42^ University of California. FROM THK LIBRARY OF DR. FRANCIS LIEBKR, Professor of History and Law in Columbia College, New York, THE GIFT OP MICHAEL REESE 0/ San Francisco. is-ra. • >**• p Pi r. !^ THE I I CABINET OF HISTORY CONDUCTED BY THE REV. DIONYSIUS LARDNER, LL.D. F.R.S. L. & E. M.R.I.A. F.L.S. F.Z.S. Hon. F.C.P.S. M. Ast. S. &c. &c. ASSISTED BY EMINENT LITERARY MEN. OUTLINES OF HISTORY. CAREY & LEA —CHESTNUT STREET. 1831. ;,^ Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1831, by Carey & Lea, in the Clerk^s office of the District Court of the Eastern District oi Pennsylvania. r ADVERTISEMENT. The object of the writer of the present volume has been to give a correct, and, as far as the limits would permit, a comprehensive epitome of the history of the world, which accuracy of narration and chronology would render valuable as a book of reference, and in which general views and reflections would remove the dryness inseparable from a mere enumeration of facts. As a portion of a Cyclopaedia, it is to the historical volumes what in an atlas the map of the world is to those which follow it, representing in connexion what they exhibit isolated, and displaying the relative pro- portions and importance of the several parts. Its chief utility will be, doubtless, as a book of reference for t.liose who are already versed in Iiistory ; yet it is hoped tliat even the tyro who studies it with attention will find himself, at the termination of his labor, ignorant of few of the great characters and events which occur in the history of the world. Where brevity was a matter of such paramoimt im- portance, few will expect the graces of style ; and it will, perhaps, be conceded, that the repetition of the same figures and modes of speech was almost un- avoidable where like events so frequently occurred. For the plan of dividing the last two parts into periods, the author is indebted to the celebrated Miil- ler, and has adopted several of the divisions employed by him in his Universal History. That work (the in- accuracies of which are to be regretted), with those of Schlosser, Gibbon, Hallam, and others, has been used VI ADVERTISEMENT. in addition to contemporary and national histories, in the composition of these Outlines. The Oriental por- tion has been chiefly derived from the works of Gib- bon, Malcolm, and Hammer. To prevent any misconception, the reader is requested to bear in mind that the present is a volume of political history, mankind being regarded in it only as divided into great societies ; and that, consequently, when true or false religions are spoken of, it is only in their poli- tical relations that they are viewed. In a work of this kind, theological discussion would have been altogether irrelevant and out of place. The history of any country or people may be read consecutively by consulting the index, where, under its name, will be found reference to the pages where it is mentioned. The wars and political relations of two countries will be best known by reading the corre- sponding parts of the history of each. ADVERTISEMENT OP THE AMERICAN EDITOR. In preparing the present edition for publication, it was deemed advisable to make some alterations and additions in that portion of the work which is devoted to the history of the United States. This part of the Outlines has therefore been enlarged, so far as was con- sistent with the author's general plan. CONTENTS. PART I. ANCIENT HISTORY. CHAP. I. INTRODUCTION. Of the Earth and its Physical Changes, 11.' Of Man, 13. Original Seat of Man — Original State of Man, 14. Ethiopians, 15. Chinese, 16. India, 18. CHAP. II. ANCIENT STATES OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. Bactria, 19. Babylon and Assyria, 20. Egypt, 21. Phoenicia, 23. Phi- listines, 23. Arabia — IsraeUtes, 24. Medes and Persians, 28. CHAP. III. GREECE. Early State of Greece, 33. Dorian Migration, 35. Sparta, 36. Athens, 37. CHAP. IV. GREECE TO HER SUBVERSION BY THE MACEDONIANS. Persian War, 40. Peloponnesian War, 42. Lacedaemonian Dominion, 45. Theban Dominion, 46. Philip of Macedon, 47. CHAP. V. ALEXANDER AND HIS SUCCESSORS. Alexander, 49. Division of Alexander's Dominions, 50. Macedon — Greece, 52. Thrace — Bithynia, 53. Pergamus — Pontus, 54. Armenia — Syria, 55. Judea, 56. Parthia — Egypt, 57. Carthage, 58. CHAP. VI. ROME TILL THE PUNIC WARS. Rome under Kings, 59. Tuscans — War with Porsenna, 63. Dictator — Secession — Tribunes, 64. Spurius Cassius, and the Agrarian Law, 66. The Decemvirs and the Twelve Tables, 67. Spurius Mselius, 68, Wars anterior to the Gallic Invasion, 69. Gauls — Capture of Rome, 70. Rebuilding of the City — Manlius, 71. Licinian Rogations, 72. Samnite War — Latin War, 74. War with Pyrrhus, 75. CHAP. VII. ROME TILL THE TIME OF THE GRACCHI. First Punic War, 76. Illyrian War — Gallic War, 77. Second Punic War, 78. Macedonian and Syrian Wars, 79. Conquest of Macedon — Third Punic War, 80. AcWn War, 81. Spanish Wars, 82. Vlll CONTENTS. CHAP. VIII. ROME TILL THE END OF THE REPUBLIC. The Gracchi, 83. Jugurthine War — Cimbric War, 85. State of Rome — Social or Marsian War, 86. Mithridatic and Civil Wars, 87. From the Death of Sulfa to that of Mithridales, 90. Catiline's Conspiracy — The Gallic War of Cajsar, 92. Civil War of Cfesar and Pompeius, 95. Events till the Death of Cajsar, 97. Civil War with Brutus and Cassias, 98. War between Octavianus and Anlonius, 99. CHAP. IX. ROME AN EMPIRE. Emperors of the Caesarian Family, 101. Emperors chosen by the Army, 103. Flavian Family, 104. Good Emperors, 105. From Commodus to Diocletian, 107. Change in the Form of Government, 112. Cor- ruption of Christianity, 114. CHAP. X. DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. Successors of Constanfine, 116. The Huns, 119. Wars with the Goths, 120. Genseric and Attila, 123. Fail of the Western Empire, 125. PART IL THE MIDDLE AGES. CHAP. I. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BARBARIANS IN THE WESTERN EMPIRE. Gotho-Germans, 127. East-Goths in Italy, 128. Jjombartls in Italy — Burgundians, 130. Allemanni, 131. Frnnks, 132. Anglo-Saxons, 133. West-Goths in Spain, 134. Byzantine Empire, 135. Pei-sia, 138. CHAP. II. THE TIMES OF MOHAMMED AND THE FIRST KHALIFS. Mohammed, 140. First Khahfs, 144. Conquest of Syria, 145. Con- quest of Persia — Conquest of Egypt, 147. Invasion of Africa, 148. Ommiyades — Conquest of Africa — Conquest of Spain, 149. Inva- sion of France by t lie Arabs, 150. France — Lombards, 151. Con- stantinople, 152. Germany — England, 153. CHAP. III. THE TIMES OF CHARLEMAGNE AND HAROON-ER-RASHEED. Italy, 153. Empire of Charlemagne, 155. Feudal System, 156. Eng- land — Constantinople, 158. Abbasside Khalifs, 159. CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES OF THE EAST AND WEST. Empireof Charlemagne, 162. Hungarians, 163. Northmen, 164. France — Germany — House of Saxony, 166. Italy, 168 England, 169 CONTENTS. IX Russia, 170. Constantinople, 171. Decline of the Arabian Empire — Africa, 172. Decline of the Arabian Empire — Asia, 173. Causes of the Decline of the Power of the Khalits, 175. Gasnevides, 176. Spain, 177. CHAP. V. INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. Italy — Normans, 178. Italy — Popes, 181. Italy— Lombard Cities, 184. Germany — House of Franconia — France, 185. England, 186. Spain — Constantinople — Seljookians, 188. First Crusade, 191. CHAP. VI. THE PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. Italy — Popes, 193. Italy — Lombard Cities, 196. Italy — Naples and Sicily — Germany — Swabian Line, 197. France, 200. England — Plantagenets, 201. Ireland — Spain, 204. Portugal — Almohades, 205. Persia — Saladin, 206. Mamelukes — Constantinople, 207. Crusades, 208. Mongols — Chingis Khan, 211. End of the Khalifat at Bagdad, 212. CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER, AND FORMATION OF GREAT MONARCHIES. Italy — Popes, 213. Italy — Republics, 217. Italy — Naples and Sicily, 220. Germany, 222. Switzerland — France, 224. England — Plan- tagenets, 230. Wars between France and England, 235. Scotland, 239. Scandinavia, 242. Poland, 243. Hungary — Ottomans, 244. Tatars— Timoor, 247. Spain, 249. Portugal, 250. Discovery of America, 251. PART III. MODERN HISTORY. CHAf . I. VIEW OF THE STATE OF EUROPE. England, 255. France — Germany — Russia, Poland, Scandinavia— Switzerland and Savoy, 256. Italy, 257. League of Cambray — Spain and Portugal, 258. Turkey, 259. Persia, 260. CHAP. IL TIMES OF CHARLES V. Accession of Charles V., 261. Reformation, 262. Wars of Charles V. and Francis I., 263. Affairs of Germany, 266. Renewed War with France, 267. Affairs of Germany, 268. England, 270. Spain and Portugal — Italy, 271. Denmark and Sweden — Turkey, 273. CHAP. III. TIMES OP PHILIP II. Slate of Europe at Philip's Accession, 274. France, 275. Netherlands, 280. England, 284. Portugal, 286. Germany — Poland, 287. Italy, g88, Turkey, 289 X CONTENTS. CHAP. IV. TIMES OF THE THIRTY VEARS' WAR. Germany, 290. France, 295. Spain, 297. Portugal — Italy — England — The Civil War, 298. Holland, 300. Russia — Turkey and Persia, 301. CHAP. V. TIMES OF LOUIS XIV. France to the Peace of the Pyrenees, 302. England to the Restoration — Wars till the Peace of Niraeguen, 303. England to the Revolution, 307. Wars to the Peace of Ryswick, 308. England — Spanish Suc- cession, 310. North of Europe — Peter the Great — Charles XII., 315. England, 316. CHAP. VI. PERIOD OF COMPARATIVE REPOSE. England— Quadruple AUiance, 317. Russia — Turkish Wars, 319. Persia— Nadir Shah, 320. CHAP. VII. TIMES OP FREDERIC II. Silesian Wars, 321. England, 325. Russia— Seven Years' War, 326. Suppression of the Jesuits, 329. First Partition of Poland, 330. Turk- ish War — American Revolutionary War, 331. India — Persia, 338. CHAP. VIII. TIMES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. State of Europe, 338. French Revolution, 341. Europe to the Peace of Carapo Formio, 343. Affairs to the Assumption of the chief Power by Bonaparte, 345. Affairs till the Peace of Amiens, 346. Affairs of Europe to the Treaty of Tilsit, 347. Affairs to the Treaty of Vienna, 34B. Progress of the Peninsular War, 350. Invasion of Russia, and Fall of Napoleon, 351. Tabular View of Royal Dynasties, 359. Eminent Persons, 366. '' Chronological View of Important Events, 369. Index, 373. OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. ANCIENT HISTORY. CHAP. I. INTRODUCTION. Of the Earth and its Physical Changes. The history of man is distinct from, but connected with, that of the earth, his appointed abode. The mightiest revo- lutions of the latter have taken place, for the most part, in a time anterior to the first appearance of man on its surface ; and laws and principles of nature were at that period in operation which have since either totally ceased, or have changed their character. Yet in a Mstory of the origin and progress of the human race, that of the earth cannot be passed over in perfect silence. Its changes and periods form a ne- cessary part of the great chain of causes and effects estab- lished and conducted by the mighty Being whose power gave existence to all. Modesty and diffidence should be the guides of those who seek to penetrate into the ages antecedent to man and his works. The only sources from which we can expect to derive the aistory of the earth are, the Mosaic records, and the exami- nation, in different countries, of its present surface, and the various strata that compose it. The Pentateuch, however, descends not into particulars : the object of the inspired law- giver was to impress on the minds of his people the great and important truth which was to form the distinguishing charac- teristic of their religion, — namely, the unity of the Deity ; that one sole and mighty Being had given existence to all that was, had shared his power with none, and was alone to be worshipped. Tlie legislator, accordingly, did not depart too far from established opinions, nor seek to introduce truths mcomprehensible to those whom he addressed ; yet the ac- count he gives of the gradual progress of creation sufficiently corres}X)nds with that which we now read out of the great 12 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART I. book of nature. But all attempts to extract a history of the earth and its revolutions from the Bible have failed, and the theories only remain as monuments of the genius of their consfeructors. Man, not his abode, is the subject of the sacred Scriptures ; and we may admire but not question the fact of the people of Israel, though divinely taught in things relating to mind, being left in things relating to matter in equal igno- rance with less favored nations. The other source of knowledge respecting the history of the earth has, during the last 100 years, been followed with continued and vigorous perseverance by men of mtellectual powers of the highest order ; ar\d from their discoveries, es- pecially those of the distinguished Cuvier, we learn the fol- lowing facts respecting the formation and the revolutions of the earth. To the origin of the solid nucleus of the earth no date can be assigned. Water invested it; and the acotyledonous plants, and the testaceous tribes of fish, were the commence- ment of vegetable and animal life. A violent revolution of nature annihilated these incipient creations, and their re- mains combined with other substances to increase the stone of the earth. In the various successive periods appeared the moUusca, the fishes, the amphibious animals, all of gigantic size; and all after living their appointed period were de- stroyed, and their remains employed as the materials of addi- tional surface for the advancing earth. The mammalia of the waters, sea-horses, sea-lions, whales, and their whole kindred, formed the next step of the progression. The violent mo- tions and agitations of the waves destroyed these also, that they might add their huge carcasses to the inanimate surface of the earth, which now attained that state in which it sent up vegetation adapted for the support of animals of the land. Nature now put forth her strength in the production of tlie monstrous megatheria, mastodons and mammoths, whose re- mains excite our wonder and our curiosity. This race, too, after having possessed the earth for an indefinite period, saw its appointed end come : the waters rose once more, and in- volved them, like their predecessors, in the clay, sand, and gravel, which they swept along ; but no rocky stratum was, as with the former generations, the result: and the sand- stone, gypsum, clay, and other substances, in which the re- mains of this creation are found, occur only in spaces of lim- ited extent. The violent revolutions of tlie earth were now at an end ; the races of animals, such as at present occupy its surface, appeared ; and, last of all, Man, the perfection of nature's works, entered on the scene of his future destinies. CHAP. I. INTRODUCTION. 13 But the violent powers of nature had not yet ceased to oper- ate ; and tradition retains the recollection of at least one great destruction of animal life by water. Of Man. We enter not here into the question of the different races of mankind, and the origin of the surprising differences we find among the members of the same species. We shall not inquire whether the lowest class in point of intellect and form, the Negro, approaching in structure to the ape, be the original type of man, and have thence, by culture and cli- mate, refined to the beauty and mental powers of the Euro- pean ; or whether the reverse be the truth, and climate and want of culture have brought man down from his lofty state, and approximated him to the brute. We confine ourselves to the fact, that there are different races of our species occu- pymg the various portions of the earth, and distinguished from each other in corporeal structure and in mental develop- ment. These numerous varieties are, by the ablest investi- gators, reduced to three principal stems, viz. the Caucasian or Europeo-Arabic, the Mongol, and the Negro or JCthiopic. The first contains the people of Asia, north and south of the great mountain range of Caucasus and its continuation to the Ganges, of Europe, and of Northern Africa; the second, the people of Eastern Asia and of America; the third, the tribes with woolly hair and sable skin that people the African con- tinent. Yet many tribes can with difficulty be brought under any one of these divisions : the endless variety of Nature is as apparent in the human race as in the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Original Seat of Man. It is, perhaps, a useless inquiry to search after the region in which man was first placed, the paradise of his first days of innocence and happiness. The only historic clew we pos- sess are the names of the four rivers, said in the Hebrew re- cords to have watered the land in which the progenitors of the human race dwelt. But as no four rivers can be found on the present surface of the earth agreeing in all points with those mentioned by Moses, our safest course is to con- fine ourselves to the inquiry after the region where those who escaped the last great inundation which has overwhelmed the earth, resumed their destined course of life and occupa- tion. The general opinion, founded on the literal interpretation of Scripture, has long been, that at the time of the flood all 14 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. mankind perished, save Noah and his family. Some, how- ever, contend, that the words of the inspired writer are not to be taken so strictly, and that as his information was des- tined for a particular portion of mankind, it may have been only intended to instruct them in the history of the race to which they belonged, while that of other races may have been passed over in silence. Hence they would infer that we are not precluded by the Mosaic writings from supposing, that at the time of the great inundation other portions of mankind may have saved themselves in different manners and places. They therefore look to the higher regions of the earth, and find three elevated ranges in the neighborhood of the three distinct stems into which we find mankind divided. The lofi:y range extending from the Black Sea to the east of India has been at all times regarded as being, either itself or the lands south of it, the original seat of the Caucasian race. Still more east, beyond Tibet and the desert of Gobi, rises another range, regarded as the original seat of the Mongol race which dwells around it : and the Mountains of the Moon and their branches are thought to point out the primitive abodes of the Negro race. America, it is probable, was not, till long after, adapted for the abode of man. These, however, are all questions of curiosity rather than of historical importance. At the dawn of all history we find the various races of mankind distinct, and no history informs us of the origin of the differences. We have therefore only to consider them in their separate states, or as intermingled with and affecting each other. Original State of Man. Another point which has given occasion to a good deal of ingenious conjecture, is the original state of mankind. Philo- sophers, on surveying the human race in its different situa- tions, have traced out four distinct states, — those of the mere fruit and plant-eater, the hunter, the herdsman, and the cul- tivator, — and have generally inferred that man has pro- gressively passed through all these states, commencing at the lowest. Yet this is still but mere conjecture, unsupported by any historic evidence. No tribe has ever yet been found to civilize itself; instruction and improvement always come to it from abroad ; and experience would rather lead to the in- ference, that the savage is a degeneration from the civilized life. In the very earliest history, that of the Bible, we find tlie pastoral and agricultural life coexisting almost from the commencement of the world; at all periods we find man possessed of the useful and necessary arts, the master of CIIAP. I. INTRODUCTION. 15 flocks and herds, the employer of the spade, the plow, and the sickle. It is in vain we seek far commencement, — all is progress. In imagination, we may conceive a time, when the human race was in the lowest degree of culture ; but, on inquiry, we everywhere meet the arts, meet men collected into societies, meet property, legislation, and government. It may perhaps be collected from the testimony of the sacred Scriptures, and from the deductions of philosophy, that man has always existed in society, and that the first societies were families, the first form of government patriarchal : and the following may be stated as the most probable hypothesis ; namely, that man commenced his existence in the social state under the mild and gentle form of government denominated patriarchal ; that his first nourishment was the fruits of trees and plants, which ripened in abundance for the supply of his wants in some temperate and fertile region of the earth, possibly that at the south of Caucasus, or where now extends the paradisal vale of Cashmeer ; that gradually he became a keeper of flocks and herds, and a cultivator of corn; that families spread and combined; and that from their union arose monarchies, the most ancient form of extended civil government. It is in this last state that we propose to consider mankind, and to trace the great and important events that have taken place among the various stems and branches of the human race ; to show how, beneath the guiding energy of the Creator and Ruler, the great machine of human society has proceeded on its way, at times advancing, at times apparently retrograding, in the path of perfection and happiness. And the final result of our view of the deeds and destinies of man will, we trust, be a firm conviction in the mind of every reader that private and public felicity is the result alone of good education, wise laws, and just government, and that all power which is not based on equity is unstable and transient. It is to the Caucasian race that the history of the world must mainly confine itself, for with that race has originated almost all that ennobles and dignifies mankind: it is the chief depository of literature, and the great mstructor of philosophical, political, and religious systems. We shall re- strict ourselves, therefore, chiefly to the history of that race, briefly premising views of the state and character of the Ethiopians, the Mongols, and the Indians. JEthiopians. We have already observed, that under this name are in- cluded all the inhabitants of Africa whose bodily conforma- 16 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. tion does not prove them to be of tlie Caucasian race. The indeliniteness of the term Mthiopian employed by the Greeks, and applied by them to all people of a dark complexion, ?ind the similar indefiniteness of the Hebrew CmsA, prevent our being- able positively to say whether the obscure traditions of the ^Ethiopian power extending along the Mediterranean to the straits of Gades, and of that people having, under their king Tearcho, made themselves so formidable to the inhabit- ants of the coasts of the iEgean, are to be understood of a purely Negro empire, or of, what is much more probable, a state like that of Egypt, where the lower orders of society were of Negro, the higher and dominant classes of Caucasian race. Within the historic period of both ancient and modern times, the Ethiopian race only appears as furnishing slaves for the service of the Caucasian, to whom it has been always as inferior in mental power as in bodily configuration. Though modern travel has discovered within the torrid wastes of Afirica large communities ruled over by Negro princes, and a knowledge of many of the useful arts, yet civilization and policy have never reared their heads in the ungenial clime. As literature has never been theirs, whatever revolutions may have taken place among them are buried in oblivion, and they claim no station of eminence in the history of the world. The Chinese. The Mongols stand far higher in the scale of intellect and in importance than the ^Ethiopians. As we proceed, we shall find them striking terror into Europe by their arms and their numbers. One nation of this race, the Chinese, has long been an object of curiosity to the western world, from its ex^ tent of empire and the singularity of its social institutions. The Chinese empire occupies an extent of surface equal to that of all Europe, containing within it every variety of soil and climate, and natural production ; thus rendering it in itself perfectly independent of all foreign aid. In its social institutions it has presented through all periods a model of the primitive form of government, the patriarchal, and an exemplification of the evil of continuing it beyond its just and necessary period. In China all is at a stand-still ; suc- ceeding ages add not to the knowledge of those that have gone before ; no one must presume to be wiser than his fathers : around the Son of Heaven, as they designate their emperor, assemble the learned of the land as his council; so in the provinces the learned in their several degrees around the governor; and laws and rules are passed from the highest down to the lowest, to be ])y them given to the people. Every, CHAP. I. INTRODUCTION. 17 even the most minute, circumstance of common life is regu- lated by law. It matters not, for example, what may be the wealth of an individual, he must wear the dress and build his house after the mode prescribed by ancient regulations. In China every thing bears the stamp of antiquity: immovable- ness seems to be characteristic of the nation ; every imple- ment retains its primitive rude form ; every invention has stopped at the first step. The gradual progress towards per- fection of the Caucasian race is unknown in China ; the plow is still drawn by men ; the written characters of their mono- syllabic language stand for ideas, not for simple sounds ; and the laborious task of learning to read occupies the time that might be employed in the acquisition of valuable knowledge. Literature has been at all periods cultivated by a nation where learning (such as it is) is the only road to honor and dignity, and books beginning with the five Kings of Con-fu- tsee, which equal the four Vedas of India in the honor in which they are held, have at all times been common in this empire. A marked feature in the Chinese character is the absence of imagination: all is the product of cold reason. The Kings speak not of a God, and present no system of re- ligion : every thing of that nature in China came from India. The uncertain history of China ascends to about 2500 years before the Christian era ; the certain history commences about eight centuries before Christ. According to Chi- nese tradition, the founders of the state, a Imndred families in number, descended from the mountains of Kulcum, on the lake of Khukhunor, north-west of China; and hence the middle provinces of Chensee, Leong, Honan, &c. were the first seats of their cultivation. These provinces are in the same climate as Greece and Italy. Twenty-two dynasties of princes are enumerated as having governed China to the present day, the actual emperor being the fifth monarch of the twenty-second or Tai Tsin dynasty. Of these dynasties, one of the most remarkable is the Song, which ruled over the southern empire at the time China was divided into two, and fell beneath the arms of the Yver or mingled nomadic tribes, led to conquest by the descendants of Chingis Khan. This line, which reigned from A. D. 900 to 1280, distinguish- ed itself by the encouragement of the arts and sciences ; it cultivated relations with Japan, fostered trade and commerce, and in all things went contrary to the established maxims of Chinese policy, and while it lasted the empire bloomed be- neath its sway ; but the hordes of the desert levelled its glo- ries, and its fate has been ever since held up as an awful warning to those who venture to depart even a hair's breadth B2 18 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. from the ancient manners. At an earlier period, under the dynasty of Tsin (248—206 B. C), China first received reli- gion from India ; but the missionaries were not artful or pru- dent enough to adapt it to Chinese maxims of state, and they were unsuccessful in the contest between them and the learned. At a later period, when the Buddhism of India had become the Lamaism of Tibet, it entered China as the reli- gion of Foe, and by the worldly prudence of its bonzes or priests, succeeded in gaining a favorable reception and be- coming the religion of the state. Every thing that hopes for success in this country must fall in with the national charac- ter. China has often been overcome, and its reigning dynasty changed ; but the manners and institutions of China remain unaltered, as different from those of the Caucasian race as the features of the Chinese face are from those of the Euro- pean. India. From the Chinese, a nation of cold reason, almost no reli- gion, monosyllabic, unharmonious language, and literature full of events and valuable matter, we pass to their neighbors of India, whom every thing but color indicates to belong to the same family with the Europeans. Here we find glowing fancy, and in Brahmanism a luxuriant system of religion, a majestic and richly inflected language, and a literature full to exuberance of the highest poetry. But India has no his- tory or chronology of its own, and it is in the time of the Persian kings that it first appears in the history of the world. Yet the testimony of antiquity, its proximity to the original land of the Caucasian race, and the primitive character of its social institutions, prove it to be one of the most ancient nations of the earth. In India, religion and priestly influence have effected what law and tradition have produced in China — the absolute pros- tration of the intellect of the nation. The system of castes sets a bar to all ambition and to all energy. No development of mind can take place where every man's station in life is immutably marked out for him. The nation presents at the present day the same spectacle which excited the wonder of the Greeks who accompanied Alexander ; an immense, gentle, and peaceful population ; abundance of wealth ; all the useful^ necessary, and ornamental arts of life ; a manifold, intricate system of religion, abounding in rites and ceremonies, many of them of the most lascivious character. Like China, India is an instance of the fatal effect of check- ing the free development of mind : here, too, every thing is CHAP. I. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 19 stationary. The love of country is a feeling unlmown to the breast of the inhabitants, and India has been at all periods the easy prey of every invader whom its wealtli attracted. Omitting- the fabulous expeditions of Sesostris and Scmiramis, the earliest account we have of a conquest of any part of this country is of that by Cyrus and Darius I., kings of Persia ; next Alexander the Great with ease overthrew all that op- posed him, and, but for the refusal of his troops, would have planted his standards on the banks of the Ganges. Seleucus Nicator ruled over the provinces conquered by Alexander, reached in conquest the banks of the Jumnah, and subdued a large portion of Bengal. Wlien the feeble successors of Se- leucus had lost their power over other subject nations, their vicegerents were still obeyed during a period of 60 years by a great part of India. A hundred and twenty years after the death of Alexander, Antiochus the Great invaded and conquered a considerable portion of India ; and when he was overcome by the Romans, all his possessions west of the Indus fell to Euthydemus, the Grecian sovereign of Bactria, and India cheerfully obeyed him. He was unable to effect the succession of his son Demetrius in Bactria ; but over the In- dian provinces that prince reigned without opposition. Eu- cratides, the fifth of the Grseco-Bactrian kings, reunited to Bactria the Indian possessions, and every succeeding reigning^ line in Persia had dominions in India, till it was eventually overrun and occupied by Mohammedan conquerors. For the last thousand years it has been the prey of every foreign spoiler. Thus India seems destined never to enjoy national independence : her countless millions doomed for ever to bow beneath a foreign sceptre, she stands an instructive monu- ment of the evils resultmg from fettered intellect and priestly dominion. CHAP. II. THE ANCIENT STATES OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. Bactria. According to the traditions of hoary antiquity preserved in the sacred books of the Parsees, and in the Shah Nameh, the immortal poem of Ferdoosee, there existed in the most remote ages, witli sacerdotal institutions akin to those of India, a mighty and extensive empire in Bactria or Eastern Persia. Grecian writers confirm this account, and it is farther proved 20 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. by the route of the Caucasian race, wJio, in their progress along the mountains, must have been attracted by these fer- tile - regions, abounding in every production, protected by lofty impassable mountains to the north, and bordering on the realms of India and Babylonia. The branch of the Caucasian stem, called the Indo-Persian race, spread over Iran, the country between Babjdonia and India. Its chief seat was Bactria. Here, according to Persian tradition, ruled Cayu- marath, the first of men, or of kings, and his descendants, till Jemsheed was overthrown by the Aramaean Zohak. The system of religion named from Zoroaster prevailed in Bac- tria, and the sacerdotal caste stood in rights and privileges nearly on a par with the Bramins of India, who, probably, possessed originally a similar institution. The idolatrous Aramaean priesthood united itself with that of Bactria ; but when the Aramaean or Babylonian dominion sank, and the Iranian revived in the person of Feridoon, the old religion recovered its dominion. Changes of dynasty affected it not ; it passed to the Medes and Persians, and still was flourishing when the disciples of Mohammed extinguished it in blood ; and it yet lingers among the Parsees of India, the descend- ants of those who sought refuge in that country from perse- cution. But the simple religion of Zoroaster, which wor- shipped under the emblem of light and fire the Author of life and happiness, had not the debasing effects of the intricate idolatry and metaphysics of India ; and if Iran fell beneath foreign conquerors, the fault was not in her system of re- ligion. Babylon and Assyria. We now begin to tread on more solid ground, for in the earliest portion of the far most credible ancient history, that of the Hebrews, we observe a recognition of the empires of Babylon and Assyria. From them, too, we may infer, that Babylon was the more ancient, for the city of that name is mentioned at a time while tlie Hebrews were still in the no- madic state. We hear not till long after of Nineveh, the Assyrian capital on the Tigris. The Babylonians dwelt on the Tigris and the Lower Eu- phrates, and their industry had made their land the garden of Asia. They were a peaceful people, as is shown by their manufactures, and their provisions for watering their lands. Herodotus describes them as a luxurious trafficking people, fond of splendid dress and ornaments. Various dynasties of kings of the surrounding nations are related to have ruled in Babylon. This wealthy state must have been at all times ex CHAP. ir. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. J21 posed to the incursions of the nomadic tribes that surrounded it, and sometimes conquered by them. The city is stated to have been built in the most remote ages by the god Bel, and to have been enlarged and adorned by Semiramis, probably also a mythic personage. In the historic period, we find it farther improved and adorned by Nebuchadnezzar and the queen Nitocris. The reign of Nebuchadnezzar was the most brilliant period of Babylon. He ruled from the foot of Caucasus to the deserts of Libya. Judsea, Phoenicia, Egypt, all the tribes of the desert, did homage to his power. But the glory was transient : in the reign of his son the Babylo- nian dominion sank, never to rise, beneath the arms of the Medes and Persians. The Assyrian empire on the Tigris and the Upper Eu- phrates, rose much later than the Babylonian, which it sub- dued, but which under the father of Nebuchadnezzar cast off the yoke, and attained the power we have just described. Of the Assyrian history little is known. A caste of priests named Chaldeans, distinguished for their knowledge of the order and courses of the heavenly bodies, the objects of Babylonian worship, was to be found here ; but the early establishment of despotism permitted not a division of the people into any other castes. These Chaldeans were divided into several orders under a head appointed by the king. Birth was not a necessary qualification for admittance into their body. We find (as in the case of Daniel) Jews placed in the highest rank among them. They derived their support from lands assigned to them. The nature of the oc- cupations of the Babylonians made a race of men of import- ance, who pretended to a knowledge of the ways of the gods, who measured the land, marked the seasons, and announced the hours of good and evil fortune : yet almost all their boasted wisdom was mere jugglery and deceit. The valley watered by the Nile, and inclosed between the desert on the west, and barren mountains on the east, was the seat of one of the earliest and most renowned empires of which we have any record remaining. A branch of the Cau- casian race, it would appear, crossed the strait of Bab-el-Man- deb. It mastered the Ethiopians whom it met, and founded an empire on the system of castes in Nubia ; then advanced with the stream, and established that of Upper Egypt ; and, * Egypt, though proiierly in Africa, has been included in this chapter, to avoid needless subtUvision. 22 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. lastly, spread over Lower Egypt and tlie Delta now formed by the Nile. But this was long anterior to the commence- ment of history. So early as the days of Abraham, Lower Egypt was the seat of a rich, flourishing, and civilized state. The turn of mind of this branch of the Caucasian stem was similar to that of the branch which established itself in India. Hence some have needlessly supposed that one country was colonized by the other. Here, as in India, the priestly caste enjoyed high power and privileges. They were the deposi- tories of all arts and sciences ; they not only were the di- rectors of the employments of life, but possessed the awful office of judges of tlie dead, who were brought before their tribunal ere consigned to the tomb ; and by numerous prac- tices and ceremonies, they for ever kept the idea and the fear of death before the eyes of the people. Their own religious system, known to the initiated alone, was perfectly simple : what they taught the people in symbol and figure was com- plex, obscene, and degrading. Independence was secured to the sacerdotal order by the immunity of their lands from im- posts. Yet priestly sway never attained the same height here as in India. Egypt was a conquered country, and numerous tribes of nomades and other classes, who never completely amalgamated with the conquerors, roamed the land, some- times independent, sometimes obedient. Hence the king was in a great measure independent of the priests. The history of Joseph informs us, that the king had a fiflh of tlie produce of the land, and, as in the case of this minister, could ap- point a stranger and an uninitiated person to the highest office of the state, and give him in marriage the daughter of the high priest. We therefore read of internal tumults and for- eign wars, the fabulous expeditions of Sesostris, the real campaigns against Judaea and more distant powers. Arabian and Nubian monarchs have ruled over Egypt ; it fell before the Babylonian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman power, yet the castes, as in India, subsisted through every shock. Where the system of castes prevails, the inferior castes are always of a peaceful, industrious character. Each per- son's walk of life being marked out for him, he pursues it with the regularity and mechanism of mere matter. All we learn of ancient Egypt corresponds with this principle : the narrowness and fertility of the land caused an excessive pop- ulation ; agriculture could employ but a small portion of the people; the sedentary arts were tlierefore cultivated to a great extent, and the division of labor was carried almost be- yond any thing similar in modern times. The accounts we CHAP. II. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 23 have of emigrations from Egypt are obscure, and many of them not very credible. The plan devised for preventing the evils of over-populousness was, to accustom the lower orders to a spare diet, and employ them on the construction of huge edifices, destined for tombs, or the temples of religion. Hence the pyramids and excavated temples which still excite the wonder of the world, and prove what may be effected by the aid of the simplest machinery, with time, numbers, and per- severance. The knowledge of the Egyptians has been much over- rated. The great trait of a sacerdotal period is everywhere to be discerned. Every thing advanced to a certain point of perfection ; there stopped, never to advance, but rather to recede. It is remarked, that in design and execution the more ancient monuments exceed the later. Phosnicia. A portion of the Aramsean race was settled on the Persian Gulf It was given to trade and commerce, and settled a colony on the coast of Syria. These colonists were named the Phoenicians ; their chief city was Sidon, and they after- wards built Tyre on an island near the coast. Their manu- factures, especially of glass, were celebrated from the most ancient times. While surrounded by nomadic tribes, they seem to have made little advances in wealth and power, though they had extended their settlements to some distance inland. But when the Israelites took possession of Canaan, and applied themselves to agriculture, the trade of the Phoe- nicians rapidly increased ; their ships visited the isles and coasts of the JEgean, and the distant ports of Italy and Spain. Numerous colonies, of which Carthage was chief, were es- tablished by them. In their impregnable island-city they could bid defiance to the might of Israel, Egypt, and Babylon. Luxury flourished in this city, whose " merchants were princes :" their religion was bloody and cruel, their form of government monarchical. Philistines. This people, celebrated for their wars with the Israelites, dwelt on a small strip of sea-coast south of the Tyrians. They were originally, it is thought, a colony from Egypt. They possessed five cities under tlie government of five princes, and confederated together for mutual defence. Trade and piracy were their chief means of subsistence. Their long and obstinate resistance against the arms of the Israelites testifies 24 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. their valor and love of independence. A seafaring people, the chief object of their worship was a sea-god, Dagon. Arabia. From the earliest dawn of history the Arabs have led the nomadic life, to which the nature of their country has des- tined them. The numerous tribes, under the government of their sheikhs and emirs, roam the desert apart — now in friend- ship, now in hostility. The camel and the horse are their companions and support. The strangers who penetrate their wilds have always been reo-arded as lawful prizes. Under the various names of Edomites, Ishmaelites, Midianites, &c. we find their tribes in friendly or hostile relations with the nation of Israel, with whom many of them acknowledged a kindred. Their religious worship was chiefly directed to the heavenly bodies. Israelites. At a very remote period of antiquity, when the sacerdotal caste in Babylonia had begun to spread idolatry even among the nomadic tribes of the land, a man named Abraham, dis- tinguished by wealth, wisdom, and probity, in obedience to the commands of the Deity, quitted tlie land of his fathers, and journeyed with his family and his herds towards the land of Canaan. His faith in the only God, and his obedience to his will, were here rewarded by increasing wealth and num- bers. His son and grandson continued the same nomadic life in Palestine which Abraham and his fathers had led. By a surprising turn of fortune, one of the sons of Jacob, the grandson of Abraham, became vizier to the king of Egypt : he brought his father and family to that country, and a dis- trict in the north-east of Egypt was assigned to them by the king for the sustenance of themselves and their flocks and herds. During 430 years their numbers increased exceedingly. A new dynasty now filled the Egyptian throne, and they feared fhe power of a numerous people attached to the former line, and dwelling in the key of the land towards Asia. They sought, therefore, to change their mode of life, and by unpos- ing heavy tasks upon them to check their increase, and grad- ually to wear them out. During this period of oppression Moses was born. The Egyptian monarch had ordered all tlie male children of tlie Israelites to be destroyed at the birth ; and the mother of Moses, after concealing him for some time, was obliged to expose him. The daughter o^tliu king found him, and reared CHAP. II. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 25 him as her own. As he grew up, he was instructed in the secret wisdom of tlie priests ; but neither knowledge, nor the honors and splendor of the court, could make him behold with indifference the state of his native people. He mourned over their oppression, and panted to behold them in their former happy independence. Seeing an Egyptian ill-treat an Israelite, he slew him ; and, fearing the vengeance of the king, fled to Arabia, where he led a shepherd's life, near Sinai, in the service of an Arab sheikh. While here, he received the command of God to lead his people out of Egypt : he returned thither, and, by performing many wondrous deeds, compelled the reluctant monarch to let his slaves depart. But Pharaoh repented, pursued, and he and his whole army perished in the waves of the Red Sea. During their long residence in Egypt, the Israelites had gradually been passing from the nomadic to the agricultural life, and had contracted much of the impure religious ideas and licentious manners of the Egyptians. They were now to be brought back to the simple religion of their fathers, and a form of government established among them calculated to preserve them in the purity of their simple faith. It pleased the Deity to be himself, under the name of Jehovah, the King of Israel, and their civil institutions were to resemble those of the country they had left, freed from all that might be pre- judicial to the great object in view — that of making them a nation of monotheistic faith. In the midst of lightning and thunder, while Sinai re- echoed to the roar, the first simple elements of their future law were presented to the children of Israel. No images, no hieroglyphics, were admitted into the religion now given : ceremonies of significant import were annexed, to employ the minds and engage the attention of a rude people. There was a sacerdotal caste, to whom the direction of all matters relat- ing to religion and law (which were in this government the same) was intrusted : but they had no dogmas or mysteries wherewith to fetter the minds 'of the people ; and being as- signed for their maintenance, not separate lands, but a por- tion of the produce of the whole country," their interest would lead them to stimulate the people to agriculture, and thus carry into effect the object of the constitution. As priests, judges, advocates, writers, and physicians, they were of im- portant service in the community, and fully earned the tenth of the produce which was allotted to them. Their division into priests and Levites was a wise provision against that too sharp distinction which in Egypt and India prevailed be- 26 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. FART I. tween the sacerdotal and the other castes. The Levites, being assigned some lands, formed a connecting link between the priests and the cultivators. Agriculture being the destination of the Israelites, trade was discouraged ; for the fairs and markets were held in the neighborhood of the heathen temples. But to compensate them for the prohibition against sharing in the joyous festivi- ties of the surrounding nations, feasts were held three times in each year to commemorate their emancipation, the giving of the law, and their abode in the desert. At these festivals, all Israel was required to attend, that the bonds of brother- hood might be kept up among the tribes by participation in social enjoyment. Thus, many years before Con-fu-tsee gave the Kings to the Chinese, long ere any lawgiver arose in Greece, Moses, directed by God, gave to Israel, in the wastes of Arabia, a constitution, the wonder of succeeding ages, and ever memo- rable for the influence it has exerted on the minds and insti- tutions of a large and important portion of mankind. During forty years, till all the degenerate race who had left Egypt had died oif, Moses detained the Israelites in the deserts of Arabia, accustoming them to obey their law, and preparing them for the conquest of the land assigned as their possession. At the end of that period their inspired legislator led them to the borders of the promised land, and having ap- pointed Joshua to be his successor, he ascended a lofty moun- tain to take a view of the country he was not to enter : he there died in the 120th year of his age. Under the guidance of Joshua, Israel passed the Jordan ; the God of Moses was with them, and inspired them with valor to subdue their foes. A speedy conquest gave them the land. No fixed govern- ment had been appointed ; the people gradually fell from the service of Jehovah to worship the idols of the surrounding nations ; and Jehovah -gave them up into the power of their enemies. At times there arose among them heroes, denomi- nated judges, who, inspired with patriotism and zeal for the law, aroused the slumbering tribes, and led them to victory. Then, too, arose that noble order of prophets who, in heaven- inspired strains of poetry, exalted the Mosaic law, and im- pressed its precepts, its rewards^ and threats, on the minds of the people. After the time of the judges, the temporal and spiritual dignities were, contrary to the intention of the lawgiver, B. c. united, and the high-priest exercised the sovereign power. 1156. This lasted but a short time: in the person of the upright Samuel, a prophet, the temporal was agaui divided from the CHAP. II. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 27 spiritual dignity. The sons of Samuel trod not in the steps of their virtuous father. The prospect of being governed by them, and the v^^ant of a military leader to command them in their wars with the surrounding nations, made the people call g. c. on Samuel to give them a king. He complied with their 1095. wishes, warning them of the consequences of their desire, and appointed Saul. This monarch was victorious in war ; but he disobeyed the voice of the prophet, and misfortune ever after pursued him. It pleased Jehovah to take the king- dom from him, and Samuel anointed the youthful David to occupy his place. Saul was seized with a melancholy derange- ment of intellect. David, wlio was his son-in-law, won the af- fections of the powerful tribe of Judah ; but while Saul lived, he continued in liis allegiance, though his sovereign sought his life. At length, Saul and his elder and more worthy sons fell 1055. in battle against the Pliilistines, and the tribe of Judah called their young hero to the vacant throne. The other tribes ad- hered during seven years to the remaining son of Saul. His death, by the hands of assassins, gave all Israel to David. 1048. David was the model of an Oriental prince, handsome in his person, valiant, mild, just, and generous, humble before his God, and zealous in his honor, a lover of music and poetry, himself a poet. Successful in war, he reduced beneath his sceptre all the countries from the borders of Egypt to the mountains whence the Euphrates springs. The king of Tyre was his ally ; he had ports on the Red Sea, and the wealth of commerce flowed during his reign into Israel. He fortified and adorned Jerusalem, which he made the seat of govern- ment. Glorious prospects of extended empire, and of the diffusion of the pure religion of Israel, and of happy times, floated before the mind of the prophet-king. The kingdom of Israel was hereditary ; but the monarch might choose his successor among his sons. Solomon, sup- ported by Nathan, the great prophet of those days, and by the affection of his father, was nominated to succeed. The qualities of a magnificent Eastern monarch met in the son of David. He, too, was a poet ; his taste was great and splendid ; he summoned artists from Tyre (for Israel had none,) and, with the collected treasure of his father, erected at Jerusa- lem a stately temple to the God of Israel. He first gave the nation a queen, in the daughter of the king of Egypt, for whom he built a particular palace. He brought horses and chariots out of Egypt to increase the strength and the glory of his empire. Trade and commerce deeply engaged the thoughts of this politic prince : with the Tyrians, his subjects visited the ports of India and eastern Africa : he built the I 28 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART I. city of Tadmor or Palmyra in the desert, six days' journey from Babylon, and one from the Euphrates — a point of union for the traders of various nations. Wealth of every kind flowed in upon Jerusalem; but it alone derived advantage from the splendor of the monarch : the rest of Israel was heavily taxed. On the death of Solomon, the tribes called upon his son to B, c. reduce their burdens : he haughtily refused, and ten of the 975. tribes revolted and chose another king. An apparently wise, a really false, policy, made the kings of Israel set up the sym- bolical mode of worship practised in Egypt. Judah, too, wavered in her allegiance to Jehovah. A succession of bold, honest, inspired prophets, reproved, warned, encouraged the kindred nations, and a return to the service of the true God was always rewarded by victory and better times. At length 721. the ten tribes, by their vices and idolatry, lost the divine pro- tection : they were conquered and carried out of their own country by the king of Assyria, and their land given to strangers. A similar fate befell the kingdom of Judah : the house of David declined, and the king of Babylon, Nebuchad- 585. nezzar, carried away the people to Babylonia. On the fall of that state, seventy years afterwards, Cyrus king of Persia allowed to return to their own land a people whose faith bore some resemblance to the simple religion of the Persians, and whose country secured him an easy access to Egypt. Restored to their country, the Israelites, now called Jews, became as distinguished for their obstinate attachment to their law as they had been before for their facility to desert it. But the purity and simplicity of their faith were gone; they now mingled with it various dogmas which they had learned during their captivity. The schools of the prophets, whence in tTie old times had emanated such lofty inspiration, simple piety, and pure morals, were at an end ; sects sprang up among them, and the haughty, subtle, trifle-loving Pharisees, the wordly-minded Sadducees, and the simple, contemplative Essenes, misunderstood and misinterpreted the pure ennobling precepts of the Mosaic law. Medes and Persians. In the west of Asia the ancient sacerdotal constitutions had been now almost wholly abolished. To them succeeded des- potism ; and from the erection of the first great Assyrian and Babylonian monarchies to the present day, the same appear- ance has been repeated with little alteration. One people has constantly succeeded another in the dominion over the lands between the Indus and the Mediterranean. So long as its CHAP. II. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. S9 military virtue has remained unenervated by luxury and pleasure, it has retained its sway : each dynasty has sustained itself till it sank in sloth, and a bold and powerful usurper tumbled it from the throne for liis own descendants to un- dergo a similar destiny. The Assyrian power flourished and ruled over Asia. In the country south of the Caspian, named Media, the people, as did Israel in the days of Samuel, called for a king- ; but for a judge, not a warrior. Dejoces, distinguished for his wisdom and justice, was the first monarch : his grandson Cyaxares was allied to the king of Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar, and be- neath their united efforts, Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, and with it the power of the empire, fell. At this period the Scythians spread their swarms over Lesser Asia, Iran, Syria, and even Palestine. The king of Media freed Asia from their destructive hordes. In Lesser Asia there had been hitherto numerous little states, attached to temples of dif- ferent gods ; at these temples were held fairs and markets, and they were all closely connected with each other. At the period of the Scythian invasion these states were dissolved, and the kingdoms of Cilicia, Phrygia, and Lydia, were formed from them. Of the history of the two former we are totally ignorant. The two first dynasties of the Lydians, the Atya- b. o. des and tlie Heracleides, are mythic : the history of Gyges, 730 the first king of the Mermnade dynasty, is in part fable. In his time began the connexion between the Greeks and Lydians, who differed not much from each other in manners and religion. His successor, Ardys, warred with the Grecian colonies planted on the coast of Asia before there was any extensive monarchy in Asia Minor ; and the Cimmerians, a horde from the Black Sea, poured over Lydia and Phrygia, and possessed them during the reign of his successor, Sadyat- tes. Alyattes, the next king, drove the Cimmerians from Lesser Asia at the time that Cyaxares expelled the Scythians from his dominions. The Lydian monarch ruled Lesser Asia, the Median from Bactria to the Tigris : war arose between them, the king of Babylon became the mediator, and a mar- riage united the rival princes. During the reign of Astyages, the successor of Cyaxares, the tribes of the Persians, a nation, in religion, laws, and manners, closely resembling the Medes, and who dwelt, partly stationary, partly nomadic, in the lands between the Persian Gulf and the mountains of Bactria, were united un- der Cyrus their native prince, and gained the dominion over the Medes. Cyrus was grandson to Astyages ; but his early C2 I 30 OUTLINES or HISTORY. PART I. history is related differently by the Grecian liistorians. Cy- rus led to war the mass of the Persian tribes, united with the 'more warlike portion of the Medes, and by his conquests founded the Persian empire. He first subdued the nations of the east, next turned his arms against the Sacians and other freebooting hordes of Caucasus, then led liis mingled host against Croesus, king of Lydia, who liad reduced the Greeks of the coast, who so long had bid defiance to his pre- decessors. Crcesus was defeated and taken prisoner, but treated with kindness by the conqueror, whose friend and adviser he ever after continued. The whole of Lesser Asia, including the Grecian cities, submitted to Cyrus. Babylonia had been in alliance with Croesus : its capital shared the fete B. c. of that of Lydia. Here Cyrus found the Jews who had been 553. transplanted thither when Jerusalem was taken and plunder- ed. Similarity of religious faith, humanity, and policy, co- operated to procure them permission to return and rebuild their city. Cyrus, it is possible, now meditated the conquest of Egypt. Judsea was the key to that country, and a grateful people might favor the operations of the Persian troops. The ancient cities of Persia, Pasagarda and Persepolis, where the treasures and chronicles of the empire were kept, and the kings crowned and interred, were considered too remote to be the seat of so extensive an empire as was that of Persia. Babylon was well adapted for that purpose ; but a Persian monarch should reside in Persia, and Cyrus founded Susa on the Persian soil, at a convenient distance from Babylon. The 529. last expedition Cyrus undertook was against the Scytliians or Turks, and in an engagement with their tribes he lost his life. Cyrus possessed all the qualities of a great prince : his memory was long held in honor throughout the East, and his virtues drew forth the praises of the sages of Greece. Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses, who invaded and conquered Egypt, aided by the Phoenicians, jealous of the favor shown by the last Egyptian kings to the Greeks. Cam- byses attempted farther conquests ; but his troops were driven back by the ^Ethiopians, and an army sent to take possession of the oasis of Hammon perished in the sands of the desert. He died by a wound from his own sword — a divine judgment, according to the Egyptians, for violating tlieir sacred ox Apis — as he was about to return to Persia, where a Magian had, under the name of his brother Smerdis, seized on the throne. 521. A conspiracy of seven nobles put an end to the life and reign of the Magian, and Darius Hystaspes, one of their number, related to the royal family, was made king. Under the reign of Darius, Persia flourished, religion was CHAP. II. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 31 reformed and purified, the empire divided into a certain num- ber of provinces, and fixed imposts established. Babylon had rebelled : the loyalty and treachery of Zopyrus, a Per- sian noble, reduced it to subjection. The Persian governor of Eoypt attempted to conquer the Grecian states of Barce and Cyrene ; but Grecian valor daunted the troops of Persia. The monarch in person led an army over the Hellespont against the Scythians ; but their steppes fought for them, and he only conquered Thrace. Master of all the coast of Les- ser Asia, Darius sought to bring under his sway the islands and the continent of Greece : his fleet was shattered, and the plain of Marathon witnessed the overthrow of the first g. c. Persian host that trod the soil of Hellas. He was preparing 490. anotlier expedition against Greece : but family-feuds, and a rebellion in Egypt, occupied his thoughts, and death finally 485. surprised him. No Persian monarch, save the great Cyrus, stands on a line with Darius. Xerxes, the haughty son of a haughty mother, Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, determined to wash away the disgrace the Persian arms had sustained in Greece. At the head of countless myriads, drawn from all the provinces of his em- pire, he passed the Hellespont. At Salamis he witnessed the destruction of his fleet: his land troops, no longer supplied 480. with provisions, perished with want and disease. The mon- arch, leaving a portion of his army in Bojotia under Mardo- nius, fled to Susa, and abandoned himself to pleasure. The next year saw at Plataa the total defeat of Mardonius, and the Grecian fleet, after the victory at Mycale, sailing in tri- umph along the coast of Asia. Cruelties exercised on his nearest relatives disgraced the latter days of Xerxes, and he 467. perished, assassinated by his friends and guards, Artabanus and Spamitres. The assassins accused of the murder Dari- us, the eldest son of the king, and he was put to death by order of his youngest brother, Artaxerxes, who mounted the throne. Artaxerxes soon discovered the true murderers of his father. Artabanus atoned for his treason with his life. A rebellion raised by his sons was crushed by Megabyzus, the brother-in-law of the king, who also defeated an elder brother of the king, who was governor of Bactria, and had taken arms to assert his claims to the throne. Rebellion still raged in Egypt : an army sent thither by Xerxes, under his brother Achsemenes, had been cut to pieces, and Megabyzus was now dispatched to reduce that country. He effected his object by negotiation ; but the obedience of the Egyptians was not durable, and during 100 years we read of kings of Egypt. 32 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. This prince, surnamed Long-armed^ was a monarch who pos- B c. sessed many great and amiable qualities. He died after a 424. long reign, and the history of Persia presents from this, or rather an earlier period, the usual scenes of cruelty, treachery, fraud, and faction, characteristic of oriental despotism. Brothers murdered by brothers, queens exercising every species of cruelty on their rivals and their friends, eunuchs disposing of the throne, assassinating their sovereign, and perishing in their turn by justice or by similar treachery, are ordinary events, till, in the reign of the virtuous and ill-fated 331. Darius Codomanus, the Persian colossus was thrown to the earth by the arms of Greece. For when Artaxerxes II. mounted the throne, his younger brother Cyrus, who was governor of Lydia, Phrygia, and Ionia, under pretence of quelling some disturbances in Cilicia and Pisidia, collected an army in which were 10,000 Greeks, 401. and with it marched against him. The armies met at Cu- naxa, in the neighborhood of Babylon, and victory declared for Artaxerxes, as Cyrus fell in the action. The Greeks had on their side been conquerors : they were now deserted by their Persian confederates, deprived of their leaders by treachery ; yet without guides, they, through the midst of a hostile nation, barbarous tribes, mountains, defiles, and deserts, reached with trifling loss the coast of the Euxine. This, when known in Greece, betrayed the internal weakness of the Per- sian empire. Agesilaus the great Spartan had collected a Grecian army in Lesser Asia, the ax was apparently laid to the root of the Persian monarchy, when Persian gold effect- ed what Persian steel could not : bribery armed a confederacy in Greece against Sparta, Agesilaus was recalled to the de- fence of his country, and the fate of Persia was delayed for a season. The Persian dominions at the period of their greatest ex- tent embraced India west of the Indus, and all the country between it and the Mediterranean, Lesser Asia, Thrace, Palestine, and Egypt : Arabia paid tribute ; the mountain- tribes of Caucasus and the Turkish borderers were number- ed among its subjects. Yet, as the instance of the Cardu- chians or Koords proves, there were many tribes in the very heart of the empire who yielded but a nominal submission, maintaining nearly total independence. Under Cyrus, each subject state was left its own form of government, only bound to acknowledge the sovereign by tribute and attendance in war. Darius, by attempting to establish an uniformity of ad- ministration throughout his dominions, deprived his subjects of all love of independence. They ate, drank, plowed, and CHAP. III. GREECE. 33 wove, heedless of who ruled over them ; were dragged at times away from their homes to share in wars they took no interest in ; passive machines, they paid their taxes, or carried arms; like a flock of sheep on fertile pastures, they fed heedlessly till they became the prey of wolves. They bowed as submissively beneath the sceptre of the Macedonian hero and his successors as under that of the descendants of Cyrus. CHAP. III. Early State of Greece. Impenetrable obscurity covers the early times of Greece. Were we to believe ancient tradition, corroborated by the testimony of geology, a country named Lectonia once cov- ered a great portion of the space now occupied by the ^gean Sea. An extensive sea was spread over the plain of Scy thia, which burst the Bosporus, and poured into the Mediterranean, submerging Lectonia, and overflowing a large part of Greece. Hence this country was long under the dominion of water. The tradition of the fertile vales of Thessaly and Bceotia having been lakes, was long preserved. Buildings of gigantic dimensions still to be seen in Greece, testify for "its having been in a very remote period the seat of a civilized race. These ruins are long anterior to history : they are mentioned in the Homeric poems. Tradition as- cribes the erection of them to the Cyclopes, possibly the name of that ancient people. It is probable these aboriginal colo- nists were, like the nations of Asia, under the government of a sacerdotal order, — this alone raises such works. There can be little doubt of their being of the Caucasian race. They entered Greece from Thrace, and spread over the whole country : for their chief remains are in Peloponnesus. Possi- bly they were of the same race with the aborigines of Italy. To these succeeded the Pelasgians, a numerous tribe, who overran Greece, Italy, the islands, and a part of Lesser Asia: they, too, came from Tlirace. Agriculture was their chief employment : the arts of peace flourished among them. The religion of Greece was chiefly Pelasgian. The thickly-peopled regions of Thrace still sent forth its tribes. The Achaeans, the race who fought at Troy, next succeeded, and overcame the Pelasgians. Legends of the Lapitha^ and Centaurs, if 34 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. credit is to be given to them, may relate to contests between the Achaean and Pelasgian races, for the possession of Thes- Colonies, it is said, came from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Phry- gia, and civilized the barbarous, mast-eating savages who roamed the wilds of Greece. Danaus, an Egyptian, ruled at Argos ; Cecrops, from Sais, at Athens ; Pelops, the Phrygian, gave name to Peloponnesus ; Cadmus, the Phoenician, founded Thebes. Little reliance is to be placed on these accounts: there is no evidence of any race of the inhabitants of Greece having been in the savage state. The Phoenicians, undoubt- edly, early visited the coasts of Greece, and a colony did, per- haps, settle there ; yet it is unusual for a maritime people to go so far inland as Thebes. With respect to the Egyptian colonies, it is not unlikely that the artful and vain-glorious priests of Sais, and of other towns of Egypt, imposed their fables on the credulous Greeks, who first visited that country. The Achaean period is the heroic age of Greece : then flourished, or are said to have flourished, the mythic heroes Hercules, Theseus, Jason, and others : then were the Argo- nautic expedition, the wars of Thebes, and that of Troy, eter- nized by the verses of Homer. As a real historic event, the chief that this period offers is, the erection of a kingdom by Minos in Crete, three generations before the Trojan war. This monarch, at once king, prophet, and lawgiver, collected the various tribes of Crete into one state, established a ma- rine, conquered the piratic Carians, who swarmed in the ^gean, and reduced the Jsles beneath his power. The Achaeans, like the Pelasgians, were devoted to agri- culture and navigation. Their government vi^as aristocrato- monarchic : they possessed numerous slaves, acquired by war or by purchase, who performed all servile offices. Their chief amusements, like those of the Germans and Scandinavians, were gymnastic exercises, and at banquets listening to the songs of bards, who chanted the deeds of living or departed heroes. Manners, language, religion, were the same in all the states : even between the Achaeans and the Trojans no difference is to be perceived on these points. The Pythian and Dodonean oracles tended to keep up union : no traces of castes appear : the princes and fathers of families were priests. The monarch was distinguished chiefly by his personal quali- ties : he had the command in war, a larger share of the booty, precedence, and a portion of land assigned him. The nobles were distinguished as much by their powers of mind and body as by birth. The people had a voice in matters of war and CHAP. III. GREECE. 35 peace : no law could be made without their approbation. The elements of the future democracy were there. The religion of Greece was the worship of deities presiding over the various parts of nature and powers of mind. Under the names of Zeus, Poseidon, Apollo, Hera, Pallas, &c. names mostly of unknown origin, these deities were honored by temples, sacrifices, processions : oracles were believed to an- nounce their will and the future. This system of religion was Grecian, and unborrowed. The Phcenicians may have introduced some new deities ; and, when an intercourse was opened with Egypt, mysteries and new rites and dogmas were imported from that country. The Achaean race acknowledged a supreme head in the king of Mycenae. After the Trojan war, the bonds that united them were loosed. A time of disturbance and revo- lution came: the Dorians, a brave and hardy race, left their abodes in the mountains, and came down on Greece. This movement was followed by great changes : numerous emigrations took place : Grecian colonies covered the coasts of southern Italy, Sicily, and Lesser Asia. The Dorians, it is said, were led by the descendants of Hercules to make good their claim to the throne of Argos, of which their ancestor had been deprived ; and the Dorian immigration is called the Return of the Heracleides. But Hercules is a mythic per- sonage, — one who, it is probable, never had a real existence ; and the Dorians were, doubtless, moved by other causes. They speedily overran the Peloponnesus : her mountains defended Arcadia: Achsea alone remained to the Atreidse: Laconia, Messenia, and Argolis became the property of the Dorians : iEgina and the neighboring islands fell to them, and a portion of them settled in Crete. That branch of the Achseans named lonians, retreated to Attica, and joined its inhabitants, who were of the same race ; being pressed for room, a portion of these migrated to the banks of the Hermus, in Lesser Asia, and the adjacent isles. Peloponnesians, named ^olians, had previously settled on the coast from Cyzicus to the Hermus. No great kingdom existed at that time in Lesser Asia : the coasts had been possessed by pirate states of Leleges and Carians. The people of the interior favored the settlement of the lonians ; a race of mild manners, less addicted to war than to trade and manufactures. The conquering Dorians afterwards came from Crete, and took from the Carians Cni- dus, Halicarnassus, and Rhodes. Thus were formed the Gre- 36 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. cian cities of liesser Asia, where poetry, philosophy, arts, and science bloomed ere they attained any height in Greece.* Sparta. The Dorian state of Laconia was, at this period, the great- est state of Greece. Two kings were at the head of it ; under them stood the Dorian nobility, the Spartans ; then the Pe- rioeci or Laconians, and, lastly, the Helots, or descendants of the conquered people, a body of oppressed, ill-used serfs. Disputes and unfixed relations among these orders made the want of a settled system of legislation apparent. Lycurgus, brother to one of the kings, and guardian of his infant heir, saw this necessity, and resolved to remedy it. He went to Crete, whose constitution, originally established by Minos, and renewed by the Dorians, was then in the highest repute ; made himself acquainted with its institutions, and formed a code of laws, such as he deemed fitted for Sparta. The Del- phic oracle, so highly venerated by all of Dorian race, ap- plauded his project, and pronounced him inspired. The object of all Dorian legislation was the maintenance of a martial character in the upper and dominant classes. To crush and grind down the ill-fated serfs, and give leisure for the practice of military exercises to the warlike race of the conquerors, was the aim of both Cretan and Spartan legisla- tion. In Crete there were but two orders, the lords and the serfs : in Laconia there were three ; the PerioBci or Laconi- ans, whether Dorians of mingled marriages, or Achseans who had been left some privileges by the conquerors, forming a link between the two former. Lycurgus divided the lands of Laconia into 39,000 lots ; 9000 large ones for the Spartans, and 30,000 smaller for the Periceci, all to be tilled for them by the miserable serfs. The government was in the hands of the Spartans alone. Both Spartans and Periceci were alike engaged in unceasing military exercises. By a fatal error in legislation, the number of the Spartan families was closed, and in default of male issue, daughters could inherit landed property ; hence there arose an inequality among the leading families, and a pernicious oligarchy, where women had pow- erful influence. At the time of the Theban war, the greater part of the land was in the hands of females. The Spartan government consisted of the two kings of the race of Hercules, and a senate of twenty-eight old men (the Gerusia,) chosen by the people. The kings were leaders in * The common name of the Greeks was Hellenes, a name posterior to the time of Homer. It is uncertain when it first came into use. %" CHAP. III. GREECE. 37 war, and out of Laconia their power was unlimited. The peo- ple (i. e. the Spartans) were assembled every full moon to decide on measures proposed by the senate, which they could only accept or reject ; they decided on all crimes against the state, on the succession of the kings, and the election and dismissal of magistrates. If peace or war was the question, the PericDci were called to the council, as they were to share in the danger. The Helots had no part in legislation, or even in religious festivals. As a counterpoise to the power of the kings, a magistracy, the Ephorate, was introduced in the time of king Theopom- pus. The Ephori were five men selected from the people (the Spartans,) without regard to age. They alone were al- ways in connexion with the people ; they had the inspection of all magistrates, were present at every transaction, always attended the kings, directed all foreign affairs, accused kings and magistrates before the people, where they were them- selves both judges and accusers. At length they completely crushed all other power, and became the tyrants of the state. The greatest rigor of manners was enjoined by Lycurgus. He established syssitia, or public meals, at which all the male part of the citizens ate together. The most implicit obedi- ence and regard to age was impressed on the minds of youth ; the most inflexible endurance of pain inculcated ; most things, even slaves, horses, and dogs, were possessed in common. The chase was their flxvorite enjoyment; every species of trade was prohibited ; money was huge masses of iron. The natural result of such an education was a sternness of character, a pride and haughtiness, and love of command. While the institutions of Lycurgus continued in vigor, the Spartan character was distinguished for the sterner virtues ; when it relaxed, profligacy and corruption of every species broke in amongst them. Athens. Athens did not rise into importance till long afler Sparta. Argos was a large city ; and Corinth, the entrepot of trade between the Mgean and Ionian seas, was abounding in wealth before Athens became of any consequence ; but they and the other states of Peloponnesus offer at this period little to at- tract attention. The tale of the Egyptian Cecrops coming to Attica is a manifest fable. Attica had numerous petty princes, each ruling his own village. A prince, named Theseus, is said to have united severaF of these little states into one, and col- lected the people to Athens. But his power could not have D 38 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. TART I, been great, as Mnestheus, the second from him, led but forty ships to Troy. At the time of the Dorian irruption into Pelo- ponnesus, the family of Theseus lost the throne ; and Melan- thius, of Achaean race, from Messenia, coming to Athens, ob- tained the chief direction of affairs : his son Codrus drove back the Dorians, and forced them to be content with Megara, at that time united with Attica. The legend says, Codrus of- fered himself up for his country, and that the royal dignity was abolished out of honor to him. The republican spirit had, however, from various causes, been on the increase at Athens. Towards the end of the sixth olympiad,* a regular aristocracy was established : the chief magistrate was called Archon, and his office was annual. A farther change augmented the num- ber of archons to nine, three with peculiar rank and titles, six as presidents of courts of justice. This was the foundation of a rigid aristocracy ; but as the people had all along retained the right of assembling to pass laws, it was in a condition, whenever it could get a leader, to assert its rights and better its condition. But the aristocracy, being in possession of the administra- tion of justice, and being also invested with the sacerdotal dignities, the people had no sure place of refuge when ag- B. c. grieved. Matters fell, therefore, into turmoil and confusion. 623. Draco, in the first year of the thirty-ninth olympiad, sought a remedy in the revival of an ancient species of divine law ; but its general maxims were too rigid and severe. It suited not the spirit of the times, and became generally detested. The internal troubles still continued ; and twelve years afterwards, in a struggle between two aristocratic parties, Cylon, the head of one of them, attempted, by the aid of the tyrant or ruler of Megara, to raise himself to similar power in Athens. His project failed ; the nobles, headed by the Alcmseonides, the chiefs of the rival faction, summoned their vassals from the country, and besieged Cylon and his adherents in the citadel. He and his brother escaped ; but his followers were dragged from the altars and slain. This offence brought down vengeance from the gods ; and though the chief agents were exiled, defeat and sickness visited the city. A prophet, Epi- menides of Crete, was summoned to purify and atone for the city. He regulated the religious worship, and prepared the way for the system of legislation projected by his friend Solon. In the third year of the 46th olympiad, Solon being archon, the land-owners and citizens, debtors and creditors, were in * The olympiads were periods of four years. Tlio first began B. C. 776. CHAP. III. GREECE. 39 open feud. Solon was called upon to legislate. His first step was to arrange matters between debtor and creditor, which he accomplished by altering the standard, and lower- ing the rate of interest. He then deprived the nobility of a portion of tlieir former power, by dividing all the people into four classes regulated by property : thus, while he intro- duced a democracy, founding a new aristocracy. The nobil- ity, as possessors of the largest properties, as the sole mem- bers of the court of Areopagus, as possessed of the priesthoods, and directors of religious ceremonies, still retained an ample degree of influence. By the establishment of the Council of Four Hundred, an annually rotating college, he at once gave so many families an interest in the new order of things, that there remained no chance of its being totally subverted. He finally made all the people swear not to make any alteration during the next ten years, deeming that period sufficiently long for habituating them to the new constitution. Solon's laws did not put an end to the internal broils. The nobility, being the owners of tlie largest properties, were in the first classes, and the contests for honors and dignities raged among them as hotly as ever. The lowest class, the Thetes, who were excluded from office, and were not liable to taxes, or to serve in heavy armor, formed in the popular assembly a portion of the sovereignty, and sat in courts of justice. They were a ready weapon for any one who knew how to employ it. The old local parties of the Paralians and the Pediseans also still subsisted. Solon had travelled to the East : Megacles, the chief of the Alcmseonides, who had now returned to Athens, was at the head of the Paralians ; Ly- curgus was the leader of the Pediseans, or country gentle- men ; Peisistratus, a descendant of the ancient kings, sought the favor of the lower class. He obtained by their means the supreme power: his rivals, however, united and expelled him. Megacles then gave him his daughter in marriage, and restored him, but again drove him away. After eleven years' absence, Peisistratus returned at the head of an army, and governed Athens till his death. His sway was mild and be- neficent; the laws of Solon were observed, and Athens flour- ished under him. His sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, who succeeded him, trod in his steps ; but an act of private re- venge deprived the latter of life, and conferred an unmerited immortality on the assassins, Harraodius and Aristogeiton. Hippias grew suspicious and cruel. The Alcmseonides had devoted their wealth to the rebuilding of the temple of Delphi ; the priestess, gained by them, incessantly commanded the Spartans to restore liberty to Athens. The latter, glad of 40 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. B. c. the pretext, obeyed the oracle. Hippias abandoned Attica, 510. and retired to his estates in Asia, Solon's constitution re- mained ; but the heads of parties, to obtain influence, attached themselves to the aristocracy or the people. Isadoras, of an- cient lineage, headed the former, favored by tlie Spartans, Cleisthenes, the Alcmreonide, sought to win the people. When archon, four years after the banishment of Hippias, he shook the whole Solonian constitution, and opened the w^ay to all the future evils of unbridled democracy, by dividing the four original tribes into ten, and altering in like manner all the inferior divisions, and increasing the senate to 500 mem- bers, 50 from each of the new tribes. Prompted by Isagoras, the Spartans sent a herald to demand the banishment of those stained with the blood of Cylon's adherents, Cleisthenes was obliged to yield and retire. The Spartans attempted to re- store the old aristocracy ; the Athenians sought aid of Per- sia; Cleomenes, the Spartan, marched an army against Athens ; but his allies abandoned him, and his colleague, De- maratus, refusing to join in his project, the Spartans retired, and the democracy of Athens was fully established. CHAP. IV. GREECE TO HER SUBVERSION BY THE MACEDONIAXS. The Persian War. Greece and Persia now first came into conflict. Cyrus had conquered the Grecian colonies in Lesser Asia : the love of liberty however was not extinct, and the secret advice of Histiffius, tyrant of Miletus, wliom Darius detained at his court, tJirew the Ionian cities into revolt. They called on Athens, as head of the Ionian race, to assist them. The aid was granted, and the anger of the Great King thereby in- curred, Darius meditated the conquest of Greece and the islands ; he sent his ambassadors' to demand homage : many islands, especially ^gina, delivered earth and water, A large army, under Datis and Artaphernes, was sent to subdue 490. the refractory. The plain of Marathon witnessed the defeat of the Persian vassals by 9000 Athenians and 1000 Platroans, Datis and Artaphernes returned to Asia with the discomfited host. The Athenians resolved to punish those who had submit- ted to the Persian king. Their first enterprise against Naxos, CHAP. IV. GREECE. 41 under Miltiades, failed ; the g-eneral was condemned to pay the costs, and being unable, was treated according to Athe- nian law, like any other citizen. Aristides, Xanthippus, and Themistocles, took the place of Miltiades, and by employing the proper methods of managing a democracy, raised Athens from a petty town to the rank of a leading state. The threat- ening war of the Persians showed that Athens' only hope lay in the augmentation of her navy. Themistocles awaked the ancient grudge against JKgina ; and the produce of the sil- ver mines of Laurium, which had been hitherto divided among the citizens, was appropriated to the building of a fleet. Athens and iEgina were in conflict when intelligence arrived of the immense preparations of Xerxes, the Persian king, for the conquest of Greece. All enmity ceased ; a bond for common defence was established among the Grecian g. a states. In the spring of the first year of the 75th olympiad, 480. Xerxes led, as is said, two millions of Asiatics over the Hel- lespont. A fleet of 1200 vessels attended the march of this huge multitude. The progress of the Persian monarch was unimpeded till he reached the ever-memorable pass of Ther- mopylae, leading from Thcssaly into Proper Greece. The narrow passage between the mountain and the sea was guard- ed by a resolute band of Spartans, Phocians, Locrians, and others, under the command of Leonidas, the Spartan king. Division after division of the Persian army were repulsed with immense loss in attempting to force their way. At length, a traitor revealed another passage through the moun- tains : Leonidas, on hearing it, dismissed his allies, and, at the head of his Spartans, attacked the Persian multitudes, and fell, covered with wounds, amidst the heaps of slain. Monuments, song, and story, have conspired to exalt this deed of heroes. Meantime, the Persian fleet had suffered from a storm, and had been roughly handled by the Greeks in an engagement off" the promontory of Artemisium. The Persian army marched on to Attica, took and burned Athens. The Grecian fleet lay in the strait between Salamis and the continent ; the Persian imprudently attacked them there: a total defeat was the consequence. Xerxes, who had from the land beheld the destruction of his fleet, hasted back to Asia, leaving an army of 300,000 under Mardonius. The following year the Greeks, to the number of 110,000, fought and defeated the Persians at Platgsa, and but 40,000 of the latter returned to Asia. On the same day (Sept. 22.) the Grecian fleet totally defeated that of the Persians at the promontory of Mycale, in Ionia. Athens got a large share of the Persian spoils ; the city D2 42 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. TART I was rebuilt, and the port of Pirseiis fortified. The insolence of Pausanias, the Spartan chief, having disgusted the allies, the command was transferred to Athens. It was resolved to prosecute the war against Persia ; each of the allies was bound to supply a certain number of men and ships ; they compounded with the Athenians for the payment of an annual sum of money, instead of furnishing their contingent ; the Athenian treasurers received each year the contributions of the cities on the isles and coasts of the ^gean ; and Atliens, at the expense of the allies, maintained a powerful army and navy. The jealousy of the Spartans was excited ; they were on the point of declaring war, when an earthquake levelled Sparta; the Helots and Messenians rose in rebellion, and the haughty Spartans were forced to call on Athens for aid. But they distrusted their allies, and the Athenians joined the Ar- gives, the hereditary foes of Sparta. The rebellion of the Helots lasted ten years, and was ended by a composition with the rebels. Athens was now in the heig-ht of her power ; slie sent 200 ships to Egypt to assist the natives against the Per- sians, took a part in the affairs of Cyprus, beat the iEginetes, and established a democracy at Megara. The great men of Athens at this period were, Aristides, Themistocles, and Cimon ; all of whom, like Miltiades, experienced popular in- gratitude, and were driven from their country. The Peloponjiesian War. Pericles was now the leading man at Athens. An Alc- mseonide by the mother's side, and son of Xanthippus, who won the victory at Mycale, he sought power by bringing in the wildest democracy. All barriers of the constitution were thrown down, and power given to the lowest rabble, by vvhom and over whom he hoped to rule. Of commanding eloquence, he swayed the people; handsome, rich, generous, and brave, he was master of their affections. Magnificent in liis taste, he adorned the city with stately buildings at the cost of the allies, and all the arts flourished beneath his patronage. Pericles reduced Euboea and Samos ; he covered the coasts and islands with Athenian colonies ; he made the Athenians masters of the sea, and already those dreams of distant con- quest, which caused their overthrow, began to float before the imagination of the vain-glorious people. He sought to en- feeble the Doric confederacy, and an opportunity soon offered. Corinth and her colony Corcyra were, after Athens, the most considerable naval powers. United, they were able to cope with her ; but commercial jealousy prevented their co-ope- rating, and, at last, they went to war with each other. Cor- CHAP. IV. GREECE. 43 cyra addressed herself to Athens for aid ; the Corinthians complained to Sparta of the breach of the truce by the latter power : other events occurred to increase the odium against Athens, and, at length, war was declared against her by the Doric confederation, and an army, under Archidamus, one of b. c. the Spartan kings, invaded Attica. The plan laid down by ^-^^ Pericles for carrying on the war was, to abandon the country to the Lacedsemonian army, and then retaliate by descents on Peloponnesus, by which they would soon weary the confede- rates of the war. Unfortunately, destiny fought also against Athens : in the second year of the war the plague broke out, and swept away numbers of citizens ; amongst them, Pericles liimself The war was still carried on with various success. The most remarkable event of it in Greece, was the gallant defence of Plataea against the Peloponnesians. The greatest man that appeared among the Spartans was Brasidas, who, to the severe virtues of a Spartan, united mildness and gentle- ness of manners. Among the Athenians, Nicias and De- mosthenes were the most distinguislied of the nobles ; Cleon, the leading demagogue ; but Alcibiades, of noble birth, im- mense wealth, extreme beauty, and eminent talents, far eclipsed all the men of his time. He was the ward of Peri- cles and the pupil of Socrates ; but, hurried away by his am- bition, he waited not till years had matured his judgment, engaging in politics he took the popular side, and plunged his country into the fatal expedition to Sicily. Numerous Grecian colonies had settled in Sicily, and had risen to great wealth and power : they were almost all democ- racies ; but tyrants occasionally ruled them. Syracuse was the most distinguished of these cities. Gelon had possessed himself of the tyranny, and governed with justice and mild- ness : after his death, the people fell into divisions : the smaller cities, which were oppressed, applied to Athens for help. Alcibiades, who was then in the plenitude of his influ- ence, warmly exhorted the people to attend to the call, and drew a brilliant picture of the glorious prospect of universal empire that now seemed destined for Athens. In an evil hour the people, though warned by Nicias and other men of age and experience, yielded their assent, and an expedition against Syracuse was decreed. Tlie finest fleet that ever left Athens sailed under the command of Alcibiades, Nicias, and Lamachus, and success at first attended its operations; but the enemies of Alcibiades accused him of profaning the mysteries; he was recalled, and fled to Sparta: a Spartan general, Gylippus, was dispatched to Syracuse, and though' the Athenians augmented their army in Sicily to 40,000 men, 41 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART I. B.C. and sent out Demosthenes, their ablest general, it was de- *12. feated, and men and generals lost life or liberty. The news of this misfortune was at first not credited at Athens: when its truth was confirmed, the people looked around and saw themselves without horse, or heavy infantry, or ships, with an empty treasury, their subjects in rebellion, their allies fallen off", the enemy in their country, and before their port; yet they lost not courage, but vigorously prepared for defence. The Lacedaemonians, by the advice of Alcibia des, instead of making annual incursions into Attica, ha taken and fortified Decelia, a post half-way between Athen and BcBotia, and from thence wasted the country : still the Athenians held out for seven years : and, but for the party- spirit that prevailed, which drove again into exile Alcibiades, and unjustly put to death most of their other good generals, they might have come off" victorious in the struggle. The vanity and inexperience of the Athenian commanders (warned 405. in vain by Alcibiades) gave a decisive victory to the Lacedae- monian Lysander, at the river it^gos, and Athens' last hope, her renewed fleet, was lost. Lysander soon appeared in the Piraeus; the people made a gallant resistance, but hunger compelled them to sue for peace. The Thebans and Co- rinthians insisted that the city should be burnt, and the in- habitants reduced to slavery. The Lacedaemonians declared they would never submit to the destruction of a city which had merited so well of Greece. But to cramp her power effectually, she was allowed to possess but twelve ships ; the Long Legs, the walls between the city and the Piraeus, were broken down ; and the government placed in the hands of an oligarchy of thirty persons. Thus ended the Peloponnesian war, after a continuance of twenty-seven years, and with it the dominion of Athens, in the seventy-fifth year after the battle of Salamis. During that period Athens had acquired another and more lasting empire, of which Lysander could not deprive her : she had become the mistress of Greece in all the arts and sciences that embellish and ennoble life. Poetry, philosophy, archi- tecture, sculpture, attained during the time of Athenian sway an eminence never surpassed. The philosophy of Socrates and his disciples, the dramas of Sophocles and Euripides, the stately Parthenon, and other works of the immortal Phidias, drew thither all Greece ; and nowhere were religious festivals celebrated with equal taste and splendor. Commerce flour- ished ; good taste was diffused among all ranks of society. CHAP. IV. GREECE. 45 LacedcBmqnian Dominion. When Athens fell, Sparta remained without a rival : she commanded at sea as at land: her Harmosts, somewhat like the Eno-lish residents at the courts of Indian princes, directed the policy of the independent towns of Greece and Asia. The pride and arrogance of Sparta lost her this empire. The oligarchy established and protected at Athens by her became odious ; Athenian exiles, headed by Thrasybulus, returned to b. c their country in arms, and overthrew the thirty tyrants : the 403 Long Legs were rebuilt. Conon, the Atlienian, was admiral of the Persian fleet ; Persian gold was employed to raise the city to independence, and Athenian fleets again appeared at sea. Sparta still sought to establish an oligarchy in every town ; and wherever, as at Olynthu'?, popular liberty estab- lished itself, tlie Spartan cemmanders nad orders to extin- guish it. During this period, Persia exercised considerable influence In the affairs of Greece. The memorable retreat of the Ten Thousand, who, opposed by all the arts of oriental treachery, by all the forces of the empire, and the difficulties of an un- Imown, mountainous country, had forced their way to the Euxine, revealed the secret of the internal weakness of that vast empire. Agesilaus, king of Sparta, had meditated con- quests in Asia, and had for two years carried on war with success in that country. The Persian court saw its danger, 396 and adopted the policy of subsidizing the difl^erent states of Greece, and keeping up such a balance of power among them, as would prevent any projects of invasion of Asia. Hence, as in modern times two Turkish pashas may have different foreign policies, so of the two satraps of Lesser Asia the one would support the Lacedaemonians, the other their enemies. By these means the influence of the Persian monarch was become so great in Greece, that he dictated the terms of a peace among the contending states ; in which he declares the cities of Lesser Asia, and the islands of Clazomenss and Cyprus, to belong to himself, and pronounces the indepen- dence of all other cities, great and small, with the exception of Lemnos, Imbrus, and Scyrus, which should belong as of old to Athens, and menaces with war such as refuse to ac- 387 cept it. This peace, called that of Antalcidas, from the name of the Spartan who was tlie chief agent in bringing it to bear, was viewed with indignation by every man of noble mind, wjio compared it with the terms which Greece, when at unity with herself, had imposed on the Persians, and saw 48 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. in it loss of honor and independence by the permission of foreign interference. Tliehan Dominion. Sparta had humbled Athens; her own turn was to come from a quarter whence it was least expected. A Spartan general, Phoebidas, had, in the midst of peace, made himself, by treachery, master of the citadel of Thebes ; his govern- ment punished him, but retained the fortress, and established an oligarchy in that city. Sparta seemed at this period in the height of her power. Her king, Agesilaus, was victo- rious in Asia, she had dissolved the Olynthian confederacy, and reduced Olynthus to that state of subjection, from which Athens alone was exempt, and never less dreaded decline, when a conspiracy was formed by some of the democratic party in Thebes ; the principal oligarchs were murdered, the citadel besieged, and the garrison forced to surrender. Two great men now appeared to guide the Theban affairs, Pelopidas and Epaminondas ; the Athenians joined them ; the Thebans recovered their supremacy over the other Boeotian towns. The Lacedaemonians were now forced to recall Agesi- laus from his conquests in Asia, to oppose the Theban and Athenian generals. The power of Thebes continually in- creasing, the Athenians grew jealous, and sent ambassadors to the Great King, who directed the Greeks to make peace among themselves on the basis of that of Antalcidas, Athens and Sparta obeyed — it was for the advantage of both — and Sparta, who had lost all influence out of Peloponnesus, will- ingly withdrew her harmosts. Cleombrotus was marching his troops out of Phocis, when he received orders to make the Thebans restore the other Boeotian cities to independence. The Thebans, who were dissatisfied at the peace by which they were the only losers, refused compliance ; the armies g ^ met on the plain of Leuctra, and the Spartans were for the 371.* first time defeated in a pitched battle. The charm was now dissolved. It was proved that the Lacedsemonian arms were not invincible. Epaminondas and Pelopidas now invaded the Peloponnesus at the head of 40,000 men ; the Argives, Elians, and the democratic party in Arcadia, joined the Thebans, who entered and ravaged the Lacedsemonian territory. Epaminondas ad- vanced into Messenia, called the oppressed inhabitants to lib- erty, recalled the exiles, and raised a town named Messene, in which he placed a Theban garrison. Athens joined Sparta. Ambassadors from all the parties hastened to the Persian court. Pelopidas headed the Theban embassy, peace was CHAP. IV. GREECE. 47 dictated on the Theban terms, and the stream of gold that previously flowed to Sparta was directed to Thebes. The Arcadians had now become powerful in Peloponnesus. Lyco- medes, one of their leading men, sought to detach them from the Thebans : the latter, fearing to lose their influence in Pe- loponnesus, sent an army thither under Epaminondas. A second battle for the supremacy in Greece was fought at b. c. Mantinea between the Thebans and Lacedaemonians, and ^^^* Epaminondas died in the arms of victory. Philip of Macedon. The republican spirit was now extinct in Greece : no state was in a condition to take the lead ; no man of any eminence was to be found except in Athens. The republican virtues had fled from those who had sunk to be the pensioners of Persia. A monarchical was the only form of supremacy suited to the present state of Greece, and Providence had provided such in a constitutional monarchy — that of Macedon. Jason, the tyrant of Pherse in Thessaly, had conceived this design. The Thessalians were a strict aristocracy, with a numerous body of vassals called Penestse, resembling the barons of the middle ages. Occasionally there rose a prince in some town among them who gradually united several towns under him. At this period, Jason was such in Pherae, and Polydamas in Pharsalus. Both were men of virtue, only that of Jason was not proof against ambition. They united in the project of turning the quarrels of Thebes and Sparta to the advantage of Thessaly, and by the influence of Polydamas, Jason was chosen Tagus, or commander-in-chief of Thessaly. He took the same road to power afterwards so successfully trodden by Philip ; but he was unfortunate in three circum- stances : his troops were chiefly mercenaries, and therefore not to be depended upon ; he was not an hereditary prince, and his nobility were jealous of him ; he appeared at a time when the great Theban generals were in the height of their glory, and when Atheng had generals far superior to those she opposed to Philip. Fat« seemed. resolved to deprive Thes- saly of the glory of becoming a great power. Jason perished by the daggers of conspirators : his brothers and his nephew Alexander were tyrants, in the modern sense. The last was murdered by his own relations, and Thessaly fell into confu- sion and disorder. At this period, the celebrated Holy War broke out, and greatly contributed to the farther demoralization of Greece, when all reverence for the gods and every thing sacred was lost, and the holy offerings collected for so many years in the 48 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. temple at Delphi, were scattered throngli Greece, the pre- cious metals melted and coined, the crowns and other votive offerings profanely worn by women and boys of loose life. The Bceotians and Thessalians formed the great majority in the Amphictyonic Council. They caused a decree to be passed, inflicting a heavy fine on the Lacedaemonians for their ravages in Boeotia ; and when these refused payment, they, from private motives, did the same to the Phocians for having occupied the land that once belonged to the Cirrhfeans, and had been consecrated to the god. Relyuig on the aid of Athens and Sparta, the Phocians refused obedience, and by the advice of Philomelus, one of their chief men, seized on the temple and its treasures. Greece at that time abpunded in soldiers of fortune, men who made war a trade, who served any one who was able to pay them. Masters of tlie immense wealth of the temple, the Phocians, therefore, easily collected an army, and they carried on the contest for a space of ten years. In this war the Thessalians, being hard pressed by the Pho- cians, called Philip king of IVIacedon to their aid. This tal- ented prince, who had been, brought up at Thebes in the time of Epaminondas, had, from the day he ascended the Macedo- nian throne, all his thoughts occupied on the means of strength- ening and extending his hereditary kingdom. He aided the Thessalians, and, after a variety of changes of fortune, tlie Phocians were at length destroyed. Philip made himself master of Olynthus anil all the cities on the coast of Thrace, and in spite of all the efforts of Demosthenes, who did all that was in man to rouse the Athenians to energy while it was yet time, continually advanced in his plans of power and ag- B. c. grandizement, and at length, on tlie field of Ch^ronea, saw 338. the independence of Greece prostrate at his feet. Philip was now at the height of his power : the Spartans had been excluded from the Amphictyonic Council, and the votes of the Phocians transferred to him : he liad the right of priority in consulting the Delphian oracle, and was presi- dent of the Pythian games. He called a general assembly of the Greeks to Corinth ; and was there appointed com- mander-in-chief of the Grecian forces in the w^ar now to be undertaken against Persia, under pretext of avenging her former violations of the Grecian temples. The Macedonian monarch thus occupied the station for which he was fitted, and which the present state of Greece required, — that of head of the Grecian confederacy ; from which the ill-judging patriotism of Demosthenes so long sought to exclude him. The idea of reducing Greece to a province of his kingdom CHAP. V. ALEXANDER AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 49 he was too wise to entertain. In the midst of his projects for the conquest of Asia, he fell by the hand of an assassin. CHAP. V. ALEXANDKR AND HIS SUCCESSORS. Alexander. Alexander was in his twentieth year when his father was b. c. slain : he had been educated by Aristotle, and his naturally 337. great talents sedulously cultured. Difficulties environed him on his accession : the Athenians and Thebans, on the intelli- gence of the death of Philip, were flying to arms, when Alexander appeared in Bceotia at the head of an army. They were terrified, and desisted. The IHyrians and Triballi had made inroads into Macedon: the yoimg prince marched against them, and conquered to the Danube. A report was spread in Greece of his death : Thebes rose in arms ; but Alexander suddenly returned, entered Bocotia, and took and levelled that city. All Greece was now at his devotion. He called on the different states for the contingents they had voted his father for the invasion of Asia ; and, at the head of 334. 30,000 foot and 4500 horse, passed the Hellespont. At the river Granicus the Persian army opposed his progress : it met a total defeat, and all Lesser Asia fell to the conqueror : he restored the Grecian cities to independence, and pursued his march through Cilicia. At Issus, in the pass of the mountains 333 leading into Syria, he again encountered and defeated the Persian army. He continued his progress southwards, took 332. Tyre, afler an obstinate resistance, and reduced all Egypt to subjection. He here founded the most permanent monument of his fame, the city of Alexandria, — a place that has exer- cised such influence on the political and moral relations of the world as ever to render it memorable, — marched with a select body of men to the oasis containing the temple of Am- mon, and obtained from the priests of the god a declaration of his divinity ; acting in this, perhaps, with policy, — perhaps, with vanity. The conquests of Alexander can only be compared with those of the Arabs or Mongols in rapidity. Darius having assembled another army, his rival hastened from Egypt. On the plain between Gaugamela and Arbela, at the foot of the Armenian and Koordish mountains, he encountered the host of Darius, composed, it is said, of a million of men, while 331. E .1 50 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART the Grecian troops were, at most, 50,000 men. The Per- sians were utterly routed ; Darius fled to the north-eastern provinces of his kingdom, and Babylon and Susa fell into the hands of the conqueror. Persepolis and Ecbatana shared their fate. Meantime Darius was murdered hy Bessus, gov- ernor of Bactria. According to oriental maxims, Alexander was now king, and he resolved to avenge the death of his predecessor : he invaded Bactria, put to death Bessus, who had assumed the diadem, and conquered the whole of those northern provinces of the Persian empire. He founded cities in Bactria and Sogdiana, and then directed his course towards India. From the southern part of Balkh he marched through Candahar,* Ghizni, and Caubul, to the Indus. Though val- iantly opposed by the natives, the predecessors of the modern Seeks, he was victorious, and still advanced, till the discon- tent of his troops obliged him to return : he proceeded south- wards along the river, sent a fleet under Nearchus from the [ndus to the Persian Gulf, and, with a great loss of men and beasts, made his way across the deserts into Persia. Shortly B, c afl;erwards he met his death from drunkenness, or poison, at 324 Babylon, in the thirty-second year of his age. Alexander's great object seems to have been the establish- ment of one great and permanent empire, of which the dif- ferent parts would be united by mutual political and com- mercial advantages. Hence he sought to do away all national prejudices, and make his different subjects feel themselves one people. To attain this object, he founded those numerous Grecian cities in various parts of his oriental dominions, and had he lived a few years longer he might possibly have, in a great measure, accomplished what he aimed at. But his early death frustrated all these great projects, and the am- bition of his generals speedily pulled down the fabric he was erecting. Division of Alexan(ler''s Dominions, Alexander died without appointing a successor. The queen Roxana, was pregnant, and he had a half-brother, named Philip Aridseus, who was simple. When dying, he had given his ring to Perdiccas. After much warm dispute among the generals, they came to the resolution that Alexander (Rox- ana's son) and Philip Aridseus should be proclaimed kings ; that Perdiccas should be guardian, and that each general should take the charge of a province. The partition of offices * The city of Candaliar is said to have been founded by Alexander. Its name seems evidently derived from liis. He is called in the E;ist Tscander, and, rejecting the fust syllable, Cander and Candahar are not unlike. CHAP. V. ALEXANDER AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 51 and provinces was thus made: — Perdiccas Iiad no prov- ince, but v^^as commander-in-chief of the army : Antipater and Craterus had charge of the European dominions ; Seleu- cus, of Babylon; Ptolemy, of Egypt, Libya, and part of Ara- bia ; Leonatus, of Mysia ; Antigonus, of Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia ; Lysimachus, of Macedonian Thrace ; Laomedon had Syria; Python, Media; Menander, Lydia; &c. &c. To the valiant Eumenes v^^as assigned Cappadocia, whose inhab- itants were yet to be subdued. The kings were only such in name, and these Grecian sa- traps saw and grasped at the opportunity of making them- selves independent princes. A period of unceasing tumult, war, and murder, formed the first sixteen years that succeed- ed the death of Alexander. Perdiccas first conceived the plan of gaining the empire by destroying the governors, one after another. This plan was facilitated by their mutual animosities, or their contests with those over whom they ruled. Ptolemy, the most powerful of the governors, was singled out as the first object of attack. Perdiccas led an ^ p. army into Egypt, but was murdered by his own mutinous 321 troops. Craterus fell in a battle against Eumenes, and Antipater remained sole regent of Macedon. He died shortly after, 319- having appointed Polysperchon to succeed him. Polysper- chon joined the party of Olympias, the mother of Alexander. AridsBus and his wife were put to death, and the friends of Antipater persecuted. The nobles clung to his son Cassan- der, and Olympias expiated her crimes by a violent death. 315. Antigonus took and put to death Eumenes, who maintained the rights of Alexander's family. He now ruled over all Lesser Asia, wrested Syria and Phoenicia from Ptolemy, and drove Seleucus from Babylon. His valiant son Demetrius passed over to Greece, and restored the cities to freedom ; then collected a fleet, and defeated that of Ptolemy off Cy- 307. prus. His father now assumed the title of kiiiir, and his ex- ample was followed by the other governors. The family of Alexander was now extinct, Roxana and her son having been put to death by Cassander. But Antigonus's reign was of short duration : his ambition was too inordinate ; and a league was formed against him by Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Cassander. Antigonus fell, in his 80th year, in battle 301 against his rivals, on the field of Ipsus, in Phrygia, and the victors shared his dominions among them. The dominions of Alexander were now divided into f^ur 52 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART I. great kingdoms. Macedon, with a part of Greece ; Thrace ; Syria, with all Upper Asia ; Egypt, with Cyrene and Cyprus. Macedon. Cassander, when he had destroyed the family of Alexan- der, took the title of king. His vicious and feeble sons lost their lives and the throne, which was seized on by Deme- B. c. trius, son of Antigonus : he was expelled by Pyrrhus, the 287. Epirote ; and Pyrrhus, by Lysimachus, king of Thrace. Du- ring sixteen years, twelve kings of different houses governed the paternal dominions of Alexander. • In the time of these kings, an army of Kelts devastated Macedon, penetrated into Greece, and advanced to pillage the temple of Delphi. The Greeks rolled down rocks from the heights ; thunder roared through the mountains; — the terrified barbarians fled, and , the god got the renown of defending his temple. Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius, a man of prudence and humanity, raised Macedon out of the ruin into which it had been plunged ; and, during a reign of forty years, he was the protector of Greece. His son, Demetrius IL, who suc- 243. ceeded him, emulated his virtues. Demetrius dying, left an infant son, Philip, whose uncle and guardian, Antigonus, sur- named Doson, married tlie widow of the late king, and usurp- ed the kingdom, which he governed with ability for eleven years, and then left to the lawful heir, Philip. This prince 198. mixed himself in the affairs of Greece, and was recognized as sovereign lord of that country. War took place, in conse- quence, between him and the Romans, and Philip was de- feated, obliged to withdraw his garrisons from Greece, reduce 143. his shipping, and pay the expenses of the war. His son Per- seus renewed the war with Rome, but was taken, and died in prison ; and Macedon was shortly afterwards reduced to a Roman province. The Macedonian kingdom extended from the Propontis, through Thrace, to the mountains of .^tolia, lying at the north of the country of Greece. Greece. We have seen all Greece submit to Philip and Alexander. After the death of the latter, some unavailing efforts had been made, especially by Athens, to re-establish the ancient freedom ; but they were always obliged to bow their necks, once more, to the Macedonian yoke. There was no union among them ; tliey pursued their old feuds and petty contests, instead of combining for a common object ; and their country CHAP. V. ALEXANDER AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 53 was continually ravaged by the armies of the contending generals of Alexander. Sparta, which had sulkily refused to take part in the con- quest of the East, and had waged an unsuccessful war against Antipater, had long since seen the decline of her Lycurgean constitution. In vain the patriotic Agis sought to bring his country back to her former state ; his life atoned for his op- position to the tyrannic oligarchs. Sparta became the do- minion of the most odious of tyrants ; she joined the Romans against Macedon, and then changed sides, and she ended by becoming, like the other Grecian states, a part of the Roman dominions. The cities of Achssa renewed among themselves an old confederacy, named the Achaean league, which, under the guidance of Aratus, labored with vigor for the freedom of Greece against Macedon: gradually, other states, and amongst them, Athens, joined the league. The iEtolian towns formed a similar union ; but their enmity with the Achseans and Sparta prevented their arriving to any importance. Civil discord, the perpetual bgine of Greece, gave the Romans the wished-for opportunity of intermeddling in its affairs. Corinth was taken and destroyed ; and Greece reduced to a Roman province, under the name of, Achaea. The last of the heroes of Greece was Philopccmen, the Arcadian general of the b. c, Acha3an league, justly styled the last of the Greeks. Two 183 thousand years have rolled away since the death of Philopos- men, without Greece, till of late, producing a warrior for in- dependence. May she derive wisdom from the past, and avoid the errors by which she lost her freedom ! Thrace. Lysimachus made himself king of Thrace ; he conquered 322. Macedon, and was also master of a part of the countries about the Euxine, His reign was the flourishing period of Thrace ; but it was of short duration. Lysimachus fell in battle against Seleucus : the Gauls ravaged the land, which sometimes obeyed Syrian, sometimes Egyptian, princes. The native chiefs recovered their power. King Cotys, one of these princes, formed an alliance with the Romans : king Sasales 43. gave up Thrace to them. At this period, some independent states arose in Lesser Asia, which we shall notice in this place. Bithynia. This country, stretching along the Black Sea to the Pro- pontis and the Hellespont, was, at one time, tributary to the E2 54 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART I. Lydians, and then to the Persians. After the death of Alex- ander, a native chief, named Bas, expelled Calanthus, the Macedonian governor. Internal (roubles continually agitated this state. Nicomedes I., to keep his throne, allied himself with the Gauls, to whom he assigned a district, called, from them, Galatia. Prusias is known by Annibal's having sought in vain a refuge at his court. Nicomedes II. was expelled by B. c. Mithridates, and restored by the Romans ; to whom Nico- 75. medes IV., having no children, made over his dominions. Pergamus, The ancient Mysia vanished in the Lydian and Persian empires. While Lysimachus, king of Thrace, ruled this part of Asia, his lieutenant, an eunuch named Phileta^rus, made himself independent, and established a kingdom, called Per- 283. gamus, from its capital. He was succeeded by his nephew, Eumenes, who extended his dominions considerably. Attains II. was the first who took the title of king. The most cele- brated of these kings was Eumenes II., in whose reign the pergament, or parchment, was invented. His dominions em- braced the Thracian Chersonese, and Asia this side of Tau- rus, consequently, Mysia, Lydia, the two Phrygias, and Ly- 83. caonia. His son. Attains III., having no heirs, left his king- dom to the Romans. Pontus. This country, named from tlie Pontus Euxinus, on which it lay, formed a part of northern Lesser Asia, east of Bithy- nia. It was included in the Persian dominions, and was given as an hereditary fief by Darius I. to his son Artabazes. Ariobarzanes, one of his successors, having obtained also 365. Lydia, Phrygia, and Ionia, became so powerful, that he cast off the Persian yoke. Mithridates II. voluntarily surrendered his kingdom to Alexander. When, after that monarch's death, Antipater attempted to seize this state, the Pontic prince resisted, and maintained his independence. Succeed- 124. ing princes enlarged their dominions. Mithridates VIL, the greatest of them, was talented and ambitious : yet, though desirous of conquest, he sought to avoid a conflict with the Romans, at that time masters of a great part of Lesser Asia. He therefore turned his arms eastwards, and conquered the tribes round the Euxine as far as the Tauric Chersonese. But two such powerful neighbors could not continue long without a rupture ; war broke out between them on account of Pam- phylia and Cappadocia, and during a space of thirty years the gallant and indefatigable king of Pontus sustained a war CHAP. V. ALEXANDER AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 53 against the arms of Rome, conducted by Sulla, Lucullus, and b. c. Pompeius. Poison, administered by his own hand, terminated 64. his eventful life. His grandson Darius reigned over Pontus ; but its glory and its power were gone, and it was finally, by the emperor Nero, reduced to the form of a Roman prov- ince. Armenia. This mountainous but fruitful country appears not till late in the history of Asia. It was divided into Great and Little Armenia, and had obeyed successively the Assyrian, Persian, and Syrian empires. In the reign of Antiochus III., Artaxias, 190 the governor of Great, and Zariades of Little Armei; ia, made themselves independent. Tigranes, a descendant of the former, united the two Armenias, and was superior lord of Syria and Cappadocia. His father-in-law, Mithridates VII., involved him in a war with the Romans, and he lost Little Armenia and Syria. Tigranes II. was put to death by order of the Roman emperor Tiberius. Little Armenia had been given after the fall of- Mithridates to Dejotarus, a Galatian, and then to other foreigners. After tliis period it vanishes out of history, and Great Armenia becomes the apple of dis- cord between the Romans and Parthians. After many con- flicts betwoen the contending parties, it had again kings of its own in the time of the emperor Hadrian, and was finally absorbed in the Persian empire of the Sassanides. Syria. Seleucus, named Nicator, was, after the death of Alexan- der,* governor of Babylon. He extended his power eastwards into India, and, after the battle of Ipsus, he became master of Syria, and possessor of all or nearly all the countries that had composed the Persian empire. Seleucus was an active, pru- dent prince, an encourager of trade, and a founder of cities. With him the Syrian empire rose ; after his death it gradually declined. His son Antiochus obtained the name of Soter, the Saver, from having delivered Lesser Asia from the Gauls ; but he was forced to acknowledge the independence of Bi- thynia and Pergamus. Antiochus IL, named, by his flatter- ers, Theos, the God, was weak and effeminate. The Parthi- 252. ans cast off the yoke of Syria, and their example was fol- lowed by the Bactrians. Seleucus II. , seeking to regain the lost supremacy, died a prisoner in Parthia. Antiochus the Great fought in vain against the Parthians and Bactrians : he reduced the rebel governors of Media and Persia ; but his de- feat by the Egyptians at Raphia lost him Palestine and Coelo- 56 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART I. B. c. Syria. Engaging in war with the Romans, he invaded 190. Greece, but was repelled ; and the battle of Magnesia checked his. career of ambition. The terms on which the haughty senate dictated peace were, the surrender of all the countries on this side Taurus, payment of 15,000 talents to the Romans, and 400 to Eumenes of Pergamus ; the delivery of Annibal, and the sending of his son as a hostage to Rome. The Syrian power was now at an end. Roman influence was paramount : all efforts to shake it off w6re futile. Murder and treason disputed for the throne : neighbors and subjects took advantage of its weakness. Parthia rapidly extended its conquests. Judea and the Armenias asserted their indepen- dence. The empire was finally contracted to Proper Syria and PhoEnicia. Tigranes of Armenia seized on Syria; and 64. the Romans gave the empire of the Seleucides its coup de grace, by declaring Syria a Roman province. Judea. Only a small portion of Israel took advantage of Cyrus s permission to return to their own country. Those that did return were chiefly of the tribe of Judah ; and hence the na- tion is in future called Jews. They were feeble, and they continued in humble obedience to the Persian monarchy. On its destruction, they obeyed Alexander and his successors, first the king of Egypt, and then of Syria. Their rulers had hitherto respected their religion. Antio- chus Epiphanos attempted to force them to adopt Grecian rites. The Maccabees, a race of heroes, like the judges of old, arose. Mattathias assembled bands in the mountains, and thence fell on the Syrians. His valiant son, Judas Macca- beus, continued the warfare, defeated several Syrian armies, and entered Jerusalem in triumph. He formed an alliance with the Romans. The brothers of Judas, Jonathan, Simon, and John Hyrcanus, followed up his successes so ably after his death, that the Syrians were forced to acknowledge the independence of Judea. Uniting in his own person the dignities of high-priest and prince, John Hyrcanus extended his dominion over Galilee, the country beyond Jordan, Idumea, &c. ; and the Jewish state became under him of greater extent than it had been since the days of David and Solomon. His son Aristobulus 107. took the title of king. The Jewish power was not of long continuance. Factions and feuds broke out: the throne was often disputed. The Romans interposed to settle the succession. Pompeius led C2. Aristobulus and his sons to Rome, and gave the throne and CHAP. V. ALEXANDER AND HIS SUCCESSORS, 57 priesthood to liis brother Hyrcanus, placing- a Roman g-ovcmor b. a by his side. The troubles, however, still continued ; and the 39. Romans at last set the Idumean Antipater over Judea, whose son Herod became king", a prince well known for his cruelty. On the death of Herod, the Romans divided his kingdom among his three sons. The whole was reunited under his a. d. grandson Agrippa, and after his death reduced to a Roman 44. province. Partliia. Parthia is the country lying- between Media and Aria, south of Hyrcania. Its inhabitants had obeyed the Persian and Syrian monarchs: the tyranny of a governor of the latter drove them into rebellion. Arsaces, a man of humble birth, but military talent, placed himself at their head, and achieved their independence. The succeeding- Arsacides, as the king's were named, enlarged their dominions, which gradually extended from India to the Euphrates; from the Caspian to the Arabian sea. When the Romans became masters of Lesser Asia, proximity produced enmity, and the Parthians were the only people who resisted Rome with suc- cess. Crassus, who led the first Roman army over the Eu- phrates, was defeated and slain. In the civil wars of the Ro- mans they also took a share, siding- with Pompeius ag-ainst Csesar ; and with tlie latter's murderers aguinst Octavianus and Antonius. Ventidius, the general of the latter, gave them a decisive overthrow. The remaining history of the Parthians offers only, exter- nally, continued wars with various success against the Ro- mans ; internally, the usual series of murder, usurpation, and cruelty, which characterize the monarchies of Asia. The twenty-ninth of the Arsacides was driven from his throne by Artaxerxes, a descendant of the ancient line of Persia ; and a new dynasty, that of the Sassanides, so named from Sassan, the founder's father, was established. Egypt. Egypt was the most fortunate of the provinces in the char- acter of its governor. Ptolemy, son of Lagus, was a man of prudence and moderation : his first object was to form there a Grecian state without oppressing the original inhabitants. Peace was necessary for the execution of his judicious plans, and he never, but when constrained, took part in the quarrels of the other governors. After the battle of Ipsus, to the gain- ing of which he had mainly contributed, lie also assumed the title of king. He then turned all his thoughts to tlie benefit- 1 68 OUTLINES OF HISTORY PART L ing of his kingdom ; he beautified Alexandria, built the Pharus light-house, encouraged every kind of trade, collected a li- brary, and invited learned men from all parts to Alexandria. His empire included Egypt, Libya, Cyrene, part of Arabia, Palestine, and Coelosyria ; and flourished each day more and more, in consequence of his wise regulations and just govern- ment. Ptolemy II., named Philadelphus, trod in the foot- steps of his father, and equalled or excelled him in his pat- ronage of learning. He much extended and facilitated the trade to India, by repairing the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea; and, still more, by forming the harbor of Berenice B, c. on that sea. Ptolemy III., Evergetes, imitated his fatlier and 221. grandfather, and closed the series of the virtuous Ptolemies. After the death of Evergetes, there reigned in Egypt ten degenerate descendants of Ptolemy Lagus. Discord agitated this royal house, like others ; murders were perpetrated for empire. The constant interference of the Romans alone preserved it from dissolution. With their consent, and by the will of his father, the last Ptolemy espouse'd his sister Cleo- patra, and shared his empire with her. Driven from Egypt, she sought the protection of Cajsar, who re-established her as sole ruler. After his death, she united herself to Antonius ; and, on his death, poisoned herself, rather than grace the 30. triumph of Octavianus. Egypt was then reduced to the form of a Roman province. The kingdoms of Europe and Asia, whose destinies we have traced in the preceding pages, fell, as we have seen, almost all into the spreading empire of Rome ; a state which, as will soon appear, grew up from the smallest origin, and, gathering strength from every storm that assailed her, at length embraced nearly the whole civilized world beneath her shade. To her we now hasten, previously sketching the early history of her first transmarine rival, Carthage. At an early period of history a colony of Tyrians, said to have been conducted by Dido, sister to the king of Tyre, founded on the coast of Africa the city of Carthage. Pos- sessed of the commercial enterprise and dexterity of their countrymen, they rapidly extended their trade and their dominions. Numerous cities on the coast of Africa were founded by them: they trafficked with the interior: their ships sailed to the south beyond the Canary isles ; northwards they visited the shores of Gaul and Britain, and, perhaps, those of the Baltic : they wrought the silver mines of Spain : their colonies occupied the isles of the Mediterranean. CHAP. VI. ROME TILL THE PUNIC WARS. 59 The political constitution of Carthage claimed the admi- ration of Aristotle. Two magistrates, named Suffetes, or judges,* chosen annually from the most distinguished families, were at the head of the government : under them were five persons who managed the chief affairs. All these magistrates were unpaid. The senate was composed of 100 members: if they and the five agreed on any matter, it was put into exe- cution; if they disagreed, it Was brought before the as- sembly of the people : the decision of the last was conclu- sive. Morals were more attended to in Carthage than in most Grecian cities, and there was a magistrate there cor- responding with the Roman censor. The popular power was not so dangerous in Carthage as in Greece, the people being of a grave and solemn character, and not to be led astray by the arts of demagogues. Their manners were rugged, their religion dark and cruel. Six wars were waged by the Carthaginians in Sicily. The b. c. first was caused by the people of Egesta calling on them for 413. aid against Dionysius of Syracuse. In this war fortune favored the Punic arms. A second and a third war ensued . between them and the prince of Syracuse, still to the advan- tage of Carthage. During a fourth, Dionysius died, and his son made peace. The Carthaginian arms were, for the fiflh time, directed against Syracuse, in support of Icetas, tyrant of Leontium. Timoleon, the Corinthian, commanded the Syracusan troops, and forced Carthage to restore the Grecian towns to freedom, to recognize the river Halycus as their boundary, and to engage not to meddle with the affairs of Sicily. Agathocles was the occasion of the Carthaginians again engaging in hostilities with Syracuse ; and the latter was so hard pressed as to be forced to call on Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, for assistance. Carthage was successful against Pyrrhus ; but this war involved her in hostilities witli Rome, and thereby caused her ruin. CHAP. VI. ROME TILL THE PUNIC WARS. Rome under Kings. While empire after empire was flourishing and falling in Asia, while the various states of Greece were contending with each other, or occupied by internal changes, there was * Shofctim is the Hebrew name of the Judges ot Israel. 60 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. TART I. growing up, from the smallest beg-innings, a nation destined to be the future mistress of all these states and empires. Italy, the peninsula westward of Greece, was originally- inhabited by tribes of an unknown race. The Pelasgians, that extensive people who settled in Greece, also established themselves in Italy. They mhabited the plains and the coasts, and were peaceful and agricultural: the mountain tribes gradually encroached upon them and conquered them. On the banks of the river Tiber, a portion of this people, named Siculans, was established : a tribe of the mountains, named Aborigines by the historians, invaded their country, expelled a part, and conquered and settled themselves among the remainder; and the united people were called Latins. A portion of them lived in villages, on some hills adjacent to the Tiber. Another mountain-race, called the Sabines, afler- B. c. wards advanced towards the sea, and wrested from the in- "^53- habitants of the banks of the Tiber a part of their territory. These nations finally coalesced, and formed one people ; their joined city was named Rome, possibly its old Pelasgian ap- pellation, and it was governed by kings, chosen alternately by one of the combined nations out of the other. Such is the most probable account of the origin of Rome which the researches of modern times have been able to give.* A different and more romantic tale appears in the an- cient historians ; for the early history of Rome was not writ- ten till she had become a great and powerful state, and then inquirers could meet no narratives of the days long past, save what was contained in popular tradition and popular poetry, which recorded marvels of Rome's descent from wide- famed Troy, the landing of ^neas in Latium, the love of the god Mars for the vestal Rhea, her bearing twins by the god, their exposure in the Tiber, their being saved and suckled by a wolf, and fed by a woodpecker till found by the shepherd Faustulus, their finally restoring their grandfather to the throne of Alba Longa, the city founded by Ascaniusy the son of iEneas, and then collecting their fellow-shepherds and an indiscriminate rabble, and founding a town named Rome, from Romulus, the elder of the twins, on the hills where they had been miraculously saved and educated. The religion of Rome having, probably, had a similar origin with that of Greece, strongly resembled it ; and the Grecian system was, in a great measure, afterwards adopted by the Romans. Religion was, however, in Rome, at all times, much more an affair of state than in Greece. * Nicbulir has been followed in this view of Uie early history of Rome. CHAP. VI. ROME TILL THE PUNIC WARS. 61 The first constitution of Rome, whatever her origin, was monarchical. Romulus the warrior, and Numa the legislator, who appear in history as her two first kings, it is possible, never existed. The first undoubted historic fact of this early period, is the migration of the Albans to Rome when their city was destroyed, the Roman writers say, by Tullus, the king of Rome ; strong circumstances intimate, by the Latins, who afterwards possessed her territory, Ancus, the suc- ceeding monarch, extended the Roman dominions to the sea, and built the port of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber. His successor was named Tarquinius. The legendary history says he was a Tuscan of Greek descent, and, in its usual style, marks his arrival at Rome by a miracle : probability is on the side of the supposition of his having been a Latin, or of some kindred nation. He greatly extended the Roman power, increased and beautified the city of Rome, embanked the Tiber, built the huge sewers for the drainage of the city, which still exist, and commenced the erection on the Capitol of the united temples of the three great gods of Rome. Tarquinius fell, it is said, by assassination ; and the vacant throne was occupied by an Etrurian named Mastarna, a con- dottiere, or leader of mercenary troops, who had come to Rome and entered the service of Tarquinius. Having changed his appellation, he appears in history under the name of Ser- vius Tullius ; but the legend of Servius, born of a maid-ser- vant who had conceived by the fire-god, and around whose infant brows lambent flames had played, bears not the slight- est resemblance to the history of the Etrurian captain Mas- tarna. Servius continued the works commenced by Tarquin- ius, and immortalized his memory by the constitution which bears his name. A conspiracy of the principal citizens, who were displeased at the changes he had introduced, deprived Servius of his life ; and his throne was occupied by a grand- son of Tarquinius. This monarch was magnificent and princely in his ideas ; he was successful in war, and raised Rome to a high degree of power ; but he is said to have been haughty, cruel, and tyrannic. An act of violence done by one of his sons is related to have roused the indignation of the people ; Tarquinius and his family were expelled, and the kingly au- thority abolished. The Romans were originally divided into three Tribes, each tribe subdivided into ten Curiae, and each of these latter into ten Gentes, or houses. A representative of each gens sat in the senate. In the time of the earlier kings we find, however, but two tribes sending members to the senate ; the third was subsequently admitted to that privilege. These F 62 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. three tribes were the original citizens of Rome, the Populus ; and there were, besides them and their slaves, a body of peo- ple called Clients, foreigners, who, from various causes, had removed from their own country to Rome, and settled there under the protection of- Roman citizens, who, as their patrons, are called Patres and Patricians, words originally synony- mous. In the reign of Tullus, a new body began to be formed by the migration of the Albans to Rome ; this was called the Plebs. It contained all ranks of society, both nobles and com mons, of the migrating people, and mostly retained its prop- erty in its lands ; but it had no share in the government, or in the public lands, which were enjoyed by the patricians on the payment of a tenth of their produce to the state : it formed the infantry of the army, had no right of intermarriage with the patricians, lived apart from them, and was opposed to them in interest. The patrician gentes, being a closed body, did not admit of their vacancies being filled up, and they continually dimin- ished in number. The plebeians were, on the other hand, receiving constant accessions. Tarquinius I., after a good deal of opposition, succeeded in forming three new tribes out of the plebeians, and adding them to the patrician tribes. His successor went still further ; he divided all the plebeians into thirty local tribes, independent of the patrician ones; and then, to combine the two orders more efFectually, constituted a mingled aristocracy and timocracy, by dividing all the peo- ple into Centuries, for the purposes of war, and of passing laws and electing magistrates. It was thus composed : the three original tribes and the three formed by Tarquinius were first ; to these Servius added twelve centuries, composed of the most wealthy of the plebeians ; and these eighteen were to supply the cavalry of the army : hence the whole were called Equites. The remainder of the plebeians were di- vided, according to their property, into five Classes, subdi- vided into centuries ; and the rest of the people were put into other centuries. The classes furnished the infantry of the army ; those not in the classes, the baggage-train, &c. When the centuries were assembled in the Field of Mars, their place of meeting, laws, and other matters, previously prepared by the senate, were laid before them ; the equestrian centuries voted first, and then the first class : and the number of cen- turies in this class was so great in proportion to those in the remaining ones, that if they agreed with the equestrian cen- turies, the majority was attained, and there was no necessity for calling up any more of the classes. The patricians had afterwards, in their curiae, the power of adopting or rejecting CHAP. VI. ROME TILL THE PUNIC WARS. 63 the measure which had passed the centuries. The legislator's object of giving power to wealth and birth was thus fully at- tained ; and but for the useless injustice of the patricians, who could not endure to part with ever so little of their privileges, Rome might have become, long ere she did, the mistress of the world. The form of government adopted by the Romans on the expulsion of their kings, was that of placing the executive in the hands of two magistrates, to be chosen annually from the patricians. These magistrates were originally called Praetors, afterwards Consuls, and they held the full kingly power, only divested of its priestly dignity. Rome had attained a high degree of power under her kings. By a treaty made in the first year of the republic with the b. c. Carthaginians, which has fortunately been preserved, it ap- 609- pears that slie was mistress of the whole coast from Ostia to Terracina, and traded with Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. The Tuscans — War with Porsenna. The country to the right of the Tiber was inhabited by a people called Etrurians, or Tuscans. Manners, language, and religion distinguished them from the neighboring nations. They possessed twelve cities in the country called Etruria, and an equal number in northern Italy, about the Po. The current opinion was, that they were a colony from Mseonia, who came by sea and conquered the inhabitants of Etruria, and then extended their conquests northwards: the more probable supposition is, that they were a nation who entered Italy on the north-east, and spread their conquests southwards. At the period we now treat of, they were fast approaching the acme of their power, which, though brilliant, was tran- sient ; for liberty was not in Etruria : no free land owners, like the Roman plebs, formed for her an invincible infantry. The Tuscan Lucumones, or nobles, ruled over vassals similar to the Helots of Laconia, or the Penestse of Thessaly. It was to this people that the Tarquinii addressed them- selves for aid to regain their lost dominions, after an attempt to recover them by treachery, in which even the sons of Brutus, the expeller of the tyrant, were engaged, had failed. The Veientians are said to have taken arms in their favor ; a battle took place, in which tlie consul Brutus, and Aruns, a son of the banished tyrant, fell by mutual wounds, and vic- tory declared for Rome. The legend relates, that Tarquiniua then invoked tlie aid of Porsenna, king of Clusium, a powerful Tuscan prince, who marched against Rome ; and though his- tory seeks to veil the disgrace of surrender, by marvellous 64 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. tales of the valor of Codes, the intrepidity of Mucius, the heroism of the female hostages, and the magnanimity of Por- senna, the ungrateful truth is still apparent, that Rome was amerced in one-third of her territory, and prohibited the use of iron, except for agricultural purposes. The Etrurians now extended their dominion into Latium ; before Aricia they met a defeat from Aristodemus, the Greek tyrant of Cuma ; and Rome seized this opportunity of regaining independence. Tarquinius and his claims had been neglected by Porsenna. B. c. He now roused the Latins to arms in his cause. A great and 495. decisive battle is said to have taken place on the banks of the lake Regillus, in which the fortune of Rome again triumphed, and the baffled tyrant fled to Aristodemus at Cuma, where he died. Dictator — Secession — Tribunes, The constitution devised by Servius was just and equita- ble, calculated to unfold and bring to maturity the various elements which composed the Roman state ; but it was check- ed and nearly smothered by Tarquinius the Tyrant. On his expulsion, the patricians, wlio felt their need of the cordial support of the plebeians, restored it in some measure. The consuls were elected by the centuries, and the Valerian law secured the plebeians in their life, property, and honor. But when Tarquinius was no longer an object of terror, and the Etrurian and Latin wars were ended, the patricians sought to bring back matters to their former state, or rather to a worse ; for during the monarchy, the king was the natu- ral protector of the plebeians. By the Valerian law, the ple- beians had been given the same right of appeal from the sen- tence of a magistrate, and of trial by their peers, which had always been possessed by the patricians ; but this extended to only a mile from the city. This right of appeal lay even 498. against the sentence of the consuls. To evade this law, and deprive the plebeians of their safety even within the city, a magistracy named the Dictatorship was instituted, an office of Latin origin. The dictator was chosen by the senate, and approved of by the patricians: his power while in office was regal ; no appeal lay from his sentence. At first even the patricians had no appeal, though they afterwards obtained it. It was, in fact, a power directed against the plebeians, who were always terrified at the creation of this magistrate. Tiie patricians kept exclusive possession of the public do- mains. Having the government in their own hands, they no longer paid a tenth to the state. Taxes, wars, famine, re- duced great numbers of the plebeians to distress ; they were CHAP. VI. ROME TILL THE PUNIC WARS. 65 forced to borrow money at an usurious interest. The patri- cians, or their clients in their name, were the principal credi- tors. The law of Servius, forbidding- pledging of the person for debt, had been abolished. The Nexv^ were continually broug-ht before the prsstor's tribunal, and made Addicti. Every patrician house was a jail for debtors ; and after every court-day, in times of distress, droves of sentenced debtors, with their sons and grandchildren, might be seen driven off in chains to these dungeons. The grievances of the plebeians were intolerable, yet there appeared no remedy. While they were in this state of un- certainty, an old man one day broke from his prison in chains, and covered with rags : he appealed to the Quirites to pro- tect him, enumerated the battles he had fought, recounted the causes of his misfortunes, and showed the bloody marks of his creditor's cruelty. The pity and indignation of the people were excited ; all were clamorous for relief The senate knew not what to do ; they ordered a levy against the Volscians ; the people refused to enlist. The consul Servilius issued a proclamation allowing those who were in slavery for debt to serve, and declaring that as long as a soldier was un- der arms, his family should remain in undisturbed enjoyment of his property. The legions were filled up, and the army soon returned covered with conquest and laden with booty ; but the hopes of the plebeians were disappointed. Next year they again refused to serve in the legions, Valerius was made dictator, and he issued a proclamation similar to that of Servilius. The people trusted in the character of Valerius, and the power of the dictatorship. The army was victorious ; but even Valerius could not overcome the obduracy of the senate, influenced by the unbending tyrannic spirit of Appius Claudius. The dictator's army had been disbanded ; those of the con- suls were still in the field. An insurrection broke out. The legions appointed L. Sicinius Bellutus their leader, crossed the Anio, and occupied the Sacred Mount. The plebeians in the city and its vicinity retired to the Aventine and Esquiline hills of the city : the patricians and their clients occupied the Palatine, Capitoline, Quirinal, and Cislian : these were all separate and fortified. Matters might have come to blood- shed, but that the power of the two parties was pretty nearly balanced, and the dread of external enemies made them averse to weaken themselves. The patricians formed an al- * Those who were in debt under obligation to pay after a certain period were called JVfcxi; those who failed to pay and were by the praitor delivered over to tlieir creditors were called Jlddicti. F2 66 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. liance with the Latins : they then deputed ten of the princi- pal members of their body to treat with the plebeians, and peace was ultimately established and sworn to between the two orders. By this the patricians sought to separate the in- terest of the multitude from that of the men of rank : to the latter they conceded nothing, gave them admittance to none of the honors of the state ; to appease the former, they con- sented to give force to the Valerian law, to cancel all debts, and release all enslaved debtors. But the law of debt re- mained unaltered, g ^ This secession and treaty were rendered memorable by the 483.' institution of the Tribunate, an inviolate popular magistracy, established for the protection of the plebs, which proved a salutary check on the excesses of either party ; was the chief mean of preserving Rome so long from hloodtj dissensions ; but, like every human institution, growing pernicious when it had outlived its original purpose, afterwards became a chief instrument in the overthrow of liberty. Spurius Cassius, and the Agrarian Law. The bonds of alliance were now drawn closer between tlie Romans and the Latins, and a third nation, the Ilernicians, was taken into the alliance. According to the terms of it, all spoils and conquests were to be divided, share and share alike, among the three nations. Sp. Cassius Viscellinus, the Roman consul, was the person who concluded this league. He, some time after, brought forward the first Agrarian law, was accused before the curiae of aiming at the sovereignty, was condenmed, and thrown from the Tarpeian rock, his house razed, liis goods sold, and the produce dedicated to Ceres. The Roman Agrarian laws have frequently been repre- sented as unjust and iniquitous. A moment's consideration of their nature will prove such a supposition to be groundless. It was tlie practice of Rome, and the Italian states in genera], on making a conquest, to take a portion, generally a third, of the enemy's land. This then became public land, and was occupied for tillage or grazing, by the citizens of the state which had acquired it ; they paid a tenth of the produce by way of rent, and the land was subject to resumption by the state. While the Roman citizens consisted of the three patrician tribes alone, there was no cause for murmur ; but when the plebs gradually grew up, and as the infantry of the army was the chief instrument in the acquisition of public land, they naturally claimed to have a sliare in what was gained. The kings, therefore, were in the habit of assigning small portions CHAP. VI. ROME TILL THE PUNIC WARS. 67 of the public land as property to the plebeians, and thus the latter grew, by degrees, to be the only or principal land-own- ers in the state. After the expulsion of the Tarquinii, a dis- tribution of the crown lands was made among the plebeians ; but the loss of the lands beyond the Tiber, and the heavy weight of taxation which fell almost entirely on them, now that the patricians, having gotten the government into their own hands, no longer paid the tenths off the public land, made the plebeians more clearly discern the injustice with which they were treated, and be clamorous for an Agrarian law, i. e. a law which was not, as has been erroneously sup- posed, to take their property from the rich and give it to the poor, but which would make the patricians give up a portion of the public land which they occupied without paying any rent or taxes, to be divided in small lots among those whose blood had purchased it. The Decemvirs and the Twelve Tables. After the death of Cassius, the struggles between the orders continued. The Romans were, in fact, two nations within the same walls, so distinct as not even to have the cannubium or right of intermarriage. The plebeians saw that political equality was not yet attainable ; but they felt the absolute necessity of legal equality, and they insisted on a general code of laws being formed. After a most obstinate resistance on the part of the patricians, it was, at length, agreed to appoint ten persons to form a code ; and deputies, it is added, were sent to the Greek cities in Italy to collect b. x:. their wisest laws, and bring them home for the use of the 455. legislators. The legislators were in number ten, hence called Decem- virs. They were all patricians, and invested with unlimited powers ; the consulate, tribunate, and qusestorate, were sus- pended during their magistracy. The decemvirs proved themselves worthy of this confidence. They governed ten days alternately, and each member of the college rendered to those who appealed from the sentence of his colleagues the assistance which the tribunes used to give. They collected all the former traditionary laws, selected those that were salutary, and formed a general code, instead of the former partial and local rights. The two orders were formed into one nation, the patricians and their clients being received into the plebeian local tribes. The Comitia of the centuries were declared to be the sole jurisdiction in capital cases, and any charge affecting liberty and civic rights, and thus the 68 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. equality of the citizens was decidedly pronounced ; for all or- ders were comprised in these comitia. The decemvirs having, with honor to themselves and ad- vantage to the state, performed the duties imposed upon them, and drawn up a code in ten tables, laid down their office. But, under pretext of something still remaining to be done, the office was continued for another year, and ten per- sons, five patricians and five plebeians, chosen. These enacted two more tables, thus making the whole twelve. But they governed with haughtiness and tyranny ; the senate stood in awe of them ; the people, liaving now no tribunitian protec- tion, trembled before them, while the younger patricians ex- ulted in the license given to them, and maintained the cause of the decemvirs. The year passed, — no sign of their laying down their office : the tyranny seemed intended to be perpet- ual. The lust of Appius, the chief of them, saved the state. He had seen Virginia, the daughter of Virginius, a centurion, crossing the forum in her way to school ; a freedman of his, suborned by him, claimed her as his slave ; her lover hastened to the camp to inform her father, who hurried to Rome. Vir- ginia was brought before the tribunal of the decemvir, and by him assigned as a slave to his freedman : her father, seeing the honor of his family about to be stained, caught up a butcher's knife and plunged it into the bosom of his innocent child ; then, with the bloody weapon reeking in his hand, has- tened to the camp, told his comrades what he had done, and invoked their aid. The army marched to Rome, and posted itself on the Aventine : the decemvirate was abolished, and the tribunate of the people restored. Appius and Oppius, the most guilty of the decemvirs, died in prison by their own hand ; their colleagues went into voluntary exile. Spurius Mcelius. The consulate was restored ; two members of the illustrious houses of the Valerii and the Horatii were the first consuls. They carried laws in favor of plebeian liberty. When their year expired, the tribunes brought in a bill to enable the peo- ple to choose, at their option, patrician or plebeian consuls. The chief patricians assembled to consult how to obviate the fancied danger of their order ; C. Claudius even proposed to murder the tribunes ; his project was rejected with indigna- tion, and the two orders agreed, that, instead of two consuls, there should be six military tribunes, three from each order, placed at the head of the government. But the people, as yet, gained not much ; for the patricians, by management and union, generally contrived to procure for themselves the CHAP. VI, ROME TILL THE PUNIC WARS. 69 whole, or the greater part, of the tribuiiarian authority. Con- suls, too, were frequently chosen, and they and military tri- bunes alternated. On the whole, during this period, the rights of the plebe- ians were advancing ; some of their order became military tribunes, the connubium between them and the patricians was established, and thus the bonds of amity and kindness be- tween the orders were drawn more closely. Yet patrician party-spirit and cruelty still occasionally exhibited them- selves. A crying sin of the senate of this period was the murder of Sp. Mselius, a plebeian knight, who, in a time of dearth, expended his private fortune in the purchase of com in Tuscany to distribute among the poor of his order. The senate dreaded the influence of Maelius, and feared that he might make good the claims of his order to a share in the government. He was accused of aiming at the tyranny. The venerable Cincinnatus was created dictator to avert the pretended danger. Mselius was summoned before his tribu- nal ; he saw his enemies bent on his destruction, and took refuge among the people ; C. Servilius Ahala, the master of the knights, pursued and cut him down, when he might have seized him and brought him before the dictator's tribunal, Party-spirit applauded the deed ; succeeding ages blindly ac- quiesced in the applause : the enlightened inquirer now be- holds it in all its atrocity, and condemns the illegal and in- iquitous procedure. The voice of history cries without ceas- ing, Do no evil, for a time will arrive when the truth, how artfully soever veiled, will come forth and be apparent. Wars anterior to the Gallic Invasion. During the period whose internal history we have just been tracing, Rome was not free from external disturbance. In the year 272, a bloody war broke out between Rome and Veii, one of the most powerful of the Etrurian cities. For- tune was rather favorable to the latter, for volunteers flocked from all parts of Etruria to recruit her forces. The Romans saw the advantage to be derived from fixing the seat of war in the enemies' country. A fort was raised on the banks of the Cremera, a stream in the Veientian territory. The Fabian gens undertook the defence of it. They marched out of Rome to the number of 306, with their clients, amounting to 4000 or 5000, and settled there. Notwithstanding a peace, they ravaged the country. By a display of booty, the Veientians succeeded in drawing the greater part of them into an am- bush, where they were cut to pieces; the fort was then stormed, and the remainder of the garrison put to the sword, 70 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART I. : Tradition relates that of the entire Fabian gens, but one sur- J vived — a child who had been left at Rome. The Veientians now carried on the war vigorously against Rome : they fixed their camp on the Janiculum, but were defeated, and their well-stored camp became the prey of the victors. Almost unceasing warfare prevailed at this period between the Romans, the Latins, and Hernicians on the one side, and the Volscians and the ^Equians on the other, witliout either party acquiring much advantage. A Sabine war, too, termi- nated in favor of Rome ; for a kindred stem, the Samnites, was now extending itself southwards, and drawing to its ban- ners the active and adventurous spirits of the nation. The truce with Veii having expired, the war again raged. Fidense revolted, and joined Veii. The seat of war was now the left bank of the Tiber. The Etrurians advanced to the gates of Rome ; they were repulsed, and forced to retire be- yond the Anio. Fidense was besieged and taken. Another truce for twenty years was made with Veii, and indefinitely protracted. Veii was a peaceable, trading town ; her desire was tranquillity. Rome was a nation of soldiers. Veii sought to prolong the truce. Rome, as a hostile race, having burst over the Alps, and overrun the Circumpadanian Etruria, thought she had now a favorable opportunity for conquering her rival, who could not look for aid to the more distant cities of Etruria: she therefore refused to i)rotract the truce. Both sides took arms. Capena and Falerii alone aided Veii. Con- quest of territory was the object of the Romans: regular pay was given to the army ; a line of forts was drawn around the hostile town ; the siege was extended to a duration equal to B. c, that of Troy. Camillus, one of the greatest names in Roman 394. story, commanded, and Veii at length fell, entered by a mine secretly wrought by the besiegers. The Romans were en- , riched by the spoil. Camillus sullied his glory by secreting i a part, for which he went into exile. The taking of Veii is \ an historical fact ; the details are poetic fiction. Who can now believe that the formation of the Emissarius, which still carries off the superfluous waters of the Alban lake, a passage ^ of 3700 paces in length, six feet in height, and three and a \ half in width, was the work of a single year, and executed by a people who had little or no interest in the adjacent lands, and that the fate of a city beyond the Tiber depended on the emission of the waters of that lake 1 The Gauls — Capture of Rome. Mistress of the Veientian territory, Rome now looked for- ward to farther conquest in Etruria; but a storm, whose first CHAP. VI. ROME TILL THE PUNIC WARS. 71 effects she probably contemplated with complacency, was des- tined to crush her for a season to the earth. Rome was to fall before the Gauls. The Kelts now first appear in history. This race, one of the first that occupied Europe, inhabited, at this period, Gaul and Britain, and a great part of Iberia. Attracted by the accounts of the climate and fertility of Italy, a large body of the Gauls passed the Alps, and poured down on the coun- try about the Po; they quickly conquered the Etrurians who dwelt there; the Umbrians submitted; the Gauls extended themselves to the Adriatic, crossed the Apennines, and laid siege to Clusium in Etruria. The Clusians called on the Romans for aid, who sent an embassy to the Gallic camp to offer their mediation. This was rejected by the Gauls. The Roman envoys entered the town, and, neglectful of the laws of nations, took part in a battle. Q. Fabius, one of them, slew a Gallic chief, and was recognized. The Gauls dis- patched an embassy to Rome to demand the surrender of the offenders. This was contumeliously refused. Breathing vengeance, they broke up from before Clusium, and marched for Rome. At the Allia, eleven miles from the city, they met the Roman army. A signal defeat rendered the place b. c and the day ever detested in tlie Roman annals. The Gauls 388 speedily appeared before the walls of the city, forced the gates, and found it deserted, except by a few aged men of consular rank. These they slaughtered in cold blood. The remainder of the people had sought refuge in the neighboring towns : the Vestal virgins and the sacred tilings had been conveyed to Caere ; the Capitol was occupied by the senate, and about 1000 of tlie bravest of the patrician youth. An attempt to take tlie Capitol failed ; the Gauls burned the city and employed themselves in plundering excursions into the surrounding country. Autumn, then and now the sickly sea- son at Rome, came on ; the besiegers died in heaps, a compo- sition was proposed, and the Gauls finally agreed, for a thou- sand pounds weight of gold, to evacuate Rome, and its ter- ritory. Roman vanity invented a tale of Camillus, who had, though in exile, been appointed dictator, coming up with his army as they were in the act of weighing the gold, and so signally defeating the Gauls, that not one survived to carry home the news. Rebuilding of the City — Manlius. Rome was a heap of ruins. Veil equalled it ui magnitude, and exceeded it in beauty. It was proposed that the Roman people should migrate thither : the senate opposed this pro- 72 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. TART I ject ; the people were wavering', when a casual word, taken as an omen, decided them -to remain. Within a year the city rose from its ashes with little of heauty or regularity. Veii was demolished to furnish building materials. War was renewed. The Tarquinienses, a people of Etru- ria, took the field against the Romans: the Volscians and iEquians were again in arms : the Latins and Hernicians, though a century had elapsed since Sp. Cassius had formed the league between them and the Romans, separated from them, and were sometimes opposed to them : the Gauls again invaded the Roman territory ; yet the fortune of Rome pre- vailed, and her generals triumphed. But Rome was internally agitated: the heavy rate of in- terest, the odious laws of debt, the poverty of the people, and the cruelty of creditors, nearly produced desperation. Touched with compassion, Manlius, the savior of the Capitol, a man of generous nature, stood forward as the protector of the unfortunate, and even sold a patrimonial estate to relieve their wants. He was charged with defaming the govern- ment, and thrown into prison. He was afterwards released, and whether he then meditated plans of vengeance is uncer- tain ; but he finally fell a victim to the envy and tyrannical spirit of his order, who now lorded it uncontrolled over the broken-spirited people. Rome was on the very point of sinking into utter insignificance under the dominion of the short-sighted patricians, when two men arose, who, by firm- ness and temperance, raised her from her dejection, and placed her in the road whicli led with certainty to her" future grandeur. The Licinian Rogations. B. C. 375. In the year of Rome 378, C. Licinius Stole and L. Sextius were chosen tribunes of the people, and they immediately brought forward their celebrated rogations, which operated such a mighty change in Rome. The supreme magistrates were in that year military tribunes ; the people were full of hope, the senate of fear. If the rogations passed the comitia, it might not be safe to refuse assent to them. They sought to avert the danger, and gained over the colleagues of Li- cinius and Sextius to interpose their veto on the measure. Its authors were not dejected. When the year expired, they refused to allow the election of military tribunes to proceed. The republic remained for five or six years under Interreges. Licinius and Sextius were re-elected every year, and each year more and more of the friends of the rogations were chosen to be their colleagues. The people were firm to their CHAP. VI. ROME TILL THE PUNIC WARS, T3 popular tribunes. The clients had, in the time of the decem- virs, been admitted into the tribes ; the influence of the pa- tricians was thereby diminished ; the ofiice of the interrex being" but for five days, no wars could be carried on : the tribunes allowed no one to be imprisoned for debt. Though the neighboring states remained at peace, yet such a condition of affairs was unsafe. All parties wished to see an end of it, yet the senate would not yield. Twice was the venerable Camillus created dictator against the people, twice did the dictatorial power fail before the tribunarian. Arts, menaces, force, were tried in vain. The senate would willingly have conceded some of the demands. The tribunes incorporated all into one bill, and would have all or none. Camillus, at length, became convinced of the inutility of protracted re- sistance. He mediated between the orders, and the senate gave their consent to the rogations. These rogations were, 1. that no more military tribunes should be chosen, but consuls only, and of these one to be a plebeian ; 2. that one half of the guardians of the Sibylline books should be plebeians ; 3. that in cases of debt, all the interest already paid should be deducted from the capital, and the residue paid in three equal annual instalments ; 4. an Agrarian law : of which the principal provisions were, that the public land should have its boundaries marked out ; that every Roman citizen should be entitled to enjoy it; that no one should hold more than 500 jugera of it in arable or plantation land, or feed more than 100 Jiead of black, or 500 of small cattle, on the public pasture ; that a tenth of the produce of corn-land, a fifth of that of vineyards and planta- tions, and so much a head grazing-money for cattle should be paid to the state ; that this tax should be farmed out every lustrum by the censors, and the produce of it appropriated to the payment of the army ; that the possessors of the public land should be bound to employ free laborers on their land in a rated proportion to their possession. The plebeians consented that the consular power should be diminished. The jurisdiction was separated from it, and com- mitted to a prsetor, whom the patricians insisted should of right belong to their body ; and as the praetor ranked with the consuls, and might be styled their colleague, they thus kept two out of three places to themselves. The first plebeian consul was L. Sextius Lateranus, the fellow-tribune of O. Licinius Stolo. Q 74: OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART I. Samnite War. - The period from 389 to 411 was internally spent in efforts, on the side of the patricians, to do away with the Licinian law ; externally in various wars with the Gauis, Etruscans, Hernicians, and others; and victory was, as usual, on the side of the Romans. The Samnites, a mountain race, descended, it is said, from the Sabines, certainly akin to them, had been for some time spreading themselves to the south. They had long- since made themselves masters of Capua, the wealthy capital of Campania, where they rapidly degenerated, and sank into luxury. Their mountain brethren became their bitterest enemies. In the year 412, the Campanians, being hard pressed by the Samnites, called upon Rome for alliance ajid aid. Aid was not refused ; the Romans sent an embassy to the Samnites, requesting them to abstain from injuring the allies of Rome. Their interference was haughtily rejected ; a combined Roman and Latin army entered Campania. Mount Gaurus, which overhangs the Lucrine lake, was the scene of the first conflict between these two great nations, who fought for the empire of Italy. After a furious conflict, victory declared for Rome. The war was obstinately continued, though to the advantage of the latter. At last Rome, jealous of Latium, made a peace with the Samnites, in which the Latins refused to join. The Latin War. The Latins had long been in close alliance with Rome. In all wars they composed one half of the legions ; they were mingled in the manipuli, or companies, and their general commanded alternately witli the Roman. Feeling their power, they deemed it just that they should be placed on a footing of perfect equality; their ambassadors repaired to Rome, and proposed to the senate tliat the two nations should form one, in which Rome should have tlie supremacy, and which should be denominated from her; that half the senate should be composed of Latins, and one of the consuls be of that nation. These just propositions were rejected with scorn and indignation by the haughty Romans, and war, little less than civil, broke out between the long-united nations. The Latins and Campanians were still at war witli the Samnites, who were now in alliance with Rome. Four Ro- man legions, by a rapid march through the mountains, arrived in Campania, and joined the Samnite army. At the foot of Vesuvius, the decisive conflict took place: Sanmites were CHAP. VI. ROME TILL THE PUNIC WARS. 75 arrayed against Campanians, Romans against Latins, similar arms and tactics against each other. Victory long being doubtful, the front ranks in the left wing of the Romans fell back. The plebeian consul Decius, who had vowed to sacri- fice himself for Rome, now performed his vow : consecrated by the pontifex, and clad in a magnificent robe, he rushed on horseback amidst the ranks of the enemy, and fell covered with wounds. The Latins gave way before the renewed valor of the Romans ; and the other consul, Manlius, was equally successful on his side. Scarcely a fourth of the Latin army escaped. The loss of the flower of her troops effectually debilitated Latium: town after town submitted to the Romans, and a bloody and cruel vengeance was taken by that haughty people. The people of Latium were divided ; some obtained the rank of Roman citizens, others were deprived of their lands and their rights. They were forbidden to hold national diets, or to intermarry or acquire lands in each other's territories; they no longer served in the Roman legions. With the Volscians and Hernicians they formed separate cohorts. About this time, Q. Publilius Philo, being dictator, had three laws passed which completed the constitution. One of these included the censorship in the higher offices, which were common to the two orders; a second took from the curise the power of putting their veto on any law ; the third made the plebiscita, or decrees of the tribes, binding on all citizens. By these means, internal discord was ended, and Rome, unretarded by domestic dissensions, could now ad- vance rapidly in the career of universal empire. War with Pyrrhus. Rome was now mistress of Etruria, Latium, and Campania. The Samnites had aided her to conquer the Latins ; a gene- ral league of the Samnites and their kindred mountain tribes was formed against the menacing power of Rome, and a fierce war broke out, in which a Roman army endured the disgrace of passing under the yoke at the Caudine pass ; but the disgrace was speedily effaced, and Samnium reduced to submission. Tarentum, a rich and luxurious city of Southern Italy, b. c. had taken part in this war, and grievously insulted the Ro- 283. mans. Unable to defend themselves, the Tarentines sought the aid of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, a prince of courage and talent, ready to serve whoever could pay. He had just gained and lost Macedonia ; and he now fed himself with the hopes of becoming the Alexander of the West ; reckoned on 70 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART I. a speedy conquest of Italy; and already, in his ambitious views, anticipated that of Gaul, Spain, and Africa. He there- fore willingly acceded to the desire of the Tarentines, and passed over to Italy. For the first time the arms and tactics of Greece and Rome came into collision. In the first two battles, fought at Pan- dosia and Asculum, his military skill and his elephants gained the victory for Pyrrhus; yet with so much loss, that he made proposals of peace to the Romans. They would treat only on condition of his quitting Italy. A third battle was fought B, c. near Beneventum, in which Pyrrhus was so roughly handled, 279. that he gave up all hopes of conquest in Italy, and passed over to Sicily, and thence to Greece, where he met his death, in an attempt on the city of Argos, in the Peloponnesus. The Romans now reduced all Southern Italy; and from the Arno to Rhegium, the whole peninsula obeyed tlie city. CHAP. VII. EOatE TILL THE TIME OF THE GEACCm. First Punia War. The island of Sicily had originally been colonized by the people who inhabited Italy. The Greeks early began to es- tablish colonies there, and many of these rapidly grew up to be powerful states. The Carthaginians also settled there. They held at this period one half of the island, and tlieir power was formidable to the remainder.* Syracuse was the chief of the Grecian colonies. Its founders were Dorians ; its constitution was therefore at first aristocratic ; but it was a trading city, and did not long con- tinue to be so governed. The beneficent Gelo, at the time when Greece was assailed by Persia, possessed the supreme 406. power in Syracuse. Six years after the fatal expedition of the Athenians against it, Syracuse fell under the dominion of Dionysius, an able, talented, and, if we credit a modern his- torian, a useful prince. He left his power to his son, of the 367. same name, who inherited not his good qualities. His cousin Dion, and then the Corinthian Timoleon, overthrew his power. The Syracusans had not virtue enough to retain their recovered freedom. Agathocles, a man of splendid talents, seized the supreme power. He was the terror of his foes, and formidable even to the Carthaginians. Close pressed in See Cartlui«e, p. 59. CHAP. VII. ROME TILL THE TIME OF THE GRACCHI. 77 war by them, he adopted the bold resolution of carrying the war into their own country. He passed over to Africa, and appeared before the walls of Cartilage. He died in a good b. c. old age, full of fame, but childless. 289. On his death Syracuse fell into confusion. Pyrrhus was invited over from Italy to no purpose. The Mamertines, a portion of the mercenary troops whom Agathocles had had in pay, seized on the city of Messina, and murdered the in- habitants : the Syracusans allied themselves with the Car- thaginians against them ; the Mamertines applied for support to the Romans. After some delay, occasioned by the flagrant injustice of the Mamertine cause, interest prevailed over principle, and the required aid was promised. Thus began the first of those wars called Punic. Rome was mistress of all Italy, except what was held in 265. the north by the Gauls : Carthage was in the height of her power, possessed of a large portion of Africa, Spain, and Sicily, and of Sardinia, and other islands. Rome's civil con- stitution was in its vigor ; that of Carthage in its decline : Rome's troops were free-born citizens; those of Carthage mercenaries : Rome had no fleet ; that of Carthage was nu- merous. Such was the relative state of the two nations when they descended into the arena. The Romans determined to have a fleet. A Carthaginian ship of war, that was driven on shore, served as a model : the crews were taught to row on land. Inferior to their foes in the art of manoeuvring their vessels, they invented machines for grappling, and bringing a sea to resemble a land-fight. The consul Duillius won the first naval victory. The Romans were already victorious in Sicily. The consul Regulus, in imitation of Agathocles, carried the war into Africa, and spread terror to the gates of Carthage. A Spartan merce- nary, named Xanthippus, was opposed to him. Roman courage failed before Grecian skill, and Regulus and his army surren- dered. National hatred invented a lying tale of Punic cru- elty and Roman virtue, in the person of this unhappy general. A signal defeat, off" the iEgatian islands, forced the Cartha- ginians to sue for peace, and a war of twenty-three years ter- minated by their giving up all Sicily, and paying a large sum 243. of money. lllyrian War — Gallic War. The Illyrians, a people inhabiting the north-eastern coast of the Adriatic, were addicted to piracy. The Italian mer- chants complained of their losses at Rome : ambassadors were sent to Illyria to remonstrate: the ambassadors were ill- G2 78 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART I. treated, and some of them murdered. Rome took up arms to avenge them, and to put down piracy. The Illyrian queen, Teuta, was compelled to surrender a large portion of her do- minions, to reduce her shipping, and to pay an annual tribute. The Senonian Gauls possessed the rich plains watered by the Po ; the Ligurians, the rugged hills west and south of them. Rome engaged in war with both : the former were completely subdued, after a hard contest, in which they were B, c. aided by their kindred tribes from beyond the Alps. The 224. battle of Clusium decided the fate of Cisalpine Gaul. De- fended by their mountains, the Ligurians, often overcome, were long unconquered. They were a hardy, active race, who lived by feeding cattle, and by hiring out their services in war. Second Punic War. The Carthaginians now turned their views to conquests in Spain. Their troops were commanded by Asdrubal, one of the ablest generals they had ever possessed. On his death the troops chose for their commander his son Annibal, now but twenty-six years old, who had been reared in the camp, and was the sworn foe of Rome. All his thoughts were 219. turned on war against that republic : he attacked Saguntum, a city in alliance with Rome, took it, after an obstinate but unavailing defence, marched with a numerous, veteran, and well-appointed army through the Pyrenees and Gaul to the confluence of the Rhone and Saone, passed through the coun- try of the Allobroges, crossed the Alps, and descended into the modern Piedmont. He defeated the Romans on the banks of the Ticmus, then on those of the Trebia, next at the Tra- simene lake in Tuscany, and finally gave them an overthrow at Cannse in Apulia, worthy to be compared with those of Syracuse, Leuctra, and Arbela. But here his career of vic- tory ended. The Roman armies hitherto opposed to him had been militia, their generals rash and inexperienced. The chief command was now given to Fabius tlie Delayer, who would never come to a general engagement, but hovered about and harassed the Punic army, and raised the courage of his own. Yet Annibal, though opposed by a faction at home, and ill-supplied with men and money, kept possession of the fairest portion of Italy during seventeen years. Rome gradually recovered ker strength ; her courage had never failed : she sent an army to Spain, which was at first resisted with success ; but under the command of the youth- ful, virtuous, and heroic Scipio, overcame the troops of Car- thage. Annibal was repeatedly checked in Italy ; Gracchu» CHAP. VII. ROME TILL THE TIME OP THE GRACCHI. 79 conquered Sardinia ; Syracuse, which had now gone against Rome, was, though defended by the machines of the great Archimedes, taken by Marcellus ; and Annibal's last hope, — the army led to his assistance from Spain by his brother As- drubal, — was annihilated on the banks of the Metaurus by Tiberius Nero. Scipio at length passed with his victorious army over to Africa, and Annibal was recalled to the defence of his country. On the plains of Zama a battle was fought b. c. between the two greatest generals of the age, and the fate 202. of Carthage was decided. Annibal was defeated for the first time ; Carthage was forced to sue for peace. Rigorous terms were imposed ; she was confined to Africa, obliged to surren- der her ships, prohibited engaging in war, and compelled to yield Numidia to Masinissa, the ally of Rome. The Macedonian and Syrian Wars, Rome now possessed all Italy, Sicily, and the other islands, and a part of Spain. Her arms now, for the first time, show themselves in Greece. Carthage being reduced, Philip, king of Macedon, was the prince who could give Rome most dis- turbance. Philip, though he had made an alliance with An- nibal, imprudently neglected to assist him; he wasted his strength in petty conflicts in Greece, and, instead of uniting the people of that country, unwisely put them in fear for their independence. The ^Etolians called on the Romans for aid, who came forward as the champions of Grecian liberty. The 198. battle of Cynocephale overthrew the power of Macedon. Philip had to sue for peace, and Rome proclaimed liberty to Greece — a nominal, deceptive liberty, like the independence she had left to Carthage : she would fain be mistress of the world, without the world discerning its subjection. Thoas, the iEtolian, thought himself not sufficiently re- warded for his services by the Romans. He betook himself to Antiochus the Great, king of Syria ; represented to him the danger to be apprehended from suffering the Romans thus to go on extending their power, a power the more to be sus- pected, as they were the known foes of kings ; and exhorted the monarch to lose no time in opposing their farther pro- gress. His representations were enforced by Annibal, who, driven by a faction favorable to Rome from his own country, where he was endeavoring by salutary reforms and wise regu- lations to restore Carthage to a condition of resuming her former rank, was now at the court of Antiochus. Their sug- gestions were listened to with a willing ear ; war was de- clared : Asia arrayed against Rome ; but fortunately for the 80 OUTLINES OF HISTORY PART I. latter, the counsels of Annibal, respecting the mode of con- ducting the war, were not attended to. Antiochus was by far the most powerful monarch of Asia ; his sway was acknowledged from the Troas to Caucasus; Media, Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, obeyed him. With an army estimated at 400,000 men he entered Greece. Asiatic luxury attended this second Xerxes: pomp and splendor shone in his purple and silken tents ; but he, too, had to en- counter an iron race, who fought, not indeed for liberty, bu B. c. for empire. A defeat at Thermopylae drove him from Greece 191. The Romans pursued him into Asia. Another decisive vic- tory at Magnesia reduced the Syrian monarch to seek a peace, the conditions of which were the surrender of all Lesser Asia, as far as Mount Taurus, and of the half of his ships. Conquest of Macedon. Philip had put to death the better of his two sons : learn- ing when too late his innocence, he died of grief. His suc- cessor, Perseus, vainly hoped to restore Macedon to its pris- tine strength and dignity, and he wanted to engage its forces once more in conflict with those of Rome. But Paulus ^^mi- lius, the Roman general, overcame all obstacles presented by the nature of the country. The battle of Pydna, in which 20,000 Macedonians fell, was decisive. Perseus was seized with a panic ; he fled from his kingdom, and sheltered him- self in Samothrace, where he meanly surrendered himself to his enemies. In the 156th year after the death of Alexander 169. the Great, the last king of his paternal kingdom walked in the triumphal procession of the general of a nation which had not, at that time, attracted the attention of Greece. Per- seus died in prison. Macedonia was declared free, under the protection of Rome. Fifteen years afterwards, a commotion was raised in that state by one Andriscus, who called himself the son of Perseus. The Romans were obliged to send an army thither, and the kingdom was reduced to a Roman province. In these times Rome began to interest herself in the af- fairs of Egypt. Egyptian ambassadors appeared in the senate- 167. house, imploring the interference of Rome to prevent An- tiochus, king of Syria, from making a conquest of that coun- try. Ambassadors were dispatched thither by the senate, and ti their mandate Antiochus withdrew. Third Punic War. The period fixed by Providence to the duration of Carthage now approaohed. Civil dissensions, the sure forerunners of the indefatigable lOialed continued his conquests in Syria, and from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean the khalif was obeyed. 634. The sceptre was bequeathed by the khalif to Omar, one of the oldest of the companions of the prophet. In the twelfth year of his reign, Omar perished by the dagger of an assas- sin. Ali still forbore putting forward his claims; and six electors, of whom he himself was one, chose Othman, the 644. secretary of the prophet. Othman was unequal to his high situation : old age had enfeebled his mental powers. The subjects became discon- tented. A large army assembled before Medina ; the khalif was forced to surrender, and he fell with the Koran in his lap. The brother of Ayesha headed tlie assassins. The public 655. choice now fell on Ali. Ali in old age displayed all the daring courage of his youth. Two powerful chiefs, Telha a-nd Zobeir, erected the standard of revolt in Irak : they were joined by Ali's implacable enemy, Ayesha, and, mounted on her camel, she appeared in the thickest of the battle, encouraging the rebels, but in vain ; they were slain, and she was taken. The khalif reproached her, and then dismissed her to pass the remainder of her days at the tomb of the prophet. A more formidable enemy now appeared in Moawiyah, son of Aboo Sofian, and governor of Syria, who assumed the title of khalif, and gave himself out CHAP. II. .>IOHAMMED AND THE FIRST KHALIFS. 145 as the avenger of Othman, whose bloody shirt he exposed in the mosch of Damascus. The cause of Moawiyah was em- braced by Amroo, the conqueror of Egypt. Ali took the field with an inferior force, and during 110 days a war was waged on the plain of SifRn, on the western bank of the Euphrates, to the advantage of Ali, till the superstition and disobedience of his troops forced him to yield to a treaty. Ali did not long survive. Three fanatics met in the temple of Mecca, and agreed to murder Ali, Moawiyah, and Amroo, as the only means of restoring peace to the church and state. Each chose his victim : he alone succeeded who selected Ali, who fell by his dagger in the mosch of Cufa, in the 63d year of his age. Moawiyah was now acknowledged khalif, and the seat of em- a. d. pire transferred to Damascus. ^ 660. The virtues of the first four khalifs are acknowledged ; but, by a large portion of the Mohammedan church, the first three are looked on and cursed as usurpers. Those that hold this opinion are denominated Sheeahs, and it is an article of their faith, that Ali is the vicar of God. This is the estab- lished religion of Persia. The Soonees, or orthodox, to whom the Turks belong, regard all the four as rightful successors of the prophet, but they assign the lowest degree of sanctity to Ali. It is almost needless to add, that the hatred of the rival sects is most cordial and intense. Conquest of Syria. During the reign of the first four khalifs, Syria, Persia, and Egypt were conquered by their lieutenants, and the law of the Prophet embraced, or tribute yielded, by the inhabit- ants. On the accession of Aboo Beker, he dispatched an army, 632. under the command of Aboo Qbeidah, for the conquest of Syria. The first object of their attack was the fortress of Bozra, eastward of the Jordan. The false confidence of the people, and the treachery of the governor, delivered it into the hands of the Moslems. Damascus w^as distant but four days' journey ; its siege was undertaken ; but intelligence of the approach of a large army to its relief, induced the Mo- hammedan chiefs to suspend their operations till they had encountered the imperial forces. All the forces scattered on the borders of Syria and Palestine were summoned to the standard of the faith. On the plains of Aiznadin, the troops of the khalif, 45,000 633. in number, and guided by Khaled, Amroo, and their most dis- tinguished leaders, encountered the Christian host of 70,000 men. Liberal ofiera of peace were made by the Greeks, and N 146 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART IT. disdained by the Arabs. The conflict began; it continued throughout the day with doubtful success ; in the evening-, Khaled made a furious onset, and victory declared for the Moslem arms : the field was covered with the bodies of the Christians, and inestimable booty rewarded the victors. Da- mascus was again invested. Animated by their brave gov- ernor, Thomas, a nobleman allied to the emperor, the garrison and citizens offered a gallant resistance ; till after experienc- ing the inutility of all the efforts of valor, they capitulated to the mild and upright Aboo Obeidah, on condition of those who chose being permitted to depart with as much as they could A. D. carry of their effects, and those who stayed being allowed to 634. retain their lands, houses, and seven churches tributary to the khalifs. A large number departed. Urged by the im- portunity of a Syrian renegade, whose mistress was among the fugitives, Khaled pursued them with 4000 horse. The ill-fated Damascenes were overtaken ; not a soul, save one, escaped the Arabian scimitar ; but the traitor to his country and his faith perished by the dagger of his indignant mistress at the moment he attempted to embrace her. 635. The following year saw Heliopolis, or Baalbek, the capital of the rich valley of Hollow Syria, and Hems, or Emessa, the chief city of the plain, in the hands of the khalifs lieuten- ants. 636. The banks of the Yermuk, a stream that flows from Mount Hermon into the lake of Tiberias, was the scene of the last great battle for the possession of Syria. Eighty thousand of the imperial troops stood with 60,000 Christian Arabs of the tribe of Gassan against the Moslems. It was the most doubt- ful day the faithful had yet seen ; but the Sword of God (so Khaled was styled) was victorious. Countless was the loss of the Christians ; 4030 Moslems lay on the plain. After a month spent at Damascus, to recruit their vigor and divide the spoil, the impatient host marched to invest the sacred walls of Jerusalem. The siege lasted four months ; a surrender was then offered to the khalif in person. The sanctity of the place moved Omar, and he undertook the jour- ney from Medina through the waste. The holy city received the khalif, and on the site of the temple he laid the founda- 637. tion of the mosch named from himself 638. Aleppo and Antioch, the only remaining places of strength, submitted to the victorious arms of the Arabs, and all Syria obeyed the successor of the prophet. Heraclius abandoned that portion of his dominions in despair, and the ravages of the Moslems extended to within view of Constantinople.^ CHAP. II. MOHAMMED AND THE FIRST KHALIFS. 147 Conquest of Persia. In the first year of Aboo Beker, Khaled appeared on the 632.* banks of the Euphrates. In the same year with the conquest of Syria, 30,000 Moslems engaged the numerous host of Yez- 638. dejird III, the youthful grandson of Khosroo, on the plains of Cadesia, on the edge of the desert, 61 leagues from the future Bagdad. The troops of Persia were commanded by Roostem, a namesake of the national hero ; the Direfsh-e- Kawanee, or Apron of Kawah, the banner of the empire, blazed in their front. On the fourth day of the battle, the flying Roostem was overtaken and slain, and the jewel-set Direfsh-e-Kawanee was captured. All Irak, the ancient As- syria, submitted, and the city of Bassora was founded, to com- mand the trade of Persia. In the third month after the battle, the Tigris was passed ; Madain or Ctesiphon, the capital of the empire, was taken by assault, and immense plunder enriched the faithful. Yez- dejird had fled to Holwan, at the foot of the hills of Media. The loss of the fortress of Jaloola made him fly to the moun- tains of Farsistan, the cpuntry of Cyrus. At Nahavend, to the south of Hamadan, 150,000 Persians made a final effi)rt for their country and their religion. The appellation, Victory of victories, bestowed on this battle by the Arabs, proves the fatal result. All the cities and towns of Persia submitted to the conquerors. Their banners approached the Caspian and the Oxus. Yezdejird had fled to Chorasan, and taken refuge in Merv. The governor of that city invited the khakan of the Turks to take possession of his person. The Turks en- tered, and made themselves masters of Merv. Yezdejird es- caped during the confusion, and sought shelter with a miller, who murdered him while he slept, for the sake of his rich 651. arms and robes. Conquest of Egypt. The year in which the conquest of Syria was completed 638 that of Egypt commenced. Amroo marched from Gaza with 4000 Arabs. After a siege of thirty days, Pelusium surren- dered. Memphis held out seven months against the Saracen army, now double its original number. It was taken by as- sault. The city of Cairo rose on the spot where the Arabs had encamped. Religious enmity facilitated the conquest of the country. The Egyptians hated the creed and the government of the emperors. A treaty was entered into between Amroo and Mokawkas, a noble Egyptian. It was agreed that, for a mod- 148 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART II. crate tribute, the Christian inhabitants should be left in the full enjoyment of their relig-ion and their property. The whole nation fell off from the Greeks, and every assistance was rendered to the Arabs. The city of Alexandria remained to be conquered; an achievement, perhaps, surpassing" in difficulty any tlie Arabs had yet attempted. Its inhabitants were numerous and resolute, its supplies abundant, the sea was open, affording- a facility of relief. The Saracens strained every nerve ; the tribes of the desert crowded to the standard A. D. of Amroo; the Egyptians labored strenuously, and, at the 639. end of fourteen months and the loss of 23,000 men, the Mos- lems saw themselves masters of the capital of Eg-ypt. The khalif rigidly forbade pillage ; a tribute was imposed on the inhabitants. The truth of the destruction of the library of the Ptolemies has been questioned. The loss of Alexandria hastened the death of Heraclius. In the space of four years two fruitless attempts were made to recover it. Invasion of Africa. 647. Under the reign of Othman the conquest of Africa was attempted by the Moslem arms, led by Abdallah, the foster- brother of the khalif At the head of 40,000 men, he ad- vanced from Egypt into the west. After a toilsome march they appeared before the walls of Tripoli ; but the approach of the prefect Gregory, with a numerous army, called the Saracens from the siege to the field. For several days the two armies encountered fro'ji morning till noon. The daugh- ter of Gregory fought by his side, and her hand and 100,000 pieces of gold were offered to the warrior who should bring the head of the Arab general. Zobeir, who afterwards fefl in rebellion against the khalif Ali, joined his brethren : his stratagem defeated the army of Gregory, who fell by his hand. The town of Sufatula, 150 miles south of Carthage, was taken. The country on all sides implored the clemency of the conqueror ; but his losses and the appearance of an epidemic disease prevented a settlement being formed, and after a campaign of fifteen months, the Saracen army re-en- tered Egypt with their captives and their booty. From the battle of Beder till the death of Ali, a period elapsed of 37 years, during which the arms of the Arabs had penetrated from the heart of Arabia to the banks of the Oxus and Indus, and the shores of the Euxine and Caspian. The Nile rolled within their dominions ; Africa, Cyprus, and Rhodes, had been visited and plundered by their victorious warriors. CHAP. II. MOHAMMED AND THE FIRST KHALIFS, 149 The Ommiyades. Wlien Ali was murdered, his rights passed to his son Has- san, who was induced by Moawiyah to abandon his claim and retire to Medina. The khalifat was now established in the house of Ommiyah, in which it continued during seventy years through fourteen khalifs, and extended its sway from the Pyrenees and the Atlantic to the borders of Turkestan and India, the largest empire and most powerful monarchs of the globe. This dynasty derived its appellation from Ommi- yah, one of the chiefs of the Koreish : Aboo Sofian, his de- scendant, long resisted the prophet ; his son, Moawiyah, be- came his secretary, and Omar made him governor of Syria. The first Ommiyah Khalif was a man of courage, though he declined the proposal of the chivalrous Ali, who offered to decide their dispute by single combat : his son Yezid, and his successors, were princes of little merit, and never partook in the toils and glories of war. Conquest of Africa. Oppressed by the exactions of the court of Byzantium, the people of Africa invoked the aid of the Arabs. The lieuten- ant of Moawiyah entered Africa, defeated an imperial army of 30,000 men, and returned laden with booty. Akbeh, a valiant warrior, marched from Damascus with 10,000 Arabs ; his army was joined by numerous African auxiliaries ; victory led him to the shores of the Atlantic, and he founded the city of Cairoan, fifty miles south of Tunis, to secure his con- quests. But Akbeh fell in battle against the revolted Greeks and Africans. His successor, Zuheir, shared his fate. The final conquest was reserved for Hassan, governor of Egypt, who took and destroyed Carthage, and subdued the Berbers a. d, of the desert. Musa, his successor, broke their power ef- 700. fectually when they rose in rebellion. Conquest of Spain. The Gothic monarchy in Spain was now utterly enfeebled. Having no foreign foes, military discipline had been neglect- ed, and luxury had quite altered the descendants of Theo- deric. Roderic, a nobleman, had, on the death of Witiza, ascended his throne, to the exclusion of the two sons of that monarch: their uncle, Oppas, was archbishop of Toledo; Count Julian, a partisan, was governor of Ceuta and Andalu- sia ; the malcontents were numerous. It is added, that Rod- eric had given farther offence by violating Cava, the daughter of Julian. N2 150 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART II. Julian had repulsed Musa from the walls of Ceuta, but soon after he entered into correspondence with the Arab A. D. chief, and offered to g-ive him entrance into Spain. The per- "^10- mission of the khalif, Walid, was obtained. A small body of troops, commanded by Tarif, passed over and advanced to the castle of Julian, at Algeziras, where they were hospita- 711. bly entertained and joined by the Christians. The following spring 5000 Moslems, under the command of Tarik, passed over and landed at Gibraltar, named from their chief They defeated the Gothic commander sent against them. Roderic collected an army of near 100,000 men ; the Saracens were augmented to 12,000, besides their Spanish and African aux- iliaries. On the banks of the Guadaleta, near the town of Xeres, the battle was fought which decided the fate of the Gothic monarchy. Three days were occupied in bloody but undecisive skirmishing, the fourth was the day of general conflict. The Saracens were yielding to multitudes ; Tarik etill animated his men, when Oppas and the sons of Witiza, who occupied the most important post in the army of the Goths, passed over to the enemy, and turned the fortune of the field. The flight and pursuit lasted three days. Roderic fled on the back of his swiftest horse, but escaped the battle only to be drowned in the waters of the Guadalquivir. " The whole country submitted without resistance to the victorious Tarik. Toledo, the Gothic capital, opened her gates, stipulating only for freedom of religion and internal government. Within almost as short a time as a traveller could traverse Spain, tlie general of Musa beheld the bay of Biscay. Envious of the fame of Tarik, Musa hastened his passage to Spain at the head of 18,000 men : the cities of Seville and Merida resisted ; and the defence of the latter was obstinate, and only subdued by famine. The Tarrago- nese province was speedily overrun by Tarik, and the Goths were pursued into their Gallic province of Septimania. A valiant remnant of the Goths maintained their independence (14. in the rugged mountains of Asturia. All the rest of Spain obeyed the successors of the prophet. At the same time that the khalif Walid received intelli- gence of the conquest of Spain, messengers from the East arrived to announce the first successes of the Mussulman arms in India. Invasion of France by the Arabs. 668. The Arabs of the East had twice besieged Constantinople : & each time they had retired with dishonor. The commander '^^^- of the faithful had oven paid tribute to the Eastern emperor. CHAP. II. MOHAMMED AND THE FIRST KHALIFS. 151 Five years after the raising of the second siege of the a. d. Eastern capital, the kingdom of the Franks was menaced "^Sl. with destruction by the khalif 's viceroy in Spain. Eudes, duke of Aquitaine, was a prince nearly independent of the feeble successors of Clovis. The Moslems claimed Septima- nia from him as a part of the Spanish monarchy. An army passed the Pyrenees, but was defeated, and -its leader slain, before the walls of Toulouse. A second appeared, and re- duced all France from the Garonne to the Rhone. The valiant Abd-er-rahman resolved on the conquest of the whole of the dominions of the Merovingians : he laid siege to Aries, and defeated an army sent to its relief: to the north of Bourdeaux he encountered and slaughtered the army of Eudes. The Moslems appeared before Tours and Sens in Burgundy : their troops were beheld from the walls of Lyons and Besan^on. Fortunately there was a hero in France. Charles the son of Pepin was mayor of the palace in Neustria : he collected an army of French and Germans, and encountered the Arabs on the plains between Tours and Poitiers. On the seventh day 732. of the conflict victory declared for the Europeans : Abd-er- rahman fell ; the Saracens retired, fell into dissension, and evacuated the country, to which they never returned. More than 300,000 Moslems are said, with gross exaggeration, to have fallen ; and the epithet of Mattel, the Hammer, bestow- ed on Charles, proves the vigor of his arm in the conflict. France. The degenerate descendants of Clovis had during this period sunk into utter insignificance. All power was in the hands of the mayors of the palace : these officers headed the armies, and disposed of lands and offices. The kings, retired in their palace, enjoyed the luxury of a well-furnished table, and on the May meetings (Champs de Mai) of the nation, they were drawn in their chariot by four oxen to receive the homage of their people, and follow the directions of the mayor. The dignity of mayor was transmitted from father to son. Pepin Heristal appointed his illegitimate son Charles to succeed him, in preference to his lawful issue ; and the field of Tours justified his choice. The Lombards. Authar, king of the Lombards, governed his people with 584. wisdom and equity, and fought with success against the im- perial exarchs and the Franks. His widow, Theudelinda, 590. married Agilulf, duke of Turin : the nation received him as king. Pope Gregory I. mediated peace between him and 599. 152 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. the exarchs ; and he also cultivated peace with the Franks and Avers. His queen encouraged the beneficent sway of ^. D. the Christian religion, and gradually brought the Lombards 616. to relish the delights of peace. Agilulf was succeeded by his son Adelwald ; but losing his senses by drink, the sceptre 625. was transferred to his brother-in-law Ariwald. On the death of Ariwald, Rother, another son-in-law of Agilulf, was elect- 636. ed. This prince first collected the laws of the Lombards into a code. His son and successor, Rodwald, was murdered by a man whose wife he had abused ; and the nation elected Ari 652. bert, nephew of queen Theudelinda. Aribert sought to leav his sons Perthari and Godibert joint sovereigns: they fell into 661. discord. Godibert was slain by Grimwald, duke of Benevento, one of his own partisans : Perthari, on liearing this, fled to Hungary. Grimwald reigned with justice, and defeated the Franks who came in aid of Perthari : this latter succeeded 671. him, and reigned with great mildness and equity. After va- rious transitions, the crown was placed on the head of Ans- 710. brand, a Bavarian, a man advanced in years and wisdom. His son, Liiprand, was the most powerful and one of the ablest of the Lombard monarchs. Great friendship prevailed between him and Charles Martel, who sent his son to have his hair first cut by the Lombard king, who thereby, according to the ideas of the Franks, became a second father to the young Pepin. Constantinople. 641. Heraclius was succeeded by his son Constantine IL, with whom the queen Martina had her own son Heraclionas asso- ciated. Constantine died after a short reign of 103 days. Heraclionas and his mother were banished, and Constans IL, the son of Constantine, a boy of twelve years, placed on the throne. He caused his brother Theodosius to be murdered ; passed over to Italy ; waged an unsuccessful war against the Lombards ; plundered Rome and several other cities of Italy 662. and Sicily of the works of art, which he collected in Syracuse, and embarked for Constantinople ; but the ships which car- ried them were taken by the Saracens and brought to Alex- andria. Their precious freight was dispersed and lost. Con- 668. stans was murdered, after a six years' residence in Sicily. In the reign of his son Constantine IV. Africa was lost, and 685. Constantinople besieged. Justinian II. succeeded, was ex- pelled, returned, and exercised the most savage cruelty. • Philippicus Bardanes avenged humanity on the tyrant ; but 711. was himself dethroned and blinded, Anastatius followed, 713. The army raised a native of Adramyttium to the throne, be- ! CHAP. III. CHARLEMAGNE AND HAROON-ER-RASHEED. 153 cause his name was Theodosius : he laid down his dignity as a. d. soon as he safely could ; and Leo, an Isaurian, a brave man, 717. was placed on the throne of Constantinople, which he gal- lantly defended two years against the arms of the khalifs. Germany. • Germany received during this period the first beams of the beneficent light of the Gospel. An Englishman, named Win- fred, went through the country preaching the faith, and drawing the people from the worship of idols : he collected them into towns, where afterwards cities rose. The pope Gregory II. beholding his zeal, bestowed on Winfred, now called Boniface, the dignity of a bishop, and the ofiice of legate. Mentz became the see of this first bishop, whence, as the sword of Charles Martel smote the rude tribes of Ger- many, the bishops invited them to receive the religion of Rome, and the more polished manners of the Franks. The sword and the Gospel went together in Germany, as the sword and the Koran in Asia. Monasteries, those asylums of peace, amidst the storms of the middle ages, were founded in Germany by the labors of Boniface. England. In the pontificate of Gregory the Great, the Gospel was preached to the Anglo-Saxons by Augustine and his com- panions, sent by the zealous pontiff* from Rome with that de- sign. Their first efforts were in the kingdom of Kent, whose king, Ethelbert, was married to a Christian princess of the house of Meroveus. The king and his nobles embraced the new faith, which was gradually extended to the other king- doms into which the Anglo-Saxons had partitioned the island. It is a remarkable feature in the character and piety of the Anglo-Saxon princes, that continually the world was edified by the sight of one of them quitting his throne, and all the pomps and cares of royalty, and retiring to pass the evening of his days in the shade of a monastery, or in the holy city of the supreme pontiff. CHAP. III. THE TIMES OF CHARLEMAGNE AND HAROON-ER-RASHEED. Italy. Among other practices of the ancient heathenism which had gradually crept into the church of Christ, was that of the worship of images. When Leo, the Isaurian, mounted the 154 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. imperial throne, either guided by reason, or by early preju- dices, he warmly espoused the side of the Iconoclasts, image- breakers, who opposed their worship, and a council assembled at Constantinople pronounced it to be heretical. When the im- A D. perial edict arrived in Italy, obedience to it was refused ; and, 728. at the exhortation of Pope Gregory II., all Italy, save Naples, rose in arms to oppose the profane emperor : his troops were massacred when they landed in that country ; and the pope, in the plenitude of his power, was about to direct the election of a new emperor. The authority of the Byzantine emperors in Rome was little more than nominal : the city had nearly returned to its republican form ; the bishop was considered as the first magistrate ; and thus the temporal power of the popes was founded on the best of grounds, the free choice of the people. A series of able, enterprising, and dignified pontifi^s, the three Gregories, Zachary, Stephen, Paul, firmly established this sacerdotal dominion. Liitprand, king of the Lombards, took Ravenna, and men- aced Rome. This prince aimed at uniting all Italy under one sovereign ; but the policy of the popes, and tlie resistance of the princes and states, prevented the execution of his designs. 744. The iron crown passed, after the death of his nephew and successor Hildebrand, to Rachis duke of Friuli, who shortly after, with his wife and daughter, abandoned the cares of 749. royalty, and retired to the monastery of Monte Casino. The choice of the nation fell on his brother Astolfo (Aistulf ). This prince made the final conquest of the exarchate of Ravenna, and summoned Rome to acknowledge his sovereignty. The pride of Rome and the pope disdained submission ; but their strength was unequal to the conflict : they turned their eyes for aid beyond the Alps ; and Stephen III. in person crossed those mountains to implore the compassion of the pious Franks, and of Pepin, the illustrious son of Charles Martel. He im- plored not in vain : an army, led by Pepin in person, entered Italy, and Astolfo swore to respect the possessions of the church ; but hardly was Pepin gone, when the Lombard forgot his vow. Pepin was again called on, and Astolfo was again 756. reduced to submission. Astolfo was succeeded by Desiderius, duke of Tuscany. Falling into a dispute about their frontiers with pope Hadrian XL, the latter called on his powerfull ally, Charlemagne, son of Pepin : the passes of the Alps were betrayed, the vassals fell off, the Lombard king was shut up in Pavia, his capital, his valiant son Adelgis vainly implored, in person, aid at By- 774. zantium. After a siege of two years, treachery gave Pavia CHAP. Iir. CHARLEMAGNE AND HAROON-ERRASHEED. 155 to the French, and Lombardy became a part of the empire of a. tj. the son of Pepin. A grateful pope (Leo) crowned the French 800. monarch emperor of the West. Rome did homage to his power : the duke of Benevento, whose duchy embraced the modern kingdom of Naples, acknowledged himself his vassal ; the Venetians, who, since the days of Attila, had dwelt in their isles and lagunes, revered his authority. The Lombards retained their laws and usages; each person and each district of Italy was governed by local or adopted laws. The great cities were governed by dukes, aided by a council of bishops, abbots, counts, knights, and gentlemen. The pope exercised at Rome the power possessed by the dukes in the other cities. He was chosen by the clergy and people, and the choice confirmed by the emperor. Empire of Charlemagne. On the death of Charles Martel the kingdom of the Franks was thrown into some confusion. The German provinces armed in favor of his son Grypho, against his brothers Carlo- man and Pepin. The latter were victorious in the contest, and an end was put to the duchy of Allemannia. Chilperic occupied the seat of Clovis ; the power of the monarchy was wielded by Pepin. Pope Zachary pronounced that it was lawful for the title to follow the power; and at Soissons, where, 266 years before, the empire of the Franks had been founded by Clovis, his last descendant was formally deposed in an assembly of the nation, and sent to end his days in a 752. convent, and Pepin crowned in his place. The new monarch quickly destroyed his brother Carloman, and humbled the great. His chief exploits were against the Lombards in de- 768. fence of the popes. At his death he divided his dominions be- tween his sons Charles and Carloman. The latter lived but three years, and suspicion of having hastened his end fell upon his brother. ■ 771 Charles, afterwards called Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, early in his reign overturned the kingdom of the Lom- bards. During thirty years he carried on an obstinate war against the Saxons, on whom he sought to impose his yoke and Christianity. Headed by Wittikind, a second Arminius, the gallant nation resisted with vigor and perseverance. Gott- fried, king of Denmark, aided and gave refuge to them ; but the Obotrites of Mecklenburg joined the Franks, and Witti- kind and his people were at last forced to receive the religion and the law of Charlemagne. Several abandoned their coun- try and took refuge in Denmark, whence their descendants united with the Northmen issued, and avenged tlie blood of , 156 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART IL their fathers on the descendants of their oppressors. In Spain, Charles appeared as the ally of the emir of Zaragoza, and es- tablished the Spanish March, extending from the Ebro to the Pyrenees. Barcelona was the residence of the French gov- ernor. In Germany, he extended the French dominion to the Elbe, and added the kingdom of Bohemia to the Germanic body. A conflict of eight years against the Avars of Pan- nonia gave him the possession of that country. His empire thus extended from the Ebro to the Elbe, from tlie ocean to the Vistula, and the Teyss and Save. The duke of Bene- vento acknowledged his supremacy; the king of England was his friend ; the Christian princes of Spain regarded him ■ as a patron. Haroon-er-Rasheed honored him by gifts as an equal. Master of two-thirds of the Western Roman empire, he was crowned emperor of the Romans by Leo, on the fes- tival of Christmas, A. D, 800, in the sacred temple of St. Peter. His dynasty, called the Carlovingian, from Charles Martel, formed the second in France. After a long and vic- A.D. torious reign he left his empire, which he had widely ex- 814. tended, and to which he had given a code of laws, to his son Louis the Debonair. Feudal System. As France was the chief seat of this celebrated system, the present period seems not unsuitable for giving a slight view of it. The Franks, like the Burgundians, Lombards, and others of the barbarous nations, carried their original Germanic ideas with them into the countries they conquered. The land was divided into a number of districts, over each of which was a count to administer justice and collect the revenue in peace, to lead the military contingent in war. Several of these counties were under a duke. These offices were ori- ginally precarious, but gradually became -hereditary in fami- lies, and the foundation of power and independence. At the conquest, the lands which had been seized were distributed into portions, according to the rank of the occu- pant. That of the king was considerable, and those of the principal officers proportionably large. These lands were allodial, held in propriety on the sole condition of serving in the defence of the country. The owner of three mansr^ was obliged to serve in person ; where there were three possessors of single mansi, one served, the others contributed to equip * A mansus contained twelve jugera of land. Ducange. CHAP. III. CHARLEMAGNE AND HAROON-ER-RASHEED. 157 him. All served at their own expense, and the period of ser- vice was limited. Of the Romans, or original inhabitants, some retained their lands in propriety ; others farmed those of the Franks. They were governed by their own laws. But the Franks stood higher in the eye of the law, and the Weregildt or composi- tion for homicide, was always much greater in the case of a Frank than of a Roman. The demesne lands of the crown were very extensive. They were the private estate of the sovereign, whence he was to support his dignity. Portions of these lands were frequently granted by the kings to favorites, under the name of benefices, under the usual condition of military service, which service appears to have dijffered from that of the allo- dial proprietors in this, that that of the latter was rather na- tional, that of the former rather due to the monarch person- ally. These benefices were granted for life, and then re- turned to the crown ; but the son of the beneficiary was gen- erally continued in his benefice, and under the feeble Mero- vingians the benefices mostly became hereditary. The hold- ers of hereditary benefices now began to bestow portions of their benefices on others to hold of tliemselves, under a simi- lar tenure of military service. This practice, called sub-in- feudation, spread greatly after the death of Charlemagne, and we have here the germ of the whole feudal system, with its burdens and obligations. The dukes, counts, and marquisses, or margraves, who guarded the marches or frontiers, gradually encroached on the royal dignity. They made their dignities hereditary; they sought to appropriate to themselves the croMm lands within their jurisdiction ; they oppressed the free proprietors. These last were hitherto the strength of the state, and shared in the legislature, owing no duty but military service against the public enemy. They now were exposed without protec- tion to the tyranny of the count or duke. The protection of a powerful man was the only security ; the allodial lands were surrendered and received back as feudal; their owner ac- knowledged himself the vassal of a suzerain, and took on him the feudal obligations. These obligations were mutual, as those between patrons and clients at Rome : the vassal was bound to follow his lord to war durmg a limited period, usually forty days, and that even against a superior lord or the king ; he was not to di- vulge his lord's counsel, to injure his person or fortune, or the honor of his family. In battle he was to give his horse to his lord if dismounted, to give himself as a hostage for hiin if 158 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. taken ; he was to attend his lord's courts as a witness or a judge. He was to pay a fine on receiving, and another on alienating his fief; and he was to pay an aid to redeem his lord from captivity, to enable his lord to pay his own fine to his superior lord, on taking possession of his fief, &c. The aids varied in number in different places, and these obliga- tions mostly grew up gradually, as the power of the lords enabled them to encroach. On the part of the lord, the prin- cipal obligation was that of protection. The church, though rich in lands, and hallowed by super- stition, did not escape the universal outrage and spoliation. Though the clergy were often martial, they could not meet the feudal lords on equal terms. The rich abbeys, therefore, usually adopted the practice of choosing an advocate in the person of some neighboring lord, on whom they bestowed sun- dry privileges, and generally some good fief; and who was, in consequence, bound to defend the interest of his clients in courts of law, and in the field of battle. The feudal system did not arrive at full maturity during the time of the Carlovingians, and we have here somewhat anticipated. It was confined to the dominions of Charle- magne, and to countries which, like England, borrowed it from them. England. Nothing remarkable happened in England during this pe- A. D. riod, except the union of all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, un- 827. der the sceptre of Egbert, king of Wessex. The Vikingar, or pirates of Scandinavia, now began to send forth those large fleets which were soon to spread devastation on the coasts of Europe, and Charlemagne shed tears at the sight of the first of them that appeared in the Mediterranean. Constantinople. Superstition, ignorance, and feebleness increased in the 742. eastern empire. Leo the Isaurian was succeeded by his son Constantino V., who carried on the war against the images with apparent rather than real success. The short reign of Leo IV. was terminated by poison, as was supposed ; and his widow, Irene, who governed under the name of her infant 780. son Constantino VI., gave a final triumph to the monks by solemnly establishing the worship of the images. This monk- lauded empress stained her hands with the blood of her own son, and then contrived to reign alone, the first sole regnant 802. empress; but she lost her throne to the daring courage of Nicephorus. This emperor set himself resolutely but vainly CHAP. III. CHARLEMAGNE AND HAROON-ER-RASHEED. 159 against the image worship ; the evil had come to too great a head. His son and son-in-law possessed the throne but three a. d. years. A soldier, Leo Bardanes, next ascended the throne ; 813. but court intrigues and monkish arts impeded his judicious policy. His successor, Michael of Amorium, was feeble and unfortunate. The external enemies of the empire during this period were the Arabs under the Abbasside khalifs, who raveiged Lesser Asia, and the Bulgarians, a Slavonian tribe, who ad- vanced southwards towards the Adriatic, where they subse- quently occupied Dalmatia. They were now on the southern bank of the Danube, in the country named from them. The emperot Nicephorus lost his life in a battle with this nation. 810 The Abbasside Khalifs. The house of Ommiyah failed in gaining the affections of its subjects. The family of the prophet was esteemed best entitled to his throne and pulpit. Of the line of Hashem, the Fatemites, or descendants of Ali by Fatema, the daughter of the prophet, had the prior claim ; but they were wanting in 746^ courage or talent. The Abbassides, the family of the proph- et's uncle. Abbas, were numerous, prudent, and united : their partisans were chiefly in Persia, where Aboo Moslem, their chief support, first gave them dominion by the conquest of Khorassan. Persia was from east to west a perpetual scene of conflict between the rival parties of the white and the blacky as they were styled, from the colors of their ensigns. The Ommiyades unfurled the lohite banner of the prophet ; their rivals displayed the opposite hue. Ibrahim, the chief of the house of Abbas, was waylaid on his pilgrimage to Mecca by the troops of Damascus, and he expired in the dungeons of Haran : his brothers, Saffah and Almansor, escaped to Cufa. Saffah was there proclaimed khalif Mervan II., the Ommi- yade khalif, collected a large army, and met the host of Saffah on the banks of the Zab. The Abbasside troops were least ^ in number ; but fortune favored them. Mervan fled to Egypt ; > and in another engagement at Busir, on the banks of tlie Nile, he lost both life and empire. 750 Tlie unfortunate race of Ommiyah was now sought out and slaughtered. One youth alone, Abd-er-rahman, escaped the perquisitions of the Abbassides, and he fled to Africa. He was invited over to Spain by the friends and servants of his house. The governor, Yussuf, was forced to yield to his arms; 755. and from the city of Cordova the sceptre of the Ommiyades ruled during 283 years over the eight provinces into which Spain was divided. 1 160 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. After a short reign, Saffiih was succeeded by his brother Almansor. The royal residence had at first been Medina : Ali transferred it to Cufa ; and Moawiyah to Damascus. Per- sia was the chief seat of the Abbasside power ; and Almansor A. D. laid, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, the foundations of 'ifOZ Bagdad, the royal seat of his posterity for five hundred years. The arms of Almansor were successful against tlie nomades of Toorkistan ; but his expedition against the Ommiyade khalif of Spain encountered only disgrace and defeat. The Greeks had taken advantage of the civil dissensions of the Moslems to recover a portion of their dominions. Mo- hadi, the successor of Almansor, retaliated during the reign of Irene and her son. Haroon, his second son, at the head of 95,000 Persians and Arabs, invaded Lesser Asia ; and from the heights of Scutari, within view of the imperial city, dic- tated the terms of an ignominious peace. 781. Five years after this war, Haroon-er-Ra,sheed, or the Justj ascended the throne of his father and his elder brother. Du- ring a reign of twenty-three years, this active prince eight times invaded the Grecian territories. In vain the emperor Nicephorus sent haughty defiances and denials of tribute ; in vain he assembled large armies : his troops fled in dismay before the disciplined bands of the commander of the faithful ; and the Byzantine gold was annually poured into the treasury of Bagdad. The memory of Haroon is renowned alike in both the East and West, as the hero of history and tale ; but it is indelibly stained by the slaughter of the princely and guiltless Barmecides. 804. On his death his throne was disputed by his three sons ; and, in the civil conflict, Al-Mamoon, the son of the filthy slave of the kitchen, triumphed over the issue of the haughty Zobeide. The memory of this prince is dear to literature and science, of which he was the zealous patron ; and his peaceful acquisitions eclipse the martial deeds of his father. Under the first khalifs and the house of Ommiyah, no literature was attended to but the Koran and their native po- etry. Almansor began to encourage the acquisition of foreign literature : it was also patronized by Haroon ; but Al-Mamoon far outstripped all his predecessors in its cultivation. At his command, his agents and his ambassadors collected the best works of Grecian science, and his translators gave them an Arabic dress. The astronomy of Ptolemy, the medicine of Galen, the metaphysics of Aristotle, were read and commented on in the language of Arabia. The Ommiyade khalifs of Cordova, the Fatemites of Africa, vied with those of Bagdad in the collecting of books, and the encouragement of science; CHAP. III. CHARLEMAGNE AND HAROON-ER-RASHEED. 161 and from the schools established by them proceeded chiefly the medicine, physics, and metaphysics of Europe during the middle ages. But the poets, the orators, and the historians of the Grecian republics, never learned to speak the language of Mohammedan despotism. ^ ^ In, the reign of Al-Mamoon, Crete and Sicily were con- 823* quered by the Moslems. A piratical fleet of ten or twenty galleys from Andalusia entered Alexandria at the solicitation of a rebellious faction. They spared neither friends nor foes ; they pillaged the city, and it required the forces and the pres- ence of the khalif Al-Mamoon to expel them. They ravaged the islands to the Hellespont. The fertility and riches of Crete attracted them : they invaded it with forty galleys. They entered and pillaged the country ; but as they returned to their vessels, they found them in flames by the orders of their chief, who exhorted them to seize and keep the fertile land. They obeyed from necessity, the island submitted, and for 138 years their depredations harassed the eastern em- pire. A youth had stolen a nun from a cloister in Sicily. He was 827. sentenced to the loss of his tongue. He fled to Africa, and exhorted the Arabs to invade his country. They landed, in number, 700 horse, and 10,000 foot. They were repulsed be- fore the walls of Syracuse, and reduced to great straits, when they received a reinforcement from Spain, The western part of the island was quickly reduced, and Palermo became the Saracenic capital. Fifty years elapsed before Syracuse sub- 878. mitted, after a siege worthy of her old renown. The Gre- cian language and religion were eradicated throughout the island. From the ports of Sicily and Africa the Mohamme- dan fleets issued to ravage and pillage the cities and prov- inces of Italy. While the Arabs were engaged in the conquest of Sicily, 846. one of their fleets entered the Tiber, and the Moslems plun- dered the temples of St. Peter and St. Paul. Fortunately for the Romans, their pope died, and Leo IV,, a man of the old Roman spirit, was chosen to sjjcceed. By his care the city was fortified, and an alliance formed with Gaieta, Na- ples, and Salerno, Soon after, a large fleet of Saracens came from Africa, and cast anchor before the Tiber, The allies of 849. the pope soon appeared ; the engagement commenced, and a tempest finally decided it in favor of the Christians. The Saracen fleet was utterly destroyed, and those who escaped to shore were slaughtered, or reduced to slavery. 02 L 162 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES OF THE EAST AND WEST. Empire of Charlemagne. 814.' Charlemagne was succeeded in his dominions by his son Louis the Debonair, or good-natured. His eldest son, Pepin, had died before him, leaving an illegitimate son, Bernard, who retained the kingdom of Italy, which his father had held. Re- 817. belling against his uncle, he was sentenced to the loss of his eyes, which caused his death. Louis associated his eldest son, Lothaire, in the empire, and conferred Bavaria and Aqui- taine on liis two other sons ; but having had a son, Charles, by his second wife, Judith of Bavaria, he was naturally anxious to provide for him also. This could only be done at the ex- pense of Lothaire and his brothers. They rose in rebellion, and deposed their father : their discord caused his restoration. 840. At his death, all his sons were in arms against each other. A bloody battle at Fontenoy, in Auxerre, forced them to come to an agreement, and the empire was, by the treaty of Ver- dun, divided among them. 843. In this partition, Lothaire got Italy, Provence, and the country running along the Rhine, afterwards called Lorraine. Louis had all the German dominions eastward of the territo- ries of Lothaire ; and Charles, surnamed the Bald, had France. Pepin, their nephew, had Aquitaine, which his father had held : of this he was afterwards robbed by his uncle Charles. 855. Lothaire, filled with remorse for his rebellions against his father, retired to a convent. His three sons took arms to di- 859. vide their inheritance. By the treaty of Orbe (in the Vaudois,) Louis got the crown of "the Caesars, Italy, and Rhsetia ; Lo- thaire II., Burgundy, Alsatia, and Lorraine; Charles had Provence. 868. Lothaire II. dying the victim of a lawless amour, without legitimate issue, his two uncles made a treaty of partition of his dominions, which was finally decided in favor of the king 879. of Germany. Lothaire 11. had already divided with his 863. brother, Louis II., the dominions of Charles of Provence, who 875. had died without heirs ; and on the death of Louis II. Rhaetia came to the king of Germany ; but his younger brother, the king of France, contrived to make himself master of Italy and the imperial crown. Q'lQ The two brothers soon died. Louis the Stammerer suc- ceeded his father, Charles the Bald ; but followed him to the tomb within half a year after his accession. The legitimacy CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 163 of his children was doubted ; and in a council of Burg-undian bishops, held at Geneva, the soverei^ty of that country was offered to Boson, who was married to Imogene, daughter of a, d. Louis IL, and he was crowned king of Burgundy by the 879. archbishop at Lyons. Charles the Fat, the son of Louis of Germany, united Italy 880. to his German dominions ; and on the death of the elder sons of Louis the Stammerer, and the minority of their brother Charles the Simple, he was made king of France, and Boson received his kingdom of him as a fief The empire was now once more under one head ; but Charles becoming deranged, he was deposed, and the unity of the empire of the Franks 888. dissolved for ever. The German dominions of Charles were taken possession of by Arnulf, the illegitimate son of his brother Carloman, a prince deeply imbued with the best spirit of the Carlovingi- ans; but he died, leaving a son of only seven years. Eudes, count of Paris, which he had gallantly defended against the Normans, was chosen king of France ; but on his death it came to the rightful but incapable heir, Charles the Simple. After the death of Boson, two kings reigned in Burgundy ; his son Louis, and Rodolph, son of the powerful Count Con- rad, and that kingdom was divided, never to be reunited. In Italy, Widon, duke of Spoleto, and Berenger, duke of Friuli, contended with each other for the restoration of the kingdom of the Lombards, and discord and turbulence agitated the whole country. Such was the internal state of the empire of Charlemagne «,t the close of the ninth century : externally it was harassed hy the Arabs, the Hungarians, and the Northmen. The Hungarians. Beyond the Ural mountains a tribe of Turks, it is thought, had intermixed with the Finns, the original race of Northern Asia and Europe. Pressed on from the East by other tribes set in motion by war or want, they broke up their camps, and advanced towards tlie West. They forced their way through the Russian tribes, penetrated the passes of Mount Krapak, and spread themselves over Pannonia, their future country. They called and still call themselves Majars : by the Euro- peans they were termed Turks and Hungarians. Their gov- ernment had been hitherto administered by a council of Voi- vodes, or hereditary chiefs ; they now chose a sovereign in the person of Almus, the father of Arpad. The empire of Charlemagne had extended to Transylva- nia. The kmg of the Moravians, who dwelt in western 164 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART II. Hungary, refused obedience to Arnulf, king of Germany, and even invaded his dominions. Unable to reduce him, A. D. Arnulf invited the aid of the Hungarians, and the Moravian 340. prince was speedily humbled. Arnulf being succeeded by his infant son Louis IV., all restraint, which gratitude or fear had laid on the Hungarians, was removed. They rushed into and wasted Bavaria, overthrew the Christians at Augs- burg, swept over Swabia and Franconia, spread to the Baltic, and laid the city of Bremen in ashes. During a period of more than thirty years Germany paid tribute to these bar- barians. The Hungarians passed the Rhine, and ravaged southern France to the Pyrenees. Italy attracted them : they encamp- ed on the Brenta ; but, dreading the strength of the country, they asked permission to retire. The king of Italy, Beren- ger, proudly refused, and the lives of 20,000 men were the penalty of his rashness. Pavia was soon in flames, and all Italy, to the point of Reggio, was ravaged. The Bulgarians, a Slavonic tribe, had been converted to Christianity, and they formed the north-western barrier of the eastern empire. Their resistance was overcome, and the rapid bands of the Hungarians were soon seen before the gates of Constantino- ple. By arts and presents they were induced to retire. The ravages of the Hungarians extended through a period of nearly half a century (889 — 934). The valor of the Saxon princes, Henry the Fowler and his son Otho the Great, at length delivered Europe from them." The Northmen. Scandinavia had been originally peopled by the Finnic race. In very remote ages the Goths, whose primitive seat was, probably, the great central mountain-range of Asia, had penetrated thither, and expelled the less warlike Finns. We have already seen them recross the Baltic, and eventually establish themselves in Spain and Italy. Everywhere they appear as conquerors. In Scandinavia they were generally I divided into small independent states : their land was poor ; ' they had little agriculture and less trade to occupy them : they loved war, were bold mariners, and early began to com- mit depredations on each other and on strangers. In this period, Gorm the Old in Denmark and Harold Fair- hair in Norway had reduced several of the independent chieftains of these countries, and established their respective monarchies. Several of the high-spirited reguli scorned to own as masters those whom they had regarded as equals ; they embarked in their ships, sought and colonized the dreary M CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 165 shores of Iceland or the Feroe, Shetland, and Orkney islands, whence thoy annually ravaged the coasts of their forsaken country. By these and by the younger sons of the Yarls (earls) of the north, piracy was gradually committed on a more extensive scale than hitherto : the coasts of England and France were now richer and more inviting, and annually the fleets of the Northmen spread desolation along them. Towards the time of Charlemagne their depredations on these countries had begun. The date of their appearance in England is the year 787, and shortly afterwards they rav- aged the coast of France. During the reign of Louis. tliey were more frequent in their visits. The unsettled state of the country in the reign of Charles the Bald favoring them, they grew more bold, sailed up the navigable rivers, and plundered the interior. In 872 they pillaged Anglers ; in 888 they laid siege to Paris, which, but for the eiForts of Gosselin, the bishop, and Eudes, tlie count of that city, would have been their prey. But the'number and boldness of their invasions continually increasing, Charles the Simple was finally forced to cede to Rolf, or Rollo, one of their leaders, a. d. the large province since called from them Normandy. This 918^ was a wise measure, for Rolf and his subjects embraced the Christian religion, and guarded the kingdom from farther in- vasion. In England, where they were called Danes, they harassed the coasts in a similar manner, and gradually formed perma- nent settlements. Even the great Alfred was obliged to yield to them the kmgdoms of Northumbria and East Anglia, and at length they placed monarchs of their nation on the throne of England. But the Northmen also extended their name and their power eastwards. The coasts of the Baltic were among the scenes of their depredations ; and the Russians, a Slavonian tribe, who had subdued the original natives of its eastern shores, admired and feared them. As allies they employed them in their wars against the tribes of the interior. These Varangians, as they were called, like their Anglo-Saxon 862. brethren, made themselves masters of the people that invited their aid, and Ruric, one of their chiefs, established a dynasty which endured for seven hundred years. The house of Ru- ric, at first depending on the arms of the Varangians for sup- port and safety, new adventurers continually flocked to them, and were rewarded by grants of lands and subjects; but when they felt themselves firmly seated, they found they could dispense with these expensive auxiliaries, and Vladimir I. recommended to them the service of the Greek emperors, 166 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART II. as more profitable. They followed his advice, and from that period till the end of the empire, the Varangians were the faithful guards of the throne of the Byzantine Cassars. France. The power and authority of the Carlovingian princes con- tinually decreased. France was now divided among several dukes and counts, who, though acknowledging themselves vassals of the crown, exercised all the rights of independent sovereigns. Louis IV. and Lothaire, the successors of Charles the Simple, though of more energetic character, were unable to restore tlie royal dignity ; and on the death of Louis V., a feeble youth, though his uncle Charles duke of Lorraine was heir, Hugh Capet, son of Hugh duke of France, Orleans, and Burgundy, and descended from Eudes and Robert the Strong, who had defended Paris from the Northmen, had himself A. D. crowned king at Rheims, and when Charles of Lorraine came 987. in arms to claim his right, he met with defeat and captivity. Thus, after a period of 235 , years from the deposition of Chilperic (752) to the coronation of Hugh Capet (987), the Carlovingian, like the Merovingian dynasty, expired by its own feebleness. Would it not appear that great families, like fruit-trees, become with time effete, and incapable of pro- ducing the similitude of those powers to which they owed their original elevation 1 So little reason is there to be proud of a long line of noble ancestry ! Hugh, though king of France, was in reality only master of his own demesnes, and feudal superior of the great vassals of the crown. Even this superiority was not acknowledged south of the Loire, and in his own fiefs of Paris and Orleans, which by his accession were regarded as reunited to the crown, he and his successors were frequently defied and made war on by their refractory barons. He used the pre- caution of getting his son Robert crowned during his own lifetime, a plan which was followed by his two successors, Robert and Henry L Under the reign of Philip L the monarchy was grown sufficiently strong to dispense with this custom. Germany — House of Saxony. On the death of Louis, son of Arnulf, the German branch of the Carlovingians was extinct. Charles the Simple, king of France, was doubtless of that race ; but the present situa- tion of Germany demanded a sovereign of more energetic character. The Germans were divided into five nations, Franks, Swabians, Bavarians, Saxons, Lorrainers. These CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 167 nations met to appoint a successor, and the choice of the as- a. d sembly fell upon Conrad of Franconia, descended through 911. females from Charlemag-ne. Conrad did not long enjoy his dignity. Feeling the neces- sity there was for the sceptre being grasped by a vigorous hand, he sought not to perpetuate it in his own family ; but when dying, he recommended, instead of his brother, Henry duke of Saxony, also descended on the female side from Charlemagne, to the choice of the electors. Henry, surnamed the Fowler, was son of Otho, who had Ql®- reduced Thuringia, and extended his dominion to the Elbe, This able and politic prince was at first obliged to continue the tribute to the Hungarians ; but he surrounded the hitherto open towns and villages with walls and ditches, obliged e very- tenth man in each district to reside in them, gave them privi- leges, and encouraged industry and arts of every kind : the courts of justice were held in them, and they were the de- positories of a third of the produce of the lands of the district. He established the march of Meissen against the Slaves, and erected bishoprics there for their conversion. Thus prepared, when the years of truce with the Hungarians were expired ; he suffered them to come with anus to demand tribute ; and he rose from his bed of sickness to meet them, and drove 934. them out of his dominions with slaughter. On the death of Henry, the princes and people assembled 936. at Aachin, and elected his son Otho, deservedly styled the Great It being a principle of the German empire, that an emperor should neither retain a fief nor add one to the domain, Otho bestowed Saxony on Herman, a brave warrior ; but he sought to indemnify himself by granting archbishoprics and dukedoms to his own family ; a policy that availed him but little, as they were frequently in rebellion against him. In the discord that pervaded Italy at this period, Adelaide, widow of Lothaire, son of Hugh of Provence, who had been king of Italy, invoked the aid of Otho against Berenger II., who had seized on the throne. Otho crossed the Alps, married Adelaide, and Berenger did homage to him for his kingdom. 952. Troubles afterwards breaking out in that country, Otho, at the call of Pope John XIL, again descended from the Alps, deposed Berenger, and was crowned by the Lombards. The next year he visited Rome, and was there received and crowned as Charlemagne had been. But the pope, seeing the power of his ally, sought to raise up enemies against him. Otho sent ambassadors to complain, and at last came himself to Rome. The pope fled, and the people swore never to re- 963. ceive a pope without the consent of Otho and his successors. 168 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART II. Three days after, the emperor in an assembly of bishops and nobles, had John deposed, and Leo VIII. chosen in his place. The party of John was, however, still strong : the Romans rose against the Germans and their friends. Otho came a third time to Rome: an injured husband had slain John; famine forced the Romans to surrender ; and thus originated the right of the emperor to nominate the pope. During the reign of Otho I. the Hungarians, assisted by domestic faction, penetrated to the heart of Flanders. All the forces of Germany and all the aids of superstition were arrayed against this dreadful enemy ; and the neighborhood j^^ jj_ of Augsburg, which some years before had witnessed their 955, triumph, now beheld the final ruin of the Hungarian might. 974. Otho IL, son of Otho the Great, married Theophano, step- daughter of the Byzantine emperor, Nicephorus Phocas, who made over to him all the imperial rights and claims on Lower Italy. Otho was an able prince ; but he had many enemies to contend with, and sometimes endured the mortifi- cation of defeat. 983. Otho III., educated by his mother Theophano, was a prince of amiable temper and cultivated mind. He loved to reside in Italy ; but the turbulence of the Romans gave him con- tinued uneasiness and occupation. During his minority they rebelled against him and the pope; but when he came of age he besieged and took the city. He treated it with se- verity, and hung the consul Crescentius, the leader of the popular party. A002. Otho dying without issue, his kinsman, Henry, duke of Bavaria, was elected to the vacant dignity. Henry II. was successful in his foreign wars. He passed less of his time in Italy than his predecessors had done. With him ended the 1024. Saxon line of emperors. Italy. The great vassals had in Italy succeeded in making them- selves independent. Of these the principal were the dukes of Benevento, Tuscany, and Spoleto, the marquises of Ivrea^ Susa, and Friuli: the pope ruled the turbulent Romans: Apulia and Calabria were governed by the Catapan of the eastern emperors : the repulalics of Amalfi and Naples ac- knowledged their supremacy ; and Salerno and Capua were under their own princes. When the Carlovingian princes had lost their power, the dukes of Spoleto and Friuli contended for the kingdom of Italy. Berenger of Friuli governed with the title of king, but amidst continual factions, for thirty-six years. His adver- CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 169 saries called in Rudolf II., king of Burgundy. In a battle Berenger defeated him ; but in the pursuit, Boniface of Spo- a. d. leto, Rudolf's nephew, fell on him ; and Rudolf turning. Be- 923. renger was defeated, and soon after murdered. Rudolf was now made king of Italy, but did not long enjoy his crown. Hugh, count of Provence, who had driven the grandson of Boson out of the kingdom of Aries, laid claim to Italy ; and, supported by the clergy and the great, he forced Rudolf to 92G. resign, and accept a part of the kingdom of Aries in exchange. Hugh reigned over and oppressed the nobles of Italy for six- teen years. Berenger II., of the house of Ivrea, succeeded, and was nearly as tyrannical ; and, as we have seen, the aid of Otho the Great was invoked against his oppression, and 945. the German monarchs became kings of Italy. The dukes of Spoleto and Tuscany generally directed the election of the popes. Virtue and piety were little considered in the candidates : political motives and female influence de- cided each election. The infamous Theodora and her daugh- ter Marozia disposed of the chair of St. Peter at their pleasure : mere boys were chosen : sons succeeded their fathers : scanda- lous vices disgraced the heads of the church ; and some suffered shameful deaths. Among the charges against John XII. were several which would disgrace the most licentious layman in the most barbarous age of history. The duchy of Benevento had been greatly diminished by the formation of the states of Salerno and Capua ; and at this time the Normans established tliemselves at Aversa, a town given to them by the duke of Naples. The Saracens possessed Sicily, and had settlements in Calabria. England. Egbert had united all England under one sceptre ; and, in- 828. ternal warfare being thus checked, the country might have advanced in civilization and the arts of peace ; but the Danes 832. now began to visit the coasts with large fleets, carrying havoc and desolation wherever they appeared. The reigns of his successors are chiefly marked by their struggles with these 871. formidable foes. When Alfred mounted the throne, they were masters of the greater part of England. This monarch, one of the ablest that ever adorned a diadem, spent a great part of his reign in doubtful conflict with them, which ended by the Danes embracing Christianity, and Alfred ceding to them Northumbria and East Anglia. Peace being restored, the wise king turned all his thoughts to the formation of such institutions and regulations as might increase tlie power, the wealth, and the civilization of his subjects. He established P 170 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART II, schools, regulated the police, built ships of war, and encour- aged trade and navigation. Three able princes, Edward, Athelstan, and Edmund, pursued the victories of Alfred : under them the monarchy became coextensive with the present England ; and Edgar the Peaceable was the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kings. The Danes still continued their hostilities. The successors of Edgar were feeble, the great subjects intractable, the Danes in the kingdom numerous : the custom was introduced of buying them off, and then of employing the Normans against them. In the reign of Ethelred II. the savage and fatal mea- sure of murdering the Danes throughout England was adopted. Filled with rage at this base treachery, Sueno, king of Den- mark, invaded and conquered the kingdom. His son Canute (Knut) was king of both Denmark and England, and he is justly placed in the list of great princes. He was succeeded by his sons Hardicanute and Harold. On the death of the last, the English nation returned to the Anglo-Saxon line, in the person of Edward, surnamed the Confessor, an amiable but feeble prince. An injudicious practice had been introduced of giving the government of large provinces, the former kingdoms, to par- ticular noblemen. Hitherto each shire had been governed by its alderman, and the moderate size of a shire prevented its governor acquiring any very formidable power. But a man who wielded the forces of such a state as Mercia or Wessex, might easily defy his sovereign. Godwin, a man of ability, had gained for himself and his sons the government of seve- ral provinces ; and on the death of Edward, his son Harold, a man of many noble qualities, had himself chosen king by the Witena-gemot, or great council of the nation, to the exclu- sion of the lawful heir. He was opposed by his own brother Tosti, by the king of Norway, and by a still more formidable rival, William duke of Normandy. The former two he van- quished : in the battle of Hastings he lost to the latter both life and crown. Russia. Russia under her Scandinavian princes became known to Europe. The Russians appeared at Constantinople at first as traders, exchanging the furs, hides, bees'-wax and honey of the North for the productions and manufactures of the em- pire. Their cupidity was excited, and they sought to take by force the wealth of which they got but scanty supplies by trade. Their fleets repeatedly assailed Constantinople, and their armies invaded the empire and Bulgaria. Nicephorus CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 171 fought in vain against them, but the heroic John Zimisces vindicated the honor of the empire and the wrongs of Bulga- ria, and the Russian grand-duke Svatoslof and his army, sur- a. d. rounded by the galleys and the legions, was forced to surren- 973. der, and retire on honorable terms. Olga, the mother of Svatoslof, a princess of mind as mas- 955. culine as the Catherines or Elizabeths, had come to Constan- tinople and received baptism. At Kiev and Novogorod she persisted in her new faith. Her grandson Vladimir, at first a 98ft zealous votary of the gods of his country, at length embraced the religion of his grandmother, and a marriage with Anna, sister of Theophano, wife of Otho II., confirmed him in his new faith. Olga had sought to improve her country: she made roads, built bridges, and introduced social order. Vladi- mir erected schools, opened new sources of trade, had rela- tions with foreign courts, was active in the introduction of the Christian religion, — was, in fact, the Peter of the tenth century. Yaroslof, son of Vladimir, was the legislator of Russia. 1015. He caused books to be translated from the Greek. He was the ally of the German emperors against the Hungarians, and his daughter x^nna was married to Henry I. of France. Alexius Commenus, the Byzantine emperor, sent the impe- rial insignia to the grandson of Yaroslof, Vladimir Monoma- chus, and Kiov swore always to choose the Tsar from his house. Constantinople. Theophilus, son of Michael the Stammerer, was a virtuous 829. prince, and an enemy to the images. On his death his widow Theodora, like Irene, during the minority of her son Michael 842. III., finally re-established them. Michael was a weak prince ; but his uncle Csesar Bardas administered the empire with 867. prudence and ability. Basilius murdered them both, and mounted the throne. His government was vigorous and ac- 886. tive. His son Leo followed his maxims. The sceptre passed 911. to the infant son of Leo, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, under whose name first his uncle Alexander and then his mother Zoe governed. By perjury Romanus Lacopenus obtained the 919. direction of affairs ; but he guided them with ability. Con- stantine, apparently devoted to books and wine, managed to deprive Romanus of his power, and became sole ruler. Ro- 959 manus 11, reigned after him with little credit. Nicephorus Phocas distinguished himself in war against the Persians, tlie Saracens of Crete, and the Russians. His successor, John Zim.isces, was the conqueror of the Russian 96a 172 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART II. A. D. duke Svatoslof. The sons of Romanus IL, Basil II. and Con- 975. st^-ntine VIII., reigned in conjunction, with reputation. Basil completely broke the power of the Bulgarians, and dying after 1025. a reign of fifty years, left the sole dominion to his brother, who left it to his daughter Zoe and her husband, the patrician 1028. Romanus Argyrus, a man of some ability. Romanus was un- fortunate in a battle against the Saracens at Aleppo. The 1034. empress fell in love with a handsome youth. Romanus was murdered, and her favorite raised to the throne under the name of Michael IV. ; but, goaded by remorse, he abandoned the palace to shut himself up in a convent. The empress 1041. then placed his cousin Michael Calaphates on the throne. Finding him disobedient to her will, she dethroned and blinded 1042. him, and then gave the dignity to Constantino Monoma- chus, who had been her first love, who governed with order 1054. and regularity. On his death, Theodora, the sister of Zoe (now dead) seized the reigns of government, and held them 1056. for a short time with no steady hand. With her ended the dynasty of Basil I., which had occupied the throne nearly two centuries. Michael VI., a soldier, was chosen emperor, and gave one among the many examples there are of the unfitness of a man for the supreme station who may have been distinguished in an inferior one. He was dethroned, and Isaac Comnenus 1057. put in his place. Isaac ruled with wisdom, vigor, and justice; but bodily infirmity made him retire after a short reign. Con- 1059. stantine Ducas, his successor, was just, but no soldier. His 1068. widow married and raised to the throne Romanus Diogenes, a man of noble mind and military talent. He warred against the Seljookian Turks ; but by the treachery of his nobles he fell into the hands of the sultan Alp Arslan, by whom he was honorably treated and set at liberty. On his return he found 1071. treachery, revolt, and murder awaiting him. Michael VIL, the son of Ducas, was weak and incapable ; he was the slave of a vicious minister, and he took orders, and attained to dig- 1078. nity in the church. Nicephorus Botoniates was a soldier, but 1081. unfit to be emperor. He gave way to the dynasty of the Comnenians, with whom a new state of things commenced. Decline of the Arabian Empire — Africa. 789. The Abbasside khalifs had never possessed Spain. In the reign of Haroon-er-Rasheed, Edris, a descendant of Fatema, fled from Arabia to the extreme west, and declared his inde- pendence. His son, also named Edris, built the city of Fez, the capital of a state which soon became populous and flour- ishing. CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 173 During the reign of Edris II. of Fez, Ibrahim, the son of a. d. Aglab, governor of Cairoan, one of the lieutenants of Haroon- 805. er-Rasheed, established an independent dominion in the an- cient territory of Carthage, of which Tunis became the capital. About a century later, Mahadee Obeid Allah, a real or pre- 908. tended descendant of Fatema, founded a state on the coast of Africa, of which the city of Mahadiah, built by him on a pen- insula, running out into the Mediterranean, was the capital. He made war on and defeated both the Aglabites and the Edrisites, whose kingdoms lay to the west of his, and added their territories to those he already possessed. Moez-ladin-Allah, the great-grandson of Mahadee, had 969. wells sunk in the desert, and then marched an army to Egypt, which had ceased to obey the khalifs. He took possession of that country with little opposition, where he founded the city of Cairo (Al Cahira) henceforth its capital. His reign was one of mildness and gentleness. Armies conducted by skilful and victorious generals conquered Syria, and Damascus and Jerusalem were among the cities which obeyed the khalif of Egypt, whose dynasty — the Fatemite — ruled for two centu- ries from the Euphrates to the deserts of Cairoan. Moez, aware of the impossibility of retaining distant prov- 971. inces, separated by sandy deserts from the seat of govern- ment, wisely abandoned all thoughts of seeking to retain his conquests on the north-western coast of Africa. He therefore gave up to Yoossef Belkin, the son of Zeiri, the western con- quests of Mahadee. Zeiri was of a noble Arab family, and had headed a troop of warriors, who were solely devoted to him. His dynasty — the Zeirides — reigned till 1148 over the north-western coast during 177 years. A prophet, named Abdallah, rose among the tribes subject 1056. to the Zeirides. He taught Islam in greater purity. His followers became numerous. Under the command of Aboo Bekr, son of Omar, they took arms to spread the faith, and carried on successful wars against the princes of Fez, Tan- giers, and the other states. Yoossef, the successor of Aboo Bekr, founded Morocco at some springs of water, and it be- came during his lifetime the capital of a state reaching to the 1069. Straits of Gibraltar. Almoravites was the appellation of the followers of Abdallah : they led a pastoral life, and their princes Yoossef and his successors were both powerful and peaceable. Decline of the Arabian Empire — Asia. Thus were Spain, Africa, and Syria lost to the house of Abbas, and at the same time their eastern possessions were rapidly reduced in extent. P2 174 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. j^. D. Taher, an able general, had essentially served Mamoon in 813. the contest with his brother. He was dismissed in honorable exile to command in the province of Khorassan ; but here he made himself independent, and his descendants, the Taher- ites, to the fourth generation, governed that province with wisdom and justice. 872. The Taherite dynasty was overthrown by the Suffaree, founded by Yacoob ben Leis, the son of a pewterer in Seistan (hence the name Suffaree,) who abandoned his trade for that of a robber. An accident gave occasion to his being em- ployed by the prince of Seistan, in whose service he led an army which he turned against his master, whom he sent pris- oner to Bagdad : obtaining in reward the government of that province, he gradually made himself master of Khorassan, and nearly all Persia. The khalif instigated Ismael Samanee, a Turkish chief, to seize on Transoxiana. Amer, the brother and successor of Yacoob, marched against him ; but was de- feated, taken, and sent to Bagdad, where, after some years' confinement, he was put to death. Transoxiana, Bulch, Kho- rassan, and Seistan now formed the dominions of the Sama- nians. 892. The Arabian princes of the tribe of Hamadan made them- selves masters of, and held for 109 years (892 — 1001) Meso- potamia, with the cities of Mosul and Aleppo. They were extolled by their poets for their beauty and their noble quali- ties. Their history presents the usual series of crimes. 900. The power of the Samanee princes extended over the north of Persia. The south obeyed the Dilemee, so called from their native village Dilem, as they were styled Buy ah from one of their ancestors. A fisher of Dilem, Abul-Shujah-al- Buyah, entered the service of the governor of his native prov- ince. Under the conqueror and successor of that governor, Ali Buyah, the son of Shujah, rose to high military command ; and he defeated Yacoot, the governor of Isfahan, and gained thereby great wealth and reputation. Ali pursued and again defeated Yacoot, and made himself master of Pars, Kerman, Khuzistan, and Irak. He advanced to Bagdad, and obliged the khalif to bestow on him the government of Pars and Irak, and to make his younger brother Ahmed his vizier ; his sec- ond brother Hussun acted under himself. Alimed dethroned the khalif, and raised Mothi to his place, over wliom he exercised unlimited authority during his life. Ali dying, universally regretted, was succeeded by his brother, Hussun, who left his authority to his son, the able and excel- lent Azed-e-Dowlat, who united in his person tlie ofiices of vizier to the khalif and viceroy of Pars and Irak. CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 175 After the death of Azed, one of the brightest characters in oriental history, the power of the Dilemee gradually de- clined. Mahmood of Ghizni stripped them of all their pos- sessions but Fars and Kerman. They retained these and the office of Ameer-ul-Omrah (chief of the nobles) conferred on Ali Buyah, which gave them authority over the country round a. d. Bagdad, till that capital was taken by Toghrul-beg-Seljookee. 1055. Causes of the Decline of the Power of the Khalifs, An obvious cause of the dissolution of the empire of the Arabs was its extent, the consequent distance of several of the provinces from the seat of empire, and the absolute power with which the lieutenants of a despot must be in- vested. Hence the assumption of independence was easy, the means of punishing slight ; no principle of loyalty bind- ing the subject to the sovereign. Thus Spain was lost at once, Africa speedily afterwards. But in the case of the Abbassides there were some particular causes. Like their predecessors, their title was bad. The descendants of the son-in-law and earliest disciple of the prophet were naturally regarded as having a better claim to the khalifat than those of any other branch of the family. The rights of All's family were still, therefore, openly or secretly maintained by a numerous party. We have seen how easily Edris, and afterwards Mahadee, founded empires. The Fatemite khalifs of the latter house always affected to regard themselves as the rightful successors of the prophet. These khalifs were, it is said, at the head of a secret society, whose object was the overthrow of the khalifat of Bagdad ; and its missionaries continually pervaded the dominions of the house of Abbas, making converts to the claims of Ali. The various sectaries who aimed at private aggrandizement frequently put forward these claims, and thereby attracted followers. The Ismailites were a sect founded expressly on this principle, and out of them arose the society of the As- sassins, one of the most dreadful scourges of the East. Yet the house of Abbas might, perhaps, have retained the empire of Asia, were it not that, like the contemporary Car- lovingians, the Abbassides gradually degenerated, and fell into weakness and incapacity, and at the same time formed a prretorian guard. Motassem, the eighth klialif of this family, with whom its glory expired, perceiving how the valor and 841 virtues of the Arabs had decayed, adopted the plan of forming a body-guard from the martial hordes of the Turks who dwelt beyond the Jihon. Their youths, taken in war or purchased as slaves, were trained to arms, and instructed in the prin- 176 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART n. ciples of Islam. Motassem collected 50,000 of them around his throne at Bagdad. Their tumultuous conduct incensed the citizens, and he and they retired to Samara, a city twelve leagues from Bagdad, on the Tigris. Motawakkel, the son A. D. of Motassem, was a cruel tyrant : he favored and relied solely ^1- on his Turkish guards, and they murdered him at the insti- gation of his son Mostanser, whose remorse for his crime abridged his life. The guards had now felt their own power : tlicir numbers were kept up by regular recruiting in Turkis- 862. tan : they forced Mosteyoo, uncle of Mostanser, to whom they gave the throne, to surrender to them the right, not only of nominating their own commander, but the emir-ul- omra of the empire. They treated the commander of the faithful with every indignity and insult ; and these unhappy princes were by them beaten with clubs, dragged by the feet, and exposed almost naked to the burning rays of the sun. 907. Mohtadi Billah made a bold effort to curb them. He seized Moones, their commander, one of his ablest generals, and when they assailed the palace, flung his head out to them. They, however, burst in, and the unhappy khalif expired be- neath their feet. His brother and successor Moktader, to rid himself of them, placed them, as his best troops, on the different frontiers, and thereby hastened their becoming in- dependent. 868. A Turkish governor of Egypt, named Tooloon, had some time before made himself independent. He had, it is said, found a large treasure, and thereon raised his power. His son and successor Ahmed was the father of the poor, but in- exorable in the punishment of crime, and 18,000 persons were executed during his reign. The commander of the faithful, Motedad, married Cotr-en-neda (Deivdrop) the daugh- ter of Khemeruyah, son of Ahmed, and on her road to Bag- dad, she found each evening' a tent splendid, and furnished as the palace of her father, prepared for her reception. Ha- roon, the grandson of Ahmed, fell in defence of his kingdom, 905. and with him ended the dynasty of the Tooloonides. Egypt was reunited to the dominions of the khalif Mohtadi Billah. But twenty-nine years afterwards another Turk, Akhsheed, 934. separated it anew, and it never again obeyed the khalifs of Bagdad. The Gasnevides. 997, Sebuktajee, a slave of a minister of the Samanians, by valor and prudence obtained the government of the city and district of Gasna or Ghizni. His son Mahmood gradually extended his power from the Caspian to the Indus, and the CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OP THE GREAT EMPIRES. 177 khalif honored him with the title of Sultan. The power of Mahmood increased with eastern rapidity. India attracted his cupidity : since the days of Seleucus Nicator she had not been penetrated to any extent by a foreign conqueror : she abounded in treasure ; her people were un warlike : Mahmood and his Moslems poured down on her from her northern fron- tier : he reached the Ganges ; resistance was ineffectual ; all submitted. His religious zeal was displayed in the destruc- tion of the idols of India, and an incredible treasure rewarded his holy warfare. Twelve times did the Gasnevide monarch march to the pillage of this rich and feeble country. Spain. Family dissensions and the revolt of governors diminished the power of the dynasty founded by Abd-er-rahman, and the Christians gradually extended their possessions from the mountains to the plain. a. d. After a contest of two hundred years a Christian kingdom 914. was founded under Ordono, of which Leon was the capital. The laws of the Goths were re-established ; and this was the commencement of the heroic age of Spain, when she put forth every manly virtue, and fought with religious zeal, patriotic feeling, and knightly honor. A county had been formed at ojurgos by Fernando Gon- 933. zales. On the failure of his posterity it was formed into the kingdom of Castile in favor of Fernando, son of Sanchez, 1033. king of Navarre. This last kingdom had been formed by the descendants of the valiant Gascon, count Acnor, who had (831) crossed the Pyrenees to conquer lands from the infidels. They had also made themselves masters of the fruitful plains of Catalonia. At the time when the empire of the klialifs of Cordova was falling to pieces, almost the entire of the Christian states were united under Sanchez of Navarre. But he again sepa- rated them, giving only Navarre to his eldest son, leaving Castile to Fernando, who had acquired Leon by marriage, and forming in the mountains about the little stream of the Aragon, the kingdom so denominated for his natural son Ra- mirez; a kingdom which, by wise laws and able rulers, eclipsed all in the Peninsula. Bernhard, of the family of the dukes of Aquitaine, whom Charlemagne had made count of Barcelona, became, in a 864, great measure, independent : his son Winfred became com- pletely so. Count Raymond Berenger obtained by marriage 1137. the kingdom of Aragon. All these sovereigns pressed on the Mohammedan emirs, 178 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART II A D. who were less united. The latter, unable to withstand, 1086. called over Yoossef-ben-Taklifin the Almoravide, who had just founded the empire of Morocco. He came, repulsed the Christians ; and all Spain, south of the mountains of Castile, was united under his dominion. CHAP. V. INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. Italy. — The Normans. After the Normans had embraced Christianity, they be- came distinguished for their devotion according to the fashion of the times. Of this, pilgrimage formed a principal part ; and the variety and the dangers of it were pleasing to the valiant Normans. On a visit of a number of them to the cav- 1016. ern of Mount Garganus, in Apulia, they were accosted by a citizen of Bari, who held out large hopes if they would assist in expelling the Greeks from Italy. They consented, and, the following year, a large body passed the Alps in small par- ties, and united in Apulia. They were unsuccessful against the Greek troops ; but they kept together, and were employed by the neighboring princes in their quarrels. The duke of 1029. Naples built for them the town of Aversa. Numbers of every nation flocked to their standard. Count Rainulf was their commander. 1038, The Saracens had now held Sicily for two centuries. They were fallen into disunion, had thrown off their allegiance to the king of Tunis : each petty chief aimed at independence. The court of Byzantium was always anxious to recover the island : the present opportunity seemed favorable. Two brothers of the Saracens being at enmity, one applied for the aid of the Christians. The Grecian governor of Italy was directed to engage the Normans, and live hundred of their knights were enrolled. On landing in Sicily, the Saracens were found united ; but nothing could resist Norman valor, and thirteen cities and a great part of the island were re- duced to the obedience of the emperor. In the division of the spoil the Normans were unjustly treated, and on their return 1040. to Italy they invaded Apulia, to indemnify themselves. Their whole forces were 700 horse and 500 foot; the imperial troops are stated at 60,000 ; yet, in the course of three years, the empire retained only the towns of Bari, Otranto, Brundu- 1043. slum, and Tarentum. The Normans divided their conquests CHAP. V. INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 179 into twelve districts, over each of which was a count, one of whom, under the title of count of Apulia, presided in their councils, held in the town of Melfi. The first count of Apulia was William of the Iron Arm, equally distinguished in the virtues of war and peace. The rapacity and injustice of the Normans made them hated. The court of Byzantium sought to deliver Italy from tliem, by inducing them to take a settlement in Asia, on the frontiers of Persia ; but the wily Normans saw through and rejected the imperial munificence. The Byzantine agent Argyrus thus foiled, determined on force, and a league was formed between the pope Leo IX. and the emperors of the a. d. East and West, against them. The pope travelled to Ger- 1049. many to seek aid. Argyrus caused a number of the Normans to be assassinated. On the return of the pope, with a small band of German auxiliaries, a force considerable in number was collected. The Normans were deserted by all; they could only muster 8000 horse ; they were reduced to great straits for want of provisions, were dispirited by famine and superstition, and oflfered to submit. The alternative of death or exile was given by the pope : — they resolved to die as sol- diers, engaged the enemy, defeated them, and took the pope prisoner at Civitella. The warriors knelt and implored his forgiveness; the well-meaning pontiff" la.mented his error: by 1053. his riglit, derived from the grant of Constantino, he bestowed on them their present and future conquests in Apulia and Calabria, as a fief of the holy see, which relation the kingdom of Naples has ever since retained. Tancred de Haute ville, a valvassor of Normandy, had twelve sons ; and his patrimony was small : ten of them, at various times, crossed the Alps, and joined the Normans in Apulia. Robert, surnamed Guiscard, (Wizard]) the fourth of them, soon became distinguished. He commanded a di- vision at Civitella, and gained there the prize of valor. His three elder brothers, William of the Iron Arm, Drogo, and Humphry, had successively attained to the rank of count of Apulia. On the death of the last named, leaving his sons minors, their claims were postponed to those of Robert, and he was chosen count of Apulia. The pope Nicholas conferred on him and his posterity the title of duke of Apulia ; but he 1060 waited till the next campaign had achieved the conquest of Reggio and Cosenza, and then he called on his victorious troops to confirm what the pope had bestowed. The soldiers joyfully hailed him duke, and he henceforth entitled himself, " By the grace of God and St. Peter duke of Apulia, Cala- bria, and hereafter of Sicily." But many years elapsed before 180 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART II. he was master of all these dominions. The Normans were few ; the counts were not attached to him, and often conspired against him ; the sons of Humphry asserted their claims, and plotted against him ; the Greeks and Lombards defended the towns on the sea-coast with skill and courage, and the Nor- mans were unused to sieges. Twenty years were spent in giving his dominions the extent of the present kingdom of Naples. A. D. The conquest of Sicily was achieved in the reign of Ro- 1060. bert Guiscard, Roger, the last of the twelve brothers, having arrived in Apulia, Robert admired, then envied his noble qualities. The Greeks had abandoned Sicily, and its con- quest was proposed to Roger. With sixty followers, he crossed the strait, and drove the Saracens to the gates of Messina. The spoils acquired attracted others to his standard ; his brother aided ; small bodies of Normans overthrew large 1090. armies of the Moslems ; and at the end of thirty years Roger, with the title of Great Count, was master of the island. His government was liberal and judicious beyond the age. The Moslems were protected in their persons, religion, and prop- erty. The ambition of Robert aimed at conquest in the Greek empire. His daughter had been betrothed to the son of the emperor Michael; but the youth had died, and his father been deposed. Robert affected to be the avenger of his friend : a pseudo-Michael appeared at Salerno, and was ac- knowledged by the wily duke and the able Gregory VII. An army was collected during two years, and assembled at Otranto. Robert landed near Vallona, at the head of 30,000 men, of whom the kernel were 1300 Norman knights. Siege was laid to Durazzo, which was vigorously defended. The Norman fleet suffered from a dreadful storm ; it was defeated by that of Venice, and a reinforcement was thrown into Du- razzo. The able emperor Alexius Comnenus advanced at the head of a large army ; the English, who had left their country, now enslaved by the Normans, increased the number of the brave Verangians ; with them were joined some com- panies of Latins or Western Europeans ; and the rebels who had fled from Robert, and a body of Turkish horse, obeyed the commands of the Grecian emperor. Despair added to the courage of the Normans ; the emperor injudiciously gave bat- tle ; the troops of Robert at first yielded ; the Varangians, who occupied the van, imprudently advanced too far, and ex- posing their flanks to the lances of the Norman knights, they were slaughtered. The Turks fled, and Alexius now saw CHAP.V. INCREASE OP THE PAPAL POWER. 181 the battle was lost. On tlie valor of his own subjecta he a. o. placed no reliance. 1081. Durazzo was taken by treachery. Robert advanced through 1082. Epirus into Thessaly ; but his army was reduced to a third. The cities of Apulia were in revolt. Henry king of Germany was advancing against hun. He passed over to Apulia, leav- ing the command of the army to the gallant Bohemond, his son by his first wife. Bohemond besieged Larissa. Alexius collected another army ; various indecisive engagements took place ; the counts betrayed and deserted Bohemond ; his camp was pillaged, and he was forced to evacuate the country, and return to his father. Meanwhile Henry had entered Rome, and created an anti-pope. Gregory was besieged in the Vatican : he invoked the aid of his Norman vassal. Robert 1084. displayed the holy banner ; 6000 horse and 80,000 foot marched beneath it to Rome. Henry retired, and Gregory was lib- erated. Thus Robert, in the space of three years, had the glory of making the emperors of the East and the West fly before him, and of delivering the greatest of the popes from captivity. Robert prepared again to attack the eastern empire. Alex- 1084. ius had collected a fleet to oppose him ; the Venetians joined their vessels to those of the empire. The Norman troops were, however, landed in safety in Epirus, and then Robert, with twenty galleys, sought the allied navy. Three battles were fought off" Corfu : in the first two the Normans were repulsed ; in the third their victory was complete. Winter came on. In the spring Robert renewed his operations, in- tending to turn his arms against Greece ; but an epidemic disease seized him in Cefalonia, and he died in his tent in the 1085. 70th year of his age. The army dispersed and retired. Ro- bert was succeeded by his second son ; Roger Bohemond being regarded as illegitimate, as his father and mother had been within the prohibited degrees of kindred : his claims, however, disturbed the nation till the crusades drew hun off to Asia. Italy — The Popes. The pretensions of the popes during this period advanced with rapid strides. In their contests with the emperors of the house of Franconia they had to rely on the aid of a strong party in Germany, of the great countess Matilda in the north of Italy, and of their Norman vassals in the south. Extent of the papal dominion, and emancipation from the superiority of the emperors, were the great objects in view : the daring Q 182 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART II. temper and lofty genius of Gregory VII. almost assured the victory. Leo IX. and Stephen IX. had adorned the chair by their birth and virtues. In the pontificate of Nicholas II. it was established in a synod that the popes were to be chosen by the cardinal bishops (those whose sees were near Rome), and approved of by. the cardinal priests and deacons (ministers of the parish churches at Rome) and the people, and then pre- sented for confirmation to the emperor. Hildebrand, arch- deacon of Rome, was the author of this plan, the object of which was gradually to free the papacy from imperial con- trol. On the death of Nicholas he had Alexander II. chosen and consecrated without waiting for the imperial sanction, and on the death of Alexander he was himself raised to the pontificate under the title of Gregory VIL, yet he refused to be consecrated till he had obtained the emperor's consent. The emperor was Henry IV., a dissolute, arbitrary prince. The Saxons were in rebellion against him, and the princes in general disaffected. Gregory commenced his attack by excommunicating some of his ministers for simony : he then published a decree against lay investitures, or the investing of spiritual persons with the ensigns of their rank by laymen. The ring and crosier were, it was said, the emblems of a power which monarchs could not bestow ; and though the estates of the church might be temporal, yet, by their insepa- rable union with the spiritual office, they might be regarded as partaking of its sanctity. The pope, after long treating with the disaffected party in Germany, saw he might advance a little, and he summoned Henry to appear at Rome. Henry was enraged : he assem- bled at Worms a number of bishops and other vassals, and had a decree passed that Gregory should not be obeyed as pope. Gregory, when he heard this, summoned a council at the Lateran, excommunicated Henry, deprived him of the kingdoms of Italy and Germany, absolved his subjects from their allegiance, and commanded them not to obey him. Gregory acted advisedly in this unheard-of stretch of power. Henry's subjects rejoiced at bemg told that what was their inclination was also their duty : conspiracies ripened into re- bellion ; the bishops were terrified at the sentence of excom- munication ; and Henry found himself alone. He adopted the resolution of going to Italy, and casting himself at the feet of the pontiff. In the midstjaf a severe winter he crossed the Alps, and travelled to the seat of the countess Matilda, at Canossa, near Reggio. Here, with naked feet, in the woollen shirt worn by penitents, he stood in the outer court CUAP. V. INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 183 for three days, exposed to the piercing" cold. On the fourth, Gregory admitted and gave him absolution ; but ordered him to appear at a certain time, to know whether he should be restored to his kingdom. By tliis pusillanimous step Henry had disgusted his friends. He saw his imprudence, broke off the negotiation, and took to his arms : his friends rallied about him : he was victorious in Germany and Italy ; and he drove Gregory to die in exile at Salerno. Urban 11. and Pascal 11. carried on the contest with him : they excited his children to rebellion, but gained nothing by the unnatural contest; for Henry V., who had rebelled for the popes against his father, when he ascended his throne, clung as obstinately to the right of investiture as he had done. Being on good terms with his vassals, it would not have been safe to try with him the measures which had been adopted against his father ; and after a contest of fifteen years, the matter was settled by a compromise between him a. d. and pope Calixtus 11. The emperor renounced the right of 1123. investing bishops with the ring and crosier, and recognized the liberty of elections ; but the election was to take place in the presence of him or his officer, and he was to confer the temporalities by the sceptre. A similar contest had been carried on and was terminated in the same manner between Pascal II. and Henry I. of England. The popes had a plausible pretext for thus seekiqg to free spiritual offices from lay influence. The grossest simony had been practised, and the churdi, as far as was possible in that age of gross superstition, thereby deprived of its sanctity. They had not the same pretext for their next measure, the injunction of celibacy. Mankind have always attached a mysterious effect to this virtue. We find it in religious honor in Peru and in Rome. The oriental doctrines early introduced a reverence for it into the church. It gradually was extolled and enjoined ; but human nature was too strong for it, and marriage was generally practised among the clergy. Leo IX. set vigorously about enforcing it: his successors followed up his measures : the laity, as might be expected, took part against the married priests, who were the most virtuous of the order ; but the abuse,!as it was termed, could not be remov- ed without tolerating greater evils. It is plain what a pow- erful engine this was calculated to make the clergy in the hands of a pope, by detaching them from all the ties of social life, and leaving them no attachment but to their order and its head. Yet we should err if we supposed all the popes to have been profound calculators or unprincipled graspers at power. Many of them were men of emhient virtue, and few 184 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART II. of them saw clearly the ultimate effect of their projects. The growth of the papacy was like that of a plant, the necessary effect of predisposing causes ; and, in the state of tlie human mind in the middle ages, its progress was as natural as that of any phenomenon in the physical world. The arms employed by the popes to effect their purpose were excommunication and interdict. By the former an in- dividual, no matter what his rank may have been, was cut off from society ; it was sinful to hold any intercourse with him, and temporal disadvantages were annexed to the sen- tence. But this extended only to one person. Interdict visited the crime of one, usually a sovereign, on all in any way connected with him. When a state was laid under an interdict, the churches were closed, the dead unburied, the bells silent, no sacraments administered but baptism and ex- treme unction. The operation of this on the minds of a su- perstitious people, who attached such mysterious efficacy to masses and sacraments, may easily be conceived ; and few monarchs had courage to dare this last effort of pontifical vengeance. With such arms, and at the head of such an army, the popes seemed almost secure of universal empire ; and we shall soon behold their power at its very climax, but yet on the point of declension, from causes that were in operation against it. Italy — Lombard Cities. The principal cities in the north of Italy had, under the Lombard and French kings, been subject, with their districts, to counts, and these again to dukes. The Saxon emperors separated from them the greater part of the territory, and the authority of the count was usually confined to the town : the bishop often obtained the government. The feudal law of Italy was not so definite as that of France ; there was frequent war between the vavassors and their superior lords ; the cities were strong and populous ; bishops were elective and not hereditary, and less bold and energetic than lay princes. From all these causes the cities gradually increased in strength and power, made war on each other, obtained charters from the emperors — became, in fact, perfectly inde- pendent. As the possessions of the rural nobility had been originally part of their territory, they reclaimed them, reduced the castles of the nobles, and compelled them to reside in tlie towns. Here tlie nobles aimed at obtaining the municipal offices, and the government was at tliis period chiefly in their hands. The policy of the citizens was liberal : they encour^ CHAP. V. INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 186 afred settlement among them. Their mutual and bitter wars and animosities were the great blemish they presented. Germany — House of Franconia. On the death of Henry II. the house of Saxony became a. d. extinct. Conrad, surnamcd the Salic, a nobleman of Fran- 1024. conia, was chosen to succeed. This prince endeavored to increase the power of his family by bestowing several duchies on his relatives. In his reign Burgundy was annexed to the empire. His son, Henry III., trod in his steps : he disposed, 1039. at his will, of duchies, controlled the papal power, and may be regarded as the most powerful and absolute of the German emperors. Henry IV., his son, was left a minor : his mother 1056. Agnes administered the government : the nobles thought the opportunity good for recovering their power ; the archbishop of Mentz carried away the young king, and governed in his name : the education of Henry was neglected, and he grew up dissolute and addicted to low company, but brave and good- natured. The Saxons rebelled: the quarrel about investitures broke out between the pope and the emperor. Henry was excommunicated and deposed by Gregory VIL, and Rodolf duke of Swabia was raised to the throne. Henry defended his rights with vigor: Rodolf was slain in battle. The pope excited Henry's son to rebellion against him ; and at the end of thirty years of continued war, in which he had fought sixty battles, the unhappy emperor sunk in death, and his body lay for years unburied, as he had died excommunicated. HOG. Henry V., a rebel to his father, at the instigation of the holy see, was as tenacious as any of his predecessors of the right of investiture. After a long contest the matter was, as we have seen, settled by compromise between him and tlie pope. 1125. With Henry V. ended the house of Franconia. France. Robert, son of Hugh Capet, neglected his father's projects 997. for extending the royal power. His successor, Henry I., at- tempted to recover Normandy during the minority of Wil- 1031. Ham, afterwards the Conqueror, but without success. Philip I. took advantage of the crusades to enlarge the limits of the 1060. royal power; yet so narrow were these limits, that at the 1108. accession of Louis VI., the Fat, it was almost confined to the cities of Paris, Orleans, Bourgcs, and their districts ; and it cost the king no little trouble to reduce the lords of Mont Chery and other places near Paris. In the reign of this monarch properly began the wars between France and Eng- land, which lasted three centuries and a half; Louis taking Q2 186 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART II. the part of William, son of Robert duke of Normandy, against Henry I. of England, who had usurped that duchy. England. A. D. After the battle of Hastings, William's claim to the crown 1066. was admitted, the inutility of opposition being apparent. He was crowned at Westminster, and took the usual coronation oath of the Anglo-Saxon monarchs. His reign was at first moderate ; only, as it was necessary to gratify the rapacity of his Norman followers, the estates of those who fought against him at Hastings were unjustly confiscated as those of rebels. But these were halcyon days. In the following year he returned to Normandy : his Normans, whom he left in England, oppressed and insulted the people in the most 1067. opprobrious manner. The English rebelled. William, who, when he left the kingdom, probably knew what would take place, returned, crushed the incipient insurrection, confiscated estates, and bestowed tliem on his followers. The following year another rebellion, produced by the same cause, had the 1068. same result ; and William, if he ever had any regard for his English subjects, now manifested nothing towards them but hatred and aversion. Many of the English nobles fled from their country to Scotland, to Constantinople, and elsewhere ; all places of trust were in the hands of the Normans, and gradually they were becoming possessed of all tlie lands. Aided by the Danes and Scots, the people rose once more in arms ; but the vigor and policy of the king proved too pow- erful for them. He now increased his rigor ; he laid waste the country between the Humber and the Tees, to curb the Northumbrians, and 100,000 people are said to have perished by this odious policy. Having now seized almost the whole of the land of England, he introduced all the rigors of the feudal law; he divided the kingdom into C0,000 knights' fees, which he chiefly bestowed on his Normans, to liold im- mediately of himself. A large portion of them were formed into 700 baronies, for the principal of his Norman lords, and Buch of the English as retained their lands found themselves subjected to the feudal burdens. Besides these baronies, 1422 manors constituted the royal demesne, the rent of which was the chief revenue of the crown. All the dignities of the church were bestowed upon the Normans ; an attempt was even made to abolish the English language, w^hich in part unfortunately succeeded, and hence arose the mingled dialect we now speak. Great as was the suffering caused by the Norman monarchs and their barons, it is to the tyranny of these princes that CHAP. V. INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 187 England is in a great measure indebted for her having pre- ceded the other nations in the establishment of popular liberty and constitutional monarchy. For while elsewhere the no- bles could defy the king and oppress the people, here they were obliged to call the people to their aid against the enor- mous power of the crown. Hence arose the dignity and in- fluence of the commons of England. William left three sons, Robert, William, and Henry. To a. d. the first he left Normandy ; to the second, England. William 1087. 11. was an oppressive, tyrannical monarch. His brother Robert at first contested the crown of England with him, but was forced to desist from his claims. Robert was a brave, generous princ»; he was inflamed with the general mania of the crusades, and he mortgaged Normandy to William for 10,000 marks, to equip him for the expedition. William earl of Poitiers and duke of Guienne made a similar agreement with him ; but as he was preparing a fleet and army to go to take possession of these provinces, he was accidentally shot by an arrow, while hunting in the New Forest, for the form- ation of which his father had laid waste the greater part 1100> of Hampshire. Henry on tlie death of his brother hastened to Winchester to secure the royal treasure, and he married Matilda, niece of Edgar Atheling, the last of the Anglo-Saxon royal family. On his return from the East, Robert claimed the kingdom ; but Henry was too strong for him ; and in consequence of the indolence and remissness of Robert, Henry soon afterwards made himself master of Normandy, and took his brother and confined him for life in the castle of Cardiff. Henry had a long contest with the popes about the right of investiture, and the matter was compromised as in Germany. This king had the misfortune to lose his only son. His daughter Ma- tilda was married to the emperor Henry V. ; and Henry dying without issue, she was again married to Gcoflrey son of Fulk, count of Anjou, by whom she had a son. Henry left Matilda 1135. heiress of all his dominions. Stephen count of Blois was grandson of the conqueror, by his daughter Adela. Henry I. had greatly favored and en- riched him and his brother Henry, whom he made bishop of Winchester. On the death of Henry, Stephen hastened to England, secured the royal treasure, and was crowned. The rights of Matilda were upheld by her natural brother, Robert of Gloucester, and several barons. Nearly twenty years elapsed in civil war between the two parties ; the power of the crown was greatly diminished ; the great barons were rapidly attaining to independence ; the papal power was en- 188 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. croaching ; and all the evils of relaxed government were felt. A cbmpromise was at last made between Stephen and Henry, son of Matilda, to whom she had made over her rights, that A. i>. Stephen should reign during his life, and Henry succeed. 1154. Stephen did not long enjoy his reign. Spain. In Spain the Christian states continued gradually to gain on the Mohammedan territories. Alfonso VI. of Castile and 1085. Leon had recovered from the Moslems Toledo, the ancient Gothic capital. Alfonso I. of Aragon pushed his conquests to 1118. the Ebro, and made hhnself master of Saragossa, which he now made the capital of his dominions. Constantinople. 1081. We have seen Alexius Comnenus valiantly defending his dominions against the Normans. With equal wisdom and good fortune he maintained himself against the Russians who assailed the empire in Europe, and the Seljookian Turks who pressed on it in the East. He also knew how to derive advan- tage from the passage over into Asia of the formidable mul- titudes of the crusaders. 1118. John, the son and successor of Alexius, was also a prince of valor, ability, and magnanimity, and while he reigned he 1143. bravely defended all the frontiers of the empire. His son Manuel partook not of the noble qualities of his family, but he transmitted the empire unimpaired to his son. The Seljookians. The Turks had from the most remote ages led a pastoral life in the plains beyond the Oxus and Jaxartes, whence they continually made inroads into the empire of Persia. In the decline of the powers of the khalifs, they encroached more and more, and pastured their herds south of these rivers. They were encouraged by their countrymen, who were domi- nant at the court of the khalifs ; and Mahmood of Ghizni placed several of their tribes in Khorassan. On his death, these Turks made inroads into Persia, and ravaged to the 1038. Tigris. Massood, his successor, collected an army and gave them battle on the plains of Zendecan. The Ghiznivide was defeated and driven out of the greater part of his dominions. The Turks now proceeded to elect a king. The decision was committed to the lot of arrows ; and Toghrul Beg, the son of Michael, the son of Seljook, gained the prize. Togh- rul, having made himself master of Khorassan, advanced into Irak, subdued it, and then took Bagdad, where he was, by CHAP. V. INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 189 the feeble klialif, appointed vicegerent of the vicar of the proph- ^ d. et, and lord over all Mohammedans. The conquest of Ader- 1056. bijan (Media) brought the Seljookians into contact with the Romans, who had gradually recovered their former possessions as far as the eastern frontier of Armenia, and their ambassa- dors appeared at Constantinople, to demand tribute and obedi- ence. The Turkish cavalry ravaged the country to the city of Erzeroom, and massacred 130,000 Christians ; but Toghrul was not able to make any lasting impression. Toghrul and his subjects were zealous in the faith of Islam, and he entertained the highest reverence for the successors of the prophet. He restored to his dominion Bagdad and its district ; and the khalif enjoyed a degree of ease and inde- pendence to which he had been long a stranger. Yet it was with reluctance that the klialif Cayem bestowed his daughter 1063. on the Turkman shepherd, though monarch of Asia. Toghrul was succeeded by his nephew, Alp Arslan {Val- 1065. iant Lion). This monarch invaded the Roman empire : the 1068. conquest of Armenia was rapid ; the Georgians of Caucasus offered a braver though as unavailing a resistance. The Turks penetrated to Phrygia : Romanus Diogenes, the val- iant husband of the empress Eudocia, marched against them. In three campaigns he drove them beyond the Euphrates; in 1071. a fourth, he attempted the recovery of Armenia. But fortune here deserted the Roman emperor ; treachery or cowardice caused the overthrow of his army ; after long fighting with desperate valor, he was forced to surrender on the field of battle, and was led captive into the presence of Alp Arslan, whose magnanimity and generosity on this occasion may al- m.ost vie with that of the Black Prince to the king of France. Romanus, after the kindest treatment, was set at liberty, on condition of a large ransom and an annual tribute. Alp Ars- lan now turned his arms against his countrymen beyond the Oxus : the dagger of a Carismian, maddened by the severity of the sentence threatened him, pierced the heart of the Sel- 1072. jookian in the midst of his guards, and the remains of Alp Arslan were entombed at Merv. Malek Shah, the son of Alp Arslan, was, in noble qualities and extent of dominion, the greatest prince of his age. The Turkman tribes acknowledged his supremacy ; and from the confines of China to those of Constantinople and Egypt his mandates were obeyed. Learning was encouraged and the calendar reformed in the reign of Malek ; but the praise must be shared with his illustrious vizier, the great and good Nizam-ul-mulk, who directed the government under him and his father, Alp Arslan. At the age of ninety-three years, 190 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. TART 11. Nizam was disgraced, and he perished by the dagger of one jof the followers of his schoolfellow, Hassan Sabah, who had just now organized the society of the Assassins. Malek did not long survive his minister, and the brief remainder of his A. D. reign was inglorious. He died suddenly at Bagdad, and his 1092. death was imputed to Hassan. On the death of Malek, his empire, after the usual course of civil war among his sons, was divided, but finally reunited in the person of Sanjar, the survivor of them, and the last great monarch of the Seljookians of Persia. Sanjar ruled from Cashgar to Antioch, from the Caspian to the Straits of Babelmandeb. During the time of these princes, the power of the Sel- jookians was established in Room, i. e. Lesser Asia. Kootel- mish, grandson of Seljook, had attempted to form an inde- pendent dominion in that country, but was defeated and slain. His son, Mansoor, paid tribute to Alp Arslan and Malek Shah, till, by the command of the latter, he also was put to death. His younger brother, Suleiman, would have had a similar fate but for the interference of Nizam-ul-mulk, on whose re- presentations he was not only granted his life, but given an 1074. army, with commission to make conquest in Room. Suleiman crossed the Euphrates : soon almost the whole of Lesser Asia obeyed the Turkish sultan, who fixed his seat of empire at Nice in Bithynia : his aid was implored by rival candidates for the purple ; and even Alexius Coranenus sought his sup- port against the Normans. By treachery Antioch fell into the hands of Suleiman. Constantinople was menaced, and Alexius sent through Europe supplicatory epistles. Jerusalem was in the hands of the Turks. Jerusalem had long been the resort of pious or zealous Christians. In the times of the early khalifs and the first Abbassides their access had never been impeded; and Ha- roon-er-Rasheed had even presented Charlemagne with the keys of the holy sepulchre, perhaps of the city. Tlie pil- grimages were advantageous to the subjects of the khalifs, as they brought money and trade to their coasts. When the Fatemites of Egypt got possession of Palestire, they were far from throwing any impediments in the way of western devotion, and it was only for a time interrupted by the mad 1009. freaks of the khalif Hakem. Sat Atsiz, one of the lieu- tenants of Malek Shah, marched into Syria, took Damascus^ and reduced the province : he advanced into Egypt, and the Fatemite khalif was about to fly into Nubia before the troops, who maintained the cause of the Abbasside, when the people of Cairo and the negro guards valiantly repelled the Turks CHAP. V. INCREASE OP THE PAPAL POWER. 191 from tlie frontiers. But Tootush, brother of Malek Shah, a. t>. now appeared, and Syria and Palestine obeyed for twenty 1076. years the house of Seljook ; and the rude Turks treated with tlie utmost insolence and cruelty the Christian pilgrims, who now flocked to the Holy Land in greater numbers than ever. First Crusade. The pilgrims filled Europe with complaints of the profana- 109G. tion of the sepulchre. The letters of Alexius portrayed the power of the Turks, and the danger of the Greek empire : Gregory VII. had already meditated the union of Christen- dom against Islam ; Europe was full of ardent enthusiastic warriors. Peter the Hermit proposed to Urban H., the then pope, a project of leading armies into Asia, and conquering the Holy Land. A council was summoned at Placentia ; it was numerously attended by both clergy and laity, and war was resolved on. Another council was held at Clermont in Auvergne, and, on hearing the exhortations of the pope and the hermit, the whole assembly cried. It is the loill of God ! and each champion devoted himself to the holy war by affix- ing a cross to his right shoulder. The kingdom of heaven was promised to all who fell in the war against the infidels : the acquisition of earthly kingdoms in Asia, of whose wealth and fertility they had heard such mprvels, was to crown success. Piety, curiosity, every feel- inpf was roused: all sins were forgiven to the crossed ; hos- tilities were prohibited against the states of those who warred for Christ. Robert duke of Normandy, Hugh, brother of the king of France, Raymond count of Toulouse, Godfrey of Bouillon, and his brothers Eustace and Baldwin, Stephen count of Blois, were the chief leaders, and an immense num- ber of all ranks and ages crowded to the sacred standard. Three hund -ed thousand, under the guidance of Peter the ' ' rmit, Walter the Moneyless, and others, straggled on be- \ In their passage through Hungary and Bulgaria, part ,.^re massacred by the inhabitants, whom they pillaged; and ther rest, on entering Asia, were slaughtered by the Turks. The great armj followed, and poured into Constantinople, to the dismay of Alexius, who lost no time in passing them over into Asia. When assembled before the walls of Nice, 1097. they numbered 600,000 combatants. They besieged and took that city, defeating the Seljookian Kilij Arslan in two great battles, and took every town which lay in their way to An- tioch, of which city Bohemond, the son of Robert Guiscard, was made prince. Baldwin, at the call of its Christian in- 192 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. habitants, passed the Euphrates, and assumed the sovereignty of Edessa. Afdel the vizier of the Fatemite kiialif Mostaali, had re- covered Jerusalem from the Turks : the crusaders were in- formed that they might now perform their vows, if they came unarmed, and that pilgrims would henceforth meet the good treatment they had hitherto experienced. The offer was re- A. D. jected : the champions of the cross appeared before the holy 1099. city. Thirty-nine days they besieged it : on the 15th of July it was stormed : no age or sex was spared : 70,000 is said to have been the number of the victims. Various circumstances had so reduced the Christian host, that of the vast multitude that crossed the Bosphorus but 1500 horse and 20,000 foot marched from Tortosa to Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon was chosen king by his fellow-war- riors ; but he refused to bear that title in the kingdom of the Son of David : the land was partitioned into fiefs, and a code of feudal regulations, called the Assizes of Jerusalem, drawn up for the administration of it. Two religious military orders were afterwards formed for its farther defence. Before the time of the crusade there had been a society for attending 1118. sick pilgrims in the hospital of St. John. Hugo des Payens, of the house of Champagne, Godfrey of St. Adomer, and seven other knights formed themselves into an order named Templars, from their house near the site of the temple o£ Solomon. Their vows before the patriarch were to defend pilgrims against robbers, obedience, celibacy, and poverty. St. Bernard, at the desire of the king of France and other lords and p'*inces, drew up a rule for them. In battle they vowed to be the first in action, the last in retreat : tliis ex- ample w"s follovv^ed by the brethren of the Hospital ; and a new order, the Teutonic, was soon added to these military and religious associations. The Christian empire at this pe- riod extended from the borders of Armenia to those of Egypt ; but it was feeble, and encompassed by powerful enemies. Its population, though brave, was few ; and its reliance, an un- stable one, was on the West. CHAP. VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 193 CHAP. VL THE PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT Italy — The Popes, From the time of Gregory VII. his successors faithfully adhered to his principle of extending the power of the holy see. After him no pope dreamed of waiting for the imperial confirmation. It was even hinted that the emperor should, in right, be confirmed by the pope. In their intercourse with the German emperors, the pope and his legate used language respecting the imperial dignity which seemed to imply that it was a fief of the holy see ; and Adrian, when granting Ire- land to Henry 11. , spoke of all islands as being the property of St. Peter. This last and other monarchs made a resolute opposition to the exorbitant claims of the pontiffs ; but the latter knew so well how to take advantage of circumstances, and had such a well-disciplined army in the clergy, and so powerful a ma- chine to work with in the gross superstition of the laity, that they were seldom foiled in any of their measures. The pon- tiff who carried his pretensions tlie highest, and exercised them most effectually, was Innocent III., who, of noble birth, lofly and powerful mind, and in the prime of life, ascended a. n. tlie papal throne in 1194. Availing himself of the embar- 119'i. rassments of the Saxon emperors of Germany, of the ambition and interestedness of Philip Augustus of France, and of the vices and cowardice of the infamous John, and the feebleness and folly of his son Henry III. of England, Innocent, raised the papal power to a height scarcely dreamed of by his predeces- sors. He acquired independent sovereignty in Italy, estab- lished the control over temporal princes, and supremacy over the church. The popes, in consequence of real or pretended grants from Constantino, Pepin and his son, and Louis, had always laid claim to extensive dominions ; but in reality they possessed hardly any. In Rome the imperial prefect and the turbulent spirit of the people held them in check, and all the little places about Rome were as independent as in the days of Romulus. The countess Matilda, the great friend of Gregory VIL, had left the reversion of her large possessions to the holy see. These were the imperial fiefs of Tuscany, Mantua, and Modena, of which she had certainly no right to dispose : the remainder, the duchy of Spoleto, and the march of Anco- R 194 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. na, she held under a somewhat different title, and might ap- pear to have more power over. However, the emperors dis- A. D. regarded the claims of the pontiffs, and disposed of Spoleto 1177. and Ancona as parts of the empire. Frederick Barharossa promised to restore them after fifteen years ; but Henry VI. granted them away as imperial fiefs. At his death, a dis- puted succession engaging the Germans in civil war, Italy was left to herself; and Innocent now put forth the claims of the holy -see, and produced a true or false will of Henry VI. in its favor. The cities of these states had, like those of Lom- hardy, become independent, but were harassed by German partisans settled in Italy by the emperors, and they gladly put themselves under the protection of the holy see. Thus Spoleto and Ancona submitted, and, a few years afterwards. Innocent, not feeling himself strong enough to hold them, prudently granted Ancona in fief to the marquis of Este. At home he forced the prefect to swear allegiance to him, and not to the emperor, and curbed as far as he was able the spirit of the people. Thus the holy see became a temporal power. The superiority of the pontifical over the royal power was strongly put forth by Innocent : the kingdoms of the earth were Christ's, and consequently, by the logic of those days, his vicar's ; and tlie little, mean, selfish policy of the princes prompted them, on every occasion where they had any object to attain, to submit to and forward the pretensions of their common enemy. The submission of Henry II. cannot be blamed : he struggled nobly, and had all the world against him. The baseness of Jolm, in surrendering his kingdom, and receiving it back as a fief, is unparalleled. Peter II. of Aragon, it is true, did the same ; but with certainly a better motive — to secure it against ambitious neighbors. The pope was, in fact, become suzerain, censor, and conservator of the peace of Europe : his weapons were interdict and excommu- nication. These were effectual, and, when the interests of the holy see were not involved, were often beneficially em- ployed. Philip Augustus, for example, when in the zenith of his power, having divorced his wife, the Danish princess Ingeborg, under the pretext of consanguinity, and espoused another. Innocent, who, when his own interest was not con- cerned, loved social order, directed him to take back his queen. Philip demurred ; France was laid under interdict, and Philip submitted. The papal thunder rolled over every kingdom in Europe, enjoining peace, and punishing public and private oftences. National churches had originally possessed a good deal of independence and the clergy had shown every disposition to CHAP. VI. PAPAL POWRR AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT, 195 exercise a despotic power over the laity ; but the popes were bent to draw all power to themselves. It had been their policy to support bishops against their metropolitans, and thereby break the power of the latter ; they now prohibited any bishop to exercise his functions till he had received con- firmation from the holy see. Gregory forced bishops to ap- pear in person at Rome, to receive the pallium, and all pre- lates were harassed with citations thither. Legates were sta- tioned in every kingdom, as the representatives of the popes, with extensive powers. The popes levied taxes on the clergy to an enormous extent : they assumed the right of appointing to bishoprics, and all other benefices. The chief bases on which the papal dommion rested were, after the gross superstition of the people, 1. The canon law, originating in the false decretals of Isidore, which had been brought forth, towards the end of the eighth century, with the view of lowering the authority of metropolitans, by allow- ing of appeals to Rome, and forbidding national councils to be held without its consent. These decretals purported to be the decrees of the early bishops of Rome. About 1140, Gra- tian, a monk, published his Decretum, in which the decretals of Isidore, and the rescripts of pontiffs and decrees of coun- cils, were arranged under heads, like the Pandects : various additions were made to this; the civil law was followed; the papal power extolled, and, in the professors of this law, a powerful body of partisans raised for the papacy. — 2. The es- tablishments of the mendicant orders, who by a greater strict- ness of manners, a professedly purer system of faith, and an abuse of the secular clergy, gained the esteem of the laity, always caught by these qualities. Devoted to the pontiffs, they were supported in return by them, and exempted from episcopal authority : for as the secular clergy became disaf- fected on account of the manner in which they were pillaged by the papacy, the latter was glad to raise up rivals to them. The great schoolmen, such as Thomas Aquinas, were of these orders, and they elevated the papal authority to the utmost. Two other causes increased the papal influence with princes and the great : — 3. Dispensations of marriage. The ascetic maxims, which had so early gotten into the church, extended the prohibition of marriage to the seventh degree of consan- guinity ; this was afterwards extended to affinity, and then to spiritual affinity, or gossipship. The royal and great families were so connected with one another, that it was difficult for them to marry without the canonical limits ; and hence all the divorces we read of under this pretext, but caused by pas- cion or ambition. Innocent III. laid it down as a maxim, that 196 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART 11. he was empowered to dispense with the law : money soon flowed rapidly into the papal exchequer, and princes looked up to their spiritual father, who could allow them to gratify their passions. — 4. The dispensing power which legitimated bastards, and released men from their most solemn oaths and engagements, on the ground that oaths extorted by violence, or mjurious to the church, are not binding. Such was the papal power when at its zenith ; a power, no doubt, not unfrequently exerted for beneficial purposes, jjut, from its very nature, prejudicial to the best interests of man. The world never will witness such another dominion ; for it is hardly within the limits of possibility that such a state of society as the middle ages presented can return. Italy — the Lombard Cities, The cities of Lombardy all acknowledged the superiority of the emperor. When Frederic Barbarossa ascended the throne, he claimed all the power possessed by Augustus. The independence of the Lombard cities appeared to him rebellion, and he resolved to chastise it. The injustice of Milan, which, in 1111, had taken and razed Lodi, gave him a pretext. Two citizens of the latter implored him to avenge its wrongs. He entered Italy, held a diet at Roncaglia, where complaints poured in against the Milanese. He took the field against them and their allies ; but the nature of a feudal army, and the ill terms he was on with pope Adrian IV., prevented his effecting much. He assembled another army, to which al- most every city of Lombardy was forced to send its militia, and Milan was reduced to surrender. ^^ J, Frederic held another diet at Roncaglia, in which the cities 1158. were forbidden to make war on each other, to coin money, or levy tolls ; and an imperial magistrate, called Podesta, was to administer justice with the consuls, as their own chief magis- trates were styled. The Milanese were more severely treated than any others : they saw the utter destruction of their liber- ties was intended : they took arms ; but were only aided by Crema, their Platsea. But Crema was taken and razed, and 1162. soon after Milan experienced the same fate. The emperor now proceeded to establish the most absolute power all over Lombardy. In vain the citizens implored; they only got vague hopes of redress. But the principle of liberty was strong, find the Lombard league was secretly 1167. formed. Frederic, in his attempt to make an anti-pope, was besieging Rome ; the flower of his army fell victims to the malaria of the autumn, and he was obliged to recross the Alps. After some years of indecisive warfare, he invaded the Mi- CHAP. VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 197 lanesG, and the confederates gave liim battle and a signal de- a. d. feat at Legnano. A truce was made through the mediation 11'76. of Venice, for six years ; and at length, by the peace of Con- stance, the cities were reinstated in their independence, re- serving the imperial superiority. 1183. The Lombard cities were afterwards split into the Guelf and Ghibilin factions, which we shall presently explain : they generally sided with the popes against the emperors, and .were continually engaged in wars with one another. Italy — Naples and Sicily. The family of Roger count of Sicily had gotten the regal 1166. dignity, and also the Italian dominions of the family of Rob- ert Guiscard. William the Good was the last of these princes. Constantia, his aunt, was married to the emperor Henry VI. ; but on the death of William, the nobles, who dreaded the 1186. power of Henry, raised Tancred, William's natural cousin, to the throne ; and, on his death, his infant son William III. 1189. The emperor hastened over to Sicily ; defeated his opponents ; 1194. look the young king prisoner ; led him to Germany, and there treated him with the greatest barbarity. On the birth of Frederic IL, Constantia governed Sicily in his name, and on her death, the pope, Innocent III., becoming guardian to the 1200. young monarch, endeavored to derive from that circumstance all the advantages he could for the holy see. Germany — Swabian Line. With Henry V. ended the male line of the Franconian 1125. emperors. Frederic duke of Swabia, grandson, by his mother, of Henry IV., had inherited their estates. But the princes were anxious to make the crown really elective, and many, besides, entertained a strong dislike to the late emperor. The crown was, therefore, bestowed, with some opposition, on Lo- thaire duke of Saxony. As oi ief of a nation, the bitter ene- mies of the house of Franconia, Lothaire did every thing in his power to depress Frederic and Conrad of Hohenstauffen, the heads of tlie Swabian family, and to secure the empire for his son-in-law, Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria, de- scended from Welf, fourth son of Azzo, marquis of Este, by Cunegonde, heiress of the Welfs of Altorf in Swabia. Henry also possessed, through his mother, Luneburg, the patrimony of the Billungs, the ancient dukes of Saxony ; and by his marriage with the only child of Lothaire he got Hanover and Brunswick, the patrimony of Henry the Fowler, and Lothaire added the duchy of Saxony. But the extent of his possessions was prejudicial to Henry. 1138. R2 198 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. On the death of Lothaire, Conrad of Swabia was hastily elected by the partisans of his house, and the Saxon party was forced to submit. Conrad, taking advantage of the jeal- ousy caused by the large possessions of Henry, pretended that two duchies could not legally be held by one person, and summoned him to surrender one of them. Henry refusing, the diet pronounced both to be forfeited, and Henry was speedily stripped of all he possessed. The factions of the Guelfs and Ghibilins date from this period : the former, from Welf, de- note the partisans of the house of Saxony; the latter, from Wibelung a town in Franconia, whence the emperors of that line sprang whom the house of Swabia was held to re- present. As the latter possessed the imperial dignity when these names were transmitted to Italy, the Ghibilins there were the partisans of the emperor, the Guelfs those of the A. D. pope and his other opponents. 1152. Conrad HI., when dying, though he had a son, recom- mended to the electors his nephew, Frederic duke of Swabia, surnamed Barbarossa (Red-beard,) and he was elected em- peror. Frederic was an able, politic prince. His contests with the cities of Lombardy we have already noticed, in which the triumph of liberty over power was glorious and 1159. complete. At Rome the opposite factions had elected two rival popes, Victor IV. and Alexander III. Frederic sided with the former ; the kings of France and England, and the Lombard cities, with the latter. After the battle of Legnano the emperor was forced to acknowledge Alexander, by kissing his feet, and holding his stirrup as he mounted his mule — new inventions of the servants of the servants of Christ. The emperor Conrad had restored Saxony to Henry the Lion, son of Henry the Proud. Bavaria had been bestowed on the margraf of Austria, Henry's guardians having ro- ll 56. nounced it in his name. He now applied to Frederic, who was his first cousin, and whose life lie had saved at Rome, to have it restored. Frederic complied with his desire, and they lived for several years in harmony. But when the emperor was leadmg- into Lombardy the army which was defeated at : Legnano, Henry, prompted by jealousy or ambition, refused to assist. On his return, Frederic summoned him to answer charges in a diet. Henry refused compliance, and his pos- 1181. sessions were confiscated and shared among his enemies. He now implored the emperor's mercy, who advised him to re- tire to England till the present possessors could be prevailed on to relinquish them. The duke passed three years at the court of his father-in-law Henry II., and at length his allodial estates of Saxony were restored to him. Fifty years after, CHAP. VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 199 these were made imperial fiefs, and became the two duchies of Brunswick, whose dukes are the representatives of Henry the Lion, and inherit the name of Guelf. Saladin having now taken Jerusalem, a crusade was preach- a. d. ed. Frederic took the cross, and passed over to Asia with a 1188- large army ; but, bathing on a hot day in a cold mountain- stream, like Alexander in the Cydnus, in the same vicinity, he caught a disorder, and died in the 69th year of his age. Henry VI., the Severe, succeeded his father. The power 1190. of Henry was so great in Germany, that, but for the vigorous opposition of the Saxons, he would have made the empire hereditary in his family. His short reign was chiefly occu- pied in making himself master of Naples and Sicily, where he exercised the most atrocious cruelty against his opposers. Frederic II. was but tw^o years old at the death of his father. 1198 Though Henry had had him elected, a strong party of the princes, backed by Innocent III., who wished to reduce the house of Swabia, showed a disposition to retract. Philip duke of Swabia, brother to the late emperor, unable to secure the succession of his nephew, got himself chosen by one party ; the other chose Otho, son of Henry the Lion. A civil war ensued, in which Philip was victorious, and drove Otho out of Germany ; but being shortly afterwards assassinated fby the count palatine of Bavaria, Otho IV. returned, married .the daughter of Philip, and was crowned at Rome, resign- ing the inheritance of the countess Matilda to the holy see. But Otho, feeling himself strong, revoked his concessions, .and the pope supported Frederic II., now grown up, against him. Otho was generally deserted, except by his Saxons, and Frederic was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle. Otho's death 1215. in 1218 left the young emperor at peace in Germany. But it was in Italy that Frederic passed the greater part ■of his reign. On his accession to the imperial dignity he had taken the cross. The pope was continually urging him to perform liis vow ; but, engaged in improving and benefiting his Neapolitan and Sicilian dominions, he neglected to comply. Honorius III. threatened to excommunicate him, but Frederic 1226. despised the threat. He and the pope were afterwards recon- ciled. Gregory IX. having declared liim incapable of the im- perial dignity for his disobedience, Frederic ravaged the patrimony of the church. He was then actually excommuni- 1228. cated, and the usual course of bloodshed, poisoning, war, and assassination took place in Italy. At length Frederic resolved to perform his vow ; but the pope prohibited his departure till he should be absolved. Frederic went in contempt of the clmrch, and was more successful than any of the preceding 200 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART II. A. D. crusaders, for Jerusalem and its territory were ceded to him 1230. by the sultan of Egypt. The remainder of Frederic's reign was a continued struggle with the holy see. All Italy was split into the Guelf and Ghibilin factions ; the pope preached a crusade against Frede- ric, and excited the Lombard cities to war, and his son Henry to rebellion against him ; but the emperor was everywhere successful. The succeeding pontiffs, Celestine IV. and Inno- 1245. cent IV., followed up the measures of Gregory. On the death of Henry, who had been king of the Romans, the German bishops, by the direction of Innocent, who had deposed Frede- ric, elected Henry landgraf of Thuringia, and, on his death, 1248. William count of Plolland. Fortune was now adverse to Frederic ; he was defeated before Parma, and, retiring to 1250. Naples to raise an army, he there died of a fever, in the 57th year of his age. Frederic was a prince of great endowments, and a zealous patron of learning. Conrad, son of Frederic, and his rival William, did not survive many years. Richard duke of Cornwall and Alfonso X. of Castile, were chosen by opposite parties of the electors ; but for twenty-three years there may be said to have been an interregnum, and the empire without a recognized head. 1255. During this period, the cities on the Rhine entered into a league for mutual defence in their commerce. A few years 1241. before, the northern cities had entered into the celebrated Hanseatic league for a similar purpose. France. Louis VII., the Young, contrary to the advice of his wise minister the abbe Suger, undertook a crusade with the em- 1147. peror Conrad III. Both were equally unsuccessful. Eleanor, queen of Louis, had accompanied him ; but having had an 1149. amour with a young Turk, Louis, on his return, divorced her, and resigned the rich territories he had obtained with her. Henry 11. of England then married Eleanor. 1180. Philip II. Augustus, son of Louis VII., was the ablest monarch France had seen since Charlemagne. Pie raised the crown of France from the state of degradation it had been in, by reuniting to it several of the great jfiefs. He took from the count of Flanders the Vermandois and Artois. When John of England had murdered his nephew Arthur, Philip summoned him as his vassal to be tried by his peers, and, on his not appearing, he seized on Normandy, Maine, and Anjou, which were never restored to the English crown. Philip had accompanied Richard I. to the Holy Land, and his behavior to that prince does his memory little credit. CHAP. VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 201 Louis VIII. had, during the lifetime of his father, been in- a. o. vited over to England against king John by the barons, who 1223 offered him the crown. He met in that expedition but slender success. On coming to the throne, he attempted the con- quest of the remaining dominions of the English kings in France, made himself master of Poitou, and was on the point of subjecting Guienne, when he was drawn away to Langue- doc, where the pope had preached a crusade against the Al- 1208. bigeois, and Raymond count of Toulouse who protected them. More than the usual quantity of blood had been shed and de- vastation committed by the pope's warriors, led on by the fanatic hypocrite Simon do Montfort. This chief was now dead; but the pope was unrelenting, and Louis VIIL was called on to take the cross against the son of Raymond, and he gave up the conquest of Guienne for this purpose. But he died after a short though successful war. Louis IX., St. Louis, was only twelve years old on the 1226. death of his father ; but his mother, Blanche of Castile, gov- erned during his minority with wisdom and vigor. The great vassals made several attempts to recover their former inde- pendence ; but the address of the regent always triumphed over them. When Louis came of age, he fully displayed his estimable qualities. Such were the moderation and justice of this good king, that, so far from encroaching on his neigh- bors, he even made restitution of what they had been unjustly deprived of. He restored to Henry IIL a great part of what he had lost in France, and he always sought to mediate be- tween that prince and his barons. Louis administered justice personally to all who sought it ; and he drew up his Establish- ments, the first code compiled by the Capetian family. The sole blemishes of this excellent prince's character were, his too great deference for his mother, and his superstition, which 1248. last led him to undertake two crusades, in one of which he lost his army, and was made prisoner ; in the other he ex- pired on the torrid coast of Africa. Yet France has surely 1270 reason to be proud of St. Louis ; for a monarch his equal has rarely, if ever, adorned any throne. England — the Plantagenets. Henry IL, son of Matilda, daughter of Henry I., and of 1157. Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of Anjou, inherited by his mother, England, Normandy, and the feudal superiority over Britany; by liis father, Anjou, Touraine, and Maine ; and, by marrying Eleanor, heiress of Guienne and Poitou, whom Louis VII. had divorced, he became master of these extensive provinces. He was young, brave, talented, amiable, and ambitious, a 202 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART II. formidable rival to the king of France. Henry gave the feudal system a blow, by substituting, in the beginning of his reign, the practice of levying a scutage, or tax on each knight's fee, instead of personal service, and with that money A. D. paying a mercenary army. He sought to check the encroach- 1164. ments of the papacy, by procuring the Constitutions of Cla- rendon to be passed, by which the permission of the king was made requisite to the taking effect of any papal act, and for appeals to Rome ; and the clergy were to be tried for their crimes in the lay courts. The king's chief opponent was Thomas a Becket, whom he had made archbishop of Canter- 1170. bury, and the contest ended in the murder of that violent but sincere prelate. Henry invaded and partly conquered Ire- land. The latter part of his reign was spent in opposing the rebellions of his own sons, actuated by the king of France. Henry 11. was perhaps the ablest king that ever sat on the throne of England. 1189. Richard I. succeeded, as his brother Henry had died before his father. The reign of this monarch was almost wholly oc- cupied by his crusade to Palestine with Philip of France. In the East he performed prodigies of valor ; but, on his return, was seized and imprisoned by the duke of Austria. He was ransomed by his subjects, but soon after died of a wound he received before the petty fortress of Chains. Military skill and valor formed the most conspicuous part of Richard's char- acter. Hence he was named Coeur-de-Lion, Lion-hearted. 1199. John was nominated successor by his brother Richard ; but Geoffrey, duke of Britany, an elder brother, had left a son named Arthur, As John was detested, the claims of Arthur were put forward ; and the barons of Anjou, Maine, and Tou- raine declared for him, backed by the king of France. John afterwards, happening to take his nephew, stabbed him with his own hand. For this crime the king of France, as supe- rior lord, summoned him to answer before his peers. On his not appearing, his fiefs were declared forfeited, and Philip en- tered and took possession of Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and Touraine, which were thus united for ever to the French crown. John now quarrelled with the pope, the intrepid Inno- cent III. : his dominions were laid under interdict, himself de- posed, and his kingdom bestowed on the king of JFrance. The 1213. pusillanimous John submitted to hold his dominions as fiefs of the holy see, to do homage for them, and to pay 1000 marks of silver annual tribute. His subjects, despising and detesting him, seized this occasion for restraining the enor- mous prerogative of the crown. At the mstigation of the primate Langton, the barons took arms, and forced the kmg CHAP. VI. ^ PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 203 to sign, at Runnymead, the Magna Charta, the great charter a. d. of liberty of all ranks of the people. Some time after, having 1215 taken into pay a body of mercenary troops, John attempted to annul the great charter. The barons in their despair offered the crown to Louis, son of the king of France, who invaded England ; but John dying, the barons returned to their alle- giance, and crowned his infant son Henry. The character of John may be summed up in the words of the Roman satirist, Monstrum a vitiis nulla virtute redemptum. Henry III. being but nine years old, the government was 1216. administered by the earl of Pembroke, mareschal of England, and a new charter of liberties was granted, which conciliated all orders. As Henry grew up, the defects of his character became apparent : he was weak, inactive, and, imprudently attached to his relations and to foreigners, he heaped riches and estates upon them with tlie most lavish prodigality : for a share of the spoil, he concurred in the monstrous exactions of the court of Rome, which attained their height in this reign. The foolish king, being offered by the artful pontiff tlie crown of Naples for his second son, Irw^ished great sums of money in that wild project. The barons were incensed at all his acts of folly and injustice ; they forced him to renew in the most solemn manner the great charter ; but hardly had 1255. the weak monarch sworn to observe it, when he was induced by his favorite to transgress it as before. Simon de Mont- fbrt, earl- of Leicester, himself a foreigner and son of the general in tlie crusade against the Albigeois, called on the barons to take arms in defence of their rights thus trampled on by the king's foreign favorites. The barons appeared in arms in the next parliament : the king was terrified, and sub- mitted ; the Provisions of Oxford were made, and unlimited 1258 power was given to twenty-four barons, with Leicester at their head, to reform the state. This body, like the decem- virate of old, sought to make itself the absolute terror of king and people : "the tide of popularity turned against it ; the pope released Henry and his subjects from their oaths to 1262. it, and the king resumed liis authority. Leicester, who had left the kingdom, returned : his party was still strong, espe- cially in London and the towns ; he formed an alliance with the Welsh, and had recourse to arms. At the battle of Lewes 1264. the king was taken prisoner, and his son, prince Edward, giving himself in excliange for him, Leicester detained both. Edward afterwards escaped, and defeated and slew Leicester at the battle of Evesham, and put an end to the civil war. 1265. The poor old king passed the rest of his days in peace. His reign was longer than that of any English king except 204 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. A D. George III. In this reign the house of commons dates its i265- origin ; Leicester, in the 49th year of the king, previously to a parliament being held in London, having issued writs to the sheriffs, directing them to return two knights from each shire, and two burgesses from each city or town. Ireland^ Ireland was originally peopled by a portion of the Keltic race, who we may suppose passed over to it from Britain. It had always been divided into little independent states. The manners of the people were like those of all others in the same condition of society. Everlasting petty warfare, murder, abduction, and similar acts of violence were exhibited. It had been converted pretty early to Christianity by Patricius, a native of Britain. Like its neighbors, it was exposed to the ravages of the Northmen, who, invincible there as every- where else, had conquered a part of the country. Henry II. had cast an eye of cupidity upon it; and the pope Adrian IV., as the Irish church was not remarkable for obedience, readily, in the plenitude of his power, conferred the dominion of it on the English monarch. An occasion for interposing soon occurred. Dermot M'Murrdugh, king of Leinstcr, carried off the wife of O'Ruarc of Breffney (Leitrim and Sligo) : the latter applied to Roderic O'Connor, king of Connaught, the chief of the five provincial monarchs, and Dermot was de- feated and chased out of his dominions by their united forces. He repaired to Henry 11,, then in Guienne, and sought hia aid, offering to acknowledge himself his vassal. Henry, being then engaged, gave him letters, empowering any of his English subjects who pleased to engage in the enterprise. Richard earl of Pembroke, surnamed Strong-bow, and some other adventurers, embarked in the enterprise ; and thougl) their numbers were small, such was the superiority of their arms and their skill, tliat they overpowered all resistance, Henry himself appeared in Ireland, and received the homage 1172. of its princes. But the conquest was merely nominal ; and ages elapsed before Ireland was really subdued. It is, perhaps-, not unwortliy of observation, that the kmg of England in- vaded Ireland in defence of adultery, and by virtue of a re- cognition of the power of the pope to dispose of kingdoms. So little scrupulous about means is ambition, so heedless of remote consequences ! Spnin. 1212. Malik-en-Nasir Mohammed, the Almohade prince of Mo- rocco, crossed the sea with 100,000 warriors, and he was CHAP. VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 205 joined by the Moors of Andalusia. On the Navas de Tolosa, near Ubeda, his army was engaged (July 16) by the united force of the Christian states of the peninsula, under Alfonso VIII. of Castile ; and the victory of that day established the a d. superiority of the Christians for ever. St. Ferdinand, grandson 1236. of Alfonso, united Castile and Leon. He conquered Baeza 124a and Cordova, and, eighteen months afterwards, Seville, in which last he fixed his residence. Cadiz was soon obliged to 1250. submit ; and the Moors were now confined to Granada. Jayme I. of Aragon, called the Conqueror, drove the Moors 1229- out of the Balearic Isles, and conquered the kingdoms of Valencia and Murcia, the latter of which he gave, according 1238. to agreement, to the king of Castile. Portugal. Henry, a knight of the house of Burgundy, having distin- guished himself at the siege of Toledo, Alfonso gave him his 1085 daughter in marriage, and the government of the conquests of the kings of Leon in the mountains to the west. Henry settled himself at Guimaraens, whence he continually harassed the Moors, and conquered the city of Porto. His son, count Alfonso, emulated his military fame, and conquered Alemtejo. 1112. The Moorish princes collected all their forces on the plains 1139. of Ourique. The troops of Alfonso were greatly inferior in number ; but a hermit comforted him by a vision, and the faith of the leader was communicated to his soldiers. The Moors were totally routed, and Alfonso was saluted king of Portugal by his army on the field of battle. Sancho, son of Alfonso, was valiant as his father. With the aid of some cru- saders from Germany and Holland, who put into the Tagus, he took Silvas, the capital of Algarve ; but the Emir-el-Moo- menim, or prince of the Almohades, forced him to resign it. The Almohades. A man, named Mohammed, being driven out of Morocco, 1119. where he professed to preacli Islam in greater purity, having, with the aid of his disciple, Abd-el-Moomen, a young man at Tremessen, persuaded the Berbers that he was himself the Mehedee, or doctor of the law, who, he preached, was to be sent to purify the faith, assumed the title of Mehedee, and at the head of his followers waged war successfully against Ali, the Almoravide king of Morocco. His followers were called Almohades. He fortified the city of Tinmal, on an elevated and inaccessible position on Mount Atlas, and made it the seat of his dominion. They were called to the defence of the Zeirides, against Roger of Sicily, and relieved them. Abd- S 206 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART ti. el-Moomen now laid siege to Morocco ; the Almoravides de- fended it with their usual spirit ; 100,000 lives were consumed in the siege ; the Almohades took the city, and extended their A. D. dominion from the deserts of Barca to the Atlantic. They 1147. passed over to Spain, and conquered the Almoravide domin- ions in that country. Persia. During the decline of the house of Seljook, a number of petty princes, governors of provinces, and others, made themselves independent. The title of these princes was Atta-beg ;* they ruled over Aderbijan, Fars, and Laristan, and each line of Atta- begs presents the uniform character of eastern rule. These dynasties, with that of the Assassins, established about the end of the eleventh century by Hassan Sabah, were gradually over- thrown, some by the sultan of Khowaresm, and all finally ter- minated by Hulagoo, the grandson of Chingis Khan. Saladin. A vizier of the feeble Fatemite khalifs called on Noor-ed- deen Mohammed, attabeg of Moussel, who had conquered Syria, to come to the support of the Fatemite empire. The 1171. Turks sent by him under Sheerkoo conquered Egypt. The army made Saleh-ed-deen (Saladin,) nephew of Sheerkoo, governor, on the death of hit; uncle, and Noor-ed-deen con- firmed him in his office. Saladin, who was a Koord by nation, placed himself on the throne of the last Fatemite khalif, and founded his dynasty, called the Ayubides. He conquered Syria from the family of Noor-ed-doen. He also reduced the Happy Arabia, and took Tripoli and Tunis from the Almo- hades. He now turned his arms against .lerusalem. He en- tered the country at tlie north ; and as he was besieging Ti- berias, Guy de Lusignan, with all the forces of his kingdom, came against him. Saladin surprised them, cut them to pieces, and took Guy prisoner. All the cities submitted at his approach ; and on the fourteenth day of the siege Jerusalem 1188. opened her gates. The conqueror acted with the greatest mildness ; the Christians were left in possession of the holy sepulchre ; free egress was given to all. The nev/s filled Europe with consternation : a crusade was preached, and a large army collected, which sailed for the Holy Land, under Richard I. and Philip Augustus. But the genius and resources of Saladin, and the discord of the con- * Atta-beg signifies father prince, and was the title assumed by those, who, like the mayors of the palace, under the Merovingian line in France, governed under the name of some legitimate princ«. CHAP. VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 207 federates, prevented the accomplishment of its objects. Sala- a. d. din died in his 57th year at Damascus. The virtues of tliis 119& prince have been alike celebrated in Europe and Asia. The Mamelukes. Malek-el-Adel, the brother of Saladin, dispossessed his children of the dominions of their father. After ascending" the throne he resigned it to his own sons. In the reign of Malek-el-Moattam, the last of the descendants of Malek-el- Adel, St. Louis undertook the crusade in which he and his 1249. army were made prisoners in Egypt. The sultan released them for a heavy ransom, and the towns that had been taken. The Mamelukes (guards formed by Saladin from Cauca- sian slaves,) who had long felt their own power, and whose commanders were oiTended at any measure of importance being taken without their consent, were highly incensed at 1250. this peace. They murdered the sultan, and set in his place one of their own commanders, Az-ed-deen Aybeg. They then arranged the government, so that the sultan and vizier should consult the emirs in all matters of importance ; that there should be a great cadi, and a cadi for each of the four orthodox sects of Islam, to administer justice. Their num- bers were kept up by supplies from their native country ; and for two centuries and a half the Mamelukes ruled over Egypt. Rarely a son lived to succeed his father: often a favorite Blave or a brave soldier was seated on the vacant throne. Constantinople. Alexius, the young son of Manuel Comnenus, was mur- 1183 dered by his relative Andronicus, who reigned two years, and was then dethroned and put to death by Isaac Angelus. 1185 Isaac, a prince of some good qualities, was robbed of the em- pire, and blinded by his own brother, Alexius III. His son 1194. Alexius fled to the West to seek for aid ; and as the fourth crusade was then preparing to set out for Asia, he persuaded its commanders to assist in restoring his father to his throne, engaging, in case of success, to supply them with provisions, and to pay them a large sum of money. His offers were ac- cepted. Constantinople was taken, Isaac released, and his son, Alexius IV., placed on the throne. Alexius and his father were murdered by his cousin, named Murzufle (Alexius 1204, v.). Under the pretext of avenging Alexius, the crusaders took and plundered the city, and placed Baldwin count of Flanders on the vacant throne, assigning him a fourth of the empire, and dividing the remainder among themselves. Three states were formed by the Greeks. Theodore Las- 208 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. caris, son-in-law of Alexis III., established liimself in Nice, and, under the title of emperor, governed a great part of Lesser Asia. One of the Comnenian family settled at Tre- bisond, on the eastern end of the Black Sea, and was also styled emperor. Another Comnenian, of the family of An- gelas, ruled, under the title of despot, over a principality in Epirus, iEtolia, and Thessaly. A. D. Baldwin reigned but one year; he was taken prisoner and 1205. cruelly put to death by the Bulgarians. His brother and suc- 1216. cesser, Henry, an abler prince, died by poison. The throne then came to his brother-in-law, Peter de Courtenay, grand- son of Louis VL, and his children. John Lascaris and his son governed their Asiatic empire with prudence and valor. His grandson, of the same name, came to the throne a minor, and was murdered by Michael 1261. Palseologus, one of whose generals retook, in one night, the imperial city, which the Latins had held but fifty-seven years. The Crusades. The kingdom of Jerusalem was continually harassed by its Mohammedan neighbors in Syria and Egypt. The forma- tion of the orders of the Templars and the Hospitalers, and the constant accession of volunteers from Europe, enabled it to resist its enemies ; and prodigies of valor equal to any in romance were achieved by the warriors of the cross. But in less than half a century after the conquest, the state of Edessa having been subdued by the attabeg of MousseJ, more power- ful aid was deemed requisite, and St. Bernard preached a new crusade. At his persuasion, the cross was assumed by Louis 1147. Vn. of France and Conrad IIL of Germany. The number of all ranks engaged in this crusade is estimated at 300,000. The Germans went first, and the same ravages which had disgraced the first crusade occurred also in this. The Greek emperor, Manuel, was terrified at their numbers, and em- ployed artifice to get rid of them. They passed over ; and the imprudence of Conrad caused him to march into the heart 1148. of Lesser Asia, where his troops were cut to pieces by the sultan of Iconium. Conrad fled to the. French army, and then returned to Constantinople. Louis pursued his march : near Laodicea he sustained a partial defeat ; but he reached A.ntioch, and thence proceeded to the Holy Land, and he and his troops aided at the unsuccessful siege of Damascus. 1187. When intelligence arrived in Europe of the capture of Je- rusalem by Saladin, the utmost grief and indignation pre- 1188. vailed ; and Clement IIL ordered a crusade to be preached everywhere. The emperor, Frederic Barbarossa, assembled CHAr. VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 209 a diet at Mentz, where he and his son Frederic, and the greatest of the German nobles, took the cross. The same was done by Richard I. and Philip Augustus. It was not now, as in the first crusade, piety that actuated these kings and nobles, — that motive had given place to the passion for mili- tary fame and glory. The emperor, on marshalling his forces, found them to amount to 100,000 fighting men, care having been taken to keep off the beggarly rabble which had attended the former expeditions. He marched through Hungary into the Greek territories, where the emperor, Isaac Angelus, harassed the crusaders as far as he was able. Frederic laid the country under contribution, cut to pieces the Greek troops, and made the emperor sue for peace. He wintered at Adrianople, passed over to Asia in spring, defeated the Turks in several battles, took Iconium, and crossed Mount Taurus. But coming on a sultry day (June 10th) to the Selef, a gelid mountain-stream, a. d. he threw himself into its waters, and was unfortunately 1190. drowned. Richard of England, Philip of France, Henry count of Champagne, Thibaut of Blois, Philip of Flanders, and numer- ous other princes and nobles, collected their forces on the plain of Vezelay, and found them to amount to 100,000 fight- 1190. ing men. Aware of the evils that had attended the former land expeditions, they resolved to convey their forces by sea. Richard led his troops to Marseilles, Philip his to Genoa, where they embarked. The appointed place of rendezvous was Messina ; and while tliey staid there, various incidents occurred to excite jealously and disunion between the mon- archs. Driven by a storm to the isle of Cyprus, Richard de- posed, for his cruelty to the crews of some of his ships, Isaac Comnenus, who tyrannized over the island, and sold the sove- reignty of it to Guy de Lusignan, the king of Jerusalem, in whose family it continued for three hundred years. An army of ChristianSj aided by the slender remains of that of the emperor Frederic, was besieging Acre, or Ptole- mais. After a heroic resistance, it was forced to surrender to the emulative valor of Richard and Philip. But the latter, instead of pursuing this success, jealous of the superior fame of the English monarch, returned to Europe, under the pre- text of ill health, leaving 10,000 of his troops, under the duke of Burgundy. The siege of Ascalon was now resolved on. The Christian army marched along the sea-coast: Saladin collected all his strength to oppose them : a bloody and well- contested battle took place. Nothing could resist the valor and impetuosity of Richard; 8000 of the Moslems were left 1192. S2 210 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART XL dead. Ascalon and Joppa were razed by Saladin at tlieir ap- proach ; the crusaders came within sight of the holy city ; but the fickle king of England was weary of the war, and anxious to return home. A truce was concluded with Sala- din, by which the Christians were to hold Ptolemais, Joppa, and other sea-ports, and to visit the holy sepulchre unmolested. The gallant Richard was, on his return through Germany, basqly thrown into prison by Leopold duke of Austria, whom he had offended at Ptolemais. A. D The fourth crusade was composed of French and Germans 1202. led by Baldwin count of Flanders. The Venetians furnished ships. Its first efforts were directed against the city of Zara in Dalmatia, which had revolted from Venice, and, in spite of the pope's excommunication, it was reduced. The arms of the faithful were now directed against Constantinople, 1204. which, as we have seen, they took, placing their leader on the throne. In the partition, Venice got the island and the Morea, the marquis of Montferrat Thessaly, Ville Hardouin (the historian of this conquest) Achaia, and Otto de la Roche, a Burgundian, became duke of Athens. 1216. The fifth crusade was chiefly composed of Germans and the neighboring people ; Andrew II., king of Hungary, was its commander. The main body marched to Italy, to embark in its ports ; others sailed from the ports of Saxony, and, being driven by a storm into Lisbon, were prevailed on by Don Sancho to assist him against the Moors. The kmg of Hun- gary and his troops, with the king of Cyprus, landed at Ptolemais, where John de Brienne, the titular king of Jeru- salem, gladly received them. They attempted in vain to take Tabor ; were obliged to divide for subsistence ; the king of Cyprus died, and the king of Hungary found it necessary to return home. On being joined by the fleet from Portugal, it was resolved in council to besiege Damietta, in Egypt. An 1219. army, led by the sultan to its relief, was defeated. The duke of Austria and his forces now returned home ; but a rein- forcement arrived, under the cardinal Albano, to whom, as the officer of the pope, John de Brienne was obliged to re- sign the command, and the military priest injudiciously led his army between two branches of the Nile, at the season that river was beginning to overflow. The sultan opened the sluices, and burned the ships of the Christians, who were 1221. forced to restore Damietta, and bind themselves not to serve for eight years against the sultan. 1228. The emperor Frederic II., wmf*had long promised, at length sailed to the East. He did not spill any blood ; but he made an advantageous treaty with Malek-el-Kamel, sultan of CHAP. VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 2ll Ef]fypt, who ceded to him Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and all the villajres between the former place and Jaffa, and Ptolemais. The Khowaresmians, flying before the Mongols, had poured a. d. down on Lower Asia, and had seized on Syria and Palestine. 1244. St. Louis, having in a fit of sickness vowed a crusade, he collected a fine army, and sailed for the East. He resolved to commence by reducing Egypt, and landed at Damietta, which was abandoned to him. But his troops were wasted by sickness, and defeated at Massoor, where his brother Rob- ert of Artois was killed at his side, and himself, his two bro- thers, and all his chief nobility taken prisoners. At the price of a large ransom and the city of Damietta they were set at liberty. 1250. Twenty years afterwards, this excellent monarch, whose 1270. only defect almost was superstition, sailed with another expe- dition for the Holy Land ; but hearing that the king of Tunis was inclined to embrace Christianity, he directed his course thither. Finding the intelligence to be false, he laid siege to the city ; but he here caught a fever and died, and with him died the spirit of the crusades. Edward, son of our Henry IIL, revived the fame of Richard ; but the Latin power gradually 1291. declined, and Acre, its last seat, fell to the sultan of Egypt. The crusades, though originating in folly and superstition, and productive of a large quantity of positive suffering to both Europe and Asia, have, in the order of Providence, been also productive of good. They awoke the mind of Europe from its slumber of ignorance and barbarism, by bringing it into contact with the more polished nations of the East ; they enlarged the sphere of ideas, gave a taste for elegance and refinement, extended navigation and commerce, and thereby increased the wealth and power of cities ; they diminished the property and influence of the factious and tyrannic nobles, and enlarged the authority of monarchs. The degree of in- tercourse that prevailed between Europe and Asia, during the period of the crusades, was far beyond what we usually conceive. It has not become adequately known until very recently. The Mongols — Chingis Khan. In the ancient country of this race, a great khan who had ruled over 30,000 families on the banks of the Selinga had died, leaving his son Temujin a child. The horde separated, and Temujin, when he grew up, found only thirteen families adhering to him. He distinguished himself by valor, talent, and generosity. In an assembly of the nation on the Selinga, one of their wise men arose and said, he had had a vision, in 212 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART II. which he saw the great God of heaven sitting on his throne A. D. in council, and heard sentence given that Temujin should be 1?06, Chingis lOian, i. e. Greatest Khan. The Mongols raised their hands, and swore to follow their Chingis Klian whither- soever he went. He first invaded China, overthrew the dynasty of Song, and took Yen King, their capital. He conquered Corea, then turned westward, subdued Tibet, penetrated to Cashmeer, and to the borders of Khowaresm, whose sultan had van- quished the dynasty of Ghaur, and ruled over nearly all Per- sia, and a great portion of Hindostan. The sultan Ala-od-deen Mohammed took the field at the head of 400,000 men, was defeated, and his country subdued. His son, Jellel-ed-deen Mohammed, heroically, but in vain, resisted the conquerors. The shores of the Caspian were conquered. The tsar of Rus- sia advanced with a large army to the Calca, was defeated 1227. and put to flight. Chingis Khan gave laws and regulations to the Mongols, and died in the 64th year of his age. The sons of Chingis, Octai, Joojee or Tooshee, Toolee, and Jagatai, and their sons, Gooyookh, Batoo, Hoolagoo, and Kublai, followed up his conquests. Resistance was every- 1241. where overborne. Alexander Nevski, the great duke of Rus- sia and conqueror of Livonia, was overthrown ; his successor was forced to fly to Poland, and the house of Ruric reduced t

. by the Yorkists, was the commencement of a struj^gle which 1455 lasted thirty years, and in which were fought twelve pitched battles. The battles of Blore-heath and Northampton were 1460 gained by the York party. In the last the king was taken prisoner : but the spirit of Margaret was unbroken ; she col- lected a large army, to which the duke of York was impru- dent enough to give battle at Wakefield, where he was de- feated and slain. Here the queen and her friends commenced that ferocious system which, being imitated by the other party, casts on these wars such an aspect of horror and barbarity. The head of the duke of York was cut off, and fixed on the gates of York ; his son, the earl of Rutland, was murdered in cold blood ; the earl of Salisbury and other noblemen were executed by martial law. Tlie claims of the duke descended to his son Edward, who gained the battle of Mortimer's Cross. The Yorkists were 1461. defeated at St. Alban's. Edward now assumed the crown by a somewhat irregular popular election. Edward IV. was handsome, brave, affable ; but licentious, and barbarously cruel. The Lancastrians were defeated with great slaughter at Towton. Henry and Margaret fled to Scot- 1461. land ; but the indefatigable queen went to France, and in- ducing Louis XI. to assist her with some troops and money, she returned and raised another army, but was again totally 1464. defeated at Hexham. Margaret fled to' France, and Henry, being discovered, was thrown into the Tower. The hopes of the Lancastrians seemed now quite crushed, when a cool- ness arising between Edward and the great earl of Warwick, called the king-maker, the latter entered into a treaty with Margaret, and drove Edward out of the kingdom, and re- stored Henry ; but in less than six months Edward returned, and Warwick was defeated and slain at the battle of Barnet. The very day of this battle, Margaret and her son, prince 1471 Edward, landed at Weymouth. Though at first overwhelmed at the tidings of the defeat and death of Warwick, she re- sumed her wonted spirit, collected an army, and marched to Tewkesbury. Here fortune proved once more adverse ; the Lancastrian army was totally routed, the queen and prince taken, and the latter murdered, almost in the presence of Ed- ward. Henry soon afterwards died, murdered, as was said, by the duke of Gloucester in the Tower, and the hopes of the Lancastrians now seemed extinct. Edward V. was, it is said, with his brother the duke of 1483. Vork, murdered in the Tower by their uncle, the duke of Gloucester, who usurped the crown under the title of Rich- U2 234 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. TART II. ard III. The duke of Buckingham, who liad aided Richard in his projects, being discontented, invited over the earl of Richmond, who had sheltered himself in Britany ; but hav- ing taken arms before the arrival of this nobleman, he was seized and executed by order of Richard. Richmond at his landing was joined by many ; Richard hastened to oppose A. D, him : the engagement took place on the field of Bosworth. 485. Richard was slain fighting bravely, and Richmond was sa- luted king on the field of battle, by the title of Henry VII. With Richard III. ended the line of Plantagenet, which had governed England with glory, on the whole, during three cen- turies. The new house was called that of Tudor, from the family name of Henry VII. The title of Henry was exposed to all the defects in the original Lancastrian title ; and even supposing that to be good, he was not the true heir of that family ; for he claimed through his mother Margaret, sole heiress of the duke of Somerset, sprung from John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster ; but the line of Somerset derived from one of the children of John of Gaunt, by Catlierine Swynford, during the life of his duchess, and was therefore illegitimate, and even adulte- rous ; and though Richard II. had legitimated these children, they were never conceived to have any claim to the crown ; and farther, the mother of Henry was still alive. Edward IV. had left daughters, of whose title there could be no doubt, and Henry was to be married to Elizabeth, the eldest of them ; but he had an aversion to that family, and he would not ap- pear to owe his crown to his wife. During all his reign he was very tender on this subject of his title. 1486. After a good deal of delay, he married the princess Eliza- beth, but he never loved her. The duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV., raised up two impostors against him, each pretending to be Richard duke of York,* w'ho had es- caped from the Tower ; but the vigilance of the king easily crushed all attempts against his crown. The chief defect in Henry's character was avarice; his great object was the de- pression of the nobility, a point the more easily to be effect- ed, as most of them had perished in the civil wars. The landed proprietors obtained power to alienate their estates ; and as commerce had greatly increased, luxury extended, and many of the commons had amassed wealth, the object nearest Henry's heart was rapidly effected, though we are * The fate of this prince and his brother is involved in singular mystery. It may very reasonably be doubted whether Perkin Warbeck was an impos- tor or not. CIIAr. VII. DECLINE OP THE PAPAL POWER. 235 not, perhaps, to compliment his sagacity with having fore- seen it. Wars hetioeen France and England. As they were now at an end, the present seems a good oc- casion of giving a consecutive view of tliese useless and dis- astrous wars. When Edward III. laid claim to the crown of France,* his a. d. first care was to strengthen, him self by alliances with the ^^^' duke of Brabant, the count of Ilainault, his father-in-law, and other princes near the Rhine ; and as the English had been for some time connected by trade with the Flemings, and that people, who were in rebellion against their earl, were governed by James van Artiveld, a brewer of Ghent, Edward sought to gain that demagogue to his side, and he succeeded in his object. Thus supported, Edward collected an army, and entered France; but nothing of moment oc- 1339 curred in this first campaign, and the funds of the English monarch being exhausted, he was obliged to return home. The following year Edward gained a naval victory over the French, and entered France at the head of 100,000 men ; but Philip declined engaging, and a truce was concluded for a year. During the truce, affairs took such a turn in Britany as engaged tlie two kingdoms again in war. Charles of Blois, nephew to the French king, had married the daughter of the ■duke of Britany, upon whose death the count de Montford, the next heir male, seized the duchy. Feeling he could not hold it against the power of France, he went over to Eng- land, and offered to do homage for it to Edward. Edward accepted the proposal, and sent over troops to assist his vas- .eal. Montford had meantime been taken prisoner ; but his wife maintained his cause with masculine energy. This strug- gle was terminated by a truce for three years, on honorable 1343. terms for Edward and the countess. The truce was broken the next year. Edward invaded 1344. Normandy witli an army of 30,000 men. Philip advanced 1346. at the head of 90,000. The English king, fearing to be sur- rounded, retreated towards Flanders. The bridges over the Somme were broken down, and a French force was on tlie opposite side ; but the English, having discovered a ford, passed over and drove off the French. As the rear-guard of the English was passing, the army of Philip came up ; but, the tide rising, it could not pass, and had to go round by the bridge of Abbeville. Fearing to march over the plains of * See p. 22C. 236 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. Picardy, exposed to the numerous cavalry of the French, Edward resolved to give battle, and he drew up his troops in three lines on a rising ground near the village of Crecy : the French advanced also in three lines ; but they were fatigued with their march, and disordered. The battle began about three o'clock in the day (Aug. 26), and ended in a complete victory on the part of the English. The French lost 40,000 men, among whom were several of the nobility, 1200 knights, and 1400 gentlemen. A.D. Edward now invested Calais, which surrendered after a 1347. siege of twelve months. The inhabitants were expelled, and the town peopled with English. A' truce was concluded, which the dreadful plague that ravaged Europe at that time caused to be prolonged. During the truce Philip died, and was succeeded by his son John. Charles king of Navarre, surnamed the Bad, son of Jane, daughter of Louis Hutin, entered secretly into cor- respondence with the king of England, into which he drew even the dauphin ; but that prince afterwards repenting, be- trayed the king of Navarre to his father, who threw him into prison. Philip, brother of 'the king of Navarre, put all his fortresses into a state of defence, and called on Edward for 1356. assistance. The war was renewed. Edward the Black Prince, eldest son of the king of Eng- land, commanded in Guienne. He ventured with an army of 12,000 men to advance into the French territory. John collected a force of 60,000 men, and came up with him at Maupertuis, near Poitiers. Tlie Black Prince offered^ to sur- render his conquests for a safe retreat : he was refused : he then prepared for battle, and drew up his little army with tlie utmost skill (Sep. 19). The usual impetuosity of the French hurried them to the attack, and the battle ended in the utter rout of the French army, and the captivity of their king. The generosity of the Black Prince to his captive, only paralleled by that of Alp Arslan,* is well known. John was 1357. led to Bourdeaux, and thence to England, and a truce was concluded for two years. France was now in a complete state of anarchy ; but the truce and the want of money prevented Edward's deriving any advantage from it. At the expiration of the truce, he invaded and ravaged that kingdom ; but finding he could not make a durable impression, he concluded the peace of Bre- 1360. tigni. The terms of this peace were, that John should pay three millions of crowns of gold for his ransom ; that Edward * See p. 189. CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 237 should give up all claim to the crown of France, and to Nor- mandy, Touraine, Maine, and Anjou, for which he was to re- ceive Poitou, Saintonge, Lagenois, Perigord, the Limousin, Quercy, and other neighboring places, with Calais, Guisnes, Montreuil, and Ponthieu ; all in full sovereignty, no homage for them or Guienne to be due to the crown of France. Charles V. succeeding John, who died soon after the peace of Bretigni, the terms of which were never executed, some of the Gascon nobles appealed to him, as the superior lord, against tlie heavy taxes laid on them by the Black Prince, in consequence of his expedition to Spain. That able monarch, who had now terminated the disorders of his kingdom, sum- moned the prince to appear in his court at Paris to answer the complaint of his vassals. Edward replied that he would, but it would be at the head of 60,000 men. But his health was declining ; he was obliged to return to England ; and a. d, the war terminated in the English being stripped of Guienne, 1370. excepti3ourdeaux and Bayonne, and of all their conquests but Calais. During the reign of Richard II. the war was carried on languidly. One of its most remarkable events was the duke of Gloucester, the king's uncle, having the hardihood to march 1380 out of Calais at the head of 2000 horse and 8000 foot, enter the heart of France, and ravage all the country till he joined his allies in Britany. The duke of Burgundy came withui sight with a much superior army ; but such was the terror the French felt of the English, that he did not venture to attack them. Some years afterwards, the king of France 1386. made preparations for invading England ; but his fleet was dispersed by a storm, and many of the ships taken by the English. The Gascons put themselves, in this reign, once more under the government of England. Both parties were now anxious for peace ; but as the terms could not be ad- 1396 justed, they agreed on a truce for twenty-five years, and Richard was affianced to Isabella, daughter of Charles, a princess only seven years old. On the murder of Richard, the French king made some 1401. show of avenging his death ; but on the princess Isabella being given up, he renev^ed tlie truce with Henry IV. Towards the end of his reign Henry began to take some part in the quarrels of the Orleans and Burgundy factions in France: he 1411 sent a small body* of troops to the aid of the latter, and after- wards a larger to that of the former. Henry IV. had when dying exhorted his son not to let the 1415 English nation remain long at rest. Henry V. therefore, 238 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. taking" advantag-e of the distracted state of France,* sent am- bassadors to Paris with most exorbitant proposals. He de- manded the crown of Trance (or at least reserved his right to it), Normandy, Touraine, Maine, Guienne, and the homage of Britany and Flanders, the princess Catherine in marriage, and 2,000,000 crowns of gold as her dower, and the arrear of king John's ransom. The French offered him Guienne and Saintonge, and a dower of 800,000 crowns. Henry forth- with prepared for war; he collected a fleet and army, con- sisting of 6000 men-at-arms and 24,000 foot, at Southampton, landed in Normandy, and took the town of Harfleur. Having dismissed his transports, he was obliged to march his army to Calais by land. An army of 14,000 men-at-arms and 40,000 foot, under the constable d' Albert, was now collected in Nor- mandy. Henry offered to give up Harfleur for a safe passage to Calais : this offer was rejected : he marched by slow jour- neys till he reached the Somme, which he intended passing where Edward had passed, but found it strongly guarded : he at length seized a passage near St. Quintin, and got safely over. He now marched for Calais; but on ascending the heights near Blangi (Oct. 25) he saw the whole French army drawn up on the plain of Azincourt. Henry's army was now reduced by disease and the sword to about 15,000 men. His situation was similar to that of Edward at Crecy, and of the Black Prince at Poitiers, and he made the same judicious dis- positions. The French acted with the same impetuosity and imprudence: the final result was similar. Of the French 10,000 were slain, among whom were the constable himself and some of the chief nobility ; 14,000 were made prisoners, among whom were the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and many other nobles of high rank. The English lost but forty men. Want of funds preventing Henry, like his predeces- sors, from taking full advantage of this victory, he returned to England, having made a truce with the enemy. During this truce the animosity between the Armagnac and Burgundian parties raged with the greatest violence. Henry collected an army of 25,000 men, and landed in Nor- mandy: several towns surrendered, and, being reinforced with 15,000 more, he formed the siege of^Rouen. The queen and the duke of Burgundy now made a treaty with him simi- lar to that afterwards made at Troyes ; but before it was com- pleted the dauphin and duke of Burgundy entered into a secret treaty to share the supreme power, and expel the in- vader. But the murder of the duke takmg place, his son in- * See p. 228. CHAP. VII. DECLINE OP THE PAPAL POWER. 239 stantly formed a league with the king" of England, and the treaty of Troyes was concluded. All the nortli of France was rapidly conquered, and the dauphin driven beyond the a. d. Loire. In tliis state of affairs, Henry V. died. 142^. The duke of Bedford prosecuted the war with vigor. The battle of Verneuil, in which the only army of the king of 1424. France was defeated with great loss, seemed to have given the finisliing stroke to his fortunes. Bedford resolved to pene- trate into the south of France, an^l for that purpose formed the siege of Orleans. Every effort was made to defend this city, 1428. on which the hopes of France now seemed to depend. The siege was tedious, but the English w^ere gradually gaining ground, when that wonderful visionary, Joan of Arc, appeared to restore the sinking destiny of France. A secret horror thrilled the English soldiers, which their officers either shared or could not remove ; defeat attended them everywhere ; the provinces and towns of France returned joyfully to their al- legiance ; the duke of Burgundy was reconciled to his sove- reign, and the English were, in a few years, driven out of every part of France but Calais. Thus, happily for both 1450 countries, ended all the magnificent projects of the conquest of France. Scotland. From a very early period Scotland had been governed by kings. These were frequently engaged in wars and alliances with the northern princes of the heptarchy. When Duncan king of Scotland was murdered by Macbeth, an army was sent by Edward the Confessor against the usurper, and Mal- colm, the rightful heir, was restored to the throne. This prince espoused the sister of Edgar Atheling, and many of the English fled to Scotland from the tyranny of the Con- queror. The Scots began now to make occasional inroads into England. In one of these, William king of Scotland was taken prisoner by Henry II., and, as a part of the condi- tions of his liberty, was forced to do liomage for his whole kingdom, the Scottish kings having hitherto done so only for Cumberland, which they held. Richard I., however, re- nounced this right. On the death of Alexander III., near a century afterwards, 1286. a dispute arose about the succession to the Scottish throne. That monarch having left no descendant but a granddaugh- ter, who did not long survive him, the right fell to the de- scendants of David earl of Huntingdon, third son of David I. ; of these John Baliol was grandson of Margaret, the earl's eldest daughter ; Robert Bruce was son of Isabel, his second 240 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. daughter. The rules of succession not being at that time well established, it was a doubtful question which was the true heir. To avoid a recourse to arms, the parliament of Scotland determined to refer the matter to the arbitration of Edward I., a prince extolled for wisdom and prudence. Ed- ward seized this occasion of obtaining the sovereignty of Scotland : he appeared on the frontier with a large army, and compelled all the Scottish nobles, including the two candi- dates, to swear fealty to him..as liege lord ; he made them give him possession of the kingdom, and then declaring Baliol the A. D. true heir, put him in possession of it, on his renewing his 1292. oath of fealty. The Scottish nation, and even their king, were indignant at being thus trepanned and degraded ; a secret alliance was formed with France ; a dispensation of the king's oath of fealty was procured from the pope ; and, on being summoned to appear in an English parliament at Newcastle, Baliol re- 1296. fused to attend. Edward entered Scotland at the head of 30,000 foot and 4000 horse, and quickly overran and subdued the entire kingdom. Baliol was forced to submit and implore forgiveness, English garrisons were placed in the fortresses, and earl Warrenne left governor. This earl b*eing obliged to return to England on account of his health, the administration was left in the hands of Ormsby and Cressingham, who oppressed the people without mercy. A gentleman, named William Wallace, was so provoked as to kill an English officer. Knowing he had no mercy to ex- pect, he fled to the woods and collected a party, with whom he continually harassed the English ; numbers joined him ; several of the principal barons countenanced him ; and the whole country was on the eve of rising, when Warrenne col- lected an army of 40,000 men, and suddenly returned. Mak- ing an attack on the camp of Wallace, near Stirling, the English were totally routed, and Cressingham slain. The nation now rose, and bestowed on Wallace the title of regent. The English were expelled ; but Edward, who had been in Flanders, returned, collected an army of 80,000 men, and entered the country. The Scots ventured to give liim battle at Falkirk (.Tune 22), when they were routed with great 1298. slaughter. They still carried on the contest ; but Wallace was betrayed by his friend Sir John Monteith, and the intrepid 1305. patriot was executed in London as a rebel. Robert Bruce, who had been in the English service, now stepped forward to defend his own and his country's rights. ^ The Scottish nation rose once more ; the English were driven out of the country, and Bruce was crowned at Scone. Ed- CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 241 ward now found he had all his work to do over again ; he sent an army, under Aymer de Valence earl of Pembroke, who defeated Bruce, and forced him to take shelter in the Western Isles. The king was himself advancing, deter- mined to wreak his vengeance on the Scots, when he sick- a. d. ened and died at Carlisle, with his last breath charging his 1307. son to prosecute the war. Edward II. was anxious to get back to England, and after a few feeble efforts he left Scotland. Bruce, who had returned, made himself master of the whole kingdom except a few for- tresses, and even made inroads into England. Edward was roused ; he collected a large force, and entered Scotland. The English army was 80,000 strong ; that of Bruce did not exceed 30,000. But he ventured to give them battle at Ban- nockburn, near Stirling (June 14,) where he totally defeated 1314. them. This victory, one of the most glorious ever obtained, secured the independence of Scotland, and reduced to nothing all the hopes founded on the iniquitous attempt of Edward I. One more fruitless effort was made by Edward, and a truce 1323. was then concluded for thirteen years. On the death of Robert Bruce, who left a son, a minor, Edward III. secretly encouraged the son of John Baliol to put forward his claim to the Scottish kingdom, raised a small 1332. army, with which he landed on the coast of Fife, and ad- vanced into the heart of the country, where he defeated the Scottish army of 30,000 men, under the earl of Mar. He then took Perth, and was crowned at Scone. But having dismissed the greater part of his English followers, he was soon after driven back into England. He here made large offers to Edward, particularly engaging to renew the homage which had been given up by Mortimer in Edward's minority, if he would assist him to regain his throne. Edward collected a large army ; the Scots encountered him at Halidon-hill, near Berwick (July 19), and were defeated with the loss of nearly 1333 20,000 men and the chief of their nobility. But still Scot- land was unconquered. The English forces might overrun and destroy the country ; but as soon as they retired, the na- tives repossessed it, and again bade them defiance. David, the son of Robert Bruce, had taken refuge in France, but had returned, and driven Baliol out of Scotland. 1346. At the solicitation of the king of France, with whom he had made an alliance, he invaded England. Queen Philippa, at the head of 12,000 men, met him at Neville's Cross, near Durham (October 17,) and the Scottish king was defeated and taken prisoner. After a captivity of ten years, he was released for a ransom of 100,000 marks. V 242 OUTLINES OF HISTORY, PART II. A. D. Richard II. invaded Scotland, at the head of 60,000 men, 1385. and ravaged the country, as usual; but in the mean time 30,000 Scots retaliated on the west of England, and Richard 1401. returned without having effected any thing, Henry IV. led an army into Scotland to no purpose. The Scots immediately 1402. after invaded England, but were defeated by the Percies at Humbledown. The Scots afterwards aided the Percies in their rebellion. Robert III. of Scotland was a feeble prince : his brother, the duke of Albany, seized the government and aimed at the throne : to effect this purpose, he resolved to remove his nephews; and he threw David, the elder, into prison, where he perished of hunger. Robert, to save James, his younger 1407. son, sent him to France ; but the ship was taken by the Eng- lish, and Henry IV. refused to restore the young prince to liberty. Robert died of grief; and now, by possessing the person of the young king, Henry was able to keep the duke of Albany in dependence, and secure his kingdom from in- roads. He, however, gave the young monarch an excellent education. Ever since the time of Edward III., the French and Scot- tish nations had been in strict alliance Against the common enemy. When Henry V. had had such a career of success in France, the Scottish nation and tlie regent saw plainly that they must submit if that country was conquered, and a 1421. body of 7000 men was sent to the aid of the dauphin, who treated them with great favor. Throughout the war, Scottish volunteers crowded to the French standard ; and, in the reign of Henry VI., the duke of Bedford recommended it as the best policy, to marry the young king of Scots to the king's cousin, the daughter of tlie earl of Somerset, and give him 1423. his liberty. This was done, and James, during his short reign, proved one of the greatest of the Scottish monarchs. 1437. He was murdered by his kinsman the earl of Athol. During the wars of the Roses, Scotland was too much distracted by factions to be able to take any advantage of the state of Eng- land. In the reign of Henry VII., James IV. gave counte- nance and assistance to Perkin Warbeck ; but the war was 1502. happily terminated by the marriage of the Scottish monarch with Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry. Scandinavia. Denmark and Norway we have seen early formed into monarchies. Sweden remained longer divided into small in- dependent districts. The Swedes and Goths at length agreed to form one state, to be governed alternately by a Goth of the CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 243 race of Svercher, and a Swede of that of Eric. The natural a. d. consequence was endless assassination. In the 14th century 1153. the race of Odis in Sweden was extinct, and a foreigner was placed on the throne. In the same century, the ancient lines in Denmark and Norway ended with Waldemar and Olaf. Margaret, daughter of the former, mother of the latter, was heiress to both. She defeated Albert of Mecklenburg king of Sweden, and forced him to abdicate, and then, by the Union 1398. of Calmar, united the three Scandinavian Idngdoms. Mar- garet, having no children, was succeeded by her nephew Eric, of the ducal house of Pomerania, but he was driven out of the three kingdoms. Christopher, a duke of Bavaria, was 1439. invited to Denmark, and the other kingdoms submitted to his government. On his death Christian, son of the count of 1448. Oldenburg, was chosen king of Denmark, and by his mother, who was sister to the count of Holstein, he obtained that country, which was now made a duchy. Norway followed 1459. the example of Denmark ; but Carl Cnutson and Steno Sture maintained the independence of Sv/eden against him and his two successors. Poland. The Poles are a portion of the Slavonians, the last great race which arrived in Europe. They were at first divided into several small states, for ever at war with each other. When they embraced the Christian religion, they united un- der the government of a duke. In the thirteenth century, 1295, Przemysl, of the house of the Piasti, assumed the royal dig- nity. This race ruled Poland five hundred years, and it ended with Casimir the Great, in 1370. He was succeeded by his 1370. sister's son, Louis of Anjou, king of Hungary, also named the Great. This king left only daughters: Sigismund of Luxemburg, the husband of Mary, the eldest, was king of 1382. Hungary, and Louis had provided for the continued union of the two crowns ; but the Poles and Hedwig, his other daugh- ter, rejected that arrangement, and that princess gave her 1386. hand to Jagellon, great-prince of Lithuania, who with his people embraced the Christian religion. The kingdom flour- ished greatly under this king : its export of corn was con- siderable. In the reign of his son, by the choice of the Hun- 1437. garians, the two countries were again united ; but this young monarch lost both life and crown in the battle of Varna, 1444. against the Turkish sultan Moorad. His brother Casimir succeeded him in Poland, and was one of the greatest princes of his time. He made great ac- quisitions from the Teutonic order of knights. Casimir reign- 244 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. ed nearly half a century, and saw Vladislaus, one of his sons, king of Hungary and Bohemia. Hungary, The house of Arpad ruled four hundred years in Hungary, A. D. and ended with Andrew III. On the death of this monarch, 1301. the people were split into various parties ; that of Charles 1310. Robert, of the Neapolitan branch of the house of Anjou, pre- vailed, and he was called to the throne. His vigor and wis- dom, in the course of a long reign, raised the kingdom to great 1343. glory ; and the long reign also of his son Louis still further increased its power and dignity. But Louis unfortunately 1382. died just as the Ottoman power was growing formidable on the frontiers, and the kingdom was again distracted by fac- 1386. tion. Sigismund, a stranger, was chosen king, and reigned for more than half a century. He lost the battle of Nicopolis to the Turks ; but circumstances prevented their attempting to follow up their victory. Sigismund was succeeded in the empire and in Hungary by his son-in-law, Albert of Austria. 1437. Albert's successor, Ladislaus, being a posthumous child, th©^ Hungarians gave the crown, for his minority, to Vladislaus king of Poland. On his death John Hunniades was made re- 1456. gent, and at the battle of Belgrade he gave an effectual check 1458. to the Ottoman power. The young king lived but two years after Hunniades ; and the nation then chose Matthias the son of the valiant John Hunniades,- to be their sovereign. Mat- thias was the greatest prince of his age, and in his wars with Austria and Bohemia victory always attended him. On his 1490. death, the Hungarians elected Vladislaus, son of Casimir king of Poland, already king of Bohemia. The Ottomans. When the Mongols of Chingis Khan had burst through the barriers of Khowaresm over Persia and Lesser Asia, Suleiman, 1224. one of the noblest of the Turkish tribe of Oghuz, migrated at the head of 50,000 souls from Khorassan to Armenia. After remaining seven years in that country, Suleiman prepared to return to his former abode ; but chancing to be drowned in crossing the Euphrates at Jaaber, his followers dispersed. A part remained in Syria, another part went to Lesser Asia. Of the four sons of Suleiman, two returned to Khorassan ; the two younger, Dindar and Ortoghrul, retired with four hundred families to the mountains east of Erzeroom, and thence roved westwards, to seek a retreat in the dominions of Ala-ed-deen, the great prince of the Seljookians of Iconium. On their way, they came to where two armies were fighting ; 1 CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 245 Ortoghrul chivalrously resolved to assist the w^eaker, and his aid turned the scale. It was Ala-ed-deen vi^hom he made victorious over an army of Tatars ; and the grateful sultan bestowed honors and pasture-land on his ally. This land, the cradle of the Ottoman power, is the Sanjak of Sultan Oni, the ancient Phrygia Epictetos. Here they fed their herds on the mountains in summer, and in winter descended into the plain ; and tliey lived in amity with the neighboring subjects of the Greek emperors. Osman, the son of Ortoghrul, resolved on conquest. His dervishes excited the courage of his soldiers, and he estab- a. d. lished a kingdom in Bithynia, of which Brusa, at the foot of 1299 the Mysian Olympus, became the capital. It is from this monarch that the western Turks derive their appellation of Ottomans, or more properly Osmans. In the time of his son Orchan, a great part of Lesser Asia 1326 was subdued by the Turkish arms. The isles of Greece felt their power : the court of Constantinople was split into fac- tions ; civil war raged in the empire ; each party sought the aid of the Turks. John Cantacuzencs, a man of talent and virtue, on ascending the throne, felt that its strength was gone, and retired to the solitude of mount Athos. His suc- cessor, John Palaeologus, was sunk in pleasure. Under the reign of Orchan the Ottoman institutions, one of which was the formation of the corps of Janizaries (Yeni-cheri, new sol- diers) were established, chiefly under the direction of his brother and vizier, the able Ala-ed-deen. Moorad (Amurath), the son and successor of Orchan, took 1359, Adrianople, tlie second city of the empire, and made it the European capital of his dominions. By marriage he acquired the greater part of Kermian, and by purchase he gained Hamid. Philippopolis was taken from the Greeks; but Moorad found a more obstinate resistance from the Servians and Bulgarians. He fell at Cossova, assassinated by a valiant 1389. Servian youth. Bayezeed (Bajezet) Yilderim, i. e. Lightning, a brave but headstrong prince, succeeded his father, and his first act was to put to death his only brother. The forces of Western Europe, Germany, Hungary, and France, commanded by Sigismund, king of Hungary, the counts of Nevers, la Marche, and Eu, the admiral de Vienne, the marshal Boucicault, the lord of Coucy, and several others of the prime nobility of France and Germany, with 60,000 men, advanced to Nico- 1396. polls. Bayezeed led against them a more numerous host. The Christians fought with their wonted valor, but yielded to the numbers and the discipline of the Moslems: their V2 t> 246 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART II. leaders were slain or made captive. Sigismund escaped to the Danube with five companions, and thence to Constanti- nople. Bosnia was overrun by Bayezeed, and he was pre- paring to invest Constantinople a second time, when the progress of his conquests westwards was checked by the ap- proach on the east of the Tatars under Timoor. Bayezeed A. D. hastened to oppose them. On the plains of Angora he fought 1402. with a courage worthy of his race, but was defeated and taken 1402. prisoner. Grief and vexation caused his death, and the con queror restored his body to the sepulchre of his fathers. The captivity and death of Bayezeed weakened and dis- tracted the Turkish power : the sons of the captive sultan contended with each other ; and it was only by the wisdom 1413. of Mohammed I. and his vizier Bayezeed that the empire re- gained its vigor. His son, Moorad II., a valiant and merci- 1422. ful hero, subdued the greater part of what remained to the Greek emperors. John VII. in vain sought aid in Europe ; in vain he visited Italy, and agreed to an union of the churches. The union was rejected by the Greek clergy, and theological controversy reigned more violently than ever in the falling empire of the East. Moorad having made peace with Hungary, adhered to it faithfully. But while he was at Magnesia, in Asia, the papal legate released the Hungarians from their oath, and they seized this opportunity of assailing the Ottoman do- minions. King Vladislaus and John Hunniades marched to the Black Sea. Moorad appeared ; the battle was fought at 1444. Varna. In the front of his array Moorad displayed the vio- lated treaty. Victory was long on the side of the Christians, when Moorad, it is said, pointing to the treaty, called aloud on God to avenge their perjury, and at that moment the young king rushed amid the ranks of the Janizaries and fell, and victory declared for the sultan. This excellent prince, twice durmg his reign, resigned his crown for the enjoyment of a private life, but was each time recalled to the throne by the danger of the state. 1451. Moorad's son, Mohammed II., joined to the valor of his father a greater spirit of enterprise. The doom of Constanti- nople was now fixed. It had stood in magnificence for 1123 years, had seen its western rival more than once open her gates to the conqueror, wliile itself had but once submitted, and had quickly resumed its dignity ; but now its dynasty and its religion were to change, the rovers of the steppes were to lord it in the palace of the Csesars, and the crescent was to replace the glittering cross on the summit of its great temple. Mohammed invested the city : during fifty days the CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWEH. 247 massive walls were assailed by artillery of enormous size and power. The Turks at length burst in : Constantine, the last of the Caesars, fell at the breach, sword in hand, with a a. d. courage worthy of the greatest of those whom he represented. 1453. The city was plundered, the inhabitants sold into slavery. The Peloponnesus was speedily overrun, and the little 1461. empire of Trebizond, which had lasted 258 years, submitted at the appearance of Mohammed. The Palseologi in the Peloponnesus were forced to yield to the Ottoman arms ; but in Albania, George Castriot (called for his valor by the Turks Scanderberg, i. e. Prince Alexander) resisted the Turkish power with success as long as he lived. The battle of Bel- grade checked effectually the progress of Mohammed on the side of Hungary. The Servians were completely subdued. The voivode of Wallachia, the merciless Drakul, made a more vigorous defence ; but he was defeated, and that country also reduced to submission. Caramania was forced to submit to the rule of Mohammed ; but the knights of Rhodes repelled him from their island. The Tatars'^ — Timoor. Timoor (i. e. Iron) was descended from Berla, the Emir- 1335. ul-umera of Jagatai, the son of Chingis Khan. The youth of Timoor was spent in freebooting and the chase : in his twenty-seventh year he rendered important military service to the emir Husein of the house of Jagatai, who then ruled over Khorassan and Transoxiana, against the khan of Tur- kestan. The hand of the emir's sister was his reward ; but on her death within four years, Timoor cast off allegiance, and war broke out between him and the emir. On the death of the latter Timoor occupied the throne, and fixed his resi- dence at Samarkund. He turned his arms first against the sultan of the Jetans (Gei«.?) and the shah of Khowaresm, then subdued Khorassan, and ravaged Persia during three years: with the speed of light he now swept over Great Tatary, and shortly afterwards feasted his host on the banks 1391. of the Volga. A campaign of five years wasted Persia ; and Bagdad, Mesopotamia, Koordistan, Armenia, and Georgia were conquered by the Tatars. Timoor next poured his 1398- hordes over the fertile plains of India. The plunder of Delhi rewarded their efforts, and he pursued the flying Indians to * We consider the distinction between Turks and Tatars to have been clearly shown by M. Klaproth: the former are of Caucasian, the latter of Mongol race. Yet the Tatars of Timoor appear ratiier of mixed race ; at least, Timoor himself is described of a fair and ruddy complexion, very dif- ferent from tiiat of a Mongol. Tartar, the corruption of Tatar, owes its origin to a pun of St. Louis on Tatar and the Latin Tartarus. 248 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART II the sources of the sacred Gang-es. The same year the Tata? conqueror wmtered on the plains of Karabagh, west of the Caspian ; in the spring he laid waste Georgia, took Sivas, one of the finest and most populous cities of Lesser Asia, and cruelly put the garrison to death; conquered all the A. D. towns to Aleppo, defeated there the Egyptian army, and took 1401. that city ; and, at length, made a general massacre of the in- habitants of Bagdad. Timoor wintered once more on the plains of Karabagh. The princes whom Bayezeed had robbed of their dominions had cast themselves on the protection of the Tatar, and Ti- moor prepared for war with the haughty Ottoman. Negotia- tion was tried in vain ; Bayezeed was hardened in obstinacy, and in the neighborhood of Angora, on the very plain where Pompeius had defeated Mithridates, the Turkish army of 120,000 men engaged the Tatar host of 700,000. From morn- 1402. ing to night of a burning day (July 20) endured this last battle of either monarch, and it ended in the total rout of the Turkish host, and the captivity of its leader. The tale of the iron cage is a fabulous legend. The Tatars overran all Les- ser Asia; Timoor reached Iconium. Bayezeed died of apo- 1403. plexy at Akshehr (March 8), and two years afterwards Ti- moor breathed his last on his march against China. Timoor left his empire to his grandson Peer Mohammed Jehangheer ; but this prince was unfortunate in the contest for the crown with his brother Khulleel Sultan, and the em- pire eventually fell into the hands of Shah Rokh, the virtuous son of Timoor. But at length the fortune of the Jiouse of Timoor was forced to yield before that of the Usbegs; and after a glorious struggle against Shybuk Khan the Usbeg, the able and celebrated Baber retired to Hindoostan, and founded that great empire, the nominal sovereign of which, his lineal descendant, still sits, a monument of fallen great- ness, in Delhi, beneath the protection of a British company of merchants. It was while Baber was on the throne that the Portuguese first appeared on tlie coast of Malabar. The Turkman tribes of the Black and the White Wether, so named from their standards, had fixed themselves on the western frontier of Persia. On the death of Timoor they advanced into that country : the former tribe established its empire in Aderbijan and the adjacent provinces ; the latter extended its power over nearly the whole of Persia. They encountered the arms both of the descendants of Timoor and the Ottoman sultans. CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER 249 Spain, The peninsula contained now four Christian kingdoms^ Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal ; and one Mohamme- dan, Granada. Alfonso X., the Wise, king of Castile, was chiefly distin- a. d. guished by his attachment to science, and by his code, the 1252. Sieto Partidas. His son Sancho rebelled against him, and disquieted the latter part of his life. The reigns of Sancho and his two successors were periods of anarchy and turbu- lence. Peter the Cruel surpassed all his predecessors in 1350. tyranny and crime. A rebellion, headed by his illegitimate brother, Henry of Transtamara, supported by Aragon and Portugal, Ijroke out, and drove him from his throne. Henry was aided by Bertrand du Guesclin and the companies of adventure who had been engaged in the wars between France and England. Peter fled to Guienne, and -implored the aid of the Black Prince, promising to give him Biscay in case he should restore him to his throne. The British prince en- tered Spain, recalled to his standard the companies of adven- 1367. ture, defeated Henry at tlie battle of Navarreto, and took du Guesclin prisoner. But Peter's ingratitude causing him to retire in disgust, Henry again appeared, and he defeated and 1369. slew with his own hand the savage tyrant. The reigns of Henry II. and his two successors, John I. and Henry III. (1368 — 1406) were tranquil ; and these princes merited the affection of the people by their observance of the laws. John II. being but fourteen months old at his 1406. accession, the government was wisely administered during his minority by his mother and his uncle Ferdinand. On his attaining his majority, the golden period terminated ; the re- mainder of his reign was a series of conspiracies and civil 1454. wars. Henry IV., son of John, was solemnly and unjustly deposed by a party of his factious nobles, who set up his 1465. brother Alfonso against him, and a civil war ensued. These nobles had accused Henry's queen of adultery, and maintain- ed that Joanna, their only child, was illegitimate. Accord- ingly, on the death of Alfonso, his sister Isabel was regarded as the heiress. She agreed to a treaty with Henry, by which 1469. the succession was secured to her ; but Henry took the first opportunity of rescinding the agreement, and on his death the parties had to appeal to arms. Isabel, who was married 1474. to Ferdinand infant of Aragon, was supported by that power. Joanna was betrothed to Alfonso king of Portugal, and her mother was a princess of that family ; she was, therefore, supported in her claim by the strength of that kingdom. The 250 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART 11. A. D. 1476. king" of Portugul, however, was defeated at Toro, and all Joanna's partisans gradually submitted to Isabel. Aragon, though not so extensive as Castile, equalled it in power. Its g-overnment was better, its sovereigns wiser, its trade far more extensive. The valor of the Cid had given it Valencia ; the Balearic isles were added to it ; a long and sanguinary contest had, at the commencement of the four- teenth century, brought Sardinia under its dominion ; and in this century it acquired Naples and Sicily. 1410. On the death of Martin king of Aragon, the succession was disputed by five competitors, the count of Urgal, grandson of James, next brother to Peter IV. ; the duke of Gandia, grandson of James 11. ; the duke of Calabria, son of Violante, youngest daughter of John I. ; Frederic count of Luna, natu- ral son of the younger Martin king of Sicily ; and Ferdinand, infant of Castile, son of the late king's sister. The cortes of Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia named nine persons, three of each, to hear and decide the claims; and, after solemn de- liberation, the crown was adjudged to Ferdinand of Castile. 1416. This prince was succeeded by his son Alfonso V., who was made king of Naples, where he passed the greater part of his reign, governing Aragon by his brother and successor John 1479. XL On the death of John, the sceptre of Aragon passed to his son Ferdinand, who was married to Isabel queen of Cas- tile, and thus the two monarchies were united into one great kingdom, never again to be divided. Ferdinand now felt him- self strong enough to attack Granada, and end the conflict which had lasted for eight centuries. The war commenced ; civil dissension rent the Moorish kingdom ; a party aided the Christian invaders; yet the conquest of Granada cost ten years of bloody and incessant warfare. At length it surren- 1492. dered (Jan. 2), and Spain, in full strength and vigor, was prepared for her conflicts with France. The little kingdom of Navarre passed continually by fe- males to the French houses of Bigorre, Champagne, Evreux, Foix, and Albret. But the kings of Aragon had made them- selves masters of the greater part of it. Portugal. Alfonso X. of Castile, had obliged Alfonso, the Restaurador of Portugal, to swear that, for his conquest of Algarve, he 279. would attend him in his wars with fifty lances. Diniz, the able successor of the effeminate Sancho, prevailed on the king of Castile to abolish this mark of the dependence of Por- tugal. 1357. Pedro, the grandson of Diniz, was an able, just, and vigor- CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 251 ous prince : he contended with spirit against the power of the church, which was excessive in Portugal, and held it in check. Ferdinand, his feeble son, left an only daughter, married to John king of Castile, and Portugal was in imminent danger a. d. of losing her independence. 1383. A conspiracy was formed against the queen-dowager, who was regent, and her partisans : John, a natural son of king Pedro, and grand master of the order of Avis, was at the head of it. The conspirators rushed into the castle where the queen resided, and Ruy Pereira slew before her eyes her favorite count Ourem. The people rose ; the bishop of Lisbon was flung from the tower of his cathedral ; the queen fled to Castile ; tlie master of Avis was appointed regent. The king of Castile (John I.) entered Portugal with an army. Most of the nobles were on his side : the commons were for Don John, and liberty. At the battle of Aljubarrota, 7000 Portu- 1385. guese defeated more than four times their number of Cas- tilians, and the master of Avis was proclaimed king of Por- tugal. His reign of forty-eight years was the most brilliant period Portugal had yet seen. The Portuguese chivalry 1415. crossed the strait, and conquered Ceuta from the Moors. Dis- covery was prosecuted along the coast of Africa, through the generous efforts of his son Don Henry, and Madeira and the Azores were added to his dominions. While his grandson 1459. Alfonso V. was carrying on war with success against the Moors of Fez, adventurous mariners had passed the line, set- tled on the Gold Coast, and discovered Congo. The Cape of Good Hope was doubled by Diaz. Discovery of America, The progress of the Portuguese along the coast of Africa, the discovery of new nations, and the knowledge of the in- correctness of the ideas of the ancients respecting geogra- phy, aided by the compass, and the courage and skill acquired by navigating the stormy seas of the north, had prepared men for bold and distant voyages. The great problem was, the passage by sea to India: this the Portuguese sought by the circumnavigation of Africa. Christopher Columbus, a Genoese, a man of great naval skill and courage, by reflecting on the magnitude of the earth, now known to be globular, had con- ^ jectured that, by sailing westwards, a ship might, after passing over a moderate space of sea, arrive at the coast of India. Pieces of carved wood, natural productions, and even the bodies of men had been thrown ashore in different places by the waves running from the west : various traditions were current of a land to the west having been formerly visited. i 252 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART 11. All these circumstances combined, convinced Columbus that, by sailing due- west, a ship must, within a moderate space of time, reach a country which, he was firmly persuaded, must be India. Under this impression, he made, as he thought him- self bound to do, the first proposal of attempting tlie discovery to his native city Genoa. Meeting with no encouragement there, he applied to the king of Portugal, in whose capital he resided ; but Don John was too firmly bent on the course which the Portuguese had been so long pursuing to hearken to him. Columbus now sent his brother Bartholomew to Henry VII. of England : he went in person to Ferdinand and Isabel of Spain. Bartholomew was taken by pirates, and did not reach England for a long time, by which means that coun- try probably lost the honor of the future discovery. Christo- pher, after long soliciting at the court of Castile, at length obtahied a small squadron from Isabel, elated with the recent ^ ^ conquest of Granada. 1492. With three small vessels, carrying but 90 men, Columbus sailed from the port of Palos on the 3d Aug. 1492. He steered westwards, and proceeded a long way without meeting any signs of land : his crews began to grow terrified and muti- nous : Columbus soothed and pacified them. At length, one morning (Oct. 12), the coast and woods of St. Salvador, one of the Bahamas, rose before them, — and the New World was discovered. Sailing farther on, they arrived at Cuba and His- paniola, or St. Domingo ; and Columbus returning to Spain with intelligence of his discoveries, all Europe was filled with wonder and conjectures. The new country was named West- India, so convinced were men that it could be no other than a part of India, of which they had such indistinct concep- 1493. tions. The next year Columbus discovered Puerto Rico, 1498. Guadaloupe, and Jamaica. In his third voyage he discovered Trhiidad, and a part of South America, which he knew not to be a continent. The ungrateful return made to the ser- vices of this great man, are too well known, and too conso- nant to the usual practices of courts, to need mention. He 1506. died four years after his fourth and last voyage, poor and neglected, at Valladolid. While Columbus was prosecuting his discoveries to the west, the court of Portugal, having now ascertained Africa to be circumnavigable, had sent a fleet under the command of Vasco da Gama, round Africa, in quest of India. He sailed from the Tagus on the 9th of July, 1497, and on the 18th May, 1498, he reached the port of Calicut, on the western coast of India. CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 253 The middle ages here terminate. They began in ignorance, anarchy, and confusion: knowledge and order now regain their dominion. The discordant elements of theocracy, mon- archy, feudalism, and democracy, which had been in ceaseless conflict during this period, have so modified one another, as to make the fit state of transition to the blended form which characterizes that which follows. W OUTLINES OF HISTORY, PART III. MODERN fflSTORY. CHAP. I. VIEW OF THE STATE OF EUROPE. Introduction. At the commencement of the middle ag-es the great em- pire of Rome was fallen to pieces from internal corruption and decay : the stream of hardy population which poured down from the north had burst all the opposing- mounds and dikes, and overflowed the whole of the western empire. Taste and learning, long declining, were almost extinct ; the Christian religion, now that of all parts of the empire, was corrupted and debased ; and in that state it was embraced by the rude conquerors, and farther degraded by the admixture of their barbarous tenets and practices. The clergy acquired from the superstitious fears of the people wealth, influence, and power; they ruled the laity with despotic sway, and bishops made kings tremble on their thrones : the pope, as head of the church, sought to draw all this power to himself, and then to make it a source of emolument. The papal do- minion had finally attained a height unparalleled in the history of man ; but, like every other empire, its ascent only led to its descent. The extravagance of the papal pretensions became apparent when learning began to be cultivated, and its gradual decline has marked the last period of those ages. One great empire arose in Europe after the fall of Rome ; but it fell to pieces when the vigorous mind which had erected it was gone. Europe was divided into small states, and war, internal and external, raged without ceasing ; a haughty in- dependent nobility insulted kings, and tyrannized over the people. The barbarians of the North and the East, and the en- thusiastic warriors of the Koran, overran, pillaged, and de- stroyed the fairest regions of the West. The intercourse of nations, except in war, was small ; trade and commerce hardly existed ; the merchant was subject to be plundered openly by CHAP. I. VIEW OF THE STATE OF EUROPE. 255 the stranger-lord, and to be pillaged by the arbitrary taxation of his own. Gradually the night was seen to pass away ; monarchs be- gan to extend their power, and to perceive that it was their true interest to protect the people against the tyranny of the nobles, and to bring these last under obedience ; the church used her extensive power for the same purpose ; the people gradually acquired wealth; their towns were secured by charters and immunities granted by the crown or the feudal lord, and where the crown w^as feeble, voluntary associations secured them from the rapacity of the nobles. The latter ac- quired a relish for luxury : to obtain money, they alienated or let their lands, and soon felt that they had transformed their obedient retainers into sturdy independent yeomen and citizens. The lamp of learning was relumed ; the study of the scho- lastic theology and philosophy, and of the Roman law, sharp- ened men's intellects ; travels into the East enlarged their knowledge of the earth ; the use of the mariner's compass emboldened their navigation ; gunpowder changed the face of war ; paper, and at length the art of printing, gave a more rapid diffusion to knowledge ; the taking of Constantinople scattered the learning of the Greeks over the West ; schools and universities were numerous ; men were become eager for knowledge; classical learning w^as, in Italy, cultivated with ardor, and a strong feeling of admiration for the institu- tions and philosophy of antiquity excited ; the discourses and writings of Wickliffe, Huss, and their disciples awakened be- yond the Alps attention to the important topics of religion ; the discovery of India and the New World filled men's minds with vague aspirations after adventure, conquest, wealth, and knowledge. A universal fermentation was going on. Such was the state of the European mind, at the com- mencement of modern history. The political condition of Europe was chiefly that of extensive monarchies, internally tranquil, and ready to turn their entire forces against each other. We will commence this part by a view of their re- spective conditions. England. The wars of the Roses had greatly thinned the English nobility and gentry : they were weary of civil conflict, and quietly submitted to the arbitrary rule of Henry VII. All the barriers of liberty erected under the Plantagenets were thrown down, and England became in this, and still more in the following reign, nearly an absolute monarchy. The 256 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. daughters of Henry "VII, were married, one to Louis XII. king of France, the other to the king of Scotland. Wales A. D. was incorporated with England ; over Ireland she held a du- 1509. bious dominion. Henry was succeeded by his son of the same name. France. All the great fiefs had been reunited to the crown. Flushed with power, her sovereign Charles VIII. now, at the invitation of Sforza duke of Milan, put forth his claims to the kingdom 1495. of Naples. At the head of 20,000 French, and 6000 Swiss, he speedily achieved the conquest of it. But the discontent of the Neapolitans, and the league of the pope, the emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of Aragon and Castile, the Venetians, and the duke of Milan, forced Charles to leave that kingdom. On the banks of the Tanaro, in the Parmesan, the allied forces waited for the enfeebled French army as it emerged from the passes of the Apennines. The French, with a loss of 200 men, routed three times their number, leaving 3000 of them on the plain. 1498. Louis XII., named the Father of his People, asserted his claim to Milan and to Naples : he conquered them both, but was unable to retain them. Germany. 1493. Maximilian succeeded his father Frederic in the empire. By marriage with the heiress of Burgundy he got all the pos- sessions of that house ; and on the death of his cousin Sigis- mund archduke of Austria, the Austrian dominions fell to him. The diet of Worms, held during the reign of this emperor, established a perpetual public peace in Germany, by adopting vigorous measures for the suppression of private warfare, and by providing a paramount court of justice — the Imperial Chamber. Russia, Poland, Scandinavia. After casting off the yoke of the Tatars, the Russian princes exerted themselves to establish trade and communication 1505. with Western Europe : Vasilius kept up a good understand- ing with the emperor Maximilian, and granted great privi- leges to the Hanse towns. The Poles and Russians now engaged in war with each 1515. other, and the former lost Smolensko and Pleskov. In Scandinavia the contest for the independence of Sweden was prosecuted. The Russian tsar entered into a treaty of partition against Sweden, with Christian II. of Denmark. CHAP. I. VIEW OP THE STATE OP EUROPE. 257 Switzerland and Savoy. Louis XL, when dauphin, had led a body of troops into a. d. Switzerland, where the reception he met with, combined 1444. with the great victories of the Swiss over the duke of Bur- gundy, inspired him with such a respect for them, that he all his life courted their alliance. His policy was followed by his successors. The Swiss now began to hire out their troops, and they played a conspicuous part in the wars of Italy. An attempt was made by the emperor Maximilian to revive the supremacy of the empire over the Swiss, and bring them under the jurisdiction of the imperial chamber ; but in the war that ensued their success was decisive, and an honorable 1499. peace was made with them. Savoy had been latterly enfeebled by minorities. Its dukes were rather good than great princes. Italy. Philip, the last of the vile race of the Visconti, dukes of 1447 Milan, left only an illegitimate daughter, married to Fran- cesco Sforza, the great condottiere who commanded the troops of the duchy. Sforza made himself duke, and gov- 1450 erned with prudence and justice. His son Galeazzo was mur- dered ; but the widow. Bona of Savoy, maintained the duchy 1478. for her son John Galeazzo. Lodovico Moro, brother of the murdered prince, destroyed his nephew ^y a slow poison. 1494. Fearing the king of Naples, whose daughter had been mar- ried to John Galeazzo, he excited Charles VIII. of France to assert his claims, derived from the house of Anjou, to Naples, promising him the aid of himself and other Italian powers. But Sforza afterwards joined the league formed against Charles ; and Louis XII. advanced his claims to the Milanese, derived from his grandmother Valentina Visconti. He con- 1500. quered and held the duchy twelve years. The house of I]ste governed as vassals of the empire, or the church, with ducal title, Ferrara, Modena, and Reggio ; the Gonzaga family ruled at Mantua, the Pico at Mirandola, the Malaspina at Massa, the Grimaldi at Monaco. At Rome, after some excellent, some indifferent popes, the papal chair was filled by Alexander VI., of the Spanish house 1492. of Borgia, a monster who might vie in vice with the Neros and Caligulas of ancient Rome. His only plan of politics was to secure a principality in Italy for his enterprising son, Caesar Borgia ; and neither father nor son was deficient in the courage and iniquity requisite for the attainment of that W2 258 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III- object. Alexander was succeeded by the warlike Julius II., who added Bologna to the papal states. Venice had acquired the kingdom of Cyprus : she was now at the zenith of her power ; she carried on a lucrative trade with the East, and was highly favored by the Mameluke sul- tans ; she was rich, and her army was the best in Italy. The discovery of the route to India by the Portuguese, and the conquest of Egypt by the Ottomans, gave her prosperity its death-blow. At Florence the wealthy and magnificent family of the Medici had been gradually increasing in influence. Cosimo de' Medici, called the Father of his Country, exerted a com- manding influence in the state. After the death of his son Piero, a conspiracy was formed against his grandsons, and Ju- lian was murdered, but Lorenzo escaped. The latter was afterwards restored to his country, and completed the destruc- tion of its liberties. The independence of Florence, as it was to fall, could not fall by a nobler hand. Lorenzo's patron- A. D. age of literature and the arts is known to every one. His 1492. death was regarded as an event fatal to all Italy. Louis XII. and Ferdinand of Spain having entered into a treaty for the conquest and partition of Naples, Frederic, the king of that country, could not resist such formidable oppo- nents. Naples was speedily conquered. The French army was enfeebled by the climate and disease, and disliked by the people. The wily Ferdinand and his general, Gonsalvo de Cordova, the Great Captain, took advantage of these circum- stances to drive the French a second time out of that kingdom. The League of Camhray. 1509. Louis XII., Maximilian, the king of Spain, and pope Julius II. entered at Cambray into a league against the Venetians. The republic opposed to them firmness in her senate, skill and courage in her generals, fidelity in her subjects. Jealousy soon broke out among the confederates, and the emperor, the pope, the king of Spain united with the Swiss and the Vene- tians to drive the French out of Italy. Louis was forced to give way : the victory of the Swiss at Novara was decisive. 1512. Maximilian, the son of Lodovico Sforza, was restored to the dukedom of Milan. Spain and Portugal. 1477. Before the taking of Granada the execrable tribunal of the inquisition had been planned by the minister Mendoza, and by Salez bishop of Cadiz, and in spite of the opposition of the people, the clergy, and even at first of the pope, introduced CHAP. I. VIEW OF THE STATE OP EUROPE. 269 into Castile. It was directed against the Jews ; Torquemada, a Dominican, was the first great inquisitor; and the tribunal, a. j, in its first year, committed 2000 persons to the flames. Great 1481 opposition was made to it in Aragon; but it was introduced there by force of arms. Leon, Valencia, and Sicily resisted also, but with as little success. On the reduction of Granada, liberty of conscience had been secured to the Moors ; but a council, presided over by the archbishops of Granada and To- ledo, decided that Ferdinand and Isabel were not bound to keep faith with the infidels, and the Moors were brought within this sanguinary jurisdiction. The erection of this ini- quitous tribunal, and its close alliance with the throne, have been the main cause of the future decline of Spain, and of her being at the present moment the most degraded of na- tions. Portugal was still in her golden age under Don Manuel, commencing her guilty but brilliant career in Asia. Turkey. Mohammed II. was succeeded by his son Bayezeed, a prmce of mild, peaceable temper. After a reign of thirty years he was forced to resign his throne to his son Selim, one of the 1512. greatest and most cruel of the Ottoman monarchs. Selim commenced his reign by the murder of his brothers and nephews, and the massacre of 40,000 Sheeahs, or dissenters from the orthodox faith, and he engaged in war with and de- feated, at Chaldiran near Tebreez, shah Ismail, the founder of the Suffavee dynasty in Persia. By force and negotiation he made himself master of Koordistan and Mesopotamia, As Kansoo Ghawree, the Mameluke sultan of Egypt, was the ally of Ismail, war against him was resolved on by Selim. The Mameluke advanced at the head of his army to the fron- tiers of Syria, and on the mead of Dabeek, not far from Aleppo, the hostile sultans engaged. The quantity of the 1516. Turkish artillery, and the inactivity of the Jelban (the second order of Egyptian troops), gave an easy victory to Selim. Ghawree, an old man of eighty years, died at a pool in the flight, and all Syria submitted. Peace was offered to and re- jected by the new sultan, Toornawn Beg. Selim crossed the desert, and entered Egypt. The treachery of Ghazalee, one of Toomawn's generals, and the superiority of his artillery, gave Selim another victory at Ridania, near Cairo, which city was taken, after a gallant resistance, and 50,000 of its inhabitants barbarously massacred. After bravely but vainly fighting for his empire, the " valiant, chivalrous, humane, up- right " Toornawn Beg was taken, and, at the suggestions of 260 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART III. A. D. the traitors Ghazalee and Khair Beg, hanged at one of the 1517. gates of Cairo ; and Egypt was reduced to a province. The last khalif of the house of Abbas was sent to Constantinople, but he died on the way. The Ottoman sultans have ever 1520. since taken that sacred title. Selun died, after a reign of eight years. Persia. During this period Persia witnessed a not unfrequent oc- currence in the Mohammedan world — the erection of empire on the basis of religion. A family of sheikhs had long dwelt at Erdebil in that country. They passed their lives in the practice of that mystic contemplation called Sooffeeism, and derived their name of SufFavee from Suffee-ed-deen, one of the most distinguished of their ancestors, who died in the be- ginning of the 14th century. At the close of the 15th cen- tury, Jooneid, one of them, began to meddle in politics, and he was driven from Erdebil by Jehan Shah, the descendant of Chingis, and then prince of the Black Wether. He took refuge with Uzun Hassan, the powerful chief of the White Wether, who gave hira his sister in marriage. Under pre- text of leading his followers against the infidel Georgians, he ravaged the country of the prince of Shirwan, against whom he fell in battle. His son Haider trod in his steps. He or- ganized his followers, and made them wear for distinction red caps, whence they, and afterwards all the Persians, were called by the Turks, in derision, Kuzzil Bashes (Red-Jieads). He also attacked the prince of Shirwan and besieged him in his castle of Gulistan ; but he fell in a conflict with the troops of Yacoob, prince of the Black Wether, who came to the re- 1488. lief of the besieged. His two sons were taken and confined ; the Yacoob's successor gave tJiem liberty. The eldest, re- belling, was slain ; the younger, Ismael, then but seven years old, was saved by the prince of Ghilan. In the 15th year of his age, Ismail, at the head of 7000 of his adherents, made war on the prince of Shirwan, defeated him, and fixed his throne at Tebreez, the capital of Aderbi- 1501. Jan. He next ravaged a part of the dominions of the peace- ful Bayezeed II. The princes of the Black and the White Wether, and the shah of Mazenderan, were all vanquished by him. All the land from the Caspian to the Persian gulf obeyed him : he extended his conquests beyond the Oxus, and defeated the great khan of the Usbegs. His power was now at its zenith : he engaged in war with Selim I., under pretext of supporting the claims of Selim's nephews, and avenging tlie massacre of 40,000 Sheahs, slaughtered by order of the CHAP. II. TIMES OF CHARLES V. 261 Sultan. The Ottomans entered the Persian dominions : on the plains of Chaldiran, on the road to Tebreez, the armies of a. d. Ismail and Selim, each of 120,000 in number, encountered : 1514. victory declared in favor of the Turkish artillery, and Te- breez was taken and plundered. Want of supplies forced Selim to retreat, and Ismael subdued Georgia. He died shortly afterwards, and was succeeded by his son, Tamasp. 1523. CHAP. 11. TIMES OF CHARLES V. Accession of Charles V. In the commencement of the sixteenth century the largest empire that Europe has seen since the time of Charlemagne, was ruled over by Charles, son of Philip, archduke of Aus- tria, and Joanna, heiress of Ferdinand and Isabel of Spain. From his grandmother he inherited the rich dominions of the house of Burgundy in the Low Countries ; the death of Fer- dinand gave him Spain, Naples, Sicily, and the New World. On the death of his grandfather, Maximilian, he got the pos- 1519. sessions of the house of Austria, and he and Francis, king of France, becoming candidates for the imperial dignity, the majority of the electors declared for Charles. The Turks, under the warlike Selim I., were now the enemy dreaded by Europe ; and the chief question with the electors had been, which of the rival monarchs would be best calculated to defend the empire against them : the circum- stance of Charles's Austrian dominions had turned the beam in his favor. The only other power of consequence in Europe was England, now governed by the vain, capricious, haughtj'- Henry VIIL, but whose size and situation prevented her having any idea of extensive conquest. Charles, in the views of universal empire which he early conceived, had, therefore, apparently only Francis to impede him ; but his own charac- ter, and the strength and resources of his kingdom, gave the latter such advantages, that only ambition could have blinded the emperor to the plain fact, that France was then, as ever, unconquerable. But there was just at this period a moral power arising, more effectual to check the ambition of the emperor than even the chivalry of France. The great reform- ation of religion had now commenced. 262 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART III. The Reformation. The eyes of men had been gradually opened to the frauds and corruptions of the Romish church, and the rapacity of the court of Rome had alienated the minds of princes and people. The awakened love of knowledge led men to aspire after freedom of thought, and to feel heavy the yoke which the church of Rome, though never less intolerant or arbitrary, imposed in all matters relating to religious doctrine. Mental emancipation was panted after. A proper occasion and a bold leader were all that were wanting to excite the flames of spiritual rebellion. The occasion was soon presented, and the leader appeared. Leo X., of the family of the Medici, now filled the papal chair. Like his family, he was devoted to literature and pleasure, and tasteful and magnificent in his ideas and ac- tions. It is not improbable that, as he is charged, he re- garded the religion of which he was the head as merely a gainful fable ; and as he was now engaged in rearing that splendid temple, the glory of modern Rome, he found it need- ful to put in practice every mode of raising money of which the papal chancery could furnish a precedent. The sale of indulgences appearing most likely to bring in a large supply, A. D. they were issued in great quantities, and the disposal of them 1518 committed to the most active agents. The Dominicans sold in Germany. The scandalous language and conduct of some of these men aroused the indignation of Dr. Martin Luther, an Augustinian, and professor of theology in the university of Wittenburg, in Saxony. He wrote and preached against indulgences; he was listened to with admiration : opposition excited him ; he had, though not profoundly learned, a strong sense of truth, and a vigorous imagination ; his eloquence was popular, his command of his native tongue great ; his soul was full of love to his country and mankind, and his courage in maintaining what he held to be true, invincible. He read, he meditated, he entered into the spirit of the Scripture, and he felt how contrary to it were the practices and the claims of the church of Rome. He fearlessly expressed what he honestly thought ; he was supported by his university and his prince, the elector of Saxony; he was summoned to Rome; but, at the request of the elector, cardinal Cajetan was sent to German)% and Luther appeared and defended his opinions before the diet at Augsburg. When Charles obtained the empire, he was again summoned, and appeared before the diet 1521. at Worms. He was dismissed ; and, under the protection of CHAP. II. TIMES OF CHARLES V. 263 the elector of Saxony, he still continued to propagate his opinions through the north of Germany. In Switzerland, Ulric Zuinglius, a priest at Zurich, had, a. d. even earlier than Luther, opposed the sale of indulgences by 1^1^* the Franciscans in that country. Not confining themselves to religious abuses, Zuinglius and his friends sought to unite religion with civil polity, and to preserve and exalt the tone of republican virtue and freedom. The opinions of the re- formers rapidly spread into France, the Low Countries, and England, already prepared for them by Wickliffe and his dis- ciples. Wars of Charles V. and Francis I. Francis, count of Angouleme, on succeeding liis father-in- 1515. law, the late king Louis XII., was eager to signalize himself in the eyes of the world. He turned his views towards Italy, and resolved to recover Milan. The Swiss guarded the passes of the Alps against him : on hearing of his having entered boldly into Piedmont, they descended, and encountered the arms of France in the plain ; and modern times have wit- nessed few such obstinate conflicts as that which ensued on the field of Marignano, near Milan. The battle lasted two days, and the Swiss did not retire till one-half of their num- ber was slain. All the Milanese now surrendered ; Sforza resigned his claim for a pension, and Francis returned home, 1516. leaving Charles duke of Bourbon governor. The emperor Maximilian invaded Italy, but was repulsed, and he then made peace with France and Venice. The competition for the empire caused ill-will between Charles and Francis: each sought to gain Henry VIII. and his minister Wolsey. The art of the emperor prevailed over the frankness and generosity of the French king. The Spaniards were in rebellion ; Francis seized the op- portunity of recovering for John d'Albret, Navarre, which Ferdinand had unjustly seized. A French army entered and conquered it ; but, venturing to advance into Spain, it was defeated, and Navarre recovered. Francis invaded the Low Countries without advantage. A league was now formed, between the pope, Henry VIII. , and Charles, against the king of France. The Milanese, disgusted with the insolence and exactions of the French, resolved to expel them, and put themselves under Francis Sforza, brother to their late duke. The pope hired Swiss, and formed an army under Prosper Colonna to assist them. The French were defeated ; Lau- trec, their commander, fled to Venice, and they lost every thing but Cremona, the castle of Milan, and a fev/ otlier 264 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART III. X. D. places. Joy at this success is said to have terminated the life 1522. of Leo X. Francis sent money and 10,000 Swiss to Lautrec, who in- vaded the Milanese, but was defeated at Bicocca. Genoa, which was under the protection of France, was taken by Co- lonna, and the French now retained only Cremona. The 1523. new pope, Adrian VI., the Venetians, the Florentines, and the other Italian powers, joined in the league against Francis, who was now without an ally ; and the emperor and the king of England were preparing to invade France on the south, north, and east. To add to the French king's dilSiculties, a conspiracy of the constable of Bourbon, who had been most iniquitously deprived of his estates by the malice of the king's mother, was discovered, and the delay occasioned by it pre- vented his heading the army he had assembled. He, how- ever, sent 30,000 men, under admiral Bonnivet, into Italy. Colonna, who commanded in Milan, dying at this time, was succeeded by Lannoy, viceroy of Naples, who was chiefly directed by the duke of Bourbon (who had escaped and en- tered the emperor's service), and the marquis of Pescara. 1524. Bonnivet was defeated at the Sesia. In this battle fell the celebrated chevalier Bayard. 1525. Having been successful against the armies which invaded France, the passion for recovering the Milanese seized the French monarch. He marched at the head of a large army into Italy ; every place submitted : he sat down before Pavia, a town well garrisoned, and commanded by Leyva, one of the ablest Spanish oflicers. It was winter: every exertion was made by the imperial generals to collect an army ; fatigue and the rigor of the season reduced that of the French, weakened by a large part of it having been sent against Na- ples. The imperial army approached ; prudence counselled retreat ; romantic honor determined the king to stay. The imperialists attacked the French in their intrenchments ; the garrison made a sally ; the Swiss deserted their post ; the rout became general ; and Francis, after beholding the flower of his nobility perish by his side, was forced to surrender himself a prisoner. (Feb. 2). In a few weeks not a Frenchman was to be seen in Italy. Francis was rigorously confined : hard terms were proposed to him, but indignantly rejected. When taken, he had writ- ten to his mother the regent, " All is lost but our honor ;" and she exerted herself with vigor to put the kingdom into a posture of defence. Henry VIII., now alive to the danger of Charles acquiring a preponderating power, listened to her proposals of an alliance, to which he was stimulated by Wol- CHAP. II. TIMES OF CHARLES V, 265 sey, whom Charles had hitherto cajoled by a promise of the papacy, but who had now learned how little reliance was to be placed on the word of that monarch. Francis, at his own desire, had been removed to Madrid. It was long before he could get a sight of the emperor ; but when he threatened to resign in favor of the dauphin, and had fallen into ill health, Charles, who found that if he died he should lose all the advantages he proposed to derive from his captivity, and who also dreaded a confederacy against him, lowered his demands ; and a treaty was signed at Madrid, a. d. by which Francis agreed to surrender Burgundy, and to give 1626. his two sons as hostages till it was performed. The exchange was made on the frontiers, and Francis set at liberty. The states of Burgundy being assembled, protested against this surrender of their province ; the pope, Clement VII., absolved the king from the oath taken at Madrid ; and he and the kings of France and England, the Swiss, Venetians, Floren- tines, and Milanese, entered into an alliance, called the Holy League, to oblige the emperor to give up the sons of Francis for a reasonable ransom, and to reinstate Sforza in the duchy of Milan. The confederates took the field in Italy ; but, Francis ne- glecting to send sufficient reinforcements, Bourbon overran the Milanese ; and his troops beginning to mutiny for want of pay, he led them to Rome. ' In the assault on that city (May 6), Bourbon himself was slain ; but Rome was taken, and experienced from the troops of the pious Charles such calamities as had never been inflicted by any of her barbarian 1527. conquerors in former times. The pope himself was besieged in the castle of St. Angelo, and forced to surrender. He was put into close confinement till he should pay an enormous ransom. The hypocritical Charles put his court into mourn- ing, and ordered prayers to be offered up for his release, which he might have accomplished by a single line. Henry and Francis were preparing to invade the Low Countries. On hearing of the pope's captivity, they changed the scene of war : Henry supplied money, and Francis sent an army into Italy under Lautrec. The pope was set at liberty ; but Lau- trec dying, and Doria, the Genoese admiral, persuading his countrymen to revolt, the affairs of the allies declined, and the French army was ruined before Naples. Suleiman, the great Turkish sultan, had now overrun Hun- gary, and threatened the Austrian dominions ; the reforma- tion was making great progress in Germany ; Charles was, therefore, as well inclined to peace as his adversaries. Mar- 1529 garet of Austria, aunt of tlie emperor, and Louisa, mother 2i. 266 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. of Francis, met at Cambray, and settled the terms of peace between them. Francis agreed to pay 2,000,000 crowns as a ransom for his sons, to give up all claims on Italy, and to resign the sovereignty of Flanders and Artois : Charles aban- doned all claim to Burgundy. The Italian states were not satisfied at being abandoned to the emperor ; but the dread of the Turks made him act with some generosity. He pardoned Sforza, and restored to him the duchy of Milan ; but the Florentines were reduced under the dominion of the house of Medici. Affairs of Germany. While Charles was engaged in the Italian wars, the opin- ions of the reformers had spread rapidly in Germany. While at enmity with the pope, the emperor was not very anxious to discourage them; but now, apprehending danger from them to the imperial authority, he resolved to take measures A. D. for their suppression. A diet was, therefore, convoked at 1529. Spire, which confirmed the edict of that of Worms against Luther, and forbade any farther innovation in religion. Against this decree, the elector of Saxony, the landgraf of Hesse, the duke of Liineburg, the prince of Anhalt, and the deputies of fourteen cities, protested ; and hence they, and the reform- ed in general, were called Protestants. 1530. Charles returned to Germany, and assisted at a diet at Augsburg ; at which the confession of faith of the Protestants was read and defended by Melancthon and others. A decree was issued against them, and coercive measures resolved on. The Protestant princes met at Smalcalde, and entered into a league for mutual defence, and a secret alliance with the kings of France and England. The Turks were now men- acing Hungary, and Charles saw that this was no time for violent measures. A treaty was, therefore, concluded, in which he granted the Protestants liberty of conscience till the meeting of a general council, and they engaged to assist him against the Turks. 1532. Suleiman entered Hungary at the head of 200,000 men. Charles took the command of 80,000 foot and 20,000 horse, besides a vast body of irregulars, near Vienna. The sultan retired ; and Charles returned to Spain, and engaged in a successful expedition against Tunis. While he was absent, the sect of the Anabaptists seized on the city of Miinster, and 1535. defended it for some time courageously against the troops of the bishop. CHAP. 11. TIMES OF CHARLES V. 267 Renewed War with France. While Charles was in Africa, Francis revived his claim on Italy. The king- of England, engag-ed about his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, declined having to do with the affairs of the continent ; and the league of Smalcalde, indignant at the cruelties inflicted on some Protestants in Paris, refused to unite with Francis. The latter resolved, even without allies, to venture on war, under pretence of chastising the duke of Milan for the murder of his ambassador. He ap- proached Italy; but instead of entering the Milanese, he seized a great part of the dominions of the duke of Savoy, who appealed in vain to Charles, whose exchequer was now completely empty. Meantime Sforza died without issue, and the rights, which had only been surrendered to him and his heirs, Returned to Francis. Instead, however, of entering at once on the duchy, he wasted his time in negotiation, while Charles took possession of it as a vacant fief of the empire, though still pretending to own the equity of the claims of the French monarch. The emperor haying now procured sufficient supplies of a. d. money, resolved on attempting the conquest of France. Hav- ^^^ ing driven the French out of Savoy, he invaded the southern provinces at the head of 50,000 men. Two other armies were ordered to enter Picardy and Champagne. The system adopted by Francis was defensive. From the Alps and Dauphine to Marseilles and the sea, the country was laid waste ; strong garrisons placed in Aries and Marseilles ; one French army strongly encamped near Avignon, another at Valence. After fruitlessly investing Aries and Marseilles, and spending two months in Provence, Charles retreated with the loss of one- half of his troops by disease and famine. An attempt by Francis on the Low Countries, was followed by a truce at Nice, under the mediation of the pope, Paul III. ^^^^ The emperor suppressed an insurrection which had broken out in the city of Ghent ; but he was forced to make conces- sions to the Protestants in Germany, to gain their assistance against Suleiman, who had seized a part of Hungary. But the favorite object of Charles was the conquest of Algiers ; and in the end of autumn he, contrary to the advice of Doria his admiral, landed in Africa with a large army ; but tem- pests scattered his fleetund destroyed his soldiers, and he was forced to re-embark, with the loss of the greater part of his 1541. men. The war between the rival monarchs broke out anew. The 1542. emperor was supported by the king of England and the Pro- 268 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. testant princes, to whom he had made farther concessions. Francis was allied with the kings of Denmark and Sweden, and he renewed the treaty he had formerly made with Sulei- A. D. man. During two years, France, Spain, Italy, and the Low 1544. Countries were the scenes of war ; but the only battle of con- sequence was that of Cerisoles, gained by the French, in which 10,000 Imperialists fell. A peace was concluded at Crespi. The chief articles were, that the emperor should give one of his own or his brother Ferdinand's daughters to the duke of Orleans, second son of Francis, and with her the duchy of Milan, and renounce all claim to Burgundy ; Fran- cis doing the same to Naples, Artois, and Flanders ; and that they should unite against the Turks. Affairs of Germany. Charles was chiefly led to make the peace of Crespi by hig desire to humble the Protestant princes, and extend his power in the empire. He therefore made also a dishonorable truce with Suleiman, and entered into an alliance with the pope. A general council had been assembled at Trent ; but the Pro- testants, seeing the composition of it, refused to submit to its decrees. Charles, as his schemes were not fully ripe, sought still to cajole them ; but they saw through his views, and had recourse to arms. Unable to resist them, he negotiated till he had collected an army ; but he still declined a battle. Mean- time Maurice, marquis of Misnia and Thuringia, a Protestant prince, who had not joined the confederates, secretly agreed to assist the emperor, on condition of getting the dignities and territory of his relative the elector of Saxony. He there- fore entered and overran the electorate. The elector returned with his troops to defend his dominions ; the city of Ulm sub- mitted ; its example was followed by others, and the whole confederacy fell to pieces, leaving the elector of Saxony and 1547. the landgraf of Hesse at the mercy of the emperor. The pope, meantime, seeing the ultimate and real designs of the emperor, withdrew his troops, and Francis negotiated an alliance with him, Suleiman, England, and Venice, and encouraged and assisted with money the elector and the land- graf A conspiracy, headed by Fiesco, broke out at Genoa, and every thing seemed to combine to throw Charles into perplexity, when the death of Francis, and the suppression of Fiesco's conspiracy, encouraged hifti to proceed with vigor in Germany. The elector was defeated and taken prisoner at Mulhausen, and obliged to resign the electoral dignity ; the landgraf of Hesse, who was father-in-law to Maurice, Bubmitted, on the elector of Brandenburg and Maurice be- CHAP. II. TIMES OF CHARLES V. 269 coming securities for his personal freedom; but Charles, in contempt of them, made him a close prisoner. All the mem- bers of the Smalcaldic league were treated with the greatest rigor. Charles now thought he might proceed without opposition in enslaving the German nation. As the council had been a. d. removed from Trent to Bologna, and he could not now ex- 1548w pect to influence it as he desired, he protested against it, and had a system of doctrine drawn up and presented to the diet at Augsburg, to be conformed to till a proper council could be called. This system, called the Interim, sought to steer between the two parties, leaning, however, greatly to the church of Rome. It gave great offence at Rome, and could not be fully carried into effect in Germany. Shortly after- wards, Charles made a stretch of power even beyond estab- lishing the Interim. When pressed to set the landgraf of Hesse at liberty, he, by a public deed, annulled the bond which his securities had entered into with him. This began to open the eyes of the German princes, and they now mani- fested a spirit of resistance. His brother Ferdinand had been made king of the Romans by his influence ; but, anxious to transmit the empire to his son Philip, he tried to make the electors recall their choice, or at least place Philip next in succession to his uncle; but the opposition made was so strong, that he was obliged to abandon his design. The Lutheran princes were now fully aware of the de- signs of the emperor, and Maurice saw that it was necessary to set bounds to them. Equal to Charles himself in dissimu- lation, he secretly made preparations against him, without losing his confidence. He contrived to get himself appointed •general of the imperial army, sent to force the people of Mag- deburg to submit to the Interim, and after that object was effected, he, under various pretences, still kept that army in his pay. Charles, meanwhile, was residing at Inspruck, en- tirely occupied with the council, which had been brought back to Trent. Neither he nor Granville, his subtle prime minister, had any suspicion of the designs of Maurice, who had now formed a treaty with Henry II. of France. Having completed his preparations, he sent an embassy to demand the liberty of the landgraf It was refused. An army of 20,000 foot and 2000 horse being assembled, Maurice threw off the mask, and assigned his reasons for taking arms; namely, to secure the Protestant religion ; to maintain the German constitution ; to deliver the landgraf of Hesse from prison. The king of France added a manifesto, in which he X2 270 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART III. styled himself Protector of the Liberties of Germany and its captive Princes. The French troops having overrun Lorraine, Maurice traversed rapidly Upper Germany : the emperor negotiated. Maurice advanced v^^ith all the speed he could make ; and w^as so near surprising the emperor, that he was obliged to fly into the Alps in a litter, in the midst of a dark rainy night. The council of Trent broke up, and did not reassemble. _ A conference was held at Passau : the terms proposed in the name of the princes of the empire were rejected by the em peror. Maurice laid siege to Frankfort on the Main, and the haughty spirit of Charles was forced to bend. The treaty of A. D. Passau overthrew the fabric he had so long been raising, and 1552. placed the Protestant religion of Germany on a secure basis. His usual good fortune was now deserting Charles; he raised a large army, entered Lorraine, and laid siege to Metz ; but was forced to abandon it with the loss of 30,000 men : he lost the footing he had established in Tuscany : the coast of Naples was ravaged by the Turkish fleet. In the following year he had some success in the Low Countries ; but the Austrians were unfortunate in Hungary. Germany was now so tranquil, that a diet assembled at Augsburg, and 1555. by what is called the Recess of Augsburg established reli- gious peace in Germany, to the satisfaction of all parties. 1556. To the surprise of all Europe, Charles abdicated his throne ; and, resigning his dominions to his son Philip, retired to spend the evening of his life in the monastery of St. Just in Spain. Having made a vain attempt to induce his brother Ferdinand to resign the dignity of king of the Romans, he left all his other dominions to Philip, now married to Mary queen of England, and formed for him a truce with France for five years. Ferdinand was chosen emperor by the electors. During the reign of Charles V., England was governed by Henry VIIL, Edward VI., and Mary. Henry broke witli the 1533. court of Rome, and seized on the monastic estates : he ex- ercised over his people the most arbitrary power that Europe, perhaps, has ever witnessed. Not merely his will, but his caprice, was law ; he dictated in religion, and murdered un- der form of ju.stice. In his foreign wars he made small and 1513. useless acquisitions at vast expense. The victory of Flodden Field, gained in the early part of his reign over the Scots, whose king, James IV., fell in the field, was the greatest 1547. achieved in this period by the English arms. Under Edward VI. the Protestant religion was much favored ; but his sister CHAP. II. TIMES OF CHARLES V. 271 Mary, a bigot, and wife of the dark, malignant Philip, exer- a. d. cised such cruelties against the professors of the reformed 1553. faith, as have affixed in the minds of posterity eternal odium to her name. In her reign Calais, which England had held since the reign of Edward III., was surprised and taken by 1567 the duke of Guise. Spain and Portugal. The commons of Spain made a stand in favor of their hereditary liberties, and they rose in arms against the des- potism of the emperor, under the command of the brave Pa- dilla ; but the nobles not joining them, as, if they had known their true interest, they should have done, the commons were crushed, and the liberties of Spain have been ever since in abeyance. By the talents, the valor, and the barbarous cruelty of Cor- tes and Pizarro, the empires of 'Mexico and Peru were at this time subjected to Spain. Don John III., a wretched bigot, with whom dates the de- cline of Portugal, introduced the inquisition and the new so- ciety of the Jesuits into that country. Priestly and regal authority conspired to oppress and degrade the nation. The Portuguese power was, meantime, under the valor and the ability of the great Albuquerque, Almeida, Castro, and others, extended from the gulf of Persia to the isles of Japan. At no period have greater actions been achieved : un- happily, they were disgraced by a spirit of savage cruelty and unprincipled rapacity. Italy, In the holy see the polished Leo X. was succeeded by the honest, well-meaning Adrian VI. It then passed to the timid, uncertain Clement VIL, a Medici: next to the designing Paul III., only concerned to aggrandize the Farnesi, his own family : then to the lavish and tasteful Julius III. ; and, finally, to Paul IV., an aged monk, who fancied himself possessed of the power of a Gregory or an Innocent, and that the 16th century might be treated like the 13th. In Florence, Piero, son of Lorenzo de' Medici, had given up Pisa and Leghorn to the French, when Charles VIII. in- 1494. vaded Italy. He was in consequence forced to leave the city ; his palaces were plundered, and a price set on the head of the Medici. The old republican tumults ensued. Julian and John, the brothers of Piero, now dead, were restored by ih^ 1512. Spanish arms at the desire of pope Julius II. ; and John suc- ceeding that pope under tlie name of Leo X., his influence 272 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART III. j^ J, strengthened his brother, and, after the death of Julian, his 16*16. nephew Lorenzo, son of Piero. Lorenzo, equal to any of his family in the qualities that distinguished them, had meditated the extension of his power from sea to sea; but his early death, in his 27th year, cut short all his great projects. He left an only child, the celebrated Catherine, afterwards queen of France. Julius, the natural son of the brother of Lorenzo, who was murdered by the Pazzi, took the government. A conspiracy was formed against his power ; but he was supported by the emperor. He became pope as Clement VIL ; and Alexander, his own or Lorenzo IL's natural son, governed Florence. He was obliged to fly when the pope was besieged by the army of Bourbon ; but when Clement made peace with the em- peror, Charles gave his natural daughter Margaret in marriage to Alexander, and engaged to restore him to the wealth and power of his family. Florence resisted ; and after the peace of Cambray the imperial arms besieged it for ten months, and forced it to surrender, and the emperor declared Alexander hereditary duke of Florence. The rule of this protege of the pope and the emperor was, as was to be expected, tyrannical 1537. and oppressive. His death was owing to his vices. His cousin Lorenzino de' Medici, who had been the ready agent of his lust, resolved to destroy him. Under pretext of putting him in possession of the person of a lady whose beauty had in- flamed him, he decoyed him to his house, where he secretly murdered him. Lorenzino fled to Venice : the better-disposed citizens wished to re-establish the republic, but the Medici party forced the senate to declare duke Cosimo, descended^ from a brother of the first Cosimo, A subtle, cruel, and un- grateful tyrant, Cosimo oppressed the people, and banished 1557. 5iose to whom he owed his power. He was himself but the mere slave of Spain. Cosimo added Sienna to his dominions, and in 1569 the pope, Pius V., conferred on him the title of Great duke of Tuscany. Genoa had, on account of her internal dissensions, put her- self under the protection of France, and her nobles had served in the army of Francis L She did not by this expe- dient escape the turbulence of the Adorni and Fregosi, whose feuds ran as high as ever. Andrew Doria determined to be the Timoleon of his country. He formed a league with Charles V,, entered the port of Genoa, proclaimed an am- nesty, broke up the parties, and new-modelled the govern- ment, excluding only the Adorni and Fregosi from office. Doria sought neither power nor reward for himself; he never CHAP. II. TIMES OF CHARLES V. 273 bore the office of doge. He died, honored and lamented, in ^. p. his 94th year. 15150. Venice remained the most independent state in Italy, and was always on good terms with Charles V., by whose terri- tories she was now nearly surrounded. The popes had brought Bologna, Ravenna, and Ancona fully under their power. Parma and Piacenza were, with the consent of Charles V., given by Paul III. to his son Piero Farnese, and on his death to Ottavio Farnese, married to a natural daughter of the em- 1547. peror. Ottavio was succeeded by Alexander, the celebrated general of Philip II. Italy was now tranquil ; all her states either belonged to or were in amity and alliance with Spain. She had no disturb- ances to dread ; her ancient spirit declined ; she sank into luxury, occupied in the enjoyment of her arts and natural advantages. Denmark and Sweden. These countries do not yet enter on the great theatre of Europe. Christian II. had proved victorious, by the employ- ment of treachery and force, in the struggle for Swedish in- dependence. He was crowned at Stockholm, and he and his confederate, the archbishop of Upsala, by an almost unparal- leled piece of perfidy, publicly executed ninety-four of the Swedish nobles. But Gustavus Vasa, the son of one of those who were murdered, escaped from the prison in which he was confined, roused the miners of Dalecarlia to take arms for their country, and was successful in his first attempts ; gradually all the people rose against the tyrant, Gustavus was elected king of Sweden, and he governed with wisdom 1523. and good policy. Gustavus established the Lutheran religion in Sweden, over which he reigned 37 years. 156a Christian II. was for his tyranny deposed, and the crown given to his uncle Frederic duke of Holstein, who entered into an alliance with Gustavus and the Hanse towns against 1533. the deposed tyrant. Frederic's son, Christian III., was one of the best princes of the age. He also established the Lu- theran religion in his dominions. He died a year before Gus- 1559. tavus. Turkey. Suleiman I., called by the Christians the Great and the 1520. Magnificent, by his own subjects the Lawgiver (Kanooni)^ the greatest of the Ottoman monarchs, succeeded his father Selim. In the first year of his reign'a war broke out with Hungary, in which Belgrade and other fortresses were taken 1522. 274 OUTLINES OP HISTORY, PART HI. by the Ottomans. The following year the island of Rhodes was conquered, after a most gallant defence made by the knights of St. John. In the second Hungarian campaign of j^u_ Suleiman he took Peterwaradin, and the Hungarian king, 1526. Ladislaus, lost the battle and his life on the plain of Mohacs, and Ofen, the capital of Hungary, opened her gates. In a J529. third Hungarian campaign Ofen was taken by storm, Vienna was besieged ; but Suleiman was forced to retire from before 1532. its walls. Suleiman again invaded Hungary at the head of 200,000 men ; but he was unable to overcome the resistance 1534. of the town of Gtms. A war with Persia, in which Tebreez was again taken, and which gave Bagdad to Suleiman, next followed. Khair-ed-deen Barbarossa, the celebrated corsair, con- 1535. quered Tunis for Suleiman ; but it was retaken, and restored to Muley Hassan, by the emperor Charles V. Suleiman next conquered the isles of the Archipelago, and he fitted out a 1547. fleet in the Red Sea, to oppose the Portuguese in India. Two more campaigns against Hungary followed, and peace was at length concluded with Ferdinand and the emperor ; but war soon broke out again. A large fleet and army were sent against Malta, which the emperor had given to the knights 1565. of St. John ; but the valor of the knights forced them to retire with disgrace. Suleiman, the greatest of the Ottoman sul- tans, headed his armies in thirteen campaigns, and gave the empire its greatest extent, at which it continued for more than a century ere it began to decrease. Genius and learn- ing were encouraged by this munificent prince, whose reign was the Augustan age of Turkey ; but the deaths of no less than ten princes of the blood, most of them his sons and grandchildren, fix an indelible stain on his memory. CHAP. III. TIMES OF PHILIP II. State of Europe at Philip's Accession. No monarch ever ascended a throne with fairer prospects than Philip II. ; none ever had himself more thoroughly to blame for the extmction of his brightest hopes. His father had left him Spain, humbled under absolute power, but not yet degraded by it, Milan, Naples, and Sicily, the Nether- lands, Mexico, and Peru, now in the vigor of their gold and silver harvest ; he was married to the queen of England ; his uncle was emperor of Germany, king of Bohemia and Hun- CHAP. III. TIMES OF PHILIP II. 275 g-ary, and possessor of the Austrian dominions. Genoa arid the Catholic cantons of Switzerland were allied with Spain ; Venice feared her; the pope was obliged to support a prince who proclaimed himself the defender of the faith. His nephew, Sebastian king of Portugal, was a child. France, after the death of Henry II., had fallen into weakness and confusion. Suleiman had been succeeded by Selim, a weak unenterprising prince. Finally, the Spanish armies were still the first in Europe, and were commanded by the duke of Savoy, Don John of Austria, and the prince of Parma, three of the greatest generals of the age. Philip's own character, thoughtful, reserved, patient, inde- fatigable, might seem well calculated to make the most of all these advantages ; but it was the very defect of his character that lost him them all. A gloomy superstition pervaded every region of his mind, and tinged every thought. Religion, with him, was the one thing needful ; but his religion consist- ed in external observances, and in the belief of the absurdeet doctrines of popery. Steadfastness in this religion justified every crime ; nothing was to stand in tlie way of his plan of reducing the Christian world under the one faith and the one master. And all was sacrificed to this chimera. The first operations of Pliilip's reign were fortunate. The pope insisted on Henry II. not adhering to the truce of Vau- celles ; the war was renewed, and Philip's able general, Phil- ibert duke of Savoy, gained the battle of St. Quintin. The Spanish arms were everywhere successful, and the pope and Henry were glad to treat of peace ; a measure grateful to Philip, who was anxious to return to Spain, and who had all along had his doubts of the lav/fulness of bearing arms against the pope. Mary of England was at this time dead, and her sister Elizabeth had ascended the throne. Philip and Henry were suitors for the favor of the young queen ; the former sought her hand. All parties were anxious for peace. A a. d, treaty was, tlierefore, easily entered into at Chateau Cam- 1559. bresis ;^and as almost all the states of Europe were included in it as^'^rincipals or allies, a general peace and repose was produced by it. Charles V. had died the year before ; Mary of England was dead ; Henry II. was killed at a tournament shortly after the peace ; the restless Paul IV. survived him but a few weeks. A new set of actors enter on the scene. France. Henry II. was succeeded by his eldest son, Francis II., the husband of Mary the young queen of Scotland. Protestant- 276 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. ism had made considerable proffress in France. The king of Navarre, the prince of Conde, me admiral Coligni, his brother Andelot, and several other persons of the highest rank, were attached to the reformed faith. The powerful family of Guise, princes of Lorraine, uncles to the young- queen, supported the old religion. Francis was persuaded by them to revive the laws agamst heresy. The A. D. Protestants (in France called Huguenots) saw their danger, 1560. and resolved to anticipate it. A conspiracy was formed to seize the king. It was detected, and the accomplices pun- ished. But an assembly of the states was held, and the penal laws suspended. The Guises, however, resolved to proceed, and the king of Navarre and his brother the prince of Conde were seized and imprisoned. The sudden death of Francis checked their career. His young brother, Charles IX., came to the throne, and the queen-mother was appointed guardian. As " divide and govern''' was the maxim of Catherine, she gave high office and power to the Protestant leaders, as a counterpoise to the influence of the Guises. 1562. The policy of the queen did not produce the desired eflect. Animosity ran high between the two parties. The attend- ants of the duke of Guise insulted some Protestants at their worship, and sixty of the latter were slain. The Protestants all over France took arms ; fourteen armies were levied in different parts of the kingdom. The conflict was carried on with the most extreme virulence. Several of the principal cities of France, as Orleans, Rouen, Bourges, Lyons, Tours, were in the hands of the Huguenots. Philip of Spain sent 6000 men to aid the Catholics. Conde, the head of the Protestants, addressed himself to Elizabeth queen of England, and an army was levied in Germany by Andelot and led to Orleans. The king of Navarre and Montmorency had joined the Guise party : the former was killed at the siege of Rouen ; the latter commanded at the battle of Dreux, the first fought between the parties. 1563. The duke of Guise laid siege to Orleans. While engaged in it, he was assassinated by a Protestant gentleman named Poltrot. His death was an irreparable loss to his party, and they now willingly came to an accommodation with the Protestants. But the peace was intended only to lull the Protestants. Catherine, though utterly devoid of principle, had a hatred of the reformed faith, and a zeal for the ancient one. A meet- ing was concerted at Bayonne between Charles and his sister, the queen of Spain. Catherine accompanied her son ; the duke of Alva attended his mistress. Festivities and gaieties CHAP. III. TIMES OF PHILIP II. 2TT of every kind occupied each day. All apparently respired joy and peace : but the tempest was secretly brewed in the summer sky. A Holy League was formed between the courts of France and Spain : the glory of God was to be pro- a. d. moted, heresy in the dominions of both extirpated. 1566. The Protestants of France soon learned what had been concerted. They flew to arms ; a battle was fought at St. Denis, in which they were worsted. They laid siege to 1568. Chartres, and forced the court to agree to a peace. This peace was of sliort duration : the queen-mother laid a scheme for seizing Conde and Coligni; they fled to Rochelle; the war was renewed. The duke of Anjou commanded the Catholics, and gained the famous battle of Jarnac, in which the prince of Conde was taken and murdered. Coligni hav- 1569. ing placed at the head of the Protestants the young king of Navarre and the young prince of Conde, made every effort to animate his party, and at length laid siege to Poitiers. The young duke of Guise threw himself into that town, and de- fended it with such valor and skill, that Coligni was forced to raise the siege. Secretly aided by Elizabeth, he collected a considerable force ; but at the battle of Moncontour he was wounded and defeated with the loss of nearly 10,000 men. The court deemed the adverse party now completely crushed, when, to their amazement, Coligni advanced with a large army, and prepared to lay siege to Paris, and the king was forced to make another treaty and peace with the Protestants. The treachery long meditated against the Protestants was now ripe. Charles assumed the appearance of the utmost liberality of sentiment: a marriage was proposed between his sister Margaret and the young king of Navarre. All the great leaders of the Protestants went to Paris to the celebra- tion of it. They were received with smiles and caresses by the king and the queen-mother ; all was festivity till the eve of St. Bartholomew (Aug. 24) arrived, when, by the secret 1572. orders of the king, a bloody and indiscriminate massacre of the Protestants commenced. No rank or age was spared ; 500 gentlemen, including Coligni, and 10,000 inferior per- sons, perished in Paris alone, and a like carnage took place in all the great towns of the kingdom whither similar orders had been sent. It is computed that 60,000 persons were massacred. The Protestants throughout Europe were filled with horror and consternation. At Rome and Spain the account was re- ceived with ecstasy, and public thanks returned to heaven. But Charles did not dare to avow his real motives ; he pre- tended that a conspiracy of tlie Protestants had been detected, Y 278 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART III. and thug prevented. Instead of losing courage, these now only respired vengeance. They took valiantly to their arms : the town of Sancerre stood a memorable siege. Rochelle held out eight months against the whole power of France ; and ^. p. the duke of Anjou, after losing 24,000 men before it, was 1573. compelled to grant the citizens an advantageous peace. This was the fourth peace ; but the Protestants could put no trust .in the perfidious monarch. They rejoiced at his 1574. death, which soon afterwards occurred. He was succeeded by his brother, the duke of Anjou, Henry III., who had been elected king of Poland. Henry, by the advice of his mother, sought to play the parties against each other, and thereby 1576. increase the royal authority. He gave most advantageous terms to the Protestants, now headed by his brother, the duke of Anjou, and the young king of Navarre. The Catholic party, directed by the duke of Guise, were disgusted by this mea- 1577. sure : they formed their celebrated League ; and the king, to weaken it, declared himself the head of it. The war was renewed ; but soon terminated by a new peace. The League looked up to Philip, the Huguenots to Elizabeth : the king, sunk in pleasure and in odious vices, was despised and dis- trusted by both parties. The duke of Anjou was a restless ambitious prince : his death seemed to relieve the king from difficulties ; but it only plunged him into greater. The king of Navarre was now the next heir; the League was revived ; the cardinal of Bourbon set up as a rival to the king of Na- varre ; and the king forced to declare war against the Hugue- nots. Great valor and talent were displayed by the king of 1587. Navarre. At Coutras he gained a complete victory over the royal army ; but the power of the League was still an over- match for the Huguenots. The king was driven from Paris, and threatened with degradation from his throne : his spirit was roused, and he caused the duke and the cardinal of Guise to be assassinated. The doctors of the Sorbonne declared the people released from their allegiance ; and the duke of Mayenne, brother to the duke of Guise, was chosen Lieuten- 1589. ant-general of the State royal and Crown of France. The king entered into an alliance with the king of Navarre, and both sovereigns advanced to Paris at the head of their armies. James Clement, a Dominican monk, here assassinated the king, with whom ended the line of Valois. The holy deed was, as usual, applauded throughout the Catholic world ; and Sixtus V. compared it with the Incarnation and the Resur- rection. The royal army abandoned the king of Navarre, now Henry IV., and the League proclaimed the cardinal of Bour- CHAP. III. TIMES OF PHILIP II. 279 bon, under the name of Charles X. Henry retired to Nor- mandy, followed by the troops of the League, under the duke of Mayenne. The queen of England sent him troops and money. His forces were inferior in number, but superior in a. d. valor, to those of the duke ; and at Ivry he gained a com- 1590. plete victory over him and his Spanish auxiliaries. Henry soon afterwards invested Paris; the duke of Parma hastened from the Low Countries to its relief; the siege was raised ; but the duke declined the proffered battle. Some fresh at- tempts on Paris were bajffled ; the duke of Parma left 8000 men with the League; the pope ordered all the Catholics to abandon Henry, and sent money and troops to the duke of Savoy, who had made himself master of Provence; the young duke of Guise made his escape from Tours. Elizabeth, on the other hand, again sent troops and money; Henry laid siege to Rouen ; but the prince of Parma forced him to raise it, and again retreated without fighting. Lesdiguieres chased the duke of Savoy out of Provence ; and victories were gained by Turenne, and other generals of Henry. At length all parties grew weary of the war ; the duke 1593. of Mayenne was disgusted by the faction of the Sixteen in Paris, who were entirely in the Spanish interest; Henry was pressed by the Catholics of his party to declare himself on the article of religion, a thing he had hitherto avoided doing ; the king of Spain, too, pressed the duke of Mayenne to call a meeting of the states, hoping to gain the crown for his own daughter Isabella. The states met ; Philip's ambas- sador exerted himself in vain to get a declaration in favor of the infanta ; the parliament of Paris declared that the Salic law could not be set aside. Meanwhile Henry, though successful in arms, saw that he never could obtain the kingdom by force ; and, with the con- sent of his wisest friends, he embraced the Catholic religion. This measure was not at first productive of all the advan- tages that might have been expected : both parties were dis- trustful ; but gradually town after town and noble after noble submitted to their king. He led an army into Burgundy, ex- pelled the Spaniards, and obliged the duke of Mayenne to seek an accommodation ; Ke received the pope's absolution ; the duke of Guise, now his friend, surprised Marseilles ; tlie duke of Mayenne submitted, and continued ever after warmly attached to his person and government ; but the archduke Albert surprised Calais ; the Spanish governor of Dourlens took Amiens ; and the French finances were in so dilapidated a state, that Henry could not raise an army. Tlie prudence and ability of the great Sully enabled him at last to take the 280 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART 111. A. D. field at the head of a well-appointed army of more than 20,000 1597. men ; and, in spite of the efforts of Albert, Amiens was forced to surrender. The duke of Mercoeur was still in arms in Britany. Henry marched against him ; but the duke offering his only daugh- ter and a large dower to king Henry's natural son, the pro- posal was accepted, and the duke submitted. All France now cheerfully obeyed its lawful monarch. To dissipate the apprehensions of the Huguenots, Henry summoned the heads of them to Nantes, and gave the celebrated edict named from 1598. that town, which secured them the exercise of their religion, and declared them eligible to all places of trust, profit, and honor. Peace was now absolutely necessary to France, so long torn by civil dissensions ; and Henry concluded at Ver- vins a treaty with the Spanish king. During the remaining years of his reign,' Henry, aided by his wise and virtuous friend and minister Sully, was indefati- gable in restoring France to order, tranquillity, and power. He was still, however, harassed by the intrigues of the Spanish cabinet ; and at length he took the occasion of the disputed succession of the duchies of Cleves and Juliers to undertake his long-meditated plan of humbling the house of Austria ; but in the midst of his preparations he perished by 1610. the dagger of the assassin Ravaillac. Henry was justly styled the Great : he possessed all kingly virtues ; the blem- ish of his character was his passion for women. After the death of Margaret of Valois, he married Mary of Medici, daughter of Francis duke of Tuscany. The Netherlands. The Netherlands had grown wealthy by trade. A freedom of municipal government, and consequently of opinion, pre- vailed in their cities, and the reformed doctrines easily ob- tained a footing there. Charles V. had sought in vain to suppress them. Philip disliked the people, and he detested the new opinions; he insulted and offended the counts of Egmont and Horn, and the prince of Orange. They became the leaders of the oppressed people. Philip determined to crush the nation ; and the relentless duke of Alva was sent with a large army as governor to the Netherlands. Egmont and Horn, who had been the chief agents in composing the ferment of the Flemings, were notwithstanding brought to the block by Alva. Nothing was to be heard but cries of despair, to be seen but torture and death. William of Nassau, prince of Orange, led an army out of Germany, and offered battle in vain to Alva. The Spaniards CHAP. III. TIMES OP PHILIP 11. 281 held all the fortified towns, and the prince was forced to dis- band his troops. Alva's tyranny knew no bounds ; the people dared not to oppose. The queen of England, though favor- able to the Flemings, was, at the desire of the king of Spain, obliged to exclude their privateers from her ports. TJie Gueux (Beggars), as their crews were called, seized on the a. d. port of the Briile in Holland. Alva sent a force against 1672. them ; the people of the neighborhood rose and defeated it, and put themselves under the prince of Orange, by whose exertions the province of Holland, and shortly after that of Zealand, cast off the Spanish yoke. The prince took Mech- lin, Oudenard, and Dendermond; the gallant defence of Haarlem convinced Alva of the inutility of strong measures. He tried in vain to induce the people of Holland to submit to the clemency of Philip ; but they, who knew what the tender mercies of Alva and liis master were, set them at defiance. The duke laid siege to Alcmaar; he was repulsed: he fitted out a large fleet; it was defeated by the Zealanders: he 1563. prayed to be recalled, and left the Low Countries, boasting that in five years he had delivered 18,000 persons to the exe- cutioner. Alva was succeeded by Requesens, commander of Castile, a man of mild disposition ; but the war still raged with al- ternate success. Leyden was invested by the Spaniards; 1574. the citizens endured every extreme of famine and distress ; the Dutch opened the dikes ; a violent wind drove the waters against the Spanish works; and the commander Valdez was, after losing the flower of his army, forced to raise the siege. Conferences were now held, but to no purpose, at Breda, un- 1575. der the mediation of the emperor. The war was renewed : the Spaniards proved too powerful for the two provinces; they had entered Zealand, and were meditating the conquest of Holland, when, in their despair, the Dutch offered the sovereignty of their country to the queen of England. That prudent princess declined it, but mediated for them in vain with Philip. The war raged as fiercely as ever. Meanwhile Requesens died ; and the Spanish garrison 1576. committed such atrocities at Antwerp, that all the provinces, except Luxemburg, entered into the Pacification of Ghent, whose object was the expulsion of foreign troops, and the restoration of the ancient liberties of the states. Don John of Austria, the succeeding governor, seeing the inutility of resistance, agreed to confirm the pacification, and peace was at length restored. The ambition of Don John violated the peace, and war broke out anew. As he had meditated marrying the queen 283 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART III. ^ P of Scots, and claiming the crown of England, Elizabeth no 1578. longer hesitated to assist the malcontents with men and money. The count palatine of the Rhine also collected an army to aid them. But discord arose among the Netherland- ers. Jealous of the prince of Orange, the duke d'Arschot and other Catholic nobles privately invited Matliias, brother to the emperor Rodolf IL, to take the government. Mathias sudd only, appeared; the prince of Orange prudently joined him ; Don John was deposed, and Mathias made the prince his lieutenant, to the great mortification of d'Arschot. Don John, being joined by the prince of Parma and 18,000 veterans, attacked and defeated the army of the states at Gemblours. Dissension continued between the two parties. Mathias was despised ; the prince of Orange suspected by both on account of his moderation. By the influence of the Catholic party, the duke of Anjou was declared Defender of the Liberties of the Netherlands. Don John dying shortly afterwards, the command of the Spanish forces passed to the prince of Parma, one of the first generals and statesmen of the age. The prince of Orange saw the necessity of a closer union 1579. among the Protestant states. Deputies met at Utrecht (Jan. 15), from Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Overyssel, and Guelderland, and signed the famous union of the Seven United Provinces. The king of Spain sought in vain to detach the prince of Orange from the union ; he was resolved to stand or fall with his country. The prince of Parma made a treaty with the people of the southern states ; the Catholics in general favored him, and he took several towns : the states, however, continued resolute ; they again offered the sovereignty to Elizabeth, and on her refusing it, 1580. conferred it on the duke of Anjou. The duke of Anjou forced the Spaniards to raise the siege of Cambray ; but when ho went to England on the bootless project of marrying Elizabeth, the prince of Parma gained great advantages in the Netherlands. When he returned, he made a rash and violent attempt on the liberties of the states, and was obliged to retire to France, where he sliort.ly afterwards died. Mathias liad retired to Germany, and the conflict was now between tlie two great princes of Orange and Parma. Philip had set a reward on the head of the prince of Or- ange, and the dagger of an assassin, Balthazar Gerard, de- 1585. prived the states of their able and patriotic leader. Their gratitude made them appoint his son Maurice, a youth of eighteen years, their Stadtholder, and captain-general by sea CHAP. III. TIMES OF rillLIP 11. 283 and land ; their rage stimulated them to renewed exertion. The prince of Parma had reduced Ghent and Brussels ; he now invested Antwerp : the citizens opened their sluices and hroke down their dikes ; the prince cut a canal to carry off the waters ; he erected a fortified bridge across the Scheld, to prevent the town being- relieved by sea. The Hollanders, expecting that the fall of Antwerp would benefit their town of Amsterdam, obstructed every measure for its relief. The city was forced to surrender. It declined, and Amsterdam flourished. The loss of Antwerp was a great blow to the states. Eliza- beth saw now the necessity of aiding them effectually. The earl of Leicester was feent to Holland with 5000 foot and 1000 horse. The states made him their governor ; but his inso- lence and incapacity obliged his mistress to recall him. Prince Maurice was made governor, and lord Willoughby was ap- pointed to command the English forces. The prince of Parma was now obliged, more than once, to lead his army into France in aid of the League, and he was occupied in preparing for the invasion of England ; so that the war was not prosecuted a. d. with very great vigor. His death, as he was once more pre- 1^93. paring to enter France, delivered Maurice from a powerful opponent. He was succeeded in the chief command by count Mans- feld, an able and experienced officer. The scale of the states now preponderated ; prince Maurice took Breda before the 1^94. eyes of the Spanish commander, and then Gertruydenburg and Groningen. At Turnhout, prince Maurice and Sir Fran- 159V- cis Vere gained a complete victory over the Spaniards. The states refused now to be included in the peace of Vervins. Philip II. died. He had seen how fruitless was the contest, 1598. and, as a decent mode of ending it, he had transferred to his daughter Isabella, contracted to the archduke Albert, the sovereignty of the Low Countries. Albert wrote letters to the United Provinces, entreating them to submit to their natural princes, who would govern them with justice and lenity. They returned no answer. An edict was issued, pre- cluding them from all intercourse with the Spanish Nether- lands, Spain, and Portugal. Philip II. had wisely never med- dled with their trade. The Dutch sent a fleet to cruise against the Spaniards, and they turned their views towards the East Indies, and soon possessed the far greater part of the lucrative trade which the Portuguese had enjoyed. The war in the Low Countries was continued with spirit. Each side was strongly reinforced ; towns were taken on both sides: the two armies came to a jreneral enffaffement at 284 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. TART III. A. D. Nieuport near Ostend, and after a well-sustained contest the 1630. Spanish veterans gave way. But the troops of prince Mau- rice were so exhausted by fatigue, that he was unable to un- dertake any thing before Albert had collected a superior army. 1601. Overtures of peace were made to and rejected by the states. Maurice took Rhinburg ; Albert laid siege to Ostend, which was vigorously defended by Sir Francis Vere, and he was 1602. forced to turn the siege into a blockade. The states changed the garrison, putting in fresh troops ; the besiegers were re- inforced by 8000 Italians, under the marquis Spinola, who took the command, and by his skill reduced the town to ruins. 1604. An honorable capitulation was granted by him to the gar- rison. This siege cost the archduke 70,000 men, and Maurice had meantime made acquisitions equal to Ostend, It was resolved to prosecute the war with vigor ; Spinola was made com- mander-in-chief: he had during two years considerable suc- cess ; but his troops mutinied for want of pay, and he gave it as his opinion that the subjugation of the United Provinces was impracticable. The pride of Spain was reduced to treat 1607. with the Dutch as an independent nation. A suspension of arms was agreed to, and finally, though opposed by the Or- ange party, a truce for ten years was made at the Hague, un- 1609. der the mediation of France and England. Thus, after a severe contest of thirty-seven years, inde- pendence was assured to the United Provinces. During the conflict they had increased in wealth, had made extensive acquisitions in the East, and established a navy equal to any at the time. England. 1559. The throne of England was at this eventful period filled by Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII. and sister of the two preceding sovereigns ; a princess whose many great qualities have, in°despite of some defects and weaknesses, and one crime (as we must call it), obtained her the applause of suc- ceeding ages. On her succession, the Protestant religion was lastingly established in England. Philip of Spain, despair- ing of obtaining her hand, was now become her implacable foe ; and as the Catholics denied the legality of her mother's marriage, they consequently denied her right to the throne, and they asserted the priority of the claims of Mary queen of Scots, descended from the daughter of Henry VII. This last ill-fated princess, by this claim, and by her imprudence and her superior beauty, excited the envy and jealousy of Elizabeth; her Catholic bigotry alarmed the fears of the Pi-o- CHAP. III. TIMES OF PHILIP II. 285 tcstants ; her crimes alienated from her many who pitied her misfortunes. Yet, guilty as was Mary and as was Elizabeth, their times, their situations, and other circumstances, will offer many an excuse for each ; and pity will often take the place of blame in the mind of the attentive examiner of their history, especially of that of the unfortunate queen of Scots, who, brouo'ht up amid the milder manners of the court of France, w^as ill-fitted to contend with the turbulence and bar- barism of her native realm ; and who, imprisoned by her own subjects, and thence flying into England to seek the protec- - tion of a sister-queen and relative, found another prison, and, y J after a confinement of nineteen years, an unjust and igno- '-^f -* / niiniou^dcath* Philip had long been making preparations for the invasion a. d. of England : 50,000 men were assembled under the prince l^^'^- of Parma in the Low Countries for that purpose ; siiips were built in all the ports of his dominions. The Invincible Fleet, 1588. as it was proudly called, sailed at length from the port of Lisbon ; but the courage and skill of the English mariners defeated it; the winds of heaven dispersed and shattered it; and but a small portion revisited Spain. " / sent myjleet to combat the English, not the elements. God be praised, the calamitij is not greater,'''' expressed the real or affected resig- nation of Philip : " AJiavit Dens, et dissipantvr inimici,'''' the real or affected piety of Elizabeth, who had evinced, in the season of danger, a spirit worthy of the greatest of her predecessors. With Elizabeth ended the house of Tudor, a race of born despots. Henry VIL was subtle and oppressive ; Henry VIIL barbarous and capricious ; Edward VI. died before he could show his disposition ; Mary was an odious and cruel fanatic ; Elizabeth was insincere and arbitrary, but prudent and judi- cious. She loved her subjects ; but on the same principle as her contemporary Shah Abbas loved his, — because they were hers, and slie knew that their prosperity was her power ; but woe to any of them w^ho dared oppose her will or her caprice ! Yet, like every truly great mind, she could yield to circum- stances, and bend before the storm which it were folly to resist. During the reign of Elizabeth, the rebellions of Desmond and O'Neal in Ireland were crushed ; a colony, called Vir- ginia, was planted in the New World; Sir Francis Drake sailed round the globe ; an intercourse was opened with the great empire of Russia. Trade and commerce were en- couraged by this great princess ; literature was held in honor, and flourished. 286 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART III. Portugal, A. D. Don John III. left his dominions to his son Don Sebastian, 1555. a boy under age. Don Henry, grand-uncle to the young prince, was in holy orders and a cardinal : the Jesuits man- aged to have the young king committed to their care, and they used all their influence to extend the power of the church, and of their own order. Don Alessio Meneses in vain tried to withdraw the king from them ; in vain his grand- mother, the sister of Charles V,, wished to have the young monarch married. She was threatened and insulted by the holy fathers, who sought to dissipate his mind by frequent journeys ; and when the people began to murmur, excited him to an expedition to Africa. A Sheriff, i. e. a descendant of the prophet, had seized on the throne of the Merinide emir of Morocco, and founded the 1519. dynasty which still reigns in that country. His successor, Mohammed Sheriff, conquered Fez. In the reign of Sebas- tian the throne was occupied by Abdallah Sheriff. Sebastian, in the ardor of youth, and encouraged by the Jesuits, was preparing to sail for India, and have himself crowned emperor of the East, when a brother of the Sheriff, expelled from Mo- rocco, came to seek his protection. The invasion of Africa was resolved on. The old queen, who foresaw and vainly endeavored to avert its disastrous consequences, died, it is said, of grief. Full of enthusiasm, but ignorant of war, the young king passed over to Africa at the head of 20,000 men. The aged Sheriff met him at Alcazar-quivir with a superior army. Exhausted by age and disease, Abdallah expired in the midst of the conflict ; but a complete victory crowned the 1578. African arms. Sebastian disappeared, most probably slain ; but his subjects long continued to believe him living, and to look for his return. Cardinal Henry mounted the throne of Portugal. On his death the succession was disputed. The only male issue left by the four sons of Don Manuel was Antonio, prior of Prato, the natural son of Antonio duke of Beja. Don Edward had left two daughters, one married to the great prince of Parma ; but as she was thus become a foreigner, she was excluded by the Constitutions of Lamego : the other was married to the duke of Braganza, and he had by law a right to the crown. Philip II. was son to a daughter of Don Manuel ; but as she had become a foreigner by her marriage, she could transmit no claim. Philip, however, set up a claim. As he was by far the most powerful of the condidates, he very easily made it good : the prior of Prato alone resisted. The state of the con- CHAP. III. TIMES OF PHILIP II. 287 tinent prevented any princes supporting the just claims of the duke of Brag-anza ; and he himself was a quiet, easy man, satisfied with obtaining honors and dignities. Philip was ^. p. crowned at Lisbon. 1581 Thus, 867 years after the fall of the Gothic kingdom, the whole peninsula was reunited under one head ; happy if that head had not been Philip 11. ! Germany. Charles V. was succeeded in the imperial dignity by his brother Ferdinand, king of the Romans. This excellent prince directed all his efforts to the establishment of civil and religious concord in the empire. By the diet of Ratisbon, 1577. a reconciliation was made between the houses of Hesse and Nassau. The council of Trent was reassembled : but the Protestant princes met and came to the determination of ad- 1561. hering to the Confession of Augsburg whatever the council might decree. All the well-meant efforts of the emperor were in vain; the council, bent only on the now hopeless project of exalting the power of the church, would listen to none of his prudent suggestions. After passing a set of de- crees, which effectually closed the doors against unity, this 1563. last of general councils was dissolved. Maximilian 11. had been chosen king of the Romans in the 1564. lifetime of his father. Immediately on his accession he was engaged in war with Suleiman I., who even meditated the conquest of the German empire. Selim II. concluded a truce with the emperor. During the remainder of the reign of this mild and excellent prince, Germany enjoyed peace and tran- quillity. His son and successor, Rodolf II., inherited his pacific 1576. temper. Poland. At this period the Polish constitution underwent a great 1572. alteration. On the death of the estimable Sigismund Au- gustus, the last male of the Jagellons, the diet, consisting of 182 deputies, met, and determined that no king should have the power of nominating his successor. The election of a king was thus regulated : — On the plain of Vola, near War- saw, the senate and the people assembled. The former was composed of two archbishops, fifteen bishops, thirty-seven voi- vodes (dukes), eighty-two castellans (senators and lieutenants of the voivodes), and ten ministers of state. The senate met in a wooden house ; the deputies and the other nobles around it, within a wall and ditch. The king assembled and pre- sided over this diet, wherein all matters relating to internal 288 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. and external policy were transacted. The powers of the monarch were extremely limited ; but he appointed to ecclesi- astical dignities, conferred nobility, commanded the army, and his assent was necessary to give validity to the acts of the diet. The Protestant religion having made great progress in Poland, the greater part of the senate were of that persua- sion ; the most perfect toleration prevailed ; all dissidents, as the non-catholics were styled, were eligible to all offices. The Arians and Socinians were numerous in Poland; the latter, when persecuted everywhere else, found an asylum there. Racau was their chief establishment. A.J). On the death of Sigismund, a Protestant named Szafraniec 1573. ^g^g proposed as his successor ; but the choice fell upon Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou, brother to Charles IX. Henry suc- ceeding to liis brother in France, unceremoniously quitted 1575. Poland, and the Poles chose Stephen Bathori, prince of Tran- sylvania, a wise and brave monarch. They insisted on his marrying Anna Jagellon, daughter of Sigismund, to prevent any prince whom she might espouse claiming the crown. Stephen was by her induced to embrace the Catholic religion. 1587. His successor was Sigismund Vasa, crown-prince of Sweden, descended on the motner's side from the Jagellons. Italy. 1459. The haughty Caraffa (Paul IV.) was followed in the papal chair by the pious and zealous Pius IV. and V., and the good and well-intentioned Gregory XIII. The able, the vigorous, the resolute Montalto (Sixtus V.) next occupied the seat of St. Peter. Tliis penetrating statesman saw clearly through the selfish policy of Philip II., whom he secretly wished no success ; and he, in his heart, admired the king of France and queen of England, against whom lie discharged his spir- itual thunder. He established a rigorous police in the papal territories, and curbed the excesses of the lawless nobles. His strong measures against the great were followed up by his successor Aldobrandini (Clement VIII.) In Florence, Cosimo, the first grand duke, fortunate in other respects, was unhappy in his family. His daughter Lucretia was poisoned by her husband, a duke of Ferrara ; her sister Isabella was strangled by a prince of the Orsini, to whom she was married. The cardinal John of Medici was murdered by his brother Garcia, on account of a dispute at the chase, and Cosimo put his son Garcia to death with his own hand. Their mother died of grief. His eldest daughter CHAP. III. TIMES OF PHILIP II. 289 was, on account of improper love, poisoned by order of the grand duke. Francis, the second grand duke, also perished by poison, a. d. A Florentine, named Buonaventuri, settled at Venice, had l^'^^- run away with Bianca, the daughter of the senator Capello. They came to Florence, where they lived in poverty. The grand. duke saw Bianca, admired, and got acquainted with her. Buonaventuri acquired wealth and honors. He loved a widow, and he employed his power to oppress her brothers; the grand duke reproving him, he replied with insolence and threats ; he was abandoned to the vengeance of those whom he had injured, and he was murdered. Just at this time the grand duchess, daughter of the emperor Ferdinand, died. Francis married his beloved Bianca. Soon after, she took a hatred to her brother-in-law, the cardinal Ferdinand, and at- tempted to poison Ijim at dinner. The cardinal, put perhaps on his guard, declined the proffered viands ; — the grand duke, not aware of tlie truth, ate of the dish to remove his suspi- cions : — Bianca saw she was lost : — she also tasted of the dish, 1587 and died with her husband. The cardinal now became grand duke. He was a prince of great political prudence and sagacity, and his maxims were adopted by some leading courts. But he gave the reins with- out restraint to every sensual indulgence, and his example was followed by his subjects. Manufactures languished, mo- nopoly and companies checked trade ; but Florence was one of the handsomest, richest, and politest cities in Europe. The dukes of Savoy were proceeding with their character- 1559. istic activity. Emanuel Philibert, secured in his dominions by the treaty of Chateau Cambresis, turned all his thoughts 1564. to depressing the nobles and increasini^ the ducal autliority. He established a militia, built the citadel of Turin, and forti- fied Montmelian and Vercelle ; he created the manufacture of silk and the culture of olives ; he greatly increased the revenues by his wise measures, and was enabled to let the assembly of the states go out of use. His son Charles Emanuel 1584. had all the talents of a great prince, and could accommodate himself to all circumstances. His fault was neglect of his word when it interfered with his interest. By exchange he obtained Saluzzo, and prepared the way for the acquisition ^ of a part of Montferrat by his son. His reign was long and 1590- successful. Turkey. Selim n., on succeeding his father Suleiman, concluded a 1566, truce tor twelve years with the emperor Maximilian. He Z 290 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART HI. turned his arms without success, against Persia, and then revived an old claim of the Egyptian sultans on Cyprus. ^. D. After an heroic resistance, the island was conquered by the 1571. Turks, with the loss of 100,000 lives. A league had been formed against Selim by the pope, the king of Spain, and tlie Venetians. Their fleet was too late to relieve Cyprus ; but they encountered in the gulf of Lepanto the Turkish fleet, which ravaged the coasts of Italy and Dalmatia, and gained over it a most signal victory. Don John of Austria command- ed the Christians ; but dissension prevented any solid advgin- tage being derived from it. Next year the Turks appeared with a sti'll greater fleet, and the Venetians made a separate peace, by which they renounced all claim to Cyprus. Don John had meantime conquered Tunis and Biserta ; but they were again recovered by the Turks. During the reigns of the three following sultans, who were sunk in pleasure, the Turks made no acquisitions of conse- quence. Under Mohammed III., the grand vizier managed to draw to himself all power, by abolishing the places of the six viziers who sat in the divan. CHAP. IV. TIMES OF THE THIRTY YEARS* WAR. Germany. 1612. The archduke Matliias succeeded Rodolf in the empire. This prince had been hitherto favorable to the Protestants, but he now resolved to curb them. He had his cousin Ferdi- nand duke of Styria chosen his successor in Bohemia and Hungary, and he made a family compact with the court of Spain. The Protestants were alarmed ; the Bohemians and Hungarians had recourse to arms: the latter were easily quelled ; but the former were joined by the Protestants of Silesia, Moravia, and Upper Austria, and supported by an army of other German Protestants under count Mansfield. Thus began the Thirty Years' War. 1619.] Mathias died, and Ferdinand was raised to the imperial throne. The Bohemians deposed him, and offered their crown to Frederic V., elector palatine, who, contrary to the advice of his father-in-law, James I. of England, accepted the fatal gift. He was supported by all the Protestant princes of the empire except the elector of Saxony, and by Bethlem Gabor, voivode of Transylvania, by a body of 8000 Dutch troops, and CHAP. IV. TIMES OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 291 by 2400 English volunteers. Ferdinand was aided by the king of Spain, by the archduke Albert, governor of the Netherlands, and the Catholic princes of the empire. Spinola led 24,000 men from the Low Countries, and ravaged the palatinate ; Frederic was defeated at Prague by the duke of a. d. Bavaria and general Baquoy. He and liis adherents were 1620. put to the ban of the empire ; Bethlem Gabor was defeated in Hungary ; count Tilly completed the conquest of the pala- tinate ; Frederic was degraded, and his dignity of elector conferred on the duke of Bavaria. A league was formed, at the head of which was Christian 1625 IV. of Denmark, for the restoration of the palatine. But the troops of the league were unable to stand before the imperial- ists led by Tilly and Wallenstein, and Christian was forced to sue for peace, Ferdinand now thought the time was come for reducing the princes and prelates of the empire to the condition of those of other countries. He resolved to begin with the Protestants ; and he passed an edict ordering them 1629. to restore all the church lands, &c. tliat th^y had enjoyed since the peace of Passau. The Protestants remonstrated ; a diet was held at Ratisbon; the majority of the Catholic princes were for quieting them ; the spiritual electors second- ed the views of the emperor. The Protestants, to escape the meditated robbery, formed a secret alliance with Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. Gustavus was a prince of the highest military and civil talents : he was animated by a rational zeal for the Protest- ant religion, and he saw through the emperor's project of extending his dominion over the Baltic. Various other rea- sons combined to induce him to engage in war. The cardinal Richelieu, now minister in France, desirous to check the power of the house of Austria, engaged to give him an an- nual subsidy of 1,200,000 livres. Charles I, of England al- lowed 6000 men to be raised in the name of the marquis of Hamilton, to aid the king of Sweden, and numerous English and Scottish volunteers crowded to his standard. Gustavus entered Pomerania. The Protestant princes were at first fearful of joining him ; but his well-timed decis- ion towards the elector of Brandenburg ended their hesitation. Being joined by the Saxons, he advanced towards Leipzig, where Tilly lay, who advanced into the plain of Buitenfeld to meet him. The numbers on each side were about 30,000 ; but Tilly's troops were all veterans. The Saxons, being raw troops, fled at the first onset : the skill of Gustavus and the valor of the Swedes gained a complete victory. 1631. The king of Sweden quickly made himself master of the 292 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. whole country from the Elbe to the Rhine. The elector of ^ p Saxony entered Bohemia, and took Prague. Tilly, in dis- 1G32. puting- the passage of the Lech with the Swedes, was killed. Gustavus took Augsburg, marched into Bavaria, and entered Munich, Wallenstein had meantime recovered Prag-ue. The king of Sweden offered him battle near Nlirnburg ; Wallen- stein declined it : a furious attack was for ten hours made on his entrenchments, and the Swedes were repulsed with great loss. Soon after, hearing that Wallenstein had transferred his camp to Liitzen, Gustavus, thougli it was the depth of winter, and the imperial forces greatly exceeded his in num- ber, resolved to seek and engage him. The battle which en- sued is one of the hardest fought recorded in history. It lasted from day-break till night: the king of Sweden fell in the midst of the conflict. Night alone prevented the vic- tory of the Swedes being complete. The death of Gustavus cast a gloom over the Protestants ; they fell into factions : the Catholics were elated. But the Swedish regency (as Gustavus had left only one child, Chris- tina, of seven years) committed the management of the war to the chancellor Oxenstiern, a man of great ability, who, with the duke of Saxe-Weimar and generals Banier and Horn, prosecuted it with vigor. An event now occurred seemingly calculated to advance the Protestant cause. The emperor, whether justly or not is doubtful, suspecting the fidelity of Wallenstein, and fearing to deprive hmi of his command, had him sGcretly assassinated. But the loss of his genius was supplied by a large accession of Spanish and other troops, and by the junction of the dukes of Lorrain and Ba- 1634. varia. The imperial troops were commanded by the king of Hungary ; the duke of Saxe-Weimar and general Horn came up with them near Nordlingen, and a bloody battle ended in the total defeat of the Swedes. The German princes now deserted the Swedes, and made 1635. at Prague a treaty with the emperor, in which he receded from his former demands of the restitution of church property. The weight of the war now fell on the Swedes and French. France entered into an alliance with Holland, and war was declared against Spain. Richelieu raised five armies, one of which was sent into Germany, and placed under the duke of Saxe-Weimar. None of these armies was very successful. The imperial general Galas was opposed to the duke of Weimar, and they fought with alternate advantage. In Up- per Germany, the Swedes, under Banier, gave the imperial- 1636. ists, under the elector of Saxony, a complete defeat at Wis- lock. CHAP. IV. TIMES OP THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 293 The emperor Ferdinand II. died, and was succeeded by his a. d. son, of the same name. The same line of policy was pursued, 1^37. and the war continued. The duke of Weimar laid siege to 1638. Rainfeld ; an imperial army advanced to its relief, and was totally defeated by the duke : the town surrendered, as did soon after Brisac, and other places. While Weimar triumphed on the Rhine^ Banier was equally successful in Pomerania; he reduced several towns, and cut to pieces some of tlie imperial troops. In the beginning of the next campaign, the duke and Ban- 1G39 ier took measures for penetrating into the heart of the Aus- trian dominions. Banier crossed the Elbe, beat every thing that opposed him, entered Saxony, and totally defeated the Saxon army at Chemnitz. He invaded Bohemia, laid the country under contribution, fell on the imperialists under general Hofskirk at Brandeiz, and pursued them to the walls of Prague. He then repassed the Elbe, defeated the impe- rialists at Glatz, and drove the Saxons three times from their camp at Tirn. But the hopes of the Swedes were almost blighted by the loss of the duke of Saxe- Weimar, who died at this time, in his 36th year, by poison, as was strongly suspected. After a good deal of contest for his army, it was finally taken into the pay of the king of France, wlio thus became master of a great part of Alsatia and Brisgau. Under the command of the duke of Longucville it joined Banier at Erfurt; but the Swede found his genius cramped by their presence, and was no longer able to execute his bold and sudden projects. It was agreed to attack Piccolomini, the imperial general, in his camp at Saltzburg. This being found impracticable, the allies separated, and Banier attempted to penetrate into Franconia. Failing in this, he marched through Hesse into Lunenburg. Piccolomini attempted to enter this duchy, but was unable to penetrate it : and as he marched for Franconia, he was attacked and nearly defeated by the Weimarian army. The emperor having convoked a diet at Ratisbon, Banier 1641. formed a plan of surprising the city and dispersing the diet. Having joined the French army under Gucbriant, they crossed the Danube on the ice, took 1500 of the imperial horse, and very nearly surprised the emperor himself. The approach of a thaw disconcerted their plans ; but they threw five hundred shot into the town, an insult that enraged Ferdi- nand beyond measure. Attempts at a pacification were made at Hamburgh by the French and Swedish plenipotentiaries and one of the Aulic counsellors ; but the emperor refused to ratify the convention, Z2 294 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. After the attempt on Ratisbon, the Frencli and Swedes separated; Banier marched through Boliemia, followed by Piccolomini and Gleen. He conducted his retreat in a most masterly manner to Zickau, where he was joined by Gue- briant, and they prepared to make head against the imperial- ists ; but Banier tooJc a fever in consequence of the fatigues he had undergone, and died at Halberstadt, in the 41st year of his age. Torstenson, another of the pupils of Gustavus, was appointed to succeed him, and he left Sweden with a large sum of money and a considerable reinforcement ; but, before his arrival, the allies under Gucbriant had defeated Piccolomini at Wolfenbiittel. When Torstenson arrived the armies separated. A. D. The next spring, Guebriant totally defeated general Lam- 1642. boy, and made himself master of the electorate of Cologne. Piccolomini marched against Torstenson, who had defeated the duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, and invested Leipzig. The archduke Leopold and Piccolomini advanced to the relief of it ; and Buitenfeld was again witness to the triumph of Swe- dish valor. The news of this defeat filled the imperial court with con- sternation. Leipzig surrendered; but Torstenson failed in his attempt on Friedburg. Guebriant was also- successful on . his side. 1643. Conferences for a peace were now opened ; but the death of Louis XIIL and of Richelieu checked them : cardinal Maz- arin, however, trod in the footsteps of his predecessor. The arms of France were successful. While the negotiations were pending, Torstenson marched into Ilolstein, to punish the hostility of the king of Denmark. Christian called on the emperor, who sent Galas thither ; but Galas feared to en- gage the Swedes. France then mediated a peace between Denmark and Sweden. Tlie French, under Turenne, were successful against the Bavarians; the voivode of Transylvania invaded Hungary ; and the imperial army there under (jotz was utterly ruined. A similar fate befell that under Galas. 1645. Torstenson invaded Bohemia ; a large army under Galas, Hasfeld, and others, was collected near Thabor. The Swe- dish general decoyed them from their advantageous position, and completely defeated them. Every place submitted ; the imperial family fled from Vienna: Brinn, however, held out against the Swedes. The Bavarians under Merci defeated Turenne at Marien- dal ; Turenne was reinforced by 8000 men, under the duke d'Enghien, and gave battle to the Bavarians on the plain of Nordlingen, which had been so fatal to the Swedes. After a CHAP. IV. TIMES OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 295 dreadful conflict, victory declared for the French, with the loss of 4000 men. The elector of Saxony, unable to check the progress of the Swedish general Koningsmark, concluded a truce for six months. The latter joined Torstenson, who had, in spite of the arciiduke, carried his depredations to the gates of Vienna. They agreed to lay siege to Prague ; but the archduke secured that city against them ; and Torsten- son, who was dreadfully afflicted with the gout, returning to Sweden, was succeeded by Vrangel, who ably sustained the glory of the Swedish arms. The French and Swedes were everywhere successful ; the elector of Bavaria and other princes were forced to make separate peaces with them ; the emperor alone was opposed to them ; and though the elector a. d. of Bavaria had again joined him, the victory of Zummerhau- 1648. sen, gained by Turenne and Vrangel, and the invasion of Bavaria and Bohemia, compelled him to think at last seriously of peace. Negotiations liad long been going on at Osnaburg and Mimster. At last the Peace of Westphalia was signed at the latter place on the 24th Oct. 1648. By this celebrated treaty France obtained Alsatia, Brisac, Metz, Verdun, and other territories ; Sweden got Upper Pomerania, Stetin, the Isle of Riigen, Bremen, &c. with three votes at the diet ; compensation was made to the elector of Brandenburg and the duke of Mecklenburg for the loss of these territories ; the Upper Palatinate and the electoral rank remained with the duke of Bavaria ; Switzerland was declared independent of the empire; the paciiication of Passau was fully confirmed; Lutherans and Catholics were placed on the same footing ; the imperial chamber was to consist of twenty-six Catholic and twenty-four Protestant members ; six Protestants were admitted into the Aulic council ; an equal number of each party was to be summoned to the diet ; but in cases where it concerned either religion alone, only deputies of that religion should be called. France. Louis XIIL being a minor, his mother, Mary of Medici, a 1610. weak, bigoted woman, was declared regent. She was gov- erned entirely by an Italian, named Concini, and his wife. Sully retired ; new maxims were adopted ; a double marriage and union with Spain was projected ; and the ruin of the 1613. Protestants meditated. The nobility, headed by the prince of Conde, revolted; they were appeased by gifts; they re- 1615. volted again, and were again appeased in the same way. Luinos, the favorite of"" Louis, took advantage of his influ- 296 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. TART III. ence over him to induce the young prince to seize the reins A. D. of government. Louis ordered Concini to be arrested ; the 1617. captain of the guards shot him, under pretext of resistance ; his wife, the high-spirited Galligai, was condemned to death for sorcery and magic ; the regent was exiled to Blois. Lui- nes, from a page, was raised to the highest rank and offices in the state. A conspiracy, headed by the duke of Ej)ernon, released the queen-mother. Guided by the great Richelieu, she caballed against the court, which was obliged to enter into treaties advantageous to her and her party. She procured Richelieu a cardinal's hat, and a seat in the council. 162a liouis, having united Beam to the crown, attempted, though the people were Protestants, to re-establish there the Catholic religion. The Huguenots were alarmed ; they assembled at Rochelle, and determined to throw off their allegiance, and to form a republic. Luines, now constable, took arms. 1621. Having seduced, by bribes and promises, the duke of Bouillon, and other of their leaders, he laid siege to Montauban with 25,000 men. The place was gallantly defended by the mar- S[uis la Force, and Luines was forced to retire with disgrace. ie died shortly afterwards, and was succeeded in his office of constable by the brave Lesdiguieres, who had renounced Calvinism. The Protestants were led by the duke of Rohan and his brother Soubise. The latter was defeated by the king in person, who laid siege to Montpellier, wliich was de- 1622. fended as bravely as Montauban. A peace was made, and the edict of Nantes confirmed. The haughty Richelieu became now prime minister. There were three parties wliom he resolved to humble ; the nobility of France, the Huguenots, and the house of Austria. To accomplish these objects, he, in spite of the pope and the king of Spain, concluded a marriage between Charles prince of Wales and the king's sister Henrietta, as also an alliance between the two crowns and the United Provinces. A war with Spain was the consequence, in which a French army, united with the Venetians and the duke of Savoy, took the 1625, Valteline, and restored it to the Grisons; but Spinola reduced Breda, and the English failed in an attempt on Cadiz. The Huguenots rebelled, and were now encouraged by England. The duke of Buckingham appeared before Ro- chelle with 7000 men ; but he had laid his measures so ill, that the citizens refused to admit him, and after an ill-con- ducted attempt on the isle of Rhe, he returned home with disgrace. Richelieu laid siege to Rochelle ; and having run a mole across the harbor, compelled it to surrender. The duke of Rohan defended himself with vigor in Languedoc ; CHAP. IV. TIMES OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 297 but as England had made peace, he was forced to come to a. d. terms. The Protestants were continued in the enjoyment of 1629. all that had been secured by the edict of Nantes, only they were deprived of their fortified towns. Having- humbled the Protestants at home, and thereby brought the whole kingdom, nobility and all, under the control of the crown, Richelieu resolved, in furtherance of his re- maining object, to aid the Protestants in Germany ; and he formed the secret alliance which we have already noticed.* After the treaty of Prague, he openly joined the Swedes. Meantime he ruled France with a rod of iron : the queen- mother was banished, her son Gaston duke of Orleans obliged to beg his life, and the marshals Montmorency and Merillas publicly executed. In defiance of all his enemies, Richelieu retained his power till his death, in 1642, at the moment when the arms of France and Sweden had completely hum- bled the pride of the house of Austria. The minister died on the 4th of December: his royal master followed him on the 14th of the ensuing May. Louis had been married to Anne of Austria, daugliter of Philip III. of Spain. Spain. The chief domestic incident that distinguished the reign of Philip III. was the expulsion of the Moriscoes. Impelled by the inquisition, and by the advice of his feeble and bigoted minister, the duke of Lerma, Philip issued an edict, com- manding all his Mohammedan subjects to quit the kingdom 1611. within thirty days. In despair the Moors took arms : they were subdued, and a million of industrious subjects driven out of Spain, whose fate it is, to be to Europe a standing ex- ample of the evils of civil and religious despotism. During this reign, attempts were made to extend the Spanish power in Italy. Philip IV. and his minister Olivarez were both men of 1621. more energy than their predecessors. It v/as determined to form the closest alliance with the emperor, and to attempt the reduction of the United Provinces, the truce with whom was expired. Notwithstanding, however, these magnificent projects, the power of Spain continued still to decline in this reign. The Spanish infantry was cut to pieces on the plains ^^^^* of Rocroi by the duke d'Enghien with an inferior force ; the Catalans rebelled ; the Portuguese threw off the yoke ; and tlie independence of the Dutch was fully acknowledged. The 1643. worm was at the heart of the power of Spain. * See p. 291. 298 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART III. Portugal, The Portuguese had long been irritated by the despotism they were subject to. On the revolt of the Catalans, a law was passed to compel the Portuguese nobles to take arms for their reduction. A plot long formed now broke out. Olivarez had called away the Spanish garrison from Lisbon. The duchess of Mantua, styled the vice-queen, was driven away, and the grandson of the duke of Braganza, who had been de- prived of his right by Philip II., was proclaimed king, under the title of John IV. All Portugal acknowledged him ; ships were sent to the foreign settlements, and all expelled their A. D. Spanish governors. Brazil was recovered from the Dutch, 1640. and Portugal became once more independent, Italy. The dominions of Spain in Northern Italy, were divided from those of the emperor by the Valteline and Venice. Be- 1618. domar, the Spanish ambassador to the latter, formed, in con- junction with the governor of Milan and the viceroy of Na- ples, a nefarious project for murdering the senate, and getting possession of Venice ; but the senate, discovering in time the atrocious plot, executed the majority of the conspirators. 1620. Spain was more fortunate and less guilty in the Valteline, the Catholic inhabitants of which rose on and massacred their Protestant countrymen, and placed themselves mider her pro- tection. The emperor and king of Spain each attempted to get the duchy of Mantua, after the death of the duke without heirs ; 1630. but Richelieu entered Italy with an army, and obliged the emperor to grant the investiture to Charles Gonzaga, duke of Nevers. England — The Civil War. An eventful period now commences in England. A new 1603. dynasty fills the throne, and the grand struggle begins be- tween liberty and absolute power. James VL of Scotland, son of Mary, and descended from the eldest daughter of Henry VII., was, on the death of Elizabeth, placed by the free-will and choice of the English nation on her royal seat. This monarch was possessed of learning and abilities rather above the common rate; but he was pedantic, mean, and pusillani- mous, shamefully subservient to unworthy favorites, and in his inglorious love of peace careless of the national honor. In the reign of this feeble prince, the English nation first learned to listen to the doctrines of the divine and indefeasi- CHAP. IV. TIMES OP THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 299 ble rights of kings ; then, too, the church began to depart from the principles of the reformers, and some of her divines to approximate in their doctrines to those of the church of Rome, so generally odious to the nation. Every thing, in short, was done, as it were, to prepare the materials of the coming conflagration. In the reign of James, the nation took greatly to trade and maritime enterprise, and increased rapidly in wealth, intelli- gence, and love of freedom. Public events were few. The most remarkable was the Gunpowder Plot, a plan formed in the beginning of the king's reign by a few desperate Catho- lics to blow up the king and parliament, but fortunately dis- covered in time. The most laudable act of James's reign was the settlement and plantation of the north of Ireland. Charles I., of a harsh and arbitrary temper, endeavored to a.d. put into practice the speculative tenets of his father. He saw 1625. not the state of the nation. English liberty had made great progress under the Plantagenets: circumstances enabled the Tudors nearly to crush it ; but with the growth of wealth, and the freedom of religious opinion, the spirit of the nation had recovered its vigor. Charles was suspected, on account of his marriage with Henrietta, sister to the king of France, a bigoted Catholic, and his partiality towards the professors of that religion, of a secret design against Protestantism. The Puritans, now a numerous party, were bitterly hostile to the church of England ; and the persecuting violence and silly superstition of archbishop Laud augmented their rancor. Re- fused the necessary supplies by the parliament, without giv- ing some security for liberty, the king had recourse to all the illegal modes of taxation employed by his predecessors. Ton- nage and poundage were levied ; all the oppressions of feudal- ism renewed ; for more than ten years no parliament assem- bled. An attempt being made to force Episcopacy upon the 1638. Scots, that nation took arms, and entered into the solemn LEAGUE AND COVENANT. A drcadful rebellion broke out in 1641. Ireland, in which thousands of Protestants were barbarously massacred by the Catholics. The Long Parliament, which the king had assembled, advanced every day in their de- mands on him, and testified a spirit of determined hostility to the church. The impeachment, and illegal and unjust, though well-merited, condemnation of Strafford, the king's ablest and most obnoxious minister, showed him the spirit by which they were actuated. Charles, though reluctantly, still yielded to their demands ; but concession only produced further assump- tion. An invincible distrust of the king's sincerity, for which, indeed, there was abundant reason, haunted the minds of the 300 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. A. D. parliament, and prevented all accommodation. Both parties 1642. finally determined on the appeal to the sword. The king was supported by a large proportion of the an- cient nobility and gentry of the realm, many of whom had at first been zealous in checking the royal excesses ; but now, seeing the exorbitant demands of the commons, resolved to sustain the throne. The Catholics were naturally unanimous in his favor ; the western counties were in general well af- fected to him. The chief strength of the parliament lay in the cities and great towns, and the eastern counties, and the lower orders were mostly on their side. It is idle to seek to extenuate the faults on either side ; to represent the one party as the champions of right and justice, the other as the inveterate foes of both. Each had much, indeed, to answer for: it was a struggle, the probable termination of which would be tyranny or anarchy ; yet impartiality will say, that the king was left no alternative, and that the balance of guilt was rather on the side of the parliament. Certainly, neither party is entitled to our unqualified approbation. But, in truth, the Civil War was inevitable ; it was the almost necessary result of the state of opinion then prevalent ; it was the tem- pest which was to purify the political atmosphere. The royal standard was raised at Nottingham (Aug. 22). The first battle was fought at Edgehill. In the course of three years, numerous engagements occurred between the troops of the king and those of the parliament, now joined by the Scots. Lansdown Hill, Round way Down, Newbury, Nantwich, Marston Moor, and other places, witnessed the successes and reverses of either party. At length the king 1645. received a final and fatal overthrow at Naseby (June 14), and unable any longer to make head, lie fled for protection to the 1647. camp of the Scots at Newark. He was by them dishonorably surrendered to the parliament. After a confinement of some time, he was, by means of the sect of the Independents, who were all-powerful in the army, and were, therefore, now the 1649. prevailing party, brought to trial, condemned, and beheaded ; a sentence, even if morally just, which it undoubtedly was not, flagrantly illegal; a sentence that filled Europe with amazement; and that, even if passed with purer motives than it was, by most of his judges, was an act of useless and per- nicious folly. A republic was now established. Holland. After the truce of 1G09, the United Provinces were agi- tated by religious dissensions. The opinions of Calvin were maintained in all their rigor by the followers of Gomer : a CHAP. IV. TIMES OP THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 301 milder system was advocated by Arminius. Prince Maurice sided with the former ; the patriotic functionary Bameveldt, who saw through the ambitious designs of the prince, sup- ported the latter. The Gomerists prevailed ; the Arminian preachers were banished. Barneveldt, at the age of 72, was brought to the block, under the base and iniquitous charge of a. r>. " vexing the church of God." But the people saw the object 1619 of Maurice, and groans and murmurs, and the name of Bar- neveldt, attended him wherever he went. The Dutch were, during this period, usually allied with France against Spain. They extended their trade in the East and West Indies. In the former they founded Batavia, and laid the foundation of their future empire in those re- gions. Russia. That most extraordinary tyrant, Ivan IV. the Terrible, 1598. was succeeded by his only remaining son, Fedor, with whom ended the house of Ruric. The boyars chose Boris, the brother of the empress. This prince governed well ; but an impostor appeared, pretending to be Dmitri, the eldest son of Ivan. After the death of Boris, the pseudo-Dmitri gained the throne, and his reign was praiseworthy. Suspected of a fondness for Polish manners, he was murdered by his boyars. Several false Dmitries appeared. At length, the nobles assembled to choose a sovereign. Three days they and the people fasted, and called upon God, and they then appointed 1613. Michaila Romanov, son of the archbishop Philocetus, and grandson, by his mother, of the Tzar Ivan, a boy of but fifteen years. The new Tzar spent his reign in restoring Russia to its former state of power and order. His son Alexei extended the relations of the empire. He first sent an embassy to China, and made Tobolsk the staple of the Chinese trade. 1645. Turkey and Persia. The Turkish sultans Ahmed, Mustafa, Osman, Moorad IV., and Ibrahim were, all but the ill-fated Osman and Moorad, sunk in pleasure and sensual indulgence, and took little part in the affairs of Europe. Moorad conquered Bagdad, and restrained the power of the janizaries. Persia, under the rule of Abbas the Great, attained to con- siderable power. This truly great monarch was victorious 1582. in his wars against the Ottomans and the Usbegs ; and he es- tablished a degree of tranquillity throughout his dominions, to wliich Persia had long been a stranger. After his death the 1627. Persian power began to decline. 2 A 302 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. CHAP. V. TIMES OF LOUIS XIV. France.) to the Peace of the Pyrenees. A. D. Louis XIV. was a minor, his mother, Anne of Austria, re- 1G48. gent, and cardinal Mazarin minister. De Retz (afterwards cardinal), coadjutor archbishop of Paris, a man of unprincipled ambition, endeavored to excite the nobility and people against the minister. The parliament of Paris joined him. The queen was insulted whenever she appeared. Mazarin or- dered the president and some of the most factious members of the parliament to be arrested. The populace rose, and barri- 1577. cadoed the streets till the prisoners were released. Such was the commencement of the celebrated Fronde. The parliament of Paris proclaimed the cardinal a public enemy. The prince of Conti, the duke of Bouillon, and other nobles, joined them. Other parliaments followed their exam- ple. The great prince of Conde, at the request of the court, dispersed the undisciplined troops the parliament had raised. Matters were settled for a time ; but Conde, Conti, and others were afterwards, by the advice of de Retz, arrested at the council-table. Their partisans took arms : the duke of Or- leans, uncle to the king, set himself at their head. The car- dinal was obliged to fly to Cologne. By the intrigues of him and de Retz the duke of Bouillon and his brother Turenne were detached from the malcontents, and Mazarin returned, 1651. escorted by 6000 men. Conde threw himself on the protection of Spain, and en- tered Paris at the head of a body of Spanish troops. Turennfe led Louis within sight of his capital, and these two great gen- erals engaged each other in the suburb of St. Antoine. The combat was long ; but the heroism of the daughter of the duke of Orleans, who ordered the guns of the Bastille to fire on the king's troops, decided it in favor of Conde. 1653. At length the king dismissed Mazarin, and the nation re- 1655. turned to its allegiance. Mazarin was, however, afterwards recalled, the nobles were punished, and the parliament hum- bled. The war with Spain had still continued ; it was now prose- cuted with vigor. Turenne and Conde were opposed to each 1656. other. At Arras and Valenciennes the talents of the rivals were fully displayed. The balance was even between the two parties ; but Mazarin formed an alliance with Cromwell, CHAP. V. TIMES OF LOUIS XIV. 303 who now governed England, and the beam was turned. Dun- kirk was taken from Spain, and given to England. Ypres, Gravelines, and several other towns, surrendered to the arms a. d of France. Spain saw the necessity of peace. Mazarin and 1659 Don Louis de Haro, the Spanish minister, met in the Isle of Pheasants, in the Pyrenees, and settled the terms of a peace. Philip agreed to pardon the Catalans, and renounce all claim to Alsace; Louis to pardon Conde. The succession of Juliers was secured to the duke of Neuburg, and the infanta Maria Theresa was given in marriage to Louis. Mazarui died within less than a year after concluding the 1661 peace of the Pyrenees; and Louis, now 21 years of age, took the reins of government into his own hands. The parliament now governed England, and the strength the nation exhibited at this period is astonishing. Cromwell led an army into Ireland, and rapidly overran and conquered 1649 the whole kingdom. The Scots having proclaimed Charles IL, Cromwell invaded and reduced that kingdom also. Charles 1650. entered England with a Scottish army ; but the battle of Wor- cester put an end to his hopes. Cromwell now dissolved the parliament, and governed alone, under the title of Protector. 1653, Success attended all his measures of foreign policy. He beat the Dutch, and forced their ships to strike their flag to the English. He took Jamaica from the Spaniards. Mazarin acknowledged him. The Venetians and Swiss sought his friendship. The northern courts respected his power. But at home his government was rigorous in the extreme ; and the despotism of Charles I. had never ventured on the tyr- anny and injustice exercised by this chief of the republic. On the deatli of Cromwell, his son Richard succeeded him 1658. in the protectorate ; but he soon resigned his dignity. The eyes of the nation, wearied of change and turmoil, were turned to the ancient line of their princes. General Monk, who commanded in Scotland, marched to London ; and the parlia- ment, reassembled under his protection, restored Charles II. 1G60. to the throne of his ancestors. Wars till the Peace of Nimegucn. The Dutch had, on the death of William IL of Orange, 1576. abolished the dignity of stadtholder. The family of Orange being connected with the royal family of England, Charles II. wished to restore his nephew, William III., to the power of his ancestors, and he also hoped to make money by a war. The people of England were jealous of the commercial wealtli 304 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. A, D. of Holland. War was, therefore, declared under false pre- 1664. texts. Squadrons were sent out to Africa and America. De Witt, pensionary of Holland, who directed the republic, fore- seeing the designs of England, had formed an alliance with France. A large fleet was collected under admiral Opdam. 1665. It engaged the English fleet under the duke of York, but was totally defeated. Louis XIV. and the king of Denmark now came forward to aid the Dutch. The followmg year two most desperate sea-fights took place : the first lasted four days, and the fleets separated, leaving victory undecided. The next month tlie Dutch were defeated. Both parties growing weary of the war, negotiations were opened at Breda ; but de Witt refused to consent to a suspension of hos- tilities. A Dutch fleet sailed up the Thames, and burned sev- 1667. eral ships of war at Chatham ; and de Ruyter, the Dutch ad- miral, rode triumphant in the Channel. The treaty of Breda was now concluded, in which England receded from some of her demands. She retained New- York, which she had con- quered ; she ceded her settlement at Surinam. Louis XrV. now commenced his career of war, the struggle between absolute monarchy and constitutional liberty. On the death of Philip IV. of Spain, who left only one son, 1665. Charles, a sickly infant, Louis, who, though at his marriage with the infanta he had renounced all title to the succession of any part of the Spanish dominions, still secretly cherished the hope of obtaining them, had retracted the renunciation, and even laid claim, in right of his wife, to the immediate possession of the duchy of Brabant. This claim could only be decided by arms. At the head of 40,000 men Louis en- 1667. tered Flanders. Tournay, Douay, Lisle, and other towns sur- rendered. Another campaign, it was feared, would make him master of the Low Countries. All Europe was alarmed. A triple alliance was formed between England, Holland, and 16^. Sweden, to oblige Louis to adhere to, and Spain to accept of, the terms offered by the former at the end of the first cam- paign. France and Spain were equally displeased at this treaty, but agreed to treat; and a treaty was negotiated at Aix-la-Chapelle, by which Spain allowed Louis to retain the towns he had taken, and which he had had strongly fortified by the great Vauban. By a treaty with Portugal at this tune, Spain acknowledged the independence of that crown. Louis was bent on revenge on Holland. A secret treaty 1670. was made with the king of England, whom Louis engaged to assist in his project of establishing popery and despotism in that country, if he aided in subduing the United Provinces ; and Louis prepared to invade the States. As he could not CHAP. V. TIMES OF LOUIS XIV. 305 obtain a passage through the Spanish provinces, he, contrary to the faith of treaties, seized on the duchy of Lorrain. Charles, who was now become the pensioner of France, ob- tained under false pretexts a large grant from his parliament ; and a base and unsuccessful attempt was made on the Dutch Smyrna fleet, while the treaty subsisted with, the States. At a. d length both monarchs, under the most frivolous pretences, de- 1672 Glared war against the United Provinces. The combined fleets of France and England were more than 100 sail. A French army of 120,000 men appeared on the frontiers. The States put forth all their energies. The command of the army was intrusted to William III. of Orange, now 23 years of age. De Witt and de Ruyter attended to the navy. The latter put to sea with 90 sail of large, and 40 of small vessels, to take vengeance on the English for their perfidious attempt on the Smyrna fleet. Tlie English had been joined by the French ; and their combined force was 120 sail, when de Ruyter came in sight of them in Southwold Bay. A despe- rate engagement terminated in no decisive advantage to either side. Louis divided his army into three bodies, under Turenne, Conde and Chamilli, and Luxemburg: the bishop of Miinster and the elector of Cologne were his allies. Several towns surrenderotl. He passed the Rhine. Nimeguen and Utrecht opened their gates. All the provinces but Holland and Zea- land submitted. Holland opened its sluices, and inundated the country ; but the councils of the state were distracted by the Orange and republican parties. Offers were made to surrender Maestricht and all the frontier towns beyond the limits of the seven provinces, and to pay the expenses of the war. They were haughtily rejected. The prince of Orange was declared stadtholder, and in a moment of popular frenzy the great and good de Witt and his brother were torn, to pieces. It was resolved never to submit : ships were even prepared to carry these modern Phoca^ans to the East Indies, if unable to retain their country and liberty. The combined fleets, with an army on board, approached 1G73 the coast of Holland. In a manner almost miraculous they were carried out to sea, and afterwards prevented landing their forces by violent storms. Those who regarded this as the interference of providence cannot justly be accused of su- perstition. Meanwhile, Louis had returned to Versailles. The emperor and the elector of Brandenburg had shown a dispo- sition to assist the States. The king of Spain had sent them some forces, and the aspect of their affairs was brightening. The Dutch fleet, under van Tromp and de Ruyter, engaged 2 A2 306 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III, the combined French and English fleets under prince Rupert, in three actions, off the coast of Holland. They were, as usual, long and obstinately fought, and, as usual, undecisive. The French took JVIaestricht. The prince of Orange re- took Naerden. The imperialists under Montecuculi having vainly attempted the passage of the Rhine, laid siege to Bonn. The prince of Orange joined them. Bonn surrendered. The greater part of the electorate of Cologne was conquered ; and the communication being thus cut off between France and the United Provinces, Louis was obliged to recall his forces and abandon his conquests. A congress held at Cologne could settle nothing. The house of Austria was terrified at the projects of Louis; the emperor and the king of Spain signed a treaty with the Dutch, and Spain declared war. A. D. Charles, unable to get supplies from his parliament, made 1674. peace with Holland. Louis also was desirous of peace ; but the allies were eager for war. Charles in vain tried to me- diate. In the next campaign Louis exerted great energy. At the head of one of his armies he conquered Franche- Comte. A furious but indecisive battle was fought at Seneffe in Brabant, between Turenne and the prince of Or- ange. The prince took Grave, the last town the French held in the United Provinces. Turenne was successful on the side of Germany : he overran the Palatinate ; but his laurels were tarnished by the horrible cruelties and excesses com- mitted by his troops. 1675. Louis again vainly sought peace. In the next campaign nothing of importance took place in Flanders. In Germany Turenne was killed by a cannon-ball, and the French army forced to recross the Rhine. 1676. The next year the French were successful in Flanders, taking Conde and Bouchain. The imperialists took Philips- burg. The French fleet defeated the combined Dutch and Spanish fleets in the Mediterranean, and rode triumphant in that sea. 1677. The Dutch were now as anxious for peace as Louis ; but the prince of Orange wishing to continue the war, another ) campaign was opened. Louis took Valenciennes, Cambray, and St. Omer, and defeated the prince at Mount Cassal, when he attempted the relief of this last town. The French arms under Crequi and other generals were successful on the Rhine. Spain was torn by factions. A congress had been sitting all this while at Nimeguen, and a conditional treaty was entered into between France and the Dutch. The prince of Orange married in this year the daughter of the duke of York. CHAP. V. TIMES OP LOUIS XIV. 307 In the following year, Louis took Ghent and Ypres. The a. d Dutch were terrified, and signed a separate peace at Nime- ^678. guen. The allies clamored : the prince of Orange sought to break it by an attack on a French army ; but all were finally obliged to accede to it. By this treaty Louis retained Franche- Comte and Cambray, Tourney, Valenciennes, and several other towns in the Low Countries, and his power was now by far the most formidable in Europe. England, to the Revolution. The object of Charles IL was to establish absolute power and popery ; and the people, recovering from their delirium of loyalty, gradually became jealous and suspicious of him. Episcopacy having been restored, an iniquitous attempt was 1668. made to force it on Scotland. The detestable barbarity of the government was opposed by the fierce bigotry and fanati- cism of the people, and horrible cruelties were exercised to subdue them. The awakened fears and bigotry of the nation caused a Popish Plot to be got up in England, and several 1678. innocent Catholics were judicially murdered. The jealousy of the commons against the designs of the court was ever alive, and it drove them into some measures not compatible with justice and policy. It was attempted to exclude the duke of York, a known papist, from the crown, and the Test Act was passed. But the court, by taking advantage of circumstances, particularly of the Ryehouse Plot, and secretly supplied with money by Louis, advanced rapidly in the career of despotism, or rather approached nearer the precipice over which it was "to be whirled. Russel and Sidney were publicly executed ; 1683. passive obedience was preached ; justice was perverted. In this state of affairs the king died. He expired in the 1685. faith of the church of Rome, which he had long secretly pro- fessed. It was indeed, morally speaking, a matter of little •importance what the religious sentiments were of such a heartless, selfish profligate. It is an instance of the effect of popular manners and showy qualities on the minds of the vulgar, that this prince, the mean pensioner of France, the conspirer against the religion and liberties of his people, every one of whose acts tended to disgrace the nation, was, like Edward IV. and Henry VIII., instead of being detested, rather a favorite with the country at large. James II., in his fanatic zeal for popery, would hearken to no remonstrance of prudence. The duke of Monmouth, a natural son of the late king, took up arms in the west of England ; but was defeated, and he and numbers of his ad- herents executed by order of the relentless tyrant. The king 308 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. proceeded in his design of changing the religion of the coun- try, and attempted to place Papists in the church and univer- sities. Having ordered his declaration of indulgence to be read in the pulpit, the primate and six bishops petitioned against it. They were committed to the Tower, tried, and acquitted. The joy of the people at this event was no warn- ing to the king. The Whigs and Tories (the parties into which the nation was now divided) coalesced on the birth of a young prince, and invited over the prince of Orange to de- liver the nation. Tiie prince embarked with a large force. A. D. The troops of James deserted him. He and his queen and 1688. son fled to France. The throne was declared vacant, and the prince and princess of Orange proclaimed king and queen of England. The Bill of Rights, and, at a subsequent period, the Act of Settlement, were passed for the security of the nation. Such was the revolution of 1688, justly called Glorious ; the noblest instance history presents of the salutary and ir- resistible power of public opinion, directed by wisdom, and aiming at just and worthy ends. It is an event to which Eng- land, as long as her name and her language exist, must look back with pride and gratitude; it stands a noble monument of bloodless resistance, amidst the scenes of cruelty, slaugh- ter, and oppression which deform tlie domains of history. Be- fore its radiance, absolute power, passive obedience, and their kindred doctrines, fled like spectres of the night, to conceal themselves from human view. Wars to the Peace of Ryswick. After the peace of Nimeguen, Louis proceeded to act in the most arbitrary and insolent manner. He treacherously made himself master of Strasburg, and demanded Alost from the 1683. Spaniards. The Turks had at this time invaded Hungary, and occupied the imperial arms. Joined by the Hungarian malcon- tents, who had invited them, the Turkish army advanced towards Vienna. The vizier laid siege to that city ; but the German princes collected their forces, and, under the command of 1684.; John Sobicski, king of Poland, came to its relief The Turks ' were seized with a panic, and fled ; and they were finally driven out of Hungary. Louis, who had suspended his ope- rations during the siege of Vienna, now reduced Luxemburg, Courtray, and Dixmund. The emperor and Spain were forced to conclude a truce with him. He was now at the height of his power : he had a most extensive marine ; had chastised the pirate states of Africa, trampled on the power and inde- pendence of Genoa, and insulted the dignity of the pope. In CHAP.V. TIMES OF LOUIS XIV. 309 the ignorance of his bigotry, he revoked the edict of Nantz, a, d. treated his Protestant subjects with all the injustice and cru- 1685. elty that blind fanaticism could dictate, and thereby lost to France thousands of industrious citizens, who augmented the wealth and the armies of his enemies. A league was formed at Augsburg, to restrain the en- 1687. croachments of France. Spain and Holland joined it, as also did Denmark, Sweden, and Savoy, and, finally, England, now governed by William. The emperor Leopold was at the head of the confederacy. Louis assembled two large armies in 168a Flanders ; a third was opposed to the Spaniards in Catalonia ; another entered and ravaged the palatinate in a most barbar- ous and fiendish manner, a conduct almost peculiar to the French among civilized nations. But this detestable policy did not avail LkduIs : his troops were unsuccessful on all sides ; and he lost Mentz and Bonn. In the next campaign he was 1690. more fortunate : the mareschal de Catinat reduced all Savoy ; Luxemburg and Boufflers defeated the allies at Fleurus, and Catalonia was thrown into confusion. The Turks were suc- cessful in Hungary. The French fleet defeated the com- bined Dutch and English off Beachy-head. The following 1691. year, though Louis took Mons, he and his allies the Turks, made little progress. Louis, the ensuing spring, took Na- mur ; and the king of England made an unsuccessful attack on the French army at Steenkirk ; Catinat was driven back, 1692. and the duke of Savoy ravaged Dauphine. Waradin was taken from the Turks. The French fleet was defeated off* La Hogue. Next year, Luxemburg defeated, at Landen, the 1693. allies, commanded by the king of England ; and Catinat, those under the duke of Savoy, at the river Cisola. A French squadron dispersed and captured several ships of the Smyrna fleet. Meanwhile, France was internally suffering the effects of war. Agriculture and commerce languished ; and, in the next campaign, nothing of importance was done. In the cam- paign of 1695, William recovered Namur. In the following, 1696. no signal event occurred. All parties were now tired of war. A eongrGOUIS XIV. 315 In this year died Louis XIV., the disturber of Europe for nearly half a century. His grandson and successor being a minor, the duke of Orleans was appointed regent. North of Europe — Peter the Great — Charles XII. The people of Denmark, to escape the tyranny of the no- a. d. bles, solemnly surrendered their liberties to Frederick III., in 1670 1661. His successor, Christian V., made war on Charles XI. of Sweden, whose father, Charles X., had been called to the throne, on the abdication of Christina, daughter of Gusta- vus Adolphus. Charles XIL, a minor, succeeded his father, 1697. Charles XI. Alexei of Russia was followed by his son Theodore, who, dying early, appointed his half-brother Peter to succeed ; but 1682. his sister Sophia, aided by the Strelitzes, attempted to secure the power for herself Peter being but ten years of age, she made his imbecile brother Ivan tsar, and associated Peter with him. At the age of seventeen Peter succeeded in sub- verting the power of Sophia, and obtained the full royal dig- nity and influence. He defeated the Turks at Azoph, which 1696. opened to him the Black Sea. He formed vast plans for the improvement of his empire, and he spent a year in Holland and England, making himself acquainted with the useful arts. Eager to distinguish himself in war, he joined the kings of 1701. Poland and Denmark against the young king of Sweden. Charles, though a youth, showed himself a hero. He made an alliance with Holland and England, landed in Denmark, laid siege to Copenhagen, and forced the king to a peace. The Russians had, meantime, besieged Narva with 80,000 men. Charles hasted thither with 10,000, forced their in- trenchments, killed 18,000, and took 30,000 prisoners. Next year he defeated the Poles and Saxons on the Duna, and 1702. overran Livonia, Courland, and Lithuania. Augustus elector of Saxony was king of Poland : his new subjects were dissatisfied with him. Charles formed the de- sign of dethroning him by their means. He defeated him at Clissau, between Warsaw and Cracow, and this last city sur- rendered. Augustus engaged him again at Pultausk, and was again defeated. He fled to Thorn. The throne was 1703. pronounced vacant by the diet, in which the intrigues of Charles prevailed, and Stanislaus Leczinzky was chosen king. 1704. Peter, having retaken Narva, sent 60,000 men into Poland: a Saxon army entered it under general Schalemburg; but Charles soon drove the Russians out of the country, and his general Renschild defeated Schalemburg at Frauenstadt with 1706. great slaughter. The king of Sweden entered and overran 316 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART III. A. D. Saxony, and forced Augustus to recognize Stanislaus. Having 1707. made the emperor comply with his demands, Charles re- turned to Poland, with 40,000 men. He attempted, though it was winter, to march to Moscow ; but the Tsar had de- stroyed the roads. Urged by Mazeppa, chief of the Cossacks, who offered to join him with 30,000 men, and supply him 1708. with provisions, he entered the Ukraine. Here he encoun- tered nothing but disappointment. Mazeppa's plans had been discovered ; no supplies were provided : general Lewenhaupt, whom he had ordered to join him with 15,000 men from Livo- nia, arrived with his army reduced to 4000 men. Though urged by his ministers to retreat, or to winter in the Ukraine, he madly resolved to proceed. He laid siege to Pultowa, a strong town. His army was now reduced to less than 30,000 men ; the Tzar, at the head of 70,000, approached to its relief. Charles, leaving 7000 to conduct the siege, advanced to give 1709. him battle. (July 8). The result of the conflict was, that Charles, with 300 men, sought a refuge with the Turks at Bender. The entire Swedish army were killed or taken. Augustus recovered Poland; and, but for the emperor and the maritime powers, Sweden would have been dismem- bered. After an abode of nearly five years in Turkey, Charles re- turned to his own dominions, and conducted the war against the Danes and Saxons. He was at length killed before the 1718. fortress of Fredericshall, in Norway. His sister Ulrica was crowned queen. Peter, justly styled the Great, having given his country a rank among European powders, introduced into her civilization and the arts, and founded a capital in the north of his domin- ions, took the title of emperor. But he never was able to subdue the native ferocity of his own temper, and he put to death his son Alexis for no just cause. He left his crown to 1725. his wife, the famous Catherine I. England. The chief domestic events in Great Britain were the union with Scotland, accomplished in 1706, and the settlement of 1701. the crown on Sophia, duchess dowager of Hanover, and her heirs, being Protestants. This princess was daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I., who was married to the un- fortunate elector palatine. CHAP. VI. PERIOD OF COMPARATIVE REPOSE. 317 CHAP. VI. PERIOD OF COMPARATIVE REPOSE. England. On the death of queen Anne, George elector of Hanover a. d was, by virtue of the act of settlement, proclainied king-. The 1714. power of the state was now committed to the Whigs, and the late Tory ministers, who had been desirous of securing the succession of the son of James II., now called the Pretender, were impeached of high treason. Louis XIV. had refused to take any share in the projects of the Pretender, but, on his death, the regent of France secretly encouraged him. His partisans rose in arms in the Highlands of Scotland and the 1715. west of England. The English rebels were forced to surren- der at Preston ; and the battle of Sherill-Muir, though not de- cisive, crushed the hopes of the northern rebels. The Pre- tender himself landed in Scotland, but, finding his affairs des- perate, retired. In this reign was passed the act for making parliaments septennial instead of triennial, which they had previously 1727. been. George II. succeeded his father. The Quadruple Alliance. Philip V. had, after the death of his first queen, married 1714. Elizabeth Farnese, presumptive heiress of Parma, Placentia, and Tuscany. She was a woman of spirit, and governed that weak monarch ; she was herself directed by Alberoni, a na- tive of Placentia. This bold statesman formed the project of recovering all the dominions ceded at the peace of Utrecht, especially those in Italy. He labored to put the finances of Spain on the best footing; he intrigued in every court; he persuaded Philip that his renunciation of the crown of France was invalid, and that he had even a right to the regency of that kmgdom. Alberoni encouraged the Scottish Jacobites, and inflamed the French malcontents, and a plot was formed for a rising in Poitou, and a seizure of the person of the regent. The exorbitant ambition of the court of Spain determined the regent to enter into an alliance with England, Holland, and the emperor, to maintain the treaty of Utrecht. This was called the Quadruple Alliance. One of its articles was, that the duke of Savoy should exchange Sicily with the emperor for Sardinia, of which he was to take the title of king ; and by another, Don Carlos, son of the young queen 2B2 m 818 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART III. of Spain, was to succeed to Parma, Placentia, and Tuscany, on the death of the present possessors without issue. A. D. This alliance made no change in the conduct of the court 1718. of Spain, who had already taken possession of Sardinia and a part of Sicily, and France and England declared war against her. An English fleet, under Sir George Byng, entered the Mediterranean, defeated the Spanish fleet near Sicily, and that island and Sardinia were recovered. The duke of Ber- wick reduced St. Sebastian and Fontarabia, and Philip wo obliged to dismiss Alberoni, and accede to the terms of th 1720. quadruple alliance. 1725. A private treaty was afterwards concluded between the emperor and the king of Spain at Vienna. This treaty gave umbrage to England, France, and Holland; and to counteract it, one was concluded, at Hanover between them and Prussia, 1726. Denmark, and Sweden. The emperor and the king of Spain remained quiet ; but tlie English fitted out three fleets, one of which, under admiral Hosier, was sent to the West Indies to block up the galleons at Porto Bollo ; but the attempt was a complete failure. The Spaniards, in return, laid seige to Gibraltar. By the mediation of France a treaty was made 1729. at Seville, by which it was agreed that all the stipulations of the quadruple alliance should be fulfilled. 1731. The treaty of Seville was confirmed by the emperor, and the Spanish troops took possession of Parma and Placentia. The contracting powers agreed to guaranty the Pragmatic Sanction, or law by which the emperor secured to his female heirs the succession of the Austrian dominions in case of his dying without male issue, and the peace of Europe was now restored. 1733. But, on the death of Augustus king of Poland, Stanislaus, who was recommended by the king of France, who had mar- ried his daughter, being a second time chosen king, the em- peror and the Russians made the Poles proceed to another election, and choose the elector of Saxony, son of Augustus. The king of Franco entered into an alliance with the kings of Spain and Sardinia, and war was commenced against tJie emperor in Germany and Italy. The French arms were suc- cessful in Germany. In two campaigns the Spaniards be- came masters of Naples and Sicily ; tlie troops of France and Savoy took Milan and other places, and gave the imperialists two complete defeats at Parma and at Guastella. The em- peror was now desirous of peace ; and as the pacific Floury directed the councils of France, a treaty was easily brought 1735. about. Stanislaus was to resign his claim to the crown of Poland for the duchy of Lorrain, the duke of Lorrain being CHAP. VI. PERIOD OF COMPARATIVE REPOSE. 319 secured by Louis an annual pension of 3,500,000 livrcs till the death of John Gaston, the last of the house of Medici, and in that event the duchy of Tuscany ; the emperor was to ac- knowledge Don Carlos as king of the two Sicilies, and to re- ceive the duchies of Parma and Placentia ; Novara and Tor- tona were to be given to the king of Sardinia; France was to give back her conquests in Germany, and to guaranty the a. n. Pragmatic Sanction. Peace was made at Vienna on these 1738. terms. Russia. Catherine reigned but two years after the death of Peter. She died in the 38th year of her age, and her son Peter became 1727. emperor. After a short reign of three years, Peter also died. The Dolgoruki family, as the male line of the house of Romanov 1730. expired in him, thouglit this a favorable occasion for gaining the love of the nation by limiting the imperial authority. Deputies were sent to offer the crown, on certain conditions, to Anne, the widow of the duke of Courland, and daughter of the Tsar Ivan, brother of Peter the Great. She accepted the conditions; but when she found herself fixed on the throne, she tore the contract, and ruled with absolute power. Having no children, Anne fixed on marrying the daughter of her sister Catherine, duchess of Mecklenburg, also named Anne, to some foreign prince, and settling the succession on the offspring of their marriage. The princess was, therefore, united to Anton Ulrich of Brunswick-Bevern, by whom she bare a son named Ivan, who succeeded the empress. 1740. Turkish wars. The Turks had, in 1669, taken Candia from the Venetians. By the peace of Carlowitz (1699), the Venetians obtained the Morea, and some places in Dalmatia. While Charles XII. was in Turkey, a war broke out between the Turks and Russians; but the Tsar, who had advanced to the Pruth, be- ing greatly outnumbered by the army of the vizier, was glad to conclude a treaty. 1711. Immediately after the peace of Utrecht, sultan Ahmed III. 1715. declared war against the Venetians, and overran the Morea. The emperor Charles VL, as guarantee of the peace of Carlowitz, declared war against the Turks, and prince Eu- gene gave the troops of the sultan a total defeat at Peter- vjraradin. He laid siege to Belgrade, defeated an army that 1717 came to its relief, and compelled it to surrender. A peace was made at Passarowitz, by w^hich the Turks 1718 320 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. TART III. surrendered Belgrade and the Bannat of Temiswar, but re- tained the Morea. i. D. Under the pretext of the incursions of the Nogai Tatars 1736. not being checked, the empress of Russia declared war against Turkey. A Russian army, under Miinnich, took pos- session of the Crimea. In the following campaign the town 1737. of Oczacoff was taken by storm. The emperor now joined the Russians, as he was bound to do by treaty ; but the im- perial arms met little success, and a peace was concluded, to which the Russian empress, though her forces had gained a great victory at Chotin, was obliged to accede. Belgrade, 1739. Sabatch, and the Austrian part of Servia, were ceded to Turkey ; Russia retained Azoph. Persia — Nadir Shah. The dynasty of the SufFavies had occupied the throne of Persia for 220 years. Their latter princes had been effemi- nate sensualists, and capricious tyrants. In the reign of 1722. Shah Hoossein, Mahmood, an Affghan prince, invaded Persia, defeated the troops of Hoossein, and forced him to abdicate in his favor. Tamasp, the son of Hoossein, struggled inef- 1725. fectually against the usurper. The Turks and the Russians invaded Persia. Mahmood dying, was succeeded by Ashraff, a valiant Affghan chief: but Tamasp was now supported by Nadir Kooli, who, from a low rank in one of the Turkish tribes in Khorassan, had, by his valor and talents, raised him- self to power and importance. The fortune of war was ad- 1~29. verse to the Afghan monarch ; he was defeated, and after- wards slain. Nadir was presented by Shah Tamasp with the four finest provinces of the empire. He turned his arms with success against the Turks ; but while he was absent in Khorassan, Tamasp marched against them, was defeated, and reduced to make an ignominious peace. Nadu-, inveighing against this national disgrace, dethroned the unhappy prince, and occu- 1732. pied his place. He then commenced operations anew against the Turkish forces, and defeated them. Offended at a breach of friendship by the emperor of India, Nadir invaded that country. One great victory, near Delhi, laid the power of 1738. the descendant of Timoor at his feet. Upwards of 30,000,000 sterling of booty, and the annexation of the country west of the Indus to his dominions, rewarded the victory of Nadir, who committed less crimes in so great a conquest than almost any Asiatic victor. He afterwards subdued the kings of Bok- hara and Khowaresm, and gained a final victory over the Turks in Armenia. For the last five years of his life, Nadir CHAP. Vrr. TIMES OF FllEnERIC 11. 321 exercised the most dreadful tyranny : he blinded his brave son, Riza Kooli, massacred his subjects by thousands, and a. d. was at length assassinated by his own officers. His nephew, 1747. Adil Shah, seized on the supreme power, and murdered all the family of Nadir but his grandson, Shah Rokh, who ruled Khorassan while Persia was struggled for by contending chiefs. CHAP. vn. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. The Silesian Wars. The emperor Charles VI. was succeeded in his hereditary 1740. dominions by his daughter Maria Theresa, who was in her twenty-fourth year, and married to Francis duke of Lorrain, now grand duke of Tuscany. Various princes laid claim to the whole or a part of her dominions ; but allegiance was readily sworn to her by all her subjects, and by her volunta- rily taking the oath of their ancient sovereigns, she com- pletely gained the affections of the Hungarians. The first power by which she was assailed was Prussia. 1741. Frederic William, the late king, had amassed a considerable treasure, and formed an army of 60,000 men. His son, Fred- eric II., was young, talented, and ambitious • 'he resolved to take advantage of tlie present state of the queen of Hungary, and he revived an antiquated claim to a part of Silesia. At the head of 30,000 men he overran a great part of that prov- ince, and took Brcslau, its capital. He offered to aid the queen with men and money to protect the rest of her domin- ions, and to assist in obtaining the imperial throne for her husband, if she would cede to him Lower Silesia. Maria re- fused, and sent an army against him : their forces met at Molwitz, near Neiss, and the superiority of the Prussian in- fantry won the day. France had guarantied the Pragmatic Sanction, and Fleury wished to observe it ; but the princes and the young nobility were eager for war, and represented that the time was come for humbling the house of Austria, and exalting that of Bour- bon, by diminishing the Austrian dominions, and raising to the imperial dignity the elector of Bavaria, the stipendiary of France. The moderation of Louis yielded to these brilliant pros- pects : treaties of spoliation and division were made Vt^ith the 322 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. elector of Bavaria and the kings of Prussia and Poland. The French forces were put in motion ; Louis appointed the elec- tor of Bavaria to be his lieutenant-general, with the marshals Belleisle and Broglio under him. The king of England, fear- ing for his German dominions, concluded a treaty of neutrality for Hanover. The elector of Bavaria, being joined by Broglio, surprised Passau, and entering Upper Austria, took Lintz and menaced Vienna. The queen fled to Hungary, and, with her infant son in her arms, called on the assem.bled nobles for protection. They swore to defend her cause till death.* These were not idle words ; crowds of warriors rushed to the field. To the astonishment of her enemies, 30,000 Hungarians marched to the relief of Vienna. The elector retired into Bohemia, where, joined by 15,000 Saxons, he took Prague, and having A. D. been crowned kmg of Bohemia, proceeded to Frankfort, where 1742. he was chosen emperor under the name of Charles VII. The English nation was eager for war; the pacific Sir Robert Walpole was obliged to retire from the helm of the state ; his successors resolved to assist the queen of Hungary; troops were sent to the Netherlands, and a subsidy voted to the queen. Meantime, the Austrians had recovered Lintz, and they entered Bavaria, and took Munich. Another army advanced against the king of Prussia, who had entered Mo- ravia, which was to be a part of his share of the spoil. He retired before it, abandoning Olmutz which he had taken. The Austrians now intended uniting all their forces against Broglio and Belleisle ; but the king of Prussia, having been reinforced, marched to their aid, and gave battle to prince Charles of I^orrain at Czaslau, where, after an obstinate con- flict, the prince was forced to retire with the loss of 4000 men. Immediately after this battle, the king of Prussia made at Breslau a separate treaty with the queen of Hungary, who ceded to him Silesia and Glatz, on condition of his neutrality. A treaty was at the same time concluded with the king of Poland. The court of France was filled with indignation at the conduct of the king of Prussia. Broglio and Belleisle retired under the walls of Prague, and offered to surrender all their conquests in Bohemia for permission to retire. The queen insisted on their surrendering as prisoners of war. They in- dignantly refused. Maillebois, who commanded on the Rhine, marched with 40,000 men to their relief. Being joined by 30,000 Bavarians and French, he entered Bohemia ; but, un- * Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa. CHAP. VII. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 323 able to join Broglio and Belleisle, he was obliged to retire to the Palatinate. The French were blockaded in Prague. Belleisle made a most gallant defence, and at last secretly left the city, and conducted his army in safety to Egra in the mid-winter, and through a country possessed by the enemy. The Spaniards had sent an army to seize the Italian do- minions of the house of Austria ; but by the active exertions of the English fleet, and of the king of Sardinia and the Austrian general Traun, they gained little advantage. The court of Versailles now made offers of peace on most equi- table terms ; but the queen, elated with success, rejected all pacific measures. The imperialists were defeated at Bran- nau ; the French were driven towards the Rhine; and the emperor was obliged to take refuge at Frankfort, where he lived in indigence and obscurity. The British and Hanoverian troops under the earl of Stair, and the Austrians under the duke of Arembnrg, marched from the Low Countries towards Germany. The French army under the duke of Noailles was posted near Frankfort. The king of England had arrived in the camp of the allies. Noa- illes had cut off* all their supplies. It was expected that they must surrender, or be cut to pieces in their retreat. The re- treat began: their route lay between a mountain and the Main, Noailles had taken possession of the village of Det- tingen in tlieir front. His dispositions were admirable ; but having repassed the river, his nephew, the duke of Gram- mont, advanced (June 26), into a small plain to engage the allies. Noailles saw, but could not remedy, this act of im- prudence : the impetuosity of the French was forced to yield to the steadiness of the allies, and they were driven over the Main with the loss of 5000 men. The victory was produc- tive of no important results. The haughty conduct of Maria Theresa began now to give great offence in the empire ; several princes entered into a private negotiation with Charles VII. ; the king of Prussia promised his aid on his usual terms — increase of territory. A a. d. family compact was entered into between France and Spain, 1744 and an invasion of England attempted in favor of the pre- tender. In Italy, the French and Spaniards were successful. A treaty was formed at Frankfort between the emperor, the king of Prussia, the elector palatine, and the landgraf of Hesse Cassel. The French arms were victorious in Flan- ders : the king of Prussia invaded Bohemia ; but he was driven out of it with the loss of 20,000 men, and all his bag- gage and artillery. The emperor had recovered his domin- 324 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. ions and capital ; but, on the retreat of the Prussians, he was A. D. again expecting to lose them, when death came to his relief. 1745. His son Alaximilian, being only seventeen years of age, con- cluded a treaty of peace with the queen of Hungary. She agreed to recognize the imperial dignity of his late father, and to put him in possession of all his hereditary dominions; and he renounced all claim to any part of the Austrian suc- cession, and promised to give his vote for the grand duke of Tuscany at the ensuing election of an emperor. France and Spain resolved to continue the war. Elizabeth Farnese, who still directed the councils of the latter, was de- termined to gain a sovereignty in Italy for her second son Philip, The republic of Genoa concluded an alliance with the house of Bourbon : the army of the confederates was more than double that opposed to it, and Milan, Pavia, and several other towns were taken. A large French army marched to the Main, to hold tlie queen of Hungary in check ; another of 76,000 men, under marshal Saxe, invested Tour- nay. The allied army of 50,000 men resolved to attempt its relief The king and dauphin were in the French camp, and Saxe posted his troops strongly behind the village of Fonte- noy. (April 30). The allies attacked : the action commenced at nine, and lasted till three. The efforts made by the British infantry were incredible ; but not being duly supported by the Dutch and Austrians, they were obliged to retire, after having lost 10,000 men. The victory of the French cost them nearly an equal loss. But Tournay, Ghent, Ostend, and several other towns, became their reward. The grand duke was meanwhile elected emperor, under the title of Francis I. The king of Prussia gained two bloody victories over the Austrian troops, and he entered Saxony and took Dresden. Peace was then concluded between him and the queen of Hungary, and the king of Poland. 1746. Brussels was taken by marshal Saxe, and all Flanders, Hainault, and Brabant reduced. Prince Charles of Lorrain was unable to check the progress of Saxe ; Namur surren- dered, and the indecisive battle of Roucoux ended the cam- paign. In Italy, the arms of France and her allies were less successful : an attack on the camp of prince Lichtenstein at St. Lazaro failed, with great loss. The king of Sardinia formed a junction with the Austrians ; the French and Span- iards were driven under the walls of Genoa, and forced to retire into France and Savoy ; and Genoa surrendered, and was treated in worse than the usual Austrian mode in Italy. The Austrians, under count Brown, 50,000 strong, invaded CHAP. VII. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 325 Provence, but were soon obliged to retire, and the Genoese rose and expelled them from their city. The French, under Lowendahl, invaded the United Prov- a. d. inces, and took several towns. The Dutch, become suspi- 1747 cious of their rulers, renewed, in the person of William Henry, prince of Orange, the dignity of stadtholder, which had been discontinued since the death of William III. New energy was infused into their councils. The allies, under the duke of Cumberland, gave battle to Saxe at Val, on his way to in- vest Maestricht; but, the British not being properly supported, the advantage remained with the French. Bergen-op-Zoom was besieged, and carried by assault by Lowendahl. Nice and Villafranca vt^ere meanwhile taken by Belleisle in Italy, and an army of Austrians and Piedmontese formed, but were forced to raise the siege of Genoa. The English were suc- cessful at sea. Louis became anxious for peace. A congress was opened at Aix-la-Chapelle. Saxe laid 1749, siege to Maestricht : while he was occupied in it, a cessation of arms was ordered, and peace was concluded at t/ie end of the year. Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla were ceded to Philip, with provision against their being united to the crown of Spain, or of the Two Sicilies. Silesia and Glatz were guarantied to the king of Prussia, whose selfish policy began the war, and who was the only real gainer by it. France and England, by all their waste of blood and treasure, gained — nothing. England. During these continental wars, England had enjoyed inter- nal tranquillity, till, in 1745, Charles Edward, son of the pre- tender, landed in the north of Scotland, and was joined by several of the Highland clans. There being no adequate force there to oppose them, they took possession of Dunkeld, Perth, Dundee, and Edinburgh. At Preston Pans they de- feated the royal troops. After some delay, they marched into England, took Carlisle, and advanced as far as Derby. But not finding themselves to be joined by the English Jacobites, they retreated homewards. Carlisle was retaken by the duke of Cumberland ; but Stirling fell into the hands of the rebels, and general Hawley, who was coming to its relief, was routed by them at Falkirk. On the advance of the duke of Cum- berland, the pretender retired northwards, followed by the royal army. The final and fatal battle to the hopes of the pretender was fought at Culloden (April 16). After long 1746. skulking in various disguises, and experiencing a fidelity and honor creditable to the national character, he made his escape 2C 326 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. to France. The barbarity exercised by the victors would dis- grace the best of causes. Perhaps, few greater instances of human folly could be shown than this blind attachment to an obstinate, tyrannical, and bigoted family. Russia. In the semi-barbarous court of Russia, revolution succeeded revolution, and ended in placing Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great and Catherine, on the throne. She nominated as A. D. her successor Charles Peter Ulrick, duke of Holstein, son of 1744. her sister Anna. She had him styled Grand Prince, and he espoused Sophia Augustus, princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, who took the name of Catherine Alexievna. This prince had had his choice of the crowns of Sweden and Russia. He unfor- tunately chose the latter. The Seven Years' War. Europe enjoyed but short repose after the peace of Aix- la-Chapelle. France and England still quarrelled about boundaries in America, and still carried on war in India. England, as war seemed inevitable, wished to make it solely a naval one ; and it was arranged to put Hanover under the protection of the king of Prussia. The court of France was displeased at this project; and the court of Vienna hoped, by means of this displeasure, to recover Silesia, and to free itself from the fears it entertained of the ambition of Frederic. The 1755. houses of Bourbon and Habsburg laid aside their jealousy, of two hundred and eighty years' standing, and concluded an alliance: they were joined by Sweden and Saxony. The empress of Russia, who was bound to aid the king of Prussia in protecting Hanover, declared against him. Spain, Portugal, the Italian powers, and the United Provinces remained neu- tral. Prussia and England stood alone. 1756. The island of Minorca was taken by the French ; and their arms were successful in India and Ame^-ica. The king of Prussia entered Saxony, and made himself master of Dresden: he invaded Bohemia, and routed the Austrians at Lowesitz ; the Saxon army surrendered at Ebenhert. 1757. The marshal d'Estrees passed the Rhine, with eighty thousand men, to invade Hanover. The duke of Cumber- land, with forty thousand Hanoverians and Hessians, attempt- ed its defence, but was driven across the Weser ; and the French became masters of the electorate. The Prussians entered Bohemia in four divisions : that commanded by the prince of Bevern obliged the Austrians to retire at Reichen- berg. This division, and that of marshal Schwerin, united CHAP. VII. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 327 with the one led by the king', engaged the Austrian array under prince Charles of Lorrain and count Brown, at Prague. The Prussians were victorious, and besieged the Austrians in that town ; but having been defeated at Colin, they raised the siege, and evacuated Bohemia. The combined German and French army had meantime advanced into Saxony : the king of Prussia hastened to Dresden, assembled an army, and at the village of Rosbach (Nov. 5) gave them battle, with but half their number of men. His victory was brilliant, his loss being but five hundred, while that of the enemy was nine thousand killed, wounded, and taken. The Austrians had de- feated the prince of Bevern, and taken Breslau. Frederic gave them battle, and defeated them at Lissa : Breslau was recovered. The Russians, who had entered the Prussian do- minions, were forced, by want of provisions, to return home : the Swedes were driven under the walls of Stralsund : the Hanoverians rose against the French ; but the English were unsuccessful in North America, and at sea. At the head of the Hanoverians, prince Ferdinand of a. d. Brunswick obliged the French to cross the Rhine, and de- 1758. feated them at Crevelt. The king of Prussia recovered Schweidnitz, and invested Olmutz ; but the approach of a large Russian force obliged him to raise the siege. At Zorn- dorf he defeated them with great slaughter. At Hochkirchen he was himself defeated by the Austrians : he afterwards forced them to retire into Bohemia. Marshal Daun was obliged to retire from before Dresden, and Frederic entered it in triumph. The English admirals Hawke and Anson restored the lus- tre of the British arms at sea. In America, the islands of Cape Breton and St. John's were taken by general Amherst ; the French settlements on the coast of Africa were reduced. In India, the advantage was on the side of the French. At the commencement of the next campaign, the Prussian 1759 arms were victorious on all sides. The French had made themselves masters of Frankfort on the Main. Prince Fer- dinand, with an inferior force, attacked the duke of Broglio at Bergen, in its vicinity, but was forced to retire with some loss. The French reduced Minden, Mtinster, and some other places. To save Hanover, the prince found it necessary to give them battle : the conflict took place (Aug. 8) at Minden : the French were defeated. The blame of the vic- tory not being complete was laid on lord George Sackville, the English commander. The Russians defeated the Prussian general Wedel in Sile- sia, Frederic attacked the combined Austrian and Russian 328 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. army, of eighty thousand men, at Cunersdorf ; and the hor- rible carnage of the day ended in the defeat of the Prussians : yet Frederic, almost immediately after, forced his enemies to act on the 'defensive. The French army in Westphalia was extremely numerous : a portion of it was defeated by prince Ferdinand at Warburg ; but the French remained masters of Hesse. The Austrians and Russians poured into the dominions and conquests of Frederic, and in his camp at Lignitz he was in danger of be- ing surrounded by three hostile armies. He advanced to meet, and defeated that of general Laudohn, and thus escaped ; but the Russians and Austrians entered Brandenburg, and pillaged Berlin. Frederic rushed into Saxony at the head of fifty thousand men, followed by Daun with seventy thou- sand men ; and at Torgau the Prussian monarch gained a hard-fought battle. The English took the island of Guadaloupe, in the West Indies : Crown Point and Ticonderoga were taken by gene- ral Amherst. Quebec, after the defeat of the French army by general Wolf, surrendered. The British arms were vic- torious in India, Admirals Boscawen and Hawke defeated the French fleets off Cape Lagos and Belleisle. A. D. George II. died ; but his successor resolved to continue the 1761. war. A family compact was concluded between the courts of Versailles and Madrid. Prince Ferdinand repelled an at- tack of the French armies at Kirche Denkern ; and Belleisle was taken by a British force. 1762. War was now mutually declared by the courts of London and Madrid. Portugal, refusing to join the alliance against England, was invaded by the Spaniards; but they were driven out of it by the British and native troops. Prince Ferdinand vras everywhere successful in Westphalia. The death of the empress of Russia relieved the king of Prussia from his apparently desperate situation. Peter III. was mild and pacific : he made a peace and alliance with the Prussian monarch. Frederic carried on the vv-ar with vigor against the Austrians ; but the dethronement and death of his Russian ally perplexed him, as he knew not what the policy of Catherine II. might be : she continued the peace, but recalled her troops. Frederic recovered Silesia. A ces- sation of arms was made for Saxony and Silesia. Frederic ravaged Bohemia and Franconia. The British fleets and troops took Martinique and the Havannah, in the West Indies, and Manilla, in the Philippine islands. Negotiations for peace had long been going on, and 1763. the definitive treaty was signed at Paris (Feb. lO); and CHAP. VII. TIMES OP FREDERIC 11. 329 about the same time another at Hubertsburg, between the em- press-queen anc '^^he king- of Prussia. England obtained all Canada, and the islands of St. John and Cape Breton, great part of Louisiana, her conquests on the Senegal, the island of Grenada : all her other conquests she restored. Prussia and Austria agreed to place themselves on the footing they were on at the commencement of hos- tilities. Thus ended the Seven Years' War — a war which had caused such an effusion of blood and treasure : it ended with- out being productive of any real advantage to any one of the parties. Suppression of the Jesuits. Europe now reposed from war. This period of tranquillity is marked by the suppression of the order of the Jesuits. This order was founded by a soldier, Ignatius Loyola, in the time of Charles V. Retaining his military ideas, Ignatius imposed on the members of his new order the strictest obe- dience ; but his rules were simple and innocent. His suc- cessors, Lainez and Aquaviva, formed it into an institution which might vie with any of ancient or modern times. It speedily developed its powers ; the Jesuits became directors of the consciences of the great, and teachers of the young ; they excelled in learning ; they were the most zealous of missionaries. Forming a body, whose soul was the general of the order at Rome, they were the chief stay of papal power, and on them rested the remaining faint hopes of regaining spiritual dominion. But with all its great qualities and high aspirations, the order was fated to meet with no final suc- cess ; the spirit of the age was against it ; its assumptions were too high, its moral system too lax, its intrigues and movements too dark and complicated. The marquis of Pombal, the Richelieu of Portugal, hated the order, which stood in his way : vile calumnies were forged against them, and they were expelled from Portugal. The example was followed by France, then by Spain, Na- ples, and finally by Austria. Their property was seized by the rapacious governments: Spain and Portugal, the most bigoted nations, were their most relentless persecutors. It was the expulsion of the Moriscoes on a minor scale. The unhappy fathers were forced on shipboard, and landed in the papal states. The good Clement XIII. remonstrated — he a.d. could do no more — in their favor: the excellent Clement 1773. XrV. yielded to the torrent, and suppressed the order. 2C2 330 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. First Partition of Roland. An event now occurred which throws into the shade all that we have previously seen of injustice and aggression. A. D. The empress Catherine II. the northern Clytemnestra, had 1762. ascended the throne of her deposed and murdered husband, and had piously restored to the clergy their beards, pictures, and revenues, of which he had deprived them. Augustus III. king of Poland dying, the diet assembled at Warsaw to choose a successor proved a stormy one : the pacific empress considerately sent a body of troops thither to preserve the peace; and Stanislaus Poniatovsky, the candidate whom she 1764. favored, was of course elected. He mounted the throne in tranquillity ; but that state did not long endure. Animosities broke out between the Catholic party and that of the dissi- dents, who demanded an equality of rights : the latter were supported by the empress of Russia and the king of Prussia. Catherine fomented the disorders ; her troops behaved with the greatest insolence ; a civil war, and a war against the Russian intruders, agitated the unhappy country. At length the time seemed to be arrived for tlie execution of a project, first conceived by the royal philosopher of Sans Souci, — the tranquillizing of Poland by its dismemberment. Religion ex- cited some qualms in the mind of Maria Theresa ; it was, however, forced to yield to the arguments of her enlightened son, Joseph. On the part of Catherine, no one looked for scruples. The plunderers would act v/ith some faint semblance of justice ; some ridiculous old claims were therefore trumped up against Poland, The king and people appealed to justice ; a weak appeal against Russian bayonets. All good men be- held with abhorrence the flagrant breach of divine and human laws, and the hypocrisy employed to veil it : the remaining powers of Europe were not in a condition to interfere. A third part of Poland was divided among the diademed rob- bers. A diet was called to sanction the dismemberment of their country ; three foreign armies were at hand to prevent tumult : money and promises were distributed, and a majority of six votes in the senate, of one in the assembly of nuncios, sanctioned this detestable iniquity.] The ravished provinces were, perhaps, better under their new owners; for Frederic and Catherine were both wise sovereigns, and Joseph thought himself an adept in legislative wisdom ; but eternal infamy will pursue their names, and the partition of Poland disgrace the eighteenth century of the Christian era. CHAP. VII. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 331 Turkish War, The affairs of Poland involved Russia in a war with Tur- key. Large armies on both sides advanced towards the Dan- a. d. ube. The war commenced with the ravage of the frontiers. 1769. In the spring the standard of the prophet Was displayed. The Russians were driven by the vizier beyond the Dneister. The able vizier was recalled ; his successor crossed the Dneister, and was defeated : Chotin and other fortresses were taken. A Russian fleet sailed round Europe, and appeared in the 1770. Grecian seas. The Turks had driven the Russians out of Moldavia and Wallachia ; but the vizier was defeated near the mouth of the Pruth. Bender was stormed, after a siege of two months, and experienced Russian barbarity. The Greeks of the Morea rose at the call of Russia ; the pasha of Bosnia entered it with 30,000 men ; at Modon the hopes of Greece were crushed. The Turkish fleet was defeated at Epidaurus, and again defeated at Chios, and burnt at Chesme. Syria and Egypt were in rebellion. The plague broke out at Yassy, and spread to Moscow, where 90,000 persons died of it. The Russians broke into and seized the Crimea. The jani- 1772. zaries rose, murdered their aga, and set fire to their camp. Ali, the Egyptian pasha, fell in battle against his brother-in- law Mohammed, and his head was sent to Constantinople. The Russians crossed the Danube : they were twice forced 1773 to raise the siege of Silistria, and they lost at Varna the greater part of their artillery. Hassan Pasha swore to the sultan to drive them over the Danube, and he performed his oath. Mustafa III. died, and appointed his brother Abd-ul-Hamed 1774. to succeed, instead of his young son Selim. As no largesses were distributed, the janizaries would serve no longer. " Peace is necessary," said the mufti to the sultan, " since thy people will fight no more." Catherine was also anxious to end the war, and peace was concluded at Kainargi. The free navigation of the Black Sea and some territory were ceded to Russia. American Revolutionary War. Northern America had been chiefly colonized by the Eng- lish; the settlements of the Dutch and French were acquired by conquest. All these colonies were in the enjoyment of liberal and popular constitutions; the country was highly fertile, population rapidly increased, the energy and the bold- ness of youth animated the people, and crowds of colonists 332 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART III. from Europe annually arrived on their shores. 'J 'he mother country being oppressed by debt, a plan was devised to make j^ j^ the colonies contribute to her relief, and a stamp-duty on va- 1765. rious articles v^^as imposed. The Americans remonstrated ; a 1766. change took place in the ministry, and the act was repealed. The spirit of oppression on the one hand, and of resistance on the other, still continued ; and when the parliament im- posed a duty on tea, the Americans refused to pay it, and at Boston tlie tea was flung into the sea. The British parlia- ment passed bills for shutting up the port of Boston, and al 1774. tering the constitution of Massachusetts. The colonists called a provincial congress, and addressed a manly petition to the king. It was not received. The king and parliament in their wisdom, or rather in their pride, determined on what are called strong 'measures, and a civil war began. 1775. In the contest between England and her American colonies, the first blood was shed at Lexington, in New-England. Eight hundred British grenadiers and light infantry were sent out from Boston, for the purpose of destroying some military stores collected at Concord. On receiving intelligence of this movement, the provincials of that neighborhood rose en masse. A small body of them, appearing at Lexington, were fired upon by the Britisfi, who then proceeded to Concord and destroyed the public stores; but they were here attacked with such spirit by the provincials, as to compel their imme- diate retreat to Boston, with the loss of sixty-five killed and two hundred and eight wounded and prisoners. From this day, (April 18th,) the British were formally besieged in Boston. On the 17th June, the provincials, having thrown up a re- doubt on Bunker's Hill, a position which commanded Boston, were attacked by 3000 British, under generals Howe and Pigot. The British were twice repulsed with heavy loss. On the third attack, being reinforced, and the Americans having exhausted their ammunition, the redoubt was carried with the loss of 1054 British, and 450 Americans. General Montgomery entered Canada with a small force, and fell in an unsuccessful attempt on Q,uebec. The first provincial congress had assembled at Concord, Massachusetts, in 1774. A second assembled at Philadelphia (May 1775), appointed John Hancock their president, and George Washington commander-in-chief of the provincial forces. He joined the army at Cambridge in July, and held the British under general Howe closely besieged in Boston till March, 1776, when the town was evacuated, and Washing- 1776. ton entered it in triumph. The British admiral Sir Peter Parker, with a heavy naval CHAP. VII. TIMES OF FREDERIC 11. 333 force, was defeated in an attempt on Charleston, the capital of South Carolina, by four hundred militia and soldiers of the line intrenched on Sullivan's Island, under colonel Moultrie. On the 4th of July, 1776, the congress declared the inde- pendence of the United States of America. New- York was occupied by the British, under general Howe, and the Americans were compelled to retreat from New-Jersey. The latter, however, was soon recovered by a. d. general Washington, in the decisive actions of Trenton and 1777 Princeton. General Washington, with an inferior force, hazarded an engagement with Sir W. Howe, near the river Brandywine, and was defeated with the loss of 1200 men. This was the first action in which the marquis de La Fayette was engaged. He was a young French nobleman, who had abandoned his brilliant prospects at the court of his sovereign, to embrace the cause of liberty. The English took Philadelphia, and defeated the republic- ans, who attacked them at Germantown ; but general Bur- goyne, who, having reduced Ticonderoga, was advancing to join general Howe, was attacked at Saratoga, by colonel Ar- nold: general Gates coming up with a considerable force, prepared to surround Burgoyne, who, after a fruitless attempt to force his way, was obliged to fall back on Saratoga, and there to capitulate. His troops, 5790 in number, v/ere to be sent to England, and not to serve again in North America during the war. The killed, wounded, and prisoners in the preceding part of the expedition, amounted to upwards of 4000 men. France had long been watchmg the progress of the con- 1778. test. This last event decided her, and an alliance was formed with the infant republic. The court of Spain soon after fol- lowed her example. An indecisive engagement took place between the British and French fleets off Ushant : Sir Henry Clinton took the chief command in America : he forthwith abandoned Philadelphia, and retired to New- York. An at- tempt on Rhode Island, by the American general Sullivan and the French admiral d'Estaine, proved a failure. Com- missioners were sent out from England to treat with the Americans ; but as the latter insisted on the recognition of their independence, nothing could be effected. Savannah, the capital of Georgia, having been taken by colonel Campbell with 2000 British troops, the whole prov- ince of Georgia seemed reunited to the British crown. An 1779. unsuccessful attempt was made to recover Savannah by gen** eral Lincoln, aided by a naval force under d'Estaine. 334 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. A. D. 1780. Charleston capitulated to general Clinton, and the province of South Carolina was forced into a temporary submission to the British. A provincial force, consisting principally of mi- litia, under general Gates, was defeated at Camden by the British under earl Cornwallis and lord Rawdon. In this cam- paign occurred the defection of Arnold, and the detection and execution of the British major Andre as a spy. Sir George Rodney defeated the Spanish fleet oif cape St. Vin- cent, and thrice engaged, though not with decided success, the French fleet under count de Guichen. The jealousy of the continental powers of Europe now showed itself, by the armed neutrality, which they all, under the guidance of the tsarina of Russia, now entered into to resist the right of search and blockade claimed by England. A correspondence between Holland and the United States relating to a loan and treaty being discovered, England de- clared war against the Dutch ; and the island of St. Eustatia, a rich magazine of wealth, was taken and plundered by a naval force under admiral Rodney. While his fleet was weak- ened by a detachment sent to England with the produce of the sales of confiscated property, the French were enabled to gain a superiority on the American coast, which led to the total ruin of the British army in America. 1781. The Spaniards laid siege to Gibraltar, which was gallantly defended ; but Minorca was forced to surrender. Indecisive sea-actions were fought between Sir Hyde Parker and the Dutch, and between Sir S. Hood and the count de Grasse. The island of Tobago surrendered to the French. The French admiral now resolved to assist the Americans with vigor. They had defeated colonel Tarleton at the Cow- pens, in Carolina, and, though not victorious in their attack on Cornwallis at Guilford, had caused him considerable loss. General Greene was defeated by lord Rawdon at Hobkirk ; but soon after attacked the British force under colonel Stew- art at Eutaw Springs, and overthrew them with a loss on their side of eleven hundred men, including prisoners and wounded. This action terminated the war in South Caro- lina. Earl Cornwallis having retreated from Carolina, took a sta- tion at Yorktown, on York river, in Virginia, and had fortified it and Gloucester on the opposite bank. The count de Grasse, with a French fleet of 28 sail, having entered the Chesa- peake, prevented admiral Greaves affording any relief to Cornwallis, and general Clinton failed to send any aid from €*few-York. A combined American and French army, under Washington and Rochambeau, besieged him, and after some CHAP. VII. TIMES OP FREDERIC II. 335 weeks Comwallis was compelled to capitulate. The troops, 7000 in number, were made prisoners of war ; the ships be- came prizes to the French. ^ j^ The war in America was now ended. The British ministry 1782. was changed. England saw the folly of protracting a useless and destructive contest. She acknowledged (Jan. 20) the 1783 independence of the United States. A new constitution of government was formed, and Washington was chosen presi- dent. Of the injustice of this war on the part of England, few now have any doubt ; its importance, as an example, has been felt in every subsequent struggle for liberty which the world has witnessed. India. The conquests of the Portuguese in the East were amaz- ingly rapid. At the time they fell under the yoke of Spain, |1580. they were all-powerful on the coasts of India, possessed the Moluccas, the coast of Ceylon, the isles of Sunda, and the trade of China and Japan. The Dutch used to purchase the products of the East at Lisbon, and distribute them over Eu- rope. Philip II. having prohibited all intercourse with them as rebels, they made their way to India, and formed a settle- ment in Java, and an East India company was established. While Portugal was united with Spain, they made constant 1595. war on her in the East, and in a few years they left her no- thing there but Goa. The English appeared in India a few years after the Dutch. 1600. They also had formed a company. Their first settlements were in Java, Banda, Amboyna, and Poleron. The Dutch were jealous of them, and the rival companies carried on war against each other. A treaty was concluded to arrange their 1623. differences ; but the Dutch, regardless of it, barbarously mas- sacred the English at Amboyna and other places, and ex- pelled them from the Spice Islands. The supineness of James I., and afterwards the civil wars of England, prevented the nation attending to the East. Cromwell had a British spirit; the company throve in his time : Charles II. betrayed and oppressed it. The great Colbert had formed a French East India com- 1664. pany; their chief settlement was at Pondicherry, on the Coromandel coast. Thus tlie three greatest maritime powers were established in India, and the wars of Europe were now to be extended to that distant region. During the war of the succession, the French had taken 1746. the English settlement of Madras. At the peace of Aix-la- 336 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. Chapelle it was restored. M. Dupleix, the governor of Pon- dicherry, formed a grand plan for gaining territory for the French India Company. Having a good body of troops under him, he, by their valor, and his own intrigues, managed to have the candidate he sided with appointed subahdar of the Decan, and to get the nabobship of the Carnatic for Chunda Sahib, for whose life he was himself appointed nabob of that province. Dupleix aimed at obtaining all the country be- tween Masulipatam, Goa, and Cape Comorin. Mohammed Ali, son of the late nabob of Arcot, implored the assistance A. j). of the English, who gave him some reinforcements, and sev- 1751. eral actions took place. In this war the famous Clive first appeared ; with a small force he took Arcot, and when Chunda Sahib besieged it with a large army, he defended it with amazing talent and courage, and repelled the assailants. Re- inforced by colonel Kirkpatrick, he pursued and defeated the enemy on the plains of Arni. The rajah of Tanjore, and other princes, joined the English : Chunda and the French were several times defeated. Mohammed was acknowledged nabob of Arcot ; the French lost the greater part of their ac- quisitions; and peace was about to be made, when a new war broke out in Europe. The three rival companies had early established factories in Bengal ; but the good policy of the Mogul government pre- 1696. vented their liaving any garrison or works of defence. On occasion of a rebellion of the rajahs west of the Hooglee, the factories augmented their soldiery and declared for the nabob, who gave them permission to put their settlements in a state of defence. The Dutch then fortified their factory at Hoog- lee, the French theirs at Chandernagore, and the English theirs of Fort William at Calcutta. The English obtained some advantages from the court of Delhi, and increased their wealth and power. Suraj-ud- 1756. Dowlah, the subahdar of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, offended at their abuse of their privileges, and by their protecting a nobleman who had fled from his vengeance, suddenly marched with 50,000 men against Calcutta. After an ineffectual re- sistance, the governor and all but 200 of the garrison of Fort William escaped on shipboard, Mr. Holwell, who now took the command, soon saw himself and his unhappy companions immured by the cruel subahdar in the Black Hole, where nearly the whole perished. The affairs of the English in Bengal seemed now entirely ruined. 1757. But the affairs of the company on the coast of Coromandel being now settled, admiral Watson took on board colonel Clive and some troops, and sailed for Calcutta. That town CHAP. VII. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 337 was recovered, Hooglee reduced, and the subahdar obliged to sue for peace. He agreed to restore every thing, and to allow the presidency to extend over thirty-eight neighboring villages. The English now turned their arms against the French, and besieged and took Chandernagore. Clive aimed at farther humbling the subahdar, who was backward in ful- filling the treaty. In artifice, dissimulation, and what else is dignified with the name of policy, he was a full match for an Asiatic : he secretly gained Jaffier, the commander of the troops of the province, and he persuaded the subahdar to dis- band the forces he had collected at Plassy. Clive advanced to take that important post ; but the subahdar had reassembled his army, and occupied it. His forces were 50,000 foot, and 18,000 horse ; those of Clive 1000 Europeans, and 2000 Se- poys; yet he ventured to give battle, and gained a victory. Jaffier was acknowledged by him subahdar. Suraj-ud-Dowlah was taken and put to death by order of the son of Jaffier ; and the latter agreed to pay his allies the sum of 2,750,000 pounds sterling, and to enlarge tlieir territory. The war was carried on between the French and English a. d. in the Carnatic. Count Lally, the French commander, being 1768. largely reinforced from home, reduced Cudalore and Fort St. David. Next year he failed in an attempt on Madras. The 1759. British now took the field, and reduced Masulipatam and Con- jeveram. Wandewash was reduced by colonel Coote, who defeated a strong army led by Lally to attempt its recovery. Surat was taken by an English force from Bombay ; and the Dutch were well castigated in Bengal for their designs against the English in that quarter. The English had deposed their ally Jaffier in Bengal (1760), and placed Cossim on the musnud. Their cupidity made them seize a pretext for making war on this prince : they de- prived him of the whole province of Bengal, and Jaffier was again declared subahdar. The Great Mogul and the nabob 1765. of Oude in vain supported Cossim : they were obliged to sue for peace. In the Mysore a war was carried on, mostly to the advantage of the English, against Hyder Ali. During the American war, the French lost all their set- tlements in India. The company carried on a vigorous war against Hyder Ali and the Mahrattas. Colonels Baillie and 1778 Fletcher were with their whole force taken or slain by Hyder and his son Tippoo; but Sir Eyre Coote defeated them in 1781. several engagements. After the death of his father, Tippoo continued the war. The English had now an extensive empire in India. Much is it to be deplored that in the acquisition and management 2D 338 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART III. of it, the rights of humanity and justice were so frequently- trampled upon. It is an important inquiry what has been or is to be the advantage or evil to India and Britain from their close connexion. Persia. A. D. When the dynasty of Nadir had been extinguished in Per- ^'^^^- sia, the sovereignty of tliat country was contended for by the different rival chiefs, whose claims were all successively forced to yield to the power and the merit of Kerreem Khan, a chief of the native Persian tribe of Zend. The reign of this excellent prince, who occupied the throne twenty-six years, is a delightful object of contemplation amid the scenes of barbarity characteristic of eastern despotism. Justice, clemency, moderation, goodness of heart, distinguished all his actions. He lived and died happily amidst a grateful and 1779. contented people. On the death of Kerreem Khan, his brothers and nephews contended for the vacant throne. After the usual series of 1789. atrocities attendant on such an event, the power remained in the hands of Lootf Ali Khan, a youth of astonishing military talent and courage ; but having behaved with ingratitude to the able and virtuous Hajee Ibrahim, governor of Sheeraz, to whom he was chiefly indebted for his throne, the latter, seeing that he had no security for his life but in depriving the king of the power to injure him, entered into a secret treaty with Aga Mohammed Khan, chief of the Kajirs, a Turkish tribe, settled in Mazenderan by Abbas the Great, who was now grown so powerful as openly to aspire to the empire. Lootf Ali Khan, after struggling for his crown with a heroism 1795. rarely paralleled, fell at length into the hands of his cruel rival, by whom he was put to death, with every refinement of barbarity. This unhappy prince was but twenty-five years old. Aga Mohammed, who had been castrated in his child- hood, was uncle to the present king of Persia; and by his 1796. vigor/and cruelty he left the kingdom to his successor in the state of obedience it has ever since maintained. CHAP. VIII. TIMES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. State of Europe. Literature now exerted a much more powerful influence over the public mind than it had done at any preceding period. A set of men, many of them of talents of the first order, ar- CHAP. VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 339 rotating to themselves the exclusive title of philosophers, and actuated at first, perhaps, by a zeal for truth, carried on an incessant warfare against all that they were pleased to de- signate as superstition and vulgar prejudice. But theirs was not that philosophy which, elevated above all low and grovel- ing passions, and irradiated by light from heaven, views with pity rather than contempt the aberrations of man, and seeks by mild and gentle methods to lead him into the way of truth. It was heartless, cold, and cheerless; its summum bonum was sensual indulgence or literary fame, and few of its pro- fessors displayed any real dignity of soul : its favorite weapon was ridicule ; it attacked not alone the absurdities of the popular faith, but it levelled its shafts at the sublimest truths of religion ; it shook the firmest bases of social order, and sought to rob man of all lofty hopes and aspirations. Every mode of composition, from the highest science and most seri- ous history down to the lightest tale, was made the vehicle of this philosophy, with which was often joined a sickly, affected sensibility, calculated to gain it admittance even into the female bosom. The consequence was, as might be ex- pected, a general laxity of principle. The chief seat of this philosophy was France, where a court, corrupt and profligate beyond, perhaps, any which Europe had yet witnessed, had utterly degraded the mmds of the upper classes of society. The efforts of the virtuous Louis XVI. to stem this torrent were unavailing : national vice was not to escape its merited chastisement. The middle orders were disgusted and galled by the privileges of the noblesse, and their excessive pride and insolence; the writings of the philosophers, and the scandalous lives of many of the clergy, had shaken their reverence for religion ; the abuses and oppression of arbitrary and extravagant government were keenly felt ; the glorious struggle of the English for liberty in the last century, and the dignity and prosperity consequent on it, awaked the aspirations of the better disposed; the achievement of American independence filled the minds of many enthusiasts with vague ideas of freedom and happi- ness beneath republican institutions ; and the lower orders in general looked forward to any change as a benefit. It was a time of innovation, turmoil, and violent change. The English colonies had thrown off* the bridle of the mother country, whom she curbed too straitly. The kingdom of Poland had been most nefariously dismembered. Gustavus III. of Sweden had overthrown the aristocracy, and made himself absolute. A contest arose in the United Provinces, a. d. between the party of the stia-dtholder and tliose who wished 1772. 340 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. to make the government of a more republican form, which drew the attention of all the principal powers : the respective ^. D. parties appealed to arms, and by Prussian aid the republicans 1787. were crushed. All these were but preludes to the storm which was soon to buM over Europe. 1787. The east of Europe was meantime precipitated into war. The Turkish sultan, apprehensive of the designs of the tsarina and the emperor Joseph, declared war against Russia. The Turks commenced by the bombardment of Kilburn, on the Dneiper ; but, while forming the trenches, they were at- tacked by Suvaroff, and nearly their whole force destroyed. Joseph now took part in the war, and opened it by a treach- erous attempt on Belgrade : he entered the Turkish domin- ions at the head of a considerable force ; but he reaped little 1788. military fame, and could only boast of the reduction of Choczim. The king of Sweden now entered into the war at the in- stigation of the king of Prussia and the Porte, and severe naval conflicts took place in the Baltic ; but several of Gus- tavus's officers refused obedience to him, and the Danes pre- pared to attack him on the side of Norway. A Russian flo- tilla, under the prince of Nassau Siegen, defeated Hassan, the capudan-pasha, off" Oczakofi*. In three other conflicts he was equally unfortunate. The siege of Oczakoff" was formed by prince Potemkin : the town was taken by assault, and the inhabitants butchered and pillaged by the soldiery. 1789. Abd-ul-hamed, dying suddenly, was succeeded by his nephew Selim III. ; but success did not revisit the Ottoman arms. On the plains of Rimnik they failed before the Austrians and Russians, and Belgrade surrendered to the Austrian general Laudohn. But disease and chagrin at the resistance offered to his innovations in the Netherlands, and the discontents in 1790. Hungary, termmated the existence of Joseph; and his brother Leopold, grand duke of Tuscany, who succeeded him, after some unsuccessful efforts, concluded an armistice with Selim. On the part of the Russians, Ismael, a strong town in Bes- sarabia, was taken by assault by Suvaroff", during the very middle of winter. The ferocious warriors massacred in this assault fifty thousand Turks : their own loss was, according to their veracious commander, four thousand three hundred ; according to others, fifteen thousand. In the Baltic, the Rus- sian fleet was completely defeated by that of the Swedes, commanded by Gustavus in person ; and preliminaries for a peace were soon afterwards agreed on. The war was carried on with vigor in Turkey : the Moslems were defeated at CHAP. VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 341 Maczin, and Bahada, and the tsarina at length agreed that a a. d. congress should be held at Yassy to arrange the terms of a 1791. peace, which was concluded in the following year. An attempt made by the patriotic portion of the Polish nation to regain their independence was crushed by the arms of the Russian despot, and the nation fell back into its former state of degradation. Frederic 11. of Prussia had died in 1786. Catherine sur- vived him ten years, and lived to witness the horrors of the French revolution. The French Revolution. The disordered state of the French finances induced the 1787. court, displeased with the parliament of Paris, to assemble the Notables; that is, persons selected from the privileged orders. This measure produced no advantage, and all classes called for a meeting of the states-general. This national council was at length convoked, and met at Versailles ; but 1789. the commons were thought to assume so much power, and to encroach so on the other orders, that the king dismissed Necker, his minister of finance, and ordered some regiments to advance towards tlie capital. The populace, excited by the democrats, committed several outrages, and they took and demolished the fortress named the Bastile. The privi- leges of the nobility and clergy were soon abolished. The king was obliged to recall Necker, and to transfer the assem- bly to Paris, where the mob was at the devotion of the demo- crats. The property of the church was now transferred to the nation; the kingdom was divided into departments; change followed change without intermission ; the king, for peace sake, assented to every thing; but commotion and bloodshed prevailed in different parts of the kingdom. The power of the democrats still increased, and the famous 1790. Jacobin club was formed by them. Several of the nobility and of the royal family quitted France. A project being formed for the emperor and other powers to assist the king in the recovery of his authority, of which he was now nearly 1791. deprived, he and the royal family endeavored to escape out of France ; but they were stopped at Varennes, and forced to return to Paris. The Jacobin and Cordelier factions loudly demanded his death, and a violent riot took place in the Champ de Mars. A constitutional code was at this time completed. Brissot, the leader of the Jacobins, procured a declaration 1792. of war against Austria, and La Fayette invaded the Nether- lands, but he was unsuccessful. A Prussian army, under 2D2 342 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART III. the duke of Brunswick, approached the French frontier; but the violent and silly manifesto he put forth served only to in- jure the cause it advocated. The Jacobins, urged on by their atrocious leaders, excited the populace ; the king and royal family were put into confinement. Numbers of the nobility and others were murdered to prevent their joining the Prus- sians. Royalty was abolished. The Jacobins split into the Girondists, headed by Brissot and Roland, and the Jacobins, led by Robespierre, Danton, and Marat, three daring men whose bosoms knew not remorse. Disease and want of sup- plies forcing the Prussians and Austrians, who had nearly reached Paris, to retire, Dumouriez invaded the Netherlands, and, as the people were in his favor, speedily reduced them. Savoy was conquered, Germany invaded. The measure of ^^ u^ Jacobin guilt was now nearly filled up : they brought their 1793. amiable and unhappy king to trial, and judicially murdered him. This iniquitous act was followed by a declaration of war against the kings of England and Spain and the stadt- holder of Holland. Dumouriez invaded Holland, and reduced several towns ; but he was defeated by the Austrians at Neer-Winden. The French arms were unfortunate also in Germany. Dumouriez formed a plan for restoring a king and constitutional govern- ment to France ; but it being detected, he was forced to take refuge with the Austrians. An English army, under the duke of York, was now in Holland. Dampierre, Dumou- riez's successor, was defeated and slain. The French lost almost all their conquests; their raw levies were cut to pieces ; yet, under Hoche, they were again successful. The English failed in an attack on Dunkirk : the Austrians were driven within their own boundaries. The French and Spaniards fought with various success at the Pyrenees. A savage civil war now broke out in the island of St. Domingo, At home, the Brissotine party was overthrown, and all the heads of it executed : the infamous duke of Orleans also suffered the fate he had so long merited. The monsters now too shed the blood of the unhappy queen. A revolt having broken out in the south of France, it was quenched in blood ; and the city of Lyons had a bitter expe- rience of republican humanity. A war was carried on in La Vendee by the friends of royalty and religion ; but for- tune favored the enemies of both. The English, aided by Spain and Naples, had taken possession of Toulon ; they were forced, however, to abandon it. 1794. The war in the Netherlands was carried on with great vigor : the French troops were commanded by Pichegru and CHAP. VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 343 Jourdan. After a variety of fortune, and the battle of Fleurus, gained by the latter, the tide ran in favor of the French, and the whole of the Netherlands were subdued. In Germany, Jourdan defeated Clairfait, and reduced Juliers and Cologne. ■ In France, the guillotine was pouring out blood in all quar- ters at the command of Robespierre and his ruthless asso- ciates ; but at last Justice awoke a little from her slumber, and the tyrant himself met the fate he more than deserved. Danton had already experienced it, and Marat had fallen by the hand of Charlotte Corde. Howe on the 1st of June defeated the French fleet. The Corsicans placed themselves under the king of England. But the French were victorious at the Pyrenees, and in Holland they met with uniform success. The middle ranks of the Dutch v/ere in their favor ; a revolution took place, and the a. d. people of the United Provinces, under the name of allies, be- 1795. came the subjects of France. Europe, to the peace of Campo Formio. While exclaiming against the horrors of the French revo- 1792. lution, the royal spoilers fell again on unhappy Poland, and tore away some more of her limbs. The Poles, led by the brave Kosciuszko, took arms, and made a brave resistance ; but the defeat at Matchewitz broke their hopes, which finally expired when Warsaw was taken, and its garrison massacred by the ferocious SuvarofF. A new division of plunder now 1795. took place. How rarely are uncontrolled power and a due sense of justice to be found in union ! Glutted with spoil, and now desirous of repose, the king of Prussia made a peace with France. In that country there liad been a reaction, and the Jacobins were murdered and :guillotined in their turn. The king of Spain was forced to seek for peace. In Germany there was some severe fighting t)etween Jourdan and Clairfait. The Vendeans rose again, hut were speedily crushed. Lord Bridport and admiral Corn- wallis were successful against the French fleets. Most of the foreign possessions of the French and Dutch were re- duced by the English. An insurrection broke out in Paris, but it was easily quelled. The constitution was now re- modelled. Numerous conflicts took place in Germany; but the 1796. French, under Jourdan and Moreau, were unable to withstand the Austrians, commanded by the archduke Charles. The retreat of Moreau to the Rhine, ranks as one of the most mas- terly in history. Brilliant success attended the arms of the republic in Italy, 344 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART III. under the young Bonaparte. The victories of Monte Notte and Monte Lezino compelled the king of Sardinia to sue for peace, with loss of territory. The forcing-, with excessive loss, of the bridge of Lodi, opened Lombardy to the French. The pope, the princes of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma, were obliged to purchase safety by money, books, pictures, and statues. Mantua was besieged : the Austrians, who had been reinforced, approaching to its relief, were defeated at Lonato and Castiglione, and Mantua was reinvested. The Trans and Cis-Padane republics were at this time erected. The English were deprived of Corsica. Spain was now at length induced to join in the war against England, and a mutiny which broke out in the navy of the latter power seemed to threaten her existence. A. D. Every attempt was made to relieve Mantua, and several ^'^^'^- actions were fought. At Rivoli the Austrians, under Alvinzi, struggled in vain with the utmost heroism, and Mantua was at length obliged to capitulate. The territories of the pope were next overrun, and he was forced to surrender the greater part of them, and pay large sums of money. Bona- parte then led his army northwards, resolved to invade the hereditary dominions of the emperor. He overran Carinthia and part of Styria, Carniola, and Istria ; but by the desire of the directory, who now governed France, he made proposals of peace, and articles were signed at Leoben. Venice now was to be favored with a new constitution by the French empirics. The vile oligarchy who ruled it were paralyzed with terror : while they negotiated, French troops seized all their towns, and Venice, after an independent ex- istence of more than 1000 years, submitted, without striking a blow, to be blotted out of the list of nations ; and who will deplore the fate of an oligarchy of whom history records hardly a single noble or generous action] Genoa, a name dearer to liberty, underwent a similar fate, and became the Ligurian republic. Peace was at length concluded at Campo Formio. Austria got Venice and the greater part of her territory; but she lost the Netherlands and her Italian dominions. The Ionian isl- ands fell to France.' Affairs to the assumption of the chief power by Bonaparte. 1798. Rome was pillaged, and a republic erected there. The machinations of the French produced a revolution in Switzer- land, and that republic was united to France. Some of the cantons refused submission : tliey fought with the valor of patriots, but they were constrained to yield to superior power. CHAP. VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 345 Malta was now treacherously assailed and taken by Bona- parte, on his way to Egypt, whither, with thei^sual regard to good faith and justice, the directory had sent him. He landed near Alexandria, stormed that town, and massacred the inhabitants. The Mamelukes were routed at Embaba, and Cairo submitted. Meanwhile the English admiral Nel- son destroyed (Aug. 1) the French fleet at Aboukir. A rebellion broke out in Ireland ; but after a short strug- gle, the insurgents, not being aided by France, were forced to submit. The tsar now took share in the war, and the em- peror of Austria and the king of Naples also prepared to en- gage in it. The Neapolitan troops invaded the Roman territory, but a. d were driven back. The French advanced ; the king fled to I'^'^S- Palermo ; Capua surrendered. The peasantry and populace of Naples fought, but in vain, in defence of their country. Naples was entered. The French were anxious to obtain possession of the Grison country. At Ostrach and Stockach, Jourdan was defeated by the archduke Charles. A Russian army under Suvaroff entered Italy, and in union with the Austrians defeated the French at Cassano, and drove them to Milan and Genoa. Al- exandria was taken, and the French, under Joubert and Mo- reau, were routed at Novi. Suvarofi" marched into Switzer- land, where there had been some severe fighting. Korsakoff had led another Russian army into that country. Massena, the French commander, attacked and defeated this last offi- cer, and Zurich was taken by storm. The Austrians in Italy reduced Coni, and invested Genoa. Bonaparte having reduced Egypt, turned his thoughts to Syria. General Regnier, with 12,000 men, was sent towards that country, ruled over by the sanguinary Jezzar, who was aided by Sir Sidney Smith, and softie troops of the Porte. At Al-Arish, Regnier defeated a body of Mamelukes. Bonaparte soon joined the army ; Al-Arish and Gaza surrendered : Jafla was taken by storm. Acre was, as of old, gallantly defended by a Christian hero. Sir Sidney Smith, and Bonaparte was obliged to raise the siege, and return to Egypt. Desaix had been there engaged against the Mamelukes in Upper Egypt, and had driven them beyond the Cataracts. A Turkish army under the vizier having landed in Egypt, and taken Aboukir, Bonaparte attacked and defeated them, and recovered the fort. Soon afterwards, seeing that nothing more was to be gained in Egypt, he secretly returned to France, leaving the command to Kleber, who defeated a Turkish division ; but his troops being in want of every thing, 346 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART IIL he si^ed a convention with the vizier to quit the country. Lord Keith Ceclared it should not be executed, and Kleber again attacked and defeated the Turks. The l!nglish, Austrians, and Neapolitans recovered the papal territories. The English and Russians landed in Hol- land ; but after obtaining some advantages oyer general Van- damme, they were obliged to negotiate a retreat. The joy of the directory at this success was damped by the appearance of Bonaparte. A revolution in the government was effected; it was made consular, and Bonaparte was chosen first consul, with Cambaceres and Le Brun for his colleagues. Affairs till the peace of Amiens. 1800. Bonaparte, anxious to consolidate his power, made pacific overtures to England, which were rejected : the minister and the nation were bent on war. The long-sought union with Ireland was proposed this year, and in the following year car- ried into effect. The first consul resolved to prosecute the war with vigor. He joined the army assembled at Geneva, crossed Mont St. Bernard, and descended into Italy. The country to the Po was speedily subdued, and that river passed. Genoa had sur- rendered to the Austrians. The Austrian general Melas was defeated at Montebello. On the plains of Marengo, between Alessandria and Tortona, the armies fought (June 14) again : victory seemed ready to declare for the Austrians, when the arrival of the divisions of Monnier and Desaix turned the for- tune of the day, and gave the first consul the glory of a con- queror. A truce, and the surrender of Genoa and other strong places, were the immediate result. In Germany, Moreau penetrated into Bavaria : a negotia- tion was ineffectually entered into; the war recommenced, and the defeat of Hohenlinden (Dec. 3) led to the treaty of Lu- neville, by which Francis gave up more territory in Germany, and consented to the transfer of Tuscany to the duke of Parma. 1801. The fickle tsar Paul had been gained over by the French. He detained the ships of the English, and prevailed on Den- mark and Sweden to engage in an armed neutrality. The English, who considered their existence to depend on their maritime superiority, sent a large fleet to the Baltic, under Sir Hyde Parker, to break up the confederacy. The Danes" were first attacked ; lord Nelson destroyed their line of de- fence before Copenhagen, and they sued for peace : the king of Sweden agreed to treat. The tsar Paul was murdered by CHAP. VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 347 conspirators, and his son Alexander was inclined to England. The king of Prussia, who had seized on Hanover, now de- clared himself ready to renew his amity with Great Britain. An English army, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, had ar- rived in Egypt. Immediately on its landing a battle ensued, which the English gained with the loss of their general. Grand Cairo surrendered. Its example was followed by Alexandria, and the French agreed to evacuate the country. Peace was signed at Amiens. The English consented to a. d. give up all their conquests but Ceylon and Trinidad; the 1802. Ionian islands were to form a republic ; Malta to be restored to the knights. Affairs of Europe to the treaty of Tilsit. Bonaparte was now declared chief consul for life. He re- stored the Catholic religion, and gave new constitutions to France, Genoa, and Switzerland. A force was sent to St. Domingo, where Toussaint I'Ouverture, a negro, had erected a republic. That chief was treacherously seized and sent to France ; but the French were unable fully to recover the island. Disputes arising respecting the fulfilment of the treaty of 1803. Amiens, the war was resumed. Hanover was invaded and reduced by the French ; Holland was dragged into the war, and immediately lost her colonies. In St. Domingo the French power was finally overthrown, and Dessalines made 180^ chief of the republic. Bonaparte at length ventured to assume the imperial dig- nity, and the princes of Europe mostly acknowledged their new associate, who insulted and domineered over the greater part of the continent. The following year, after bestowing a new constitution on 1805. Holland, Napoleon made himself king of Italy, adding the Ligurian republic to his kingdom. This last act of injustice induced the emperors of Austria and Russia to enter into a confederacy with Great Britain, and the glorious victory gained by Nelson off Trafalgar (Oct. 21) over the combined fleets of France and Spain, gave spirits to the allies ; but the French poured over the Rhine, and drove back the Austrians. At Ulm 20,000 Austrians surrendered. Vienna was entered by Napoleon : the Austrians and Russians were completely defeated at Austerlitz (Dec. 2). Francis lost courage, and concluded a treaty at Presburg, by which he gave up more territory, including Venice, acknowledged the kmg of Italy and two new kings, namely, those of Bavaria and Wiirtem- burg. 348 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. The French invaded Naples, and Joseph Bonaparte was seated on the throne of that country. A victory was gained at Maida (July 4) by the English, and the Calabrians rose ; but the power of the usurper was too great for resistance. Holland was also made a kingdom for Louis Bonaparte. At the command of Napoleon, his two new German kings, and some other princes, detached themselves from the Germanic body, and formed the confederacy of the Rhine, in alliance with France. The king of Prussia, who had been encouraged to seize Hanover, finding that in some late negotiations be- tween France and England its restoration had been offered, and otherwise disgusted with his friend the emperor, rushed precipitately into a war: he imprudently gave the chief command to the duke of Brunswick. The French advanced with rapidity. A Prussian army of 6000 men was defeated at Saalfeld. Near Jena and Auerstadt (Oct. 14) the Prussian and Saxon army of 110,000 men was attacked by that of the French of 150,000, and defeated. Erfurt was taken ; prince Hohenlohe and his army surrendered at Prentzlau : Berlin was entered. The king of Holland conquered to the Weser : Jerome Bonaparte subdued Silesia: general Bliicher and 9400 men capitulated at Ratkau : the Poles were excited to rise. The Russians, who were now advancing, met and de- feated the French at Pultusk, and repulsed them at Golomyn. At Berlin, Bonaparte declared the British isles in a state of blockade, and, by what he called the continental system, pro- hibited all intercourse with them. A. D. The Turks now shared in the war. The Russian emperor 1807. foolishly quarrelled with the Porte, and overran its northern provinces. An English fleet fruitlessly menaced Constanti- nople, and an ineffectual attempt was made on Egypt. The war was renewed in the north, and a desperate but indecisive battle was fought at Prussian Eylau ; Dantzig was taken by Lefevre. The allies sustained a defeat at Friedland (June 14), which was followed by the capture of Konigsburg, and the treaty of Tilsit, which deprived the king of Prussia of one-third of his dominions, and erected the kingdom of Westphalia for Jerome Bonaparte. Affairs to the treaty of Vienna. An expedition, little creditable to England, was sent out against Denmark, a power with whom she was at peace. Copenhagen was bombarded, and all the ships and naval stores carried away. A rupture ensued between Russia and England. 1808. The demands made by France on the regent of Portugal CHAP. VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 349 were so unjust, that that prince, at the desire of the British cabinet, departed for the Brazils. Portugal was occupied by the French. Intrigues were set on foot in Spain ; the king, Charles IV., resigned in favor of his son Ferdinand. The a. d. royal family were decoyed to Bayonne ; both father and son 1^08, were terrified into abdication, and the crown transferred to Joseph Bonaparte. Large bodies of troops had already been sent into Spain, and no opposition was dreaded ; but the peo- ple rose in all quarters, and proclaimed Ferdinand VII. : the French fleet at Cadiz was obliged to surrender, as also the army of Dupont at Baylen. Saragossa was heroically de- fended against the troops of Joseph, who at length raised the siege. The Portuguese rose also against the French. A British army landed and defeated the French general Junot at Vi- meiro (Aug. 21). By a convention made at Cintra, the French evacuated that kingdom. A Russian fleet was taken in the Tagus. In the north of Europe, Sweden was hard pressed by the Russians and Danes. The conduct of Gustavus bordering on insanity, he was the next year dethroned, and his uncle made king in his place. The French were victorious in Spain, defeating Blake at Reynosa, and Castanos at Tudela. Napoleon arrived, and Madrid was taken. An English army, under Sir John Moore, had advanced as far as Sakmanca ; but it was forced to re- treat. At Corunna it was attacked (Jan. 16), and general 180a Moore mortally wounded. Encouraged by the resistance made by the Spaniards, the emperor of Austria resolved anew on war: it commenced in Bavaria. Napoleon having driven back the Austrians at Eckmuhl, advanced rapidly and occupied Vienna. At Aspern and Essling, after dreadful slaughter on both sides, the victory remained with the Austrians. The battle of Wagram ter- minated in favor of the French. A most ill-conceived project of creating a diversion in Hol- land was formed by the British cabinet. An army of 39,000 men, under the earl of Cathcart, sailed to Walcheren, and took Middleburg and Flushing ; but a large force being col- lected at Antwerp, and a fever breaking out among the troops, nothing further could be effected by such a waste of lives and treasure. The emperor Francis was now constrained to make peace, with additional loss of territory. In the preceding year, Selim III. had been murdered, and Mahmood, the present E2 350 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. Bultan, was seated on the Turkish throne. Peace was con- cluded between England and the Porte. Progress of the Peninsular War. The French were now masters of Spain to Old Castile. Sarag-ossa had stood a second siege with less success than formerly, 20,000 of its defenders being said to have perished. Marshal Soult entered Portugal, and took Oporto. Sir A. Wellesley advanced against him, and drove him back into Spain. The Spaniards defeated marshal Ney at San Payo in Gallicia. Sir A. Wellesley entered Spain and defeated the French at Talavera de la Reyna (July 28); but the enemy being reinforced, and the co-operation of the Spaniards not to be depended on, he fell back. Gerona was taken by the French, after a gallant defence. One Spanish army was de- feated at Ocana, and another at Alba de Tormes, A. D. An army of 30,000 Portuguese was raised and paid by the 1810. British government. The French army approached Portugal, took Astorga and Ciudad Rodrigo, and, under Massena, passed the frontier and reduced Almeida. At the pass of Busaco they were repelled. A fortified line was made from the Ta- gus to the ocean, behind which the allies were posted. Mas- sena feared to assail it : after a month's inaction he fell back to San tar em. In the south Seville was taken by the French ; but Cadiz, now the seat of government, was secured against them. 1811. Massena at length commenced his retreat, closely followed by the allies. A sharp action occurred at Fuentes d' Honor, after which Almeida surrendered. Badajoz having been captured by Mortier, Sir W. Beresford laid siege to it. Soult advancing with 23,000 men to its relief, the combined armies of 26,000 gave him battle at the Albuera (May 16), and gained the honor of the day. The siege was resumed by Sir A. Wellesley, now lord Wellington ; but on the approach of Soult and Marmont he retired across the Tagus. In An- dalusia the French were defeated at Barrosa by general Gra- ham. They had the advantage in the north of Spain, and Tarragona, Murviedro, and Valencia fell into their hands. The revolution commenced this year in South America. 1812. A change having taken place in the government of Spain, the war was resumed with spirit. Lord Wellington reduced Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz. Salamanca also fell, and a de- cisive victory was gained (July 22) over Marmont in its vicinity. Madrid, Seville, Valladolid were recovered ; the French raised the siege of Cadiz ; but lord Wellington failed in an attack on Burgos. CHAP. VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 351 The Invasion of Russia, and fall of Napoleon. Alexander was mortified at the condition to which he was a. d. reduced, and he defied Napoleon. The latter formed the bold 1812. project of invading- Russia : an immense army was assembled; Lithuania was occupied; Napoleon advanced to Smolensk; Oudinot and Macdonald were directed to join, and to get be- tween the great Russian army and St. Petersburg. The for- mer was defeated by Wittgenstein at Polotsk; prince Ba- gration engaged Davoust at Mohiloff; Wittgenstein com- pletely routed Oudinot a second time at Polotsk. Smolensk was abandoned to the enemy. At Borodino (Sept. 7) a general battle was fought, and the French re- pulsed with a loss of 40,000 men ; but Napoleon being rein- forced, pushed on for Moscow, and Kutusoif, the Russian commander, not feeling himself strong enough to contend with him, he reached that city, but found it in flames. Thus disappointed of supplies, he offered in vain to treat. He then commenced his retreat. It was mid- winter ; the sufferings of the army were dreadfial. The Russians closely pursued ; and of the immense host which had entered Russia, not more than 30,000, exclusive of the Austrians, passed the frontiers. The dead and prisoners exceeded 300,000 in number. Alexander had already concluded a league with Sweden, whose councils were directed by the French marshal Berna- dotte, who had been chosen crown-prince. He now roused the king of Prussia to resistance. A treaty was formed be- tween them. The combined armies fought the new levies of Napoleon at Liitzen ; the action was indecisive, and they 1813. were repulsed at Bautzen. A truce was made ; during its continuance the emperor of Austria joined the alliance, as did Sweden now openly. The allied army of 180,000 men was commanded by the Austrian prince Schwarzenburg. The battle of Katzbach, gained by the Prussian general Bliicher, delivered Silesia. An indecisive action took place at Dresden : Vandamme was defeated at Culm, and Ney at Juterbock. Napoleon concen- trated his forces at Leipzig, where (October 18) the allies attacked and totally defeated him. The city was taken : the king of Bavaria joined the league ; and his troops, combined with the Austrians, defeated, at Hanau, the French as they were retreating from Leipzig. Holland now flung off the yoke, and recalled the prince of Orange. At Frankfort the allied monarchs put forth a declaration of the justice and moderation of their views. In Spain, lord Wellmgton being reinforced, and now well 1813. 352 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. PART III. supported by the Spaniards, crossed the Douro, and marched northwards. At Vittoria (June 21) he engaged and totally defeated the French army, commanded by marshal Jourdan. Pampeluna was blockaded ; St. Sebastian besieged ; marshal Soult in vain endeavored to check their progress. St. Sebas- tian fell, and the allies entered France. A. D. France was now invaded north and south. The armies 1814. from Germany met little check. Murat, the king of Naples, abandoned Napoleon. The allies appeared before Paris, and that haughty capital capitulated. In the south the allied arms were still crowned with success ; and Bourdeaux proclaimed Louis XVIII. Napoleon was obliged to sign an act of abdication ; and the island of Elba, with a sufficient income, was assigned him for his residence. Louis XVIII. was restored ; as were the pope, and the other sovereigns who had been deprived of their do- minions. All Europe was now at peace. 1815. While a congress was engaged in arranging the affairs of Europe, news arrived that Napoleon had left Elba, and landed in France. He was received everywhere with enthusiasm by the army, and Louis was obliged to quit France, and to seek a refuge in the Netherlands. The allied princes issued a strong manifesto, and large armies were assembled to op- pose the usurper. Some partial advantages attended his first operations ; but on the field of Waterloo (June 18), his last battle was fought. The genius of Wellington and the steadi- ness of the British troops were triumphant. After a brief reign of 100 days, he fled to the sea-coast, where he surren- dered himself to a British naval commander: and six years afterwards, he who had lorded it over the nations expired a captive on a rock of the Atlantic. Louis XVIII. was recon- ducted to his capital by the allied armies, and firmly seated on his throne ; and the convulsions which had agitated Eu- rope for a quarter of a century at length terminated. After the destruction of the power of Napoleon, the allied sovereigns undertook to remodel different parts of Europe, and they proceeded to their object with what they deemed expe- diency in view, but with too little regard to popular feelings or to national and hereditary rights. Denmark was forced to yield Norway to Sweden, and take in exchange Riigen and Pomerania ; and then to give these to Prussia for Lauenburg. Prussia, always grasping, received a large portion of the do- minions of the king of Saxony, who had been guilty of the crime of fidelity to Napoleon. Austria extended her sway, now odious to the people, over the north of Italy. Genoa was forced to submit to become a part of the dominions of the CHAP. VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 353 king of Sardinia. The Netherlands and the United Provinces were formed into a kingdom for the prince of Orange: a large part of Poland composed one for the emperor of Rus- sia. A new confederation for mutual defence, and the pre- vention of internal war, was entered into by the sovereign states of Germany, who promised representative constitutions to their subjects, — a promise which but few of them have kept. England, the choragus of the great drama which was now concluded, who had shed her blood, and lavished her treasure so unsparingly, remained covered with glory, but deeply immersed in debt. She had, during this period, ex- tended her dominion over nearly the whole peninsula of In- dia ; and the realms, once ruled by the house of Timoor, now bow beneath her commercial sceptre. United States of America. During the wars which convulsed Europe, after the ac- complishment of their freedom, the Americans had been ad- vancing in a steady march of national prosperity. An attempt of the French directory to enlist them in their struggle with the other powers of Europe, led to a short war with France, which was not attended with any important consequences. The second president, John Adams, directed his efforts to the formation of a navy ; and two of the American frigates, the a. d. Constellation and Constitution, captured French frigates of 1799. superior force, in the war with the republic. From this pe- riod a strict neutrality being observed, the Americans acquired most of the carrying trade of the belligerent powers in Eu- rope, and extended their commerce into every part of the world. Napoleon was^ the first to invade this privilege of tlie 1806. Americans in the Berlin and Milan decrees, issued to prevent them from trading with Great Britain ; which were followed by the British orders in council, prohibiting them from inter- course with France. A farther cause of irritation against Great Britain, existed in the custom of searching American vessels on the ocean, and impressing from them British seamen. This was even 1807. carried so far, that the commander of a British frigate, the Leopard, afler demanding four seamen from the American frigate Chesapeake, and being refused, fired a broadside into her, and compelled her commander, taken by surprise, to sur- render the men. Three of their number were Americans. The depredations of both the French and English on Ameri- can commerce, had become so extensive, that the congress, on the recommendation of the third president, Mr. Jefferson, ordered an embargo, prohibiting all commerce with foreign 2E2 354 OUTLINES OP HISTORY. PART III. countries. This measure, however, being found to operate ^ jj too harshly on the interests of the commercial states of the 1809. union, the embargo law was repealed, and a non-intercourse with France and England was substituted. An offer was made on the part of the United States, that the non-intercourse should be discontinued towards either France or England, as soon as they respectively should cease to violate the commerce of the republic. Napoleon's minister having informed the American agent at Paris that the Berlin and Milan decrees were revoked, the non-intercourse law, as 1811. regarded France, was annulled. But as the official notice of this act was withheld, Great Britain, with good reason, doubted the revocation of the French decrees. When a formal an- nouncement of their revocation was made by France, the British orders in council were also revoked. But in the mean- time, the United States had declared war with Great Britain 1812. (June 18), and as the questions of search and impressment were still unsettled, the war was continued, notwithstanding the revocation of the orders in council. The first object of the United States was the conquest of Canada. General William Hull, with a force sufficient for the reduction of Upper Canada, passed into tliat province, but after wasting some time in parade and indecision, he sur- rendered his whole force, the fortress at Detroit, and the en- tire territory of Michigan, to the British. For this act, he was afterwards tried, sentenced to be shot, and pardoned. On the 19th of August, the American frigate Constitution, captain Hull, captured the British frigate Guerriere, reducing her to a complete wreck in 15 minutes. This was the first of a series of naval victories which have completely destroyed the proud claim of Britain to the empire of the ocean. It was speedily followed (Oct. 25), by the capture of the British frigate Macedonian, by the American frigate United States, under the command of captain Decatur, off the Western Isles. In November an attempt was made on Queenstown, in Up- per Canada, which, after a severe action, and a heavy loss on both sides in killed and wounded, resulted in the capture of 1000 Americans. In December, the frigate Constitution, captain Bainbridge, captured the British frigate Java, off the coast of Brazil, after an action of one hour, in which the Java was reduced to an unmanageable wreck. General Winchester, with 750 men, 1813. was attacked near the river Raisin, by a superior force of British and Indians, under general Proctor; and after being sur- rendered prisoners of war, many of his men were massacred CHAP. VJII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 355 by the Indians. (Jan. 22). An attack on fort Meigs, by the British, was successfully resisted by general Harrison (May). An expedition against York, in Upper Canada, under the command of general Pike, was completely successful. After /" an obstinate defence, the place was carried with a loss of 750 on the British side. The heroic Pike was mortally wounded by the explosion of a magazine. Fort George and fort Erie were shortly afterwards taken by the Americans, after a brisk action. An attempt was made by the British naval force which blockaded the Chesapeake, on Norfolk ; and, on its failure, Hampton, a vijlage 18 miles from Norfolk, was taken and given up to rapine and plunder. The American frigate Chesapeake was captured by the British frigate Shannon, off Boston harbor, under circumstances which, fairly considered, tend materially to diminish the glory of the victory. Fort Sandusky was most ably defended against general Proctor, with 1200 British and Indians, by major Croghan, with 160 Americans. (Aug. 1). In September, the American fleet on lake Erie, under the command of captain Perry, captured the whole British squad- ron under captain Barclay, after a well-contested action of three hours. Detroit was soon after retaken, and a superior force of British and Indians, under general Proctor, routed by the x\mericans under general Harrison. The fortune of the day was decided by a mounted regiment under colonel Johnson, who slew with his own hand, during the action, the celebrated Indian warrior Tecumseh. Extensive preparations were made for renewing the inva- sion of Canada, during the autumn ; but the expedition was abandoned, apparently for want of concert among the leading officers, and fort George and fort Niagara fell into the hands of the British. Overtures of peace being made on the part of Great Britain, a. d. commissioners on both sides were appointed to meet at Ghent 1814. for the purpose of negotiating a treaty. A part of the district of Maine, east of Penobscot river, was occupied by the British. Naval victories were achieved by the American commanders, Porter, Warrington, and Bid- die, and the victories at Chippeway and Niagara witnessed the improved discipline and coolness of the American land forces. A British force landed from the fleet in the Chesapeake, and, conducted by general Ross, succeeded in penetrating to the city of Washington, where they destroyed the public buildings, library, and records ; a piece of vandalism which 356 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. TART III has scarcely a parallel in modern warfare, and which one of their own ablest statesmen has pronounced a disgrace to the British nation. A subsequent attempt on Baltimore resulted in the defeat of the British, and the death of general Ross. The British sqiladron on lake Champlain, consisting- of 17 vessels, under the command of captain Downie, was defeated by the American squadron of 14 vessels, under captain M'Donough ; and on the same day, the British army under general Prevost was repulsed, with heavy loss, in an attempt to storm the forts at Plattsburg. 1815. Sir Edward Packenham, with 14,000 men, made a descent oB New-Orleans, (Jan. 8), which was defended by general Jackson with six thousand men, principally militia. After a well-contested action, the British were repulsed with the loss of 700 killed, 1400 wounded, and 500 prisoners. The Ameri- can loss was 13 killed, 39 wounded, and 19 missing. The treaty of peace had been signed at Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814, and ratified by the prince regent of England Dec. 28. It was ratified by the president of the United States, Feb. 1815. From the events of this war, the Americans have learnt that their land forces are more fit for the resistance of inva- sion, than for foreign conquest ; and that their best instru- ment of national defence is a well-disciplined navy: the same events have taught other nations, that this people, once sup- posed to be for ever wedded to commerce and peace, has some claims to a character for ability and courage in war. At this momentous era in the history of the world we ter- minate our rapid view of its destinies. We have seen em- pire after empire rise and fall ; each has had its appointed limit : what has been gained by injustice and violence, has been lost by corruption and imbecility. The agency of a great moral superintending power is everywhere perceptible ; the slow but sure castigation of national vice everywhere meets our view ; but man will not learn wisdom ; and the latest periods of history present the same scenes of unblushing violations of faith and justice, which occurred ere he had re- ceived the lessons of experience. Like children at their play, nations and princes still go on adding story after story to the political house of cards, fondly hoping that the slight foundation will support, and the loose juncture hold together the towering edifice, till in an instant it falls, levelled by its own weight, and the scattered fragments remain for another equally wise architect to attempt its reconstruction. Occa- CHAP. VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 357 sional war seems to be necessary to the healthy existence of states ; and war may lead to conquest ; but the voice of his- tory cries aloud, that empire founded on injustice and aggres- sion is rarely lasting. With a general resemblance to the others, each period of history has its own peculiar features. What chiefly distin- guishes Modern History are the increased intercourse and connexion of nations, and the growth of liberty. The civil- ized world now forms one body : collision in one part commu- nicates motion to the whole ; a spark of discord, when struck, is apt to kindle a conflagration ; while, on the other hand, the progress of improvement is facilitated, and the discoveries and the knowledge of one people are speedily appropriated by another. But the glory of modern times is the progress of liberty : our last division has presented many a hard-fought contest in its sacred cause ; and we may now say with truth, that there never was a time when so large a portion of man- kind was in possession of civil, religious, and mental liberty. Even the nations which have not yet been cheered by the beams of political freedom are benefited by its proximity ; and public opinion, to which it has given birth, tends to restrain the excesses of absolute power. In the south of Europe, as if for a warning to others to shun the evil, civil and religious despotisms are still suffered by Providence to display their hideous forms ; but in the New World, the incipient and cha- otic state of freedom is travailing in the birth of a purer and more regular order of things. The " march sublime" of lib- erty is, we trust, not to be retarded for ages to come. Eng- land has led the way in the glorious career : and the last blem- ish which stained her fair fame, and afforded a topic of re- proach to her enemies, has been removed, while her councils were directed by the warrior who so often had led her ar- mies to victory. Esto perpetua. TABULAR VIEW OF ROYAL DYNASTIES. Israel. Saul 1095 Davi(t*and Ishbosheth 1055 David sole king 1148 Solomon 1015 JUDAH. B. c. Rehoboam . . . 975 Abia 958 Asa 955 Jehosaphat. . 914 Joranj 889 Ahaziah 885 Israel. B. c. Jeroboam I. . 975 Nadab 954 Baasa 953 Ela 930 Zimri 929 Ahab 918 JUDAII. I Athaliah Joash Aniaziah Uzziah or Aza riah Jotham Ahaz Hezekiah . . . Manasses Amon Josiah Jehoakaz ) Jehoiakim ) Zedekiah .... 697 Israel. B. o. Ahaziah 897 Joram 896 Jehu 884 Jehoahaz 856 Joash 839 Jeroboam II.. 823 Zachariah. .. 771 Mcnahem . . . 770 Pekaiah 760 Pekah 758 Hoshea 729 Saraariah. . . . 721 Persia, Kings of. Cyrus 559 Cambyses 5-i!) Smerdis Magus 522 Darius I. son of Hys- taspes 521 Xerxes 1 4P5 Artaxerxes 1 4G4 Xerxes II 425 Sogdianus 424 Darius II. Nothus.. 423 Artaxerxes II 404 Artaxerxes III 358 Arses or Arogus . • . 337 Darius III. Codoma- nus 335 Under the Greeks and Parthians from 331b.c. to 226 A. D. Sassanian Dynasty. A. D. Ardisheer Babigan, called by the Ro- mans Artaxerxes. 226 Shahpoor 1 240 Hoormuz 1 271 Baharam 1 272 Baharam II 276 Baharam III 293 A. D. ^arsi . 2*)3 Hoormuz II 303 Shapoor II 310 Ardisheer II 381 Shahpoor III 385 Baharam IV 390 YezdejirdUlathim 404 Baharam V 420 Yezdejirdll 4:i^ 4.58 Pallas . 484 488 Kobad Noosheerwan 531 Hoormuz III 579 Baharam-Choubeen 590 KhoosrooPurveez- 591 Sheruyeh 628 Shah-Sherrendeh. . 631 Arzem-dokht 632 Yezd6jirdIII 632 Modern Persia. Suffavean Dynasty. Shah Ismail 1504 Tamasp 1523 Ismail II 1576 Mohammed Meerza 1577 Abbae the Great . . 1582 A. D. Sam Meerza, or ShahSuffee 1627 Abbas II 1641 Suffee Meerza, or Shah Suleiman.. 1G66 Hoossein 1694 Mahmood (the Aff- ghan) 1722 Ashraff (the Aff- ghan) 1725 Tamasp II. son of Hoossein 1729 Nadir Shah 1732 AdilShah 1747 Interregnum 1750 Kerreem Khan. .. . 1753 Interregnum 1779 Lootf Ali Khan . . 1789 Aga Mohammed . . 1795 Futteh Ali Khan (the present king) 1796 Macedon, Kings of. B. c. Philip, son of Amyn- tas 360 Alexander the Great 336 Philip Aridaeus.... 323 Cassander 316 Antipater ) nna Alexander '^ 360 B. C. Demetrius 294 Pyi rhus 286 For 16 years 12 kings 278 AntigonusI.Gonatus 277 Demetrius II 243 AntigonusII.Doson 232 Philip 221 Perseus 179 Pergamhs, Kings of. Philetserus 283 Eumenes 1 263 Attains 1 241 Eumenes II 197 Attains II. Phila- delphus 159 Attains III. Philo- metor 138 Syria, Kings of. Seleucus Nicator. . . 312 Antiochusl. Soter. . 280 Antiochns II. Oeds- 261 Seleucus II. Calli- nicns 246 Seleucus III. Cerau- nus ! Antiochus III. the Great 223 Seleucus IV. Philo- pater 187 Antiochus IV 175 Antiochus V 164 Demetrius I. Soter. . 162 Alexander Balas... 150 Demetrius II. Nica- tor 146 Antiochns VI 144 Diodotus 143 Antiochus VII 139 Demetrius II. resto- ration of 130 Alexander Zebina. . 127 Antiochus VIII 123 Philip and Deme- ) qo trius j •'•* Tigranes, king of Armenia 83 Antiochus IX. Asi- aticus 69 Egypt, Kings of. Ptolemy 1 323 Ptolemy II. Phila- delphus..... 284 ROYAL DYNASTIES. Ptolemy III. Ever- getes 246 Ptolemy IV. Philo- pater 221 Ptolemy V. Epipha- nes 204 Ptolemy VI. Philo- metor 180 Ptolemy VII. Philo- metor 150 Ptolemy VIII. Phys- con 145 Ptolemy IX. La- "1 thyrus ^ 116 Cleopatra J Alexander ) Cleopatra \ Ptolemy Lathyrys, restoration of. . . . Cleopatra II. ) Alexander II. ^ * " * Ptolemy Alexander III Ptolemy Dionysius ) Auletes \ Ptolemy Dionysius ~1 II y 51 Cleopatra III J 106 81 65 Emperors. JuDEA, Kings of. Hyrcanus I. (High Priest) 136 AristobulusI 105 Alexander Jannai. . 104 Alexandra 78 Hyrcanus II. and ) ^.q Aristobulus U. . . \ ^-^ Hyrcanus II 63 Antigonus 40 Herodes the Great. . 37 Archelaus 3 A. D. Judea, a Roman province 8 Agrippa 37 Rome, Kings of. B. c. Romulus 753 Numa Pompilins. .. 715 Tullus Hostilius... 672 Ancus Martins 640 Tarquinius Priscus 616 ServiusTullius 578 Tarquinius Snperbus534 Republic for 461 years. Augustus 31 A. D. Tiberius 14 Caligula 37 Claudius 41 Nero 54 Galba 68 Otho 1 Vitellius V 69 Vespasian J Titus 79 Domitian 81 Nerva 96 Trajan 98 Adrian 117 Antoninus Pius 138 Marcus Aurelius") and V 161 Lucius Verus J Commodus 180 Pertinax and Julia- nus 193 Septimius Severus . 193 Caracalla and Geta 211 Opilius Macrinus . . 217 ElagabalnsAntonius 218 Alexander Severus. 222 Maximinns 235 The two Gordians . 236 Maximus.Pnpienns, and Balbinus 237 Gordian junior .... 238 Philip the Arabian 244 Decius 249 Gallus,Hostilianu3 ) „-. Volnsianns ) iEmilianus Valeria- nusandGallienus 254 Gallienus alone.... 260 Claudius 268 Aurelian 270 Tacitus 275 Florianus ) ^'-a Probus 1 2.6 Marcus AureliusCa- rus 282 Dioclesian 284 Dioclesian andMax- imianus 286 ConstantiusChlorus Galerins Maximi- anns 304 Constantine I. the Great 306 Constantine II. Con- stans, and Con- stantius.. 337 Julian 301 Jovian 303 Valentinian I. and Valeiis 364 ROYAL DYNASTIES. 361 Gratian, Valentini- an II. and Theo- dosius I Honorius Valentinian III Maximus Avitus Majorianus Severus AiiTliemius Olybrius Glycerins Julius Nepos llomulus Augustus. Bishops of Rome. A. D. St. Linus G7 St. Cletus, or Ana- cletus 78 St. Clement 1 91 Evaristus 100 Alexander I. 108 Sixtus I IIG Telesphorus 12G Hygiuus 137 Pius 1 141 Anicetus 157 Soter 1G8 Eleutherus 177 Victor 192 Zephirinus 201 Calixtus 219 Urban 1 224 Pontianus 231 Anterius Fabianus. 235 Cornelius 251 Lucius 253 Stephen 255 Sixtus II 257 Dionysius 259 Felix 1 271 Eutychianus 275 Caius 283 Marcellinus 296 Marcellus 304 Eusebius 309 Melchiades 311 Silvester 314 Marcus 336 Julius 337 Liberius 352 Damasus 367 Siricius 385 Anastatius 398 Innocent 1 402 Zosimus 417 Boniface 1 418 Cffilestinus 423 Sixtus III 432 Leo the Saint 440 Hilary 4G1 I Simplicius 467 Felix II. 483 Gelasius 492 Anastatius 496 Symmachus 498 Ilormisdas 514 John 1 523 Felix III 526 Boniface II 530 John II 532 Agapetus 535 Sylverius 536 Vigilius 540 PelagiusI 556 John in 560 Benedict-. 573 Pclagius II 577 Gregory tlie Great.. 590 Popes. Sabinianus 604 Boniface III 606 Boniface IV.... 607 Deiisdcdit 614 Boniface V 617 Honorius 1 626 Severinus 639 John IV 639 Theodorua 641 Martin 1 649 Eugenius 655 Vitatianus ^.. G55 Adeodatus 669 Domnus 67G Agatlion 678 Leo II 083 Benedict II.. 684 John V 685 Conon 686 Sergius 687 John VI 701 John VII 705 SinsiniiisI.Constan- tine 708 Gregory II 714 Gregory III 731 Zachary 741 Stephen II. and III. 752 Paul 1 757 Stephen IV 768 Adrian 1 772 Leo III 795 Stephen V 816 Pascal I. 817 Eugenius II 824 Valentin 827 Gr^'gorylV 827 Sergius II 844 LeoIV 847 Pojx! Joan, accord- 1 ing to some ^ 854 Benedict III. J Nicholas 1 858 Adrian II 867 John VIII 872 2F A. D. Martin II 882 Adrian III 884 Stephen VI 885 Formosus 891 Boniface VI. ) q,,, Stephen VII. \ • • • • oy? Tlieodorus 11. ) oni John IX. j....yui Benedict IV 905 Leo V, ) on- Christopher ( ^^ Sergius III 907 Anastatius III 910 Lando 912 John X 913 Leo VI 928 Stephen VIII 929 John XI 931 Leo VII 936 Stephen IX 939 Martin III 943 Agapetus II 946 John XII 955 Leo VIII 963 Benedict V 964 John XIII 965 Domnus II. ) o-*,, Benedict VI. ]"" "'^ Boniface VII 974 Benedict VII 975 John XIV 984 John XV 985 Gregory V 996 Silvester II 999 John XVI. ) ,„0T joimxvn. 1 ••• -^"^3 Sergius IV 1009 Benedict VIII 1012 John XVIII 1024 Benedict IX 1034 Gregory VI ... 1044 Clement 1046 Damasus II 1048 Leo IX 1049 Victor II 1054 Stephen X 1057 Nicholas II 1059 Alexander II 1061 Gregory VII 1073 Victor III 1086 Urban II 1088 Pascal II 1099 GelasusII 1118 Calixtus II 1119 Honorius II 1124 Innocent II 1130 Celestine II 1143 Lucius II 1144 Eugenius III 1145 Anastatius IV 1153 Adrian IV 1154 Alexander III H59 Lucius III 1181 Urban III 1185 362 A. D. Gregory VIII 1187 Clement III 1188 Celestin III 1191 Innocent III 1198 Honorius III 1216 Gregory IX 1227 Celestin IV 1241 Innocent IV 1243 Alexander IV 1254 Urban IV 1261 Clement IV 1205 Gregory X 1271 Innocent V. "\ Adrian V. V ... 127G John XIX. J Nicholas III 1277 Martin IV 1281 Honorius IV 1285 Nicholas IV 1288 Celestin V. ) ,004 Boniface VIII. \ ' ' ^^''^ Benedict X 1303 Clement V 1305 John XX 1316 Benedict XI 1334 Clement VI 1342 Innocent VI 1352 Urban V 1362 Gregory XI 1370 Urban VI 1378 Boniface IX 1389 Innocent VII 1404 Gregory XII 1400 Alexander V 1409 John XXI 1410 Martin V 1417 Eugene IV 1431 Nicholas V 1447 Calixtus III 1455 PiusII 1458 PaullI 1464 Sixtus IV 1471 Innocent VIII 1484 Alexander VI 14C2 ^i"«"I: I 1503 Julius II. ) LeoX 1513 Adrian VI 1522 Clement VII 1523 Paul III 1534 JtiriusIII 1550 Marcellus II. ) i^r,- Paul IV. 1 • * • 1^^ Pius IV 1560 PiusV 1566 Gregory XIII 1572 Sixtus V 1585 Urban VII. \ ,^q-> Gregory XIV. \ ■• ^''^" Innocent IX 1591 Clement VIII 1592 liCO XI. ) ,,,,.r Paul V. 1 J^"*^ Gregory XV,... IC2I ROYAL DYNASTIES. A. D. Urban VIII 1623 Innocent X 1644 Alexander VII. . . . 1655 Clement IX 1667 Clement X. ..;.... 1670 Innocent XI 1676 Alexander VIII. . . 1689 Innocent XII 1691 cienrcnt xr.".".":"rrr-TToe- Innocent XIII 1721 Benedict XIH 1724 Clement XII 1730 Benedict XIV 1740 Clement XIII 1758 jPiiis VI.. 1774 -Puis VII.......... 1800 Leo XII 1822 Pius VIII 1829 Emperors of the East. Arcadius 395 TheodosiusII 408 Marcianus 450 Leo I. the Thracian 457 Leo junior II. Zeno 474 Anastatius the Si- lentary 491 Justinl.theThracian 518 Justinian 1 527 Justin II 565 Tiberius II 578 Mauricius the Cap- padocian 582 Phocas C02 Heraclius 610 Constaiitiiie III. ... 641 Constaiis II 642 Constantino IV. Po- gonatus 668 Justinian II 685 Leontius 694 Absimerus Tiberius 697 Justiniaiillrestored 704 PhillipicusBardanes 711 Anastatius II 713 Thodosius III 715 LeoIII. Isauricus.. 717 Constantine V. . . . 742 Leo IV 775 Constantine VI. ... 780 Irene 797 Nicephorus 802 Michael 1 811 Leo V.the Armenian 813 Michaelll.the Stam- merer 821 Theophilus 829 Michael III. the Sot 842 Basiliiis the Mace- donian 867 A. D. Loo VI. the Philos- opher 886 ConstantineVII.Por- phyrogenitus .... 912 Romanuswith Con- stantine 919 Romanus II 959 Nicephorus II. Pho- cas 963 John Zimisces 969 Basilius 11. and Con- stantine VIII. ... 975 Romanus III 1028 Michael IV 1034 fliichael V 1041 Constantine IX. . . 1042 Theodora 1054 Michael VI 1056 Isaac Comnenus . . 1057 Constantine X.Du- cas 1059 Romanus Diogenes 1068 Michael VII 1071 Nicephorus III 1078 Alexius Comnenus 1081 John Comnenus, KaXos 1118 Manuel Comnenus 1143 Alexius II 1180 Andronicus 1 1183 Isaac AngelusCom- nenus 1185 Alexius IIL the Ty- rant 1195 Isaac Angclus re- ) igm stored i ^-^""^ Theodore Lascaris 1204 JohnDucasVataces 1222 Theodore Lascaris II 1255 John Lascaris .... 1258 flIichaelPalffiologus 1259 Andronicus ir 1283 Andronicus IIL... 1320 John Palaiologus. . 1341 John Cantacuzene 1347 John Palajologus re- stored 1355 Manuel 1391 John Palreologus. . 1424 Constantine Palie- ologus 1448 Khalifs. ' Aboo Beker 632 Omar 634 Othman 644 Ali 656 , Moawiah 660 ' Yezid 679 Moawiah 11 &ii l A. D. Abdalla f)84 Merwan I C84 Ah.'Iulmelck 695 WalidI 705 Suleiman 714 Omar II 717 Yczid IT 719 Plashem 7^3 Walid II 742 Yezidlll 743 Ibrahim 744 Morvvan II 745 Saffah 750 Mansur 754 Mohadi.., 775 Hadi 7e5 Ilaroon-Er-Rashecd 780 Amin m'J Blamun 813 Motasim 833 Wathek 842 Motawakel 847 Mostanser 8l52 Mostain 802 Motaz 806 Mohtadi 809 Motamed ) c-^ Muaffek \ ^'" Motadhed 892 Mohtafi 902 Moktader 908 Kaher 932 Radhi 934 Motaki 940 Mostakfi 944 Moti 946 Tai 974 Kader 991 Kaim 1031 Moktadi 1075 Mostadhei- 1094 Mostarshed 1118 Rasheed 1135 Moktafi 113G Mostanjed. 1160 Mostadhi 1170 Nasor 1180 Dhaher 1225 Mostanser 1226 Mostasem 1242 Aragon, Kings of. Ramires 1035 Sancho 1007 Peter 1 1094 Alfonso 1 1104 Ramires II. the Monk 1134 Petronilla 1138 AlfonsoII.theChastell62 Peter II 119C ROYAL DYNASTIES. A. D. James I. the Con- queror 1213 P<-terIII 1270 Alfonso in. the Be- neficent 12P5 James II. the Just 1291 Alfonso IV 1327 Peter IV. the Great 1336 John 1 1387 Martin 1395 Ferdinand 1 1410 Alfonso V 1416 John II 1458 Ferdinand II 1481 Castile, Kings of Ferdinand theGreat 1035 Sancho 10G5 Alfonso Vl.the Val- iant 1072 Urraca 1109 Alfonso VII 1122 Sancho III I157 Alfonso VIII. the Noble 1158 Peter 11 1196 Henry 1 1214 Alfonso IX 1217 Ferdinand III 1226 AlfonsoX.the Wise 1252 Sancho IV 1284 Ferdinand IV 1205 Alfonso XI 1312 Peter the Cruel 1350 Henryll.theBastard 1369 John 1 1379 Henry III 1390 John II 1406 Henry IV. the Im- potent 1454 Isabel and Fer- ) , ,_„ dinant V.... • ^^70 Spain, Kings of. Charles 1 1516 Philip IL 1555 Philip HI 1598 Philip IV 1621 Charles II 16(55 Philip V 1700 Ferdinand VI 1748 Charles III 1755 Charles IV 1788 Ferdinand VII. ... 1808 Portugal, Kings op. Alfonso 1 1139 Sancho 1 1185 363 Alfonso 11 1212 Sancho II 1233 Alfonso III 1246 Dionysius 1279 Alfonso IV 1325 Peter the Cruel... 1357 Ferdinand I3tj7 Interregnum for 18 months 1383 John I. the Bastard 1385 Edward 1433 Alfonso V 1438 John II 1481 Emmanuel 1495 John III 1521 Sebastian 1557 Henry the Cardinal 1578 United with Spain 1580 John IV. Duke of Braganza 1640 Alfonso VI 1656 Peter II I668 John V 1706 Joseph 1750 Maria Francisca.. 1777 John VI 1799 Naples and Sicily, Kings of. Roger n 1102 Roger III. , 1129 William I. the Wicked. 1153 Williamll.theGood 1166 TancredtheBastard 1189 William III 1192 Constance and ) ,,„. Henry VI \- 11^4 Subjected to the German Empe- rors, till 1250 ... 1198 Conrad 1250 Interregnum 1253 Manfred 1254 Conrad II. ) ,„„_ Charles of Anjou I ^''^ J\raples alone. CharlesII.theLame 1284 Robert the Wise . . 1309 Joan 1 1343 Charles III 1382 Ladislaus. 1386 Joan II 1414 JSTaples and Sicily. Alfonso, king of Aragon 1434 Ferdinand 1469 Alfonso II 1494 Ferdinand II 1495 364 A. r». Frederic 1506 Became subject to Spain for 250 years Charles VIi: 1755 Ferdinand IV 1759 Francis 1825 Denmark, Kings of. Canute II.theGreat 1014 Canute III 1036 Magnus 1041 SuenoII 1018 Harold 1074 CanutelV.the Saint 1076 Olaus, surnarned Hunger 1086 Eric III. the Good 1096 Nicholas 1107 Eric IV. Ilarefoot 1135 EricV. the Lamb.. 1139 Sucno III.theGreat 1147 Magnus III., resto- ration of 1147 Waldemar 1157 Canute V 1182 Waldemar II 1202 Eric VI 1242 Abel 1250 Christopher 1252 Eric VII 1259 Eric VIII 1286 Christopher II 1321 Waldemar III 1333 Margaret 1375 EricIX 1412 Denmark and J^orway united. Christopher III.... 1438 Christian 1 1448 John 1 1481 Christian II 1513 Frederick 1 1522 Christian III 1533 Frederick II 1559 Christian IV 1588 Frederick III 1648 Christian V 1070 Frederick IV 1G99 Christian VI 1730 Frederick V.. 1746 Christian VII 1766 Frederick VI 1808 Sweden, Kings of. Amund II 1019 Amund III 10.35 Ilaquin III.tbeRcd 1041 ROYAL DYNASTIES. A. D. Stenchill and Ingo III 1059 Halstan 1064 Philip 1080 Ingo IV 1110 Ragnald 1129 Svercherll 1140 Eric X. the Saint . 1160 Charles VII 1162 Canute 1168 Svercher III 1192 Eric XI 1210 John 1218 Eric XII. the Stut- terer 1222 Waldemar 1250 Magnus II 1276 Birgcr II 1282 Magnus III 1326 Albert 1363 Margaret 1.388 Eric XIII 1396 Christopher.King of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. . . . 1438 Charles VIII 1448 Interregnum, thir- teen years 1470 John, King of Den- mark 1483 Christian II 1513 Gustavus L Vasa. . 1.523 Eric XIV 15t;0 John III 1568 Sigismund, king of Poland 1592 Charles IX 1598 Gustavus II. Adol- phus 16J2 Christina 1632 Charles X 1(^54 Charles XI 1660 Charles XII 1696 FrederickandUlrica 1718 Adolphus Frederick 1751 Gustavus III 1771 Gustavus IV 1792 Charles XIII 1809 Charles John 1818 Poland, Kings of. Premislaug 1295 VladislausIV 1296 Wenceslaus 1300 VladislausIV 1305 Casimir In. the Great 1333 Lewis, King of Hungary 1370 Interregnum of 3 years 1383 A. D. Jagellon and Vladis- lausIV 1386 VladislausV 1434 Interregnum of 3 years 1444 Casimir IV 1447 John I. Albert .... 1492 Alexander 1501 Sigismund 1 1507 Sigismund II. Au- gustus 1548 Henry of Anjou . . . 1573 Stephen Balore. . . . 1576 Sigismund HI 1587 VladislausVI 1G32 John II. Casimir. . 1648 3Iichael 1669 John Ill.Sobieski. J 674 Augustus II 1697 Frederick Augus- tus III 1734 Russia, Tsars of. Fedor Boris Godunof Interregnum Michael Alexi Fedor II Sophia, Ivan, and , Peter the Great \ Peter the Great alone Catherine Peter II Anne Ivan III Elizabeth Peter III Catherine II Paul Alexander Nicholas. 1585 1598 1604 1613 1645 1676 1682 1696 1725 1727 1730 1740 1741 1762 J762 1796 1801 1825 France. Merovingians. Clovis 481 Childebert 511 Clotaire 558 Caribert 562 Chilperic 567 Clotaire II 584 Dagobert 028 Clovis II 644 Clotaire III 660 ChildericII 668 Thierri 673 Clovis III 0 1410 of Hungary J J ROYAL DYNASTIES. Albertll.of Austria 1438 Frederick III 1440 Maximilian 1 1493 Charles V 1519 Ferdinand 1 1558 Maximilian II. . . . 1564 Rodolph II 1576 Mathias 1612 Ferdinand II 1619 Ferdinand III 1637 Leopold 1658 Joseph 1705 Charles VI 1711 Charles VII 1741 Francis 1 1745 Joseph II 1765 Leopold n 1790 Francis II 17«2 Prussia, Kings of. Frederic 1 1701 FredericWilliam L 1713 Frederic 11 1740 FredoricWilliamll. 1786 Frederic Wilm. in. 1797 Ottoman Emperors. Osman 1298 Orchan 1325 Moor ad, or Amu- rath I 1358 Bayezcedl 1389 laterregniim 1402 Mohammed 1 1413 Amurathll 1^21 Mohanunod II 1451 Bayezeed II 1481 Selim 1 1512 Suleiman 1 1520 Selim II 1566 A. D. Amurath III 1574 Mohammed III.... 1595 Ahmed 1 1604 Mustafa 1617 Amurath IV 1623 Ibrahim 1640 Mohammed IV. . . . 1655 Suleiman II 1687 Ahmed II 1690 Mustafa II 1695 Ahmed III 1703 MahmoodI 1730 Mustafa III 1757 Abdul Ahmed 1774 Selim III 1789 Mustafa IV. ; .o^q Mahmood II. " " ^^^^ Chinese Dynasties. Hia B. c. Chang Chew 35 Emperors 1122 Tsin 4—248 Western Ilan 25 — 206 Eastern Han . 2 ■ Eastern Tsin . 16 - Song 8- Tsi 5 Leiing 4 ■ Chien ,, . 5- Song or Svee. 3- Tang 20 - Second Leiing 2- Second Tang. 5- SecondTsin.. 2- Uan 2- SecondChew. 3- Song 18- Yven 9 - Ming 16 - TaiTsin 5- A. D. - 2:J8 - 265 - 420 - 480 - 502 - .560 - 590 - 618 - 911 - 924 - 937 - 948 - 951 - 960 -1280 -1368 -1644 EMINENT PERSONS. Name. '^ Flourished. Homer 907 Hesiod 907 Elijah 896 Lycurgus 883 Elisha 846 Isaiah 768 Eumelus 736 Sappho GOl Name. Flourished. B. 0. Epimen ides of Crete 594 Jeremiah 594 iEsop 578 Cadmus 562 Solon 561 Thales 559 Ibycus 552 Aiiaximandcr 550 Name. Flourished. Theognis 548 Pythagoras 522 Anacreon 520 Zoroaster 519 Heraclitus 516 Diogenes 476 iEschylus 475 Zeno the Elder . . . , 464 Name. Flourished. B. C. Pindar 455 Aiistarchus 453 Leucippus 452 Anaxagoras 452 Charon of Lampas- ens 449 Herodotus 444 Aristippus 432 Euripides 427 Sophocles 420 Socrates 419 Thucydides • • . . 417 Aristophanes 416 Ctcsias 41G Meton 415 EMINENT PERSONS. Name. Flourished. B. C. Damon and Pythias 397 Lysias 39r. Pelopjdas 395 Hippocrates .^ 381 Xenophon 379 Plato 368 Eudoxus 352 Aristotle 351 Xenocrates 314 Euclid 298 Theophrastus 285 Epicurus 288 Callimachus 244 Archimedes 239 Terence 179 367 Name Flourished. Critolaus 160 Lucilius 128 Cinna 100 Possidonius 85 Julius Caesar 64 Cicero 63 Sallust 55 Diodorus Siculus. . . 44 Cornelius Nepos ... 43 Virgil 42 Horace 28 Livy 20 Ovid 10 Celsus 10 Strabo 5 Name. Birth. Death. A. D. A. D. Dante 1265. 1321 Petrarch 1304. 1374 Boccacio 1313. 1375 Chaucer 1328. 1400 Froissart 1339. 1400 Gower 1402 Muller 1476 Lorenzo de Medici 1448. 1492 Gawin Douglas 1474. 1522 Machiavel 1409. 1527 D'Ercilla. 1532 Ariosto 1474. 1533 Erasmus 1407. 1530 Paracelsus 1403,; 1511 Copernicus 1473.' 1513 Luther , 14H.3. 1510 Howard, Earl of Surrey 1515. 1546 Rabelais 1483. 1553 J. C. Scaliger 1484. 1558 Melancthon 1497. ]5(>0 Vesalius 1514. 1564 Vida 1480. 1506 Ascham 1515. 15G8 Peter Ramus 1515. 1572 Commandine 1509. 1575 Cardan 1501. 1.576 Camoens 1524. 1579 Buchanan 1506. 1582 Sir P. Sidney 1554. 1586 Montaigne 1533. 1592 Tasso 1544. 1595 Henry Stephens 1528. 1598 Spenser 1553. 1599 Tycho Brahe 1546, 1601 Henry Carey, Earl of Monmouth 1596. 1616 J. J. Scaliger 1540. 1609 Clavius 1537. 1612 Beaumont 1586. 1616 Shakspeare 1564. 1610 Cervantes 1547. 1616 Napior 1550. 1G17 Name. Birth. Death. A. D. A. D. Paul Sarpi 1552. 1619 Camden 1551. 1625 John Fletcher 1576. 1625 Bacon 1560-1. 1626 Sir W. Temple 1626 Malhcrbe 1555. 1628 Koplcr 1571. 16.30 Davila 1576. 1631 Drayton 1563. 1631 Carey 1633 Lopez de la Vega 1562. 1635 Ben Jonson 1574. 1637 Martin Opits 1597. 1039 Massinger 1584. 1640 Sir John Suckling 1609. 1641 Galileo 1504. 1642 Chillingworth 1602. 1644 Grotius 1583. 1645 Torricelli 1608. 1647 Dnunmond 1585. 1649 Des Cartes 1596. 1650 Inigo Jones 1572. 1653 Arch. Usher 1580. 1655 Lovelace 1618. 1658 Harvey 1569. 1658 Scarron : 1610. 1660 Pascal 1623. 1662 Cowley 1618. 1667 Davenant 1605. 1668 Moliere 1620. 1673 Milton 1608. 1674 Spinoza 1623. 1677 Barrow 1630. 1678 Rochcfoucault 1613. 1680 Butler 1634. 1681 Cornoille -ie«Cv_m^ Otway 1652. 1085 Boyle 1626-7. 1691 Puffendorf 1631. 1094 Huygens 1629. 1695 Fontaine 162L 1695 De la Bruyere 1644. 1690 308 EMINENT PERSONS. Name. Birth. Death. Racine 1639. 1699 Dryden 1631. 1700 Hooke 1635. 1702 Locke...'....'. 1632. 1704 Bernouilli 1654. 1705 Anne Dacier 1651. 1707 Farquhar 1678. 1707 Boileau 1636. 1711 Fenelon 1651. 1715 Charles Montague, Earl of Halifax 1661. 1716 Gronovius 1645. 1716 Flamsteed ^ Jii4G.._12ia_ Addison : 1672. 1720 Prior 1664. 1721 Sir Christopher Wren.. 1632. 1725 Rapin 1661. 1725 Newton 1642. 1727 Steele 1671. 1729 Congreve 1670. 1729 Atterbury 1662. 1732 James Hermann 167i^. 1733 Boerhaave 1668. 1738 Wolfe 17.39 Halley 1656. 1741 RoUin 1661. 1741 Bentley 1661-2. 1742 Massillon 1663. 1742 Pope 1688. 1744 Swift 1607. 1745 Walpole 1676. 1745 Maclaurin 1698. 1746 Thomson 1700. 1748" CSannone 4U76^,-1749 Blonroe 17157 1751 Berkely 1684. 1753 Fielding 1707. 1754 Montesquieu 1689. 1755 Fontenelle 1657. 1757 Colley Gibber 1671. 1757 Allan Ramsay 1085. 1758 Kleist 1715. 1759 Richardson 1689. 1760 T. Simpson 1710. 1761 Lady Montague 1690. 1702 Bradley 1692. 1762 Shenstone 1714. 1763 Simson 1687. 1768 Sterne 1713. 1768 Chatterton 1752. 1770 Smollet 1711. 1771 Reiske 1716. 1774 Goldsmith 1728. 1774 Haller 1708. 1776 Hume 1732. 1776 Rousseau 1711 . 1777 Linnaeus 1707, 1778 Voltaire 1694. 1778 Garrick ]-^16. 1779 Leasing 1729. 1781 Name. Birth. Death. A. D. A. D. Metastasio 1698. 17812 William Hunter 1718. 1783 Euler 1707. 1783 Dr. Johnson 1709. 1784 D'Alembert 1717. 1784 Diderot 1713. 1784 BUffon 1707. 1788 Cullen 1712. 1789 Dr. Franklin 1706. 1790 Warton 1728. 1790 Adam Smith 1723. 1791 Smeaton 1724. 1792 Robertson 1721. 1793 J. Hunter 1728. 1793 Condorcet 1743. 1794 Lavoisier 174.3. 1794 Sir W. Jones 1746. 1794 Gibbon 1737. 1794 Goldoni 1707. 1795 Burns 1759. 1796 Macpherson 1738. 1796 Reid 1710. 1796 Horace Walpole 1718. 1797 Marmontel 1723. 1799 Black ._1Z2§. ,1799, Cowper 1731.~ 1800 Blair 1718. 1800 Lavater 1741. 1801 Fordyce 1736. 1802 Darwin 1721. 1602 Alfieri 1749. 1803 Klopstock 1724. 1803 Herder 1741. 1803 Priestley 1733. 1804 Kant 1724. 1804 Paley 1743. 1805 Cottin 1772. 1807 Person 17.59. 1808 Holcroft 1744. 1809 Guniberland 1732. 1811 Heyne 1729. 1812 La'zrange 1736. 1813 Wieland 173:?. 1813 Sheridan ■ , J'-Si 1816 Kirk Wliite .71785. 1816 Kichter 1792. 1817 De Stael 1766. 1817 Stolberg 1715. 1818 Playfair 1749. 1819 Wolcot 1738. 1819 Watt 1736. 1819 Kotzebue 1761. 1819 Herschel 1738. 1821 Shelley 1792. 1822 Byron 1788. 1824 Voss 1751. 1826 Volta vi245. 1826 Laplace . * 1827 Wollaston 1828 Young IMPORTANT EVENTS. 369 CHRONOLOGICAL VIEW OF IMPORTANT EVENTS. B. C. The First Olympiad 770 Commencement of the Decen- nial Archons at Athens 754 Foundation of Rome 753 The Rape of the Sabines 750 Xth Olympiad 747 Commencement of the Nabonas- sar^Era 747 Tiie first Messenian War 743 Foundation of Tarentum 707 Foundation of Corcyra 703 XXth Olympiad 700 The second Messenian War 685 Commencement of the Annual Archons at Athens 684 Junction of Babylon and Assy- ria by Esarhaddon 681 Combat of the Horatii and Cu- riatii 667 XXXth Olympiad 660 Foundation of Byzantium 658 Foundation of Cyren6 630 Establishment of Draco's Laws at Athens 623 XLth Olympiad 620 Commencement of Nocho's Canal between the Nile and Red Sea 610 Destruction of Nineveh GOG Separation of the Medes and Lydians in Battle by an Eclipse of the Sun 601 (Newton's Chron. 585.) Establisliment of the Pythian Games 591 Restoration of the Isthmian Games 582 Lth Olympiad 580 Restoration of the Nemean Games 568 First Comedy performed at Athens 562 JiXth Olympiad 540 Tragedies first acted at Athens 535 Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses 525 The Temple of Jerusalem fin- ished 515 Restoration of the Democracy at Athens 510 Expulsion of theTarquins, and Abolition of Regal Govern- ment at Rome 509 First Alliance between the Ro- mans and Carthaginians 508 LXXth Olympiad 500 Institution of the Saturnalia at Rome 497 Creation of the first Dictator at Rome 496 B. C. First Tiibunes of the People created at Rome 494 Banishment of Coriolanus 491 Institution of the Q.ua;stors at Rome 484 Defeat of the Spartans at Ther- mopylEB and Salamis 480 Rebuilding of Athens by The- mistocles 476 Foundation of Capua 469 The third Messenian War 465 LXXXth Olympiad 460 Number of Tribunes at Rome increased from Five to Ten . . 453 Creation of the Decemvirs at Rome 448 First Sacred War concerning the Temple of Delphi 448 Death of Virginia 448 Institution of the Censorship at Rome 437 Meton's Nineteen Years' Cycle of the Moon 432 Commencement of the Pelopon- nesian War 431 XCth Olympiad 420 Agrarian Law first moved in Rome 416 Athens governed by the Council of 400 412 Conclusion of the Peloponno- sian War 405 Athens governed by Thirty Ty- rants 404 The Expulsion of the Thirty Tyrants 401 Rome taken by the Gauls under Brennus 385 Cth Olympiad 380 Commencement of the second Sacred War 357 End of the Sacred War 348 Commencement of the War be- tween the Romans and Sam- nites 343 CXth Olympiad 340 Destruction of Thebes by Alex- ander 336 Division of Alexander's Em- pire 323 JEra of the Seleucida 312 Foundation of Antioch, Edessa, and Laodicea 300 CXXth Olympiad 300 Athens taken by Demetrius Po- liorcetes 298 The first Division of Time into Hours by the Sun-dial of Pa- pirius Cursor 298 #1 870 IMPORTANT EVENTS. B. C. Astronomical ^ra of Dionysius of Alexandria 285 Foundation of the Alexandrian Library...'. 283 The first Punic War 204 CXXXth Olympiad 260 First Naval Victory of the Ro- mans over the Carthaginians 200 End of the First Punic War . . . 242 Comedies first acted at Rome . . 240 Temple of Janus closed for the first Time after Numa 235 CXLth Olympiad 220 The second Punic War 218 End of the second Punic War. . 201 The first Macedonian War 200 CLth Olympiad 180 The second Macedonian War. . 171 The third Punic War 149 Destruction of Carthage by the Romans 146 CLXth Olympiad 140 The Jugurthine War Ill CLXXth Olympiad 100 Cyren6 bequeathed to the Ro- mans by Ptolemy Appion 97 The Social or MarsicWar begins 91 Beginning of the Mithridatic War 89 Syria reduced to a Roman Province 65 The Catiline Conspiracy dC' tected 63 CLXXXth Olympiad CO Pompey, Crassus, and CiEsar, the first Triumvirate 59 First Invasion of Cffisar in Brit- ain 55 His second Invasion 54 The -^ra of Antioch com- mences 49 The second Triumvirate 43 Mauritania reduced to a Roman Province 33 End of the Commonwealth of Rome 31 CXCth Olympiad 20 A. D. Birth of odr Savior, Decem- ber 25, four Years before the Common vEra 4 The End of the Passover 8 The Jews banished from Rome by Tiberius 19 CCth Olympiad 21 CCIst Olympiad 25 End of the Olympiads 26 Christ crucified 33 Conversion of St. Paul 36 The Name of Christians first given to the Followers of Christ 40 Caractacus brought in Chains to Rome 51 A. D, The first Persecution of tho Christians 63 Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus 70 Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii by an Eruption of Vesuvius 79 Agricola's Invasion of Britain 80 The second Persecution of the Christians 95 Reduction of Dacia to a Roman Province 103 The tliird Persecution of the Christians 107 The fourth Persecution of the Cluistians J 18 Jerusalem rebuilt by Adrian. . . 130 The Persecutions against the Christians stopped by Anto- ninus 152 War witli the Marcomanni 169 The Saracens defeat tiie Romans 189 Fifth Persecution of the Chris- ^ tians .i. 201 The Goths receive an annual Tribute not to invade Rome . 222 The sixth Persecution of the Christians 235 The seventh Persecution against the Christians under Decius . 250 The eighth Persecution of the Christians 257 Period of the Thirty Tyrants . . 258 The ninth Persecution of the Christians 272 Partition of the Roman Empire between two Emperors and two Ccesars 292 Tenth Persecution of the Chris- tians 302 Christianity tolerated 313 The first general Council as- sembled at Nice 325 The seat of Empire removed to Constantinople 329 The Empire divided between the three Sons of Constantine. .. 337 Council of Rimini held 35a The second general Council held at Constantinople 381 The final Departure of the Ro- mans from Britain 426 The third general Council held at Ephesus 431 The Saxons first come to Britain 448 The fourth general Council of Chalcedon 451 Foundation of Venice 452 Rome taken by Genseric 455 Paris the Capital of the French Dominions 510 Introduction of the Computa- tion of Time by the Christian .^ra 516 IMPORTANT EVENTS. 871 A. D. Rome taken by Belisarius 539 Suppression of the Roman Consulship 542 The fifth general Council 555 Birth of Mohammed 571 Jerusalem taken by the Per- sians 616 The Alexandrian Library burned 640 Cyprus taken by the Saracens. 648 The sixth general or CEcumeni- cal Council of Constanti- nople 680 Spain conquered by the Sara- cens 713 Foundation of Bagdad 762 Charlemagne puts an End to the Kingdom of the Lom- bards 774 The seventh general Council, or second of Nice 787 New Empire of the West 800 Tlie Saxon Heptarchy united, called England 828 Origin of the Russian Mon- archy 839 The Scots and Picts united un- der the Title of Scotland ... 843 Oxford University founded ... 886 Cambridge University founded 915 Rise of the Republic of Pisa . . 931 The Danes get Possession of England 1013 Rise of the Guelfs and Ghib- illins 1061 William the Conqueror begins Doomsday Book 1079 The first Crusade 1096 Institution of the Knights Templars \.. . 1118 The Canon Law introduced into England 1140 The second Crusade 1147 Institution of TeutonicKnights 1164 Conquest of Ireland by Henry II 1172 The third Crusade 1189 The fourth Crusade 1202 Establishment of the Inquisi- tion 1204 Magna Charta granted 1215 The Orders of St. Dominic and Francis instituted 1226 The fifth Crusade 1243 Deputies of Boroughs first sum- moned to Parliament in Eng- land v&".- 1264 Conquest of Wales by Ed- ward I 1283 End of the Crusades 1291 The first Celebration of the Ju- bilee at Rome 1293 The Establishment of tlie Swiss Republics 1307 A. D. Removal of the Seat of the Popes to Avignon 1308 The Institution of the Order of the Garter 1349 Return of the Popes to Rome. 1377 Foundation of the University of St. Andrew's in Scot- land 1411 Discovery of the Island of Ma- deira 1420 The Court of Session instituted in Scotland 1425 Rise of the Medici family 1431 Pragmatic Sanction in France 1439 Invention of Printing 1440 Establishment of the Author- ity of Lorenzo de Medici . .. 1478 Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope 1487 Discovery of Ilispaniola 1492 Discovery of America 1492 Discovery of Brazil 1500 Discovery of Madagascar 1.507 League of Cambray 1509 Luther commences the Reform- ation 1517 First Voyage round the World 1.522 Treaty of Madrid 152G Peace of Cambray 1529 Reformation in England 1534 The Council of Trent, which continues eighteen Years. .. 1545 Treaty of Chateau Cambresis. 1559 The Massacre of St. Bartholo- mew 1572 The Union of Utrecht 1579 Discovery of Virginia 1584 TJie Spanish Armada destroyed 1588 Foundation of Dublin Univer- sity 1591 Rebellion of Tyrone in Ireland 1598 English East India Company established 1600 Union of the Crowns of Eng- land and Scotland 1603 Hudson's Bay discovered 1610 The first Baronets in England 1611 Foundation of Batavia 1621 The first English Settlement in the West Indies 1625 The French Academy instituted 1035 Rebellion in Ireland 1641 Civil War begins in England . 1042 First War between the Eng- lish and Dutch 1652 The Royal Society instituted. 1062 The Second Dutch War 1664 Great Plague in London 1665 Fire of London 1666 Institution of the Academy of Sciences in France 1666 Carolina planted by the Eng- lish 1676 Habeas Corpus Act passed. . . . 1678 372 IMPORTANT EVENTS. A. D. Foundation of Petersburjih . . . 1704 Consummation of the Union between England and Scot- land 1706 Peace of Utrecht 1714 duadruple Alliance 1718 The Order of the Bath insti- tuted 1725 Pragmatic Sanction 1732 Peace of Vienna 1738 Defensive Alliance between Great Britain and Prussia . . 1742 Alliance between Great Brit- ; ain and Russia . • 1743 Peace of Aixla-Chapelle 1748 Foundation of the Academy of * Sciences at Stockhohn 1750 The British Museum estab- lished 1753 Destruction of Lisbon by an Earthquake • 1755 Quebec taken by general Wolfe 1759 Montreal and Canada taken by -^^ the British ."1760 Foundation of the Royal Aca- demy of Arts in London 1768 Commencement of American W^ar 1774 Declaration of American In- dependence 1776—1783 French Revolution 1787 Lewis XVI. beheaded 1793 Rebellion in Ireland 1798 Bonaparte First Consul 1799 Union of the Irish and Englisli Parliaments • 1800 Insurrection in Dublin 1803 Bonaparte Emperor 1804 Abolition of the Slave Trade . 1806 Divorce of Bonaparte from Josephine 1809 Appointment of the Prince of Wales to the Regency 1811 The Burning of Moscow 1812 Bonaparte returns from Russia 1812 Creation of the Office of Vice Chancellor of Great Britain 1813 Abdication of Bonaparte 1814 A Jubilee Festival, in Celebra- tion of Peace, and the Cen- tenary of the House of Bruns- wick 1814 Congress at Vienna 1814 Treaty of Peace between Eng- land and America .- 1814 Bonaparte from Elba takes possession of Paris ..... 1815 Battle of Waterloo 1815 Commencement of the Revolu- tion in Spain 1820 Death of George III 1820 Trial of Clueen Caroline 1820 Death of Napoleon 1821 Commencement of the Greek Revolution 1821 Battle of Navarino 1827 Repeal of the Test Act 1828 Bill passed for the Emancipa- tion of Roman Catholics . . . 1829 INDEX. Abbas the Great, 301. Abbasside Kiialifs, the, 159. Abercrombie, Sir Ralph, 347. Aboo Beker, 141. 145. Aboo Taleeb, 140. Abraham, 24. Achffians, 34. 81. Addicti, 65. Adolf, 122. Adrian VI., Pope, 264. ^Ethiopians, 15. Africa, 148. Agathocles, 76. Agesilaus, 45. Agrarian law, 66. Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of, 325. Alaric, 121. Alcazar-quivir, battle of, 286. Alcibiades, 43. Alexander the Great, 49. Alexander VI., Pope, 257. Alexander of Russia, 351. Alexandria, 49. 148. Alexius of Constantinople, 207. Alfonso X., the Wise, king of Cas- tile, 249. Alfonso of Portugal, 205. Alfred of England, 169. All, 144. Aljubarrota, battle of, 251. Allemanni, the, 131. Alliance, the grand, 311. Alliance, the quadruple, 317. Ahnohadcs, the, 205. Almoravites, 173. AlpArslan, 189. Alva, Duke of, 280. America, discovery of, 251. Revolu- tionary War, 332. Amphictyonic Council, 48. Amroo, 143. Anastatius, 136. Andrew III. of Hungary, 244 Anglo-Saxons, the, 133. Angora, battle of, 246. Anne, queen of England, 311, Annibal, 78. Antalcidas, peace of, 45. Antiochus the Great, 80. Antigonus Gonatus, 51. Antonius, Marcus, 98. Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, 106. Antoninus the Pious, 106. Appius Claudius, 68. Apulia, Duke of, 179. Arabia, 24. 172. Khalifs of, 3C2. 2G Archon, creation of, 38. Ardeshir, 139. Aristides, 41. Armenia, 55. Aragon, Kings of, 363. Arsacides, 57. Artaxerxes I., 31. Artaxerxes II., 32. Asdriibal, 78. Assassins, society of, 175. 213. Assyria, 20. Astolfo, 154. Astyagcs, 29. Athens, 37. 41. 46. 88. Attila, 123. Augsburg, recess of, 270. Augustus, title of, 112. Augustus (vid. Octavianus), 101. Aurelian, successor to Claudius, 111. Authar, king of tiie Lombards, 151. Avitus, 125. Ayesha, wife of Mohammed, 144. Azincourt, battle of, 238. B. Babylon, 20. Bactria, 19. Baliol of Scotland, 240. Bannockburn, battle of, 241. Basil I., dynasty of, 172. Barcelona, Count of, 177. Battle of Marathon, 31. 40. Cunaxa, 32. Plataea, 41. Leuctra, 46. Mantinea, 47. Chaeronea, 48. 88. Granicus, 49. Issus and Arbela, ib. Ipsus, 51. Allia, 71. iEgatian Islands, 77. Trebia, 78. Trasimene, ib. Cannag, ib. Pharsalia, 96. Philippi, 99. Actium, 100. Chalons, 124. Zulpich, 131. Beder, 142. Cadesia, 147. Xeres, 150. Tours, 151. Fontenoy, 162, 324 Hastings, 170. 874 Battle of Legnano, 107. Evesham, 203, Navaa de Tolosa, 205. Ourique, ib. Wollstadt, 212. Meloria, 218. Morgarten, 224. Bosworth, 234. Crecy, 236 Poitiers, ib. Azincourt, 238. Bannockburn, 241. Nicopolis, 245. Varna\ 246. Belgrade, 247. Angora, 248. Navarre te, 240. Aljubarrota, 251. Marignano, 263. Pavia, 204. Ceri soles, 268. Flodden, 270. Mohacs, 274. St. auintin, 275. Jarnac, 277. Coutras, 278. Ivry, ib. Alcazar-quivir, 286. Buitenfeld,291. 294. Liitzen, 292. Nordlingen, 292. 294. Naseby, 300. Seneffe, 306. Boyne, 310. Aughrim, ib. Blenheim, 312. Ramillies, ib. Almanza, 313. Malplaquct, ib. Narva, 31.'j. Pultowa, 310. Dettingen, 323. Culloden, 325. Minden, 227. Neer-Winden, 342. Lodi, 344. Rivoli, ib. Marengo, 346. Hohenlinden, ib. Trafalgar, 347. Austerlitz, ib. Jena, 348. Friedland, ib. Vimeiro, 349. Aspern, ib. Wagram, ib. Talavera, 350. Albuera, ib. Salamanca, ib. Borodino, 351. Leipzig, ib. Vittoria, ib. New^-Orleans, 356. Waterloo, 352. INDEX. Becket, Thomas &, 202. Beder, battle of, 142. Belgrade, battle of, 247. Belisarius, 120. 137. Benedict XL, 214. Bithynia, 53. Blenheim, battle of, 312. Bonaparte, Napoleon, 344. iBonaparte, Joseph and Louis, 348. Bonaparte, Jerome, 348. Boniface VIII., Pope, 213. Bretigni, peace of, 237. Brissot, 341. Britain, 94. 105. Bruce, Robert, 240. Brutus, 08. Burgundians, 130. Burgundy, Duke of, 225, Byzantine empire, 135. Cffipio, 86. Cahnar, union of, 243. Cambray, league of, 258. Cambray, peacxj of, 266. Cambyses, 30. Camillus, 70. Campo Formio, peace of, 345 Canute (Knut), 170. Caracalla, 108. Carinus, 111. Carthage, 58. 77. 81. Carus, 111. Cassander, 51. Cassius, Spurius, G6. Cassius and Brutus, 98. Castile, kings of, 303. Catiline, 02. Catherine I. of Russia, 316. Catherine II., 330. Cato, 92. Caius Caligula, 102. Cffisar, 92. 94. 98. Ciesar, title of, 112. Chaldeans, 21. Chalons, battle of, 124. Charlemagne, 153. Charles Martel, 151. Charles I. of England, 299. Charles II. of England, 303. Charles Edward, the Pretender, 325. Charles V. and VI. of France, 227, 237. Charles VII. of France, 228. Charles VIII. of Prance, 229. Charles IX. of France, 276. Charles of Anjou, 220. Charles III. of Hungary, 297. Charles II. of Naples, 220. Charles XII. of Sweden, 315. Chateau Cambresis, peace of, 275. China, 16. Dynasties of, 336. Chingis Khan, 211. .; I INDEX. 375 Christ, 103. Christian II. of Denmark, 312. Christianity, corruption of, 114. Cicero, M. Tullius, 92. Cimbri, 85. Cincinnatus, G9. Clarendon, constitutions of, 202. Claudius, Emperor, 103. Clement III., Pope, 208. Clement V., Pope, 214. Clement VII., Pope, 265. 272. Clement XIII. and XIV., Popes, 329. Cleopatra, 58. 97. 100. Clinton, Sir Henry, 333. Clive, Colonel, 33(i. Clusium, battle of, 78. Coligni, 276. Columbus, Christopher, 251. Commodus, 107. Conon, 45. Conrad of Svvabia, 198, Constantine the Great, 113. Constantine II., 116. Constantinople, 152. 158. 171. 207. Constantius, 113. Coutras, battle of, 278. Crassus, 57, 92. Crecy, battle of, 236. Crespi, peace of, 268. Critolaus, 82. Croesus, 30. Cromwell, 302. Crusades, 191. 208. Cyrus, 29. Dandolo, Henry, doge of Venice, 219. Danes, or Northmen, 165. 170. Darius Hystaspes, 30. Darius Codomanus, 32. 49. David, 27. David, son of Robert Bruce, 242. Daza, 113. Decemvirs, 67. Decius, 75. Decius, successor of Philip, 110. Dejoces, 29. Demetrius, 51. Denmark, 164. 243. 273. Kings of, 364. Demosthenes, 43. Dermot, M'Murrough, 204. Dettingen, battle of, 323. Dictatorship, 64. Dido, 58. Diocletian, 112. Dionysius of Syracuse, 59. 76. Domitian, 105. Domnina, 120. Dorian migration, 35. Draco, 38. Duillius, 77. Dumouriez, 342. E. Earth, 11. East, the. Emperors of, 362. East-Goths, 128. Edward I. of England, 230. 240. Edward TI. and III. of England, 226. 230. 235. Edward IV. of England, 233. Edward V. of England, 233. Edward VI. of England, 270. Egbert of England, 169. Egypt, 21. 57. 147. Kings of, 260. Elagabalus, 108. Elizabeth of England, 275. 281. Emperors of Rome, 101. 103. 105. England, 153. 158. 169. 186. 201. 230. 235. 270. 284. 298. 303. 310. 316. 325. Kings of, 365. Epaminondas, 46. Ephori, 37. Ephesus, 136. Europe, 254. P. Fabian gens, 69. Ferdinand I. of Aragon, 250. Feudal system, 156. Flavian family, 104. Flodden, battle of, 270, Florence, 217. France, 150. 166. 185. 200. 224. 235. 256. 275. 295. Kings of, 365. Francis I., 263. 268. Francis II. of France, 275. Franconia, house of, 185. Franks, the, 132. 156. Frederic I. (Barbarossa), 198. 209. Frederic II. of Germany, 199. Frederic, elector of Saxony, 263. Frederic I[. of Prussia, 321. French Revolution, 341. Fronde, the, 302. Fulvia, wife of Antonius, 99. Gage, General, 332. Galba, 103. Gallienus, 110. Gasnevides, 176. Gauls, 70. 78. Genoa, 218. Germany, 153. 166. 185. 197. 222. 256. 266. 268. 287. 290. Emperors of, 365. Genseric, 123, Godfrey of Bouillon, 192. Gondebald, 131. Gordian III., 109. Gorm the Old, 164. Goths, 120. Gotho-Germans, 127. 376 INDEX. Gracchus, 84. Granada, conquest of, 250. Greece, 33. Gregory I., Pope, 151. Gregory II., Po{ie, 153. Gregory VII., Pope, 182. 186. Guelfs and Ghibillins, 217. Guise, Duke of, 276. Gustavus Adolphus, 291. Gustavus Vasa, 273. Gustavus HI., 339. H. Hadrian, 106. Hardicanute, 170. Harmodius and Aristogeiton, 39. Harold, 170. Harold, Fair-hair, 164. Haroon-er-Raslieed, ICO. Henry I. of England, 187. Henry II. of England, 200. 204. Henry III. of England, 203. Henry IV. of England, 231. 237. Henry V. and VI. of England, 232. 237. Henry VII. of England, 255. Henry VIII. of England, 201. 263. 270. Henry II. of France, 269. 275. Henry III. of France, 278. Henry IV. of France, 279. Henry I. (the Fowler) of Germany, 167. Henry II. and III. of Germany, 185. Henry IV. of Germany, 182. 185. Henry V. of Germany, 185. Henry VI, of Germany, 199. Henry VII. of Germany, 222. Heraclius, 138. Hernicians, 66. Herod, 57. Heruli, the, 126. Hildebrand, Archdeacon of Rome, 182. Hippias and Hipparchus, 39. Hippodrome, blue and green fac- tions of, 135. Holland, 300. Holy war, 48. Honorius, 122. Howe, General, 332. Hungary, 244. Hungarians, the, 163. Hunneric, 123. Huns, the, 119. Hus3, the Reformer, 217. Hyder Ali, 337. I. Illyrians, 77. India, 18. 335. India, discovery of a passage to, 253. Innocent III., Pope, 193. Ireland, 204. Ireland, Union of, 346. Ismail, 260. Israel, 24. Kings of, 259. Italians, 87. Italy, 153. 166. 178. 181. 184. 193. 190. 213. 217. 220. 257. 271. 288. 298. Ivry, battle of, 278. J. James VI. of Scotland, 299. James II. of England, 307. Janus, temple of, 101. Jarnac, battle of, 277. Jason of Pheroe, 47. Jerome of Prague, 217- Jerusalem, 138. ^ Jesus Christ, 102. Jesuits, 329. Jews, 104. 143. Joan of Arc, 239. Joanna I. and II. of Naples, 22J. John of England, 202. John XXII., Pope, 215. John III., Don, of Portugal, 271. Jiidah, Kings of, 259. Judea, 56. Kings of, 260. Jugurtha, 85. Julian, 117. Julius II., Pope, 258. Justin, 136. Justin II., 137. Justinian, 136. K. Kelts, 71. Kerreem Khan of Persia, 338. Khadijah, wife of Mohammed, 140. Khaled, 143. Khalifs, 144. Khalifat at Bagdad, 212. Khosroo, 140. Knights at Rome, 86. Koran, 142. Laconia, 36. La Fayette, 333. 341. Latins^ 74. Leo IX., Pope, 179. 183. Leo X., Pope, 262, Leonidas, 41. Lepidus, 98. Licinius, 72. Ligurians, 78. Lothaire, 162. Lothaire II., ib. Lombards, 130. 151. 184. Louis, VII. of France, 200. 208. Louis VIII. of France, 201. Louis IX. of France, 201. Louis X. of France, 225. INDEX. 377 Louis XI. of France, 228. 257. Louis XII. of France, 256. 258. 2G3. Louis XIII. of France, 295. Louis XIV. of France, 302. 315. Louis XVI. of France, 339. Louis XVIII. of France, 352. Lucullus, 91. Luther, Dr. Martin, 2C2. Liitprand, 154. Lutzen, battle of, 292. 351. Lycurgus, 36. Lysiniachus, 53. M. Macbeth, 239. Maccabees, 56. Macedonian war, 79. Macedon, 52. 80. Kings of, 359. ' Macriuus, 108. Mcelius, Spurius, 68. Magna Charta, 203. Majorianus, 125. Malimood of Ghizni, 176. Mamelukes, 207. Man, 13. Manfred, 220. . Manlius, 72. Marcian, 136. Maria Theresa, 321. Marius, 88. Marlborough, Earl of, 311. Mary of England, 271. 275. Mary of Scotland, 284. Matthias, 244. Maxentius, 113. Maurice, 113. Maurice, successor to the Prince of Orange, 282. Maximianus, Hcrculius, 112. Maximilian of Germany, 256. Maximilian II., 287. Modes, 28. Melancthon. 266. Motellus, 86. Miltiades, 41. Mithridates VII. 87. Mohammed, 140. 148. Mongols, 211. Moorad (Amurath), 245. Moore, Sir John, 349. Moriscoes, expulsion of, 227. Moses, 24. Motassem, Khalif, 175. N. Nadir Shah, 320. Naples, 220. Kings of, 363. Narva, battle of, 315. Navarrete, battle of, 249. Navas de Tolosa, battle of, 205. Nebuchadnezzar, 20. Necker, minister of Louis XVI., 341. Nelson, Admiral, 345. Nero, Domitlus, 103. Nerva, 105. Netherlands, 280. New-Orleans, battle of, 350. Nexi, 65. Ney, Marshal, 350. Nicholas, Pope, 179. Nicholas III., Pope, 220. Nicopolis, battle of, 245. Nimeguen, peace of, 306. Normans, 178. Northmen, or Danes, 164. 170. Numerian, 111. Octavius, consul, 88. Octavianus, 98. Odoacer, 126. 128. Ofella, 90. Omar, Khalif, 144. Ommiyades, the, 149. 163. Opimius, 85. Orchan, 245. Orleans, Duke of, 227. O'Ruarc of Breffney,204. Othman, Khalif, 144. Otho, emperor of Rome, 103. Otho I., II., III., of Germany, 168. Ottomans, the, 244. Emperors of, 366. Ourique, battle of, 205. Papal power, 178. 193. 213. Parthia, 57. Paulus iEmilius, 80. Paul III., Pope, 267. Pavia, battle of, 264. Peace of Antalcidas, 45. Verdun, 162. Constance, 197 Bretigni,237. Cambray, 266. Crespi, 2(58. Passau, 270. Chateau Cambresis, 275. Westphalia, 295. Breda, 304. Aix-la-Chapelle, 304. 325. Nimeguen, 307. Utrecht, 314. Vienna, 319. Carlowitz, ib. Paris, 328. 352. Campo Formio, 344. Luneville, 346. Amiens, 347. Tilsit, 348. Pedro, of Portugal, 250. Peisistratus, 39. Pelopidas, 46. Peloponnesian war, 42. G2 378 INDEX. Pembroke, Earl of, surnamed Strong- bow, 204. Peninsular war, 350. Perdiccas, 50. Pergamus, Kings of, 260. Pericles, 42. Persia, 40. 133. 147. 206. 200. 301. 320. Kings of, 259. Persians, 28. Peter the Cruel, 249. Peter the Great, 315. Peter the Hermit, 191. Philip of Macedon, 47. Philip If., of France. 200. 209. Philip III., the Bold, 224. Philip IV., the Fair, 225. Philip, successor to Gordon III., 109. PhilipII. of Spain, 274. Philip III. and IV. of Spain, 297. Philistines, 23. Phoenicians, 23. Pharsalia, battle of, 96. Pisa, 218. Plancus, 98. Plantagenets, the, 201. 230. Poland, 243. 256. 287. 330. Kings of, 364. Pompeius, Cneius, 89. 91. Pontiis, 54. Popes, the, 181, 192. 213. Popish plot, 307. Porsenna, 63. Portugal, 205. 253. 271. 286. 298. Kings of, 363. Pragmatic Sanction, 318. Probus, 111. Protestants, origin of, 266. Prussia, Kings of, 366. Ptolemy, 57. Ptolemy II. and III.. 58. Publilius Philo, 75. Punic war, I., 76. II., 78. III., 80. Pyrenees, peace of, 303. Pyrrhus, 75. Raymond of Toulouse, 191. 201. Reformation, 262. Regulus, 77. Republics, Italian, 217. Revolution, English, 308. Richard I. of England, 202. 209. Richard II. of England, 231. 237. 242. Richard III. of England, 233. Richelieu, Cardinal, 296. Robert, son of William the Con- queror, 187. Robert III. of Scotland, 242. Robespierre, 342. Rodolf of Habsburg, 222. Rogations, the Licinian, 72. Rome, 59. 69. 76. 83. 101. 112. 116. 122. 120. Kings, Emperors, Bish- ops, and Popes of, 300. Russia, 170. 256. 301. 319. 326. Tsars of, 364. Ryehouse plot, 307. S. Sabellian race, 87. Saladin, 199. 206. 210. Samnite war, 74. Samuel, 26. Sassanian Kings, 259. Saul, 27. Savoy, 257. 289. Scandinavia, 242. 256. Scipio, 78. Scotland, 239. Kings of, 365. Seleucus, 55. Selim I. of Turkey, 259. Selim 11. of Turkey. 289. Selim III. of Turkey, 340. 349. Seljookians, 188. Sertorius, 90. Servius Tullius, 61. Severus, Alexander, 108. Severus, Septimius, 108. Shahpoor, king of Persia, 118. Sheeahs and Soonees, 145. Sicily, 220. Kings of, 363. Sigmund, 131. Sigismund, king of Hungary, 131. 244. 245. Silesian war, 321. Simon de Montfort, 203. Solomon, 27. Solon, 38. Spain, 82. 149. 188. 204. 249. 258. 271. 297. Kings of, 363. Sparta, 36. 45. Spartacus, 91. Spurius Maelius, 68. Stephen, king of England, 187. Stolo, C. Licinius, 72. SufTavee, 259. House of, 359. Suleiman, 265. 266. 273. Sulla, 87. Sultan, title of, 177. Suvaroff, 340. Switzerland, 224. 257. Sweden, 242. 273. Kings of, 364. Syracuse, 76. Syria, 55. 145. Kings of, 260. Syrian wars, 79. T. Tacitus, 111. Tadmor, 28. Tarik, 150. Tarquin, 63. Tarquinius, 61. Tatars, 247. Templars, 192. Test act, 307. Thebes, 46. Themistocles, 41. INDEX. 379 Theodoric, 128. Theodosius, 121. Theodosiua II., 135. Thermopylae, 41. Thetes, the, 39. Thrace, 53. Tiberius, successor to Augustus, 102. Tiberius, successor to Justin II., 137. Timoor, 247. Tippoo, son to Hyder Ali, 337. Titus, son to Vespasian, 104. Tooloon, 176. Toghrul Beg, 188. I'otila, 12J). Trajan, 105. Tribunate at Rome, 66. Triumvirate, 99. Turkey, 259. 289. 301. 330. Tuscans, 63. U. Umbrian race, 87. Urban II., 191. Urban VI., 215. Utrecht, peace of, 314. V. Valens, 118. Valentinian III., 123. Valerian, 110. Varna, battle of, 246. Vasa, Gustavus, of Sweden, 273. Veii, 70. Venice, 218. Verdun, treaty of, 162. Vervins, treaty of, 280. Vespasian, 104. Virginia and Virginius, 68. Viriatus, 83. Vitellius, 104. Vortjgern, 134. W. Wales, union of, 230. Wallace, William, 240. Washington, General, 332. Waterloo, battle of, 352. Wellington, Lord, 350. West-Goths in Spain, 134. Westphalia, peace of, 295. Wickliffe, the Reformer, 216. 255L 2G3. William I., or Conqueror, 186. William II. of England, 187. William III. of England, 308. William of Sicily, 197. Winfred, bishop of Mentz, 153. Xanthippus, 41. Xerxes, 31. y. Yacoob-ben-Leis, 174. Yezdejird, 139. Z. Zeno, 128. Zuinglius, the Reformer, 263. rUE END. DR. LARDNER'S CABINET CYCLOPEDIA. The following Volumes, among others, are in prepa- ration, and will appear at an early period in the pro- gress of the work. History oe Scotland — 2 Vols. By Sir Walter Scott. (The 1st Volume will appear in February.) The History of Maritime Discovery — 2 Vols. The Lives of British Statesmen — 3 Vols. By tlie Right Hon. Sir James Mackintosh. A Treatise on Astronomy — 1 Vol. By J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. F. R. S. L. & E. &c. &c. (It is intended that the scientific treatises shall be written in a popular and gene- rally intelligible style, entirely free from mathematical symbols, and disencumbered as far as possible of technical phrases. That they will not, however, be superficial or unsound, the publishers trust is guarantied by the names of the eminent persons who have undertaken to write them.) History of England — 3 Vols. By the Right Hon. Sir James Mackintosh. The Useful Arts — Baking, Brewing, Distilling, Wine- making, &c. — 1 Vol. By M. Donovan, Esq. M. R. I. A. History of Ireland — 1 Vol. By Thomas Moore, Esq. A Treatise on Light — 1 Vol. By David Brewster, LL. D. F.R.S. &c. History of Greece — 2 Vols. By the Rev. Connop Thirl- wall, Fell. Trin. Coll. Cam. Lives of Eminent British Lawyers — 1 Vol. By Henry Roscoe, Esq. A Treatise on Mechanics — 1 Vol. By Dr. Lardner. The publication of the work will commence in Feb- ruary with the First Volume of the History of Scot- land, in Two Volumes, by Sir Walter Scott. A Prospectus, explanatory of the plan and design of the work, may be had at all the Booksellers. 2 PROSPECTUS OF THE CABINET CYCLOPEDIA CONDUCTED BY THE REV. DIONYSIUS LARDNER, LL.D. F.R.S. L. &E. M.R.I.A. F.L.S. F.Z.S. Hon. F.C.P.S. M.Ast.S. &c. &c. ASSISTED BY EMINENT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC MEN. 1. Tlic work will be continued in Monthly Volumes, royal 18mo. 2. The quantity of letter-press will vary with the number and expense of tlie plates. When no plates are necessary, the letter-press will vary from 300 to 350 pages. PHILADELPHIA: PRINTED FOR CAREY & LEA, AND FOR SALE BY ALL BOOKSELLERS. Tins work is intended to form a popular compendium of whatever is useful, in.^triictivc, an 1 interesting^, in the circle of human knowledge. A novel plan of publication and arrangement will be adopted, which will present peculiar advantages. Without fully detailing the method, a few of these advantages may ba mentioned. Each volume will contain one or more subjects uninterrupted and un- broken, and will be accompanied by the corresponding plates or other appro- priate illustrations. Facility of referejice will be obtained without fettering the work by a continued alphabetical arrangement. A subscril)er may omi particular volumes or sets of volumes, without disintegrating his series. Thus each purchaser may form from the " Cabinet" a Cyclopajdia, more or less comprehensive, as may suit his means, taste, or profession. If a sub- scriber desire to discontinue the work at any stage of its publication, the volumes which he may have received will not lose their value by separation from the rest of the work, since they will always either be complete in themselves, or may lie made so at a trifling expense. The purchasers will never find their property in this work destroyed by the publication of a second edition. The arrangement is such that particu- lar volumes may be re-edited or re-written without disturbing the others. The " Cabinet CvclopjKdia" will thus be in a state of continual renova- tion, keeping pace w^ith the never-ceasing improvements in knowledge, drawing within its circle from year to year whatever is new, and casting off whatever is obsolete, so as to form a constantly modernized Cycloptedia. Such are a few of the advantages which the proprietors have to offer to the l)u!tlic, and which they pledge themselves to realize. Treatises on subjects which are technical and professional will be adapt- ed, not so much to those who desire to attain a practical proficiency, as to those wiio seek that portion of information respecting such matters which 3 13 generally expected from well-educated jwrsons. An interest will bfi im- parted to what is abstract by copious illustrations, and the sciences will be rendered attractive, by treating them with reference to the most familiar objects and occurrences. i'he unwieldy bulk of Encyclopjjdias, not less than the abstruse discus- sions which they contain, has hitherto consigned them to the library, as works of only occasional reference. The present work, from its portable form and popular style, will claim a place in the drawing-room and the bou- doir. Forming in itself a Complete Library, affording an extensive and in- finitely varied store of instruction and amusement, presenting just so much on every Subject as those not professionally engaged in it require, conve- nient in size, attractive in form, elegant in illustrations, and most moderate in expense, the "Cabinet Cyclopedia" will, it is hoped, be found an object of paramount interest in every family. To the heads of schools and all places of public education the proprietors trust that this work will particularly recommend itself It seems scarcely necessary to add, that nothing will be admitted into the pages of the " Cabinet Cyclopedia" which can have the most remote ten- dency to otlend public or private morals. To enforce the cultivation of re- ligion and the practice of virtue should be a principal object with all who undertake to inform the public mind; but with the views just explained, the conductor of this work feels these considerations more especially pressed upon his attention. Parents and guardians may, therefore, rest assured that they will never find it necessary to place a volume of the " Cabinet" beyond the reach of their children or pupils. The Cabinet Cyclopedia not being intended to be formed of materials merely compiled from works already published, but to consist, as far as pos- sible, of original treatises, from the pens of those who are most eminent in every branch of knowledge, the Conductor, for obvious reasons, cannot pledge himself to the precise extent of each department, nor even to all the subjects which it may be found advantageous to introduce or omit. Never- theless, it may be desirable to exhibit the plan and principal divisions of tho work, aa they at present suggest themselves. I. The Cabinet of Natural PniLOsopnT. — Including Pure Mathematics, the several branches of Physics — Chemistry, &c. 8 Vols. II. The Cabinet of Arts. — The Fine Arts — the Useful Arts — Manu- factures, &c. 10 Vols. III. The Cabinet of Natural History. — Zoology — Botany — Mine- ralogy — Geology. 14 Vols. IV. The Cabinet of Geography. — The History of Geographical Dis- covery — Descriptive Geography — Physical Geography. 6 Vols. V. The Cabinet of Philosophy. — Political and Moral — Religion — Education, &c. 6 Vols. VI. The Cabinet of Literature. — Language — Belles Lettres — Histo- ries of Literature. 6 Vols. VII. The Cabinet of History. — Histories of various Countries — Anti- quities — Manners and customs — Mythology — Chronology, &c. 22 Vols. VIII. The Cabinet op Biography. — Political, Military, Naval, Religious, Scientific, Poetical, Classical, &c. 20 Vols. IX. The Cabinet Dictionary of Literature, Science, and Art. 6 Vols. The extent here assigned to the work may be considered on the whole as one which it will not surpass, although it may be found expedient in some of the departments to abridge, and in others to extend, the assigned limits. Facility of reference will be obtained by annexing to each volume a copious Index; and the Ninth Division will form in itself a compact Cyclopedia, in which every name and term of Art will be alphabetically arranged, and accompanied by a short notice or explanation, together with a reference to that volume of the work in which a more detailed account may be found. Since the plan of the work does not render a particular order of publica- tion necessary, the volumes will not succeed each other according to tho above scheme: such subjects will appear from time to time as wiir sustain! an interest by variety during the ix;riod of publication. 4 ^ I I mt ' *. * ^m UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. NOV 28 1947 EECD LD H; JAN 19 1948 ■ . U0M23\969 ♦ lUBRARyUSE OEC 3 130^- "TEC 3 J954U1 ■:-ro9-^ m LD 21-100m-9,'47(A5702sl6)476 • I m