jrrc*^ »i ^^^ jin-ko, or jinheh. Correlative. "N. »-j 50 or j^y ^'ifMw, That same. G. li jjoJ tis-kd, etc. D. j<*i-J )^ j_/«j tis-ko, Use. y^ SO or ^ki* ^aww, These same. li j^i^r^' w 1^' tin-kd or tinhon-kd, etc. •.,;^^ y fjj tin-ko, tinheh. ^ Sometimes l^ (jjjj m'/s Xa, etc. ; and in the plur. l^ ij^j or -Jj ^,j mw-, wink-, or winhoii.-, kd, etc. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 39 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 33. The genitives singular and plural of the personal and demonstrative pronouns are used adjectively as pos- sessives, like the mens, tuus, noster, v ester, etc., of the Latin, and in construction they follow the rule given respecting adjectives in I a. There is, however, in addi- tion to these, another possessive of frequent occurrence, viz. iJl apna, ^\ apne, ^\ apni, 'own,' or 'belonging to self; which, under certain circumstances, supplies the place of any of the rest, as will be fully explained in the Syntax. The word c_;T ap, ' self,' is used with or without the personal pronouns ; thus, c_jT ^^ main ap, 'I myself,' which meaning may be conveyed by em- ploying L_>T hp alone. But the most frequent use of t-M dp is as a substitute for the second person, to express respect, when it may be translated, 'you,' 'sir,' 'your honour,' ' your worship,' etc. When used in this sense, cJT dp is declined like a word of the second class of substantives under the singular form, thus : — N. c->l dp, your honour. «--<^- ^- ^ l-jI up-led, -he, -hi, of your honour. D. & Ac. jj t_-j| dp-Jco, to your honour, your honour. A. i^-j <-_-> 1 apse, from your honour. L. ^j^ L-j\ dp-men, in your honour. Agt. vJ c-J 1 up-ne, by your honour. When the word <_-;T dp denotes ' self,' it is decline as follows :— - N. t— ?l dp, self, myself, etc. G. i^j) ^^1 uoi a2md, apne, apn'i, own, of self, etc. 40 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. -^ ^* " -o, ^ ^ ,. ' to-self, self. •-»*j ^j^i or fl^we ^a,z», ) The phrase ^^-^ ^;*jT apccs-meh denotes ' among our- selves,' ' yourselves,' or ' themselves,' according to the nominative of the sentence. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 34. Under this head we class all those words which have more or less of a pronominal signification. The following are of frequent occurrence : — ul^J ekj ' one ; \^jj dusrd, 'another ;' y^j dono, or r^^yt'^ donoh, 'both ;' j»\ aiir, 'other (more) ;' j^ ghair^ 'other, (different) ;' ^^^^^. hcCze^ ' certain ;' l::-^^^ hahiit^ ' many,' ' much ;' l_-^-: sab^ ' all,' ' every ;' ji har, ' each ;' ajlj fuldna or Uii fidcind, ' a certain one ;' ^^^ 'ko'i^ ' any one,' ' some one ;' ^ kuchJi^ ' any thing,' ' something ;' ^ Jca^i and x^ chand^ 'some,' 'several,' 'many;' iJl^ Mtnd or ^ kittd^ 'how many ?' \:^ jitnd or Hj^ jittd^ ' as many ;' liji itnd or IJ^ 2^^«, ' so many.' They are all regular in their inflec- tions, with the exception of Jj^ ko^i^ 'any,' and ^ kuchJij ' some,' wliich are thus declined : — Singular. ; yi ho, I. N. ^ ^j^ ^^ih ^"^1 one, some one. Obi. l^ i«***^ hisi-M, etc. N. -fs- Jcuchh, Any thing, something. Obi. li .-tui h'su-kd, etc. Plural. > jS X'OjZ or ^-S Z;<3!,2, some, several. * l^ jc^ kini-kd, etc. -fs^ kuchh, any, some, * li »iS kinu-kd, etc. * We have given the oblique forms of the plural Jc'mi and kinu on the authority of Mr. Yates ; at the same time we must confess that we never met with either of them in the course of our rcadine;. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 41 a. The word hoX unaccompanied by a substantive, is generally understood to signify a person or persons, as ho,i hai? is there any one?' (vulgarly (^^u' %) ; and in similar circumstances /cMc/Ji refers to things in general, as Icuchh nah'ih, there is nothing,' no matter.' When used adjectively, ko,'i and kuchh may be applied to persons or things indifferently, particularly so in the oblique cases. h. The following is a useful list of compound adjective pronouns; and as almost all of them have already been noticed in their simple forms, it has been deemed superfluous to add the pronunciation in Roman characters. They are for the most part of the indefinite kind, and follow the inflections of the simple forms of which thej^ are com- posed ; thus eh ho,!, some one,' eh his'i-hd, etc., of some one.' If both members be subject to inflection in the simple forms, the same is observed in the compound, as jo-ho,i, whosoever,' jis-his'i-hd, etc., of whomsoever,' so jo-kuchh, whatsoever,' jis-hisu-hd, etc., of whatsoever.' The compound adjective pronouns of the indefinite kind are jj\ CSj\, lLnjI ij^ or CS^\ ]r-!ji->, another,' |<-'^ CSj}, someone,' ^J>S ^z-Jj*^ or -fs^ ]/-'j'^> ' some other,' CS^\ ^}j ' o^e or other,' ^fji^, 'some one else,' .^ j^\, ' something else,' (._^v-;j^l, 'the rest,' <^^ i<^ ^^ J^' l^^' 'some others,' CSS\ u:->.^j, " ^ 9 '• p " ^ 9 ' many a one,' ^^ '-^^-v^j *much,'jjl ^-^^-v^ many more,' ^^ t_^^-J or ^'^Jb, ' everyone,' .^ i .v-j or ^^ J&, 'every thing,' uLx>J l_.->~j, CS-^\ Jb or ij^ Jb, 'every one,' lLxjJ jc-^j^ 'whichever,' jj^ 15-'^' 'some other,' ,J^^^ 'whoever,' ^^ ^, whatever,' ^j^'^ ^' ij--'^ p p 9 ** ^ ^ ** '' p 'some one or other,' CS^\ -i^ or ,s^ -f^ > ' somewhat,' jj\ -~? > p p some more,' .^ y, in order to avoid a disagree- able hiatus ; thus fi'om ^Si Idnd, ' to bring,' comes 1>^J lay a (not \^ Id-d) 'brought;' so Ijjj rond, ' to weep,' makes AUXILIARY VERB. 43 Vjj '^'^y^ ^^ ^^^^ P^^^ participle. These three parts being thus ascertained, it will be very easy to form all the various tenses, etc., as in the examples which we are about to subjoin. 37. As a preliminary step to the conjugation of all verbs, it will be necessary to learn carefully the following fragments of the auxiliary verb ' to be,' which frequently 00010" in the language, not only in the formation of tenses, but in the mere assertion of simple existence. Present Tense. Singular. ' ^ .• • /.ys ^j-^« main hiin, I am. ^Jb J til hai, thou art. " ^ p ^Jb 4Vj ivuli hai, he, she, it is. Past Tense. Li" • .-.^ main thd, I was. l^' »!'■ tu thd, thou wast, l^' ^j tvuh thd, he or it was. Plural. (j-J& f^ ham hain, we are. •Ji *j turn ho, you are. • ,-Jb ^j we hain, they are. -^" *j& ^«»i ^Ae, we were. p ^j *J' turn the, you were. 15$^ (-/j ^^'^ ^^^j they were. a. The first of these tenses is a curiosity in its way, as it is the only present tense in the language characterized by different termi- nations, and independent of gender. Instead of the form ^Jj> hai, in \ the second and third persons singular, lOb haigd is frequently met '' with m verse ; and in the plural, ixji> hainge for --Jt, hain in the first and third persons. In the past tense, l^' thd of the singular becomes ^^ th'i when the nominative is feminine, and in the plural ^yf^ thin. We may here remark that throughout the conjugation of aU verbs, when the singular terminates in d (masculine), the plural becomes e; and if the nominative be feminine, the d becomes i for the singular, and vi (contracted for iydii) for the plural. If several feminine terminations in the plural follow in succession, the kh is added only to the last, but even here there are exceptions. 44 CONJUGATION. 38. We shall now proceed to tlie conjugation of an intransitive or neuter verb, and with a view to assist the memory, we shall arrange the tenses in the order of their formation from the three principal parts already explained. The tenses, as will be seen, are nine in number — ^three tenses being formed from each of the three principal parts. A few additional tenses of comparatively rare occurrence will be detailed hereafter. Infinitive, U^j iolna, To speak. Imperative and root J v ^ol, speak (thou). Present participle IJ •.' boltd, speaking. , Past participle ^*J lold, spoke or spoken. *±i on .2 1. TENSES FORMED FROM THE ROOT : Aorist. English — I may speak,' etc. Jy. main lolun. ^^ J tu hole. J»j ij wuh hole. *J5> ham holeh. •])j |»j turn holo. j^ we Idle'n. Future. English — I shall or will speak,' etc. uo J^j |%-»^ main lolungd lL«!»j J tu lolegd. uL5»j s« wuh holegd. fem. holuhg'i, etc. jX^jj j«J^ ham holenge. ^^^. (^ iii»i iologe. |Jo-J^ oj we holenge. fem. holeng'ih, etc. Imperative. English — Let me speak, speak thou,' etc. J^a^- (j^ main holuh. i^r^y. f^ ^^^^* holeh, J»j y til h6l. «] V w turn holo, 1^^ Sj wuh hole ^jJi^ ^j toe holeh. CONJUGATION. 45 2. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE: Indefinite. English, (as a present tense) — ' I speak, thou speakest,' etc. ; (conditional) — ' If I spoke, had I spoken,' etc. ; (habitual) — I used to speak.' ^^- il^"'* ''^^'^'^^ holtd. y »j J tii holtd. uJjj s^ wuh holtd. ^J »j *JS) ham holfe. ^J jj j^j turn holte. jj 4j ^. we holte. Present. English — I speak or am speaking,' etc. -.^ Uij ^-^ waam ioZ^a M». Jb bJ »J ^' ^ii holtd hai. ^Jb bJjj ^ wuh holtd hai. •j-jb (fiJ v' (f^ ham holte hain. Imperfect. English — ■ I was speaking, thou wast,' etc. \^ W*^ ^y^ main holtd thd. \^ y V y t^ holtd thd. \^ Uy ^ e^wA holtd thd. ^j^ .^^ *^ ham holte the. 3. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PAST PARTICIPLE: Fast. English — I spoke, thou spokest,' etc. ^y (j:^* ^^C'i'f'' hold. ^ jj >j& Aflw hole. 3y »j" ^it 5o?d. SiLi ^j ti)«i7j hold. Perfect. English — I have spoken, thou hast,' etc. ^.fcto Sy ^-^ wiam ^o/a /mw. jJ5> JJ*J y ^M ioZa hai. ^jb 3»J ij ti;z(7i Jo/d /iai''. c;:? " , ? •46 FORMATION OF TENSES. Pluperfect. English — ' I had spoken, thou hadst spoken,' etc. Jy. (^ ham bole the. ^^ J»j mj turn hole the. -;!' ^»J tjj we bole the. Li' S»j :,*^* main bold thd. [^ tji y tu bold thd. ^j ijj Sj wiih bold thd. 4. MISCELLANEOUS YERBAL EXPRESSIONS : Respectful Imperative or Precative. ^jj boliye or y^ji boliyo, You, he, etc., be pleased to speak.' iL^j^ boliyegd, 'You, he, etc., wiU have the goodness to speak.' Infirt,itive (used as a gerund or verbal noun). Nom. U!o bolnd, 'Speaking:' gen. l^ ^jJ bolne-M, etc.. Of speaking,' etc., like substantives of the third class. ', > ^' . JS^oim of Agency. ^L jj»j bolne-wdld, and sometimes |jl& ^jJjJ bolne-hdrd, A sp"eaker,' ' one who is capable of speaking.' Participles, used ac^ectively. Singular. Pres. UjJ So? itfJ*^ ^o7^e 7iM,e, fem. io/^wi or bolt'i hit,, in. i^V ^o?(S or ^^Jjb ^»; bole hu,e, fem. io?2« or boli hu,ih. Conjunctive (indeclinable). JjJ bol, ^y) bole, ^^^ bolke, ^^ 5o?^flr, j^_/^ J^ *o? X-ar-X-^, or ^^ J »j Jo? karhar, ' having spoken.' Adverbial pa/rticiple (indeclinable). j^ L5*^y bolte-hi. On speaking, or on (the instant of) speaking.' a. We may here briefly notice how the various portions of the verb are formed. The aorist, it will be seen, is the only part worthy of the name of tense, and it proceeds directly from the root by adding the terminations un, e, e, for the singular, and eii, o, en, for the FORMATION OF TENSES. 47 plural. The future is formed directly from the aorist by adding gd to the singular and ge to the plural for masculines, or by adding gi and ffiydn (generally contracted into ffin) when the nominative to the verb is feminine. The imperative differs from the aorist merely in the second person singular, by using the bare root without the addition of the termination e. Hence, the future and imperative are mere modifications of the aorist, which we have placed first, as the tense par excellence. It is needless to offer any remai'k on the tenses formed from the present participle, as the reader will easily learn them by inspection. The three tenses from the past participle are equally simple in all neuter or intransitive verbs ; but in transitive verba they are subject to a peculiarity of construction, which will be noticed further on. The proper use and application of the various tenses and other parts of the verb will be fully treated of in the Syntax. h. As the aorist holds the most prominent rank in the Hin- dustani verb, it will be proper to notice in this place a few euphonic peculiarities to which it is subject. 1. When the root ends in d, the letter w is optionally inserted in the aorist between the root and those terminations that begin with e ; thus Ui! Idnd, to bring,' root^ Id, Aorist, ^i■J^ Idwe or ^5^^ ld,e. 2. When the SkUHStt ends in 0, the letter w is optionally inserted, or the general rule may be observed, or the initial vowels of the termination may all vanish, as will be seen in the verb hond, which we are about to subjoin. Lastly, when the root ends in e, the letter w may be inserted between the root and those terminations which begin with e, or the w being omitted, the final e of the root is absorbed in the terminations throughout. Thus UJj dend, to give,' root ^J de, Aorist, deiin, dewe, deice ; deweh de,o, dewen ; or, contracted, dun, de, de ; den, do, den. It is needless to add that the future and imperative of all such verbs are subject to the same modification. With regard to the respectful form of the imperative and future, we see at once that it comes from the root by adding lye, lyo, or lyegd ; if, however, the root happens to end in the long vowels i or ii, the letter / is inserted between the root and the termination. Thus U-j p'lnd, to drink,' root, p'l, respectful form, p'ljiye, pyiyo, and pyiyegd. 48 THE VERB 'to BE.' 39. We now come to the verb U^ hond^ 'to be, or become,' Avhich, being of frequent occurrence, is worthy of the reader's attention. It is perfectly regular in the formation of all its tenses, etc., and conjugated precisely ^like Jo/?za^ already given. The past participle changes ' the of the root into u, instead of retaining the o and inserting the euphonic y (Ko. 3G), thus V^ hii^d, ' been or become,' not bys hoy a; so the respectful imperative is hujiye^ etc. ; but these slight peculiarities do not in the least affect the regularity of its conjugation, as will be seen in the paradigm. Infinitive, Uys hond^ ' To be, or become.' Root »A ho, present participle Ij'yb hotd, past participle \^ hu,d. Aorist. ' I may, or shaU be, or become.' uy^' - "rOy^ y ^^ howe, ho,e or ho. fcS)- (_ij-*- «/J!y^ ^J ^"^ hotce, ho,e, or ho. s- ... i\)^- ^i^' il^.}^ (^ ^^^ howen, ho,en, or hon. ^ p y&- jjjjb *J turn ho,o or ho. ^jjJi- (itJ j^- i^.*y^ •->? ^"^ howen, ho,en, or hoh. Future. 'I sliaU or will be, or become.' uJjJb- uJj*J^ -j--^ inain ho,ungd, or hiingd. Uyb- uJjA- ^'. j)^ y ^" hoicegd, ho,egd, or 7io_$7a. ISyi- l>>^;yi>- Wl^y^ ^J ^"w^ howegd, ho,egd, or ^o^a. o o o jjsjyi- Jsij t&- Ijij ^ys *jb Afl;» howenge, ho,ehge, or honge. ^J>yi>- i_rJ^ 1^ ^"''* hoyoge, or ^oye. ^Jo»J^- |Jsijyis- ^J.ujt^i> ^^^ li-c howchge, ho,ehge, or hohge. THE VERB 'to BE.' 49 Imperative. 'Let me be, be thou,' etc. i '' .. . C^)^- i^^^^ ijrr* ^(^^^ ho-un, or hon. fcfe 4J" t{i ho. J, ^ »Jfe- i-f}^- t/jy* h ^^^ howe, ho,e, or ho. ii>y*" tiJ^.J'''" (1?"^^^ (*^ ^^^ howen, ho-en, or Aow. yb- jJbj^ turn ho,o, or Ao. /.yfe- ^t'jy!*- Mtljy^ tJ; ^^ howeh, ho,en, or Aow. IndeJinUe. '1 am, I migbt be, I used to be, or become.' jtJb ham i\j^ main \j^ ) J tu [ hotd ii wuh '■43 ^^ turn \ hote. Present. 'I am, or I become,* etc. •jji Uyfe 'r*^ main hotd hiin. ^Jb u»Jb

^o^e the. 'I became,' etc. 50 THE VERB 'to BE.' Perfect. *I have become,' etc. Singular. r.^ Vjb j-^ main hu,d hun. ^Jb \Jb »J tu nu,a hat. ^b \yi> si wuh hu,d hai. Plural. •jjfcto t_5tii *JSi ham hu,e hain. »i) tjy!> aJ turn hu,e ho. Pluperfect. 'I had become,' eic. , hiijiye, %^^ Jiujiyo, or \,x**59-»Jb hiijiyegd, be pleased to be, or to become.' Infinitive, or Verbal Noun. l) »J5> Ao?ia, ' being,' hone-kd, etc., of being.' iVbww o/ Agency or Condition. ^l»-j»i^ honewdld, that which is, or becomes.' Pflfr^zc«j??es. Pres. ljy& /io^d, or V^ lJy^ hotd hu,d, being, becoming.' Past. ^ts> Au,d, been, or become.' Conjunctive Participle. ^S^ $^ ^ ^i hoTcar, hdke, etc., ' having been, or become.' Adverbial Participle. ^ ^'^ hote-M, on being, or becoming.' a. "We may here observe that the aorist, futiu'e, and indefinite of l3 yfe hond, ' to be,' are sometimes used as auxiliaries with the present and past participles of other verbs, so as to give us three additional tenses. These, from their nature, arc not of very frequent occurrence, and some forms of them we confess we have never met with in any work, printed or manuscript, except in grammars. They are, how- ever, considered as distinct parts of the verb by native grammarians, ADDITIONAL TENSES. 51 therefore it is but right that they should find a place here. "We therefore subj in them, together with their native appellations, re- serving the necount of their use and application till we come to the Syntax. 1 . JTdl-i mutashahhi, literally, present dubious.' English — ' I may or shall be speaking.' \ij j^Si- ^j»^^ WfcJ -.-.^ main hoUd ho,un or Jio,ungd. ujjijjfe- L^»^ ^y y ^^ loltd hoive or Jiowegd. Usj^yb- ^^»^ Wy sj ivuh holtd hoive or hoivegd. j>^^4>- : J^y^ LS^^?^ 1^ ^'^"* ^^^^^ howen or howehge. ^t^- t\ib LjJy [*J ^«'w* ^o/^e Ao,o or Jio,oge. LS^-ii^' ^_5jy - ij,^ ^y^- \ (*■■'" ^"''* [ ^^^^^ '*''^''' ^'^ ^''^'^ ^^^^* 52 TRANSITIVE VERBS. b. Of those three tenses, the first is of rare occurrence ; the second is more common, and the future form of the auxiliary is more usual than the aorist in both tenses. The third tense, or past conditional, is of very rare occurrence under the above form, its place being generally supplied by the simpler form W^j ^^-^ main loltd, the first of the tenses from the present participle, which on account of its various significations we have given under the appellation of the Indefinite Tense. In the Pather of Hindustani Grammars,' that of Dr. Gilchrist, 4to. Calcutta, 1796, and also in two native treatises in our possession, the various forms main loltd,^ main bolfd hotd,' main holtd hu,d hotd,' and main bold hotd,^ are all included under the appellation of mdzi sharti, or mdzi mutamann'i, that is, Past Conditional.' It is true, the form main boltd' has occasionally a present signification, but to call it a present tense, as is done in some of our grammars, is leading the student into a gross error, as we shall shew hereafter. 40. We shall now give an example of a transitive verb, which, as we have already hinted, is liable to a peculiarity in those tenses which are formed from the past participle. The fidl explanation of this anomaly belongs to the Syntax. Suffice it here to say that the construction resembles to a certain extent the passive voice of the corresponding tenses in Latin. Thus for example, the sentence, ' He has wi'itten one letter,' may in Latin, and in most Eiu'opean tongues, be expressed in two diiferent ways, by which the assertion amounts to exactly the same thing, viz., ' Ilk unam epistolam scripsitj^ or ' Ab illo una epistola scripta est? !N'ow these two modes of expression convey the same idea to the mind, but in Hindustani the latter form only is allowed ; thus ' iis-ne ek chithi likKi liai^^ literally, ' by him one letter has been wi'itten.' Hence, in Hindustani those tenses of a transitive verb which are fonned from the past CONJUGATION OF A TRANSITIVE VERB. 53 participle, will have their nominative cases changed into that form of the ablative expressive of the agent. What ought to be the accusative of the sentence will become the real nominative, with which the verb agrees accord- ingly, except in some instances when it is requisite that the accusative should have the particle ho affixed, in which case the verb is used in its simplest form of the masculine singular, as we have given it below. a. It is needless to say that in all verbs the tenses from the root and present participle are formed after the same manner, and the peculiarity above alluded to is limited to transitive verbs only,— and to only four tenses of these, — which it is particularly to be wished that the student should well remember. In the following verb, bit* mama, to beat or strike,' we have given all the tenses in ordinary use, together with their various oriental appellations, as given in a treatise on Hindustani Grammar, compiled by a munshi in the service of Mr. Chicheley Plowden. It is a folio volume, written in Hindustani, but without author's name, date, or title. Infinitive (masdar) bjU mdrnd^ ' To beat.' ;L« mar, 'beat thou; ljjt« mdrtd, 'beating'; \j\^ mdrd, 'beaten.' / •'*• ^ 1. TENSES OE THE ROOT: Aorist {muzdri'). (/^ sl* iji;^ cj Singular. y^ I may beat. lJj^ y thou mayst beat o^U a J he may beat. Plural. • fjjl^ jfib we may beat. K-', Jf^ •,-.'* I shall or wiU beat ujjU J thou shalt or will beat. jjl,« ^ you may beat. Jt-lj^ l/j they may beat. Future (jnustahlU). ^S-^j\^ >j^ we shall or will beat. i^^j'u^ jfj you shall or will ^ij^ beat. (_cj they shall or will beat. 54 CONJUGATION OF A TRANSITIVE VERB. Imperative (amr). Singular, Plural. .-..it* -..-^ let me beat. ^^jjt« tfi> let us beat. iU kj beat thou. J it* *j* beat ye or you , 9 t^iU ^j let him beat. : jjt* 4_5j let them beat. Respectful form — Mdriye, mdrii/o, or mdriyegd. 2. TENSES OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE : — Indefinite, or Past Conditional (mdzi shart'i or mdz'i mxdamanni) . ii> ^, :^*^ I beat, etc. ll^.L* J thou beatest. \J;U ^ he beats. J;U j^^ ■u'e beat. jJ;L* *j" ye beat. (J;t* ^^ they beat. Present (Ml). •j^ ujU ^^ I am beating. ^Jb \jj[^ y thou art beating ^J5> UjL# ij he IS beatmg. •,-Ji (3;>-^ *J& we are beating. y^ (J; ^ *J you are beating, ij^ iJ;^ ci) they are beating. Imperfect {istimrdr'i). \^ bjt« :,^ I was beating, l^ Ij^t* y thou -wast beating, l^ \}j\^ Hj he was beating. L5^ (J;U (•-fc we were beating. itffJ (J^Li jW you were beating. c5^ ti;^ c_?j they were beating. Present Dubious flidl i mutashahhij . English — I may, shall, or will be beating.' iC.ls. b ,U r "I 3. TENSES OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE : Peculiarity. — All the nominatives assume the case of the agent, characterised by the post-position (J nc, the verb agrees with the object of the sentence in gender and number, or is used impersonally iu the masculine siuirular form. PECULIARITIES OP A TRANSITIVE VERB. 55 Past Absolute {mdzi mutlah). English — I beat or did beat,' eto. Literally, It is or was beaten by me, thee, him, us, you, or them.' Singular. (J ^y^ main ne 1,U {J, jj" til ne ti (juul US ne ,u Plural. ij aJS> liam ne ij, *j turn ne U' Perfect or Past Proximate (mdzi karib). English — *I have beaten.' Literally, 'it has been, (is) beaten, by me, thee, him,' etc. .-^ mam ne \ . . f iS f^ ^'«»* '^<^ !;U 'J^ (J J tib ne (J (jwl us ne mara hai. \.v ^r. J turn ne mara hai. Pluperfect, or Past Remote {mdzi ha' id). English — *I had beaten.' Literally, It was beaten by me, thee, him,' eto. (J *Jb ham ne mam ne ij, J tu ne (J, {jm\ us ne mara thd. \jV, ij *.j' turn ne (J ...\ un ne mara thd. Past Dulious (mdzi mashlcuh). English — 'l shall have beaten,' i.e. It shall have been beaten by me, thee,' etc. (_j jfib ham ne . . / (3 jj*^ main ne ijf y tu ne V iJ (jwl us hogd. tum ne mara hogd. All the other parts formed as in the verb bolnd. 41. We have now, we trust, thoroughly explained the mode of conjugating a Hindustani verb. There is no such thing as an irregular verb in the language ; and six words only are slightly anomalous in the formation of the past participle, which last being known, the 56 ANOMALOUS PAST PARTICIPLES. various tenses iincmngly follow according to rule. We here subjoin the words to which wo allude, together ^\-ith their past participles. INTINinYES. PAST PARTICIPLES. \j\^ jdnd, To go Lo harnd, to do U ^ mama, to die \jyb hond, to be Uj J (?e«a, to give LJ 7(?>?a, to take Singular. Mas. Fern. Plm-al. Mas. Fern. -uS Tci,e ■^ ga,in y ^_ ...,. ^^ kin LSy* 'mu,e ^ji y* mu,in 4_cijs }iu,e :.'lyi hujiti s- , -Ul> di.e -.^O din JJ^ li,e -Ji I'lh \^ gayd ^ ga,i Li Iciyd ^i ki \L* m{i,d uSy* mu,i \Lii hu,d LJ diyd i_fi^ d'l U liyd jj I'l a. Of these, jdnd and mama are neuter or intransitive, and con- jugated like lolnd. The conjugation of hond we have already given in full, and that of karnd, dend, and lend, is like mdrnd, to beat.' It would be utterly ridiculous, then, to call any of these an irregular verb ; for, at the very utmost, the deviation from the general rule is not so great as in the Latin verbs, do, dedi, datum ; or cerno, crevi, etc., which no grammarian would on that account consider as irregular. h. The peculiarities in the past participles of hond, dend,^ and lend, are merely on the score of euphony. The verb jd7td takes its infinitive and present participle evidently from the Sanskrit root '^T yd, the y being convertible into j, as is well known, in the modern tongues of Sanskrit origin. Again, the past participle gayd, seems to have arisen fi-om the root ^^^, which also denotes to go.' In the case of karnd, to do, make,' it springs naturally enough from the modified form kar, of the root ^ kri, and at the same time there would appear to have been another infinitive, kind, directly from the Sanskrit root, by changing the ri into z, ; hence the respectful impe- rative of this verb has two forms, kariye and kijiye, while the past participle kiyd comes from kind, the same as piyd from pind, to ^ The verb dend makes dijiye, etc., and lend, Ujiye, etc., in the respectful imperative. PASSIVE VOICE. 57 drink.' Lastly, marnd, mar, is from the modified form oflj tnri] at the same time the form miind, whence mii,d, may have been in use ; for we know that in the Prakrit, which is a connecting link between the Sanskrit and the present spoken tongues of Northern India, the Sanskrit vowel ri began to be generally discarded, and frequently changed into u, and the Prakrit participle is mudo, for the Sanskrit mrito ; just as from the Sanskrit verbal noun prichhana, we have the Hindustani puchlmd, to ask,' through the Prakrit puchhana. 42. Passive Voice. — In Hindustani the use of the passive voice is not nearly so general as it is in English and other European languages. It is regularly formed by employing the past (or passive) participle of an active or transitive verb along with the neuter verb IjU- jdnci^ ' to go,' or ' to be.' The participle thus employed is subject to the same inflection or variations as an adjective purely Indian {v. page 33), ending m.\ a. Of the verb jdnd itself, we have just shown that its past participle is gayd, which of course will run through all the tenses of the past participle, as will be seen in the following paradigm. Infinitive, l)U- |jU mdrd jdnd^ 'To be beaten.' Imperative, Isj- \j\^ mdrdj'd, be thou beaten.' Present Participle, lj'u>- ljL« mdrdjdtd, being beaten.' Past Participle, LS \j\^ mdrd gayd, beaten.' TENSES OF THE ROOT. Aorist. Singular. Plural. ^^jU- IjU ;j^ I may be beaten. •jj .Ij*- (_5;t« *J& we may beaten. be i_^jlrs- \j\^ 1^ thou mayest be beaten. jU*- 4_5iL* aJ' you may beaten. bo t^jU- \j^ i- \;U ^j-*.^ let me be beaten. L>- UL* y be thou beaten, beaten. •^)^U- t_f;^ (^ let us be beaten. jIp- c5j^ (*^ be 3'e beaten. ^jU- (_£;t< tjj let them be beaten. TENSES OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. Conditional. bUj- ^.t* \..^ f\ if I be, or had been, beaten. blj>- \j\^ y ^\ if thou be, or hadst been, beaten. \j\s>- |.L« ij i^^ if he be, or had been, beaten. -.yii \j Isj- ^t* 1%-^ I am being beaten. Jb Ij'lsj- 1jt« y thou art being beaten, Jb \j\f^ \jt* ^ he is being beaten. cjl5^ lJ;^ (^ $\ if we be, or had been, beaten. (3^' S^^^ f^ t"^ ^ y°^ l^e, or had been, beaten. ijl:>- c^l'* c/j ^^ if they be, or had been, beaten. li;^^ S^ . Sr!-^^ (*^ ^® ^^® 1^^' ing beaten. ^6 (Jl^j- ti^^ j*^ you are be- ing beaten. (j^ ^S^ i^j^-* i^j they are be- ing beaten. PASSIVE VOICE. Imperfect. 69 Singular. l^' Ij'Us- \j\y^ ^,^ I was beaten or being beaten. l^' Uljs- 1^1^ jJ thou wast beaten. l^" \j\s>- \j\^ bj he was beaten. Plural. ^^ tjl=f- lJj\^ (*J*> we were beaten. L5^ S^ • ^J^ (^ y*^^ were beaten. ^^ «Jl^ s£^^ »-/j they were beaten. TENSES OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. Past. LT l^t* -^ I was beaten. LS ]^t« y thou was beaten. LT I^Ui ^j he was beaten. ^5^ t_^^ (^ "^^ ""'^''^ beaten. ;__5-*^ "-C/*^ (*^ y°^ "^^^^ beaten. ,^_5-^ i-?^^ <-^ t^^y were beaten. Perfect. ij^ Li |jL# ^--^ I have been beaten. ^J^ LT LL« J thou hast been beaten. |Jb US l^u* ij he has been beaten. i^-Ji) ij-^ iJ^^ (*^ we have been beaten. ya (<->o ^t« *j' you have been beaten. jj«JS> i^^^Io t_^L» j_?j they have been beaten. Pluperfect. [^ Ls I^U -^ I had been beaten. l^" LS \j[^ ii thou hadst been beaten. l^'j LS |.L-» ij he had been beaten. i^j^ ^_5-»o i^j^ AJ^ we had been beaten. beaten. ;^_5f' ;_5^c^^ 4?j they had been beaten. «. Muhammad Ibrahim Munshi, the author of an excellent Hin- dustani grammar entitled ' Tulifae Elphinstone,' printed at Bombay, 1823, would seem to conclude that the Hindustani has no passive voice at all. He says, p. 44, "Dr. Gilchrist and Mr. Shakspear are of opinion that there is a passive voice in Hindustani, formed by com- pounding the past participle of active verbs with the verb liU- ; but GO PASSIVE VOICE. the primitive signification of this verb (' to go') seems so irreconcileable with the simple state of 'being,' as to render it improbable that it could ever be used in the same manner as the substantive verbs of other languages." Now, the fact is, that the worthy Munshi is carried too far, principally from a strong propensity to have a slap at his brother "■rammarians, Messrs. Gilchrist and Shakespear, whom he hits hard on every reasonable occasion ; and, in addition to this, the passive voice in his native language is of rare occurrence. But there is undoubtedly such a thing as a regular passive voice occasionally to be met with, and it is formed with the verb U U- Ja.7id, ' to go,' as an auxiliary. IS" or is the connection oijdnd, ' to go,' with the passive voice so yqvj irreconcileable as the Munshi imagines. In Gaelic, the very same verb, viz., to go,' is used to form the passive voice, though in a different manner, the verbal noun denoting the action being used as a nominative to the verb 'to go;' thus the phrase, "he was beaten," is in Gaelic literally " the beating of him went," i. c, took place,' which is not very remote from the Hindustani expression. Again, in Latin, the phrase, " I know that letters will be written," is expressed by Scio literas scriptum iri," in which the verb to go,' enters as an auxiliary : to say nothing of the verb veneo {ve7i 4- eo), to be sold.' I. We have seen in the conjugation of mdrnd, to beat,' that those tenses which spring from the past participle, have a construction similar to the Latin passive voice. This construction is always used when the agent is known and expressed ; as j^ IjL* dy t-liol ij ej^W* U^^ MS sipdM-ne eTc mard mdrd hai, ' that soldier has beaten a man,' or (more literally) by that soldier a man has been beaten.' Again, if the agent is unknown or the assertion merely made in general terms, the regular form of the passive is used ; as, eh mard tndrd gayd, a man has been beaten,' and even this might be more idiomatically expressed by saying eh mard-ne mar hhd,'i Mi, a man has suffered a beating.' c. One cogent reason why the passive voice does not frequently occur in Hindustani is, that the language abounds with primitive simple verbs of a passive or neuter signification which are rendered active by certain modifications which we are about to state. Thus Lls"- jalnd signifies to burn,' or take fire,' in a neuter sense ; and becomes an active or transitive verb by inserting the vowel ^ d, between DERIVATIVE VERBS. 61 the root and the termination \j nd of the infinitive as, \j%>- jaldnd, 'to kindle or set on fire ;' and this becomes causal or doubly transitive by assuming the form 1)^^^ j'alwdnd, *to cause to be set on fire,' as will be more amply detailed in the next paragraph. DERIVATIVE VERBS. 43. In Hindustani a primitive verb, if neuter, is ren- dered active, as we liave just hinted, by certain modifica- tions of, or additions to, its root. In like maimer, an active verb may, by a process somewhat similar, be rendered causal or doubly transitive. The principal modes in which this may be effected are comprised under the following Utiles. 1 . By inserting the long vowel \ d between the root and the \j nd of the infinitive of the primitive verb ; thus, from L^ paknd, — a neuter verb, ' to grow ripe,' to be got ready' (as food), — becomes Ij l^ pahdnd (active), to ripen, or make ready,' to cook.' Again, this active verb may be rendered causal or doubly transitive by inserting the letter . w between the root and the modified termination lil and; thus, from Ul^ pakdnd, 'to make ready,' inserting the letter . w, we get the causal form l^'^*^ pahwdnd, to cause (another) to make (any thing) ready.' To show the use of the three forms of the verb, we will add a few plain examples. 1 . ^i> l::^ Ij l^ Jchdnd paUd hai, ' the dinner is getting ready, cooking, or being cooked.' 2. ^Sb b'LO Ijl^ u^Ji^ IdwarcM Ichdnd pakdtd hai, the cook is ( himself) cooking the dinner or food;' 3. ^^ ^^3^i Ul^ j^jJUJ^ miJimdnddr Tchdnd pahwdtd hai, ' the host is causing dinner to be cooked.' These examples show the copiousness of the Hindustani verb as compared with the English. For whereas we are obliged to employ the same verb both as neuter and active, like the word ' cooking ' in the first and second examples, ^the Hindustani has a distinct expression for each. And the form U \^j pahvdnd in the last example is much more neat and concise 02 DERIVATIVE VERBS. Uian the English 'is having,' 'is getting,' or 'is causing' the dinner (to be) 'cooked.' In like manner, the neuter LLs- jalnd, 'to burn,' Jaldnd, 'to kindle,' and. Jalwdnd, ' to cause to be kindled;' for example, batt'ijaltl hai, 'the candle burns;' a man ■will say to his servant, hatti- ko jaldo, ' light the candle (yourself),' but he may say to his munshi, batt'i-ko jalwdo, 'cause the candle to be lit (by others).' 2. When the root of the primitive verb is a monosyllable with any of the long vowels \ a, • o or u, and (»? ^ or 'i, the latter are shortened in the active and causal forms, that is, the \ of the root is displaced by fatha, the . by zamma, and the i_f by kasra ; as, l^ls^ jdgnd, to be awake,' IjUo^ jagdnd, 'to awaken,' or 'rouse up,' \j\^^ jagwdnd, ' to cause to be roused up ;' LI ».< holnd, to speak,' \j\i luldnd, to call,' U^jb hulwdnd, 'to cause to be called, to send for;' so U*f> bhithid, 'to forget,' Ij^iJ Ihuld^id, to mislead,' ljl«i^ bhulwdnd, 'to cause to be misled;' bJJ letnd, to lie down,' UliJ litdnd, 'to lay down,' li^yy litwdnd, to cause to be laid down;' li>l»^ bhignd, to be wet,' Ulk^ bhigdnd, to wet, Ij^jXjj Ihigwdnd, 'to cause to be made wet.' When the vowel-sound of the root consists of the strong diphthongs »— au, and t_s— ai, these undergo no change, and con- sequently such words fall under Eule 1; as, Ij'jJ daurnd, 'to run,' \jlv«-i daurand; \jj^pairnd, 'to swim,' \j^j^^ pairdnd. The verb UfLj baithnd, to sit,' makes Uuib bithdnd or lj^^2--> baithdnd, also U%i) bithldnd, etc. Firfe No. 4, below. 3. A numerous class of neuter verbs, having a short vowel in the last syllable of the root, form the active by changing the short vowel into its corresponding long ; that is, fatha becomes \ d ; as zamma becomes _. o^ (or u), and kasra becomes ^ e (or i) : as, IJj pahid, ' to 1 The forms e and o are by far the most common ; the i and u comparatively rare. DERIVATIVE VERBS. 63 thrive, or be nourished,' Ub pdlnd, 'to nourish;' lii^ khtdnd, 'to open (of itself), U*^ khoind, 'to open (any thing),' These form their causals regularly, according to Eule 1 ; as, U \^^ Jchulwdnd, to cause (another) to open (any thing).' 4. A few verbs add Ij^ Idnd to the root, modified as in Rule 2 ; thus, l:>^.C*»i s'lkhnd, to learn,' ljl,jx«j sikhdnd, and Ijil^x^ sikhldnd, to teach;' lil^i khdnd, to eat,' Uil^ khildnd, to feed;' u»-j sond, to sleep,' \jLj stildnd, to lull (asleep) ;' L^.o laithnd, 'to sit,' 'to be placed,' has a variety of forms, viz., bifhdnd, laithdnd, hithldnd, and haithldnd ; also haithdlnd and haithdrnd, to cause to sit,' to set,' or cause to be seated.' 5. The following are formed in a way peculiar to themselves : — ^'Sj hiknd, 'to be sold,' lu:s:u hechnd, 'to sell;' lxiS>i rahnd, 'to stay,' Vu^ I rakhnd, ' to keep, or place ; ' liJ'J tutnd, ' to burst,' ' to be broken,' l) J J for«a, 'to break;' Ui^s^ chhutnd, ' to cease,' to go off (as a musket, etc.), Ij'/tp^ cJihornd, to let off,' to let go;' Ujk> phatnd, to be rent,' Ijj V P^(^^^<^> ' to rend,' I^jj^j phutnd, to crack, w split,' Ij ?jf phornd, to burst open ' (actively). 6. Verbs are formed from substantives or adjectives by adding ui dnd or Ij nd; as from ^l) pdn'i, water,' UuiJ paniydnd, to irrigate;' so from ^V^, wide,' cJiaurdnd, to widen.' A few in- finitives spring, as Hindustani verbs, regularly from Arabic and Persian roots, by merely adding I) wa. If the primitive word be a monosyllable ending with two consonants, a fatha is inserted between the latter, on adding the U nd ; as from {jjjy tars, fear, pity,' comes I u-j^" taras-nd, 'to fear;' so from jl Im-z, 'trembling,' UjJ laraz-nd; I and from ^..L^ssr hahs, argument,' bahas-nd, to dispute,' etc. General Rule. — Primitive words consisting of two short syllables, the last of which is formed by the vowel 'fathaj on the accession of an additional syllable beginning 64 COMTOIJND VERBS. with a vowel, whether for the purpose of declension, con- jugation, or derivation, reject the fatha of the second syllable. Conversely, primitive words ending in two consecutive consonants, on adding a verbal termination beginning with a consonant, generally insert a fatha between the two consonants, as we have just seen in Eule 6. COMPOinSTD VERBS. 44. The Hindustani is peculiarly rich in compound verbs, though it must be admitted that our grammarians have needlessly enlarged the number. We shall, how- ever, enumerate them all in the following list, and, at the same time, point out those which have no title to the appellation. Compound verbs are formed in various ways, as follows : — I. FROM THE ROOT. 1 . Intensiyes, so called from being more energetic in signification than the simple verb. Ux. ui^J jL» mdr-ddlnd, ' to kill outright,' from ljjt« murnd, to strike/ and Ulj ddlnd, ' to throw down ;' L) J ^j rahh-dend, * to set down,' from l:^ rakhnd, ' to place,' and Lj J dend, ' to give ; 1)1:?- l^ khd-Jdnd, ' to eat up,' from \j[^ Jchdnd, to eat,' and IjU- jdnd, to go,' etc. The main peculiarity of an intensive verb is, that the second member of it has, practically- speaking, laid aside its own primary signification, while at the same time the sense of the first member is rendered more emphatic, as in our own verbs to run ofi",' ' to march on,' * to rush away,' etc. ; thus, wuh hdthi par se gir-pard, ' he fell down from off (or, as the Hin- dustani has it, more logically, from upon) the elephant.' 2. Potentials, formed with U^ sahnd, ' to be able ;' as L- l^ Jchd-chuhnd, to have done eating,' \:Sj>- ^ likh-chuhnd, ' to have finished writing.' The root of a verb with the future of chuhnd, is considered, very properly, as the future perfect of such root ; thus, jab main likh-chuJcungd, when I shall have done writing,' that is, when I shall have written,' postquam scripsero.' So, agar main lilch-chukiin, if I may have written, or have done writing,' ' si scripserim.' II. FEOM THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 1. CoNTiNTTATiVES, as IjUj- cio laJctd jdnd, or Uj6^ l::^ balctd raJind, to continue chatting.' This is not a legitimate compound verb ; it is merely a sentence, the present participle always agreeing with the nominative in gender and number, as, wuh mard hahtdjdtd Jiai, that man goes on chatting ;' ioe mard lakte jdte hain, these men go on chatting;' wuh randi haht'ijdti hai, that woman goes on chatting.' 2. Statisticals, U \ , J o gdte and, to come singing,' or in (V. ^ < singing ;' Ujj J is^jj ^^^^ daurnd, to run crying.' Here the present participle always remains in the inflected state, like a substantive of the third class, having the post-position men, in,' understood, hence this is no compound verb properly speaking. III. FROM THE PAST PARTICIPIE. 1. Feequkntatives : Ij^ \j[^ mdrd-Tcarnd, 'to make a practice of beating;' UJi \j}s>- jdyd-kdrnd, 'to make a practice of going.' 2. Desideeatives, as lijbl^- ^v lold-chdhnd, ' to wish, or to be about, or like to speak.' IV. PROM SUBSTANTIVES OR ADJECTIVES, HENCE TERMED NOMINALS. From substantives, as from %-'*«=^ fam', collection,' U^ f*^ 9 66 COMPOUND VERBS. j'ain Ltnu'i, ' to collect, or bring together,' and Dys ^^^ jam' hond, ' to bo collected, or come together;' also from ajs^i gj^ota, a plunge,' \jj\,-» Al?»i (jho'a mdrnd, 'to dive,' UL^ 4?^ -$;Aoi!«! Ichdnd, to bo dipped.' From adjectives, as from ^y^ chhotd, ' small,' \jj^ ^•'Jr^ chhotd karnd, 'to diminish;' ^l^ Mid, 'black,' Ijji 31^ M/a X'rtrwa, * to blacken,' such forms of expression, however, are scarcely to be considered as compound verbs. a. There is a very doubtful kind of compound called a reiterative verb, said to be formed by using together two verbs, regularly con- jugated, etc., as l:Jl>- UJ»j holnd cJidlnd, to converse;' but the use of these is generally confined to tenses of the present participle, or the conjunctive participle ; and they are not regularly conjugated, for the auxiliary is added to the last only, as ice holte chdlte hain, not hoUehaik chdlte haih, they converse (chit-chat) together ;' so lol-ehdl-kar, not bol-har chdl-har, having conversed.' Those which are called Inceptives, Permissivcs, Acquisitives, etc., given in most grammars, are not pro- perly compound verbs, since they consist regularly of two verbs, the one governed by the other, in the inflected form of the Infinitive, according to a special rule of Syntax ; as, ID |cJ v ij wuh holne lagd, he began to say;' Jb liijti tj^ ^ ^mA jdne detd hai, 'he gives (permission) to go;' ^J& Ij'b ^\>- ij wuh jdne pdtd ^ae, 'he gets (permission) to go ; ' all of which expressions are mere sentences, and not compound verbs. h. Hence the compound verbs in the Hindustani language arc really five in number, viz. : the Intensive, Potential, Completive, Frequentative and Desiderative. In these, the first part of the compound remains unchanged throughout, while the second part is always conjugated in the usual way. But among such of the uominals as are formed of an adjective with a verb, the adjective will agree in gender with the object of the verb, unless the concord be cut off by ^ ko. Thus : ^ ^jj^ ^j\^ gdri Ichar'i Tear, or^i* Vl^ ^ ^S^ gdr'i- ko khard kar, ' stop the carriage.' In the latter case only "can the verb IjjS' \j^ khard-karnd be regarded as belonguig to the class of compounds. 67 SECTION IV. • Oi^ THE INDECLINABLE PARTS OF SPEECH CARDINAL AND ORDINAL NUMBERS DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF WORDS. I. ADVERBS. 45. The adverbs in Hindustani, like the substantives, adjectives, and verbs, are to be acquired mainly by practice. Hence it would be a mere waste of space to swell our volume with a diy detached list of such words, which in all probability no learner would ever peruse. We shall therefore notice only those which have any peculiarity in their character or formation. As a general rule, most adjectives may be used adverbially when requisite, as is the case in German, and often in English. A series of pure Hindustani adverbs of frequent use is derived from five of the pronouns, bearing to each other a similar relation, as wiU be seen in the following table. Dr. Gilchi'ist's old pupils will no doubt recollect with what pains the learned Doctor used to impress upon them the necessity of learning this ' quintuple series,' or, as he called it, ' The philological harp.' a. Adjectives and adjective pronouns, when used adverbially, remain uninflected in the simplest form, viz., that of the nominative singular masculine ; as, ^Jb l::^^ t^' *---"-V^ ^J ^'^^^ hahut achchhd likhtd hai, he writes very well.' This is exactly the rule in German, er schreibt sehr gut.' In the following series, accordingly, numbers 5, 6, and 7, are merely the adjective or indefinite pronouns, formerly enumerated, employed as adverbs. 68 » o e a w HH ,, o (4 H •s P (H N ^ n '""^ Pi !»3 t> ■«i 'A » ^ -«) ti ►H '% >-* H ■J iQ ^ -«j ^ t> ^ a -r* •-> 12! 4; 5 J a ^" •t p3 ■^ w £1^ ^ w J 1^ ^ M H g ►i ^ T^ QUINTUPLE SERIES. "^ ']■ a >» ■♦* 5^^>-}^{j' ,£3 ^ Xi ^ '■^ •'«» '^ 4<-|1^J:J-^j rC^ —I ^15 n ^ •^ ^ •:) ^ ^ 3= xg ^ -|. •ti -J= ^ a OS !=l ^ on § S S "o "s ^ ^ -J J- 113 ^^ 0.-. 3 '3 o y- •8 .'^ -s 1' j= 3 ^i' CO 'T' ADVERBS. 69 a. From the first class we have other adverbs rendered more emphatic by the addition of ^Jb hi, etc. Thus: ^^\ abhi, 'just now,' ,<^ hdbhi, »^ hahhu, or ^Jt>'^ kadhi, ' ever,' etc. From the second class, by changing ^u\ an into ^jj in ; thus, ^jf;-\,i, yahkh, ex- actly here,' ^j^ kahin, ' whereabouts, somewhere,' etc. From the fourth, by adding /— Jb Mn ; ^p^y\ yiinhtn, in this very way,' •y-.^jj wunhin, thereupon, at that very time, exactly, the same as before,' etc. h. From among these may also be formed, by means of post- positions, etc., a number of useful compounds ; as uUsJ" l^\ ah-tah, or CS^ <-J\ ab-talah, ' till now ;' lL>j k— ^ kab-tak, ' till when,' etc. ; ^c^ ^— ^^ j<^^ kahh'i, ' whenever ;' .^ i2,)j-^ kyiih kar, ' how ?' c. A few adverbs of time have a twofold signification, i.e. past or future, according to circumstances ; thus, J^ kal, to-morrow, or yesterday ;' r^y^y ^parson, the day after to-morrow, or the day before yesterday ;' ^o*~y tarsoh, ' the third day from this, past, or to come ;' j2,»-.y narson, * the fourth day from this.' The time is restricted to past or future by the tenses of the verb and by the context of the sentences in which such words are found. d. Many adverbs occur from the Arabic and Persian languages ; as 1 jl^ijj kazdrd (or AiLii kazdkdr), by chance,' from Lij kazd, fate,' etc., and U rd, the sign of the objective case ; ^y>=>- chiguna, * how ;' ^j\i hdre, 'once, at last;' l&^b Idrhd {yA.), 'often (times);' <>jl^ shdyad, perhaps (Hindustani ^ y' ^ ho to ho, it may be) ;' iLri- !i\y>- &j Ichwdh na hhwdh, volens-nolens, positively, at all events ;' ijj:. J wa ghaira, ' et-cetera,' etc. ; kiii fakat, merely, finis.' e. Adverbs purely Arabic occur chiefly as follows : 1 . Simply a noun with the article ; thus, iJ^\ alkissa (literally, ' the story ') ; and ijoJ^\ algha/raz (literally, 'the end, purport,' e^c), 'in short;' JlsM alhdl (the present), at this time;' it.-J^ alhattu, certainly;' etc. 70 riiErosrnoNS. •2. The Anibic uoun in the accusative case, marked with the termiua- tion \- an (p. 20); thus, laliJl Utifdkan, * by chance,' (from jUJi ittifdk, 'fortune, accident,' etc.); iUi aslan (or lU! os?a), 'by no means ; ' ilL* mislan, ' for example,' (from JLi» w««?, parable, similitude ' ) ; \^y^2s>. khimusm, especially,' etc. Lastly, a noun with a proposition J as, Jjei^V li-l-fil, in fact;' J Is' \ ^ fi-l-haX, (in the present), j^ \ ^J fi-l-faur (in the heat), all signifying ' instantly, immediately ; ' e:-,iLJLs^ 1 ^ Ji-l-halakat (in truth), ( '' I . ^ "... really;' ^^'Jf^ ya'n'i, that is to say, to wit, viz. /. ilany adverbial expressions occur consisting of a pronoun and substantive governed by a simple postposition understood, as, —Js jjaiJ. is tarah, 'in this manner ;' —Jo ,jm^^ his tarali, how ? ' etc. ; l^^^j ^^«^ his waste, why ? ' i.e. for what reason ? ' and so on, with many other words of which the adverbial use is indicated by the inflection of the accompanying pronoun. g. The pluperfect participle may also very often be elegantly applied adverbially ; as, ^L^^^Ji Jianslcar, laughingly,' S^y^ socJi- Jiar, deliberately,' from L«.Jji> Tiansnd, ' to laugh,' l^^^ sochnd, to think,' L^i ^^^u^i> ^j ^JJJ\ us-ne hanshar Jcahd, he laughingly (or having laughed) said.' II. PEEPOSITIONS. 46. The prepositions in Hindustani are mere sub- stantives in the locative case, having a postposition understood and sometimes expressed. Most of them are expressive of situation with regard to place, and thence figuratively applied to time, and even to abstract ideas. Hence as substantives, they all govern the geni- tive case, those of them which are masculine (forming the majority) require the word which they govern to have the postposition ^ Jce after it ; as, ^T ^ j1* mard- ke age^ ' before the man,' literally, ' in front of the man '; while those that are feminine require the word they govern to have J, ki\ as, ^i^ ^ J^ shahr-ki taraf, PREPOSITIONS. 71 ' towards tlie city,' literally, ' in the direction of the city.' It is optional to put the preposition before or after the noun which it governs ; thus in the foregoing example we might have said age mard-ke, or mard-Jce age^ with equal propriety. The following is an alphabetical list of masculine prepositions requiring the nouns which they govern to have the genitive with ke, for reasons explained in the beginning of the Syntax. ^^1 age, before, in front. jjj\ andar, within, inside. J ^\ iipar, above, on the top. <.±-%c\j Id' is, by reason of. Jfeb IdJiar, or Idhir, without (not within.) iC'LsT' la-jd,e, instead. |J Jo hadle,or^ Jj hadal, instead. jji^Jo hidun, without, except. j\j hardhar, equal to, oppo- site to. tjUj hard,e, for, on account of. jcJtj ha''d, after (as to time). jJc laghair, without, except. ^ hin, UJ hind, without. ^i h'lch, in or among. j\i par, over (other side). i^\i pds, by, near. j-^^sy pichhe, behind, in the rear. ^^J tale, under, beneath. ^J^ ta,kn, to, up to. — jUi- Ichdrij, without, outside. (^U.^t) dar-miydn, in the midst, between, among. -gjLj sdth, with (in company). ^^^\^ sdmhne, before, in front. c_.%--j sabab, by reason of. \y^ sited or siwd,e, except. j_^»i 'iwaz, instead, for. (J-o kahl, before, (time). I -J J Icarib, near. j^i hane, near, with. i^ji gird, round, around. -jj liye, for, on account of. L^j^ mdre, through (in conse- quence of). ^Ik^ mutdhik, conformable to. ij^^y* miidfik, according to. •*' .. ^ i-^-^y* miijih, or u— o-^ ha- mujih, by means of. uLx.Olj nazd'ik, near. j^rsnj niche, under, beneath. (Ja^ij wdste, for, on account of. -fi'lfc hdth, in the power of, by means of. TRErOSITIONS. ^j^<\i Idlat, respecting, con- cerning. l::^i1.' ha-daiiht, by means of. JJL4J la-madad, by aid of. The following prepositions being feminine, require the words they govern to have the genitive with k'l. ^Irs- Jchatir, for the sake of. ^ ir tarah, after the manner ^ ■■ of, like. i_i^ taraf, towards. SjX^ maWifaty by, or through. ^s>- jihat, on account of. (.::^~u*j nislat, relative to. Some of the feminine prepositions, when they come before the word they govern, require such word to have the genitive in Jce, instead of Jci. This is a point well worthy of examination, and we reserve the investigation of it till we come to the Syntax. a. "We have applied the term preposition to the above words with a view to define their use and meaning, not their mere situation. In most grammars they are absurdly called Compound Post-positions, on the same principle, we believe, that lucus, a dark grove,'' is said to come from lucere, to shine,' or lux, light.' But in sober truth, what we have called prepositions here, are neither compounds, nor necessarily post-positive ; and we make it a rule never to countenance a new term unless it be more explicit than those already established and familiar. In Greek, Latin, and Old English, the prepositions frequently follow the word which they govern, but this does not in the least alter their nature and use. h. Besides the above prepositions, the following Arabic and Persian prefixes are occasionally employed with words from those languages. \\ az, from, by. V\ iUd, except, besides. \j Id, with (possessed of). &j OT i ha (or hi), in, by. J he, without (deprived of). ji bar, on, in, at. i_$^j hard,e, for (on account of). A) lild, without {sine). iL> da/r, in, wdthin. J-Lc 'a?a, upon, above, 'aw, from. cr JCsX. 'i7id, near, with. ^ fh in. C_i ha, according to, like. J la or li, to, for. w« ?w«', with ^^ min, from. CONJUNCTIONS — INTERJECTIONS. 73 -X1 agarchi, although. t»\ ammd, but, moreover. ,j^ awr, and, also. iS\j lalki, but, on the con- trary. ^^ 3^2, also, indeed. ji par, but, yet. ^jj^ pas, thence, therefore. •J to, then, consequently. tlis:x-j>- jahtah, until, while. ^5^ JO, if, when. aiol JU- hdl-dnhi, whereas, not- withstanding. }i\y>. hhvdh, either, or. IV. INTERJECTIONS. 48. These scarcely deserve the appellation of ' part of speech ; ' we shall therefore content ourselves by enumerating a few of common occurrence. ipo\L shdbdsh (i. e. /pw jLi shad hash,) happiness or good luck to you !' ^^yT dfrin blessings on you,' ilj Aj wdh wdh admirable!' c_j^ L^ hyd Ichub 'how excellent!' ^^J ^^JbJ dhan-i 10 74 NUirERALS. dhan ' how fortunate ! ' ^j>- i\j icdhj'i, ^ C^'V ^ ^V^ ^"^ //a/ 'wliut an affair !' all express joy, admiration and encouragement, like 'bravo! ■well done ! ' etc. But ^j <_->Ij hap re {lit., father) ' astonishing ! dreadful !' ^'\i> o'b h,de h,de, or ^i ^ hai hai, o'l. ^'\^ u-d,e tcd,c, !• » u>'^ «^'«)'^ waild, ' alas, alas ! alackaday ! woe is me !' l::^J5) hai, ei=- ^^^ chhi chh'i, tush, pshaw, pish, fie fie!' j^ dur, 'avaunt!' express sorrow, contempt, and aversion. ^\ ai, ^\ o, Oh I' ^j re or o '^ <*^^> ' ^o^^^ 7°^ '•' ^^^ ^^®*^ ^^ calling attention : the two last in a disrespectful way. t^j re (m.) or oj ^^ (f-) agrees in gender with the object of address ; as, t/j lJ^J> launde re, ' you boy !' ^^-^'^ ijj laundt ri, you girl !' NUMERALS. 49. The Hindustani numeral adjectives, ' one,' ' two,' ' three,' etc., up to a hundi-ed, are rather ii-regular, at least in appearance, though it would not be very difficult to account for the seeming irregularity on sound etymological principles. This, however, would not greatly benefit the student, who must, in the meantime, learn them by heart as soon as he can. FIGURES. NAMES. FIGUEES. NAMES. 1 ARABIC. nrDiAU. CS^} eh 6 AJBABIC. nroiAir. a^>- chha. \ \ 1 ^ 2 r 'I .J do. 7 V ^ L1.jLj sdt. 3 r ^ ^jJ tin. 8 A Xi 4'T diji- 4 p 8 j\s- char. 9 ^ £_ *3 nmi. > 5 e "< ^Ij pdnch. 10 W ^o ^wJ das. NUMERALS 75 FIGURES. NAMES. FIGURES. NAMES. AKABIC. INDIAW. iilil igdrah. 31 ARABIC. INDIAN. ^ja*-J.i 1 /X'^Z5. 11 n 12 \r 1=^ aXi bar ah. 32 rr ^'^ {j'^-rri ^^tis. 13 \r \^ ij^ Urah. 33 rr ^^ {j*^^'^ t^tis. 14 IP xs ^fjys- chaudah. 34 rp ^8 i^ju^^ chaut'is. 15 u X'i ^^Jcj pandraJi. 35 re Vi t^:f>^^ paiht'is. 16 n \A dJ^ s6lah. 36 n \\ {jM^':^^>~ cJihaUis. 17 \y \^ aj:^ satrah. 37 rv \^ ^.x.>">.'>^ saintis. 18 lA X^ i(,l^j\ athdrah. 38 rA V' ^^jiM^j\ aihtis. 19 n XL. 9 \ji*^^ unis. 39 r^ \^ ^jkuJlx'l untdl'is. 20 r* V {M-f^ lis. 40 p* 8° ijmJXs^ chdlis. 21 n \\ fjM-';^^ ikkis. 41 f-\ n o ^^^l::^! iktdlis. 22 rr W ^j*.*^~*- chhabbis. 46 PI 8^ (u*-iug:s«- chhifdlzs. 27 rv ^NQ jjygj*lx«j satdjis. 47 pv 8^ .. o ^ ^^^;ju-jl:u--^ p^^ hahattar. 53 cr ^^ ^J tirpan. 73 vr ^^ j^ tihattar. 54 CP ^8 ^jj>- chauwan. 74 vp ^8 J^y^ cTiauhatta. 55 cc H.y. ^-:^v pacTipan. 75 vc ^M, J-^sO-pachhaUa. 56 6l "i.^ ^jtrr^ chhappan. 76 VI ^4 j^j^rs" chhihatta, 57 cv y^^O jj_jI:uj sattdwun. 77 vv nOxO J-^-^ sathattar. 58 CA X^ UjI^jI athdwan. 78 VA ^ax: J^j\ atJihattar 59 C^ H.I. 9 .fluJi unsath. 79 v^ Ne>£_ ^-jUI unds'i. (JO V i^ ^Us sdth. 80 A* •ao ^^\ assi. 61 1\ ix rfiLuil iksath. 81 Al ^\ j^l^^ ikds'i. 62 ir i\ -§1LjI) hdsath. 82 Ar ^\ i^Lj be,ds'i. 63 ir i\ -^Lsj'J tirsath. 83 Ar -^\ ^-jl J tirdsi. 64 Tr ^8 ■•^•y^ chausath. 84 AP ^8 j^-sK^ chaurds'i. 65 1i ^M. ,.g!l>^j.^j painsath. 85 AC ^"i. L_s*^^^ P^cJio.s't. 66 11 ^4 .^L^rs- chh'i,dsath. 86 A1 ^4 i^-jU^ cMzjase. 67 68 IV 1A 4^ 4^ ,.gx<.u.-wa satsatk. -fM*£j\ athsath. 87 88 AV AA ^-jI:^-; satds'i. 69 1^ 4^ ^^i^^l unhattar. 89 A^ ■at- ^-jly 7iaii,dsi. 70 V ♦ ^QO J-^ sattar. 90 V £_0 ^y nauwe. NUMERALS. 77 FIGURES. NAMES. FIGURES. NAMES. ARABIC. INDIAN. ^yl^l ihdnawe. 96 AEABIC. INDIAN. 4_fjj L^ chJi i, dnawe 91 ^\ ^^ ^1 ^-^ 92 U ^'^ i^y>\i hdnawe. 97 ^v i-'O oyli-j satdnawe. 93 ^r ^•^ i^y\P tirdnawe. 98 ^A L.^ ^y \^'j \ athdnawe. 94 iP ^B ^y \jy>~chaurdnawe 99 ^^ i-L ^<;yLj nindnawe. 195 ^c ^^ ^y Is^ pachdnawe. 100 !♦♦ _j~j sau or (--J s«« a. Some of these have names slightly differing from the preceding, which we here subj"^'" • 1 aXS gydrah \\^\ athdrd. ^juuL-Jl unnis. (jb«-:u-J taintis. ^juu-fcJfc2^ chauntis. ij*>^jj\ artis. jju*Jl=srl unchdlis jjAkJuxJi ekfdiis. i ^ ^;guJl:;i«Ii taintdl'is. ^1 'j ^_y.uJu^r&- chhatdl'is. <| jjywJbjl artdlis. 51 54 55 61 join 66 68 71 73 76 82 jjj\^ji elcawan. tj> y^ chmipan i^f\c^ pachdwan. go ..glwAjl eksath. (Jl^^js-Urs- chhdchhat or -^iLo,^ chha-sath. ..fLj;! arsath. yl^j ekJiattar. j:J&;J' tirhattar. Jijb,^ chha-hattar j^l^ birds'i. 85 ^^Is^ panchdsL 86 ^*jI^^ chhds'i. Jjj nauwad, ^_$y\^\ ekdnatvi or ^^ylii iJcdnauwe. ^y [> bdnauwS or ^5jj^ hirdnauwL Ljy\p tirdnauwe. 95 t/y Isaj j!;flwc/ia?jaM'^. 91 92 93 l^*oU ias2 or 99 ,_5»jl«J naujdnmve or ^ylx) nindnauwe. 78 FKACTIONAL NUMBERS. a. The numbers above one hundred proceed somewhat like our own, only the conjunction is generally suppressed ; as ^b y^ "-^J ^^ ^^'^ punch, ' one hundred (and) five ;' jjwO _j-j jt> do sau das, two hundred (and) ten,' etc. The present year, 1855, may be expressed as with us, ^^^ yj> ^jT iUa CS^\ eh hazdr dth sail pachpan, or ^j^-» y^ ^^j' athdrah sau pachpan, that is, ' one thousand eight hundred,' etc., or ' eighteen hundred,* etc. \^ gandd, a group of four. ^>li gdJi'i, a five. h. The following are used as collective numbers : ^^^L-3 saikrd, a hundred. J hi) hazdr, a thousand. ^'l IdJch, a hundred thousand. LC^»i Icor'i, a score. LvJlrs- chdlisd, a forty, c. The Ordinals proceed as follows ; iLj pahld or pahild, 2L-0 or paihld, ' -^-i J dusra, 2nd. J ^isrd, 3rd. j/p Z-«ror, one hundred lakhs, or ten millions. 1st. l^'y*- chauthd, 4th. r^^ysrb pdnchwdn, 5th. *,l»xt>- chhatwdh. l^Ilpi- chhathd. 6th. The ' seventh' and upwards are regularly formed from the Cardinals by the addition of ^\^ wdn. The ordinals are aU subject to inflection like adjectives in W or dh, that is, d becomes e for the oblique mas- culine, and i for the feminine. In like manner, an becomes eh and tk. d. Fractional Numbers. jb pd,o \ ^y>- chauth, > i i'\£iy>- chauthdX / uy^ pauna \y^ sated, Ij. ^'uJ' tihd,i, -^. ^3 derh, ij. UjT ddhd, J. ^f'lijl «rM,2, 2^. In the use of the fractional numbers, a few peculiarities occur DERIVATION OF WORDS. 79 which it will be well to notice ; thus, ^J^ paune, when prefixed to a number, signifies a quarter less ' than that number ; \y^ sawd, ' a quarter more ;' i<^j^ sdrhe, one half more,' etc. To the collective numbers for a hundred, a thousand, etc., they are similarly applied ; thus, »-j (Jv paune sau = 75 ; ^ ij~j saivd sau =125. The words derh and arhd,i denote multiplication ; as, j\yb ijjS derh hazdr = 1500, i. e. (1000 x 1|) ; j]}^ ^'^j^ arhd,i hazdr = 2500, or (1000 X 21). e. It will be seen then, that altogether the management of the numerals, whole and fractional, is no easy matter. The sure plan is to commit them carefuUy to memory up to 100. As a check upon this the learner should get the first ten, and the multiples of 10, as 20, 30, 40, etc. ; then, if he is not quite certain of any number (not an o unlikely occurrence), for example 35, he may safely say ^\j j i/*.-j t'ls par pdnch, five over thirty.' Lastly, let him get the first twenty thoroughly, and then count by scores lSj^ kori ; thus, 35 is eh kori pandrah ; but the more scientific mode is, of course, to carry the hundred numerals in his head, and be quite independent. DERIVATION OF WORDS. 50. The Hindustani abounds with derivative words both of native origin and of foreign importation. Those from the Arabic are generally single words modified from a triliteral root, according to the grammatical rules of that language. From the Persian, on the other hand, not only derivative words are freely borrowed, but also a multitude of compounjds, for the formation of which the Persian language has a peculiar aptitude, and to the number of which there is no limit. In like manner, compositions in the Hindi dialect abound in Sanskiit words both derivative and compounded according to the genius of that highly-cultivated language. Hence, in order to know Hindustani on sound etymological prin- ciples, a slight knowledge of Arabic, Persian, and 80 DERIVATIVES. Sanskrit is absolutely requisite. To the majority of students in this country, however, tliis is impracticable, tlioir time being necessarily occupied in the acquisition of those essential branches of knowledge usually taught at schools. As a general rule, then, we may take it for gi-anted that an acquaintance with the words of the Hindustani language, whether native or foreign, primi- tive or derivative, must be ultimately acquired by prac- tice in reading, with the aid of a vocabulary or dictionary, together with exercises in composition. This being the case, it will not be necessary for us to enter deeply into the subject of derivation or composition; the reader, if inclined, may consult Dr. Gilchi'ist's quarto Grammar, edit. 1796, where he will find twenty-nine goodly pages devoted to this department. NOUNS DENOTING AGENCY OR POSSESSION. 51. We have already seen that the agent of a verb is denoted by adding the termination 'i\^ wdlci (sometimes \j\s> hard) to the inflected form of the infinitive, as hohie- wdld or bolne-hdrdj ' a speaker.' The same terminations added to a substantive denote iq general the possessor of such substantive, real or temporary; as 'i\^ j^ ghar-wdld, ' the master of the house ;' ^^j Jj hail-tvdld, ' the owner of the buUock ;' or, simply, ' the man with the bullock.' A noun of the third class is inflected on the addition of ^Ij wdld^ thus, i\^ ^^^ gadhe-ivdla^ ' the owner of the ass ;' or ' the man with the donkey.' Various nouns of agency, etc. are also formed by adding the following terminations, thus : — ^1j to iU a garden, (j;V^V idc/h-bdn, a gardener. j\j — l^j a jest, j[}^jf^j thatf he-Ids, a jester. DERIVATIVES. 81 J. to i>\j a road, y.^^J *'«^*"^o'^> a guide. ii(^^ — LLx^-ukT*- chashnalc, spectacles, a — u:-^«;l> the hand, ib.vcJ dasta, a handle. ^ The terminations ddr, bdz, and perhaps a few more, require the noun to ) inflected, if of the third class; as, maze-dar, tasteful, thutthe-bdz, a jester. 11 82 DERIVATIVES. NOUNS DENOTING TLACE OR SITUATION. 53. These arc formed partly by uniting two nouns together, and also bj^ adding certain terminations ; as, jbl a city, jJu>^ Haidar, S^\jX;>=>~. haidar-dbdd, the city of Haidar. ^-?^. j_5jlj a garden, J^f) a flower, ^jjl'lA^ ^MZ-e^aH, a flower- garden, j^ a city, i-^j^ Ghazi, j^ ^J^ Ghdzi-pur, the city of Ghazf. J\j ^li Idla-zdr, a tulip- bed. (JLjii^i ghur-sdl, a stable. jjU,.^!^ Icalr-istdn, a bury- 1^ J multitude, ^i! a tulip, JLj or i!Lj a place, ^"^^a horse, ^}c^ a place, -J a grave, ^.i a place, JS a rose, *ir a place, /»KT rest, ^' city, m;^ Kishn, ABSTRACTS. ing-ground. i^Aii gul-slian, a rose- bower. ilL«\jl drdm-gdk, a rest- ing-place. Xj^jio Kishn-nagar, the town of Krishna. 54 Abstract nouns are formed chiefly from adjec- tives, by affixing some termination, of which the follow- ing are of common occurrence : \^^ garni d, warm weather. ^^^ hamt'i, deficiency. I to *f vfoxm, ^ ^ — ^ little, ^J, ^-J, or Lj — l^ a child, ^^Sji larak-pan, childhood. U^ — vr^* sweet, {jjj\^Lt mithds, sweetness. ^ — ijlj fresh, \^J^ tdzagi, freshness. DERIVATIVES. 83 ^ to l^j^ high, uWO^ unchdn, height. ^ — \j bad, \^^y. ^'^'^X badness. (J!,-viS> — Ujfi bitter, iJi-Jbljjp Jcarwdhat, bitterness. To Arabic nouns CLi is generally added to form abstracts ; as, tS'S*- Tiukm, a command,' l::_->.^»x>. hulcumat, dominion ;' so z*^^*" hajjdm, a barber,' hajjdmat, shaving.' A few abstracts are formed by a repetition of the word, with a slight alteration in the last, as ^'^y* ^'ij^ Jhuth-muth, falsehood.' VERBALS. 55. The verbal noun denoting the action (in pro- gress) is generally expressed by the infinitive. The action, in the abstract, is frequently expressed by the mere root; as, Jy bol, 'speech,' ^(U- chdh, 'desire,' etc. Others are formed from the root by adding certain terminations; as, \ to -^ speak, Lit ~~ ^- ^°^' c_>T — J-^ mix, ^jJ\ — ^^ drink, \j^ kahd, a saying. fc'-y. oo,a,i, a sowing. c-_j]L* mildp, a mixing or union. ijJ^ piyds, desire to drink, thirst. i^d know(Per3.)(jiolj ddnisJi, knowledge. ^ — J^ burn, cA^ j'alan, a burning. \ — ^ deceive, Ij^^ Ihiddtvd, a deception. (JLjj — Ur' prepare, cb^\st^ sajdwat, preparation. ^^\ — J^ feed, LS^^-'^^ TcMld,'i, a feeding. iJUJb — \i call, c!.-^^ huldhat, a calling. 84 DERIVATIVES. DIMINUTIVES. 50. These arc formed from other nouns, by adding to them various terminations ; as, \ to ^Lj a daughter, Lib hitiyd, a little daughter. __>^ or :.>- — i^JjO a cauldron, ^j^-^ degcM, a kettle. ^J — i^S^ a bedstead, uf/^, palangr'i, a small bed- " stead. L ' ( — '-rr' V ^ cannon, iJS^) y fopaJ:, a musket. \, — J ,« a man, 'j^'V* ^^^'^'^j^j a httle man. \jij — iM"*^/^ ^ brahman, liLi-KliJ brahmanetd, a young brahman. Iji — j^ Jii a deer, ^-"^l/^ hiranotd, a fawn. L or Jj — jy a peacock, ^J_J^ moreld, a pea-chicken. iibsT — ?V a garden, X:^uib hagh'icha, a kitchen- garden. FEMININES FORMED FROM MASCULINES. 57. j^ames of males ending m\ a ot s. a, of the third class, have the corresponding females in o_ ^; as liLj hetdj ' a son ; ' ^^^ leti, ' a daughter ;' \j^ gliora^ ' a horse ;' tjT^ ghofi^ ' a mare. ' In a similar manner names of lifeless objects of the third class have some- times a feminine form, generally significant of diminution, as 1^ gold, ' a bullet ;' J^ goli, ' a pill.' Substantives of the first and second classes form the corresponding feminine by adding either ^^-. ?, ^ ni, or ^- in, as follows : — L« mulld, a teacher, t^ muUdni. j^ sher, a hon, is'jir^ shern'i. Ji^ mihtar, a sv?ec:^eT, ^\^^ militardni DERIVATIVES. 85 ^/♦Jbi J brahman, a Brahman, -U/tJbLj ordhmani. p f U)j\:»^ sundrin, or il:wj sundr, a goldsmith, ) «. A few are irregular in their formation ; thus, from l.?'^ lM,'i, 'brother,' ^^ hahm, sister ;' (.S^-J 5^^ or |_jl^ Ichdn, ' lord,' *L,j i^Y7rt»j or j^j\s>~ khdnam, lady;' ^>-^j rdj'd, king,' ^^[j rant, 'queen;' lojj'^ hdthi, m. an elephant,' ^^^^ hathn'i, f. In other cases, as <_->b hdp, father,' t« md, mother,' the words are totally- different, as in our own language, and often , taken from different tongues, as lJ.^ mard, man ' (Persian), '•^jy^ 'aurat, woman ' (Arabic). ADJECTIVES. 58. Adjectives are formed from substantives by the addition of certain terminations, most of which will be found in the following alphabetical list : their ordinary meaning will be obvious from the various examples ; thus, by adding l^»^ hlmhhd, hungry. ^ML tifldna, childish. j^jyj %or-dioar, strong. jcjjW::j& Jiathydr-hand, armed. j^jlij wafd-ddr, faithful, ry, U-^.^j wildyat-zd, foreign-born. jWSji hoh-sdr, mountainous. -JjJ dil-g'ir, grieved. i^p^(t£' gham-g'in, sorrowful. i^v pichhld, hindermost. Ju^jJ daidat-mand, wealthy. \ to ^^j hunger, A3^ - Jil? a child, J^^- jjjj strength. JCJ — .Lf;j^ arms. >- lij fidelity, b- ij:-^}j foreign coun >- i^ a mountain. A- J J the heart. i»i. sorrow, or »! — If.'^^j behind, txw* — i,j:-JjJ wealth, 6 DERIVATIVES. I;- to J J two, lijj didariL, slightly. h - ^^y^ grief. J^Sy^ sog-wdr, grievous. J 3 ~ *lj name, jy*^ ndm-war, renowned. i — JL.J two years, - chol'in, wooden. *\i fdm and ^^ e/un are added to words to denote colour ; as, j^\j ij'ji^j zaYardn-fdm, ' saffron-coloured,' ^^^ J-J nil-gun, blue- coloured.' 'J »^ X'owa and - chau-kond, quadrangular, -lj nd-'fhush, displeased. aJSi — j**^ age, j.4A4Ji> ham-umr, coeval. 59. In concluding our remarks on the derivation of words, we would particularly direct the student's atten- tion to the various uses of the termination , ^—i. 1. It may be added to almost every adjective of the language, simple or compound, which then becomes the corres- ponding abstract substantive. 2. It may be added to all substantives denoting country, city, sect, tribe, physical substances, etc., which then become adjectives, signifying of or belonging to^ or formed from^ etc., the primary substantive. Lastly. It is used in forming feminines from masculines ; and it is the characteristic of the feminine gender in all present and past participles, as well as in all adjectives purely Indian ending in \ a. COMPOUND WORDS. 60. In all works written in the Urdu or mixed dialect of Hindustani, a vast number of compound words from the Persian may be met with in almost every page. These are generally formed by the union of two sub- stantives, or of an adjective with a substantive. Many of them are given in dictionaries, but as there is no Hmit to their number, the student must not place much re- liance on that source. A few weeks' study of Persian will make the matter clearer than any body of rules we could lay down on the subject ; we shall therefore notice here only the more important compounds, referring the student for further information to our Persian Grammar, last edition. 88 coMPOimDS. SUBSTANTIVES. a. A Persian or Arabic substantive with its regimen is of fre- quent occurrence in Hindustani; as, LuLi- c_->| ab-i-haiydt, water of immortality;' jjiulj^^rJjJ dida,i-ddnish, the eye of discernment ;' .-j^jtiV; f'u-e-zatnin, the face of the earth.' In a similar fonn a Persian substantive with its adjective occasionally occurs; as, Xi - ^^Ji^. idwar-chi- ihdna, cook-house, or kitchen,' from l_c>-jjV cook,' and ij\:>- a house;' so, a^/^jj razm-gdk, the battle-field,' from *\j contest,' and ali a place ;' in like manner, iluj ij\^ jahdn-pandh, the asylum of the world,' i. e. 'your majesty,' from ^j^^ 'the world,' and iL^ refuge ;' so, \ db hazed, climate,' literally, water and air;' Uj • »Aj nashv o namd, rearing or bringing up ' (a plant or animal). In these, also, the conjunction j may be omitted, as l.^ y-^y e. Compounds purely Hindustani or Hindi are not nearly so numerous as those borrowed from the Persian ; the following are occasionally met with : 1st. A masculine and feminine past participle, generally the same verb, though sometimes different; as, ^.^p l.^ Jcahd-TcaM, ' altercation,' ^x»o l^^ kahd-smii, ' disputation.' 2nd. Two nouns of the same, or nearly the same signification ; as, S'^ Sy servants,' *--^ ^-^^^Ij ^ custom or mode,' etc. Such expressions are very common in the Bagh o Bahar,' which is the standard work of the language. 3rd. Two words having something of alliteration about them, or a similarity of rhyme ; as, /♦1& J ^yfefc^ hurly-burly,' jjjj jyL ' uproar,' X^>- X^ ' trickery,' etc., all of which we should of course vote to be vulgarisms, only that they occur in the very best writers. Lastly, the Hindustani is particularly rich in imitative sounds, such ^s ^Ji^ [j^ 'jingling/ ^;«- ^j^ 'simmering.' /. Arabic phrases, such as we described in p. 19 (No. 18), are occasionally met with, such as t_jL-j^l c-^v^m^*, the Causer of causes,' God,' etc. ; but we believe that all such are explained in •W good dictionaries. ! 12 90 COMPOUNDS. ADJECTIVES. a. A very numerous class of epithets is formed by the union of two substantives; as, ^j ajj Ula ruhh, 'having cheeks like the tulip ;' 4_^%) ijji pdr'i-ru,e or pari-ru, having the face of a fairy ;' J J {^S^ sang-dil, ' having a heart like stone ;' t_^ ^iLi shakar-lah, ' having lips (sweet) as sugar.' In English we have many instances, in the more familiar style, of this kind of compound; as, iron- hearted,' 'bull-headed,' 'lynx-eyed,' etc. h. Another numerous class, similar to the preceding, is formed by prefixing an adjective to a substantive; as, (_i'_,v ^^ likiib-ru,e, ' having a fair face ;' ^'\j C/l) pdk-rd,e, of pure intention ;' J J < , _g_d j tang-dil, ' distressed in heart.' "We make use of many such compounds in familiar conversation and newspaper style, such as 'clear-sighted,' 'long-headed,' 'sharp-witted,' hard-hearted,' e^c. e. Perhaps the most numerous class of the epithets is that com- posed of verbal roots, joined to substantives or adjectives ; s&,j^ JU 'dlam-gtr, world-subduing;' J-.^i dc::^ Jitna-angez, strife-exciting;' LjT joW" jdn-dsd, 'giving rest to the soul;' ,^u-j (JO dil-sitdn, ravishing the heart;' ^ < ^; ' suhuh-raw, moving lightly.' Our best English poets frequently indulge in compounds of this class ; thus, the night- tripping fairy,' the temple-haunting martlet,' the cloud- compeUing Jove,' etc. d. A knowledge of these Persian compounds wiU be absolutely necessary, in order to peruse with any advantage the finest productions of the Hindustani language. The poets in general freely use such terms; nor are they of less frequent occurrence in the best prose works, such as the 'Bagh o Bahar,' the ' Ikhwanu-s-safa,' the 'Khirad COMPOUNDS. 91 Afroz,' etc., for the thorougli understanding of which, a slight know- ledge of the Persian is absolutely requisite. In proof of this, we could point out many compounds which occur in our own selections from the Khirad Afroz,' not to be found in any dictionary, the meaning at the same time being quite obvious to any one who knows Persian. Such, for example, are \^j f^y* »i(irha)n-hahd, medicine- money ; ' 15'^ fjM.su nafas-hushi, mortifying of the passions ; ' ^^y* i^y^ suf'i-mizdj, of philosophic disposition,' e. "We may reckon among the compounds such expressions as C-jIj t* md-hdp, parents,' j^j^ Idr-hapur, ' Lar and Kapur,' names of two brother minstrels who lived at the court of Akbar. It is barely possible that this may be an imitation of the Sanskrit compound called Dwandwa ; though the probability is in favour of its being an idiomatic omission of the conjunction \^\ and,' between two such words as are usually considered to be associated together. In works purely Hindi, translated from the Sanskrit, such as the ' Piem Sagar,' it is most likely that such phrases as iJw^ JcJ nanda-jasodd, *Nanda and Jasoda ;' *\J^_ ijAr^ krishna-halardm, 'Krishna and Balaram,' are bona-fide Dwandwas ; but it would savour of pedantry to apply the term to such homely expressions as ,^C* "^^j ' bread and butter,' or the very un-classical beverage commonly called ^\j '-^'^j'.y videlicet, brandy and water.' 91^ SECTION V. SYNTAX, OR THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 61. In all languages a simple sentence must necessarily consist of tliree parts, expressed or understood : 1st, a nominative or subject ; 2nd, a verb; and 3rd, a predicate or attribute ; as, ' fire is hot,' ' ice is cold.' In many instances the verb and attribute are included in one word ; as, ' the man sleeps,' ' the horse runs,' ' the snow falls,' in which case the verb is said to be neuter or intransitive. When the verb is expressive of an action, and at the same time the sense is incomplete without stating the object acted upon, it is called an active or transitive verb, as, ' the carpenter made a table,' ' the masons built a church.' In each of these sentences it is evident that something is required beyond the verb to complete the sense, for if we merely said ' the carpenter made,' 'the masons built,' the hearer would instantly ask, 'made what?' 'built what?' In Hindustani and several of its kindred dialects, it is of the utmost import- ance that the learner should discriminate the active or transitive from the neuter or intransitive verb, in order that he may adopt that mode of construction peculiar to each. In a sentence whose verb is active or transitive, we shall designate the tliree parts as agent, verb, and object ; thus, the carpenter is the agent ; made^ the verb ; and a tahle, the object. a. In the arrangement of the three parts of a sentence, different languages follow rules peculiar to themselves; for instance, in the ARRAN-GEMENT OF WORDS. 93 sentence, the elephant killed the tiger,' the Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit languages have the option of arranging the words in any order. The Arabic and the Gaelic put the verb first, then the nomi- native, and lastly the object. The English and French follow the logical order as we have given it, and the Hindustani and Persian have also an arrangement of their own, which we shall now proceed to explain, as our first rule of Syntax or construction. 62. The general rule for the arrangement of the parts of a sentence in Hindu stani is, first, the nominative or agent ; secondly, the predicate or object ; and, last of all, the verb; thus, ^ ^^ ^~\ ag garm liai^ 'fire is hot,' ^\y^ ^j^\ yfjbji^ parJiez achchJd dmvd hai, 'abstinence is good physic,' ^ WS j\^ /^ 4 \J^^ hdthi-ne sher-Jco mdr-ddld hai^ ' the elephant has killed the tiger.' a. Though the above rule holds in short sentences, such as those we have just given, yet it is by no means of stringent application. In the first place, poets are freely allowed the proverbial license of the genus ; that is, to adopt that arrangement of the words which best pleases the ear, or suits the metre. In prose, also, it may sometimes be more emphatic to put the object first ; as, \ii L^ J ^ .»uj ^^\ thou hast stolen those images.' Sometimes the object is, for the sake of contrast or emphasis, put last, in the place usually occupied by the verb; as follows, ^ Jt*,^ JjU jj^ _j^JL« ^Ja \j£ i ^ii? J-^U- the fool seeks for wealth, and the sage for excellence,' where mdl-Jco and kamdl-ko are put last. I. The Hindustani makes no difference in the arrangement of a sentence, whether it be interrogative or affirmative. In conversation, the tone of the voice, or the look, suffices to indicate whether or not a question is asked, and in reading it must be inferred from the context ; thus, i^^^l^ /»-J' may signify 'you will go,' or 'will you go?' There are, however, several words which are used only in asking a question, .such as those given in the middle column of p. 68. These, when used, come immediately before the verb, as ^S^^ uV'^ (♦■' ' where 94 CONCORD OF ADJECTIVES. will YOU go ?' The word L^ is sometimes employed at the beginniug of a seutcnee to denote interrogation, like the Latin num or an ; as, ^ J Ji^* ~ij (J (••' ^^ ' haxc you not heard this proverb ? ' ; CONCORD OF ADJECTIVES WITH SUBSTANTIVES. G3. The adjective, as in English, generally precedes its substantive. If the adjective be capable of inflection, that is, if it be a piu-ely Indian word ending in \ a, the following rule holds : The termination \ a is used before all masculine nouns in the nominative (or first accusative) case singular ; the termination ^ e h used before mas- culine nouns in any other case singular, or in the plural number ; and the termination ^ _ z is used before all feminine nouns, in any case, singular or plural ; thus, jJ> j^ ^ ij wuh hhald mard hai, ' he is a good man,' ^ j^ ^^X~^_ hhale mard-se, ' from a good man,' S^ ^-L* h/iale mard, ' good men,' ^^ u^'V* t^ bkale mardoh-se, 'from good men,' cir,^ ^^j^ bhali ^aurat, 'a good woman,' li ^yj>=^ ^_Ar? bhali ^auratoh-M, ' of good women.' a. The same rule applies to such adjectives in •} an and i a, as admit of inflection; as, J^ ij'y^'^ 'the tenth man,' \^ ^^ '-r-f^'^ 'of the tenth man,' C-j1j ,ji^'^ 'the tenth night;' so,^Lu^ *;^^sqj 'the helpless traveller,' ^ jiLj^ i-fj^. ' ^^ the helpless traveller,' ^J^j c/^ilsru the helpless queen.' h. If adjectives, capable of inflection, be separated by means of the particle ^ from the noun which they qualify, and united with the verb, they undergo no change; as,^^ ^l^ ^ ^ ^^1 'blacken his face ; ' but in this sentence Mld-lcarnd is to be reckoned a com- pound verb (p. 66, h). Adjectives, ending with any letter except \ , s and ^,1 , restricted as above, do not undergo any change ; GENITIVE CASE. 95 as, ^<^\ '-li'^ 'a pure man, <-^jy^ - lL> b Ij * an unclean thing.' c. As a general rule, adjectives, when followed by their sub- stantives, never receive the nasal terminations (an, en, or oh) of the plural ; and the same rule appKes to such tenses as are formed of participles with or without an auxiliary verb, it being deemed sufficient to add the nasal n to the last word only; as ^^ui 1.5^7^' ^<^^<^^^^ (iiot acJichhifdn) Tcitdbeh, 'good books;' fj, ^j-^Jl i~o sal-M sab, ' one and all,' <^:-^ l^ '-^^-^ Tchet-hd hhet, ' the whole (field) of the field,' CLi^) ^ Cljb hdt-k'i hat, ' mere talk ;' and adjectively to convert a substantive into an attributive ; thus, iz^ o (J,^«j sone-M talMa, a golden plate,' or ' plate of gold;' \f^^ vi j^ t^ji ' a boy with a large head,' c. In some cases it is idiomatically omitted ; as i_Sj\:S Ijji^ daryd Jcandre, on the river bank,' for ^J^ ^J^ iS ^J*^ daryd-lce Jcandre-men, on the bank of the river.' It is also omitted in many expressions in which the governing words denote weight or measure ; as, ci^^^^iji -*«j (—-^1^ 'one pound of flesh,' ^-'^J l^>^ '—^r'J '* bigha of ground,' where the words are used merely in apposition, the same as in German. d. The genitive is also used to signify possession, value, etc. ; as, ^j" ULj (JXjJ j^o i^l-ijLj pddshdh-KE [_pds or yalidn understood] eh beta thd, the king had a son ;' in like manner, ^^ ^JLj clioj j^^ L_5^^ iis-KE \^pds, etc.] bh'i eh bet'i tin, ' he had also a daughter ;' J^^*- '^ i^-^i )J '— ^.-l^ ^^ rupi,e-hd cJidnwal, one rupee's (worth of) rice.' e. Compounds formed of two common substantives in English will in Hindustani be expressed by the genitive case ; as J-.-^ ^ 15-^^ lihhne-hi mez, ' a writing-table ;' l::-^j li ^[^ hhdne hd waU, dinner time ;' and sometimes the genitive sign is used in Hindustani o o when in English it is inadmissible, as lii) l^ iLs jihr hd lafz, ' the word FIKE.' /. Instances sometimes occur in which a genitive case is used in consequence of a noun or preposition understood ; such as y^ 15^' f^ hear ye him,' i. e. llj\j ^X-j^ ' his word ;' so in the tale of the First Darwesh('Bagh Bahar,' p. 34,) we have lSj^^^ ^J^^ ^^ (^^^ Li^ . ^L5'*'^J^ (where the word ^\i or (^U^J is understood), between you and me there has arisen a sincere friendship.' The 98 PREPOSITIONS. editors of a recent Ciilcutta edition have made an amendment here, by using hamdri tiimhdr'i ! GOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS, ETC. 65. The list of prepositions, page 71, beginning with ^^ age^ etc., govern the genitive with ^ he; as 'C\ ^ j^ ghar-ke age, ' before (in front of) the house ;' ."b i Gjj dargd-Jce par, ' over (on the other side of) the river,' etc. The less numerous list, beginning with L::^ ki ; as, uJ^ ^J, J^ shahr-¥i taraf, ' towards (in the direction of) the city.' All the prepositions may be optionally put before or after the word which they govern, their effect on the substantive, with few ex- ceptions, remaining the same. a. The prepositions being all substantives in an oblique case whose termination is (No. 64, c) idiomatically omitted, it is easy to see from what we have just stated why they should govern the genitive in ke or k'l, but never in led. There is however one pecu- liarity attending some of the feminine prepositions which custom seems to have established ; though the rationale of it be not at all evident. "We have excellent authority for saying that the words JX»j, .^^jAs^i, t— ^> and JcJU», when they precede the sub- stantive, require the genitive in S Ice ; and when they follow, they require ^ hi. In the second volume of the ' Khirad Afro// p. 277, we have ^ ^yiz dS^ hamadad ''aid-he, by aid of the understanding.' In the * Bagh o Bahar,' ^ p. 40, we have ^ jy^^ 15*^ -^ 15^ 1 Whenever reference is made to the ' Bagh Bah^r,' it is understood to be the edition recently edited by me, at the desire and expense of the Honourable the East- India Company. It is not only the cheapest, but in every respect the best work that the student can peruse, after he has gone through the Selections appended to this Grammar. — D. F. PREPOSITIONS. 99 he-marzi huzur-Tce, without consent of her highness the princess;' and in page 188 of the same "work, we have ^ yJ^ '— Lr" t-^'^ eh taraf shaJir-lce, on one side of the city ;' all of them with Ice in every edition and copy, printed or manuscript. The wonder is, how it escaped the critical amendments of the Calcutta editors already alluded to ; but so it has, for even they have here followed the established reading. b. The preposition JcJv^ mdnand or mdnind has been amply discussed by Dr. Gilchrist in several of his works, but it must be confessed that the learned doctor does not in this instance appear as a sound and fair critic. He assumes that one of the Munshis used ke instead of hi by mistake, and that he had sufficient influence with all the other learned natives of the country to make them take his part, and sanction the error. This argument is so very ridiculous that refu- tation is superfluous. Use is everything in language, and if in Hin- dustani custom has ordained that several of the prepositions when they precede the word which they govern, require the genitive with ke, and when they follow require k'l, then it is the duty of the grammarian fairly to state the fact. It is quite probable that many instances of this mode of construction, in addition to those which we have shown above, may yet be detected. c. The adverbs ^^l^j here,' and ^Uj ' there,' govern the genitive with ke, like nouns or prepositions. When thus used, they convey idiomatically the signification of at, to, or in the house of,' or 'in the possession of.' ys>- ^\i_ ^ c_^»-U5 go to the gentleman's house,' whkh is not unlike the use of the French particle chez. The pre- positions (j^b and l1^J<^JJ are used in the same general sense as (juub ^S^ 'near or with him,' and more generally 'in his possession,' *cAez lui^ The word l1>o<^j denotes idiomatically 'in the opinion of,' as LLXt"^ ^ (jjjc^tiiic 'in the opinion of the wise;' 'apud sapientes.' 100 DATIVE CASE. d. Several of the prepositions, when thoy follow their suhstantives, may dispense entirely with the genitive signs h and i'l, thus shewing a tendency to become real postpositions; as, j^wb ^^^J near or before the judge.' If the word they govern be a noun of the third class, or a pronoun, the inflected form remains the same as if ke or Jci. had been expressed; as, ^j*;b ^_p 'near the boy;' 1:j ^^\ 'with- out him or her ; ' and if the word governed be the first or second personal pronoun, when the genitive is thus dispensed with, the oblique forms viujh and tiijh are used ; as, (jwb -is'^ near me ; ' Ijm\j .^^ ' near thee.' DATIVE CASE. 66. The use and application of this case is very nearly the same as in most European languages. As a general rule, an English noun, governed by the pre- positions to or /or, will be expressed in Hindustani by means of the dative case. a. The Hindustani dative sometimes corresponds with the Latin accusative, expressive of motion to a place ; for instance, »i jp \r*^ iLj Ar»- * I will go home,' ' ibo domum.' In this last sense also, the sign Ico is often omitted, which brings it still nearer the Latin ; as, jj^i) Ij'l^ _ji' -..-^ 'l am going home,' ' eo domum.' The dative case is also used -to express time when; as, ^ j^J by day;' o CLi\j by night;' ^ ^Li 'at evening.' In such expressions the post-position Ico is frequently and even elegantly omitted; as, ^J CSS\ one day ; ' and if the word expressive of time be accom- panied by an adjective or pronoun subject to inflection, the inflected form of the latter remains the same as if Tio had been expressed ; as, ,^w> i^\ on that day ; ' c:-nJj fjJ> ' at what time r ' ACCUSATIVE CASE. 101 ACCUSATIVE CASE. 67. The accusative in Hindustani, as in English, is generally like the nominative, but when it is desirable to render the object of an active verb very definite or specific, then the termination Jco (of the dative) is added to the object. a. "We believe this rule to be quite sound as a general principle, though, by no means of rigid application. Many words are sufficiently definite from accompanying circumstances, such as an adjective, a genitive case, a pronoun, etc., so as not to require any discriminative mark. Others again, though sufficiently definite in themselves, gene- rally require the particle ho ; such are proper names, names of offices, professions, etc.; as, ylj ^ CSj\^ 'call Manik ;' j^L ^ j\l>j^ ' call the Sardar.' In these instances, however, the Hindustani assimilates with the Greek, which would employ the definite article in like cases. b. The use of the particle ko to denote the object of an active verb forms one of the niceties of the Hindustani, which can only be arrived at by practice. A weU-educated native, and many Europeans who have studied the language and associated much with natives, wiU without effort supply the particle ko in its proper place, and nowhere else. It follows then that there must be some principle to regulate all this, though it may be difficult to lay hold of, or to express within a short compass. The rule given by Muhammad Ibrahim of Bombay, and we assuredly know of no better authority, is in substance the same as we have just stated. — Vide 'Tuhfae Elphinstone,' page 80. c. When a verb governs an accusative and also a dative, both being substantives, the first or nominative form' of the accusative is generally used, as the repetition of ko in both cases would not only sound ill, but in many instances lead to ambiguity ; thus, ^J Uvi »^ J)y* ' give the horse to the man.' If, however, it be deemed essential to add ko to the accusative, even this rule must give way ; as in the following 102 ABLATIVE AND LOCATIVE. soutencc: bj ^ . ^-*.' . <^^ / ^<^ l/ ^'^^ L5^v' S^ t>^^ ' ^^ i^uvo his brother's share to his (brother's) wife.' When the dative is a prououn, the repetition of ko is easily avoided by using the termination e or eh for the latter ; as, \J J/--> ^\ ^ ^y ^ ^^ ' ^^^ judge gave up to her the child.' iU3LATI^^ AND LOCATIVE. 6S. The ablative denotes the soiu^ce from wliich any thing proceeds; the locative, as its name imports, denotes situation. In their nse and application, they generally coiTcspond with the Latin ablative. a. The ablative sign ^^^ se signifies from' and with.' It is applied to the instrument with which, but very seldom to the agent hy tchmn, any act is done, unless in connection with a neuter verb. Exam/pie : \ ,U (<-= jV^' ^ ^"^ iijy^ jyJi j^ ^xj ^Li) ^c*^ by some poet {or through some poet) a fault took place.' h. "With the verb ^^ kahnd, ' to say' or 'tell,' the particle ^ se seems to be used idiomatically, and must often be translated in English by to ; ' as, ^^^■i< li^i^ ^ ^^ (jm\ j^,-^ T am siiying to him,' or telling him, truth;' because the sentence •. ,fcii li^i^ ^ ^ /uj^ \^^ win mean, ' I declare him (or her, or it) to be true,' or ' I call that truth ; ' so ^^S ^»y^J ^ij^ cJ^ ^>»J\ means ' people do not call him a man.' The use of ^^ se with \j^S therefore is obvious. c. The locative sign ^j-^ 7neri generally denotes in, sometimes to THE AGENT WITH ' NE.' 103 or into ; as, J^ ^^^^Ji he is in the city;' US' • ^ ^Jj ^^ 'he is gone to (into) the city.' The locative signs •,-^ and J have fre- quently the post-position ^^ joined to them; as, X^J j\yu ^-j ^j*^ j^JL he brought a sword from in the city;' ^JJ i^ic-* y i-Jj^ ls^^ *J he fell down from on his horse.' Here the English idiom is ' from off ' his horse, which is less logical. CASE OF THE AGENT. 69. The case of the agent, characterized by the par- ticle J ne, is never used except with transitive verbs, and when used it is confined to those tenses only which are formed of the past participle (No. 40, page 55). The verb then agrees with the object in gender and number, unless it be deemed requisite to render the object definite by the addition of the particle ^ ko (No. 67), in which case the verb remains in the simple form of the third person singular masculine. a. In further illustration of this very simple rule, we here sub- join a sufficient number of examples; l^i.) l^ '—^.^ <3 U^^ ' ^^ saw a dog,' or, literally, by him a dog (was) seen ;' likewise, ^^_j J ijj^p ^r^ ti (jwl 'he saw three horses,' or, ' by him,' etc. ; i^^G J t_r^*^ (-Li^^'J (J {jm\ ' he saw a fox;' ^j^l^ U^JK?^ ^-^^t^ si U^^ he saw many foxes ;' in all which phrases the construction agrees precisely with the Latin passive voice. Again, if it be deemed necessary or elegant to add Jco to the object, then the verb will be always the same, that is, the masculine singular form ; thus, Ig^^O ^ ^i^ tj a^ ' we have seen the dog ;' ^.<.> ^ uj]^ ^ (*^ ' ^^^® J'^^ ^^'^^ ^'^^ horses?' l^xj J ji '•rfj^y S^ '^j^ U*'^ '— -^ 'when that man saw the fox ;' ^^.t-^ ^ e,L>:l/^^ S^ (*^ * ^® have seen the foxes.' 104 THE AGENT WITH ' NE.' The same rule applies to all the tenses into which l^t3 enters (page 55) ; as, ^Ji l^C>J ^ ^^-^} ti U^^ '^"^ ^'"^^ ^^'^^ ^ "^^S '' ^^> ^^' <^C.'J sr"%^(.tr-' o u^^ ' he had seen three horses.' As this is a subject of great importance in the language, we would advise the student to repeat each of the above phrases in all the tenses given in page 55. h. It must be remembered that the case denoting the agent in • ^ .• • •*" the personal pronouns / and tiiou, are ^ -.-k^ main-ne and (3 V o ' ." I " tu-ne or o i>y taih-ne ; as \^\^^^ »C:1 ij, •.->,-• I saw him (her or f , ■ p ( it) ;' ^ (ir^v-' iJ^ -'^ci, <-> ?-' ^'^^^^ t^^^ ^'^^ heard this pro- verb ? ' If, however, the pronouns be followed by a qualifying J' word (substantive or adjective), the inflected forms -^'^ mujh and .^^sT ^«yA are used ; thus, iu the Bagh o Bahar,' page 20, wretched) obtained nourishment under the shelter of my parents.' c. The student should endeavour to remember the limited and restricted use of this case of the agent. 1st. It is never used before a neuter or intransitive verb. 2nd. It is never used before any of the tenses formed from the root or from the present participle of any verb whatever. 3rd. It is never used before the verb U v holnd, ' to speak or say,' nor before u^ Idyid, to bring,' although they both seem according to our notion to be intransitive. Bolnd appears to differ very little from l:^^^^ Tcahid, which last requires the use of the agent with ne. The verb land is a compound of le-dnd, the last member of which is neuter or intransitive, and this leads us to a general rule, which is, that ' compound verbs, such as Intensives, of which the last member is neuter, though really transitive ia signification, do not require the agent with we;' thus, ^,-J^ ^^-.S U" ^ Jl^ yLu.C t_j^ 'those travellers have eaten up the dinner.' d. When two sentences having the same nominative or agent are coupled by the conjunction j^. ^ aur, 'and,' the first of which has a neuter verb, and the following a verb transitive, it is not THE AGENT WITH ' NE.' 105 necessary to express the agent with ne in the second sentence, but the construction goes on the same as if ne had been expressed ; thus, \^ j^ \ t_fM j^ i-^iR" ^j ^wA jhat phir d,i aur {us-ne) hahd, ' she quickly returned and said.' e. This very peculiar use of the particle ne to denote the agent prevails, with slight modifications, throughout an extensive group of dialects spoken in Hindustan Proper. It is found in the Marathi, the Guzerati, and the Panjabi, in the "West. In the Nepalese it assumes the form ^ le; and it may be inferred that it prevails in most of the intermediate dialects of Hindi origin, amounting to nearly twenty in number. It does not exist in the group of dialects connected with the Bengali, nor in those of the Deccan. In the grammars of the Marathi language, it is called the Instrumental case, a term inapplicable in Hindi, as it never is used with the instrument, but solely with the agent. What is called the instrumental case in Sanskrit, is applied indifferently to the agent or instrument ; but in the modem dialects above alluded to, particularly the Hindustani, ne is restricted to the agent only, /. Our great grammarians have succeeded wonderfully well in mystifying the very simple (though singular) use and application of this particle ne. Dr. Gilchrist, in the first edition of his grammar, seems to have felt greatly embarrassed by it, without exactly knowing what to make of it. Those who have merely followed the learned doctor, with very few ideas of their own, have contented themselves by calling it an expletive, which luminous explanation has stood for years in one of the books hitherto read by beginners. Now, the term * expletive ' in philology is as convenient, in its way, as that of the humours in the jargon of quack doctors ; it solves every difiiculty, and forms a ready answer to all questions : it may mean anything or nothing. To account philosophically for the mode in which this particle is applied does not fall within our province ; suffice it merely to say, that it is a form of construction very common in Sanskrit. "With regard, however, to its practical use and application, we trust that all difficulty has been removed. The fact is, that the only real difficulty likely to arrest the progress of the learner consists, not in the use of ne to express the agent, but in that of ko to define the object of a transitive verb. 14 106 NUMERALS. NUMERALS. 70. When a noun is accompanied by a numeral adjective, the plural termination oh of the oblique cases is generally dispensed with. If the noun be of the thii'd class, the inflected form in e is generally used. a. Thus, \)^ ^ ^j^ J^ (J i^V*** ij^ three soldiers beat four men.' We have reason to believe that the addition of the termination oil would render the substantives more pointed or definite ; thus, tin sipdMyon-ne -would signify the three soldiers (aforesaid).' In the grammar prefixed to Dr. Gilchrist's Dictionary (London ed.), Ave have Lj -.iUj , S <■ 'W ^1*^ *-= a hundred horses were at the Nawwab's,' which ought to be translated a hundred horse,' i. e. a troop or collective body of one hundred,' whereas, a hundred horses,' or 'a hundred boys,' would be ^jy^ ^^ and ^S^ y^- h. Collective numbers add oh to denote multiplication or repe- o lition ; as, rj^,,''}ji ^^'-f^^ hundreds of battles;' -y-i cv!/^ thousands of cities.' Any numeral by adding on becomes more emphatic or definite ; as, j_/is:^ lJJuW" ^3 those four persons.' "Words expressive of time, as year, month, day, etc., add on in the nominative plural; as, tJ;-^ U^t^- years have passed away.' c. In Hindustani the conjunction, etc., is idiomatically omitted in such phrases as ^ ^ J ' two (or) three,' ^J^ (jw J ' (from) ten (to) twenty.' A doubtful number is expressed by adding CSj\ to the numeral; as, CSj\ (jwJ ^_5^'-M 'about ten men;' ^jw^j lIX;^ ^ about a hundred years.' To signify ' fold,' A:.:^- or [-^ is added to numerals; as ^^^j^^ two-fold;' liS ^_^J 'ten-fold.' Distributives are formed by doubling the number ; as, ^<^ y^ ' two by two,' or ' two COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 107 apiece.' Thus, suppose we wish to say, give these men three rupees each,' or three rupees apiece,' the Hindustani will be ju> i5*J ) (j:^ (^ry y 1^1^'*'^' tj' to these men, three three rupees give.' COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 71. We have already observed that adjectives in nindiistani do not admit of comparison by any regnhir or systematic terminations. The comparative degree is indicated by merely putting the standard of comparison in the ablative, and the superlative by prefixing to that the word sah^ '• all.' a. The comparative and superlative are to be inferred in general from the context, as the adjective has only one form, that of the positive or simple word, thus ^->l^J^ ^'^ LZ^J y>- 1§j ^^ ^^-o (c-sr^* the miser is better than the liberal man if he (the miser) give an answer quickly.' It is obvious that if the standard of comparison should include the whole class spoken of, the adjective will express the superlative degree. Ex. 'r-Ji ^^ j^^ i^-j j^--/* ijj?/^ c^^-j of all accomplishments two are best' (viz. learning and the art of war). h. To express the comparative degree, the particles j^l aur, and i^t^Lt "i ziydda, more,' may also be employed exactly as in French and English ; as, ^^ L^Sj^- ^"^Vj 15^ ill?^ '--^ ^^ ' ^^^^^^ people are worse than dogs.' The adjective is sometimes doubled to express the superlative degree ; as, \^\ 1^1 very good ;' but the words most commonly used and prefixed for this purpose are \'ji great, very;' ^.::— -^^J much;' Jc*- beyond bounds;' i.::.-^_jI(J extremely;' c::.->.s;**' very ' (generally in a bad or disagreeable sense) ; and Lj most, very,' which last is added. It is to be further observed that 108 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. hj, though thus used apparently as an adverb, agrees in gender and number with the substantive ; as, ^ 101 ^\;^ |j^ >^ ' he is a very wicked boy ;' and again, ^ ^y ^^j^ 4^ ^J ' slie is a very wicked girl,' c. The particle Lj sd {se, si), when added to a substantive, con- verts such substantive into an adjective denoting similitude ; as, .jU>- (.^Ijlj Ls liiii ' a dog-like unclean animal.' When added to an adjective, it seems to render the same more intensive, though fre- quently it is difficult to find for it an equivalent English expression ; as, jT jj (Jlj Lj V';^^ 'bring a little water ;' ^^ ^,l&j jL^ ^^ '-^^^ * there were many weapons there.' When the comparison made by Ls alludes to one thing out of many, it governs the genitive case ; as in the sentence ^Jb *.u*sf- Lj li ^^^^ f^, 'j4^* Jon also have a body exactly like theirs ;' '-^jj'^ ^^ ^^ jy^ a form like that of a tiger.' USE OP THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 72. The personal pronouns, as in Latin, are very often merely understood, particularly before such tenses of the verb as possess distinct personal terminations ; and as a general rule, the pronouns need not be expressed when the sense is quite clear without them, except it be by way of contrast or emphasis. a. When the third personal pronouns become the object of an active verb, they are generally used in the second (or dative) form of the accusative ; as, jjU ^\ ' beat him ;' jl^ ^\ ' caU them ;' n^qj ^^1 take this away.' If, however, they are employed as adjectives, along with their substantives, they may be used in the nominative form; as, ^ ^^ Cjb ^^ J 'you hear this word.' With the conjunctive participle, they are elegantly used in the PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 109 nominative form ; as, J^^ ^^^ ' having said this.' Sometimes, though rarely, the nominative form may be used when a dative follows ; as, /, • J \e/p^ *j /Irt^ I ■^ill gi^6 that to thee.' When the first or second personal pronouns are governed by an active verb, the dative form is always used ; as, ^Jb IJjU* y^'^ ^j or ^Jt> \jju« ^^fs^ Hj he is beating me ;' j^yi t^^J*^ (^..iisr) j^^^sr' j^,-^ I see thee.' b. It may be observed that the personal, relative, and interrogative pronouns have two distinct terminations for the dative and accusative cases, viz. ko or e for the singular, and ko or en for the plural. Hence, when an active verb governs an accusative (second form) and dative at the same time, it will be easy to avoid a repetition of the termination Jco by employing e or en in the one case, and ko in the other ; thus, P 9 uJj J ^L*j 1^1 ^^« I will give it to you; LS (.>^^^~jI t ^'J "-^l^ ' the judge gave up the child to her.' In sentences of this kind, the accusative is generally put before the dative, but not always ; thus, in the Baital Pachi'si,' a very sagacious voung lady says to her 9 9 9 " father, ^=^j^ ^\ t_- ^t i a«j ^:>- \uj ' father, who- U^, soever may be acquainted with all the sciences, give me to him,' or bestow me upon him in marriage,' but then, in another part of the same work, we have a similar expression differently arranged, as 9 9 l:oi.) L5fsr* 1^1 \:j where the dative is placed first. c. When the first and second personal pronouns are accompanied by a qualifying word, the genitive of the whole expression is made by hd, Tee, lei, not rd, re, ri, and the pronouns are used in the inflected forms mujh and tujh ; as, ^ j^ 4s'* ' of me wretched ;' l^ Ij1l> ..^sT < '* . . . " , ofj'thee wise.' This oblique form is also used when the particle sd, ■ ■ 9 se, si. IS added to denote similitude ; as, ju^tJJb Ls ^isT a sensible man like thee.' d. In Hindustani, as in Englisli, it is customary to address an 110 PERSON^VL PRONOUNS. individual generally iu tlic second person plural, tlie singular being used in prayer to a deity, or to express familiarity or contempt ; but in the vulgar tongue they go a step furthei', and the speaker uses the plural *Ji) ' wc,' when it really refers to no more than himself. This abuse has led to the nesessity of adding the word ^^ ' people,' to denote a genuine plural, as liam log, 'we (people),' turn log, 'you (people).' Thus, ^^i (^'^ ^ I know' (literally we know'); and if a real plural is meant, then they say ham log j ante hain ; so, •J ^ »i< 4 'l:ii 'gi"^e me (us) the book.' To testify great respect, the third person must also be used in the plural when speaking of a king, saint, or any illustrious or respected man in general ; as, :^ (Jt«j ^ t/j 'lie is speaking truth' (literally, 'they,' etc.). When the plural is thus used for the singular, it is generally un- inflected ; but when a still higher degree of respect, or a more decided plural is intended, it receives the inflection ; as, Lo ^J r^t^ \ ' they or he (his honour, majesty, etc.) said.' e. This confusion of numbers may have given rise to the following idioms : -ij'li t_Cj[iA.'J (_5'tl/Ka> into our and your hands,' that is, into the hands of us two ; ' ^xj-Irs- *j" *JS hain turn chalenge, we and you {i.e. I and thou) will go,' meaning, ' we shall go.' The speaker politely assumes precedence to himself ; and when two different persons thus occur in a sentence, the verb agrees with the first person in preference to the second, and with the second in preference to the third ; as, ^J^»\s^ w *jis we and you will go ; ' j-i Jlsj- tjj j»J you and they will go.' /. TVe here subjoin the rules laid down by Muhammad Ibrahim of Bombay respecting the etiquette to be observed in the use of the pronouns. " 1. When the speaker and the person whom he addi'esses are of the same rank, each should speak of himself in the singular number, and address the other in the second person plural. 2. A person of superior rank may speak of himself in the plural number, but this is not considered to be polite, nor is it thought correct to address even the lowest rank in the singular number. 3. The pronouns of the third person may be used in the singular when speak- PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Ill ing of any person in their presence, unless they be of superior rank, when they ought to be spoken of in the plural. 4. When one person of rank addresses another of the same or superior rank, or speaks of him in his presence, it is most correct to make use of the respectful pronoun c_-»T, or the great man's title, or some respectful phrase, as JjjlJc>- your honour,' d-J^-as^ honour, highness,' etc., and the like, with the third person plural (of the pronouns and verbs) ; and when an inferior addresses a superior, he ought at all times to use similar expressions of respect, suitable to the rank of the person addressed." We may further add, that an inferior at the same time speaks of himself in the third person singular, under the appellation of *\li. your servant' or slave;' t^^JJ your devoted;' i Jcj your bondsman ;' ^l.s'* your sincere friend,' etc. g. When a person relates the speech of another, he makes use of the identical words which the person whose speech is reported is supposed to have used. Example, He said he should go next day, uJj l^- J^ ^j^t i.i [^S (3 ijjj\ (lit. he said, I will go to-morrow.') So in the sentence, He told me to go home, J^^- -p ^^ \S ti ij*>\ {lit. he said, go home.') This idiomatic use of the pronouns, and conse- quently of the persons and tenses of the verb, is well worthy of the student's attention. It is perhaps that point in which the Hindustani differs most widely from the English, as will be seen in the following sentence, which to save room we shall give in the Roman character. Kal main-ne dp-he hete-ko sliahr-men dekhd, wuh yahayi dyd-clialitd thd ttim-se milne-lio, par hahd Tci gJwrd mcrd mar-gayd, aur hamen ishdra My a hi dp-se zdhir harnd hi apni pdlhi mere waste hliej-dend; fi-l-lidl jo tumhdri pdlhi maujud na ho, to muJMia apni pdlhi us-he tvuste hhej- degd. ' I saw your son yesterday in the city, he wished to come here to see you, but mentioned that his horse was dead, and desired me to tell you to send your palki for him ; if your palki be not now at hand, I shall despatch mine for him.' From the preceding sentence it will appear that considerable attention and experience will be necessary before the student can readily apply the pronouns agreeably to the rules of grammar, idiom, and etiquette, which last is a point of great importance among the Orientals. THE POSSESSIVE ' APNA. USE OF THE POSSESSTYE ' APNi.' 73. Wlicn tlierc occurs in the complement of a sen- tence a possessive pronoun belonging to the nominative or agent, such possessive is expressed in Hindu stani by L^^ apnd {-ne or -nl). a. We may olcfine the complement of a sentence in general, as that portion of it which, in English follows the verb ; thus, in the sentences, ' he returned to his house,' ' he was transacting his business,' the phrases 'to his house,' and ' his business,' form the complement. Again, in each of these, the possessive pronoun his, if it refers solely to the nominative he, will be expressed by apnd in Hindustani ; as, bl ^ j^ lS^^ ^J ^^^ ^ ^ -^ (*^ .^ ^J ' ^^^ ^^ ^^^ pronoun his refers to another person, then it will be expressed by \'LJ\ m-kd {-he, -k't) ; for instance, b I j^ ^S^^ ^j ' he came to his house,' meaning not his own house, but the house of some other third person. , b. "When the nominative of a sentence consists of the first or second personal pronoun, and its possessive occurs in the complement, the matter admits of no hesitation ; as, ' I am going to see my father ; ' * we have seen our new house ; ' ' you are destroying your health ; ' in all of which apnd would be used for 'my,' 'our,' and 'your,' respec- tively. In the use of the third person, however, the English language is liable to an ambiguity, for example, the sentence ' he was beating his slave ' has two meanings ; it might be his otvn slave, or another man's. The Hindustani is much more explicit; ' his own slave' would be expressed by apne ghuldm-ko, and 'another man's slave' by us-ke ghuldm-ko; hence, as a practical rule, if the possessive in the com- plement of a sentence denotes oicn, it will be expressed in Hindustani by apnd {-ne, -ni). Sometimes, apnd is elegantly repeated, to denote separation or distmction ; as follows, ^-i -ji i <^ 4^ o^^*^ <-?• ' they both went, each to his own house,' whereas apne ghar would merely denote ' their own house,' as common to both. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 113 c. It is needless to add, tliat if a possessive pronoun occurs in the nominative part of a sentence, the use of apnd is inadmissible ; as, L5^" « c;^ clisL^ ^^\ c._>lj \j-y j^ ;\r^ 'l and my father will go to our own country.' Here main aur merd hap is the nominative of the sentence, and apne mulk men is the complement ; in the former, the regular possessive merd is used, and in the latter, apnd, according to our rule above stated. d. When in the first clause of a sentence there occurs the conjunctive participle, the possessive in it will be apnd ; as u^jj ^- ,\v^ uJd-« j^ijl -kJ ^'Lo ^ <__ib jjI -j^t ' I, having taken my father with me, will go to my own country.' Here, the use of aptid is strictly according to rule, for the sentence is equivalent to ' I will take my father with me ; and I wiU go to my own country.' e. "We occasionally meet with apnd used irregularly instead of the other possessives ; as, LS CS^^ ttI/* l5^ -^ ^^^ ^^^ disposition even was led astray.' (' Bagh o Bahar,' p. 21.) In ordinary discourse, according to Dr. Gilchrist, we may hear such expressions as the following, namely, {jj^ \mjj\ 11«j LjJ ^ * if my son had done so.' Lastly, apnd is used substantively in the general sense of ' one's people, friends,' etc., like the Latin expression ' apud sues ;' thus, l-i ij J^ ^^\ ij, ijy^)j> — V.' L/^V ls^ ^J^"^} ^J * he came to his own, but his own received him not.' DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 74. The demonstratives ^^^ yih^ 'this,' and ^^ wiik^ 'that,' together with their plurals, are sometimes used in the same sense as our definite article ' the.' They arc applicable to both genders, and agree with their sub- stantives in case, and generally in number. 15 lli INTERROGATIVES. a. AVo have seen it stated in some grammar, 'that a demon- strative pronoun in the singular may be used with an Arabic phiral,' etc., from which the reader is left to infer that it is nut used -n-ith any other phu-al. ISTow, the fact is, that i/ih and wich are frequently used with any plural, and represent the plural even without the substantive ; as, ,^^ (j^u ^ *i U- t/'^W c^yj"^ ^tI ' these tAvo brothers went to the magistrate ; ' and again, ^^ ^.j ^- ^ i-^l/rp- c^lj^ ^. ij 'ttey by way of alms give something.'' It would be needless to multiply examples, as they may be met with in any author. We have reason to believe, how- ever, that when the singular is thus used, it is either to denote a collective group, or in a disrespectful sense ; on a principle analagous to that of applying the plural to one person in order to denote respect or reverence. INTERROGATIVES. 75. The interrogative ^^ Jcaun, when used by itself, generally applies to persons, and L^ hjd to irrational or lifeless beings ; but if the substantive be expressed, kaun ■will agree with it adjectively in case and number, whereas the inflection of kyd is never used adjectively. a. For example, in the phrase ^Jb ^^ ' who is there ? ' the inference is, ' what person ? ' so, ^ \S signifies ' what (thing) is it ?' At the same time we may not only say Oy» r.^ ' what man ? ' ^ l)j^ ijjj^ ' to what man ? ' but also J--5- • ^ ' what thing ? ' li J--=- ijJ> ' of what thing ?' We can also say, J-->- L^ ' what thing?' but we cannot say l^ J^ ^li to denote 'of what 1 Here is another instance of a feminine preposition requiring tlie genitive in l-e, agreeably to what we stated page 98, a. The example is from the ' Bagh o Bah^, p. 144. It is the reading of half-a-dozen different copies (two of them manuscript), as well as of the Calcutta edition, 183G, printed in the Roman character.— D. F. RELATIVE AND CORRELATIVE. 115 thing.' The oblique form hdhe is used only as a substantive ; as, i^j^ fj is^^ '^ watch of what (substance, etc.)?' the answer to which may be ^^ (J ^-3 of gold,' etc. Sometimes hjd is applied to a person or thing by way of exclamation; as, ^jlj.«l^=.. L^ 'what a rogue !' cub L^ what an affair !' "When kyd is repeated, it seems to convey the idea of ' what various ? ' as, t j Is'^ L^ l^ ' what J'y various wonders ?' Sometimes, kt/d is used as a conjunction, meaning o o whether,' or;' like the Latin ' sive ;' as, ^--^ '-^^:r^ ^ ?^ ^ whether in the garden or in the field.' h. The interrogative is used for the relative in such sentences as ^^J^ ^,^ ^ ^^^ii hj\s>- -y^ I know who it is.' Also adverbs \ derived from the interrogative {vide page 68) are in a \imilar manner substituted for those from the relative; for instance, uo'l?- «-^ ^j ^ ^^^ liulrs- \,*^ \j^-* 'l do not know when he will go.' c. Sometimes a question is used to denote negation or surprise ; as, ILjl j*li ^jiS ciV-J' y j=j- CS^ 1^1 'all the territory which thou hast taken will be of no use to thee ;' literally, of what use will it be to thee?' and again, ^j^^ ■^^, lj^^ ^r: ^ W~b Lj\^ where is the king's son? and where this report?' meaning the king's son has nothing to do with this report.' RELATIVE AND CORRELATIVE. 76. Strictly speaking, the Hindustani does not pos- sess a relative pronoun corresponding with our 'who,' ' which,' and ' that,' and as this want is a source of much perplexity to the learner, we shall endeavour in the following paragraphs to explain fully how the place of the relative is supplied. 116 RELATIVE AND CORRELATIVE. a. In page 38 wc have given the declension of ^s^ and ^ whicli from want of a better term tvc called relative and correlative, respectively. The word j:>- signifies 'he who,' she who,' or that which,' and refers, not to an antecedent, like our relative 'who,' but to a noun following, like our words ' whosoever,' ' what- soever,' 'whoso.' Hence y>- usually begins the sentence, and is followed in a second clause by j-j and the use of the two together generally forms a substitute for our relative pronouns * who,' ' which,' and ' that,' as will be seen by the following examples ; ' the king much approved of the horses which you sent,' literally, ' what horses you sent, the king much approved of the same ; ' Jb ^ i_wj y^ _ |Ji \^ 1^ »^ <>- that IS all true which you have said,' literally, 'whatever you have said, that is all true.' In like manner, the relative and correlative adverbs usually accompany each other; jU- ^l^J' J^^ uW^ ~ J^ uV" -f^^uk'^ 'where the treasure is, there is the snake ; and where there is a flower there is a thorn.' h. Sometimes, the remote demonstrative may be used instead of the correlative, both pronominally and adverbially; as follows, ^--J ,^_5^^ '^.<^ 1^5^^-^^ '^^ "^^^ ^^s t^6 pot has the sword' (he who pays best, is best served) ; ^/^ l*^J i^}'^ ^^***^rT' ' ^^ J^"^ shall give, so shall you get.' In the following sentence, the demon- strative adverb j^,lib. is used; whereas in a few sentences before, the author uses the correlative ^\Jl^ for the same expression {vide Selections in Devanagari, page 8, lines 3 and 10); ^ ^ J>}i !y/'^. ^J, ij*^ ^ (./a^^ ^j the man who wrote the letter,' Sometimes, the demonstrative is substituted, in imitation ■ of the Persian; thus, -.-Ji) ^ ^y^ l::-^ ,I^ ^^ {jJ\ A^ ^ ajLk\.j there is a temple in which there are several idols of gold.' d. In many instances the relative «r>- corresponds with our who,' which,' or that,' but the student must be careful not to consider this as a rule, for it is only the exception ; as follows, •j^ ij)^ (5-^ i^ l5'"'JJ J'^ ^^*^ ^^^ loaves which my children eat.' Here the word ^ is not put first, because there is another wordjt> already used to define rot'i; but suppose the sentence were the bread which I ate was very good,' we should have to say in Hindustani, jo roti main-ne TchdX so (or touh) hahiit aclicliJn thV INDEFINITES. 77. The indefinite ^'^ Jco,t, 'somebody' or 'anybody,' when used alone, refers to a person, whereas ^ kuchh, 'something,' 'anything,' refers to matter in general. As an adjective, however, Jco^i may agree with any sub- stantive, as, i^^T t^*/ 'any or some man,'j-^ ^'^<, 'any or some thing.' j^ is seldom applied to persons in lis CONCOKD OF VERBS. the nominative, but in the oblique cases; kisi or kisu seems to be equally applicable to persons or things. a. The indefinites koX and kuchh, as well as the numeral C->^\ el; ' one,' frequently supply the place of our articles a,' an,' or a certain;' as, ^ii> <_Si_j "t-^ j\-^ tf^ A:v4^M clioi a sage ariived in a certain city;' \y jU-J j^ '— ^.^ ci-^j lS**" '-'^ ^ certain time a tiger fell sick.' The indefinite article frequently occurs more than once at the beginning of a story, and it is a point of good taste to use l<.o,'t and eh alternately, as in the preceding examples, so as to avoid the clumsy repetition of the same word. The emphatic particle t^-'i or ^^ hi may be afiixed to many of the pronouns; as, |Ji> L_>l my (your, etc.) own self;' ^^j this same;' ^Jt^ that same.' Also in the oblique cases i^\ i<~J^ etc., as in ^ ^^\ S ^-^ 'to this or that self-same person or thing.' Some- times -.-Ji) is added with the same eifect. CONCORD OF THE VERB WITH THE NOMINATIVE. 78. As a general rule, the Hindustani verb agrees with its nominative in number, person, and gender, sudject, however, to the following exceptions : 1. To mark respect, a singular nominative has a verb in the plural ; 2. If the nominative consist of different irrational objects in the singular number, they may take a singular verb ; 8. If the nominatives be of various genders, the verb takes the masculine form, or agrees with that next to it ; Lastly. If the verb be transitive, and in any tense formed of the past participle, the nominative assumes the case of the agent, and the verb follows a special rule akeady illustrated, p. 103, Xo. 69, etc. a. We shall here add a few examples in illustration of the GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 119 preceding rule, embracing, as it does, the whole subject of verbal concord, which differs in some respects from that of the European languages. Thus, ^ u,:SJ a^ he is writing;' ^ ^^^ ^3 ' she is dancing ; ' ^-J& ,^1^ t/j they {ftiales) are talking ; ' and \.^ i^^ <-rJ 'they [females) are singing.' The following examples refer to the exceptions: 1. tjy& i^jojjl .LAj J iUiJo ' the king having seen (this), became tearful,' or ' wept ; ' where the verb ^y& is plural, expressive of respect to the king,' which is in the singular nominative. In like manner we have ^iS ^j:>-\s. iUJ jj^^ ^ (irr^W c_-^~iL'« it is not proper that your majesty should submit.' 2. In the following sentences we have two nouns in the singular number, coupled by a conjunction, whilst the verb is in the singular, agreeing with the nearest noun ; as, ^ ^^ ^j3^ J}^ Jr^? [^) the bullock and horse have just now arrived ;' _T \^ l--v-o ^ ^yS \j^ J\j j^\ ^^ J ^^^ ' my people, my wealth, and my kingdom, why are they not all gone (from me) this day?' 3, Several nouns of different genders occur in the next two sentences, but the verb takes the masculine plural in preference to the feminine ; as, ^ ^j^J^ ^ ^i-j^^l^ [j\^ ^ i5V^ 'having given the child food, go home;* JLy \C^ -^-; ^-cl ' put on him these clothes;' audjJ "^^jj CSi} ^^ give him a rupee.' b. Some neuter verbs, as 1)1 'to come,' LL 'to become,' 1)1^ o o >> ' to suit,' Ujp 'to fall,' L^yq^^j to arrive,' L-^ ' to become,', Ljils^ * to be desirable,' Li^i to remain,' L^j^j-c to appear,' li>J to unite,' LL« 'to meet, to occur,' and UjJfe to be,' govern the dative case, and are frequently used impersonally ; as follows, ^jfe U 1 **-j 15^'* I feel compassion;' ^Ji ^^ -^^ CJu ^1 |<~s^ I have some doubt in this matter;' \^l^^ ^J^^ ^ l5"^^ ^C*Jb 'it is desirable that we should go there.' We may here observe that the form ^IjiU- from cMhnd, is frequently used impersonally in the sense of it is proper,' 'it is fit;' like the Latin decet,' oportet.' "Wlien thus em- ployed, governs the dative of the person, and either the past participle or the aorist of the accompanying verb, as in the preceding example, which might also be expressed ^vjbl.5>- 1j1j>- ^ f*^ "^^ must go.' Sometimes, it may be used personally ; as, jJfcU^ L^ »^ >j which may mean what is proper for you,' or what do you require,' etc. "We could in this way say -«Jbl:>- ljl>- rj^^ »L*.J' 'you must go there,' or to go there behoveth you.' c. Verbs meaning to sell,' or implying gain,' have -ffla hand,' connected with them; as ^Jb lsn,j ^'la* ^S-^ l5^ '^° whom have you sold it?' 1)1 ^\h --j L::.-^:^.s'* ui^v^ [*^ ^J 'that busi- ness was accomplished with great difficulty;' in like manner, bl -^"li i^jsT J^ <-^jJ ^^^ 'he gained a flower as his prize.' lu such expressions the word ^'la> is used in the sense of possession.' d. Verbs which in English require 'with,' 'from,' or 'by' after them, govern the ablative, and those which require ' in,' TENSES OF THE ROOT. 121 'within,' 'into,' the locative case; as in the following sentence: ,.p" ( , " . •■ y » - y .. ^ ^ .. , ^ lil?-'J^ L5*^ *^^^ ^^ better, that by means of his friendship I should escape from the hand of my enemies ; ' in like mamicr Lf^^^ (1^ J^^^^ dJ^J^ 1^^ b 'going into his house, he began to think within himself.' Verbs of fear and caution require the ablative case ; as, ^ bj3 ^^ ^y ij Jul-i ' perhaps he is afraid of you;' ^ \:Jbj j\<^j^ ^^ C:)i'^\f^\f" J^^ ' ^^ sage keeps on his guard against reprobates.' TENSES OF THE ROOT. 80. We have already given the general signification of each tense, in the various paradigms of the verb pp. 44 to 59. "We shall now, following the same order, briefly notice such peculiarities as some of them present. The reader will recollect that they are three in number — the aorist, future, and imperative, of which the aorist is the most important, on account of its extensive use and application. a. The Aorist generally corresponds with the present subjunc- itive of the Latin, or what in English grammar goes under the name of present potential' ; hence the conjunctions a^ and &^\3 'that,'^i and ^r:^ 'if,' ^'~^\ 'although,' CSj i -.^ 'until,' and \ IjL^ 'lest,' generally require the use of this tense after them; as, . ' if I desire that he should stay tiU I come, what is it to thee .'' ' I It further implies possibility or obligation; as in the sentences, , ^Ji ^j ^^Cj jJh ^^ ^p^ ^T ' whatever it may be possible to do • to-day, that do;' ij^ys /•l:srU-j ^l^ ~>^^_ ^ ^Ji> Jui.^1 (;_t^*^ 'our j hope is that this business may bo brought to a conclusion;' 16 122 TENSES OF THE ROOT. ^ ,,T ^I'j ..1 Ij^j 5**-r-J 'if ^ l^i"o sends an ambassador to any place, it is desirable tbat be sbould be the wisest and tbe most eloquent man of his tribe.' When the power of doing a thing is designed to be expressed, the verb ux-<; ' to be able, ' is used in all its parts, with the root (or sometimes the inflected infirfitive) of the principal verb ; as, ^Jt> u>w; Jf*^j c^ ^ or less . frequently, ^ l:;^ -rf^J ^j\:>- Hj he cannot go.' h. The aorist is very frequently employed to denote present time when general and unrestricted, hence it is used much in proverbial expressions, with which the language abounds; as, o ^ -ij '^^ J^ ^ , «J^ 'the wealth of the wicked goes for nought.' It also expresses time future or past, conditionally; as, Jfcij ^\zZS^ Jjjj y lJt^ (J^ i-f*^ -^^ 'if the nightingale find thy abode, then will the rose-garden be forgotten ;' or, ' if the nightingale found thy abode, then would the rose-garden be for- gotten.' On the subject of this tense, Muhammad Ibrahim has given several sound remarks in his grammar, already alluded to ; p. 59, etc. He gives it the name of ' future of the subjunctive or potential mood.' "We have discarded the term mood altogether, as utterly inapplicable to the Hindustani language, and infinitely more perplexing than useful. Lastly, the aorist is sometimes accompanied by the present auxiliary tense ^^, etc., page 43, the precise effect of which it is difficult to determine ; as, j^^ j^,^ ^ • ^« ' I may speak ;' j_yi .^j\S ^>^y^*^ Jasoda is or may be saying.' c. The Future presents few peculiarities, save that in respectful language it is often employed for the imperative, and occasionally for the aorist ; as, ,^S^'^ <^\:^ tl^>l j-fsr^ ^^ yj:^^'\:^ i_^o»-L5 ' have the kindness. Sir, to give me a book ; ' so, likewise. TENSES OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 123 am thinking that whatever they say may be from envy.' Our Second Future or Future Perfect is formed by the future of lil^ ' to finish,' to the root of the verb ; as, ^^S- \^ /--^ ' I shall have eaten,' ^^.^^- ^ *J '^6 will have eaten,' etc. d. The Imperative is confined in its application, strictly speaking, to the second person, singular and plural. The honorific form addresses itself as to a third person by way of respect; as, -jfei t— ^>- *be silent;' J 1 JbS\ come hither;' ^-I^srii^ i jW* jC»J6 pardon me,' or 'may he pardon me.' It is not considered polite to use the second person singular of the imperative to any one, however low his con- dition. The adverb ^j:-'^ is applicable to the imperative mood alone, ij is applied to it in common with the other modes, ^^^ is never used with it; as, ^^, l::,-^ or l::-.^ ^^i^ don't forget;' Xj \mjj\ 'don't do so.' The imperative mood is sometimes used idiomatically, as in the following expressions : yis y yn perhaps it is,' or * it may be ; ' Jl y j\ come, if you mean to come.' TENSES OP THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 81. Of these, the Indefinite claims most attention. The name and signification given to it in most gram- mars, is ' Present Indefinite Tense. ' The epithet of present is misapplied, as the tense generally refers to the past. a. Among the tenses of the present participle, the Inde^tiUe holds the same rank that the aorist does in those derived from the root. Its most ordinary significations are, first, to denote conditional past time, in which case it is generally preceded by ^\ or y>- 'if,' and followed by y 'then;' as in the sentences, Ij' Jb aj ^. ,1-^ ^ y Ij'T ^j ^^ ' if he had come, then there would 124 TENSES OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. have been no loss ; ' liuJj ^ e^b ^j^ y ^^ ^j*^ y>- if I had spoken, ho would not have regarded what I said,' or 'if I should speak, he would not regard.' So in the ' Bagh o Bahar,' p. 71 : ij\:>- If oar days were at all lucky, then we should have some- where found Hatim, and having seized him, we should have carried him to Nauful, then he would have given five hundred ashrafis,' etc. The conjunction is frequently omitted in the former or latter part of the sentence, and sometimes in both ; as, 'had I gone, I should have beaten him soundly;' in like manner, \jlj ^ J^!*i>- ^ji^ ^V* ijj^ ^^^ ^ heen present, the horse should not have been allowed to escape.' h. In the second place, the indefinite is employed to denote continuative past time, or to express an act or event that was habitual ; as the reader may observe in the following passage : 9 -' , 1^}^ if^^ "^^^ ^ Ij'U-ysi Jili lujj^ i._^j" ^^^^^-^^ ^j'^y^ ^-r'^ ">• ^ 9 ^ ^9 ^ ^ b'yi Cy^ ^ ls*^^ Li^y ^^ J^^ 'when the gamester used to win (Jittd) he used to become {ho-jdtd) so careless, that any one might' take off {utdr-leta) his clothes; then even it would not be {na hotd) known to him.' In like manner, ' Bagh o Bahar,' p. 9 : k^y^ Aj ^y - i^\:>- ' All night the doors of the houses used not to be fastened, and the shops of the market used to remain open ; the travellers used to go along,' etc. TENSES OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 125 c. The indefinite is occasionally used for the present by omitting tlie auxiliary; as, \r^ \f Sj 'what is he doing?' The student must be careful, however, not to fancy that this tense corresponds with our present indefinite, as some of our grammars inculcate. Its use as a present tense is the exception, not the rule. d. The Fresent Tense is used both to express the precise point of time when the action takes place, and also to denote a continuous or habitual state of action ; hence it corresponds with both our forms of the present tense ; as, ^ Ij'U- j^ ij 'he is (now) going home;' but in the sentence ^Jb \j\s>- ^ AA-.,«Jb ^ liS\j Hj it must be translated, he always goes home at night.' The present is frequently used for the future, when it is meant that the action will be done quickly ; as, ^,^ ui! U \^ >As>- j^» I am bringing (shaU bring) the dinner qiiickly.' e. In vivid descriptions, when the narrator represents a past occurrence in the same manner as he or the person of whom he speaks originally saw it, and as if it were still apparent to the view, the present is frequently used ; as in the following passage : j_.-.^ -^^^ iU^} jic> ^ U^.'^ ^^\i U^V. o^ •-:^^j'^ (j^i '— -^ j^^ ^ ^ ^ " , '' ^ o' '--^. L5^ L5^ --^ ~ (j^ L.5^ Li oL?^*"^' J^ d)J)J ^ O /C ^ " ^ " ^ _ y Jb \j\s>- %>~ u-ijb 'when he arrived at the tree, he saw that on every branch of it are hanging hundreds of human heads; and under it is a beautiful tank full of water, and the stream of it is flowing towards the desert.' In such instances the past tense may be used, but it is less animated and impressive ; as |J& {^j^^ ^S y*y* (^S^'^ J-^ ' he went near the tree, and what does he see but a marble slab icas placed at the bottom of it.' 12G TEXSES OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. / The Imperfect douotcs a past action in progress, and con-esponds with our own conipouud tense formed in a similar manner; as, l^ l:;^ >j 'he was writing.' In most of our English grammars, the Indefinite Past Tense, such as * he wrote,' * he spoke,' is very improperly called the Imperfect. It is needless to state that these expressions in Hindustani must be rendered by l^ ^-i and l^i (c*~'i that is, the simple past, of which we shall say more immediately. g. The tense called the Present Dubious (page 51) is generally employed to denote a future action of uncertain occurrence ; as, uJjj^ or ^J»J^ \jj\^ ij^ (perhaps) I may beat,' or be beating ;' so in ' Bagh o Bahar, p. 38 : lSy& l^i L^ j-^^ ^j?- ,jj\ s^ ' What wiU he (or may he) saying in his own mind ? ' TENSES OF THE PAST PAETICIPLE. 82. The main peculiarity in the use of these is, that when the verb is transitive, the nominative must be put in the case of the agent, as explained p. 103, etc. The Fast Tense corresponds with what is improperly called the imperfect in most English grammars ; as, Li^ !>- a^ ' he went away ; ' U^ ^J *j' ' you wrote ; ' which expressions, though inde- finite as to time, convey the idea of a complete or perfect action ; hence the absurdity of calling it the imperfect tense. In addition to its common acceptation, it is sometimes used with a present, and sometimes with a future meaning ; as in the following : L5*^ y ii;^'' LS^J U^ ^J^^ y ^s^ *> y^ ' ^ ^^® ^ found, then my life remains; if not, it is gone ; ' luli »«c by ^^ ' what he sows, that he reaps.' "We have already stated that the present is sometimes used for the future to denote speed ; the past is employed for the same pui-pose. Thus a man says to his servant, »''^ ^l» TENGES OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 127 ' bring water,' and the answer will probably be Juj1jl=s- b^ * I have brought it, Sir,' meaning, ' I will bring it immediately.' It is some- times applied in an idiomatical manner, ; as, lys J \yi> ' if it be so, why be it so.' b. The verb ' to be ' has, in Hindustani, two tenses expressive of the past, viz. l^" was,' and \^ 'was' (or 'became'), which may often be translated by the same word in English. In many cases these appear to be synonymous in their application ; the student, however, must pay particular attention to the following rule. l^" is used in reference to simple existence at a distant time or particular place, while \y!b is applied to time or circum- stances less remote, in the sense of * became ; ' as follows : lf> iljjjlj CX'l j^^« u_xl.-« ^_^gu^ 'there was a king in that country;' uJi icrrt^ ^J h^ '^^^ (became) confounded.' In short, \^j de- notes permanent existence, and uJb that which was, or became existing, through circumstances generally stated in, or easUy in- ferred from the context. c. The Perfect answers to the Perfect tense in English, being used to denote an action newly past and finished ; as follows, ^i) Isn.^^ -rf^^. Irr* ' ™y ^i"other has arrived ;' ^Jb Ul^ ^ J^ tj ^J^ I have eaten the fruit.' Sometimes it is used with adverbs of time, in a manner that cannot literally be rendered in English ; as j^yi L^ ^[sbj J^ ^^ ' I have gone there yesterday,' for ' I went there yesterday.' In this case, the usage of the French 'je suis alle,' would have come nearer the Hindustani. d. The Pluperfect in English will generally be expressed by the Pluperfect in Hindustani, representing a thing not only as past, but as prior to some other event ; as in the sentence, 1 \^ \^ la^ ^j -^^ <" I i ^j,js:Xt^ 15-^^ ' I ^^^ written the 1 letter previous to his arrival.' But the converse of this rule 128 TENSES OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. (Iocs not hold, the pluperfect being frequently used in Hindu- stani wbcvc in English \rc employ the simple past; thus in Story 10, a learned Kiiyath orders his slave to get up during the night, and see if it rains. The slave, feeling himself very com- fortable where he is, concludes, without getting up, that it does rain : and gives the following ingenious process of reasoning : ^(i ^_gC^ _ V ^p ub tJl-sAS l::--^^ ci *^' jj--< -^-^ on the way, j-ou must have met with much difficulty.' The Past Conditional (p. 51.) is of very rare occurrence, and is under- stood to express the event in a more remote manner than the Indefinite (p. 45) ; thus, Ij'Ls- Jl ij J L^ ILj^ Ir?^-' <-> d*^ ^^ 'if I had opened the cage, then it would have flown.' A kind of expression like the Paulo-post-futurum, is expressed by liJil^- ' to desire, ' with the past participle of another verb ; as, 1^ ^^^ V* ^J ^^ ^^ about to die,' 'is dying,' or 'will soon die.' There are also other ways of expressing the same idea : thus, ^J^ L^j'* >j or ^ i)i_j Jfj^ ij or 1^ b vJ^.^ i». INTINITIVE. 129 INFINITIVE. 83. The infinitive is used as a substantive to denote the state or action of the verb ; it is frequently used for the imperative, and occasionally it is employed adjec- tively in connection with another substantive. a. All Infinitives used as substantives or adjectives are subject to inflection like nouns of tbe third class : thus, Jb t_-w;L^ Ij U^ LCj^ his departure is proper;' ^Js c:-nij |_,^^ li ^j.J A,\hj\ 'this is the very time for taking revenge;' l>| ^ ^^^i^ j^ Hj or \j\ (J^-J^j 15^ is^^i'^ ji^ ^J '^^ ^^^ come to see the house.' The infinitive is often used as an imperative, and as such it may- even have the negative mat before it ; as, Ij l^^ ♦amj €yb ' swear not at all;' Ulsj- l..::-^^ ^1)^J 'don't go there,* or 'you must not go there.' Sometimes it is used with the verb U^Jb, instead of the regular tenses of the verb which it represents ; as follows, \J& \j 1 ^-) lLJ^ fjM^ * from what country are you come ? ' instead of ^ ^>'l ^^ ^.^.^l^ {j^- I^ is also used with the verb to be,' like the Latin gerund, to denote neceesity or obligation ; as, lSy& liUj- ij^j ^ f>^ 'you must go there;' so, likewise, {^ Ij^-Jl^trf" '^ t-^v-j^t^^ _ j^ \jj^ jj)j i,L>j\ j^\ 'one must die (moriendum est) some day at last, and must give up every thing.' h. Sometimes the infinitive, together with its complement (that is, the noun which it governs, along with its circumstances), may form the subject or predicate of a proposition; as follows, ^^^jb\i j_y«JJ»l \J^^ ^.j^\i^ <-rr-' 1^ (jr* jy"^^ ^ t^j-^^^V, to laugh {lit. to display the teeth) in the presence of kings is unmannerly,' In the following sentence from the ' Khirad Afroz,' both the subject and the predicate arc of this description: L5^ U/ S-^U- \:4j ^^ l:^^^s^ ^'r-^ / ^^j 'to keep 17 1 30 INFINITIVE. chililren in the society of tlic vile, is to effect their ruin.' When an intinitive thus usoil has a feminine noun for its complement, it "cncrally agrees adjectively with the substantive (like the Latin participle in dus) by changing Ij into ^ or ^^ ; thus, •C, » ;^^J ^^ .j\.'\ o'W-*^' o Jrr* I ^ave not learned to .. ^ ^ -• • ^ ^ ^ p speak your language ;' ^jLL>% ^^^j ^_5-'^ ' ^-^ J^'' ^^ ^^ awed, to put one's finger on a lancet.' So, in the ' Biigh o Bahar,' p. 32 : intention thus to act the stranger, then where was the necessity of previously tendering your friendship with such ardour?' Here the infinitive karn'i agrees with nd-dsJmd,i and dost'i in the feminine gender ; so, p. 35, -^J ^^^ lS^'-"^ T U^-^ ' — ^^t^ '^ ^^^^ trouble to one's guest is not proper.* Sometimes (though rarely) the infinitive does not agree with the feminine noun which it governs ; as may be seen in the following sentence : * to toil much for this world is in fact much-ado about nothing.' If the infinitive, with the feminine noun which it governs, be not the subject or predicate of a sentence, this concord does not hold between the infinitive and the word which it governs ; as jiJ (C^ an old man and his wife came to cut wood (sticks), and began to gather sticks.' Here the infinitives tornd and chunnd do not agree with lakriydh, because they are neither subject nor predicate to a sentence. We have been rather diffuse in explaining this peculiarity of the infinitive, because the rule respecting it, as given in most grammars, is, to say the least of it, unsound. It runs thus : "The termination i3 is used with certain verbs or with post-positions; PARTICIPLES. 131 1^^ (we)» (2ry {fiin), or ^jU) (niydn), when a feminine noun singular or plural is the object of the verb ; and Ij in all other cases ! " We have just shewn from the best authority that ne is used when there is neither a certain verb ' nor post-position ' in the case, and that ni is not necessarily used at all times when a ' feminine noun is the object of the verb.' c. The inflected infinitive with kd (he or hi) is also used adjec- tively in a sense somewhat like the Latin participles in turns; as, ^\jy^^ li i_^^ ^^_ ' this cannot be ; ' l^ »S^ ^r!^'j f>^ ^y^ ^\ now I do not mean to go to Persia ' (non stim iturus) ; so, i^U j^r-^ ^^ 'l am not the man to believe, or submit.* Lastly, the inflected infinitive is used with liL! when it means ' to begin;' with L> tjl t_$j they are allowed to come.' The verb liU- to go,' may also govern the inflected infinitive of another verb (ko being understood) ; as, ^_^ (^f'W ^} ' they went to play.' The verb \:S^ to be able,' generally governs the root of another verb, but it is often used with the inflected infinitive, particularly when accompanied by a negative particle ; as, lx_i Ji^ As>. ;.^ 1 shall be able to move ; ' l^' l::^^ Aj <-:J..>- ^ ' he was not able to move;' \::L^ ^j^^ LS-^^ c.r* ^ cannot say.' Lastly, the verb hoiid, denoting obligation, may govern the inflected infinitive ; as, ISys ^JU- jL*j ' you must go ; ' l^ ^ ^ jdi ' you must write.' PARTICIPLES. 84. The present and past participles, when used par- ticipially and not forming a tense, generally add V^ (p. 4G), and agree, like adjectives, with the noun which they qualify. In many instances they arc used adverbially 132 rAETICIPLES. iu the masculine inflection, or, more strictly speaking, they are verbal nouns in an oblique case. a. The following examples will illustrate what we have just stated regarding the participles when accompanied by hu,d ; one in Eraj who will stop the departing Gopal ? ' So likewise, • ,u JJ^ ^cS r^^ <-^l}^ S^ V* ^^'^'^ bones of a dead tiger ; ' and, kettledrum suspended in a tree.' Sometimes the past participle is used like a mere adjective; as, l^" cb ^ "l^ <— ^J 'there was a flowery and fruitful garden ' (not flowered and fructified ' ) ; but the words ^Ait?a and^Aa?a here may be real adjectives (not participles) derived from fhid, a flower,' and flial, fruit,' by adding a, which is agreeable to analogy. In expressions like the following, they are used adverbially; as, ^yi> ^-j when it was morning;' (3yb *Li ' when it was evening ; ' ^^j ^jir^ ' while I remain ; ' ^^^\^ l^^^ at the sight of whom ; ' ^^i^^*^ W * without understanding ; ' l::-Jj ifV.^ ^^ t^6 'time of giving.' The present participle is doubled, to express the continuation or frequency of the act; as, \^is aj ij,^ tjyb A,^ \j\AJi ' our work being and being, was not,' i.e. continuing to be done, was not completed.' b. From the present participle is formed the compound verb called statistical (p. 65), by using the masculine inflection of the participle together with some verb of motion ; as, ^ ^J\ ti^ ^j ' she comes singing.' The present participle in this case is employed precisely like the ablative of the Latin gerund. Dr. Gilchrist has suggested that Jci hdlat men should be considered to be understood : thus, wuh gate ki hdlat men dti hai, _ she comes in the state or condition of (a person) singing;' but a moment's consideration will shew PAETICIPLES. 133 that this theory is more ingenious than sound. For instance, Jb Ij'l {/j^ u::-JU- ^^) jjli' ^j ' ho comes (in the state of) one singing,' is all very well, but, on the other hand, when the nominative is feminine, as, ^Jb ^\ {^j^ ci-JU- ^) ^^ i$j 'she comes (in the state of) one singing,' the expression is absurd ; because she is a female, and the one singing is a male ; and we leave the authors of the theory to account for the curious fact of her coming in the state of (a male) singing, at that particular juncture. We believe that in these instances the present participle is a verbal noun in the locative case, similar to those Sanskrit verbals in ti, etc. (corresponding to the tio of the Latin), which denote the abstract action or condition of the verb. In fact we could add many instances where the participle is clearly used like a mere substantive, as --j ^j-a from sleep,' evidently the same as ^--j (Jw. c. From the past participle are formed the compound verbs called frequentative and desiderative, by adding Icarnd and chdhnd respectively to the simple masculine form of the participle. The only peculiarity about these is, that the verbs \jy* 'to die,' and \j\s>- 'to go,' employ the regular forms of the participle mard and Jdgd, in preference to the usual forms mu,d and go/yd; as, wuh mard chdhtd hai, he is about to die,' or ' wiU die,' or wishes to die ; ' so, wuh jdyd hartd thd, ' he was in the habit of going.' The past participle with hu,d in the inflected state is sometimes used like the conjunctive participle, or, indeed, it may be a compound form of the latter, for ought we can say; thus, ^ IfLj i^''^ ^li3 ^^yi>■^ L-T^^ '—^.^ '^ ^^S^ having applied the smoke (by way of penance) is seated ; ' so likewise, having put on various coloured garments, were dancing.' Some- times the past participle of a neuter verb is used adjcctivcly (that 134 PARTICIPLES. is, agreeing uitli tlic nominative), along with another verb ; as, [\\s>- 1=.-; thus, -jS (JU- ^Jj>- o^ 'they go along;' so, ^ , J< ^ ^'b LJ■l■*^ tlX>l 'a fox was roaming about.* ^f> ^^^> "-<^ -^ > " ° rf. The conjunctive participle, by connecting the similar numbers of a sentence, saves the use of verbs and conjunctions ; it commonly refers to the agent, sometimes to the object of the verb; as, \\ jii iLI l^\:^ s^^-*^ f^ lO^J tt' having gone there to-day, and having taken my book, return ; ' and again, ^ ^^ ^'U-»A^ >,^j L5t-?'* \^ J' 4-^"^^ o"^* f*^ O"^^ '"das. regret has come upon me (through) making haste in this business.' The student will recollect that this participle has several forms, the first of them the same as the root; the second, the same as the masculine inflection of the past participle, or the second and third persons singular of the aorist ; but the context generally suffices to prevent any ambiguity. e. The masculine inflection of the present participle with the addition of the particle ^Jb li'i, forms what may be called the adverbial participle. Its signification is very nearly the same as that of the conjunctive participle above described ; the adverbial form conveying perhaps the idea of more speed or precision ; as, j^ ^J-^^ i-^'V -V:'. (immediately) on hearing this statement. This participle may be applied in three ways, all of them tending to prove what we have stated above, that it is merely a verbal noun. Thus we may say, ^Js ic^^--' C:J\ -^J where yik hat is the first form of the accusative; we may also say, , Ji ij^"^"^ ^ Cl.>lj ^j.ul where is Idt-Tco is the second form of the accusative ; lastly, we may say, ^^ ^s"^"^ ^ ""^^ U^^ ^^ ^^^ hearing of this statement.' Here, we see sunte in the first two expressions scting the part of a transitive verb, and in the last that of a substantive. CONCLUSION. 135 85. Wo have little more now to add on the syntax of the Hindustani language, which, we believe, we have discussed more fully, and we would fain hope, more intelligibly, than has yet been done. The following few remarks may be still added, as belonging to no particular department of the subject. a. Sometimes a verb plural is used without a nominative case, some such word as ' they ' or people ' being understood ; as in the following examples : ^^ lsH^ iIl?"' ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ '' ^"^^ i2;--& <^J^ y (jjjAr^ If*** J^^ •— ^J ^^^ ^^ thousands with one sword.' In negative sentences, the verb to be ' is generally under- stood ; as, --^ ^)! ^ j^'-i S>/P' r^ oppression ( is ) not becoming your dignity.' The particle »b M is frequently used after verbs of speaking, asking, etc., in the sense of thus,' as follows,' 9 etc. ; as, l-^ ^ ti (Tjt^^ ^ ^^ ci (j^^ he said he had not done it;' lit. 'he said thus, I have not done it.' This is very like the use of the particle on as it frequently occurs in the Greek text of the New Testament. In a sentence consisting of two or more clauses, it is not necessary to repeat the auxiliary verb in each; as ^ — jj JuJ (^ J3^ — 15^ ^S (^^ 'V' c_f;W^ ^\Qk.- ness is the thraldom of the body, and sorrow that of the spirit.' I. "We may here state in conclusion, that throughout this long section on Syntax, it has been our principal aim to illustrate those peculiarities in which the Hindustani language differs from our own. Such rules and principles as completely accord with those of the languages supposed to be familiar to the reader, we have either passed over unnoticed, or handled very briefly. It may further be stated that there remains a difficult department of the language which must be overcome by practice, viz., the use of idiomatical expressions. These do not constitute the subject of grammar, and a knowledge of them is to be acquired by reading the best authors, and by free intercourse with the natives of the country. 13G SECTION VI. THE NAGAEl OR DEVANAGAEI ALPHABET. 8G. This is the character generally used by tlie Iliiidus. It is read and wiitten from left to right, like oiir own. The alphabet, as used for the Hindustani, consists of eleven vowel sounds, and thirty-thi-ee con- sonants, all arranged as follows : — Voiccls. a a ? I u u n e ai 6 au Consonants ^ m ^ ^ ^• ^ W ^ m ^ d ;!; kh ff (jh n ch cM J /^ n t ^ ^ ^ w rr ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ th d dh n t th d dh n p ph ^ V( iT ^ T "^ ^ ^ w ¥ "% b hh m y r I w ,v sh sh s h a. To the above letters may be added the symbol *, called anuswdra, which represents the nasal it (page 6), and the visarga \ , which corresponds with the final weak jf (p. 6) of the Persian character. "VVe would at the same time draw the student's attention to two compound chai-acters, of which the elements are so disguised as to have the semblance of single letters ; viz. 'g hsh, compoimded of gr and ■q', sounded like our a; in fluxion, or ct in faction ; and "^ /», sounded like our gn in bagnio, or the French gn in ligne, champagne, etc. The mark | is used in poetry to indicate the first member of a sloka or couplet j and at the end of a doTca it is generally doubled || . VoAv-el s Consonants . I?iitiaf Secondare- 3 3^^ 7"? r? ri r-j ^ ^ ^ "cT 3 /t: ^A J7 ^.^ 7?^ It 7r^ !«? if ^/^ ^^^ "1 eiio c ait Z H 3 ^ Ttf ^ --/' d dll 7, P ph h TtTi T^T „ 7, , 7^^ 7 r ^ 7t-o^^ /7Z r ojsip o zTjyjj j^btters ' t>' ^ ^^ ddh drrv dy dw nt nfh -nd ndh ^■■n ?'w ry . -fJi pt -pT> /n- ps hd '/d/v ■'■' ht shdt shn st si^/i i?/ srn sy ss A»'/ /y WK/SlUn. Jc C lo/idi-t OF THE VOWELS. 137 In prose the same marks serve to denote stops. In many books lately- published in India, in the Devanagari character, the English stops have been very properly and successfully introduced. b. In naming the consonants, the short vowel a (the fatha of the Persi- Arabic alphabet, p. 8) is inherent in each ; thus la, Tcha, gu, etc. : and in reading, this vowel is to be supplied after every letter (except the final letter of a word), provided it be not accompanied by any other symbol ; thus, ^«T^ Mndh, * gold,' •TT'^ tiagar, ' a city.' If a word terminates with a compound consonant, the short a may be frequently supplied at the end, as in ^"^ putra, ' a son.' "Whenever a consonant in the middle of a word is not to be uttered with the short a, the consonant is marked underneath with the symbol (>.) called virmna or rest ' (the same as the ja%m of the Persi- Arabic, p. 10), as ^ t^lT UjJ to speak ;' or the In may be combined into one compound character, as ^^ ; but in works circulated among the natives this nicety is not attended to. c. The first of the vowels, ^ a, is never written except it begin a word or syllable. "With regard to the remaining vowels, they have each two forms : that given above, which may be called their primary form, is used only when they begin a word or syllable; but when they follow a consonant, they assume a totally different shape, which may be called secondartj forms ; thus, t a, f^«, *> z, — u, — u, — ri, — e, — ai, '\ 0,^ au, as may be seen in the following ex- emplification of them with the letter 'T ga : thus, ^, ^T, pT, ^, ^, \, "5, ^t, %, irr, ^. ga, gd, gi, g't, gu, gii, gri, ge, gai, go, gau. And the same rule applies to the rest of the consonants. d. It will be seen that the secondary form of \, viz, f, is written before its consonant T, though sounded after it ; and 18 138 COMrOUND LEXERS. the stuclont will do veil to boar in mind this apparent anomaly. Tlie T and*^ take their place after the consonant; the ^ and ^ are lixed to the letter beneath ; the ^ and ^ above ; and the ^ and t are merely the T surmounted by the !l. and _i The vowels T~ and X in combination with the letter "^ r, are written ^ ri/, and ^ or "^ ru ; and the vowel ^ joined to "^ Ii, is written "^ hri. 87. The strict rule in Dcvanagari AYiiting is, that wlion two or more consonants come together, without the intervention of a vowel, such consonants unite into one compound group ; thus, in the word l^Tm inatsya^ ' a fish,' the TT ^ and '^ are blended as it w^ere into one character. For the formation of the compoimd letters no general rule holds, except that the last of the group remains entire, and the rest are more or less con- tracted by omitting the perpendicular stroke, and some- times by changing their primitive form. a. The letter "^ , being of frequent occurrence in compounds, is subject to two special rules of its own ; 1st. It is written over a letter, or group of letters, in the form of a crescent (^) when it is to be sounded first, as in the words r}^ tarha, reasoning,' and ^T"^ pdrshva, a side' ; 2nd. When the T follows another letter, or group of letters, it is represented by an oblique stroke (^) underneath, i\s. in "^"^ siitra, 'rule,' and "^"^ chandra, the moon.' h. In books recently printed at Calcutta, such as the Prem Sugar, the Baitdl Pachis'i, the Adventures of Hdtim Td,i, etc., all in the Devanagari character, very few compound letters occur ; and as a general rule they are very little used in any of the spoken languages of India, being chiefly confined to manuscripts and printed works in COREESPONDING NAGAEI AND PEESIAN LETTEES. 139 the Sanskrit language. The following, however, occur in our Selec- tions, and a jjerusal of these will suggest the method by which others may be formed. Compounds of which the letter "^ forms the first or last element, are purposely omitted, that letter, as we have just seen, having special rules applicable to itself. w ^ ^ IT m -* ^ Tl -^ hk U hy gn u^ chchh JJ « tth 'm m -^ »J L>4J ^ rt. In the preceding table it will be observed that the ten aspirated letters of the Devanagari alphabet are uniformly represented by the corresponding unaspirated letter, together with the round or lutterfiy form of the letter ib, ^h; thus, "^HC O^^^^j a house,' .:S ; 'V^ dhar, * a place,' J&c3. The real A ^ of the Devanagari is represented in the middle of the word by ^ ; as, ^^T he said,' l^i^ : if, however, the letter preceding the Jfe be <-S j, or j, then the form Jfe must be used, and the preceding letter marked with the appropriate vowel ; as, ^^T«T dahdn, the mouth,' ,^lfci>. The cerebral letters 3' and '^ are represented by cL> and J, or lU and J. Sometimes the ^ and ^ have the sound of a cerebral r and rh respectively; in which case they are generally marked with a dot beneath, thus ^ and "T, and and with J or j in the Persian character; as, ^^T lard, 'great,' \y, The various nasals of the Devanagari are represented by the Persian jj, which will be found sufficient for aU useful pui-poses. PERSIAN AND ARABIC LETTERS. 141 h. The letter '^ is sometimes represented by _ : the letter "3^ generally by ^ , sometimes by ^JM ; and the letter '^ is more frequently ^ than ^^i . The compound "^ is generally represented by -^ or ^ , seldom by jjio , its proper sound. The compound "^ is represented by ,^; as, '?IT'WT dgyd {djnd), \^ \ ; its real sound, as already stated, is that of gn in the French words champagtie, ligne, etc. 89. It appears, then, that the Devanagari alphabet may be represented with tolerable exactness in the Persian character ; but the converse does not hold, as the Persi- Arabic alphabet has fourteen letters which have no exact counterpart in the Devanagari. The plan adopted in this case is to represent the letters in question with such Nagari letters as approximate them in sound, which in some printed books are distinguished with a dot underneath ; thus. 1. u^ u^ V J j t Z fT ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ J uj i . is written and sounded ^tT^v hdjir'i. In a new edition, in the Dcvanagari character, of the ' Adventures of Hatim Ta,!,' which we have lately received from India, almost all dots and double letters are discarded, as a useless incumbrance. h. The letter c is generally represented in Kagari by employing the vowel with which it is connected, in the initial form, with a dot under it; as, Xrj ^"^^ ha'd; As. X"^ 'ilm;j^z ^?■^ 'umr. This method is sufficient for practical use ; but it is by no means satis- factory, as may be seen in the monosyllable ^^"^j which in Persian and Arabic is sounded ba'd (the a uttered from the bottom of the throat) ; but, according to the rules of the Devanagari alphabet, it makes hd'ad, unless we use the virdma (s) under the '^, as '^^^ > which would amount to something like an absurdity. c. When, in a word, two vowels follow each other, the rule is, to write the second vowel in the initial form ; for though not at the beginning of a word, it is the beginning of a syllable ; thus, ■^■^T 7m'a ; "^T^T hoo. This is precisely the same in principle as the use of the mark hamza (p. 17) m the Persi-Arabic alphabet. i. The best mode of learning the Devanagari character is to write out several times the whole of the single letters in Plate II. The various elements of each letter will be found in Plate I. fronting the title page; the small dot accompanying each shews where the pen starts from in their formation. "When the student has made himself tolerably familiar with the letters, he may commence with the first story, which is the same as the third story of the Extracts in the Persian character. In like manner he will find that the Devanagari Stories, fi'om 2 to 7 inclusive, are old acquaintances. Stories 8, 9, and 10 also occur in the other Extracts, but some of the words difier, viz., those of Persian or Arabic origin are displaced in the Devanagari for words purely Indian and Sanskrit. The rest of the Extracts in OF MANUSCRIPTS. 143 j: this character arc takcu from the scarce and valuable ' Hindustani ( and Hindi Selections/ edited by Tarinf Cbaran Mitr, head Munshi i' in the College of Fort "William, Calcutta, 1827, in two vols. 4to. In I their style and grammatical construction they offer no peculiarity differing from those of our Hindustani Extracts in the Persian I character. OF MANUSCRIPTS. 90. We briefly alluded, at page 21, to the three most prevalent handwritings in use among the Ai*abs, Per- sians, and Musalmans of India. Of these, the Naskhi, being like the type used in this country, requires no explanation ; and the Shikasta, from its extreme irregu- larity, scarcely admits of any. We shall therefore con- fine ourselves at present to the description of the Ta^lik, of which we have given fourteen plates of engraved specimens at the end of this work. a. Plate I. Division 1st presents all the simple elements of this character, the small cross mark shewing the commencement of each. The 2nd elementary form, here marked l_> , with one dot subscribed, 80 as to be equivalent to he, may, by a mere change of its dots, become i^ LZJ ijL} {p, t, s). The third form, now a _ /, becomes in the same manner ^ ^i _- (ch, kh, h). The 4th makes two letters, J J , The 5th, J J J and J . The 6th is represented as con- sisting of two forms J one an indented, the other a protracted line, may in either shape form the sin and shin (s and sh), as the only distinction between them is that the sin (s) wants, and the sMn (sh) has, three dots superscribed, whether short or protracted. The 7th form, ^ and Ji . The 8th, L and ^ {t, z). The 9th, c and c^. The next letters are i J J l1/ J r* u J ^°*^ ^ ' Then follow the initial, medial, and. final forms of the H ^ ^ ov he linked together. 144 EXPL.\JSrATION OF THE PLATES. Lastly, the i! ' o (^«) hamza, and ye), the latter under two varieties of form, the last of which is now conventionally used by the natives to denote the yde majhul (p. 13). h. Division 2nd exhibits the second elementary form (viz. that of <__j <__? C1.J C-? ), and likewise that of ^ and (_> , as they appear initially, when combined with each of the others following them. Division 3rd shews the ^ (i.e. -^ —• j- or -: ), prefixed in the same manner to each of the others. Division 4th (PL II.), the ^J^ fl . Division 5th, the ^^o ^ . Divi&ion 6th, the L) Ir . Division 7th (PI. III.), the c c . Division 8th, (_j and j . Division 9 th, the cL^ 4^^, and by leaving off the top part we shall in most instances have the initial J . Division 10th (PL IV.), the /• . Division 11th, the Jfc combined initially with the rest of the elementary forms. The tail of the he is given only in lid, M, hk, hi, and hid, but omitted in all the rest, according to the practice of Oriental writers. Hence the initial form of this ] jtter is often too apt to be mistaken for the vibti. The 12th Divisioi contains the combi- nation of the characters as arranged in alphabet] 1 notation, noticed in p. 20, forming the fanciful words, ' Ahjad, hu mz, hutti, kaliman, sa'/as, harashat, sakhaz, zazagh,'' and the last line may be read thus, indicating the name of the chirographer : AVaba ul muznib, al falAr 'ubaid ulldhi husaim sMr'in rakam ghaffara ztmubahu. c. Plates V. to XIV. inclusive, consist of a series of words in alphabetical order containing combinations of three or more letters. The student should endeavour to ti'anscribe these into the Ptoman character, and after some time retranscribe them, as an exercise, into their original state. Thus, the first line of Plate V. forms the combinations blcht, hJijt, bhsht, j)nj, Ulji, and bind, and so on m tth regard to the rest. Coming now to complete words, we may premise, as a general MUHAMMAD AN CALENDAR. 145 remark, that when these contain of the letters <—-' ^J <^^ C' ^ ^c in- the middle of a combination, it is usual to give the middle one a bold dash upward?, terminating in a sharp point vertically, like the n in ^-,:J f/nhv (Plate V. line 8), or like the y in ^^^-»~J si/b (Plate YII. line 1). (I. Concluding remarh. — In manuscripts the short vowels and other marks seldom make their appearance ; and even the diacritical dots are often either altogether omitted or iiTegularly placed. It may be useful to observe, then, that when from the ambiguous position of a dot, it may apply' to more letters than one, it should of course be assigned rather to the letter, which is not complete without a point, than to one which may dispense with it. Thus the third combination Plate I. No. 2, should be read bh, and the eighth ns, though the dot be over the last letter as if it intended to be a ,^. But in many cases the sense alone can determine the point. Thus the last word of No. 2 may be either he or pe ; and the dot over the ninth word of No. 3 is so equivocally placed between that and the word above it, that it may be I'Sad either ^:>- i^=^ oi' i— '^j according as the dot is conceived t ■ belong to one or the other, above or below. The grand key, hoWi^jer, to the reading of manuscripts, is to hiow the hmguage; at the,,^ame time many useful hints maybe gleaned from Ouseley's ' Persi a Miscellanies,' 4to. London, 1795; Stewart's 'Persian Letters 4to. London, 1825; and 'Essai de Calligraphie Orientale,' in the Appendix to Herbin's ' Developpments des Principes de la Langue Arabe,' 4to. Paris, 1803. See also a work entitled ' Oriental Penmanship ; an Essay for facilitating the Eeading and "Writing of the Ta'li'k Character,' by the author of this Grammar. London: Wm. K. Allen & Co. 1849. MUIIAMMADAN CALENDAR. 91. The Musalmans reckon by limar time, tlieir tcra called the Hijra, commencing from the day on which Muhammad departed, or rather retreated^ from Mecca to 19 146 MlH.UrMADAX CALENDAE. IMedina ; wliicli, according to tho best accounts, took place on Friday, t^e ICth of July (IStli, new style), A.D. 622. Their year consists of 12 lunations, amounting to 354 days and 9 hours, very nearly ; and hence their Xew-year's Day will happen every year about eleven days earlier than in the preceding year. a. To find the Christian year corresponding to that of the Hijra, apply the following rule : — From the given number of Musalman years, deduct three j)cr cent., and to the remainder add the number 621.54, the sum is the period of the Christian sera at which the given current Alusalmiin year ends. For example, we mentioned (p. 20}, that the death of the poet Ahli happened, a.h. 942 ; from this number deduct three per cent, or 28.26, and the remainder is 913.74. To this last add 621.54, and the sum = 1535.28, which shows that the Musalman year 942 ended in the spring of 1536. This very simple rule is founded on the fact that 100 lunar years are very nearly equal to 97 solar years, there being only about eight days of difference. A more accurate proportion would be 101 lunar to 98 solar years, but this would lead to a less convenient rule for practical use. b. When great acciiracy is required, and when the year, month, and day of the Muhammadan aera are given, the precise period of the Christian aera may be found very nearly, as follows : — Hule. Express the Musalman date in years and decimals of a year; multiply by .97 ; to the product add 621.54, and the sum will be the period of the Christian sera. This rule is exact to within a few days, and if in the Musalman date the day of the week be given, as is generally the case, the vert/ day is easily determined. c. The Muhammadan or lunar months are made to consist of thirty and twenty-nine days alternately, but in a period of thirty years, it is found necessary to intercalate the last month eleven times so as to be reckoned thirty days instead of twenty-nine. The months retain their Arabic names in all Muhammadan countries, as follows : — MUHAMMAD AN CALENDAR. 147 Cj s.'^ muharram jLc safar LUNAR MONTHS. DAYS. 30 29 ,\ t'i \ «_-^' 1 rabi, ul-awwal 30 30 ^'lil 1 f-i^j rabius-sdtii j yi>.j \ %-^j rail ul-dkhir } Jj^ \ jL».^ jumud-al-awival 30 Jliil ii\^>- jumdd-as-sdn'i ji-^ \ S\.aJ>- jumdd-al-dkhir 29 DATS. t_^>- 1 rq;rt5 30 j^Li.i sha'hdn 29 j^^Li^ ramazdn 30 Jlj-i shawwdl 29 . iAxj ^J d Z;a'(Z« 30 ^- ;J z^,^ hijja tLsf^ j_5'J sJ A^^« 29 d. We here subjoin the days of the week ; on the left hand aie the names in use among the Musalmans of India, next those of the Hindus ; and on the right, the Persian names, which last are much used in the dates of letters, etc. DAYS OF THE WEEK. MUSALMAN. HINDU. ENG. PERSIAN. j\y\ itwdr. .L-jj rab'i-bdr. Sun. . r,J. -»j or \\y%y^ soviwar or pir. iL^»-j som-bdr. Mon. ^uLijJ (JLL« manual. jLiLx^ mangal-ldr Tues. iJj hudh. XjbSJi budh-bdr. Wed. o o. CLi]j .ijt^j^ juwHa rat. .\„"..,...&s y brihaspati- bdr. Thur. » « O 9 iji.As>^ juni'a. J^.S^ suhra-bdr. Pri. 6^S\ -^^i«j sanichar. iL^»: san'i-bdr. Sat. AzJjb or A-J.-1 148 HINDU CALENDAR. 92. The Hindus reckon by solar years, and liini- solar months. Their principal aera is that of the Kali- Fiif/, of which the year 4956 expired about the 11th of April, A.D. 1855, at which period their new year generally commences. a. The Hindu year is divided into twelve equal portions, which may be called solar months ; but all festivals and dates are reckoned, not by these simple months, but by the duration of the moon which terminates in each. Hence, although the month haisdkh begins de jure about the 11th of April, it may have commenced de facto from one day to twenty-eight days sooner. When two new moons occur during one solar month, which happens once in three years, there is an intercalary month, and the month so intercalated receives the name of the one which preceded it, that is, of the solar month within which the two new moons may happen. b. Beside the aera of the Kali-Ytig, the Hindus in the northern half of India reckon from the time of a renowned prince, by name Yikramaditya, who lived (or died) about 57 years before the com- mencement of our sera. Another common sera is that of a prince named Salavahana, which commences 78 years after the birth of Christ. The former of these aeras is called the Samvat, and the latter the Saka aera. Several other seras are in use in certain parts of the country, for a full account of which the reader may consult a profound work devoted entirely to the subject, entitled ' Kala Sankalita,' 4to. Madras, 1825. THE HINDU SOLAR MONTHS. ^\M^ April. -f^ May. ijLjl June. U July. ^jjl^ August. j^! or j\^ September. uiJ-l^ or ul.NJjli October. ,^j^\ November. (jiwjj December. . i L« January. J^k February. March. ^TT^. ri^ ^^ ^XFT Tt^T ^^T, f^'f ^"^ %, ^^^ ^^'^ % ^^T, ^^T'T ^^T^! "^f^T "^^T^T ^rTT Tt ^T^, "^t ^ ^tR^ ^H •^••?IT. ^f^^T^I TT^ ^ 1^^ ^^ 20 H, "q:^ ir^^nr ^t^^tt'^ ^ $5? ftr^ij $ ;^% ^zt ^^t. fir TT^T^ ^T iT^^^T «Tm fir "^^TfT $r ^?: ^ft^ % ^T ^^ ^RIT. ^1T ^ ^^T, "^TWT %. ^WT ^ fif^ cTT'^ ^T^T % ? ^ T^. "q;^ f^^ ^t f%^^ fft TW^ ^T %*, ft ^t T^ %. § fr^, TTTt I 5^TT *rft^. ^1 frft t% ^Tt ; T^t ^ ^^ i TJWT, ^ Wt fVr?t I ? ^tTT fr^T, ^t T^ fr fr ^lit ^^ Tit %. ^^ ^tf^ ^^ § ^ ^T. ^^% ^^T, ^TT ^T^ ^ft ^ ^^T %, ^^ ^?I ^. ^^ ^^ ^'ft ^ ^ ^^ f%^^. ftf?: ^-^T, f% Tj^ ^ sf^^^cfT p§^^ Ji lit ^t|' tttt ^t fVfft |. ^?^ i ^^^T, H ^ Ttrft I ? ^^^ ^^T, ^"^T ^TiTf '^^ ^^^ %. '?;^ ^TfT ^ ^^$^ ^ ^T^T^ ^^T^ TT ^T ^T^, ^T i;^T fr^ KT^^f^T ^' I7, ^-^^^ ^ ^ t^W ^§. -^^^^ ! ^ n\wf f%-^T^. ^T^^ ^ ^^ ^T^^T^ ^ ^^ ifi^ ^t^* ^T ^^T, "^T^W T^ ^T ^^^ gr^, ^T f%rf ^7 ^"0 ^T^ ; ^T^^ ft i ^^ TT^ T^^ -^C^T ^V^T fir^T ^T, ^?: ^^ ^* ^^-if^^T ftr^ f^ ^ ^t ^T ir'J'^ JLJ^ - V •"^■^^^ S^'/ U^ C>^i '^ S^J^ d.';^^ L5T ^/ ^^V^-'^ u^/^^" p .0 o ^ /ox O OC-x (J ^^^ aJi-Lj ^.»-^»-U^ ^jbjl^j^ ^_g«! CU^ (^ ^ {jj\ (_? i_J-« Jj^ i'^'OJ' XO ^ 00 ;> _o X o o c - si^ JW^ Jj'^'^^f" Jj'^V* Li^^J l/ U^-^^ll^^ -? U^-^lUJ^ o o n v_r^v ^!^^ * ll.'r^^ L^^ j^^ ^^ ^^ t^ cr^" «r/!/? ilr^* u^^ Ir*^ IJ^!; VJ^v^ 0^^ ^^^ ^- c-:^'^ C^y LSf*^ JJ^ * l4 O^'^^^^ ~ ^ CO o o o o o ^r';/ c;«^ c:;f=r \^/ - ^lr^^ jW L^^^ j lPj^ l/ ^yM^ ^ ^ O J" * dj:?^ L^"^ Li^^ ^^^^ l/ d^^/v S/> ^bj ^ ^j j^ _ Ij^aT 1^1 ^y_ ^ by ^l^ * c:-^ -6JJp' - ^*T ^L ^^. ^ ^ J^ ^j jr>- * ^ b1 VJ >J <^<:'J TA ^Jl jU- ^^ c:-^il^ * i^-ji tjlj A,\j\ L::-^i^j ^,-^* -^^-^ cS^"^^^ c:-^...a.«^ |2;rr*^r^ jj^ - ^2;^ <3^" ^5^^ (^5^^ *tr''y^ S^ <^-i c— o ^^ (*^ - O'^ L^H-^ wT^ ij^^ " ^ 4)^ LS^.}^ "^^^jf. ^ ^ ^'^" cL'T?-* L^^ ^sf ^/f ^ - L5^ S|/ (^ v/- L5^"i L5^J^ l/-"^ O 9 - ^ O Oi" / o ^ ^ o , 1^ ^ 9 9'-''- ^ rv seP S:>>J^ oj^^^H - L5«> W^- ^ lI;^^ ^^ s^3* ^ 0>^^^ Lf aj -•Jo ^ jy^ ^-^^ * ^ <-^y ^^ U5^ *^ \)^ / ^T^^^ EXTKACT FROM THE 'aEA,ISH-I MAHFIL.' O? ^OO ^ ^ xO n _ Iff JJO 1^ i^^i-J JLs- J J ^JJ J \j^ ujCf 4__;1 ^j_^ ^5^ ii V.^/ - lA^ U^ uri^ U^ u/ ^^^'^J i_S^ 4/'-'^ U^^ * J'^ ^\i / ■' «. ~? p p p ^ ^JV t*.?^ '^^ * ^5^ ilr^* t.^ l/ "rif 1j^^^ l/^^ l/ '^\r* ^J^ ■'9 ^ p p p^ p ^ p y To r-k-^ jl' jL>i / ^'j^4 c^j^ * ^ ir^^ ill- ^uii '^ ^ , • '-^ -- 9 P P ^ p _ p l^ ^ c^j J iLijb ^Cl ^^. JUj Jf 1 ^ ^,:^ ^U3 ^ ^ ^ 5 >> ^ ^^-^ L^^ J^^ - L5^ U^^ d.'^ ^■^'^ L5? ^-^ J^-^ UT' (*^ ^j '^^ ^ r^.^ s/ ^-^^/^ Li? u)W- ^^r^ ''^ ^^ Ji3 A ^ .JijZj^S ^} Jj^. ^ CLi\^ L_^T ^L» ^ V_^ jjU l3L> ul5Gj il;:!^. '^'^ / J4 <^^ V' /^ ^ ^^ uy.ji ^^ ^^- ,-l-;J^ '^ p ^ p . (♦b (^j U-^ ^^\ ^^ J J ^U-L; Cl^^^i^ * L^^y ^/ i" . -^ i ' ■' / " ^ ? P ^ 9 ^ p p p -■ -.1 - ^^Isri^^ >^ ij^>^ lT" O*^^ i^ (-^ '^'^ '^ L^ ""^ '^ ^rt-e^' ^^^ s^b l/ *-^^ uir^ * ^rf^ ^y- l/^-^ rr U^ k_^wj Ij u^wj^U l;:^v^ Uj^ ys /♦^ji-«^ cliOj L_--^ - j^ Jj ^ ^J_j^ ^J * l/* ^^ V^ ^>^ L5^ c^'J^^'^ ^^J^^-L^^ t.::^^-!^ ^99 (jy V i-£;s^ '^ ^/> J'^^ 1^ ~vi ^^ ^1:^ J'^ jj^ V lP^ ^r-' ^^'V ^9 ^ ^ 9 99 9 ^ ^ ^ -^ ^^. ^ _ 9 j}^ VJ^^/ ^^^--':;^y, s/'^j^' * ¥j Wv^'^^^ i/i^ ]/?- 9 9 9 y 9 9 9^9 99 y 9 9 9 ^ ~ 9 ^ 9 9 9 • ^J^ J ^^ / l/J ^(^r* • s5^ ^'^^^ U^rlj ^Y? ^'V of^ vi H^ (J-^^ ''^ ^ r^ L— -^.sr*^ ,xs ^-^ {jj\ ^j Xau.X& tj X iij!»-j 5 rr c. y^ j_4j»" ^ if^ ^^ JLj L!i3j i--ir '^ (^ tlr^V^ ^^ -W. J Ijdir V * ul ij^ ^^.'^ ^^, '-/J^ l/ Li^^-T" * (1;^ S:lr^ ^^ Uj^ ^ <>^' ^ tub ^ JJj jj^ o^^ n-^ ^J ^-r^ S^ U^ * ^-^ o-:^* l:^^j ^jb tlX)_^ ilijb ^f ^^ JL*J Ji'^ ^ ^ JiJ 1 CS^} * If* bJ^^ ^%:'y -f**^ 1^ ibijb ajiwtjfc ^j jjl _ Ifi \^j^ jssj ^5^bo (^^ l-^.' ^^'^ - \S \^ji^ ^\ib • 9^9 99^ _ ^ ^ ^99 ^9 9 y 9 y ^-ij' M ^/-^ ^-r^ ^^''* jj^ - JJ ^.}j^ \^ ^^ J^j^ y y 9 9 9 ^rr^ ^ ^jr^ y ^^-^ J3^ - J ^J^ ^ '^V L^^ J^ J:^ • ^ ^ 9 y 9 9 9 f ^ f " ' * o*^ J^J ^ ^-^^ J/ J ^'^ *'^^ ^^r' ->^ US*- L^J^ <1^\ \^- li^ ^,jj^ cUj ^_^\ luJ l^ (.::-J>ii S-^J^-i" ^ (J^ *j 9 yj^ J y& *Jw*^ _ ^ j^^ ^_^\ ^^:^^ J*^ ij t^b (jwl ^_5^" jjb rA ^ p f >> - L^^ ^ LfT cw^!^, L^''' iLrr* W*^ ^s-' (»^ v/^.;^' '^ '^li'' d!^«^ j;^ - l/^J^ LT* r^'^ l/ ^ ^1 C^ ^ 4?^ L5^ ^ *'^^^''' , / ^ / . ' L>«^ ^ U^^ JJ^ ^ t^ t-ir* dfS^ W^ ^5^^ ^^:^ (*^" ^jj ^ /« ;» ^ y 9 y 9 y 9-9 9 y. ^9 9 y •- ? rv ji y. l/-=^ JJ^ ]/'^ lT" ^v JV, ^ ¥^ "-^.^ ijrr* U-] * L5^J jj\ ^ ^b cU&T c^or ^ c/j'X^ * ^}Jj^\ J J=^ LS' L^}^ ^-^ * ^ (jl:^ 9 O / j*d^ o'S^ u^J"^ SiC;^ l**^.^ '^ l/ u^^^ l^ Jrl/^ U^^ ^" ^^ - ' - - /_ ^ ^ 9 9 9 j^\ lo l:^-!^ ^2;-^ ^J5^^ ^\ ^^ ^>jjl 5- n * ^f^ <-^y^* ^iJ ^ ^ u^ ^ ilm;^^ - ^^" fe tJ^^* l/*-^ t.^?^ t^ b^ i^ [^ ^ JW^ * (^"^ L^>=^ ^■^^-^' L^^^ (*^ J^ 4^^ p y y P J^^ lT* J^ JJ^ V L5«^, l/ 4^>-?^ *L5^ ^ LS-"^ clr:?^ ^^^-^ ^ / p p ^ p ^ p p p y p y y p p cT^ ^^^v LiJ^^ v/^ ^^ "^^^ -^ s/ '^'^ ^^ -'^ '^-^ y ^ p p o^ v.o oy oy oo oo _ ^ ^^^ ^^^. ^_5fs^ s^ c:^^;^ ^> l^ ^ .^:^b J X o t/ 9 ^ > # ^ -^^. (♦K J-tfU. * 1>T jb Li«^ '-^^ - L^ ^^ ^ y '^ - k'^ EXTKACTS FROM THE 'KHIItAD AFROZ.' /, ^ i> y X y , p^ p p ^ p -^ LS-* o*^ U^^ ^J JJ^ - ^^ cJ^. l/ ^^^ ll^" v/-' r=^ X p j^ UJl jjl i-. uJ»^U 4i *)J (jwJ »J& _<-wJ (^u> -^^_ ill -»«j J ^ ^ J^ \^ ^!^ l/"^ dJ^ L>^ O^'^ - Li^y^ Li^ L^ p ^ ^ p p ^ ^ 4 * l/W^^**^ ^C"-'-^" ^^^^/^ ^-^"^ i_s^ J^ ;lr^* ^^JvV^, /Oi'_ p ^ ^ P^ P ^ Ixjjl j_J;l? (^t |2;r* u'^ L^^^ * -i(^ ''^ -rf (^ L>"^ - -£^ L>"^ A P ^ <^ p o;?.^ ^ '^ ^ p - ^ ^ ^ o o _ J* ;> ;>. O ^ O J? o o -ef ^^ -e?"* JJ^ - ^/> ^'i" driV L^^, cjf;:^* ^ ' J}i'. o^ '^ rr - ^ o -- - o ^ o ^ o 9 -^ o ^ c c o 5, O CO o ^ *l5^1^ o'^;^ I*^ -tf J^ siD^ clr^* ^/ f*^ ^J^Ja^ J^« ^ ? y ^ {^ O /O o • o ^ o o UJjL^ ^} - L5%^ ^Jt(; -^-^ U^" tlr^* c;^^ ^J "^ - l/ ^ CO 00 00- o;> 000/0 - bo O -' ^ ;> o o ^y y Lf^^ uir* t:^.;^* /^ - ^ ^J iJ'^ J^ jH * ^''^ A O 00/ o i\y^i ^\J l^'ji ^.Ju^" t_f;fJ J^ 1 CfjI^J^^J^y. ^* ^ ^ <^9 o ^^ ^ ^ ^ •• ^ ^ •' ^ O ^9 9 - 9 ^ ^ o y 9 L^V L^W ilr^t^ 1=^ y - i!l^ -ei'lfc ^^ S-rr^ ^5^^ Lf--^ V^ JJ^ O y y 9 y o ^ o y o ^ c o *l^j,^ ^i)0" u^'l3 5^jJ ^,-.'* _ l$Jjlj J^-lc^ '^j y -JJ^ ^ ^J^ op op >> o o ^ ^ o op o/ o „po oy^ o o o^ ^ 00 o ^ o X o p o o o o o ^ o ^ P V^.^ ijrr* U^^^ ^';«^' -jV ^ -^J V.^ ^-^W -V^ ^^ Li*^^ ^J ^(- J'OP_ o P o ^ o o ^ ^OPx ■''^>'. '^ '^ o^ - ^ L^l-^, JJ^ - 1;^^ l/V J^.3^ L5*- r-^ li.':^^ '-^^'^->-? o X__ PP '"''i ^ opo ^ .'Oo 000 c P 9 O .. / y' ^ •' ^ " •• ^ o o ^ o p O ,op^^ o^ o t!^^l/ L5t'^' J v^^ * L5^ V^^ ^^-^ L5^"* ^i' ->"' '^ L^y * uojj^ j-j vXj (JJn.-* 1 jc^ j ^-r-^ * ^i^ lAp^ '■^^^ JJ^ * Ixjti a:Jl _^^ 1^ 1 jj^ \,::,^^6>~jLi ^ JU c_j1 a^ _ l^ ^ 9 oo/" W-' -o/* o ^ P o p ^ o ^ O/ ^9 OP ^ O -' o I.;' >> -' P - ^^ lT'^ Li" "-^^^ l/ u^^ l5^> '^i^ '^ d;^ J^^ ^^ * \.9. ^^ ;lrr* cJ^ L*^^ ^ U^ * ^ >=r ilrr* ^^r?t^ ^^ '^ ^^ ^jb»JjJ -^,c> J^'^ ^J^ J}^ ^ cJ^ -V^^ U^^ LlioU l^ M,^^ ^ -9 y i^9 j> i,;" yo i-9 y y ^ ^ Uc^ ^iwtJs *:- £^ bUfi j^ ^UJil ? 1^ by> Lj\ ^2^ ^ ^ ^ i.::-^UJj <^^ 1^^::^ U^JJ^ -^^ LS^^ -^^^^ ^y*"^ ilr^* '■^^-^ ^S^ ^ iiX>.^j^ jtf-j cub (jwl * ^^^ ^J^ _j5^ 1^ uT^?^ L/^^ ^ p >^ 1^ P (^9 1^ jU _ U^jo^j^ ^ ij^ idljb * ^ U;^ l«-«^ L^ I; 5^^ ^ d;i-» S-^ "^ - L^ ^-^ sT^^ • o-V- ^-^ ^-^ ^i^-^ '^ ^-?v Jjjljkri. c_j1 _ lf> l:xx^ i-?^ t_5*^.^ W* '^ i^;S^ i^*^ ^ J^^^ ^A ^ i^'^ o'tr* cAj O POP-' o p o o/ o op Jix.' ^ JL ul^jj * ^J>^ ^ y>A J-iJ ui^ c^'^^'i ^ *>'^ ^>?^' u/ -' o op o o o ^ -- o op - o-^^ S^J^ L^r^ ^i^ l/ Lit"'^ i.::-v^jJ ^/ ^ji^J" ^ _ l^" l^i J *U^'y J^^J &..^ ^.'^^- ^}'^ ,,5*^*Wd^^ ^' ^ o ^ o o o o op O P ^y ^1^ P {^ op ^O v.::,'W^iJ c:-^^^j j^jVJ si>i/^ cJ^^ks-^ j^UaL; ^ ^^ z^ Pr «, -^ PO X ^ n - ^^^J c;^ ^jr'i'^J^ wne iljtr^ ^s«^T clXtl l^ \ ^ ^Si ^j,,:^ ^ 1^ > P ^ 9 f 9 P CO J ^jwl *jLij& j»j j^ l^ jb(-l^--s^^ ij Li&jl t_j^ ^^^^ ^ - u^^J LS^-i u^ - J^ ^/'' r*" ^'^ * u^ ^j ilm-* il;:?-' i^r^ c/>«^ ^ri^ ^.^ " ^ t ^ '^ .. # Uj l^ *J y& ^Jo,*^ iaclj jjl _ ^Ji\ ^J^ O /> O I, ^ •.--^ *l£ (^^' i— -^ V* 15^*^*-^ ^ P y P ^ P b li)J ^ ^ U 1*13 IL^^ _ L^^ J c:.^^-^^ * ^i) b'T ^ ^.- ^u::j ^^1 c-oG^ coy o ^^>^'' L^ * ^^ ^y l/^ ^/^ ^ j^.. - LS^ ^ ^^J^" d.'^ d)V^ - J^ ^^ ^p^ ^^ J^ J ^J Lir^>* ^d^ ^^ / Vb ci ulXj ^ c^'b ^^. * ^, J Jl^j /Jl ^ J^^ b'i' licj ^ • ,^-,^J| (JJo^ 15*^ (1*^ y 1^5*^ ^\j U-C^ f*^ o / 9 ^ ^ o V^, lt' u^\ 4 ^^.^ * 4?^ ^v ^'] ^ L5^ J^r^ !^ ^i:'-?^ ;ju e^^w * r^ jU-^'^^ L_^.l ^2;-^ ^^^^J ^^^ ^' jj\ J^ L::-v.^:r^j ^fj=^jS * L^ Ui ^ Jl^ ^^^ ^''^ j^ - 5;^ _ ^^ ^^-^ ^ ^ ^/^ ^ li ^^, * ^ bV J^j srlr'j'-'jj^ - L5^ ^■''' C/ / 9 ^ * \jd^jd ^ ^^ ^ U^^JJ^ 9 S-9 o o o 00^ 9 ,. o ^9 ^ o >> CO c L^ L5^.^ V^^"^ * ^J^J-'^ l/ cT^ ^/^ l/]/^ Sr!^ !i^^v i_^5>- * bjyl^ l3l^ JoJJ jj^ l>l^ (jwb j^J _ 1^ At^" (^.jr^ (^- * l^ ^5^j t^jr;-* t^ ^} ^ ^Xi^b - IfijJ ^, U^>=^>^"'^ ^o - _ „•*''''-.? r-?^ z:"^ * ^h u^ (*^ i''^ - ^ VJ ^5'y^ i/^^, ^ sil/!. w c ^ o >> o J> LJ- ^ >• ^ ^ o y o t\i ^ Ij'T / c-?T ^ l3^^^ -ff *-^^^ ^/ - V-^ / Lf-^^^ L5*^ * l/ '^'^y.j^ ^j^ L5^,^ ^r^' '^ H^>^ ^^ L^^ - lT* ^^v - J/'J^ VS^ lT' -^ 'f ^J^ J^>^ * ^ .^ - o J / c/^l:l> JT JT Ur * ^ l/;^ ^ LT^L^ J] ^ o y c- o J (j^\ ^iL uLXjJ - V i4^^iLi. / ^^ ^^ ^^/ ri Li«^ urn:' ^ - ^" L5^ cJ^'V u^ jb 1^ '■^c '^ - ¥5 clr^ o o y ^ ». _ ^ o y „ / ^ o o t_5«» t:^^ L^^ • ^ W^ u^. J ^rr« '^ ^ (♦j^ ^^ L^y y^ - ^ S-? 00 9 9 * Ifc^ l^ i**^ JJ' L?-'^ ^tXx^^-ij (.::-A^j ij o -- o «, ^ >> O O w ^ ;> ^ ^ t_?^ jjl _ 1)1^ c^^ li ^JJJ^ ^ j*^ S^J W - k-^ si jr^ f y <-■ ^ X' o ^^J l^ ^^ ^ ^ (_iU3l l^} ^\ -J c:--* u5;^5 *>^ ^ * bj Jl^ l/ J^ s^J// ^j^i'^ Ji" -^ ^jr" ^^ f W.^ ur=/ i"^ - ur^ W.^.^, ^^ - il)^ W'^ J^-^ ^^.^ - d!^* ^^ .. J? ^ ,. •*" dr^ lT:!'^ J^^ ^J - l5^ t/'^ U^^ ^J^ ^3J '-^^ * U>^ ^'^ * u^^ W.'^ J'J b - d.^ LT*'^ LT^ J^ s^-- -''^ * ^ ^f'^ jAi^ * ^_5-^^ ^^fs'* tliX* iJioJ y -LJ^ t,:>-^ ir, * ^<^V.J L^J^-* L*^"*^ i A' * |^_5^ ijiy* CJht ^^^'i J^ iU" ^ ,y^ ^\ IxiT jO rP ^ Vj^ JJ^ - ^ L^^J:5 J'j r" -^ ^^^ ^y., ^ ^^ J tlC;^ y* l/^ v/ y V, -6^'^ L^ r^ ^.^ ^^^ - V i:iC ujj ^^ ji-i * |^J&^^,x^ ^^^ L_-^-j -^J ^ i^^^-r^rr**' ^-*^ ^ 15^ f'J^ u^ * v ^^^^^^ \^ „\ _ ^ Jl_^ ^ ^-^--^1^^ dj^ J^^ ^:!;J^ '^:^ ^J JJ^ - c:^*;i>.j yL~o j^jfsaj jj*J _ ^}^ -^y. J^^ (--X>1 tjTf^ l/j^ '^ cLjI^ ^i;!^ JXjI lLX^I ,^ uJ^ - ^' j^ t-fj^'=^ o U**^ * ^ ^ ^9 9 -o'trf'' S^^ life- dr?^ U^} J^S J' J'^ "^^ (:ii?J!f-i'^ ^ ^ uJUji jjl - ^^-^ owl) ^ ^Ij ^yj'^ * ;:jir4j ^j:^ir' ^^/ J^ (._.o- ^ ^giu-: c:-;l. V. ciJjj^ t-XtJ * tJ^ / t^^y^-^ ^} ^} J O^/O P GO ^ ^;Ji^ ii * \^S aj ^^ ^ ^j^ U^^ ^__c~j ^_5i:'._ji^ ^_5j/ y>- * ^^ * U^J ^^ Lj\ ^ Jl^ ^\ _ V * V i^u- ^r. ^i jUJ' ^,klij ^> ^/ je^ j-^ lL<^j r r Ai^»lac ^1 3j.» ? l$y& L*^ <0 l:y^ \^ ^^ ^ *b L5^^ • "-r-^^ ^^ J*J j^\ _ ^j^ bl (j^b ^^S^ ^j-^ ^ - J' '-^^-^ o >■ <^ _ b;i_^ * i^/^.*^ <^^^ - ^^ V"*^ '^J -\^ "^ • (j:!'^ Ij'^ t^r^ o ^ ^ op * cjjy* U-^' bjuL-j ijS/* *-r'' 1 ^ dy c'^ ^ *t^ s^y ^ k^ 4 A^d\i # ^ ji^ j^ yUu^ ^j^ li _ W ^^^j^^ ^> t-_a^ i.::^.!^^ c_.,;^ i^j \^ J\ ^^ * U^ VJ jfjl^ 40 W l5^ L/^^ - y^ L?^J^ o ^ ^ ^ ^ 9 9 ^ o _ 4^J Ij'^ U^jJ t-^w: ^_^J^ ^^ ^^:-^ ^^" jJ J t-Jol # ^ o ^ o ^ op i/> 9 ^ ^ 9 9 ^ * lf»' l:;^^ ^^^ ^ j^\ ^ ^^^CSi\ ^_s\y^ tjos^ uio! r \ o o o 9 <^9 aj ^5jb ^ ^^ ^- ^ ^ ^^ v. (^ ^-^-^ si ^-^.^ ^^ ^, - J 1^1/ 'f W^ l/^*^ r^ si Lif^ * ^J^j si i^^ *J ^ c^ o c o /> y 9 9 S- 9 ^ o j^ ijj\ t^^ c:^ * IjJfe jU-J >-Xrs- (Jiol d^" ^__^ JJD IP 9 tjJ clio^ * l^J l4^ ^;^J ^ J:?:^^ ^^ ,^-^ CSA \^ P 1^ 9 1^ 9 9 '■ ^ - ^^ - cj^* - ^-^ lT-' ^^ * UJj,/ Jb yl^ ^^^i*.^' ^-^^ *-r^^ * tlt^j U^^, LTi^ c.';^^ 9 c o c, ^ ' 9 o / / o y ^ o o o ^ y rr> ^ w ^'" -- ^ " ■'^ ■ ^l^'y ^ " ^ • J ' bT 1*1^ l^ c^^ ^ ^5^^il a^ _ W^^^ ^ Jj^ ^ jS\ \ ♦ ^ oji (*^ u*^ jjj j}^ jW^ y - <-?j^" y> ^^ ^_^ (jw\ A^ _ 1>T ;jwb ^^'•♦-^ ^ ^V.^y^ ^^ Li;^ '-^^^ ^ ^ - u^ ^'J Sjfe" d)^ L^J ^=r ^^ ^iP* • ^5^ ^-^' ^^ c;:'j^ lT' ^^ L^ ^^ JJ^ * ^ lt'"''' r^ ^/ l"^ ^'^ LiV, JJ^ * ^ ^^^ V.W J^, y - dr^-i' ^^'^ ^ ^\ ^^^ ' I! o >> o c ^ ci-^j^ ^__2^j * ^_^ t/^ tlX>l j^ ilj uVt;'^ * \>^ lA^J J>-^^A-=^ '\ • jV. ^?^ - ^ LSH-^ * l>^ LiiV, ^' ^^. ^/U^^ - ^, d«^ ^^^ tl^- j^ ^- _ ^ ^ -. ^^ Uj^ * ^ lj\^- ^^b _ jM y^^l _ l^ uio' ^^ c-f;rr* C^5 - LS^ ^y> |*J^ l^^f*' ^^ - ^ O O 9 9 <^ ^ ■ ^ iL^ * ^_^ -^ jjjjfc ^^ JU- Jj (^1 c->b U ^ (_^1 ^_/l _ ^ c; ^ ^^s._j ^vj o ^ 9 ^ ^ -^ O O ' YOCABULAEY. [N.B. — The letter m. signifies masculiue, f. fcminiae, a. active, n. neuter. It has not been deemed necessary to give the names of the different parts of speech, except when a word belongs to more than one division. In the Hindust&.ni words and phrases, k. stands for karnd ; h. for hond ; d. for dend ; j. for jdnd ; and I. for lend. The letters a, p, s, and A, at the end of each definition, denote respectively the Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, or Indian origin of the word explained.] \ .L-A ah, now, presently; ab tah, till now ; ah-hd, of now, of the present time, s . uJ\ dh, m. water, lustre, p !jcj! ihtidd, f. beginning, a ^S^} ohhdg'i, ill-starred, wicked, s ^\ abhi, just now, immediately, s .*i\ aher, m. time, delay. A <__jT dj), self, selves ; your honour, s Lii^^ aputrah, childless, s JbJ)\j)\ aparddh, m. fault, trans- gression, s ^JuS\ dpas, our-, your-, or them-,selves, one another ; dpas - men, among themselves, etc. s \ iz,..f.^jjj\ upasthit, arrived, present, s [Uj^ apnd, belonging to self, own. s Us^j 1 d pahunchnd, n to arrive at. h [strip off. s \\jj\j\ utdrnd, a. to cause to descend. jj\ uttar, m. an answer; the north, s \iJ\ utarnd, n. to descend, to aliglit. s \i\sj\ ittifdhan, accidentally, a Uji Una, so much, so many, s ^■j I dth, eight, s. bl^'l uthdnd, a. to lift or raise up, to take away, s L^'Jl uthnd, n. to rise up, to be abolished, to go away ; uth-jdnd, u. to depart, s ^Ixil amde, in the midst, in the course of. a yl anar, m. impression, effect, a — \ dj, to-day. s tuslr^l ijdzat, f. permission, orders, a ^^\ oj'h an interjection to call or bespeak attention, as : Sir, hark you ! h \i^\ achchhd, good, excellent, well, s jIjT J^>-^ Ahinad-dbud, the capital of Cujcrat. p r' ( 2 ) \ (iJii)i(il; very foolish, a fool, a Jl»5^\ ahwdl, ni. condition, circum- stances, events, a c\zsi-\ ilhtird\ VI. contrivance, in- veution. a ,L:iiL^ iMfiydr, m. choice, power, a ^T dlxhir, last, at last, the end. a Ci^ys-T d'hhirat, f. futurity, a future state, a . ,»ri. 1 dMiin, m. teacher, preceptor, p \j:\ add, performance; payment; blan- dishment, a \jM^S\ udds, grieved, dejected, s <^ j1 adah, m. institute ; politeness, manners ; plur. dddb, ceremonies, etc. a ^«wM ddmt, m. f. a descendant of Adam, a human being (man or woman), people, a b>j! ddhd, half, s Jbi^\ udhar, thither, h -i>j\ idhar, hither, h lLX^O^ adhiJc, more, exceeding, s UL>J^ adhydnd or adhyd-leiid, a. to halve. A i jl ,1 i>drf(7, m. desire, purpose, a f,\j\ drdm, m. comfort, health, re- pose, p ^j\ arth, m. substance, purport, s • 'lit drzu, f . wish, desire, want, p if.jl drurh, mounted, riding, s \j\j\ urdnd, a. to dissipate, squander ; to cause to fly. s lj"l unid, n. to fly, to soar up. s Li\\\ dzdd, free, solitary ; a hermit, p X*ujjl az-las-ki, inasmuch as. 2^ ^Tj ,j 1 dziirdag'i, f. affliction ; dis- pleasure, vexation, p iJijT dzurda, afflicted, vexed, p jjikjt*;! s. f. dzmd,ish, trial, j;? \jbJj\ azhdahd, m. a dragon, p ijj\ us, that ; is, this ; inflections of the pronouns wuh and yih ; is-meh, during this, in the meantime, h ^wl as, f. hope, desire, reliance, s i^L;l dsdn, easy; dsdn'i, facility. ^ Cj-jL-jI asbdb, m. causes ; goods and chattels, a t^^c^\ ustdd, m. a teacher, master, p jLui:i«j1 istifsdr, m. searching for in- information, inquiry. « )— ;! as;-a, m. refuge. 5 u-iU-:^ «srd/, m. prodigality, ruin, a _- ia-jl «s- ^flrflA, in this manner ; us-tarah, in that manner, h a ig_»Lj1 is-liye, on this account. A j^I,«--j1 dsmdn, m. the sky, the firma- ment, heaven, p j^y^\ aswdr, riding, mounted ; asicdn, act of riding, s ^Ji2^\jJ\ iswdste, for this reason ; tiswdsfe, for that reason. (^_/A(-»~.'^ asis (or dsls), f. a benedic- tion, s i iLi)l ishdra, m. a hint, a signal, a jI^i ashrdr, miscreants, scoundrels, a ( j' Jjl ashrdf, nobles, grandees ; ashrdf-zdd'i, daughter of a grandee, a (3 ) \ _J\ iJdh'i, divine, a ♦ Ul imam, m. a leader in religion, a prelate, priest, a ^j:^it\ amdnat, f. trust, deposit, a .\s^'*\ imiihdn, m. proof, trial, examination, a wV*T dmad, f. arrival, coming, p ^^■•) umard (pi.) nobles, grandees, a s^^\ timed or ummed, f. hope ; ununcd- icdr, hopeful, p ^t\ amir, m. a commander, a noble- man, a grandee, a lord ; amir- zdda, son of a grandee ; amir- zddi, daughter of a grandee, a p J-^«T dmez, (in comp.) mixed with, full of. p ^ in, (inflection), plur. of yih, this ; un, plur. otwuh, that; (vide Gram.) A Ijl dnd, n. to come ; s. m. the sixteenth part of a rupee, s i».j\ amhoh, m. a crowd, multitude, mob, concourse, p. fc^'l aynihhiv, m. imagination, idea, s .Uix)^ intkdr, waiting, expectation, a .Isr^ anjdn, strange, unknown ; anjdn-h. to act the stranger, s iJu\ andar, within, inside,^; Indar, the god of Swarga or the higher regions, s liJj\ andhd, blind, dark, s ^-JfeJul andherd, dark, s c»J5>jJ^ andheri, f. darkness, s .'^JL'JJI andesha, m. thought, sus- picion, anxiety, p .,Lujl /ms«??, m. man, a human being, mankind, a »A**J' I dnsu, m. a tear, s i_jLaj\ ew-d/, m. equit)', justice, u /♦'iXJi in'' dm, m. a present, a gift, a j\ij\ inhdr, m. refusal, denial, a .Sj \ dnlch, f. the eye. s ! JiJ' i<»yff/, m. a finger's breadth, s i^lSjl iingl'i, f. a finger, s ^jjsjl anguth'i, f. a ring worn onj the finger, s \ j^Cj' nngur, m. a grape. ^ ' SXi\ dnand, m. joy, happiness, s. ^\ and •.,«^^ «^7^ and inlioh, same as ^1 in ; unh and unhon, same as mw,' (q.v.) A Jul dzf^ds, f. noise, sound, voice, p ip^'*^ atihdsh, dissolute, depraved, a jt\ iipar, up, upwards, upon, s 1,1 or, f. direction, side, h i 1^1 ««;•, (conj.) and, but; (adj.) more, | other ; aur hichh, anything else, h ^,Lc.l ausdn, m. courage, presence of mind. h. tJl^^'vijl aukdt (pi. of icakt), times (of devotion), a uIL-Otl uht, m. a camel. 7i IsTjl undid, high, height. A il dA, f. a sigh. p. \ii\ dJidr, m. food, subsistence, s (Jl-Osl dhaf, f. a sound, noise, h. Jjil aA?, ra. people, a. ij\ at, 0, Oh. p A \\'\ Ay yds, a man's name, a u\ ( 5 ) w A,\)\ aiyum (pl.o%aiO/(),days, seasons, a L^.'l aii^d, such as tliis, so. A c_iCj^ f'/t-, one ; (art.) a, an, frequently joined to its substantive, as ^Ax.'_^ rh-din, one day. s. ^^ \Sj\ elchdrag'i, all at once, p i^UjI hndn, m. faith, belief, religion, conscience, a. j\j>j\^)\ imdn-ddr, faithful, honest; imdn Idnd, to believe, p .^i| d,'in, m. rule, law. p \i\i bdhd, father, son, sir. h L-jli bdp, m. father, h C-jU hdf, f. a word, affair ; bdt kaJite la, on the speaking of a word, im- mediately ; hdt-eh'it, f. conversation, chit-chat, h jIj had, f. wind. p. iUjjlj bddslidh, m. a king; bddshdln, royal, p. 4_f jl) Jd^z, m. a complainant, speaker, s Ixp-l' bdjnd, n. to sound, to ring, s lb 5dr, m. load; fruit; time; door; water, p h !ij\i bar ah, twelve, h il^b bdrgdh, f. a king's court, p \\i bdz, back ; bdz-dnd, to decline, reject; baz-rallmd, to keep from, to prevent; (s.ra.) a hawk. ^. jljl) bdzdr, m. a market; bdzdri, one who attends a market. ^ t_fjlj bdz't, f. play, sport, a game, p i^b Jds«w, m. a basin, plate, dish, goblet, pot, etc. h cb bdgh, m. a garden. ^; j^Li-b bdghhdn, m. a gardener, j'^ Jb 5d?, m hair. s. ear of corn. h. wing, p i\i bdid, above, up, high, p uliJb hdlal; m. a boy. s »lb idZ«, f. sand, s (Jbb Jd«d^2, made of broad cloth, woollen, h b."3b bdntnd, a. to share, to distri- bute, to divide; bdnt-l. to divide and take, s [uSbSj\j bdndhnd, a. to bind, to shut up ; to frame, s bob bdnlcd, foppish, impudent, s L>^»\j hd-wujiid, notwithstanding.^; a i.b bdwar, m. credit, faith ; bdwar-L to believe, p Jib bdhir or bdhar, without, outside, s >jl)b hdham, together, p l)Lj bibdd, m. quarrel, fight, s LL^^ bipat, f. misfortune, calamity, s bbj batdnd, a. to point out, to teach, h ':.j batt'i, f. a candle, lamp. 5. bUb lithdnd, a. to cause to sit, to seat, h bllllsr ba-jd land, a, to perform, carrj^ into effect, h bbsT hajdnd, a to sound, to play on a musical instrument, s ( 1 ) t->-^7 ixijiii' or ha-jd, ill place, iu- stcad of. p ^J^"! ^ij^'i, f. lightning, h. u^7 /"?/«", u. to be sounded, to sound, s. U UsT hujhuud, a. to exj^lain ; to extin- guish (a candle). //. J^' ^'^^'°'"«> helpless, wretched, p. bLsr bacMiid, a. to save, protect, h l:csr bachnd, n. to be saved, to escape. /* cksT bachcha, m. an infant, a child, the young of any creature, p. ^ ^T^. iichhdnd, a. to spread, s. '-' ' U^^ ba-hdl and, to recover. «. (jiulir laMsMsh, t gift, grant, for- giveness, p vJL.:kr baldiashnd, or baJchshd. or baMsliish-k. a. to give, to bestow. j» j^^diT bajchsln, ni. a general, a com- mander in chief, p ijskr bulJil, m. avarice, stinginess, parsimony, a iJr^. ialdi'i^^, a miser, niggard, a J>j bad, evil, bad ; used in compounds, as bad-zdt, a rascal; bad-Mo, ill- disposed ; bad - siirat, ugly, ill- favoured, p j <::..,<^Si bad - baMt, unfortunate, wicked, p I ^y— : w\j bad-suluk'i, f, ill-usage. ^ a I ^Aj badan, m. the body. j(? I -1— .jjj ba-daulat, by favour of. o J^*l^<^_ ^^^^^^^/^M-'G/i, wise, intelligent, s i ^-.X' /;a(/i, f. badness, evil. p. bAj i/(7tfa, f. science, knowledge, s. J bar, f. bosom; produce; (prep.) upon. p. \ji burd, bad, wicked, h. jj\jj bardbar, equal, like, level, p ci>j]/J bardbari, f. equality ; compe- tition, p ^l/^^k^ ^(^>'^o.^ ^- or bar-bdd d. a. to cast upon the wind ; to destroy or waste, p s ^Ji by^ bar-pd k. to excite, p l::-JIj^ britdnt, m. affair, circum- stance, s ^Jjj bartan, m. a dish, plate, vessel, utensil, k -yj ^^^', name of a district, A J^'v7^=4>^ iar-Murddr, happy ; a terra appHed to a son (p. 22). p {jMji baras, a year. s. Cl^'L^j barsdt, rain, the rainy sea- son, s. l^J barasnd, n. to fall (as rain), to shower, s. ^^' baran, m. colour, complexion. « ^ji barham, offended, confused, angry, p ^..ji iifiydh, f. time, h \ji bard, large, great, (adv.) very, s ^\y_ bard,i, greatness, s. U 'J^jL' barhdnd, a. to increase, to pro- mote, s. W&1' barhnd, n. to increase, s. 1^ bas, enough, abundantly, p. (7 ) k? .law histdr, m. extent, latitude, s ^i*yj hast'i, f. an abode, a village, s \jj, ^j^ la-sar'i Jcarnd, a. to pass, to spend (one's time), p , dj j^f*uj lisan-pad, a song in praise of Vishnu, s \ I) t}*uJ iisurnd, n. to weep, to sob. h . C-J^La.' hasdrat, f. sight, vision. « JbUaJ ha-zdhir, ostensibly. « . Juo J«W, after, afterwards, at the end. a ^ (,/i*J Sflf's, some, certain ones, a ^*iej ^«'ze or ha^%i, some, certain, a ;. Jl»*j ^a'i(^, remote, far off. a : Jjo ha gh al, s. f. the arm-pit. j!? ^^ lughair, ad. without, besides, except, a , J lib lalckdl, m. a grain-merchant, a I shoi'/keeper. a , l^G halcrd, m. a he-goat. « t_f;X; ia^rl, f. a goat, a female goat, s (j^xj halchdn, m. explanation, s I iUj Ja^/a, m. a crane, a heron, s I Jj Je7, m. a hole, s L Ja^a, f. calamity, a \j ib huldnd, a. to call for, to summon. hilldnd, to cry. h ' Ju.0 lulbul, f. a nightingale, ji? j (ivUj halki, yea, on the contrary, p jtXuj Inland, high, lofty. ^ jj^yj Jz7/i, f. a cat. s '■^Saj ha-madad, with the help of, by means of. p a ^'jj^_ ha-martaha, in a degree, con- siderably, p a S-^^^-^* ia-mujil, by reason, on account of. p a ^ bin, without, not having, s uuj bandnd, a. to make, to form, h ^J banaj, m. trade, traffic, s AiJ land-JcAo shut up, to make fast.j?>7« ^JJJ bandag'i, f. slavery, service, devotion, ^j u^y^J^:J landhwdnd, a. to cause to be fastened, h uij bannd, n. to be made, h Ol^-J banwdtui, a. to cause to be made. ^ ^ bam, pi. sons, children; lan'i Isrd'il, the Israelites. « uiJ banyd, m. a shopkeeper, mer- chant, s y Ju or lo, f. smell, fragrance, p -p-^ Jo/'A, m. a load, weight, h -t^^ ^4/^'> f- understanding, idea, s W^^: i^i^nd, a. to understand, comprehend, s u!»J Ziw^Ma, to speak, say. h Uy Jo«a', a. to sow, plant, s a-' la, by, with, in; ba-nubat, with regard to. j!) L^^ bahd, m. price, value. j» Lll^iJ ihdshd, see bhdJchd. s uJjuj bhdshnd, to speak, say. s l^-^l^ bhdhhd, f. language, dialect. A J i//ay, m. good luck; destiny, s lu ( 8) lii U) hhugnd, n. to flee, to run away; hhdg-j. to run off. h c:-^l^' hhdnti, m. manner, mode, ■way. h ^jl^j hahdna, m. pretence, evasion, contrivance, p jjjUj hhd,'i, m. brother, friend, s c:-^-! hahut, much, many, very, s j:^^^ hihtar, good, well, better. j9 1 -»x-j lahuterd, much. s. u'^'?^ hhijwdnd, a. to cause to be sent. 7t j^_ W/f/r, full ; 'umr-lhar, during life; din-hhar, all day ; lliar-d. a. to pay, to fill ; hhar-pdnd, to be satisfied, s \^j_ lahrd, deaf; hhard, full. A ,.v^_2j hJiraman, a walk, s Ij^^ Iharnd, a. to fill. A L.-^^^' hJiarosd, m. hope, faith, s. i^^j hahra, m. portion, lot. p. ^^lUu-jj hhist'i, Ihisht'i or lihishti, m. a water-carrier. ^ uUw^j lahlcdnd, a. to delude, to mis- lead. A iU) M«/d, good, worthy; JAa/a ddm'i, a gentleman, s ^Ijj hhaldX f. kindness, good deed, h ♦^j laham, together, one with another, one against another, p Uij^ hhuhhd, hungry, s jj^ hhul, f. forgetfulness. s v->yp hJiuInd, n. to forget, to mistake, to be deceived, s L-O^^j hhauiihid, n. to bark, s ^^ hhi, even, also, h L^ hhahjd, m. friend, brother, s l::->-^' 5Ai/, f. a wall, s J^~J bh'itar, within, inside, h Lr^ct bhejnd, a. to send, convey, h "Stt: ^^^^> ™- ^ secret, separation secrecy, s j^z) hher, f. a sheep, an ewe. s ^>'u:j M^/7, f. an ewe, s bjL»^ hheriyd, m. a wolf, s (ji-»^' Ihesh or JA^s, m. garb, habit, t vx-oJ JAi^a, wet, moist (past part, ol ux^, to be wet). j^ he (also ^3?), an interjection ot reproach, as : sirrah ! you rascal ! k ^^ he, (prep.) without; much used in forming negative adjectives, as be-adah, unmannerly, and these again become substantives by adding i, as be-adab'i, rudeness, p i^Lj baydn, m. explanation, relation, a il«j bydJi, m. marriage, s i^mJj be-bas, helpless, destitute, p j^^-^ bibi, f. a lady; (vulgarly) a wife, h Lj-^-j bait, f. a couplet, poetry, a c_;l:;-*,' be-tdh, powerless, without endurance; he-tdb'i, helplessness, pi ^Jxxj^^ be-fa'aUuki, f. freedom from worldly ties, immediate communion with God. p a en iJO liLj beta, m. a son, a child, h ilil^iU' baithdnd, a. to set down, to ij place, h j L^iLj haithnd, n. to sit, to be placed, h ; ^j Jy, m. seed ; principle, s iWl) Je-ya, ill-timed, ill-placed, im- I * {; proper, p "' -/^ I, S^^_ le-jigar, cowardly ; he-jigar'i, \ cowardliness, want of pluck.' p ij.-iU Vich, (prep.) among, between, ) during, h ; the middle, s ; Vich- % lichdiv, mediation, intermediate <\ means, h li^lsHj hechdra, helpless, p lluTb^^ becJmd, a. to sell, h y;JL-j beshtar, generally, for the most part. J) )\'^i beddr, awake, wakeful, p jjj^ B'lrbal, name of one of Akbar's ' ministers, h \j**^_ bis, twenty, h ^UJu-j be-shumdr, incalculable, p. yy^ be-lcardr, uneasy, restless, ap ^ILj beg ana, strange, undomestic, foreign, p j«x*j begam, (fem. of beg), a lady, p J-.; bail, m. a bullock, h ^u-J b'lmdr, sick, a patient, p t_$^U-j b'lmdri, f. sickness, p lA:^ bendd, crooked; absurd, h Vij-j byaurd, m. account, history, s <-_jy^ be-wvhuf, foolish, stupid, p a ^y)^ pd2)osh, f. a slipper, j^ cLjIj j9a^, a mill-stone, h ilJjJu pddshdh, m. a king (same as bddshdh). p j\i_ par, m. the opposite bank ; (adv.) over, beyond ; par sdl, last year. s. Lc_;U pdrsd, devout, pious, p (jm\j pds, near, before, h tju-ju pdsbdni, f. keeping watch, p ^J-^u pdk'iza, clean, fine, elegant. ^ Jb j!?a^, m. a shade, shelter. ^Jjlj ^a^X'2, f. a sedan-chair common in India, h [cept. s uu, pdnd, a. to get, find, reach, ac- ^\j pduch, five. s. \3j\j pdndd, a master ; priest, s aju pdhw, m. leg, foot, s (Jl) ^a«J, m. water ; lustre. 5 uj patd, m. token, indication, A liij pattd, m. a leaf, s rf:u patthar, m. a stone, a rock, s ^^j patt'i, f. a leaf; hemp, s uxb patahid, a. to dash, to beat, /t ^_^l2er:.. pachds, fifty. A. (_>j'l^s^ piclihdr'i, f. the rear; the hind-quarter of an animal, s \ss^t picJMd, latter, last, modern. « ^JM.^p^., pachis, twenty -five, s ,jj padar, m. {^pidar, h), a father, p ^ ( 10 ) J par, (conj.) but; (postp.) on or upon, at. h J par, m. a wing, j^ \j\j purdnd, old, ancient, s ^.'U^i j£} J prithun-ndth, Lord of earth, your majesty, s l::^-jj prat'it, f. trust, confidence, s ^J J parda, m. a curtain, a screen. ^ ^.Oj pardesh'i (or pardes'i), a stranger, s *--)j parisram, m. care, labour, s .--jj prasanna, pleased, content, s -jj prasahsd, f. praise. « jjj J purushf man, a person. «. jli J pralcdr, m. mode, manner, s iJi,.vSy pragat, current, well-known, s if jj J paranda, m, a bird. ^ J; .jij parwarish, f. breeding,nourisli- ment. ^ j-Ji_> parhez, m. temperance, conti- nence, control of the passions, p ^ji pari, f. a fairy, p c:-.^ V ffit, f. love, friendship, s ^LIj J pareshdn, scattered, ruined, distressed, p (^UL) j pareshdn'i, f. destruction, dis- tress, p Ij'L) parnd, n. to fall, to happen. ^ ^-j. 'j paros'i, m. a neighbour. 5 Uli>'-j parhdnd, a. to teach to read, to instruct, s. lijb-j parhnd, a. to read, to repeat, to say, to speak, s (u>j pas, hence, therefore, p ja*uJ pasand, f. choice, approbation, jj JLi pashm, f. wool, fur. p) JL) pashu (or pasii), m. an animal,' : beast, s \jj\L) pukdrnd, a. to call aloud, to bawl, to cry out. h l)jio paharnd, a. to catch or seize, h Jl^ palihdl, f. a leathern bag for carrying water, s \i\i pildnd, a. to give to drink, s |jsaj pi7ijrd, m. a cage, s lUJcj pandit, a learned brahman. 5 l:..^^-»j puchhnd, a. to ask, inquire. 5 j»j ^a«r, f. a door, gate, s \ ,»J purd, full ; accomplished, s ^lO »? pliulnd, n. to blossom, to bloom, s ■ Luj^ pahiyd, m. a wheel (of a chariot, etc.) h j^ pher, back, again, h Ij^j phernd or plier-dcnd, a. to turn, to circulate, to give back, h ' uLiJ phailnd, n, to spread, to be ' divulged, k ^jLj piydda, m. a pedestrian, an attendant on foot ; piydda-pd, on foot, as a pedestrian, p iLj pydr, m. affection, s '^fLj piydrd, dear, beloved. 5 ~^W ptydsd, thirsty, s •-JUj p'lydla, m, a cup, goblet. ^ iJ-^ j?e^, m. the belly, stomach, womb. 5 jr%' p'lth, f. the back, s \"^, pc'itjind, n. to rush in, to enter, s ifSlj pichJid, m. pursuit, following, h > vLsay pichhdri, f. the hinder part. A (^jfsnj p'lcMie, after, in the rear, in pursuit of. h ^/ ^'^i i?rt'«/'a-X-., a. to produce, to procure; paidd-h., to be born; to be found. A p ^-V*^;J i'^^ murshid, your highness, sire, your worship, js a '--^ir?i P^i'^o.k, m. a swimmer. A ^■|y:?y, Pfiirnd, n. to swim. A Uu-j patsd, m. a copper coin, money, cash, h u.*^j ^iswa, a. to grind, triturate. * <^-j pcsha, m. trade, profession. ^ (*^i pc^flkdm, m. a message, p uW^J pamdn, m. a promise, an oath, a compact, p u-J ^ka, a. to drink, s <— )\j ^aJ, power, endurance, p «_jlj iair, m. a subject; (adj.) sub- missive, a uoIj tdpnd, a. to warm one's self before a fire, s j^\j ta,dr, f. impression, a &j\j tdza, fresh, new, green, young; fat ; happy, p t^j\j tdzi, Arab, Arabian, a Li u tdknd, a. to look, stare at. s y^' tasvAr, f. a picture, an image, a uliCuS*^' tazliik, f. ridicule, sport, a I ^js:^ td'ajjuhy wondering, astonish- ment, a L^* ,«" ^aVi/, f. praise, description, a , >.n.^»'' ta'zvn, f. reverence, honouring. « Cl^.liJ" ta/dwut, m. distance, dis- tinction, difference, a ^xaJ tafannun, m. recreating, re- freshing. <;? LjU)' taJcdzd, m. demanding, exact- ing ; urgency, a J jJij talcd'ir, f. predestination. « ^>^i tah'ir, f. fault, crime, blame. « clio tak, postp. up to, as far as. h u_iLC takalluf, m. ceremony, pomp, a («_iLi.O tahl'if, f. trouble, annoyance. -jdnd, n. to go ; to be ; to pass ; to reach; to continue, jdtd-rahnd, to vanish, s \:.ssr[>- jdnchid, a. to test, to try, prove. 8 1^ Ju U*- jdn-ddr, a living being, p bjl:>- jdnnd, a. to know, to under- stand, to consider, s j^^'S>- jdnwar, m. an animal, a bird, p ^\s>- j'dJul, m. a fool; (adj.) barba- rous, brutal, a (_->j^ Jab, when, at the time when; Jab-na-tah, now and then, s Lsj- j'ubd, young, youthful, s uJsj' t— ^^ jabtah or Jab-talak, so long as, till when, s h l::^ jittd, as much (as), whatever much, h \j\::s>- Jatdtid, a. to point out, to teach, s \u:j>- jitnd, as many (as), how many soever, h \ Ap- judd, separate, apart, p tj^:^ jis, the inflection of the relat. jo, who, which, h l:^^'^ms>- jast, f. a leap, p _^liU:>- jafd-hdr, m. a tormentor, op- pressor, a p ljUj>- jagdnd, a. to waken, to rouse up. s ^f^ jagah, f. place, quarter, room, vacancy, stead, h Sjs>- Jalldd, m. an executioner; (adj.) cruel, hard-hearted, a d\s>-jald, expeditious, quick, quickly. jt? ^> JkLs- jald'i, f. quickness, rashness. ^; 'jjjs- jalnd, n. to burn, to be kindled ; to get into a passion. « >yjs- jalwa, m. light ; jalwa-gar, brilliant, beautiful, a ^-Ls" jalev, f. retinue, attendance, h ^■^^ jam', f. a congregation, collec- tion ; sum total, number ;ya/«'- h. or -ralchnd or -Icar-rakhnd, to collect ; -Jiond, to be collected, a ^jS>- jan, m. person, individual, s ij^*^ jins, f. genus; goods, com- modity, a Jx:j>- jangal, m. a forest, a wood, s l:j.j>- jannd, a. to bear, to bring forth, s f^ jo, (rel. pron.) he who ; jo-lco,!, who- soever ; jo-kuchh, whatsoever, h y>- jau, m. barley ; j6, if, when ; ju, searching, p s \k:>- ju,d, m. a yoke; dice, gambling, s i—>\y>- jawdb, m. an answer, a ^j^^=^ jawdn, young, a young person; jawdn-mard'i, valour, p ^^^ jaw dm, f. youth or rather that period of life to which the Romans applied the term juventus. p. j^^^ jaicdhir, f. (plur. of Jfe»=s"), gems, jewels ; jawdhir-Midna, a jewel-house or treasury, a i_jji>ys^ jaiiJiar'i, m. a jeweller, a ^y>- jiitd, m. a shoe, a pair of shoes, h U- >J"^J^ jotik, m. astrology, s j^j0^r>- jotik'i, an astrologer. « ( 15 ) \.. jjys- juti, a slipper, a small shoe, h Ljy?- jotnd, to yoke, h Uj »5>- jornd, a. to join, clasp, h ^jy>- joii 01" jaiih, when, as ; joh-hih, ov jauh-hhi, the instant when, h jyj »:>- Jaiinpur, name of a city, s j[^Jhdr, m. bushes ; continued rain, h j^^ j[^s^ jhdr-jhur, f. a thicket, h jL^ jahdz, m. a ship, at c:^^^ jahdlat, f. ignorance. « \\^ jhdlar, f. a fringe ; y/m/ar-^ar, possessed of a fringe, fringed. M V^ jO'^dn, m. the world ; jahdn'i, of or belonging to the world, man- kind, p t jJH'^ y«/ia/*, where, in whatever place. 7i ilx> i^^->- jahdnpandji, m. refuge of the world ; your majesty ! p .^sfl^r*- jhdnchh, f. a cymbal, s ' u^ l^ jhdnhnd, a. to peep, to spy. 7i L kI^^ jhat, quickly, li \ Vj^ j'harnd, n. to ooze, to flow, h \^tj^ jharokhd, m. a lattice, a window. 5 ]jxp- jhagrd, m. wrangling, quar- relling, h ujx^ jhagarnd, n. to quarrel, h \3W^s:*'irr jhamjhamdtd, glittering, h V:L«>i=9- jhamakrd, m. splendour, beauty, h ^.^~>- jhan, m. a clashing sound of metals, etc. h ^j».j5^ jhuth, false ; a lie. 6 \^^v^ j^^^M, a liar ; false, s ,^j>- ft, m. life, soul, mind : (added to names, professions, etc., it signifies sir, master), s (-_---.:>- jeh, f. a pocket, p c>-^ j'ltd, alive, living, s u:u5^ j'dnd, a. to win (at play), to conquer, s u-»5^ jhid, n. to live, to be alive, s Lu-.^ jaisd, in the manner which, as, such as. s U-XjI:>- chdluh, m. a horsewhip. ^ ujI.>- chdhnd, a. to gnaw. 7i (j:Jjl2>- cJidshn, f. taste. ^ Jl=s- cAaZ, f. way, practice, s uli^l>- chdldlc, active, fleet, p oJJU- chdndni, f. a kind of cloth; moonlight, s uj&lss- chdhnd, a. to love, to like, to desire, to choose ; chdhiye (in Braj. chdhiyatu), it is fit, proper, neces- sary, etc. s 'JL>- chabdnd, a. to gnaw, h !L.>- chihilld, stupid, impudent, h ULrs- chipM, jxs>- chatur, clever; chaturd,i, cx- pertness. s \i\i}j.^ chaflidnd, a. to rend, split, h i^f-^>- chith'i, f. a letter, an ci)istle. h f\y>~ chird (jh , m. a lamp, a liglil. p silent, speechless, h \ i\^\y>- chardgah, f. a pasture, a meadow, p \j\jS>- chardnd, to graze ; churdnd,a,. to steal ; dnlcheh churdnd, to with- draw the eyes, s l;j&'l=>- charhnd, n. to ascend, to come up. Ji Ula'l>- charhdnd, a. to raise up. h I) "l^- chiriyd, f. a bird, h iUj "-i:*- cJiinmdr, a bii'd-catcher, a fowler, h *As>- chashm, the eye. j;? iUulcs" chashna, m. a spring, a well, a fountain. 2^ ^Lbs- chugKl'i, slandering, back- biting, p l::-X>- chakit, astonished, s l:X>" cMhid, n. to have done, to have completed, h (Yide Gram, p. 65). , JL>- chaMii, f. a miU, a mill -stone, s IjLs- chilldnd, n. to scream out. h LL»- chalnd, n. to move, to go, pro- ceed, go off, pass (as coin), to be discharged (as a gun) ; chald-j. to go ; chald-dnd, to come, s CX-K^- chamah, f. brilliancy, glitter, beauty, h ^/♦js- cTiaman, m. a lawn, a meadow. ^ ^J^stL^- chundhchi, thus, accordingly.^ liijs- chintd, f. care, anxiety, s iJ>^u:>- cTiajigtd, m. a claw ; changul mdrnd, to grasp with the claw, p L— ?»:>- chop, f. desire, selfishness, h ( 16 ) iO\jy>- chaupdya, four-footed, a quad- ruped, s \^^ chauthd, the fourth, s i4:>- clior, m. a thief, a robber, s U|^)4j>- cTiordnd, a. to steal, s 0'»^ o7~ cliuTc, f. defect, error; chauh, an open place in a city, h i^ys- chauTcas, expert, alert, s Us*;:- chaugund, a. fourfold, s if^^ chonch, f. beak, bill, s J . Jkj »j>- chauhdol, m. a kind of sedan or palki. s i^J>y^ chaunn, f. a whisk, a fly- flapper, h \s>t^~chuhd, m. a mouse; chuhe-mdr,a kind of hawk which feeds on mice, h -p«- chha, six. h (Jlis- chhdt'i, f. the breast; chhdt'i se lagdnd, to embrace. A li-wfs- chkipnd, n. to be concealed, hidden, absent, h ^jLiss- chJiatr'i, f. a covering or hood; chhatri-ddr, covered, hooded, s \j\lis>- chhutdpd, m. smallness. h ^^■■/^ chahchaha, m. warbling, li ^^^ chihra, m. the face, p Ijkip- chhotd, little, small. A L"j*z>- chhutnd, n. to escape. A jvpi- cAAor, m. end, extremity, h l3^"»i>- chhornd, a. to release, leave, let ao. h >? ( 17 ) J^ \^y^s^ chhokard, m. a boy, h Ju^rs- diked, m. a hole, an opening, s li*:>. cKitd, m. a leopard, s j*>- cAb, f. a thing, p b->5>- chaind, m. a kind of corn. s. chend, millet, h c ^^s:>-lr>. Ao/VJ, m. an usher, a l::,-%p-U- hdjat, need, want. « J,..tfl>- hdsil, m. produce, result, pur- port, profit, revenue ; hdsil-i-kaldm, in fine, in short; hdsil-h., to be obtained ; hdsil-k., to obtain, a -tf W- Aaz«V, a. present, willing ; Aas«V- jawdb'i, ready wit. « i«^li>- hdkim, m. a ruler, a JU.. hdl, m. state, condition, busi- ness, aftair; present time, a i.s^U- Mlat, f. state, condition, a j-A-j*. hahsh'i, m. Abyssinian, Caffre. « ^::l^ hujjat'i, cavilling, arguing the point, a J>*- hadd, extreme, extremely, a ^ ^j>- Jiirs, avidity, greediness, a \j:^y>~ harakat, f. proceeding, con- duct, a \ u-flJ^p- har'if, an opponent (in play), a rival, an associate, a \ (*^ I L— ^MJis^ hashu-l-hukm, according to command, a hasad, f. envy, malice; emula- tion, ambition, a . hissa, m. share, lot, portion, division, a j'^^js^ hazr, m. rest, repose, a ^.iLJjJis- hazrat, your or his majesty, your or his excellency, etc. a iy«.i>- huzur, m. presence, appearance ; a regal court ; his majesty, a fjj>. hakk, just, true; the Deity; right, justice; lot. hakhh'int, per- ception of right, a CLij\L>. hikdrat, f. contempt, dis- grace, baseness, a ^,i^'LJls>. hakikat, f. truth, a true statement, an account. l:u-jIx=»- hikdyat, f. a history, tale, narration, a S-s^ hukrn, m. order, decree, a L::^A-«io»- hikmat, f. wisdom, know- ledge, skill, contrivance, a l::..-^^.^- hukiimat, f. reign, rule, a ♦-X>- hakim, m. a sage, a philosopher, a physician, a ^LL&- halwdfi, m. a confectioner, a {jM\y>- haivdss, (pi.), senses, a ^^»j- hawdle-k. to give in charge, to consign, a c:->Lr»- haydt, life, a ^j*=- hair an, confounded, i)er- plexed. a Ci^s- hairat, f. confusion, a u-i*s- haif, (interj.) ah ! alas ! m. iniquity, a pity ; haif-k. or -khdnd, to sigh, to express one's sorrow, a ai-j>- /Ufa, m. artifice, ruse, a } -.>- haiwdn, m. animal. « ^ •• • 3 U-U. ( 18 ) U^l .s'oi. khdss, select, peculiar, a ^l>. kJidtir, f. the heart, mind; Ixhdtir kJiicuh, cheerfully, heartily ; Mdtir Jam', with heart at ease, contented, a ui/l>- Mi^l; f. earth, dust ; Tdidh-h. to be destroyed, p j_^^l>- khdlis, pure, a ^Iri- ^d/i, bare, empty, a j^l:>- Mdw, a lord, a grandee ; Mdn- daiirdn (p. 29), a man's name ; Jdidn-hhdndn, a man's name, a ij Us- Mdna, m. house, place ; (much used in composition, as hdwarchi- khdna, a. cook-house or kitchen.) p — ri- Muhar, f. news, information, report, notice ; Muibar-ddr, careful, attentive; IJiabar-g'ir'i, taking care of. a j^ Machchar, m. a mule. p. ^Jci- Miudd, m. God; kJiudd-shinds, God-knowing, p Ju.ljo- Tchuddwand, master, your majesty, your worship, etc. p l::^^S>- Mid mat, f. presence, service, duty; Tdiidmat-gdr, an attendant, a servant, a i—J^jS- TJiardb, bad, depraved, ruined, depopulated, a ^}'^ JJiardM, f. ruin, destruction, a — r>- Miarch, m, expenditure, p Uji >^\j^ kJtarid-k. a. to purchase. // p fjM^ kkas, m. grass, straw, p ijOy.jis- Musus, especially, a laij- TJiatt, m. a letter ; a line ; mous- taches, beard, a 'dari- yhatd, defect, error, missing, deficient, a Urs- Mafd, angry, p ^>iL>. Idiafag'i, f. displeasure, anger, p i^Juk:>~ Miafif, vilified ; Tdiaf'if-h. to feel one's self affronted, a d^\^ Jdiuldsa, essence, the upshot or finale ; the moral (of a tale, etc.) a fj!}\:>- Maldjik, people, mankind, a ^dri- khalk, m. people, the world, creation, a uu.-JiL>. Jchilkat, f. people, a y>~ Mo, f. disposition, p L^\y>- Mwdb, m. sleep, p '-H>=*- Muh, good, excellent, weU ; Muh-surat (adj.\ beautiful, well- favoured, p ij-y^ khuhi, f. beauty; comfort; good deed, virtue, p iry^ Mw«^> pleased, cheerful ; ele- gant ; Mush-dnd, to be agreeable ; Mush - dyand, comely, elegant ; Mush - iislub or Mush-daul, well- proportioned, elegant, p lSj-^ i^^^ Mush-Miabr'i, i. good news, pleasing tidings, p ,je^ (P*^ Mush-taV'i, f. pleasan- try, mirth, p L^^ ( I'J ) L^,3 ^^ Jxhosha, m. a cluster of grapes, etc. p J^^d^ Mushi, f. delight, pleasure. 2^ i^^>~ khauf, m. fear ; Mauf-Jc. or -Mdnd, to fear, a jj,^^ Umni, a murderer ; sanguinary, p jJLrs- kkit/dl, m. thought, considera- tion ; phantom, vision ; Jihiydl-k. to fancy ; Mit/dl-raJchnd, to keep in mind, a l:^ L>. khiydnat, f. perfidy, treachery, embezzlement, a jfr^ Miflir, good, best, well ; m. good- ness j health ; Tchair-Mwdh, well- wisher, a Uy& J.:>-iu> ddldiil-li., n. to enter, to arrive. Ti a (jl J ddd, justice, p ^jlj ddrii, i. medicine, p CI J ddgh^ spot, stigma. ^ *iJ ddm, m. a snare. ^ ij^Ij daman, m. skirt. ^ ^jl J f?aw, m. alms, charity. 5 <*T'?" blj uiJ ddndyi., f. wisdom. ^ tZ-^iJ ddnt, m. tooth, s 5^ ^j-JIj ddnish, f. knowledge, science, wisdom, p '^fl*l -\:.-wJ)j ddnishmand, wise, a learned man ^ ..'J ddhw, m. time. ^ ajL> rfa««, m. grain, seed; speck, p ouJ daldnd, a. to press down. A juj duhld, thin, lean, poor, s ujJ daliid, to be pressed. A J.rs..t> fi'fl^Z, m. entrance, intrusion ; possibility, a jj dar, (prep.) in ; (used in comp. as dar-guzarnd, to pass away.) p jljj dard%, long; dardz-L, to stretch out. p y^j'^ darldr, m. the court of a king or prince, p lJj^j^ darbdn, m. a courtier, j-j \jyb {jM^ J J darpesh hand, n. to occur, to await, p Li^-o-jJ daraklit, m. a tree, a stalk, p <::^J\^s^j^ darMmdst, f. application, request, wish, desire, p ^ji^ dard, m. pain, affliction, pity, p i^j'^j<^ daridn, poor, miserable, s ^t jl^J darkdr, useful, requisite, p ilTjJ dargdh, f. a regal court, p Mjd diram, m. money ; a coin about sixpence in value, p i^L-^ J dar-miydn, in the midst ; be- tween, p JujJ daranda or darinda, m. a beast of prey, p ijliit) darwdza, m. door, gateway, p c . , J darogh. m. a lie. J9 ^jiijjiJ darwesh, m. a dcrvisc, n beggar, p l> ,J daryd, m. the sea, a river, ^y ( :^0 ) Ji^3 \\< c:^ilj ,j danjuft-h., a. to con- ! j^ J dkr, f. distance; distant; dur- ocive, understand, h p ^J das (or ^r?*/;), ten. s _::^-.-J (/(/s?', m. the hand; dast-har- dnr-h., to forbear, to desist, p f^\^ .:i---^ dastar-'khvdn, m. the cloth on which orientals cat. p ^^y^<^ diishman, m. an enemy, p j.,*JjJ duskmani, f. enmity, j? *li-l J diishndm, f. abuse, s p U J (7«'a, f. benediction, prayer, wish, a c:j^J da'wat, f. entertainment, ban- quet, a ^J dukh, m. pain, labour; t^wMi, grieved, afflicted, s f^ljl^u) dUchdnd and dihUdnd, a. to shew, to point out. s J J dil, m. heart, mind, soul; dil- pasand, pleasing, agreeable, p Ijl'j dildnd, a. to cause to give, s ^ J du-laUi, f. a kick with the two hind legs. A -c*^ Jl> dil-Jam'-i, f. easeof mind.^ JJj .J \ -Ji J dusrd, the second, other, next. « fjijj (?os7«, m. fault, defect, s (^lijj duJcdn, f. a shop, jp i..::.-JjJ daulat, f. riches, fortune, em- pire; daulat-mand, a. wealthy, a (^^0 (?u«, low, vile, abject; dun- himmat'i, low-mindedness, a »jjj or '•.y^'^ dono or donoh, the two, both. A <♦ j:^J dharm,m.. virtue; dharm-avatdr, incarnation or personification of virtue ; sire, your majesty, s IjJsJ dharnd, a. to place, to lay. s l^J dhaJcM, m. a push, jolt, h ^J - * I rdm-cherd, ti name frequently given to slaves, s y.ii^:>~^ \ ni/iaf, f. quiet, ease, a i\ ( rciJi, f. road, way. p ^^ ) rd,e, f. sense, opinion. « tUJj r«<'(^i'h f- Q- weight of about eight barley-corns, s ci-k^d- ( ruJihsat, f. leave, discharge, riiMisat-h., to depart. « Lri-j rahhnd, m. rent, hole. ^ Lj> rassd, m. a rope. 7i ULj) risdnd, n. to be enraged. A ^^j rasta, m. a road, way, mode, p U-'i ruswd, exposed, disgraced, p . J^^j rimvdji, f. ignominy, dis- grace, p ^^j rass'i, f. a string, cord, p CSJ^ I rashk, m. envy, jealousy p U5 1 rizd, f. favour. « \^j ra' iytjat, f. subjects, people, a •^z^^j raghbat, f. desire, liking, a (J-^j rafik, m. a friend, ally, a i.xjj ruFa, m. a letter, note, a ^.i^'Dj rikdh-ddr, m. a stirrup-holder, groom. «^ l:^ rahhnd, a. to place, possess, save ; rahh-d., to put down, to place ; rakh-l., to establish, s \^^^j ralchwdnd, a. to cause to be placed, or put. 5 >^j ranj, pain, grief, p iX^pfTj ranj'ida, annoyed, vexed, p 4_fikjj rand't, a woman. A i^^S^j rang, m. colour ; pleasure, p i^*^j rang'in, coloured, gaudy, p J 1 rii, m. face, surface, p ^ji_^j ru-ba-ru, in the presence of ; face to face, before, p bjj riipd, m. silver. « ^ 3J ''"^P^y^t ™- 3. rupee, s 'jjj ro/2, f. bread, a loaf, s r-*j ruh, f. soul, spirit, a ;> t roz, m. a day. p Ij^jj ros, m. anger; ros-k., to feel! wroth. 5 i^-ijj roshan, clear, illumined. ^ Li^vJ rosAwz, light, brightness. ^ Ujij rowa, n. to weep ; m. lamenta- tion, grief. 5 tJjJbj rahzan'i, f. robbery, plunder. jO jj.uJi; rahas, m. witticism, s liJb; rahnd, n. to stay, be, live, con- tinue ; rahne-ivdld, an inhabitant, h \ J^^j rahicdr, swift ; (lit., fit for the \ road.) p LT-^ ) ret, f. sand, filings ; rit, custom, h 1 ^j 1 r'lt'i, f. custom, habit, s ' li^rsT, r'ljhnd, n. to be pleased, satis-"'j fied. s J liA ; za' ^_gXJjLj sd,ung'i, f. a support for the pole of a chariot, h jlijJbL: sdhulcdr, m. a great merchant. *■ ' j_^jLs sdf'is m. a groom, p dj\^ sdya, m. shadow, protection, p L—^-j ««i, all, every, the whole, s (.TT <_^-^< .sffjftj, m. cause, reason, motive ; (prep.) on account of. a r i-,^ sahah, m. a task, lesson, a L_5^-M-: subuk, light, not heavy ; subuh- bdr, lightly burdened, p jl^--j subhdv, m. nature, disposition, s {^ \i^ •^j^ supurd-h. a- to give in charge, to consign, p lJj^^ *^^^, a woman, s ^(1 liLjs**' sajwdnd, a. to cause to be fitted, prepared, s ^ sach or '•-s**' sachchd, m. truth, u»- sM5»Lk-; samdchdr, m. news, tidings, s ^U^-j samdn, like, similar, s u::,-v*-j ««/wi or sm^, f. a way, path ; point of the compass, a •^js*^**^ saynajh, f. comprehension, s L^s'*~' samajhnd, a. to comprehend, , understand, s ^w4wj smaran, m. remembrance, re- collection. A jlX:.**^ samundar, m. the sea, the wide ocean. « '^";'- -^>-j samaij, m. time, season, s ^'^.'■^ l) li-j sundnd, a. to cause to hear, s ■^f L::-~»i-j sanipat, f. wealth, s .'"'v'' '' Luj JO-j sandesd, m. a message, s y[jM^^ sansdr, the world, s •' ' ■ ^JyCu^ singaut'i, f. an ornament of gold, etc., on the horn of a bullock, s b^-j sunnd, a. to hear, s y^ so, correlat. pron. that very, that same ; sau, a hundred, h \y^ siwd, except, besides, a j\y^ saivdr, a rider, one mounted or riding ; embarked. 2^ lJj^^ satvdn, f. riding; equipage.^? Jl»-j sawdl, m. request, begging, petition, a ^-^\y^ swdm'i, m. master, husband, a n ^_j\y^ siicde, same as siwd. a ^j-j soch, thought, s lx5^4-j sochnd, to consider, reflect, s \l)»-*j saudd, m. a bargain, purchase, p ^\i^y^ sauddgar, m. a merchant, p) i_c^\ii^ sauddgan, f. merchandize, trade, p J,3 j-j sk-daul, elegant, well-shaped, s f^\jy-^ surdkJi, m. a hole, cavity, p _. i»-o suraj, m. the sun. s -f^^ ijj\iijy^ Surdds, name of a poet, h 1*^ (25 ) SJ:j I|^ shardb, f. wine, a to^ shart, f. condition, stipulation, wager, a AtjJjt sJiarm, f. bashfulness, modesty, shame ; sharm-dnd, n. to feel ashamed, p ^Su^J:^ sharmandag'i, f. bashful- ness, shame, p HiX-^J^ sharmanda or sharminda, ashamed, abashed, p c tJ^i shuru\ f. beginning, commence- ment, a ji,j^ shar'ir, vicious, wicked, a c:-Jii-ij shafaTcat, f. kindness, affec- tion, a jliwi) shikdr, m. hunting, prey ; shikdr-gdh, f. hunting-field, p t^l^ shikari, relating to hunting ; m. a fowler, hunter, p ^^Jli shukr, m. thanks, gratitude, a J.Li shnhl, f. shape, figure, a tSJ^ shikam, m. the belly ; shikam- parwar, a pamperer of his belly, p jy^ (26 ) ^^ ,»^ i^lwr, m. cry, noise, disturbance, p v*^ shaulc, m. desire, love, a ^' »^ shauh'in, desirous ; amateur fanciers, a d^Jii shahd, m. honey, p -,^ shah', m. a city, p ijlLjj s7m7i-a'f?(r, a prince ; shahzddi, a princess, p ^ slier, m. a tiger, a lion, p ij «»-i sherni, f. a tigress, ju j..%--i s/eirirtz, f. sweetness ; elo- quence, p i.*-i sh'igra, quickly, s t_^v=.-l^ f^ahib, m. a lord, master; companion ; possessed of, as, sdhih- l^hdna, the master of the house ; suhih-i '?sm«^,possessedofchastity.a ( sL? sdf, clean, clear, candid, a ^-* sxibh, f. morning, dawn, a j^ sahr, f. patience, endurance, a <::^.„^ siMat, f. society, a u^^jya sarrdf, m. a banker, a money- changer, a (__i-tf sarf, expenditure; sarf-Jc., to spend, a ( ;-^ sirf, merely, only, a i^\La safd,'i, purity, beauty, a ci^i*? sifat, f. praise, quality, a S-s^ safha, face, surface, a -X^ saldh, f. counsel, advice, a G-La saldJian, peaceably, advisably, by way of advice, a j;^iXi*ff sanduh, m. f. a box, a trunk, a i-~>\ya sawdh, m, rectitude, a virtu- ous action ; success, a CLij^ surat, f. form, face, a jL-i? saiydd, a hunter, a iXt^ said, f. game, hunting, chase, a L> jj -^ %arur or zurur, necessary, ex- pedient, a i-jLxJ za"tf, frail, bedridden, a ^j:^s\^ ziydfat, f. entertainment, ai \ ijli: faX-, m. a shelf, a recess, a l::^11? tdhat, f, power, endurance, a «JIL ^d^r, fortune; star, a ««-l? faS', m. constitution, nature, a ^--v-Js ^«5zJ, m. a physician, doctor, a —Jis tarah, f. manner, mode, a \Jo farz, m. make, shape, a L^Jc taraf, f. side, direction; ex- tremity, a ^ijis tar'ik, f. way, path, a iib is tar'ika, m. way, rule of life, a Lii-^-uJb iasht, m. a basin, p /•Ixb i(Cdm, m. food, victuals. « > ( 27 ) CJ^ .»!? frtwr, m. mode, manner, a JjiLi /m^z, f. a pai'rot. p ^li»l? tufdn, m. a storm of wind and rain, a J»l? /w/, m. length, a id.'_^ taw'ila, m. a tether, footband ; tawela, a stable, stall, a li U o -toll? zdhir-k.,a. to manifest, dis- play, a h ; Jib zdlim, an oppressor, a tyrant. « Jdr ZM?OT, m. injustice, violence; zulin- j guddz, a melter of injustice, a I crusher of oppression, a I t jss-lc 'a;/3, weak, helpless, a |j_5>-l£ 'o/Vsi, f. weakness, helpless- i ness. a i Jjlc 'aM, wise, a sage, a kjlc 'dam, m. the world, universe; 'dlam-pandh, the asylum of the universe, his majesty, a JU 'dlim, a. learned, knowing. « (Lc Hhdrat, f. tenn, expression. « jls''^ 'ajdyib, m. wonders, curiosi- ties, a .^js^ VyffS, m. wonder, admiration; a. wonderful, rare, a A}ys.'^ 'ajuba, a. wonderful, a strange thing, a mZ^\t\c- 'addlat, f. justice, a ♦ Jk.z 'adam, non-existence, a jSc 'uzr, m. excuse, a i^j^ '(irz, f. representation ; a peti- tion, request, a yjs. 'azh, precious, eminent, dear ; (used substantively, like mon cher,' my dear friend.') a lUJLs:. 'ishrat, enjoyment, a (jjm£- 'ishk, m. love, a K'^^s. 'asd, m. a stick, a jlnc 'attdr, m. a perfumer, druggist, a JJLc 'akl, f. wisdom, opinion, a Jo^tliii 'aJclmand, a. wise, a _.iLc 'ildj, m. cure, remedy, a ti^iilc 'aldka (or 'ildka), m. connection, a Stis- 'aldwa, moreover, a J-c 'ilm, m. science, knowledge ; ' ilni-i-nujum, astrology. LL& 'aid, upon, after ; 'aid hdz-al Icii/ds, in like manner, a i ArsaLs 'alaihida, distinct, peculiar, a iSAJz- '^lmda, noble, fine, a j^its. 'umr, f. age, life, lifetime, a J,/♦^^. 'amal, m. action, practice, con- duct, a \, ^lij: 'indyat, f. favour, gift, a ^JJ[:^\ *\y:. 'aivdm-U7mds, m. the common people, a CL! \yz 'aurat, f. a woman, a wife ; (Arab, plur.) 'aitrdt. a (^»r. 'iwaz, m. return, substitute, a (-1.? jLi 'iijddat, f. visiting the sick, a jLx 'aiydr, cunning ; a knave, a (JL0S. 'aish, m. pleasure, delight, a ^-j:. 'ain, m. the eye, essence, tho very (thing, etc.). a J u ( ^« ) J c^3 t ^Ic jy/m r. m. a pit, cavern, hole, a ^li ghafil, careless, negligent, a i_^U gha,ih, missing, a \j£. gharra, impudence, a ^jS- gharaz, f. design, view; (ad.) in short, in fine, a fc— ^. j-^ ghar'ih, poor ; a stranger, a \ijk. gh urahd. the poor; pi. of gh ar'ib. a tj'yji. gh aznav'i, a. residing at Ghazna. p ci^iii ghaflat, f. carelessness ; moral torpor, a ( jii ghildf, m. a covering, p /»li. gh ulam, m. slave. « *-c gh am, m. grief, sorrow. « L-,>>^r. gh aib, the invisible world, a -»j gh air, other, different, a dJ^ gh airat. f. jealousy, a ijt.\i fdjida, m. profit, gain; fd,i(la- mand-h., to benefit, a ^li _/«,/,(•, superior, excelling, a j-^' f^^> ^- morning, dawn of day ; early, a i^jJki Jidwi, devoted, loyal subject or slave, a i.::^£.\jifardghat,f. comfort, leisure, a Uji ^Ji^y*\ji fardmosh-Jc. to forget, p h A3 \ji fo/fzand, m. a son, boy. p ^.:~'^^ji fursat, f. opportunity, a ^^ farz-h. to grant, assume, a ul^i^ farmdnd, a. to order, say, speak. 2> i-^li r* farydd, f. complaint, p (_^Ju^ faryddi, a. complainant, plaintiff, p i>—^,ji farcJ), fraud, a trick, p u>L.uJ fasdd, m. depravity, violence, a ij.,^3 fasi, f. time, season, harvest, a ij^^ fad, bounty, munificence, a laJii falcat, merely, only, no more, a j^ fakir, m. a beggar, dervise ; poor, indigent, a Jsi fihr, m. f. thought, reflection, a \jii fuldnd ox fuldna, a certain one. a\ _y fauj, f. army, a multitude, a \jti faiiran, quickly, instantly, a ^ ft, in (used in Ar. phrases, as, , fi,l-wd]ci, in truth ; fi,l-faur, in- stantly; fi,l-haUkat, of a verity). a\ (JjIj kdhil, fit, worthy, a ^^^li Icdz'i, m. a judge, a c:-^^lj Mmat, f. bulk, height, size, a ^•U kdni\ contented, frugal, a 0.3 ( 29 ) *„vj l-admn, m. foot, footstep, a aJlJJ kadim, ancient, old. a jSji Icardr, confirmation, rest, a ijOj'i lcar%, m. a loan ; harz dend, to lend, a *AMJf kasam, f. an oath ; kism, kind, species, a t^^ Icunur, m. want, fault, a i^ Icissa, m. a story, a Lii Icazd, m. decree, a /^\'^ kazzdic, m. a robber ; (hence Cossack). jliLaii kazdJcdr, by chance, a p (U.^ laziya, m. a quarrel, a ^Jajj Jcatra, m. a drop. « itjelj hiVa, m. a fort, palace, a ^^:^sA:^ hind ''at, f. contentment, a J J X'flM?, m. a statement, a word a Ci^^^lJ hhjdmat, f. the general resur- rection; calamity, a JuJ haid, f. fetter, imprisonment, ffi u:-,/*-«J himat, f. price, value. « i_^"l^ I-a^«i, m. a writer, a LjI^ hdtnd, a. to cut. s ' .1^ Mr, m. use, business, service, 1 work, deed, p ^_^ J^ hdr-choh'i, embroidered cloth, p j^_j^ kdr'tgar, skilful ; a cunning- workman. jii.1^ Mgha%, m. paper, a scrap of paper, p ^ili hdfir, m. infidel, a Jo kdl, m. time, .s aO Z:a?«, m. business, action, use ; desire; hdrn dnd, to be useful, of service, s p (J,^o Icdmrdn'i, f. happiness, p ^ Icdn, m. the ear. s \:>^^ Mmpnd,xn.. to tremble, to shiver. 5 l&iXJo hdndhd, m. the shoulder, s ^xjlS Tidnlih, the armpit. A i^.f-4^ '^ Mnhhuhja, the city of Kanoj. s •f^y^ Icdyath, m. name of a caste of Hindus ; a scribe, a copyist, s c_^ hah, when? s i^-»i hab'i, m. a poet, s ^*i hahliu, ever, some time or other ; hahhu-halhu, occasionally ; ,_^ A-a5/«, same as hahhu. s \j^ haprd, m. cloth, clothes. « kJUj-i haput, unfilial. s I'ii X'Mif^a, m. a dog. s (—-•Ui hitdh, f. a book, writing, a lu:;i Mtta, how much ? liow many r s 1}^^^ kutivdl, an officer of police, s i^jy^ hator'i, f. a small metal cup. h ,^ huchh, any, some, something, a little ; hachhu, any, the least, h \^^ hachchJm'' d, m. a tortoise, s l:^ ^J> Mrde Una or kirde mang- tvdtid, to get on hire, to borrow, h ^j^S Krhhn, the god Krishna. « Ij^ harnd, a. to do, to place, s iJ.^ krodh, angry, wroth, a ^ ( so ) > ^J^ l-is, inflection of kaun, who ? frequently joined to the following word, as kis-farah, how ? kis-ivasie or -liye, why ? A .lu*^ Z:/sa», m. a peasant, farmer, h _..n.'vj^ ^-asii, a prostitute, courtesan, a Ix^ to«a, a. to draw, cover, h ^mS or y^ kis'i or X-i'su, inflection " oikoyi or kuchh, some, certain, any. A L::.,rA^ ^-isA^, m. f. a sown field, p ^ui*^ kisMi, f. a boat, ship, p J.i A;aZ, to morrow, yesterday, s *K kaldin, m. a word, speech, a c:..-O.K kaldicant, m. a minstrel, musician. 7i d^ss:^ kaleja, m. the liver; courage. A *^ kam, deficient, less, little, rarely ; (used in composition : as kam-lakht, ill-starred; a rascal), p ^y^ kamdl, m. perfection, excel- lence; (used adjectively, as: ex- trem.e, the utmost, etc.) a ULsi kamdnd, a. to earn one's living, h \jj%^ kamard (camera), m. a room, chamber. (Port.) iLw*^ kamina, base, mean fellow, p iiJ\:S kindra, m. shore, side, limit, p ^rsro kujiji, f. a key. s jL^ kimd, m. a cistern, basin. 5 Jl^ kangdl, poor, wretched, h. ^jS kane, near, beside, h \^ kauwd, m. a crow; ku,d, a well, a draw-well, a pit. s i>\j^ koidh, short; kotdh-k. to hold | back, to refrain, p ^\i S kotdh't, smallness, deficiency.^ Jl Jj^ kotwdl, m. the chief officer of police. ^ji->»ii khodnd, a. to dig. h lil4^ hholnd, a. to open, untie, let loose. 8 I \i%^ Ichond, a. to lose, to waste, s I l:^^ khet, m. a field, s j ^^-^ kheti, f. husbandry, crop, s I J--.^^ khel, m. play, game, sport, s '. UL^^" Tchelnd, n. to play, to sport, s i -j^ Icah'in, somewhere, anywhere, i somewhat, s 1 lirsa-Hji hhenchnd or Tchainchnd, a. to ; delineate, draw, h I ^^^ ha,t or X-(?,?, some, a few. h I li* hjd, (pro.) what ? how ? why ? ! whether (or not) ; hyd khuh, how glorious ! what fun ! s [J kiyd, done, a deed ; (past part, of karnd, to do, make.) s Uu-,^ kaisd, how ? in what manner ? of what sort ? what like ? h L::-.^-i-^ kaifiyat, f. nature, state, con- dition, pleasure, a r.^ kyun, kyaun, why ? how ? well ? what ? kyiin ki, because ; kyuii-kar, how? h lJj^ ffdrt, f. a chariot, cart, h ^b (/a/z, f. abuse, s U o ^a??a, a. to sing, s ^^ gdnth, a knot ; gdntk-kd purd, very rich, h yli ^dM?<;, m. a village, s jlT yazf), f. a cow. p l__^^-i K...^ gap sha2'), chit-chat, con- versation, h o|/s^ gujardt'i, belonging toGujerat. /* \jbiiS gadhd, m. an ass, (metaph.) a fool, s l) J Jo gudaryd, a shepherd. A UliXi guzdrd, m. passing, p \x)\j^ guzardnnd, a. to forward. ^; b, ^ gtuarnd, n. to pass; dar-guzarnd, to refrain, to forbear. ^ S gur, m. a preceptor, s t)^ yffr(^, f. dust (Scottice, stour.') p d^ gird, (prep.) around, p t_jlj^ girddb, m. a gulph, whirl- pool, p (.ji' gardan, f. the neck, p I liii .r giriftdr, captive, p \j\^ girdnd, a. to cause to fall, to throw down, h *^ garm, hot ; garm'i, f. heat, hot season, p \j^ girnd, n. to fall, to drop down, h i^^ guroh, m. a troop, a class, p Ijji' ganid, n. to be buried, s i", ( 32 ) JJ .. ^ ijLi garh, m. a fortress, palace, h JouS' (juftgu, conversation, p J^ Jb ti' Gopdl, one of the names of Krishna, s j^ gor, m. the grave, tomb, p y.::,.^^ goslit, m. flesh, p ij^^ gosha, m. a corner, p ^S gohJi, m. a portico. A i\S gol, ox golsd, round, s '>J»i gungd, mute, dumb. A Ij •S' ^o?/d, as if, as one woiild say. p CI-jLT ghdt, an ambush. 7^ cLjI^ ^(//m^, m. a landing-place, s Ijl-^ gJiabrdnd, n. to be confused, perplexed, h t_jijj liLS' ghatd-top, m. a canopy, covering. A j^ ghar, m. house, dwelling. « 6j\jf ghardna, m. house, family. 8 \'-:^ ghard, m. a jar, pitcher, s i_>'iii ghar'i, f. an hour ; a watch, s L*w^ ghisnd, n. to be worn ; ghusnd, to enter. /;■ jJliL.^ ghantdl'i, f. a small bell, s • .xXii ghungrli, m. a small bell. « U'»^ ghord, m. a horse, s Ufcji gholnd, a. to dissolve, to pound, s ^^f ghi, m. clarified butter, s \S gayd, gone (past part, ol jdnd). h ^yS gail, f. a road, h u-j gaind, m. a small bullock, k ^x»S ^ae'wJ, f. a small chariot, h ^y^ geTiiih, m. wheat, s J Cu3 /'a^, f. a kick. A cLjI' Idt, f. trunk of a tree, h (JUS Id-sdn'i, unequalled, unrivalled, a —J ?ay, m. shame, s L-j\t^'^ Id-jaicdo, silent, silenced, a jl^-S Id-chdr, helpless, destitute, p. J«tfU-l' Id-hdsil, useless, without result, a \jSl Iddnd, a. to load, to embark, h jy^ "^ Ldr Kapur, two celebrated minstrels at the court of Akbar. h /♦'J Idzim, necessary, urgent, a ^t Idkh, one hundred thousand, h B Idid, m. master, sir. h -^'1' Idlach, m. avarice, desire, s JJ ( 33 ) Jt< i^js J Idlch'i, covetous, greedy, s \Si land, a. to bring; to breed, pro- duce, make, s fjji ld,ih, worthy, befitting, perfect, a LiU lipatnd, n. to cling, to stick to. h uiL-J lapetnd, a. to wrap up. h UlxSl latkdnd, a. to suspend, h bU: laj'dnd, n. to be ashamed, s l::^^ lajjit, ashamed, s I) jj ladnd, n. to be loaded, to ride, h , tXJ jJ la%i%, delicate, delicious, a 1^ r^ lardfi, f. battle, quarrel, war, A V l^ larkd, m. a boy, child, babe, s .UjJ ^arwa, n. to fight, to quarrel, s '.Ul&jJ lurhdnd, a. to spiU, upset, s ■ uijil) lurhaknd, n. to be spilt, upset, s _^xA1 lashkar, m. an army, j? Lt— d ial ?M^/, m. pleasure, enjoyment, a [.i.::-.^:^ la'nat, a curse. « j.(._,Jd M-flJ, m. a surname, a ijjUiU Zukmdn, name of a famous j Eastern fabulist, a iUiJ lukmd, m. a morsel, mouthful. « l_cf-^ lakr't, f. wood, a staff, stick, h jiXgxJ likhnd, a. to write, s Jl^^ likhwdnd, a. to cause to be I written, s i*lxj lag dm, bridle, bit. s ; JuJ lagdnd, a. to attach, to apply, s liSJ lagnd, n. to touch ; to begin ; to I reach or come up to. s jJijL) lagwdnd, a. to cause to be ; applied, s LJ lambd, long, tall, s \y^ langrd, lame. ^ A ujjl M^wa, a. to rob, plunder ; lotna, to roll on the ground, s lijl liikd, m. spark, flame, s i^^ log, m. people, s LSy*y lomri, f. a fox. s t_f A3j1 laund'i, f. a slave. A ybjJ fo/iM, blood. l&y /o/ia, m. iron, s uL] ^e^wd, n. to repose, to lie down, h Ulsn.) lejdnd, a. to take away, to carry off. s ^^^ lekin, (conj.) but, yet, however, a 4xJ lekhd, m. account, reckoning, s CS^\ lekhak, m. a writer, one who is writing, s Lj LJ I'lld-pild, blue and vellow ; (applied to the appearance of the eyes of a person enraged), s LJ lend, to take, accept ; set ; buy. s ,^-J liye, for the sake of. h t* md, f. a mother ; md-hdp, parents, s L^L« mdjwrd, m. state, circumstance, incident, a LI! Jjt« mdr-ddlnd, a. to smite, to kill* t^/)t* jwdry, m. a road, path. « U iL* mdrnd, a. to smite, strike. « t_?it« jwdre, by reason of, in conse- quence of. 8 JU mdl, m. property, wealth, goods, a ,u ( 34 ) jj L< ma,dl, end, issue, a uJjt* mdlik, m. master, lord, pos- sessor, a [tressed, p SSj\^ mdnda, left behind, tired, dis- LxJ'L* muugnd, a. to ask for, to beg. s Ljt« mdnnd, a. to believe, obey, agree to. s ;_cL< md,'i,i- mother, s ci/,L^ muhdrah, good, auspicious; mubdrah-ldd'i, congratulation, a (.::.-A.« and lu^ /??rt^ and matd, f. mind, judgment, s uu-w* ?«fl!^, don't (used with iraperat.) h c\:^ niatd', m. goods, property, a jx^ mitr, a friend, s 4_5Ju,2:i^ midasaddi, an accountant, o i^.^s''*^*^ muta'ajjil, astonished, a \t£^ Mathurd, name of a province and town near Agra, s ij^if^ mithds, sweetness, h ^IL* mithd,i, f. sweetness, sweets, h jcfi^ r/iufhi, f. the fist, a handful, s ^t* ?w?^^i, f. earth, dust, s ,jL^ masal, f. a fable, simile, proverb, a j^^-ls^ majlis, f. an assembly, con- vention, a Uls'* maehdyid, a. to make, stir up, commit, h s tils'* muhdicara, m. idiom, usage. « l:!^'* muTitdj, necessitous, needy, a \\j (♦i-s'* maJiram-i rdz, privy to secrets, a confidant, a p /»ji-s'* mahrum, disappointed, ex- cluded, a J*-*^'* Ifahmud, a man's name, a ij:^us.'* mihnat, f. labour, misfor- tune, a [ous. rt (Si-ii^* muTddalifa, difierent, vari- ^J^''* maMifh hidden, a ^^^A^'* 7na1Misi, f. escape, deliver- ance, a LZJS^ muddai, f. a space of time, a long time, a ii.^ madad, f. aid, help; madad-gdr, a helper, auxiliary, a Ujl^ micdd'd, m. desire, wish, a ^£ju« mudda'i, m. a plaintiff", claim- ant, a [grees. a c_-->j'|k< mardtih, m. (pi.) steps, de- -^ marhum, deceased, the late, a J-^ W(7;yZ, m. a male, a man, a hero ; marddna-icdr, like a man. p y-y* murddr, a dead body, p i^j^ murda, dead, a dead body, p y^r* maru, f. wish, inclination, p V y murgh, m. a fowl, bii'd. j^:* Ij-^ mama, n. to die, to expire; raar- jdnd, to die, expire, s ci-ji_/« murawtvat, generosity. _.|j^ mkdj, m. temperament, disposi- tion. « ^'wu^ musdfir, m. a traveller. « ijjcuw# mtista gh rik. immersed, ab- sorbed, a (35 ) t^ ^jLuj^ mastul, m. a mast, a ^lUu^ masti, f. intoxication, p jus"*^ masjid, f. a mosque, a HjS^* masTdiara, a jester, a ULxau.^ musJcurdnd, n. to smile, h j^Ulwj^ Musalmdn, a Miihammadan, a follower of Muhammad. « CSJm-^ mashli, f. a leathern bag for water, p CJj^tt^ mashwarat, f. consultation, a \aJ!^* mashjiur, noted, well-known, a k_.,>»-L2^« musahib, m. a companion, friend, aide-de-camp, a jy^'* musatmir, m. a painter, a c:-w..c2^ mus'ibat, f. calamity, afflic- tion, a ^y^t mazhuH, f. solidity, firm- ness, a ^Ik^ mutuhih (prep.) conformable to. a v_JJa.^ matlah, m. a question, pur- pose, meaning, a j-lL^ muttaW, acquainted, in- formed, a ^_»ll2^ mutlaJc, in the least, at all. jjL>- jila^ Muzajfir-khdn, a man's name. a. /♦illi,* mazlum, injured, oppressed ; mazlum-naivdz, a cherisher of the oppressed, ap \x^ ma an, together, a t_JU-^ mu'df, absolved, forgiven, excused ; mii df-karnd, to forgive, a jjAx^ ma^zur, excused, excusable, a Jax^ muCattar, scented, perfumed, a Ax/t mu'allm, m. a teacher, doctor, a ^y^^ tna'lwn, known, apparent; ma'lum-h. to seem, to appear, a U.x,* miCamnid, m. an enigma, an acrostic. L__?^-..v« mdyiib, blameable, disre- putable, a J3J^'* '^^^(^'Uhi.r^r, proud, fastidious, a \k^ maghz, m. brain, p L::-■^i-1• mtift, free, gratis, p ^/jjIL* muflis, poor, wretched, a ^^aJXh muflis't, f. poverty, a sJl* muf'id, profitable, useful, a J-uiLn miiMbil, opposite, a aU^ malcdm, m. place, occasion, a jjL% muharrar, assuredly, a (jlC* mahdn, m. a place, dwelling, a .^^ mulch, m. mouth, s ^^^ mahhh'i, a fly. h J^ magar, but, except, s *'X^ muldzim, an attendant, a LiLiXiL* muldkdt, f. meeting, inter- view, a CSLt mulJc, m. a country, kingdom ; malik, a king; (pi. Ar.) muliih, kings, a U..^ malnd, a. to rub, to tread on, to anoint, h IJ^ milnd, a. to be found, to meet, s ^Ca^ mumhin, possible, a ^^ man, m. the mind, soul, s ; name of a certain weight, a maund. p ^-jL,« mandd'i, f. proclamation, a ^■.^.^ ( 36 ) eS\3 cijL^'U,* muntaTxhahdt, selections, extracts, a \su,^ munda, open, exposed, h J 4^js^« maujlwl'i, f. a small chariot, h ijL:^^ manish, f. dignity, rank, p tP*:^-* manusJi, a person. /). ■:U:^^ mantik, m. logic, a iik:^ mantik'i, m. logician, a man\ m. prohibition, a \j\S:.^ mangwdna, a. to cause to be brought, h .j^ muhh, m. the mouth, face ; munh- zor, headstrong, obstinate, s y% mil, a hair, p \y* mM,a,dead, (past part, oima/rna). s /}i^y muivdfilc, conformable to. a (SJy$ maut, death, a ^Jy mot'i, m. a pearl, s lj»^ moid, gross, coarse, h \^^>s>-y* mujib, cause, means, a i^y mocM, m. a cobbler; saddler, h i'iy* miirh, m. a fool, s ff-^y inausim or mausam, m. time, season, a j^ iJ^y* '"^*^*"i7'^j ^ kind of hawk which feeds on mice, p i__J iy» maukiif, depending on ; mauhuf- k., to conclude, to stop, a J %^ mol, m. price ; mol-lend, to buy. h *y mom, wax ; mom-jdma, cloth covered with wax, oil-cloth. Jl)*»,* mom-dil, soft-hearted, p Uaj..» mundhd, m. a footstool, h A.jI^ maJidhali, powerful, s ^>\y* mahdjan, a rich merchant, s J. 31^^ mahddol, a large sedan, h ^\J-lj nd-chh, worthless, useless, p i^y>-\j 7id-khush, displeased, p ^-iys-l) nd-Umshk, f. displeasure, p j^lolj nd-ddn, a. ignorant, simple, p iJ,\iS\J nd-ddni, f. ignorance, p l^U «n^-d, m. a lane, avenue. A e^U ( 37 ) \ ,^\j ndgaurd, m. a kind of bullock (of the country Nagaur). /* ^L^lj nd-gahdn, suddenly, unex- pectedly, p ^Ji\j ndldn, complaining, lamenting.^ jiiJlj ndlisli, f. complaint, lamenta- tion, p ^AIIj ndlishi, complaining, a com- plainant, p ^^l3 ndlJc'i, f. a sort of sedan for princes, etc. h i\\j ndla, m. weeping, lamentation, p ^\j nam, m. name, fame, reputation, s /♦-s^l) nd-mahram, unprivileged, ap- plied to such males as are not entitled to visit the harem, a i^yt\j nd-mard, unmanly, a coward, p i^dy*\j nd-mard'i, f. unmanliness. p ^'Li^\'} nd-mumhm, impossible, p a ^jMY«\j ndmus, m. f. honour, dignity, the female part of a family, a yl) ndnw, m. name, s »\j nd'W, f. a ship, p L_^jl3 nd,ib, ra. a deputy, a j^A--J nibedan, m. representation, statement, s iJL^ nipat, very, exceedingly, h *^:sr najum or niijum, astrology, (lit., stars), a ^^z^^r^^najih, noble; najib-zdda, noble- bom, a gentleman ; naj'ib-zddi, daughter of a noble, a li^^^jO naddmat, f. repentance, con- trition, regret, a ^J^ Ju niddn, at length, at last, s i^jJ nadi or naddi, f. a river, s {jm\jJ nirds, hopeless, despair, s y^jj nirdld, apart, aside, s Jiji nir-uttar, without an answer, s uJol>P nazdik, (prep.) near; used idiomatically like the Latin apud, as ddnd,on - Ice nazd'ilc, apud sapientes,' in the opinion of the wise.' p uD nashd, f. intoxication, a ^J^ \su2J nisfd-nisfi, by halves; with Jcarnd, to divide into two equal shares, p (,;:,-%js^-^ nasUmt, f. advice, admo- nition ; nas'ihat-d. or -h., to counsel, instruct, reprove, a IjUiJ nazdrd, m. sight, looking, a ii) nazar, f. sight; nazar-dnd or -pahunchnd, to come in sight, a ij:,-^,^' ni'mat, f. favour, benefit, delight, affluence. ni'mat-JcJmdr, a devovu-er of delights, a man of pleasure, a ' bon vivant.' a /Lu*ij nafis, precious, delicate, ex- quisite, a •J .aj nafr'in, f. regret, detestation, p -iiliij nahkdsM, f. painting; nahkdsh'i- " ddr, painted, having paintings, a jjij uaM, m. ready money, a ,JLSJ nahh, m. painting, picture, map, portrait; vahh-i diwdr, a painting on a wall, a ijosii naks, m. defect, failure, a j^LjiiJ nuksdn, m. loss, defect, detri- ment, a d^ { 38 ) U^J Joij jiaH, f. a history, tale, a LI 10 nikdlna, a. to extract, to take out. s Uio nikalnd, n. to issue, to result, s l!UO tiihaf, near, before, /t U.0 onkammu, useless, worthless, s JLjslxj nignhldn'i, f. watching over, protecting, fj X) wrt<7ar, m. a city, a town. ^ nilajj, shameless, s •,Uj nanidz, f. prayer, p j^^y*^ namuddr, apparent, p !l'. JuJ nandold, m. a trough, an earthen vessel, s U-J nangd, naked, bare, h i} nail, new, fresh ; nau-jawdn, quite young, p t__>l»j naiuvdh, a viceroy, h v.::-o»j naubat, f. time, occasion, a J J nur, light. « ^^j naukar, m. servant, attendant. ^; /» J /^y naum-tmim, sing-song, stuff. /* Lj y y nava-ijauband, quite young, s <)j w«, no, not. 8 J^j «e7«a?, a young plant, a shoot, j3. pleased, exalted, h ur^Lj nihdyat, f. the extremity; (ad.) very, much, excessive, a •-*y ?^fltA^?^, no, not, nay. s i-::^jLj niyabat, f. deputyship. a ^^j nkAe, beneath, close under, h ^JL^ nesh, m. sting (of a bee, etc.) p I '_ CJj nek, good, virtuous ; neh-lakJit. of good disposition; nek-andcsM, good intention, p JLJ' nekt, f. goodness, kindness, p ^^< neh, love, affection, s . tea or (conj.), and, but. a p \j i"- ^J L/*^ V wdpas- d. or X-., a. to return, give back, h p t_^r^|« M;a;V5, right, jjroper. a (J,^. wdrid, arrived; wdrid-h., to arrive. « ia-s^j wdste, (prep.) on account of, " for the sake of; because, a licU wd,i%, m. a preacher, a i^.tJ!^j ivdki^'t, verily, in truth, a (»_£iU ivdkif, aware, acquainted, a 'V\» u-did, a termination added to the inflected infinitive denotes the agent ; added to nouns it denotes the owner, wearer, etc. h J ; . waz'ir, a minister, counsellor ; icazir - zdd'i, the daughter of a wazir. a aL.^"^ wasila, m. means, a )as.t ica^z, m. a discourse, sermon, a iv*ij wa-ghaira, et cetera, and so forth, a t— i*?^ wasf, m. praise, encomium, virtue, worth, a ,Js^ ivatan, m. native country, home, abode, a iXCi (39 ) 5^ i(Aij tv.i'da, m. a promise, a lij tvafu, f. performing a promise, sincerity, fidelity, a Lii^j tcalt, m. time, season, oppor- tunity, a ^j^ win, inflec. plur. of wvh, he, she, etc. /} •.-.Jj^ wo7ili'm, that instant, h ij wuli, (pro.) he, she, that, it. h • ,ls)j wahdn, there, thither, yonder, h ^ij w«Ai or «^2j wuliin, immediately h ^j we, they, those ; pi. of wuh. h LuJj waisd, in that manner, so, like that, such as that. h. \ ^^\i) hath, m. the hand, a cubit, s , (jfjl^ hdtM, m. an elephant, s '. hathydr, m. a weapon, offen- sive armour. 5 ^y..s-55 hachkold, m. jolt, jolting, h i^tXft) haddi, f. a bone, s jit> har, each, every. ^ \j& hard, a. green, fresh, verdant. 5 (Jjo^^Jb A«>-eX-, (pro.) every one. p h ■>/, Ax>-yb harchand, how much soever, howsoever, although, p JVJ^ ^^^^-I'o^ (ad.) every day. p jSjJb hargtz, (ad.) ever. ^^Jb Uran, m. a stag, a deer, s j\yb hazdr, a thousand. 2> jj& hazl, m. jest, joke, a jL^A hushydr (same as Jwshijdr), careful. ^ t_^LuJ5 hushydri, f. wakefulness, vigilance. ^ i_f;|jJl> e:,.^iJ5> haft-hazdri, a com- mander of seven thousand. ^ Li-^jb) haldkat, £ ruin, destruction, p 'Shb hildnd, a. to move, set in motion, h luji) hihid, n. to move or be moved. 7« Ixiji halkd, light, not heavy. A • *Ji) 7e ham-rdh'i, m. a companion, fellow-traveller. j9 ham-maktah, class-fellow.^ «^-ui-.4J^ hamcsha, always, ever, per- petually, p fcXii. Hind, India, p J^X:J^ Hindu, a Hindu, one who fol- lows the faith of Erahma. p jjU«i.AxJ) Hindustan, m. India, a p jjJb hunar, ni. art, skill, virtue; hunar-mand, skilful, p u*uX te hansnd, n. to smile, s » ■ ' :Jfe hangdma, m. an assembly, tumult, assault. 2> lyb haicd, f. wind, air. a ul^s-jJi ho-jdnd, n. to become, h j^ys liosh, m. sense, consciousness, perception, ^j jui)^ hoshydr, inteUigeut, attentive, cautious, p by& hond, n. to be, become, grow, s ^^ In, (an emphatic particle) even, indeed, very, h ^j.-J& Kin, even, indeed, h ^j*^ Mn, void of, without, s Uji ^'V'^j ^' mind, sense. A u yd, (conj.) or, either, s Ju 7/0(7, f. memory, recollection, p ju yaV, m. a friend, lover, p ^jJj_ yahhi, m. certainty, certain, true, a jju ydwar, propitious, p L-io ya^, one, a, an. ^ ajlk> yagdna, kindred, single, incom- parable, p ^^_ yiih or yo«, thus, in this man- ner, h ^r^^, yknh'in, thus, even so. h .^^^^ yih, this ; he, she, etc. h i^^j yahdn, here, used with the genitive (inflec.) to denote posses- sion, etc., as mere yahdn, in my possession ; apud me.' h j-^^ yihi, this same, h i\^^ yahin, here, in this very place, h j^ ye, they, these, h 41 HINTS TO THE LEAENER. 1.— EXTRACTS IN THE PERSIAN CHARACTER. EXTEACT 1st. Susti-se zii/dn liai. Jaldi-kd phd naddmat hat. Idleness-from loss is. Haste-of (the) fruit regret is. Kinaat drdm-k'i hunj'i Tiai. Mihnat-se bard/i hai. Contentment ease-of (the) key is. Labour-from greatness is. Parhez achchi daivd hai. 'Akil-ko ishdra has hai. Abstinence good medicine is. (The) wise-to (a) hint enough is. Khudd-Jid hhauf ddnish-h'i asl hai. Glmg'i zabdn hihtar hai God-of (the) fear wisdom-of the root is. Mute tongue better is jhuthi zabdn se. 'Ilm-ki dfat Ihkl hai. lying tongue than. Knowledge-of (the) calamity forgetfulness is. Insdf-se khalh-ko drdm hai. Justice-from (the) people-to ease is. In the same way as the above, let the student endeavour to transcribe neatly into the Eoman character the first two or three pages of the Extracts. Let him be careful to write every letter with its appropriate mark; and, in the course of a week or two, let him restore the same into the Persian character. This is one of the best and speediest methods of making himself familiar with the elements of the language. Let me not be misunderstood here, as if I recom- mended the bare-faced quack system of the so-called " Hamiltonians." No, what I recommend is, that "every man should be his own Hamiltonian," in which case he will bo the gainer. It is utterly absurd to expect that a language can be learned without labour and thought on the part of the student. The Hamiltonians would persuade us that it can ; but their system is a mere deception, which flatters the vanity of the student with a show of progress utterly unreal, and wliicli admirably conceals the ignorance and incapacity of the teacher ; hence its popularity. 6 42 NOTES, ETC., ON THE FIRST FIFTY STORIES IN TUE PERSIAN CHARACTER. The following few notes and observations are intended to illustrate such parts of the Reading Lessons as may aj^pear least ob\-ious to a beginner. The figures refer to the particulai' page and paragraph in the Grammar, in which the subject is fully explained. N.B. In this work, the final nun ^ when it has the nasal sound (vide page 6), is marked with an extra dot over it, as in the words '..-^^ main, and •.-.!'' tain. This should have been stated in its proper place, but the author was not aware at the time those sheets were sent to press that the printer had the ^j in his fount. Extract 1 . — JaJdi-hi plml, ' the fruit of rashness ; ' the genitive placed first, 95. 64. It will be observed that these sentences are arranged according to the rule, 93. 62, each sentence finishing with the verb hai, 'is.' — Gii'ng'i zaldn, etc., 'a speechless tongue is better than a lying tongue : ' in this sentence there are two clauses ; the verb hai is expressed at the end of the first clause, and is consequently unnecessary at the end of the second. 135. a. Ex. 2. — Tliora Tchcind, 'little eating;' the infinitive used substan- tively, 129. a. — talah kar ^ilm-ho, 'seek for knowledge' : talah Icarnd, a nominal verb, 65, last line; here the verb, contrai-y to the general usage, comes first. There are in this Extract a few more exceptions to the general rule as to arrangement, agreeably to what we have stated. 93. a. Ex. 3. — Jalne Jaffa, 'began to burn' — senhne lagd, 'began to warm himself,' 131. c. — thathol-ne Jcahd, 'a jester said,' or, 'by a jester was saidL'—jale, 'burns,' tape, 'warms himself,' the aorist for the present, 122. h. Ex. 4. — The sentences in this extract follow the general rule as to arrangement, which is, to commence with the nominative or agent, and end with the verb, the remainder or complement of the sentence being between these. — har-pd, literally, * on foot.' — ziydda Jchardh haih, ' are more wicked,' the comparative degree, 71. J. NOTES. 43 Ex. 5. — Baliut ham, 'many uses;' the nominative plural of masculine nouns of the second class (29), can be distinguished from the singular only by the context, such as a plural verb, etc. — lajd,e, ' in place of,' preposition requiring the genitive in ke, 98. — Mm cite hain, ' become useful.' — handyd j'dtd hai, passive voice of handnd, 57, 42. — Vide p. 47, note to ' Extracts from the Ara,ish-i Mahfil.' Ex. 6. — Ek unt aur gadhe-se, ' between a camel and an ass.' — safar dar pesh hu,d, lit. ' a journey came in front,' i.e., ' they both had occasion to travel;' — ma'lum hotd hai, ' it appears; ' — duh-jd,ungd, ' I shall be drowned,' intens. verb, 64. Ex. 7. — Jo ddnd, etc. 116. a. — he kahe, 'without being told,' 132. — ddl-rakhtd hai, ' tosses away,' intensive verb ; — ki jis-ke icdste, ' on whose account,' 117. c. Ex. 8. — £k kam'me aur hhale ddmi-se, ' between a base man and a gentleman.' — hote-hi, 'on becoming,' adverbial particip. 134. e. Ex. 9. — Ek shaMs-ne, etc., ' by a certain person it was asked of Plato;' respecting the use of the proposition we, read carefully, 102, etc. — haliut harsoh, ' many years,' 106. b. — ki/d kyd 'ajd,ib, ' what various wonders,' 114. a. — dekhe, 'were seen' {tu-ne, 'by thee,' understood). — yihi 'ajiiha, ' this wonder merely.' Ex. 10. — Al/a kdm dtd hai, 'what quality is most useful?' — ho- jdwe, ' should become.' Ex. 11. — Chashme-pds 'to (or near) a fountain' {ke understood), 99. d. — charh na sakd, 'he was not able to descend.' — utanie-se pahlc, ' previous to descending.' — dekh na lii/d, ' you did not thoroughly look at,' intensive verb. Ex. 12. — Sher-se kahd, 'said to the tiger;' the verbs 'to say or speak' and 'to ask,' construed with the ablative, 102. h. — agar sher muawwir hotd, ' if a tiger had been the painter,' 81. «. Ex. 13. — Kuchh saivdl kiyd, 'asked something in charity.' — ek hdt mer'i, 'one request of mine.' — mat mdng, 'ask not,' the negative particle mat, ' don't,' used with the imperat., 123. d. — uske siwd, ' with the exception of that.' Ex. 14. — Ek-ne un-me'n-se, 'one of them.' — ju,iye and baiihiyey respectful forms of the imperative, 123. d. Ex. 15. — A2mi anguth'i, 'thine own ring,' 112. — ydd karnd {tujh ko understood), the infinitive used imperatively, like the Latin gerund, 129. a. 44 NOTES. Ex. 16. — BiU'i d,'i tin, pluperfect tense, 127. d. — lujM de, 'extin- guish,' intensive verb. — para para, etc., 'all the time lying down, he continued giving answers.' Ex. 17. — ^gcir main bdzi na j'ltuh, ' if I do not win the game.' — ser hhar gosht, ' an exact pound of flesh ;' the ser is nearly two English pounds. — tardsh-le, ' cut off.' — us-ne na-mdnd, ' he did not (or would not) agree.' — Mzi-pds (for kdzi he pas), ' near the judge.' — eh ser-se eh rati zii/dda, ' a single grain more than one ser. Ex. 18. — 'Ain hiVe-he niche, 'close under the very palace.' — lutd gayd, 'was plundered,' passive voice. — Txhidmat-me'n, 'in the presence.' — 'arz hi, 'made representation,' hi, fern, of hiyd, agrees with ^arz, but Vrs hiyd is also used as a nominal verb. — chirdgh, etc., ' under the lamp is darkness,' a proverb analogous to our own saying, ' the nearer the church, the farther from God.' Ex. 19. — Anjdn hohar, 'as a stranger.' — hyd mitjhe, etc., 'do you not recognize me?' hyd, here used as a sign of interrogation, 93. I. Ex. 20. — Us-he; yaMh is here understood; mar-gayd and Id'nt-l'i and urd-di, all intensive verbs, 65. 44. 1. Ex. 21. — jidmiyon-ho istahal-menjdne detd, 'he allowed the people to go into the stable,' 131. c. — pkirtd and hartd, continuative past tenses, 124. h. — apnd hdm har-liyd, 'gained his own object.' Ex. 22. — Asnde rdh-meh, 'in the midst of the way.' — chird yh ghar-hd, etc., 'I did not put out the lamp of the house before I came away,' literally, 'I have not come (after) having put out,' etc. — d,e ga,e, ' you have come and gone.' — -jidd na ghisd hogd, ' must not your shoes have been worn r ' Ex. 23. — Is icaht, 'at present;' ho, understood, 100. a. — honge and na-deh, etc., the plural used out of respect, 118. 78.— ^'o unhon-ne, etc., *' even should his worship have given the medicine.' — Idndhd-haregd, frequentative verb, 66. III. 1. — marnd hnr hahh hai, 'death is certain.' Ex. 24. — Taldhhohar, 'being in distress.' — parhdne, 'to make read,' 'to teach;' casual form of parhnd, 62. 43. — lefe lete hi, ' even when lying down ; ' the repetition of the conjunctive participle denotes a continuation of the state, or repetition of the action, denoted by the verb. — he hath pdnw-he hilde, ' without the moving of his hands and feet.' — hildyd, the preterite pai-ticiple, used as a substantive. NOTES. 45 Ex.25. — Sab-ke hawdle k'l 'he gave into the charge of each.' hU-ddli, ' cut off ; ' the intensive of hdtnd. Ex. 26. — Donoh M%i-]ce pds (/a,in, aur insdf cMhd, 104. d. — ek ek 'one to each,' 106, c. — larke-ko use supurd kiyd, 101, c. Ex.27. — Chlia roti-se, 'with six loaves;' the termination oil denoting the plural omitted, 107. 70. — wuh ddl-dene-men ddMiil hai, * that amounts to throwing it awa}^' Ex. 28. — ^Arz kiyd, (a nominal verb), 'he represented;' 'arz ki is also used in the same sense, vide Ex. 19. — dar-Mwdst kanid, ' to make request.' — do sawdl heju (properly do sawdl-i-lejd), ' two improper requests.' Ex. 29. — Likhn( thik, ' were to be written,' 83. — dam kJid rahd, an idiomatic expression, denoting, ' he remained quite silent,' lit., ' con- tinued devouring his breath.' Ex. 30. — Dekhne-wdle, ' the spectators,' 66. — dksre-ke gliar {ko understood), ' to the house of the other.' — samjhd, etc., ' he perceived that it was not a screen.' — fareh khdyd, 'were deceived,' lit., 'experi- enced deception.' Ex. 31. — Siklme-kd, etc., 'why then mention the learning of it?' — itne-me'n, 'in the meantime.' — har had ki, 'have cast away,' lit., 'placed upon the wind.' Ex. 32. — Dushndm di thi, pluperfect tense, 127. d. — dth dth dne, etc., ' you share between you, each eight dnds ; ' observe that sixteen dnds make a rupi. Ex. 33. — Gardan mdrnd, ' to decapitate.' — mere ru-ia-ru, ' in my presence.' — marddna-wdr, ' like a man or hero.' — terd hard kalija hai, 'thou hast great courage.' — -jaivdn-mardi, 'heroism' or 'courage.' — dar-gwzrd, ' he passed over (or passed by) his fault.' Ex. 34. — Ek hard saJcM, ' a very generous man,' 107. b. Ex. 35. JThahar karnd, the infinitive used as an imperative. Ex. 36. Karte hue, vide 131, 84. — wdjib-tar, Persian comparative, by adding tar to the positive. Ex. 37. Bdithd diyd, intensive of haitlidnd. — hara, in the last line means ' greater,' ' more important.' Ex. 38. — Bard mom-dil, 'very soft-hearted.' — in miydn-ki, 'of this reverend gentleman;' plural used out of respect. — ajnid is here used for merd, 113. e. 46 NOTES. Ex. 39. — Kuchh gol gol sd, ' something quite round.' Ex. 40. — Stihh hole lit, ' immediately it was dawn of day.' — Jcaun si Jins, ' what sort of commodity.' — itni ddnd,i par, ' notwithstanding so much wisdom. — yiM fal;atj * this only and no more. — main bdz dyd, etc., * I will have nothing to do with such wisdom ; ' past used for the future, 126, a. Ex. 41. — Jo ivuh her mile, 'if that (lost) sheep should be found.' — Mudd-h' rdh-jpar, ' in charity,' ' pour 1' amour de Dieu.' — khudd-M kasam {Jchdtd hiin) ' I swear by God.' Ex. 42. — Admi-ke, etc., ' taller than a man's stature.' — khatt pahunchtie tak, etc., 'by (the time of) the letter's arrival, the (wheat) season had expired.' — i'tibdr kijdwe, ' can be credited.' Ex. 43. — Mahmud of Ghazm died, a.d. 1030. -^yydz was one of his favourite slaves. Mahmud is famous both for his patronage of learned men, and for his success as a warrior. He made several in- cursions into India, in the last of which, a.d. 1026, he is supposed to have carried away in triumph the gates of Somnath, of which we heai'd so much some years ago. — Jauhar-Tdidne meii, ' into the jewel-house or treasury.' Ex. 44. — Jude jude makdnoh-meh, ' in places quite apart,' or ' each in a separate place. — saldmat, ' in safety.' Ex. 45. — Sudani, ' well-shaped,' ' elegant.' — lad kho-wdle-ke, ' of the man of a bad disposition.' — Jo jaisd, etc., ' whatever sort (of seed) a man may sow, the same will he reap.' Ex. 46. — Kasam k1id,i, ' swore an oath.' — imdnddr, ' faithful' or honest.' — rutba,e aid, 'very high rank.' — is iahdne-se, 'by this pretext.' Ex. 47. — Nau-jawdn, 'quite young:' the same phrase occurs in the Devanagari Extracts under the Sanskrit form, nava-yauvand. — der kar, ' though late.' Ex. 48. — Likhd hud, ' written :' the participle with hud, agreeably to 131. — likhd hai: here the agent hisi-ne is understood. Ex. 49. — Saldhan, ' by way of advice.' — hdf kahte hi, ' immediately.' — us-ke kahne ha-mujil, ' in conformity with what he said.' Ex. 50. — Diydnat-ddr, ' conscientious.'— ^Ys wakt, ' when,' or ' at the time when. — hdsil-i-kaldm, ' in short.' NOTES. 2.-EXTRACTS FROM THE ' KHIRAD AFROZ.' (From page Te to page TV). These Extracts are selected as a specimen of genuine Urdu, the dialect spoken by the educated classes of the Musalman population throughout India. The style is exceedingly easy and elegant, and presents no difficulty to those who have acquired an elementary knowledge of Persian. Before the student commences with these, he is requested to read with care from page 88 to page 100 of the Grammar, which portion treats of Persian compounds, etc. I may here add (what I am afraid has been omitted in its proper place in the Grammar) viz., that "in phrases from the Persian, the adjective follows the sub- stantive, and the substantive is in that case marked with the izdfat, as if it governed another substantive in the genitive." Th.M'&mard-i pdrm, 'a pious man;' mard-i nek, 'a, good man.' The reader will see in page 90, h. of the Grammar that when, in a Persian phrase, the adjective comes lefore the substantive, the two together form a com- pound epithet, as, tang-dil, ' distressed in heart : ' whereas ' a distressed heart' would be written ' dil-i tang.'' 3.— EXTRACTS FROM THE 'ARA,ISH-I MAHFIL.' (Page rV). This extract from the * Ara,ish-i Mahfil' was for the first time cor- rectly printed in the first edition of this work. In the Calcutta edition, the printers misplaced the letter-press of two pages, so that, while the paging appeared perfect, the text made nonsense. Several years ago I discovered this when endeavouring to make sense of the passage as it has aU along stood in Mr. Shakespear's ' Selections,' vol. i. p. 105. Mr. S. has endeavoured to cement the matter by throwing in a few connecting words of his own, which are certainly no improvement. A conscientious critic would have stated the fact of such an amendment, so that the original author might not incur blame for the sins of the Bengal printers, or of the English editor. I am glad to find that Mr. Shakespear in his more recent edition has adopted my amendment (without any acknowledgment, however), as preferable to his own. The subject of the extract is a description of a kind of chariot drawn by bullocks common in the province of Gujerat, more especially in the city of Ahmadabad. An account of the same, accompanied by a beautiful engraving, will be found in the travels of Albert Mandclslo, •18 NOTES. who visited the spot in the reign of Shah Jahiin. The edition of his travels to which I allude is the folio, printed at Leyden, 1719, page 74. In pages 21 and 22, of the same work there is an engraving of the Great Indian Fig-tree, commonly called the Eanyan Tree, alluded to in oui' 5th Extract, page f It is the same as that mentioned by Quintus Curtius, Lib. ix. cap. i. ''Having thus vanquished Porus and crossed the river (Acesines), ho marched further into the country. There he found forests of vast extent, in which were shady trees of prodigious height. Most of their branches (or arms) equalled in size the trunks of ordinary trees; for, bending down into the eai'th, they grew up again in the same place, and appeared rather like separate trees, than boughs springing from another stem." 4.— EXTRACTS IN THE DEVANIgaEI CHARACTER. The first seven anecdotes in the Devanagari character correspond respectively with stories 3, 8, 10, 6, 18, 16, and 23, in the Persian character. They are the same word for word, and, conse- quently, require no further notice here. E'os. 8, 9, and 10, in the Devanagari, correspond respectively with Nos. 29, 38, and 39, in the Persian character ; with this difference, however, that in the Devanagai'i text, Ai'abic and Persian words are carefully excluded, and their places supplied with words purely Indian : and this exclusion of Arabic and Persian words, constitutes the main difference between the dialect of the Hindus, commonly called ' Hindi,'' or ' Khan BoVi, and that of the Musalmdns, generally called ' Sindustdn'i,^ ' Urdu,' or ' Zahdn-i Jiel-hta.' The style throughout is exceedingly easy, and there is only one peculiaiity in the orthography to which it may be requisite to draw the student's attention in this place, viz., that in the Devanagari character the letter TSf (y) is sounded like the vowel "Q^ (e) when following any of the long vowels "^f d, or ''^ o : thus ^T^ J'^>^> f^^T^ 3"isd,e, ^'^ ho,e, etc., instead of alX"^ etc. I may mention, in conclusion, that in the last seven pages or so of these extracts, the symbol called the virdma is purposely discontinued, as the jazm is in the selections from the 'Khirad Afroz.' The student should always bear in mind that he must ultimately qualify himself to read correctly books and manuscripts utterly void of vowel-points and all other orthographical symbols, such as the jazm, the tashdid, the virdma, etc. 49 APPENDIX. It has been suggested to me that a more detailed explanation of the following fourteen engraved plates in the Ta'lfk character would bo very desirable for beginners. I have discussed the subject rather briefly in page 143, etc. ; and now, at the risk of a few repetitions, I deem it advisable to enter upon it again more fuUy, by giving a literal transcript of each plate in the Eoman character, together with a few additional explanatory notes and observations. PLATE I. TEANSCRIPT INTO THE EOMAN CHAEACTER. Div. 1. — a, h, jy d, z, r, z, s, sh, z, t, c, /, k, k, h, I, m, n, tc, h, hhha, Id, y, y. ,, 2. — hd, ht, bh, hd, hr, bs, bsJi, bs, bt, b<^, bf, bk, bJc, bl, bm, bn, bw, ba, bM, bid, by, by. „ 3.— ^'d, jt, jh, jd, hr, hr, js, jsh, hz, M, h^ jf, jh, jh, jl, hn, Im, hw, ja, jha, jld, hj, jy. Division 1. — The first division of this Plate shows the mere elements of the ta!lih alphabet ; the small cross mark indicates the spot where the pen starts from in the formation of the letter, and a double cross denotes an additional formation. The first elementary form on the right hand is the alif, which differs very little from the printed character. The second form is the letter be {b), which by a mere change of its dots may become j9, t, s. The third form, now nj'im {j), becomes, in the same manner, ch, Mi, h. The fourth makes two letters, 50 APrENDIX. d and z. The fifth, r, z, zh, and r. The sixth is represented as con- sisting of two forms — one an indented, the other a protracted line, and cither may be used as sin and shin (s and sJt), as the only distinction between them is, that the sin (s) wants, and the shin {sh) has, thi-ee dots superscribed, whether short or protracted. The seventh form, sad and zdd. The eighth, t, z. The ninth, 'ain and ^ain. The next letters are/, k, k, I, m, n, w, and h, which are nearly the same as the printed type. Then follow the initial, medial, and final forms of the he linked together ; then the Id and hamza ; and lastly, the letter i/e under two varieties of form, the latter of which is now conventionally used by the natives to denote the ^d,e majhiil. a. The ddl may at first sight appear to resemble the w ; the dis- tinction consists in this, that the ddl has an angular top, whereas the w has it round. h. As the letters ^ain and the imperceptible he have no exact repre- sentatives in the Eoman character, they have been allowed to stand in the transcript of the plates in their proper form. c. The fe and last form of yd are written above the line to show the mode they adopt where there are more words than the line will contain. d. The bottom of the kdf may be protracted, as in the second example, to fill up the line, a liberty frequently taken with letters by the Oriental penman. This letter is formed by two sweeps of the pen, the first commencing from the top of the vertical Hne at the angle — (marked in the plate with a single cross) ; the slanting top is put on afterwards. In old NaskM MSS. the slanting top is never used, but instead thereof the mark =, is written over the letter. e. The yd {y) has two foi-ms in the Plate. The former was appro- priated by Dr. Gilchrist for the sound z, the latter for the e (or yd,e majhul), a distinction still observed by the natives of India in writing Hindustani. APPENDIX. 51 Division 2 exhibits the second elementary form, viz., that of b, p, t, g, n, and y, as they appear initially, when combined with each of the others following them. Here are given all the combinations of the letter he, with each of the elementary forms of division first. It will be seen that many of the nuktas, or dots, are omitted ; as, for example, those necessary to form hs, ht, h^, Ij, bm, bn, bh, by, and without them the linear portion of the be, in these compounds, has no meaning. It may, of course, become b, p, t, s, n, or y, ad libitum, by the addition (above or below it) of one, two, or three dots. Division 3 shows the initial form of the j, ch, h, and Teh, prefixed to each of the elements in their order. Here a similar irregularity of punctuation occurs, but as the form ^ constitutes a perfect letter in itself, without any dots, it is transcribed into the Eoman character by h. It may be observed once for all, that the object of these Plates is to exhibit the combinations of all letters of a certain form, independent of the adventitious dots which each form may necessarily require. PLATE II. Div. 4. — m, st, 8j, shd, sr, ss, shs, sz, st, «c., «/, s, sick, si, sm, sn, shw, ss, s,hs, sld, sy, sy. „ 5. — sd, st, sj, sd, sr, ss, ssh, ss, st, s^, sf, sk, sk, zl, sm, sn^ zte, a, za, zld, sy, sy. „ 6.—td, tt, tj, td, tr, U, tsh, tz, tt, U, tf, tk, tk, zl, tm, zw, tw, ts, zs, tld, ty, ty. Division 4 represents the sin or shin in combination with the rest of the letters. It is needless to observe that the letters alif, ddl, re, and wato, never join to the left^-consequently they have no distinct initial form. Divisions 5 and 6 show the sad and to,e followed by each of the elementary forms. 62 ArPENDIX. PLATE III. Div. 7. — jji, ^t, ^j, ^, if, ^s, <^h, ^s, ^t, j^j^, ^f, ^k. ^, d, ^tn, ^i, ^, c^i, c/ii, ^d, ^y, c.y. „ 8.-/a, ft, fj, fd, fr, fr, fs, fsh, fs, ft, f-^ ff, fk, fk, ji, fm, fn, fw, fs, fhs, fid, fy, fy. „ 9. — kd, kt, If, kd, kr, ks, ksh, kz, kt, h^ kf, kk, kk, kl, km, kn, kw, kx, khi, kid, ky, ky. Plate III. shows the letters ^ain, fe, and kdf in combination with all the rest ; and, "with the exception of Id, the initial form of the Idm is found by omitting the bent top stroke of the letter kdf. Drvisioif 8. — The dots of the fe are again omitted in fd, fd, fr (2nd), fs, fz, ft, /t, etc., leaving the letter imperfect. It may become kdf, by superscribing two dots. Dmsiox 9. — The formation of the kd (made by two sweeps of the pen) commences from where the fom- lines meet ; the pen stops at the top of the alif, made upwards, and then forms ihe slanting top. XW is made by three strokes of the pen, the altf made downwards, being the second, the slanting top of the kdf the third. PLATE IV. Div. 10. — md, mi, mj, jnd, mr, ms, vish, mz, mt, tHi, mf, mk, mk, ml, mm, mn, jhu; mh, mhi, mid, my, my. „ 11. — hd, Jit, hj, hd, hr, hr, lis, hsh, ?iz, ht, hi., hf, hk, Jik, hi, hm, hi, htv, hh, hhhhhi, hid, hy, hy. „ 12. — abjd, hw%, hty, klmn, Sifs, krsht, skhs, zzgh. Id. ulM, ahnmh, alfkyr, dyd, allh hsyny shjryn rhn ghfr znichh. Dinsiox 1 1 . — The tail of the he is given only in hd, hd, hk, hi, and hid, but omitted in all the rest, according to the practice of Oriental writers. Hence the initial form of this letter is often too apt to be mistaken for the mm (?«). APPENDIX. 53 Division 12 contains the combination of the characters as arranged in alphabetical notation, noticed in p. 20 of the Grammar, forming- the fanciful words, ' Ahjad, hawa%, hutti, haliman, sa'fas, harashat, saTdkat, mmgh ; and the last line may be read thus, indicating the name of the chirographer : AV aid ul muznih, al fakir 'ubaidu-l-ldhi husaini sh'irm rahm ghaffara %unuhaJm. PLATE V. Consists of words beginning -with letters of the be class ; i.e., b, p, t, s, in which might be included n and y. L. 1. bJiht, bhjt, bhshf, pnj, hlMi, hind. 2. h'^yd, hstr, pygkmbr, Ughys, ITJishsh, lgh%. 3. hyz, hsyt, by^^, bhbh, pink, hldiyl. 4. blghm, byhn, bin, lyn, byclm, byzS, bnkl^, hyshky. 5' ^t fi> t^^ylh tklyd, tlmyz, tksyr, tksyr. 6. tfyr, tjss, tftysh, tkhsys, tJMys, tslt. 7. tjm^, tsnyf, tJdifyf, thkyk, tmsk, t^^jyl. 8. tfzl, tksym, tmkyn, tlhjn, tnbw, thit, thy. Plate V. — Coming now to complete words of more than two con- sonants; we may premise, as a general remark, that when these contain any of the letters b, p, t, s, n, y, consisting of a horizontal or sloping line, with one or more dots, for each letter there should be an incurva- tion in the continued running line, and at least two bends for the short indented sin or sMn. When several such letters come together, for the sake of distinction it is usual to give the middle one a bold dash upwards, terminating in a sharp point vertically. L. 1. — The n of bind is protracted to fill up the line, according to custom. The pink of line 9, bykm of line 4, with a dash on kdf, here wanting, are intended for palang, ' a tiger,' and hegam, ' a princess,' this being a very usual omission, especially where the word cannot be mistaken. In some works, indeed, the kdf is never distinguished from the ydf, neither is b from p, nor fim from che. 54 APPENDIX. PLATE VI. Contains a list of words commencing with letters of the third form, viz.y, ch, h or M. L. 1. jnt, hshnt, hJcmt, hhjk^, Ml^M, Tdislt. 2. jlyj, j'^, hnyd, hmd, khld, j^fr, hhyr, hshr. 3. Idmiyr, Minjr, Mnzr, jlys, Jibs, Jhyz, jit. 4. mt, hfz, jmy^, jyf, MlM, j^jh, ]Mk- 5. chychlc, Mishk, j'lyl, j'niyl, jnkl, hml. 6. jhnm, hlyrn, hkm hkym, Tdishm, jhyn, jstn. 7. hsn, Ixhftn, jlw, hzw, chmch^, TMyp, Mks. 8. Jis!i, hhih, JchymS, Minis, Jbly, hkyhj, Jchsmy. PLATE VII. Consisting of words beginning with sin or shin. L. 1. syi, sib, snj, slh sfh sfyd. 2. stir, slys, sybsh, s^fs, shjt, sm^. 3. skf, syf, sbk, slh, sjnjl. 4. smsm, sJim, slikyn, shw, sfyn^, ssty. 5. shkst, fhfht, shykh, shhyd, shyr, shmshyr, shms. 6. shsh, shkh^, shmyt, shn^, sJmy^, sh^.f, sJifyk. 7. shlk, shkyl, shkl, sh lgh m, shkm, shbnm, shkstn. 8. shsfn, shfio, sJiknj^, shysha, shkyki, shky, shkftyy. PLATE VIII. "Words beginning with sdd, zdd, to,e or 20,«. L. 1. s^, slyb, shbt, shyh, slh, syd. 2. stnd, sghyr, sfyr, mgh, s^f, shyh 3. smkyk, syhl, smym, shn, s^w, shyP, sylby. 4. tlb, tbyb, tby^t, tyfJi, tpyd. 5. tyr, tn%, tshysh, tnicj tb^, tfyf. 6. tbh, tlyh, tnh, tfl, ilyl, tlsm. 7. tkw, tbhchs, tntm, Um, tbty, thty. APPENDIX. 65 PLATE IX. "Words beginning with 'aiti, ghain, fe or kdf. I'- 1- ijy^^ tfliy t^.^iy iW, i/id, ^yd, ^tr. 2. ^hr, css, jJ;s, ^h^h, c^tsh, <:. sj/s, c.mU. 3- tV> t¥Jb t^»'h iJyK t^hk, lynk, ^yi, ^u. 4. ^l, <^l, dm, ij-ym, ijyn, ^fw, ^jU, cjmy. 5. fzyht, fzylt, fsyh, fth, fsd, fjr. 6. fkr, fls, fysh, fyz, fy^, fyf. 7. fth, file, fysl, fyl, f^J. 8. fhm, ftn, ftw, fshfio, ftyU, flsfy. PLATE X. Words beginning with kdf, gdf or Idm. L. 1. Tcsb, Mh, hJit, hjfyt, hnj, Uhnd, knbz, hntr. 2. hsTinyz, Ichms, hshf, ksys, ksht, kJc^ k.^yf, htf. 3. Mk, Mnh, hih, kmlc, Ichjshk, klil, klym. 4. kmyn, kfn, kshtn, kftn, kysw, kfchs, hnjfs. 5. kyss, klma, klkta, hhts, hshty, hmy, kyty, hyfy. 6. Ikh, l^t, Ijlj, Ikd, Inkr, Ishkr. 7. Ims, Ifs, lykhsh, Ihys, Ight . 8. Ikyt, Im^ Uyf, Iklk, Ink, Ihm. 9. Ibn, lykn, Ihw, Ihy^, Ikmn, Ihy, lyly. PLATE XI. Words beginning with mim, L. 1. mshh, mtlh, mmf, mktb, mhtsh. 2. mt^jb, mtt/b, mslht, mhlt, msM. 3. mmlkt, mMns, msh, mbthj, mth, mylch. 4. ml'kh, mtbkh, mhnd, msjd, m^tkd, mctmd. 5. mnjmd, mfsd, mst^l, mtfkr, m'^tr, mzfr. 6. mntshr, mTMsr, m^kr, mnzr, m^ibr. 7. m^sfr, m^j'r, mnj%, mks, mjls. 8. mfis, mnsh, mkhh, msJiMi;, vmghz. 50 APPENDIX. PLATE XII. Words beginning with inim — continued, L. 1. mnkhs, mhyt, mmtn^ '>nty^, mjm^, mtl^. 2. me ffh, mblgh, mlihtlf, mm/, mtfk. 3. mti^k, mnjnyk, mshk, mlk, mmsk. 4. mshk, mhml, mfsl, myl, msht gh l. 5. mkhml, m^tl, mt^lm, mtklm, mnjm, mkym. 6. msthkm, mslm, mtmhi, msmn, mUyn. ^ 7. mtzmn, mmkn, mhw, mhkms, mnfks, mshdehy. 8. mstky, mfty, mnshy, m gh ny, mldify, mtky. PLATE XIII. "Words beginning with nun. 1. nsb, nsyb, njyh, nshyh, nkh. 2. n<^mt, nsyht, nkht, nyst, nsj. 3. nhj, nkd, nshr, nyshkr, nzr. 4. nkhs., nfys, nfs, nysh, n^sh. 5. nksh, n gh z, nmf, nf^ tisf, nth. 6. nhnk, n^, nkl, nsym, nylm, nhyn. 7. nmkyn, nhftn, nshstn, nhiv, nfks, nimh. 8. nhftii, nfz, nfshs, nfy, nhy, nysty. PLATE XIV. "Words beginning with he and ye. 1. hmt, hyht, hft, hsht, hnkft. 2. hych, hnd, hjr, hmnfs, hshysh, hbf. 3. hmy^, hlf, hyk, hshnk, hkhk, hyhl. 4. hmm, hftm, hmsn, Jijijo, hlyls, hsty. 5- yl^, yfih, yti^, yw^ y^^r. 6. yknfs, ytfz, ylm^, ylk, ylk. 7. y^l, yshm, ykyn, ymyn, ymn, 8. yksiv, yTJidiH, ymns, yky, ykjMy. ♦ ♦♦ >^# •■&i «(]/ :v. Ottrri^^/f^^ t # ^ Pot^-"-© £?H^-5 ♦♦ ♦ Wtr&j'^k ^ ►♦ ttkj^^;^L J Di'^^J0 c/ L^-'^ i «♦ >-* zr:^ ^^* .^ O ♦ ♦ \, ♦ u ♦♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ 'J >^^>w^ • i ■}. E ^ .^ V > _,1^J -^- (■■: iJ-J"- r^- r ♦« •♦•♦ y ♦• vC> • • « * •• « * 6 - >■ WXMun. & C^Imdcn. Uy. J ^. .g ^. ^> ^ - T ^^ >^ >^ ^o^r-- 6; c?c}^-f ^'5^-'^^^^^ CA"- C/^ >-^^. r^ ^ J^' ^-" I. ♦♦ ♦♦ WSMlm IrC'Zcniicn. I i ♦ ♦ PI.V] c •^'-' .*y lt^ u > u^ ♦ ♦ -^ n- r *! /♦ -_ A ♦♦ y ** ♦ ♦ . ♦ ♦ ♦ V ♦♦ ♦ ♦♦ f ** 6 ♦ ♦ ♦♦ ♦V ^. * ai^'-- /-^ -e.-^ j^^ .-- £■ C ^-V"^ ♦ ♦♦ ♦♦ ♦♦ if ^r <. ^-^ r ij^' WKAOcn Ic CfZondan. c^ ^ Oh «= u • * • ♦ ih :. -jp . .Jp (- VEAUm k C'Zmden,. -Jiarday, Sc ^ J^- ^•i^ ^ r-" ^ : y O' ^ ^ * r V ^^ A. '- --^ ^JJ & !J >■ [f- J^-' ^K f^ f^ ' r^ WSAU4n.&- CU.v Barclay Sc • r,. '/,> ^^'.^^ I C & ^' ,^ *.- ,1/ ji^ ^' y^ '^ :^ ^^ y^" / .ij" cy"" O' f u liurclav Pl.XJ J^ J> J?/ >>" ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ u ^ ^ ■^, ^ d" JJ'c^Cr/- Barchxv. Sc. i/ .r ♦ ♦ ♦ ^^' ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ cJ y ♦♦ y V ♦ ♦ > a/ u 6^ AA 001 294 328 8 CENTRAL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY University of California, San Diego DATE DUE ^riii 2^ ^y^^* \ MARl 3 3 »v1AR 2 fl 198.-^ CI 39 UCSD Libr.