sasfiaosspc^i': ^w f M ^ ^tarf;"A Rk^ "Sg. ' ;^ >^Ms^ ^ g2^^^ p "^M 3 ^^P &^ P 1 ffi 1 'l^^^S ^w s !^A m Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2007 witii funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/dictionaryofclasOOseyfrich . A DICTIONARY OF CLASSICAL ANTIQUniES. MYTHOLOGY, RELIGION, LITERATURE & ART FROM THE GERMAN OF Dr. OSKAR SEYFFERT J^' REVISED AND EDITED, WITH ADDITIONS, BV HENRY NETTLESHIP, M.A. Late Felhw of Corpus Chrisli Colle};e and Corpus Professor oj I atin Literature in the University of Oxford J. E. SANDYS. LiTT.D. Fellow and Tutor of St folin^s College atiJ Public Orator in the University of Cambrttigi WITH MORE THAN 450 ILLUSTRATIONS ^^^•^' ^ ' — J — » — h — *-i ^ • ' ■■ ^ jUv^ THE ARCH OF JITUS. ROMR. , , - Xonbon : WILLIAM GLAISHER, Ltd. 265 High Holborn PREFACE. r I iHE Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, which is here offered to the public, is founded on a work by Dr. Oskar Seyffert, of Berlin, which has deservedly attained a wide circulation in Germany.^ Dr. Seyffert is already known in England as one of the editors of a philological periodical, entitled the Berliner P'hilologische Wochenschrift, and as a distinguished Latin scholar, whose name is specially associated with the criticism of Plautus. The departments of classical learning included in his dictionary are. the Mythology and Religion, the Literature and Art, and the constiti:^tional and social Antiquities of Greece and Rome. Within the compass of a single volume it comprises all the subjects usually treated in a Dictionary of GreeJc and Roman Antiquities, while it also supplies information on matters of Mythology and Literature which has generally to be looked for in the pages of a Classical Dictionary. Besides separate articles on Greek and Roman divinities, and on the lives and works of the philosophers, the historians, the orators, the poets, and the artists of Greece and Rome, it gives a general and comprehensive view of such subjects as Greek and Roman Religion, Philosophy, History, Rhetoric, Literature, Architecture, Painting, Sculpture, Music, and the Drama. Similarly, in the department of Antiquities, besides separate treatment of subordinate details, it deals with important topics, such as the Boule and Ecclesia, the Comitia and the Senate, Commerce and War, the Houses, the Ships, the Temples, and the Theatres of the ancients. The original text has been largely supplemented and corrected by Dr. Seyffert himself ; and the whole of the translation has been carefully revised and, in many cases, re-written or re-arranged by the editors. The larger part of the letter A (Abacus to Astrology) was translated by Mr. Stallybrass, owing to whose lamented death the remainder of the work was put into other hands. The succeeding articles, from Astrology ^ Lexikon der klassischen Alterthumskunde ,' KulturgescMchte der Griechen und Earner ; Mythologie und Religion, Litteratur, Kunst, und Alterthiimer des Staats- und Privatlebens. (Leipzig : Verlag des Bibliographis'jhen Instituts, 1882.) a iv PREFACE. to Hercea, have been translated and prepared for the press by Professor Nettleship; the second part {Hermoe to Zosimus) has been translated under the supervision of Dr. Sandys ; while the proof sheets of the whole have been repeatedly read by both editors. The additions in- serted by the editors are generally distinguished by being placed within square brackets, or printed as notes at the foot of the page. Most of the notes and other additions bearing on Latin Literature, and a few bearing on Latin Antiquities, are due to Professor Nettleship ; while Dr. Sandys has supplied references to classical authors and modern authorities wher- ever such references appeared either necessary or desirable. It is hoped that these additions may serve to increase the usefulness of the book. The references to Cicero and Pliny are by the shorter sections now in general use. The ancient authorities quoted include Aristotle's newly discovered Constitution of Athens, which has been cited under the head of the Solonian Constitution and other articles which have passed through the press since the publication of the editio princeps. In this and other respects every endeavour has been made to bring the articles up to date. Dr. Sandys has written articles on- the following archaeological subjects, which w'ere either omitted in the original work or appeared to deserve a fuller treatment than was there accorded them : Mosaics, Pigments (under Painting), Ccelatura (under Toreutic Art), and Vases (with 17 illustrations). He has also supplied brief notices of the Edict of Diocletian, the Olymjpieum, the artists Mentor, Mys, Paiison, and the younger Polyclitus ; Philo, the architect, and three others of the same name who were not included in Dr. Seyffert's Lexihm. The short article on Fulcra is abridged from a valuable paper in the Classical Bevieiv by Mr. W. C. F. Anderson, Professor of Classics at Firth College, Sheffield; that on the Law of Gortyn has been kindly contributed by Mr. C. A. M. Pond, Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. The number of the illustrations has been largely increased. These have been selected mainly from the following works : Schreiber's Kultur- historischer Bilder-Atlas, ed. 1888, and Bilder-Atlas zur Ilias und Odyssee, 1889, both published by Seemann of Leipzig; Baumeister's Benhndler des Klassischen Alterthums, 1884-1888, by Oldenbourg of Munich ; Guhl and Koner's Life of the Greeks and Romans, English edition (Chatto & Windus) ; and Perry's Greek and Roman Sculpture (Longmans, 1882). The publishers are also indebted to Messrs. George Bell & Sons for the additional illustrations in the article on Gems, and for the portraits of PRErACE. V Horace^ Lucretius^ Plato^ and Socrates, selected from King's Antique Gems and Rings (1872) and Westropp's Handbook of Archoiology (ed. 1878) ; to Messrs. Macmillan & Co. for Dr. Dor pf eld's Plan of Olympia and of the Pi'opylcea, and for the engraving of a vase by Hieron {Vases, fig. 12). The two latter are from Miss Harrison's Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens. The Plan of the Acropolis is copied from the Journal of Hellenic Studies with the kind permission of the Council of the Hellenic Society. That of the Roman Fora is reproduced from Droysen's His- torischer Handatlas, 1886. In the article on the Olympian Games, the metope on page 430 is a reduced copy from Overbeck's Geschichte der Griechischen Plastik. In that on Vase^, figs. 3 and 5 are borrowed from the Catalogue of Pottery in the Jermyn Street Museum. The engraving of the Maenads {Vases, fig. 13) is reproduced by permission from Dr. Sandys' edition of the Bacchce of Euripides published by the University Press, Cambridge. All these additional illustrations (which are distinguished by an asterisk) have been selected by Dr. Sandys, who has indicated, so far as practicable, the original authority on which they rest, and, in the case of works of art, the collections in which they are to be found. In stating the English equivalents for Greek money, the editors have adopted the estimate of Professor W. W. Goodwin, in his article On the Value of the Attic Taleni in Modern Moyiey published in the Trans- actions of the American Philological Association, 1885, xvi, pp. 117-119, according to which the intrinsic value of a drachma is approximately Sd., and that of a talent £200. In the case of Roman money, they have followed Marquardt's Handhuch der romischen Alterthilmer in reckoning 1,000 sesterces as equivalent to £10. ^ For the convenience of students, as well as of general readers, the quantities of Greek and Latin words have been marked once, but once only, in every article in which they occur. The Latin spelling of Greek words has been generally adopted, but the Greek form has, in all cases where it appeared advisable, been added in brackets. H. NETTLESHIP. J. E. SANDYS. March, 1891. ^ See Preface to ThiH EdJtion of this Dictionaxv vi PREFACE TO SECOND AND THIRD EDITIONS. PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. The favourable reception that has been accorded to this work has en- abled the publishers to issue a second edition at an exceptionally early date. The book has been revised by Dr. Sandys, and some minor in- accuracies have been removed. References to Aristotle's Gonstitittion of AthenSt which, in the former edition, could only be inserted in the last two hundred pages, have now been added in the first five hundred, wher- ever such addition seemed to be required. Lastly, an Index has been supplied, which, it is hoped, will make the work still further useful as a book of reference. September, 1891. PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION. The present edition has been further revised and corrected by Dr. Sandys. The articles in which the most considerable changes have been introduced are those on Goyniiia, Music, and Theatre. The article on Gomitia has been revised in accordance with the views of Mommsen ; that on Music takes account of Mr. Monro's recent work on the Modes of Ancient Music ; and that on Theatre gives some additional details re- specting the architectural theories of Dr. Dorpfeld. In stating approximate English equivalents for Roman money, Dr. Sandys has thought it right to reconsider the choice made by the late Professor Nettleship between the alternative estimates given in Mar- quardt's Eandhuch, vol. ii., p. 71. The sum of 1,000 sesterces is there reckoned as equivalent, under a gold standard, to 217-52 marks, or £10 lis. Qd.; and, under a silver standard, to 175*41 marks, or £8 156'. M. In the former editions the gold standard was adopted, and 1,000 sesterces taken as equivalent to £10; in the present, the silver standard has been preferred, and the equivalent is accordingly £8 156-. Under this estimate a Roman denarius is equivalent to ^^d., or very little more than a Greek drachma, which is here set at M. It should be added that the Index here reprinted from the Second Edition is the work of the late Mr. H. D. Da.bishire, Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. December t 1894. cp. compare. q.v. quod vide. I.e. locus (or liber) citatun. ABBREVIATIONS, ETC. ib. ibidem. -^ indicates a short syllable. — indicates a long syllable. Jidionaru of Cksskal Sk^^oIo^Sfit ABACUS ACCENSI. Abacus (Gr. dbax, dbdkidn). (1) A square plate, especially the stone slab that covers the capital of a column (see Architecture, Orders of, figs. 1 and 5). (2) A dice-board. (3) A mathematician's table strewn with line sand, on which figures were drawn with a stilus. (4) A countiug-board, on which sums were worked for private and public accounts. The reckoning was done with counters lying on the board {calculi) or with beads sliding in vertical grooves. (On the sideboard called Abacus^ see Tables.) AboUa. A thick woollen cloak, worn by Roman soldiers and philosophers. Absyrtus. Son of king ^etes, and bro- ther of Medea, who, in her flight with Jason the Argonaut, cut Absyrtus into pieces, and threw them one by one into the sea, so that her father, stopping to pick them up, might be delayed in his pursuit. Academy (Gr. Akddemia). A grove on the Cephissus near Athens, sacred to the hero Academus, and containing a gymna- sium. Here Plato, whose country-house was near, delivered his lectures ; hence the school of philosophy founded by him received the name of " The Academy." Acamas (Gr. Akdtnas). Son of Theseus and Phaedra, was brought up with his brother Deraophoon by Elephenor, king of Euboea, and sent with Diomedes as ambassador to Troy, to persuade Priam to send Helen back in peace. After the fall of Troy, in which he took a prominent part as one of the heroes concealed in the wooden horse, he with his brother recovered his father's sovereignty over Attica, and then led a colony from Athens to Cyprus, where he died. (Comp. Demophoox, 2.) Acarnan and Amphotgrua (Gr. Akarnan. Amphoteros). Sons of Alcmseon and Cal- lirrhoe. Their mother, hearing of her hus- band's murder by Phegeus and his sons, prays Zeus, who loves her, to let her boys grow up into men at once, so that they can avenge their father. This done, they slay the sons of Phegeus at Tegea and himself at Psophis, offer up at Delphi the Jewels of Harmonia, which they Lave thus acquired, o. c. A. and then found a kingdom called after the elder of them Acarnania. {See Alphe- SIBCEA.) Acastus (Gr. Akastos). Son of Peliaa, king of lolcSs, who joined the Argonautic expedition, though against his father's will, as a friend of Jason. At his father's death he celebi-ated funeral games which were the theme of ancient poets and artists, and in which Peleus was represented as par- ticipating. He took part in the Calydonian boar-hunt. But his wife Astydameia fell in love with Peleus {q.v.)^ and this brought ruin on the wedded pair. His daughter was Laodameia, renowned for her tender love to Protgsilaus {q.v.). Acca Larentia. According to the com- mon legend, wife of the herdsman Faustulus, and nurse to Romulus and Remus ; accord- ing to another, a favourite of Hercules, and wife to a rich Etruscan, Tarutius, whose possessions she bequeathed to Romulus or (according to another account) the Roman people. She is said to have had twelve sona, with whom she sacrificed once a j'ear for the fertilizing of the Roman fields (arra), and who were thence named Arval Brothers {fratrcs arvdlcs). One of them having died, Romulus took his place, and founded the priesthood so called. (/SccArvalBrothers.) She at last disappeared on the spot where, afterwards, at the feast of Larentalia (Dec. 23), the flaraen of Quirinus and the pontiffs sacrificed to her while invoking Jupiter. All this, together with her name, meaning " mother of the Lares," shows that she was originally a goddess of the earth, to whose care men entrusted their seed-corn and their dead. {See Lares.) In particular she per- sonified the city lands and their crops. Probably she is the Dea Dia worshipped by the Arval Brothers. Accensi. In the older constitution of the Roman army, the accensi were men taken from the lowest assessed class to fill gaps in the ranks of the heavy -armed soldiers. They followed the legion un- armed, simply in their clothes {veldtt, or accensi veloti). In acbion they stood in the ACCIUS ACHILLES. rear rank of the third line, ready to pick up the arms of the fallen and fill their places. They were also used as assistant workmen and as orderlies. This last employment may have caused the term accensus to be applied to the subordinate officer whom consuls and proconsuls, praetors and pro- praetors, and all officers of consular and preetorian rank had at their service in ad- dition to lictors. In later times officers chose these attendants out of their own freedmen, sometimes to mai'shal their way when they had no lictors or had them march- ing behind, sometimes for miscellaneous duties. Thus the prse tor's accensus had to cry the hours of the day, 3, 6, 9, and 12. Unlike the subordinate officers named apparitors, their term of office expired with that of their superior, Accius, or Attius (Lucius). A Roman poet, who was born 170 B.C. of a freedman and freedwoman, at Pisaurum in Umbria, and died about 90 B.C. He was the most prolific and, under the Republic, the most highly esteemed of tragic poets, especially for his lofty, impassioned style and power- ful descriptions. His talents seem to have secured him a respectable position in Roman society, which he maintained with full con- sciousness of his merits. His poetical career can be traced through a period of thirty-six years, from B.C. 140, when he exhibited a drama under the same sediles as the octo- genarian Pacuvius, to B.C. 104. Of his tragedies, the titles and fragments of some fifty are preserved. Two of these treat of national subjects (see PRiETEXTA), viz., the Brutus and the Deems. The former dealt with the expulsion of the Tarquins ; the latter with the heroic death of Decius at Sentinum, B.C. 295. The rest, composed after Greek models, embrace almost all cycles of legend, especially the Trojan, which is treated in a great variety of aspects. Accius likewise handled questions of gram- mar, literary history, and antiquities in the Alexandrine manner and the fashion of his own time, and in many different metres. These works (the Didascdlica in at least nine books ; the Pragmdtica on dramatic poetry and acting, etc.) have also perished. Achaeus. A Greek tragic poet of Eretria, born about 482 B.C., a contemporary of So- phocles, and especially famous in the line of satyric drama. He wrote about forty plays, of which only small fragments are preserved. Not being an Athenian, he only gained one victory. Acheioiis. The god of the river of that name between iEtoIia and Acarnania ; eldest of the 3000 sons of Oceanus and Tethys, and father of the Sirens by Sterope, the daugh- ter of Porthaon. As a water-god he was capable of metamorphosis, appearing now as a bull, then as a snake, and again as a bull-faced man. In fighting with Heracles for the possession of Dei3,neira, he lost one horn, but got it back in exchange for the horn of Amaltheia (q.v.). As the oldest and most venerable of river-gods, he wos worshipped all over Greece and her colonics, especially Rhodes, Italy, and Sicily. The oracle of Dodona, in every answer which it gave, added an injunction to sacrifice to Achelous ; and in religious usage his name stood for any stream or running water. Ach6ron. A river in the lower world. (See Hades, Realm of.) Achilles (Gr. Achilleus). (1) Son of Peleus (king of the Myrmidons in Thessalian Phthia) by the Nereid Thetis, grandson of iEacus, great-grandson of Zeus. In Homer he is duly brought up by his mother to man's estate, in close friendship with his older cousin Patroclus, the son of Menoetius, a half-brother of ^Eacus ; is taught the arts of war and eloquence by Phoenix (q.v.) and that of healing by the centaur Chiron, his mother's grandfather. But later le- gends lend additional features to the story of his youth. To make her son immortal, Thetis anoints him with ambrosia by day, and holds him in the fire at night, to destroy whatever mortal element he has derived from his father, until Peleus, coming in one night, sees the boy baking in the fire, and makes an outcry ; the goddess, aggrieved at seeing her plan thwarted, deserts husband and child, and goes home to the Nereids. According to a later story she dipped the child in the river Styx, and thus made him invulnerable, all but the heel by which she held him. Then Peleus takes the mother- less boy to Chiron on Mount Pelion, who feeds him on the entrails of lions and boars, and the marrow of bears, and instructs him in all knightly and elegant arts. At the age of six the boy was so strong and swift that he slew wild boars and lions, and caught stags without net or hound. Again, as to his share in the expedition to Troy, the legends differ widely. In Homer, Achilles and Patroclus are at once ready to obey the call of Nestor and Odysseus, and their fathers willingly let them go, accompanied by the old man Phoenix. In later legend, Thetis, alarmed by the prophecy of Calchas that Troy cannot be taken without Achilles. ACHILLES. 3 and foreseeing las fall in such a war, con- ducts the boy of nine to the island of Scyros, where in female dress he grows up among the daughters of king Lycomedes, and by one of them, Deidameia, begets Neopt5le- mus {q.v.). But Calchas betrays his where- abouts, and Odysseus, in concert with Dio- medes, unmasks the young hero. Dis- guised as a merchant, he spreads out female ornaments before the maidens, as well as a shield and spear ; suddenly a trumpet sounds the call to battle, the maidens flee, but Achilles clutches at the arms, and de- clares himself eager to fight. At the first landing of the Greeks, on the Asian coast, he wounds Telephus (q.v.) ; at their second, on the Trojan shore, Cycnus iq.vS). Before Troy, Homer makes him the chief of Greek heroes, whom the favour of Hera and Athena and his own merit have placed above friend and foe. He is graced with all the attri- butes of a hero : in birth, beauty, swiftness, strength, and valour, he has not his peer ; none can resist him, the very sight of him strikes terror into the foe. His anger may be furious, his grief immoderate ; but his nature is at bottom kind, affectionate, and generous, even to his enemies. Touching is his love for his parents, especially his mother, and his devotion to his friends. In the first nine years of the war he leads the Greeks on their many plundering excursions around Troy, and destroys eleven inland and twelve seacoast towns. The events of the tenth year, brought on by the deep grudge he bears Agamemnon for taking away Briseis (daughter of Brises), form the subject of Homer's Iliad. When he and his men withdraw from the fight, the Tro- jans press on irresistibly ; they have taken the camp of the Greeks, and are setting their ships on fire. In this extremity he lends Patroclus the arms his father {see Peleus) had given him, and lets him lead the Myrmidons to battle. Patroclus drives the Trojans back, but falls by Hector's hand, and the arms are lost, though the corpse is recovered. Grief for his friend and thirst for vengeance at last overcome his grudge against Agamemnon. Furnished by Hephaestus, at the request of Thetis, with splendid new arms, including the shield of wondrous workmanship, he goes out against Hector, well knowing that he himself must fall soon after him. He makes frightful havoc among the enemy, till at last Hector is the only one that dares await him without the walls, and even he turns in terror at the sight of him. After chasing him three times round the city, Achilles overtakes him, pierces him with his lance, trails his body behind his chariot to the camp, and there casts it for a prey to the bii'ds and dogs. Then with the utmost pomp he lays the loved friend of his 3'outh in the same grave-mound that is to hold his own ashes, and founds funeral games in his honour. The next night Priam comes secretly to his tent, and offiers rich gifts to ransom Hector's body ; but Achilles, whom the broken-down old king reminds of his own father, gives it up without ransom, and grants eleven days' truce for the burying. After many valiant deeds {see Trojan War), he is overtaken by the fate which he had himself chosen ; for the choice had been given him between an early death with un- dying fame and a long but inglorious life. Near the Scaean Gate he is struck by the shaft of Paris, guided by Apollo. Accord- ing to a later legend he was wounded in the one vulnerable heel, and in the temple of Thymbrseau Apollo, whither he had gone unarmed to be wedded to Priam's daughter Polyxena {q.v.). Greeks and Trojans fight furiously all day about his body, till Zeus sends down a storm to end the fight. Seven- teen days and nights the Greeks, with Thetis and the sea-goddesses and Muses, bewail the dead ; then amid numerous sacri- fices the body is burnt. Next morning the ashes, with those of Patroclus and of Nestor's son, Antil6chus, whom Achilles had loved in the next degree, are placed in a golden pitcher, the work of Hephaestus, and gift of Dionysus, and deposited in the famed tumulus that crowns the promontory of Sigeum. The soul of Homer's Achille? dwells, like other souls, in the lower world,, and is there seen by Odysseus together with the souls of his two friends. According to later poets Thetis snatched her son's body out of the burning pyre and carried it to the island of Leuke at the mouth of the Danube, whore the transfigured hero lives on, sovereign of the Pontus and husband of Iphigeneia. Others place him in Elysium, with Medea or Helena to wife. Besides Leuce, where the mariners of Pontus and Greek colonists honoured him with offerings and games, he had many other places of wor- ship ; the most venerable, however, was his tomb on the Hellespont, where he appeared to Homer in the full blaze of his armour, and struck the poet blind. In works of art Achilles was represented as similar to Ares, with magnificent physique, and hair bristling up like a mane. One of his most famous ACONTIUS ACROPOLIS. statues is that at Paris (from the Villa Borghese), though many take it for an Ares. (2) Tatnis^ a Greek mathematician of the 3rd century a.d. He wrote an introduction to the Phoinomcna of Aratus. (3) Achilles of Alexandria, about 450 A.D., probably a Christian ; author of a Greek romance in eight books, the story of Cleitophon of Tyre and Leucippe of By- zantium, two lovers who pass through a long train of adventures before they meet. As the whole story is put in the mouth of the hero, many scenes, being told at second- hand, lose in liveliness ; and the flow of the narrative is checked by too many digres- sions, some interesting enough in tlaem- selves, by descriptions of places, natural BASTION or OCYSCEUS IB«^V>>,!?^" a son named Perseus. Then mother and child are put in a wooden box and thrown into the sea, but they drift to the island of Seri- phus, and are kindly received. Perseus, having grown into a hero, sets out with his mother to seek Acrisius, who has fled from Argos for fear of the oracle coming true ; he finds him at Larissa, in Thessaly, and kills him unawares with a discus. Aero ilJelcnius) A Roman grammarian of the end of the 2nd century a.d. He wrote commentaries (now lost) on Terence, Horace, and perhaps Persius. The collec- tion of scholia bearing his name dates fx'om the 7th century. Acroliths. Statues whose uncovered ex- tremities are made of stone, the covered OlONYSIAC fMtATRE * PLAN OP THE ACROPOLIS IN 1889, INCLUDING RESULTS OF THE EXCAVATIONS BEGUN IN 1885. (Reduced from plan by Messrs. Penrose and Schultz, Journal of Hellenic Studies, 18S9, pi. viii.) phenomena, works of art, feelings and passions, in which the author exhibits his vast reading. The style has considerable elegance, though often marred by an affec- tation of neatness and brevity. The novel continued to be popular until the fall of Byzantium. Acontius (Gr. Akonms). See Cydippe. Acratisma (Gr. Akratisma). See Meals. Acrisius (Gr. Akrisios). King of Argos, great-grandson of Danaiis, son of Abas, and brother of Prcetus. An oracle having de- clared that a son of his daughter Danae would take his life, he shuts her up in a brazen tower ; but Zeus falls into her lap in the shape of a shower of gold, and she bears parts of another material, such as wood. Acr6p61is (Gr. AkropuHs). Properly = Up- per Town. The Greek name for the citadel or stronghold of a town. The Acropolis of Athens was situated on a plateau of rock, about 200 feet in height, 1,000 in breadth from east to west, and 460 in length from north to south. It was originally called Cecropia, after Cecrops, the ancestor of the Athenians, whose grave and shrine were shown on the spot. On the north side of the Acropolis was the Erechtheum,_the common seat of worship of the ancient gods of Athens, Athene Polias, Hephaestus, Poseidon, and Erechtheus himself, who was said to have founded the sanctuaiy. ACTA ADONIS. His house was possibly N.E. of the Erech- theuin. Pisistratus, like the ancient kings, had his residence on the Acropolis, and may- have added the stylobate to the temple of Athene recently identified, S. of the Erech- theum. The walls of the fortress proper were destroyed in the Persian wars, 480 and 479 B.C., and restored by Cimon. But the wall surrounding the foot of the hill, called the Pelasgikon or Fclargikon, and supposed to be a relic of the oldest inhabi- tants, was left in ruins. Cimon also laid the foundation of a new temple of Athene on the south side of the hill. This temple was begun afresh and completed in the most splendid style by Pericles, and called the Parthenon. (/S^ec Parthenon.) Pericles at the same time adorned the approach to the west side of the Acropolis with the glorious Propylcea, and began to rebuild the Erechtheum in magnificent style. {See Erechtheum, Propyl^a.) There were several other sanctuaries on the Acropolis, that, for instance, of Artemis Brauronia, on the S.E. side of the Propylsea ; the beautiful little temple of Athene Nike to the S.W. ; and the Pandroseum adjoining the temple of Erechtheus. There were many altars, that of Zeus Hypatos for example, and countless statues, among them that of Athene Promachos, with votive offerings. Among the numerous grottos in the rock, one on the north side was dedicated to Pan, another to Apollo. Acta. The Latin term for official records of transactions, including Acta sendtUs and Acta popull liOmam, both established by Ctesar in his first consulship, B.C. 59. (1) Acta senatus. Csesar's law decreed that all transactions of the senate should be regu- larly written down and published, which had only been done hitherto in exceptional cases. The written reports were continued under the Empire, but Augustus put a stop to their publication. These documents were pre- served among the state archives and in the public libraries, where they could only be inspected by permission of the city pre- fect. At first a temporary duty imposed on individual senators, the business of reporting grew into a separate office held in rotation, with the title of Ab actis senatus, and the officer holding it had a considerable staff of writers under him, called Actuarii. (2) The Acta {diurna) jjopuli (Romani), or Acta publica, urbdna, urbis, diurna popiili, or simply Acta or Diurna, were an official daily chronicle, which, in addition to official reports of events in the imperial family, and state and city affairs, contained regulations by the magistrates, transactions and decrees of the senate, accidents, and family news communicated to the editors. They were publicly exhibited on a whitened board {album), which any one might read and copy; and there were men who made a business of multiplying and transmitting such news to the provinces. After a time the originals were placed among the state- archives for the benefit of those who wished to consult them. Actaeon {Gr. Aktaidn). Sonof Aristseusby AutSnoe, the daughter of Cadmus of Thebes, was trained by Chiron into a finished himtsman. Having either seen Artemis (Diana) when bathing, or boasted his su- periority in the chase, he was changed by her into a stag, and torn to pieces by his own hounds on Mount Cithseron. The hounds looked everywhere for their master, and would not be pacified till Chiron showed them an image of him. His statue was often set up on hills and rocks as a protection against the dangerous heat of the dog-days, of which probably the myth itself is but a symbol. Actoridae, Actoriones. See Moliones. Actuarius. See Acta. Acusilatis. See Logographi. Admetus. Son of Pheres, king of Pherse in Thessaly, who took part in the Caly- donian boar-hunt and the voyage of the Argo. Apollo served him for a time as a shepherd, either from love and as a reward for his piety, or to expiate a capital crime. When Admetus wooed Alcestis, the daughter of Pellas, and her father would only give her to one who should yoke lions and boars to a chariot, he fulfilled the task with Apollo's help ; indeed, the god even prevailed on the Moirai to release him from death, provided that any one would volunteer to die for him. He is at length seized with a mortal sickness, and his aged parents refusing to give up the remnant of their days for him, Alcestis dies for her husband, but is sent back to the upper world by Persephone, or, according to another story, is rescued out of the hands of Hades by Heracles. Adonis. Sprung, according to the com- mon legend, from the unnatural love of the Cyprian princess Myrrha (or Smyrna) for her father Cinyras, who, on becoming aware of the crime, pursues her with a sword ; but she, praying to the gods, is- changed into a myrtle, out of whose bark springs the beautiful Adonis, the beloved ADOPTION ADRASTUS. of Aphrodite. While yet a youth, he dies wounded by a boar in hunting ; the god- dess, inconsolable, makes the anemone grow out of his blood. As she will not give up her darling, and Persephone has fallen in love with him, Zeus decrees that he shall pass half the year with one and half with the other goddess, Adonis ( = lord) was properly a Syrian god of nature, a type of vegetation, which after a brief blossoming always dies again. The myth was embodied in a yearly Feast of Adonis held by women, which, starting from Byblos in Syria, the cradle of this worship, came by way of Cyprus to Asia Minor and Greece, then under the Ptolemies to Egypt, and in the imperial age to Rome. When the river Adonis by Byblos ran red with the soil washed down from Lebanon by the autumn rain, they said Adonis was slain by the boar in the mountains, and the water was dyed with his blood. Then the women set out to seek him, and having found a figure that they took to be his corpse, performed his funeral rites with lamentations as wild as the rejoicings that followed over his re- surrection were licentious. The feast was held, in the East, with great magnificence. In Greece the celebration was much simpler, a leading feature being the little " Adonis- gardens," viz. pots holding all kinds of herbs that come out quickly and as quickly fade, which were finally thrown into the water. At the court of Alexandria a figure in costly apparel was displa5'ed on a silver bier, and the next morning carried in procession by the women to the sea, and committed to the waves. In most places the feast was held in the hottest season. Adoption. (1) At Athens adoption took place either in the adopter's lifetime or by will ; or again, if a man died childless and intestate, the State interfered to bring into his house the man next entitled by the Attic law of inheritance as heir and adoptive son, so that the race and the religious rites peculiar to it might not die out. None but the independent citizen of respectable char- acter could adopt, and he only while he was as yet without male heirs. If there were daughters, one of them was usually betrothed to the adopted son, and the rest portioned off with dowries. If after that a male heir was born, he and the adopted had equal rights, (2) At Rome there were two kinds of adoption, both requiring the adopter to be a male and childless : Arroqdtio and Adoption proper. The former could only take place where the person to be adopted was independent {sui Jicris), and his adopter had no prospect of male offspring; at the instance of the pontifex, and after full proof of admissibility, it had to be sanctioned by the comitia curiata. Adoption proper applied to those still under patei-nal rule {patria potestas), the father selling his son by formal manciputio (q.v.) to the adopter, who then, the paternal power being thus abolished, claimed the son before the court as his own, and the father allowed him to be adjudged to him. By either transaction the person adopted passed completely over into the family and rank of the adopter, and naturally took his name in full, but with the addition of a second cognomen formed from his own former nomen gentile by the suffix -anus, e.g. Publius Cornelius Scipio -Emili- anus (son of Lucius vEmilius Paullus). Women too could be adopted, but not arrogated ; neither could they adopt. At the latter end of the Republic we find a testa- mentary Adoption in existence, which at first likewise produced a change of name, but not of status. Adrasteia. See Nemesis. Adrastus. Grandson of Bias, son of TalSus and Lysimache. In a quarrel between the three houses reigning in Argos, theBiantidae, Melampodidge, and Proetidse, he is driven out by Amphiaraus, who also killed his father, flees to his mother's father, king Polybusof SJcyon,and inherits his kingdom. But, reconciled to Amphiaraus, to whom he gives his sister Eriphyle, he returns and rules over Argos. During one stormy night a great scuffle is heard outside the palace : two fugitives, Polyneices son of (Edipus of Thebes, and Tydeus son of (Eneus of Calydon (one wrapped in a lion's hide, the other in a boar-skin), have sought refuge in the front-court, and are fighting for a night's lodging. Adrastus, coming forth, recognises the fulfilment of an oracle which had bidden him marry his daughters to a lion and a boar. He gives Argeia to Poly- neices and Dei'pyle to Tydeus, promising to conduct those princes home and rein- state them in their rights. Thus began under his lead the far-famed and fatal ex- pedition of the Seven against Thebes (q.v.). He alone escapes destruction by the help of his divine winged steed Areion. Ten years after, with the sons of the slain, the Epigdni (q.v.), and his own son ^gialeus, he again marches upon Thebes, takes and destroj's the town, but loses his son, and ADVOCATUS ^DILES. dies of grief on his way home at Megura, vv'here, as well as at Sicyon and Athens, he was worshipped as a hero. Adv6catus. At Rome, under the Repub- lic, a competent friend who gave his advice in a law-suit and came into court in person, not to speak (the patromts causes did that), bat to support the cause by his presence. In the imperial age the term was applied to the counsel who pleaded in court in the presence of the parties, for doing which he was allowed, after the time of Claudius, to take a moderate fee. AdytSn. In man}'^ Greek temples, a space set apart, sometimes underground, and only entered by the priest, a holy of holies. {See Temple.) .ffia. The realm of the mythic JEetes ; afterwards supposed to be Colchis on the Euxine. Mkcus {Gr, Aid k as). Ancestor of the heroic jEacidfB ; son of Zeus by .^glna, a daughter of the river-god Asopus in Phlius, whom the king of gods, in the form of an eagle, carried off to the island named after her, where her son was bora. As king of iEgina he ruled the Myrmidons, whom Zeus at his request created out of ants (Gr. myrniekes) to people his island, which, according to one story, was uninhabited, according to another, stricken with pestilence. Beloved by the gods for his piety, when a drought desolated Greece, his intercession obtained rain from Zeus ; and the grateful Greeks built him in ^gina a temple enclosed by a marble wall. Pindar says he helped Poseidon and Apollo to rear the walls of Troy, erecting that very portion which was afterwards scaled by his son Telamon, and his grandson NeoptSlemus. His justice caused him after death to be made a judge in the lower world. At -^gina and Athens he was worshipped as a demigod. His sons by Chiron's daughter Endeis were Telamon and Peleus, the fathers of Ajax and Achilles ; another son Phocus,by the Nereid Psamathe, was slain by his half-brothers, for which their father banished them. iEdiles. At Rome, two sets of magistrates, the Plebeian {(cdiles plebi's or plebeii) and the Curule {(v.diles ciirules). (1) The two Plebeian JEudiles were appointed B.C. 494 at the same time with the Tribuneship of the Plebs, as servants of the Tribunes, and at first probably nominated by them till 471, when, like them and under their presi- dency, they began to be elected by the whole body of the Plebs. They took their name from the temple {aides'^ of the ple- beian goddess Ceres, in which their official archives were kept. Beside the custody of the plebi-sclta, and afterwards of the senahis-consulta, it was their duty to make arrests at the bidding of the tribunes ; to carry out the death-sentences which they passed, by hurling the criminal dowu from the Tarpeian rock ; to look after the importation of corn ; to watch the traffic in the markets ; and to organize and superintend the Plebeian and Roman Games. Like the tribunes, they could only be chosen from the body of the Plebs, and wore no badge of office, not so much as the toga praitexta^ even after they became an authority independent of the tribunes. (2) The Curule .^^iles, from b.c, 360, were taken at first from the Patrician body alone, soon after from Patricians and Plebeians by turns, and lastly from either. Elected yearly in the comitia tributa under the presidency of a consul, they were, from the first, officers of the whole people, though low in rank ; they sat in the sella curulis^ from which they took their name, and wore as insignia the toga pra:texta. As in rank, so in the extent of their powers they stood above the Plebeian -Sdiles, being entitled to exercise civil jurisdiction in market busi- ness, where the latter could only impose a fine. The functions of the two were very much alike, comprising : (i) the superin- tendence of trade in the market, where they had to test weights and measures, and the quality of goods ; to keep down the price of provisions, both by prohibitive measures, especially against regraters of corn, and by the purchase and liberal distribution of food (cura annonm) ; and, as regards the money-market, to prosecute those who transgressed the laws of usury ; (ii) the care of the streets and buildings within the city and the circuit of a mile outside, by cleansing, paving, and improving the streets, or stirring up those who were bound to do it ; by seeing that the street traffic was unimpeded ; Ly keeping in repair the temples, public buildings, and works, suck as sewers and aqueducts, and seeing that these latter and the fire-apparatus were in working order ; (iii) a superintendence of health and morals, including the inspec- tion of baths, taverns, and low houses, the putting down of all that endangered public order and decency, e.g. games of hazard, breaches of sumptuary laws, introduction of foreign religions, etc. ; (iv) the exhi- bition of Games (of which the Roman and Megalensian devolved on the curule, the Plebeian on the plebeian sediles), the super- 8 ^DITUUS iEGINETAN SCULPTURES. vision of festivities at the feHcp, Latinoi and at games given by private men. The cost of the games given by themselves they defrayed partly out of a sum set apart by the State, but utterly inadequate to the large demands of later times ; partly out of the proceeds of fines which were also spent on public buildings, and partly out of their own resources. Thus the sediieship became an expensive luxury, and its enjoyment less and less accessible to men of moderate means. Ambitious men often spent in- credible sums in getting up games, to win the people's favour with a view to higher honours, though the sedileship was not necessary as a stepping-stone to these. In Cicero's time the legal age for the curule sedileship was thirty-seven. From B.C. 366 their number was unchanged, till Csesar in B.C. 44 added two more, the Plebeian JEdiles Ceriales^ to whom alone the cura annoncB and the management of the ludi Ceriales were entrusted. Under the Empire the office of sedile lost much in importance by some of its functions being handed over to separate officers, especially by the transference of its jurisdiction and its control of games to the praetors ; and it fell into such contempt, that even Augustus had to make a tenure of it, or the tribune- ship, a condition of eligibility to the prsetorship; and succeeding emperors often had to fill it by compulsion. In the 3rd century A.D. it seems to have died out alto- gether. JEditiius or .ffiditumus. The overseer of a temple that had no priest of its own (see Priests) ; also a major-domo. (Sec Slaves.) Aedon. Daughter of Pandareos,wife of the Theban king Zethus, and mother of Itylus. Envious at her sister-in-law, Niobe, having six sons, she tries to kill the eldest, but by mistake kills her own. She is changed by Zeus into a nightingale, and for ever bewails her son. Later legend makes her the wife of an artificer Polytechnus at Colophon in Lydia ; she stirs the anger of Hera by boasting that she lives more happily with her husband than the goddess with Zeus, Hera sends Eris ( = strife) to set on foot a wager between husband and wife, that whichever finishes first the piece of work they have in hand (he a chair, she a gar- ment) shall make the other a present of a slave-girl. By Hera's help Aedon wins, and Polytechnus in vexation fetches her sister, Chelidonis, on a false pretext, from her father's house, and having reduced her to submission on the way, and bound her to secrecy on pain of death, presents her to his wife unrecognised as a slave. One day Aedon overhears her sister lamenting her lot at a fountain, and concerts with her to slay Itylus, cook him, and set him before his father to eat. On learning the truth, Polytechnus pursues the sister to her home; but there the gods, to prevent more horrors, turn them all into birds, making Pandareos an osprey, his wife a kingfisher, Poly- technus a pelican, Chelidonis a swallow, and Aedon a nightingale. (Comp. Procne.) iEetes. Son of Helios and the Ocean nymph Perseis, brother of Circe and Pasiphae, king of JEa, father of Medea and Absyrtus by the ocean nymph Idyia. (See Argonauts and Medea.) .ffigeus. Son of Pandion (q.v. 2) and Pelia. Having with the help of his brothers Lycus, Pallas, and Nisus wrested Attica from the sons of his uncle Metion, who had driven out his father, he seized the sole sovereignty. Dethroned by his brother Pallas and his sons, he was rescued and restored by his son Theseus (q.v.). Having slain Androgeos, son of Minos (q.v.)^ he was conquered by that king, and compelled to send seven youths and seven maidens to Crete every nine years as victims to the Minotaur. When Theseus set out to free his country from this tribute, he agreed in case of success to exchange the black sail of his ship for a white ; but he forgot to do so, and -iEgeus seeing the old sail on the returning vessel, gave up his son for lost, and threw himself into the sea, which is supposed to have been named after him the ^gean. He had a heroUn or shrine at Athens. Childless by his first two mar- riages, and ascribing the fact to the anger of Aphrodite, he is said to have introduced her worship into Athens. (For his son Medus by Medea, see both.) .aEgiale (Grr. JEgialeia). Daughter of Ad- rastus of Argos, wife of Diomedes (q.v.). ^gialeus. Son of Adrastus of Argos, and one of the Epigoni (q.v.), who fell before Thebes. .ffigina, a nymph, daughter of the river- god Asopus, and, by Zeus, mother of -S^acus (q.v.). iEginetan Sculptures, The marble pedi- ments of Athena's temple at iEgina, dis- covered in 1811, restored by Thorwaldsen, and preserved in the Glyptothek at Munich. Their great value consists in the full light they throw on the condition of Greek art, especially of the iEginetan school, in B.C. 480. (Comp. Sculpture.) Both groups ^GIS ^LIUS. WEST PEDIMENT OF THE TEMPLE AT ^GINA. present, with lifelike accuracy and in strictly symmetrical distribution, combats of the Greeks before Troy, while Athena in the centre, as protectress of the Greeks, retains the rigid attitude of the ancient religious statues. Of the figures, originally twenty- two in number, ten in the west pediment representing the contest for the body of Patroclus, are complete, while the eleventh is preserved in fragments ; of those in the east pediment representing HerScIes and Telamon shielding the fallen Oicles from Laomedon, five remain and many fragments. .ffigis. The storm-cloud and thunder- cloud of Zeus, imagined in Homer as a shield forged by Hephaestus, blazing bright- ly and fringed with tassels of gold, in its centre the awe-inspiring Gorgon's head. When Zeus shakes the segis, it thunders and lightens, and horror and perdition fall upon those against whom it is lifted. It is borne not only by Zeus " the -^gis-bearei'," but by his daughter Athena, and occasionally by Apollo. As the same word means a goat- skin, it was explained in later times as the skin of the goat which had suckled Zeus in his infancy. At the bidding of the oracle, he drew it over his thunder-shield in the contest with the Giants, and fastened on it the Gorgon's head. When the aegis became a standing attribute of Athena, it was represented as a skin either shaggy or scaly, with a fringe of snakes and the Gorgon's head in the middle, and either serving the goddess as a breastplate, or hanging behind to screen the back and shoulders, or fastened like a shield on the left arm. .ffigisthns. Son of Thyestes and his daugh- ter Pelopia. At his birth he was exposed by his mother, and brought up by shepherds. His uncle Atreus, husband to Pelopia, finds him and brings him to Mycenae, thinking him to be his own son ; but .^gisthus and his real father contrive to kill him and seize the sovereignty of Mycenae. (See Atreus.) This position he loses again by his cousin Agamemnon's return from exile ; but during that hero's absence at Troy he seduces his wife Clytaeranestra, and with her help slays him treacherously on his return. In the eighth year after this deed comes young Orestes, and avenges his father's death by slaying ^gisthus. .ffigle. One of the Hesperides (q.v.). JEgyptus. Son of Belus and twin-brother of Danciiis (q.v.), who subdued the land of the Melampodgs (Blackfeet), and named it after himself. Ignorant of the fate of his fifty sons, he comes to Argos and there dies of grief at their death; another account represents his only surviving son as recon- ciling him to his brother. .ffilianus. (1) The Tactician, a Greek writer on war, about 100 A.D., composed a work dedicated to Trajan on the Greek order of battle, with special reference to Macedonian tactics ( TaktlkB Thcoria), which is extant both in its original and in an enlarged form. The original used falsely to be attributed to Arrian. (2) Claudius JSlianus, called the Sophist, a Roman of Praeneste, who wrote in Greek, lived at Rome in the 2nd century A.D. as teacher of rhetoric. His surviving works are : (1) 20 insignificant Peasants^ Letters, so called because attributed to Attic pea- sants ; (2) Vai'ice Historice or miscellanies, in 14 books, some preserved only in extracts, and (3) De Natura Animalium. The two last-mentioned are copious and valuable collections of all kinds of curiosities in human and animal life, mostly taken from earlier writings now lost. .ffilianxim Jus. See Jurisprudence. .ffilius. (1) ^lius Catus. See Jurispru- dence. (2) Lucius JElius Stilo PrcBconlnus, a Roman grammarian born at Lanuvium, about 150 B.C., an Sques, and friend of the poet Lucilius, to whom he dedicated his first book of Satires : surnamed Stilo 10 ^MILIUS PROBUS ^NEAS. (from stilus, pencil) because he wrote speeches for public men, and Praeconinus because his father was a crier (prtcco). He was so strongly attached to the party of Optimates, that in 100 B.C. he voluntarily accompanied Metellus Numidicus into exile. After his return he became the master of Varro and Cicero. Well versed in Greek and Latin literature, he applied himself chiefly to studying the oldest relics of his native tongue, commented on the Liturgies of the Salian priests and the Laws of the Twelve Tables, and earned the honour of having rescued the ancient Latin language from oblivion, and preserved some knowledge of it to posterity. Such scanty remnants of it as have come down to us in glossaries and the like seem to be taken chiefly from his writings, now all lost. (3) and (4) j3Slius Lamprldius and ZJliius Spartianus, Roman historians of the Empire. {See Scriptores Hist. Aug.) .ffimilius Probus, See Cornelius Nepos. .ffineas (Greek Aineias). (1) Son of Anchises and Aphrodite, Born on the mountains of Ida, he is brought up till his fifth year by his brother-in-law AlcathSus, or, according to another story, by the nymphs of Ida, and after his father's mis- fortune becomes ruler of Dardanos. Though near of kin to the royal house of Troy, he is in no hurry to help Priam till his own cattle are carried off by Achilles. Yet he is highly esteemed at Troy for his piety, prudence, and valour ; and gods come to his assistance in battle. Thus Aphrodite and Apollo shield him when his life is threatened by Diomed, and Poseidon snatches him out of the combat with Achilles. But Priam does not love him, for he and his are destined hereafter to rule the Trojans, The story of his escape at the fall of Troy is told in several ways : one is, that he bravely cut his way through the enemy to the fastnesses of Ida ; another, that, like Antenor, he was spared by the Greeks because he had always counselled peace and the surrender of Helena ; a third, that he made his escape in the general confusion. The older legend represents him as staying in the country, forming a new kingdom out of the wreck of the Teucrian people, and handing it down to his posterity. Indeed several townships on Ida always claimed him as their founder. The story of his emigrating, freely or under compulsion from the Greeks, and founding a new kingdom beyond seas, is clearly of post-Homeric date. In the earlier legend he is represented as settling not very far from home; then they extended his wander- ings to match those of Odysseus, always pushing the limit of his voyagings farther and farther west. The poet Stesichorus (about 600 B.C.) is, so far as we know, the first who brings him to Italy. Later, in face of the fast rising power of Rome, the Greeks conceived the notion that ^neas must have settled in Latium and become the ancestor of these Romans. This had become a settled conviction in their minds by the beginning of the 3rd century B.C., when Timaeus, in the Roman interest, com- pleted the Legend of iEneas, making room in it for Latian and Roman traditions ; and at Rome it was soon taken up and developed into a dogma of the state religion, repre- senting the antagonism between Greece and Rome, the new Troy. Prom that time verse and prose endeavoured to bring the various places with which the name of iEneas was connected into historic and geographic harmony, now building on a bare resemblance of names, now following kindred fables and the holy places of Aphrodite Aineias, a goddess of sea and seafaring, whose temples were generally found on the coasts. Thus by degrees the story took in' the main the shape so familiar to ns in YergiVs JiJne'id. -^ncas flees from the flames of Troy, bearing on his shoulders the stricken Anchises with the Penates, leading his boy Ascilnius and followed by his wife Creusa (who is lost on the way), till he comes to Mount Ida. There he gathers the remnant of the Trojans in twenty ships, and sails by way of Thrace and Delos to Crete, imagining that to be the destination assigned him by Apollo. But driven thence by pestilence, and warned in a dream that Italy is his goal, he is first carried out of his course to Epirus, and then makes his way to Sicily, where his father dies. He has just set out to cross to the mainland, when a hurricane raised by his enemy Juno casts him on the coast of Carthage. Here Juno and Venus have agreed that he shall marry Dido ; but at Jupiter's command he secretly quits Africa, and having touched at Sicily, Cumse, and Caieta (Gaeta), arrives, after seven years' wandering, at the Tiber's mouth. Latinus, king of Latium, gives him leave to build a town, and betroths to him his daughter Lavinia. Turnus, king of the Rutuli, to whom she had been promised before, takes up arms in alliance with Mezentius of Caere ; in twenty days the war is ended by ^neas defeating both. Accord- JEDLUS ^RARI UM. 11 ing to another version (not Vergil's), he dis- appeared after the victory on the Numicius, and was worshipped as the god Jupiter Indlges. The Roman version, in its earliest forms, as we see it in Nsevius and Ennius, brought ^neas almost into contact with the founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus being regarded as children of his daughter Ilia by the god Mars. In later times, to fill up duly the space between the Fall of Troy and the Founding of Rome, the line of Alban kings, descended from Silvius, his son by Lavinia, was inserted between him and Romulus. (2) JEneas, named " tJic Tactician,'' a Greek military author, wrote about 350 B.C. a book on the Art of War, of which only a small part on siege-operations, usually entitled PoliorkcWcon, is preserved ; it is clear in exposition, and contains much valuable historical information. .ffidlus. (1) Grandson of Deucalion, son of Hellen by the nymph Orse'is, brother of Dorus and Xuthus ; king of Magnesia in Thessaly, and mythic ancestor of the jEolian race, his sons being founders of the iEolian settlements spread all over Greece. By his wife Endrcte he has seven sons : Cretheus, founder of lolcus, and father, by Tyro, of iEson (Jason's father), of Pheres (founder of Pheree in Thessaly, and father of Admetus and Lycurgus), and of Amy- thaon (father of Bias and Melampus) ; Sisyphus, founder of Ephyra (Corinth), father of Glaucus and grandfather of Bellerophon ; Athcimds, king of Orchome- nus, father of Phrixus and Helle ; Sal- moneus, builder of Salmone in Elis, father of Tj^ro ; De'iOn, king of Phocis, father of Actor, Phylucus, and Cephalus; Magnes, father of Dictys and Polydectes, who colonize the island of Seriphus (see Per- seus) ; Perieres, king of Messenia, father of Aphareus and Leucippus. Also five daughters : Candce, mother by Poseidon of Epopeus and Aloeus (see Aloads) ; Alcyone {see Ceyx) ; PcisuUce ; Cdlyce, mother of Endymion ; and Perimcde. (2) In Homer a son of Hippotes, and a favourite of the gods, whom Zeus has ap- pointed keeper of the winds. On his ^olian island, floating in the far west, its steep cliff encircled by a brazen wall, he lives in unbroken bliss with his wife and his six sons and six daughters, whom he has wedded to one another. He hospi- tably entertains Odysseus, gives him the unfavourable winds shut up in a leathern bag, and a kindly breeze to waft him on his voyage. But when the hero's comrades open the bag, the winds break out and blow him back to the ^olian Isle ; then iEolus drives him from his door as one hate- ful to the gods. In the later legend he dwells on one of the ^olian isles to the north of Sicily, LlpSra or Strongyle, where, throned on a mountain, he holds the winds imprisoned in the hollow of the same ; yet he does not seem to have received real worship. He was, moreover, brought into genealogical connection with tEoIus of Thessaly, whose son Mimas begets Hippotes, and he (by Melanippe) a second A^lus, king of -Solis in ^tolia ; this ^Eolus gives his daughter Arne, the beloved of Poseidon, to a guest-friend from Metapontvim in Lucania, where she has two sons by the god, the tliird jEolus and Boeotus. These, adopted by the Metapontian, kill his wife AutSlyte and run away, Boeotus returning with Arne to his graildfather, and ^olus settling in the isles named after him, and founding the city of Lipara. JEora. Festival of the swing. Set ICARIUS, 1. .ffiquitas. At Rome, the personification of equity or fairness, as opposed to the justice that decides bj' the letter of the law. She was represented as a stately virgin with her left hand open, and often with a pair of scales. JErarii. By the constitution of Servius Tullius (see Cexturia), the JErarii were citizens not settled on land of their own, and therefore not included in any one of the property-classes founded on landownership. The term was also applied to those standing outside of the tribal union, who were ex- cluded fi'om the right of voting and from military service, and were bound to pay a poll-tax in proportion to their means. Citizens in the classes and tribes could be expelled from their tribe by the censors in punishment for any fault, and placed among the -^rarii. But when the latter were likewise admitted into the tribes (B.C. 308), being enrolled in the city tribes (B.C. 304), which were on that account less esteemed than the country ones, a penal transfer to the ^rarii consisted in expulsion from one's proper ti'ibe and removal to one of the city tribes till at least the next census. iErarium. The state-treasury of Rome, into which flowed the revenues ordinary and extraordinary, and out of which the needful expenses were defrayed. It was kept in the basement of the temple of Saturn, 12 AEROPE ^SCHINES. under the charge of the quaestors. A special reserve fund was the jErarium sanctiiis, in which the proceeds of receipts from the inanumission-tax (one twentieth of the freed slave's value) were deposited in gold ingots. When Augustus divided the pro- vinces into senatorial and impera- torial, there were tico chief ti-easuries. The senatorial treasury, which was still kept in the temple of Saturn, was left under the control of the senate, but only as a matter of formal right. Practically it passed into the hands of the emperors, who also brought the management of the treasuries under their own eye by appointing, instead of the qusestors, two prcnfecti cerarii taken from these who had served as pi^astors. Besides, they diverted into their own Fiscns all the larger revenues, even those that legally belonged to the ^rarium. When in course of time the returns from all the provinces flowed into the imperial treasury', the senatorial .Srarium continued to exist as the city treasury. The JErdriiun militare was a pension -fund founded by Augustus in A.D. 6, for disabled soldiers. Its management was en- trusted to three •proifccti cerarii inilitaris. It was maintained out of the interest on a considerable fund, and the proceeds of the heritage and sale duties. Aerope. Daughter to Catreus of Crete {q.v.)^ who was given iip by her father to Nauplius to be sold abroad. Married to Atreus (q.v.), she bore Agamemnon and Menelaus, but was thrown into the sea by her husband for her adultery with his brother Thyestes. JEsacus. Son of Priam by Arisbe, who had learnt the art of interpreting dreams from his maternal grandfather Merops, and being consulted by his father as to Hecuba's bad dreams before the birth of Paris, advised him to expose a child so clearly doomed to be the destruction of Troy. In despair at having caused the death of his wife Asterope (or Hes- peria) he threw himself into the sea, and was changed into a bird, the diver. JEschines. (1) The Socratic, son of a sausage-maker at Athens, lived in lhe most pinching poverty, but would not let it dis- courage him in his zeal for learning. Some time after the death of Socrates, to whom he had clung with faithful affection, in B.C. 399, ^schines, probably to mend his for- tunes, removed to Syracuse, and there found a patron in the younger Dionysius. On the • JCSCUINES THE OKATOR. (Naples, National Mnseuni.) fall of that tyrant, he returned to Athens, and supported himself by writing speeches for public men. He composed Dialogues, which were prized for their faithful de- ^SCHYLUS. 13 scriptions of Socrates, and the elegance of their style. Three pseudo-Platonic dia- logues are conjecturally ascribed to him ; That Virtue can be Taught; Axidchus, or on Death, and Ei'yxias, or on Riches. But it is doubtful whether they are really from his hand. (2) ^schines the Orator, born at Athens B.C. 3S9, in a low station. As a youth, he assisted his father in keeping an elementary school, then acted as clerk to several in- ferior magistrates, was for a time an actor in third-rate parts, till an accident removed him from the stage, when he became secre- tary to the esteemed orators and statesmen Aristophon and Eubulus, at whose recom- mendation he was twice elected to a govern- ment clerkship. Having thus acquired a sound knowledge of the laws and of legal proceedings, and being gifted with consider- able talent, fine elocution and a dignified manner, to which his experience on the stage had contributed, he now came forward as a public speaker, and soon became an important personage. As a member of the embassy sent to Philip of Macedon for the conclusion of peace, B.C. 347, he was won over by the king to second the plans which proved so fatal to Athens, and was therefore accused of high treason by Timarchus and Demosthenes in B.C. 345 ; but he managed to clear himself by a triumphant attack on the private life of Timarchus. In B.C. 342 Demosthenes, who hated him, the head of the Macedonian party, as bitterly as he was hated by him, renewed the charge in his oration On the False Embassy, ^schines, however, met it successfully by an equally brilliant speech bearing the same title. His unpatriotic conduct occasioned the war with Philip, which led to the overthrow of the Athenians and Thebans at Chseronea, 338, and set the seal to the Macedonian supre- macy over Greece. His own fall at last was brought on by his hatred of Demosthenes, ^schines had previously brought a charge of illegality against Ctesiphon for proposing the distinction of a golden crown for Demosthenes. The charge was repeated B.C. 330, in a brilliant oration nominally directed^ (7a msf Cte siphon, hwi really aimed at his old rival. He was completely crushed by Demosthenes' great speech On the Croicn, and being condemned to pay a fine of 1,000 drachmas, went into voluntary exile at Rhodes, where he is said to have opened a school of oratory. Thence he removed to Samos, and died B.C. 314. Beside the three orations named (Against Timarchus, On the False Embassy, Against Ctesiphon), we have under his name a collection of twelve letters professing to be written from Rhodes, but really forged by a later hand. Among the orators of his time ^schines ranks next to Demosthenes. His orations are elabor- ated with the utmost care and reflexion, they have fulness, force, smoothness, and grace ; but lack the terseness, the rhythm, and the moral inspiration of those of Demosthenes. They were spoken of in antiquity as the Three Graces. iEsch^ltis. The earliest of the three great tragic poets of Greece, son of Euphorion. He was born at Eleusis, near Athens, B.C. 525, of an old and noble stock, fought at Marathon, Salamis and Platsese, and in his 25th year appeared as a writer of tragedies and rival of Pratlnas and Choerilus, though he did not win his first victory till 488 B.C. About 476 he lived in Sicily, at the court of Hiero of Syracuse, and composed his jEtnaans for the consecration of the city of ^tna, founded by that king in the place of the ancient Critana. On his return to Athens he was beaten by the young Sophocles with his very first play, but vanquished him again the next year with the Tetralogy of which the Seven against Thebes formed a part. After the performance of his Oresteia, B.C. 459, he quitted home once more, per- haps in disgust at the growing power of the democracy ; and after three years' residence at Gela in Sicily, was killed, says one story, by an eagle dropping a tortoise on his bare skull. The inhabitants of Gela buried his remains, and honoured them with a splendid monument. At a later time the Athenians, on the motion of the orator Lycurgus, placed a brazen statue of him, as well as of Sophocles and Euripides, in the theatre ; by a decree of the people a chorus was granted for every performance of his plays, and the garland of victory voted him as though he were still living among them. His trage- dies, like those of the other two, were pre- served in a special standard copy, to guard them against arbitrary alterations. His son Euphorion was also an esteemed tragic poet, so was his sister's son Philocles and his descendants for several generations. (See Tragedy.) The number of ^schylus's plays is stated as 90, of which 82 are still known by title, but only 7 are preserved : (1) The Persians, performed in 473 B.C., was named from the chorus. Its subject was the same as that of Phrynichus' Phoenissa', the defeat of Xerxes at Salamis, but was differently treated. (2) The Seven 14 ^SCULAPIUS iESOPUS. against Thebes, part of a Tetralogj', em- bracing the cycle of Theban legend, of which La'his and CEdipus formed the first two pieces, and the satyric drama Sphinx the conclusion. (3) The Suppliants, the re- ception of Danaus and his daughters at Argos, evidently part of another Tetralogy, .and, to judge by the simple plot and its .old-fashioned treatment, one of his earliest works. (4) Prometheus Bound, part of a 'Trilogy, the Prometheia, whose first and last pieces were probably Prometheus the Fire-bnnger and Prometheus Unbound. Lastly, the Orcsteia, the one Trilogy which has survived, consisting of the three tragedies, (5) Agamemnon, the murder of •iE5CUVI-U3. (Rome, Capitoline Museum.) that hero on his return home ; (6) The Chocph.6rce, named from the chorus of .captive Trojan women offering libations at Agamemnon's tomb, in which Orestes avenges himself on ^Egisthus and Clytsem- nestra; and (7) The Eumentdes, in which Orestes, pursued by the Furies, is acquitted by the AreopSgus at Athens. This Trilogy, composed B.C. 458, and probably the last work exhibited by jEschylus at Athens, gives us an idea of the whole artistic con- ception of the poet, and must be looked upon as one of the greatest works of art ever produced. The st5de is marked by sub- lim.ity and majesty, qualities partly attri- butable to the courageous and serious temper of the time, but chiefly the offspring of the poet's individuality, which took delight in all that is great and grand, and loved to express itself in strong, sonorous words, an accumulation of epithets, and a profusion of bold metaphors and similes. His view of the universe reveals a profoundly philo- sophic mind, so that the ancients call him a Py thagorean ; at the same time he is pene- trated by a heartfelt piety, which conceives of the gods as powers working in the interest of morality. However simple the plot of his plays, they displaj' an art finished to the minutest detail. His Trilogies either embraced one complete cycle of myths, or united separate legends according to their moral or mythical affinity ; even the satyric dramas attached to the Tragedies stand in intimate connexion with them, .^schylus is the true creator of Tragedy, inasmuch as, by adding a second actor to the first, he originated the genuine dramatic dialogue, which he made the chief part of the play by gradually cutting down the lyrical or choral parts. Scenic apparatus he partly created and partly completed. He intro- duced masks for the players, and by gay and richly embroidered trailing garments, the high buskin, head-dresses, and other means, gave them a grand imposing aspect, above that of common men ; and he fitted up the stage with decorative painting and machinery. According to the custom of the time, he acted in his own plays, practised the chorus in their songs and dances, and himself invented new dance figures. iEsculapius. See Asclepius. iEson, son of Cretheus by Tyro {sec .SIoLUS, l),kingof lolcosiuThessaly, was de- posed by his half-brother Pelias, and killed while his son Jason was away on the Argo- nautic Expedition. {Comp. Argonauts.) ^sopus (Gr. Aisopos). The f amo us writer of fables, the first author who created an independent class of stories about animals, so that in a few generations his name and person had become typical of that entire class of literature. In course of time, thanks to his plain, popular manner, the story of his own life was enveloped in an almost inextricable tissue of tales and traditions, which represent him as an ugly hunchback and buffoon. In the Middle Ages these were woven into a kind of romance. A Phrygian by birth, and living in the time of the Seven Sages, about 600 B.C., he is said to have been at first a slave to several masters, till ladmon of Samos set him free. That he next lived at the court of Croesus, and being cent by him on an ^SYMNETiE AGANIPPE. 15 embassy to Delphi, was murdered by the priests there, is pure fiction. Under his name were propagated in all parts of Greece, at first only by tradition in the mouth of the people, a multitude of prose tales teach- ing the lessons of life under the guise of fables about animals. We know how Socrates, during his last days in prison, was engaged in turning the fables of iEsop into verse. The first written collection ap- pears to have been set on foot by Demetrius of Phalerum, B.C. 300. The collections of jEsop^s Fables that have come down to us are, in part, late prose renderings of the version in chpliambics by Babrius (q.v.), which still retain here and there a scrap of verse ; partly products of the rhetorical schools, and therefore of very different periods and degrees of merit. JEsymnetaB (" regulators," "judges"). A name given in some Greek cities to the ordinary magistrates and judicial function- aries. In earlier times the term was also applied to persons appointed for a definite term (or until the completion of their task) for putting an end, by legislation, to in- ternal quarrels. Sometimes an cesymnetes was voluntarily chosen by the community for life, and entrusted with supreme and unlimited power. The office of cvsymnctcs may to a certain extent be compared with the Roman dictatorship, though the latter was never conferred without a strict limi- tation of time. JEthra, daughter of Pittheus, king of Troezen, mother of Theseus by JEgeus or, according to another account, by Poseidon. While Homer merely mentions her as a servant of Helen at Troy, later legend adds that, when the Dioscuri took Aphidnse and set free their sister whom Theseus had carried off, they conveyed ^thra to Sparta as a slave, whence she accompanied Helen to Troy ; and that on the fall of that city, they brought her grandsons Acamas and Demophoon back to Athens. Aetion. A Greek painter in the latter half of the 4tli century B.C., especially famed for his picture of Alexander the Great's wedding with the beautiful Roxana, B.C. 328. Aetius (Gr. Actios). Of Amida in Mesopo- tamia, a Greek physician of the 6th century A.D., who lived at Constantinople as im- perial physician in ordinary. He was the author of a great miscellany on pathology and diagnosis in sixteen books. Afranius {Lucius). The chief master of the Fabula TogCita. {Sec Comedy.) Flour- ished B.C. 100. In his pictures of Roman life he took Menander for his model, and with great success. Cicero calls him witty and a master of language. To judge b}'' the number of the titles of his comedies which have survived (more than forty, with scanty fragments), he was a prolific author; from them we gather that his subjects were mostly taken from family life. His plays kept possession of the stage longer than those of most comic poets, being still acted in Nero's time. Agamedes. Son of Erginus of Orcho- menus, and a hero of the building ai't, like his brother Trophonius {q.v.). AgS-memnon. The Atreid, i.e. son of Atreus, and brother of Menelaus. Driven from Mycense after the murder of Atreus (q.v.) by Thyestes, the two young princes fly to Sparta, where king Tyndareos gives them his daughters in marriage, Clytsem- nestra to Agamemnon, and Helena to Menelaus. While the latter inherits his father-in-law's kingdom, AgSmemnon not only drives his uncle out of Mycense, but so extends his dominions that in the war against Troy for the recovery of Helena the chief command is entrusted to him as the mightiest prince in Greece. He contributes one hundred ships manned with warriors, beside lending sixty to the Arcadians. (On the immolation of his daughter Iphigeneia at Aulis, sec Iphigeneia.) In Homer he is one of the bravest fighters before Troy ; yet, by arrogantly refusing to let Chryses, priest of Apollo, ransom his daughter Chryseis, who had fallen to Agamemnon as the prize of war, he brings a plague on the Grecian host, which he afterwards almost ruins by ruthlessly carrying off Briseis the prize of Achilles, who henceforth sits sulking in his tents, and refuses to fight. After the fall of Troy, Agamemnon comes home with his captive, the princess Cassandra ; but at supper he and his comrades are murdered by his wife's lover ^Egisthus, while the queen herself kills Cassandra. Such is Homer's account; the tragic poets make Clytsem- nestra, in revenge of her daughter's immo- lation, throw a net over Agamemnon while bathing, and kill him with the help of ^gisthus. In Homer his children are Iphianassa, Chrysothemis, Laodice, and Orestes; the later legend puts Iphigeneia and Electra in the place of Iphianassa and Laodice. Agamemnon was worshipped as a hero. Aganippe, a spring sacred to the Muses on Mount Helicon, near Thespise in Bceotia, 16 AG AST AS AGES. whose water imparted poetic inspiration. Also the nymph of the same, daughter of the river-god Permessus. " TllK BORGIIESE GLADIATOR BY AGASIAS. (raris, Louvre.) Agasias. A Greek artist of Ephesus, probably in the 1st century B.C. The Borghcse Gladiator in the Louvre is from his hand. {Sec Sculpture.) AgS,tharchIdes. A Greek grammarian of Cnidus, who lived at Alexandria in the 2nd century B.C. as tutor, and afterwards guardian, of a prince. He composed several historical works (one on the successors of Alexander), a well written performance, and a description of the Red Sea in five books. Of the former only a few fragments remain, of the last some considerable ex- tracts from the first and fifth books. AgS,tharchus. A Greek painter of Samos, the inventor of scene-painting. {See Painting.) Ag^thlas. Of Myrina in Asia Minor, a Greek poet and historian, born about 530 A.D., lived at Constantinople as a jurist, and died about 582. By his Kyklos, a collec- tion of his own and contemporary poems, topically arranged in eight books, he helped to originate the Greek Anthology {q.v.), which still contains 101 epigrams by him. In his last years he wrote, in a laboured florid style, a history of Justinian in five books, treating of the years a.d. 552-8 in continuation of Procopius. AgS,th6daBm6n ( = good daemon). In Greek mythology a good spirit of the cornfields and vinej'ards, to whom libations of un- mixed wine were made at meals. In works of art he is represented as a youth, holding in one hand a horn of plenty and a bowl, in the other a poppy and ears of corn. {Comp. EVENTUS.) AgS-thon. A tragic poet of Athens, born B.C. 448, a friend of Euripides and Plato, universally celebrated for his beauty and refined culture. The banquet he gave in honour of his dramatic victory of B.C. 417 is immortalized in Plato's SymposWn. He was, together with Euripides, at the court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, and pro- bably died there about B.C. 402. He appears to have carried still further the rhetorical manner of Euripides, adopting entirely the views of the sophist Gorgias; and his nambj'-pambj^ style is ridiculed by Aristo- phanes. On the stage he introduced several innovations : he was the first to make the chorus a mere intermezzo, having nothing to do with the action, and in his tragedy of Anthos ( = flower) he invented both characters and plot for himself, instead of resorting to old myths. Agave (Gr. Ag'mie). Daughter of Cadmus and wife of Echion. She, with other women, in a bacchanalian frenzy tore to pieces her own son Pentheus {q.v.). Agdistis. See Rhea. Ages. Since the time of Hesiod, the Greeks, and the Romans after them, gene- rally assumed the existence of four ages. (1) The age of gold, in which Kronos or Saturnus was king. During this period mankind enjoyed per- petual youth, joy, and peace undisturbed, reaping in their fulness the fruits which theearth spontaneously brought forth. Death came upon them like a soft slumber ; and after it they became good da'jn6nes, watching men like guardians in their deeds of justice and injustice, and hovering round them with gifts of wealth. (2) The golden age was succeeded by that of silver. This was inferior to the golden both in physical and mental force. The people of the silver age remained for a hundred j'-ears in the condition of children, simple and weakly. Even if they attained maturity, their folly and arrogance pre- vented their living long. They continued to exist after death as spirits, living be- neath the earth, but not immortal. (3) Zeus then created the brazen age, so * AGAVE WITH THE HEAD 01' PENTHEUS. (Gem in British Museum.) AGELA AGER PUBLICUS. 17 named because in it all implements were made of brass. The men, furnished with gigantic limbs and irresistible physical strength, destroyed each other by deeds of violence, and perished at their death. (4) The iron age succeeded. This was the generation of work and laborious agri- culture. Care and toil fill up the day and night ; truth and modesty are departed ; mis- chief alone survives, and there is nothing to arrest the progress of decay. Ag61a. In Crete, an association of youths for joint training ; Ageldtes, the captain of an agela. {See Educatiok, 1.) A^filadas. A Greek artist of the first half of the 5th century B.C., famed for his images of gods and Olympian victors, wrought in metal. His reputation was much enhanced by the fact that Phidias, Myron, and Poly- clitus were his pupils. Agema. The guard in the Macedonian army ; in which the cavalry were a troop {lie) formed of noblemen's sons who had grown up as pages in the royal sex'vice, while the infantry consisted of the hypaspistce {q.v.), to whom the argyrnspides {q.v.), were added later as heavy infantry. Agenor. (1) Son of Poseidon and Libya, king of Phoenicia, brother to Belus, and father of Cadmus and Eui'opa {q.v.). (2) Son of Antenor by Theano, a priestess of Athena, and one of the bravest heroes of Troy. In Homer he leads the Trojans in storming the Greek entrenchments, rescues Hector when thrown down by Ajax, and even enters the lists with Achilles, but is saved from imminent danger by Apollo. In the post-Homeric legend he dies by the hand of Neoptolemus. Ager Publicus ( = common land). The Latin name for the State domains, formed of territory taken from conquered states. The Romans made a practice, upon every new acquisition of land, of adding a part of it, usually a third, to the domain. So far as this land was under culture, por- tions of it were sometimes assigned to single citizens or newly-founded colonies in fee simple, sometimes sold by the quaestors on the condition that, though the purchaser might bequeath and alienate it, it still re- mained State property. In token of this it paid a substantial or merely nominal rent {vectigal)^ and was called agcr privcdus vcctigdlisque or qucestdrms. The greater part was left to the old occupiers, yet not as free property, but as rent-paying land, and was called ager publicus stipend iai'ius datus assignatus ; the rest remained under D. C. A. State management, and was let by the censors. Of uncultivated districts, the State, by public proclamation, gave a pro- visional right of seisin, occupdtio, with a vicAv to cultivation, in consideration of a tithe of the corn raised and a fifth of the fruit, and reserving its right of resumption. Such seisin was called possessio. It could be bequeathed or otherwise alienated, yet never became private property, but re- mained a rent-paying and resumable pro- perty of the State. Though the Plebeians had as good a right to occupy lands won by their aid as the Patricians, j'et in the early times of the Republic this right was exercised by the latter alone, partly because they had the greater command of means and men, and partly because by the right of the stronger they excluded the Plebeians from benefiting by the Ager Publicus. Against this usurpation the Plebeians waged a bitter and unbroken warfare, claiming not only a share in newly conquered lands, but a wholesale redistri- bution of existing possessiones, while the Patricians strained every nerve to maintain their vested interests, and managed to thwart the execution of all the enactments passed from time to time in favour of the Plebeians. Even the law of the tribune Gains Licinius Stolo (B.C. 377), limiting possessiones to 500 iugera (acres) per man, and ordering the distribution of the re- mainder, were from the first eluded by the possessoves, who now included both Patri- cians and well-to-do Plebeians. All possible means were employed, as pretended deeds of gift and other similar devices. The threatened extinction of the Italian pea- santry by the great wars, and the rapid growth of huge estates {latifundia) worked by slaves, occasioned the law of Tiberius Gracchus (b.c. 133), retaining the Licinian limit of 500 acres, but allowing another 250 for each son, and granting compensation for lands resumed by the State. The land thus set free, and all the Ager Publicus that had been leased, except a few domains indis- pensable to the State, were to be divided among poor citizens, but on the condition that each allotment paid a quit-rent, and was not to be alienated. But again, the the resistance of the nobility practically reduced this law to a dead letter ; and the upshot of the whole agrarian movement stirred up by Tiberius and his brother Gains Gracchus was, that the wealthy Romans were not. only left undisturbed in their possessiones, but were released C 18 AGESANDER AaRICULTURE. from paying rent. In the civil wars of Sulla the Ager Publicus in Italy, which had been nearly all used up in assignations, received so vast an increase by the ex- termination of whole townships, by pro- scriptions and confiscations, that even after all the soldiers had been provided for, there remained a portion undistributed. Under the Empire there was hardly any left in Italy ; what there was, whether in Italy or in the provinces, came gradually under the control of the imperial exchequer. Agesander (Grr. Agesandrds). A Greek artist of the school of Rhodes. The cele- brated group of the Laocoou is the joint workof Agesander, Athenodorus, and Poly- dorus. {See Laocoon.) Agger. In Roman siege-works, the mound or embankment raised against an enemy's walls. {See Sieges.) Aglaia. One of the Graces. {See Charites.) Agnatio. The Latin name for the relationship of real or adoptive descent from one father, which was necessarily expressed by identity of clan-name {see Name, 2.) A brother and sister were agndti, but her children were no longer agnati to his. At first agnati alone wer<^ entitled to inherit property or act as guardians; it was but gradually that the cogndti {q.v.) came to have a ])lace by their side, till Justinian abolished the right of agnates, and brought that of cognates to complete recognition. Agon. The Greek name for a musical ( = artistic) or gymnastic contest. The um- pires who conducted them, and gave away the prizes, were called Agonothctce. (On those who officiated at scenic games in Athens, see Drama.) At Rome such con- tests, modelled on those of the Greeks, became frequent before the fall of the Re- public ; under the Empire they came round at periods of several years, like the great Grecian games. The most famous of all, which held its ground to the end of anti- quity, was the Agon Capitollrms, founded by Domitian in 86 A.D.,and recurring every four years. He had an Odeum iq.v.) built for the musical performances, and a StS,di6n for the athletic combats, both in the Campus Martins. Another great Agon was held in 248 a.d. in honour of the city having stood for a thousand years. Agonothetes. See Agon. AgSra ( = assembly). The Greek name for the market-place, a consecrated open space, which in coast towns usually lay on the seaside, in inland towns at the foot of the castle hill. As the centre of the city life, commercial, political, and religious, it was adorned with temples, statues, and public buildings, and planted with trees, especially planes. When newly built or rebuilt in late times, it was generally square, and sur- rounded by colonnades. In most towns it was the place for assemblies of the people. Agdracritus. A Greek artist of Paros, who lived in the latter half of the 5th century B.C., and was a favourite pupil of Phidias. His noblest work was considered to be the statue of Nemesis, 40 feet in height, which some judges, on account of its excellence, took for a production of the elder artist. In any case it was said that Phidias had allowed the name of Agora- critus to be inscribed on several of his works. Agorandmus ( = market-master). In many Greek towns a magistrate somewhat re- sembling the Roman gedile. At Athens ten agoranomi were chosen by lot every year, five for the city, and five for the port of Piraeus. They looked especially after the retail trade, gave strangers leave to engage in it, tested weights and measures, as well as the quality of goods, confiscating and destroying what was spoilt; they settled dis- putes between buyers and sellers on the spot, or, if a suit at law was necessary, presided over it [Aristotle's Const, of Athens, c. 51]. Agraulos. Daughter of Cecrops {q.v.). Agriculture. (1) Agriculture was in Greece a leading industry, at least as earlj^ as Homer. The soil was stubborn, fertile plains being comparatively few, and mountains and rocky ground preponderating. But, favoured by a genial climate, agricultvire was carried on almost everywhere with a zeal to which the wants of a dense population added their stimulus. That it was regarded as. the very groundwork of social life is shown by the fact that its guardian goddess Demeter (Lat. Ceres) presided also over wedlock and law. It was looked upon as the most legitimate way of earning a livelihood. It was carried to the highest pitch in the Peloponnesus, where every scrap of culti- vable soil was made to yield its crop, as may be seen to this day by the artificial terraces that scarp every mountain-slope. Much care was bestowed on irrigation. Scarcity of water was supplemented by artificial means; provision was made against irregular bursts of mountain torrents by embanking and regulating the natural out- lets, while moist lands were channelled and AGRICULTURE. 19 stagnant waters drained. Water was dis- tributed everywhere by ditches and canals, under the supervision of State officials ; and laws of ancient date guarded against the unfair ii^e of a water-course to a neiglibour's damage. Tlie land was mainly cultivated by slaves and serfs, though field-labour was not deemed dishonourable to the freeman, ex- cept where law and custom forbade his engaging in any sort of handicraft, as at Sparta. In some countries, especially Ar- cadia, the old-world plan of every man till- ing his field with his own hand remained in force to the latest times ; and even eminent statesmen like Philopoemen would not give it up. Four kinds of grain were chiefly grown : wheat, barley, and two kinds of spelt, to all of which the climate allowed two sowings in the year, beside millet, sesame, various leguminous plants, and several sorts of herbage for fodder. With no less . diligence was Greek husbandry ap- plied to gardening, especially to the cultiva- tion of the vine. This, while steadily pui'- sued on the mainland, was developed to an extraordinary extent in the islands, most of which, owing to their mountainous character, did not alFord their inhabitants sufficient arable soil. In olive-culture no part of Greece competed with Attica, which also produced the best figs, the fruit most widely cultivated. Kitchen-gardening was prac- tised on the largest scale in Boeotia. Con- sidering the enormous consumption of flowers in wreaths, the rearing of them, es- pecially of the rose, lily, narcissus, and violet, must have been a lucrative business, at least in the neighbourhood of great towns. Moadow-farming was of next to no import- ance, few districts having a soil adapted for it, and such meadows as there were being used' for pasture rather than haymaking. (2) In Italy. In Italy also the existence of the community was regarded as based upon agriculture. This is proved by the practice of marking the site of the future walls of a new town by a furrow drawn with the plough. At Rome especially, the body of irremovable peasantry long formed the core of the commonwealth. In political life the free peasant was the only factor held in account, and accordingly in war the object was to increase the number of free peasants by planting them out on as much of borderland as could be wrested from the enemy. In early times agriculture was thought the only respectable calling in ■which a Roman citizen could engage ; and manual labour on the land was held in un- qualified esteem and as bringing no disgrace even upon persons in high place. Husbandry was mainly directed to the raising of grain, the ordinary cereal being at first spelt, till, in the 5th centuiy B.C., wheat began to take a place beside it. They also cultivated barley, millet, and leguminous plants, as well as turnips, greens, and herbs for fodder. On irrigation and drainage the Italians bestowed much pains. They had no lack of grass-lands, either for pasture or haymaking ; and from an early time these were artificially watered. The cultivation of the vine and olive extended as that of grains declined (see below); so did the growth of orchard-fruit, which, under the late Republic and the early Empire, received a vast expansion both from the improve- ment of native kinds and the introduction and naturalization of many foreign fruits. In earlier times the prime favourite among fi'uit trees had been, as in Greece, the nutritious fig. Agriculture proper was ruined by the acquisition of the fii'st extra- Italian possessions, Sicily and Sardinia ; for the corn supplied by the provincials as tri- bute in kind began to be used, not only in provisioning the armies, but in feeding the urban population. {See Annona.) As the State, to humour the rabble of Rome, sold this corn at the lowest possible prices, sometimes even below its value, the growth of cereals ceased to be profitable ; farmers kept it down to a minimum, and took to cattle-breeding or raising wine and oil. These branches of industry not only flou- rished in the face of competition, but with judicious management were highly remu- nerative. The death-blow was given to the Italian peasantry by the increasing employ- ment of slaves and the absorption of small farms in large estates {see LATiFUNDiUJki). On these, besides the growth of wine, oil, and fruit, the breeding of birds, game, and cattle was carried on, as well as woodcraft, and special industries, pottery, charcoal- burning, and others. Farming implcinents^ in addition to the plough {q.v.) usually drawn by oxen, which was much the same among Greeks and Romans, and always very imperfect, in- cluded a great variety of spades, hoes, and mattocks, and among Romans the harrow, the use of which among the Greeks is doubted. The season for sowing all cereals was usually autumn. At harvest the stalkrj were cut with the sickle about half-way down, and the rest left standing as stubble^ 20 AGRIMENSORES ATAS. to be either burnt or utilized for manure. The process of threshing {q.v.) was very- defective. (For nucient works on hus- bandry, see Geoponici.) Agrimen sores. The Latin name for land- surveyoi's, otherwise called groindtici, from groma, their measuring instrument. This consisted of two dioptric rods crossing each other at right angles and fastened on an iron stand so as to turn horizontally; on the four arms stood four upright dioptrce, with threads stretched across the holes, and in taking observations the threads of two opposite dioptra had to cover each other. The measuring was done on the same prin- ciple as the marking-out of a templuni by the Augurs (q.v.), viz. by drawing in the centre of the piece of land two lines inter- secting at right angles, one from north to south (cardo maxhnus), the other from east to west (decuindnus maximus) ; the further division of the ground was effected by parallels to these lines {llmltes). It was not until the imperial period that land- surveying became a separate profession. Then surveyors were prepared in special schools and appointed by the State, both for quartei'-master's duty in camp and for measurements under Government; they decided as judges in fixing boundaries, and were consulted as specialists in dis- putes affecting land. Thus a literature arose, half mathematical, half legal, the remains of which extend over the first six centuries A.D. The earliest of these gro- tnatici, or writers on land-measurement, is Frontinus {q.v,), from whose work, written from 81-9G a.d., and dealing more with the legal side of the subject, extracts are pre- served in the commentary of Aggenus Urbicus. Hyginus, Balbus, and probably Siciilus Flaccus, flourished in the time of Trajan ; later still, Nipsus, Innocentius, and Aggenus. Asrippa (Marcus Vipsdnius). Born B.C. 655, died B.C. 12. He was the friend, son-in- law, general, and minister of Augustus. He was also a speaker and writer of some re- pute. Under his supervision was carried out the great survey of the Roman empire which Csesar had begun in 44 B.C. With the help of the materials thus obtained he constructed a circular Map of the "World. About B.C. 7, Augustus had it engraved on a large scale in marble, and set up for public use in the colonnade built by Agrippa's sister Polla (portlcus Polloi). It may be regarded as the source and model of all STicceeding aids to geography, especially the Itineraries (q.v.) and the Peutinger Table. A book on the results of the sur- vey, which Agrippa had begun writing, * COIK OF agrippa's THIRD CONSULSHIl', B.C. 27.. (Berlin Museum.) Ohv. Head of AgrippB, woarinp the corona classica. Rev. Neiitutie with Dolphin and Tiident. S C'= Sonatas consulto. was continued and published, by order of Augustus, under the title of Cliorogrdphia. Agyieus. A title of Ap9llo (q.v.) as god of streets and highways. Alas (Lat. Aiax), (1) Son of the Locrian king Oileus, hence called the Locrian or Lesser Aias in contrast to the Telamonian. In forty ships he led the Locrians to Troy,, where, notwithstanding his small stature and light equipment, he distinguished him- self beside his gigantic namesake, especially in the battle by the ships and that over the body of Patroclus. He Avas renowned for hurling the spear, and as the swiftest runner next to Achilles. On his voyage home,, to appease the anger of Athena, he suifered shipwreck on the Gyrsean rocks off the island of Myconos or (according to another story) on the southernmost point of Euboea. Poseidon indeed rescued him on the rocks ,• but when he boasted of having escaped against the will of the gods, the sea-king with his trident smote off the rock on which he sat, and he sank in the waves. Later accounts say that the goddess's anger fell upon him because, at the taking of Troy,, when Cassandra had taken refuge at her altar and embraced her image, he tore her away by force, so that the statue felL Though Agamemnon took the maiden from him, the Greeks left the outrage on the- goddess unpunished, and on their way home she wreaked her wrath on the whole fleet. He, like other heroes, was said to be still living with Achilles in the island of Leuce. The Locrians worshipped him as a hero, and always left a vacant place for him in the line of battle, (2) Son of Telamon of Salamis, and half- brother of Teucer; called the Great Aias, because he stood head and shoulders higher AIDES ALCAMENES, 21 than the other Greek heroes. He brings twelve ships to Troy, where he proves liim- selt" second only to Achilles in strength and bravery ; and while that hero holds aloof from the fight, he is the mainstay of the Achseans, especially when the Trojans have taken their camp by storm and are pushing the battle to their ships. In the struggle over the corpse of Patroclus, he and his namesake the son of Oileus cover Menelaiis and MeriSnes while they carry off their fallen comrade. When Thetis offered the arms and armour of Achilles as a prize for the worthiest, they were adjudged, not to Aias, but to his only competitor Odysseus. Trojan captives bore witness that the cunning of Odysseus had done them more harm than the valour of Achilles. Aias thereupon, according to the post-Homeric legend, killed himself in anger, a feeling he still cherished against Odysseus even in the lower world. The later legend relates that he was driven mad by the slight, mistook the flocks in the camp for his adversaries, and slaughtered them, and on coming to his senses again, felt so mortified that he fell on his sword, the gift of Hector after the duel between them. Out of his blood sprang the purple lily, on wh^se petals could be traced the first lettei s of his name. At, At. His monument stood on the Rhoetean pro- montory, where he had encamped before Troy, and upon which the waves washed the coveted arms of Achilles after the ship- wreck of Odysseus. As the national hero of Salamis, he had a temple and statue there, and a yearly festival, the Aianteia ; and he was worshipped at Athens, where the tribe Aiantis was named after him. He too was supposed to linger with Achilles in the island of Leuce. By Tecmessa, daughter of the Phrygian king Teuthras, whom he had captured in one of the raids from before Troy, he had a son Eurysftces, who is said to have removed from Salamis to Attica with his son or brother Philseus, and founded flourishing families, which produced many famous men, for instance Miltiades, Cimon, Alcibiades, and the historian Thucydides. Aides {Aidoneus) . See Hades. Ajax. See Aias. Ala. The Latin name for (1) a wing in the line of battle. Till the extension of the citizenship to the Italian allies, the wings consisted of their contingents, viz. 10,000 foot and 1,800 horse to every consular army of two legions. Thus ala came to mean the allied contingent that composed a wing {see Cohort and Legion). But it meant more especially, in contrast to the cohorts that made up the infantry of the allies, the cavalry of the contingent, viz. on an average 300 men (5 turmce^ of 60 each). During the imperial period, when all the cavalry was raised in the provinces, the name of ala was given to a cavalry division of 500 or else 1,000 men, the one divided into 16, the other into 24 turmce. The aim were commanded by prcefecti equltum. (2) A back room in a Roman house. See House, Alabastron. See Vessels. Alastor. The Greek term for an aveng- ing daemon, who dogs the footsteps of criminals, visiting the sins of fathers on their offspring. Album. The Latin word for a board chalked or painted white, on which matters of public interest were notified in black writing. In this way were published the yearly records of the pontifex(see Annales), the edicts of prsetors {q.v.), the roll of senators, the lists of jurors, etc. AlcaBUS (Gr. Alkaids). A famous lyric poet of Mytilene in Lesbos, an elder con- temporary of Sappho. Towards the end of the 7th century B.C., as the scion of a noble house, he headed the aristocratic party in their contests with the tyrants of his native town, Myrsilus, Melanchrus, and others. Banished from home, he went on romantic expeditions as far as Egypt. When the tyrants were put down, and his former comrade, the wise Pittacus, was called by the people to rule the State, he took up arms against him also as a tyrant in dis- guise ; but attempting to force his return home, he fell into the power of his oppo- nent, who generously forgave him. Of his further life nothing is known. His poems in the iEolic dialect, arranged in ten books by the Alexandrians, consisted of hymns, political songs (which formed the bulk of the collection), drinking songs, and love songs, of which we have but a few miser- able fragments. In the opinion of the ancients, his poems were well constructed while their tone tallied with the lofty pas- sion and manly vigour of his character. The alcaic strophe, so much used by his admirer and not unworthy imitator, Horace, is named after him. [For a relief repre- senting Alcseus and Sappho, see Sappho.] Alcamgnes (Gr. Alkamenes). A Greek artist of Athens or Lemnos, and a pupil of Phidias, who flourished towards the end of the 5th century B.C. Following his master's 22 ALCATHOUS ALCM^ON. ideal tendency, he devoted himself mainlj' to religious subjects, working like him in various materials, gold and ivory, bronze and marble. His statue of the winner in the Pentathlon was stamped as classic by the epithet of Enkrlnonienos, as the DorypJwrds of Polyclitus was by that of Kdnon. About 436 B.C. he was employed with Phidias in decorating the temple of Zeus at Olympia. The marble groups of the battle of Centaurs and LSpithse in its western pediment are his work. Of these considerable remains have been brought to light by the recent German excavations. {See Olympian Games, fig. 2.) Alcathotis (Gr. Alkcithoos). The son of Pelops and Hippodameia. He slew the lion of Cithseron, which had torn to pieces Euippus, the son of MegSreus. Thus he won the daughter of Megareus, Eusechma, and the sovereignty of Megara. With Apollo for his friend and helper, he rebuilt the city walls, and reared one of the two castles, Alcathoe, with temples to Artemis and Apollo. A singing stone in the castle was shown as the one on which the god laid down his lyre when at work, Alcathous' eldest son, Ischepolis, fell in the Calydonian hunt ; the second, Callipolis, running in with the news to his father when sacrificing to Apollo, scattered the altar fire, and Alcathous struck him dead with a firebrand for the supposed sacrilege. By his daughters Auto- medusa and Peribcea, the wives of Iphicles and Telamon, he was grandfather to lolaiis and Aias (Ajax). Alcestis (Gr. Alkestis). Daughter of Pelias, renowned for her tender love fcr her husband Admetus, and her voluntary death on his behalf, (Sec Admetus,) Alcidimas (Gr. AlkMamas). A Greek rhetorician of Elsea in iE6lis, pupil and successor of Gorgias, a contemporary and opponent of Isocrates. Two declamations, bearing his name, have come down to us, one an imaginary indictment of Palamedes by Odysseus, the other a speech on the Sophists ; but the latter only can with any probability be attributed to him. It is a cleverly written argument, intended to show that the culmination of rhetorical training consists in the power of speaking extempore on any subject from mere notes of the arrangement ; not the practice of carefully writing out speeches, and then learning them by heart for public delivery. Alcides (Gr. Alkldes). A surname of Heracles {q.v.). AlcInStis (Gr. AlkinoUs). King of the Phseacians (q.v.), with whom Odysseus, and in later legend Jason and Medea, find shelter and aid. (See Odysseus and Argonauts.) Alciphron (Gr. Alkiphron). A Greek rhetorician of the 2nd century A.D., author of a collection of 1.18 fictitious Letters in three books. These, written in tolerably pui e style and tasteful form, profess to be from sailors, peasants, parasites, and hetcercc. They are sketches of character, ingeniously conceived and carried out, which give us a vivid picture of the then state of culture, especially at Athens ; the letters from hetcvroi are particularly interesting, as their plots are taken from the New Attic Comedy, especially the lost plays of Menander. Alcmaeon (Gr. Alkmaidn),oi Argos. Son of Amphiaraiis {q.v.) and Eriphyle. As his father, in departing on the expedition of the Seven against Thebes, has bound him and his brother AmphilSchus, then mere boys, to avenge him on their faithless mother, Alcmseon refuses to take part in the second expedition, that of the Epigoni {q.v.), till he has first fulfilled that filial duty ; nevertheless his mother, bribed by Thersander with the garment of Har- inonia, persuades him to go. The real leader at the siege of Thebes, he sla^-s the Theban king, Laodamas, and is the first to enter the conquered city. On returning home, he, at the bidding of the Delphian Apollo, avenges his father by slaying his mother, with, or according to some accounts, without, his brother's help ; but immediately, like Orestes, he is set upon by the Erinyes, and wanders distracted, seeking purification and a new home. Phegeus, of the Arcadian Psophis, half purifies him of his guilt, and gives him his daughter Arsinoe or Alphe- siboea to wife, to whom he presents the jeicels of Harmonia, which he has brought from Argos. But soon the crops fail in the land, and he falls into his distemper again, till, after many wanderings, he arrives at the mouth of the Acheloiis, and there, in an island that has floated up, he finds the country promised by ' the god, which had not existed at the time of his dying mother's curse, and so he is completely cured. He marries Achelous' daughter, Callirrhoe, by whom he has two sons, Acarnan and Am- photerus. Unable to withstand his wife's entreaties that she may have Harmonia's necklace and robe, he goes to Phegeus in Arcadia, and begs those treasures of him, pretending that he will dedicate them at Delphi for the perfect healing of his madnp'??. He obtains them; but Phegeus, ALCMAN ALIMENT ARII. 23 on learning the truth, sets his sons to way- lay him on his road, and rob him of his treasure and his life ; and then Alcmseon's two sons avenge their father's death on these murderers. Alcmseon, like his father, received divine honours after death ; he had a sanctuary at Thebes, and at Psophis a consecrated tomb. Alcman (Gr. Alkmun). The founder of Dorian lyric poetry, a Lydian of Sardes. He came to Sparta in his youth as a slave, was f^et free, and seems even to have received the citizenship ; he flourished in the latter half of the 7th century B.C. He abandoned the old nomic or dithyrambic poetry, writ- ten in hexameters, and composed in various metres Hymns, Paeans, Prosodia, Parthenia, Scolia, and Erotics, the last of which he was supposed to have invented. His dialect was the Doric, softened by Epic and tEoHc forms. Of his six books of poems a few fragments only are preserved ; one, a rather long one, was found in Egypt. Alcmene (Gr. Alkmene). Daughter of Electryon, wife of Amphitryon {q.v.), mother of Heracles by Zeus. On her connexion with Rhadaraanthys, see Rhadamanthys. After her son's translation to the gods she fled from the face of Eurystheus to Athens, but went back to Thebes, and died there at a great age. She was worshipped at Thebes, and had an altar in the temple of Heracles at Athens. Alcyone (Gr. Alkyone). (1) Daughter of iEolus, wife of Ceyx {q.v. 2). — (2) One of the Pleiades. Alcjroneus (Gr. Alkydneus). Son of Ura- nus and Gsea, the eldest and mightiest of the giants, who could not be overtaken by death in his own birthplace. Hence, in the war with the giants, Heracles had to drag him away from Pallene before he could kill him with his arrows. Legend also tells of a giant Alcyoneus who stole the oxen of Helios from the island of Erytheia, and as Heracles was crossing the Thracian isthmus of Pallene, crushed twelve of his wagons and twenty-five men with a huge piece of rock, which was shown on the spot. When he hurled it at Heracles himself, the hero struck it back with his club, and killed Alcyoneus with the same blow. Aldobrandini Marriage. See Painting. Alecto. One of the Greek goddesses of vengeance. (See Erinyes.) Alexander (Gr. Alexandros). (1) See Paris. (2) Alexander JKtolus (the ^Etolian) of Pleuron in ^Etolia, lived about 280 B.C. at Alexandria, being employed by Ptolemy in arranging the tragedies and satyric dramas in the Library. He was afterwards at the court of Antigonus Gonatas in Macedonia. As a writer of tragedies he was reckoned one of the so-called Pleiad. He also tried his hand at short epics, at epigrams, elegies, and the like, of which some graceful frag- ments are preserved. (3) A Greek rhetorician of the ^nd cen- tury A.D., son of the rhetorician Numenius. He composed a work on figures of speech, of which one extract and a free Latin ver- sion by Aquila Romanus have survived. (4) Alexander of Aphrodlsias in Caria, about 200 A.D., called ExBgetes for his services in expounding the doctrine of Aristotle, wrote valuable commentaries on several Aristotelian treatises (especially the Metaphysics) as well as original works on Pate and Free-will, on the Soul, and others. (5) Alexander of Trails s in Lydia, a Greek physician, lived in the 6th century A.D. at Rome, and made a careful collection from older writers on therapeutics, in twelve books. Alexandra. See Cassandra. Alexandrian Period. Sec Literature. AlexIkS,k6s ( = warding off evil). An epi- thet of Apollo and Heracles. Alexis. Alexis and Antiphanes were the most prolific and important writers of the Middle Attic Comedy. Alexis was born at Thurii, B.C. 392. He attained the age of 106, writing to the last, and is said to have died on the stage with the crown on his head. He was the reputed author of 245 plays, of which numerous extracts are still extant, showing considerable wit and elegance of language. He was uncle ta the poet Menander. Alimentarii. The Latin name, during the imperial period, for children of needy but free-born parents, who, out of the in- terest of funds invested for the purpose, received monthly contributions to their sup- port in goods or money up to a certain age (fixed in the case of boys at eighteen, in that of girls at fourteen). This scheme, the object of which was to encourage people to marry, and so to check the alarming decrease of the free population, was started by the Emperor Nerva (A.d. 96-98), and extended by Trajan to the whole of Italy. Succeeding emperors also, down to Alexander Severus (222-235), founded such bursaries; and private citizens in Italy and the provinces, as, for instance 24 ALOADiE AMALTHEA. the younger Pliny, vied with thera in their liberality. Aloidae or Aloldce. Sons of Poseidon by Iphimedeia, the wife of Aloeus, son of Canace (see j^olos, 1) and Poseidon; their names were Ephialtes and Otus. They grew every year an ell in breadth and a fathom in length, so that in nine years' time they were thirty-six feet broad and fifty- four feet high. Their strength was such that they chained up the god Ares and kept him in a brazen cask for thirteen months, till their stepmother Eribcea betrayed his whereabouts to Hermes, who came by stealth and dragged his disabled brother out of durance. They threatened to storm heaven itself by piling Ossa on Olympus and Pelion on Ossa, and would have done it, says Homer, had not Apollo slain them with his arrows ere their beards were grown. The later legend represents Ephialtes as in love with Hera, and Otus with Artemis. Another myth represents Artemis as slaying them by craft in the island of Naxos. She runs between them in the form of a hind ; they hurl their spears, and wound each other fatally. In the later legend they expiate their sins in the lower world by being bound with snakes to a pillar, back to back, while they are incessantly tormented by the screeching of an owl. On the other hand, they were worshipped as heroes in Naxos, and in the Boeotian Ascra were regarded as founders of the city and of the worship of the Muses on Mount Helicon. Alope. Daughter of Cercyon of Eleusis, and, by Poseidon, mother of Hippothoon {q.v.) ; after whose birth her father was going to kill her, but the god changed her into a fountain. Alpheus. See Arethdsa. AlphSsiboea (or Arsinoe). Daughter of Phegeus and first wife of Alcmseon, whom, though unfaithful, she continued to love, and was angry with her brothers for killing him. Her brothers shut her up in a box, and brought her to Agapenor, king of Tegea, pretending that she had killed her husband. Here she came by her end, having compassed her brothers' death by the hand of Alcmseon's sons. Altar. Originally a simple elevation above the ground, made of earth, field- stones, or turf; and such altars continued to be used in the country parts of Italy. But altars for constant use, especially in temple service, were, as a rule, of stone, though in exceptional cases they might be made of other materials. Thus, several in Greece ROMAN DOMKSTIC ALTAll (aei'lin Museum.) were built out of the ashes of burnt-offer- ings, as that of Zeus at Olympia. One at Delos was made of goats' horns. Their shape was very various, the Ibur-cornered being the commonest, and the round less usual. A temple usually had two altars: the one used for bloodless offer- ings standing before the deity's image in the cella, and the other for burnt-offer- ings, opposite the door in front of the temple. The latter was generally a high altar, standing on a platform which is cut into steps. Being r.n integral part of the whole set of buildings, its shape and size were regulated by their proportions. Some few of these high altars were of enormous dimensions; the one at Olympia had a platform measuring more than 125 feet round, while the altar itself, which was ascended by steps, was nearly 25 feet high. In Italy as well as Greece, beside the altars attached to temples, there was a vast number in streets and squares, in the courts of houses {see cut), in open fields, in sacred groves, and other precincts consecrated to the gods. Some altars, like some temples, were dedicated to more than one deity ; we even hear of altars dedicated to all the gods. On altars to heroes, see Heroes, Althaea. Daughter of Thestius, wife of (Eneus, king of Calydon, mother of Tydeus, Meleager (q.v.), and Deianeira. Altis. The sacred grove near Olympia (q.v.), in which the Olympic Games were celebrated. (See Olympia.) Amalthea (Gr. Amaltheia). A figure in Greek mythology. The name was sometimes applied to a goat, which suckled the newborn Zeus in Crete, while bees brought him hone}^, and which was therefore set among the stars by her nursling ; sometimes to a nymph who was supposed to possess a miraculous horn, a symbol of plenty, and whose descent was variously given. According to one version she is the daughter of the Cretan king Melisseus, and brings up the infant god on the milk of a goat, while her sister Melissa (a bee) offers him honey. The horn of the goat is given to her by Zeus, with the promise that she shall always find in it whatever she wishes. Eroni her the cornucopia passed into the possession of AMAZONS AMBROSIA. 25 the river-god Acheloiis, who was glad to exchange it for his own horn, which Heracles had broken off. It is also an attribute of Dionysus, of Plutus, and other gods of earthly felicity. Amazons (Or. Amdzones / = " breastless "). A mythical nation of women-warriors, whose headquarters are placed by early Greek legend in Themiscyra, on the Thormodon, on the southern shore of the Euxine. In later accounts they also appear on the Caucasus and on the Don, where the nation called Sauromatse was supposed to have sprung from their union with the Scythians. They suffered no men among them ; the sons boi'n of their intercourse with neighbouring nations they either killed or sent back to their fathers ; the girls they brought up to be warriors, burning the right breast off for the better handling of the bow. Their chief deities were said to be Ares and the Taurian Artemis, Even in Homer they are repre- sented as making long marches into Asiatic territory ; an army of them invading Lycia is cut to pieces by Belle rophon ; Priam, then in his youth, hastens to help the Phrygians against them. They gained a firm footing in Greek song and story through Arctinus of Miletus, in whose poem their queen Penthe- sileia, daughter of Ares, as Priam's ally, presses hard on the Greeks, till she is slain by Achilles. After that they be- came a favourite subject with poets and artists, and a new crop of fable sprang up : Heracles wars against them, to win the girdle of their queen, Hippolyte ; Theseus carries off her sister AntiSpe, they in revenge bui-st into Attica, encamp on the Areopagus of Athens, and are pacified by Antiope's mediation, or, according to an- AMAZON AKTKU POLYCLITUS. (Berlin Museum.) other version, beaten in a great battle. Grave-mounds supposed to cover the bones of Amazons were shown near Megara, and in Euboea and Thessaly. In works of art the Amazons were represented as martial maids, though always with two breasts, and usually on horseback; sometimes in Scj'^thian dress Ta tight fur tunic, with a cloak of many folds over it, and a kind of Phrygian cap), sometimes in Grecian (a Dorian tunic tucked up and the right shoul- der bare), armed with a half-moon shield, two-edged axe, spear, bow, and quiver, etc. The most famous statues of them in an- tiquity were those by Phidias, Polyclltus, and Cresllas, to one or other of which, as types, existing specimens are traceable. (See cut.) Among the surviving sculptures representing an Amazonian contest should be especially mentioned the reliefs from the frieze of Apollo's temple at Bassae in Arcadia (in the British Museum, London). Ambarvalia. The Italian festival of bless- ing the fields, which was kept at Rome on May 29th. The country people walked in solemn procession three times round their fields in the wake of the su-ove-taur-ilia, i.e. a hog, ram, and bull, which were sacri- ficed after a prayer originally addressed to Mars, afterwards usually to Ceres and other deities of agriculture, that the fruits of the fields might thrive. Covip. Arval Brothers. Ambitus (lit., a going round) meant at Rome the candidature for a public office, because going round among the citizens was originally the principal means of winning their f avoixr. When unlawful means began to be used, and bribery in every form was organized into a system, the word came to mean obtaining of office by illegal means. To check the growing evil, laws were passed at an early period, and from time to time made more severe. The penalties, which ranged at different times from fines and inadmissibility to office to banishment for ten years and even for life, produced no lasting effect. At last a special stand- ing criminal court was established for trying such cases, till under the Empire recourse was had to a radical change in the mode of election. Ambrosia. Anything that confers or preserves immortality: (1) the food of the gods (as nectar was their drink), which doves, according to Homer, bring daily to Zeus from the far west : (2) the anointing oil of the gods, which preserves even dead men from decay : (3) the food of the gods' horses. 26 AMBURBIUM AMPHIAIIA0S. Amburbium. The Latin name for a solenan procession of the people, with the various orders of priesthood led by the pontifex three times round the boundaries of Rome. It was only resorted to at a time of great distress, and the animals destined to make atonement, viz. a hog, a ram, and a bull (the so called suovetaurllia, see Ambarvalia), were sacrificed with special prayers outside the city. Ameipsias. A Greek poet of the old comedy, contemporary with Aristophanes, whom he twice overcame. Of his plays only slight fragments remain. Ammianus Marcellinus. The last Roman historian of any importance, born at Antioch, in Syria, about 330 A.D., of noble Grecian descent. After receiving a careful educa- tion, he early entered military service, and fought under Julian against the Alemanni and Persians. In the evening of his days he retired to Rome, and about 390 began his Latin history of the emperors {Rerum Gcstarum Libri), from Nerva, a.d, 96, to the death of Valens, in thirty-one books. Of these there only remain books xiv.-xxxi., including the period from 353 to 378 a.d., which he relates for the most part as an eye-witness. As his work may be regarded as a continuation of Tacitus, he seems, on the whole, to have taken that writer for his model. He resembles Tacitus in judg- ment, political acuteness, and love of truth. A heathen himself, he is nevertheless fair to the Christians. But he is far inferior in literary culture, though he loves to dis- play his knowledge, especially in describing nations and countries. Latin was a foreign language to him ; hence a crudeness and clumsiness of expression, which is made even more repellent by affectation, bom- bast, and bewildering ornamental imagery. Ammon (or Ilammon / Egyptian Aimm, •the hidden or veiled one). A god native to Libya and Upper Egypt. He was re- presented sometimes in the shape of a ram with enormous curving horns, sometimes in that of a ram-headed man, sometimes as a perfect man standing up or sitting on a throne. On his head was the royal em- blems, with two high feathers standing up, the symbols of sovereignty over the upper and under worlds ; in his hands were the sceptre and the sign of life. In works of art his figure is coloured blue. Beside him stands the goddess 3hith (the "mother," the "queen of darkness/' as the inscriptions call her), wearing the crown of Upper Egypt or the vulture-skin {see cut). His chief temple, with a far-famed oracle, stood in an oasis of the Libyan desert, twelve days' journey from Memphis. Between this oracle and that of Zeus at Dodona a con- nexion is said to have existed from very ancient times, so that the Greeks early identified the Egyptian god with their own Zeus, as the Romans did afterwards with their Jupiter; and his worship found an entrance at several places in Greece, at Sparta, Thebes, and also Athens, whence festal embassies were regularly sent to the Libyan sanctuary {see Theoria). When the oracle was consulted by visitors, the god's symbol, made of emerald and other stones, was carried round by women and girls, to the sound of hymns, on a golden ship hung round with votive cups of silver. His replies were given in tremulous shocks communicated to the bearers, which were interpreted by a priest. AMMON AND .'lUill. Amor. The god of love. See Eros. Amp§lius {Lucius). A Roman writer not earlier than the 2nd century a.d. He was the author of a notebook, Libei' Memori- alise which contains a scanty collection of astronomical, geographical, and historical jottings. Paltry as the book is, a state- ment in its chapter on the wonders of the world has mainly led to the discovery (in 1878) of the magnificent sculptures of Per- gamum, now at Berlin. AmpM&raiis, of Argos, the son of Oicles and Hypermnestra, great-grandson of the seer, Melampus. In Homer he is a favourite of Zeus and Apollo, alike distinguished as a seer and a hero, who takes part in the Calydonian boar-hunt, in the voyage of the AMPHIDROMIA AMPHILOCHUS. 27 Argonauts, and the expedition of the Seven against Thebes. Reconciled to Adrastus after a quarrel, and wedded to his sister Eriphyle, he agrees that any future differ- ences between them shall be settled by her. She, bribed by Polyneices with the fatal necklace of his ancestress Harmonia, insists on her husband joining the war against Thebes, though he foresees that it will end fatally for him, and in departing charges his youthful sons Alcmseon and Amphi- lochus iq.v.) to avenge his coming death. His wise warnings are unheeded by the other princes ; his justice and prudence even bring him into open strife with the savage Tydeus ; yet in the fatal closing con- test he loyally avenges his death on the Theban Melanippus. In the flight, just as the spear of Periclymenus is descending on him, Zeus interposed to save the pious prophet and make him immortal by cleav- ing the earth open with his thunderbolt, and bidding it swallow up Amphiaraus, together with his trusty charioteer Baton, like himself a descendant of Melampus. Prom that time forth Amphiaraus was wor- shipped in various places as an oracular god, especially at Oropus on the frontier of Attica and Boeotia, where he had a temple and a famous oracle for the inter- pretation of dreams, and where games were celebrated in honour of him. Amphidromia. At Athens, a family fes- tival, at which newborn infants received religious consecration. See Education. Amphictyons (Gr. Ampliiktyones). This Greek word meant literally " dwellers around," but in a special sense was applied to populations which at stated times met at the same sanctuary to keep a festival in common, and to transact common business. The most famous and extensive union of the kind was that called par excellence the Amphictyonic League, whose common sanctuaries were the temple of Pythian Apollo at Delphi, and the temple of Demeter (Ceres) at Anthela, near Pylse or Thermo- pylae. After Pylse the assembly was named the Pylcean, even when it met at Delphi, and the deputies of the league pylagorce. The league was supposed to be very ancient, as old even as the name of Hellenes ; for its founder was said to be Amphictyon, the son of Deucalion, and brother of Hellen, the common ancestor of all Hellenes. It included twelve populations : Malians, Phthians, iCnianes or (Etoeans, Dolopes, Magnetians, Perrhcebians, Thessalians, Locrians, Dorians, Phocians, Boeotians, and lonians, together with the colonies of each. Though in later times their extent and power were very unequal, yet in point of law they all had equal rights. Beside protecting and pre- serving those two sanctuaries, and cele- brating from the year 586 B.C. onwards, the Pythian Games, the league was bovind to maintain certain principles of international right, which forbade them, for instance,, ever to destroy utterly any city of the league, or to cut off its water, even in time of war. To the assemblies, which met every spring and autumn, each nation sent two hicromnemonea ( = wardens of holy things) and several pylagorce. The latter took part in the debates, but only the former had the right of voting. When a nation included several states, tljese took by turns the privilege of sending deputies. But the stronger states, such as the Ionian Athens or the Dorian Sparta were probably allowed to take their turn oftener than the rest, or even to send to every assembly. When violations of the sanctuaries or of popular right took place, the assembly could inflict fines or even expulsion ; and a state that would not submit to the punish- ment had a " holy war " declared against it. By such a war the Phocians were ex- pelled B.C. 346, and their two votes given to the Macedonians ; but the expulsion of the former was withdrawn because of the glorious part they took in defending the Delphian temple when threatened by the Gauls in 279 B.C., and at the same time the ^tolian community which had already made itself master of the sanctuary, was acknowledged as a new member of the league. In 191 B.C. the number of members amounted to seventeen, who nevertheless had only twenty-four votes, seven having two votes each, the rest only one. Under the Roman rule, the league continued to exist ; but its action was now limited to the care of the Delphian temple. It was re- organized by Augustus, who incorporated the Malians, Magnetians, ^nianes, and Pythians with the Thessalians, and sub- stituted for the extinct Dolopes the city of Nicopolis in Acarnania, which he had founded after the battle of Actium. The last notice we find of the league is in the 2nd century a.d. Amphilochus. Son of Amphiaraiis and Eriphyle, Alcma?on's brother. He was a seer, and according to some took part in the war of the Epigoni and the murder of his mother. He was said to have founded the Amphilochian Argos (near Neokhori) in 28 AMPHION AND ZETHUS AMPHITHEATRON. Acrvrnania. Later legend represents him as taking pai-t in the Trojan War, and on the fall of Troy going to Cilicia with Mopsus {q.v.\ and there founding a famous oracle at Mallus. At last the two killed each other while fighting for the possession of it. Amphion and Zethus. The Boeotian Dios- •curi, twin sons of Antiope (q.v.) by Zeus, though the later legend makes Zethus a son of Epopeus, Exposed on Mount Cithseron, they are found and brought up by a shep- herd ; when grown up, they recognise their * ZETHUS AND AMPHION. (Rouie, Spada Palace.) mother, who has fled from imprisonment at Thebes, where she has been ill-treated by Dirce, the wife of Lyons who governs Thebes as guardian to Laius. They avenge their mother by tying her tormentress to the horns of a bull, which drags her to death. They then cast her corpse into a spring near Thebes, which takes from her the name of Dirce. Seizing the sovereignty by slaying Lycus, or, according io another account, having it given up to them by Lycus at the bidding of Hermes, they fortify Thebes with walls and towers, be- cause (says Homer), despite their strength, they could no more inhabit the wide town without a wall to defend it. Zethus brings up the stones with his strong arm, while Amphion, a harper of more than mortal skill, fits them together by the music of his lyre. Zethus marries Thebe, the daughter of Asopns, or, according to another account, Aedon, daughter of Pandareos (q.v.)', Am- phion is the luckless husband of Niobe, and after seeing the ruin of his family, is said to have killed himself, and to have been been buried in one grave with his brother at Thebes. The punishment of Dirce is the subject of the marble group by Apollo- nius and Tauriscus, known as the Favnese Dull (now at Naples). (For cut, see Dirce, and comp. Sculpture.) [In the Antiope of Euripides, and else- where, the two brothers were sharply con- trasted with one another, Zethus being the rude and strong and active huntsman, Amphion the gentle and contemplative musician. This contrast is exemplified in works of art, especially in the fine relief in the Spada Palace. {See cut)]. Amphiprostylus. A temple with an open colonnade at each end. See Temples. Amphithalamos. A bedroom in a Greek dwelling-house. See House. Amphitheatron. A circular theatre, i.e. a building in which the space for spectators entirely surrounds that where the spectacle is exhibited. These buildings, designed for combats of gladiators and wild beasts (venationes), were first erected in Italy, iDut in Campania sooner than at Rome. The first known at Rome were temporary wooden structures, like that of Scribonius Curio, who in B.C. 50 made an amphitheatre out of two revolving theatres by joining them back to back, or that of Caesar in 40. The first stone amphitheatre, erected by Statilius Taurus in B.C. 29, was burnt down in the fire of Nero, who then built a wooden one again. A second one of stone was begun by Vespasian, consecrated by Titus, A.D. 80, and finished by Domitian (all three of the Flavian gens). The ruins of this Amplntheatrum Flavium, which was 158 feet high, and accommodated 87,000 spectators, are the famous Colos- seum. In the provinces too the large towns had their amphitheatres, of which the best preserved are those of Verona and Capua in Italy, Aries and Nimes in France. Of this last our first two illustra- tions give the elevation and the ground-plan AMPHITRITE AMPHITRYON". 2Cr An amphitheatre was usually an oval building, surrounding an arena of like shape, which sometimes, as at Rome and Capua, was a plank floor resting on deep underground walls, the spaces underneath containing cages and machinery for trans- formations. The exterior was formed of several arcades, one above the other, the lowest one admitting to a corridor, which ran round the building, and out of which staircases led up to the various rows of seats. In the Colosseum this first arcade is adorned with Doric, the second with Ionic, the third with Corinthian " engaged " columns; the fourth is a wall decorated lilllllilfl IIR AMKHITIIEATUK AT M1H£S. (External elevation.) (2) THE AMI'HITHEATKE AT NJMES. • Ground plan in four qu.arters. A. Bird's eye view of seats rising in tiers to highest part of e.xfpvnal inclosiire. B. Plan of highest storey, e.xposed by removal of highest tiers of seats. C. Plan of intprmediate storey, exposed by removal of hifrliest and intermediate tiers. U. True ground plan, or plan of lowest storey. with Corinthian pilasters, and pierced with windows (see Architecture, figs. 8-10). Immediately round the arena ran a high, massive wall, with vaults for the animals and for other purposes. On it rested the jjodium, protected by its height and by special contrivances from the wild beasts when fighting; here were the seats of honour, e.g. at Rome, those of the imperial family, the officers of state, and the Vestal Virgins. Above the podium rose the seats of other spectators in concentric rows, tho lowest ones being for senators and magis- trates, the next for knights, and the rest for citizens. Women sat in the highest part of the building, under a colonnade, parts of which were portioned off for the common peopla. The whole space for seats. could be sheltered from sun and rain by an awning supported on masts, which were let into corbels of stone that jutted out of the upper circumference. The arena could also be laid under water for the exhibition of sea-fights, the so-called naumdchice- {q.v.). Araphitrite, daughter of Nereus and Doris, is tho wife of Poseidon and queen of the sea. Poseidon saw her dancing with the Nereids on the island of Naxos, and carried her off. According to another ac- count she fled from him to Atlas, when the god's dolphin spied her out and brought her to him. In Homer she is not yet called Poseidon's wife, but a sea-goddess, who beats the billows against the rocks, and has the creatures of the deep in her keep- ing. Her son is the sea-god Triton. She had no separate worship. She is often represented with a net confining her hair,, with crabs' claws on the crown of her head, being carried by Tritons, or by dolphins and other marine animals, or drawn by them in a chariot of shells. As the Romans identified Poseidon with their Neptune, so they did Amphitrite with Salacia, a god- dess of the salt waves. Amphitrjron. Son of Alcreus, grandson of Pert^cus, and king of Tiryns. His father's brother, Elektryon, king of Mycense, had occasion to go out on a war of vengeance: against Pterelaiis, king of the Taphians and Teleboans in Acaraania and the neighboui'- ing isles, whose sons had carried off his cattle, and have slain his own sons, all but young Licymnius. He left Amphitryon in charge of his kingdom, and betrothed to- him his daughter Alcmene. On his return Amphitryon killed him, in quarrel or by accident, and, driven away by another uncle, Sthenelus, fled with his betrothed and her brother Licymnius to Creon, king of Thebes, a brother of his mother Hippo- nome, who purged him of blood-guilt, and promised, if he would first kill the Tau- messian fox, to help him against Pterelaus ; for Alcmene would not wed him till her- brethren were avenged. Having rendered the fox harmless with the help of Cephalus (q.v.) he marched, accompanied by Creon,. Cephalus, and other heroes, against the. 50 AMPHORA ANAXAGORAS. Teleboans, and conquered their country, Pterilaus' daughter Comsetho had first killed her father by plucking out the golden hair, to whose continual possession was attached the boon of immortality be- .stowed on him by Poseidon. He slew the traitress, and, handing over the Taphian kingdom to Cephalus, he returned to Thebes and married Alcmene. She gave birth to twins ; Iphicles by him, and Heracles by Zeus. At last he falls in the war with Erglnus (5. v.), the Minyan king of Orcho- menus. Amphdra, Lat. (Gr. Amphoreus). A two- handled, big-bellied vessel, usually of clay, with a longish or shortish neck, and a mouth proportioned to the size, sometimes resting firmly on a foot, but often ending in a blunt point, so that in the store-room it had to lean against the wall, or be sunk in sand, and when brought out for use, to be put in a basket, wine-coolor, or hollow stand. {See Vessels, fig. 2, a and h). It served to keep oil, honey, and more especially the wine drawn otf from the big fermenting vats. It was fastened with a clay stopper, plastered over with pitch, loam, or gypsum, and had a ticket stating the kind, the year, and the quantity of the wine it con- tained. The Greek amphoreus was a large liquid measure, holding nearly 9 gal- lons {see Metretes), the Roman measure ■called amphora held 6 gallons and 7 pints. Amphdtgrus. See Acarxan. Ampliatio. The Latin term for a delay of verdict pending the production of further evidence in a case not clcvir to the judges. Comp. COMPEREXDINATIO. Ampulla. See Vessels. Amj^cus. Son of Poseidon; a gigantic king of the Bebrycians on the Bithynian -coast, who forced every stranger that landed there to box with him. When the Argo- nauts wished to draw water from a spring in his country, he forbade them, but was conquered and killed in a match with Poly- deuces (Pollux). Amymone. A daughter of Danaus {q.v.), ;and mother of Nauplius by PoseidOn. Anacrfion. A Greek lyric poet, born about 550 B.C. at Teos, an Ionian town of Asia, whose inhabitants, to escape the threatened yoke of Persia, migrated to Abdera in Thrace B.C. 540. From Abdera Anacreon went to the tyrant Polycrates, of Samos, after whose death (B.C. 522) he removed to Athens on the invitation of Hipparchus, and lived there, till the fall of the Peisis- -tratidse, on friendly terms with his fellow poet Simonldes and Xanthippus, the father of Pericles. He is said to have died at Abdera, in his eighty-sixth year, choked by the stone of a dried grape. A slatue of him stood in the Acropolis at Athens in the guise of an aged minstrel inspired by the wine-god. Por Anacreon was regarded as the type of a poet who, in spite of age, paid perpetual homage to wine and love. Love and wine and merry company formed the favourite subjects of his light, sweet, and graceful songs, which were cast in the metres of the jEolic poets, but composed in the Ionic dialect. Beside fragments of such songs and of elegies, we have also a number of epigrams that bear his name. His songs weie largely imitated, and of such imitations we have under his name a collection of about sixty love-songs and drinking-songs of very various (partly much later) dates, and of different degrees of merit. Anacrisis. In Attic law, the preliminary examination of the parties to a suit. Anax8,g6ras. A Greek philosopher, of Clazomense in Asia Minor, born about 500 B.C. Sprung from a noble famil}^, but wish- ing to devote himself entirely to science, he gave up his property to his kinsmen, and removed to Athens, where he lived in in- timacy with the most distinguished men, above all with Pericles. Shortly before the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War he was charged by the political opponents of Pericles with impiety, i.e. with denying the gods recognised by the State ; and though acquitted through his friend's influence, ho felt compelled to emigrate to Lampsacus, where he died soon after, aged 72. He not only had the honour of giving philosophy a home at Athens, where it went on flourish- ing for quite a thousand years, but he was the first philosopher who, by the side of the material principle, introduced a spiritual, which gives the other life and form. He laid down his doctrine in a work On Nature in the Ionic dialect, of which only frag- ments are preserved. Like Parmenides, he denied the existence of birth or death ; the two processes were rather to be de- scribed as a mingling and unmingling. The ultimate elements of combination are in- divisible, imperishable primordia of infinite number, and differing in shape, colour, and taste, called by himself " seeds of things," and by later writers (from an expression of Aristotle) honiGeomerS, i.e. particles of like kind with each other and with the whole that is made up of them. At first ANAX ANDRIDES ANC YR ANUM MONUMENT UM. 31 these lay mingled without order; but the divine spirit — simple, pure, passionless reason — set the uuarranged matter into motion, and thereby created out of chaos an orderly world. This movement, proceed- ing from the centre, works on for ever, penetrating farther and farther the infinite mass. But the application of" the spiritual principle was rather indicated than fully carried out by Anaxagoras ; he himself commonly explains phenomena by physical causes, and only when lie cannot find these, falls back on the action of divine reason. Anaxandrides, A Greek poet of the Middle Comedy, a Rhodian, flourished in 376 B.C. He is stated to have been the first who made love affairs the subject of comedy. His plaj's were characterized by brightness and humour, but only fragments of them are preserved. Anaximander (Gr. -mandrds). A Greek philosopher of Miletus; born B.C. 611; a younger contempoi'ary of Thales and Phere- cydes. He lived at the court of PolycrStes of Samos, and died B.C. 547. In his philo- sophy the primal essence, which he was the first to call principle, was the immortal- imperishable, all-including infinite, a kind of chaos, out of which all things proceed, and into which they return. He composed, in the Ionic dialect, a brief and somewhat poetical treatise on his doctrine, which may be regarded as the earliest prose work on philosophy ; but only a few sentences out of it are preserved. The advances he had made in physics and astronomy are evi- denced by his invention of the sun-dial, his construction of a celestial globe, and his first attempt at a geographical map. Anaxlmgnes. (1) A Greek philosopher of Miletus, a younger contemporary and pupil of Anaximander, who died about 502 B.C. He supposed air to be the fundamental principle, out of which everything arose by rarefaction and condensation. This doctrine he expounded in a work, now lost, written in the Ionian dialect. (2) A Greek sophist of LampsScus, a favourite of Philip of Macedon and Alex- ander the Great. He composed orations and historical works, some treating of the ac- tions of those two princes. Of these but little remains. On the other hand, he is the author of the Rhetoric dedicated to Alexander^ the earliest extant work of this kind, which was once included among the "vorks of Aristotle. Anchises. Son of Capys, of the royal house of Troy by both parents, ruler of Dardanus on Mount Ida. Aphrodite loved him for his beauty, and bore him a son, iEneas. But having, in spite of her warn- ings, boasted of her favour, he is (according to various versions of the story) paralysed, killed, or struck blind by the lightning of Zeus. Vergil represents the disabled chief as borne out of burning Troy on his son's shoulders, and as sharing his wanderings over the sea, and aiding him with his counsel, till they reach Drepanum in Sicily, where he dies, and is buried on Mount Eryx. Ancil6. The small oval sacred shield, curved inwards on either side, which was said to have fallen from heaven in the reign of Numa. There being a prophecy that the stability of Rome was bound up with it, Numa had eleven others made exactly like it by a cunning workman, Mamurius Ve- turius, so that the right one should not be stolen. The care of these arms, which were sacred to Mars was entrusted to the ANCILIA BOKNE MY TWO SAT.II, WITH LEUEND IN ETltUSCAN CHAUACTERS. Above = Gk. AFK YAE, ancile; below=AAKE, Alceeug, the owner's name. CGem in Florence.) Salii (q.v.), who had to carry them through the city once a year with peculiar cere- monies. At the conclusion of their songs Mamurius himself was invoked, and on March 14th they held a special feast, the Mamuralia, at which they sacrificed to him, beating on a hide with staves, prob- ably to imitate a smith's hammering. It is likely that the name Mamurius conceals that of the god Mars (or Mamers) himself. Ancyranum Monumentum. The monu- ment of Ancyra (now Angora), a marble slab, of which the greater part is pre- served. It belonged to the temple of Augustus at Ancyra, and contained the Latin text of a Greek translation of the report drawn up by that emperor himself on the actions of his reign (Index Rerum a SB Gestarum). By the terms of his will this report, engraved in bronze, was set 32 ANDABAT^ ANDROMEDA. up in front of his mausoleum at Rome, and copies were made of it for other temples of Augustus in the provinces. AndS.ba,tffi. See Gladiatoks. AndScides. Tlie second in order of time in the roll of Attic orators. He was born B.C. 439, and belonged by birth to the aristocratic party, but fell out with it in 415, when he was involved in the famous trial for mutilating the statues of Hermes, and, to save his own and his kinsmen's lives, beti-ayed his aristocratic accomplices. Having, in spite of the immunity promised him, fallen into partial atlmia (loss of civic rights), he left Athens, and carried on a profitable trade in Cyprus. After two fruitless attempts to recover his status at home, he was allowed at last, upon the fall of the Thirty and the amnesty of B.C. 403, to return to Athens, where he suc- ceeded in repelling renewed attacks, and gaining an honourable position. Sent to Sparta in B.C. 390, during the Corinthian War, to negotiate peace, he brought back the draft of a treaty, for the ratification of which he vainly pleaded in a speech that is still extant. He is said to have been banished in consequence, and to have died in exile. Beside the above- mentioned oration, we have two delivered on his own behalf, one pleading for his recall from banishment, B.C. 410; another against the charge of unlawful participation in the mysteries, B.C. 399 ; a fourth. Against Alcibldd&s, is spurious. His oratory is plain and artless, and its expressions those of the popular lan- guage of the day. Aiilr6;j663. Son of Minos, king of Crete by Pasiphae. Visiting Athens at the first celebration of the Pana- thenaea, he won victories over all the champions, when king ^Egeus, out of jealousy, sent him to fight the bull of Marathon, which killed him. Accord- ing to another account he was slain in an ambush. Minos avenges his son by making the Athenians send seven youths and sovcn maidens every nine years ivs victims to his Minotaur, from which Theseus at last delivers them. Funeral games were held in the Ceramlcus at Athens in honour of Androgeus under the name of Eurygyes. Andromache. The daughter of Eetion, king of the Cilician Thebes, is one of the noblest female characters in Homer, dis- tinguished alike by her ill-fortune and her true and tender love for her husband, Hec- tor. Achilles, in taking her native town^ kills her father and seven brothers ; her mother, redecincd from captivity, is carried off by sickness ; her husband falls by the hand of Achilles ; and when Troy is taken she sees her one boy, Astyanax (or Scaman- der), hurled from the walls. She falls, as the prize of war, to Neoptolemus, the son of her greatest foe, who first carries her to Epirus, then surrenders her to Hector's brother, Helenus. After his death she re- turns to Asia with Pergamus, her son by Neoptolemus, and dies there. Aiid;6m6Ia. Daughter of the Xthiop.'an * AN»I!i1MKnA AXn PEltSEUS. (Uome, ("apitoliiie Museum.) king Cepheus (a son of Belns) by Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia had boasted of being fairer than the Nereids, and Poseidon to punish the profanity, sent a flood and a sea-monster. As the oracle of Ammon promised a rid- dance of the plague should Andromeda be thrown to the monster, Cepheus was com- pelled to chain his daughter to a rock on the shore. At this moment of distress Per- seus apjjears, and rescues her, her father having promised her to him in marriage. At the wedding a violent quarrel ari.-cs between the king's brother, Phincus, to ANDRONITIS ANNA PERENNA. 33 wliom she had been betrothed before, and Perseus, who turns his rival into stone ■with the Gorgon's head. Andromeda fol- lows Perseus to Argos, and becomes an- cestress of the famous line of Perseidse. Athena set her among the stars. Andronitis. The men's apartments in a Crreek house. See House. Andrdtion. A Greek historian, an Athe- nian, and a pupil of Isocrates, who was accused of making an illegal proposal and went into banishment at Megara. (We have the speech composed by Demosthenes for one of the accusers.) At Megai'a he wrote a history of Attica {see Atthis) in at least 12 books, one of the best of that class of writings ; but only fragments of it have survived. Angdistis. See Rhea. Anius. Son of Apollo by Rhoeo or Creusa, whose father, Staphylus of Naxos, a son of Dionysus and Ariadne, committed her to the sea in a box. She was carried to Delos, and there gave birth to her son Anius. Apollo taught him divination, and made him his priest and king of Delos. His son Thasus, like Linus and Actgeon, was torn to pieces by dogs, after which no dogs were allowed in the island. His daughters by the nymph Dorippe, being descendants of Dionysus, had the gift of tui'ning anything they pleased into wine, corn, or oil ; but when Agamemnon on his way to Troy wished to take them from their father by force, Dionysus changed them into doves. Annalists. A series of writers on Roman history, older than those usually called the historians, beginning about 200 B.C., and covering about a centurj'' and a half. They related their country's story from its first beginnings down to their own times, treating the former briefly, the latter in full detail, and at first ahvaj^s in Greek, like Pabius Pictor and Cincius Alimen- TUS. With PoRCius Cato {q.v.) com- menced composition in Latin and a livelier interest in native history, which constantly stimulated new efforts to celebrate the deeds of their forefathers. Two main char- acteristics of these annalists are the free use thej' made of their predecessors, and an inclination to suppress unfavourable facts, which gradually grew into a habit of flattering the national vanity by exaggera- tions. Works dealing in this manner with the whole of Roman history, or large sections of it, continued to be written in Cicero's time. The leading annalists of this class D. C. A. are : Cassius Hemina, soon after Cato ; Calpurnius Piso Prugi, consul in e.g. 133 ; Fannius, consul in B.C. 122 ; Gellius, who wrote about the same time (ninety-seven books of Anndles) ; Claudius Quadrigarius. a contemporary of Sulla, author of at least twenty-three books, from the Gallic confla- gration to his own time ; his younger con- temporary Valerius Antias (who treated all Roman history in seventy-five books); LiciNius Macer, who died B.C. 66, author of the earlier history, in twenty-one books.. Some few writers, on the other hand, con- fined themselves to the description of shorter periods: first, C^Lius Antipater,. about B.C. 120 (whose history of the Second Punic War in seven books, was noted for its; accuracy) ; then Sempronius Asellio, about B.C. 100, who, in his account of events he' had taken part in (Rerum Gestainivi Libriy fourteen at least), was the first who, not content with barely relating facts, tried to explain the reasons of them ; and Cornelius SiSENNA, who lived 120-67 B.C. and wrote at least twenty-three books on the brief period between the Social War and Sulla's dicta- torship. To these works, in which history has begun to assume the character of me- moirs, we may add the autobiography of Cornelius Sulla the dictator (Rerum Sudrum Commentdrii in twenty-two books), which he wrote in self-justification at the end of his career. He died B.C. 78. All these works are lost, except scanty frag- ments; but the later Greek and Roman writers had made full use of them. Annals {Annales). Year-books. From early times a record of all important events at Rome had been kept in chronological order by the high priest (pontt/ex maximus) for the time, who every year exhibited in his official residence a whited board (album), on which, after the names of the magistrates for the year, occurrences of all kinds — war, dearth, pestilence, prodigies — were set down briefly according to their dates. These annales pontificum or annales maximt (supposed to be so called after the pontifex maximus), though destroyed at the burn- ing of Rome by the Gauls, B.C. 389, were restored as far as possible, and continued till B.C. 130. Collected afterwards in eighty books, they were at once utilized and super- seded by the so-called Annalists (q.v.). Anna Perenna. An ancient Italian god- dess, about whose exact attributes the ancients themselves were not clear. She is probably the moon-goddess of the revolving year, who every month renews her youth, D 84 ANNONA ANTEROS. and was therefore regarded as a goddess who bestowed long life and all that contri- butes to it. About full moon on the Ides (fifteenth) of March (then the first month of the year), in a grove of fruit trees at the first milestone^n the Tlaminian Way, the Romans held a merry feast under the open sky, wishing each other as many years of life as they drank cups of wine. The learned men of the Augustan age identified Anna with Dido's sister, who, on the death of that queen, had fled from Carthage to ^neas in Italy, but, having excited Lavinia's jealousy, threw herself into the Numicius, and became the nymph of that river. Anndna. A Latin word meaning the year's produce, especially in wheat, the staple food of the city population ; it was afterwards applied to the corn provided by the State to feed that population. As Italian agriculture decayed, and the city population steadily increased, the question of its maintenance became a constant care to the State, which, on the conqviest of the first two provinces, Sicily and Sardinia, at once doomed them, especially the former, to the task of victualling the armies and feeding Rome, by imposing a tithe on corn, and forbidding its exportation to any country but Italy. The tenth paid as tribute, and other corn bought up by the State, was sold by the sediles at a moderate price, usually on terms which prevented the treasury being a loser. Thus till the time of the Gracchi the cui'a annonce was confined to the maintenance of a moderate price ; but the corn law of Gaius Gracchus, B.C. 123, laid on the State the obligation to deliver to any Roman householder on demand 6j bushels of wheat a month at a fixed price, which even in cheap times was less than half the cost price ; and Clodius in B.C. 58 went further, and made the delivery entirely gratuitous. By the year B.C. 46, the number of recipients had risen to 320,000, and the yearly outlay to a sum equivalent to £650,000. Csesar then reduced the recipients to 150,000 ; but their number grew again, till Augustus cut it down to 200,000, whose names were inscribed on a bronze table, and who received their monthly portion on presentation of a ticket. This arrangement as a whole re- mained in force till about the end of the Empire, except that in the Srd century bread was given instead of grain. And, side by side with these gratuitous doles, grain could always be bought for a mode- rate price at magazines filled with the supplies of the provinces, especially Egypt and Africa, and with purchases made by the State. The expenses of the annona fell mainly on the ^imperial treasury, but partly on that of the senate. Erom Augus- tus' time the cui-a annoncB formed one of the highest imperial offices, its holder, the prcefectus annoncn, having a large staff scattered over Rome and the whole empire. The annona, like so many other things, was personified by the Romans, and became a goddess of the importation of corn, whose attributes were a bushel, ears of wheat, and a horn of plenty. Antaeus. Son of Poseidon and Ge (the earth) ; a huge giant in Libya, who grew stronger every time he touched his mother Earth. He forced all strangers to wrestle with him, and killed them when conquered, till Heracles, on his journey to fetch the apples of the Hesp6rld6s, lifted him off the ground, and held him aloft till he had killed him. His tomb was shown near Tingis in Mauretania. Antae. A templum in antls was a temple in which the hall at either end was formed by prolongations of the side-walls (Lat. antoi), and a row of columns between the terminal pilasters of those prolongations. See Temples, fig. 1. Anteia (otherwise Sthendbcea). Wife of Proetus of Tiryns ; by slandering Belle- rophon {q.v.\ who had rejected her offers of love, she caused her husband to attempt his life. Antenor. A Trojan of high rank, husband to Athena's priestess Theano, the sister of Hecuba. When Menelaiis and Odysseus, after the landing of the Greeks, came as envoys to Troy, demanding the surrender of Helen, he received them hospitably, pro- tected them from Paris, and then as always advised peace. Because of this leaning to the Greeks, it was alleged in later times that he betrayed his native city by opening its gates to the enemy ; in return for which his house, known by the panther's hide hung out of it, was spared, and he and his friends allowed to go free. One account was, that he sailed with Menelaus, was driven out of his course to Gyrene, and Settled there, where his descendants the Antenoridae were worshipped as heroes. Another, which be- came the accepted tradition, represented him as leading the Heneti, when driven out of Paphlagonia, by way of Thrace and Illyria, to the Adriatic, and thence to th« mouth of the Padus (Po), where he founded Patavium (Padua), the city of the Veneti. Antfiros. The god of requited love, brother of Eros {q.v.). ANTESIGNANI ANTIGONE. 85 Antesignani. A Latin word denoting originally the soldiers fighting in front of the standards during a battle; afterwards a picked body in every legion, free of bag- gage, and intended to advance in front of the line of battle and seize important points, or to open the battle. Antevorta. See Carmenta. Anthesteria. A feast at Athens held in honour of Dionysus. Comp. DiONYSiA (4). Anthology ( = garland of flowers). The Greek word antholdgxa means a collection of short, especially epigrammatic poems, by various authors ; we still possess one such collection dating from antiquity. Collec- tions of inscriptions in verse had more than once been set on foot in early times for anti- quarian purposes. The first regular antho- logy, entitled Stephdnds ( = wreath), was attempted by Meleagcr of Gadara in the 1st century B.C. ; it contained, beside his own compositions, poems arranged according to their initial letters, by forty-six contem- porary and older authors, including Archi- lochus, Alcaeus, Sappho, Anacreon, Simon- ides, etc., together with a prologue still extant. This collection was enriched, about 100 A.D., by Philijipus of Thessalonica, with select epigrams by about thirteen later authors. Other collections were under- taken soon after by Diogcnidnus of Hera- cleia and StratOn of Sardis, and in the 6ih century by Agathias of Myrina, in whose Kyklds the poems are for the first time arranged according to subjects. Out of these collections, now all lost, Constan- tlnus Ceplidlds of Constantinople, in the 10th century, put together a new and com- prehensive anthology, classified according to contents in fifteen sections. From this collection the monk Maximus Planudes, in the 14th century, made an extract of seven books, which was the only one known till the year 1606. In that year the French scholar Saumaise (Salmasius) dis- covered in the Palatine Library at Heidel- barg a complete manuscript of the antho- logy of Constantinus Cephalas with sundry additions. This MS., with all the other treasures of the library, was carried off to Rome in 1623, whence it was taken to Paris in 1793, and back to Heidelberg in 1816. The epigrams of the Greek anthology, dating as they do from widely distant ages down to the Byzantine, and being the pro- duction of more than three hundred dif- ferent authors, are of very various merit; but many of them are among the pearls of Greek poetry, and could hardly have sur- vived unless enshrined in such a collection. Taken together with the rich store of epi- grams found in inscriptions, the Anthology opens to us a view of the development of this branch of Greek literature such as we can scarcely obtain in the case of any other, besides affording valuable information on Hellenic language, history, and manners, at the most diflerent periods. Roman literature has no really ancient collection of so comprehensive a character, the so-called Latin Anthology having been gathered by modern scholars out of the material found scattered in various MSS. Among these, it is true, Saumaise's MS. of the 7th century, now in Paris, has a col- lection of about 380 poems, but these, with a few exceptions, are of very late author- ship. Antiddsis ( = exchange of properties). An arrangement peculiar to the Athenians, by which a citizen summoned to perform one of those services to the State named lei- tourgicR (q.v.), if he thought a richer than he had been passed over, could challenge him to exchange possessions, binding him- .self in that case to discharge the obliga- tion. Each party could then have the other's property put in sequestration and his house sealed up ; and within three days they handed in, before the proper authority and under oath, an inventory of their goods. If no amicable agreement was come to, and the judge's decision went against the plain- tiff, he was bound to perform the public service ; otherwise the defendant submitted either to the exchange or to the service. AntlgSne. (1) Daughter of (Ed i pus and locasta, who accompanied her blind father into exile. After his death in Attica she returns to Thebes, and, in defiance of her uncle Creon's prohibition, performs the last honours to her brother Polyneices, fallen in single fight with Eteocles, by strewing his body with dust. For this she is entombed alive in the family vault, and there hangs herself ; and her betrothed, Hsemon, the son of Creon, stabs himself beside her corpse. Such is the version of SophScles. Another tradition represents Antigone and Argeia, the widow of Polyneices, as secretly burn- ing his body by night on the funeral pile of Eteocles. When seized by the guards, Creon hands her over to Hsemon for execu- tion ; but he hides her in a shepherd's hut, and lives with her in secret wedlock. Their son, grown up and engaging in some funeral games at Thebes, is recognised by a birth- mark peculiar to the family. To escape 33 ANTIGONUS ANTIOPE. Creon's vengeance, Hsemon kills both Anti- gone and himself. (2) Antigone, daughter of Eurytion and wife of Peleus {q.v.), hanged herself for grief at the supposed infidelity of her husband. Antigdniis. A Greek writer of Carystus, about 240 B.C., author of a collection of all kinds of curiosities and fictions in natural history. The work is now extant only in a much abbreviated form, and is of no value but for its numerous quotations and fragments from lost writings. Antigr^pheus. The name of a financial officer at Athens. /See Grammateus. Anticleia. Daughter of AutSlycus, wife of Laertes, and mother of Odysseus (g'-'^')- AntilSchus. The son of Nestor, who accompanied his father to the Trojan War, and was distinguished among the younger heroes for beauty and bravery. Homer calls him a favourite of Zeus and Poseidon. The dearest friend of Achilles next to Patroclus, he is chosen by the Greeks to break the news to him of his beloved com- panion's fall. When Memnon attacks the aged Nestor, Antilochus throws himself in his Avay, and buys his father's safety with his life. He, like Patroclus, is avenged by Achilles, in whose grave-mound the ashes of both friends are laid ; even in the lower world Odysseus beholds the three pacing the asphodel meadow, and in after times the inhabitants of Ilium offered to them jointly the sacrifices due to the dead on the ioreland of Sigeum. Antimachus. A Greek poet and critic of Colophon, an elder contemporary of Plato, about 400 B.C. By his two princi- pal works — the long mythical epic called Thebais and a cjxle of elegies named after his loved and lost Lyde, and telling of famous lovers parted by death — he became the founder of learned poetry, prectirsor and prototype of the Alexandrians, who, on account of his learning, assigned him the next place to Homer amongst epic poets. In striving to impart strength and dignity to language by avoiding all that was com- mon, his style became rigid and artificial, and naturally ran into bombast. But we possess only fragments of his works. As a scholar, he is remarkable for having set on foot a critical revision of the Homeric poems. Antindtis. A beautiful youth of Claudio- p6lis in Bithynia, a favourite and travelling companion of the emperor Hadrian. He drowned himself in the Nile, probably from melancholy. The emperor honoured his memory by placing him among the heroes, erecting statues and temples, and founding yearly games in his honour, while the artists of every province vied in pourtray- ing him under various forms, human, heroic, and divine; e.g. as Dionysus, Hermes, Apollo. Among the features common to the many surviving portraitures of An- tinous are the full locks falling low down the forehead, the large, melancholy eyes, the full mouth, and the broad, swelling breast. Some of these portraits are among the finest works of ancient art, for instance, the colossal statue in the Vatican, and the half-length relief at the Villa Albani. (See cut.) There is also a fine bust in the Louvre. MARBLE RELIEF OK ANTINOUS. (Rome, Villa Albani.) AntlSpe. (1) In Homer a daughter of the Boeotian river-god Asopus, mother by Zeus of Amphion and Zethus. In later legend her father is Nycteus of Hyria or Hysise, As he threatens to punish her for yielding to the approaches of Zeus under the form of a satyr, she flees to Epopeus of Sic5'on. This king her uncle Lycus kills by order of his brother Nycteus, now dead, and leads her back in chains. Ar- rived on Mount Cithaeron, she gives birth to twins, Amphion by Zeus, Zethus by Epopeus, whom Lycus leaves exposed upon the moun- tain. After being long imprisoned and ill- treated by Dirce, the wife of Lycus, she escapes to Cithaeron, and makes acquaintance with her sons, whom a shepherd has brought up. She makes them take a frightful ven- geance upon Dirce (see Amphion), for doing ANTIPHANES ANTONINUS. S7 which Dionysus drive§ her mad, and she wanders throught Greece, till Phocus, king of Phocis, heals and marries her. (2) A sister of Hipp6lyte, queen of the Amazons; who, according to one account, fall as a prize of war to Theseus for his share in Heracles' campaign against the Amazons, according to another, was carried off by him and his friend Pirithoiis. When the Amazons attacked Athens in re- turn, she is variously represented as per- suading them to peace, or falling in battle against them by the side of Theseus; or, again, as killed by Heracles, when she inter- rupted the marriage of her beloved Theseus with Phaedra. Her son by Theseus was Hippolytus. Aiitiph§,nes. The most prolific and im- portant author, with Alexis, of the Attic Middle Comedy ; he came of a family which had migrated from Larissa in Thessaly ; was born B.C. 408, and died at the age of 74. He is said to have written 260 plays, of which over 200 are known to us by their titles and fragments, yet he won the prize only thirteen times. He is praised for dramatic ability, wit, and neatness of form. Antlphllus. A Greek painter born in Egypt in the latter half of the 4th cen- tury B.C., a contemporary and rival of Apelles; he probably spent the last part of his life at the court of the first Ptolemy. The ancients praise the lightness and dex- terity with which he handled subjects of high art, as well as scenes in daily life. Two of his pictures in the latter kind were especially famous, one of a boy blow- ing a lire, and another of women dressing wool. From his having painted a man named Gryllos ( = pig) with playfiil allu- sions to the sitter's name, caricatures in general came to be called grylloi. [Pliny, II. N., 35. 114, 138]. Antiphon. The earliest of the ten great Attic orators, born B.C. 480 at Rhamnus in Attica, son of the sophist Sophilus, to whom he owed his training. He was the founder of political eloquence as an art, which he taught with great applause in his own school of rhetoric; and he was the first who wrote out speeches for others to deliver in court, though he afterwards published them under his own name. He also played an active part in the politics of his time as a leading member of the oligarchical party, and the real author of the deathblow which was dealt to democracy in 411 B.C. by the establishment of the Council of Four Hun- dred. Then he went as ambassador ta Sparta, to purchase peace at any price in the interest of the oligarchy. On the fall of the Four Hundred he was accused of high treason, and in spite of a masterly defence — the first speech he had ever made in public — was condemned to death B.C. 411. Of the sixty orations attributed to him, only fifteen are preserved, all on trials for murder; but only three of them are about real cases. The rest (named tetra- logies, because every four are the first and second speeches of both plaintiff and de- fendant on the same subject) are mere exercises. Antiphon's speeches exhibit the art of oratory in its rudimentary stage as regards both substance and form. Antisthfines. A Greek philosopher of Athens, born about 440 B.C., biit only a half citizen, because his mother was a Thracian. He was in his youth a pupil of Gorgias, and himself taught for a time as a sophist, till, towards middle life, he attached himself to Socrates, and became his bosom friend. After the death of Socrates in B.C. 399 he established a school in the gymnasium KyndsargSs, the only one open to persons of half-Athenian descent, whence his fol- lowers bore the name of Cynici (Kj/nikoi). He lived to the age of seventy. Like Socrates, he regarded virtue as necessary, indeed, alone sufficient for happiness, and to be a branch of knowledge that could, be taught, and that once acquired could not be lost, its essence consisting in freedom from wants by the avoidance of evil, i.e. of pleasure and desire. Its acquisition needs no dialectic argumentation, only Socratic strength. His pupils, especially the famous Didgf.nes of Sinope, degraded his doctrine to cynicism by depreciating all knowledge and despising the current morality of the time. His philosophical and rhetorical works are lost, all but two slight declamations on the contest for the arms of Achilles, the Aias and Odysseus; and even their genuineness is disputed. Antistius La,b66 (Qidntus). A renowned jui'ist of Augustus' time, a man of wide scholarship and strict republican views, which lost him the emperor's favour. His writings on law amounted to 400 books, portions of which are preserved in the Pandects of Justinian's Corpus luris. Aiming at a progressive development of law, he became the founder of a school of lawyers named Proculians after his pupil Sempronius PrdcHlus. See Ateius Capito. Antoninus. (1) Marcus Aurelius, sur- 88 ANUBIS APHRODITE. named PhiWsdphus, born at Rome A.D. 121. His real name was M. Annius Verus ; at the desire of the emperor Hadrian he was adopted by his successor T. Aurelius An- toninus Pius, married his daughter Faus- tina, and became emperor in A.D. 161. During his benevolent reign the empire had to face dire distresses, famine, pestilence, and constant wars with the Parthians in the east, and the Marcomanni and other Germans in the north, during which he proved himself a prudent and active sove- reign. In the midst of a new war with the already vanquished Marcomanni he died in A.D. 180, probably at Sirmium in Pannonia. In his youth he was a pupil of the orator Pronto, and loved him warmly to the last, even after giving up rhetoric and devoting himself to the Stoic philoso- phy. The gentleness and amiability of his nature comes out both in his letters to Pronto (q.v.) and in his Self-contem- plations, which are the moral reflections of a Stoic in clumsy, over-concise, and often obscui'e Greek. (2) Antoninus LlbcrelUs, a Greek gram- marian of about 150 A.D., perhaps a freed- man of Antoninus Pius ; he wrote a collec- tion, called Metamorphoses, of forty-one myths dealing with transformations, most of which is based on ancient authorities now lost, and is therefore valuable as a source of mythological knowledge. Anuhis. An Egyptian god, son of Osiris, con- ductor and watcher of the dead, whose deeds he and HoRUS (q.v.) were supposed to weigh in the balance in presence of their father Osiris. He was represented with the head of a jackal or dog-ape. The worship of Anubis was introduced among the Greeks and Romans (who represented him in the form of a dog), together with that of Serapis and Isis, espe- anuihs. cially in the time of the emperors, as he was identified with Hermes. ApS,g6ge. A technical term of Athenian law, meaning the production of a criminal taken in the act before the proper magis- trate, who then took him into custody, or made him find bail. The name was also given to the document in which the accuser stated the charge. But if the officer was con- ducted to the spot where the accused was staying, the process was called ephegesis. Apiturifi, The general feast of the Phra- TRIES {q.v.) held chiefly by Greeks of the Ionian race. At Athens it lasted three days in the month of Pyanepsion (Oct.-Nov.), and was celebrated with sacrificial banquets. On the third day the fathers brought their children born since the last celebration before the members {phrators) assembled at the headquarters of each phrdtria, and after declaring on oath their legitimate birth, had their names inscribed on the roll of phratores. For every child enrolled a sheep or goat was sacrificed, which went to furnish the common feast. On the same day the fathers made their children who were at school give proofs of their progress, especially by reciting passages from poets, and those who distinguished themselves were rewarded with prizes. Apelles. The greatest painter of anti- quity, probably born at Colophon or in the Island of Cos, who lived in the latter half of the 4th century B.C. After studying at Ephesus, and receiving theoretical instruc- tion in his art from Pamphllus at Sicyon, he worked in different parts of the Greek world, but especially in Macedonia, at the court of Philip and that of Alexander, who would let no other artist paint him. While doing ready justice to the merits of con- tempoi'aries, especially Protogenes, he could not but recognise that no one surpassed him- self in grace and balanced harmony. These qvialities, together with his wonderful skill in drawing and his perfect and refined mastery of colouring (however simple his means), made his works the most perfect productions of Greek painting. Among the foremost were the Alexander with lightning in his hand, painted for the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, in which the fingers appeared to stand out of the picture, and the thundei'bolt to project from the panel ; and the Aphrodite Anadydmene { = Tising)y painted for the temple of Asclepius at Cos, which Augustus brought to Rome and set up in the temple of Caesar, and which, when the lower part was damaged, no painter would attempt to restore. We owe to Lucian a description of an allegorical picture of Slander by this painter. [Pliny, H. N., 35. 79-97.] Aphr6dite (Lat. Veiius). The Greek god- dess of love. Her attributes combine, with Hellenic conceptions, a great many features of Eastern, especially Phoenician, origin, which the Greeks must have grafted on to APHRODITE. S9 their native notions in very old times. This double nature appears immediately in the contradictory tales of her origin. To the oldest Greeks she was the daughter of Zeus and Dione (and is sometimes called that name herself); yet from a very early time she appears as Aphro-geneia, the " foam- born" {see Uranus), as AnadyOmene, "she who rises " out of the sea, and steps ashore on Cyprus, which had been colonized by Phoenicians time out of mind; even as far back as Homer she is KypHs, the Cyprian. The same transmarine and Eastern origin of her worship is evidenced by the legend of the isle of Cythera, on which she was supposed to have first landed out of a sea- shell. Again, the common conception of her as goddess of love limits her agency to the sphere of human life. But she is, at the same time, a power of nature, living and working in the three elements of air, earth, and water. As goddess of the shifting gale and changeful sky, she is Aphrodite Urania^ the " heavenly," and at many places in Greece and Asia her temples crowned the heights and headlands ; witness the citadels of Thebes and Corinth, and Mount Eryx in Sicily. As goddess of storm and lightning, she was represented armed, as at Sparta and Cythera; and this perhaps explains why she was associated with Are (Mars) both in worship and in legend, and worshipped as a goddess of victory. The moral conception of Aphrodite Urania as goddess of the higher and purer love, especially wedded love and fruitfulness, as opposed to mere sensual lust, was but slowly developed in the course of ages. As goddess of the sea and mari- time traffic, espe- cially of calm seas and prosper- ous voyages, she was widely wor- shipped by sailors and fishermen at ports and on sea- coasts, often as the goddess of calm, while Poseidon was the god of distur- bance. Next, as regards the life of the earth, she is the goddess of gardens and groves, of Spring and its bounties, especially tender plants and flowers, as the rose and myrtle ; hence. •(1) CYPRIAN COIN OP CARACALLA With the sacred cone, or sym- bol of Aphrodite, in a conven- tional representation of the tem- ple at Paphos. as the fruitful and bountiful, she was wor- shipped most of all at that season of the year in which her birth from the sea was celebrated at Paphos in Cyprus {comp. cut). But to this, her time of joyful action, is opposed a season of sorrow, when her creations wither and die : a sentiment ex- pressed in her inconsolable grief for her beloved Adonis (q.v.), the symbol of vege- tation perishing in its prime. In the life of gods and men, she shows her power as the golden, sweetly smiling goddess of beauty and love, which she knows how to kindle or to keep away. She outshines all the goddesses in grace and loveliness; in her girdle she wears united all the magic charms that can bewitch the wisest man and subdue the very gods. Her retinue consists of Eros (Cupid), the Hours, the Graces, Peitho (persuasion), PQthQs and Himeros (personifications of longing and I yearning). By uniting the generations in the bond of love, she laecomes a goddess of marriage and family life, and the conse- quent kinship of the whole community. As such she had formerly been worshipped at Athens under the name of Pandemds ( = all the people's), as being a goddess of the whole country. By a regulation of Solon, the name acquired a very different sense, branding her as goddess of prostitution; then it was that the new and higher mean- ing was imported into the word Urania. In later times, the worship of Aphrodite as the goddess of mere sensual love made rapid strides, and in particular districts assumed forms more and more immoral, in imitation of the services performed to love-goddesses in the East, especially at Corinth, where large bands of girls were consecrated as slaves to the service of the gods and the practice of prostitution. And later still, the worship of Astarte, the Syrian Aphrodite, performed by eunuchs, spread all over Greece. In the Greek myths Aphrodite appears occasionally as the wife of Hephaestus. Her love adventures with Ares are notorious. From these sprang Eros and Anteros, Har- mouia, the wife of Cadmus, and Deimos and Phobos (fear and alarm), attendants on their father. By Anchises she was the mother of ^Eneas. The head-quarters of her worship were Paphos, Amathus, and Idalion (all in Cyprus), Cnidus in Dorian Asia Minor, Corinth, the island of Cythera, and Eryx in Sicily. As mother of Harmonia, she was a guardian deity of Thebes. Among plants, the myrtle, the rose, and the apple 40 APHRO (xENEI A APICIUS. were specially sacred to her as goddess of love ; amongst animals, the ram, he-goat, hare, dove, sparrow, and other creatures of amorous nature (the ram and dove being widely-current symbols of great antiquity) ; as sea-goddess, the swan, mussels, and dolphin ; as Urania, the tortoise. In ancient art, in which Aphrodite is one of the favourite subjects, she is represented in a higher or lower aspect, according as the artist's aim was to exhibit Urania or the popular goddess of love. In the earlier works of art she usually appears clothed, but in later ones more or less undraped ; either as rising from the sea or leaving the bath, or (as in later times) merely as an ideal of female beauty. In the course of time the divine element disappeared, and the presentation became more and more ordinary. While the older sculptures show : jS-^. (2) REPLICA OF APHUoniTK OF CNIDUS UY rUAXITELKH. (Munich, Glyptothelc.) the sturdier forms, the taste of later times leans more and more to softer, weaker out- lines. Most renowned in ancient times were the statue at Cnidus by Praxiteles (a copy (3)aphuodite of mklos. (Paris, Louvre). of which is now at Munich, see fig. 2), and the painting of Aphrodite Anadyomene by Apelles. Of original statues pi-eserved to us, the most famous are the Aphrodite of Melos (Milo, see %. 3) now at Paris, and that of Capua at Naples, both of which bring out the loftier aspect of the goddess, and the Medicean Venus at Florence, the work of a late Attic sculptor, Cleomenes, in the delicate forms of face and body that pleased a younger age. On the identification of Aphrodite with the Roman goddess of love, see Venus. Aphthdnius. A Greek rhetorician of An- tioch, about 400 a.d., a pupil of Libanius, who wrote a schoolbook on the elements of rhetoric, the Progymnasmdtd, or "First Steps in Style," much used in schools down to the 17th century. This book is really an adaptation of the chapter so named in Hermogenes' Rhetoric. A collection of forty fables by iEsop also bears his name. Apicius {Marcus Gdvius). A glutton, who lived under Augustus and Tiberius. He borrowed the last name from an epicure of the republican age, and wrote a book APION APOLLO. 41 upon cookery. He poisoned himself for fear of starving, though at the time of his death he was still worth £7.5,000. His name be- came a proverb, so that we find an Ajncius C(pJius, author of a collection of recipes in ten books, De Re Culindr id, Svd century A. D. Apion. A Greek grammarian of the 1st century a.d., a pupil of Didj'mus, and presi- dent of the philological school at Alexandria. He also worked for a time at Rome under Tiberius and Claudius. A vain, boastful man, he travelled about the Greek cities, giving popular lectures on Honier. Of his many writings we have only fragments left. The glosses on Homer that bear his name are of later origin ; on the other hand, the Homeric lexicon of the sophist Apollonius is based on his genuine Homeric glosses. His bitter complaint. Against the Jews, ad- dressed to Caligula at the instance of the Alexandrians, is best known from Josephus' noble reply to it. Apodects (a podektai = receivers). The Athenian name for a board of ten magis- trates yearly appointed by lot, who kept accounts of the moneys coming in to the State from various sources, took possession in the council's presence of the sums raised by the proper officers, and after cancelling the entries in their register, handed the money over to the several treasuries. Ap6grS,phe (Gr.). An inventory, or register; also, in Attic law, a copy of a declaration made before a magistrate. Apollo (Gr. ApollOn). Son of Zeus by Leto (Latona), who, according to the legend most widely current, bore him and his twin-sister Artemis (Diana) at the foot of Mount Cynthus in the island of Delos. Apollo appears originally as a god of ligJit, both in its beneficent and its destructive effects ; and of light in general, not of the sun only, for to the early Greeks the deity that brought daylight was Helios, with whom it was not till afterwards that Apollo was identified. While the meaning of his name Apollo is uncertain, his epithets of Phoebus and Lycius clearly mark him as the bright, the life-giving, the former also meaning the pure, holy ; for, as the god of pure light, he is the enemy of darkness, with all its unclean, uncouth, unhallowed brood. Again, not only the seventh day of the month, his birthday, but the first day of each month, i.e. of each new-born moon, was sacred to him, as it was to Janus, the Roman god of light ; and according to the view that prevailed in many seats of his worship, he withdrew in winter time either to sunny Lycia, or to the Hyper- boreans who dwell in perpetual light in the utmost north, and returned in spring to dispel the powers of winter with his beams. When the fable relates that immediately after his birth, with the first shot from his bow he slew the dragon Python (or Delphyne), a hideous offspring of Gsea and guardian of the Delphian oracle, what seems to be denoted must be the spring-god's victory over winter, that filled the land with foul marsh and mist. As the god of light, his festivals are all in spring or summer, and many of them still plainly reveal in certain features his true and original attributes. Thus the Delphlnia, held at Athens in April, commemorated the calming of the wintry sea after the equinoctial gales, and the consequent re- opening of navigation. As this feast was in honour of the god of spring, so was the ThargHia, held at Athens the next month, in honour of the god of summer. That the crops might ripen, he received firstfruits of them, and at the same time propitiatory gifts to induce him to avert the parching heat, so hurtful to fruits and men. About the time of the sun's greatest altitude (Jvily and August), when the god displays his power, now for good and now for harm, the Athenians offered him hecatombs, whence the first month of their year was named Hecatomboion, and the Spai-tans held their Hyacinthia {see Hyacinthus). In autumn, when the god was ripening the fruit of their gardens and plantations, and preparing for departure, they celebrated the Pyanepsia (q.v.), when they presented him with the firstfruits of harvest. Apollo gives the crops prosperity, and protection not only against summer heat, but against blight, mildew, and the vermin that prey upon them, such as field-mice and grasshoppers. Hence he was known by special titles in some parts of Asia. He was also a patron of flocks and pastures, and was worshipped in many dis- tricts under a variety of names referring to the breeding of cattle. In the story of Hermes (q.v.) stealing his oxen, Apollo is himself the owner of a herd, which he gives up to his brother in exchange for the lyre in- vented by him. Other ancient legends speak of him as tending the flocks of Laomedon and Admetus, an act afterwards repre- sented as a penalty for a fault. As a god of shepherds he makes love to the nymphs, to the fair Daphne (q.v.), to Coronis (see Asclepius), and to Cyrene, the mother of Aristseus, likewise a god of herds. Some 42 APOLLO. forms of his worship and some versions of his story imply that Apollo, like his sister Artemis, was regarded as a protector of tender game and a slayer of rapacious beasts, especially of the wolf, the enemy of flocks, and himself a symbol of the god's power, that now sends mischief, and now averts it. Apollo promotes the health and well-being of man himself. As a god of prolific power, he was invoked at weddings ; and as a nurse of tender manhood and trainer of manly youth, to him (as well as the fountain-nymphs) were consecrated the first offerings of the hair of the head. In gymnasia and palcestr(s he was worshipped equally with Hermes and HerScles ; for he gave power of endurance in boxing, with adroitness and fleetness of foot. As a war- like god and one helpful in fight, the Spartans paid him peculiar honours in their Carneia (q.v.), and in a measure the Athe- nians in their BocdrOmia. Another Athe- nian festival, the Metageitnia, glorified him as the author of neighbourly union. In many places, but above all at Athens, he was worshipped as Agyieus, the god of streets and highways, whose rude symbol, a conical post with a pointed ending, stood by street- doors and in courtyards, to watch men's exit and entrance, to let in good and keep out evil, and was loaded by the inmates with gifts of honour, such as ribbons, wreaths of myrtle or bay, and the like. At sea, as well as on land, Apollo is a guide and guardian, and there, especially under the name Dclphlnius, taken from his friend and ally the dolphin, the symbol of the navigable sea. Under this character he was widely worshipped, for the most part with peculiar propitiatory rites, in seaports and on promontories, as that of Actium, and particularly at Athens, being also regarded as a leader of colonies. While he is Alexicdcus (averter of ills) in the widest sense, he proves his power most especially in times of sickness ; for, being god of the hot season, and himself the sender of most epidemics and the dreaded plague, sweeping man swiftly away with his unerring shafts, he can also lend the most effectual aid ; so that he and his son Asclepius were revered as the chief gods of healing. As a saviour from epidemics mainly, but also from other evils, the pcean {q.v.) was sung in his honour. In a higher sense also Apollo is a healer and saviour. From an early time a strong ethical tinge was given to his purely phy- sical attributes, and the god of light became a god of mental and moral purity, and there- fore of order, justice, and legality in human life. As such, he, on the one hand smites and spares not the insolent offender, Tityos for instance, the Aloidse, the overweening Niobe, and the Greeks before Troy ; but, on the other hand, to the guilt-laden soul, that turns to him in penitence and supplication, he grants purification from the stain of committed crime (which was regarded as a disease clouding the mind and crushing the heart), and so he heals the spirit, and readmits the outcast into civic life and religious fellowship. Of this he had him- self set the pattern, when, after slaying the Delphian dragon, he fled from the land, did seven years' menial service to Admetus in atonement for the murder, and when the time of penance was past had himself purified in the sacred grove of bay- trees by the Thessalian temple, and not till then did he return to Delphi and enter on his office as prophet of Zeus. Therefore he exacts from all a recognition of the atoning power of penance, in the teeth of the old law of vengeance for blood, which only bred new murders and new guilt. The atoning rites propagated by Apollo's wor- ship, particularly from Delphi, contributed largely to the spread of milder maxims of law, affecting not only individuals, but whole towns and countries. Even without special prompting, the people felt from time to time the need of purification and expi- ation; hence certain expiatory rites had from of old been connected with his festivals. As the god of light who pierces through all darkness, Apollo is the god of divination^ which, however, has in his case a purely ethical significance ; for he, as prophet and minister of his father Zeus, makes known his will to men, and helps to further his govern- ment in the world. He always declares the truth ; but the limited mind of man cannot always grasp the meaning of his sayings. He is the patron of every kind of prophecy, but most especially of that which he imparts through human instruments, chiefly women, while in a state of ecstasy. Great as was the number of his oracles in Greece and Asia, all were eclipsed in fame and import- ance by that of Delphi (q.v.). Apollo exei'cises an elevating and inspiring influence on the mind as god of Music, which, though not belonging to him alone any more than Atonement and Prophecy, was yet pre-eminently his province. In Homer he is represented only as a player on the lyre, while song is the province of the Muses ; but in course of time he grows APOLLO. 48 to be the god, as they are the goddesses, of song and poetry, and is therefore MiisdgCtts (Leader of the Muses) as well as master of the choric dance, which goes with music and song. And, as the friend of all that beau- tifies life, he is intimately associated with the Graces. Standing in these manifold relations to nature and man, Apollo at all times held a prominent position in the religion of the Greeks: and as early as Homer his name is coupled with those of Zeus and Athena, as if between them the three possessed the siam total of divine power. His worship was diffused equally over all the regions in which Greeks were settled ; but from remote antiquity he had been the chief god of the Dorians, who were also the first to raise him into a type of moral excellence. The two chief centres of his worship were the Island of Delos, his birthplace, where, at his magnificent temple standing by the sea, were held every five years the festive games called Delia, to which the Greek states sent solemn embassies ; and Delphi, with its oracle and numerous festivals {see Pythia, Theoxenia). Foremost among the seats of his worship in Asia was Pat&ra in Lycia with a famous oracle. To the Romans Apollo became known in the reign of their last king Tarquinius Superbus, the first Roman who consulted the Delphian oracle, and who also ac- quired the Sibylline Books {q.v.). By the influence of these writings the worship of Apollo soon became so naturalized among them, that in B.C. 431 they built a temple to him as god of healing, from which the expiatory processions {see Supplicationes) prescribed in the Sibylline books used to set out. In the Lectisternia {q.v.), first insti- tuted in B.C. 399, Apollo occupies the fore- most place. In 212 B.C., during the agony of the Second Punic War, the Ludi Apolli- ndres were, in obedience to an oracular response, established in honour of him. He was made one of the chief gods of Rome by Augustus, who believed himself to be under his peculiar protection, and ascribed the victory of Actium to his aid ; hence he enlarged the old temple of Apollo on that promontory, and decorated it with a portion of the spoils. He also renewed the games held near it, previously every two years, afterwards every four, with gymnastic and artistic contests, and regattas on the sea ; at Rome he reared a splendid new temple to him near his own house on the Palatine, and transferred the Ludi Sceculdres {q.v.) to him and Diana. The manifold symbols of Apollo corre- spond with the multitude of his attributes. The commonest is either the lyre or the bow, according as he was conceived as the god of song or as the far-hitting archer. The Delphian diviner, Pythian Apollo, is indicated by the Tripod, which was also the favourite offering at his altars. Among plants the bay, used for purposes of expia- tion, was early sacred to him {see Daphne). It was planted round his temples, and plaited into garlands of victory at the Pythian games. The palm-tree was also sacred to him, for it was under a palm-tree that he was born in Delos. Among animals, the wolf, the dolphin, the snow-white and musical swan, the hawk, raven, crow, and snake were under his special protection ; the last four in connexion with his pro- phetic functions. In ancient art he was represented as a long-haired but beardless youth, of tall yet muscular build, and handsome features. Images of him were as abundant as his worship was extensive : there was scarcely an artist of antiquity who did not try his (1) THE BKl-VEDElIE APOLLO. (Rome, Vatican MuBCum.) hand upon some incident in the story of Apollo. The ideal type of this god seems to have been fixed chiefly by Praxiteles and Scopas. The most famous statue preserved 44 APOLLONIUS. of him is the Apollo Belvedere in the Vati- can (fig. 1), which represents him either as fighting with the Pythian dragon, or with his aegis frightening back the foes who threaten to storm his sanctuary. Other great works, as the Apollo Musagetes in the Vatican, probably from the hand of Scopas, show him as a Citharoedus in the long Ionian robe, or nude as in fig. 2. The Apollo Sauroctonus (lizard-killer), copied from a bronze statue by Praxiteles, is es- pecially celebrated for its beauty. It re- presents a delicate youthful figure leaning against a tree, dart in hand, ready to stab a lizard that is crawling up the tree. It is preserved in bronze at the Villa Albani in Rome, and in marble at Paris. (2) APOLLO, WITH LYRE AND ORIFFIN. (Rome, Capitoline Museum.) Apollddorus. (1) A Greek poet of the New Corned}', born at Carystus, between 300 and 260 B.C. He wrote forty-seven plays, and won five victories. From him Terence bor- rowed the plots of his Phormio and Hecyra. (2) A Greek grammarian and historian, of Athens, about 140 B.C., a pupil of Aris- tarchus and the Stoic Pansetius. He was a most prolific writer on grammar, mythology, geography, and history. Some of his works were written in iambic sendrii^ e.g. a geo- graphy, and the Chrdnzcd, a condensed enumeration of the most important data in history and literature from the fall of Troy, which he places in B.C. 1183, down to his own time, undoubtedly the most important of ancient works on the subject. Besides fragments, we have under his name a book entitled Bibliotheca, a great storehouse of mythological material from the oldest theo- gonies down to Theseus, and, with all its faults of arrangement and treatment, a valuable aid to our knowledge of Greek mythology. Yet there are grounds for doubting whether it is from his hand at all, whether it is even an extract from his great work, On the Gods, in twenty-four books. (3) A Greek painter of Athens, about 420 B.C., the first who graduated light and shade in his pictures, whence he received the name of Sciagrdphus (shadow-painter). This in- vention entitled him to be regarded as the founder of a new style, which aimed at producing illusion by pictorial means, and which was carried on further by his younger contemporary Zeuxis. [Pliny, II. N., 35. 60]. (4) A Greek architect of Damascus, who lived for a time at Rome, where amongst other things he built Trajan's Forum and Trajan's Column. He was first banished and then put to death under Hadrian, a.d. 129, having incurred that emperor's anger by the freedom of his rebukes. We have a work by him on Engines of War, ad- dressed to Hadrian. ApoUonius, (1) the Rhodian. A Greek scholar and epic poet of the Alexandrian ■age, born at Alexandria about 260 B.C., a pupil of Callimachus, wrote a long epic. The Argonautlca, in four books, in which, departing from his master's taste for the learned and artificial, he aimed at all the simplicity of Homer, The party of Calli- machus rejected the poem, and ApoUonius retired in disgixst to Rhodes, where his labours as a rhetorician, and his newly re- vised poem, won him hearty recognition and even admission to the citizenship. Hence his surname. Afterwards, returning to Alexandria, he recited his poem once more, and this time with universal applause, so that Ptolemy Epiphanes, in B.C. 196, ap- pointed him to succeed Eratosthenes as librarian. He probably died during the tenure of this office. His epic poem, which has survived, has a certain simplicity, though falling far short of the naturalness and beauty of Homer ; its uniform mediocrity often makes it positively tedious, though it is constructed with great care, especially in its versification. By the Romans it was much APORRAXIS APOTHEOSIS, 45 prized, and more than once imitated, as by Varro of Atax and Valerius Placcus. A valuable collection of sc?ioliit upon it testi- fies the esteem in which it was held by the learned of old. (2) ApoUonius of TrailSs. A Greek sculp- tor of the school of Rhodes, and joint author with his countryman Tauriscus of the cele- brated group of Dirce {q.v.). Among other artists of the name, the worthiest of mention is ApoUonius of Athens, of the 1st century B.C. From his hand is the Hercules, now only a torso, preserved in the Belve- dere at Rome. (3) ApoUonius of Perga in Pamphylia. A Greek mathematician named " the Geome- ter," who lived at Pergamus and Alexandria in the 1st century B.C., and wrote a work on Conic Sections in eight books, of which we have only the first four in the original, the fifth, sixth, and seventh in an Arabic trans- lation, and the eighth in extracts. The method he followed is that still in use. (4) ApoUonius of Tycina in Cappadocia, the most celebrated of the Neo-Pythago- reans, lived about the middle of the 1st cen- tury A.D. ; by a severely ascetic life on the supposed principles of PythagSras, and by pretended miracles, he obtained such a hold on the multitude that he was worshipped as a god, and set up as a rival to Christ. The account of his life by the elder Philostratus iq.v.) is more romance than history, and offers little to build upon. Having received his philosophical education, and lived in the temple of Asclepius at ^gae till his twen- tieth year, he divided his patrimony among the i)oor, and roamed all over the world ; he was even said to have reached India and the sources of the Nile. Twice he lived at Rome ; first under Nero till the expulsion of the philosophers, and again in Domitian's reign, when he had to answer a charge of conspiring against the emperor. Smuggled out of Rome during his trial, he continued his life as a wandering preacher of morals and woi'ker of marvels for some years longer, and is said to have died at a great age, master of a school at Ephesus. Of his alleged writings, eight-five letters have alone survived. (5) ApoUonius, swrrmrnQdi Dysc6lus{ = iiiQ surly). A Greek scholar, of Alexandria, where he had received his education, and where he ended his days a member of the Museum, after having laboured as a teacher at Rome under Antoninus Pius, about 140 A.D. He is the father of Scientific Gram- mar, having been the first to reduce it to systematic form. His extant works are the treatises on Pronouns, Adverbs, Conjunc- tions, and the Syntax of the parts of speech^ in four books. He was followed especially by the Latin grammarians, above all by Priscian. His son Herodianus accomplished even more than he did. (6) ApoUonius the Sophist, of Alexandria. His- precise date a.d. is unknown. He was, author of an extant Lexicon of Homeric Glosses, based on Apion's lost glossarial writings. (7) ApoUonius, king of Tyre, the hero of a Greek romance (now lost), composed in Asia Minor, in the 3rd century a.d., on the model of the Ephesian History of XenSphon (q.v. 2). We have a free Latin version made by a Christian, about the Gth century, probably in Italy, which was much read in the Middle Ages, and translated into Anglo- Saxon, English, French, Italian, Middle Greek and German, in prose and verse. Its materials are used in the pseudo-Shak- spearian drama of Pericles Prince of Tyre. Aporraxis. See Ball, Games of. Ap6th66si8 (Lat. ConsecrCitio). The act of placing a human being among the gods^ of which the Greeks have an instance as early as Homer, but only in the single case of Leucothea. The oldest notion was that of a bodily removal ; then arose the idea of the mortal element being purged away by- fire, as in the case of Heracles. There was a kind of deification which consisted in the decreeing of heroic honours to distinguished men after death, which was done from the time of the Peloponnesian War onwards,, even in the case of living men {see Heroes).. The successors of Alexander the Great, both the Seleucidse and still more the Ptolemies,., caused themselves to be worshipped as gods. Of the Romans, whose legend told of the translation of iEneas and Romulus into^ heaven, Caesar was the first who claimed divine honours, if not by building temples to himself, yet by setting his statue among the gods in every sanctuary at Rome and in the empire, and by having a special flamen assigned to him. The belief in his divinity was confirmed by the comet that shone several months after his death, as long as his funeral games lasted; and under the triumvirate he was formally installed among the deities of Rome, as Divus lulius, by a decree of the senate and people. His adop- ted son and successor Octavian persistently declined any offer of public worship, but he- accepted the title of Augustus (the conse- crated), and allowed his person to be adored 46 APPARITOR APULEIUS. in the provinces. On his death the senate ■decreed divine honours to him under the title of Divus Augustus, the erection of a temple, the founding of special games, and the establishment of a peculiar priesthood. After this, admission to the number of the Divi, as the deified emperors were called, becomes a prerogative of the imperial dignity. It is, however, left dependent on a resolution of the senate moved in honour of the deceased emperor by his successor. Hence it is not every emperor who obtains it, nor does consecration itself always lead to a permanent worship. Empresses too were often consecrated, first Augustus' wife Livia as Diva Augusta, and even other members of the imperial house. The ceremony of Apotheosis used from the time of Augustus was the following. After the passing of the senate's decree a waxen image of the dead, whose body lay hidden below, was exhibited for seven days on an ivory bed of state in the palace, covered with gold-embroidered coverlets; then the bier was borne by knights and senators amidst a brilliant retinue down the Via Sacra to the ancient Forum, where the funeral oration was delivered, and thence to the Campus Martins, where it was deposited in the second of the four stories of a richly decorated funeral pile of pyramid shape. When the magistrates sacred and secular, the knights, lifeguard, and others concerned, had performed the last honours by proces- sions and libations, the pile was set on fire, and as it burned up, an eagle soared from the topmost storey into the sky, a symbol of the ascending soul. Apparitor. The general name in Latin for all public servants of the magistrates. They all had to be Roman citizens, and were paid a fixed salary out of the public treasury. Though nominated by the re- spective officers for a year at a time, they were usually re-appointed, so that practic- ally their situations were secured for life, and they could even sell their places. The most important classes of these attendants were those of scrlbce, lictOres, vidtores and proicdnes (q.v.). These were divided into decurioi of varying strength, which enjoyed corporate rights, and chose foremen from their own body. {Comp. Accensi.) Appellatio. The Latin term for an appeal to a magistrate to put his veto on the decision of an equal or inferior magistrate. Thus a consul could be appealed to against his colleague and all other magistrates •except the tribunes, but a tribune both against his colleagues and all magistrates whatsoever. Another thing altogether was the Provocdtio^q.v.) under the Republic, an appeal from a magistrate's sentence to the People as supreme judge. During the im- perial period the two processes run into one, for the emperor held united in his person both the supreme judicial function and the plenary power of all magistrates, particu- larly the tribunician veto, so that an appeal to him was at once an appellatio and a jrrovocatio. This appeal, in our sense of the word, was only permitted in important cases ; it had to be made within a short time after sentence was passed, and always addressed to the authority next in order, so that it only reached the emperor if no intermediate authority was competent. If the result was that the disputed verdict was neither quashed nor awarded, but confirmed, the appellant had to pay a fine. As the power of life and death rested with the emperor and senate alone, governors of pro- vinces were bound to send up to Rome any citizen appealing on a capital charge. Appianus. A Greek historian, of Alex- andria, who lived about the middle of the 2nd century a.d. At first he pursued the calling of an advocate at Rome ; in later life, on the recommendation of his friend the rhetorician Fronto, he obtained from Antoninus Pius the post of an imperial pro- curator in Egypt. He wrote an extensive work on the development of the Roman Empire from the earliest times down to Trajan, consisting of a number of special histories of the several periods and the several lands and peoples till the time when they fell under the Roman dominion. Of the twenty -four books of which it originally consisted, only eleven are preserved complete beside the Preface: Spain (book 6), Hannibal (7), Carthage (8), Syria (11), Mithridates (12), the Roman' Civil Wars (13-17) and Illyria (23), the rest being lost altogether, or only surviving in fragments. Appian's style is plain and bald, even to dryness, and his historical point of view is purely Roman. The book is a mere compilation, and dis- figured by many oversights and blunders, es- pecially in chronologj'^ ; nevertheless the use made by the writer of lost authorities lends it considerable worth, and for the history of the Civil Wars it is positively invaluable. Apsines. A Greek rhetorician, of Gadara, who taught at Athens in the first half of the 3rd century A.D., and wrote a valuable treatise on Rhetoric. Apuleius {Lucius). Born about 130 a.d. AQU^LICIUM ARATUS. 4/ at Madaura in Numidia, of a wealthy and honourable family; the most original Latin writer of his time. Educated at Carthage, he went to Athens to study philosophy, especially that of Plato ; then he travelled far and wide, everywhere obtaining initiation into the mysteries. For some time he lived in Rome as an advocate. After returning to Africa, he married a lady considerably older than himself, the mother of a friend, iEmilia Pudentilla, whereupon her kinsmen charged him with having won the rich widow's hand by magic, and of having •Vontrived the death of her son; a charge to which he replied with much wit in his oration De MdgiCi (earlier than a.d. 161). He afterwards settled down at Carthage, and thence made excursions through Africa, delivering orations or lectures. Of the rest of his life and the year of his death nothing is known. Beside the Apologia above- mentioned, and a few rhetorical and philo- sophic writings, another work, his chief one, also survives, which was composed at a ripe age, with hints borrowed from a book of Lucian's. This is a satirical and fantastic moral rom.a,nce, MetamorpJiOsSon libri XI {de Asino Aureo), the adventures of one Lucius, who is transformed into an ass, and under that disguise has the amplest opportunities of observing, undetected, the preposterous doings of mankind. Then, enlightened by this experience, and with the enchantment taken off him by admission into the mys- teries of Osiris, he becomes quite a new man. Of the many episodes interwoven into the story, the most interesting is the beautiful allegorical fairy tale of Cupid and Psyche, so much used by later poets and artists. Throughout the book Apuleius paints the moral and religious conditions of his time with much humour and in lifelike colours, though his language, while clever, is often aifected, bombastic, and disfigured by obso- lete and provincial phrases. Aquaelicium. The Roman name for a ceremony for bringing on rain. {See Jupiter.) Aqueducts were not unfrequently con- structed by the Greeks, who collected the spring-water of neighbouring hills, by chan- nels cut through the rock, or by under- ground conduits of brick and stone work, into reservoirs, and thence distributed it by a network of rills. An admirable work of this kind is the tunnel, more than a mile in length, which was bored through the mountain now called Kastri, by the archi- tect Eupalinus of Megara, probably under Polycrates (in the 6th century B.C.). — The Roman aqueducts are among the most magnificent structures of antiquity. Some of these were likewise constructed under- ground ; others, latterly almost all, con- veyed the water, often for long distances, in covered channels of brick or stone, over lofty arcades stretching straight through hill and valley. They started from a well- head {cdput dqudrum) and ended in a reser- voir {castellum), out of which the water ran in Rome into three chambers, lying one above another, the lowest chamber sending it through leaden or clay pipes into the pub- lic fountains and basins, the middle one into the great bathing establishments, the uppermost into private houses. Private citizens paid a tax for the water they ob- tained from these public sources. Under the Republic the construction and repair of aqueducts devolved upon the censors, their management on the aediles, but from the time of Augustus on a special ciirdtor aqua- rum assisted by a lai-ge staff of pipe-mas- ters, fountain-masters, inspectors, and others, taken partly from the number of the public slaves. The amount of water brought into Rome by its numerous aqueducts, the first of which, the aqua Appia, was projected B.C. 312, may be estimated from the fact that the four still in use — aqua virgo (now Acqua Vergine, built by Agrippa B.C. 20), aqua Marcia (now Acqua Pia, B.C. 144), aqua Claudia (now Acqua Felice, liuislied by Claudius A.D. 52), aqua Trniana (now Acqua Paola, constructed by Trajan a.d. Ill) — are sufficient to supply all the houses and innu- merable fountains of the ]jresent city in superfluity. Among the provincial aque- ducts, one is specially well preserved, that known as Pont du Gard, near Nimes, in the south of France {see cut on p. 48). Arachne ( = spider). Daughter of the Ly- dian purple-dyer Idmon, challenged Athena, of whom she had learnt weaving, to a weav- ing match. When the offended goddess tore up Arachne's web, which represented the loves of the gods, Arachne hung herself, but Athena changed her into a spider. Aratus. A Greek poet, of Soli in Cilicia, about 270 B.C., contemporary of Callimachus and Theocritus. At the request of the Macedonian king Antigonus Gonatas, at whose court he lived as physician, ho wrote, without much knowledge of the subject, but guided by the works of Eudoxus and Theophrastus, an astronomical poem, Fhce- ndmeiia and Prognostica (aspects of the sky and signs of weather). Without genuine y\\n "in JUT' ARCADroS ARCHITECTURE. 49 poetic inspiration, Aratus manages his in- tractable material with considerable tact, and dignified simplicity. The langiiage, while not always free from stiffness, is choice, and the versification correct. The poem enjoyed a high repute with the general public, as well as with poets and specialists : thus the great astronomer Hipparchus wrote a commentary on it in four books. The Romans also took pleasure in reading and translating it, e.g. Cicero, Caesar Germanicus, and Avienus. Arbiter. An umpire ; especially a judge who decides according to equity, while a iudcx decides according to law. Arcadius (Gr. Arkddxos. A Greek gram- marian of Antioch, who probably flourished in the 2nd century A.D. He was the author of a Doctrine of Accents in 20 books, an abstract of a work by the famous Herodian. Areas (Gr. Arkds). Son of Zeus by the nymph Callisto, and ancestor of the Ar- cadians, who was translated to the sky by Zeus as Arcturus = V( etcher of the Bear. {See Callisto.) Arch6m6ru8 ( = leader in fate, i.e. the first to die). A surname given to Opheltes, the infant son of Lycurgus king of Nemea, who was killed by a snake diiring the march of the Seven against Thebes (q.v.). It was given him by the seer Amphiaraiis, who foresaw the destruction awaiting himself and his confederates ; and by it the child was invoked at the Nemean Games origin- ally founded in memory of him. Archestr^tus, of Gela, in Sicily, flourished about 318 B.C., and composed the humorous didactic poem Hedypdtheia ( = good cheer), supposed to describe a gastronomic tour round the then known world, wath playful echoes of Homer and the dogmatic philoso- phers. The numerous fragments display much talent and wit. ArcM16chus. A Greek lyric poet, especi- ally eminent as a writer of lampoons. Born at Paros, he was the son of Teleslcles by a slave-woman, but was driven by poverty to go with a colony to Thasos B.C. 720 or 708. From Thasos he was soon driven by want and by the enmities which his unrestrained passion for invective had drawn upon him. He seems to have roamed restlessly from place to place, until, on his return to Paros, he was slain in fight by the Naxian Calondas. Long afterwards, when this man visited the Delphian temple, the god is said to have driven him from his threshold as the slayer of a ser- vant of the Muses, and refused to admit him till he had propitiated the soul of the poet D. C. A. at his tomb : a story which expresses the high value set on his art by the ancients, who placed him on a level with Homer, Pindar and Sophocles. For Archilochus had an extraordinary poetical genius, which enabled him to invent a large number of new metres, and to manipulate them with the ease of a master. He brought Iambic poetry, in particular, to artistic perfection. The many misfortunes of his stormy life had bred in his irritable nature a deeply- settled indignation, which, in poems perfect in form and alive with force and fury, vented itself in bitter mockery even of his friends, and in merciless, \inpardonable abuse of his foes. Such was the effect of his lampoons, that Lycambes, who had first promised and then refused him his daughter Neobtile, hanged himself and his family in the despair engendered by the poet's furious attacks. Of his poems, which were written in the Old-Ionic dialect, and taken by Horace for his model in his Epodes, only a number of short fragments are preserved. Archimedes. One of the greatest mathe- maticians and natural philosophers of anti- quity, born B.C. 287 at Syracuse. He lived at the court of his kinsman, king Hiero, and was killed (B.C. 212) by a Roman soldier at the taking of the city which he had largely aided in defending with his engines. Of his inventions and discoveries we need only say, that he ascertained the ratio of the radius to the circumference, and that of the cylinder to the sphere, and the hydrostatic law that a body dipped in water loses as much weight as that of the water displaced by it ; that he invented the pulley, the end- less screw, and the kind of pump called the " screw of Archimedes " ; and that he con- structed the so-called "sphere," a sort of orrery showing the motions of the heavenly bodies. Of his works, written in the Doric dialect, the following are preserved: On the sphere and cylinder, On the measurement of the circle, On conoids and spheroids, On spiral lines, The psammltes (or sand-reck- oner, for the calculation of the earth's size in grains of sand). On the equilibrium of planes and their centres of gravity, and On floating bodies. Architecture : (1) of the Greeks. Of the earliest efforts of the Greeks in architecture, we have evidence in the so-called Cyclopean Walls surrounding the castles of kings in the Heroic Age at Tiryns, Argos, Mycenae (fig. 1), and elsewhere. They are of enormous thickness, some being constructed of rude colossal blocks, whose gaps are filled up B 50 ARCHITECTURE. with smaller stones ; while others are built of stones more or less carefully hewn, their (1) WALL OF POLYGONAL STONES, MVCENiE. interstices exactly fitting into each other. Gradually they begin to show an approxi- (2) THE LION-OATE, MYCENJE. mation to buildings with rectangular blocks. The gates let into these walls are closed at the top either by the courses of stone jutting over from each side till they touch, or by a long straight block laid over the two leaning side- posts. Of the latter kind is the famous Lion-gate at Mycence, so- called from the group of two lions standing with their forefeet on the broad pedestal of a pillar that tapers rapidly downwards, and remarkable as the oldest specimen of Greek sculptui'e. The sculpture is carved on a large triangular slab that fills an opening left in the wall to lighten the weight on the lintel (fig. 2). Among the most striking relics of this primitive age are the so-called Thesauroi, or treasuries (now re- garded as tombs) of ancient dynasties the most considerable being the T7-ea- sure-Jiouse of Atreus at Mycenae. The usual form of these buildings is that of a circular chamber vaulted over by the hori- zontal courses approaching from all sides till they meet. Thus the vault is not a true arch (fig. 3). The interior seems originally to have been covered with metal plates, thus agreeing with Homer's descrip- tions of metal as a favourite ornament of princely houses. An open-air building pre- served from that age is the supposed Temple of Hera on Mount Ocha (now Hagios Elias) in Eubcea, a rectangle built of regular square blocks, with walls more than a yard thick, two small windows, and a door with leaning posts and a huge lintel in the southern side- wall. The sloping roof is of hewn flagstones resting on the thickness of the wall and overlapping each other ; but the centre is left open as in the hypsethral temples of a later time. From the simple shape of a rectangular house shut in by blank walls we gradu- ally advance to finer and richer forms, formed especially by the introduction of columns detached from the wall and serv- ing to support the roof and ceiling. Even in Homer we find columns in the palaces to support the halls that surround the court- yard, and the ceiling of the banqueting-room. The construction of columns (see Architec- ture, Orders of) received its artistic de- velopment first from the Dorians after their migration into the Peloponnesus about 1000 B.C., next from the lonians, and from each in a form suitable to their several characters. If the simple serious character of the Dorians speaks in the Doric Order, no less does the lighter, nimbler, and more (3) TUEASUUE HOUSE " OF ATREUS, MYCEN^. A wall of entrance-passaie (drSmSs), 30 ft. long. B entrance, 19i ft. lii^h. C large chamber, 50 ft. high. D entrance (9 ft. high) to small chamber. ARCHITECTURE. 51 showy genius of the Ionian race come out in the Order named after them. By about G50 B.C. the Ionic style was flourishing side by side with the Doric. As it was in the construction of Temples iq.v.) that architecture had developed her favourite forms, all other public buildings borrowed their artistic character from the temple. The structure and furniture of private houses {see House), were, during the best days of Greece, kept down to the simplest forms. About 600 B.C., in the ■Greek islands and on the coast of Asia Minor, we come across the first architects known to us by name. It was then that Ehoecus and TheodOrus o-f Samos, cele- period, in addition to many ruined temples in Sicily (especially at Selinus and Agri- gentum), should be mentioned the Temple of Poseidon at Psestura (Poseidonia) in South Italy, one of the best preserved and most beautiful relics of antiquity (figs. 4, 5). The patriotic fervour of the Persian Wars created a general expansion of Greek life, in which Architecture and the sister art of Sculpture were not slow to take a part. In these departments, as in the whole onward movement, a central position was taken by Athens, whose leading statesmen, Cimon and Pericles, lavished the great resources of the State at once in strengthening and beauti- fying the city. During this period arose a (4) * EXTEItlOR OF TEMPLE OF POSEIDON AT P^STUM (79 ft. X 195 ft.). larated likewise as inventors of casting in bronze, built the great tempile of Hera in that island, while Chersiphron of Cnosus in Crete, with his son Metdgenes, began the temple of Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus, one of the seven wonders of the world, which was not finished till 120 years after. In Greece Proper a vast temple to Zeus was begun at Athens in the 6th cen- tury B.C. {see Olympieum), and two more at Delphi and Olympia, one by the Cor- inthian Spinthdrtis, the other by the Elean Libon. Here, and in the Western colonies the Doric style still predominated every- where. Among the chief remains of this g\-oup of masterpieces that still astonish us in their ruins, some in the forms of a softened Doric, others in the Ionic style, which had now found its way into Attica, and was here fostered into nobler shapes. The Doric order is represented by the Temple of Theseus (fig. 6), the Propylsea built by Mnesicles, the Parthenon, a joint produc- tion of Ictlnus and Callicrdtes ; while the Erechtheum is the most brilliant creation of the Ionic order in Attica. Of the influence of Attic Architecture on the rest of Greece we have proof, especially in the Temple of Apollo at Bassse in South- Western Arcadia,built from the design of the above-mentioned Ictinus. 62 ARCHITECTUEE. The progress of the Drama to its per- fection in this period led to a correspond- ing improvement in the building of The- atres (q.v.). A stone theatre was begun at Athens even before the Persian Wars ; and the Odeum of Pericles served similar purposes. How soon the highest results were achieved in this department, when once the fundamental forms had thus been laid down in outline at Athens, is shown by the theatre at Epidaurus, a work of Polyclltus, unsurpassed, as the ancients testify, by any later theatres in harmony and beauty. Another was built at Syracuse, before B.C. 420. Nor is it only in the erection of single buildings that the great increasingly fashionable. In the first half of the 4th century arose what the ancients considered the largest and grandest temple in the Peloponnesus, that of Athena at Tegea, a work of the sculptor and archi- tect ScOpds. During the middle of the century, another of the "seven wonders," the splendid tomb of Mausolus at Halicar- nassus was constructed (see Mausoleum). Many magnificent temples arose in that time. In Asia Minor, the temple at Ephesus, burnt down by Herostratus, was rebuilt by Alexander's bold architect Deinocrdtes. In the islands the ruins of the temple of Athena at Priene, of Apollo at Miletus, of Dionysus at Teos, and others, (5) * INTKRIOB OP TEMPLE OP POSEIDON, PiESTUM ; Sfifi p. 51. advance then made by architecture shows itself. In laying out new towns, or parts of towns, men began to proceed on artistic principles, an innovation due to the sophist Hippoddmus of Miletus. In the 4th century B.C., owing to the change wrought in the Greek mind by the Peloponnesian War, in place of the pure and even tone of the preceding period, a desire for effect became more and more general, both in architecture and sculpture. The sober Doric style fell into abeyance and gave way to the Ionic, by the side of which a new Order, the Corinthian, said to have been invented by the sculptor Callimdchus, with its more gorgeous decorations, became even to this day offer a brilliant testi- mony to their former magnificence. Among Athenian buildings of that age the Monu- ment of Lysicrates (q.v.) is conspicuous for its graceful elegance and elaborate de- velopment of the Corinthian style. In the succeeding age Greek architecture shows its finest achievements in the building of theatres, especially those of Asiatic towns, in the gorgeous palaces of newly-built royal capitals, and in general in the luxurious completeness of private buildings. As an important specimen of the last age of Attic architecture may also be mentioned the Tower of the Winds (q.v.) at Athens. (2) Architecture of the Etruscans and AECHITECTURE. 63 Romans. In architecture, as well as sculp- ture, the Romans were long under the influence of the Etruscans^ who, though denied the gift of rising to the ideal, united wonderful activity and inventiveness with a pas- sion for covering their build- ings with rich ornamental carving. None of their tem- ples have survived, for they built all the upper parts of wood ; but many proofs of their activity in building re- main, surviving from various ages, in the shape of Tombs and Walls. The latter clearly show how they progressed from piling up polygonal blocks in Cyclopean style to regular courses of squared stone. Here and there a building still shows that the Etruscans originally made vaultings by letting horizontal courses jut over, as in the ancient Greek thesauroi above mentioned ; on the other hand, some very old gateways, as at Volterra (fig. 7) and Perugia, exhibit the true Arch of wedge- shaped stones, the invention of which is probably due to Etruscan ingenuity, and from the introduction of which a new and magnificent development of archi- tecture takes its rise. The most impos- ing monument of ancient Italian arch- building is to be seen in the sewers of Rome laid down in the 6th century B.C. (See Cloaca Maxima.) When all other traces of Etruscan infliience were being swept away at Rome by the intrusion of Greek forms of art, especially after the Conquest of Greece in the middle of the 2nd cen- tury B.C., the Roman architects kept alive in full vigour the Etruscan method of building the arch, which they developed and completed by the inventions of the Cross-Arch (or groined vault) and the Dome. With the Arch, which admits of a bolder and more varied management of spaces, the Romans combined, as a decorative element, the columns of the Greek Orders. Among these their growing love of pomp gave the preference more and more to the Corinthian, adding to it afterwards a still more gorgeous embellishment in what is called the Roman or Composite capital (see Architecture, Orders of). Another ser- vice rendered by the Romans was the intro- duction of building in brick (see Pottery). A more vigorous advance in Roman archi- tecture dates from the opening of the 3rd century B.C., when they began making great military roads and aqueducts. In the first THESEUH " (46 ft. X 105 ft.) ; see p. 51. half of the 2nd century they built, on Greek models, the first Basilica, which, besides its practical utility served to embellish the Forum. Soon after the middle of the cen- ■ui"*"' / --:' -J&ri'" -T,-." rr^' (7) * GATE OF VOLTERRA. (After Canina.) tury, appeared the first of their more am- bitious temples in the Greek style. There simple grandeur in the ruins of the is Tdhularium, or Record-Office, built B.C. 78 54 ARCHITECTUEE. on the slope of the Capitol next the Forum. These are among the few remains of Roqaan republican architecture ; but in the last de- cades of the Republic simplicity gi-adually disappeared, and men were eager to display aided by his son-in-law Agrippa, a man who understood building, not only completed his uncle's plans, but added many magnificent structures — the Forum Augusti with its Temple to Mars Ultor, the Theatre of Mar- (8) * EXTERIOR OF COLOSSEUM ; See p. 55. (Cooke, Views of the Coliseum, pi. 13.) a princely pomp in public and private build- ings ; witness the first stone theatre erected by Pompey as early as 55 B.C. Then all that went before was eclipsed by the vast works undertaken by Ccesai; the Theatre, cellus with its Portico of Octavia, the Mau~ soleiim, and others. Augustus could fairly boast that "havingfound Rome acity of brick, he left it a city of marble.'' The grandest monument of that age, and one of the loftiest (9)* INTERIOR OP CULOSSKUM ; See p. 55. (Cooke, Views ofihe Coliseum, pi. 4.) Amphitheatre, Circus, Basilica Iulia,Forum CcESdris with its Temple to Venus Genetrix. These were finished by Augustus, under whom Roman architecture seems to have reached its culminating point. Augustus, creations of Roman art in general, is the* PanthSon (q.v.) built by Agrippa, adjacent to, but not connected with, his Thermce, the first of the many works of that kind in Rome. A still more splendid aspect was imparted ARCHITECTURE. 55 to the city by tlie rebuilding of the Old Town burnt down in Nero's fire, and by the " Golden House " of Nero, a gorgeous pile, The progress made under the Flavian em- perors is evidenced by Vespasian's Amphi- theatre (q.v.) known as the Colosseum (figs. (10) * CKOSS-SECTION OP COLOSSEUM. (After Fontana and Hirt.) the like of which was never seen before, but which was destroyed on the violent death of its creator. Of the luxurious grandeur of iUUa!i (11) * ARCH OP TITUS. private buildings we have ocular proof in the dwelling-houses of Pompeii, a paltry country-town in comparison with Rome. 8, 9, 10), the mightiest Roman ruin in the world, by the ruined Thermo^, or Baths, of Titus, and by his Triumphal Arch {q.v.), the oldest specimen extant in Rome of this class of monument, itself a creation of the Roman mind (fig. 11). But all previous buildings were surpassed in size and splendour when Trajan's architect Apollodorus of Damas- cus raised the Forum Traidnum with its huge Basilica Ulpia (fig. 12) and the still surviving Column of Trajan. No less extensive were the works of Hadrian, who, besides adorning Athens with many mag- nificent buildings, bequeathed to Rome a Temple of Venus and Roma, the most colossal of all Roman temples (fig. 13), and his own Mausoleum (q.v.), the core of which is preserved in the Castle of St. Angelo. While the works of the Antonines already show a gradual decline in archi- tectural feeling, the Triumphal Arch of Severus ushers in the period of decay that set in with the 3rd century. In this clos- ing period of Roman rule the buildings grow more and more gigantic, witness the Baths of Caracalla (fig. 14), those of Dio- cletian, with his palace at Salona (three miles from Spalatro) in Dalmatia, and the Basilica of Constantino breathing the last feeble gasp of ancient life. But outside of Rome and Italy, in every part of the enor- mous empire to its utmost barbarian borders, 1 ir— J HI m :ii A. f"^ ^^1 f a n a i a M Is m > fci m ■ Ij I Iff ° p a Is 11 Hif a 1 ! m g a 9 a m 13 UF a 1 (•; M ;*; i« i»; ^ ^ p. C9 ARCHITECTURE, ORDERS OF. 67 bridges, numberless remains of roads and aqueducts and viaducts, ramparts and gateways, palaces, villas, market-places and judgment-halls, baths, theatres, amphi- theatres and temples, attest the versatility, majesty, and solidity of Roman architecture, most of whose creations only the rudest shocks have hitherto been able to destroy. Architecture, Orders of. In Greek architecture there were three orders of columns : the Doric, Ionic, and Corin- a. Matules. d. Annulets b. Triglyphs. e. Flutings. c. Metopes. (1) Prom the Temple of Poseidon, Psestum. (2) From the Parthenon, Alliens. DOKIC ORDEK. thian. (I) Doric: Figures 1 and 2 give instances of the Doric style from the temple at Psestum and the Parthenon at Athens. The Doric column consists {a) of the shaft, which increases in diameter almost invisibly up to about one-quarter of its height, and diminishes slightly after that point. It has no base, but rests immediately on the sty- lobate. It is surrounded with semi-circular flutings, meeting each other at a sharp angle. These were chiselled with a cedar- wood tool after the separate drums had been put together. (6) The capital (Lat. capl- tulum). This consists of three parts, (a) the hypotrdchelidn^ or neck of the column, a continuation of the shaft, but separated by an indentation from the other drums. It is wider at the top than at the bottom, and is generally ornamented with several parallel and horizontal rings. (6) The Echinus, a circular moulding or cushion, which widens greatly towards the top. (c) The abax or abacus, a square slab sup- porting the architrave or epistylton. The height of the shaft is usually 5| times, the distance between the columns 1| times the diameter of the base of the column. The architrave is a quadrangular beam of stone, reaching from pillar to pillar. On this again rests the frieze, zophdros, so called from the metopes which are adorned with sculptures in relief. These metopes are square spaces between the triglyphs: the triglyphs are surfaces cut into three concave grooves, two whole grooves in the centre, and two half grooves at the sides. One is placed over each pillar, and one between each pair of pillars. The entablature is completed b}^ a projecting cornice, a slab crowned with a simple heading-course, the lower surface of L= (3) From the Temple on the Ilissus, Athens. IONIC ORDER. (4) From the Monument of Lysicrates, Athens. CORINTHIAN ORDER. which is ornamented with sloping corbels (Ok. stdgones, Lat. mutull). (II) Ionic Columns. An instance is given in fig. 3 from the temple on the Ilissus at Athens. These are loftier than the Doric, their height being 8|-9|- times the diameter of the lower part. The enlargement of the lower 58 AECHITECTURE, ORDERS OF. an The egg pattern, architrave is ^" LjuftiuJ5Lii ^ ^° Cornice, g Frieze. Architrave. part is also less than iu the Doric columns, the distance between each column greater (two diameters), the flutings (generally 24 in number) deeper, and separated by small fiat surfaces. The Ionic column has a base, consist- ing of a square slab (plinthos), and several cushion- like supports sepa- rated by grooves. The capital, again, is more artistically developed. The neck, instead of flutings, has five leaves worked in relief. The echimis is very small and ornamented with an egg pattern. Over it, instead of ^ the abacus, is a four-cornered cushion ending be- fore and behind in spiral volutes, sup- porting a naiTow square slab, which is also adorned with Shaft. divided into three a- Cyma recta. K. Volutes. 1 J • , • b. Corona. li. Astragal, bands, projecting c. ModiUions. i. Torus. one above the^-Ovoio k.Trochiius. , . . e. Cymation. 1. Quiwlra. other, and upon it f. Abacus. m. Plinth. rises, in an unin- (5) From the Pantheon, Borne. terrupted surface, corinthian order. the frieze, adorned with reliefs continuously along its whole length. Finally, the cornice is composed of different parts. (Ill) IVie Corinthian column (fig. 4, from the monument of Lysicrates, at Athens). The base and shaft are identical with the Ionic, but the capital takes the form of an open cdlix formed of acanthus leaves. Above this is another set of leaves, from between which grow stalks with small leaves, rounded into the form of volutes. On this rests a small abacus widening to- wards the top, and on this again the entab- lature, which is borrowed from the Ionic order. On the human figures employed instead of columns to support the entabla- ture, see Atlas, Canephori, Caryatides. The Romans adopted the Greek styles of column, but not always in their pure form. They were fondest of the Corinthian, which they laboured to enrich with new and often excessive ornamentation. For instance, they crowned the Corinthian capital with the Ionic, thus forming what is called the Roman or composite capital. The style known as Tuscan is a degenerate form of the Doric. The Tuscan column has a smooth shaft, in height = 7 diameters of the lower part, and tapering up to three- quarters of its lower dimensions. Its base consists of two parts, a circular plinth, and a cushion of equal height. The capital is formed of three parts of equal height. In other styles, too, the Romans sometimes adopted the smooth instead of the fluted shaft, as for instance in the Pantheon (fig. 5). Single columns were sometimes erected by the Greeks, and in imitation of them by the Romans, as memorials to distinguished ((i) * COLUMN OF MARCUS AURELIUS. (With its surroundings as restored by Canina, Arch. Rom, tav. 201.) persons. A good example is the Columna Rostrata, or column with its shaft adorned with the beaks of ships, in the Roman AKCHITHEORIA ARCHON. 69 Forum. This was set up in commemora- tion of the naval victory of Dullius over the Carthaginians (261 B.C.). Among the columns which survive, the most magnifi- cent is that of Trajan, erected in the Forum of Trajan 113 A.D. It rises on a quadran- gular pediment to the height of 124 feet ; its diameter below is about 10 feet, and a little less in the upper part. An interior spiral staircase of 185 steps leads to the summit. The shaft, formed of twenty-three drums of marble, is adorned with a series of reliefs, 3 feet 3 inches high and 200 feet long, in a series of twenty-two spirals. They represent scenes in Trajan's Dacian campaigns, and contain 2,500 human figures, with animals, engines, etc. On a cylindrical pedestal at the summit there once stood a gilded statue of the emperor, which, since the year 1587, has made way for a bronze figure of St. Peter. A similar column is that of Marcus Aurelius, 122 feet high, on the Piazza Colonna. Since 1589 the statue of St. Paul has been substituted for that of the emperor. The reliefs, in twenty spirals, represent events in the emperor's war with the Marcomanni. Archithgorla. One of the public services called llturgice at Athens ; it was the obli- gation to furnish forth the sacred embassies (theorice) to the four great national festivals, also to Delphi and other holy places. (See Leitourgia.) Archon ( = ruler), the Athenian name for the supreme authority established on the abolition of royalty. On the death of the last king, Codrus, B.C. 1068, the headship of the state for life was bestowed on his son Medon and his descendants under the title of Archon. In 752 B.C. their term of office was cut down to ten years, in 714 their exclusive privilege was abolished, and the right to hold the office thrown open to all the nobility, while its duration was dimin- ished to one year; finally in B.C. 683 the power was divided among nine archons. By Solon's legislation, his wealthiest class, the pentacdsio-medimni, became eligible to the office ; and by Aristides' arrangement after the Persian Wars it was thrown open to all the citizens, Cleisthenes having previously, in the interests of the democracy, substituted the drawing of lots for election by vote. [See Note on p. 706.] The politacal power of the office, having steadily decreased with time, sank to nothing when democracy was established ; its holders had no longer even the right to deliberate and originate motions, their action being limited to certain priestly and judicial functions, relics of their once regal power. The titles and duties of the several Ar- chons are as follows: (1) Their president^ named emphatically Archon, or Archon Eponymos, because the civil year was. named after him. He had charge of the Great Dioni/sia, the Thargelia, the embas- sies to festivals {theorice), the nomination of choregi / also the position of guardian in chief, and the power to appoint guardians, the presidency in all suits about family rights (such as questions of divorce or inherit- ance), and in disputes among the choregi. (2) The Archon BdsUeus (king), called so because on him devolved certain sacred rites inseparably connected with the name of king. He had the care of the Eleusinian Mysteries (and was obliged therefore to be an initiated person), of the Lencea and Anthesteria, of gymnastic contests, to which he appointed a superintendent, and of a number of antiquated sacrifices, some of which fell to the share of his wife, the JSasilissa (queen) ; and lastly, the position of president in all suits touching religious law, including those trials for murder that came within the jurisdiction of the EphetcE {q.v.). (3) The Archon PolSmarchds (leader in war) was originally entrusted with the war-department, and, as late as the battle of Marathon, had the right of voting with the ten generals, and the old royal privilege of commanding the right wing. Afterwards he only had charge of the state sacrifices offered to the gods of war and to the shade of Harmodius, the public funerals of those who fell in war and the annual feasts in honour of them; finally, the juris- diction in all questions concerning the personal and family rights of resident aliens (metoeci) and strangers. All this rested on the old assumption that foreigner meant enemy. Each of these three superior Archons had two assessors chosen by himself, but responsible. (4) The Six IZ'/jcsmo^/ie^a? (literally law- givers) administered justice in all cases not pertaining to the senior Archons or some other authority, revised the laws once a year, and superintended the apportioning of public offices by lot. The several Ar- chons exercised their jurisdiction at different spots in the city; that of the Polemarch alone lay outside the walls. Duties common to all nine were: the yearly appointment by lot of the Heliastce (q.v.), the choice of umpires in the Panathensea, the holding of elections of the generals and other military officers, jurisdiction in the case of officials 60 ARCHYTAS ARES. suspended or deposed by the people, and latterly even in suits which had previously been subject to the nautodicm. {See Nau- TODic^.) If they had discharged their office without blame, they entered the AreSpagus as members for life. The office of Archon lasted even under the Roman rule. Archytas of Tarentum. Distinguished as a general, statesman and mathematician, a leading representative of the Pythagorean philosophy, who flourished about 400-365 B.C. {See Pythagoras.) Arctinus (Gr. Arktlnds). A Greek epic poet. See Epos. Areithdiis. King of Arne in Boeotia, called the " club-swinger " because he fought with an iron mace. Irresistible in the open field, he was waylaid by king Lycurgus of Arcadia in a narrow pass where he could not swing his club, and killed. His son Menesthius fell by the hand of Paris, before Troy. Are6pagus (Gr. Areids pdgds). An ancient criminal court at Athens, so named because it sat on Ares' Hill beside the AcrSpSlis, where the god of war was said to have been tried for the murder of Halirrdthius the son of Poseidon. {See Ares.) Solon's legislation raised the Areopagus into one of the most powerful bodies by transferring to it the greater part of the jurisdiction of the Ephetse (5.V.), as well as the supervision of the entire public administration, the conduct of ma- gistrates, the transactions of the popular assembly, religion, laws, morals and disci- pline, and giving it power to call even private people to account for offensive behaviour. The " Court of Areopagus," as its full name ran, consisted of life-members (Areopagites), who supplemented their number by the addition of such archons as had discharged their duties without reproach. Not only their age, but their sacred character tended to increase the influence of the Areopagites. They were regarded as in a measure ministers of the ErlnySs or EwnenXdSs (Furies), who under the name of Semnce (venerable) had their cave im- mediately beneath the Areopagus, and whose worship came under their care. The Areopagus proving too consei'vative for the headlong pace of the Athenian democracy, its general right of supervising the admi- nistration was taken from it by the law of Ephialtes, in 462 B.C., and transferred to a new authority, the NdmophyldkPs (guar- dians of the laws); but it recovered this right on the fall of the Thirty. Its political powers seem never to have been clearly defined ; it often acted in the name of, and with full powers from, the people, which also accepted its decisions on all possible subjects. Under the Roman rule it was still regarded as the supreme authority. Then, as formerly, it exercised a most minute vigilance over foreigners. Ares (Lat. Mars). The Greek name for the god of war, son of Zeus by Hera, whose quarrelsome temper Homer supposes to have passed over to her son so effectively that he delighted in nothing but battle and blood- shed. His insatiable thirst for blood makes him hateful to his father and all the gods, especially Athena. His favourite haunt is the land of the wild and warlike Thracians. In form and equipment the ideal of warlike heroes, who are therefore called "Ares-like" and "darlings of Ares," he advances, ac- cording to Homer, now on foot, now in a chariot drawn by magnificent steeds, at- tended by his equally bloodthirsty sister Eris (strife), his sons Deim6s and Ph6h6s (fear and fright), and Emjo, the goddess of battle and waster of cities (he himself being called Enydlids), rushing in blind rage through indiscriminate slaughter. Though fighting on the Trojan side, the bloodshed only is dear to his heart. But his unbridled strength and blind valour turn to his dis- advantage, and always bring about his defeat in the presence of Athena, the god- dess of ordered battalions; he is also beaten by heroes fighting under her leadership, as by Heracles in the contest with Cycnus, and by Diomedes before Troy. And this view of Ares as the bloodthirsty god of battles is in the main that of later times also. As early as Homer he is the friend and lover of Aphrodite, who has borne him Eros and Anteros, Deimos and Phobos, as well as Harmonia, wife of Cadmus the founder of Thebes, where both goddesses were wor- shipped as ancestral deities. He is not named so often as the gods of peace, but, as Ares or Enyalios, he was doubtless worshipped everywhere, notably in Sparta, in Arcadia and (as father of (Enomaiis) in Elis. At Sparta young dogs were sacrified to him under the title of TherUds. At Athens the ancient site of a high court of justice, the AreSpSgus, was consecrated to him. There, in former days, the Olympian gods had sat in judgment on him and absolved him when he had slain Halir- rhothius for offering violence to Alcippe, his daughter by Agraulus. His symbols were the spear and the burning torch. Before the introduction of trumpets, two ARET^US ARGONAUTS. 61 priests of Ares, marching in front of the armies, hurled the torch at the foe as the signal of battle. ABES. (Rome, Villa Ludovisi.) In works of art he was represented as a young and handsome man of strong sinewy frame, his hair in short curls, and a some- what sombre look in his countenance ; in the early style he is bearded and in ar- mour, in the later beardless and with only the helmet on. He is often repx-esented in company with Aphrodite and their boy Eros, who plays with his father's arms. One of the most famous statvies extant is that in the Villa Ludovisi, which displays him in an easy resting attitude, with his arms laid aside, and Eros at his feet. (See cut.) On his identification with the Italian Mars, see Mars. Argtaeus. A Greek physician, born in Cappadocia, towards the end of the 2nd cen- tury A.D. He was the author of two valu- able works (each in four books), written in the Ionic dialect, on the causes and symp- toms of acute and chronic pains, and on their cure. Arete. Wife of AlcmStis king of the Phseacians {see both), and protectress of Odysseus (q.v.). Ar^thusa. (1) In Greece a frequent name of springs, especially of one in Elis, and one on the Island of Ortygia in the port of Syracuse, which was supposed to have a subterranean communication with the river Alpheus in Elis. The two fountains were associated by the following legend. As the nymph of Elis, tired with the chase, was bathing in the Alpheus, the river-god fell passionately in love with her ; she fled from him to Ortygia, where Artemis hid her in the ground, and let her gush out of it in the form of a fountain ; but Alpheus flowed on under the sea to Ortygia, and so united himself with his beloved one. The story is explained by the likeness of name in the fountains, by the circumstance that Artemis was worshipped both in Elis and Ortygia as Alphecea, and by the fact that in some places the Alpheus actually does run un- derground. (2) One of the HcsperMes (q.v.). Argei. The name of certain chapels at Rome, probably twenty-four in number, each of the four tribes of the city having six. To these chapels a procession was made on March 16 and 17, at which the wife of the Flamen Dialis walked with unkempt hair as a sign of mourning. On May 15 the Pontiffs, Vestal Virgins, Prae- tors, and all citizens who had a right to assist at sacrifices, marched to the wooden bridge over the Tiber (Pons Subltcius), and after sacrificing, threw into the river twenty-four men of straw, likewise named Argei, which had probably been hung up in the chapels at the first procession, and were fetched away at the second. The sacrifice was regarded as expiatory, and the puppets as substitutes for former human victims. The meaning of the name was unknown to the ancients, and so was the deity to whom the sacrifice was offered. Argentarii. See Money-Changers. Argent6us. A Roman silver coin current from the end of the 3rd century a.d, and onwards. See Coinage. Argo. The ship of the Argonauts (q.v.\ named after her builder Argos. Argonauts. Those who sailed in the Argo with Jason, son of JEson and grandson of Cretheus {see ^olus, 1), a generation before the Trojan war, to Ma,, which in later times was understood to be Colchis, lying at the farthest end of the Black Sea.. The object of the expedition was to fetch back the golden fleece of the ram on which. Phrixus the son of Athamas (q.v.) had fled, from his father and his stepmother Ino, to the magician ^etes, king of ^a^ 62 ARGONAUTS. Hospitably received by him, and married to his daughter Chalciope, he had sacrificed the ram, and hung its fleece up in the grove of Ares, where it was guarded by a sleep- less dragon. The task of fetching it back was laid upon Jason by his uncle Pelias, son of Poseidon and Tyro, who had deprived his half-brother ^son of the sovereignty of lolcos in Thessaly. iEson, to protect his son from the plots of Pelias, had con- veyed him secretly to the centaur Chiron on Mount Pelion, who brought him up till he was twenty years of age. Then Jason came home, and without a shoe on his left foot, having lost it in wading through a mountain torrent, presented himself before Pelias, demanding his father's restoration to his sovereignty. The crafty Pelias, whom an oracle had warned against a one- shoed man, promised on his oath to do what he asked, if Jason would go instead -of himself to fetch the golden fleece. This task the oracle had imposed upon himself, but he was too old to perform it. Another version of the story is, that Jason, after completing his education with Chiron, pre- ferred to live in the country ; that he came, with one shoe on, to a sacrifice that Pelias was offex'ing to Poseidon on the sea- shore ; that Pelias asked him what he would do if he were king and had been forewarned of his death at the hand of a subject ; and that, upon Jason answering that he would make him fetch the golden fleece, Pelias gave him the commission. Hera had put that answer in Jason's mouth, because she regarded him with favour, and wished to punish Pelias for having slain Sidero in her temple. {See Salmoneus.) The vessel for the voyage, the fifty-oared Argo, is said to have been named after its builder Argos, a son of Phrixus, after his return to OrchSmenus, the home of his fathers. The ship was built of the pines of Pelion under the direction of Athena, like Hera, a protectress of Jason, who inserted dn the prow a piece of the speaking oak of Dodona. The heroes who at Jason's call took part in the expedition, fifty all told according to the number of the oars, were originally, in the version to which the Minyan family gave currency, Minyans of lolcos, Orchomenus, P5'los, and other places. Among them were Acastus the son of Pelias, a close friend of Jason, Admetus, Erglnus, Euphemus, Periclj'menus, and Tiphys. But, as the story spread, all the Greek heroes that could have been living at the time were in- cluded among the number of the Argonauts, e.g. Heracles, Castor and Polydeuces, Idas and Lynceus, Calais and Zetes the sons of Boreas, Peleus, Tydeus, Meleager, Amphia- raiis, Orpheus, Mopsus and Idmon the pro- phets of the expedition, and even the hunt- ress Atalante. Jason takes the command, and Tiphys manages the helm. Setting sail from PagassB the port of lolcos, the Argo- nauts make the Island of Lemnos, where only women dwell, and after some con- siderable stay there (see Hypsipyle) go past Samothrace and through the Hellespont to the island of Cyzicus, where they are hos- pitably received by Cyzicus, the king of the Doliones, but attempting to proceed, are beaten back by a storm at night, and being taken by their late friends for pirates,, are attacked, and have the ill-fortune to kill their young king. On the coast of Mysia they leave Heracles behind to look for Hylas (q.v.) who has been carried off by nymphs. On the Bithynian shore Polydeuces van- quishes the Bebrycian king Amycus (q.v.) in a boxing match. At Salmydessus in Thrace the blind seer Phineus, whom Calais and Zetes had rid of the Harpies, his tor- mentors, instructs them with regard to the rest of their journey, and especially how to sail through the SymplegSdes, two floating rocks that clash together at the entrance to the Black Sea. By his advice Jason sends a dove before him, and as she has only her tail-feathers cut off by the colliding rocks, they venture on the feat of rowing the Argo through. Bj' Hera's help, or, according to another account, that of Athena, they do what no man has done before ; they pass through, the ship onty losing her rudder. Skirting the southern shore of the Pontus, they meet with a friendly reception from Lycus, king of the Maryandini, though here the seer Idmon is killed by a wild boar in hunting, and the helmsman Tiphys dies of a disease, whereupon ^ncaeus takes his place. Past the land of Amazons they come to the Island of Aretias, v^hence they scare awaj' the Stymphali.m birds (see Heracles), and take on board the sons of Phrixus, who had been shipwreck'^rl there on their way to Greece. At levi»-'^' they reach the mouth of the Phasis in\^^- j" land of the Colchians. Upon Jason's'^aemand, ./Eetes promises to give up the golden fleece, on condition that Jason catches two brazen-hoofed, fire-breath- ing bulls, yokes them to a brazen plough, and ploughs with them the field of Ares, sows the"; furrows with dragons' teeth, and overcomes the mail-clad men that are to ARGUS ARGYRASPIDES. 63 spring out of them. The hero has given up all hope of success, when Aphrodite kindles in the breast of the king's daughter Medea an irresistible love for the stranger. Medea gives him an ointment to protect him from the fiery breath of the bulls, as well as the strength to harness them, and advises him ' to throw a stone in among the earth-born giants, who will then kill each other. But when all this done, ^etes does not give up the fleece. Then Jason with the help of Medea, whom he promises to take home with him as his wife, throws the dragon that guards it into a sleep, takes it down, and escapes with Medea and his comrades. iEetes sends his son Absyrtus in piirsuit, whom Jason kills by stratagem. Another story is, that Medea takes her little brother Absyrtus with her, cuts him to pieces, and throws the limbs one by one into the sea, that her father, while pursuing her, might be delayed in picking them up and laying them out. As to the Return of the Argonauts the legends differ considerably. One of the oldest makes them sail up the Phasis into the river Oceanus, and over that to Libya, where they drag the ship twelve days' journey overland to Lake Tritonis, and get home across the Mediterranean. Other ac- covints agree with this in substance, while others again mix up the older tradition with the adventures of Odysseus : the heroes sail up the Danube into the Adriatic, and are within hail of Corcyra (Corfu), when a storm breaks out, and the piece of oak from Dodona foretells their ruin unless they have the murder of Absyrtus expiated by Circe. Then they sail up the Eridanus into the Rhone, and so into the Tyrrhenian sea to the island of Circe, who purifies them. They go past the island of the Sirens, against whose magic the songs of Orpheus protect them. All but Bates {q.v.) pass in safety between Scylla and Charybdis with the help of the gods, and reach the islrf of the Phseacians, where Jason marries Medea to evade the sentence of their host Atcmoijs, who, in his capacity as umpire, has given judgment that the maid Medea be delivered up to her Colchian pursuers. Air "v^within sight of the Peloponnesus, a stori.. Ves them into the Libyan Syrtes, whence l '^y carry their ship, saved by divine assistance, to Lake Tritonis. Thence, guided by Triton (see EuPHEMUS) into the Mediterranean, they return by way of Crete to lolcos. During their absence Pelias ha" put to death jEson and his son Promachus, and Jason's mother has taken her own life. Medea sets to work to avenge them. Before the eyes of Pelias' daughters she cuts up an old he-goat, and by boiling it in a magic cauldron, restores it to life and youth. Promising in like manner to renew the youth of the aged Pelias, she induces them to kill their father, and then leaves them in the lurch. Driven away by Acastus, the son of the murdered king, Jason and Medea take refuge with Creon king of Corinth. But, after ten years of happy wedlock, Jason resolves to marry Creon's daughter Creusa or Glauce. On this Medea kills the bride and her father by sending the unsuspecting maiden a poisoned robe and diadem as a bridal gift, murders her own two sons Mer- merus and Pheres in her faithless husband's sight, and escaping in a car drawn by ser- pents, sent by her grandfather Heli6s, makes her way to ^geus king of Athens. {See Medea.) Jason is said to have come by his death through the Argo, which he had set up and consecrated on the Isth- mus. One day, when he was lying down to rest under the ship, the stern fell off and killed him. The legend of the Argonauts is ex- tremely ancient ; even Homer speaks of it as universally known. We first find it treated in detail in Pindar ; then the Alex- andrian poet Apollonius of Rhodes tried to harmonise the various versions, and was fol- lowed by the Latin poet Valerius Flaccus and the late Greek Pseudo-Orpheus. Argus. (1) Son of Inachus, Agenor or Arestor ; or, according to another account, an earthborn giant, who had ejQB all over his body, whence he was called Panoptes, or all-seeing. Hera set him to watch lo {q.v.) when transformed into a cow; but Hermes, at Zeus' bidding, sent all his eyes to sleep by the magic of his wand and flute, and cut his head off with a sickle-shaped sword, whence his title Argeiphontes was explained to mean " slayer of Argus." Hera set the eyes of her dead watchman in the tail of her sacred bird the peacock. (2) Son of Phrixus and Chalciope, the daughter of ^Eetes. He is said to have come to OrchSmenus, the home of his father, and to have built the Argo, which was named after him. According to another account he was shipwrecked with his brothers at the Island of Aretias on their way to Greece, q.nd thence carried to Colchis by the Argonauts. Argjrraspid6s (silver-shielded). In the later army of Alexander the Great, the remnant of the Macedonian heavy-armed 6d -A.KIADNE ARISTtENETUS. infantry, who had crossed the Hellespont with the king, were formed into a corps of Guards in the heavy infantry of the line, and named frcui their shields being over- laid with Indian silver. After Alexander's death the corps was disbanded by Antigonus on account of its overweening pretensions. Ariadne. The daughter of Minos and Pasiphae, who fell in love with Theseus when he came to Crete to kill the Minotaur, and gave him a clue of yarn, to help him to find his way back to the light of day after slaying the monster in the Labyrinth. She then fled away with him. Homer represents Ariadne as slain by Artemis in the Island of Dia, close to Crete, at the request of Dionysus. But the later legend shifts the scene to the Isle of Naxos, where the slumbering Ariadne is deserted by Theseus. Waking up, she is on the brink of despair, when Dionysus comes and raises her to the dignity of a god's wife. Zeus grants her immortality, and sets her bridal gift, a crown, among the stars. She re- ceived divine honours : at Naxos her festivals were held, now with dismal rites recalling her abandonment, now with bacchanalian revelry becoming the happy bride of Dio- nysus. At Athens in the autumn they held a joyous festival to her and Dionysus,i which Theseus was supposed to have founded on his return from Crete. In Italy, where they identified Dionysus with their wine-god Liber, they also took Ari- adne for the wine-goddess Libera. Aries (Gr. krlds). The Battering-ram, one of the most effective engines used by the ancients to make a breach in the walls of a besieged town. Originally it con- sisted of a strong pole, with iron-mounted head, brought up to the wall in earlier times by hand, in later times on wheels. In its final form it was constructed in the following manner. A stout beam, sometimes composed of several pieces, and measuring from 65 to 100 feet long or more, was hung by ropes on a strongly mounted horizontal beam, and swung backwards and forwards, so as to loosen the stones of the wall, and make it fall. As the engine stood close to BATTERING RAM UNDER SHED. TESrUnO AniETIXA. the wall, the men working it were sheltered by a roofed shell of boards, called the ram- tortoiseshell {testudo arietlna), and resting on a framework that ran upon wheels. To protect the roof and sides of the shell against fire thrown from the walls, they were coated with raw or well soaked hides, or other similar contrivances. The loos- ened stones were picked out of the wall with a strong iron hook at the end of a pole, the wall-sickle (falx muralis) as it was called. Single holes we-e punched in the wall with the wall-borer {terSbra), a ram with a sharp point, which was pushed forward on rollers. The besieged tried to knock the ram's head off by dropping heavy stones on it, or to catch it in a noose and turn the blow aside or upwards, or to deaden the force of its blows with sandbags and mats. If the town wished to secure indulgent treatment, it had to surrender before the ram touched the walls. (See Sieges.) Arion. A Greek poet and musician, of Methymna in LesbSs, who flourished about 625 B.C. In the course of a roving life he spent a considerable time at the court of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Here he first gave the dithyramb (q.v.) an artistic form, and was therefore regarded as the inventor of that style in general. He is best known by the story of his rescue on the back of a dolphin. Returning from an artistic journey through Lower Italy and Sicily to his patron, he trusted himself to a crew of Corinthian sailors, who resolved to kill him on the open sea for the sake of his treasures. As a last favour he extorted the permission to sing his songs once more to the lyre, and then to throw himself into the sea. His strains drew a number of dolphins around him, one of which took him on its back, and carried him safe to land at the foot of the foreland of Tsenarum. Thence he hastened to Cor- inth, and convicted the sailors, who were telling Periander they had left the minstrel safe at Tarentum. A bronze statue of a man on a dolphin, which stood on the top of Tsenaron, was supposed to be his thank- offering to Poseidon. [Herodotus, i 24.} A Thanksgiving Hymn to the god of the sea, preserved under his name, belongs to a later time. Aristaenfitus. A Greek grammarian and rhetorician, of Nicsea in Bithynia, friend of Libanius, who praises him in the highest terms ; he was killed in an earthquake at Nicomedia, a.d. 358. His name is erroneously attached to a collection, probably composed in the 5th or 6th century, of Erotic Epistles, feeble imitations of Alciphron, loose in tone and declamatory in style. ARIST^US ARISTIDES. 65 Aristaeus. A beneficent deity -worshipped in various parts of Greece, especially in Thessaly, Boeotia, the African colony of Cyrene, and the Islands of Ceos, Corcyra, Sicily and Sardinia. He gives his blessing to herds, hunting, bee-keeping, wine, oil and every kind of husbandry. In particular he defends men, animals and plants from the destructive heat of the dog-days. Ac- cording to the story most in vogue, he is the son of Apollo by the Thessalian nymph Cyrene, whom the god carried off to the country named after her. She is the daughter of Hypseus, and granddaugh- ter (another story says daughter) of the river-god Peneus. After his birth Hermes took Aristseus to the Hours and Gsea, the god- dess of the earth, who brought him up and made him an immortal god. Sometimes he is called the son of Uranus (Heaven) and Ga3a (Earth), IntheTheban legend he and Autonoe the daughter of Cadmus are represented as the parents of Actseon. He brought destruction iipon the nymph Eur5''- dice, the beloved of Orpheus ; for in fleeing from his persecutions she was killed by a snake. [Vergil, Georg. iv 315-558.] Aristarchus. (1) A tragic poet of Tegea, a contemporary of Euripides ; he is said to have lived more than a hundred years. Of his 70 dramas only two titles remain. (2) A mathematician and astronomer of Samos, who lived and studied at Alexandria about 270 B.C., and with his pupil Hip- parchus greatly advanced the science of astronomy. He was the first who main- tained the earth's motion round the sun and on its own axis. We still possess a fragment of a treatise by him on the size of the sun and moon, and their distances from the earth. (3) A scholar, born in Samothrace, and a pupil of Aristophanes of Byzantium. He lived at Alexandria in the first half of the 2nd century B.C. as tutor to the royal princes, and keeper of the library. In the tyrannical reign of his pupil Ptolemy VII (Physcon) he fled to Cyprus, and there died of dropsy about B.C. 153, aged 72. He is the most famous of the Alexandrian Critics, and devoted his attention mainly to the Greek poets, especially Homer, to whom he rendered essential service by his critical edition of the text, which remains in sub- stance the groundwork of our present recen- sion. This edition had notes on the margin, indicating the verses which Aristarchus thought spurious or doubtful, and anything else worthy of remark. The meaning of D. c, A. the notes, and the reasons for appending them, were explained in separate commen- taries and excursuses, founded on a mar- vellously minute acquaintance with the language and contents of the Homeric poems, and the whole of Greek literature. He was the head of the school of Aristar- cheans, who continued working on classical texts in his spirit till after the beginning of the Empire. Of his numerous gram- matical and exegetical works only fragments remain. An idea of his Homeric studies, and of their character, can best be gathered from the Venetian scholia to the Iliad, which are largely founded on extracts from the Aristarcheans Didymus and Aristonicus. Aristias. See Pratinas. Aristides, (1) of Thebes. A celebrated Greek painter, the pupil of his father or brother NicSmSchus. He flourished about 350 B.C., and was distinguished for his mastery in the expression of the feelings. His most celebrated picture was that of a conquered city. Its central group repre- sented a mother dying of a wound, and holding back her infant, who is creeping to her bosom, that it may not drink blood instead of milk. Notwithstanding the hardness of their colouring, his works com- manded very high prices. Thus for one representing a scene in the Persian wars, containing 100 figures, he received 1,000 minse (about £3,333). [Pliny, N. H. xxxv 98-100.] (2) Aristides of Miletus^ of the 1st or 2nd century B.C., was the author of a series of love-stories, called MilesMca, from Mi- letus, the scene of the events. These, so far as we know, are the first examples of the prose romance. They were widely read in antiquity, especially among the Romans, for whose benefit they were translated into Latin by the historian Sisenna. Only r. few fragments of them have survived. (3) PiMius ^lius Aristides, surnamed Theodorus, was a Greek rhetorician, born at Hadriani in Bithynia A.D. 117 or 129. He was educated by the most celebrated rheto- ricians of the time, Polemon of Pergamus, and Herodes Atticus of Athens, and made long journeys through Asia, Egypt, Greece and Italy. On his return he was seized with an illness that lasted thirteen years, but which he never allowed to interrupt his studies. His rhetoric, in which he took Demosthenes and Plato for his models, was immensely admired by his contempor- aries ; he also stood in high favour with the emperors, especially Marcus Aurelius, F 66 ARISTIPPUS ARISTOPHANES. who at liis appeal caused Smyrna to be re- built after an earthquake in 178 a.d. The chief scenes of his activity were Athens and Smyrna, where he died about a.d. 190. Beside two treatises of rhetorical and tech- nical import, we still possess fifty-five of his orations, which he took great pains to elaborate. They are characterized by depth and fulness of thought, and are written in powerful, concise, often difficult and obscure language. Some are eulogies on deities and cities (Home, for instance, and Smyrna), others are declamations after ancient models, as the Panathenu'icus after Isocriltes, and the speech against Leptines after Demosthenes. Others treat of his- torical subjects taken from the times of Greek independence. A peculiar interest attaches to the six Sacred Orations, so named because they treat of bints given by Asclepius on the cure of his illness, which he received in a state of somnam- bulism, and imparted aloud to his friends. (4) Aristides Quintilidnus. A Greek musician, who lived probably in the 2nd century a.d., and composed an encyclopaedia of music {De Musica) in tlu-ee books. The first gave a concise account of harmony, rhythm, and metre, the second dealt with the educating influence of music on the soul, and the third described, on Pythago- rean principles, the doctrine of arithmetic intervals, and the harmony of the universe as resting on the same relations. Notwith- standing many defects, the work has the merit of being the completest of its kind which has come down to us from anti- quity. Aristippus. A Greek philosopher, a na- tive of Gyrene, and a pupil of Socrates, after whose death in B.C. 399 he travelled about the Greek cities, imparting instruc- tion for money. He was the founder of the Cyrenaic school, or the system of Hedonism (from 7iedl5?ie= pleasure). His doctrine was, that as a basis for human knowledge the only things real and true are our sensations, not the external objects that produce them ; that the aim of life is what all living things strive after, pleasure ; and that virtue is only so far a good thing as it tends to the production of pleasure. The wise man shows his wisdom in governing his de- sires; mental training, indeed, being the only thing which can qualify us for real enjoyment. In pleasure there is no differ- ence of kind, only of degree and duration, Aristippus' writings seem to have disap- peared early ; five letters in the Doric dialect, which have come down under his name, are undoubtedly spurious. Aristobulus. A Greek historian, who in his youth accompanied Alexander the Great on his campaigns. In his eighty-fifth year, when living at Cassandrea in Thrace, he wrote a work upon Alexander, in which he recorded his careful observations on geo- graphy, ethnography, and natural science. The book is highly praised for its trust- worthiness, but only fragments of it have reached us. He and Ptolemy were the chief authorities for Arrian's Anabasis. Aristocles. (1) A Greek artist, and like his brother Canachus, a sculptor in bronze at Sicyon. He flourished about 480 B.C. ; and founded a school at Sicyon that lasted for a long time. (2) There was an Athenian sculptor of the same name and of the same period, author of a relief known as The Athenian Hoplite^ one of our oldest monu- ments of Attic art. {See cut under Hoplites). AristSn. The second breakfast of the Greeks. {See Meals.) Aristdph^nes. (1) The comedian, who lived at Athens, B.C. 444-388. His father Philippus is said to have been not a native Athenian, but a settler from Rhodes or Egypt, who afterwards acquired the citi- zenship. However this may be, the de- magogue Cleon, whose displeasure Aristo- phanes had incurred, tried to call in ques- tion his right to the citizenship. His first comedy came out in B.C. 427, but was not performed under his own name because of his youth ; and several more of his plays were brought on the stage by Callistratus and Philonides, till in 424 he brought out the Knights in his own person. Forty-four of his plays were known in antiquity, though four of them were considered doubtful. Of these we possess eleven, the only com- plete Greek comedies which have survived, besides the titles, and numerous fragments, of twenty-six others. The eleven are : (1) The Acharnians, which gained him the victory over Cratinus and Eupolis B.C. 425, written during the great Peloponnesian war to induce the Athenians to make peace. (2) The Knights mentioned above, B.C. 424, also crowned' with the first prize, and aimed directly against Cleon. (3) The Clouds, B.C. 423, his most famous and, in his own opinion, his most successful piece, though when played it only won the third prize. We have it only in a second, and apparently unfinished, edition. It is directed against the perniciovis influence of the Sophists, as the representative of whom Socrates Ls ARISTOTLE. 67 attacked. (4) The Wasps^ brouglit out in B.C. 422 and, like the two following, re- warded with the second prize ; it is a satire upon the Athenian passion for law- suits. (5) The Peace ^ of the year B.C. 421, recommending the conclusion of peace. (6) The Birds, acted in B.C. 414, and exposing the romantic hopes built on the expedition to Sicily. This is unquestionably the hap- piest production of the poet's genius, and is marked by a careful reserve in the em- jjloyment of dramatic resource. (7) 21ie Lysistrdte, B.C. 411, a Women's Conspiracy to bring about peace ; the last of the strictly political plays. (8) Thesmophoridzuscv, probably to be dated 410 B.C. It is written against Euripides' dislike of women, for which the women who are celebrating the Thesmophoria drag him to justice. (9) The Frogs, which was acted in 405, and won the first prize. It is a piece sparkling with genius, on the Decay of Tragic Art, the blame of which is laid on Euripides, then recently deceased. (10) Ecclesidzusoi, or The National Assembly of "Women, B.C. 392. It is levelled against the vain at- tempts to restore the Athenian state by cut- and-dried constitutions. (11) Pliitus, or the Grod of Wealth. The blind god is restored to sight, and better times are brought about. This play was acted first in 408, then in 388 in a revised form suitable to the time, and dispensing with chorus and pardbdsis. This play marks the transi- tion to the Middle Comedy. In the opinion of the ancients Aristophanes holds a middle place between Cratinus and Eupolis, being neither so rough as the former nor so sweet as the latter, but com- bining the severity of the one with the grace of the other. What was thought of him in his own time is evident from Plato's Sym- posium, where he is numbered among the noblest of men; and an epigram attributed to that philosopher says that the Graces, looking for an enduring shrine, found it in the soul of Aristophanes. He unites under- standing, feeling, and fancy in a degree pos- sessed by few poets of antiquity. His keen glance penetrates the many evils of his time and their most hidden causes ; his scorn for all that is base, and his patriotic spirit, burning to bring back the brave days of Marathon, urge him on, without respect of persons or regard for self, to drag the faults he sees into daylight, and lash them with stinging sarcasm; while his inexhaustible fancy invents ever new and original materials, which he manipulates with perfect mastery of language and tech- nical skill. If his jokes are often coarse and actually indecent, the fact must be im- puted to the character of the Old Comedy and the licentiousness of the Dionysiac fes- tival, during which the plays were acted. No literature has anything to compare with these comedies. Ancient scholars, re- cognising their great importance, bestowed infinite pains in commenting on them, and valuable relics of their writings are enshrined in the existing collections of Scholia. (2) Aristophanes the Grammarian (or Scholar) of Byzantium, born about 260 B.C., went in his early youth to Alexandria, and was there a pupil of Zenodotus and Calli- machus. On the death of Apollonius of Rhodes, Aristophanes, when past his sixtieth year, was appointed to be chief librarian, and died at the age of 77. His fame was eclipsed by that of his pupil Aristarchus, but he still passed for one of the ablest grammarians and critics of antiquity, dis- tinguished by industry, learning and sound judgment. In addition to the Homeric poems, which formed his favourite study, and of which he was the first to attempt a really critical text, he devoted his labours to Hesiod, the lyric poets, especially Alcseus and Pindar, and the tragic and comic poets, Aristophanes and Menander in particular. The received Introductions to the plays of the Tragedians and Aristophanes are in their best parts derived from him. He was also the author of a large and much quoted work of a lexicographical character, con- siderable fragments of which still survive. Aristotle (Greek Aristdteles). One of the two greatest philosophers of antiquity, born B.C. 384 at Stageira, a Greek colony in Thrace. He was the son of NicomSchus, who died while acting as physician in ordinary to Amyntas II at Pella in Mace- donia. In B.C. 367, after the death of his parents and the completion of his seventeenth year, Aristotle betook himself to Athens, became a pupil of Plato, and remained twenty years, latterly working as a teacher of rhetoric. About his relations with Plato unfavourable rumours were current, which may have had their origin in his subsequent opposition to the Platonic doctrine of ideas. That he arrived pretty early at opposite opinions, and gave emphatic expression to them, is quite credible. This may have been the occasion of Plato's comparing him (so it is said) to a colt that kicks his mother; yet Plato is also said to have called him " the intellect " of his school, and " the 68 ARISTOTLE. reader," on acconnt of his habit of incessant study. Comparing him with Xgn6 crates, he remarked, that the one wanted a spur, the other a bridle. On the other hand, Aristotle, in one of his writings, combating his former master's theory of ideas, lays down the maxim that friendship, especially among philosophers, must not be allowed to violate the sanctity of truth ; and in a frag- ment of an elegy he calls Plato the first man who showed in word and deed how a man is to become good and happy. After Plato had handed over his school to his sister's son Speusippus, Aristotle quitted *AniSTOTLE. (Rome, Spada Palace.) Athens, B.C. 347, and repaired to his friend Hermeias, despot of Ataraeus in M3'sia. When that prince had fallen a prey to Persian intrigues he withdrew, B.C. 345, with his wife Pythias, his friend's sister, to Mitylene in Lesbos ; and two years later accepted an in- vitation to Macedonia to be tutor to Alex- ander, then thirteen j'ears old. He lived at the court eight years, though his tenure of office seems to have lasted barely half that time. Both Philip and his son esteemed him highly, and most liberally seconded his studies in natural science, for which he in- herited his father's predilection. Alexander continued till his death to respect and love him, though the affair of Callisthenes (q.v.) occasioned some coolness between them. "When the king undertook his expedition in Asia, Aristotle betook himself once more to Athens, and taught for thirteen years in the Gymnasium called the Lyceum. In the mornings he conversed with his maturcr pupils on the higher problems of philosophy, walking up and down the shady avenues, from which practice the school received the name of Peripatetics. In the evenings he delivered courses of lectures on philosophy and rhetoric to a larger audience. After Alexander's death, when all adherents of the Mace- donian supremacy were persecuted at Athens, a certain Demophilus brought against him a charge of impiety, where- upon Aristotle, "to save the Athenians from sinning a second time against philo- sophy " — so he is reported to have said, alluding to the fate of Socrates — retired to Chalcis in Euboea. There he died late in the summer of the next year, B.C. 322. Of the very numerous writings of Aristotle, some were composed in a popular, others in a scientific form. A considerable number of the latter kind have come down to us, but of the former, which were written in the form of dialogues, only a few fragments. The strictly scientific works may be classed according to their contents, as they treat of Logic, Metaphysics, Natural Science or Ethics. (1) Those on Logic were comprehended by the later Aristotelians under the name of Orgdnon ("instru- ment"), because they treat of Method, the instrument of research. They in- clude the Categories, on the fundamental forms of ideas : the De Interpretcitioney on the doctrine of the judgment and on the proposition, important as an authority on philosophical terminology; the Analytlca Priora and Posteriora, each in two books, the former on the syllogism, the latter on demonstration, definition, and distribution; the Toptca in eight books, on dialectic in- ferences (those of probability); on Sophisms^ the fallacies of sophists, and their solu- tion. — (2) The Metaphysics as they were called by late writers, in fourteen books, consist of one connected treatise and several shorter essays on what Aristotle himself calls " first philosophy," the doctrine of Being in itself and the ultimate grounds of Being ; a work left unfinished by Aristotle ARISTOTLE. 69 and supplemented by foreign ingredients. — (3) The works on Natural Science are headed by the Physics in eight books, treat- ing of the most general bases and relations of nature as a whole. This is followed up by four books on the Heavens or Universe, two on Beginning to be and Perishing, and the Meteorologica in four books, on the phe- nomena of the air. A short treatise On the Cosmos is spurious : that on the Directions and Names of Winds is a fragment of a larger work on the signs of storms ; and the Problems (physical) is a collection gradually formed out of Aristotelian extracts. Of mathematical import are the Mechanical Proble^ns (on the lever and balance) and the book about Indivisible Lines. Natural his- tory is handled in the ten books of Animal History, and in four books on the Parts, five on the Generation, and one on the m,ode of Progression of Animals. The work on The Motion of Animals is probably spurious, certainly so the one on Plants in two books. Aristotle's treatise on this subject is lost. Turning to Psychology, we have the three books On the Soid and a number of smaller treatises (on the Senses and the Objects of Perception ; on Memory and Recollection ; •on Sleep and Waking; on Dreams; on Divination by Sleep ; on the Length and Shortness of Life ; on Youth and Age, Life ■and Death / on Breathing / on Sound and Voice, etc. ; that on Physiognomy is proba- bly spurious). — (4) Of the three general works on Ethics, the Nicomachean Ethics in ten books, the Eudemian Ethics in seven, and the so-called Magna Moralia in two', the first alone, addressed to his son Nico- machus, and of marked excellence in matter and manner, is by Aristotle himself. The second is by his pupil Eudemus of Rhodes, and the third a mere abstract of the other two, especially of the second. The essay on Virtues and Vices is spurious. Closely con- nected with the Ethics is the Politics in eight books, a masterly work in spite of its incompleteness, treating of the aim and elements of a State, the various forms of ■Government, the ideal of a State and of Edu- cation. A valuable work on the Constitu- tion of 158 states is lost, all but a few fragments.! Of the two books on Q^cono- mics the first is spurious. Corresponding partly with the Logic, and partly with the Ethics, is the Rhetoric in three books,"-^ and the Poetics, a work of inestimable worth, ^ The Constitution of Alliens has, however, been ■recovered (ed. princejos, 1891). * The Rhetorica ad Alexandrum is probably by -Araxlmenes, q.v. 2. notwithstanding the ruinous condition in which its text has come down to us. [The Rhetoric is a masterly treatise on oratory, regarded as an instrument for working upon the various passions and feelings of humanity.] Sundry other prose writings are preserved under Aristotle's name, e.g., that on Colours; the so-called Mirablles Auscultdtwnes, a collection of memoranda on all sorts of strange phenomena and occur- rences, mostly bearing on natrral science ; on Melissus, Zend, and Gorgids ; six Letters, which however are not regarded as genuine, any more than the 63 epigrams out of a supposed mythological miscellany entitled Peplos. But we may safely assign to him the beautiful ScoUon, or impromptu song, on his friend Hermeias, which takes the form of a Hymn to Virtue. A story dating from antiquity informs us that Aristotle bequeathed his own writings and his very considerable library to his pupil and successor in the office of teacher, Theophrastus, who again made them over to his pupil Neleus, of Scepsis in the Troad. After his death his relations are said to have buried them in a cellar, to guard them against the mania for collecting books which characterized the Pergamene princes. At last they were unearthed by Apellicon of Teos,a rich bibliophile, who brought them to Athens about 100 B.C., and tried to restore them from the wretched state into which they had fallen through the neglect of 130 years. Soon after, at the taking of Athens by the Romans, they fell into Sulla's hands, who brought them to Rome. Here the grammarian Tyrannlon took copies of them, and on this basis the Peripatetic An- dronicus of Rhodes prepared an edition of Aristotle's works. This would indeed partly account for the wretched condition in which some of them are preserved. At the same time it can be proved that the prin- cipal works were known during the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C., so that the story affects only the author's original MSS., among which a number of works till then un- published may have come to light. Though the writings preserved form rather less than half of the number which he actually wrote, there is quite enough to show the univer- sality of Aristotle's intellect, which sought with equal ardour and acumen to explore and subdue the entire domain of research. He was the originator of many lines of study unknown before him, — Logic, Grammar, Rhetoric in its scientific aspect, Literary Criticism, Natural History, Physiology,. 70 ARISTOXENUe ARRIANUS. Psychology ; he was the first to attempt a History of Philosophy and of the forms of government then existing. His method, of which he must be considered the creator, is critical and empirical at once. In all cases he starts from facts, which he collects, sifts and groups as completely as he can, so as to get some general leading points of view, and with the help of these to arrive at a systematic arrangement of the sixbject, and a knowledge of its inmost being, its cause. For to him the Cause is the essential part of knowledge, and the philosophy that searches into ultimate causes for the mere sake of knowing is the best and freest science. The form of Aristotle's works is by no means equal to their contents. Of the beautiful harmony between style and sub- ject, that so charms us in Plato, there is not a trace in Aristotle ; his manner of expression, though scientifically exact, lacks flavour, art, and elegance. But of exact scientific terminology he is the true founder. When the ancients celebrate the "golden stream" of his writing, the opinion can only refer to his lost popular works. Aristotle's personality is one of those which have affected the history of the world. His writings, like those of Plato, were to the Christian centuries of antiquity a most stimulating incentive to scientific inquiry; in the Middle Ages they were for the Christian nations of the West and the Arabs the chief guide to philosophical method ; and in the province of logic his authority remains unshaken to this day. Aristox6nus. A Greek philosopher and musician, a native of Tarentum, and a pupil of Aristotle, lived about 330 B.C., and was a prolific writer on various subjects, but most particularly on Music. In con- trast with the Pythagoreans, who referred everything to the relations of numbers, he regarded music as founded on the differ- ence of tones as perceived by the ear. Of his Elements of Hai-mony^ three books are preserved, but they are neither complete, nor in their original shape. Only a part of his Elements of Rhythm has survived. Arms. See Weapons. Army. (1) Greek. See Warfare. (2) Roman. See Legion, Dilectus, Sacramentum, Stipendium, Castra. Arneis. The festival of lambs. See Linos. ArnSblus. An African, who won a high reputation as a master of rhetoric at Sicca in Numidia, in the reign of Diocletian. He was at first a heathen and an assailant of Christianity; but on becoming a Christian, to prove the sincerity of his conversion,, he wrote (about 295 a.d.) the extant work Adversiis Gentes. This is a superficial and rhetorical defence of Christianity and attack on Polytheism, but it is full of instruction with regard to the contemporary heathenism and its various worships. Arrhephoria or Errhephoria. The Athe- nian term for a mystic festival in honour of Athena as goddess of the fertilizing night- dew, held in the month of Scirophorion (June-July), in connection with the Sciro- phoria. It was named after the Hers- jp7ioroi = dew-bearers, four maidens between seven and eleven years of age, who were chosen yearly from the houses of noble citizens, and had to spend several months at the temple of Athena in the Acropolis,, and take part in its services. Two of them had the task of commencing the cloak or shawl which the women of Athens. wove and presented to the goddess at the Panathensea. The other two, on the night of the festival, received from the priestess of Athena certain coffers, with unknown contents, which they carried in procession on their heads to a natural grotto beside the temple of " Aphrodite in the gardens," and delivering them there, received some- thing equally mysterious in exchange, which they carried to the temple on the Acropolis. With this ceremony their office expired. Arrianus (Fldvhis). A Greek author, who' wrote chiefly on philosophy and history,, born at Nicomedea in Bithynia towards the end of the 1st century a.d., and a pupil of the Stoic philosopher Epictetus. He lived under the emperors Hadrian, Antoninus- Pius and Marcus Aurelius, enjoying a high reputation for culture and ability, which procured him the citizenship of Rome and Athens, and high offices of state, such as the- governorship of Cappadocia under Hadrian,, A.D. 136, and the consulship under An- toninus. His last years were spent in his. native town, where he filled the office of priest to Demeter, and died at an advanced age. Prom the likeness of his character to that of the famous Athenian, he was nick- named " Xenophon Junior." Of his philo- sophical works we have still the first half (four books) of the Discourses of EpictStus, a leading authority for the tenets of that philosopher and the Stoical ethics ; and the hand-book called the Encheiridwn of Epic- tetus, a short manual of morality, which on account of its pithy and practical precept* became a great favourite with Pagans and Christians, had a commentary written om ARROGATIO ARTEMIS. 71 it by Simplicius in the 6th century, and after the revival of learning was long used as a schoolbook. Of his numerous his- torical writings we possess the chief one, the Anabasis of Alexander in seven books. This is a complete history of that conqueror from his accession to his death, drawn from the best sources) especially Ptolemy and Aristobulus, and modelled on Xenophon, of whom we are reminded by the very title and the number of books, though it has none of Xenophon's charm. It is the best work on Alexander that has survived from antiquity. To this we should add the Indira^ a short work on India, written in the Ionic dialect, and especially valuable for its abstract of Nearchus' report of his voyage from the mouth of the Indus to the Persian Gulf; also the description of another coasting voyage, the Periplus Ponti Euxlnij and a trifling treatise on hunting, the Cynegeticus. A work on tactics wrongly ascribed to him is probably from the hand of ^lian the Tactician. Of his other His- tories, e.g. of the Successors of Alexander, of Trajan's battles with the Parthians, of his own native country till its absorption in the Empire, and the campaign against the Alani during his command in Cappadocia, we have only abstracts or fragments. Arrogatio, one of the kinds of adoption known to the Romans. (For further infor- mation see Adoption.) Arrows. See Bows. Arsinoe. See Alphesibcea. Art. See Architecture, Architecture (Orders of), Painting, and Sculpture ; and comp. Coinage and Gems. Artgniidorus, (1) The Geographer^ of Ephesus, who travelled about 100 B.C. through the countries bordering on the Mediterranean and part of the Atlantic coast, and wrote a long work on his re- searches, the Gcographumena in eleven books, as well as an abstract of the same. Of both works, which were much consulted by later geographers, we have only fragments. (2) Artemidorus the Dream-Interpreter^ born at Ephesus at the beginning of the 2nd century A.D., surnamed " the Daldian " from his mother's birthplace, Daldis in Lydia, wrote a work on the Interpretation of Dreams, the Oneirocritica, in four books. He had gathered his materials from the works of earlier authors, and by oral in- quiries dui'ing his travels in Asia, Italy and Greece. The book is an acute exposition of the theory of interpreting dreams, and its practical application to examples systema- tically arranged according to the several stages of human life. An appendix, counted as a fifth book, gives a collection of dreams that have come true. For the light thrown on the mental condition of antiquity, espe- cially in the 2nd century after Christ, and for many items of information on religious rites and myths relating to dreams, these writings are of value. Artemis (Lat. Diana). The virgin daugh- ter of Zeus and Leto (Latona), by the common account born a twin-sister of Apollo, and just before him, at Delos. The Ortygia {see Asteria) named in another tradition as her birthplace, was interpreted to mean Delos, though several other places where the wor- ship of Artemis had long prevailed put forward pretensions to that name and its mythological renown, especially the well- known island of Ortygia off Syracuse. She, as well as her mother, was worshipped jointly with her brother at Delos, Delphi and all the most venerable spots where Apollo was honoured. She is armed, as he is, with bow and arrow, which, like him, and often together with him, she wields against mon- sters and giants ; hence the jjwan was chanted to her as well as to him. Like those of Apollo, the shafts of Artemis were regarded as the cause of sudden death, especially to maidens and wives. But she was also a beneficent and helpful deity. As Apollo is the luminous god of day, she with her torch is a goddess of light by night, and in course of time becomes identified with all possible goddesses of moon and night. {See Selene, Hecate, Bendis, Britomartis.) Her pro- per domain is that of Nature, with its hills and valleys, woods, meadows, rivers and fountains ; there amid her nymphs, her- self the fairest and tallest, she is a mighty huntress, sometimes chasing wild animals, sometimes dancing, playing, or bathing with her companions. Her favourite haunt was thought to be the mountains and forests of Arcadia, where, in many spots, she had sanctuaries, consecrated hunting-grounds, and sacred animals. To her, as goddess of the forest and the chase, all beasts of the woods and fields, in fact all game, were dear and sacred ; but her favourite animal was held all over Greece to be the hind. From this sacred animal and the hunt- ing of it, the month which the other Greeks called Artemision or Artcmisios (March-April) was named by the Athenians Elaphe-boUon (deer-shooting), and her festival as goddess of game and hunting, at which deer or cakes in the shape of 72 ARTEMIS. deer were offered up, Elaphth6Ua. As goddess of the chase, she had also some influence in war, and the Spartans before battle sought her favour by the gift of a she-goat. Miltiades too, before the battle of Marathon, had vowed to her as many goats as there should be enemies fallen on the field ; but the number proving so great that the vow could not be kept, 500 goats were sacrificed at each anniversary of the victory in the month of BoedrSmion. Again, she was much worshipped as a goddess of the Moon. At Amarjmthus in Euboea, the whole island kept holiday to her with pro- cessions and prize-fights. At Munychia in Attica, at full moon in the month of Muny- chion (April-May), large round loaves or cakes, decked all round with lights as a symbol of her own luminary, were borne in procession and presented to her ; and at the same time was solemnized the festival of the victory of Sal^mis in Cyprus, be- cause on that occasion the goddess had shone in her full glory on the Greeks. An ancient shrine of the Moon-goddess at Brauron in Attica was held in such vene- ration, that the BraiironXo, originally a merely local festival, was afterwards made a public ceremony, to which Athens itself sent deputies every five years, and a precinct was dedicated to "Artemis of Brauron" on the AcrSpolis itself. (See plan of Acro- polis.) At this feast the girls between five and ten years of age, clad in saffron- coloured garments, were conducted by their mothers in procession to the goddess, and commended to her care. For Artemis is also a protectress of youth, especially those of her o^vn sex. As such she patronized a Nurses' festival at Sparta in a temple outside the town, to which little boys were brought by their nvirses ; while the lonians at their Apaturta presented her with the hair of boys, Almost everywhere young girls revered the virgin goddess as the guardian of their maiden years, and before marriage they oflfered up to her a lock of their hair, their girdle, and their maiden garment. She was also worshipped in many parts as the goddess of Good Repute, especially in youths and maidens, and was regarded as an enemy of all disorderly doings. With her attributes as the god- dess of the moon, and as the promoter of healthy development, especially in the female frame, is connected the notion of her assist- ing in childbirth {see Eileithyia). In early times human sacrifices had been offered to Artemis. A relic of this was the yearly custom observed at Sparta, of flogging the boys till they bled, at the altar of a deity not unknown elsewhere, and named Artemis Orthia (the upright) probably from her stiff posture in the antiquated wooden image. At Sparta, as in other places, the ancient image was looked upon as the same which Iphigenia and Orestes brought away from Tauris (the Crimea), viz., that of the Tauric Ar- temis, a Scythian deity who was identified with Artemis because of the human sacri- fices common in her worship. The Artemis of Ephesus, too, so greatly honoured by all the lonians of Asia [Acts xix 28] is no Greek divinity, but Asiatic. This is sufficiently shown by the fact that eunuchs were employed in her worship ; a practice quite foreign to Greek ideas. The Greek colonists identified her with their own Ar- temis, because she was goddess of the moon and a power of nature, present in moun- tains, woods and marshy places, nourish- ing life in plants, animals and men. But, unlike Artemis, she was not regarded as a ARTEMIS : " DIANA OF VERSAILLES." (Paris, Louvre.) virgin, but as a mother and foster-mother, as is clearly shown by the multitude of breasts in the rude effigy. Her worship, frantic and fanatical after the manner of ARTILLERY. 73 Asia, was traced back to the Amazons. A number of other deities native to Asia was also worshipped by the Greeks under the name of Artemis. Artemis appears in works of art as the ideal of austere maiden beauty, tall of sta- ture, with bow and quiver on her shoulder, or torch in her hand, and generally leading or carrying a hind, or riding in a chariot drawn by hinds. Her commonest character is that of a huntress. In earlier times the figure is fuller and stronger, and the cloth- ing more complete ; in later works she is represented as more slender and lighter of foot, the hair loose, the dress girt up high, the feet protected by the Cretan shoe. The most celebrated of her existing statues is the Diana of Versailles {see cut). On the identification of Artemis with the Italian Diana, see Diana. Artillery. The machines used for send- ing large missiles to a great distance were (1) APPARATUS FOR PROJECTILES. supposed to have been invented m the East, and appear in Grreece since 400 B.C. or thereabouts. They attained their highest perfection in the age of the Diadochi, and were adopted by the Romans after the Punic Avars. There were two chief varieties, both imitations of the crossbow ; but the elasticity of the bow is exchanged for elasti- city in the twist of the cord. Consequently all pieces of heavy artillery were called by the Romans tormenta. The ma- chine consisted of three parts : the stand, the groove for the shot, and the apparatus repre- senting the bow. This con- sisted of a frame in three divisions, through the midmost of which passed the groove for theshot (fig. 1). In each of the lateral divisions was stretched, in a vertical direc- tion, a set of strong elastic cords, made of the sinews of animals, or the long hair of animals or of women. These were stretched tight, and between each of them was fixed a straight unelastic arm of wood. The arms were joined by a cord, which was pulled back by a winch applied at the end of the groove. On letting this go. the arms, and with them the string and the object in front of it, were driven forward by the twisting of the vertical cords. The effectiveness of the engine thus depended on the power and tioist of the cords, which may be said roughly to express its calibre. The engines were divided into two kinds. (1) Catapultce^ or scorpions (fig. 2). In these the groove for the shot was horizontal ; and they projected missiles of length and thickness varying according to the calibre. (2) Ballistoi (fig. 3), which shot stones, beams, or balls up to 162 lbs. weight, at an angle of 50 degrees. The calibre of the hallista was at least three times as great as that of the catapult. The average range of the catapult was about 383 yards, that of the ballista from about 295 to 503 yards. After Constantino we hear no more of catapults, but only of ballistce and the onager. The ballista now shot arrows, and is described either as a huge cross-bow with an elastic bow of iron, or as virtually identical with the old catapult. The onager, also called scorpio (fig. 4) was a sling for (2) CATAPULT. stones. It consisted of a frame, in which was fastened a wooden arm with a slins; at 74 ARUSIANUS MESSIUS AS. the end, standing upright when at rest, and furnished with two horizontal cords to pull it up and down. This was drawn back by a winch into a nearly horizontal position, and (3) BAT.T.ISTA. then released. It started up, and meeting with a check-board fixed behind the engine, hurled the stones out of the sling. As a (4) ONAGER (SCORPIO). rule, the heavy artillery was only employed in sieges ; but artillery accompanied armies in the field for purposes of conquest or defence. The legions and the cohorts of the Praetorian Guard had their own artil- lery. And at the end of the 4th century every centuria in the legion had a halUsta of the later kind drawn on wheels by mules (carroballista), and served by eleven men. Every cohort had an onager^ carried on a cart drawn by two oxen. Arusianus Messius. A Latin grammarian who lived about 395 a.d., and made an alphabetical collection, for school use, of words that admit of various constructions, with examples from Vergil, Sallust, Terence and Cicero, under the title Exempla Elo- cutiOnum. Arval Brothers (Fratres Arvales = oi the fields). The Latin name for a college of priests consisting of twelve life-members, who performed the worship of Dea Dia, a goddess not otherwise mentioned, but prob- ably identical with the old Roman goddess of cornfields, Acca Larentia {q.v.), who also is said to have founded this fraternity. Our more accurate knowledge of it we owe to its annual reports inscribed on the marble tablets, ninety-six in number, which have been dug up (1570-1869) on the site of its meeting-place, a grove at the fifth mile- stone from Rome, and which extend from A.D. 14-241. About its condition under the Republic we have no information ; but under the Empire its members were persons of the highest rank. The emperors them- selves belonged to it, either as ordinary members, or, if the numbers were filled up, as extraordinary. The election was by co-optation on the motion of the president {magister\ who himself, together with a Jfldmen, was elected for one year; their badge was a white fillet and a wreath of ears of corn. The Arvales held their chief festival on three days in May, on the 1st and 3rd in Rome, on the 2nd in the grove, with a highly complicated ceremonial, in- cluding a dance in the temple of the god- dess, to which they sang the written text of a hymn so antiquated that its meaning could scarcely be understood. This Arval Hymn, in which the Lares and Mars are invoked, is one of the oldest monuments we possess of the Latin tongue. Amongst other duties of this priesthood should es- pecially be mentioned the expiatory sacri- fices in the grove. These had to be offered if any damage had been done to it through the breaking of a bough, the stroke of light- ning, or other such causes ; or again if any labour had been performed in it, though ever so necessary, especially if iron tools had been used. The Arval brothers had also to offer solemn vows on behalf of the Imperial House, both statedly on January 3rd, and on extraordinary occasions, and were bound to fulfil them. As. In Latin, signifies any unit, which determines the value of fractional quantities in coins, weights and measures, or interest, inheritance and the like. The as was divided duodecimally into uncice. The ASCANIUS ASCLEPIUS. 75 r names of its parts are: dcunx ^^, dcx- tans I, dodrans J, bes |, septunx yV, semis ^ , quincunx y^* triens \, quadrans -l, sextans -}, sescuncia |^, uncia yL. In ques- tions of inheritance, a sole heir was entitled hcres ex assc, an heir to half the estate, heres ex seinisse, and so on. As a coin, the copper as weighed a Roman pound (nominally 12, but practically only 10 uncioi), and was worth, previously to B.C. 269, nearly 6d. In the year 217 it was reduced to 1 tincia, and in later times to | and j uncia. In Cicero's time the as was = rather less than a halfpenny, Comp. Coinage. Ascanius. The son of ^neas and Creusa. According to the ordinary account, he ac- companied his father to Italy, and, thirty years after the building of Lavinium, founded Alba Longa, where, after his death, his stepbrother Silvius reigned. To him, by his name of Iiilus, the gens lulla traced its origin, Asclepiades, A Greek poet, a native of Samos, and a younger contemporary of Theocritus, He was the author of thirty- nine Epigrams, mostly erotic, in the Greek Anthology. The well-known Asclepiadean Metre was perhaps named after him. Asclepiodotus. A Greek writer, pupil of the Stoic Posldonius of Rhodes (who died B.C. 51). On the basis of his lectures Asclepiodotus seems to have written the military treatise preserved under his name on the Macedonian military system, Asclepius (Lat, jEscidaplus). The Greek god of Medicine, according to the common account a son of the healing god Apollo by Coronis, daughter of a Thessalian prince Phlegyas. Coronis was killed by Artemis for unfaithfulness, and her body was about to be burnt on the pyre, when Apollo snatched the boj' out of the flames, and handed him over to the wise centaur Chiron, who instructed him in the cure of all diseases. According to the local legend of Epidaurus, Coronis, having ac- companied her father on a campaign to the Peloponnesus, is secretly delivered of the child, and exposes it on a mountain near that town, where it is nourished by a herd of goats. Such was the skill of Asclepius that he brought even dead men to life ; so that Zeus, either for fear of his setting men altogether free from death, or at the complaint of Hades, killed him with his thunderbolt, Apollo in revenge slew all the Cyclopes who forged the thunderbolts, as a punishment for which he had to serve Admetus for a time. In Homer and Pindar, Asclepius is still but a hero, a cunning leech, and father of two heroes fighting before Troy, Machaon and Podaleirius, But he was afterwards uni- versally worshipped as the god of healing, in groves, beside medicinal springs, and on mountains. The seats of his worship served also as places of cure, where patients left thank-offerings and votive tablets describ- ing their complaint and the manner of its cure. Often the cure was effected by the ASCLEPIUS, (Paris, Louvre.) dreams of the patients, who were required to sleep in the sacred building, in which there sometimes stood, as might be ex- pected, a statue of Sleep or Dreaming. His worship extended all over Greece with its islands and colonies; his temples were especially numerous in the Peloponnesus, the most famous being that of Epidaurus, where a great festival with processions and combats was held in his honour every five years. Next in estimation stood the temple 76 ASCONIUS PEDIANUS ASTERIA. at Pergamus, a colony from Epidanrus; that of Tricca in Thessaly enjoyed a re- putation of long standing, and in the islands that of Cos, the birthplace of the physician HippQcrates. At Rome, the worship of the deity there called jEscuIapius was introduced by order of the Sibylline books, on occasion of the plague of 293 B.C., and the god was brought from Epidaurus in the shape of a snake. Eor in the form of a snake, the symbol of rejuvenescence and of prophecy, he was wont to reveal himself, and snakes were accordingly kept in his temples. He had a sanctuary and a much frequented sana- torium on the island in the Tiber. With him were worshipped his wife EpidnS ( = soother), his two sons mentioned above, and several daughters, especially Hygieia, iq.v.): tdso- Telcsphdros ( = fulness-bringer) the deity of Recovery, who was pictured as a boy. In later times Asclepius was often confounded with the Egyptian Serapis. He is among the most favourite subjects of ancient art ; at several places where he was worshipped he had statues of gold and ivory. He is commonly represented with a beard, and resembling Zeus, but with a milder aspect, sometimes with Teles- phoros, in a thick veil, or little Hygieia, at his side ; his usual attribute is a staff with a serpent coiled round it. The cock was sacrificed to him. Asconlus Pgdlanns (Qiiintus), a Roman grammarian and historian, probably born at Patavium about the year 3 a.d. He lived latterly at Rome, where he enjoyed the favour of men in high place. During the reigns of Claudius and Nero, having care- fully studied the literature of the Ciceronian age, and availing himself of state-papers then existing, he composed for the \ise of his own sons his valuable historical Commentaries on Cicero's Orations, of which only those on five orations {In PisSnem, Pro Scauro, Pro Mllone, Pro CornSlio, In togd candMa) are preserved, unfortunately in a very frag- mentary condition. The commentaries on the Verrine Orations, which bear his name, belong probably to the 4th century a.d. They treat chiefly of grammatical points. No other works by Asconius have survived. He died, after twelve years' blindness, about 88 A.D. Asellio (C. Sempronius). A Roman anna- list. See Annalists. Asinius PoUlo (Gains). A celebrated Roman poet, orator, and historian. He was born B.C. 75, and made his first public ap- pearance by bringing an impeachment in B.C. 54; in the Civil Wars he fought on Caesar's side at Pharsalus and in Africa and Spain. After the murder of Caesar he at first inclined to the Republicans, but in B.C. 43 joined Antony, and on the break-up of the Triumvirate obtained Gallia Trans- padana for his province. In the redis- tribution of lands there he saved the poet Vergil's paternal estate for him. After negotiating the Peace of Brundisium between Antony and Octavian, B.C. 41, he became consul in 40, conquered the Parthini in Dalmatia in 39, and celebi-ated a triumph. He then retired from political life, and devoted himself to the advancement of learning. He served the cause of literature not only by his own writings, but by setting up the first public library at Rome, and by introducing the custom of reading nq w works aloud to a circle of experts, before publica- tion. {See Recitatio.) He was himself a stem critic of others, as we see by his strictures on Cicero, Sallust and Livy, tliough it was remarked that he was not always so severe upon himself. He was especially celebrated as an orator ; yet his speeches, in spite of careful preparation, were devoid of elegance, and, as Quintilian remarks, might be supposed to have been written a century earlier than Cicero's. He wrote tragedies also, in which the same stiffness and dryness are complained of. And he composed a history of the Civil Wars in seventeen books, from the first Triumvirate to the battle of Philippi, which seems not to have been published in a complete form till after his death. Not one of his works has survived. [The his- tory of Caesar's African campaign, Bellum Afrtcuni, has recently been attributed to him, but on insufficient grounds.] He died 80 years old, a.d. 4. Ascolii. The second day of the rural Dionysia (q.v.). Aspis. The Greek name for a long shield. (For further information, see Shield.) Assaricus, son of Tros, and fovmder of the collateral line to which Anchises and iEneas belong in the royal house of Troy. {Comp. Dardanus.) Assignatio. The Latin term for the assignment of public lands to single citizens or to colonies. See Colonies and Ager PUBLICUS. Astoria, daughter of the Titan Cceus and the Titanid Phoebe : sister of Ijeto, and mother of Hgc^te by Pei'ses, son of the Titan Crius. She is said to have turned into an ASTKiEA ASTROLOGY. 77 ortyx ( = quail) and plunged into the sea to escape the love of Zeus. After her the Island of Deles was named Asteria, and then Ortygia, till it received its ordinary name. Astraea ( = star-maiden), was daughter of Astrseus and Eos, or, according to another account, of Zeus and Themis, and as such was identified with Dike. (jo foo SO too aoso too too so iso •i XJ ■ * 1 '^ ■J; V I , a. « •1 •1 .■^ « »! «J Hi 1 1 fes '<:. q- xi^ ^ V TV_t I «>■ «£; N ^ s s 3 *« 5 •s ^ «^ ^2 ? J a p rvTvi 'oi L ^ati- EqtiiUa LeffdH. Ptne^fcA EquitBg eUUeti PtdLU» ddsetL £y ... tes ejc- trw orAi- n.a.r U AtadZia/ Pe^i/M Aietret-' OT'ctC- ruxrH AuxUia^ PLAN OF A U05IAN CAMP. a camp for a consular army of two legions, with the proper contingent of Italian allies, and its auxiliary troops, was as follows {see Plan). The camp was square, its front being on the side furthest from the enemy. It had two main roads through it. (1) The via j^rinctpCdis, 100 feet wide, which divided it into a front part amounting to about two-thirds of the whole, and a back part, turned toward the enemy. This road ended at two gates, the porta principalis dextra, and the poiia principalis sinistra. (2) The via prcetorla, which cut the via principalis at right angles, and divided 118 OASTRA. thf; whole length of the camp into two parts. This road was 50 feet iu width, and ended in two gates, the porta decu- mana in front, and the porta prcetoria on the side opening towards the enemy. In the front part were encamped the two legions, with their allied contingents. They lay in three double rows of tents on each side of the via proitoria, which made a right angle with the via principalis. Its whole length was divided by roads 50 feet in width, while across it, from one lateral rampart to the other, ran the via quintdna. The front side of the rows of tents was turned towards the intervening roads. Starting from the via prcetoria, the first two lines of tents on each side contained the cavalry and infantry of one legion each, while the third row, lying nearest to the rampart, contained the cavalry and infantry of the allied contingents. In the hinder part of the camp, directly upon the via principalis^ and on both sides of the via prcetoria, were the tents of the twelve military tribunes, opposite the four ranks of the legions. On both sides were the tents of the prcefccti of the allied contingents, placed in the same way opposite those of the troops under their command. Then followed the headquarters, or prcetorium, a space 200 feet square, intersected by the via pratoria. In this was the general's tent (taberndcvZum) ; in front was the altar on which the general sacrificed, on the left the augHrdle for taking the auspices, and on the right the tribunal. This was a bank of earth covered with turf, on which the general took his stand when addressing the troops, or administering justice. Right of the prmtorium was the qucestoi'ium, con- taining the quarters of the paymasters, and the train of artillery. On the left was the forum, a meeting place for the soldiers. Be- tween these spaces and the lateral ramparts were the tents of the select troops who com- posed the body-guard of the general. Those of the cavalry had their front turned in-, wards, while those of the infantry were turned towards the wall. The tents of the picked allied troops occupied the hinder part of the camp, which was bounded by a cross road 100 feet in breadth. The tents of the cavalry looked inwards, those of the in- fantry towards the rampart. The auxiliary troops were posted at the two angles of this space. The rampart was divided from the tents by an open space 200 feet in width. This was specially intended to facilitate the anarch of the troops at their en trance and exit. The construction of the fortifications always began before the general's tent was pitched. The legionaries constructed the rampart and ditch in front and rear, while the allies did the same on either side. The stakes required for the formation of an dbattis on the outer side of the wall were carried by the soldiers themselves on the i march The whole work was carried on under arms. The watches {excvMos and vigilue) were kept with great strictness both by day and night. The vigilice, or night-watches, were relieved four times, the trumpet sounding on each occasion. The posts of each night-watch were in- spected by four Roman equifes. The pass- word for the night was given by the general. Each gate was guarded by outposts of infan- try and cavalry, the light-armed troops {veU- tes) being also distributed as sentries along the ramparts. When the camp was to break up, three signals were given; at the first, the tents were taken down and packed up ;, at the second, they were put upon beasts of burden and in wagons, and at the third; the army began its march. After the time of Polybius the Roman military system underwent many changes,, which involved alterations in the arrange- ments of the camp, but we have no trust- worthy information on this subject in detail until the beginning of the 2nd century A.D. The treatise of one Hyginus on castra- metation gives the following statements as to the practice of his time. The ordinary form of a camp was that of a rectangle,, the length of which was about a third part greater than the breadth. In former times the legions were posted inside the camp; but now, being regarded as the most trust- worthy troops, they were encamped along the whole line of ramparts, the width of which was now limited to 60 feet. They were separated from the interior of the camp by a road 30 feet wide {via scigHldris),. running parallel to the line of ramparts. The interior was now divided, not into two,, but into three main sections. The midmost of these lay between the via principalis,. which was 60, and the via quintana, which was 40 feet wide. It was occupied by the proitorium and the troops of the guard,, and was called the wing of the prmtorium (Idterd prcetorii) . The auxiliary troops were "^ stationed in what was now the front part, or proitcntura, between the via principalis and the porta pra^toria, and the rear, or retentura, between the via quintana and the porta decumana. The via prcetoria, CATALEPTON CATREUS. 119 which was also 60 feet wide, led only from the prcetoriuin and the forum in front of it to the porta jJrcetoria, as at this time the qucestorium was situated between ih.Q porta decumana and the pro'.toinum. The general superintendence of the arrangements was, during the imperial period, in the hands of the prcefectits castrorum. (See Pr^fectus.) CatalSpton [not Catalecta, but = Grr, Kata- lepton = ^^ on a small scale"]. The title of a collection of short poems attributed in anti- quity to Vergil. (See Vergil.) C3,tapulta. See Artillery. Cathedra (Grr. Kathedra). See Chairs. Cato (Marcus Porches). The earliest im- portant representative of Latin prose, and an ardent champion of Roman national feel- ing in life as in literature. He was born 234 B.C., at Tusculum, and passed his youth in a laborious life in the country. At the age of seventeen he entered the army, and fought with distinction in the Hannibalic war in Italy, Sicily and Africa. He was elected qusestor in 204, sedile in 199, and prsetor in 198 B.C., when he administered the province of Sardinia. He attained the consulship in B.C. 195. As proconsul he was so successful in the measures he adopted for the subjugation of the province of Spain, that he was honoured with a triumph on his return. Four years later, in the capa- city of legdtus, he dealt the decisive stroke which gave the Romans the victory over the troops of king Antiochus at Ther- mopylae. In 184 he was elected censor, and administered his office with such strict- ness that he received the cognomen of Censorius. He was the enemy of all inno- vations, especially of the Greek influence which was making itself felt at Rome. Everything which he thought endangered the ancient Roman discipline, he met with unwearied opposition, regardless of any un- popularity he might incur. He is said to have been prosecuted forty-four times, and to have been always acqviitted. The occa- sions on which he himself appeared as prosecutor were even more numerous. Even in extreme old age he retained the vigour of his intellect, and was as active as before in politics and literature. He is said to have been an old man when he made his first acquaintance with Greek literature. He died 149 B.C., in his eighty- sixth year. [See Livy xxxix 40.] Cato was the first writer who composed a history of Rome in Latin, and who pub- lished any considerable number of his own speeches. His chief work was the Orlglncs, or seven books of Italian and Roman history. The title Origines, or " Early History," applied properly only to the first three books, which contained the story of the kings, and traced the rise of the various cities of Italy. Bat it was afterwards ex- tended to the whole work, which included the history of Rome down to B.C. 151. In the narrative of his own achievements he inserted his own speeches. From early manhood he displayed great energy as an orator. More than 150 of his speeches were known to Cicero, who speaks with respect of his oratorical performances. The titles, and some fragments of eighty of his orations have survived. In the form of maxims addressed to his son (PrcBcepta ad Fllium) he drew a com- prehensive sketch of everything which, in his opinion, was useful for a young man to know if he was to be a vir bonus. He also put together in verse some rules for every-day conduct (Carmen De Moribus). The only work of Cato which has come down to us in anything' like completeness is his treatise on agriculture (De Re Rusticd), though even this we do not possess in its original shape. This was intended as a manual for the private use of one Manlius, and had reference to a particular estate belonging to him. One part is written sys- matically, the other is a miscellaneous col- lection of various I'ules. There is also a collection of 146 proverbs, each in a couple of hexameters, v/hich bears the name of Cato. But this belongs to the later Empire, though it is probably not later than the end of the 4th centurj' a.d. This little book was a well known manual all through the Middle Ages, and was widely circulated in translations. Catreus (Gr. Katreus). In Greek mytho- logy a king of Crete, the son of Minos and of Pasiphae. An oracle had prophesied that he would fall by the hand of one of his own chil- dren. He accordingly put his daughters, Aerope and Clymene, into the hands of Nau- plius, who was to sell them into a foreign country; his son Althsemenes, meanwhile, mi- grated to Rhodes with his sister Apemosyne. His sister, who had been led astray by Hermes, he killed with a blow of his foot, and slew his aged father, who had come to put into his hands the government of Crete, mis- taking him for a pirate. Clymene became the wife of Nauplius, and the mother of Palamedes and (Eax. Aerope married Atreus, and bore him two sons, Agamem- non and Menelatis : but was finally thrown 120 CATULLUS CECROPS. into the sea by her husband on account of her adultery with Thyestes. (See Atreus ) CMullus (Gdius Valerius Catullus). Perhaps the greatest of Roman lyric poets. He was born at Verona B.C. 87, and died about 54. He came to Rome while still young, and found himself in very good society there, being admitted to the circle of such men as Cicero, Hortensius, and Corne- lius Nepos, and the poets Cinna and Calvus. He had an estate on the LScus Larius (Lake of Como), and another at Tibur (Tivoli) ; but, if we may believe what he says about his debts and poverty, his pecuniary affairs must have been in bad order. In consequence of this he attached himself to the propraetor Gains Memmius, on his going to Bithynia in the year 57. He gained nothing by doing so, and in the following spring re- turned home alone, visiting on the way the tomb of his brother, who was buried near Troy. Some of his most beautiful poems are inspired by his love for a lady whom he addresses as Lesbia, a passion which seems to have been the ruin of his life. She has been, with gr-eat probability, iden- tified with the beautiful and gifted, but unprincipled sister of the notorious Clodius, and wife of Metellus Celer. Catullus was, in his eighteenth year, so overmastered by his passion for her, that he was imable, even after he had broken off all relations with her, and come to despise her, to dis- entangle himself. In his intercourse with his numerous friends Catullus was bright and amiable, but unsparing in the ridicule he poured upon his enemies. He held aloof from public life, and from any active participa- tion in politics, but none the less bitterly did he hate those whom he thought respon- sible for the internal decline of the Re- public — themselves and all their creatures. On Csesar, though his own father's guest, and on his dissolute favourite Mamurra, he makes violent attacks. But he is said to have apologized to Caesar, who magnani- mously forgave him. Catullus' poems have not all survived. We still possess 116, which, with the ex- ception of three, are included in a collection dedicated to Cornelius Nepos. The first half is taken up with minor pieces of various contents, and written in different lyric metres, especially the iambic. Then follows a series of longer poems, amongst them the wonderful lament of Attis, wonderful in spite of the repulsiveness of its subject ; the epic narrative of the marriage of Peleus and Thetis, and a paraphrase of Callima- chus' best elegy, " The Lock of Bgrenice." These are all in the Alexandrian manner. The remaining poems are short, and of dif- ferent contents, but all written in elegiacs. Catullus takes his place in the history of literature as the earliest classical metrist among the Romans. He is a complete master of all varieties of vei'se. More than this, he has the art of expressing every phase of feeling in the most natural and beautiful style ; love, fortunate and unfor- tunate, sorrow for a departed brother, wanton sensuality, the tenderest friendship, the bitterest contempt, and the most burning hatred. Even his imitations of the Greek are not without an original stamp of their own. Caupona. See Inns. Causia (Gr. Kausia). A flat, broad-brim- med felt hat, worn in Macedonia and by the Macedonian soldiers. When worn by per- sons high in society it was coloured purple ; the kings of Macedon surrounded it with the royal diadem, and thus the purple causia with the diadem continued to bo the emblem of sovereignty in the kingdoms which arose from the empire of Alexander. The Macedonian hat was in later times adopted by fishermen and sailors at Rome, and in the imperial period was worn by the higher classes in the theatre as a protection against the sun. C§-v6a. See Theatre. C6bes (Gr. Kebes). A Greek philosopher, the author of a school-book called Flnax or "The Picture," which was very popular, and was translated into Arabic. It is a dialogue upon an allegorical picture, representing the condition of the soul before its union with the body, and the nature of human life in general. The purport of the conversation is to prove that the foundations of happi- ness are development of the mind and the conscious practice of virtue. It is doubtful to which Cebes the book is to be referred, for there were two philosophers of the name. One was Cebes of Thebes, the dis- ciple of Socrates, who wrote three philoso- phical dialogues, one of which bore the title Pinax ; the other was a Stoic of Cyzl- cus, who flourished in the 2nd century A.D. Cficrops (Gr. Kekrops). One of the abori- gines of Attica, and as such I'epresented with a human body ending in a serpent {see cut). In the later story he was erroneously repre- sented as having come to Attica from Sais in Egypt. He was said to have been the first king of Attica, which was called after CEL^NO CENSORES. 121 him Cecropia. He divided the rude in- habitants into twelve communities, founded the stronghold of Athens, which was called Cecropia after him, and introduced the ele- * CECROPS. (Vase painting at Palermo.) ments of civilization, the laws of marriage and property, the earliest political arrange- ments, and the earliest religious services, notably those of Zeus and Athene. When Poseidon and Athene were con- tending for the possession of the land, Poseidon struck the rock of the acropolis with his trident, and water (or, according to another story, the horse) sprang forth ; but Athene planted the first olive tree. Cecrops, on being called in to decide be- tween them, gave judgment in favour of the goddess, as having conferred on the land the more serviceable gift. Cecrops had four children by his wife Agraulos : a son Erysichthon, who died childless, and three daughters, Agraulos, Herse, and Pandrosos. The names of the last two show them to be the deities of the fertilizing dew ; and indeed the three were regarded as in the service of Athene, and as giving fruitfulness to the fields. Pan- drosos was Athene's first priestess. She had a shrine of her own (Pandroseum) in the temple of Erechtheus on the acropolis, and was invoked in times of drought with the two Attic Horce, Thallo and Carpo (see Erechtheum). In her temple stood the sacred olive which Athene had created. Ceiseno (Grr. Kelaino). (1) See Harpies. (2) See Pleiades. C616US (Gr. KSims). A king of Eleusis, in whose home Demeter, while seeking for her daughter, received an affectionate welcome and comfort while tending her newly-born son Demophoon. {See Demeter and De- MOPHOON.) Cella. See Temple. Celsus {A. Cornelius). A Roman savant, eminent in several branches of knowledge, who flourished in the age of Tiberius, a.d. 14-37. He was the author of a great ency- clopsedic work called (it would seem) ArtSs, designed after the manner of Varro's Disci- jjlince. The work of Celsus included more than 20 books, treating of agriculture, medicine, philosophy, rhetoric, and the art of war. Of these all that remain are books 7-13, De Mediclnd. This is the earliest and the most considerable work of the sort in the extant Roman literature. The material which the author has collected, partly from Greek sources, partly from his own expe- rience, is ti-eated in systematic order, and with a purity of style which won for Celsus the name of the Cicero of physicians. Cena. See Meals. Cenaculum. See House. C6n6taphluin (Gr. Ken6tdphi6n). See Burial. Censores (Roman). The officials whose duty it was (after 444 B.C.) to take the place of the consuls in superintending the five-yearly census. The office was one of the higher magistracies, and could only be held once by the same person. It was at first confined to the Patricians; in 351 B.C. it was thrown open, to the Plebeians, and after 339 one of the censors was obliged by law to be a plebeian. On occasion of a census, the censors were elected soon after the ac- cession to office of the new consuls, who presided over the assembly. They were usually chosen from the number of consu- IdrSs^ or persons who had been consuls. Accordingly the censorship was regarded, if not as the highest office of state, at least as the highest step in the ladder of promotion. The newly elected censors entered imme- diately, after due summons, upon their office. Its duration was fixed in 433 B.C. to eighteen months, but it could be extended for certain purposes. For the object of carrying out their proper duties, the census and the solemn purifications {lustrum) that con- cluded it, they had the power of summon- ing the people to the Campus Martins, wiiere, since 434 B.C., they had an official residence in the Villa Puhlica. The tri- bunes had no right of veto as against their proceedings in taking the census ; indeed, 122 CENSORINUS CENSUS. 30 far as this part of their duties was con- cerned, they were irresponsible, being bound only in conscience by the oath which they took on entering upon and laying down their office. Having no executive powers, they had no lictors, but only messengers (vidtdres) and heralds (prceconSs). Their insignia were ihe sella curulis and a purple toga. The collegial character of the office was so pronounced, that if one censor died, the other abdicated. From the simple act of taking the census and putting up the new list of citizens, their functions were in course of time extended, so as to include a number of very important duties. Among these must be mentioned in particular a general superintendence of conduct {reyimen mOrum). In virtue of this they had the power of affixing a stigma on any citizen, regardless of his position, for any conceiv- able offence for which there was no legal punishment. Such offences were neglect of one's property, celibacy, dissolution of marriage, bad training or bad treatment of children, undue severity to slaves and clients, irregular life, abuse* of power in office, impiety, perjury, and the like. The offender might be punished with degrada- tion ; that is, the censors could expel a man from the senate or ordo equester, or they could transfer him from a country tribe into one of the less respectable city tribes, and thus curtail his right of voting, or again they could expel him from the tribes altogether, and thus completely deprive him of the right of voting. This last pen- alty might be accompanied by a fine in the shape of additional taxation. The censors had also the power of issuing edicts against practices which threatened the simplicity of ancient Roman manners ; for instance, against luxury. These edicts had not the force of law, but their transgression might be punished by the next censors. The effect of the censorial stigma and punish- ment lasted until the next census. The consent of both censors was required to ratify it, and it directly affected men only, not women. The censors exercised a special superintendence over the equUes and the senate. They had the lectio sendtus, or power of ejecting unworthy members and of passing over new candidates for the sena- torial rank, as, for instance, those who had held curule offices. The equites had to pass singly, each leading his horse, before the censors in the forum, after the comple- tion of the general census. An honourable dismissal was then given to the superan- nuated or the infirm ; if an equcs was now found, or had previously been found, un- worthy of his order (as for neglecting to care for his horse), he was expelled from it. The vacant places were filled up fi-om the number of such individuals as appeared from the general census to be suitable. There were certain other duties attached to the censor- ship, for the due performance of which they were responsible to the people, and subject to the authority of the senate and the veto of the tribunes. (1) The letting of the public domain lauds and taxes to the highest bidder. (2) The acceptance of tenders from the lowest bidder for works to be paid for by the State. In both these cases the period was limited to five years. (3) Superinten- dence of the construction and maintenance of public buildings and grounds, temples, bridges, sewers, aqueducts, streets, monu- ments, and the like. After 167 B.C. Roman citizens were freed from all taxation, and since the time of Marius the liability to military service was made general. The censorship was now a superfluous office, for its original object, the census, was hardly necessary. Sulla disliked the censors for their power of meddling in matters of private conduct, and accordingly in his constitution of 81 B.C. the office was, if not formally abolished, practically super- seded. It was restored in 70 B.C. in the consulship of Pompey and Crassus, and con- tinued to exist for a long time, till under the Empire it disappeared as a separate office. The emperor kept in his own hands the right of taking the census. He took over also the other functions of the censor, especially the supervision of morals, a pro- ceeding in which he had Caesar's example to support him. The care of public buildings, however, he committed to a special body. Censorinus. A Roman scholar of the 3rd century A.D. Besides some grammatical treatises now lost, he was the author of a short book, De Die Natcdl ("On the Day of Birth "), in which he treats of the influence of the stars on the birth of men, of the various stages of life, and the different modes of reckoning time. In the course of the work he gives a number of valuable historical and chronological notices. Census. After the establishment of the constitution of Servius Tullius the number of Roman citizens was ascertained every five years (though not always with per- fect regularity) to determine their legal liability to the payment of taxes and to military service. This process was called CENTAURI CENTO. 123 census. The census was originally taken by the kings ; after the expulsion of the kings by the consuls ; after 444 B.C. by special officers called censors {see Censores). The censors took the auspices on the night preceding the census ; on the next day their herald summoned the people to the Campus Martins, where they had an official residence in the villa publica. Each tribe appeared successively before them, and its citizens were summoned individually according to the existing register. Each had to state on oath his age, his own name, those of his father, his wife, his children, his abode, and the amount of his property. The facts were embodied in lists by the censors' assistants. The census of the provinces was sent in by the provincial governors. There was a special commission for numbering the armies ovitside the Italian frontier. The censors, in putting up the new lists, took into con- sideration not only a man's property but his moral conduct (see Censores, p. 122a). The census was concluded with the solemn ceremony of reviewing the newly constituted army {lustrum). {See Lustrum.) The re- publican census continued to exist under the early Empire, but the last lustrum was held by Vespasian and Titus in a.d. 74. The provincial census, introduced by Augustus and maintained during the whole imperial period, had nothing to do with the Roman census, being only a means of ascertaining the taxable capacities of the provinces. Centauri (Gr. Kentauroi). Homer and the older mythology represent the Centaurs are a rude, wild race, fond of wine and women, dwelling in the mountains of Thessaly, es- pecially on Pelion and (Eta. In Homer they are spoken of as shaggy animals, living in the mountains. It was, perhaps, not until the 5th centurj'- B.C. that they were represented in the double shape now familiar to us. Originally the Centaur was conceived as a being with the body of a man standing on a horse's legs ; but in later times the human body was represented as rising vip in the front of a horse's body and four legs {see cut). According to one version of the current legend they were the offspring of Nephele and Ixion ; according to another, the son of this pair, Kentauros, begat them upon mares {see Ixion). The story of their contest with the Lapithse at the wedding of Pirithotis, born of their drunkenness and lust, is as early as Homer [Iliad i 268, Odyssey xxi 295 foil.] {See Pirithous.) In Homer Nestor, and in the later story TheseiTS, are represented as taking part in it. It was a favourite subject with poets and artists. The Centaurs were driven from Pelion by Pirithous and the Lapithse, and even the wise Chiron was forced to go CENTAUR AND EROS. iParis, Louvre.) with them {see Chiron). Artists were always fond of treating the fabulous combats of the Centaurs and the heroes of old ; but in later times the Centaurs appear in a different light. They form part of the following of Dionysus, moving peaceably in his festal train among satyrs, nymphs, and Bacchants, drawing the victorious car of the god and his queen Ariadne, playing on the lyre, and guided by gods of love. The forms of women and children were some- times represented in the shape of Centaurs, and used in various ways by artists for their smaller pictures. For the Centaur o-TntonSs or Ichthyocentaurl ("Fish-Centaurs") see Triton. Cento. Properly a patchwork garment. In its secondary meaning the word was applied to a poem composed of verses or parts of verses by well-known poets put together at pleasure, so as to make a new meaning. Homer and Vergil were chiefly used for the purpose. The Christians were fond of making religious poems in this way, hoping thus to give a nobler colouring to the pagan poetry. For instance, we have a Homeric cento of 2,343 verses on the Life of Christ, ascribed to Athenais, who, under the title of Eudocia, was consort of the 124 CENTUMVIRI CENTURIONES. emperor Theodosius II. Another instance is a poem known as the Christus pattens, or " the suffering Christ," consisting of 2,610 verses from Euripides. Instances of Vergilian centos are the sacred history of Proba Faltonla (towards the end of the 4th century a.d.), and a tragedy entitled MsdSa by Hosidius Greta. Centumviri (" The hundred men "). This was the title of the single jury for the trial of civil causes at Rome. In the republican age it consisted of 105 members, chosen from the tribes (three from each of the thirty-five). Under the Empire its number was increased to 180. It was divided into four sections {constlid), and exercised its jui'isdiction in the name of the people, partly in sections, partly as a single collegium. It had to deal with questions of property, and particu- larly with those of inheritance. In the later years of the Republic it was presided over by men of qusestorian rank ; but from the time of Augustus by a commission of ten {decern viri lltlbus iudicandls). The pleadings were oral, and the proceedings public. In earlier times they took place in the forum ; under the Empire in a basi- lica. In the imperial age the centumviral courts were the only sphere in which an ambitious orator or lawyer could win dis- tinction. The last mention of them is in 395 A.D. The peculiar symbol of the cen- tumviral court was a hasta or spear (see Hasta). Centuria (" a hundred "). In the Roman army of the regal period the centuria was a division of 100 cavalry soldiers. In the half-military constitution of Servius Tullius the word was applied to one of the 193 divisions into which the king divided the patrician and plebeian popillus according to their property, with the view of allotting to each citizen his due share of civil rights and duties. Of the 193 centurice 18 con- sisted of cavalry soldiers (100 each) belong- ing to the richest class of citizens. The next 170, whose members were to serve as infantry, fell into five classes. The first 80 included those citizens whose property amounted to at least 100,000 asses. The second, third, and fourth, containing each 20 centuries, represented a minimum property of 75,000, 60,000, and 25,000 asses respectively. The fifth, with 30 centuries, represented a mini- mum of 12,500, 11,000 or 10,000 asses. These 170 centurise were again divided into 85 centuries of iUniores, or men from 18-45 years of age, who served in the field ; and 85 of senlores, citizens from 46 to 60 years of age, who served on garrison duty in the city. Besides these there were 2 centuries of mechanics {fabrum), and 2 of musicians (cornicinum, and tublclnum). The centurice fabrum were enrolled be- tween the first and second class : the centuricB cornicinum and tubicinum between the fourth and fifth. The 193d centuria con- sisted of citizens whose income fell below the minimum standard of the rest, and who were called proletdrii or cdplt5 censi. These last had originally no function beyond that of voting at the assembly of the citizens in the comltia centuridta, and were not liable to military service. But in later times the richer among them were admitted to serve in the army. A fresh division of centurice was made at every census. The military equipment of each citizen, and his position in battle array, was determined by the class to which his property entitled him to belong. {See Legion.) On the poli- tical position of the different classes see COMITIA (2). In military parlance centuria meant one of the 60 divisions of the legion, each of which was commanded by a centurio. Centnriata Comitia. See Comitia (2). Centtirlones. The captains of the 60 cen- turies of the Roman legion. They cai-ried a staff of vinewood as their badge of office. In the republican age they were appointed, on the application of the legion, by the military tribunes on the commission of the consuls. There were various degrees of rank among the centurions according as they be- longed to the three divisions of the triarii, princtpes, and hasfclti, and led the first or second centuria of one of the 30 manipiili. The centurion of the first centuria of a manipulus led his manipulus himself, and as centurio prior ranked above the leader of the second centuria, or centurio posterior. The highest rank belonged to the first cen- turio of the first manipidus of the triarii, the prlmipilus or primus pllus, who was admitted to the council of war. The method of promotion was as follows: The cen- turiones had to work first through the 30 lower centurice of the 30 manipuli of the hastati, principes, and triarii, and then through the 30 upper centurice up to the pirimipilus. After the end of the Republic and under the Empire the legion was usually divided into 10 cohorts ranked one above the other, each cohort consisting of three manipuli or six centurice. The division into pridrSs and poster iOi'&s, and into friarii, principcs CEPHALUS CERCIS. 125 and hastati still remained, but only for the centurions and within the cohort, which accordingly always included a prior and posterior of the three ranks in question. The method of promotion, which was per- haps not regularly fixed until the time of the standing armies of the Empire, seems to have been the old one, the centurions passing up by a lower stage through all 10 cohorts, and the higher stage always beginning in the tenth. The first centurion of each cohort probably led it, and was admitted to the council of war. The promotion usually ceased with the advancement to the rank of primipilus. If a centurion who had reached this point did not choose to retire, he was employed on special services, as commandant of a fortress for instance. Under the Empire, however, exceptional cases occurred of promotion to higher posts. C6phalus (Gr. Kephdlos). In Greek mytho- logy the son of Hermes and Herse, the daugh- ter of Cecrops king of Athens. According to another story he was son of Deion of Phocis and Diomede, and migrated from Phocis to ThSricus in Attica. He was married to Procris, the daughter of Erechtheus, and lived with her in the closest affection. But while hunting one day in the mountains, he was carried away for his beauty by Eos, the goddess of the dawn. To estrange his wife's heart from him, Eos sent him to her in the form of a stranger, who, by the offer of splendid presents, succeeded in making her waver in her fidelity. Cephalus revealed himself, and Procris, in shame, fled to Crete, where she lived with Artemis as a huntress. Artemis (or, according to another story, Minos), gave her a dog as swift as the wind, and a spear that never missed its aim. On returning to Attica she met Cephalus hunt- ing. He failed to recognise her, and offered his love if she would give him her dog and her spear. She then revealed herself, and, the balance of offence being thus redressed, the lovers were reconciled and returned to their old happy life together. But Procris at last fell a victim to her jealousy. When Cephalus went out hunting, he used often to call on Aura, or the breeze, to cool his heat. Procris was told of this, and, sup- posing Aura to be some nymph, hid herself in a thicket to watch him. Hearing a rustling near him, and thinking a wild beast was in the thicket, Cephalus took aim with the unerring spear which Procris had given him, and slew his wife. For this murder he was banished, and fled toBoeotia. Here he assisted Amphitryon in the chase of the Taumessian fox ; and both his dog and the hunted animal were turned to stone by Zeus. Subsequently he joined Amphi- tryon in his expedition against the Telebose, and, according to one account, became sovereign of the Cephallenians. According to another he put an end to his life by leap- ing from the promontory of Leucate, on which he had founded a temple to Apollo. Cepheus (Gr. Kcplieus). (1) The son of Belus, king of Ethiopia, husband of Cassio- pea and father of Andromeda. {See Andro- meda.) (2) Son of At6us, king of Tegea and bro- ther of Auge {see Telephus). He fell with his twenty sons when fighting on the side of Heracles against Hippocoon of Sparta. Cephis6d6tus (Gr. Kephlsodotds). A Greek artist, born at Athens, and connected, with the family of Praxiteles. He flourished towards the end of the 4th century B.C. The celebrated statue now in the Glyptothek at Munich, representing Eirene with the infant Plutus in her arms, is probably a copy of a work by Cephisodotus {see cut, under Eirene). There was another Cephi- sodotus, a contemporary of his, and the son of Praxiteles, who was likewise in high repute as a sculptor. Cer (Gr. Ker). In Greek mythology, a goddess of death, especially of violent death in battle. In Hesiod she is the daughter of Nyx (night), and sister of Moros (the doom of death), Hypnos (sleep), and Dreams. The poets commonly speak of several Keres,. goddesses of different kinds of death. Homer and Hesiod represent them as clothed in garments stained by human blood, and drag- ging the dead and wounded about on the field of battle. Every man has his allotted Doom, which overtakes him at the appointed time. Achilles alone has two, with the. power to choose freely between them. In later times the Keres are represented generally as powers of destruction, and as associated with the Erinyes, goddesses of revenge and retribution. Cerbgrus (Gr. Kerberos). In Greek mytho- logy, the three-headed dog, with hair of snakes, son of Typhaon and Echidna, who watches the entrance of the lower world. He gives a friendly gi-eeting to all who enter, but if any one attempts to go out, he seizes him and holds him fast. When Herades.at the command of Eurystheus, brought him from below to the upper world, the poison- ous aconite sprang up from the foam of his mouth. {See the cuts to the article Hades.) Cercis (Gr. Kcrkis). See Theatre. 126 CERCYON CERYX. Cercj^on (Gr. Kerkyon). In Greek mytho- logy the son of Poseidon, and father of A.l6pe, who lived at Eleusis, and compelled all passers-by to wrestle with him. He was conquered and slain by the young Theseus, who gave the kingdom of Eleusis to his grandson, Hippothoon. (See Alope, and Theseus.) C6r6alia. See Ceres. C6res. An old Italian goddess of agri- culture. The Ceres who was worshipped at Rome is, however, the same as the Greek Demeter. Her cultus was introduced under the Italian name at the same time as that of Dionysus and Persephone, who in the same way received the Italian names of Liber and Libera. It was in 496 B.C., on the occasion of a drought, that the Sibylline books ordered the introduction of the wor- ship of the three deities. This worship was so decidedly Greek that the temple dedi- cated on a spur of the Aventine in 490 B.C., •over the entrance to the Circus, was built in Greek style and by Greek artists ; and the service of the goddess, founded on the Greek fable of Demeter and Persephone, was performed in the Greek tongue by Italian women of Greek extraction. The worshippers of the goddess were almost exclusively plebeian. Her temple was placed under the care of the plebeian sediles, who (as overseers of the corn market) had their official residence in or near it. The fines which they imposed went to the shrine of Ceres, so did the property of persons who had offended against them, or against the tribunes of the plebs. Just as the Patricians entertained each other with mutual hospi- talities at the Megalesian games(April 4-10), so did the Plebeians at the CerSdlia, or games introduced at the founding of the temple of 'Ceres. Those held in later times were given by the sediles from the 12th-19th April, and another festival to Ceres, held in August, was established before the Second Punic "War. This was celebrated by women in honour of the reunion of Ceres and Proser- •pTna. After fasting for nine days, the women, clothed in white, and adorned with crowns of ripe ears of corn, offered to the goddess the firstfruits of the harvest. After 191 B.C. a fast (ieiu7ilum Cereris) was introduced by command of the Sibylline books. This was originally observed every four years, but in later times was kept annually on the 4th of October. The native Italian worship of Ceres was probably maintained in its purest form in the country. Here the country •offered Ceres a sow (porca prcecldCinca) before the beginning of the harvest, and dedicated to her the first cuttings of the corn (prcBmetium). (See Demeter.) Ceryx (Gr. Keryx). The son of Pandrosos and Hermes, and the ancestor of the Keryces of Eleusis {see Ceryx, 2). Herse (or Erse) was mother, by Hermes, of the beautiful Cephaius {see Cephalds). She had a special festival in her honour, the Arrliephorta {see Arrephoria). AgraulSs, mother of Al- cippe, by Ares, was said in one story to have thrown herself down from the citadel during a war to save her country. It was, accordingly, in her precincts on the Acro- polis that the j'oung men of Athens, when the}'' received their spears and shields, took their oath to defend their country to the death, invoking her name with those of the Charites Auxo and Hegemone. According to another story, Athene entrusted Erich- thSnius to the keeping of the three sisters in a closed chest, with the command that they were not to open it. Agraulos and Herse disobeyed, went mad, and threw themselves down from the rocks of the citadel. Ceryx (Gr. Keryx). (1) The Greek name for a herald. In the Homeric age the keryx is the official servant of the king, who manages his household, attends at his meals, assists at saci'ifices, summons the assem- blies and maintains order and tranquillity in them. He also acts as ambassador to the enemy, and, as such, his person is, both in ancient times and ever afterwards, inviol- able. In historical times the herald, be- sides the part which he plays in the politi- cal transactions between different cities, appears in the service of the gods. He an- nounces the sacred truce observed at the public festivals, commands silence at reli- gious services, dictates the forms of prayer to the assembled community, and performs many services in temples where there is only a small staff of attendants, especially by assisting in the sacrifices. He has also a great deal to do in the service of the State. At Athens, in particular, one or more heralds were attached to the various officials and to the government boards. It was also the herald's business to summon the council and the public assembly, to re- cite the prayer before the commencement of business, to command silence, to call upon the speaker, to summon the parties in a lawsuit to attend the court, and to act in general as a public crier. As a rule, the heralds were taken from the poor, and the lower orders. At Athens they had a salary. CETRA CHAIRS. 127 and took their meals at the public expense, with the officials to whom they were at- tached. On the herald's staff (Gr. kcr]j- keion, Lat. cdducSus), see Hermes. (2) In Greek mythology, the son of Hermes, the herald of the gods, by Agraulos the daughter of Cecrops, or (according to another story) of Eumolpus, and ancestor of the Eleusinian family of the Kerykes, one of whose members always performed the functions of a herald at the Eleusinian mysteries. Cetra. The light shield of the Roman auxiliaries. (See Shield.) Ceyx (Gr. Keyx). In Greek mythology, (1) A king of Trachis, the friend and nephew of Heracles, {See Heracles.) (2) The son of Heosphoros or the Morn- ing-Star, and the nymph Philonis ; the husband of AlkySne or Halkj'one, daughter of the Thessalian ^olus. The pair were arrogant enough to style themselves Zeus and Hera, and were accordingly changed respectively by Zeus into the birds of the same name, a diver and a kingfisher. Another story confused Ceyx with the king of Trachis, and dwelt on the tender love of the pair for each other. Ceyx is drowned at sea, and Alcyone finds his body cast up upon his native shore. The gods take pity on her grief, and change the husband and wife into kingfishers (alcydnes), whose affec- tion for each other in the pairing season was proverbial. Zeus, or, according to another story, the wind-god tEoIus (sometimes repre- sented as the father of Alcyone), bids the winds rest for seven days before and after the shortest day, to allow the kingfishers to sit on their eggs by the sea. Hence the expression "halcyon days," applied to this season. Dsedalion, the brother of Ceyx, was turned into a hawk, when he threw himself from a rock on Parnassus in grief at the death of his daughter Chione. Chalcus (Gr. Chalkous). See Coinage Chaldaei. See Astrology. Chaos. According to Hesiod, the yawn- ing, unfathomable abyss which was the first of all existing things. From Chaos arose Gaia (Earth), Tartarus (Hell), and Eros (Love). Chaos bore Erebus and Night; from their union sprang ^ther and Hemera (Sky and Day). The conception of Chaos as the confused mass out of which, in the beginning, the separate forms of things arose, is erroneous, and belongs to a later period. Chaeremon. A Greek tragedian, who flourished at Athens about 380 B.C. His style was smooth and picturesque, but his plays were artificial, and better adapted for reading than for performance. A few frag- ments of them remain, which show some imaginative power. Chairs and Seats. Of these there was a great variety in the ancient world, some with, and some without, supports for the head and back. The latter sort (Gr. diphrds, Lat. sella) were mostly low, and DIPHROS OR SELLA. (From Greek Vases.) CHAIRS. (From Greek Vases.) THRONE. (Zeus, Coin of Elis.) were supported sometimes on four upright legs, sometimes on feet arranged and shaped like a sawing stool (see cuts). The seat being made of leather straps, the chair could, in the latter case, be folded up and carried by a servant. A chair of this kind, made of ivory, was one of the insignia of the curule magistrates at Rome (see Sella Curulis). The official chair of the Roman niagis- trates was always without a back. Stools 128 CHARES CHARIOTS. without backs were also used by mechanics, soldiers, and boys at school. The backed chairs ordinarily in use much resembled our modern chairs. They generally had a slop- ing back, sometimes arched out in the centre (see cuts). Chairs of this form were made for women and invalids ; and the cathedra Dr professor's chair was of the same descrip- tion. The Greek thrvn6s and the Latin solium were seats of honour. They were lofty, and had footstools accordingly ; the back was high and straight, the legs were upright, and there were arms at the sides. The Roman pater familias, when giving his clients their morning audience, sat in a solium. Seats were not always stuffed, but cushions were put on them, and cover- ings on the backs. Chairs were made of metal and ivory, as well as of wood. Chares. (1) Chares of MttyUne, A Greek historian, court-marshal of Alexander the Great. He was the author of a comprehensive work, con- taining at least ten books, upon the life, chiefly the domestic life, of this monarch. This history had the repu- tation of being trustworthy and in- teresting. Only a few fragments of it remain. (2) Chares of Lindds in Rhodes. A Greek artist, a pupil of Lysippus. In 278 B.C. he produced the largest statue known in antiquity, the colos- sal image of the sun, 280 feet high, placed at the entrance of the harbour of Rhodes, and generally known as the Colossus of Rhodes. This was destroyed by an earthquake as early as 222 B.C. The thumbs were thicker than the average span of a man's hand, the fingers larger than many ordinary statues. Chariots. (1) Greek. The racing chariots in use at the public games require especial mention. These preserved the form of the war-chariots of the heroic age, made to carry the warrior and his charioteer {see cut). They were also used at Rome in the games of the circus and in festal processions. The chariot had two low wheels, usually with four spokes each. On these rested the car {see cut), elliptically shaped in front, protected by a board rising to the knees of the driver in front, and sloping off to the rear, where the chariot was open. In the triumphal chariot of the Romans this board was breast high. At the end of the pole was fastened the yoke. This consisted either of a simple arched piece of wood, or of two rings connected by a cross-beam, and was fixed on the necks of the two horses or mules which were next to the pole. Sometimes a third and fourth horse were attached by means of a rope passing from the neckband to a rail form- ing the top of the front board. It was indeed the universal custom in antiquity to make the two principal horses draw by the yoke. It was only the extra horses that drew by traces, and this always at the side of the others, never in front of them. Carriages in ordinary use sometimes had two, some- times four wheels. They were used mostly for carrying burdens. Only women, as a rule, travelled in carriages ; men usually either walked or rode, thinking it affecta- tion to drive except in case of old age or illness. It was, however, customary at Athens and elsewhere for a bride to be WAU-CHARIOT. (Vase paiiitini;.) drawn to the house of the bridegroom in a carriage drawn by mules or oxen, sitting between the bridegroom and his friend. (2) Rome. Among the Romans we find a great variety of carriages in use, for trans- port, travelling and state occasions. This variety is apparent in the number of differ- ent names, which cannot however always be referred with certainty to the forms of carriage presented in works of art. The various kinds of travelling-carriages must have been boiTowed from abroad, as is proved by their names. The reda, for instance, came from Gaul. This was a four- wheeled travelling carriage for family and baggage, or for company. The ctsium, and essedum were light two-wheeled convey- ances. The essedum was probably a Gaulish war-chariot, as the covinnus was a British war-chariot. The four-wheeled pilentum came also from Gaul. It was drawn by CHARISIUS CHARON. 129 mules and generally used by the servants and suite. The pilenhim and covinnus were used on state occasions. These were both covered carriages, the pilenta having four wheels, the covinnus two. The covin- nus often mentioned in the literature of the empire had four wheels, and resembled a reda. We must also mention the thensa, a chariot adorned with gold and ivory, in which the images of the gods and deified emperors, lying upon a cushion on a frame or a litter, were borne to the circus through the streets and the Forum at the Circensian games. The use of carriages for travelling purposes was allowed in Roman society, but there was very little driving in Rome itself. Married ladies were from very old times permitted the use of carpenta in the city, and to drive in pilenta to sacrifices and games. The privilege was said to have been granted them in acknowledgment of their contributions to the ransom of the city after it was burnt by the Gauls, B.C. 390. In 45 B.C. CsBsar finally restricted their pri- vilege to the public sacrifices to which the Vestal Virgins, the married ladies, and the flamens also drove in pilenta. Men were strictly forbidden to drive in the city, except in two cases. A general at his triumph was borne to the circus in a gilded chariot drawn by four horses and in the procession which preceded the games of the circus, the magistrates rode in chariots drawn by two horses. Six horses were sometimes allowed to the emperor. Thi'ough- out the cities of the empire driving in the streets was generally forbidden in the first two centuries after Christ. At length, in the 3rd century, the use of a carriage was allowed as a privilege to the senators and high imperial officials, who rode in carrucoe plated with silver. In later times private citizens were permitted to drive in these coaches. Wagons (the general name of which was plaustra) were, with certain ex- ceptions, forbidden by a law of Caesar to ply between sunrise and the tenth hour (4 in the afternoon), in view of the immense traffic in the streets. Some wagons had two, some four wheels. They were gener- ally drawn by oxen, asses, or mules. If they were meant to carry very heavy loads, the wheels would be made of one piece and without spokes. Charisius {Flavins Sosipdter). A writer on Latin grammar, who flourished towards the end of the 4th century a.d. His Ars Grammdttca, a work in five books, imper- fectly preserved, is a compilation, made with- D. C. A. oat much intelligence, from the works of older scholars. Its value is derived from the numerous quotations it preserves from the older Latin literature. ChS,rit6s or Graces. Goddesses of grace, and of everything which lends charm and beauty to nature and human life. Accord- ing to Hesiod they are the offspring of Zeus and the daughter of Oceanus and EurynSme. Their names are Euphrosyne (joy), Thalia (bloom), and Aglaia (brilliance). Aglaia is the youngest, and the wife of Hephaestus. For the inspiration of the Graces was deemed as necessary to the plastic arts, as to music, poetry,- science, eloquence, beauty, and enjoyment of life. Accordingly the Graces are intimate with the Muses, with whom they live together on Olympia. They are associated, too, with Apollo, Athene, Hermes, and Peitho, but especially with Eros, Aphrodite, and Diony- sus. Bright and blithe-hearted, they were also called the daughters of the Sun and of Mgle (" Sheen "). They were worshipped in conjunction with Aphrodite and Dionysus at Orchomenus in Boeotia, where their shrine was accounted the oldest in the place, and where their most ancient images were found in the shape of stones said to have fallen from heaven. It was here that the feast of the Charitesia was held in their honour, with musical contests. At Sparta, as at Athens, two Charites only were worshipped, Cleta (Kleta) or Sound, and Phaenna or Light ; at Athens their names were Auxo (Increase), and Hegemone (Queen). It was by these goddesses, and by Agraulos, daughter of Cecrops, that the Athenian youths, on receiving their spear and shield, swore faith to their country. The Charites were represented in the form of beautiful maidens, the three being generally linked hand in hand. In the older representations they are clothed ; in the later they are loosely clad or entirely undraped. Chariton, of Aphrodisias in Phrygia. The assumed name of the author of a Greek romance in eight books, on the fortunes of Chgereas and Callirrhoe. He was a Chris- tian, probably of the 4th century a.d. His treatment of the story is simple, but full of life and movement ; the narrative is easy and flowing, the language on the whole natural and unadorned. Charon. (1) In Greek mythology, the son of Erebus and the Styx ; the dark and grisly old man in a black sailor's cloak, who ferries the souls of the dead across the river of the lower world for the fare of an 6b6l6s. 130 CHARYBDIS CHITON. The coin was put into the month of the dead for this purpose. {See Puture Life.) (2) A Greek historian. {See Logographi.) Charybdis. See Scylla. Cheiromantia. See Mantike. Cheirotdnia. A show of hands. The usual method of voting in Greek popular assemblies, whether at political meetings or elections. In elections, the cheirotonia was contrasted with the drawing of lots, which was usual since the time of Cleis- thenes in the case of many offices. Cheliddnis. See Afinox. Chiliarchus. The leader of a division of 1,000 men. {Sec Phalanx.) Chimsera. A fire-breathing monster of Lycia, destroyed by Bellerophon. Accord- ing to Homer the Chimsera was of divine origin. In front it was a lion, behind it was a serpent, and in the middle a goat, and was brought up by Amisodarus as a plague for many men. Hesiod calls her the daughter of Typhaon and Echidna, and by OrthSs the mother of the Sphinx and the Nemean lion. He describes her as large, swift-footed, strong, with the heads of a lion, and goat, and a serpent. In numerous works of art, as in statues, and the coins of Corinth, Sicyon, and other cities, the Chi- msera is generally represented as a lion, with a goat's head in the middle of its back, and tail ending in a snake's head. The bronze Chimsera of Arretium, now in Flor- ence, is a very celebrated work of art. Even in antiquity the Chimsera was re- garded as a symbol of the volcanic character of the Lycian soil. Chidne. (1) Daughter of BSrgas and Oreithyia, mother of Eumolpus by Posei- don. {See Eumolpus.) (2) Daughter of Dsedalion, mother of Philammon by Apollo, and of Aut5lycus by Hermes. She was slain by Artemis for venturing to compare her own beauty with that of the goddess. {See D^dalion.) Chiron. A Centaur, son of Cronus and the Ocean nymph Philyra. By the Naiad nymph Chariclo he was father of Endeis, wife of ^acus, the mother of Peleus and TelamSn, and grandmother of Achilles and Ajax. He is represented in the fable as wise and just, while the other Centaurs are wild and un- civilized. He is the master and instructor of the most celebrated heroes of Greek story, as Actseon, Jason, Castor, Polydeuces, Achilles, and Asclepius, to whom he teaches the art of healing. Driven by the Lapithse from his former dwelling-place, a cave at the top of PellSn, he took up his abode on the promontory of Malea in Laconia. Here he was wounded accidentally with a poisoned arrow by his friend Heracles, who was pursuing the flying Centaurs {see Pholus). To escape from the dreadful pain of the wound, he renounced his immortality in favour of Prometheus, and was set by Zeus among the stars as the constellation Archer. Chiton. The undershirt worn by the Greeks, corresponding to the Roman tunica. Two kinds were commonly distinguished, the short Doric chiton of wool (fig. 1) and di^^ (1) 60LDIEK IN A DOIIIC CHITON. (Bas-relief fi'i mMiiHer's Denkm. I. tat', xsix.) (2) nouni.E chiton. (Bronze statuette from Hercu- laneum, in Naples Museum.) the long Ionic tunic of linen, which was worn at Athens down to the time of Pericles. The chiton consisted of an ob- long piece of cloth, wrapped round the body. One arm was passed through a hole in the closed side, while the two corners were joined together by a clasp on the shoulder. The garment, which thus hung down open on one side, was fastened to- gether at both corners, or sometimes sewn together below the hips. At the waist it was confined by a belt. In course of time short sleeves were added to the arm-holes. Sleeves reaching to the wrist were by the Greeks regarded as effeminate ; but they were worn by the Phrygians and Medians, and often appear on monuments as part of the dress of Orientals. The chiton worn on both shoulders was distinctive of free CHLAMYS CHORUS. 131 men. Workmen, sailors and slaves wore a chiton with one armhole only for the left arm, while the right arm and right breast were left uncovered. This was called the exomis. Country folk wore a chiton of skins. The chiton worn by Doric ladies was a long garment like a chemise, slit up- wards on both sides from the hips and held together by clasps at the shoulders. In the case of young girls it was fastened up so high that it hardly reached the knees. For the rest of Greece the usual dress of a lady was the Ionian chiton, long, broad, reaching to the feet in many folds, and onlj' drawn up a short distance by the girdle. From this long ladies' chiton was developed the double chiton, a very long and broad piece of cloth, folded together round the body, and fastened with clasps at the shoulders. It was folded double round the breast and back, and was open or fastened with clasps on the right side, and fell simply down to the feet. Sometimes the open side was sewn together from the girdle to the lower edge. For the garments worn over the chiton see Himation, Chlamys, and Tri- BON. Chlamjrs. An outer garment introduced at Athens from Thessaly and Macedonia. It con- sisted of an oblong piece of woollen cloth thrown over the left shoulder, the open ends being fastened with clasps on the right shoulder. The chlamys was worn by cphehl ; it was also the uniform of general officers, like the polu- cldmentutn, as it was called in later times among the Romans. It commonly served as an overcoat for travelling, hunting, and military service. (See cut.) Chloris. (1) The personilication of the spring season, and god- dess of flowers, the wife of Zephyrus, mother of Carpos (" Fruit "). She was identified by the Romans with Flora. {See Flora.) (2) Daughter of Amphion of Orchomenus, wife of Neleus, mother of Nestor and Periclymenus. {See Periclymenus.) Chcerilus. (1) An Athenian dramatist, one of the oldest Attic tragedians, who (statue of Phocion, Vatican, Rome.) appeared as a writer as early as 520 B.C. He was a rival of Pratinas, Phrynlchus and jEschylus. His favourite line seems to have been the satyric drama, in which he was long a popular writer. (2) A Greek epic poet, born in Samos about 470 B.C., a friend of Herodotus, and afterwards of the Spartan Lysander. He lived first at Athens and afterwards at the court of King Archelaus of Macedonia, where he was treated with great consider- ation, and died about 400 B.C. He was the first epic poet who, feeling that the old mythology was exhausted, ventured to treat a historical subject of immediate in- terest, the Persian wars, in an epic entitled Perseis. According to one account the poem was read in the schools with Homer. The few fragments that remain show that it did not lack talent and merit ; but little regard was paid to it by posterity. (3) Chcerilus of Idsos in Caria. This Chcerilus was also an epic poet, who accom- panied Alexander the Great. Alexander promised him a gold piece for every good verse he wrote in celebration of his achieve- ments, but declared that he would rather be the Thersites of Homer than the Achilles of Chcerilus. Ch6es. See Dionysia. Ch6rus. The word chords in Greek meant a number of persons who performed songs and dances at religious festivals. When the drama at Athens was developed from the dithyrambic choruses, the chorus was retained as the chief element in the Diony- siac festival. {See Tragedy.) With the old dramatists the choral songs and dances much preponderated over the action proper. As the form of the drama developed, the sphere of the chorus was gradually limited, so that it took the comparatively subordi- nate position which it occupies in the ex- tant tragedies and comedies. The function of the chorus represented by its leader was to act as an ideal public, more or less con- nected with the dramatis persdnce. It might consist of old men and women or of maidens. It took an interest in the occur- rences of the drama, watched the action with quiet sympathy, and sometimes in- terfered, if not to act, at least to advise, comfort, exhort, or give warning. At the critical points of the action, as we should say in the entr^actes, it performed long lyrical pieces with suitable action of dance and gesture. In the better times of the drama these songs stood in close connexion with the action; but even in Euripides this 132 CHOflEGUS CHTHONIA. connexion is sometimes loose, and with the later tragedians, after the time of Agathon, the choral performance sank to a mere in- termezzo. The style of the chorus was distinguished from that of the dialogue partly by its complex lyrical form, partly by its language, in which it adopted a mix- ture of Attic and Doric forms. The proper place of the chorus was on the orchestra, on different parts of which, after a solemn march, it remained until the end of the piece drawn up, while standing, in a square. During the action it seldom left the orchestra to re-appear, and it was quite exceptional for it to appear on the stage. As the per- formance went on the chorus would change its place on the orchestra ; as the piece re- quired it would divide into semi-choruses and perform a variety of artistic movements and dances. The name of Emmeleia was given to the tragic dance, which, though not lacking animation, had a solemn and measured character. The comedy had its burlesque and often indecent performance called Cordax ; the satyric drama its Sicin- nis, representing the wanton movements of satyrs. The songs of the chorxises, too, had their special names. The first ode per- formed by the entire body was called pdro- dds ; the pieces intervening between the parts of the play, stdsima ; the songs of mourning, in which the chorus took part with the actors, cominoi. The number of the members (cJioreutai) was, in tragedies, originally twelve, and after Sophocles fifteen. This was pi-obably the number allowed in the satyric drama ; the chorus in the Old Comedy numbered twenty-four. The business of getting the members of the chorus together, paying them, maintain- ing them during the time of practice, and generally equipping them for performance, was regarded as a Llturgia, or public ser- vice, and devolved on a wealthy private citizen called a Choregus, to whom it was a matter of considerable trouble and expense. "VVe know from individual instances that the cost of tragic chorus might run up to 30 minse (about £100), of a comic chorus ^0 16 minse (about £53). If victorious, the ClidrSgus received a crown and a finely wrought tripod. This he either dedicated, with an inscription, to some deity as a memorial of his triumph, or set up on a marble structure built for the purpose in the form of a temple, in a street named the Street of Tripods, from the number of these monuments which were erected there. One of these memorials, put up by a certain Lysicrates in 335 B.C., still remains. {See Lysicrates.) After the Peloponnesian war the prosperity of Athens declined so much that it was often difficult to find a sufficient number of choregi to supply the festivals. The State therefore had to take the business upon itself. But many choruses came to an end altogether. This was the case with the comic chorus in the later years of Aristo- phanes; and the poets of the Middle and New Comedy accordingly dropped the chorus. This explains the fact that there is no chorus in the Roman comedy, which is an imitation of the New Comedy of the Greeks. In their tragedies, however, imitated from Greek originals, the Romans retained the chorus, which, as the Roman theatre had no orchestra, was placed on the stage, and as a rule pei'formed between the acts, but some- times during the performance as well. ChSregus, Chdreutae. See Chorus. Chorizontgs. See Homer. ChresmSlogi. See Mantike. Chrysaor. Son of Poseidon and Mgdusa, brother of Peg&sus, and father of the three- headed giant Geryon and Echidna by the Ocean-Nymph CallirrhQe. Chrysels. The daughter of Chryses, priest of Apollo at Chryse. She was carried away by the Greeks at the con- quest of her native city, and allotted to Agamemnon. Agamemnon having refused the father's proffered ransom, Apollo visited the Greek camp with pestilence until Aga- memnon gave her back without payment. {See Trojan- War.) Chrysippus. (1) Son of Pelops and the Nymph AjiiSche, murdered by his step- brothers Atreus and Thyestes, who were consequently banished by Pelops. (2) A Greek philosopher of Tarsus or Soli in Cilicia (about 282-20G B.C.). At Athens he was a pupil of the Stoic Cleanthes, and his successor in the chair of the Stoa. Owing to the thorough way in which he developed the system, he is almost entitled to be called the second founder of the Stoic school ; and, indeed, there was a saying " Had there been no Chrysippus, there had been no Stoa." The author of more than 705 books, he was one of the most prolific writers of antiquity, but his style was marred by great prolixity and carelessness. Only a few fragments of his writings survive. Chthdnla. (1) Daughter of Erechtheus of Athens, who was sacrificed by her father to gain the victory over the men of Eleusis. {See Erechtheus.) (2) An epithet of Demeter {q. v.). )HTHONIAN GODS CICERO. 133 ChthSnian Gods (from Chthon, the earth). The deities who rule under the earth or who are connected with the lower world, as Hades, Pluto, Persephone, Demeter, Diony- sus, Hecate, and Hermes. Chytroi (Feast of Pots) the third day of the Anthesteria. {Sec Dionysia.) Cic6ro. (1) Marcus Tullius Cicero. The celebrated Roman orator, born at Arpinum, January 3rd, 106 B.C. He was son of Mar- cus Tullius Cicero and Helvia, his family being of equestrian rank, but not yet ennobled by office. With his brother Quintus he received his education in Rome, where he soon had an opportunity of hear- ing and admiring the two most celebrated orators of the day, Crassus and Antonius. He took the toga virllis in 90 B.C., and, while practising rhetorical exercises, de- voted himself with ardour to the study of law. In 89 he served on his first campaign in the Marsian War. After this he began his studies in philosophy, mainly under the guidance of the Academic philosopher, Philo of Larissa. The presence of the Rhodian rhetorician Molo in Rome, and afterwards the instruction in dialectic given him by the Stoic Diodotus, gave him the opportunity he desired for furthering his training as an orator. Having thus care- fully prepared himself for his future voca- tion during the period of the civil distur- bances, he started on his career as an orator under Sulla's dictatorship. He began with civil or private cases. One of his earliest speeches, the Pro Qumctio, still survives. This oration [in which he defends his client on the qu^estion of his conduct in a partner- ship] he delivered in 81 B.C., in his 26th year. In the following year he first appeared in a causa publica, and not on the side of the prosecution, the usual course for begin- ners, but on that of the defence. His client was Sextus Roscius of Ameria, accused of murdering his own father. This speech laid the foundation of Cicero's fame, and not only because it was successful. People ad- mired the intrepidity with which Cicero stood up against Chrysogonus, the favourite of the omnipotent dictator. In the following year, for the sake of his delicate health, Cicero started on a two years' tour in Greece and Asia, taking every oppor- tunity of finishing his education as a philo- sopher and orator. Por philosophy he had recourse to the most celebrated professors at Athens : for rhetoric he went to Rhodes, to his former instructor, Molo. In B.C. 77 he returned to Rome, his health restored, and his intellect matured. In this year he mar- ried Terentia. His career as an advocate he pursued with such success that he was unanimously elected qusestor in 76 B.C. He was stationed at Lilybseum, in Sicily, and administered his office unimpeachably. After his return he entered the senate, and developed an extraordinary activity as a speaker. In consequence he was elected to the curule sedileship in 70 B.C. It was in * CICERO {Madrid). M -CICERO- AN -LXilll. this year that the Sicilians, remembering the conscientiousness and unselfishness he had displayed in his qusestorship, begged him to lead the prosecution against Vei-res. For three years this man had, in the most infamous manner, ill-treated and plundered the province. Cicero had to contend with all kinds of hindrances thrown in his way 134 CICERO. by the aristocratic friends of Verres. By the Dlvinatio in Ccucilium he had to make good his claims to prosecute against those of Csecilius Niger. The defence was led by the most famous orator of the day, Horten- sius. But Cicero managed to collect such a mass of evidence, and to marshal it with such ability, that after the actio prima, or first hearing, Verres found it advisable to retire into voluntary exile. The unused material Cicero worked up into an actio se- cunda in five speeches. The whole proceed- ing made him so popular that, spoiled as the multitude was, no one complained of his economical expenditure on the games during his sedileship. He was unanimously elected prsetor in 67 B.C. In this office he made his first political speech in 66, successfully defending the proposal of the tribune Manilius to give Pompeius the command in the Mithridatic war, with unprecedented and almost absolute power. In 64 B.C. he came forward as candidate for the consulship, and was successful, in spite of the efforts of his enemies. He owed his success to the support of the nobility, who had hitherto regarded him, as a homo novus, with disfavour, but had come to re- cognise him as a champion of the party of order. He obtained the office, as he had the rest, suo anno, that is in the first year in which his candidature was legally possible. The danger with which Catiline's agitation was threatening the State, determined Cicero to offer a vigorous opposition to everything likely to disturb public order. With this view he delivered three speeches, in which he frustrated the agrarian proposals of the tribune Servilius Rullus. He also led the defence of the aged Rablrius, whom the leaders of the democratic party, to excite the people against the senate, had prosecuted for the murder of Saturninus thirty-six years before. To avoid the danger and excitement of a fresh consular election for 62, he undertook the defence of the consul designdtus L. Murena, on the charge of bribery ; and this, although the accusers of Murena numbered among them Cicero's best friends, and, indeed, rested their case upon the very law by which Cicero had himself proposed to increase the penalties for bribery. The conspiracy of Catiline gave Cicero an opportunity of displaying in the most brilliant light his acuteness, his energy, his patriotism, and even his power as an orator. He discovered the conspiracy, and helped largely to suppress it by the execution of the chief conspirators, who had remained behind in Rome. Cicero's consulship marks the climax of his career. He received, it is true, the honourable title of pater patriae ; but, a few weeks later, he had a clear warning of what he had to expect from the opposite party in the way of reward for his services. When laying down his office he was about to make a speech, giving an account of his administration. The tribune Metellus Nepos interrupted him, and insisted on his confining himself to the oath usual on the occasion. In the following year he had opportunities for displaying his eloquence in the defence of P. Cornelius Sulla and the poet Archias. But he was often attacked, and had, in particular, to meet a new danger in the hostility of Clodius Pulcher, whose mortal hatred only too soon hit upon a chance of sating itself. Cicero would not accede to the plans of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus, but offered them a strenuous re- sistance. He deceived himself as to his own political importance, and refused to quit the city except under compulsion. The triumvirs accordingly abandoned him to the vengeance of Clodius. Clodius was elected tribune of the plehs in 58 B.C., and at once proposed that any person should be made an outlaw, who should have put Roman citizens to death without trial. Cicero met the charge by retiring into voluntary exile early in April, 58. He went to Thessa- lonica and Macedonia, where he found a safe retreat at the house of the quaestor Plancius. The sentence was, however, pro- nounced against him ; his house on the Palatine was burnt down, his country houses plundered and destroyed, and even his family maltreated. It is true that, as early as the next year, he was recalled with every mark of distinction, and welcomed in triumph by the people on his entrance into Rome at the beginning of September. But his political activity was crippled by the power of the triumvirs. His fear of Clodius forced him to comply Avith their commands as a means of keeping in their good graces. But all this only stimulated him to show greater energy as an orator. His chief efforts were put forth in defending his friends, when prosecuted by political an- tagonists, as, for instance, Publius Sestius in 56 B.C., Gnaeus Plancius in 54, Titus Annius Milo in 52. His defence of the latter, accused of the murder of Clodius, was unsuccessful. It was at this period thnt he began to apply himself to literature. CICERO. 135 In 53 B.C. he was elected augur ; from July, 51, to July, 50, he administered the province of Cilicia as proconsul. In this capacity, his clemency, uprightness and unselfishness won for him the greatest respect. For his conduct in a campaign against the robber tribes of Mount Amanus he was honoured by the title of Imperdtor, a public thanks- giving, and the prospect of a triumph. He landed in Italy towards the end of November, B.C. 50, and found that a breach between Pompey and Csesar was inevitable. The civil war broke out in the next year, and, after long hesitation, Cicero finally decided for Pompey, and followed him to Greece. But after the battle of Pharsalas, in which ill-health prevented him from taking a part, he deserted his friends, and crossed to Brundisium. Here he had to wait a whole year before Csesar pardoned him, and gave him leave to return to Rome. Csesar treated him with distinction and kindness, but Cicero kept aloof from public life. Nothing short of the calls of friend- ship could induce him to appear in the courts, as he did for Marcellus, Ligarius, and Deiotarvis. The calamities of his country ; his separation from his wife Terentia, in 46 B.C., after a married life of thirty-three years ; his hasty union with the young and wealthy Publilia, so soon to be dissolved ; the unhappy marriage and death of his favourite daughter TuUia ; all this was a heavy affliction for him. He found some consolation in studying philo- sophy, and applying himself with energy to literary work. The murder of Csesar on March 15th, 44 B.C., roused him from his retirement, though he had taken no actual part in the deed. His patriotism excited him once more to take an active part in public life, and his first aim was to effect a reconciliation of parties. He succeeded so far as to secure the passing of a general amnesty. But it was not long before the intrigues and the hostility of the Caesarian party forced him again to leave Rome. He was on his way to Greece, when, at the end of August, he was re- called, by false rumours, to the Capitol. In a moment of deep irritation against Antonius, he delivered, on the 2nd of Sep- tember, the first of his fourteen Philippic orations, so called after those of Demos- thenes. The second Philippic was never spoken, but published as a pamphlet ; the last was delivered on the 21st April, B.C. 43. On the retirement of Antonius from Rome, Cicero found himself again playing a promi- nent part in politics. All the efforts of his party to bring about a restoration of the ancient republican freedom centred in him. But,when Octavianus disappointed the hopes which he had excited, and attached him- self to Antonius and Lepidus in the second triumvirate, Cicero, now the chief man in the senate, was declared an outlaw. In- tending to fly to Macedonia, as he had done fifteen years before, he was overtaken by his pursuers near Caieta, and put to death on September 7th, 43 B.C., shortly before he had completed his sixty-fourth year. His head and right hand were exposed on the rostra by Antonius. The literary labours of Cicero signalize an important advance in the development of Latin literature. It is not only that he is to be regarded as the creator of classical Latin prose. He was also the first writer who broke ground, to any great extent, in fields of literature which, before him, had remained almost untouched. He had in- sight enough to perceive that his vocation lay in the career of an orator. His industry, throughout his whole life, was untiring ; he was never blinded by success; to educate himself, and perfect himself in his art, was the object which he never lost sight of. His speeches, accordingly, give brilliant testimony to his combination of genius with industry. Besides the fifty-seven speeches which survive in a more or less complete shape, and the most important of which have been mentioned above, we have about twenty fragments of others, and the titles of thirty-five more. Cicero was justified in boasting that no orator had written so many speeches, and in such different styles, as himself [Orator^ c. 29, 30]. These orations were partly political, partly forensic ; the latter being mostly on the side of the de- fence. Cicero was also the author of pane- gyrics, as that, for instance, upon Cato. With few exceptions, as the second actio against Verres, the Pro Mllone, and the panegyrics, they were actually delivered, and published afterwards. Extending over thirty-eight years, they give an excellent idea of Cicero's steady progress in the mastery of his art. They are of unequal merit, but everywhere one feels the touch of the born and cultivated orator. A wealth of ideas and of wit, ready acuteness, the power of making an obscure subject clear and a dry subject interesting, mastery of pathos, a tendency to luxuriance of lan- guage, generally tempered by good taste to the right measure, an unsurpassed tact in 136 CICERO. the use of Latin idiom and expression, a wonderful feeling for the rhythm and struc- ture of prose writing: these are Cicero's characteristics. With all the faults which his contemporaries and later critics had to find with his speeches, Cicero never lost his position as the most classical represen- tative of Latin oratory, and he was judged the equal, or nearly the equal, of Demos- thenes. The knowledge which he had acquired in his practice as a speaker he turned to account in his writings on Rhetoric. In these he set forth the technical rules of the Greek writers, applying to them the results of his own experience, and his sense of the requirements of Latin oratory. Besides the two books entitled Rhetdrlca or De Inven- tiOne, a boyish essay devoid of all origina- lity, the most important of his works on this subject are : (1) The De Orator e, a treatise in three books, written 55 B.C. This work, the form and contents of which are alike striking, is written in the style of a dialogue. Its subject is the training neces- sary for an orator, the proper handling of his theme, the right style, and manner of delivery. (2) The Brutus, or De Claris Ordtoi'tbus, written in B.C. 46 ; a history of Latin oratory from the earliest period down to Cicero's own time. (3) The Orator, a sketch of the ideal orator, written in the same year as the Brutus. Cicero also devoted a large number of books to Greek philosophy, a subject which he was concerned to render accessible to his countrymen. His writings in this line lack depth and thoroughness ; but it must be said at the same time that he has the great merit of being the first Latin writer who treated these questions with taste and in an intelligible form, and who created a philosophical language in Latin. The frame- work which he adopts is usually that of the Aristotelian dialogue, though he does not always consistently adhere to it. It was not until after his fiftieth year that he began to write on philosophy, and in the years B.C. 45 and 44, when almost entirely excluded from politics, he developed an extraordinary activity in this direction. The following philosophical works survive, either in whole or in part : (1) Fragments, amounting to about one-third of the work, of the six books, De Re Puhllcd, written B.C. 54-51. (2) Three books of an unfinished treatise, De Leglbus, wiitten about 52. (3) Pdrddoxa StdicDrum, a short treatment of six Stoical texts, B.C. 46. (4) Five books on the greatest good and the greatest evil {De Flnihus BonOrum et Mdlonim), B.C. 45. This is the best of his philoso- phical works. (5) The second book of the first edition, and the first book of the second edition, of the Acddemica, B.C. 45. (6) The five books of the Tusculan Disputations, B.C. 44. In the same year appeared (7) the De Ndturd Dedrum, in three, and (8) the De DlvlndtionS, in two books. (9) A fragment on the Stoical doctrine of Fate. (10) The Cato Maior, or De SSnectutS. (11) Lcellus, or De Amlcitid. (12) De Gfftcils, or On Ethics, in three books. Besides these, a whole series of philoso- phical and other prose writings by Cicero are known to us only in fragments, or by their titles. The multifarious nature of Cicero's occu- pation as a statesman and an orator did not hinder him from keeping up a volu- minous correspondence, from which 864 letters (including 90 addressed to Cicero) are preserved in four collections. These letters form an inexhaustible store of infor- mation, bearing upon Cicero's own life as well as upon contemporary history in all its aspects. We have (1) The Epistulce ad Fdmilidres, in sixteen books, B.C. 63—43; (2) The Epistula; ad Atticum, in sixteen books, B.C. 68-43 ; (3) Three books of letters to his brother Quintus; (4) Two books of correspondence between Cicero and Brutus after the death of Caesar, the genuineness of which is [rightly] disputed. Cicero also made some attempts to write poetry, in his youth for practice, in his later life mainly from vanity. His youth- ful effort was a translation of Aratus, of which some fragments remain. After 63 B.C. he celebrated his own consulship in three books of verses. [He is a consider- able metrist, but not a real poet.] (2) Quintus Tullius Cicero, the younger brother of Marcus, was born in B.C. 102. He was praetor in 62, and legdtus to Caesar in Gaul and Britain from 54-52 B.C. In the civil "War he took the side of Pompey, but was pardoned by Caesar. In 43 he was made an outlaw, at the same time as his brother, and in 42 was murdered in Rome. Like Marcus, he was a gifted man, and not unknown in literature, especially as a writer of history and poetry. In 54 B.C., for example, when engaged in the Gallic campaign, he wrote four tragedies in six- teen days, probably after Greek models. We have four letters of his, besides a short paper addressed to his brother in 64 B.C., CINCIUS ALIMENTUS CIRCUS. 137 on the line to be taken in canvassing for the consulship. Cincius Alimentus. See Annalists. Cinctus Gabinus. See Toga. Cin^ras (Kinyrds). Supposed, in the Greek mythology, to have been king of Cyprus, the oldest priest of AphrSdite in Paphos, the founder of that city, and the ancestor of the priestly family of the Ciny- radce. His wealth and long life, bestowed upon him by Aphrodite, were proverbial ; and from Apollo, who was said to be his father, he received the gift of song. He was accounted the founder of the ancient hymns sung at the services of the Paphian Aphrodite and of Adonis. Consequently he was reckoned among the oldest singers and musicians, his name, indeed, being Phoenician, derived from kinnoi\ a harp. The story added that he was the father of Adonis by his own daughter Myrrlia, and that, when made aware of the sin, he took away his own life. Cippus. The Latin name for a sepulchral monument. The form of the cippus was sometimes that of a pedestal with several divisions, supporting an upright cone, eithei* * CIPPUS WITH PHALES^. (Olten : Ann. d'Inst. 1860 tav. E, 4.) pointed at the end, or entirely cylindrical ; sometimes that of a cube with several pro- jections on its surface. {See cut here, and also under Signum.) Circe {Kirke) (a figure in Greek mytho- logy). A celebrated magician, daughter of the Sun (Helios) and the Ocean nymph Perseis, sister of ^etes and Pasiphae. She dwelt on the island of ^Esea. For her meet- ing with Odysseus and the son she bore him, Telegonus, see Odysseus. Circus, Games of {Ludi Circenses). The name of Circus was given at Rome par excellence to the Circus Maxivius. This was a recreation ground laid out by king Tarqulnlus Prisons in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine hills, south of the Capitol. Its centre was marked by the altar of Census. A second circus, called the Circus Mdmlrvtus, was built by the censor C. Plaminius on the Campus Martins in 220 B.C. Several more were built during the imperial period, some of which can still be recognised in their ruined state. Such ■ A, Carceres ; B B, MetcB. (1) FLAN OF CIRCUS OF MAXENTIU3. (On the Via Appia, near Rome.) is the Circus of Maxentius, erroneously called Circo di Caracalla (fig. 1). Similar racecourses existed in many other cities of the empire, e.g., that still remaining amid the ruins of the town of Bovillse. The length of the Circus Maxivius, as enlarged by Csesar, was some 1,800 feet, its breadth some 350. The seats, which rose in a series of terraces, rested on a substructure consisting of three stories of arched vaults. The lower seats were of stone, the upper of wood. Round the out- side of the circus ran a building, containing booths and seats, as well as the entrances 138 CIRCUS. to the seats, the number of which amounted, in Csesar's time, to 150,000, and in the 4th century, after the building had been repeatedly' enlarged, to 385,000. The podium^ or lowest row of seats running immediately above the race-course, was pro- tected from the wild animals by a railing and a trench (euripus) ten feet in width and depth. This trench was, however, filled up at the command of Nero. The end of the circus, at which were the gate of entrance and the partitions in which the chariots stood, was flanked by two towers (oppida) occupied by bands of music. Between these was the loggia of the pre- siding magistrate. The opposite end of the building was semicircular, and had a gate called the porta triiimphdlls, which seems to have been used only on extra- ordinary occasions. The senators and equttSs had separate places allotted them, as in the theatre. The seats assigned to the common people were divided according to tribes, and the sexes were not separated. The eight or twelve openings (carceres) from which the chariots issued lay, as we have already mentioned, at both sides of the entrance, and were closed with bars They were arranged in slanting lines, so that the distance from the carceres to the starting- point was equalized for all. The starting- point was marked by three conical pillars (metce), standing on a substructure. Three other similar meta;, corresponding to them, stood at the other or semicircular end of the circus. Between the two points where the metce stood was built a low wall {spina), extending through the whole length of the course. On this there used to stand the mast of a ship, which, after Augustus' time, gave place to an obelisk. The spina was adorned with pillars, little shrines, and statues of the gods, especially of Victory. A second and loftier obelisk was added by Constantine. The obelisk of Augustus now stands in the Piazza del Popolo, that of Constantine on the square in front of the Lateran. There was also an elevated substructure, supporting seven sculptured dolphins spouting water, and a pedestal with seven egg-shaped objects upon it, the use of which will be explained below. The games were generally opened by a solemn procession from the Capitol through the forum to the circus, and through the whole length of the circus round the spina. At the head of the procession came the giver of the games, sitting on a car of triumph in triumphal costume. He was followed by the images of the gods borne on litters or carriages, and escorted by the collegia and priestly corporations. In the imperial age the procession included the images of the deceased emperors and empresses, to whom divine honours were paid. The procession moved through the entrance, while the crowd rose up, cheered, and clapped their hands. The president dropped a white handkerchief into the arena, and the race began. Four, some- times as many as six, chai'iots drove out from behind the barriers at the right hand of the spina. Then they rushed along the spina as far as the further posts, rounded these, and drove back down the left side to the starting-posts. They made the circuit seven times, and finally drove off the course through the barriers on the left of the spina. Seven circuits constituted one heat, or missus. A chalk line was drawn across the ground near the entrance, and the victory was adjudged to the driver who first crossed it. During the republican period the number of missUs or heats amounted to ten or twelve, and after the time of Caligula to twenty-four, taking up the whole day. To keep the spectators constantly in- formed how many of the seven heats had been run, one of the egg-shaped signals, mentioned above, was taken down after each heat, and probably also one of the dolphins was turned round. The chariots had two wheels, were very small and light, and were open behind. The team usually con- sisted either of two (blgoi) or of four horses (quadrlgce). In the latter case the two middle horses only were yoked together. The driver (aurlga or agitator, fig. 2) stood in his chariot, dressed in a sleeveless tunic strapped round the upper part of his body, a helmet-shaped cap on his head, a whip in his hand, and a knife with a semi-circular blade in his girdle, to cut the reins with in case of need, for the reins were usually attached to his girdle. The main danger lay in turning round the pillars. To come into collision with them was fatal, not only to the driver himself, but to the driver immediately behind him. The chariots, and probably also the tunics and equipments of the drivers, were decked with the colours of the different factions, as they were called. Of these there were originally only two, the White and the Red. At the beginning of the imperial period we hear of two more, the Green and the Blue. Two more. Gold and Purple, were introduced by CIRIS CITHARA. 139 Domitian, but probably dropped out of use after his death. Towards the end of the 3rd century A.D. the White faction joined with the Green, and the Red with the Blue. Accordingly in the late Roman and Byzan- tine period we generally hear only of Blue and Green. It was the party feeling thus engendered which was the mainspring of the passionate interest, often amounting almost to madness, which the people took in the games of the circus. -^^ru-. (2) * VICTORIOUS AURIGA. (Sola della higa, Vatican.) The necessary attendants, the horses, and the general equipment of the games were provided, at the cost of the giver, by special companies, witli one or more directors at their head. These companies were dis- tinguished by adopting the diiFerent colours of the factions. The drivers were mostly slaves, or persons of low position. The calling was looked down upon ; but at the same time a driver of exceptional skill would be extraordinarily popular. The vic- tors, besides their palms and crowns, often received considerable sums of money ; and thus it would often happen that a driver would rise to the position of a contractor, or become director of a company of con- tractors. Numerous monuments survive to commemorate their victories. Sometimes, indeed, a celebrated horse would have a monument put up to him. A contest of riders, each with two horses, was often added to the chariot - races. These riders were called desultores, because they jumped from one horse to another while going at full gallop. The circus was also used for boxing-matches, wrestling- matches, and foot-racing; but during the imperial period separate buildings were usually appropriated to these amusements. Gladiatorial contests, and wild-beast hunts, were originally held in the circus, even after the building of the amphitheatre. Besides these games, the circus was sometimes used for military reviews. The cavalry manoeuvres, for instance, of the six divisions of the knights (ludi sCvirOlSs), with their six leaders (sevtri), and an imperial prince as princeps iuventutis at their head, would occasionally be held there. Under the emperors of the Julian dynasty a favourite pastime was the Troia or ludus Troice. This consisted in a number of manoeuvres performed by boys belonging to senatorial and other respect- able families. They rode on horseback in light armour in separate divisions, and were practised for the purpose by special trainers. Ciris. See Nisus. Cisium. See Chariots. Cithara {Kithdra). A stringed instru- ment, invented (so the fable ran) by Apollo. The cithara was played on occasions of ceremony, such as public games and pro- cessions : the lyra, a smaller instrument (1), (2) and (4) ITuseo Borhonico, XIII xl, X vi, XII xxiv. (3) Welcker, DenUm. Ill 31., and easier to hold, was more commonly used in ordinary life. The cithara consisted of a sounding board, which extended into two arms or side-pieces. The sounding-board, 140 CI VITAS CLAUDIANUS. made of thin pieces of wood, plates of metal, or ivory, was generally of a quadrangular, but sometimes of an oval shape ; and was deeply vaulted at the back. The arms, which were broad were hollow, like the sounding-board. As the instrument was rather heavy, and the player had to stand while performing on it, it was generally provided with straps for supporting it, so as to leave the player's hands free. The phoi'tninx, generally regarded as an at- tribute of Apollo, seems to have been a special variety of the cithara. It is gener- ally spoken of as " shrill-toned." Different forms of the cithara are given in the en- graving. (For further details, and for the manner of playing on the cithara, nee Lyra ) Civitas. The technical Latin word for the right of citizenship. This was origin- ally possessed, at Rome, by the patricians only. The plebeians were not admitted to share it at all until the time of Servius Tullius, and not to full civic rights until B.C. 337. In its fullest comprehension the civitas included: (1) the iUs suffrdgit, or right of voting for magistrates ; (2) the ius hdnOriim, or right of being elected to a magistracy; (3) the ius prov6cCdlonis or right of appeal to the people, and in later times to the emperor, against the sentences passed by magistrates affecting life or property ; (4) the ius cOnuMi, or right to contract a legal marriage ; (5) the ius commerctl, or right to hold property in the Roman commiinity. The civitas was ob- tained either by birth from Roman parents, or by manumission (see Manumissio), or by presentation. The right of presentation belonged originally to the kings, afterwards to the popular assemblies, and particularly to the c6niWla tributa, and last of all to the emperors. The civitas could be lost by deminutio cc'qM1,s {see Deminutio Capitis). The aeranZ, so called, had an imperfect civitas, without the ius suffragii and ius honoriim. Outside the circle of the civitas stood the slaves and the foreigners or pSrPgrlnl {see Peregrini). The latter included: (1) strangers who stood in no international relations with Rome ; (2) the allies, or s6cU, among whom the Ldtinl held a privileged place {see Latini) ; (3) the dSdltlctl, or those who belonged to nations conquered in war. Though the Roman citizenship was con- ferred upon all the free inhabitants of the empire in 212 a.d. by the emperor Caracalla, the grades of it were not all equalized, nor was it until the time of Justinian that civitas and libertas became convertible terms. Classiarii or classidl {irova. classis, a fleet). The crews of the Roman fleet. In the republican age the rowers {reirilgcs) were slaves, and the sailors {nautce) were partly contributed by the allies {sdctl ndvdles), partly levied from among the Roman citizens of the lowest orders, the citizens of the maritime colonies, and the freedmen. Under the Empire the fleets were manned by freedmen and foreigners, who could not obtain the citizenship until after twenty-six years' service. In the general military system, the navy stood lowest in respect of pay and position. No promotion to higher posts was open to its officers, as those were monopolized by the army. In later times, a division of the marines stationed at Misenum and Ravenna was appointed to garrison duty in Rome. This division was also used in time of war in repairing the roads for the armies. In Rome the marines were employed, among other things, in stretching the awnings over the theatre. Classlcum. The signal given by the hucina or horn for the meeting of the comitia centUridta at Rome, and for the meeting of the soldiers in camp, especially before they marched out to battle. Claudianus (Claudius). A Latin poet, born at Alexandria in the second half of the 4th century a.d. In 395 a.d. he came to Rome. Here he won the favour of the powerful Vandal Stilicho, and on the proposal of the senate was honoured with a statue by the emperors Arcadius and HSnorius. The inscription on this statue is still in existence (Mommsen, Inscrip- tiones Regni Neapolitani, No. 6794). His patron Stilicho fell in 408, and Claudian, apparently, did not survive him. We have express evidence that the poet was not a Christian. He was familiar with Greek and Latin literature, and had considerable poetical gifts, including a mastery both of language and metre. These gifts raise him far above the crowd of the later Latin poets, although the effect of his writing is marred by tasteless rhetorical ornament and exaggerated flattery of great men. His political poems, in spite of their lau- datory colouring, have considerable his- torical value. Most of them are written in praise of Honorius and of Stilicho, for whom he had a veneration as sincere as was his hatred of Rufinus and EutrSpiu.^. Against the latter he launched a number of invectives. Besides the Raptus PrOserplnce, CLAUDIUS QUADRIGARIUS CLIBANUS. 141 or Rape of Proserpine, an unfinished epic in which his descriptive power is most brilliantly displayed, his most important poems are (1) De III, IV, VI, Consulatu Honorii ; (2) De Nuptus Honorii Fes- cennlna • (3) Eplthdldmiura de Nuptiis Honorii et Marice ; (4) De Bello Gilddntco • (5) De Consulatu Stilichonis ; (6) De Bello Pollentino ; (7) Laus Serence, Serena being Stilicho's wife. He also wrote epistles in verse, a series of minor pieces, narrative and descriptive, and a Gtgantdmdchta, of which a fragment has been preserved. Claudius Cluadrigarius, See Annalists. C16anthes {Gr. Kleanthes). A Greek philo- sopher, native of Assos in Asia Minor. He was originally a boxer, and while attending at Athens the lectures of Zeno, the founder of the Stoic philosophy, ho got a livelihood at night by carrying water. He was Zeno's disciple for nineteen years, and in 260 B.C. succeeded him as head of the Stoic school. He died in his eighty-first year by voluntary starvation. A beautiful hymn to Zeus is the only one of his writings that has come down to us. Clemens {TUus Flavlus) A Greek ec- clesiastical writer, born at Alexandria about 150 A.D. Originally a heathen, he gained, in the course of long travels, a wide knowledge of philosophy. Finding no satisfaction in it, he became a Christian, and about 190 A.D. was ordained priest in Alexandria, and chosen to preside over a school of cate- chumens there. The persecution under Septimius Severus having compelled him to take flight, he founded a school in Jerusalem, and came afterwards to Antioch. He died in 218 a.d. His writings contri- buting as they do to our knowledge of ancient philosophy, have an important place, not only in Christian, but also in profane literature. This is especially true of the eight books called Stromdtd ; a title which properly means " many coloured carpets," or writings of miscellaneous contents. Cle5m6nes (Kleomenes). An Athenian sculptor, who probably flourished in the Augustan age. The celebrated Venus di Medici, now at Florence, is his work. [He is described on the pedestal as son of Apollodorus. The Germdmcus of the Louvre was the work of his son, who bore the same name.] Ci§6patra {Kleopdtra) (in Greek mytho- logy). (1) Daughter of Boreas and Orithyia, and wife of Phineus. {Sec Phineus.) (2) Daughter of Idas, and wife of Meleager. (See Meleager.) Clepsj^dra (Klepsydra). A water-clock, or earthenware vessel filled with a certain measure of water, and having a hole in the bottom of a size to ensure the water running away within a definite space of time. Such water-clocks were used in the Athenian law courts, to mark the time allotted to the speakers. They were first introduced in Rome in 159 B.C., and used in the courts there in the same way. In the field they were used to mark the night-watches. The invention of the best kind of water-clock was attributed to Plato. In this the hours were marked by the height of the water flowing regularly into a vessel. This was done in one of two ways. (1) A dial was placed above the vessel, the hand of which was connected by a wire with a cork floating on the top of the water. (2) The vessel was transparent, and had vertical lines drawn upon it, indicating certain typical days in the four seasons or in the twelve months. These lines were divided into twelve sections, corresponding to the posi- tion which the water was experimentally found to take at each of the twelve hours of night or day on each of these typical days. It must be remembered that the ancients always divided the night and day into twelve equal hours each, which in- volved a variation in the length of the hours corresponding to the varying length of the day and night. Cleruchia (Gr. KleroucMa). A kind of Greek colony, which diff'ered from the ordi- nary colonial settlement in the fact that the settlers remained in close connection with their mother-city. The Athenian cleruchice are the only ones of which we have any detailed knowledge. A conquered territory was divided into lots of land, which were assigned to the poorer citizens as clerUchl, or " holders of lots." The original inhabi- tants would be differently treated according to circumstances. In many cases they were compelled to emigrate : sometimes the men were killed, and the women and children enslaved ; but ordinarily the old inhabitants would become the tenants of the settlers, and take, generally, a less privileged posi- tion. The settlers formed a separate com- munity, elected their own officials, and managed their local affairs ; but they con- tinued to be Athenian citizens, with all the rights and duties of their position. They remained under the authority of Athens, and had to repair to the Athenian courts for justice in all important matters. Ciibintis (Gr. Kllbdnos). See Bakers. 142 CLIENTES CLOACA . Cllentes. This was the name for such inhabitants of Rome as had lost, or given up, the citizenship of their own cities, and had settled in Roman territory. Here, having no legal rights, they were compelled, in order to secure their personal freedom, to seek the protection of some Roman citizen, a term which, in ancient times, could only mean a patrician. The relation thus set on foot was called dientela, and was inherited by the descendants of both parties. Accord- ingly the client entered into the family of his patron {patronus), took his gentile name, and was admitted to take part in the family sacrifices. The patron made over to liim a piece of land as a means of support, protected him from violence, represented him at law, and buried him after his death. The client, on his part, accompanied his patron abroad and on military service, gave his advice in legal and domestic matters, and made a contribution from his property if his patron were endowing a daughter, or had to be ransomed in war, or to pay a fine. The relation between patron and client is also illustrated by the fact that neither party could bring an action against the other in a court of law, or bear witness against him, or vote against him, or appear against him as advocate. A man's duty to his client was more binding than his duty to his blood relations ; and any violation of it was regarded as a capital oftence. When Servius Tullius extended the rights •of citizenship to the clients as well as to the plebeians, the bond between patron and client still continued in force, although it gradually relaxed with the course of time. At the end of the republic age, the status of client, in the proper sense of the word, had ceased to exist. Under the Empire the clientSla was a mere external relation between the rich and the poor, the great and the obscure. It involved no moral obligation on either side, but was based merely on the vanity of the one party, and the necessity of the other. It was no unusual thing to find people who had no settled means of subsistence trying, by tiattery and servile behaviour, to win the favour of the great. Even philosophers and poets, like Statins and Martial, are found in this position. The client performs certain services, calls on his patron in the morning, accompanies him on public occa- sions, and is in turn invited to his table, receives presents from him, and (if he can get it) a settled provision. Instead of inviting their numerous clients, the rich would often present them with a small sum of money called sportfda. The relation was entirely a free one, and could be dissolved at pleasure by either party. In the republican age whole communities, and even provinces, when they had sub- mitted to the Roman yoke, would sometimes become clients of a single patronus. In this case the patronus would usually be the conquering general. Marcellus, for instance, the conqueror of Syracuse, and his descendants, were patrons of Sicily. The practical advantages which were secured to a foreign community by this permanent representation at Rome are obvious. Ac- cordingly we find that, under the Empire, even cities which stood to Rome in no relation of dependence, such as colonies and municlpta, sometimes selected a patronus. The patronus was, in such cases, always chosen from among the senators or Squites. Cline (Gr. Kline). See Meals. Clio (Gr. Kleid). See Muses. Cllp6us. See Shield. Clitarchus (Gr. Kleitarchos). A Greek historian, son of the historian Dinon. He flourished about 300 B.C., and was the author of a great work, in at least twelve books, upon Alexander the Great. He was no- toriously untrustworthy, and inclined to believe in the marvellous ; his style was turgid and highly rhetorical ; but his narrative was so interesting that he was the most popular of all the writers on Alexander. The Romans were very fond of his book, which was indeed the main authority for the narratives of Diodorus, Trogus Pompeius, and Curtius. A number of fragments of it still survive. Clitus {Kleltos) (in Greek mythology). Son of Man tins, and grandson of Melampus : loved and carried off by Eos. See Eos. C16aca. A vaulted subterranean channel for carrying off drainage of every kind. As early as the 6th century B.C. Rome had an extensive system of sewers for draining the marshy ground lying between the hills of the city. By this the sewage was carried into a main drain {Cloaca Maxima) which emptied itself into the Tiber. Part of this sewer, in length quite 1,020 feet, is still in existence, and after a lapse of 2,500 years, goes on fulfilling its original purpose. The sewer, which is nearly twenty feet wide, is covered by a vaulted roof of massive squares of tufa, in which an arch of tra- vertine is inserted at intervals of 12 feet 2 inches. The original height was 10 feet 8 inches, but has been reduced to 6 feet CLOCKS CLOTHING. 143 6 inclies by the accumulation of filth and riibbish. The drainage system of Rome was considerably extended, especially by Agrippa in the Augustan age. The duty of keeping the sewers of Rome in repair fell originally to the censors. Dur- ing the imperial age it was transferred to a special board, the curatores cloacarum. Citizens who wished to establish a con- nexion between their property and the city drains had to pay a special tax to the State, called cloacdrtum. Clocks were known to the ancients only under the form of sun-dials (see Gxomon) and water-clocks {see Clepsydra). Clothing. The dresses of the Greeks and Romans consisted of under garments or shirts, and upper garments or mantles. The Greek chiton and the Latin tunica, common to both men and women, belong to the first class ; so does the stola of the Roman matron, worn over the tunica. The himd- tton was an upper garment, worn in Greece both by men and women. The Greek chldmjjs and trlhon and peplos were upper garments, the chlamys and tribon confined to men, and the peplos to women. The upper dress worn in public life by a Roman citizen was the toga; thejjaZZa was peculiar to married ladies. There were other dresses of the same kind commonly in use among the Romans, for instance the Idcerna, loina, poenula, and synthesis : the sdgum and pdluddmentum were confined to military service. (See, for further details, the articles on the words in question.) Trousers (Latin hrdcce, Greek anaxy rides) were only known as worn by the Orientals and by the barbarians of the North. Among the Romans no one wore them but the soldiers stationed in the northern districts. In woi-ks of art, accordingly, trousers and the long-sleeved chiton are an indication of barbarian costume. The custom of wrapping up the calf and thigh as a protection against the cold was deemed excusable in sickly and elderly people, but was thought effemi- nate in others. The wool of the sheep was at all times the staple material for cloth stuffs. Linen, though known to the Greeks of the Homeric age, was worn chiefly by the lonians, and less so by the inhabitants of Greece Proper. Among the Romans, the use of linen was mostly confined to the girdle, though common among the Italian tribes. Both sexes wore a linen girdle (subligdculum) and women a linen breast- band. Women were the first to exchange wool for linen, and this durins" the re- publican age. Linen garments for men do not appear until later, when the fine Egyptian and Spanish linen-stuffs became a special article of luxury. The toga was always made of wool. Cotton-stutfs, too, were known to the ancients, as well as the serica, a material made wholly or partly of silk; but these were not commonly used until the imperial times (see Weaving), Country folk in Greece, and especially shepherds, clothe themselves in the skins of animals. Pelisses, apparently, did not come into fashion until the Empire. The colour of dresses among the Greeks and Romans was mostly, but by no means exclusively, white. For practical reasons the working classes used to wear stuffs of dark colour, either natural or artificial. Dark clothes were worn among the upper classes in Rome only in time of mourning, or by a person accused before the courts of law. Coloured dresses were put on by men in Greece mainly on festal occasions, and by the Romans not at all. Gay-coloured materials were at all times worn by Greek ladies, and often, too, by Roman ladies as early as the 1st century B.C. Strong colours do not appear to have been liked by the ancients. They were familiar with stripes, plaids, and other patterns, as well as with ornaments of needlework and all kinds of embroidery. With regard to the fitting of dresses, it should be observed that it was mostly the custom to weave them according to measure, and there was there- fore no necessity, as in modern times, for artistic cutting. The art of sewing was quite subordinate, and confined mostly to stitching leaves together for garlands; though sleeved garments, no doubt, required rather more care. Hence the fact that there was no such thing in antiquity as a separate tailoring trade. The necessary sewing was done by the ladies of the house, or by their slaves, and sometimes by the fullers, whose business it was to measure the pieces of cloth, to sell ready-made garments, and to clean clothes. {See Fullers.) Shoes. The Greeks usually went bare- foot, except when out of the house; but they did not think it necessary to wear shoes, even in the street. On entering a house, whether one's own or not, it was customary to uncover the feet. The simplest form of covering for the feet was a sole fastened by straps {hypodema.) This is to be distinguished from the sandal {sanddlon, sanddlton), which was worn originally by men and afterwards by women. 144 CLOTHO COEMPTIO. This was a more complicated set of straps, reaching as far as over the ankle, where they were fastened. They sometimes had leather added at the sides and heel, so as to resemble a shoe. Close shoes of various kinds, fastened over the foot, were also worn by men and women. There were, besides, several kinds of boots, among which may be mentioned the endrdmls and cdthumus (see Endromis, Cothurnus). Among the Romans, men and women when at home, and generally in private life, wore a sandal (sdlea), which was only taken off at meals ; but a respectable Roman would hardly show himself bare- footed out of doors. With the toga went the shoe called calcSus, of which there were differents kinds, varying according to rank (see Calceus). Ladies usually, when out of doors, wore shoes of white or coloured leather, which formed an impor- tant part of their toilette, especially under the Empire, when the sexes rivalled each other in the splendour of their shoes, the men appearing in white and red leather, the emperor and great personages wearing shoes adorned with gold and even with jewels. Among the Romans generally, a great variety of shoes was in use, many of them borrowed from other countries (see Crepida, Soccus). Wooden shoes {sculpo- nSce) were worn by slaves and peasants. For the military boot in use under the Empire, see Caliga. Coverings for the head. The upper classes in Greece and Italy generally went bareheaded. It was only when long in the open air, as on journeys, or while hunt- ing, or in the theatre, that they used the caps and hats worn by artisans, country folk, and fishermen (see Petasus, Pilleus, Causia). In Rome, for protection against sun and storm, they adopted from the nor- thern countries the cuctdlus or cucuUlO, a hood fastened to the pcenula or lacerna. The head was often protected, in the case both of men and women, by drawing the top of the garment over the head. Besides kerchiefs and caps, women also wore veils, which in some cases, as at Thebes (and as now in the East), covered the face as far as the eyes. Roman ladies would seldom appear in the street uncovered. A common covering was the riclnium, which also served as a wrapper. This was, in later times, only worn at religious ceremonials. It was a square cloth fastened to the head, which ladies folded round them, throwing it over the left arm and left shoulder. For protection against the sun ladies carried umbrellas (Gr. skiadeion, Lat. umbrdcu- hmi, umbella), or made their servants carry them. Fans (Gr. rhlpds, Lat. fldbellum) were likewise in common use. These were made of gaily-painted bits of wood, and the feathers of peacocks or other birds, and were generally in the shape of leaves. Ornaments. Rings were in fashion both among men and women. The only other metal ornaments which men would have any opportunity for wearing in ordinary life were the clasps or brooches (fibulce) used for fastening dresses or girdles. These were of bronze, silver, or gold, and often adorned with costly jewels. Besides rings and clasps, women wore needles in their hair, and ear-rings, necklaces, and bracelets on their wrists and arms, sometimes even on their ankles. Tlie trinkets that have been pi'eserved from antiquity exhibit the greatest conceivable variety of form. One of the commonest forms for a bracelet is that of a snake, surrounding the arm once, or in several spirals. An equal variety is observable in the ornamentations of pearls, precious stones, and the like. Clotho (Gr. RlothO). See Mcer^. ClJ-mSne (Gr. KlymSnS) (in Greek myth- ology). (1) Daughter of Catreus, wife of Nauplius, and mother of PS.l&medes. (See Nauplius.) (2) Daughter of OcSSnus, and mother of PhSethon by HeliSs. (See Phaethon.) Clj^taBmnestra (Gr. Klytaimntstra; more correctly Klytaimestra). Daughter of Tyn- dareus, and wife of Agamemnon. With the aid of her lover, iEgisthus, she mur- dered her husband, and was, in turn, put to death by her son, Orestes. [See Aga- memnon, ^GisTHUS, and Orestes.) Cl^tia (Klytia). In Greek mythology an ocean nymph, beloved by the Sun-god, who deserted her. She was changed into the heliotrope, a flower which is supposed always to turn its head in the direction of the sun's movement. CScSlus (Kokdlos). In Greek mytho- logy, the king of Camicus in Sicily, who gave Dsedalus a friendly welcome when flying from the pursuit of Minos. Cocalus (or his daughters, according to another account) suffocated Minos in a hot bath. Cock-fighting. See Venationes. at end. Cocytus (Gr. Kdkytds). See Hades, Realm of. Cdemptio. Properly " a joint taking," so " a joint purchase." One of the three forms of marriage among the Romans. It was so COGNATIO COINAGE. 145 called from the fiction of a purchase sup- posed to take place on the occasion. In the presence of five witnesses and a libripens, or holder of the balance, the bridegroom struck the balance with a bronze coin, which he handed to the father or guardian of the bride. At the same time he asked her whether she would be his wife, and she, in turn, asked him whether he would be her husband, Cognatio. TheLatin word for relation- ship. Cognatio included relationship on both the father's and mother's side, while clgndtio implied relationship on the father's side only {see Agnatic). Agnatio in- volved legal duties and rights, while cog- natio, originally at least, brought with it only moral obligations. Cognatl to the sixth degree had the right of kissing each other (ius osculZ), and also the right of refusing to appear as witnesses against each other in a court of law. On the other hand, cognati were forbidden by custom, at least in the earlier times, to inter-marry, or to appear in court against each other as ac- cusers. When a man died, his cognati were expected to put on mourning for him. In course of time the cognati gradually ac- quired the rights proper to agnati. . But natural relationship did not win full recog- nition until the time of Justinian, by whose legislation the rights of agnati wei"e abol- ished. Cognomen. See Names. Cohors. A division of the Roman army. In the republican age the word was specially applied to the divisions con- tributed by the Italian allies. Down to 89 B.C., when the Italians obtained the Roman citizenship, they were bound to supply an infantry contingent to each of the two consular armies, which consisted of two legions apiece. This contingent num- bered in all 10,000 infantry, divided into : (a) 20 cohortes of 420 men each, called cohortes dldres, because, in time of battle, they formed the wings (dice) of the two combined legions ; (6) four cohortes extra- ordindrice, or select cohorts of 400 men each. From about the beginning of the 1st century B.C., the Roman legion, averaging 4,000 men, was also divided into ten cohortes, each containing three mdnipUll or six centurice. In the imperial times, the auxiliary troops assigned to the legions stationed in the provinces were also divided into cohorts {cohortes auxlVidriai). These cohorts contained either 500 men ( = 5 cen- D. C. A. turice), or 1,000 men ( = 10 centurice). They consisted either entirely of infantry, or partly of cavalry (380 infantry + 120 cavalry, 760 infantry -I- 240 cavalry). For the com- manders of these cohorts, see Pr^efectus. The troops stationed in Rome were also numbered according to cohortes. (1) The cohortes pratortoe, originally nine, but afterwards ten in number, which formed the imperial body-guard. Each cohort con- sisted of 1,000 men, including infantry and cavalry {see Pr^toriani). The institu- tion of a body-guard was due to Augvistus, and was a development of the cohors prce- toria, or body-guard of the republican generals. Its title shows that it was as old as the time when the consuls bore the name of prcetores. This cohors prcetoria was originall}- formed exclusively of cavalry, mainly of equestrian rank. But towards the end of the republican age, when every independent commander had his "own cohors prcetoria, it was made up partly of infantry, who were mainly veterans, partly of picked cavalry of the allies, and partly of Roman eciuites, who usually served their tlrd- ctmum, or first year, in this way. (2) Three and in later times four, cohortes urbdnce, consisting each of 1,000 men, were placed under the command of the jjrcefectus urbi. They had separate barracks, but ranked below the body-guard, and above the legionaries. (3) Seven cohortes vtgUum, of 1,000 men each, were under the command of the pra>foctus vigilwn. These formed the night police and fire-brigade, and were distributed throughout the city, one to every two of the fourteen regiones. Coinage. (1) Greek. As late as the Homeric age, cattle, especially oxen, served as a medium of exchange, as well as a standard of price [11. xi 211, xxi 385]. We find, however, that the metals were put to the same use, their value being decided by their weight as determined by a balance. The weight, as well as the balance, was called tdlanton. [It is probable that the gold talanton of Homer weighed two drachmce, and was equivalent in value to an ox ; see Ridgeway, in Journal Hell. Studies viii 133.] The idea of giving the metal used in exchange a form corresponding to its re- quirements is no doubt an early one. The date of the introduction of a coinage in the proper sense, with an official stamp to denote its value and obviate the necessity of weighing the metal, cannot now be deter- mined. But as early as the 6th century B.C. we find a highly developed and artistic L 146 COINAGE. system of coining money in existence. The various Greek standards of value were all developed — in several gradations, it is true — from the gold and silver standard of Asia Minor. It was not until a later time that the standard of the Persian gold money was in some cities transferred to the silver coinage. The proportion of gold to silver was commonly reckoned among the Greeks as 10:1, so that a gold piece weighing 2 drachmce was = 20 silver drachmce. But in commerce the proportion assumed was 12 : 1, and this was the average generally observed in the Roman empire. The measure of weight mosit commonly current was the talent, which contained 60 mince. Like the talent, the mina was not a real coin, but a standard of measurement. The unit of coinage was the drachma, 100 drachmas being reckoned to the m.ina. The drachma, again, contained 6 obols. In an- cient times the commonly accepted standard was that of ^glna. The coins of the island of ^gina were stamped on one side with the figure of a tortoise, on the other side (1) DIDRACHMON OF iEGINA. (B.C. 700-550.) with a roughly executed incuse square. The largest silver coin was the stdter or didrachmdn (iig. 1), ( = about 2s. 2d., the iEginetan drachma being = Is. Id.). Solon abolished this standard in Attica, and in- troduced a lighter drachma equal to about 8d. The Attic talent ( = 6,000 drachmce) was thus worth about £200, the mina about £3 Qs. Sd. The silver coins of Attica bore on the front the head of Pallas, and on the Archaic head of Athene. Owl. (2) TETRADKACHMON OF ATHENS. (Time of Persian wars.) reverse the figure of an owl. The principal coin was the tetradrachmdn or 4 drachma (fig, 2), the largest (which was only issued occasionally) the dekadrachmGn or 10 drachmce. The dldrachmon (2 drachmce) was in like manner issued rarely. The tri- 6b6l6n (3 obols), the dbdlds, and the hend- dbolidn (I obol) were small silver coins ; the tStartem.6H6n {\ obol) the smallest of all. The Greek states always adopted a silver currency, gold being rarely issued. The largest gold piece was the dldrach- mon or golden stater ( = 20 silver drachmce). Besides this we find drachmas, triobols, obols, half-obols, quarter-obols, and even eighth obols in gold. The gold money most commonly current in Greece was, down to the Macedonian age, the royal Persian coin (3) DASIC. called Ddi'eikds, or Daric (fig. 3). It was stamped on one side with a crowned archer, on the other with an oblong incuse. This corresponded with the gold stater of Attica and of the cities of Asia Minor. Among these should be especially mentioned the s^a- tcr of Cyzlcus or the Cyzicenus =28 silver drachmoi. The earliest copper coin issued at Athens was the Chalkus = ^ of a silver obol (440 B.C.). In the time of Alexander the Great the silver coinage stopped at the Head of Apollo. Victorious biga. (4) GOLD STATER OF PHILIP II OF MACEDON. triobolos, and it therefore became necessary to represent the smaller fractions in copper. The silver money of Attica was in very general use, but the Attic standard was not adopted in Greece Proper. It spread westward, however, in quite early times. In the greater part of Sicily, and in Taren- tum and Etruria, the coinage was from the first regulated in accordance with the Attic standard. But the wide diffusion of this standard was mainly due to the action of Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great. The former adopted it when intro- ducing his gold coinage {Philippus, fig. 4), COINAGE. 147 the latter for his silver money (fig. 5). For even after Alexander's death this standard held its ground in the kingdoms of the Head of Heracles. Zeus. (5) TETRADRACHMON OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Macedonian empire, except in Egypt, where the Ptolemies "maintained the old coinage of the country. Macedonian influence ex- tended the Attic currency into many other states, e.g. Epirus, the coasts of the Black Sea, and even Parthia. The largest Greek gold coin is the 20-stoier piece of the Grseco-Bactrian king Eucratldes, now preserved in Paris: the largest silver coins are the 10-drachma pieces of Athens, Syracuse (fig. 6) and Alexander the Great. Hellenic coins are important as giving a grand and complete idea of the development of plastic art among the Greeks. In the Greek cities of Italy and Sicily, in par- ticxilar, the art of stamping coins had attained considerable importance as early as the 5th century B.C., and in the 4th century with its life-like characterisa- (2) Roman. As in Greece, so in Rome, oxen and sheep were originally the medium of exchange. The oldest pecuniary fines were exacted in cattle, and the Latin word for money, pScuma, is derived from peciLs. In later times unwrought copper {ces rudS) given in pieces according to weight, took the place of oxen. Bars of cast copper marked on both sides with some figure (as of an ox, pig, or fowl) are said to have been introduced by king Servius Tullius, when he took in hand the regulation of weights and measures. The first demon- strable example of a coin is from the age of the decemvirs (about 450 B.C.). The unit of coinage was the as of cast copper, carry- ing the nominal weight of the Roman pound (libra = 12 undtce, see fig. 7). The as (ces Female Head (Persephone or Aretbusa). Quadriga and armour (prizes of victory). (6) DECADEACHMON OF SYRACUSE, (about 400 B.C.) grdvS) bore the image of Janus ; the coins representing its fractions were all stamped on the reverse side with the figure of a Head of Janus. Prow of Ship. (7) ROMAN AS OF CAST COPPER. tions, and with the rich variety and noble perfection of its forms, it reached the highest degree of finish. ship's prow. These were, sSmis, with the head of Jupiter = | os or 6 unciae ; triens with the head of Minerva, ^ of an as = 148 COINAGE. uncice ; quadrans, with the head of Her- cttles, y as = 3 uncice • sextans, with the head of Mercury, i as = 2 uncice ; uncia, with the head of Roma., ^V as. As in the course of time the copper money became lighter, the smaller fractional coins were first struck, and afterwards all the fractions. This copper currency was calculated exclusively for the home trade, so that it was easily allowed to suffer a continuous depreciation, at first to 4, then to 2, after 217 B.C. to 1 ounce, after B.C. 89 to \ an ounce, and under the Empire even to \ an ounce. In 269 B.C. a silver currency was introduced, and a mint for it set up on the Capitoline Hill in the temple of Juno MSneta. The silver fractional coins struck according to the Athenian and Sicilian standard were the dSndrius, somewhat higher in value than the Roma. Castor and Pollux. (8) DENAKIUS. (9) DENARIUS OF JULIUS C^SAK. Attic drachma (about 9|rf., figs, 8 and 9) = 10 asses of 4 ounces; the qulnd,7-ius = b assSs / and the sestertius = 2\ asses. These coins were denoted by the marks X. V. and II. S. (or 2\) respectively (fig. 10). They all Boma. Castor and Pollnx. (10) SESTEUTIUS. bore, on the upper side, the head of the god- dess Roma with her winged helmet, and on the reverse the two Dioscuri on horseback. In later times Diana Victoria in her two- horse chariot, and Jupiter in his four-horse chariot, successively took the place of the Dioscuri. From the middle of the 1st century there was no fixed device for the reverse side. The sesteHius was the equiva- lent of the old heavy as, which although long disused, survived as the standard of reckoning. Payments were generally made in denarii, but the account made up in sestertii, whence the word nummus (coin) was applied par excellence to the sestertius. The reduction of the copper as to 1 uncia in 217 B.C. degraded the copper money to the position of small coin, and a silver currency drove out the copper. The denarius sank at the same time to the value of about S\d., which it maintained till the time of Nero. The denarius was reckoned as = 15 asses, the quinarius as 8, and the sestertius (about 2d.) =4. At about the same period a temporary effort was made to introduce gold coinage. .This movement was not taken up again till towards the end of the Republic, when Csesar struck a large number of gold coins (aureus) equal in weight to Jg of the Roman pound, and in value 25 denarii or 100 sestertii (nearly 23 shillings). No regular coinage was carried on in the time of the Republic, but the necessary money was minted as occasion required. This was done in Rome at the commission of the senate under the super- intendence of certain officials entrusted with the duty. A permanent board of three persons (tres vtri mdnetclles) was at last appointed for the purpose. In the provinces money was coined by the Roman generals and governors. From the time of Augustus the emperor retained the exclusive privilege of coining gold and silver money, the copper coinage being left to the senate. The standard of the imperial coinage was the aureus of Caesar, the weight of which sank (with many variations) lower and lower as time went on, till in 312 a.d. Con- stantine fixed it at yV of ^ ^^- ( = between (11) AUREUS OF MARCUS ADEELIUS. 12 and 13 shillings, fig. 11). The aureus was now called solMus, and was stamped at first with the Latin mark LXXII, after- wards with the Greek OB (=72). It con- tinued in use until the fall of the Byzantine empire. Of the silver coins of the Republic the denarius and quinarius alone held their ground under the Empire, the rest being stamped in copper. The denarius retained the value fixed 217 B.C. (about S^rf.) COLACRETvE COLONIES. 149 until the time of Nero, under whom it fell in weight and purity till its value was only sixpence. During the 2nd century it sank to 3|d., below the half of its former \alue, and the silver coinage was conse- quently changed into small money. Diocle- tian was the first to restore some order to the currency. After 292 a.d. he issued a coin {argenteiis) of pure silver, and equal in weight to the Neronian denarius. The argenteus maintained its ground till 360 A.D., when it made way for a new system of silver coinage on the standard of the gold solidus. The copper coins bore the mark S.C. (SencUus ConsuUo), because issued by the senate. Under the Empire the following small coins were minted ; the sestertius =4 asses f dupondiUs =2 asses, both of brass ; the sernis ( = | an as), and the quad- vans = j as, both of copper. These last were the smallest change. The quadrans went out of use as early as Trajan, at the beginning of the 2nd century A.D., the dupondius, as, and semis, in the middle, and the sestertius in the last half of the 3rd century, when Diocletian issued two new copper coins, one of which was called denarius. ColacrgtsB (Gr. Kolakretai). A financial board at Athens, whose duty it was to administer the fund accruing from the fines taken in the courts of justice. It was this fund from which the cost of the public meals in the Prytaneum, and the salary of the Heliastse, was defrayed. The name properly means "collectors of hams," and probably points to the fact that the hams of the victims sacrificed on certain occasions were given to the Colacretce as contribu- tions to the meals in question. Collegium. The general term in Latin for an association. The word was applied in a different sense to express the mutual rela- tion of such magistrates as were collegce. Besides the collegia of the great priest- hoods, and of the magistrates' attendants {see Apparitores), there were numerous associations, which, although not united hy any specifically religious objects, had a religious centre in the worship of some deity or other. Such were the numerous collegia of artisans {opificum or artiftcwm) , and the societies existing among the poor for providing funerals, which first appear under the Empire. The political clubs (collegia sQddVicla) were associated in the worship of the Lares CompitdlSs, and were, indeed, properly speaking, collegia compitallcia, or " societies of the cross-ways." The religious societies were, in some instances, established by the State for the performance of certain public religious services {see Sodalitas), in other cases they were formed by private individuals, who made it their business to keep up the shrines of particular deities (often foreign deities) at their own expense. CoUuthus (Gr. Kolluthds). A Greek poet, native of Lycopolis, in Upper Egypt, who flourished at the beginning of the 6 th century a.d. He wrote an unimportant epic poem in 385 verses, on the rape of Helen, in which he followed the cyclic poets. Coloni (" cultivators "). During the later imperial age the coloni were serfs, who, on payment of a certain rent, cultivated a piece of land, belonging to their masters, for their own pi-ofit. They were so far free that they could not be sold, could contract legal marriages, and could own property. But they were absolutely bound to the estate, and if this was sold, passed with the rest of what was upon it to the new owner. The coloni were probably the descendants of barbarians, who were settled in the pro- vinces for agricultural purposes. Colonies. (1) Greek. In Greece, colo- nies were sometimes founded by vanquished peoples, who left their homes to escape sub- jection at the hand of a detested enemy ; sometimes as a sequel to civil disorders ; sometimes to get rid of surplus population, and thereby to avoid internal convulsions. But in most cases the object was to estab- lish and facilitate relations of trade with foreign countries. If a Greek city was send- ing out a colony, an oracle (before all others that of Delphi) was almost invariably con- sulted. Sometimes certain classes of citi- zens were called upon to take part in the enterprises ; sometimes one son was chosen by lot from every house where there were several sons ; and strangers expressing a desire to join were admitted. A person of distinction was selected to guide the emi- grants and make the necessary arrange- ments. It was usual to honour these founders of colonies, after their death, as heroes. Some of the sacred fire was taken from the public hearth in the Prf/tdneidn, and the fire on the public hearth of the new city was kindled thereat. And, just as each individual had his private shrines, so the new community maintained the worship of its chief domestic deities, the colony send- ing embassies and votive gifts to their prin- cipal festivals. The relation between colony and mother- 150 COLOSSEUM COLUMBARIUM. city was viewed as one of mutual affection. Any differences that arose were made up, if possible, by peaceful means, war beiiig deemed excusable only in cases of extreme necessity. The charter of foundation con- tained general provisions for the arrange- ment of the affairs of the colony, and also some special enactments. The constitution of the mother-city was usually adopted by the colony, but the new city remained poli- tically independent. If the colony sent out a fresh colony on its own account, the mother-city was generally consulted, or was at least requested to furnish a leader. The ClSruchl formed a special class of Greek colonists {see Clekuchi). The trade fac- tories set up in foreign countries (in Egypt, for instance) were somewhat different from the ordinary colonies, the members retain- ing the right of domicile in their own fatherland. (2) Roman. It was an old custom in Italy to send out colonies for the purpose of securing now conquests. The Romans, ac- cordingly, having no standing army, used to plant bodies of their own citizens in conquered towns as a kind of garrison. These bodies would consist partly of Roman citizens, usually to the number of three hundred, partly of members of the Latin confederacy, in larger numbers. The third part of the conquered territory was handed over to the settlers. The colonice clvlum RomdnOrum (colonies of Roman citizens) were specially in- tended to secure the two sea-coasts of Italy, and were hence called colonice maritwice. The colonice Latlnce^ of which there was a far greater number, served the same purpose for the mainland. The duty of leading the colonists and founding the settlement was entrusted to a commission usually consisting of three members, and elected by the people. These men continued to stand in the relation of patrons {patronl) to the colony after its foundation. The colonists entered the conquered city in mili- tary array, preceded by banners, and the foundation was celebrated with special solemnities. The colonice were free from taxes, and had their own constitution, a copy of the Ro- man, electing from their own body their senate and other officers of state. To this constitution the original inhabitants had to submit. The colonice civium Ro- manorutn retained the Roman citizenship, and were free from military service, their position as out-posts being regarded as an equivalent. The members of the colonice Latinos served among the sociY, and pos- sessed the so-called ius Latinum (see Latini). This secured to them the right of acquiring property (commercium) and settle- ment in Rome, and, under certain conditions, the power of becoming Roman citizens; though in course of time these rights under- went many limitations. From the time of the Gracchi the colonies lost their military character. Colonization came to be regarded as a means of providing for the poorest class of the Roman populace. After the time of Sulla it was adopted as a way of granting land to veteran soldiers. The right of founding colonies was taken away from the people by Csesar, and passed into the hands of the emperors, who used it (mainly in the provinces) for the exclusive purpose of establishing military settlements,, partly with the old idea of securing con- quered territory. It was only in excep- tional cases that the provincial colonies enjoyed the immunity from taxation which was granted to those in Italy. Cdlosseum. See Amphitheatre. C6I0SSUS of Rhodes. See Chares. CSlumbarium. Properly a dove-cote. The word was metaphorically applied to a sub- COLUMBARIUM OF THE FREKDMEN OF OCTAVIA. (Near the Porta Latina, Rome.) terranean vault provided with rows of small niches, lying one above the other, and in- tended for the reception of the urns contain- COLUMELLA COMEDY. 151 ing the ashes of the dead. These large burial places were built by rich people whose freedmen were too numerous to be interred in the family burial-place. They were also erected by the Csesars for their slaves and freedmen. Several of these still exist, for instance, that of Livia, the consort of Augustus, who built one for her freed- men on the Appian road. Common burial- places, in which a niche could be bespoken beforehand, were sometimes constructed by private individuals on speculation for people who were too poor to have a grave of their own. Cohimharia were usually built by re- ligious or mercantile societies, or by burial clubs for their own members. In such cases the members contributed a single capital payment and yearly subscriptions, which gave them the right to a decent burial and a niche in the vault. The names of the dead were inscribed on marble tablets over each niche. {See cut.) Columella {Lucius Junius MddSrdtus). A Latin writer on agriculture. He was a native of Gades, in Spain, and a contem- porary of his countryman, the philosopher Seneca. He was the author of a thorough and exhaustive work on agriculture {De Re Rustica), which he founded partly upon a study of all previous works on the subject, partly on his own experience, gathered in Spain, Italy, and Asia. The work was written about 60 A.D., and consists of twelve books, arranged as follows : I-II, on crops and pastures; III-V, on trees and vine- yards ; VI-IX, on cattle, birds, fishes, and bees; X, on horticulture; XI-XII, on the duties and occupations of the farmer. The tenth book is written in polished hexameters, as a supplement to Vergil's fourth Georgic. This Columella did at the request of Publius Silvinus, to whom the whole work is dedi- cated. Besides this, his great work. Columella had previously written a shorter treatise, of which the second book, on trees (De Arboribus), still survives. Columella's exposition is clear and easy, and his language (if we pass over the rhetorical ornaments added after the fashion of his time) correct. The tenth book, though written in verse, has, it must be said, little poetical merit. C61umna Rostrata. See Architecture, Orders of. Comsetho (Gr. Komaitho). In Greek mythology, the daughter of Pterelaiis, king of the TelebSi. Her father had a golden lock in his hair, given him by Poseidon, and conferring immortality. Of this he was deprived by his daughter, who was slain for her treachery by Amphitryon, the enemy of her race. {See Amphitryon.) Comedy. (1) Greek, The Greek comedy, like the Greek tragedy and satyric drama, had its origin in the festivals of Dionysus. As its name, kdmod^a, or the song of the komos, implies, it arose from the unre- strained singing and jesting common in the komos, or merry procession of Dionysus. According to the tradition, it was the Doric inhabitants of Megara, well known for their love of fun, who first worked up these jokes into a kind of farce. The inhabitants of Megara accordingly boasted that they were the founders of Greek comedy. From Megara, it was supposed, the popular farce found its way to the other Dorian com- munities, and one Susarion was said to have transplanted it to the Attic deme of Icaria about 580 B.C. No further informa- tion is in existence as to the nature of the Megarian or Dorian popular comedy. The local Doric farce was developed into literary form in Sicily by Epicharmus of Cos (about 540-450 B.C.). This writer gave a comic treatment not only to mythology, but to subjects taken from real life. The con- temporary of Epicharmus, Phormus or Phormis, and his pupil DinSlochus, may also be named as representatives of the Dorian comedy. The beginnings of the Attic comedy, like those of the Attic tragedy, are associated with the deme of Icaria, known to have been the chief seat of the worship of Dionysus in Attica. Not only Thespis, the father of tragedy, but also Chionides and Magnes (about 550 B.C.), who, if the story may be trusted, first gave a more artistic form to the Megarian comedy introduced by Susarion, were natives of Icaria. Comedy did not become, in the proper sense, a part of literature until it had found welcome and consideration at Athens in the time of the Persian wars ; until its form had been moulded on the finished outlines of tragedy ; and until, finally, it had received from the State the same recognition as tragedy. The Old Comedy, as it was called, had its origin in personal abuse. It was Crates who first gave it its peculiar political character, and his younger contemporary Cratlnus who turned it mainly or exclusively in this direction. The masters of the Old Comedy are usually held to be Cratinus and his younger contemporaries, Eupolis and Aris- tophanes. It attained its youth in the time of Pericles and the Peloponnesian war ; the period when the Athenian democracy 152 COMEDY. had reached its highest development. These three masters had many rivals, who fell, however, on the whole beneath their level, among others Pherecrates, Hermippus, Teleclides, Phrynichus, Ameipsias, Plato and Theopompus. A good idea of the characteristics of the Old Comedy may be formed from the eleven surviving plays of Aristophanes.* The Greek tragedy has a meaning for all time ; but the Old Comedy, the most brilliant and striking production of all Athenian literature, has its roots in Athenian life, and addressed the Athenian public only. Dealing from the verj'' first with the grotesque and absurd side of things, it was the scourge of all vice, folly, and weakness. The social life of Athens, so restless, and jet so open, offered an in- exhaustible store of material ; and the comedian was always sure of a witty, laughter-loving public, on whom no allusion was lost. The first aim of the Athenian comedy was, no doubt, to make men laugh, but this was not all. Beneath it there lay a serious and patriotic motive. The poet, who was secured by the license of the stage, wished to bring to light and turn to ridicule the abuses and degeneracy of his time. The Attic comedians are all admirers of the good old times, and, accordingly, the declared enemies of the social innovations which were beginning to make their way, the signs in many cases, no doubt, of ap- proaching decline. It was not, however, the actual phenomena of life which were sketched in the Old Comedy. The latter is really a grotesque and fantastic carica- ture; the colours are laid on thick, and propriety, as we moderns understand it, is thrown to the winds. These plays abound in coarseness and obscenity of the broadest kind, the natural survival of the rude license allowed at the Dionysiac festival. The choice and treatment of the subjects show the same tendency to the grotesque and fantastic. Fancy and caprice revel at their will, unchecked by any regard either for the laws of poetical probability or for adequacy of occasion. The action is gene- rally quite simple, sketched out in a few broad strokes, and carried out in a motley series of loosely connected scenes. The language is always choice and fine, never leaving the forms of the purest Atticism. The metres admit a greater freedom and movement than those of the tragedy. * Only eleven have come down to us complete : the rest are in fragments. A comedy, like a tragedy, consisted of the dramatic dialogue, written mostly in iambic sendrii, and the lyrical chorus. The division of the dialogue into irrologos^ Speisodion^ and exodos, and of the chorus into pdrddos and stdatma, are the same as in tragedy {see Tragedy). But, while the tragic chorus consisted of fifteen singers, there were twenty-four in the comic. A peculiarity of the comic chorus is the jjdrd- bdsis, a series of lines entirely unconnected with the plot, in which the poet, through the mouth of the chorus, addresses the public directly about his own concerns, or upon burning questions of the day (see Parabasis). Like the tragedies, the come- dies were performed at the great festivals of Dionysus, the Dionysia and Lensea. On each occasion five poets competed for the prize, each with one play. For a short time, but a short time only, a limitation had been put upon the absolute freedom with which the poets of the Old Comedy lashed the shortcomings of the government and its chief men. The down- fall of the democracy, however, deprived them of this liberty. The disastrous issue of the Peloponnesian war had, moreover, ruined the Athenian finances, and made it necessary to give up the expensive chorus, and with it the parabasis. Thus deprived of the means of existence, the Old Comedy was doomed to extinction. In its place came what was called the Middle Comedy, from about 400-338 B.C. This was a modification of the Old Comedy, with a character corre- sponding to the altered circumstance of the time. The Middle Comedy was in no sense political ; it avoided all open attack on in- dividuals, and confined itself to treating the typical faults and weaknesses of mankind. Its main line was burlesque and parody, of which the objects were the tragedies and the mythology in general. It was also severe upon the lives of the philosophers. It dealt in typical characters, such as bullies, parasites, and courtesans. The writers of the Middle Comedy were very prolific, more than eight hundred of their plays having survived as late as the 2nd century a.d. The most celebrated of them were Antiphanes of Athens and Alexis of Thurii; next to these came Eubulus, and Anaxandiidas of Rhodes. A new departure is signalized by the dramas of what is called the New Comedy. In these, as in the modern society drama, life was represented in its minutest details. The New Comedy offered a play regularly COMISSATIO COMITIA. 153 constructed like that of tragedy, charac- terized by fine humour, and but seldom touching on public life. The language was that of ordinary society, and the plot was worked out in a connected form from the beginning to the denouevient. The chief art of the poets of the New Comedy lay in the development of the plot and the faith- ful portraiture of character. The stock subjects are illicit love affairs; for honest Avomen lived in retirement, and stories of honourable love, therefore, were practically excluded from the stage. The ordinary characters are young men in love, fathers of the good-natured or the scolding type, cunning slaves, panders, parasites, and brag- ging officers. Besides the dialogue proper, «ve find traces of parts written in lyric metres for the higher style of singing. These were, in all probability, like the dia- logue, performed by the actors. The fate of the New resembles that of the Middle Comedy, only a few fragments of its numerous pieces having survived. Of some of them, however, we have Latin adaptations by Plautus and Terence. Its greatest master was Menander, besides whom should be mentioned Diphllus, Phile- mon, Philippides, Posldippus, and Apollo- dorus of Carystus. The New Comedy flourished from 330 B.C. till far into the 3rd century a.d. In about 300 B.C. the old Dorian farce was revived in a literary form in Southern Italy by Rhinthon, the creator of the Hildrotrdgosdia. The Hilarotragoedia was for the most part a parody of the tragic stories. (2) Roman. Like the Greeks, the Italian people had their popular dramatic pieces; the versus Fescennlni^ for instance, which were at first associated with the mimic drama, first introduced in 390 B.C. from Etrviria in conseqvience of a plague, to appease the wi'atli of heaven {see Pescen- NiNi Versus). Prom this combination sprang the sdtura, a performance consisting of flute-playing, mimic dance, songs, and dialogue. The Atelldna {q.v.) was a second species of popular Italian comedy, dis- tinguished from others by having certain fixed or stock characters. The creator of the regular Italian comedy and tragedy was a Greek named Livius Andronicus, about 240 B.C. Like the Italian tragedy, the Italian comedy was, in form and con- tents, an imitation, executed with more or less freedom, of the Greek. It was the New Greek Comedy which the Romans took as their model. This comedy, which repre- sents scenes from Greek life, was called pallidta, after the Greek pallium, or cloak. The dramatic satura, and the Atellana, which afterwards supplanted the satura as a concluding farce, continued to exist side by side. The Latin comedy was brought to perfection by Plautus and Terence, the only Roman dramatists from whose hands we still possess complete plays. We should also mention Nsevius and Ennius (both of whom wrote tragedies as well as comedies), Csecilixis, and Turpilius, with whom, to- wards the end of the 3nd century B.C., this style of composition died out. About the middle of the 2nd century B.C. a new kind of comedy, the togdta, (from tdga) made its appearance. The form of it was still Greek, but the life and the characters Italian. The togata was re- presented by Titinius, Atta, and Afranius, who was accounted the master in this kind of writing. At the beginning of the 1st century B.C. the Atellana assumed an artistic form in the hands of Pomponius and Novius ; and some fifty years later the mimus, also an old form of popular farce, was similarly handled by Laberius and Publilius Syrus. The mimus drove all the other varieties of comedy from the field, and held its ground until late in the im- perial period. The Roman comedy, like its model, the New Comedy of the Greeks, had no chorus, the intervals being filled up by perfor- mances on the flu.te. The play consisted, like the Roman tragedy, partly of passages of spoken dialogue in iambic trimeters, partly of musical scenes called cantlca. {See Canticum.) Comissatio. See Meals. CSmitiar. The popular assemblies of the Romans, summoned and presided over by a mdgistrdtus. In the com,itia the Roman people appeared as distributed into its political sections, for the purpose of de- ciding, in the exercise of its sovereign rights, upon the business brought before it by the presiding magistrate. The comitia must be distinguished from the contlones. The contiones were also summoned and presided over by a magistrate, but they did not assemble in their divisions, and they had nothing to do but to receive the commu- nications of the magistrate. In all its assemblies at Rome, the people remained standing. The original place of meeting was the c5mitium, a part of the forum. There were three kinds of comitia, viz. : 154 COMITIA. (1) The Comitia Curiata. This was the assembly of the patricians in their thirty curicB^ who, until the change of the con- stitution under Servius Tullius, constituted the whole pdpulus ROmanus. During the regal period they were summoned by the rex or interrcx, who brought before them questions to be decided Aye or No. The voting was taken first in each curia by heads, and then according to curice, in an order determined by lot. The business within the competence of this assembly was : (a) to elect a king proposed by the interrex / (&) to confer upon the king the impSrium, by virtue of the lex cuHcLta de imperio; (c) to decide on declarations of war, appeals, arr6gdtlones {see Adoption), and the reception of foreign families into the body of the patricians. The Servian con- stitution transferred the right of declaring aggressive war, and the right of deciding appeals, to the Comitia CentUridtd, which, from this time onward, represented the people, now composed of both patricians and plebeians. After the establishment of the Republic, the Comitia Curiata retained the right (a) of conferring, on the proposal of the senate, the imperium on the magis- trates elected by the Comitia Centuriata, and on the dictator elected by the consuls ; (6) of confirming, likewise on the proposal of the senate, the alterations in the consti- tution decided upon by the Comitia Cen- turiata, and Trlbuta. The extinction of the political difference between Patricians and Plebeians destroyed the political position of the Comitia Curiata, and the mere shadow of their rights survived. The assembly itself be- came an unreality, so much so that, in the end, the presence of the thirty lictOrSs cUridtl, and three augurs, was sufiicient to enable legal resolutions to be passed (see LiCTORS). But the Comitia Curiata re- tained the powers affecting the reception of a non-patrician into the patrician order, and the powers affecting the proceeding of arrdgdtid, especially in cases where the transition of a patrician into a plebeian family was concerned. Evidence of the exercise of these functions on their part may be traced down the imperial period. The Comitia Cdldta were also an assembly of the patrician curiae. They were so called because publicly summoned (caldre). The pontifices presided, and the functions of the assembly were : (a) to in- augurate the fldmineSf the rex sacrorum, and indeed the king himself during the regal period. (6) The detestdtlO sacrOrum, previous to an act of arrogatio. This was the formal release of a person passing by adoption into another family from the sacra of his former family {see Adoption), (c) The ratification of wills twice a year ; but this applies only to an early period. {d) The announcement of the calendar of festivals on the first day of every month. (2) Comitia Centuriata. The assembly of the whole people, patrician as well as plebeian, arranged according to the centuries established by Servius Tullius. The original founder of the comitia centuriata transferred to them certain political rights which had previously been exercised by the comitia curiata. It was not, however, until the foundation of the Republic, when the sovereign power in the state was trans- ferred to the body of citizens, that they attained their real political importance. They then became the assembly in which the people, collectively, expressed its will. The right of summoning the comitia cen- turiata originally belonged to the king. During the republican period it belonged, in its full extent, to the consuls and the dictator alone. The other magistrates possessed it only within certain limits. The interrex, for instance, could, in case of there being no consuls, siimmon the comitia centuriata to hold an election, but he could summon them for this purpose only. The censors could call them together only for the holding of the census and the lustmim ; the praetors, it may be conjectured, only in the case of capital trials. In all other instances the consent of the consuls, or their authorisation, was indispensable. The duties of the comitia centuriata during the republican period were as follows : (a) To elect the higher magis- trates, consuls, censors, and praetors. (6) To give judgment in all the capital trials in which appeal to the people was permitted from the sentence of the magistrate sitting in judgment. This popular jurisdiction was gradually limited to political trials, common offences being dealt with by the ordinary commissions. And in the later republican age the judicial assemblies of the comitia centuriata became, in general, rarer, especially after the formation of special standing commissions {qucestidnSs perpe- tUce) for the trial of a number of offences regarded as political, (c) To decide on declaring a war of aggression ; this on the proposal of the consuls, with the approval of the senate, {d) To pass laws proposed COMITIA. 165 by the higher magistrates, with the approval of the senate. This right lost much of its value after 287 B.C., when the legislative powers of the comitia tributa were made equal to those of the comitia centuriata. After this time the legislative activity of the latter assembly gradually diminished. The comitia centuriata were originally a military assembly, and the citizens accord- ingly, in ancient times, attended them in arms. On the night before the meeting, the magistrate summoning the assembly took the auspices on the place of meeting, the Campus Martius. If the auspices were favourable, signals were given, before day- break, from the walls and the citadel by the blowing of horns, summoning the citizens to a contio. The presiding magistrate offered a sacrifice, and repeated a solemn prayer, and the assembly proceeded to consider the business which required its decision. Private individuals were not allowed to speak, except with the consent of the presiding magistrate. At his command the armed people divided themselves into their centuri(e, and marched in this order to the Campus Martius, pre- ceded by banners, and headed by the cavalry. Arrived at the Campus, they pro- ceeded to the voting, the president having again put the proposal to the people in the form of a question ("Do you wish?" "Do you command ? ") While the voting was ffoing on, a red flag stood on the Jdnicidum. The equates, who in ancient times used to be- gin the battles in war, opened the voting, and their eighteen centuries were therefore called prcerdgdtwce. The result of their vote was immediately published, and, being taken as an omen for the voters who were to follow, was usually decisive. Then came the 175 centuries, 170 of which composed the five classes of infantry in their order. Each cen- turia counted as casting one vote; this vote was decided by a previous voting within the centuria, which was at first open, but in later times was taken by ballot. If the 18 centuries of eqvites, and the 80 centuries of the first class, with whom went the two cen- turies of mechanics {centurice fabrum,), were unanimous, the question was decided, as there would be a majority of 100 centuries to 93. If not, the voting went on until one side secured the votes of at least 97 centuries. The lower classes only voted in the rare cases where the votes of the higher classes were not united. The proceedings con- cluded with a formal announcement of the result on the part of the presiding magis- trate, and the dismissal of the host. If no result was arrived at by sunset, or if un- favourable omens appeared during the pro- ceedings, or while the voting was going on, the assembly was adjourned imtil the next convenient occasion. This form of voting gave the wealthier citizens a decided advantage over the poorer, and lent an aristocratic character to the comitia centuriata. In the 3rd century B.C. a change was introduced in the interest of the lower classes. Each of the thirty- five tnbus, or districts, into which the Ro- man territory was divided, included ten centurice, five of iumores and five of seniorSs. (Forthe five classes, see Centuria.) Thus each of the five classes included 70 centurice, making 350 centurice in all. To this number add the eighteen centurice equitum, and the five centurice not in- cluded in the propertied classes; namely, two of fabri (mechanics), two of tiibzcines (musicians), and one of proletdrll and llberti (the very poor and the freedmen), and the whole number of centurice amounts to 373. The centurice, it must be remem- bered, had by this time quite lost their military character. Under this arrange- ment the 88 votes of the equites and the first classis were confronted with the 285 votes of the rest. Besides this, the right of voting first was taken from the equites and given to the centuria prcerogativa chosen by lot from the first classis. The voting, it is true, was still taken in the order of the classes, but the classes were seldom unanimous as in former times; for the interests of the tribus, which were re- presented in each classis by two centurice respectively, were generally divergent, and the centuries voted in the sense of their tribe. The consequence was that it was often necessary — indeed, perhaps that it became the rule, at least at elections — to take the votes of all the classes.'^ In old times the military arrangement was sufficient to secure the maintenance of order. But, after its disappearance, the classes were separated, and the centurice kept apart by wooden barriers {scepta), from which the centurice passed over bridges into an open inner space called ovlU (sheep-fold). On the position of the comitia centuriata during the imperial age, see below. (3) Comitia Tributa. This v/as the collective assembly of the people arranged according to the local distribution of tribes {see Tribus). It must be distinguished from the concilium plebis, which was an ^ See, however, Cic. 2^^o Flancio, 49, nemo uinqiiam prior earn, (sc. centuriam pra&royativam) luuril (juin renunciatun sit conaul. 156 CCMITIA. assembly of the tribes under the preside acy of plebeian mao;istrates, i.e., the trlbuni and the cecities plebeii. As these magistrates had no right to summon patricians, the re- solutions passed by a concilium i)lcbis were (strictly speaking) only plcbi sella. It was a lex centuriata of some earlier dato than 462 B.C. that probably first made these resolutions binding on all the citizens, provided they received the approval of the senate. This approval was rendered un- necessary by the lex Hortensia of 287 B.C., and from that date onward the concilit. plebis became the principal organ of legisla- tion. The method of voting resembled that in the comitia curiata, and the regular place of meeting was the Cotnitium. No auspicec were taken. From 471 B.C. the concilia [ plebis elected the tribuni and the cedilei;., plebeii. Among the other functions of the , concilia plebis were the following : (a) To give judicial decisions in all suit:, instituted by the tribunes and sediles of thb plebs, for offences against the plebs or its, representatives. In later times these suite i were mostly instituted on the ground of bad or illegal administration. The tribunes and sediles had, in these cases, the power of in- flicting pecuniary fines ranging up to a^. large amount, (b) To pass resolutions on proposals made by the tribunes of the ^)?r?^f and the higher magistrates on foreign auu domestic affairs, on the conclusion of peace, for instance, or the making of treaties. ^ Their power was almost unlimited, and the , more important because, strictly speaking, it was only the higher magistrates who re- i quired the authorization of the senate. Nor had the senate more than the right otjj quashing a measure passed without due \ formalities. ; The comitia tributa, as distinguished from the concilia plebis, were presided over by the consuls, the praetors, and (in judicial cases) the curule sediles. Until the latter ; years of the Republic, the assembly usually j met upon the Capitol, and afterwards on the | Campus Martins. The functions of the comitia tributa, gradually acquired, were as follows : (a) The election of all the lower j magistrates, ordinary (as the tribuni plebis, , tribuni mllUum, cedilSs plebis, cediles : curUles) and extraordinary, under the pre- sidency partly of the tribunes, partly of the consuls or prsetors. (b) The nomination of the pontlfex maxlinus, and of the co-opted members of the religious collegia of the ^ pontlflcSs, augUres, and decemviri sacrO- \ rum. This nomination was carried out by ' committee of seventeen tribes chosen hy lot. (c) The fines judicially inflicted by the concilia plebis required in all graver cases the sanction of the tribes. The comitia tributa were summoned at least seventeen days before the meeting, by the simple proclamation of a herald. As in the case of the comitia centuriata, business could neither be begun nor continued in the face of adverse auspices. Like the comitia centuriata too, the tribal assembly met at daybreak, and conld not sit beyond sunset. If summoned by the tribunes, the comitia tributa could only meet in the city, or within the radius of a mile from it. The usual place of assembly was the Forum or the comitium (q.v.). If summoned by other authorities, the assembly met outside the city, most commonly in the Campus Martins. The proceedings opened with a prayer, un- accompanied by sacrifice. The business in hand was then discussed in a contio {see above, p. 155 a) ; and the proposal having been read out, the meeting was requested to arrange itself according to its thirty-five tribes in the scepta or wooden fences. Lots were drawn to decide which tribe should vote first. The tribe on which this duty fell was called principlum. The result of this first vote was proclaimed, and the other tribes then proceeded to vote simultane- ously, not successively. The votes given by each tribe were then announced in an order determined by lot. Finally, the general result of the voting was made known. The proposer of a measure was bound to put his proposal into due form, and publish it beforehand. When a measure came to the vote, it was accepted or rejected as a whole. It became law when the presiding magistrate announced that it had been accepted. The character of the comitia had begun to decline even in the later period of the Republic. Even the citizens of Rome took but little part in them, and this is still more true of the population of Italy, who had received the Roman citizenship in 89 B.C. The comitia tributa, in particular, sank gradually into a mere gathering of the city mob, strengthened on all sides by the influx of corrupt elements. The results of the voting came more and more to represent not the public interest, but the effects of direct or indirect corruption. Under the Empire the comitia centuriata and tributa continued to exist, in a shadowy form, it is COMITIUM COMMERCE. 157 true, down to the 3rd century a.d, Julius Caesar had deprived them of the right of deciding on war and peace. Under Au- gustus they lost the power of jurisdiction, and, practically, the power of legislation. The imperial measures were indeed laid before the comitia tributa for ratification, but this was all ; and under the successors of Augustus even this proceeding became rarer, ^ince the time of Vespasian the emperors, at their accession, received their legislative and other powers from the comitia tributa j but this, like the rest, was a mere formality. The power of elec- tion was that which, in appearance at least, survived longest. Augustus, like Julius Caesar, allowed the comitia ccnturiata to confirm the nomination of two candidates for the consulship. He also left to the comitia centuriata and tributa the power of free election to half the other magis- tracies ; the other half being filled by nominees of his own. Tiberius transferred the last remnant of free elective power to the senate, whose proposals, originating under imperial influence, were laid before the comitia for ratification. The formali- ties, the auspices, prayer, sacrifice, and proclamation, were now the important thing, and the measures proposed were carried, not by regular voting, but by acclama- tion. Comitium. The name of a small space in Rome, bounded on the north by the senate- house {see Curia), and on the south by the rostra (see Rostra). Down to the 2nd century B.C. it was used for the meetings the assemblies and of the courts of law. After the removal of the rostra it became part of the Eorum. See Plan under Forum, No. 18. Commerce. Greece. In the Homeric poems the Greeks are not represented as a people with a spontaneous inclination to com- merce. Indeed, the position of the oldest Greek cities, far away from the sea, suffici- ently shows that their founders can have had no idea of trade as a means of getting wealth. Greek navigation in ancient times was almost exclusively subservient to war . and piracy, to which, for a long time, no stigma was attached in public opinion. And the trade carried on with Greece by the Asiatics, especially the Phoenicians, who then ruled the Greek seas, can hardly have been very active. The Greeks, having no agricultural or industrial produce to offer, could not have tempted many foreigners to deal with them. But in the centuries suc- ceeding the Homeric age, the commerce of Greece was revolutionized. The islands, especially iEgina and Euboea, were foremost in commercial undertak- ings; the only continental town which was at all successful in this way being Corinth, which was favoured by its incom- parable position. It was the foundation of the Hellenic colonies in Asia Minor that first occasioned the free development of Greek trade. The exertions of the lonians were mainly instrumental in creating two things indispensable to its success, namely, commercial activity, excited by contact with the ancient industries of the East, and a maritime power in the proper sense, which made it possible to oust the Phoenicians from the naval supremacy which they had so long maintained. This new commercial activity necessitated a larger use of the precious metals, and the establishment of a gold and silver coinage, which the lonians were the first among the Greeks to adopt. This proved a powerful stimulus to the. development of commerce, or rather it was the very condition of its existence. Miletuo took the first place among the trading colonies. The influence of these cities upon their mother country was so strong that even the Dorians gradually lost their national and characteristic dislike of trade and commerce, and threw themselves ac- tively into their pursuit. Down to the 6th. century B.C., Greek commerce had extended itself to the coasts of the Mediterranean and the inland seas connected with it, especially towards the East. It was not, until a later time that Athens joined the circle of commercial cities. Even in Solon's time the Athenians had lived mainly by agriculture and cattle-breeding, and it was only with the growth of the democratic constitution that their commercial inter- course with the other cities became at all considerable. The Persian wars, and her position as head of the naval confederacy, raised Athens to the position of the first maritime power in Greece. Under the ad- ministration of Pericles she became the centre of all Hellenic activity, not only in art and science, but in trade. It was only Corinth and Corcyra whose western trade enabled them to maintain a prominent position by the side of Athens. The Greeks of Asia Minor completely lost their com- mercial position after their conquest by the Persians. The naval supremacy of Athens, and with it its commerce, was completely annihilated by the Peloponnesian war. It 158 COMMERCE. was a long time before the Athenians suc- ceeded in breaking down the maritime power of Sparta which that war had estab- lished. Having done so, they recovered, but only for a short time, a position of promin- ence not at all equal to their former supremacy by sea. The victory of the Macedonian power entirely destroyed the political and commercial importance of Athens, whose trade now fell behind that of other cities. The place of Athens, as the first maritime and commercial power, was taken by the city of Rhodes, founded in 408 B.C. By the second half of the 4th century B.C. the trade of Rhodes had ex- tended itself over the whole known world, and its maritime law was universally ob- served until a much later period. After the destruction of Corinth in the middle of the 2nd century B.C. the island of DelSs enjoyed a brief but brilliant period of pros- perity. Among the commercial cities of the Orseco-Macedonian empire, Alexandria in Egypt took the first place, and rose indeed to be the centre of European and Eastern trade. It was mainly through Alexandria that intercourse was kept up between Oreece and the Eastern countries opened up by the campaigns of Alexander the Great. One of the most important routes followed by Grecian traffic was that leading to the Black Sea, the coasts of which were fringed with Greek colonies. Besides Byzantium and Sinope, the chief commercial centres in this region were Olbia, PantIcS,pseum, PhanSgSria, and Phasis, from which trade- routes penetrated far into the barbarian countries of the interior. Other main routes led by Chios and Lesbos to the coasts of Asia Minor and by the Cyclades to that part of the Asiatic coast where lay the great cities of Samos, Ephesus, and Miletus. Hence they continued to Egypt and Cyrene, by Rhodes and Cyprus and the coast of Phoenicia. But in travelling to these parts from the Peloponnesus, they generally sailed by way of Crete, which had been long celebrated for its maritime enter- prise. Round the promontory of Malea, the southernmost point of the Peloponnese, and by Corcyra, they sailed northwards to the coasts of the Adriatic, or westward to Italy and Sicily. Regular traffic beyond Sicily was rendered impossible by the jealousy of the Carthaginians and Etruscans, who were masters of the commerce in this region, and whose place was afterwards taken there by the Romans. A considerable land-trafiic was carried on by the colonies with bar- barians of the interior. But in Greece Proper the mountainous nature of the country and the absence of navigable rivers were unfavourable to communication by land, and the land-traffic accordingly was entirely thrown into the shade by the mari- time trade. The only opportunity for com- merce by land on a large scale was afforded by the great national festivals, which brought together great crowds of people from every part of Greece, and secured them a safe conduct {see Ekecheiria). In this way these festivals exactly corre- sponded to our trade fairs. The exports of Greece consisted mainly in wine, oil, and manufactured goods, espe- cially pottery and metal wares. The im- ports included the necessaries of life, of which Greece itself, with its dense popula- tion, artificially increased by slavery, did not produce a sufficient quantity. The staple was wheat, which was imported in large quantities from the coasts of the Black Sea, Egypt, and Sicily. Next came wood for houses and for ships, and raw materials of all kind for manufacture. The foreign manufactures imported were mostly objects of luxury. Finally we should men- tion the large number of imported slaves. Comparing the circumstances of the an- cient Greek maritime commerce with those of modern trade, we may observe that the ancients were much hampered by having no commission agencies and no system of exchange. The proprietor of the cargo sailed with it, or sent a representative with full powers. No transaction was carried on without payment in ready money, which was often rendered difficult by the exist- ence of different systems of coinage. With uncivilized tribes, notably those on the Black Sea, a system of barter long main- tained itself. As no goods could be bought without cash payments, and men of pro- perty generally preferred to lend out their capital to borrowers at high interest, a sys- tem of bottomry was extensively developed in Greek maritime trade. The creditor usually took care in lending the capital necessary for loading the ship, to secure a lien on the ship, or the cargo, or both. With this he undertook the risks of the business, charging interest at a very high rate, generally 20 to 30 per cent. The writ- ten contract contained other specifications as to the ship and the rate of interest, for the breach of which certain customary penalties were fixed. These had reference to the destination of the ship, and, gener- COMMERCE. ]59 ally speaking, to the route and the time to be occupied, to the character and value of the wares, and to the repayment of the loan; the latter to determine whether it should be made on the ship's arriving at its destination, or on its return home. In the first case the creditor would often sail with the ship, if he had no representative on the spot or at the port for which she was bound. At Athens, and no doubt in other cities, the interests of the creditor were protected by a strict code of laws. Fraudulent appro- priation of a deposit was punishable with death ; dilatoriness in payment with im- prisonment. The creditor was allowed to seize not only the security, but the whole property of the debtor. In other respects Athenian legislation secured several ad- vantages to traders. Commercial cases only came before the law courts in winter, when navigation was impossible, and they had to be decided within a month. In ordinary cases of debt the creditor could only seize on the debtor's property ; but in commercial cases he was liable to be imprisoned if condemned to payment. In other matters aliens had to be represented in court by a citizen ; in commercial cases they could appear in per- son. It was the duty of the ThesmSthetse to see to the preparation of these cases. The trial was carried on and the verdict given by a special tribunal, the Naut6dicce {see Nautodic^). Merchants could easily ob- tain the considerable privilege of exemption from military service, though they were not legally entitled to it. In general it may be said that the Greek states, in consideration of the importance of trade, went very far in providing for its interests. They did their best to secure its safety and independence by force of arms, and concluded treaties with the same end in view. This is especially true of those agreements which regulated the legal rela- tions of the citizens of the two states in their intercourse with each other, and pre- scribed the forms to be observed by the citizens of one state when bringing suits against those of another. The institution of proxeni, corresponding to that of the modern consuls, was of immense benefit to the trading community. The Greek gov- ernments did a great deal in the way of constructing harbours, warehouses, and buildings for exchange in the neighbour- hood of the harbours. The superintendence of the harbour traffic, like that of the mar- ket traffic, was entrusted to special govern- ment officials; in Athens, for instance, to the ten overseers of the Emporium {see Agoranomi). The Athenians had also a special board, called mStrdndmi, to see that the weights and measures were correct. It was only in exceptional cases that the free- dom of trade was interfered with by mono- polies, nor was it usual to lay prohibitions upon imports. Prohibitions of exportation were, however, much commoner. In many states, as e.g. in Macedonia, it was forbidden to export building materials, especially wood for ship-building; and no grain might be exported from Attica. Again, no Athenian merchant was permitted to carry corn to any harbour but that of Athens ; no citizen or resident alien could lend money on the security of ships carrying corn to any place but Athens. Even foreigners who came with corn into the harbour of Athens were compelled to deposit two-thirds of it for sale there. To prevent excessive profits being realized in the corn trade, it was made a capital offence for any private citizen to buy up more than 50 bushels at a time, or sell it at a profit of more than an dbolos a bushel. The corn trade was under the superintendence of a board called sltopJiy- IdkSs. In the prevailing activity of com- merce, the tolls on exports and imports were a plentiful source of revenue to the Greek government. In Greek society petty trading was thought a vulgar and sordid pursuit, and was left to the poorer citizens and resident aliens. In Athens the class of resident aliens included a great number of the larger dealers ; for the wealthier and more respect- able citizens liked lending their capital to others engaged in trade better than engag- ing in trade themselves. Italy. In Italy an active commerce was early carried on at sea by the Etruscans, the other Italian peoples taking only a passive part in it. But Rome, from a very early time, became the commercial centre of Middle Italy. It was situated on a river deep enough to admit large vessels, the upper course and tributaries of which were also navigable. Its position was much im- proved by the harbour at the colony of Ostia, said to have been constructed under king Ancus Martius. So long as the Etruscans and Carthaginians and (as in later times) the Greek cities of Southern Italy and Sicily, like Tarentum and Syra- cuse, ruled the sea, the maritime power and commerce of Rome were restricted within very narrow limits. Even as late as the 160 COMMERCIUM CONSECRATIO. middle of the 4th century B.C. the traffic of Rome was confined to Sardinia, Sicily and Africa. But, with the extension of the Roman power, Roman commerce assumed wider dimensions. At the end of the re- publican period Roman ships were on every sea, and there was a flourishing interior trade in Italy and all the provinces. Wher- ever there was a navigable river it was used for communication with the happiest results. After the second Punic War, Rome gradually acquired the character of a great commercial city, where the products of the whole world, natural and industrial, found a market. The most considerable import was corn, and this at all periods of Roman history {see Annona). The chief exports of Italy were wine and oil, to which we must add, after the development of Italian industry, manufactured goods. The trading harbour of Rome was PuteQli (Pozzuoli), on the Bay of Naples, while Ostia was used mainly by corn-ships. Petty dealing was regarded unfavourably by the Romans as by the Greeks; but trade on a large scale was thought quite respectable, though in older times members of the senate were not allowed to engage in it. Most of the larger undertakings at Rome were in the hands of joint-stock companies (see Publicani), the existence of which made it possible for small capitalists to share in the profits and risks of commerce. It was indeed an old maxim of business men at Rome that it was better to have small shares in a number of speculations than to speculate indepen- dently. The com trade, in particular, was in the hands of these companies. The gov- ernment allowed them to transport corn from Sardinia, Sicily, Spain, Africa, and Egypt to Rome ; whole fleets of vessels, con- structed for the purpose, being appointed to this service. Foreign trade was subjected to a number of restrictions. The exporta- tion of certain products was absolutely prohibited ; for instance, iron, whether un- wrought or manufactured, arms, coin, salt, and gold ; and duties were levied on all im- ports. There were also numerous restric- tions on trade in the interior, as each province formed a unit of taxation, in which toll had to be paid on entering or leaving it. Among the state monopolies, the most important was that of salt. Commercinm. A legal relation existing between two Italian states, according to which the citizens of each had the same right of acquiring property, especially landed property, in the territory of the other. Commercium also included the powers of inheriting legacies and contracting obliga- tions. Comp6rendinati6. [The Latin name for the postponement of a trial for a definite time by consent of both parties, each being bound to appear. To be distinguished from amplultio, which seems to have meant an indefinite postponement, in consequence of uncertainty on the part of the jury.] Compitalia. See Lares. Compluviiim. See House. Concordia. The Latin personification of concord or harmony, especially among Roman citizens. Shrines were repeatedly erected to Concordia during the republican period after the cessation of civil dissensions. The earliest was dedicated by Camillus in 367 B.C. The goddess Concordia was also invoked, together with Janus, Saltis, and Pax, at the family festival of the Caristta, on the 30th March, and, with Venus and Fortuna, by married women on the 1st of April (see Manes). During the imperial period Concordia Augusta was worshipped as the protectress of harmony, especially of matrimonial agreement, in the emperor's household. Confarrgatio. See Marriage, 2. Congiarluin. The Latin word for a pre- sent of oil and wine, given to the people in addition to the regular distribution of corn by magistrates and candidates for office (see Annona). The custom began in repub- lican times. Under the Empire the word was further applied to the presents of oil, wine, and salt, and later of ready money, which the emperor made regularly to the people on certain festive occasions, as on his accession and on his birthday. {See DONATIVUM.) Consgcratio. The act of the Roman ponttftces, in virtue of which a thing was proclaimed as sdcer, i.e. belonging to, or forfeited to, the gods. (On the rite of consecratio associated with the solemn dedi- cation of a sanctuary, see Dedicatio; on consecratio as the apotheosis of the emperor, see Apotheosis.) In case of certain offences, sentence of consecratio capitis et h6norum was pronounced upon the offender, whose person and property were then made oyer as a sacrifice to some deity. A married man who sold his wife was devoted to the gods below ; a son who beat his father, to the household gods ; one who removed his neighbour's landmark to Terminus ; a patronus who betrayed his client, or a client who betrayed his patronus, to Jupiter: CONSILIUM CONSULES. 161 one who stole corn in the ear, to Ceres. To kill a homd sdcer was not accovinted as murder, but as the fulfilment of the divine vengeance. Consilium. The Latin word for a council, or body of advisers. Such councils were called in, according to ancient custom, by the presiding magistrate in civil and criminal cases. Even in the family tribunals, which decided cases affecting the members of the gens, a consilium of kinsfolk was thought necessary. The custom was that the presiding judge bound himself by the decision of his freely chosen consilium, but took the responsibility himself. The expres- sion consilium was afterwards transferred to the regular juries of the courts which decided civil and criminal cases {see Centumviri, Jddices). The emperors, too, made a practice of inviting a consilium of friends to assist them in their judicial decisions. After the time of Hadrian, the members of the imperial consilium appear as regularly appointed and salaried officers, the Consilidrll Augustl. These were gene- rally, though not exclusively, selected from the body of professional jurists. After the 4th century a.d. the word consistorlum was substituted for consilium • meaning, originally, the council-chamber in the im- perial palace. Consualia. See Consus. Consules (originally called Prcetores). The Roman consuls were the magistrates to whom the supreme authority was trans- ferred from the kings, after the expulsion of the latter in 510 B.C. The consuls gave their name to the year. They were elected by the comitia centitridta, and, down to B.C. 366, from the Patricians only. The legal age at which a man might be elected was. in the time of Cicero, forty-three. The time of entering on the office varied in the early periods : in 222 B.C. it was fixed to March 15th, in 153 to the 1st of January. The accession of the new consuls was at- tended with the performance of certain cere- monies, among which may be mentioned a procession of the consuls to the Capitol, with the senate, equltes, and other citizens of position, as escort; an offering of white bulls to Jupiter, and the utterance of solemn vows. The consuls were the representatives of the royal authority, and consequently all other magistrates were bound to obey them, with the exception of the tribunes of the plebs and the dictator. During a dictator- ship their powers fell into abeyance. In D. C. A. the city their authority was limited by the right of appeal to the people, and the veto of the tribvines. But in the army, and over their subordinates, they had full power of life and death. Some of their original functions passed from them in course of time. Thus in 444 B.C. the business of the census was made over to the Censors ; in 366 the civil jurisdiction within the city, so far as it included the right of performing the acts of adoption, emancipation, and liberation of slaves, was transferred to the prgetors. In the field, however, having the criminal jurisdiction in their hands, they had also the right of deciding in civil cases affecting the soldiers. In the general administration of public business the con- suls, although formally recognised as the supreme authority, gradually became, in practice, dependent upon the senate and the comitia, as they had only the power of preparing the resolutions proposed, and carrying them out if accepted. Within the city, their powers were virtually confined to summoning the senate and comitia, and presiding over their meetings. They also nominated the dictators, and conducted the elections! and legislation in the comitia, and the levies of soldiers. After the office of dictator fell into abeyance, the power of the consuls was, in cases of great danger^ increased to dictatox'ial authority by a special decree of the senate. An essential characteristic of the consular office was that it was collegial ; and there- fore, if one consul died, another (called consul suffectus) was immediately elected. This consul suffectus had absolutely the same authority as his colleague, but he had to lay down his office with him at the end of the year for which the two had been originally elected. The power of the two consuls being equal, the business was divided between them. In the administration of the city they changed duties every month, the senior taking the initiative. With regard to their insignia, namely, the toga prcetexta, sella cUridis, and twelve lictors, the original ar- rangement was that the lictors walked in front of the officiating consul, while the other was only attended by an accensus. In later times the custom was for the lictors to walk before the officiating consul, and behind the other. In the field, each consul commanded two legions with their allied troops ; if they were in the same locality, the command changed from day to day. The question of M 162 CONSUS CONTUBERNIUM. the administration of the provinces they either settled by consent, or left it to be decided by lot. With the extension of the empire the consi;ls became unable to under- take the whole burden of warfare, and the praetors were called in to assist. The pro- vinces were then divided into consular and praetorian ; the business of assignment being left to the senate, which, after the year 122, was bound to make it before the elections. In the last century B.C. a law of Sulla deprived the consuls of an essential element of their authority, the military impSrium / for it enacted that the consuls should spend their year of office in Rome, and only repair to the provinces and assume the imperium after its conclusion. In the civil wars the consular office completely lost its old position, and though it continued to exist under the Empire, it became, practically, no more than an empty title. The emperors, who often held the office themselves, and sometimes, like Caesar, for several years in succession, had the right of nominating the candidates, and therefore, in practice, had the election in their own hands. It became usual to nominate several pairs of consuls for one year, so as to confer the distinction on as many persons as possible. In such cases, the consuls who came in on January 1st, after whom the year was named, were called consules ordinCirli, the consules sufecti counting as minores. Until the middle of the 1st century A.D., it was a special distinction to hold the consulship for a whole year ; but after that no cases of this tenure occur. In time the insignia, or orndmenta consuldria, or honorary distinctions of the office, were given, in certain degrees, even to men who had not been consuls at all. The chief duties of the consuls now were to preside in the senate, and conduct the criminal trials in which it had to give judgment. But, besides this, certain functions of civil jurisdiction were in their hands ; notably the liberation of slaves, the provision for the costly games which occurred during their term of office, the festal celebrations in honour of the emperor, and the like. After the seat of empire was transferred to Con- stantinople, the consulate was, towards the end of the 4th century, divided between the two capital cities. The consulate of the western capital came to an end in 534 A.D., that of the eastern in 541. From that time the Emperor of the East bore the title of consul perpStuus. Consns. An ancient Italian god, probably a god of the earth or of crops. His altar on the Circus Maximus at Rome was covered with earth, apparently as a sign of the deity's activity in the bosom of the earth. Three times in the year only was it un- covered, on the occasion of sacrifices or festivities. The festival of Consus, the Con- sualia, was held twice a year ; on the 21st August, after the harvest, and the 15th December, after the sowing was ended. Its establishment was attributed to Romu- lus, and it was at the first celebration that the rape of the Sabine women was sup- posed to have taken place. At this fes- tival the sacrifice was superintended by the Flamines of Quirinus with the Vestal Virgins, and was followed by a chariot race in the circus, under the direction of the pontlfices. The horses and mules, their heads crowned with flowers, had their share in the holiday. In consequence of these games the god Consus was afterwai-ds iden- tified with Poseidon Hippios, or Neptunus Equester. Contid. The Latin name for any as- sembly summoned and presided over by a magistrate. A contio differed from the comltla in the following points : (1) The people were not divided into centuries or tribes. (2) The people did not vote, but were only there to receive communications made by the presiding magistrate or some other official or private individual, whom he allowed to address the meeting. All magistrates had the right of summoning contiones, but the tribunes took precedence of all others, and a higher magistrate took precedence of a lower. Contiones were usually summoned by public heralds (prcp- conSs) and generally met in the Forum. The comitia were immediately preceded by a contio, that the people might be pre- pared for the questions to come before them. If the comitia were to exercise judicial functions, it was a fixed rule that three contimies must be held previously for the purpose of investigation. ContHbernium. A Latin word properly meaning tent companionship, or companion- ship in military service. The word signi- fied (1) the relation of young Roman nobles to the general officer to whom they had voluntarily attached themselves for the sake of military training, and in whose company they took their meals in the tent. It meant (2) the marriage of slaves, which was not legally accounted marriage, though under the Empire it was considered, as a rule, indissoluble if contracted by members CONTUMACIA CORNELIUS. 163 of the same household. (3) The marriage between free persons and slaves, which was not considered legal. Contiimacla. The Latin term for dis- obedience to the commands of a magistrate or judge, especially absence from a trial without suificient excuse. If the accuser were absent, he was considered as dropping his charge (see Tergiversatio), which he was not allowed to renew. The absence of the accused was taken as an admission of guilt. In a civil trial the consequence was immediate condemnation ; and the like was the case in criminal trials if the accused failed to appear at the appointed time, or on the last day of the trial. If the accused saw that his condemnation was cer- tain, it was quite common for him to retire, and in capital cases to go into voluntary exile; a proceeding which in no way influ- enced the further course of the proceedings. Conublum (Latin). The contracting of a matrtmomum iustum, or valid marriage, with all its legal consequences. As such a marriage could only take place between persons of equal status, the Patricians and Plebeians had each for a long time a separate conitbiu7n, until 445 B.C., when the two orders were equalised in this respect. Coavivium. See Meals. Cooptatio (Latin). The election of a new member by the members of a corporation to supply a vacant place. Among corpora- tions which filled their vacancies in this way may be mentioned the college of Pontifices and Augurs. The election was preceded by the nomination of a proper candidate by one of the members, and fol- lowed by his inauguration. Cordax {Kordax). The licentious dance of the ancient Greek comedy. To perform it off the stage was regarded as a sign of intoxication or profligacy. C6re (Kore). See Persephone. Cdrinna {Korinna). A Greek lyric poetess, born at Tanagra in Boeotia, and surnamed Myia, or " the Fly." She flour- ished about 510 B.C. She was the instructress of Pindar, and is said to have beaten him five times in musical contests. Only a few fragments of her poems, of which there were five books, remain. They were written in the Boeotian dialect, and treated subjects of local mythology, as, for instance, the tale of the *' Seven against Thebes." Corippns (Flavius Cresconius). An African scholar, who in the second half of the 6th century a.d. composed two historical epics, one in seven books, in celebration of the Libyan war of Johannes Patrlcius {Idhannzs, slvS de bellls Libycls), and the other on the exploits of Justinus (565-578), in four books (De Laudtbus lustlni). The last is in the worst manner of Byzantine flattery, but is written in a flowing style and in imitation of good models, such as Vergil and Claudian. Cornelius. (1) Cornelius NepOs. A Roman historian, a native of Upper Italy, who lived between 94 and 24 B.C. He was a contemporary of Cicero, Atticus, and Catul- lus, with whom he lived in friendly inter- course at Rome. The most comprehensive of his many writings was a collection of biographies of celebrated men {De Virls Illustnbus) in at least sixteen books. This was dedicated to Atticus, and mixst there- fore have been published before B.C. 32, the year of his death. The biographies were arranged in departments, and in each depart- ment the Greek and Roman celebrities were treated separately. Thus the still surviving book upon distinguished foreign generals (De Excellentibus Dudbus ExtSrdrum Gen- tium) is followed by one on Roman generals, while a book devoted to the Greek histo- rians had one on the Roman historians cor- responding to it, from which the lives of the elder Cato and of Atticus are preserved. The lives of celebrated generals were in former times (in consequence of an ancient error in the MSS.) erroneously ascribed to a certain ^milius Probus of the 4th century A.D. Nepos' manner is easy and pleasant, but suffers from many weaknesses of matter and form. A superficial use of his authori- ties has led him into many errors, and the style is not seldom careless and incorrect. (2) Gains Cornelius Gallus. A Latin poet, born 69 B.C. in the Gaulish town of F6rum lulli. Though of low birth, he was promoted by Octavian to the ordo equester in the year 30 B.C., and made governor (prcefec- tus) of the new province of Egypt, in con- sideration of his great services in the war against Antonius. Through his cruelty and presumption he drew upon himself the dis- pleasure of his former patron ; in conse- quence of which he committed suicide in 26 B.C. He was one of the oldest friends of Vergil, who dedicated to him his tenth Eclogue, as well as an episode at the end of the fourth Georgic, which he, after Gallus' fall, suppressed at the wish of Augustus. The Romans regarded him as the founder of the Latin elegy. He wrote four books of elegies to his mistress, the actress Cytheris (or Lycoris, as he called her). They are in 164 CORNICEN CORONA. the obscure and learned style of the Alex- andrian poet EuphSrion. His poems are lost, but a collection of erotic myths made for his use by the Greek PartheniSs has survived. [A few lines in Vergil's tenth Eclogue were borrowed from Gallus.] CornlcSn. A horn-blower in the Roman army, who gave the signal for attack, on an ox or bison-horn (cornu) set in silver. Cornlficlus. The supposed author of an anonymous treatise on rhetoric in four books, dedicated to a certain Herennius {RhetoHca ad HSrenmuvi.) This is the oldest Latin ' treatise of the sort that we possess. It was 'written in the time of Sulla, about 85 B.C., by a partisan of the Marian faction, who, though not a professed rhetorician, was an educated man, as is shown by his accom- plishments and his correct style. Though philosophical works one remains, an essay on the Nature of the Gods, written in Greek. This is perhaps only an extract from a larger work. Cassiodoi'us {q. v.) has pre- served part of a grammatical treatise by Cornutus, entitled De Ortliogrdphta (" On Orthography "). CdroUarium (Latin). A present consist- ing of a garland of gold or silver leaves, given to successful actors and performers in addition to other honoraria. It thus became a term for any free gift whatever. C6r6na (Latin). A crown ; among the Romans the highest distinction awarded for service in war. The most coveted were the corona triumphcllis (fig. 1) or laurel crown of a general in triumph ; and the corona ohsidiondlis (fig. 2), presented to a general by the army which he had saved (1) Corona triompbalis. (2) Corona obsidionalis. (4) Corona muralis. (5) Corona vallaris. (6) Corona navalis. he followed Greek models, he endeavours to treat his subject from a Roman or national point of view, and therefore gives Latin equivalents for the Greek technical terms. His examples, too, he takes from older Roman writings, or makes them himself. Cicero, who passed for the author in late antiquity, used the same Greek oi-iginal in his De Inventions. Comutus {Lucius Annceus). A native of Leptis, in Africa. A professor of the Stoic philosophy, who lived in Rome in the middle of the 1st century a.d. He was a friend of the poets Lucan and Persius, especially of the latter, whose posthumous satires he pre- pared for publication. He was banished by Nero, in a.d. 68, for his uprightness and courage. He was the author of works on rhetoric, grammar and philosophy. Of his from a siege, or from a shameful capitula- tion. This was woven of grass growing on the spot, and called corona gramlnSa. The corona myrtSa, or ovdlis, was the crown of bay worn by the general who celebrated the lesser triniaph (ovdtlO) . The corona clvicd (fig. 3) was of oak leaves, and was awarded for saving a citizen's life in battle. This secured for its possessor certain privileges, as freedom from taxes for himself, his father and paternal grand- father. The golden corona murdlis (fig. 4), with embattled ornaments, was given for the storming of a wall ; the corona cas~ trensis or vallaris (fig. 5), also of gold, and ornamented in imitation of palisades, to the soldier who first climbed the wall of an enemy's camp ; the corona ndvalis (fig. 6), with ornaments representing the beak of a CORONIS COTTABUS. 165 ship, to the man who first boarded a ship. Under the Empire the garland of bay was reserved exclusively for the emperor, and thus came to be regarded as a crown. The rayed crown, the insigne of the deified emperors, was not worn by the em- perors of the 1st and 2nd century a.d. Grolden crowns were originally the free offerings of provincials and allies to vic- torious generals for the celebration of their triumphs. But from this custom there arose, even in republican times, the habit of compelling a contribution of money {aurum corondrium) to the governor of the pro- vince. During the imperial age this contribution was on exceptional occasions offered as a present to the emperors, but it was often also made compulsory. Among the Greeks a crown (stSphdnds) was often an emblem of office. At Athens, for instance, a crown of bay was worn by the archons in office, the senators {bouleu- tai), and the orators while speaking. It was also the emblem of victory at the games, and a token of distinction for citi- zens of merit (see Theatre). Such crowns of honour were made originally of olive branches, but later of gold. The honour of a crown could be conferred by the people or the senate, or by corporations and foreign states. The latter would often present a crown to the whole commonwealth. If the people or senate presented the crown, the presentation took place in the great assem- bly, or in the senate house, but not in the theatre, except by special decree. Since crowns played a considerable part as ornaments at religious rites and as well at festivals and banquets, the trade of crown-making (mostly in women's hands) was naturally extensive. The art of mak- ing what were called winter crowns of dry flowers was also understood. Artificial flowers, made of thin strips of painted wood, were also used. Coronis {Koronis). See Asclepius. Corpus luris Civilis. The name of the great collection of authorities on Roman law, made by the lawyer Tribonianus, of Side in Pamphylia, at the instance of the Eastern Emperor Justinian (527-565 A.D.). To this collection we owe the preservation of the treasures of the ancient jurispru- dence, which must certainly otherwise have been lost. The Corpus luris consists of four parts: (1) Codex lustlnldnSus, called rSpetltce prcelectionis^ as being the revised edition of a code now lost, but which had appeared in 529. This was published in 534, and con- tains in twelve books the imperial law (ius principale), or the constitution's of the emperors since Hadrian. (2) Pandectce, or Dlgesta. The law of the jurists {ius vetus). These, published A.D. 533, are extracts from the works of thirty-nine ancient jurists, arranged in fifty books, according to subjects. (3) Instlt fit ions s. A handbook of juris- prudence, founded mostly upon Gaius, and published in the same year. (4) NovellcB (const itutiones), or supple- mentary ordinances of Justinian, mostly in Greek. These are preserved only in private collections of various compass, one of which, the Autlientlcum or UJber Authenticorum, was recognised as the authorized text, and gives the Greek resci'ipts in a Latin version. CSrj^bantfis (KoryhantSs). The mythical attendants of the Phrygian goddess Rhea Cybele, who were supposed to accompany the goddess with wild dances and intoxi- cating music, while she wandered by torch- light over the forest-clad mountains. The name was further given in Phrygia to the eunuch priests of the goddess. (See Rhea.) C6r;f cus (Gr. Korykvs). See Ball, Games OF. Cosmi (Kosmoi). See Gerusia. Cdthuriius, or more correctly Coturnus (Gr. Kothornos). A Greek name for a high shoe or buskin with several soles. It covered the whole foot, and rose as high as the middle of the leg. It was made so as to fit either foot, and was generally fastened in front with red straps. The "cothurnus was properly a hunting boot, but iEschylus made it part of the costume of his tragic actors to give them a stature above the average. .At the same time the hair was dressed high in order to maintain the proportion of the figure. The cothur- nus was also used in the Roman tragedy. (See Soccus.) Cottabus (Kottdhds). A Greek game very popular at drinking bouts. The player lay on the couch, and in that position tried to throw a few drops of wine in as high a curve as possible, at a mark, without spill- ing any of the wine. The mark was called kottdheion, and was a bronze goblet or saucer, and it was a point to make a noise when hitting it. On the kottabeion was fastened a little image or a bust of Hermes, which was called Manes, and which the player had to hit first with the wine. The wine was supposed to make a sound both in hitting the figure and in falling afterwards into the 166 COTYS CRATES. saucer. This of course greatly increased the difficulty of the game. There was another form of the game in which the point was to make the wine hit the saucer while swimming in a large vessel of water, and sink it. The game was played in a round chamber made for the purpose. The form of the room was circular, to give every player an equal chance of hitting the mark, which was placed in the centre. The victor generally received a prize agreed upon beforehand. The players also used the game to discover CStjrs (Gr. KotyttO). A Thracian goddess, originally, it would seem, connected with Rhea Cybele. Her worship was diffused over Greece and Italy, and was especially popular in Athens and Corinth. The licen- tious orgies associated with it, called Cotyttia, gave it a bad name. Crater. See Vessels. Crates {Krdtes). (1) A Greek comedian, who lived at Athens about 470 B.C. He was regarded as the founder of the Attic Comedy in the proper sense of the term, as his pieces were not, like those of his pre- * COTTABUS. (Yaae from Cor.ieto; ^unalt d Inst. 187G tav, M.) their chances of success in love. They uttered the name of their beloved while throwing the wine. A successful throw gave a good omen, an unsuccessful one a bad omen. A good player leaned upon his left elbow, remained quite quiet, and only used his right hand to throw with. The game came originally from Sicily, but became popular through the whole of Greece, and specially at Athens, where to play well was a mark of good breeding. It did not go out of fashion till the 4th century after Christ. [The cut represents one of the several methods of playing the game.] decessors, mere lampoons on individuals, but presented subjects of a more general character. Only a few fragments of his plays have come down to us. . (2) Crates of Mallds in Cilicia. A Greek scholar, and adherent of the Stoic philo- sophy. He founded a school of interpreta- tion at PergamSn. His principles were in direct opposition to those of Aristarchus ; not only did he take an essentially different view of the Homeric text, but he favoured the allegorical method of exposition, to which the Stoics were so partial, and which was so disliked by the school of Aristarchus. CRATINUS CRONUS. 167 His chief work was a comprehensive com- mentary, critical and exegetical, on Homer. In 167 B.C. he was sent by king Attains on an embassy to Rome. Here he broke his leg, and was thus forced to make a long stay. He used his enforced leisure in giving lec- tures, which gave the first impulse to the study of philology and literary criticism among the Romans. Only a few fragments of his works have survived, Cratinus {Krdtlnds) was, with Eupolis and Aristophanes, a chief representative of the Old Comedy at Athens. He was born in 520 B.C., and died in 423, thus flourishing in the age of Pericles, who was the special object of his attacks. He wrote twenty-one pieces, and gained the prize nine times. The last occasion on which he was victor was shortly before his death, and the defeated comedy was The Clouds of Aristophanes. Cratinus' play was the Pjjtine or "Wine- flask," in which the poet courted the ridi- cule of the public by confessing himself a hard drinker. His wit was brilliant, but more caustic than humorous. He may be regarded as the founder of political comedy. Only the titles and a few fragments of his plays have survived. Cr6on {Kreon). (1) King of Corinth, and father of Griauce : see Argonauts (conclusion). (2) Son of Menoeceus, great-grandson of Pentheus, brother of locaste, and father of Hsemon and Menoeceus (see articles under these names). He governed Thebes after Laius' death until the coming of (Edipus ; and again after the fall of Eteocles until the latter's son, Lao- damas, came of age. {See Anti- gone.) (3) See Amphi- tryon and Hera- cles. Crgpida (Greek krepis). A kind of sandal, bor- rowed by the Romans from the Greeks, and used originally by the Roman soldiers. It had a thick sole, was of the same shape for each foot, and had low leather sides with straps for fastening *PERICI,ES (after CRESI (British Museum). I las). Cresilas (Kresilds), a Greek artist, born at Cydonia in Crete, who flourished at Athens in the second half of the 5th cen- tury B.C. Among his chief works may be mentioned: (1) a statue of Pericles, pro- bably the original of the extant portrait- statues of the great statesman ; (2) a statue of a man mortally wounded, in which the struggle between death and life was vividly portrayed; (3) the Wounded Amazon of Ephesus, a work in which he had to com- pete with Phidias and Polyclitus. This is generally supposed to be the original of one of the several types of Wounded Amazons which have survived. Cresilas seems to have followed the tradition of Myron. Cretheus (Kretheus). In Greek mythology, the son of iEolus and Enarete, the founder of lolcos, and by Tyro father of -ffison, Pheres, and Amythaon. {See iEoLUS 1, and Neleus.) Cr6usa (KrSousa). (1) See ^neas. (2) See Glauce. (3) See Ion 1. Critlas {Kritids). An Athenian, a dis- ciple of Socrates and Gorgias of Leontini. He was one of the most accomplished men of his time, and was distinguished as a poet and an orator. But he is best known as the chief of the Thirty Tyrants, in defence of whose cause against the Liberators he fell in 403 B.C. He was the author of several tragedies. Some fragments of his poems have survived, the largest being from his political elegies. He seems to have had the gift of expression, but to have written in a harsh style of composition. Crdnus {Kronos). In Greek mythology, the youngest son of Uranus and Gsea, who mutilated and overthrew his father, and, with the assistance of his kinsfolk the Titans, made himself sovereign of the world. He took his sister Rhea to wife, and became by her father of Hestia, Deme- ter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus. But his mother prophesied that one of his chil- dren would overthrow him. He accordingly swallowed them all except Zeus, whom Rhea saved by a stratagem. Zeus, when grown up, obtained the assistance of the Ocean-nymph Thetis in making Cronus dis- gorge his children, and then, with the help of his kinsfolk, overpowered Cronus and the Titans. According to one version of the fable, Cronus was imprisoned in TartSrus with the Titans; according to another, he was reconciled with Zeus, and reigned with Rhadamanthys on the Islands of the Blessed. Cronus seems originally to have been a god of the harvest ; whence it happens that in many parts of Greece the harvest month was called Cronion. His name being easily 168 CRYPTEIA CURIA. confused with that of Chr6n6s ("Time"), he was afterwards erroneously regarded as the god of time. In works of art he was represented as an old man with a mantle drawn over the back of his head, and hold- ing a sickle in his hand. The Romans identified him with Saturnus, their god of sowing (see Saturnus). Crypteia {Krypteia). A kind of police maintained at Sparta, with the principal object of watching the Helots. The service was manned by young Spartans appointed annually for the purpose by the Ephors, and their duty was to put dangerous or apparently dangerous Helots out of the way without more ado. A later and erroneous idea represented the Crypteia as a mur- derous chase of the Helots, annually con- ducted by the Spartan youth. Cteatiis {KtSdtds). See Molionid^. Ctesias {KUsias). A Greek historian, born in Cnidus in Caria, and a contemporary of Xenophon. He belonged to the family of the Asclepiadse at Cnidus. In 416 B.C. he came to the Persian court, and became pri- vate physician to King Artaxerxes Mnemon. In this capacity he accompanied the king on his expedition against his brother Cyrus, and cured him of the wound which he re- ceived in the battle of Cnnaxa, B.C. 401. In 399 he returned to his native city, and worked up the valuable material which he had collected during his residence in Persia, partly from his own observation, and partly from his study of the royal archives, into a History of Persia (Perslca) in twenty-three books. The work was written in the Ionic dialect. The first six books treated the history of Assyria, the remaining ones that of Persia, from the earliest times to events within his own experience. Ctesias' work was much used by the ancient historians, though he was censured as untrustworthy and indifferent to truth ; a charge which may be due to the fact that he followed Persian authorities, and thus often differed, to the disadvantage of the Greeks, from the version of facts current among his country- men. Only fragments and extracts of the book survive. The same is true of his Indlca, or notices of the observations which he had made in Persia on the geography and productions of India. Ctbictilarius (Latin). A chamberlain. See Slaves. CubicHlum (Latin). A bed-chamber. See House. Ctcallns (Latin). A hood. See Cloth- ing. Ctingus. See Theatre. Ctipidd (" Desire "). The Latin personi- fication of Eros, or the god of Love, Ciira. The Latin term for the superin- tendence of a special department of business, such as the distribution of corn (anndna), making of roads, regulation of watercourses, aqueducts and the like. The oflScers en- trusted with these special duties were termed curatOrSs. In the republican age they were extra ordinem. In the civil law cui-a denotes the guardianship of a madman {furiosus) or a spendthrift [prodlgus). The curator who managed his property and re- presented him at law was originally the next dgnatus, but afterwards he was always appointed by the authorities. Since 200 B.C. it was also customary to appoint cura- tores for young persons under twenty-five, under certain conditions, to protect them against being overreached in legal proceed- ings. From the time of Marcus Aurelius, who made the legality of certain trans- actions dependent on the co-operation of a curator, the cura minoruni became a stand- ing institution. Curetgs {KouretH), In Cretan mythology the Curetes were demi-gods armed with weapons of brass, to whom the new-born child Zeus was committed by his mother Rhea for protection against the wiles of Cronus. They drowned the cries of the child by striking their spears against their shields. They gave their name to the priests of the Cretan goddess Rhea and of the Idsean Zeus, who performed noisy war- dances at the festivals of those deities. Curia (Latin). The name of the thirty divisions into which the three trlhus of the Roman patricians were divided for political and religious objects. Every curia contained a number of gentes, supposed to be exactly ten, and a president, curw, whose duty it was to look after its secular and religious business. At the head of all the curim stood the Cui'io Maximus, who was charged with the notification of the common festivals Fordlcidla and Forndcalid(see these words). The separate curiones were chosen by their respective curiae, and the Curio Maximus was elected by the people in special comitia out of the number of curiones. For its special sacrifices every curia had its place of meeting, bearing the same name, with a hearth and dining-hall where the members met to feast and sacrifice. The plebeians seem to have been admitted to the sacrifices, which were offered on behalf of the whole people, and were paid for at the expense CURIO CYCNUS. 169 of the state {see further, CoMiTiA Curiata). The term curia was also applied to certain houses intended for holding meetings, as, for instance, the official residence of the Salii on the Palatine, and especially the senate-house. Curia HostlUa, built by king Hostilius on the comitium, and burnt down 52 B.C. In its place Faustus Sulla, the son of the Dictator, erected the Curia Cornelia. Caesar interrupted the progress of this work to set up the Curia lulla in its place. Then the senate met in the Curia Pompel, in the entrance-hall of Pompey's theatre, where Caesar was murdered. The Curia lulia was not begun till 44 B.C., shortly before Caesar's death, and was consecrated in 29 by Augustus. {See plan of Roman Fora, under Forum.) Curio. See Curia. Ciirotrophos (Grr. Kourdtrdphds) ; "nurse of children." The title of several Greek goddesses, for instance Gaea, who were re- garded as protectresses of youth. Curtius Rufus {Quintus). A Roman historian, who probably lived and practised as a rhetorician about the middle of the 1st century A.D., and wrote a history of Alexander the Great, in ten books, in the reign of Claudius (a.d. 44-54). The first two books are lost, and the fifth muti- lated at the end, the sixth at the begin- ning. He seems to aim more at rhetorical effect than at historical accuracy. In the use of his authorities he is uncriti- cal, as he follows untrustworthy writers like Clitarchus, knowing them to be un- trustworthy. His work contains many errors in geography and chronology, and his accounts of the battles show that he had no military knowledge. But he understands the art of interesting his readers by a pleasant narrative and lifelike drawing, and there is a certain charm in the numerous speeches which he has inserted in his text, in spite of their strong rhetorical colour- ing. His language reminds us of Livy. It is curious that he is never mentioned in antiquity, C^athus {Kycithds). See Vessels. C^bebe, CJ-b§le. See Rhea. Cyclic Poets. See Epos. Cjrclopgs {Kyklopes). In Greek my- thology, the round-eyed ones. According to Hesiod the Cyclopes are the gigantic sons of Uranus and Gaea, named Argos, Steropes, and Brontes. For the rest, they resemble the gods, except that they have only a single eye in their forehead. Their father threw them into Tartarus, and they assisted CrSnus to the sovereignty. Cronus, however, put them again in prison, where they remained until Zeus set them free. For this they gave him the thunder, and forged him the lightning. Apollo slew them when Zeus struck his son Asclepius by lightning. In Homer the Cyclopes, like the giants and the Phaeacians, are the kinsfolk of the gods ; but in other respects they have no- thing in common with the Cyclopes of Hesiod but their gigantic size and strength. They live a pastoral life in the far West, without knowledge of agriculture, law, morals, or social order. Each dwells separately with his family in caverns at the mountain tops, without troubling him- self about the gods, to whom, indeed, the Cyclopes deem themselves easily superior in strength. The Phaeacians used to live in their neighbourhood, but were driven by their violent dealing to emigrate. The figure of PSlyphemus, well known from his encounter with Odysseus, gives a typical notion of their rudeness and savagery. {See also Galatea). The Homeric Cyclo- pes were in a later age localized in Sicily, and came to be identified with the Cyclopes of Hesiod. They were imagined as assist- ants of Hephaestus, and as helping him to forge lightnings for Zeus and arms for heroes in the bowels of iEtna or on the iEolian islands. A third variety of Cyclo- pes were the giants with arms to their belly as well as to their shoulders, whom Proetus was supposed to have brought from Lycia to Argos. It was they who were supposed to have built the so-called Cyclopean walls at Mycenae and Tiryns {see Architecture). In works of art the Cyclopes are represented as giants with one eye in their forehead, though there is generally an indication of a pair of eyes in the usual place. Cycnus {Kyknds) or " Swan." (1) The son of Ares and PelSpia, who threw him- self in the way of HerScles in Trachis, when the hero was on his way to Ceyx. According to another story Heracles was sent against Cycnus by Apollo, because he lay in wait for the processions on their road to Delphi. In the contest between them, as described by Hesiod in his Shield of Heracles, Ares stood at the side of his son, while Heracles was supported by Athene and his faithful lolaus. Heracles slew Cycnus, and even wounded Ares, when the latter attempted to avenge the fall of his son. Cycnus was buried with all due 170 CYDIPPE D^DALA. honours by his father-in-law Ceyx, but Apollo destroyed the tomb by an inunda- tion of the river Anaurus. There was a son of Ares and Pyrene who bore the same name, and he too was said to have fallen in combat against Heracles. Ares attempted to avenge his son, when Zeus, by a flash of lightning, separated his angry children. After his death, said the story, Cycnus was changed by his father into a swan. (2) The son of Poseidon and Calyce. He was exposed by his mother on the sea-shore and found by some fishermen, who named him Cycnus because they saw a swan flying round him. He was invulnerable, and of gigantic strength and stature ; his head (or, according to another account, his whole body) was as white as snow. He became king of C6lon8e in the Troad, and was twice married. A slanderous utterance of his second wife stung him to fury against the children of his first wife, whom he threw into the sea in a chest. They were cast up alive on the island of TenedSs, where Tenes was king. At a later time Cycnus repented of his deed, sought for his son, and marched with him to the aid of the Trojans against the Greeks. They pre- vented the Greeks from landing ; but both were at last slain by Achilles, who stran- gled the invulnerable Cycnus with his own helmet strap. He was changed by Poseidon into a swan. Cydippe (KydippC). The heroine of a very popular Greek love-story, which was treated by Callimichus in a poem now un- fortunately lost. The later Greek prose romances were founded upon this version. Cydippe was the daughter of a well-bom Athenian. It happened that she and Acontius, a youth from the island of Ceos, who was in love with her, had come at the same time to a festival of Artemis at Delos. Cydippe was sitting in the temple of Arte- mis, when Acontius threw at her feet an apple, on which was written, " I swear by the sanctuary of Artemis that I will wed Acontius." Cydippe took up the apple and read the words aloud, then threw it from her, and took no notice of Acontius and his addresses. After this her father wished on several occasions to give her in marriage, but she always fell ill before the wedding. The father consulted the Delphic oracle, which revealed to him that the illness of his daughter was due to the wrath of Arte- mis, by whose shrine she had sworn and broken her oath. He accordingly gave her to Acontius to wife. Cymblum (KyviMdn). See Vessels. Cynics. See Antisthenes. CynSphontIs {Kynophontis). See Linus. Cyprianus. (1) Thascus Cceciltus. A Latin ecclesiastical writer, born in Africa at the beginning of the 3rd century, of a respectable pagan family. Originally a teacher of rhetoric, he was converted and made Bishop of Carthage in 248 a.d. He was beheaded during the persecution under Valerian, in 257. In his numerous writ- ings and exhortations he not only imitates Tertullian (whom he acknowledges as his master), but makes great use of his works. Besides these we have a large collection of his letters addressed to individuals and to churches. [(2) Cyprian of Toulon. A bishop of Toulon, who lived during the last quarter of the 5th and first half of the 6th cen- turies A.D. He was in all probability the author of a metrical Latin Heptateuch, edited piecemeal by Morel, Martene, and Pitra ; critically reviewed by J. E. B. Mayor, Cambridge, 1889.] Cyrene (Kyrene). Sec Arist.eus, Cj^zlcus (Kyzikos). See Argonauts. Dsed&la (" wooden images ")• A peculiar festival held by the Boeotians in honour of Hera. The goddess had, according to the story, once quarrelled with Zeus, and hidden herself on Mount Cithseron. Her husband then spread the report that he was going to marry another wife, and had an image of oak-wood decked out in bridal attire and carried over CithseroiT^on a chariot with a numerous train amid the singing of mar- riage hymns. Hera, in her jealousy, threw herself upon her supposed rival, but. on dis- covering the trick, reconciled herself with laughter to Zeus, took her seat on the chariot, and founded the festival in memory of the incident. The feast was celebrated every seven years by the Plataeans alone, and called the little Daedala. But every sixtieth year all the cities of the Boeotian federation kept it as the great Daedala. At the little Daedala, guided by the note of a bird, they fixed on a tree in a grove of oaks, and cut a figure out of it, which they dressed in bridal attire and took, as in D^D ALIGN- -D^MON. 171 marriage procession, to the top of Cithaerou. Here they offered a goat to Zeus and a cow to Hera, and burnt the image with the offering. At the great Dsedala the images made at the little Dsedala were distributed by lot among the cities of the Boeotian confederacy, and the same proceedings were then repeated. Daedalion. Brother of Ceyx (see Ceyx), threw himself down from a rock on Par- nassus for grief at the death of his daugh- ter Chione, and was turned by the gods into a hawk. Daedalus {i.e. " cunning artificer "). The mythical Greek representative of all handi- work, especially of Attic and Cretan art. As such he was worshipped by the artists' guilds, especially in Attica. He was said to be the son of the Athenian Metion, son of Eupalamus (the ready-handed) and grandson of Erechtheus. He was supposed to have been the first artist who represented the human figure with open eyes, and feet and arms in motion. Besides being an excellent architect, he was said to have invented many imple- ments, the axe for instance, the awl, and the bevel. His nephew and pupil (son of his sister Perdix) appeared likely to surpass him in readiness and originality. The in- vention of the saw, which he copied from the chinbone of a snake, of the potter's wheel, of the turning lathe, and of other things of the kind, was attributed to him. Daeda- lus was so jealous of him that he threw him from the AcrSpolis ; and being detected in the act of burying the body, was condemned by the Areopagus, and fled to Crete to king Minos. Here, among other things, he made the labyrinth at Gnosus for the Minotaur. He and his son Icarus were themselves confined in it, because he had given Ariadne the clue with which she guided Theseus through the maze. But the father and son succeeded in escaping, and fled over the sea upon wings of wax feathers made by Daedalus. Icarus, however, approached too near to the sun, so that the wax melted, and he fell into the sea and was drowned. The sea was called after him the Icarian, and the island on which his body was thrown up and buried by Heracles, was called Icaria. Daedalus came to Camicus in Sicily, to king CScSlus, whose daughter loved him for his art, and slew Minos who came in pursuit of him. He was supposed to have died in Sicily, where buildings attributed to him were shown in many places, as also in Sardinia, Egypt and Italy, particularly at Cumae. In Greece a number of ancient wooden images were supposed to be his work, in particular a statue of Heracles at Thebes, which Daedalus was said to have made in gratitude for the burial of Icarus. Dactyli (Daktyloi). See Id^an Dactyli. Daduchus (Gr. Daidouclios). See Eleu- SINIA. * D^DALUS AND ICARUS. (Rome, Villa Albani.) Damastes. A monster living at Eleusis, in Attica, also called Procrustes, or the Stretcher. His custom was to lay his guests upon his bed, and if they were too short for it, to rack them to death, if too long, to cut off as much of their limbs as would make them short enough. He was slain by Theseus. Daemon (Gr. Dainion). Originally a term applied to deity in general, manifested in its active relation to human life, with- 172 DANAE DANCING. out special reterence to any single divine personality. But as early as Hesiod the dcein6nSs appear as subordinates or servants of the higher gods. He gives the name specially to the spirits of the past age of gold, who are appointed to watch over men and guard them. In later times, too, the dcemone" were regarded as beings intermediate between the gods and man- kind, forming as it were the retinue of the gods, representing their powers in activity, and entrusted with the fulfilment of their various functions. This was the relation, to take an instance, which the Satyrs and Slleni bore to Dionysus. But the popular belief varied with regard to many of these deities, Eros, e.g., was by many expressly designated a daemon, while by others he was worshipped as a powerful and independent deity. Another kind of dannones are those who were attached to individual men, attending them, like the Roman genius, from their birth onwards through their whole life. In later times two dcemones, a good and bad, were some- times assumed for every one. This belief was, however, not universal, the prevalent idea being that good and bad alike pro- ceeded at different times from the daemon of each individual ; and that one person had a powerful and benevolent, another a weak and malevolent daemon. Agcdh6-dcemon (good dcemon) was the name of the good spirit of rural prosperity and of vineyards. DaiiS,e. The daughter of Acrisius of Argos, who was shut up in a brazen tower by her father in consequence of an oracle which predicted that death would come to him from his daughter's son. Never- theless, she bore to Zeus a son, Perseus, the god having visited her in the form of a shower of gold. She was then shut up with her son in a chest and thrown into the sea. Driven by the waves on to the island of SeriphSs, she was kindly received by a fisherman named Dictys. His brother, PSly'dectes, the king of the island, wished to force her to marry him, but her son Perseus delivered her from him, and took her back to Greece. {See Perseus.) D^ii§.i. Properly the name of the inhabit- ants of Argos, from their old king DS,na6s, afterwards applied to the Greeks in general, especially the besiegers of Troy. Dd,nd,idSs. The fifty daughters of DSnaus. See Danaus. Dinaus. The son of Belus, king of Egypt, and Anchirrh5e, and twin brother of ^Egyp- tus. iEgyptus and his fifty sons drove Danaus and his fifty daughters from their home in the Egyptian Chemnis through Rhodes to Argos, the home of his ancestress lo {seelo). Here he took over the kingdom from Pelasgus or Gelanor, and after him the Aohseans of Argos bore the name of Danai. Danaus built the acropolis of Larissa and the temple of the Lycian Apollo, and taught the inhabitants of the waterless territory how to dig wells. His daughters also con- ferred benefits on the land by finding springs, especially Amymone, the beloved of Poseidon, who, for love of her, created the inexhaustible fountain of Lerna. For this they were worshipped in Argos. The sons of ^gyptus at length appeared and forced Danaus to give them his daughters in marriage. At their father's command they stabbed their husbands at night, and buried their heads in the valley of Lerna. One only, Hyperranestra, disregarding her father's threats, spared her beloved Lynceus, and helped him to escape. Danaus accord- ingly set on foot a fighting match, and bes- towed his remaining daughter on the victor. Afterwards, though against his will, he gave Lynceus his daughter and his king- dom. According to another story, Lynceus conquered his wife and throne for himself, and took vengeance for his brothers by killing Danaus and his daughters. The Danaides (or daughters of Danaus) atoned for their bloody deed in the regions below by being condemned to pour water for ever into a vessel with holes in its bottom. This fable is generally explained by the hypo- thesis that the Danaides were nymphs of the springs and rivers of the land of Argos, which are filled to overflowing in the wet season, but dry up in summer. The tomb- stone of Danaus stood in the market at Argos. He was also worshipped in Rhodes as the founder of the temple of Athene in LindSs, and as the builder of the first fifty- oared ship, in which he fled from Egypt. The story of Danaus and his daughters is treated by ^Eschylus in his Supplices. Lynceus and Hypermnestra had also a common shrine in Argos ; their son was Abas, father of Acrisius and Proetus. The son of Amymone and Poseidon was Nauplius, founder of Nauplia, and father of Palamedes, (Eax, and Nausimedon. Dancing (Gr. orchesis, Lat. saltcJVid). As early as the Homeric age we find danc- ing an object of artistic cultivation among the Greeks. The sons and daughters of princes and nobles do not disdain to join m it, whether in religious festivals or at social DAPHNE DAPHNIS. 17S gatherings. The Greek orchestlkS, or art of dancing, differed much from the modern. Its aim was to ennoble bodily strength and activity with grace and beauty. Joined with music and poetry, dancing among the Greeks embodied the very spirit of the art of music, mainly because the imitative ele- ment predominated in it. For its main aim was to make gesture represent feeling, passion and action ; and consequently the Greek dance was an exercise not only for the feet, but for the arms, hands and the whole body. The art at first observed the limits of a noble simplicity, but was per- fected, as time went on, in many directions. At the same time it inevitably tended to become more artificial. As in athletics, so in imitative dancing, mechanical execution was largely developed. This was to a great extent displayed in exhibitions of scenes from the mythology, which formed a favourite entertainment at banquets. On the other hand, a prejudice arose against dancing on the part of any one but pro- fessionals. For a grown-up person to per- form a dance, even at social entertainments, was regarded as an impropriety. The reli- gious performances, especially, as bound up with the worship of Apollo and Dionysus, consisted mainly in choral dances, whose movement varied according to the character of the god and of the festival. Sometimes it was a solemn march round the altar, some- times a livelier measure, in which there was a strong dash of imitation. This was espe- cially the case at the festivals of Dionysus. It was from these, as is well known, that the Greek drama was developed, and accord- ingly the dances formed a part of all dramas, varying according to the character of the piece {see Chorus). Indeed, there was an infinite variety in the forms of the Greek dance. Not only had almost every country district its own, but foreign ones were in course of time adopted. It must be noticed that in Greek society grown-up men and women were not allowed to dance together, but there were some dances which were performed together by the youth of both sexes. Among these was the Hormos, or chain-dance, performed by youths and maidens, holding their hands in a changing line, the youths moving in warlike measure, the girls with grace and softness. Another was the Gerdnos, or Crane. This dance was peculiar to Delos, and was said to have been first performed by Theseus after his deliverance from the Labyrinth, with the boys and girls whom he had rescued. Its elaborate complica- tions were supposed to represent the mazes of the Labyrinth. At Sparta dances were practised, as a means of bodily training, by boys and girls. Among them two may be particularly mentioned : the Cdrydtls, performed in honour of Artemis of C^ryae, by the richest and noblest Spartan maidens ; and the dances of boys, youths and men> at the festival of the Gymndpcedia, con- sisting in an imitation of various gymnastic exercises (see Caryatides). Among the Greek country dances was the Epilenlds, or dance of the wine-press, which imitated the actions of gathering and pressing the grape. There were also warlike dances, which were specially popu- lar with the Dorians, and, like others, were partly connected with religious worship. One of the most celebrated of these was the Pyrrhiche {see Pyrrhic Dance). Roman. Dancing never played such a part in the national life of the Romans as it did in that of the Greeks. It is true that the ancient Roman worship included dances of the priests {see Salii), and that the lower orders in the country were fond of dancing on festive occasions. But respectable Romans regarded it as inconsistent with their dignity. After the second Punic War, as Greek habits made their way into Italy, it became the fashion for young men and girls of the upper class to take lessons in dancing and singing. But dancing was never adopted in Rome as a necessary and effective instrument of education, nor was there any time when public dancing was allowed in society. Performances by pro- fessional artists, however (the longer the better), were a favourite entertainment^ especially during the imperial period, when the art of mimic dancing attained an aston- ishing degree of perfection. Daphne. A nymph, daughter of tha Thessalian river-god Peneius, or according to another story, the Arcadian Ladon, waa beloved both by Apollo and by Leucippus^ the son of (Enomaus. The latter followed her in a woman's dress, but was discovered and killed by the nymphs at the instance of his rival. Pursued again by Apollo, the chaste maiden was, at her own entreaty^ changed into a bay tree, the tree consecrated to Apollo. Daphnis. A hero of the Sicilian shep- herds, son of Hermes and of a nymph. A beautiful child, he was exposed by his mother in a grove of bay trees, brought up by nymphs and Pan, and taught by Pan to play 174 DARDANUS DECUMA. the shepherd's flute. He had plighted his troth to a nymph, but breaking his word, he was punished Idj her with blindness, or {according to another story) turned into a stone. According to another fable, AphrS- dite inflicted upon him a hopeless and fatal passion for a woman, because he had des- pised the love of a girl whom she had wished him to wed. Hermes took him up to heaven and created a fountain at the spot where he was taken. At this fountain the Sicilians offered yearly sacrifices. Daphnis was re- garded as the inventor of bucolic poetrj"", and his fate was a favourite subject with bucolic poets. [See Theocritus, Idyll i.] Dard§,nns. Son of Zeus and the Pleiad Electra, the father of the regal house of Troy. He left Arcadia, his mother's home, and went to the island of Samothrace. Here he set up the woi-ship of the great gods, whose shrines, with the Palladium, his first wife Chryse had received as a gift from Athene at her marriage. Samothrace having been visited by a great flood, Dar- •danus sailed away with his shrines to Phrygia, where King Teucer gave him his daughter Bateia to wife, and land enough on Mount Ida to found the town of Dardania. His son by Bateia was ErichthSnIus, whom Homer describes as the wealthiest of mor- tals, and the possessor of horses of the noblest breed and most splendid training. 'The son of Erichthonius was Tros, father of Il6s, AssarScus and Ganymedes. From Ilos, the founder of Illon or Troy, was des- cended Laomedon, father of Priam. From Assaracus sprang Capys, father of Auchises, .and grandfather of ^Eneas. Another story made Dardanus the native prince who wel- comed Teucer on his arrival from Crete ■ {see Teucer). Daricus (G-r. Dareikds). A gold Persian coin, bearing the stamp of a crowned archer, current in Greece down to the Macedonian period. It was equal in value to the Attic gold stater, i.e. according to the present value of gold, 24 shillings. [See Coinage, fig. 3.] D§,res of Phrygia. In Homer the priest of Hephaestus in Troy, supposed to have been the author of a pre-Homeric Iliad. It is doubtful whether there ever was any Greek work bearing this title, but a Latin piece of the 5th century a.d. {Daretis Phrygti De Excldld Troice HistorXa), bearing a supposed dedication by Cornelius Nepos to Sallust, professes to be a transla- tion of one. This absurd production, and .the work of Dictys, was the chief source j followed by the medigeval poets in their stories of the Trojan war {see Dictys). D6a Dia. A Roman goddess, probably identical with Acca Larentia, the ancient Roman goddess of the country. Her wor- ship was provided for by the priestly collS- gium of the Frdtres Arvdles. Death (Gr. Thdndtos). In the Homeric poems Death is called the twin brother of Sleep. In Hesiod he is born of Night with- out a father, with Ker (the goddess of mortal destiny), Mdros (the fatal stroke of death), Hypnds, (sleep) and the Dreams. Hesiod represents Death, the hard-hearted one, hated by the immortal gods, as dwell- ing with his brother Sleep in the darkness of the West, whither the sun never pene- trates either at his rising or his setting. On the chest of Cypsglus at Olympia is a representation of Night, holding in each hand a sleeping boy ; the one in the right hand being white, and symbolizing Sleep; the other in the left hand, black, and symbolizing Death. Euripides introduces Death on the stage in his Alcestis. He has a black garment and black wings, and a knife to cut off a lock of hair as an offer- ing to the gods below. In works of art he appears as a beautiful boy or youth, some- times with, sometimes without, wings, and often with his brother Sleep, He is usually in slumber, and holds a torch, either lowered, or reversed and extinguished. D6cemviri (Latin). A collegium of ten officers or commissioners. Such were the commissioners named for making a com- prehensive code of laws in 451 B.C., DScem- virl Leylhus Scrlbundls. The DecemviH Sacrls Fdclundls were a standing colle- gium of priests appointed to read and expound the Sibylline books. The De- cemviri LltlbUs ludicandls were also a standing collegium of iudicSs appointed for certain trials. Commissions of ten {decem,viri agrls dlvidundls and cdlonils deducendls) were frequentlj'-, though not always, appointed for assignations of public land and the foundation of colonies. DScuma. A tithe. This name was ap- plied by the Romans to the tribute in kind, which Sicily, and at one time Asia Minor had to pay out of the yearly produce of wheat, wine, oil and legumes, instead of the stlpendlum usual in other provinces. It was a burden on the land, called after it dger dSciimdnus, and was exacted from the persons occupying at the time. Every year the number of cultivators, of acres under cultivation, and the produce of the DECURIA DELPHIC ORACLE. 175 harvest, was ascertained, and the right of exacting the decuma of the whole terri- tory of a city sold to the highest bidder. In the case of Sicily this took place at Syz'acuse ; in the case of Asia, in Rome. The purchaser of the decuma bound him- self to deliver a certain quantity of corn in Rome ; if the harvest were good, he found his advantage in the surplus. Such farmers of the decumcE were called dccumdnl {see PUBLICANUS). If the amount delivered were insufficient for the needs of the city, a second amount could be exacted by decree of the senate or people, which was paid for by the State {see AN>fONA). DSctiria (Latin). Originally a division consisting of ten persons, as, for example, the three subdivisions of the turvia of cavalry. Afterwards the word was applied to any division of a large whole, whether the number ten was implied or not. The iudices for instance, and most collegia were divided into decurice {see Apparitor). D6ctirl6. (1) The president of a decuria, , or the cavalry officers bearing the name {see Tdrma). (2) The members of the senate in municipal towns were also called decuriones {see Municipium). Dedicatio (Latin). The consecration of a public sanctury. The ponti/ices had to draw up the deed of foundation. When they had signified that they deemed the act permissible, and the consent of the people (in later times of the emperor) had been obtained, the rite was performed in the presence of the whole collegium pontl- ficum. The Pontifex Maximus, whose head was veiled, and with him the representa- tive of the people, took hold of the door- post with one hand, the former dictating, and the latter repeating after him, the formula of dedication. The people was represented usually by one of the two consuls, or a person, or a commission (gene- rally of two persons) elected by the people on the recommendation of the senate. One of the persons forming the commission was generally the man who had vowed the dedication. The day on which the shrine was dedicated was regarded as the day of its foundation, and was inscribed in the calendar as a festival. Dei^nira. Daughter of (Eneus king of Calj'don, and Althsea. She was the wife of Heracles, whose death was brought about by her jealousy {see Heracles). Deidamia. Daughter of Lycomedes, king of Scyros, and mother of NeoptSlemus by Achilles. Deimds and PhdbSs. See Ares, and comp. Pallor and Pavor. Deiphdbus. Son of Priam and Hecuba, and one of the chief Trojan heroes, next to Hector, after whose death he was the leader of the Trojan army. It was he and Paris who were said to have slain Achilles. In the later story he is the husband of Helen, after Paris' death, and is betrayed by her to Menelaus on the taking of Troy. Ac- cording to Homer's account he was sur- prised by Odysseus and Menelaus in his own house, and overcome only after a hard struggle. Delia. The festival of Apollo held every five years at the island of Delos, and visited by ceremonial embassies from all the Greek cities. Delphica Mensa. See Tables. Delphinia. A festival held at Athens in honour of Apollo as the god of spring. The Delphinion was a sanctuary of the Delphian Apollo at Athens. {See Ephet^.) Delphic Oracle. A very ancient seat of prophecy at Delphi, originally called Pytho, and situated on the south-western spur of Parnassus in a valley of Phocis. In historical times the oracle appears in possession of Apollo; but the original pos- sessor, according to the story, was Gaia (the Earth), Then it was shared by her wifli Poseidon, who gave up his part in it to Apollo in exchange for the island of Calauria, Themis, the daughter and suc- cessor of Gaia, having ah'eady given Apollo her share. According to the Homeric hymn to the Pythian Apollo, the god took forcible possession of the oracle soon after his birth, slaying with his earliest bow-shot tlie serpent Pytho, the son of Gaia, who guarded the spot. To atone for his murder, Apollo was forced to fly and spend eight years in menial service before he could return forgiven. A festival, the Septeria, was held every year, at which the whole story was represented: the slaying of the serpent, and the flight, atonement, and re- turn of the god. Apollo was represented by a boy, both of whose parents were living. The dragon was symbolically slain, and his house, decked out in costly fashion, was burnt. Then the boy's followers hastily dispersed, and the boy was taken in procession to Tempe, along the road formerly followed by the god. Here he was purified and brought back by the same road, accompanied by a chorus of maidens singing songs of joy. The oracle proper was a cleft in the ground in the innermost 176 DELPHIC ORACLE. sanctuary, from which arose cold vapours, which had the power of inducing ecstasy. Over the cleft stood a lofty gilded tripod of wood. On this was a circular slab, upon which the seat of the prophetess was placed. The prophetess, called Pythia, was a maiden of honourable birth ; in earlier times a young girl, but in a later age a woman of over fifty, still wearing a girl's dress, in memory of the earlier cus- tom. In the prosperous times of the oracle two Pythias acted alternately, with a third to assist them. In the earliest times the Pythia ascended the tripod only once a year, on the birthday of Apollo, the seventh of the Delphian spring month BysI6s. But in later years she prophesied every day, if the day itself and the sacrifices were not unfavourable. These sacrifices were offered b}' the supplicants, adorned with laurel crowns and fillets of wool. Having pre- pared herself by washing and purification, the Pythia entered the sanctuary, with gold ornaments in her hair, and flowing robes upon her ; she drank of the water of the fountain Cassotis, which flowed into the shrine, tasted the fruit of the old bay tree standing in the chamber, and took her seat. No one was present but a priest, called the Prdphetes, who explained the words she uttered in her ecstasy, and put them into metrical form, generally hexameters. In later times the votaries were contented with answers in prose. The responses were often obscure and enigmatical, and couched in ambiguous and metaphorical expressions, which themselves needed ex- planation. The order in which the appli- cants approached the oracle was determined by lot, but certain cities, as Sparta, had the right of priority. The reputation of the oracle stood very high throughout Greece until the time of the Persian wars, especially among the Dorian tribes, and among them pre-eminently the Spartans, who had stood from of old in intimate relation with it. On all important occasions, as the sending out of colonies, the framing of internal legislation or reli- gious ordinances, the god of Delphi was consulted, and that not only by Greeks but by foreigners, especially the people of Asia and Italy. After the Persian wars the influence of the oracle declined, partly in consequence of the growth of unbelief, partly from the mistrust excited by the partiality and venality of the priesthood. But it never fell completely into discredit, and from time to time its position rose again. In the first half of the 2nd century A.D. it had a revival, the result of the newly awakened interest in the old reli- gion. It was abolished at the end of the 4th century A.D. by Theodosius the Great. The oldest stone temple of Apollo was attributed to the mythical architects, Trophonius and Agamedes. It was burnt down in 548 B.C., when the AlcmaBonidse, at that time in exile from Athens, undertook to rebuild it for the sum of 300 talents, partly taken from the treasure of the temple, and partly contributed by all countries inhabited by Greeks and stand- ing in connexion with the oracle. They put the restoration into the hands of the Corinthian architect SpinthS,rus, and carried it out in a more splendid style than was originally agreed upon, building the front of Parian marble instead of limestone. The groups of sculpture in the pediments represented, on the eastern side, Apollo with Artemis, Leto, and the Muses ; on the western side, Dionysus with the Thyiadgs and the setting sun ; for Dionysus was worshipped here in winter during the imagined absence of Apollo. These were all the work of Praxias and Androsthenes, and were finished about 430 B.C. The temple was, on account of its vast extent, a hypsethral building; that is, there was no roof over the space occupied by the temple proper. The architecture of the exterior was Doric, of the interior Ionic, as may still be observed in the surviving ruins. On the walls of the entrance-hall were short texts written in gold, attributed to the Seven Wise Men. One of these was the celebrated " Know Thyself." In the temple proper stood the golden statue of Apollo, and in front of it the sacrificial hearth with the eternal fire. Near this was a globe of marble covered with fillets, the OmphdldSy or centre of the earth. In earlier times two eagles stood at its side, representing the two eagles which fable said had been sent out by Zeus at the same moment from the eastern and western ends of the world. These eagles were carried off in the Phocian war, and their place filled by two eagles in mosaic on the floor. Behind this space was the inner shrine, lying lower, in the form of a cavern over the cleft in the earth. Within the spacious precincts {perib6l6s\ stood a great number of chapels, statues, votive offerings and treasure-houses of the various Greek states, in which they de- posited their gifts to the sanctuary, es- pecially the tithes of the booty taken in DEMARCHOS DEMETER. 177 war. Here, too, was the council chamber of the Delphians. Before the entrance to the temple was the great altar for burnt- offerings, and the golden tripod, dedicated by the Greeks after the battle of Platsea, on a pedestal of brass, representing a snake in three coils. [The greater part of this pedestal now stands in the Hippodrome, or Atmeidan, at Constantinople,] Besides the treasures accumulated in the course of time, the temple had considerable property in land, with a population consisting mainly of slaves {hierodouloi), bound to pay con- tributions and to render service to the sanctuary. The management of the pro- perty was in the hands of priests chosen from the noble Delphian families, at their head the five Hosloi or consecrated ones. Since the first spoliation of the temple by the Phocians in 355 B.C., it was several times plundered on a grand scale. Nero, for instance, is said to have carried off 500 bronze statues. Yet some 3,000 statues were to be seen there in the time of the elder Pliny. [See an article on the Delphic temple by Professor Middleton, Journal of Hellenic Studies, ix 282-322.] Demarchos. See Demos. Demeter (in Greek mythology). Daughter of Cronus and Rhea. Her name signifies DEMETKR AND PERSEPHONE CONSECHATING TRIPTOLEMUS (?) (Relief found at Eleusis, 1859.) Mother Earth, the meaning being that she was goddess of agriculture and the civili- zation based upon it. Her children are, by D. C. A. ISsion, a son Plutus, the god of riches, and by her brother Zeus, a daughter Perse- phone. Round Demeter and this daughter centre her worship and the fables respect- ing her. Hades carries off Persephone, and Demeter wanders nine days over the ■^. sC. Jfr. //. DEMETER OP CNIDUs. (British Museum.) earth seeking her, till on the tenth day she learns the truth from the all-seeing sun. She is wrath with Zeus for permitting the act of violence, and she visits Olympus and wanders about among men in the form of an old woman under the name of Deo or the Seeker, till at length, at Eleusis, in Attica, she is kindly received at the house of king Celeus, and finds comfort in tend- ing his newly born son Demophoon. Sur- prised by his mother in the act of trying to make the child immortal by putting it in the fire, she reveals her deity, and causes a temple to be built to her, in which she gives herself up to her grief. In her wrath she makes the earth barren, so that man- kind are threatened with destruction by famine, as she does not allow the fruit of the earth to spring up again until her daughter is allowed to spend two-thirds of the year with her. On her return to Olympus she leaves the gift of corn, of 17S DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS DEMINUTIO CAPITIS. agriculture, and of her holy mysteries with her host, as a token of grateful recollection. She sends TriptSlemus the Eleusinian round the world on her chariot, drawn by ser- pents, to diffuse the knowledge of agricul- ture and other blessings accompanying it, the settlement of fixed places of abode, civil order, and wedlock. Thus Demeter was worshipped as the goddess of agricul- ture and foundress of law, order, and es- pecially of marriage, in all places where Greeks dwelt, her daughter being usually associated with her. (See Thesmophoria.) The most ancient seat of her worship was Athens and Eleusis, where the Rharian DEMETER. (Mural painting from Pompeii.) plain was solemnly ploughed every year in memory of the first sowing of wheat. She was also much worshipped in Sicily, which from its fertility was accounted one of her favourite places of abode {see Eleusinia). As the goddess of fertility, Demeter was in many regions associated with Poseidon, the god of fertilizing water. This was particularly the case in Arcadia, where Poseidon was regarded as the father of Persephone. She was also joined with Dionysus, the god of wine, and, as mother of Persephone and goddess of the earth, to which not only the seed, but the dead are committed, she is connected with the lower world under the name of Chthonia. In later times she was often confused with Gaia and Rhea, or Cj'bele. Besides fruit and honeycombs, the cow and the sow were offered to her, both as emblems of pro- ductivity. Her attributes are poppies and ears of corn (also a symbol of fruitfulness), a basket of fruit and a little pig. Other emblems had a mystic significance, as the torch and the serpent, as living in the earth, and as symbolizing a renewal of life by shedding its skin. The Romans identi- fied her with their own Ceres. Demetrius Phalereus (of Phalerum, on the coast S.W. of Athens). He was born about 345 B.C., was a pupil of Theophrastus, and an adherent of the Peripatetic school. He was distinguished as a statesman, orator and scholar. His reputation induced Cas- sander to put him at the head of the Athenian state in 317 B.C. For ten years he administered its affairs, and so thoroughly won the affection of his fellow-citizens that they erected numerous statues to him, as many as 360, according to the accounts. On the approach of Demetrius Poliorcetes in 307 B.C., he was deposed, and through the efforts of his opponents condemned to death by the fickle populace. On this he fled to Egypt, to the court of Ptolemy the First, who received him kindly and availed him- self of his counsel. Thus Demetrius is credited with having suggested the founda- tion of the celebrated Alexandrian library. But Ptolemy withdrew his favour from him and banished him to Upper Egypt, where he died in 283 B.C. from the bite of a venomous snake. He was very active as a writer, and his stay in Egypt gave him plenty of leisure to indulge his taste ; but only a few fragments of his works have survived. An essay On Rhetorical Ex- pression, formerly attributed to him, was in reality from the hand of a Demetrius who lived in the 1st century a.d. As an orator Demetrius is said to have been attractive rather than powerful. He was supposed to have been the first speaker who gave rhetorical expression an artificial character, and also the first who introduced into the rhetorical schools the habit of practising speaking upon fictitious themes, juristic or political. Deminutio capitis (diminution of civil rights and legal capacity). This was the term by which the Romans denoted de- gradation into an inferior civil condition, through the loss of the rights of freedom, citizenship or family. The extreme form of it, deminutio capitis maxima, was entailed DEMIURGI DEMOPHOON. 179 by the loss of freedom, which, involved the loss of all other rights. This would occur if a Roman citizen were taken prisoner in war, or given up to the enemy for having violated the sanctity of an ambassador, or concluding a treaty not approved of by the people. Or again if he was sold into slavery, whether by the State for refusing military service, or declining to state the amount of his property at the census, or by his creditors for debt. If a prisoner of war returned home, or if the enemy refused to accept him when given up to them, his former civil rights were restored. The inter- mediate stage, deminutio capitis mSdta or minor, consisted in loss of civil rights con- sequent on becoming citizen of another state, or on a decree of exile confirmed by the people, or (in imperial times) on depor- tation. Restoration of the civil status was possible if the foreign citizenship were given up, or if the decree of exile were cancelled. The lowest grade (deminutio capitis minima) was the loss of hitherto existing family rights by emancipation (which involved leaving the family), adop- tion, or (in the case of a girl) by marriage. Demiurgi (Demwurgoi, workers for the people). A general term among the Greeks for tradesmen, among whom they included artists and physicians. In old times they formed, at Athens, the third order, the other two being the Eupdtridce and Geom,6r% {see these names). In some states dem,iurgi was the name of the public officials; in the Achaean League, for instance, the ten demiurgi were among the highest officers ■of the confederacy. DemScratia {Demokrdtia, sovereignty of the people). The Greek term for the form of constitution in which all citizens had the right of taking part in the government. This right was not always absolutely equal. Sometimes classes were formed on a pro- perty qualification, and civil rights con- ferred accordingly (see Timocratia) ; but no class in this case was absolutely excluded from a share in the government, and it was possible to rise from one class to another. Sometimes provision was made by law to prevent any person taking part in the ad- ministration but such as had proved their worth and capacity. In the absence of such limitations the democracy, as Plato in his Republic and Aristotle in his Politics observed, soon degenerated into a mob- government (ochlocrdtia), or developed into a despotism. Democritus (Dem5k7-U5s) A Greek philosopher born at Abdera in Thrace about 460 B.C. His father, who had entertained king Xerxes for some time during his expedition against Greece, left him a very considerable property, which he spent in making long journeys into Egypt and Asia. On his return he held aloof from all public business, and devoted himself entirely to his studies. He was more than a hundred years old at his death, and left behind him a number of works on ethics, physics, astronomy, mathematics, art, and literature, written in an attractive and animated manner. We have the titles of some of his writings; but only scanty fragments remain. Democritus was the most learned Greek before Aristotle. In the history of philosophy he has a special importance, as the real founder of what is called the Atomic Theory, or the doctrine that the universe was formed out of atoms. It is true that his master Leucippus had already started the same idea. According to this theory there are in the universe two fundamental principles, the Full and the Void, The Full is formed by the atoms, which are primitive bodies of like quality but different form, innumerable, indivisible, indestructible. Falling for ever through the infinite void, the large and heavier atoms overtake and strike upon the smaller ones, and the oblique and circular motions thence arising are the beginning of the formation of the world. The difference of things arises from the fact that atoms differ in number, size, form and arrangement. The soul consists of smooth round atoms resembling those of fire ; these are the nimblest, and in their motion, penetrating the whole body, produce the phenomena of life. The impressions on the senses arise from the effect produced in our senses by the fine atoms which detach themselves from the surface of things. Change is in all cases nothing but the union or separation of atoms. The ethics of Democritus are based on the theory of happiness, and by happiness he means the serenity of the mind, undis- turbed by fear or by anything else. The control of the appetites, attainable by tem- perance and self-culture, is the necessary condition of this. To do good for its own sake, without the influence of fear or hope, is the only thing which secures inward contentment. The system of Epicurus is, of all other ancient systems, the most closely connected with that of Democritus. DemophSon. (1) Son of Celeus of Eleusis and Metanira. He was tended in infancy 180 DEMOS DEMOSTHENES. by Demeter, when, in her search for Perse- phSne, she came to Eleusis in the form of an old woman. Demeter found comfort in the care of the child, and wished to confer immortality on him by anointing him with ambrosia and holding him at night over the fire. The interference of the mother, how- ever, prevented the fulfilment of her design {see Demeter). Triptolemus in some ver- sions takes the place of Demophoon (see Triptolemus). (2) Son of Theseus and Phsedra. With his brother AcSmas he was committed by Theseus to Elephenor, prince of the Abantes in Euboea. This was at the time when Theseus, on his return from the lower regions, found Menestheus in possession of the sovereignty of Attica, and was anxious to emigrate to Scyros. In the post-Homeric story Demophoon and Acamas march to Troy with their protector Elephenor. After the conquest of the city they liberate their grandmother .^thra, and take possession again of their father's kingdom, as Menes- theus, who in Homer is the chief of the Athenians before Troy, had fallen there (see ^thra). When DiSmedes was thrown upon the coast of Attica on his return from Troy, and began to plunder it in ignorance of where he was, Demophoon took the Palladium from him. Subsequently he protected the children of Heracles against the persecutions of Eurystheus, and killed the latter in battle. On his return from Troy he had betrothed himself to Phyllis, daughter of the king of Thrace. On the day appointed for the marriage he did not appear, and Phyllis hanged herself and was changed into a tree. DemSs. A Greek word meaning: (1) the people, either in contrast with a despot or the nobility, or as the depository of supreme power. (2) a district or region. Thus in the Athenian state the demes were the hundred administrative districts formed by Cllsthgnes, of which ten were contained in each of the ten tribes or phylcB. The demes were named after the small towns and hamlets, and sometimes from distinguished families living there and owning property at the time of the division. In course of time the number of the demes increased through extension and division, so that in the age of Augustus it amounted to 174. According to the original arrangement all persons who belonged to a deme lived in its precincts. The descend- ants belonged to the same demes as their ancestors, even though they neither lived nor owned property there. To pass from one deme to another was only possible by adoption. To own property in a strange deme it was necessary to pay a special tc.x to it. As every citizen was obliged to belong to a deme, the complete official de- scription of him included the name of his dem,e as well as of his father. Every deme had certain common religious rites, presided over by special priests. The demotce, or members of a deme, had also a common property, a common chest for receiving the rents and taxes, common officers with a demarchus at their head, and common meetings for the discussion of common interests, elections, and so forth. At these meetings the names of the young citizens of eighteen years old were written in the registers of the deme, and after two years were enrolled in the lists of persons quali- fied to take part in the meetings. It was also at these assemblies that the regular revision of the lists of Athenian citizens took place. Demosthenes. The greatest orator of antiquity, born in 384 B.C., in the Attic dem,e PseanYa. His father, who bore the same name, was the wealthy owner of a manufactory of arms. He died before his son was seven years old, and the young Demos- thenes grew up under the tender care of his mother. The boy's ambition was excited by the brilliant successes of the orator CallistrStus, and he was eager at the same time to bring to justice his dishonest guardians for the wrong done to him and his sisters. He therefore devoted himself to the study of oratory under the special instruction of Isseus. The influence of this master is very evident in his speeches delivered in 364 against one of his guar- dians, AphSbus, with his brother-in-law Onetor. Demosthenes won his case, but did not succeed in getting either from Aphobus or from his other guardians any adequate compensation for the loss of nearly thirteen talents (some £2,600) which he had sus- tained. To support himself and his rela- tions, he took up the lucrative business of writing speeches for others, as well as appearing in person as an advocate in the courts. His two first attempts at address- ing the assembled people were, partly owing to the unwieldiness of his style, partly from a faulty delivery, complete failures. But Demosthenes, so far from being daunted, made superhuman efforts to overcome the defects entailed by a weak chest and a stammering tongue, and to perfect himself DEMOSTHENES. 181 :n the art of delivery. In this he was aided by tlie sympathy and experience of several friends, especially the actor Satyrus. Thus prepared, he appeared again in public in 355 B.C. with his celebrated speech against the law of Leptmes, and then made good his position on the rostrum. Two years afterwards he started on his political career. His object from the first was to re- store the supremacy of Athens through her own resources, and to rally the Greek states round her against the common enemy, whom he had long recognized in Philip of Macedon. It was in 351 B.C. that he first raised his voice against the Macedonian king. Philip, invoked by the Thessalians to help them against the Phocians, had con- quered the latter, and was threatening to occiTpy the pass of Thermopylae, the key of Greece Proper. In his first Philippic, Demosthenes opened the conflict between Greek freedom and the Macedonian military despotism. This contest he carried on with no other weapon than his eloquence; but with such power and persistence that Philip himself is reported to have said that it was Demosthenes and not the Athenians with whom he was fighting. On this occasion he succeeded in inspiring the Athenians to vigorous action. But his three Olynthiac orations failed to conquer the indolence and short-sightedness of his fellow-citizens, and their ally the city of Olynthus was taken by Philip in 348. In 346 he was one of the ambassadors sent to conclude a peace with Philip. His col- leagues Philocrates and vEschines were bribed with Macedonian gold, and Demos- thenes did not succeed in thwarting their intx'igues, which made it possible for the king to occupy Thermopylse, and secure therewith the approach to Greece. In his speech on the Peace he advises his country- men to abide by the settlement. But the ceaseless aggression of the Macedonian soon provoked him again to action, and in the second and third Philippic (344 and 341) he put forth all the power of his eloquence. At the same time he left no stone unturned to strengthen the fighting power of Athens. His exertions were, on this occasion, success- ful : for in spite of the counter efforts of the Macedonian party, he managed to prevail on the Athenians to undertake a war against Philip, in the victorious course of which Perinthus and Byzantium were saved from the Macedonian despotism (340). But it was not long before the intrigues of iEschines, who was in Philip's pay, brought about a new interference on the king's part in the affairs of Greece, As a counter-move Demosthenes used his eloquence to persuade the Thebans to ally themselves with Athens : but all hope was shattered by the unhappy battle of Chseronea (B.C. 338), in which Demosthenes himself took part as a heavy- armed soldier. Greece was now completely KMOSTHENES. (vaucan Museum, Rome.) in the hands of Philip. The Macedonian party tried to make Demosthenes responsible for the disaster ; but the people acquitted him, and conferred upon him, as their most patriotic citizen, the honour of delivering the funeral oration over the dead. In 336, after Philip's death, Demosthenes summoned 182 DEMOTiE DEPORTATIO. the Athenians to rise against the Mace- donian dominion. But the destruction of Thebes by Alexander crippled every at- tempt at resistance. It was only through the venal intervention of Demades that Demosthenes, with his true-hearted allies and supporters Hyperides and Lycurgus, escaped being given up to the enemy, as had been demanded. Demosthenes had been repeatedly crowned in public for his public services, and in 337 B.C. Ctesiphon had pro- posed not only to give him a golden crown for his tried devotion to his country, but to proclaim the fact at the Dionysia by the mouth of the herald, ^schines had already appeared to prosecute Ctesiphon for bring- ing forward an illegal proposal. In 330 he brought up the charge again, meaning it no doubt as a blow against his bitterest enemy Demosthenes. Demosthenes replied in his famous speech upon the Crown, and won a brilliant victory over his adversary, who was thereupon obliged to go into exile at Rhodes. But in 324 his enemies, joined on this occasion by his old friend Hyperides, succeeded in humiliating him. Harpalus, the finance minister of Alexander, had fled to Athens with an immense treasure, and Demosthenes was accused of having taken bribes from him, condemned, and sentenced to pay a fine of 50 talents. Unable to pay this enormous sum, he was thrown into prison, whence he escaped to ^Eglna, to be recalled and welcomed with trumpets in the following year after the death of Alex- ander. But the unfortunate issue of the Lamian war, which resulted in a Mace- donian occupation of Athens and the dis- solution of the democratic constitution, involved him in ruin. Condemned to death with his friends by the Macedonian party, he fled to the island of Calauria, near Troezen, and took sanctuary in the temple of Poseidon. Here, as Antlpater's officers were upon him, he took poison and died, Oct. 16, 322. Sixty-five genuine speeches of Demos- thenes were known in antiquity, and many others were falsely attributed to him. The collection which we possess contains sixty speeches, besides a letter of Philip to the Athenians, but some twenty-seven of these are suspected. The seventh, for instance, On the Island of Hdlonnesus, was written by a contemporary, Hegesippus. The genuineness of the six letters, and of Mty-aix prdoemla, or introductions to public speeches, which bear his name, is also doubt- ful. Among the genuine speeches the most remarkable, both for the beauty of their form and the importance of their subjects, are the Olynthiacs, the Philippics, the orations on the Peace, on the Crown, on the Embassy (against ^schines), with those against the Law of Leptines, against Androtion, and against Meidias, The greatness of Demosthenes consists in his unique combination of honest intention with natural genius and thoroughly finished workmanship. He has all the qualities by which the other Greek orators are dis- tinguished singly, and at the same time the power of appljdng them in the most effective way on each occasion as it arises. It is true that he had not the gift of free extempore speaking, or if he had, he did not cultivate it ; he gave the most elaborate preparation to all his speeches, so that a witty contemporary said they smelt of the lamp. The consequence however is, that all he says shows the deepest thought and ripest consideration. There is the same finish everywhere, whether in the sobriety and acuteness of his argumentation, in the genial and attractive tone of his narrative, or in the mighty and irresistible stream of his eloquence, which no violence of passion ever renders turbid. With all his art, his language is always simple and natural, never far-fetched or artificial. The greatest of the Greek orators, Demosthenes was the centre of all rhetorical study among the Greeks and Romans, and was much com- mented upon by scholars and rhetoricians. Little, however, of these commentaries remains, except a collection of mediocre scholia, bearing the name of Ulpianus. DemdtsB. See Demos. Denarius (Latin). A Roman silver coin so called because it originally contained 10 asses. In later times it = 16 asses = 4 sestertii = -^V ^f ^^ aureus. Its original weight was 4*55 gr. {— between dd. and \0d.\ from 207 B.C. to Nero, 3-90 (about 8id.), after Nero's time 3 41 gr., the amount of pure silver being so reduced that it was worth only about Qd. Its value sub- sequently sank more and more, until at the beginning of the 3rd century A.D. it was worth only 3|d. When at the end of the 3rd century Diocletian introduced a new silver coin of full value according to the Neronian standard (the so-called argen- tSus\ the name denarius was transferred to a small copper coin {see Coinage, Roman). Deo. See Demeter. Deportatlo. Banishment to a specified locality, generally an island. This form of DESULTORES DI^TA. 183 exile was devised under the early Roman emperors. It involved loss of civil rights, and generally also of property. Desultores. See Circus. Deucalion. In Greek mythology, the son of Prometheus and Clymene, husband of Pyrrha, the daughter of Epimetheus, monarch of Phthia in Thessaly. Zeus having resolved to destroy the degenerate race of mankind by a gi'eat flood, Deucalion, by the advice of his father, built a wooden chest, in which he rescued only himself and his wife from the general destruction. After nine days he landed on Mount Par- nassus and sacrificed to Zeus Phyxios (who sends help by flight). Inquiring of the oracle of Themis at Delphi how the human race could be renewed, he received answer that Pyrrha and he should veil their heads, and throw behind them the bones of their mother. They understood the priestess to refer to stones, which they accordingly threw behind them; and the stones of Deucalion turned into men, those of Pyrrha into women. With this new race Deucalion founded a kingdom in Locris, where the grave of Pyrrha was shown. That of Deucalion was said to be visible at Athens in the ancient temple of the Olympian Zeus, which he was supposed to have built. Deverra. One of the three goddesses worshipped among the Italian tribes. She was supposed to protect new-born children and their mothers against disturbance from the god Silvanus {see PicuMNOs). Deversorium. See Inns. Devotio (Latin). A religious ceremony, by virtue of which a general, whose army was in distress, offered up as an atonement to the gods below, and a means of averting their wrath, the army, city, and land of the enemy ; or some soldier in the Roman army ; or even himself, as was the case with the Decii. The general, standing on a spear and with veiled head, repeated a solemn formula dictated to him by the Pontifex. If the city and land of the enemy were offered, the gods were solemnly invited to burn the land or city {See EvoCATio). The fate of the devoted person was left in the hands of the gods. If he survived, an image at least seven feet high was buried in the ground and a bloody sacrifice offered over it ; he was meanwhile held incapable in future of performing any other religious rite, either on his own behalf or on that of the state. Dia. See Hebe. Diadem {diddemd). The white fillet round the brow which was the emblem of sovereignty from the time of Alexander the Great. Caesar refused it when offered him by Antonius, and it was not, in con- sequence, worn by the Roman emperors, except in a few cases. But when the seat of government was removed to Byzantium, Constantine adopted the Greek emblem of royalty. Diacrii. See Solonian Constitution. Diana. An ancient Italian deity, whose name is the feminine counterpart of lanus. She was the goddess of the moon, of the open air, and open country, with its mountains, forests, springs and brooks, of the chase, and of childbirth. In the latter capacity she, like Juno, bore the second title of Lucina. Thus her attributes were akin to those of the Greek Artemis, and in the course of time she was completely identified with her and with Hecate, who resembled her. The most celebrated shrine of Diana was at Aricia in a grove {nemus), from which she was sometimes simply called Nemoren- sis. This was on the banks of the modern lake of Nemi, which was called the mirror of Diana. Here a male deity named Virbius was worshipped with her, a god of the forest and the chase. He was in later times identified with Hippolytus, the risen favourite of Artemis, and the oldest priest of the sanctuary {Rex Nemorensis). He was said to have originated the custom of giving the priest's office to a runaway slave, who broke off a branch from a particular tree in the precincts, and slew his pre- decessor in office in single combat. In consequence of this murderous custom the Greeks compared Diana of Aricia with the Tauric Artemis, and a fable arose that Orestes had brought the image of that god into the grove. Diana was chiefly wor- shipped by women, who prayed to her for happiness in marriage or childbirth. The most considerable temple of Diana at Rome was in the Aventine, founded by Servius Tullius as the sanctuary of the Latin con- federacy. On the day of its foundation (August 13) the slaves had a holiday. This Diana was completely identified with the sister of Apollo, and worshipped simply as Artemis at the Secular Games. A sign of the original difference however remained. Cows were offered to the Diana of the Aventine, and her temple adorned with cows, not with stags' horns, but it was the doe which was sacred to Artemis (see Artemis). Diaeta. See House. 184 DI^TET^ DICTATOR. DiaetetaB (Athenian). Public arbitrators, to whom the parties in a private suit might apply if they wished to avoid a trial before the Heliastse. For this object a consider- able number of citizens 60 years of age were nominated. They received no salary, but a fee of a drachma (about 8d.) from each party, and as much from the complainant for every adjournment. In case of miscon- duct they could be called to account. The DicetetoR were assigned to the parties by lot by the magistrate who (according to the character of the case) would have presided in the court of the Helisea. To this magis- trate (in case the parties did not appeal to the Helisea against it), the Dicetetes handed in the sentence he had delivered as the result of his investigation, to have it signed and published, and thus made legal. The name of Dicetetce was also given to private arbitrators named by agreement between the parties on the understanding that their decision was to be accepted without appeal. Di&sia. A festival of atonement held by the whole population of Attica, on the 23rd of Anthesterion (February to March), to Zeus MeilichlQs (the Zeus of propitiatory offerings). The offerings were bloodless, and consisted chiefly of cakes. Dianlds. See Gymnastics. Diaz6mS.t3. (Latin prcecincttdnes). The broad passages in the Greek theatre, which horizontally divided the successive row of seats into two or three flights (see Theatre.) Dlcaearchus (Dikaiarchds). A Greek phi- losopher and author, a disciple of Aristotle. He was born at Messana in Sicily, but lived mostly in Greece, and especially in the Peloponnese. He was the author of many works on geography, history, poli- tics, and philosophy. One of his most important works was The Life of Hellas, in three books, which contained an account of the geography of Greece, its political development and the condition of its vari- ous states, its public and private life, its theatre, games, religions, etc. Only frag- ments of it remain. [The De Re Publico, of Cicero is supposed, with good reason, to be founded upon a work by Dicsearchus.] A badly written description of Greece, in 150 iambic sSndril, bears the name of Dicsearchus, but (as the acrostic at the beginning shows) is really from the hand of a certain Dionysius, son of Calllphon. Three interesting and not unimportant fragments of a work on The Cities of Greece have also been wrongly attributed to him. Their real author appears to have been an unknown writer named HerSclides, who flourished 280 B.C. DicasterlSn. See Heli.«:a. Dice (Games with). Games with dice were of high antiquity and very popular among the Greeks. They were usually played on a board with a vessel called a tower (pyryos, turricula, fritillus, etc.), narrower at the top than at the bottom, and fitted inside with gradually diminish- ing shelves. There were two kinds of games. In the first, three dice (kybds, tessSra), and in later times two were used. These were shaped like our dice and were marked on the opposite sides with the dots 1-6, 2-5, 3-4. The game was decided by the highest throw, and each throw had a special name. The best (3 or 4 x 6) was called Aphrddlte or Ve7ms, the worst (3 x 1) the dog {kyon or cdnis). In the second, four dice {astrcigdlos or talus) were used, made of the bones of oxen, sheep or goats, or imitations of them in metal or ivory. They had four long sides, two of which, one concave and the other convex, were broad, and the other two narrow, one being more contracted than the other, and two pointed ends, on which they could not stand, and which therefore were not counted. The two broad sides were marked 3 and 4; of the narrow sides the contracted one was marked 6, and the wider one 1, so that 2 and 5 were wanting. As in the other game, so here, every possible throw had its name. The luckiest throw {Venus) was four different numbers, 1, 3, 4, 6; the unluckiest {cdnis) four aces. Dicing as a game of hazard was early for- bidden in Rome, and only allowed at the Saturnalia. The penalty was a fine and infdmia. The sediles were responsible for preventing dicing in taverns. If a private individual allowed it in his house, he had no legal remedy for any irregularities that might occur. In spite of this, dicing was quite common at drinking bouts, especially under the empire. Indeed some emperors, e.g. Claudius, were passionate players. Others however did their best to check the evil. Justinian went so far as to allow a claim for the recovery of money lost at play. Dictator. The Latin term for a magis- trate appointed for special emergencies, after auspices duly taken by the consuls on the commission of the senate. The dictator was never appointed for more than six months. The first instance of the appointment occurred in 501 B.C. The dictator was usually, though not always, chosen from the number of consUldrSs or DICTYMNA DIDYMUS. 185 men who had held the office of consul, No plebeian was elected before 356 B.C. He was always nominated for a particular or specified purpose, on the fulfilment of which he laid down his office. He combined the supreme judicial with the supreme mili- tary power, and there was, originally, no appeal against his proceedings, even the veto of the tribunes being powerless against him. He was entirely irresponsible for his acts, and could therefore not be called to account on the expiration of his term of office. His insignia were the sella cHrfdis, toga pra^texta, and 24 lictors, who repre- sented the lictors of two consuls, and who even in the city bore axes in their bundle of rods, as a sign of the unlimited power of life and death. His assistant was the mdgister equitum (master of the horse), who was bound absolutely to obey his com- mands, and whom he had to nominate immediately after his own election. The original function of the dictator was mili- tary ; but after 363 B.C. a dictator was occa- sionally chosen, in the absence of the consuls, for other purposes than dealing with external danger or internal troubles ; especially to hold the games or religious festivities. The office gradually passed out of use, though not legally abolished . The last military dictator was appointed in 206 B.C., the last absolutely in 202 B.C. The dictatorships of Sulla and Csesar, who was named perpetual dictator not long before his death, were anti-republi- can and unconstitutional. After Csesar was murdered in 44 B.C., the office was abolished for ever by a law of Marcus Antonius. Dictymna. A goddess of the sea, wor- shipped in Crete. {See Britomartis.) Dict;^s. (1) A poor fisherman on the island of Seriphus, who gave welcome to Danae and her son Perseus. (2) Dictys of Gnossos in Crete. Alleged to have been the companion of Idomeneus in the Trojan war, and author of a diary recording his experiences therein. The diary, written in Phoenician on palm leaves, was said to have been found in a leaden box in his grave in the time of Nero, and to have been translated into Greek at that emperor's command. The existence of this Greek ver- sion was doubted, but a certain Lucius Sep- timius, of the 4th century A.D., gave out his Dictys Cretensis Ephemerts De Bello Troiano as a translation of it. This book, and the equally absurd one of Dares {see Dares), were the chief authorities followed by the mediaeval poets who handled the story of Troy. Didascalia {Didaskdlta). A Greek word meaning (1) The performance of a drama. (2) The pieces brought forward for per- formance at a dramatic entertainment. (3) A board hung up in the theatre, with short notices as to the time and place of the con- test, the competing poets, their plays and other successes, perhaps also the Choregi^ and the most celebrated actors. These documents, so important for the history of the drama, were first collected and arranged by Aristotle, whose example was followed by the Alexandrian scholars Callimachus, Aristophanes of Byzantium, and others. From these writings, also called didas- calice, but now unfortunately lost, come the scanty notices preserved by gram- marians and scholiasts upon the particular tragedies and comedies. Following the example of the Greeks the Romans pro- vided the dramas of their own poets with didascalice, as for instance those attached to the comedies of Terence and the Sticlius of Plautus. Dido. Properly a surname of the Phoenician goddess of the moon, the wan- dering Astarte, who was also the goddess of the citadel of Carthage. The name of this goddess and some traits of her story were transferred to Elissa, daughter of the Tyrian king Mutton (the Belus or Agenor of the Greeks). Elissa came from Tj^re to Africa, where she founded Carthage. She was flying from her brother Pygmalion, the murderer of her husband and paternal uncle Sicharbaal or Sicharbas (called in Greek Acerbas and in Latin Sychseus). To escape wedding the barbarian king larbas she erected a funeral pyre and stabbed her- self upon it. According to the later story, followed or invented by Vergil, the tragedy was due to her despair at her desertion by iEneas. Didrachma. See Coinage. Didjrmus. One of the most celebrated Greek scholars of antiquity. He was boi-n at Alexandria in 63 B.C., but lived and taught in Rome. He was one of the chief representatives of the school of Aristarchus. He is said to have been the author of more than 3,500 works, and from his own in- dustry and gigantic power of work was called Chalkenteros (the man with bowels of brass). Homer was the chief subject of his researches. His greatest work was^ a treatise of extraordinary care upon Aris- tarchus' edition of Homer, extracts from which are preserved in the Venetian Scholia to Homer. He wrote commentaries, not 186 DIIPOLIA DINARCHUS. only on Homer, but on Hesiod, the lyric and dramatic poets, and the Attic orators, be- sides monographs and works of reference on literary history. The most valuable part of the information handed down in the grammatical lexicons and commentaries of the Byzantines is to be referred to him. Ciipdlia. A festival celebrated in Athens on the 14th ScirophSrion (June to July), to Zeus as the protector of the city. It was also called Buphdma, from the sacri- fice of an ox connected with it. A labour- ing ox was led to the altar of Zeus in the Acropolis, which was strewn with wheat and barley. As soon as the ox touched the consecrated grain, he was punished by a blow on the neck from an axe, delivered by a priest of a particular family, who instantly threw away the axe and took to flight. In his absence the axe was brought to judg- ment in the Prj'taneum, and condemned, as a thing polluted by murder, to be thrown into the sea. To kill a labouring ox, the trusty helper of man, was rigidly forbidden by custom. In the exceptional sacrifice of one at this festival, the ancient custom may be regarded as on the one hand excusing the slaughter, and on the other insisting that it was, nevertheless, equivalent to a murder. Dilectfts. The levjang of soldiers for military service among the Romans. In the republican age all the citizens who were liable to service assembled in the Capitol on the day previously notified by the Consuls in their Sdictum, or proclamation. The twenty-four tribuni mtlitum were first divided among the four legions to be levied. Then one of the tribes was chosen by lot, and the presence of the citizens ascertained by calling the names accord- ing to the lists of the several tribes. The calling was always opened with names of good omen (see Omen). If a man did not appear, he would be punished according to circumstances, by a fine, confiscation of property, corporal punishment, even by being sold into slavery. Four men of equal age and bodily capacity were ordered to come forward, and distributed among the four legions, then another four, and so on, so that each legion got men of equal quality. As the proceeding was the same with the other tribes, each legion had a quarter of the levy for each tribe. No one man was excused {vdcatiO) from service unless he was over 46 years of age, or had served the number of campaigns prescribed by law, twenty in the infantry, ten in the cavalry, or held a city office or priesthood, or had a temporary or perpetual dispensation granted on account of special business of state. In ancient times the levy of the cavalry followed that of the infantry, in later times it preceded it. On the oath taken after the levy see Sacramentdm. About the year 100 B.C. Marius procured the admission of the capita censl, or classes without property, to military service (see Proletarii). After this the legions were chiefly made up out of this class by enlist- ment; and though the liability to common military service still existed for all citizens, the wealthy citizens strove to relieve them- selves of it, the more so, as after Marius the time of service was extended from twenty campaigns to twenty years. In 89 B.C. the Roman citizenship was extended to all the inhabitants of Italy, and all, therefore, became liable to service. The levies were in consequence not held ex- clusively in Rome, but in all Italy, by con- qulsUores. These functionaries, though they continued to use the official lists of qualified persons, assumed more and more the character of recruiting officers. They were ready to grant the vacatio, or exemp- tion, for money or favour, and anxious to get hold of volunteers by holding out promises. The legal liability to military service continued to exist in imperial times, but after the time of Augustus it was only enforced in regard to the garrison at Rome, and on occasions of special necessity. The army had become a standing one, and even outside of Italy, except when a special levy of new legions was made, the vacancies caused by the departure of the soldiers who had served their time were filled up by volunteers. The levy was carried out by imperial commissioners (dilectdtores), whose business it was to test the qualifications of the recruits. These were, Roman citizen- ship — for only citizens were allowed to serve, whether in the legions, or in the guard and other garrison cohorts of Rome {Cohortes Urbance) — physical capacity, and a certain height, the average of which was 5 feet 10 inches under the empire. For the republican age we have no information on this point. DInarchus (Deinarchds). The last of the ten great Attic orators. He was born at Corinth about 361 B.C., and came early to Athens, where he became the pupil and friend of Theophrastus and Demetrius of Phaierum. After B.C. 336, and especially after the death of the great orators, he DINOCRATES DIOGENES LAERTIUS. 187 acquired wealth and reputation by writing speeches for others. He was involved in the ruin of his patron, Demetrius, and in 307 went into voluntary exile at Chalcis in Euboea. It was fifteen years before he obtained permission to return, through the good offices of Theophrastus, Robbed of his property by the treachery of a friend, and nearly blind, he died at Athens, more than 70 years old. His speeches, which were very numerous (there were at least fifty-eight), are all lost, except three on the trial of Harpalus, one of which is di- rected against Demosthenes. They do not give a favourable idea of his powers. In the opinion of the ancients his style had no individuality, but was an unsuccessful imitation, at one time of Lysias, at another of Hyperides, at another of Demosthenes. DinScrates (Deinokrcttes). A Greek archi- tect, a native of Macedonia, who flourished in the second half of the 4th century B.C., and was thus a contemporary of Alexander the Great. On the commission of Alexander he superintended the foundation of Alex- andria, and erected the funeral pyre of Hephgestion, celebrated for its boldness and splendour. He is also said to have restored the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, burnt down by Herostratus. An idea of the bold- ness of his conceptions may be gathered from the fact that he proposed to represent Mount Athos in human form, with a city in one hand, and in the other a vessel from which the waters of the mountain flowed into the sea. Dinolochus {Deindldchos). See Comedy. Diocletian, Edict of. [An edict published by the Emperor Diocletian about 303 a.d., directing those engaged in the sale of pro- visions not to exceed certain fixed prices in times of scarcity. It is preserved in an inscription in Greek and Latin on the outer wall of the cella of a temple at Stratonicea {Eski-hissar) in Caria. It states the price of many varieties of provisions, and these inform us of their relative value at the time. The provisions specified include not only the ordinary food of the people, but also a number of articles of luxury. Thus mention is made of several kinds of honey, of hams, sausages, salt and fresh-water fish, asparagus and beans, and even pernce Menapicce (Westphalian hams). At the time when the edict was published the denarius was obviously mvich reduced in value, that coin appearing as the equivalent of a single oyster. The inscription was first copied bj' Sherard in 1709 ; it has been elaborately edited by M. Waddington, with new fragments and a commentary, 1864 ;. and by Mommsen in the third volume of the Corpus Inscripttonum Latlnarum, Portions of the Greek copy and the Latin preamble were found at Platsea in 1888-9 during the explorations of the American School of Classical Archseology. In 1890, during the excavations of the British School of Archaeology, several hundred lines of the Greek version of the decree were discovered at Megalopolis, including a list of pigments with their prices. It has been edited anew by Mommsen andBliimner, 1893.— J. E. S.] Diddorus, surnamed Siculits, or the Sici- lian. A Greek historian, native of Agyrion, in Sicily, who lived in the times of Julius Caesar and Augustus. After thirty years' preparation, based upon the results yielded by long travels in Asia and Europe, and the use of the plentiful materials supplied by residence in Rome, he wrote his Bibliotheca, an Universal History in 40 books, extending over a period of some 1,100 years, from the oldest time to 60 B.C. In the first six books he treated the primitive history and mytho- logy of the Egyptians, the natives of Asia, and Africa, and the Hellenes. The next eleven embraced the period from the Trojan war to the death of Alexander the Great. The remaining 23 brought the history down to the beginning of Caesar's struggle with Gaul. We still possess books 1-5 and 11- 20 (from the Persian War under Xerxes to 302 B.C.), besides fragments, partly con- siderable, of the other books. In the early books his treatment is ethnographical ; but from the seventh book onwards, in the strictly historical part of his work, he writes like an annalist narrating all the events of one year at a time, with emphasis on the more important ones. It is obvious that this proceeding must rob the history of all its inner connection. He has other weaknesses. He is incapable of seizing the individual characteristics either of nations or of indi- viduals, and contents himself with giving anecdotes and unconnected details. He follows his authorities blindly, without any attempt to criticize their statements. Then his work falls far short of the ideal which he himself sets up in his introduction. But it is none the less of great value as being one of the main authorities for many parts of ancient history, especially that affecting Sicily. In his style Diodorus aims at clear- ness and simplicity. Dioggnes Laertlus {of Laerte in Cilicia). A Greek author, who flourished about 150 188 DIOGENIANUS DION. A.D., the author of a work, in ten books, on the lives and doctrines of celebrated Greek philosophers. It is an uncritical compilation from books of earlier and later date, but the richness of the material gathered from lost writings gives it inestimable value for the history of philosophy. Books 1-7 embrace the Ionic philosophers from Thales onwards, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and the Stoics down to Chrysippus. Books 8, 9 treat of the philosophers whom he includes under the name of Italian, PythagSras, Empedocles, HerSclitus, the Eleatics and Atomists, ProtagSras, Pyrrho and Epicurus, to the last of whom the whole tenth book is de- voted. DldgSnlanns. A Greek grammarian of Heraclea. In the middle of the 2nd cen- tury A.D. he made extracts in five books from the great collection of stories compiled about a century before by Pamphllus. These extracts form the foundation of the lexicon of Hesychius. A collection of proverbs made by him is preserved in an abridged form. Didmedes. (1) Son of Ares and Cyrene, king of the Bistongs. {See Heracles.) (2) Son of Tydeus and Dei'pyle, and one of the Epigoni. After the death of his maternal grandfather Adrastus, king of Argos, he led 80 ships against Troy, accom- panied by his trusty companions Sthenelus and Euryalus. He appears in Homer, like his father, as a bold, enterprising hero, and a favourite of Athene. In the battle which took place during the absence of Achilles she enables him not only to vanquish all mortals who came in his way, iEneas among them, but to attack and wound Ares and Aphrodite. On his meeting with Glaucus in the thick of battle, see Glaucus 4. When the Achseabs fly from the field, he throws himself boldly in the path of Hector, and is only checked by the lightning of Zeus, which falls in front of his chariot. In the night after the unsuccessful battle he goes out with Odysseus to explore, kills Dolon, the Trojan spy, and murders the sleeping Rhesus, king of Thrace, who had just come to Troy, with twelve of his warriors. In the post-Homeric story, he makes his way again, in companj' with Odysseus, by an underground passage into the acropolis of Troy, and thence steals the Pallddiuvi. This, according to one version, he carried to Argos ; according to another, it was stolen from him by the Athenian king, Dem5ph6on, on his landing in Attica. After the destruction of Troy, according to Homer, he came safe home on the fourth day of his journey. His wife, ^giale or ^Egialeia (daughter or granddaughter of Adrastus), was, according to the later legend, tempted to unfaithfulness by Aphrodite in revenge for the wounds inflicted on her by Diomedes. To escape the fate of Agamemnon, Diomedes fled from Argos to -ffitolia, his father's home, and there avenged his old grandfather (Eneus on his oppressors. Hence he was driven by a storm to Italy, to king Daunus of Apulia, who helps him in war against the Messapians, marries his daughter EuippOj and extends his dominion over the plain of Apulia (called after him Campl Diomedel). According to one story, he died in Daunia, in another he returned to Argos, and died there; in a third, he disappeared in the islands in the Adi-iatic, named, after him, Insulce Dtdmedece, his companions being changed into the herons that live there, the birds of Diomedes, Diomedes was worshipped as a hero not only in Greece, but on the Italian coast of the Adriatic, where his name had in all probability become confused in wor- ship with those of the native deities of horse-taming and navigation. The founda- tion of the Apulian city of Argyrippa (later called Ai'pi) was specially attributed to him. In his native city, Argos, his shield was carried through the streets with the Palla- dium at the festival of Athene, and his statue washed in the river Inachus. (3) A Roman writer on grammar of the last part of the 4th century A.D. He was the author of an A7's Gratnmdtlca, in three books, founded on the same ancient authorities as the work of his contemporary Charisius, with whom he often agrees verbatim. His third book derives special value from the notices on literary history taken from Suetonius. DiSmeia. An Athenian festival in honour of Heracles. {See Heracles.) Dion (Lat. JDio). (1) Dio Chrysostdmus Cocceius. A Greek rhetorician and philo- sopher, born of a respectable family at Prusa in Bithynia, about the middle of the 1st cen- tury A.D. He began his career by devoting himself to rhetoric. Driven from his native ocuntry by domestic intrigues, he lived for a long time in Egypt, where he obtained the favour of the future emperor Vespasian. Afterwards he lived in Rome iinder Domi- tian, until he was banished from Italy and Bithynia for his friendship with a person in high place who had incurred the sus- picion of the emperor. The period of his banishment he spent, according to the com- DIONE DIONYSIA. 189 mand of the Delphic oracle, in distant travels through the northern regions of the Roman empire, as far as the Borysthenes, or Dnieper, and the Getse. All this time he was study- ing philosophy, to which he had previously been averse, in spite of his friendship with ApoUonius of Tyana, His leaning was in the direction of Stoicism. On the accession of his friend Cocceius Nerva (from whom he took the name Cocceius)^ he returned to Rome, where he spent the remainder of his days, with the exception of a short stay in Prusa, He was greatly honoured both by Nerva and his successor Trajan. His contemporaries called him Chrysostmnos (" Golden mouth "), from his powers as a speaker, which he often displayed in pub- lic in Rome and elsewhere. Eighty of his speeches survive. They should rather be called essays on topics of philosophy, morals, and politics. He has talent, and refinement, and healthy moral tone. In his style he imitates the best models, especially Plato and Demosthenes, and his writings are on the whole, in spite of many defects, among the best literary productions of that age. (2) Dio Cassius (or Cassius Dio) Coc- ceidnus. A Greek historian, grandson of Dio Chrysostomos, born at Nicaea, in Bithynia, 155 a.d. He came early to Rome with his father, Cassius Apronianus, a senator and high official. Here he received a careful education. In about 180 A.D. he became a member of the senate, and he was a long time in practice as an advocate. In 194 he was praetor, and afterwards consul. As proconsul he administered in succession the provinces of Africa, Dalmatia, and Pan- nonia. The strict order which he had maintained in Pannonia had drawn upon him the hatred of the undisciplined prae- torians, who demanded his life. Alexander Severus, however, not only shielded him, but nominated him his colleague in the consulship of 229. At the same time he allowed him, for the sake of his own per- sonal safety, to live outside Rome during his term of office. When this had expired the emperor, in consequence of his age and weak health, gave him leave to quit the public service and retire to his native city, where he ended his days. Here he com- pleted his great work on Roman history, from the arrival of ^neas in Italy, to his own consulship in 229 A.D. This he had undertaken at the divine command, commu- nicated to him in a dream. He spent twenty- two years upon it, ten on the preparation, and twelve on the execution. It contained 80 books, divided into decades. It gives only a sketch of the history down to Csesar, but treats the empire in detail, special care being bestowed upon the events contemporary with the writer. Of the first thirty-five books we have only fragments ; book 36 (the wars with the pirates and with Mithridates) is muti- lated at the beginning; books 37-54 (down to the death of Agrippa) are tvKri : TKavxiav Ka\6<;. (Panof ka, Mus6e Blacas, pi. 1 j now in British Museum.) dedicate a votive offering to Dionysus. This was generally a tripod, which was set up either in the theatre, or in the temple of the deity, or in the " Street of Tripods," so named from this custom, an inscription being put on it recording the event (fig, 1). The actors in the successful play received prizes of money, besides the usual hono- raria. From the time of Sophocles the actors in a play were three in number. They had to represent all the parts, those of women included, which involved their changing their costume several times during the performance. The three actors were distinguished as ProtdgonistSs, Deuterd- gonistes, and Tritdgonistes, according to the importance of their parts. If the piece required a fourth actor, which was seldom the case, the chorcgus had to pro- DRAMA. 199 vide one. The choregus had also to see to the position and equipment of the persdnm mutce. In earlier times it is possible that the persons engaged in the representation did not make a business of their art, but performed gratuitously, as the poets down to the time of Sophocles appeared on the stage. But the dramatic art gradually be- came a profession, requiring careful pre- paration, and winning general respect for its members as artists. The chief require- ments for the profession were distinctness and correctness of pronunciation, especially in declamatory passages, and an unusual power of memorj'-, as there was no prompter in a Greek theatre. An actor had also to be thoroughly trained in sing- ing, melodramatic action, dancing, and play of gesture. The latter was especially necessary, as the use of masks precluded all play of feature. The actors were, ac- cording to strict rule, assigned to the poets by lot ; yet a poet generally had his special protagonistes, on whose peculiar gifts he had his eye in writing the dramatic pieces. The Athenian tragedies began to be known all over the Hellenic world as early as the time of ^schylus. The first city, outside of Attica, that had a theatre was Syracuse, where ^Eschylus brought out some of his own plays. Scenic con- tests soon began to form part of the religious festivals in various Greek cities, and were celebrated in honour of other deities besides Dionysus. It was a habit of Alexander the Great to celebrate almost every considerable event with dramatic exhibitions, and after him this became the regular custom. A considerable in- crease in the number of actors was one consequence of the new demand. The actors called themselves artists of Diony- sus, and in the larger cities they formed permanent societies (synddoi) with special privileges, including exemption from mili- tary service, and security in person and property. These companies had a regular organization, presided over by a priest of their patron-god Dionysus, annually elected from among their members. A treasurer and officers completed the staff. At the time of the festivals the societies sent out their members in groups of three actors, with a manager, and a flute-player, to the different cities. This business was espe- cially lively in Ionia and on the Euxine, the societies of Tgos being the most dis- tinguished. The same arrangement was adopted in Italy, and continued to exist under the Roman Empii*e. The universal employment of masks was a remarkable peciiliarity of costume {see Masks). It naturally excluded all play of feature, but the Inasks corresponded to the general types of character, as well as to the special types indicated by the re- quirements of the play. Certain conven- tionalities were observed in the colour of the hair. Goddesses and young persons had light hair, gods and persons of riper age, dark brown ; aged persons, white ; and the deities of the lower world, black. The height of the masks and top-knots varied with the age of the actors, and the parts they took. Their stature was considerably heightened in tragedies by the high boot {see Cothurnus), and the defects in proportion corrected by pad- ding, and the use of a kind of gloves. The conventionalities of costume, probably as fixed by iEschylus, maintained them- selves as long as Greek tragedies were performed at all. Men and women of high rank wore on the stage a variegated or richly embroidered long-sleeved chiton, reaching to the feet, and fastened with a girdle as high as the breast. The upper garment, whether Tnmdtldn or chldmys, was long and splendid, and often embroi- dered with gold. Kings and queens had a purple train, and a white Mmation with a purple border ; soothsayers, a netted upper garment reaching to the feet. Persons in misfortune, especially fugitives, appeared in soiled garments of grey, green, or blue ; black was the symbol of mourning, and so on. In the Satyric Drama the costumes of the heroic characters resembled in all es- sentials what they wore in the tragedies, although, to suit the greater liveliness of the action, the chiton was shorter and the boot lower. In the Old Comedy the cos- tumes were taken as nearly as possible from actual life, but in the Middle and New Comedy they were conventional. The men wore a white coat; youths, a purple one; slaves, a motley, with mantle to match ; cooks, an unbleached double mantle; peasants, a fur or shaggy coat, with wallet and staff; panders, a coloured coat and motley over-garment. Old women appeared in sky-blue or dark yellow, priestesses and maidens in white ; courtesans, in motley colours, and so on. The members of the chorus were masked and dressed in a cos- tume corresponding to the part assigned them by the poet. (On their dress in the •200 DRAMA. Satyric Drama, see Satyric Drama.) The chorus of the comedy caricatured the ordi- nary dress of the tragic chorus. Sometimes they represented animals, as in the Frogs and Birds of Aristophanes. In the Frogs they wore tight dresses of frog-colour, and masks with a mouth wide open ; in the Birds, large beaks, bunches of feathers, combs, and so on, to imitate particular birds. {See plate in Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. ii, plate xiv b, copied in Haigh's Attic Tlieatre, p. 267.) the manager received no compensation. But after performance the piece became his property, to be used at future representa- tions for his own profit. In the time of Cicero, when it was fashionable to revive the works of older masters, the selection of suitable pieces was generally left to the director. The Romans did not, like the Greeks, limit the number of actors to three, but varied it according to the re- quirements of the play. Women's parts were originally played by men, as in Greece. (2) * REHEARSAL OF A SATYRIC DRAMA. (Mosaic from Pompeii, Naples Museum.) (2) Roman. Dramatic performances in Rome, as in Greece, formed a part of the usual public festivals, whether exceptional or ordinary, and were set on foot by the sediles and praetors. {See Games.) A private individual, however, if he were giving a festival or celebrating a funeral, would have theatrical representations on his own account. The giver of the festival hired a troupe of players {grex), the director of which, {ddminus grSgis), bought a play from a poet at his own risk. If the piece was a failure, Women appeared first in mimes, and net till very late times in comedies. The actors were usually freedmen or slaves, whom their masters sent to be educated, and then hired them out to the directors of the theatres. The profession was technically branded with infdmia, nor was its legal position ever essentially altered. The social standing of actors was however improved, through the influence of Greek education; and gifted artists like the comedian Roscius, and ^sopus the tra- DREAMS DUOVmi. 201 gedian in Cicero's time, enjoyed the friend- ship of the best men in Rome. The in- stance of these two men may show what profits could be made by a good actor. Roscius received, for every day that he played, £35, and made an annual income of some £4,350. ^sopus, in spite of his great extravagance, left £175,400 at his death. Besides the regular honoraria^ actors, if thought to deserve it, received other and voluntary gifts from the giver of the per- formance. These often took the form of finely wrought crowns of silver or gold work. Masks were not worn until Roscius made their use general. Before his time actors had recourse to false hair of different colours, and paint for the face. The cos- Deceptive dreams issue from a gate of ivory, true dreams through a gate of horn. The gods above, especially Hermes, have authority over these dream-gods, and send sometimes one, sometimes another, to man- kind. On some occasions they create dream-figures themselves, or appear in per- son under different shapes, in the chamber of the sleeper. The spirits of the departed, too, so long as they are not in the kingdom of Hades, have the power of appearing to the sleeper in dreams. These, the ideas of the Homeric age, survived in the later popular belief. Later poets call dreams the sons of Sleep, and give them separate names. Morpheus, for instance, only appears in various human forms, Ikelos, called also PABASITUS. (3) * SCENE FROM A ROMAN COMEDY {Ftthula PalUala), (Mural painting from Pompeii, Naples Museum.) tume in general was modelled on that of actual life, Greek or Roman. As early as the later years of the Republic, a great increase took place in the splendour of the costumes and the general magnificence of the performance. In tragedy, particularly, a new effect was attained by massing the actors in great numbers on the stage. {See further Theatre, Tragedy, Comedy, and Satyric Drama.) Dreams (Greek Oneiroi). According to Hesiod, Dreams are the children of Night, and brothers and sisters of Death and Sleep. Like these they are represented in the Odyssey as dwelling in the far West, near Oce3.nus, in the neighbourhood of the sunset and the kingdom of the dead. Phobetor, or Terrifyer, assumes the shapes of all kinds of animals as well as that of man : Phantasos only those of inanimate objects. A god of dreams was subsequently wor- shipped, and represented in works of art, sometimes with Sleep, sometimes alone. He was honoured especially at the seats of dream-oracles and the health-resorts of Asclepius. {See Artemidorus, 2; Incu- BATio ; and Mantic Art.) Dress. See Clothing. Dr6m6s. See Gymnastics. DryM6s. See Nymphs. Duodgcim Tabftlse. See Twelve Tables. DtiSviri or Duumviri (Italian). A board or commission of 2 men, as e.g. the duoviri capitales perduellionis, or duoviri sac- 202 DUPONDIUS ECCLESIA. rOrum (see Sibyls), duoviri vits pzirgan- dis {see Viginti sex viri, 6). In colonies and mUnicipia, the title was borne by the two highest officials, who represented the the authority of the Roman consuls. (See MUNICIPIUM.) Dupondins. See Coinage. Duris. (1) A Greek historian, a native of Samos, and a disciple of Theophrastus. For some time he was despot of Samos. In the first half of the 3rd century B.C. he wrote, besides other historical works, a com- prehensive history, in twenty-three books, of Greece and Macedonia, from 370 to at least 281 B.C. He was also the author of Annals of Samos, in at least twelve books. No- thing but fragments of his writings remain, which show that they were no more than uncritical collections of material carelessly treated. (2) A vase-painter ; see Vases. l)uumviri. See Duovmi. Eagle (dquUd). The standard of a Roman legion, introduced by Marius : a silver (or, under the Empire, golden) eagle carried on a pole by the dquUlfer, or eagle-bearer, its wings spread out, and often a thunderbolt in its talons. Beneath it were frequently fixed in later times a flag (see Vexillum), and other ornaments, e.g. medallions with portraits of emperors and generals. Under the Republic, during peace, it was preserved in the ceraAum • in camp it stood in a small chapel beside the prmtortum, was held in religious veneration by the soldiers, and regarded as affording sanctuary; in battle it was borne on the right wing of the legion, in the first century of the first cohort. From Augustus' time it bore the name and number of the legion (see the figs, under Signdm). Ecclesia (Greek). The assembly of the people, which in Greek cities had the power of final decision in public affairs. (1) At Athens every citizen in posses- sion of full civic rights was entitled to take part in it from his twentieth year upwards. In early times one ecclesia met tegularly once a year in each of the ten prytanies of the senate (see BoULE), in later times four, making forty annuall3\ Special assemblies might also be called on occasion. The place of meet- ing was in early times the market-place, in later times a special locality, called the Pnyx ; but generally the theatre, after a permanent theatre had been erected. To summon the assembly was the duty of the Prytanes, who did so by publishing the notice of proceedings. There was a special authority, a board of six LSxlarchl (so called) with thirty assistants, whose business it was to keep unauthorized persons out of the assembly. The members on their appear- ance were each presented with a ticket, on exhibiting which, after the conclusion of the meeting, they received a payment of an dbdlus (about 1-8^,), in later times of three obols. After a solemn prayer and sacrifice, the president {Epistdtes) communicated to the meeting the subjects of discussion. If there were a previous resolution of the senate for discussion, he put the question whether the people would adopt it, or pro- ceed to discuss it. In the debates every citizen had the right of addressing the meeting, but no one could speak more than once. Before doing so he put a crown of rnyrtle on his head. The president (but no one else) had the right of interrupting a speaker. If his behaviour were unseemly, the president could cut short his harangue, expel him from the rostrum and from the meeting, and inflict upon him a fine not exceeding 500 drachmae (£16 13s. Ad.). Cases of graver misconduct had to be referred to the senate or assembly for punishment. Any citizen could move an amendment or counter-proposal, which he handed in in writing to the presiding Prytany. The president had to decide whether it should be put to the vote. This could be prevented, not only by the mere declaration of the president that it was illegal, but by any one present who bound himself on oath to prosecute the proposer for illegality. The speaker might also retract his proposal. The votes were taken by show of hands (cheirotdnia). The voting was never secret, unless the question affected some one's personal interest, as in the case of ostra- cism. In such cases a majority of at least 6,000 votes was necessary. The resolution {psepJdsmd) was announced by the presi- dent, and a record of it taken, which was deposited in the archives, and often publicly exhibited on tables of stone or bronze. After the conclusion of business, the presi- dent, through his herald, dismissed the people. If no final result was arrived at, or if the business was interrupted by a sign from heaven, such as a storm or a ECHIDNA ECLECTICS. 203 shower of rain, the meeting was adjourned. Certain classes of business were assigned to the ordinary assemblies. The functions of the ecclesia were : (a) To take part in legislation. At the first regular assembly in the year the presi- dent asked the question whether the people thought any alteration necessary in the existing laws. If the answer were in the affirmative, the proposals for alteration were brought forward, and in the third regular assembly a legislative commission was ap- pointed from among the members of the Helicea or jury for the current year {see Heli^a). The members of this commission were called Nomothctce. The question be- tween the old laws and the new proposals was then decided by a quasi-judicial process under the presidency of the Thesmothetce, the proposers of the new law appearing as prosecutors, and advocates, appointed by the people, coming forward to defend the old one. If the verdict were in favour of the new law, the latter had the same authority as a resolution of the ecclesia. The whole proceeding was called " Voting {eplcheiro- tonia) upon the Laws." In the decadence of the democracj'- the custom grew up of bringing legislative proposals before the people, and having them decided at any time that pleased the proposer. (&) Election of officials. {See Probole.) This only affected, of course, the officials who were elected by show of hands, as the Strdtegi and ministers of finance, not those chosen by lot. In the first ecclesia of every prytdnla the archon asked the ques- tion whether the existing ministers were to be allowed to remain in office or not, and those who failed to commend them- selves were deposed. (c) The banishment of citizens by ostra- cisin. {See Ostracism.) {d) Judicial functions in certain excep- tional cases only. {See Eisangelia.) Some- times, if offences came to its knowledge, the people would appoint a special commis- sion of inquiry, cr put the inquiry into the hands of the Areopagus or the senate. Offences committed against officials, or against private individuals, were also at times brought before the assembly, to obtain from it a declaration that it did, or did not, think the case one which called for a judicial process. Such a declaration, though 'not binding on the judge, always carried with it a certain influence. (e) In legal co-operation with the senate the Ecclesia had the final decision in all matters affecting the supreme interests of the state, as war, peace, alliances, treaties, the regulation of army and navy, finance, loans, tributes, duties, prohibition of exports or imports, the introduction of new religious rites and festivals, the awarding of honours and rewards, and the conferring of the citi- zenship [Aristotle, Const, of Athens, 43]. (2) At Sparta all the Spartidtce, or citizens in possession of full civic rights, were en- titled to take part in the deliberations of the assembly from their thirtieth year onwards. The assembly was convoked once a month at the full moon by the kings, and later by the ephors as well. After 600 B.C. it met in a special building in the market-place at Sparta, the Scias, the members standing, not sitting, as in the Athenian ecclesia. Its business was to accept or reject proposals made by the GSrusia or senate. {See Gerusia.) It made its will known by acclamation, or, in doubtful cases, by separation of the parties into different places. The right of bringing forward proposals and speaking in the debates be- longed only to the kings, the members of the Getmsia, and the ephors ; in all other cases special consent was required. The functions of the assembly were the election of the officials and senators to decide (in doubtful cases) on the regal succession, on war and peace, treaties, legislation, and other matters affecting the state. Echidna. A monster and robber in Greek fable, half maiden, half snake, the daughter of Chrysaor and Callirrhoe, or, according to another story, of TartSrus and Gasea. Her home was the country of the Arimi in Cilicia, where she brought forth to TyphcEus a number of monsters, Cei'berus, Chlmsera, Sphinx, Scylla, the serpent of Lerna, the Nemean lion, etc. {See Typh(eus.) She was surprised in her sleep and slain by Argos. {See Argos, 1.) Echion. One of the five Sparti who helped Cadmus to build Thebes ; husband of Agave, the daughter of Cadmus, and father of Pentheus. (^ee Sparti.) Echo. A Nymph, who by her chattering prevented Hera from surprising her hus- band Zeus in the company of the Nymphs. Hera punished her by making it impossible for her either to speak first, or to be silent when any one else was speaking. She loved the beautiful Narcissus, but in vain, and pined away in grief till nothing remained of her but her voice. Eclectics or " Selecters." The technical name in philosophy for philosophers who 204 ECLOGUE EDUCATION. were attached to no particular school, but made a selection of favourite dogmas from the tenets of the different sects. Eclogue (Gr. Ecl6gc). A selected piece of writing. Properly a poem taken out of a larger collection, and so applied, under the Roman Empire, to a short poem, as an idyll or satire. The term was specially applied to the pastoral poems of Vergil and Calpurnlus Siculus. Edictum. The Roman term for any written announcement made by a magis- trate to the people. An edictum was some- times temporary only, as, e.g., the announce- ments of the public assemblies or games ; sometimes it contained permanent enact- ments, as, for instance, the edicta of the censors against luxury. The name was especially applied to the proclamations issued by judical functionaries on assuming office, and stating the principles or rules which they intended to follow in the exercise of their authority. The edicta of the sediles relative to the markets belong to this class. One kind of edictum was specially important in its bearing upon Roman law, the edictum of the prsetor. In his edictuvi the praetor laid down the rules which he would observe in arranging the proceedings of the regular courts and of his voluntary jurisdiction, and in deciding cases which did not appear to be covered by the written enact- ments of the Twelve Tables, or later legislation. These edicta, written on wood, stone, or bronze, were in early times pub- lished only as occasion required, but in later times the praetors regularly promul- gated them on entering upon their office. They prevented the fossilization of the law, and allowed the enactments of the Twelve Tables to adapt themselves in natural development to the changing circumstances of civic life and intercourse. It is true that the edicta had no force beyond the praetor's year of office, but, as every new praetor observed what was found in the edicta of his predecessors, a permanent nucleus of constantly repeated rules, called edictum perpetuum (or continuous edict), was formed in course of time. This be- came, for the later period, a recognised source of customary law, side by side with the ISgSs proper. At length, under Hadrian, the mass of edicta was reduced to system by Salvius Julianus, and received the force of law at the imperial command. This body of law included the accepted edicta of the prcetor urhdnu^ and the other praetors administering law in the provinces, of the proconsuls, propraetors, and aediles. It was called edictum, perpetuum, ius prcetorium,, or ius h6nordrium, the latter because its authors had held public offices (honores). On this collection the Corpus lUris of Justinian is in great part founded. The emperor and imperial officials, as prcefectus urbl and prcefectus prmtorlO, had also the right of issuing edicta. Education. (1) Greek. The Dorians of Crete and Sparta followed a peculiar line in the matter of education. Throughout Greece generally the state left it to private effort ; but in Sparta and Crete it came under the direct supervision of the com- munity. At Sparta, as soon as a child was born, a commission of the elders of its tribe had to decide whether it should be reared or exposed. If it was weakly or deformed, it was exposed in a defile of Mount Tay- getus. Till his seventh year, a boy was left to the care of his parents. After this the Paid6n6m6s, or officer presiding over the whole department of education, assigned him to a division of children of the same age called a hua. Several of such huas together formed a troop or ila. Each hua was superintended by a BudgOrds, each ila by an IlarchOs. Both these officers were elected from among the most promising of the grown up youths, and were bound to instruct the children in their exercises. The exercises were calculated to suit the various ages of the children, and consisted in running, leaping, wrestling, throwing the spear and discus, as well as in a num- ber of dances, particularly the war dance or PyrrMche {see Pyrrhic Dance). The dancing was under the constant superin- tendence of the Paidonomos, and five BidycB under him. The discipline was generally directed to strengthening or hardening the body. The boys went bare- foot and bareheaded, with hair cut short, and in light clothing. From their twelfth year they wore nothing but an upper garment, which had to last the whole year. They slept in a common room with- out a roof, on a litter of hay or straw, and from their fifteenth year on rushes or reeds. Their food was extremely simple, and not sufficient to satisfy hunger. A boy who did not want to be hungry had to steal ; if he did this cleverly, he was praised, and punished if detected. Every year the boys had to undergo a flogging at the altar of Artemis Orthia, as a test of their power to endure bodily pain. They were whipped EDUCATION. 205 till the blood flowed, and deemed it a dis- grace to shew any sign of suffering. Read- ing and writing were left to private in- structors; but mvisic, and choral singing in particular, formed a part of the regular discipline. The understanding was as- sumed to be formed by daily life in public, and the conversation of the men, to which the boys were admitted. Every Spartan boy looked up to his seniors as his instruc- tors and superiors ; the consequence being that in Sparta the young behaved to their elders with more modesty and respect than in any other Greek city. Besides this, every man chose a boy or youth as his favourite. He was bound to set the boy an example of all manly excellence, and was regarded as responsible and punishable for his delinquencies. This public education and the performance of the regular exer- cises, under the superintendence of the Bidyce, lasted till the thirtieth year. In the eighteenth year the boy passed into the class of youths. From the twentieth year, when military service proper began, to the thirtieth, the youth was called an eiren. He was not regarded as a man, or allowed to attend the public assembly till his thirtieth year. The girls had an education in music and gymnastic education similar to that of the boys, and at the public games and contests each sex was witness of the performances of the other. The girls' dress was extremely simple, consisting of a sleeveless tunic reaching not quite down to the knees, and open at the sides. In this, however, there was nothing which interfered with modesty and propriety of behaviour. In Crete the system of education was generally similar to that of Sparta. But the public training did not begin till the seven- teenth year, when the boys of the same age joined themselves freely into divisions called dgelaij each led by some noble youth, whose father was called dgcldtds, and undertook the supervision of the games and exercises. It is probable that the young men remained in this organization till their twenty-seventh year, when the law compelled them to marry. At Athens, as in Greece generally, the father decided whether the child should be reared or exposed. The latter alternative seems to have been not seldom adopted, especially when the child was a girl. If the education of a child was once fairly commenced, the parents had no power to put it out of the way. At the birth of a boy, the door of the house was adorned with a branch of olive ; at the birth of a girl, with wool. On the fifth or seventh day after birth the child underwent a religious dedication at the festival of the Amphldrotriia (" run- ning round "). It was touched with instru- ments of purification, and carried several times round the burning hearth. On the tenth day came the festival of naming the child, with sacrifice and entertainment, when the father acknowledged it as legi- timate. To the end of the sixth year the boys and girls were brought up together under female supervision ; but after this the sexes were educated apart. The girls' life was almost entirely confined to her home: she was brought up under the superintendence of women, and with hardly anything which can be called profitable in- struction. The boy was handed over to a slave older than himself called Pceddgogos. It was the slave's duty to watch the boy's outward behaviour, and to attend him, un- til his boyhood was over, whenever he went out, especially to the school and the gymna- sium. The laws made some provision for the proper education of boys. They obliged every citizen to have his son instructed in music, gymnastics, and the elements of letters (grammdta), i.e. writing, reading, and arithmetic. They further obliged the parents to teach their boys some profitable trade, in case they were unable to leave them a property sufficient to maintain them independent. If they failed in this, they forfeited all claim to support from the children in old age. But with schools and their arrangements the state did not con- cern itself. The schools were entirely in private hands, though they were under the eye of the police. The elementary instruc- tion was given by the gramrndtistce, or teachers of letters, the teacher writing and the scholars copying. The text-books for reading were mostly poems, especially such as were calculated to have an influence on the formation of character. The Homeric poems were the favourite reading book, but Hesiod, Theognis, and others were also admitted. Collections of suitable passages from the poets were early made for the boys to copy, learn by heart, and repeat aloud. The higher instruction given by the grammdtxkQs was also of this literary character. Mathematics were introduced into the school cxuriculum as early as the 5th cen- tury, drawing not till the middle of the 4th century B.C. Instruction in music proper began about the thirteenth year. 206 EDUCATION. Tho profound moral influence attributed to music in Greek antiquity made this art an essential part of education. It brought with it, naturally, an acquaintance with the masterpieces of Greek poetry. The in- strument most practised was the lyre, from its suitableness as an accompaniment to song. The flute was held in less esteem. The aim of education was supposed to be the harmonious development of mind and body alike. Instruction in gymnastics was consequently regarded as no less essential than in music, and began at about the same age. It was carried on in the pdlcestrce {see Palestra) under the paiddtribai, who were, like the grammatikoi, private, not public instructors. The boys began their gymnastics in the palcestra, and completed them in the gymnasia under the superinten- dence of the gymnastce. The SpMhl, in particular, or boys between sixteen and nineteen, practised their exercises in the gymnasia^ till, in their twentieth year, they were considered capable of bearing arms, and employed on frontier service. At this point they became liable to enlistment for foreign service, and obtained the right of attending the meeting of the public as- sembly. Towards the end of the 5 th century B.C. the class of sophistce, or pro- fessors of practical education, arose. This gave the young men an opportunity of extending their education by attending lectures in rhetoric and philosophy; but the high fees charged by the sophistce had the effect of restricting this instruction to the sons of the wealthy. (2) Roman. Among the Romans the father was free, when the new-born child was laid before him, either to expose it, or to take it up, as a sign that he meant to rear it. He had also the right of selling his children, or putting them to death. It was not till the beginning of the 3rd century A.D. that the exposure of children was legally accounted as murder, nor did the evil practice cease even then. If the child was to be reared, it was named, if a boy on the ninth day after birth, if a girl, on the eighth. The day was called diss htstricus, or day of purification, A sacrifice in the house, accompanied with a feast, gave to the child's life a religious dedication. A box with an amulet was hung round the child's neck as a protection against magic (see Bullje). Official lists of births were not published until the 2nd century after Christ. In earlier times, m the case of Ajoys, the name was not formally ;;onfirmed until the assumption of the t5ga vinlXh, The child's physical and moral education was, in old times, regularly given at home under the superintendence of the parents, chiefly of the mother. The training was strict, and aimed at making the children strong and hedthy, religious, obedient to the laws, temperate, modest in speech and actions, strictly submissive to their superiors, well behaved, virtuous, intelli- gent, and self-reliant. The girls were taught by their mothers to spin and weave, the boys were instructed by their fathers in ploughing, sowing, reaping, riding, swim- ming, boxing and fencing ; in the knowledge necessary for household management ; in reading, writing, and counting ; and in the laws of their country. The Romans did not, like the Greeks, lay stress on gym- nastics, but only carried physical exercises to the point necessary for military service. The contests and exercises took place in the Campus Martins, which, down to the time of the Empire, was the favourite arena of the youths. The state took as little care of mental as of physical education. If a man could not educate his children himself, he sent them to a master. From an early time there were elementary teachers {littSrd- torts) at Rome, corresponding to the Greek grammdtistce. These were sometimes slaves, who taught in their masters' house for his benefit. Sometimes they were freed- men, who gave instruction either in families, or in schools, (schdld or lUdus) of their own. They received their salary monthly, but only for eight months in the year; no in- struction being given between June and November. Boys and girls were taught together. The elementary instruction in- cluded reading, writing, and arithmetic; arithmetic being, as among the Greeks, practised by counting on the fingers. In later times grown up boys learned arith- metic with a special master (calcUldtor), who was paid at a higher rate than the litterator. With the duodecimal system in use, arithmetic was regarded as very diffi- cult. The reading lessons included learning the Twelve Tables by heart. After the Second Punic War it became usual, at first in single families, and after- wards more and more generally, to employ a litterator, or grammdticus, to teach Greek. The chief element in this instruction was the explanation of Greek poets, above all of Homer, whose writings became a school book among the Romans, as among the Greeks- At the same time higher instruction was EGERIA EIRENE. 207 given in Latin as well, the text-book being the Latin Odyssey of Livius Andronicus, Terence, and in later times Vergil, Horace, and others. The exposition of these authors gave an opportunity of communicating a variety of information. Girls were edu- cated on the same lines. The highest point in Roman education was attained by the schools of the rhetoricians, which came into existence before the end of the re- publican age. In these schools, as in those of the grammdtlcl, Greek was at first the only language taught. Since the time when Greek literature became the highest educa- tional standard, boys, and sometimes girls, were taught Greek from their earliest years. They were put into the hands of a Greek pceddgogus, or a Greek female slave, and learned the first rudiments from Greek schoolmasters. As the range of subjects widened, so as to include, among other things, music and geometry, more impor- tance came to be attached to scholastic edu- cation. This tendency was strengthened by the increased demand for Greek culture which manifested itself under the Empire throughout the length and breadth of the Western provinces. Education was carried on on stricter lines as the old system of home training disappeared, mainly owing to the diffusion of an effeminate refinement, and the parents' habit of putting their children into the hands of Greek slaves. After the time of Vespasian the higher public instruction began to be a matter of imperial concern. Vespasian paid away as much as £850 annually to the Latin and Greek rhetoricians in Rome. Hadrian fou.nded the Athenseum, the first known public institution for the higher education, with salaried teachers {see Athen^um). After his time philosophers, rhetoricians, and grammarians were publicly appointed to lecture in all the larger cities of the empire. They were maintained partly at the expense of the respective communities, partly by the emperors, and enjoydd in all cases certain immunities conferred by the State. The ordinary educational course generally •concluded with a boy's sixteenth or seven- teenth year, though rhetorical instruction was sometimes continued far beyond this limit. And towards the end of the re- publican age, young men of intellectual ambition would often go to Greece to enlarge their sphere of culture. On the 17th March, the festival of the hlherdlia^ boys who had reached the age of puberty, or their fifteenth year, took off, in the presence of the Lares, their bulla and togaprcetexta, or purple-edged toga, and put on the unadorned toga virilis. They were then, after a sacrifice at home, taken by their fathers or guardians, accompanied by friends and relations, to the forum, and en- rolled in the lists of citizens. The boys were from this time, in the eyes of the law, capable of marriage, and bound to military service. They now entered upon their tirocinium^ which was regarded as the last stage of education. {See Tirocinium.) Eg6ria (Latin). A goddess of fountains, who was also a goddess of birth, and possessed the gift of prophecy. It was from her fountain in the sacred enclosure of the Camenge, before the Porta Capena in Rome, that the Vestal Virgins brought the water necessary for the baths and purifications of their office. There wa& another fountain of Egeria in the precincts of Diana at Aricia. In Roman story Egeria was the consort and counsellor of king Numa, who used to meet her in a grotto in the precincts of the Camense. After the death of her beloved, she fled to the shrine of the Arician Diana, by whom, as her wailings disturbed the worship, she was changed into the fountain which bore her name. Married women worshipped her at Rome, as a goddess of childbirth. Eid6th6a. A sea-goddess, daughter ot Proteus, the old man of the sea. Eidyllidn. See Bucolic Poetry. Eilithyia (Latin, Ilithyia). The Greek goddess of childbirth, daughter of Zeus and Hera, according to whose will she makes childbirth easy or difficult. In Homer there is more than one goddess of the name. Just as Hera was herself often worshipped as a goddess of childbirth, so Artemis, goddess of the moon, was invoked under the title of Eilithyia; the moon, according to ancient belief, having had great influence upon the event. The oldest seat of the worship of Eilithyia was the island of Crete, where a grotto at Cnossus, consecrated to her, is mentioned in Homer. Next to this came the island of DelSs, where she was also worshipped as a goddess of Destiny. She had sanctuaries and statues in many places, being represented as veiled from head to foot, stretching out one hand to help, and in the other holding a torch, as the symbol of birth into the light of the world. Eirene (Latin, Irene). The Greek god- dess of peace, one of the Horse. She was worshipped as goddess of wealth, and repre- 208 EIRESIONE ELECTRUM. sented accordingly as a young woman with Plutus in her arms. {See Plutds.) Among her other attri- butes are the cornucopia, the olive branch, Hermes' staff, and ears of corn in her hand and on her head. The correspond- ing deity among the Romans was Pax, to whom an altar was set up on July 4th, 13 B.C., on the re- turn of Augustus from Gaul. Eirgsione. See Pyanepsia. Eisang^lia eirene with infamt plutus. (Greek). Pro- (Munich, Glyptothek.) perly, an an- nouncement made in presence of a legal authority. In Attic jurisprudence eis- angelia was a special form of public prose- cution, instituted especially for offences which appeared to inflict injury, directly or indirectly, upon the state, but which it was impracticable to prosecute under the regular and customary procedure. The accusation was put into writing and handed in to the senate ; if the senate received it, the accused was arrested, or had to get three persons to stand surety for him. But if the charge were one of treason, or an attack upon the constitution, this was not allowed. If the voting on the guilt or innocence of the accused were unfavourable, the senate itself fixed the penalty, suppos- ing it fell short of the amount which lay within its competence (500 drachmae or £16 13s. 4c?.). If not, the senate referred the case at once to one of the courts of the Helisea, or even to the ecdSsia, to which the prosecutor might, indeed, have applied from the first. If the ecclesia decided to take up the case, the first thing it did was to fix the penalty, in case there were no legal provisions on this point. It then either entered on the investigation and decided the case, or handed it over to a court of law. The name eisangelia was also given to the prosecution of judges in office for neglect of their duties ; and to certain charges lodged before the archons : namely, charges against children for ill- treatment of parents, against husbands for ill-treatment of heiresses, and against guar- dians for ill-treatment of their wards. {See Archons.) Eisphdra (Athenian). An income-tax, levied only in extraordinary cases. It was based on the Solonian division of classes into Pentdc0sl6inSdivim, Hippeis, Zeugitce, and ThStSs, the last of whom were not taxed at all. The taxable capital was esti- mated at twelve times a man's net income as estimated by himself. In the case of the Pentacosio'medimm, with a minimum in- come of 500 drachmae and minimum capital of 6,000 drachmae ( = 1 talent or £200), the whole property was treated as taxable capital {tlmemd). In the case of the Hippeis (300-3,600 drachmae) five-sixths, in that of the Zeugitce (150-1,800 drachmae) five-ninths or 1,000 drachmae. The first instance of the levy of an eisphora oc- curred in 428 B.C. In 378 B.C. another method of levying it was introduced under the archon Nausinicus. According to this, the taxable capital of the highest class was fixed at one-fifth of the whole property. The resident aliens {metoecl), as well as the citizens, were liable to pay the eisphora. On the method of collecting it, see Sym- MORI^. Ekgcheiria. The "truce of God" (lite- rally, "holding of hands"), observed in Greece at the great festivals which were visited by strangers ; e.g. the national games, and the Eleuslma in Attica. This peace was proclaimed by heralds through- out Greece, to secure the visitors to the games freedom in passing backwards and forwards and security during the festival. In the case of the Eleusinia the truce lasted 1| months and ten days. ^ Elaphebdlia. A festival held at Athens in the month Ela,pheb6li6n (March-April) in honour of Artemis as goddess of the chase and of game. (See Artemis.) Electra (Gr. Elektra). (1) Daughter of AgS-memnon and Clytaemnestra, sister of Iphigenia and Orestes. She saved Orestes from the murderer of his father, and assisted him afterwards in avenging his death. She married Pylades, her brother's friend, and became the mother of Medon and StrSphius. (2) One of the Pleiades, the mother (by Zeus) of Dardanus, ancestor of the royal house of Troy. Electram (Gr. Elektrdn). This word had two meanings in antiquity. (1) A mixture of gold and silver in the proportion of about 4:1. (2) Amber, the use of which in orna- ELECTRYON ELEPHANTS. 200 mentation was known to the Greeks as early as the Homeric age through their trade with Phcenicia. In later times, mainly through the overland trade, amber was brought down from the Baltic to the mouths of the Po, and from thence farther south. In the classical times it seems to have been only in exceptional cases that amber was applied to the uses of art ; and as Greek influence increased, the taste for it disappeared in Italy. It was only to- wards the end of the republican age that it gradually came into favour again, and then as a material for ladies' ornaments, such as bracelets, pins and rings, and for adorning bedsteads and similar furniture. Under the Empire it was more fashionable than it had ever been. The white, wax- coloured sort was accounted the worst, and w'as only used for fumigation. The ruddy amber, especially if transparent, found more favour ; the bright yellow, of the colovir bf Falernian wine, was liked best of all. The natural colour was sometimes intensified or altered by artificial means. Electr^on (Gr. Elektryon). Son of Perseus and Andromeda, king of Mycense, father of Alcmene, the mother of Heracles. {See Amphitryon.) Elegy. The general term in Greek for any poem written in the elegiac metre, a combination of the dactylic hexameter and pentameter in a couplet. The word elegds is probably not Greek, but borrowed from the Lydians, and means a plaintive melody accompanied by the fliite. How it happened that the word was applied to elegiac poetry, the earliest representatives of which by no means confined it to mournful subjects, is doubtful. It may be that the term was only chosen in reference to the musical set- ting, the elegy having originally been ac- companied by the flute. Like the Spos, the elegy was a production of the lonians of Asia Minor. Its dialect was the same as that of the epos, and its metre only a varia- tion of the epic metre, the pentameter being no more than an abbreviation of the hexameter. The elegy marks the first transition from the epic to lyric proper. The earliest representatives of the elegy, Callinus of Ephesus (about 700 B.C.), and Tyrtseus of Aphidnse in Attica (about 600), gave it a decidedly warlike and political direction, and so did Solon (640-559) in his earlier poems, though his later elegies have mostly a contemplative character. The »»le,a;Ie3 of Theognis of MegarS, (about 540), "fiiough gnomic and erotic, are essentially D. Cc A political. The first typical representative of the erotic elegy was Mimnermus of Colophon, an elder contemporary of Solon. The elegy of mourning or sorrow was brought to perfection by Simonides of Cgos (died B.C. 469). After him the emotional element predominated. Antimachus of C6l6- phon (about 400) gave the elegy a learned tinge, and was thus the prototype of the elegiac poets of Alexandria, Phanocles, Philetas of Cos, Hermesi&nax of Colophon, and Callimachus of Cyrene, the master of them all The subject of the Alexandrian elegy is sometimes the passion of love, with its pains and pleasures, treated through the medium of images and similes taken from mythology, sometimes learned narrative of fable and history, from which personal emo- tion is absent. This type of elegy, with its learned and obscure manner, was taken up and imitated at Rome towards the end of the Republic. The Romans soon easily surpassed their Greek masters both in warmth and sin- cerity of feeling and in finish of style. The elegies of Catullus are among their earliest attempts; but in the Augustan age, in the hands of Cornelius Gallus, Properttus, Tibullus, and Ovid, the elegiac style was entirely appropriated by Latin literature. Ovid in his Fasti showed how a learned subject could be treated in this metre. From his time onward the elegiac metre was constantly employed. In the later literature it was used, like the epic metre, for every possible subject, as, for instance, by Rutilius Namatianus in the description of his return from Rome to France (a.d. 416). In the 6th century a.d. the poet Maximianus, born in Etruria at the beginning of the 6th century, is a late instance of a genuine elegiac poet. Elephants. Indian elephants were first used in European warfare by the successors of Alexander for the purpose of breaking through the enemy's ranks. An elephant, if completely equipped, carried on its back, besides its driver, a tower or howdah, generally containing four archers. The Romans first learned their use in the war with Pyrrhus. In the Second Punic War they got possession of African elephants, the first which they turned to their own account, and used them against Philip of Macedon. But elephants never played so important a part in the Roman armies as they had in those of Alexander's successors. They were liable to panic if the enemy fi'ightened them with firebrands or in any other way, 210 ELEUSINIA. and in this state became dangerous to friends as well as enemies. Combats of elephants, however, were always the central attraction in the fights of wild animals in the games of the circus, and, from the time of Augustus, the chariots which bore the images of the deified emperors were drawn by elephants in the solemn procession. Eleusinia. The two mystic festivals of Demeter and her daughter Persephone (CcJr^) celebrated in Attica. They took their name from the city of Eleusis, twelve miles distant from Athens. This was, from time immemorial, a seat of the worship of Demeter, instituted, it was said, by the goddess herself after the disappearance of her daughter. {See Demeter.) The wor- ship of Dionysus was early associated with that of the two goddesses of the earth, for Dionysus was himself a god of fertility, worshipped here under the name of lakchSs, as son of Zeus and Demeter or Persephone. The ritual of the Eleusinian service was supposed to have been ordained by Eumol- pus {see EuMOLPUS). The conquest of Eleusis, which took place, according to the story, under king Erechtheus, gave Athens a right to take part in the solemnity, and the lesser of the two festivals was actually celebrated in Athens. Eleusis, however, continued to be the chief seat of the wor- ship, and the highest priesthoods were hereditary in the Eleusinian families of the Eumolpldse and Kerykes. The sanctity which shrouded the Eleusinian mysteries occasioned the foundation of Eleusinia on their model in other Greek cities. But the initiations at Eleusis were always accounted the most sacred and the most efficacious. The events celebrated in the mysteries were the descent of Persephone into the world below, and her return to light and to her mother. The former was celebrated at the greater Eleusinia between autumn and seed-time ; the latter in spring at the lesser Eleusinia. The symbolical representation of both events had the same object. This was to excite and strengthen in the minds of the initiated, by means of the story of Persephone, the faith in the continuance of life, and a system of rewards and punish- ments after death. The right of initiation into the Eleusinian mysteries was in all ».] probability restricted originally to inhabi- tants of Attica, but it was not long before it was extended to all Greeks. In later times, after their closer connexion with the Greeks, the Romans were also admitted. Barbarians were excluded, and so were all who had been guilty of murder, or any other serious offence. The neophyte was proposed for initiation by an Athenian citizen who had himself been initiated. He was admitted first to the lesser mysteries at the lesser Eleusinia. At this stage the candidates were termed Mystce, and were allowed to take a limited part in the greater Eleu- sinia the next autumn. They were not initiated, however, into the greater mys- teries until the greater Eleusinia succeed- ing these ; and after their initiation were called epoptoi, or seers. The external arrangement of the festival was in the hands of the second archon, or Archon Basileus, who exercised a general superin- tendence over the whole of the public wor- ship. He was assisted by four overseers {?pimSlet(je), two of whom were elected from the whole body of citizens, and two from the Eleusinian families of the Eumolpidae and Kerykes.i TJie high-priestly officials, who carried out the liturgical functions at the celebration, were also chosen from these two families. The Hierophantes, or chief priest, belonged to the house of Eumolpus. It was his duty to exhibit to the initiated the mysterious shrines, and probably to lead the performance of the hymns handed, down from his ancestors. The Keryx, or herald, was of the house of the Kerykes. He summoned the initiated, in the traditional form of words, to wor- ship, pronouncing for them the form of prayer. The DaduchSs or torch-bearer, and the superinten- dent of the sacri- fice, were also im- portant officials. The lessor Eleusinia were celebrated in the month Anthes- terlon, which corresponded roughly to February. The service was performed at Agrse, a suburb of Athens on the Ilissus, in the temple of Demeter and Core, and accora- 1 Keryx was, according to one account, repre- sented as the son of Hermes and Aglaur5s, daughter of Cecrops, according to another, one of the sons of Eumolpus- (1) *ELEUSINIAN PRIEST. (Vase from Kertch ; Gerliard, Gea. Abh., taf. 77.) ELEUSINIA. 211 panied by mystical rites, the nature of which is unknown. It was said to have been founded at the wish of Heracles, who, being a stranger, was excluded by usage from the greater Eleusinia. The great Eleusinia were celebrated in the middle of Boedromion (roughly = September), for a space probably of nine days. The first days were devoted to the preparation for the main festival, bathing in the sea, sacrifices of purification, and the like. On the sixth day, the 20th Boedromion, the immense multitude of viystoe, in festal attire and crowned with myrtle, marched in proces- sion along the sacred way to Eleusis, pre- ceded by the image of lakchos, who gave his name to the celebration. Much time by the potion mixed of water, meal, and penny-royal, supposed to have been the first food tasted by Demeter after her re- ception in Eleusis. It was probably while these celebrations were going on that the Epoptce, and the Mystce who were called to their final initiation, took part in the mys- teries proper. Mysterious rites were first, it would seem, performed in darkness, which threw the celebrants into a state of painful suspense and expectation. Then, in a dazzling light, and amid great splendour, the Hierophantes showed them certain shrines of the goddess and lakchos, explaining their meaning ; holy songs being meantime performed, partly by himself, partly by choirs with instrumental accom- PLAN OP THE TEMPLE ENCLOSURE AT ELEUSIS. A, outer perihBlOs; aa. inner peribolos ; B, greater propylcea; C, lesser propyl^^a; D, Great Temple of the Mysteries, with portico of Philon (183 ft.x37ift.), and Teles- tsrion. or interior of the temple (178 ft. x 170 ft.), with eight rows of seats, partly hewn out of the rock. — Unedited Antiquities of Attica, chap. i. 5. was spent, partly in the performance of acts of devotion at the numerous holy places on the road, partly in merriment and banter; so that it was late in the evening before they arrived at the TSles- terwn, or house of initiation, at Eleusis. This was a magnificent temple erected by Pericles in place of the ancient temple of Demeter, which had been burnt down in the Persian War. During the following nights various celebrations took place at those spots in Eleusis and its neighbourhood which were hallowed in the story of the goddess. In these were represented the sorrowful searching of the goddess for her lost daughter, and the mother's joy at find- ing her. The transition from sorrow and iasting to joy and festivity was symbolized paniment. The climax of the whole was the sacred drama, a representation of the story of the three goddesses in the worlds above and below. The festival was brought to a close by a libation of water from two vessels in the shape of a top (plemochde). The water was poured in the direction of east and west with mystical formulae. The ancients speak of the revelations made in the mysteries as having a bene- ficial influence on morality, pointing as they did to reward and punishment after death. Thej' represent them further as giving comfort in the trials and sufferings of life, and as opening brighter hopes after death. It is certain that there were few citizens of Athens who were not initiated ; many who neglected the rite early in life 212 ELEUTHERIA EMPEDOCLES. were initiated in old age. For in the popular belief the initiation conferred a claim to the joys promised in the mysteries to the good after death. The Eleusinian mysteries maintained their position for a long time. Among the Romans, men of the highest rank, as, for instance, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius, deigned to receive the initiation. When the Christian emperor Valentinian put an end to all religious celebrations by night, he excepted the Eleusinia, which continued in existence till they were abolished by Theodosius towards the end of the 4th century a.d. Eleuth6ria. A festival in honour of Eros, celebrated at Samos. {See Eros.) Eleven. See Hendeka. Elissa. See Dido. Elysium. In Homer Elysium is a beautiful meadow at the western extremity of the earth, on the banks of the river Ocganus. Thither the favoured of Zeus, such as Rhadamanthys his son, and his son-in-law Mgnelaus, are carried without having seen death. They live a life of perfect happiness, there is no snow, nor storm, nor rain, but the cool west wind breathes there for ever. Hesiod speaks of the islands of the blest by the Ocean, where some of the heroes of the fourth generation of men live a life without pain, and where the earth produces her fruits three times in the year. According to Pindar, all who have three times passed blamelessly through life live there in perfect bliss under the sway of CrQnus and his assessor Rhada- manthys. Such are Cadmus and Peleus, and Achilles through the intercession of his mother Thetis with Zeus. Like Cronus, the Titans, after their reconciliation with Zeus, dwell on these islands. In later times Ely- sium with its bliss was localized in the world below, and regarded as the abode of those whom the judges of the dead had pronounced worthy of it. {Cp. Hades, Realm of.) Emancipatio (Roman). The formal libe- ration of a son from the control (mdnus) of his father. If the son were sold three times over, all the rights of his father came to an end. If then a father wished to make a son his own master {sul iUris), he made him over three times by mancipatlo or a fictitious sale to a third person. The third person emancipated him the first and second time, so that he came again into the con- trol of his father. After purchasing him a third time he either emancipated him him- self, and thus became his patrOnus, or ho sold him back to his father, to whom he now stood, not in the relation of a son, but in manclpid, so that the father could liberate him without more ado. In this case the father remained patronus of the son. The emancipated son did not, as in the case of adoption {see Adoption), pass into the patria pdtcsfds of another, and therefore retained his father's family name. But he lost his right to inherit in default of a will. Emithlon. Son of Eos and Tithoniis, brother of Memnon, from whom he seized the government of the Ethiopians. He was slain by HerScles when travelling in search of the apples of the Hesperldes. Emmgleia. The serious and majestj'". dance of the chorus in the Greek Tragedy. Emp6d6cles. A Greek philosopher and poet, born of a rich and noble family at Agrigentum in Sicily, about 490 B.C. Like his father, Meton, who had taken part in the expulsion of the tyrant Thrasj'dseus, he was an ardent supporter of the demo- cracy. He lent his aid in destroying the aristocracy and setting up a democratic constitution, although his fellow-citizens offered him the kingly dignity. He was content with the powerful influence which he derived from his wealth, his eloquence, and extraordinary knowledge. His ac- quaintance with medicine and natural science was so great as to win him the reputation of a wonder-worker in his life- time, and the position of a hero after his death. It was probably a political revolu- tion which caused him, in advanced age, to leave his country and settle in the Pelo- ponnese. He died about 430 B.C., away from Sicily. A later story represented him as having thrown himself into the crater of ^tna, that his sudden disappearance might make the people believe him a god. The truth, however, was said to have been revealed by the appearance of his shoes, thrown up by the volcano. He was the author of propitiatory hymns, probably of a mystical and religious charac- ter; of a didactic poem on medicine; and of an epic poem in three books upon Nature. This last was his cTief d^oeuvre, and had a high reputation in antiquity, both for its con- tents, and for its form, in which the writer took Homer for his master. Considerable fragments of it remain, written in a sublime and pregnant style. His system is grounded upon the assumption of four unchangeable elements, fire (the noblest of all), air, earth, ExMPTIO ENNroS. 213 and water, and two opposing forces, Love which binds and attracts, and Hate which separates and repels. The formation of the world began when the elements, held to- gether by Love, and separated by Hate, again tended to union under the influence of Love. The manifold minglings and separations of the elements originated the different species, that of man included. Our perceptions arise from the particles which are thrown off by things, and stream in upon us through special pores or passages. As in our persons all the fundamental elements are united, we are enabled by their means to recognise what is homo- geneous outside us. Our ideas are not pure, but compounded of the particles which pour in upon us and go out from us. The system of Empedocles often agreed with that of Pythagoras. Both adopted the theory of transmigration, and the moral and ascetic doctrines connected with it. The propitia- tory hymns above mentioned may well have been in harmony with these ideas. Emptio. See Bonorum Emptio. Encaustike. The art of painting by burning in the colours. {See Painting.) Enc61adus. {See Giants.) EncomiSn (Greek). Originally the song sung by the chorus at the komds or festal procession held at the great national games in honour of the victor, either on the day of his victory, or on its anniversary. The word came afterwards to denote any song written in celebration of distinguished persons, and in later times any spoken or written panegyric whatever. Endeis. Daughter of Chiron and the Naiad Chariclo, wife of ^Eacus, mother of Peleus and Telamon. Endeixis. A term in Athenian juris- prudence, denoting a prosecution in no- torious cases, as, for instance, against the Prytanes, if they refused to put a question to the vote in the great assembly. It was especially employed against persons who, although lying under htlmia, presumed to claim a share in civic rights, as (particu- larly) by instituting prosecutions, or ap- pearing, speaking, and voting in the assem- bly [Aristotle, Const, of Athens, 29, 52, 63]. EndrSmIs (Greek). (1) A boot of leather or felt, rising as far as the calf or above it, and fitting close to the foot. In front it was open and fastened with straps. It was specially adapted for journeys or hunt- ing, and consequently appears often in representations of Artemis and of the Erinygs. Runners in races too, often wore it. {See Eleusinia, fig. 1, and Erinys.) (2) A thick woollen rug (mentioned by Martial and Juvenal, iii 102). Endj^mion. In Greek mythology, the beautiful son of Aethlios (or, according to another story, Zeus and CSlyce), daughter of ^6lus, king of Elis, father of Epeus, ^tolus, and Paeon, the first of whom won the government of the country by conquer- ing in a race which his father had set on foot. He was loved by Selene, the goddess of the moon, by whom he had fifty daughters. They were supposed to symbolize the fifty lunar months which intervened between the Olympic games. His grave was at Olympia. Another story made him a shep- herd or hunter on Mount Latmos in Caria. Zeus bestowed on him eternal youth and eternal life in the form of unbroken slumber. Selene descended every night from heaven to visit and embrace the beautiful sleeper in his grotto. Ennlus {Quintus), The founder of the Hellenized type of Latin poetry. He was born 239 B.C. at Rudise in Calabria, and was by descent a Grsecised Messapian. He was probably educated at Tarentum, and served with the Romans in the Second Punic War in Sardinia, whence Cato took him to Rome in 204 B.C. His poetical talent here came to his aid, not in a pecuniary way (for he was in slender cir- cumstances to the end of his life), but as an introduction to the favour of the great men. Among these must be mentioned the Scipios, and Fulvius Nobilior, who took him in his retinue to the .^tolian war in B.C. 189, and whose son procured him the citizen- ship five years later (184). A gouty affec- tion did not prevent him from continuing his literary work to an advanced age. He was in his sixty-seventh, year when he finished his AnndlSs, and he put a tragedy on the stage shortly before his death. He died in 170 B.C., in his seventieth year. It was said that the Scipios placed his image in their family vault. Ennius wrote poetry with success in a great number of styles. But in his own opinion, as well as in that of his fellow- citizens, his greatest work was his Annales in eighteen books. This was a chrono- logical narrative of Roman history in verse. Like Nsevius' Bellum Poenicum, it began with the destruction of Troy, and came down to the poet's own times. In this poem Ennius created for the Romans their first national epic, the fame of which was only eclipsed by Vergil. But he did 214 ENNODIUS EPHEBI. more. By the introduction of the Greek hexameter Ennius did much to further the future development of Latin poetry. His predecessor, Neevius, had continued to write in the native Saturnian metre, which was hardly capable of artistic development. But the practice of writing in the strict dactylic measure enabled the Latin poets to assimilate the other metrical forms pre- sented by Greek literature. Of the Annals we possess, relatively speak- ing, only a small number of fragments. Some of these can only be distinguished from prose by their metrical form; others are very fine, both in form and ideas. Ennius showed considerable capacity, too, as a writer of tragedies. His dramas, which were very numerous, were composed after Greek models, especially the tragedies of Euripides. More than twenty of these Euripidean plays are known to us by their titles and sur- viving fragments. He also wrote prce- textce, or tragedies on Roman subjects, as, for instance, the Ambrdcia, representing the siege and conquest of this city by his patron Fulvius Nobilior. His comedies were neither so numerous nor so important as his tragedies. Besides these he wrote several books of satiLrce, or collections of poems of various contents and in various metres. Several of his adaptations or trans- lations of Greek originals were probably in- cluded in these : as, for instance, the Hedy- phdgStica, a gastronomic work after Arches- tratus of Gela ; Epicharmus, a didactic poem on the "Nature of Things"; EuhS- mSnts, a rationalistic interpretation of the popular fables about the gods; Prcecepta or Protrepticus, containing moral doctrines ; and others of the same kind. There was a poem entitled Scipio, written in honour of the elder Africanus. Whether this was a satura or a drama is uncertain. The memory of Ennius long survived the fall of the Republic. Even after literary taste had taken quite a different direction, he was revered as the father of Latin poetry, and especially as having done much to enrich the Latin language. EnnSdius {Magnus Felix). A Latin rhetorician and poet. He was born about 473 A.D. in the south of France, and died in 521 as bishop of Pavia. Among the other works, he wrote between 504 and 508 an extremely fulsome panegyric on Theodosius the Great, and a biography of Epiphanius, his predecessor in the see. Both these writings have a value for the historian. Besides these we have a collec- tion of twenty- eight model speeches, some of which were really delivered : nine books of letters, and two of poems, sacred and secular. The first book of poems contains longer, the second shorter and occasional pieces. Both show a certain command of form. EnomStia. A subordinate division of the L5ch6s in the Spartan army. {See Lochos and Mora.) EnyaiI6s. Epithet of Ares. {See Ares.) Enyo. (1) A Greek goddess of battle, companion of Ares {see Ares), identified by the Romans with Bellona. {See Ares, Bellona,) (2) One of the Graice. (See Graim.) Eos (Latin Aurora). The Greek goddess of the dawn, daughter of the Titan Hyperion and Theia, sister of HeliQs and Selene, by Astneus, mother of the winds, Argestes, ZephyrSs, BSreas and N6tos, the morning star HSosphdros, and of the stars in general. Her hair is beautiful, her arms and fingers ruddy, her wings are white. She rises early from her couch on the Eastern Ocean, and in a saffron-coloured mantle, on a golden chariot drawn by white horses, she comes forth as her brother's herald to proclaim the rising of day to mortals and immortals. Loving all fresh and youthful beauty, she carries away Clitus, Cephalus, Orion and Tithonus, to whom she bears Memnon and Emathion. She is represented in works of art as hovering in the sky, or riding on her chariot, moving with a torch before Ares, or sprinkling dew from a vase over the earth. See Memnon. Ep§,phds. See lo and Belos. Epeus {Epeids). {See Trojan War.) Ephebi. The Athenian name for youths over the age of sixteen. The completion of a boy's sixteenth year was the occasion of a festival, at which the Sphebus made a drink offering to HerScles, and entertained his friends with wine. His hair, hitherto worn long, was cut, and the locks dedicated to Apollo. For the two following years the ephebi were mainly employed in gymnastic exercises, and after that time the proper civic ephebla commenced. After an exa- mination intended to test the genuineness of their civic descent and their physical capacity, the ephebi were entered on the list of their tribe, presented to the people assembled in the theatre, armed with spear and shield, and taken to the sanctuary of AgraulSs at the foot of the citadel, where they bound themselves by a solemn oath to the service and defence of their country. EPHEGESIS EPHOJRS. 215 For the two following years they served as guards on the frontier. After the comple- tion of their twentieth year they were ad- mitted to the meetings of the assembly and employed in foreign service. Their dress was the chldmys and the petdsus. Ephegesis. See Apagoge. Ephgrae. A judicial court of high anti- quity at Athens, consisting of fifty-one judges elected from the noblest Athenian families. It gave decisions in cases of murder at five different places, differing according to the character of the case. If the crime had a religious character, the Archon Basileus presided. (See Archons.) Solon did not abolish this court, but handed over to the newly organized AreSpagus its most important functions, — the power of deciding cases of intentional murder, poison- ing, malicious wounding, arson, and the like. The nearest relations of the murdered person were bound by religious sanction to avenge his blood. At the funeral, and after that in the market place, they uttered a solemn denunciation, which bade the murderer keep away from all public places, assemblies, and sanctuaries, and to appear before the court. The Archon Basileus, after the charge had been announced and received, repeated this denunciation. The preliminary investigation, and determination of the place where the court was to be held, followed at three appointed times in three succes- sive months. The case was not finally dealt with till the fourth month. On the first two days of the final trial the two parties, after solemnly taking an oath, con- ducted their case in person. On the third day judgment was given, in case the accused had not gone into voluntary exile. If he had, his property was confiscated, but he was pursued no further. Intentional mur- der was punished with death, malicious wounding with exile ; the man's property was confiscated in both cases. In the court of Areopagus, if the votes of the judges were equal, the accused was acquit- ted. If the homicide were legally allowed (as, for instance, that of an adulterer) or legally innocent (as in self-defence), the case was investigated in the Delphini5n, a sanctuary of the Delphic Apollo ; and only a religious purification was exacted. Cases of unintentional homicide, murder of an alien, and instigation to murder, were taken at the Palladion, a sanctuary of Pallas. Instigation to murder was punished with banishment and confiscation of property, the murder of an alien with banishment, unintentional murder with banishment, until the kinsmen of the murdered person gave permission to the slayer to return. In the time of Demosthenes it would seem that the cases which used to be heard at the Delphinion and Palladion were handed over to the Htliastoe. Thus the Ephetse had only two courts left them, that in Phreatto, a place in the Piraeus, near the sea, and the PrytS,neum. The former had only to judge in the rare event of a person banished for unintentional homicide being charged with intentional murder. As he might not set foot on land, he was heard standing in a ship, and if found gailty was punished with banishment for life. At the Pry taneum a regular oonrt was held on inani- mate objects and animals which had been the cause of death to a human being. The presi- dent of the four old Ionic tribes removed the object or the animal over the border. Again, if a murder had been committed and the of- fender was undiscovered, this court had to pronounce lawful sentence against him [Dem. 23 §§ 64-79 ; Aristotle, Const. Athens, 57]. Ephialtes. See Aload^. Ephors (£^p7idro2= overseers.) A board of five members at Sparta, elected annually from all the citizens. It is said to have been established by Lycurgus or king Theo- pompus (770 B.C.). The original intention was that it should give decisions in private matters, and represent the absent kings in certain of their duties, especially the super- intendence of the officials and of public discipline. But their circle of authority gradually widened, till it came to mean a superintendence over the whole common- wealth, including the kings. The ephors had the right of raising objections against their actions, calling them, like other officials, to account for their conduct, pun- ishing them with fines and reprimands, and even prosecuting them before the senate, and threatening them with deposition and death. They were the only citizens who were not obliged to rise in the kings' presence, a fact which gives a good idea of the relative position of the two parties. Besides the duty of opposing everything which they thought adverse to the laws and interests of Sparta, they had from early times the right of summoning the delibera- tive and legislative assemblies, the GSrusm and Ecclesia, to make proposals to them, and take the lead in proceedings left to their management. Two of them regularly accompanied the kings on their campaigns. It is probable also that they had the super- 216 EPHORUS EPICURUS. intendence of the public treasure. In their capacity of protectors of the public dis- cipline their authority extended itself to the minutest details of private life. In regard to the Helots and Perioeci it was still more alsolute. Even on a perioecus they could pass sentence of death without trial. {See Perkeci.) On important occa- sions a majority of their votes was required. At the end of their annual office, on which they entered at the beginning of the Spartan year or at the time of the autumnal equinox, they were liable to be called to account by their successors. The j'ear was dated by the name of the first Ephor on the board. , EphSrus. A Greek historian, bom about 400 B.C. at Cyme, in Asia Minor. He lived to see the invasion of Asia by Alexander the Great in 334. Like Theopompus, he was a pupil of IsScr^tes, who, seeing that he was not likely to succeed as a public speaker, persuaded him to write history. He was the author of a Universal History, which omitted the mythical age, and began with the return of the HerSclidse into the Peloponnese. It treated in thirty books the history of the Greek and barbarian world, during a space of 750 years, ending in 340 B.C. The last book is said to have been completed by his son DemSphllus. The work was continued in the Alexandrian period by Diyllus of Athens, Psaon of Platsea, and MenodStus of Perinthus, It was much read and used for the wealth and excellent arrangement of its material, which embraced geography, ethnography, myth- ology, and the history of civilization and literature. It met with much hostile criti- cism, but had its admirers, among whom was Polybius, Epicaste. See Jocasta. Epicharmus. A Greek comedian, born in the island of Cos, about 540 B.C. When only a child of three months old he came with his father HelQthales, a physician, to Megara in Sicily, where he died about 450 at the age of 90. Like his father, he is said to have been personally acquainted with PythagSras, and whether this is so or no, his philosophical attainments were not inconsiderable. It was Epicharmus who gave to the Doric comedy of Sicily its liter- ary form. Thirty-five of his plays, written in the Doric dialect, are known to us by their titles, and a few meagre fragments have survived. They differed from the Attic comedy in having no chorus. Their subjects were taken partly from the stories of gods and heroes, which they burlesqued and caricatured, and partly from life. The plots seem to have been simple and the action rapid. The philosophical leanings of Epicharmus are shown in numerous saj'^- ings of deep practical wisdom. Plato said that Epicharmus was the prince of comedy, as Homer was of tragedy, a striking testi- mony to the perfection of his compositions in their own line. In his mythical comedy he was imitated by Dinolochus of Syracuse, EpicheirotSnia. See Ecclesia. Epictetus (Gr. Epiktetos). A Greek phi- losopher, born at Hierapolis in Phrygia. He lived a long time in Rome as a slave, in the house of Epaphroditus, a favourite of Nero. Emancipated by his master, ho became a professor of the Stoical system, which he had learned from the lectures of Musonius Rufus. When the philosophers were expelled from Rome by Domitian in 94 A.D., Epictetus went to Nicopolis in Epirus, where he lived as the master of a school until the reign of Hadrian (117 A.D.) He formed numerous disciples by free con- versations after the manner of Socrates. Among these was Arrlanus, to whom we owe an account of Epictetus' doctrine, for the master himself left nothing in writing. The main point on which he laid stress was the independence of the human mind of all external circumstances, such being not in our power. This freedom is to be attained by patience and renunciation. The duty of man is to find all his happiness within himself, and the power of which he should be most in awe is the deity in his own breast. Epicurus (Gr. Epikouros.) A Greek phi- losopher, founder of the Epicvirean school, which was so named after him. He was born 342 B.C. in the Attic deme of Gargettus, and spent his early years in Samos, where his father had settled as a cleruchus, (See Colonies, Greek.) While still young he returned to Athens, and there acquired by independent reading a comprehensive know- ledge of previous philosophies. In 310 (cetat 32) he began to teach philosophy, first in Mytllene, and afterwards in Lamp- sScus. After 304 he carried on his pro- fession at Athens. Here he bought a garden, in which he lived in retirement in a very modest and simple style, surrounded by his brother and his friends. He died (B.C. 268, cetat. 74) of calculus, after terrible * sufferings. But to the last moment he never lost the tranquil serenity which had characterized his whole life. Such was bia EPIG AMI A EPIGRAM. 217 authority with his disciples that none of them ventured to make any innovation in his doctrines. His school continued to flourish in Athens, under fourteen masters, for 227 years ; and much longer in other cities. His writings were remarkably numerous, and in parts very comprehensive. They were admired for their clearness, but their form was found fault with as too careless. Epicurus used to say himself that writing gave him no trouble. All that remains of them [exclusive of what may be gleaned from quotations in later writers], is : (1) a com- pendium of his doctrine in forty-four short propositions, written for his scholars to learn by heart. This we must, however, re- member is not preserved in its original form. (2) Some fragments, not inconsiderable, but much mutilated and very incomplete, of his great work On Nature, in thirty books. These are preserved in the Herculanean papyri. (3) Three letters have survived from the body of his correspondence, besides his will. For his system, see Philosophy. Epigamia (Greek). The right of con- tracting a valid marriage, with all its legal consequences. It was possessed only by citizens of the same state ; aliens could only acquire it by special legal authorization, i.e., a decree of the popular assembly. At Athens even the Metceci, or resident aliens, were excluded from it. (Comp. Condbium.) Epigoni. The descendants of the seven princes who marched against Thebes : iEgialeus, son of Adrastus ; Alcmaeon, son of Amphiaraus ; DlQmedes, son of Tydeus ; PrSmachus, son of ParthenSpseus ; Sthene- lus, son of CapaneiTS ; Thersander, son of Polynices ; Euryalus, son of Mecisteus. To avenge the slain, they marched against Thebes, under the leadership of Adrastus, ten years after the first Theban war (see Adrastus). Unlike their ancestors, they started with the happiest auspices. The oracle of Amphiaraus at Thebes promises them victory, and a happy return to all, that is, except iEgialeus the son of Adras- tus, the only warrior who escaped in the previous war. In the decisive battle at Glisas, ^gialeus falls by the hand of La6- damas, son of EteScles, and leader of the Thebans. Laodamas is himself slain by Alcmseon. Part of the defeated Thebans, by the advice of Teirgsias, fly before the city is taken, and settle in the territory of Hestiseotis in Thessaly, or among the Illy- rian Encheli, where the government is in the hands of descendants of Cadmus (see Cadmus). The victors having conquered and destroyed the city, send the best part of the booty, according to their vow, to the Delphic oracle. Thersander and his family are henceforth the rulers of Thebes. Epigram. Properly = an inscription, such as was often written upon a tomb, a votive offering, a present, a work of art, and the like, to describe its character. Inscrip- tions of this sort were from early times put into metrical form, and the writer gene- rally tried to put good sense and spirit into them. They were generally, though not always, -v^ritten in the elegiac metre. The greatest master of epigram was Simonides of Ceos, the author of almost all the sepulchral inscriptions on the warriors who fell in the Persian wars. His lines are remarkable for repose, clear- ness, and force, both of thought and ex- pression. Fictitious inscriptions were often written, containing brief criticisms on celebrated men, as poets, philosophers, artists and their productions. The form of the epigram was also used to embody in concise and pointed language the clever ideas, or the passing moods of the writer, often with a tinge of wit or satire. The occasional epigram was a very favourite form of composition with the Alexandrian poets, and remained so down to the latest, times. Some writers, indeed, devoted themselves entirely to it. Many of the choicest gems of Greek literature are to be found in the epigrams. The epigram- matists used other metres besides the elegiac, especially the iambic. In later times more complex and almost lyrical mea- sures were employed. The Greek Anth- ology has preserved 4,500 epigrams, of the greatest variety in contents, and from the hand of more than 300 poets. (See Antho- logy.) Among these are found some of the most celebrated names of ancient and of later times. A great number, too, are found in inscriptions. Of all the Greek varieties of lyric poetry, the epigram was earliest welcomed at Rome. It lived on in an uninterrupted existence from Ennius till the latest times, being employed sometimes for inscriptions, some- times for other and miscellaneous purposes. In the second half of the 1st century A.D. Martial handled it in various forms and with the power of a master. We also have a collection of epigrams by Luxorius (6th cen- tury A.D.). Many of such poems are pre- served on inscriptions, besides a great quan- tity in manuscript, which in modern times hiive been collected into a Latin Anthology. 218 EPIKLEROS EPOS. Epiklerds. See Inheritance (Atlienian). EpllenI6s. See Dancing. EpimfiletSB (overseers.) The name given at Athens to commissioners nominated as occasion might require for the superin- tendence of departments. Some of these commissioners were regularly elected every year, as, e.g., the ten eplmSletce of the wharves, who were responsible for the care of the ships of war and equipments stored in the docks ; and the ten commis- sioners of the Enipdrion, whose duty it was to enforce the laws relative to duties and commerce. For the commissioners of the revenue, see Tamias. Epimetheus. Brother of PrOmetheus and husband of Pandora. {See Prometheus.) Epinikldu (Greek). A prize hymn sung by the chorus in honour of the victors at '■rhe great national games. Epidne. See Asclepius. EpiskyrSs. See Ball. Epistates. See Bodle. EpithaUmlSn (Greek). The wedding- hymn sung before the bridal chamber by a chorus of youths and maidens. Epitimia (Greek). The full possession of civic privileges, the opposite of cltlmia. Epon^mSs (Greek). Properly the person after whom anything is named. This was in various Greek states the unofficial title of the magistrates after whom (in default of a generally received standard of chrono- logy) the year was designated. In Athens this would be the first Archon, in Sparta the first Ephor, in Argos the priestess of Hera. When the SpheM, at Athens, were enrolled in the list of the citizens who could be called out for military service, the name of the first archon of the year was attached. And when the citizens of various ages were stunmoned to military service, a reference was made to the archon eponymos, under whom they had been originally en- rolled. The ancient heroes who gave their name to the ten tribes of ClisthSnes, and the heroes worshipped by the demes, were also called eponymoi. The statues of the former were in the market place, and it was near them that official notices were put up [Aristotle, Const, of Athens^ 53]. Epopeus. Son of PSseidon and CS-nSce, the daughter of iE6lus, brother of Aloeus. He migrated from Thessaly to Sicyon, where he became king. He was killed by Lycus for the sake of AntiSpe, who, it was alleged, was mother of Zethus by him. Epoptae. See Eleusinia. Epds. {\) Greek. Many indications point to the fact that the oldest poetry of the Greeks was connected with the worship of the gods, and that religious poetry of a mystical kind was composed by the priests of the Thracians, a musical and poetical people, and diffused in old times through Northern Greece. The worship of the Muses was thus derived from the Thracians, who in later times had disappeared from Greece Proper ; and accordingly the oldest bards whose names are known to the Greeks, — Orpheus, Musseus, Eumolpus, ThSmyris, — are supposed to have been Thracians also. The current ideas on the nature and action of the gods tended more and more to take the form of poetical myths respecting their birth, actions and sufferings. And thus those compositions, of which an idea may be derived from some of the so-called Homeric hymns, gradually assumed an epic character. In course of time the epic writers threw off their connexion with religion, and struck out independent lines. Confining themselves no longer to the myths about the gods, they celebrated the heroic deeds both of mythical antiquity and of the immediate past. Thus, in the Homeric description of the epic age, while the bards Phemlus and Demodocus appear as favourites of the gods, to whom they are indebted for the gift of song, they are not attached to any particular worship. The subjects of their song are not only stories about the gods, such as the loves of Ares and AphrSdite, but the events of recent times, the conquest of Troy by means of the wooden horse, and the tragical return of the Achseans from Troy. Singers like these, appearing at public festivals, and at the tables of princes, to entertain the guests with their lays, must have existed early in Greece Proper. But it was the Ionian Greeks of Asia Minor who first fully developed the capacities of epic poetry. By long practice, extending prob- ably througli centuries, a gradual progress was probably effected from short lays to long epic narratives ; and at the same time a tradition delivered from master to scholar handed on and perfected the outer form of style and metre. Thus, about 900 B.C. epic poetry was brought to its highest per- fection by the genius of Homer, the reputed author of the Iliad and Odyssey. After Homer it sank, never to rise again, from the height to which he had raised it. It is true that in the following centuries a series of epics, more or less comprehensive, were composed by poets of the Ionic school EPOS. 219» in close imitation of the style and metre of Homer. But not one of them succeeded in coming even within measurable distance of their great master. The favourite topics of these writers were such fables as served either to introduce, or to extend and con- tinue, the Iliad and Odyssey. They were called cyclic poets, because the most impor- tant of their works were afterwards put together with the Iliad and Odyssey in an epic cycle, or circle of lays.^ The Cyprian poems (Cypria), of Stasinus, of SalSmls in Cyprus (776 B.C.), formed the introduction to the Iliad. These embraced the history of the period between the marriage of Peleus and the opening of the Iliad. At about the same time Arctinus of Miletus composed his JEtM6pis in five books. This poem started from the conclusion of the Iliad, and described the death of Achilles, and of the Ethiopian prince Memnon, the contest for the arms of Achilles, and the suicide of Ajax. The Destruction of Ilium, by the same author, was in two books. By way of supplement to the Homeric Iliad, Lesches of Mytilene, either about 708 or 664 B.C., wrote a Little Iliad, in four books. This embraced the contest for the arms of Achilles, the appearance of NeoptSlemus and Philoctetes, and the capture of the city^ The transition from the Iliad to the Odyssey was formed by the five books of Nostoi {The Return of the Heroes), written by Agias of Troezen. The TelSgdnia, by Eugammon of Cyrene (about 570), continued the Odyssey. This was in two books, em- bracing the history of Odysseus from the burial of the suitors until his death at the hands of his son TelegSnus. These poems and those of the other cyclics were, after Homer, the sources from which the later lyric and dramatic poets drew most of their information. But only fragments of them remain. A new direction was given to epic poetry in Greece Proper by the didactic and genealogical epics of Hesiod of Ascra, about a hundred years after Homer. Hesiod was the founder of a school, the productions of which were often attributed to him as those of the Ionic school were to Homer. One of these disciples of Hesiod was Eumelus of Corinth (about 750 B.C.), of the noble family of the BacchiMse. But his poems, like those of the rest, are lost. The most notable representatives of mythi- * [Or perhaps because their style and treat- ment was conventional and without originality, another meaning of the word cyclicus.] cal epic poetry in the following centuries are Pisander of Camiras (about 640 B.C.), and PanySsis of Hallcarnassus (during the first half of the 5th centurj^). In the second half of the 5th century Choerilus of Samos wrote a Per sets on the Persian wars ; the first attenlpt in Greece at a historical epic. His younger contemporary, AntimSchus o£ ColSphon, also struck out a new line in his- learned ThSbdts, the precursor and model of the later epic of Alexandria. The Alex- andrians laid great stress on learning and artistic execution in detail, but usually con- fined themselves to poems of less magni- tude. The chief representatives of the Alexandrian school are Calllmachus (about 250 B.C.), Rhianus, Euphorion, and Apol- lonitis of Rhodes. The latter made the futile attempt to return to the simplicity of Homer. His Argonautica is, with the exception of the Homeric poems, the only Greek epic which has survived from the ante-Christian era. In the 200 years be- tween the 4th and 6th centuries A.D., the mythical epic is represented by Quintus. Smyrnseus, Nonnus, Colluthus, Tryphio- dorus, Musseus, and the apocryphal Orpheus. Nonnus, Colluthus, and Tryphio- dorus were Egyptians. Nonnus and Musseus, alone among these writers, have any claim to distinction. The talent of Nonnus is genuine, but undisciplined; Musseus knows how to throw charm into his treatment of a narrow subject. The whole series is closed by the Iltdca of Joannes Tzetzes, a learned but tasteless scholar of the 12th century a.d. As Homer was the master of the mythical, so Hesiod was the master of the didactic epic. After him this department of poetry was best represented by XenS- phS,nes of Colophon, Parmenides of El6a, and Empedocles of Agrigentum, in the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. In the Alexandrian period didactic poetry was much taken up, and employed upon the greatest possible variety of subjects. But none of its repre- sentatives succeeded in writing more than poetic prose, or in handling their intract- able material with the mastery which Vergil shows in his Georgics. The period produced the astronomical epic of Aratus of Sicyon (about 275 B.C.), and two medical poems by Nicander of Colophon (about 150). Under the Roman Empire more didactic poetry was produced by the Greek writers. Maximus and the so-called Mangtho wrote on astrology. Dionysius Periegetes on geo- graphy, Oppian on angling, and an imi- 220 EPOS. tator of Oppian on hunting. The Alex- andrian period also produced didactic poems in iambic sSndrU, as e,g. several on geography bearing the names ofDicsearchus and Scymnus, which still survive. (2) Roman. The Romans probably had songs of an epic character from the earliest times ; but these were soon forgotten. They had, however, a certain influence on the later and comparatively artificial literature, for both Livius AndrSnicus in his transla- tion of the Odyssey, and Nsevius in his Punic War, wrote in the traditional Italian metre, the versus Sdturnlus. Nsevius was, it is true, a national poet, and so was his successor Ennius, but the latter employed the Greek hexameter metre, in- stead of the rude Satumian. To follow the example of Ennius, and celebrate the achievements of their countrymen in the form of the Greek epic, was the ambition of several poets before the fall of the Republic. A succession of poets, as Hostius, the tragedian Accius, and Furius were the authors of poetical annals. In this con- nexion we should also mention Cicero's epics on Marius and on his own consulship, besides the poem of Terentius Varro of Atax {Atdclnus) on Caesar's war with the Sequini {Bellum SSqudnicum). Latin epics on Greek mythical subjects seem to have been rare in the republican age. At least we know of only a few translations, as that of the Iliad by Mattius and Ninnius Crassus, and of the Cypria by Lsevinus. Towards the end of the republican age it was a favourite form of literary activity to write in free imitation of the learned Alex- andrians. Varro of Atax, for example, followed ApoUonius of Rhodes in his Ai'gonautica ; others, like Helvius Cinna and the orator Licinius Calvus, preferred the shorter epics so much in favour with the Alexandrians. Only one example in this style is completely preserved. The Marriage of Peleus and ThStis, by Cat- ullus. This is the onlj' example we possess of the narrative epic of the republic. But in the Augustan age both kinds of epic, the mythic and the historical, are repre- sented by a number of poets. Varius Rufus, Rabirlus, Cornelius Severus, and Alblno- vanus P6do, treated contemporary history in the epic style: D5mitius Marsus and Macer turned their attention to the mytho- logy. The ^neid of Vergil, the noblest monument of Roman epic poetry, combines both characters. Of all the epic produc- tions of this age, the only ones which are preserved intact are the iEneid, a pane- gyric on Messala, which found its way into the poems of Tibullus, and perhaps two poems, the Culex and Clris, falsely attri- buted to Vergil. In the 1st century a.d. we have several examples of the historical epic : the Phar- sdlia of Lucan, the Punica of Silius Italicus, a Bellum ClvllS in the satirical romance of Petronius, and an anonymous panegyric on Calpurnius Piso, who was executed for conspiracy under Nero, a.d. 65. The heroic style is represented by the Argonautica of Valerius Flaccus, and the Thehaid and Achilleid of Statius, to which we may add the metrical epitome of the Iliad by the so-called PindS,rus Thebanus. The politico-historical poems of the succeeding centuries, by Publlus Porfirius Optatianus in the 4th century, Claudian, Merobaudes, Sidonius ApoUlnaris in the 5th, Priscian, Corippus, and Venantius Fortunatus in the 6th, are entirely panegyric in character, and intended to do homage to the emperor or men of influence. Of all these poets, Claudian is the most consider- able. He and Dracontius (towards the end of the 5th century) are among the last who take their subjects from mythology. Didactic poetry, which suited the sober character of the Romans, was early repre- sented at Rome. Here the Romans were in many ways superior to the Greeks. Appius Claudius Caecus and the elder Cato were the authors of gnomic poetrJ^ Ennius, the tragedian Accius, and several of his contemporaries, wrote didactic pieces ; the satires of Lucilius and Varro were also in part didactic. It was however not till the end of the republican period that the influence of Greek literature gave predomi- nance to the Greek epic form. It was then adopted by Varro of Atax, the orator Cicero, and above all by Lucretius, whose poem De Eerum Ndturd is the only did- actic poem of this period that has been pre- served intact. In the Augustan age many writers were active in this field, Valgius Rufus and iEmilius Macer followed closely in the steps of the Alexandrians. Grattius wrote a poem on hunting, a part of which still survives; Manilius an astronomical poem which survives entire. But the Georgics of Vergil throws all similar works, Greek or Latin, into the shade. Ovid employs the epic metre in his MStdmor- phosSs and Hdlleutica, the elegiac in his Fasti. In the 1st century A-.D. Germanicus EPULONES EQUITES. 221 translated Aratus. Columella wrote a poem on gardening; an unknown author (said to be Lucilius), the .^na. The 3rd century produced the medical poem of Sammonicus Serenus, and that of Nemesi- anus on hunting. In the 4th we have Aus5nius, much of whose work is didactic ; Palladias on agriculture ; an adaptation of Aratus and of Dionysius Periegetes by Avienus, with a description of the sea- coasts of the known world in iambics ; in the 5th, besides some of Claudian's pieces, a description by Rutilius Namatianus in elegiacs of his return home. The book of Dionysius Periegetes was adapted by Pris- cian in the 6th century. A collection of proverbs, bearing the name of Cato, belongs to the 4th century. In most of these com- positions the metrical form is a mere set off ; and in the school verses of the gram- marians, as in those by Terentianus Maurus on metres, by an anonymous author on rhetorical figures, and on weights and measures, there is no pretence of poetry at all. Eptilones (Masters of the Feast). The office of epulo was created 196 B.C. to re- lieve the Pontifices. It was, from the first, open to plebeians, and could be held with the great offices of state. The first duty of the epulones was to provide the banquets {Spulum) of the Capitoline deities {see Lectisternium). In later times they had also to provide for and superintend the public entertainments (epwZcB) of the people, when the senate dined on the Capitol. Such entertainments were always provided at the games given by private individuals, or by the state, on occasions of religious festivals, dedications of temples, assump- tions of office, triumphs, funerals, birthdays in the imperial household, and the like. The CollSgium epulonum consisted origin- ally of three members {tres viri epulones) and afterwards of seven {septem viri epulones), a name which it retained even after Caesar had raised the number to ten. Its existence can be traced down to the end of the 4th century. Eqnirria. See Mars and Salh. Equites (horsemen or knights). The Squites were originally a real division of the Roman army. At the beginning of the kingly period they were called cSlSres, and their number is said to have been 300, chosen in equal parts from the three tribes of the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres. A hun- dred formed a centUria, each centuria being named after the tribe from which it was taken. Thirty made a turma, and ten were under the command of a decitrw, while the whole corps was commanded by the tribunus cclerum. During the course of the kingly period the body of equites was increased to six centuri(E, and the con- stitution of Servius Tullius finally raised it to eighteen. When the twelve new centuries were formed, consisting of the richest persons in the state, whose income exceeded that of the first class in the census, the corps of equites lost the exclusively patrician char- acter which had hitherto distinguished it. At the same time its military importance was diminished, as it no longer formed the first rank, but took up a position on the wings of the phalanx (see Legio). The equites, however, retained both in the state and in the army their personal prestige. In the comitia they voted first, and in centuries of their own. They were the most distinguished troops in the army. No other soldiers were in a position to keep two horses and a groom apiece, a costly luxury, although they received an allowance for the purchase and keep of their horse. After the introduction of the pay system they received three times as much as the ordinary troops ; on occasion of a triumph three times the ordinary share of booty ; and at the foundation of a colony a much larger allotment than the ordinary colonist. The 1,800 equites equo publico, or equites whose horse was purchased and kept by the state, were chosen every five years, at the census. The election was carried out in the republican period originally by the consuls, but in later times by the censors. After the general census was completed, the censors proceeded to review the equites (recdgnitio) . They were arranged accord- ing to their tribes, and each of them, lead- ing his horse by the hand, passed before the tribunal of the censors in the forum. All who had served their time, and who were physically incapacitated, received their discharge. If an eques were judged unworthy of his position, he was dismissed with the words : " Sell your horse " (VendS Squum). If there were nothing against him, he was passed on with the words TrCLdUc equum (" lead your horse past "). The vacancies were then filled up with suitable candidates, and the new list {album equitum) read aloud. In later times, the eques whose name was first read out was called princeps iuventutis {see Princeps). During their time of service (setat- 17-46) the equites were beund to serve in a number 222 ERANOS ERATOSTHENES. cf campaigns not exceeding ten. Their service expired, they passed into the first ■censorial class. The senators alone among the equites were, in earlier times, allowed to keep their equus publicus, their name on the roll, and their rights as equites unimpaired. But of this privilege the senators were deprived in the time of the Grracchi. The number of the equites equo publico re- mained the same, as no addition was made to the sum expended by the state on the horses. Young men of property sometimes served on their own horses {equo privdto) without any share in the political privileges of the equites. After the Second Punic war the body of equites gradually lost its mili- tary position, and finally ceased to exist as a special troop. In the 1st century B.C. the ■members of the equestrian centurice only served in the cdhors prcetOria of the general, or in the capacity of military tribunes and prcefecti of cohorts. The wealthy class, who were in posses- sion of the large capital which enabled them to undertake the farming of the public revenues, and who consequently had the •opportunity of enriching themselves still further, had long enjoyed a very influential position. In 123 B.C. the lex iUdlctdrla of Gains Gracchus transferred to the possessors of the equestrian census (400,000 sestertii, or ■about £3,500) to right to sit on juries, which had previously belonged exclusively to mem- bers of the senate. Thus an ordO equester ■or third order, standing between the senate and the people, was formed, which began to play an important part in politics. Its members were called equites even if they were not enrolled in the centurice equitum. The contests between the senate and the equites for the exclusive right to sit on the juries, continued with varying fortunes until the end of the Republic. Augustus allowed the ordo equester to continue in •existence as a class in possession of a cer- tain income ; but the old fiscal and judicial system came to an end, and the ordo accord- ingly lost all its former importance. On the other hand, the equites proper rose into a position of great consideration. They were divided into six turmce, headed by an imperial prince as princeps iuventutis. True, they had no further standing as a corporation: but the emperor employed them in a variety of confidential posts. The title eques equo ^ publico was necessary for the attainment of the office of military * The state did not actually provide the horse. tribune, and for a number of the most important military posts. The power of conferring or withdrawing the title came at length to rest with the emperor alone. The review of the equites, which used to take place every five years, now became a mere ceremony, and was united by Augustus with the ancient annual parade {transvectlo) of the 15th July. The equites, in full uniform, rode through the Forum to the Capitol, past the temple of Mars or Honos. After the transference of the seat of government to Constantinople, the turmce equitum sank into the position of a city corporation, standing between the senate and the guilds, and in possession of special privileges. The insignia of the equites were a gold ring and a narrow purple border on the tunic {see Tunica). At the trans- vectio they wore the trdbSa, a mantle adorned with purple stripes, and crowns of olive. From 67 B.C. the fourteen first rows were assigned to them hdndris causd. Er8,n6s. The Greek term for an organized club or society, for the purposes of feast- ing and amusement, whose members were called Si'dnistcB. Sometimes it would be formed in connexion with the worship of particular deities. Sometimes, again, the object of an eranos would be mutual assist- ance by advances of money. The govern- ment encouraged these clubs, because their corporate character made it easier to settle with expedition any legal proceedings arising out of their affairs. Trials of this kind, for refusal to pay subscriptions, or to repay loans, had to be settled within a month. Er3,to. See Muses. ErS,tosth6nes. A Greek savant, born at Cyrene in 275 B.C. He completed his philo- sophical education at Athens, where he made his first public appearance as a lecturer on philosophy. His learning won him such a reputation that Ptolemy III (EuergStes) invited him in 247 B.C. to Alexandria, and made him librarian there in the place of Calllmachus. He is said to have died, after nearly losing his eye-sight, by voluntary starvation in 195 B.C. He was a master of science in all its branches — history, geography, geometry, astronomy, philosophy, grammar and poetry. As a writer he treated an astonishing variety of subjects, and won thereby the name of PentathWs (or master in the five great exercises of the arena). It is said that he was the first person who assumed the name of PhiWWgds, or friend of science. His EREBUS ERECHTHEUS. 223 greatest service consists in the fact that he was the founder of scientific geography. His greatest work was his GSOgrdphtca, in three books. The first was upon physical geography, the second treated mathematical geography on the basis of the measurement of degrees, discovered by himself. The subject of the third was chorography, based upon a map of his own drawing. The work is unfortunately lost, and known only by what later writers, especially StrSbo, have preserved. Historical investigation owes a great deal to the Chronogrdphia^ in which he undertook to found chronology on as- tronomy and mathematics. His compre- hensive book on Ancient Comedy was a con- tribution to the history of literature. The Cdtdldgoi was a work on astronomy and mythology, in which were collected the fables of the ancient writers on the con- stellations, with an enumerationof the single stars in each group. A dry compendium, called the CatastSrismoi, containing a mere enumeration of 44 constellations, with 475 stars, and the fables attached, is based on the great work of Eratosthenes. His poetical efforts were a short epic called Hermes, and a celebrated elegy, the ErigdnP,. Besides the compendium above mentioned, and some fragments, we have a letter of Eratosthenes to Ptolemy Euergetes on the doubling of the cube, and an epigram on the same subject. Ergbus. In Greek mythology, the pri- meval darkness, springing, according to Hesiod, from Chaos, brother of Night, and father by her of ^ther and Hemera (day). The word is commonly used of the lower world, filled with impenetrable darkness. Erechtheum {ErecMheidn). The original sanctuary of the tutelary deities of Athens, Athene PSlias, (the goddess of the city), Poseidon, and Erechtheus. It was situated on the Acr6p6lis. The old temple, said to have been built by Erechtheus, was burnt by the Persians in 480 B.C. The restoration was perhaps begun as far back as the time of Pericles, but, according to the testimony of an inscription in the British Museum (no. xxxv), was not quite finished in 409. The new temple was, even in antiquity, admired as one of the most beautiful and perfect works of the Attic-Ionic style. It was 65 feet long and nearly 36 broad ; and was divided into two main parts. Entering through the eastern portico of six Ionic pillars, one came into the cella of Athene Polias, with an image of the goddess, and a lamp that was always kept burning. To the solid wall at the back was attached the Erechtheum proper. Here were three altars, one common to Poseidon and Erechtheus, the other to Hephsestus and the hero Butes. Connected with this, by three dcors, was a small front-chamber, with seven half columns adorning the western wall, and three windows between them. This chamber was approached through a hall attached to the north side of the temple, adorned with seven Ionic columns in front, and one on each side. Under this was a cleft in the rock, said to have been made by the stroke of Poseidon's trident during his contest with Athene for the possession of the Acropolis. Corresponding to this on the south side was a small hall, supported not by pillars, but by caryatides. This was called the Hall of C6re, and it probably contained the tomb of Cecrops. Prom it a step led down to a court, once walled round, in which were the Pandroseum {see Pandr5s5s), the sacred olive tree of Athene, and the altar of Zeus Herkeios. On the east side, in front of the temple of Athene Polias, stood the altar on which the great hecatomb was offered at the Panathensea. {See plan of Acropolis.) Erechtheus. A mythical king of Athens. According to Homer he was the son of Earth by Hephsestus, and brought up by Athene. Like that of Cecrops, half of his form was that of a snake — a sign that he was one of the aborigines. Athene put the child in a chest which she gave to the daughters of Cecrops, AgraulSs, Herse, and Pandrosos, to take care of ; forbidding them at the same time to open it. The two eldest disobeyed, and in terror at the serpent-shaped child (or according to another version, the snake that surrounded the child), they went mad, and threw themselves from the rocks of the Acropolis. Another account made the serpent kill them. Erechtheus drove out Amphictyon, and got possession of the kingdom. He then es- tablished the worship of Athene, and built to her, as goddess of the city (Pdlias), a temple, named after him the Erechtheum. Here he was afterwards worshipped himself with Athene and Poseidon. He was also the founder of the Panathenaic festival. He was said to have invented the four-wheeled chariot, and to have been taken up to heaven for this by Zeus, and set in the sky as the constellation of the charioteer. His daughters were Orithyia and Procris {see BoBEAS and Cephalus). Originally identi- fied with ErichthSnius, he was in later times 224 ERGANE ERINYES. distinguished from him, and was regarded as his grandson, and as son of Pandion and Zeuxippe. His twin brother was Butes, his sisters Procne and Philomela. The priestly office fell to Butes, while Erech- theus assumed the functions of royalty. By Praxlthea, the daughter of Cephissus, he was father of the second Cecrops (see Pan- dion, 2), of Metion (see D^dalus); of Cretisa (see Ion), as well as of Protogeneia, Pandora, and Chthonla. When Athens was pressed hard by the Eleusinians under Eumolpus, the oracle promised him the victory if he would sacrifice one of his daughters. He chose the youngest, ChthSnia; but Protogeneia and Pandora, who had made a vow with their sister to die with her, voluntarily shared her fate. Erechtheus conquered his enemies and slew Eumolpus, but was afterwards destroyed by the trident of his enemy's father, Poseidon. Erg&ne. See Athene Erginus. King of the Mlinyse of OrchS- m§nus, son of Poseidon (or Clymenus, according to another account), and one of the Argonauts. At the games of Poseidon at Onchestfis, Clymenus was killed by a stone thrown by a noble Theban. Erginus in consequence compelled the Thebans to pay him an annual tribute of 100 oxen for twenty years. Heracles, on returning from his slaughter of the lions of Clthaeron, came upon the heralds who were collecting the tribute. He cut off their noses and ears, tied their hands round their necks, and told them that this was the tribute they might take back to their master. War broke out. Heracles armed the Thebans with the arms hanging in the temples, the Minyse having carried off all the others ; slew Erginus, destroyed Orchomenus, and forced the Minyse to pay double the tribute to Thebes. The sons of Erginus were the mythical architects AgS,medes and Trophonius. Erichth6nius. (1) Son of DardSnus (see Dardanus) and Bateia, father of Tros. (2) See Erechtheus. ErigSne. Daughter of Icarlils, who hanged herself for grief at the murder of her father, and was taken up to heaven as the constellation of the Virgin. (See Icarius.) Erinna. A famous Greek poetess, a native of the island of Telos. She was a friend and contemporary of Sappho, with whom she lived in Mitylene. She flourished about 600 B.C. and died at the age of nineteen. The poem by which she is best known is the Spindle (Eldkate) consisting of 300 hexameters. A few verses of this, and a few epigrams, are all of her writing which survives. A poem in five Sapphic strophes, addressed to Rome as the mistress of the world, is from the hand of a much later poetess, Melinno, who probably lived in Lower Italy at the time of the war with Pyrrhus, or the Pirst Punic War. Erinj^gs (Greek). The goddesses of venge- ance. Homer speaks sometimes of one, sometimes of several, but without any definite statement about either number, name, or descent. Hesiod makes them the daughters of Gaia (Earth), sprung from the blood of the mutilated Uranus. According to others they were the daughters of Night *EEINyS BINDING PIRITHOUS IN HADES. (Vase-Painting.) (Nyx) or of the Earth, and Darkness (S/cdths). Euripides is the earliest writer who fixes their number at three, and con- siderably later we find them with the names Allecto f* She who rests not "), TisiphSne (" Avenger of murder "), and Megsera (" The jealous one.") They are the avengers of every transgression of natural order, and especially of offences which touch the foundation of human society. They punish, without mercy, all violations of filial duty, or the claims of kinship, or the rites of hospitality ; murder, perjurj', and like offences ; in Homer even beggars have their Erinys. The punishment begins on earth and is continued after death. Thus they pursue Orestes and Alcmseon, who slew their mothers, and (Edipus for ERIPHYLE EROS 225 the murder of his father and marringe with his mother, without regard to the circumstances by which their offences were excused. Their principle is a simple one, " an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth." In spite of their terrible attributes as god- desses of vengeance they were called Seinnai (the honourable) and EumSnides (the kindly). For the punishment of the evil secures the well-being of the good, and by pursuing and destroying transgressors the Erinyes prove themselves benevolent and bene- ficent. They were worshipped in Athens under the name of Scmnai, and had a shrine on the Areopagus, and the hill of CSlonus. Fresh water and black sheep were offered to them in sacrifice. The terrible picture drawn of them by ^schylus in his. Eu- menides, as women like Gorgons, with snakes for hair, bloodshot eyes, grinding teeth, and long black robes with blood-red girdles, was softened down in later times. They appear as maidens of stern aspect, with snakes in their hair or round their girdles and arms, torches, scourges, or sickles in their hands, generally in the costume of huntresses, and sometimes with wings as a sign of the swiftness of their vengeance {see cut). The Furies {Furim or Dirce) of the Roman poets are a mere adaptation of the Greek Erinyes. They are generally represented as torturing the guilty in the world below, but as sometimes appearing on earth, to excite to crime and throw men into madness. Eriphyle. In Greek mythology, sister of Adrastus and wife of Amphiaraus. {See Adrastus.) Bribed with a necklace by Polynices, she prevailed on her husband to take part in the war of the Seven Chiefs against Thebes, in which he met his death. {See Amphiaraus.) In revenge for this she was slain by her son Alcmseon. {See ALCMiEON.) Eris. The goddess of discord, fighting, and quarrelling in the Greek mythology. In Homer she is sister and companion of Ares, and like him insatiate of blood ; in Hesiod she is daughter of Night, and mother of trouble, oblivion, hunger, pain, murder and carnage, brawls, deceit, and lawless- ness. She was the only one among the gods who was not bidden to the marriage of Peleus and Thetis. In revenge she threw a golden apple among the guests, and thus gave occasion for the Trojan War. {See Trojan War.) Side by side with this destructive Eris was a beneficent Eris, the D. c. A. sister, according to Hesiod, of the other. She was the personification of noble rivalry, and is represented as stimulating even dullards to exertion. Eros. The god of love among the Greeks. His name does not occur in Homer ; but in Hesiod he is the fairest of the deities, who subdues the hearts of all gods and men. He is born from Chaos at the same time as the Earth and Tartarus, and is the comrade of Aphrodite from the moment of her birth. Hesiod conceives Eros not merely as the god of sensual love, but as a power which forms the world by inner union of the separated elements; an idea very prevalent in antiquity, especially among the philosophers. But according to the later and commoner notion, Eros was the youngest of the gods, generally the son of Aphrodite by Ares or Hermes, always i.'j.sa.o- (1) EKOS. Probably as the Genius of Death. Ascribed to the timt. of Hadrian. Found at Centocelle (Rome, Vatican). a child, thoughtless and capricious. He is as irresistible as fair, and has no pity even for his own mother. Zeus, the father of gods and men, arms him with golden wings, and with bow and unerring arrows, or burning torches. Anteros, the god of mutual love, is his brother, and his com- panions are PothSs and HimerSs, the per- sonifications of longing and desire, with Q 226 ERSE ^EUANDROS. Peitho (Persuasion), the Muses, and the Graces. In later times he is surrounded by a crowd of similar beings, Erotes or loves. (For the later legend of Eros and Psyche, see Psyche.) One of the chief and oldest seats of his worship was Thespise in Boeotla. Here was his most ancient image, a rough, un- hewn stone. His festival, the Erotia or Erotldia, continued till the time of the Roman Empire to be celebrated every fifth year with much ceremony, accompanied by gymnastic and musical contests. Be- sides this he was paid special honour and worship in the gymnasia, where his statue generally stood near those of Her- mes and Heracles. In the gymnasia Eros (2) EKOS. (Rome, Capitoline MuEeum.) was the personification of devoted friend- ship and love between youths and men ; the friendship which proved itself active and helpful in battle and bold adventure. This was the reason why the Spartans and Cretans sacrificed to Eros before a battle, and the sacred band of youths at Thebes was dedicated to him ; why a festival of freedom (EleuthSria) was held at Samos in his honour, as the god who bound men and youths together in the struggle for honour and freedom ; and why at Athens he was worshipped as the liberator^ of the city, in memory of HarmSdius and Aristogiton. In works of art Eros was usually repre- sented as a beautiful boy, close upon the age of youth. In later times he also appears as a child with the attributes of a bow and arrows, or burning torches, and in a great variety of situations. The most celebrated statues of this god were by Lysippus, ScSpas, and PraxJtgles, whose Eros at Thespise was regarded as a master-piece, and unsurpassable. The famous torso in the Vatican, in which the god wears a dreamy, lovelorn air, is popularly, but probably erroneously, traced to an original by Praxiteles (fig. 1). The Eros trying his bow, in the Capitoline Museum at Rome, is supposed to be the copy of a work by L5^sippus (fig. 2). The Roman god Amor or Cftpido was a mere adaptation of the Greek Eros, and was never held in great honour. Erse or Herse. See Cecrops. Erymanthian Boar, See Heracles. Erysichthon. (1) Son of the Athenian Cecrops. (2) Son of TriSpas in Thessaly. Tor dese- crating the sacred enclosure of Demeter, and felling an oak consecrated to the goddess, he was punished with insatiable hunger. Having consumed all that he had, he was supported by his daughter Mestra, to whom her lover Poseidon had given the power of transferring herself into any shape that she liked. In various forms she continually got herself sold, and then returned to her father with the proceeds. At last Erysichthon was reduced to devouring his own limbs. Er j^theia. One of the Hesperidgs. Eryx. Son of PSseidon (or, according to another account, of Butes) and Aphrodite, who was worshipped on Eryx, a mountain in Sicily. He was king of the Elymi in the neighbourhood of the mountain. Eryx was a powerful boxer, but was slain in a fight with HerScles about a bull, which had run away from the latter, and which Eryx had appropriated. Ess6darii. See Gladiatores. Ess6dum. See Chariots. Etfidcles. Son of (Edipus king of Thebes and iScaste, brother of Polynices and Antigone. He broke the agreement he had made with his brother to give him the kingdom of Thebes for one year. Polynices accordingly organized the campaign of the Seven Chiefs against Thebes, and fell in single combat with Eteocles. (See (Edipus and Seven against Thebes.) Euadne. Daughter of Iphis, wife of CSpaneus; Her husband fell before Thebes, and at his funeral she threw herself into the flames of the pyre and was consumed with the corpse. EnandrSs. See Evander. EUBULUS EUMOLPUS. 227 Enbulns. A Greek poet of the Middle Comedy, who flourished about 370 B.C. His plays were mainly on mythical subjects, and parodied the earlier tragedians, espe- cially Euripides. One hundred and four pieces were attributed to him, of which only a few fragments have been preserved written in pure and well chosen language. Euclides {Eukleides). (1) A philosopher of Megara, a disciple of Socrates, and the founder of the Megarian school. (2) A Greek mathematician who taught at Alexandria about 300 B.C. All that is known of his life is that he was held in much es- teem, and won the high regard of king Ptolemy I. His labours in putting the dis- coveries of former mathematicians into order, completing them, and expounding them with matchless clearness and concise- ness, won him the position of the founder of mathematical literature. We still possess his Elements of Mathematics {Stoicheia) which have been used until quite lately as the foundation of all geometrical text books. These are in 15 books ; the 13th and 14th, however, are said to have been added by Hypslcles of Alexandria about 160 B.C. Besides this, we have what are called his Data, or 95 geometrical propositions as un introduction to geometrical analysis, an astronomical work entitled Phcenomena, and a musical work on the division of the canon. Some other treatises, probably from the hands of other authors, have been attributed to Eiiclid. Such are the Ele- ments of Optics and Catoptrics, and the Introduction to Music. Endemns. A Greek philosopher, native of Rhodes. After Theophrastus he was the chief of Aristotle's disciples, and was the author of the seven books of Eudemian Ethics, which have come down to us among his writings. Euhemgrus. A Greek writer, who flou- rished about 300 B.C. Under the title of Hterd Anagraphs, or Sacred History, he wrote a work which purported to explain the whole mythology, on the theory of the apotheosis of men who by their bravery and cleverness had deserved well of mankind. Zeus, for instance, his kinsfolk and children, he represented as in reality an ancient family of Cretan kings. To prove his assertion he appealed to a representation of the whole primitive history of the world, from the time of Uranus onwards, given on a golden pillar in the temple of Zeus on the island of Panchsea. This, he said, he had dis- covered in the neighbourhood of India, when sailing round the coast of Arabia on the commission of king Cassander. The work of Euhemerus, of which only fragments now remain, was well known in Rome, where it was translated and adapted by Ennius. The method of rationalizing or analysing mytho- logy into the history of human kings, heroes and adventurers, is called Euhemerism, after its founder. Euids. See Dionysus. Eumsus. The faithful swineherd of Odysseus, who gave his master a friendly welcome on his return home in the guise of a beggar, and aided him in the slaughter of the suitors. {See Odysseus.) Eumelus. See Epos (1). Eum6nid6s. See Erinyes. Eumfinlus. One of the Roman writers of panegyrics on the emperors. He was born about 250 a.d. at AugustSdunum {Autun) in Gaul ; was tutor to Constantius Chlorus, and for a long time accompanied him on his campaigns. Later on, he settled in his native city, where he gave instruction in rhetoric. In 296 he delivered an oration on behalf of the restoration of schools {Pro Restaurandls Schdlls). Besides this, three other speeches are attributed to him. These are panegyrics on Constantius Chlorus and Constantino, spoken at Treves in 296, 310, and 311 a.d. His tact and cleverness dis- tinguish him from the other panegyrical writers of that age. Eumolpus. In Greek mythology, the son of PSseidon and Chi6n6, the daughter of Boreas and Orithyia. After his birth he was thrown by his mother into the sea, but his father rescued him and brought him to Ethiopia, to his daughter Benthesikyme. When he was grown up, Endius, the hus- band of Benthesikyme, gave him one of his daughters in marriage, but he desired the other as well, and was accordingly banished, and came with his son Ism^rus or Imma- radus to the Thracian king Tegyrius in Boeotia. As successor to this king he marched to the assistance of his friends the Eleusinians against the Athenian Erech- theus, but was slain with his son. {See Erechtheus.) According to another story, Immaradus and Erechtheus both fell, and the contending parties agreed that ^ the Eleusinians should submit to the Athenians, but should retain the exclusive superinten- dence of the mysteries of Eleusis, of which Eumolpus was accounted the founder. He was also spoken of as a writer of conse- crational hymns, and as having discovered the art of cultivating the vines and trees in 228 EUNAPIUS EURIPIDES. general. The Eumolptdse, his descendants, were the hereditary priests of the Eleu- sinian ritual. Eunapius. A Greek rhetorician, born at Sardis in 347 a.d. In 405 he wrote bio- graphies of twenty-three older and con- f temporary philosophers and sophists. In spite of its bad style and its superficiality, this book is our chief authority for the his- tory of the Neo-Platonism of that age. We have also several fragments of his continua- tion of the chronicle of Hei'ennius Dexippus. This continuation, in fourteen books, covered the period from 268 to 404 a.d., and was much used by Zosiraus. Euneus. See Jason and Hypsipyle. Eunomia. See Hor^. Eup3,trIdaB. The members of the ancient noble families of Attica. After the abolition of royal power they found them- selves in exclusive possession of political rights, and distinguished from the GSwnorl or agriculturists, and the Demiurgi or me- chanics. The constitution of Solon deprived them of this privilege. But their landed property, and the priestly dignities which they had possessed of old, assured them a certain influence for a considerable time. Euphemus. Son of Poseidon and Europa, daughter of Tityus, husband of Laonome, the sister of Heracles. His father conferred on him the gift of moving so swiftly over the sea that his feet remained dry. He was originally one of the Minyse of P&nSpeus in Phocis, but afterwards settled on the promontory of Taenarum in Laconia, and took part in the Calydonian hunt and the expedition of the Argonauts. When the Argonauts came to the lake of Triton, Triton gave Eumolpus a clod of earth, and Medea prophesied that if he threw this into the entrance of the lower world at Tsenarum, his descendants of the tenth generation would be masters of Libya. The clod, how- ever, was lost in the island of Thera, and his descendants were compelled to hold possession of this island, from which at length, in the seventeenth generation, Battus came forth and founded Cyrene in Libya, EuphSrlon. (1) Son of iEschylus, the great tragedian. He flourished about 450 B.C., and after his father's death put on the stage four of his pieces, which had not yet been performed, and gained the prize. He also exhibited tragedies of his own, not without success. (2) A Greek poet and writer of the Alexandrian age and in the Alexandrian style. He was born about 276 B.C., at Chalcis in Euboea, and died holding the post of librarian at the court of Antio- chus the Great, king of Syria. Besides works [on mythology and history'] in prose, he wrote epics, elegies, and epigrams in obscure and unfamiliar language. His poems were much valued by the Romans. Cornelius Gallus, in particular, thought very highly of them, and took him as his model in his own elegies. Euphranor. A Greek artist, born at Corinth about 360 B.C. He was equally distinguished as a painter, and as a sculptor in bronze and marble. He also wrote a treatise on symmetry and form. Among his statues one of the most celebrated was the Paris, in which it was easy to recognise the threefold character : the judge of divine beauty, the lover of Helen, and the slayer of Achilles. In his paintings, if we may believe the ancients, he was the first who gave true expression to the grandeur and dignity of divine and heroic form. [Pliny, N. H. xxxiv 27, xxxv 128.] Euphrdsj^ne. {See Charites.) Eupdlis. Eupolis is coupled with Aris- tophanes as a chief representative of the Old Attic Comedy. He was born about 446 B.C., and died before the end of the Pelponnesian War. He made his first ap- pearance as a dramatist in his seventeenth year, and carried off the prize seven times. According to a badly attested story, he was drowned in the sea by Alclbiades in revenge for his treatment of him in one of his plays. We still have the titles, and some frag- ments, of fifteen of his pieces. He was at first on terms of intimate friendship with his contemporary Aristophanes, but an estrange- ment afterwards set in, and the two poets attacked each other with great bitterness. Eupolis is praised by the ancients for the splendour of his imagination, the coherence with which his plots are developed, the high quality of his patriotism, the grace and majesty of his language, and the telling character of his wit. The fragments that remain show great mastery of form. Like Aristophanes, he made an attempt to stem the current of moral degeneracy setting in at his time. Eupompus. A Greek painter, native of Sicyon, who flourished about 400 B.C. He was the founder of the Sicyonian school of painting, which laid great emphasis on pro- fessional knowledge. [Pliny, N. 11. xxxv 75.] Euripides. The third of the three great Attic tragedians. He was born in the island of Salimis, in 480 B.C., on the very EURIPIDES. 229 day of the great battle. His father Mnesar- chus is said to have been a tradesman or tavern-keeper, his mother Clito a seller of herbs. His parents, however, must have had some means, judging by the fact that they gave him a careful gymnastic education to fit him for the athletic contests. This was because they had misinterpreted an oracle given them before his birth which promised the child crowns of victory. Euripides is said in his boyhood really to have gained the prize in a public contest of this kind, but in fact he was destined to win victories in a very different arena. He associated much with the philosophers Anaxagoras and Socrates, with the latter of •bust of EUUU'IUES. (Naples Museum.) whom he enjoyed an intimate friendship during the whole of his life. He also had instruction from the sophists Protagoras and Prodicus. Thus he received the best of education in philosophy and rhetoric. It was in his twenty-fifth year (B.C. 455) that he first put a tetralogy on the stage. He did not win a prize till his forty-third year, and seems indeed to have been victorious only four times in all ; but he was none the less indefat'gable in writing tragedies. He took a lively interest in the important events and the public questions of the time ; but personally he kept aloof from public life, avoided society, and lived mostly in the enjoyment of an excellent library, amid his studies and poetical creations. He was twice unfortunate in his mar- riage, a fact which may have encouraged him in his surly, unsociable ways. His first wife, Chcerile, he had to divorce for**- infidelity. She bore him three daughters, the youngest of whom, who was named after her mother, put several of her father's tragedies on the stage after his death. His second wife, Melito, parted from him at her own desire. In 409, at the age of 71, he left Athens ; it was said to get away from the ceaseless attacks of the comedians, and from his domestic troubles. He went to Magnesia in Thessaly, where he was received as a guest of the city. Thence he went on to Pella to the court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, who had gathered round him a number of poets and artists, and who treated him with great respect. Here he spent the last two years of his life and died B.C. 405. According to a story for which there is little authority, he was torn to pieces by a pack of hounds when returning from a nocturnal festivity. The number of his tragedies is variously given as seventy-five, seventy-eight, and ninety-two. Eighteen have come down to us: the Alcestis, AndrdrndchS, Bacchce (or the arrival of Dionysus at Thebes and the murder of Pentheus), Hecuba, Helena, Electra, the Herdclldoi (or Demophoon of Athens protecting the descendants of Hera- cles against the persecution of Eurystheus) ; Heracles in Madness, the Suppliants (or the mothers of the Seven Chiefs who had fallen before Thebes, at whose prayers Theseus compelled the Thebans to bury the dead heroes) ; Hippolytus, IpMgSnla at Aulis, lohigSnla among the Tauri, Ion, MedSa, OvestSs, Rhesus, the Troddes (or the royal house of Troy after the conquest of the city); the Phcenissce (so called after the chorus of Phoenician maidens, an incident in the story of Et66cles and Polynlces) ; and a satyric drama, the Cyclops, the only example of this style of composition which has survived. The earliest of these pieces in point of time is the Alcestis, performed in B.C. 438. It is also noticeable because, although not a satyric drama in the proper sense, it has comic features towards the end, and was actually performed at the end of a tetralogy in place of a satyric drama. The Bacchoa, on the other hand, was written in Macedonia in the poet's last years, and performed after 230 EUROPE EURYPYLUS. his death at the same time as the IpJiigcnia at Aulis. The genuineness of the Ehesus was doubted even in antiquity. A great number of fragments have survived from about sixty pieces, and in particular from the PhdethOn. The tragedies of Euripides are of very unequal merit. Some of them, for instance the HippolytiLS and the Bacchce, attain the lofty style of Sophocles, others approach it, as the Medea and Iphigenia in Tauris. But others, as for instance the Andromache and Electra, are veiy carelessly put to- gether. His strong point is not artistic composition, well contrived disposition, or the coherent design which gives the inner motive of the action. It is sufficient, in support of this statement, to call attention to his habit of prefixing to every piece a prologue, explaining the story to the spec- tators, and connected loosely (if at all) with the play ; to the very slight connexion be- tween the chorus and the action, and to his liking for bringing in a dSus ex machind to cut a difficult knot. On the other hand, it must be allowed that Euripides is a master in the art of devising pathetic situations, and shows extraordinary power in representing human passion, especially the resistless might of love in the case of women. In his religious views he differs essen- tially from ^schylus and Sophocles. With Euripides the gods are not moral powers, and fate is not so much the result of a higher dispensation as a perverseness of accident. The lack of grandeur is also a point which distinguishes him from his great prede- cessors. Instead of their sublime ideas he gives us maxims of worldly wisdom, often to all appearance dragged in without occasion. The motives of action are not so pure as in ^schylus and Sophocles, and the characters of the heroes are not raised above the level of ordinary life, but brought down to it. So fond is he of giving prominence to the faults of women, that he has been called a woman- hater. He pays more attention to the course of politics than his predecessors, and is indeed influenced by political considera- tions in his sketches of character. In deference to the democratic leanings of his public, he makes his kings cruel tyrants, without dignity or majesty, and the heroes of the Peloponnese, in particular, he treats with unconcealed dislike. His dialogues are often overloaded with rhetoric and sophistical dialectic. But, in spite of all these faults, for which the spirit of the age is mainly responsible, he is a great poetical genius. He was very popular with his con- temporaries, and has been still more so with succeeding generations. The trage- dians of the next age made him their model and pattern without qualification, and the Roman poets preferred paraphrasing his dramas to those of the other tragedians. Europe (Lat. Europa). A figure in Greek mythology. In Homer she is the daughter of Phoenix, in the later story of the Phoenician Agenor, and sister of Cadmus. Zeus, in the shape of a bull, carried her over the sea to Crete, where she bore him Minos, RhadS- manthys, and according to the later legend, Sarpedon also. Zeus left her with Asterion, king of Crete, who brought up her sons and left them his kingdom. She was worshipped in Crete under the name of Hellotis, especially at Gortyn, where she was supposed to have been wedded with Zeus, and to have borne him her sons. A festival called Hellotia was held in her honour, at which her bones were carried in a wreath of myrtle. Eurj^Me. See Gorgon. Euryaius. Son of Mecisteus, one of the Epigoni, and with Sthenelus, the companion of Di6medes before Troy. Euryclea (Eurykleia). The nurse of Odysseus, who brought up his son Tele- michus. When her master had returned home in the disguise of a beggar, she recognised him by a scar while bathing his feet. On a hint from him she kept silence, and afterwards was the first who brought to Penelope the news of her husband's return and of the slaughter of the suitors. Eur y dice. See Orpheus. Eur^ndme. See Charites. Eur^p^lus. (1) Son of Poseidon and Asty- pilsea, king of the Meropgs of Cos. He was slain by HerScles, who had been driven on to the coast on his return from Troy. The struggle was a hard one, but Heracles was assisted by Zeus. The daughter of Eurypylus, Chalciope, became mother of Thessalusby Heracles. (2) Son of Telephus and AstySche. As- tyoche, bribed by her brother Priam with the present of a golden vine, persuaded Eurypylus to bring the last succour to the Trojans shortly before the fall of the city. After performing deeds of bravery, he fell at the hand of Neoptolemus. (3) Son of Eusemon, king of Ormenion in Thessaly, one of the suitors of Helen. He was among the bravest of the Greek heroes who fought before Troy, and of his own accorrl 'offered to engage Hector in single EURYSACES EUTHYNA. 231 combat. In the later story he appears in connexion with the worship of Dionysus. At the division of the Trojan spoil he re- ceived an image of Dionysus, made by Hephaestus, and presented to Dardanus. This had been kept in a chest as a Palladium. When Eurypylus opened the chest and be- held the image he fell into a madness. The Delphic oracle promised that he should be healed if he dedicated the image in a spot where men offered barbaric sacrifices. Ac- cordingly he dedicated it at Ar6e in Achaia, where an offering of the fairest youth and fairest virgin was made annually to Arte- mis. The bloody act was abolished, and the gentle service of Dionysus introduced in its place. EurJ^saces (Eurysakes). Son of Ajax and Tecmessa. See Ajax (2). Eurystheus. Son of Sthenelus and Nicippe. {See Perseus.) He was king of Mycenae, and through the cunning of Hera got power over HerScles, and imposed upon him the celebrated twelve labours. In pur- suing the children of Heracles, and attempt- ing to bring about by force their expulsion from Attica, he was defeated and slain in his flight by Hyllus. {See Hyllus.) Eur^tus. (1) Son of Melaneus, father of Iphitus and of l6le, king of (Echalia in Thessaly or Messenia. According to a later story he dwelt in Euboea. He was one of the most famous archers in anti- quity. According to Homer he ventured to challenge Apollo to a contest of skill, and was slain in his youth for his pre- sumption. In the later story he and his son Iphitus are slain by Heracles, his former disciple in archery, for having in- solently refused him his daughter lole in marriage. {See Heracles.) Iphitus gave his bow to Odysseus, who slew the suitors with it. (2) One of the MoliOnMcB {see Molionid^). Eus6bius. The father of ecclesiastical history. He was born at Caesarea in Phoe- nicia in 264 A.D. In 315 he became bishop of that city, and died in 340. He was one of the most learned men of his time, and holds a high position both among the his- torians and the apologists of Christianity. His greatest work is his Church History. This work is in ten books, beginning with the rise of Christianity, and coming down to 314 A.D. It was much used by later writers, and was, about 403 a.d., translated into Latin by Tyrannius Ruf inus of Aquileia, who con- tinued it down to the death of Theodosius (a.d. 395). The apologetic writings of Eusebius are the PrcepdrdtlS EvangSlica in fifteen books, and the Demon strdtiO EvangSlica in twenty. They are both, but especially the former, a rich storehouse of information on antiquity, particularly on the philosophy and religion of the Greeks. Of still greater importance is his Chronicle {Chrontcdn), a work founded upon extracts from the now lost writings of previous historians. Its first book, the Chr6n6- grdpMa, contains a general ethnographical history of the world, arranged from the creation to 325 a.d. The second, called the Chronological Canon, consisted of parallel chronological tables of the names of rulers and the most important events since 2017 B.C. Only fragments of the original work remain ; but we have both books in an Armenian translation, and the second in the Latin version of Hieronymus. Among the other works of Eusebias we may mention : (1) A sketch of the topo- graphy of Palestine, in two books. The second alone survives, both in the original and in the translation of Hieronymus. (2) A biography, in four books, of the emperor Constantine, who had shown favour to Eusebius and had been baptized by him. This work is strongly coloured by personal feeling. (3) A panegyric on Constantine. EiistS.thius. (1) Eustathius Mdcrem- bOlUa, a Greek writer of romance. He was a native of Constantinople, and be- longed to the upper class. His floruit is perhaps to be assigned to the 9th century A.D. He was the author of a rather tasteless love story, in eleven books, about Hysmlnias and Hysmine. (2) Eustathius of Constantinople, ap- pointed archbishop of ThessalQnica in 1160 A.D. Previously to this he had been a deacon, and professor of rhetoric in his native city, and had written a compre- hensive commentary on the Homeric poems. The commentary, which is characterized by learning remarkable for that age, is made up of extracts from older writers, and is therefore of great value. A commentary by the same author on Dionyslus Perlegetes, and a preface to a commentary on Pindar, have also survived. Euterpe. See Muses. Euthyna (a giving of account). All officials at Athens without exceptioif were bound, at the expiration of their term of office, to give an account of their adminis- tration. The authorities to whom it was given were the Ldgistce, supported by ten Euthynl. {See Logist^e.) Within thirty ^2 EUTROPIUb EXILIUM. days after the term of office had come to an end, these functionaries issued, to all whom it might concern, a public notice to lay before them any complaints they might have to make against the retiring officials. In case such complaints were made, the matter was brought to an issue by legal pi'ocedure. No official was allowed to leave the country, or take any measure affecting his property, or take another office, before his account was given [Aristotle, Const, of Athens, 48], Eutrdpius. A Roman nistoriau who took part in the expedition of Julian against the Parthians in 363 a.d. In 378, under Valentinian, he wrote and dedicated to this emperor a sketch of Roman history (BrSvidHum ab Urbe Conditd) in ten books, from the earliest times to the death of Jovian in 364. The language is simple, and the narrative intelligent and impartial. The work was useful and concise, and became very popular. Succeeding writers down to the Middle Ages, and especially Hieronymus and Orosius, used it a great deal. It was several times turned into Greek, indeed as early as 380 by PseanISs, whose translation has been preserved almost entire. The work of Eutropius was en- larged and continued by Paulus DiacSnus, who, in the last part of the 8th century a.d., added six books to it. It was also used in the Histoi-ia Miscella, or Collective His- tory, and has continued to be a favourite school book down to our own day. Evander (Gr. Ettandrds, the good man), a figure in Latin mythology. He was said to be the son of Hermes and an Arcadian nymph. Sixty years before the Trojan War he led a Pelasgian colony to LStium from PallantiSn in Arcadia, and founded a city Pallanteum near the Tiber, on the hill which was afterwards named after it the Palatine. Further it was said that he taught the rude inhabitants of the country writing, music, and other arts ; and intro- duced from Arcadia the worship of certain gods, in particular of Pan, whom the Italians called Paunus, with the festival of the Lupercalia which was held in his honour. Evander was worshipped at Rome among the heroes of the country {see Indigites), and had an altar on the Aven- tine h^ll. But the whole story is evidently an invention of Greek scholars, who derived the Lupercalia from the Arcadian Lyccea. The name Euandros is a mere translation of the Italian Faunus, while Carmenta is an ancient Italian goddess. Pallas, the son of Evander, is in like manner a creation of the poets. In Vergil he marches, at the command of his father, to assist -Sneas, and falls in single combat with Turnus. Eventus, or properly Bonus Eventus (lucky or happy event). In Roman religion, a god of rural prosperity, like the Greek Agdthddaimon, whose image was in later times transferred to the Italian deity. In the course of time Bonus Eventus gained the more general meaning of the friendly fortune which secures a lucky issue to undertakings. The god had a temple of his own on the Camjnis Martius, in the neighbourhood of the Pantheon. Evdcati (those who are summoned or called out). The term applied in the Roman army to soldiers who had served their time and obtained their dismissal, but who, on the general summoning them by name, returned to the service on condition of receiving certain privileges. These wei-e, exemption from all service except in battle, a rank and pay equal to those of the centurions, and prospect of advance- ment. The enlistment of evocati was especially common in the civil wars. Some- times they were distributed in the legion, sometimes they formed a special and select troop, divided into centuries. We some- times find them, in isolated instances, under the early Empire. On the difference between them and the vctermil, sec Veterani. Evdcatio (calling out). The term for the solemn summons given to the tutelary gods of a besieged city to leave it, and to migrate to Rome. The Romans always vowed, at the same time, to build them a temple at Rome. An example of a deity " evoked " in this way was Juno Regina, who was originally worshipped at Veii, but afterwards had a temple in Rome on the Aventine. Ex6cuti6. See Bonorum Emptio. Ex6dra. An alcove, or semi-circular ex- tension of the colonnade in a Greek gym- nasium. It was furnished with seats on which the philosophers usually sat to talk with their disciples. In private houses the exedra was a room intended for conversa- tion, fitted with a bench running round the wall. Exercitus. See Stipendium, Castra, Legion, Dilectus, Sacramentum. Exilium ( = banishment). (1) Greek. Among the Greeks exile was the legal punishment for homicide (see Ephet.e). It was also, at times, a political measure, EXODIUM FASCES. 23B adopted especially in times of civil dis- turbance, and might carry witli it dtlmla and loss of property, except in the case of ostracism {see Ostracism). (2) Roman. Among the Romans there was, originally, no such thing as a direct expulsion from the city. But a man might be cut off from fire and water, the symbol of civic communion, which of course prac- tically forced him to leave the country. This interdictio dquce et ignis was ori- ginally inflicted by the comitta centUrtdta^ and later by the permanent judicial com- missions appointed to try certain serious ■offences, as, for instance, treason, arson, and poisoning. In case of the capital charge the accused was always free to anticipate an unfavourable verdict, or the interdictio aquce et ignis, by withdrawing into voluntary exile. The exilium involved the lesser demlnutiO capitis^ or loss of citizenship, if the banished person became citizen of another state ; or if the people declared the banishment to be deserved; or if the interdictio aquce et ignis was pro- nounced after he had gone into exile. It was only in very serious cases that a man's property was also confiscated. Real banishment was first inflicted under the Empire. (See Deportatio and Relegatio.) ExSdium. A play of a lively character acted on the Roman stage at the end of a serious piece. It corresponded in character to the satyric drama of the Greeks. The place of the exodium was originally taken by the dramatic satUra, and later by the Atelldna and Mlmus. Exomis. See Chiton. Fablus PictSr. See Annalists. Fabri. The mechanics, carpenters, smiths, etc., in the Roman army. After the end of the republican age they formed an independent corps in every army, and were employed especially in the restoration of bridges, siege and defence works, artillery, etc. They were under the command of the prcefectus fabnim, or chief engineer, who was chosen by the general in chief, and was immediately responsible to him. Fabula Palliata and T6gata. See Comedy. FS,milia. The Latin name for a house- hold community, consisting of the master of the house (pdter fdmilids), his wife {mdter familias), his sons and unmarried daughters {fllil and fllioi familias), the wives, sons, and unmarried daughters of the sons, and the slaves. All the other members of the family were subject to the •authority of the pater familias. (For the power of the husband over his wife, see Mands.) In virtue of his paternal authority ipatria p6testds\ the pater familias had absolute authority over his children. He might, if he liked, expose them, sell them, or kill them. These rights, as manners were gradually softened, were more and more rarely enforced ; but they legally came to an end only when the father died, lost his citizenship, or of his own will freed his son from his authority. {See Emanci- PATio.) They could, however, be trans- ferred to another person if the son were adopted, or the daughter married. A son, if of full age, was not in any way interfered ^ith by the patria potestas in the exercise of his civil rights. But in the exercise of his legal rights as an individual, he was dependent always on his father. He could, for instance, own no property, but all that he acquired was, in the eye of the law, at the exclusive disposal of his father. The pater familias alone had the right of making dispositions of the family property by mortgage, sale, or testament. Family Names. See Names. Fannius. See Annalists. Farmers of Public Taxes. See Publicani and TELONiE. Farnese Bull. See Dirge. Fasces. The Latin name for a bundle of rods of elm or birch, tied together by a red strap, and enclosing an axe, with its head outside. The fasces were originally the emblem of the king's absolute authority over life and limb, and as such passed over to the high magistrates of the Republic. In the city, however, the latter had to re- move the axe and to lower the rods in the presence of the popular assembly as the sovereign power. The lowering of the fasces was also the form in which the lower officials saluted the higher. The king was preceded by lictors bearing twelve fasces, and so were the consuls and pro- consuls. The proconsuls, however, were, since the time of Augustus, only allowed this number if they had actually been con- suls previously. The dictator had twenty- four /asces, as representing the two consuls, and his mdgister SquUutn had six. Six was also the number allotted to the proconsuls and propraetors outside the city, and in the 234 FASCIN UM FASTI. imperial age to those proconsuls who had provinces in virtue of their having held the praetorship. The praetors of the city had two, the imperial legates administering par- ticular provinces had five fasces. One was allotted to the JldmSn Didlis, and (from or after B.C. 42) to the Vestal Virgins. Fasces crowned with bay were, in the republican age, the insignia of an officer who was saluted as Imp8rdtor. During the imperial age, this title was conferred on the emperor at his accession, and soon confined ex- clusively to him. The emperor was accord- ingly preceded by twelve fasces laurSdtl. The lictors held their fasces over the left shoulder. But at funerals, the fasces of a deceased magistrate, and his arms, were carried reversed behind the bier. Fascinum (Latin). Enchantment by the evil eye, words, or cries, exercised on per- sons (especially children), animals, and things, as, for instance, on a piece of ground. The word was also applied to the counter-charm, by which it was supposed that the enchantment could be averted, or even turned against the enchanter. Amulets of various kinds were employed as counter-charms. They were supposed either to procure the protection of a par- ticular deity, or to send the enchanter mad by means of terrible, ridiculous, or obscene objects. The name fascinum was thus specially applied to the phallus, which was the favourite counter-charm of the Romans. An image of this fascinum was contained in the bulla worn as an amulet by children, and was also put under the chariot of a general at his triumph, as a protection against envy. Fasti {diSs). (Roman.) Properly speak- ing, the court-days, on which the praetor was allowed to give his judgments in the solemn formula Do Dlco Addlco, and gene- rally to act in his judicial capacity. The name was further applied to the days on which it was lawful to summon the assembly and the senate {dies cdmltidlSs). For these days might be used as court days in case the assembly did not meet : while on dies fasti proper no meeting of the comitia could take place. The opposite of dies fasti were the dies nSfasti, or days on which on account of purifications, holi- days, fSruK, and on other religious grounds, the courts could not sit, nor the comitia assemble. {See Ferim.) The dies rSUglOsl were also counted as nefasti. {See Religiosi Dies.) Besides the 38-45 dies fasti proper, the 18&-194 dies comitiales, the 48-50 dies nefasti, and 53-59 dies religiosi, there wero 8 dies interclsl, which were nefasti in the morning and evening because of certain sacrifices which took place then, but fasti for the remaining hours. There were also 3 dies fissi (split days), which were nefasti until the conclusion of a particular proceed- ing ; e.g. the removal of the sweepings from the temple of Vesta on June 15th, but fasti afterwards. The division of days into fasti and prdfesti, or holidays and workdays, only affected private life, though many dies nefasti, as ferice, would be identical with dies fasti. The list of the dies fasti was of immense importance as affecting legal proceedings, and indeed all public life. For a long time it was in the hands of the pontlftcSs, and was thus only accessible to the patricians \ but at last, 304 B.C., Grnaeus Flavius pub- lished it and made it generally accessible. This list, called simply Fasti, was the origin of the Roman calendar, which bore the same name. In this calendar the days of the year are divided into weeks of eight days each, indicated by the letters A — H. Each day has marks indicating its number in the month, its legal significance (F = fastus, 'N = nefastus, G = comitialis, EN = intercisus). The festivals, sacrifices, and games occurring on it are also added, as well as notices of historical occurrences, the rising and setting of the stars, and other matters. No trace remains of any calendar previous to Caesar ; but several calendar* composed after Caesar's reform have been preserved. Ovid's Fasti is a poetical ex- planation of the Roman festivals of the first six months. We have also many frag- ments of calendars, painted or engraved on stone, belonging to Rome and other Italian cities ; for it was common to put up calendars of this kind in public places^ temples, and private houses. Thei-e are two complete calendars in existence, one an official list written by Furlus Dionyslus Philficalus in 354 A.D., the other a Chris- tian version of the official calendar, made by P6l6mius Silvlus in 448 A.D, The word Fasti was further applied ta the annual lists of the triumphs, high officials, consuls, dictators, censors, and priests. These lists were originally, like the other fasti, made out by the pontifices. Some fragments of them have survived, among which may be mentioned the Fasti CdpitOltnl, so called from the Roman Capitol, where they are now preserved. FATA FERONIA. 235 They were originally, in 36-30 B.C., en- graved on the marble wall of the Regta^ or official residence of the Pontifex Maximus, and afterwards continued first to 12 B.C., and afterwards to 13 a.d. Fata. See Mcer^ (Parc^), Nemesis, Tyche, Fortuna. Fattus. See Faunus. Fauces. See House. Faunalia. See Faunus. Faunus. " The well-wisher " (iTomfdvere) [or perhaps " the speaker " (from fdrl)]. One of the oldest and most popular deities, who was identified with the Greek Pan on account of the similarity of their attributes. {See Pan.) As a good spirit of the forest, plains, and fields, he gave fruitfiilness to the cattle, and was hence called Inuits. With all this he was also a god of prophecy, called by the name of Fdtuus. He revealed the future in dreams and strange voices, com- municated to his votaries while sleeping in his precincts upon the fleeces of sacrificed lambs. A goddess of like attributes, called Fauna and Fatua, was associated in his worship. She was regarded sometimes as his wife, sometimes as his daughter (see Bona Dea). Just as Pan was accompanied by the Pdniskoi, or little Pans, so the existence of many Fauni was assumed besides the chief Faunus. They were imagined as merry, capricious beings, and in particular as mischievous goblins who caused night-mares. In fable Faunus appears as an old king of Latium, son of Picus, and grandson of Satumus, father of LS,tinus by the nymph Marica. After his death he is raised to the position of a tutelary deity of the land, for his many services to agriculture and cattle- breeding. Two festivals, called Faundlla, were celebrated in his honour, one on the 13th of February, in the temple on the island in the Tiber, the other on the 5th of December. The peasants brought him rustic offerings and amused themselves with dancing. F3,v6nius. See Zephyrus. Felicitas. The personification of good fortune among the Romans. She was wor- shipped in various sanctuaries in Rome, her attributes being the cornucopia and the herald's staff. Feralia. The last day of the Roman fes- tival called the Pirentalia. {See Manes.) Feriae (Latin). Holidays, dedicated to the worship of some deity. A distinction was drawn hetween ferice prlvdtai^ or holi- days observed by gentes, families, and in- dividuals, and ferice puhlicce, or public holidays. Public holidays were either fixed or movable, or occasional. The fixed holi- days {ferice stdtlvoe), were forty-five in number, and were celebrated every year on a definite day and registered accordingly in the calendar. The movable holidays (ferice conceptlvce) were also annual, but were held on changing days, and had therefore to be announced beforehand by the consuls, or in their absence by the praetor. The occasional holidays {imperdtlvce) were commanded on special occasions by the authorities with the consent of the ponti- ficSs. Such were, for instance, the suppli- cdtiones, a solemn service to the gods to celebrate a victory or the like. One of the principal movable festivals was the FSrice Ldtlnce. This was originally a celebration by the Latin race held on the Albau moun- tain in honour of Jupiter LS,tiaris. It was subsequently transformed by Tarquinius Superbus into a festival'of the Latin League. Its most notable ceremony consisted in the sacrifice of white bulls, a portion of whose flesh was distributed to each of the cities of the league represented at the sacrifice. If any city did not receive its portion, or if any other point in the ceremonial was omitted, the whole sacrifice had to be repeated. Originally it lasted one day, but after- wards was extended to four. It was then celebrated in part on the Alban hill by the Roman consuls, in presence of all the magistrates : in part on the Roman Capitol, a race being included in the performance. It was announced by the consuls immediately after their assumption of office, nor did they leave Rome for their provinces until they had celebrated it. The date therefore depended on that of the assumption of office by the higher magistrates. Feronia. An old Italian goddess, of Sabine origin, but also much worshipped in Etruria. She seems originally to have been regarded in the same light as Flora, Lib6ra, and Venus. The Greeks called her a god- dess of flowers ; on coins she is represented as a girl in the bloom of youth, with flowers in her hair. She was also worshipped as the goddess of emancipation from slavery. She had a very celebrated shrine at the foot of Mount Soracte in Etruria, where the whole neighbourhood used to bring her rich votive offerings and the firstfruits of the field. The annual festivals served as fairs, such was the crowd of people who flocked to them. The mythical king Erulus of Prseneste was regarded as her son. He 236 FESCENNINI FETIALES. had three lives, and had to be slain three times by Evander in consequence. Fescenninl {IMt). Rural festivals, of great antiquity, held by the population of Etruria and Latium, and named, from some cause which cannot now be ascertained, from Fescennlum in South Etruria. At harvest festivals, at the feast of Silvanus, and others of the kind, and at weddings, the young men would appear in rough masks or with faces painted with vermilion, bantering each other for the amusement of the spectators in rude and indecent jests. These were thrown into a rough kind of metre, originally no doubt the Saturnian. The Italians had at all times a keen sense of the ridiculous, and a love for personal attack ; tendencies which were much encouraged by their gift for improvi- zation, and pointed repartee. In Rome these games were taken up by the young men at public festivals, and combined with a comic imitation of the religious dances introduced from Etruria in 390 B.C. to avert a pestilence. In this form they are supposed to have given birth to the dramatic sdtura. {See Satdra.) The license of personal abuse ended by going so far that it had to be restrained by a law of the Twelve Tables. The Fescenninl versus were gradually restricted to weddings, and the word came to mean the merry songs sung when the bride was brought home. Festus. (1) Sextus Pompeius Festus ; a Roman scholar, who probably flourished in the 2nd century a.d. He made an abridg- ment of the great lexical work of Verrius Flaccus, De Verborum Sigmflcdtu, using at the same time other works of the same author. The abridgment, arranged in alpha- betical order, and containing twenty books, superseded its original. Of Festus' own work we have only the second half (the letters M-V) in a very imperfect state. The rest is preserved in a meagre epitome made by the priest Paulus, in the age of Charles the Great. Slight as are these remains of the original work of Verrius, they are very valuable for the fulness of select grammatical and antiquarian notices which they contain. (2) A Roman historian, who about 369 a.d. wrote an abridgment of Roman history {Brevidrium RSrum Gestarum Pdpull Romdnl) founded partly on Eutroptics, partly on Florus, and dedicated to the emperor Valens. Fetiales (Latin). A body of men whose business it was to maintain the forms of international relationship. The institu- tion was universal in Italy. In Rome its introduction was ascribed to Numa or Ancus Martius. Here the fetiales formed a collegium of twenty members elected for life, and filled up vacancies in their body by co-optation. They were in early times exclusively patricians, but at all times it was necessary that they should belong to the highest classes. Their duties were, in case of conflicts arising with other nations, to give an opinion, based on the merits of the case, upon the question of war or peace; to give, or to demand in person, satisfaction by delivering up the guilty individual, to declare war or conclud^i peace, and to give the sanction of religion to both acts. On all these occasions they went out wearing their sacerdotal dress, and the insignia of their office. Before them one of the members of the collegium carried the sacred plants which they had gathered on the Capitol after asking per- mission of the magistrate on whose com- mission they were acting, king, consul, or prsetor. If satisfaction was to be demanded from another nation, a number of fetiales was sent under the leadership of a speaker, the pater patrdtus, with the forms of a special ceremonial. Supposing satisfaction given, they took the offender with them, and parted in peace ; if the other party asked for time to consider the matter, this wr.s granted to ten days and extended to thirty. If, after this, satisfaction were not given, the speaker made a solemn protest, adding that the Roman people would now take the matter into its own hands. Supposing now that war were decided on, the speaker, in presence of at least three witnesses, uttered the solemn declaration, and threw a bloody lance into the enemy's teri-itory. After the war with Pyrrhus this ceremony was performed at the Column of War near the temple of Bellona, and the declaration of war was carried to the general in comr mand according to the form prescribed by the law of the fetiales. If it was in con- templation to bring the war to a close, and the enemy had not made an unconditional surrender, the fetiales, with the authority of a sSndtUs consultum, and in the name of the State, either concluded a truce for a definite number of years, or a formal alliance. The general, if he made peace without the consent of the Roman people, did so on his own responsibility and with- out binding the State. If the people were dissatisfied with the terms, the fetiales FIHE FLAMEN. 237 delivered the general up, naked and hand- bonnd, to the enemy. In case of the alliance being concluded, the pater patratus took a flint stone, which was preserved in the temple of Jupiter Fgretrius, and slew a swine therewith, first reading out the terms of the alliance, and then appealing to Jupiter, in case the Roman people maliciously broke the treaty, to smite them as he would smite the animal. He then signed the document, which bound the collegium of fetiales to see that the treaty was observed. It was also usual for the civil magistrate to make oath by Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus, on a sceptre which was likewise taken from the temple of Jupiter Feretrius. Since the Second Punic War there is but little mention of the action of the fetiales^ but its existence can be traced as late as the middle of the 4th century a.d. Fibula (Greek perdnS). A clasp for fastening garments, resembling our brooches FIBULA. (Grivand de la Vincelle, Arts et Mitiers, pi. xli, xliii.) or safety-pins. It consisted of a hoop and a needle, sometimes elastic, sometimes fixed by a joint. Some fibulce were in the shape of buckles. {See illustrations.) Fides. The Roman personification of honour in keeping word or oath. As Fides Publtca, or Honour of the People, this goddess had a temple on the Capitol, founded by king Numa, to which the fldmlnes of Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus rode in a covered chariot on the 1st of October. At the sacrifice they had their right hands wrapped up to the fingers with white bands. The meaning of the covered chariot was that honour could not be too carefully protected : of the covered right hand, that the right hand, the seat of honour, should be kept pure and holy. The goddess was represented with outstretched right hand and a white veil. Her attributes were ears of corn and fruits, joined hands, and a turtle-dove. Fire, God of. See Hephjestus and Vulcan us. Firmicus Matsrnus (lulius). (1) A heathen writer, a native of Sicily. About 354 A.D. he published, in eight books, a work on astrology {Mdtheseds Libn VIII) which he had begun under Constantino. It gives a vivid picture of the gross super- stition of that age with regard to the sup- posed influence of the stars in humca fortunes. (2) Another writer of the same time, and of the same age, was a convert to Christia- nity, who, about 347 a.d., published a work on the error of the heathen religions {De ErrdrS PrCfdnarurn Rellgionum) in which he called on the emperors Constantius and Constans to extirpate the last remains of heathenism. Fiscus. The emperor's private purse, as. distinguished from the public treasury {cerdrtum). It was instituted by Augustus,, and was under the exclusive control of the emperor. The chief sources from which it was replenished were the entire revenues of the imperial provinces, the produce of unclaimed estates, and of confiscations. The main items of fiscal expenditure were- the army, the fleet, and war material, the salaries of officials, the provision of corn for Rome, postal communication, and the public buildings. For the officials who administered the fscns, see Procurator. Flabellum. A fan. See Clothing. Flam6n (from flare; one who blows or kindles the sacrificial fii-e). The special priest of a special deity among the Romans. There were 15 Fldmlnes; three higher ones {Flamines mdiores) of patrician rank : these were the flamen Dldlls (of Jupiter), Martidlis (of Mars), and Quii'tndUs (of Quirinus). The remaining 12 were flamines Tulnores, plebeians, and attached to less important deities, as Vulcanus, Flora, Pomona, and Carmenta. Their office was for life, and they could only be deprived of it in certain events. The emblem of their dignity was a white conical hat {apex), made out of the hide of a sacrificed animal,, and having an olive branch and woollen thread at the top. This the flamines were obliged to wear always out of doors, indeed the Flamen Dialis had originally to wear it indoors as well. They were exempted from all the duties of civic life, and ex- cluded at the same time from all partici- pation in politics. In course of time, it is true, they were allowed to hold urban offices, but even then they were forbidden to go out of Italy. The Flamen Dicdis was originally not '288 FLAMINICA FLORUS. allowed to spend a night away from home : in later times, under the Empire, the Pontifex could allow him to sleep out for two nights in the year. Indeed, the Flamen Dialis, whose superior position among the flamens conferred upon him certain privileges, as the toga prcetexta, the sella curUlls, a seat in the senate, and the services of a lictor, was in proportion obliged to submit to more restrictions than the rest. He, his wife, their children, and his house on the Palatine were dedicated -to this god. He must be bom of a marriage .celebrated by con/arrSatlO, and live himself in indissoluble marriage. {See Marriage.) If his wife died, he resigned his office. In the performance of his sacred functions he was assisted by his children as cdmilll. (See Camillus.) Every day was for him a holy day, so that he never appeared without the insignia of his office, the <5onical hat, the thick woollen toga prcetexta •woven by his wife, the sacrificial knife, and a rod to keep the people away from him. He was preceded by his lictor, and by heralds, who called on the people to stop ^;heir work, as the flamen was not permitted to look upon any labour. He was not al- iowed to cast eyes on an armed host, to mount, or even to touch, a horse, to touch a corpse, or grave, or a goat, or a dog, or raw meat, or anything unclean. He must not have near him, or behold, anything in the shape ■of a chain. Consequently there must be no knots, but only clasps, on his raiment ; the •ring on his finger was broken, and any one who came into his house with chains must instantly be loosened. If he were guilty of •any carelessness in the sacrifices, or if his hat fell off his head, he had to resign. His wife; the flaminica, was priestess of Juno. She had, in like manner, to appear always in her insignia of office, a long woollen robe, with her hair woven with a purple fillet, and arranged in pyramidal form, her head covered with a veil and a kerchief, and carrying a sacrificial knife. On certain days she was forbidden to comb her hair. "^The chief business of the flamens consisted in daily sacrifices: on certain special occa- sions they acted with the Pontlfices and the Vestal Virgins. The three superior flamens offered a sacrifice to Fides Publica on the Capitol on the 1st October, driving there in a two-horse chariot. During the imperial period flamines of the deified •emperors were added to the others. Plamlnlca. See Flamen. Flavlanum liis. See Jurisprudence. Fleet. See Ships, Warfare, and Clas- siarii. Flora. A goddess, originally Sabine, of the spring and of flowers and blossoms in general, to whom prayers were offered for the prospering of the ripe fruits of field and tree. She was also regarded as a goddess of the flower of youth and its pleasures. Her worship was said to have been intro- duced into Rome by the Sabine king Titus Tatlus, and her special priest, the Flamen Fldralls^ to have been appointed by Numa, A temple was erected to her in the Circus Maxlmus in 238 B.C. At the same time a theatrical festival, the FlOrdlta, was in- stituted at the behest of the Sibylline books. At this feast the men decked themselves and their animals with flowers, especially roses; the women put aside their usual costume, and wore the gay dresses usually forbidden. The scene was one of unre- strained merriment. From 173 B.C. the festival was a standing one, and lasted six days, from April 28, the anniversary of the foundation of the temple, to May 3. For the first five days of the games, for the super- intendence of which the curule sediles were responsible, there were theatrical perfor- mances, largely consisting of the very inde- cent farces called mimes. On the last day goats, hares, and other animals were hunted in the circus. The people were regaled during the games with porridge, peas, and lentils. Flora was in later times identified with the Greek Chlorls (see 'ELorm). In works of art she was represented as a blooming maiden, decked with flowers. Florus (lulius). (1) A Roman historian of the time of Hadrian, 117-138 a.d. He wrote, in two books, a history of the wars of Rome, from the time of the kings to the clos- ing of the temple of Janus under Augustus (25 B.C.). In the title, as we have it, the book is called an excerpt from Livy (EpUdtne de Tlti Llvil bellorum omnium annorum DCC). But this is not an adequate descrip- tion of it. Florus, it is true, has used Livy a great deal, though not exclusively, and the work is really a panegyric on the great- ness of Rome. It is the production of a rhetorician, as is shown by the tasteless and inflated language, with its poetical echoes of Vergil and Horace, and its tendency to exaggeration. Numerous gross errors tes- tify to the insufficiency of the writer's knowledge. Worthless as it is, the book was much read and quoted in the Middle Ages. FLUTE FORTUNA. 239 (2) A Roman poet, who was on familiar terms with Hadrian, and who has left a few pieces. He is probably to be identified with the African rhetorician and. poet Publius Annius Florus, the author of a dialogue, which still survives, on the ques- tion whether Vergil is an orator or a poet. Flute (Gk. aulas = pipe, Lat. tibia = shin-bone). This was, in antiquity, an in- {see (1) PHRYGIAN DOUBLE FLUTE. (Musfo Pio Clement., V, tailpiece.) strument resembling the modern clarionet, made of reed, box, bay, ivory, or bone. Its invention was ascribed, to Athene Marsyas). The wind was introduced by a mouthpiece, with one or two tongues, put on at every performance. In addition to the holes at the mouth it often had holes at the sides provided with stops. Besides the single flute, a double flute was sometimes used, especially at theatrical performances, funerals, sacrifices, and festal proces- sions. This consisted of two flutes played at the same time by means of either one or of two separate mouth- pieces. The two flutes together had as many notes as the Syrinx {see Syrinx). The right hand played the bass flute (flMa dextra), the left hand the treble {tibia sinistra). The two flutes were either of equal length and similar form, or unequal length and similar form, or unequal length and dissimilar form. In the Phrygian double flute, one pipe was straight, the other larger and bent at the end like a horn (see fig. 1). It is a peculiarity of Greek and Roman flutes that they were sometimes provided with a check-band covering the mouth, its opening fitted with metal. Through this opening were fixed the mouthpieces of the double flute (fig. 2). The long pipe is also an invention of the ancients. Fons or Fontus. The Roman god of springs, son of Janus and Juturna, who had an altar in Rome on the Janiculum. A special festival, the FontlnaUa, was held in his honour on the 13th October, at which garlands were thrown into the springs, and laid round the wells. Fools, Feast of. See Fornacalia. Fordicidia or Hordlcidia. A festival cele- brated in Rome in honour of Tellus, goddess of the earth, on 15th April. {See Tellus.) Fornacalia. A Roman festival held in February in honour of Fornax, the goddess of ovens. It was said to have been founded by Numa, and may be described as a thanks- giving for the earliest enjoyment of the newly gathered corn. It was held in the Forum by the Ciirise, or ancient unions of kinsmen, under the superintendence of the Cicrio Maximus, or president of the masters of the curice. Corn was baked in ovens in the ancient fashion. All who missed the festival were called fools {stulti\ as being supposed not to know which was their curia, and had to make an offering at the so-called Feast of Fools {stultOrum fSrtce) on the 17th February, the day of the Quirlncilta. Fortuna. The goddess of good luck, wor- (2) 'flute-player with mouthpiece. Bronze, from Dodona (Carapanos, pi. 10.) shipped from remote antiquity in Italy. Her worship was supposed to have been introduced into Rome by king Servius Tullius, popularly believed to be her favourite and confidant. He was said to have founded her oldest sanctuaries, as, for instance, that of Fors Fortuna, or lucky chance, on the 240 FORUM FREEDMEN. right bank of the Tiber below Rome. To this a pilgrimage was made down the stream by land and water on the anniversary of its foundation (June 26). As time went on, the worship of Fortuna became one of the most popular in Italy. She was worshipped at a great number of shrines under various titles, given according to various circum- stances of life in which her influence was supposed to have effect. These titles were FoHuna Prlmigenia, who determines the destiny of the child at its birth ; FortUna Publtca or Popull Romdnl, the tutelary goddess of the state ; Fortuna Ccesdrts or Augusta, the protectress of the emperor; Fortuna privdta, or of family life ; Fortuna patrtcia; plcbeia, Squestris, of the different orders, classes, and families of the popula- tion ; Fortuna llbSrum, of children ; vir- ginalls, of maidens, miillshrls, of women ; Fortuna vlrills was the goddess of woman's happiness in married life, of boys and of youths, who dedicated to her the first cut- tings of their beards, calling her from this Fortuna barbdta. Other epithets of Fortuna were victrix, or giver of victory ; dux or cdmSs, the leader or attendant ; rSdux, who brings safe home ; tranquilla, the giver of prosperous voyages. This Fortuna was worshipped with Portunus in the harbour of Rome. There were also Fortuna bdna and mdla, good and evil Fortune ; blanda or flattering, obsequens or yielding, dubla or doubtful, viscdta or enticing, brSvls or fickle, and mdnens or constant. Trajan at last founded a special temple in her honour as the all-pervading power of the world. Here an annual sacrifice was offered to her on New Year's Day. In works of art she was represented with the same attri- butes as the Greek TychS {see Tyche). For- tuna, in her general character as a goddess of Nature and Fate, had an ancient and celebrated temple, in which oracles were de- livered, at Prsenestg and Antlum {see cut). F6mm (Latin). An open space used for political meetings, judicial proceedings, and traffic. In Rome the oldest forum was the Forum ROmdnum, afterwards the Campo •goddesses of fortune. (Fortunos Antiates, coin of O too 200 ~ ^«^r€l (/oo'' 33.8 fl-) l-Hj^u/ar^iim. 16 Curia lulfa. turn Constf\l if. ■Saiat '" S. nrrt.Ileu Jh-Tanb Jc , {ArcUi Titterii ig laun drti'ui n bi 1 1 CUS 7.1. Ttattm. tSJiSj) lulii "Jo. .M.lliajium Aiutiik, 23 ^iesjlitilutii. Sj\n.S^t^Se}mr:iJ rutealLibonn TAntenhii e/Tiuit rcui Auausti -^ . iv 33 § 4] under the form of a simple 286 HERMAGORAS HERMES. quadrangular pillar of marble or wood, with the significant mark of the male sex. As .art advanced, the pillar was surmounted, iirst with a bearded head, and afterwards with a youthful head of the god. Hermes (being the god of traffic, such pillars were erected to him in the streets and squares of itowns ; in Attica, after the time of Hip- {)archus, the son of Pisistratus, they were silso erected th. matukk. virtue. aud time. ODYSSEY. MEMORY. faith, wisdom. * APOTHEOSIS OF HOMER. (2) (Reliof fnnri'l at Bovillfe. Now in British Museum.) hands of the learned who sought to im- prove the text. The first to do this were the Alexandrine scholars, who found in Homer a central point for their philo- logical studies, and practised a methodical criticism of the text, for which they en- reached the highest point that the ancients ever attained in philological criticism. The editions of these Al^^ndrine critics were founded on the red^Rn by Pisistratus, and are themselves the origin of our pre- sent text of the Homeric poems. 304 HOMER. From that time forward down to the latest times of Greek antiquity, Homer never ceased to be a theme for learned disquisition, which is attested for us by numerous remains still in existence. Even in ancient times scholars occupied them- selves with the question whether the Iliad and the Odyssey were composed by the same poet. This question was fully justi- fied by the fact that the name of Homer had long been recognised as a collective term, and had included a long series of epics formed on his model, the true author- ship of which was only gradually dis- covered ; and it did not escape observation that the Odyssey, in its more artistic de- sign, as well as in relation to social, moral, and religious life, belonged to a more advanced stage of development than the Iliad. Thus, in ancient times, those who are known as Chorlzontes (or " Separa- tors "), headed by the grammarians Xenon and Hellanicus, probably belonging to the beginning of the Alexandrine period, held that the Odyssey was composed by a later poet. Even modern scholars have shared this view, while others, relying on the essential correspondence of tone, language, and metre, attribute less importance to the points of divergence, and explain them as due to the diiference in the aim of the two poems as well as in the poet's time of life. With all our admiration of the art and beauty of the Homeric poems, it is not to be denied that they do not stand through- out on the same level of perfection, but that, by the side of the most magnificent passages, there are others which are dull and less attractive, and interruptions of the narrative and even contradictions are not wanting. Such blemishes did not escape the observation of the Alexandrine scholars, who met objections of this kind by assuming frequent interpolations, not only of single lines, but of whole passages ; e.g. they held that the second half of the last book but one, and the whole of the last book of the Odyssey, were spurious. In modern times many explanations of these defects have been put forward. In the first place F. A. Wolf [1795] observed that in the time of Homer the art of writ- ing was not yet practised to such an extent as to be employed for literary purposes ; and held that it was impossible even for the highest genius, with the aid of memory alone, either to produce such comprehensive works, and to transmit them to others. On these grounds he held that the Iliad and Odyssey received their existing form, for the first time, in the time of Pisistratus, when the old lays on the Trojan War, which had hitherto been preserved by oral tradi- tion alone, were fixed by means of writing, and collected and united into two great wholes. He has been followed by others who have endeavoured to dissect the Iliad in particular into its separate and originally independent lays. Others hold that Homer's two poems consisted of compositions of moderate length; the Wrath of Achilles and the Return of Odysseus, which, by amplifications, improvements, and altera- tions, have resulted in the existing Odyssey and Iliad. Others again, instead of assum- ing a larger number of single lays, assume a combination of small epic poems, an Achilleis and an Iliad, thus resulting in the present Iliad, and a Telemdchta and a Return of Odysseus in the present Odyssey. On the other hand, many important aiithori- ties maintain that, granting the possibility of a utilization of previously existing lays, the Odyssey and Iliad, from the ver}^ beginning, respectively constituted a united whole ; but that, soon after their first com- position, they underwent manifold revision and amplification, until they received, before the beginning of the Olympiads, the essen- tial form which they still retain. Certain it is that, after the first Olympiad, longer epic poems were composed on the model of the Iliad and Odyssey, and in continua- tion of them ; and it cannot be denied that, long before this period, the art of writing had been extensively employed in Greece. It is also beyond contradiction that, apart from corruptions which arose from later alterations, dissimilarities in the treatment of the several parts, as well as many in- consistencies, ma}'' have existed in the poems even in their primitive form. In spite of such blemishes of detail, the Homeric poems remain unsurpassed as works of art, which have had an incalculable influence not only upon the development of literature and art, but also upon the whole life of the Greeks, who from the earliest times regarded them as the common property of the nation, and employed them as the foun- dation of all teaching and culture. Even now, after nearly 3,000 years, their in- fluence remains unimpaired. Besides the Iliad and Odyssey, we still possess under the name of Homer : (a) A collection of Hymns: five of greater length on the Pythian and Delian Apollo, Hermes, AphrSdite, and Demeter; and twenty-nine HOMOIOI HOPLITES. 305 shorter poems on various gods. These are really prdoemia, or introductions, with which the rhapsodists prefaced their reci- tations. Their object is to praise the god at whose festival the recitation took place, or who was specially honoured in the town where the rhapsodist presented himself. Perhaps even the choice of the introduc- tion may have been influenced by the con- tents of the subsequent poem. If these poems did not originate with Homer, at any rate they are the compositions of rhapso- dists of the Homeric school, called Home- r%d in which it had previously been unlimited on account of the risk incurred by the stock on long voyages, at 12 per cent. Internundlnum. The Roman week. {See NuNDiNiE and Calendar.) Interreges. The name given by the Romans to the senators who, between tHe death of one king and the election of an- other, held regal authority, during the inter- regnum, for successive periods of five days each. One of these interreges had to con- duct the election itself. Even under the Republic an interrex was nominated by the senate to hold the comitta for the election of consuls, whenever the consuls had died, or resigned, or if the election had nor, been completed by the end of the year. If five days did not suffice, the retiring inter- rex named another to succeed him. Innus. See Faunus. 16. The beautiful daughter of InSchus, and the first priestess of Hera at Argos. As Zeus loved her, she was changed by the Y 322 lOBATES IPHICLUS. jealousy of Hera into a white heifer, and Argus of the hundred eyes was appointed to watch her. When Hermes, at the com- mand of Zeus, had killed Argus, Hera maddened the heifer by sending a gad-fly which perpetually pursued her. lo thus wandered through the continents of Europe and Asia, by land and by sea. Each of the different straits she swam across was named after her Bosporus, or Ox-ford. At last in Egypt she recovered her original shape, and bore fipaphus to Zeus. Libya, the daughter of Epaphus, became by PSseidon the mother of Belus, who in turn was father of JEgyp- tus, DanSus, Cepheus, and Phineus. The Greek legend of lo's going to Egypt is pro- bably to be explained by her having been identified with the Egyptian goddess Isis, who is always represented with cow's horns, lo (" the wanderer ") is generally explained as a moon-goddess wandering in the starry heavens, symbolized by Argus of the hun- dred eyes ; her transformation into a horned heifer represents the crescent moon. idb&tes. A king of Lycia, father of Anteia, and son-in-law of Proetus, king of Tiryns, by whom he was commissioned to kill Bellerophon {q.v.). idcaste. The mother and also the wife of (Edipus {q.v.). idlaus. Son of Iphicles, the half-brother of Heracles, and the faithful companion and charioteer of that hero. Eor his help in destroying the Lemsean hydra and in the flght with Cycnus, Heracles transferred to him his first wife Megara. The friendship he had devoted to the father he continued to the children of Heracles in defending them against Eurystheus. As the comrade of Heracles he was worshipped beside him in Thebes, where the gymnasium was named after him, and where the inhabitants used to swear by his name. isle. Daughter of Enrytus of (Echaiia. She came into the power of Heracles as a captive of war, and was on his death (of which she was the innocent cause) married to his son Hyllus. {See Heracles.) Ion. (1) According to the Attic story, the son of Apollo and Cretisa, daughter of the Athenian king Erechtheus. He was exposed at his birth by his mother in a grotto on the cliff of the Acropolis, whence he was taken by Hermes to Delphi and brought up by the Pythian priestess to be an attendant in his father's temple. Creusa afterwards married Xuthus, who had migrated from Thessaly, and was pon of Hellen and brother of ^olus and Dorus. As this marriage was childless, the pair went to Delphi to consult the god as to the cause. Xuthus received the command to consider as his son the first person he should meet in front of the temple. This happened to be Ion, who had meanwhile grown up, and was at once accepted by Xuthus as his son. But Creusa, fancying he was her husband's son by a former union, resolved to poison him. Ion detects her design in time and would have killed Creusa, who however takes refuge at the altar of the god. Then the Pythian priestess produces the cradle in which he had been exposed as an infant, and thus brings about recogni- tion and reconciliation between mother and son. Ion married Helice, the daughter of Sellnus, king of the ^gialeans on the north coast of the Peloponnesus. At the death of this king he became monarch of the land, and the inhabitants assumed the name of lonians after him. Afterwards being called upon by the Athenians to help them against Eumolpus and the Eleusinians, he conquered the enemy and was made king of Athens. From the four sons who are attributed to him, Hoples, Geleon, ^EgicSres, and ArgSdes were descended the four Ionic tribes. (2) Of Chios. A Greek author of rare versatility for his time. He composed historical writings, among them a kind of memoirs of men of mark he had met, such as Sophocles; also lyric poems of the most varied types, and thirty or forty tragedies which were more remarkable for elegance and erudition than for elevation of style. When in B.C. 452 he won a dramatic vic- tory at Athens, he is said to have presented every Athenian with a flask of Chian wine. He died at Athens in 422 B.C. We only possess scanty fragments of his works. iophon. The son of Sophocles, and, like his_ father, a tragic poet. {See Sophocles.) iphianassa. See Iphigenia. iphicles. Son of Amphitryon and Alcmene, half-brother of Heracles and father of l6laus. He took part in the Calydonian Hunt and also in many of his brother's expeditions, especially against Erginus, Augeas, Laomedon, and Hippocoon. He either fell in the fight against the sons of Hippocoon or was wounded in battle against the Molionidae at Phengtis in Arcadia, where he_was afterwards worshipped as a hero. iphiclns. Son of Phyiacus of Phylace in Thessaly, father of PSdarces and Protesilaus. He took part in the Argonautic expedition and in the funeral games in honour of Pelias. Here he outstripped all his com- IPHIGENIA. 323 petitors, being so swift of foot that he could pass over a cornfield without bending the ears, and could run over the sea without wetting his feet. On his herds of cattle and his powers of healing, see Melampus. Iphiggnia (Gr. IpMgeneia, in Homer Ipliidnassa). Daughter of Agamemnon and of Clytsemnestra, or (according to another account) of Theseus and Helen {q.v.\ and brought up Clytgemnestra as her child. When the Greek ships were detained at keep his vow. After a long struggle Agamemnon finally gave way to the pres- sure put upon him by Menelaus, and sent for his daughter to come to Aulis under the pretext of betrothing her to Achilles. During the sacrifice Artemis substituted a hind for her, and carried her off in a cloud to the land of the Tauri [the modern Crimea], where, as priestess of the goddess, it fell to her lot to offer up as victims all strangers who were shipwrecked on the * SACRIFICE OP IPHIGENIA. (Mural painting from Pompeii. Naples Museum.) Aulis by the calm caused by the wrath of Artemis against Agamemnon for killing a hind sacred to that goddess, and boasting that he Avas superior to her in the chase, the seer Calchas announced that the goddess could only be appeased by the sacrifice of Iphigenia. According to another story, Agamemnon had vowed, before the birth of Iphigenia, that he would sacrifice to the goddess whatever the year brought forth that was loveliest, bu* had neglected to coast. Orestes, who, commanded by the oracle, had gone there to bring to Attica the image of the goddess, was on the point of being sacrificed by her, when she recog- nised him as her brother and allowed herself to be carried off by him together with the image. At Delphi her sister Electra wanted to put her eyes out, on hearing that the Tauric priestess had slain Orestes ; but was prevented from doing so by her brother's arrival. She is said 324 IPHITUS ISIS. to have brought the image of the Tauric Artemis to the Attic deme of Brauron, and to have died and been buried there as its priestess. She was even introduced into Attic legend as daughter of Theseus and Helen. In other places also, such as Sparta, the image was shown, and she was regarded as a priestess Avho had brought it to Greece from among the Scythians. In all probability Iphigenia was originally a designation of Artemis herself, and out of this epithet of the goddess the personality of the priestess was in time evolved. Her grave was also shown at MegSrS. According to another legend, she is said to have been made immortal by Artemis, and to have lived on in the island of Leuce as the wife of Achilles under the name of OrszldcMa. ipMtus. Son of Eurytus of (Echalia, and a friend of HerScles, who, in a fit of madness, hurled him down headlong from the battlement of his castle at Tiryns. {See Heracles.) Irene. See Eirene. iris. The daughter of Thaumas and of Electra, and a sister of the Harpies. She is the personification of the rainbow which unites heaven and earth. As a virgin god- doss, swift as the breeze and with wings of gold, she is the messenger of the gods, especially of Zeus and Hera, and, according to later writers, exclusively of the latter. She bears their behests from the ends of the earth even to the river Styx, and into the depths of the sea. As a messenger of the gods she resembles Hermes, and therefore carries the herald's staff of that divinity. isaeus. The fifth of the Ten Attic Orators, a pupil of Isocrates ; born before B.C. 400 at Chalcis in Euboea. He lived to the middle of the 4th century at Athens, prob- ably as a resident alien (metoikds), writing forensic speeches for other people and giving instruction in rhetoric. Demosthenes was for several years his pupil. Of the sixty- four speeches attributed to him by anti- quity, we have (besides some not unimpor- tant fragments) eleven speeches dealing with matters relating to inheritance, and therefore of great importance as throwing light upon Attic private law. In his style he most closely resembles Lysias, to whom he is inferior in natural elegance, while he surpasses him in oratorical skill. isldorus. A Spaniard who, from the beginning of the 7th century, was bishop of Seville (in Latin Hispdlis, whence he is <:alled Hispalensis). He died about 636 A.D. He possessed a width of reading which was remarkable for his time, and an extraordinary faculty for collecting infor- mation. Next to Boethius and Cassiodorus, he exercised the most important influence lapon the general culture and literature of the Middle Ages. Besides works on grammar, theology, and history (including a Chronicle of the World to his own day, and histories of the Goths, Vandals, and Suevi), he composed in the last years of his life his greatest and most important work, an immense but imperfect encyclo- paedic survey of all knowledge, in twenty volumes, entitled the Eiymologice or Orlgines, from its often very capricious and marvellous explanations of the various subjects of which it treats. Though it is only a vast congeries of collected excerpts, devoid of a single original idea, it is never- theless important owing to the variety of its contents and its citations from writings now lost, such as those of Suetonius. Another work, which is similarly a compilation, but was greatly used in the Middle Ages, is his De Natura Rerum, a handbook of natural hisjtory. isis. The divinity most extensively worshipped, with her brother and husband Osiris, by the Egyptians, among whom she represented the feminine, receptive, and producing principle in nature. As the goddess of procreation and birth her symbol was the cow. On monuments she is mostly represented as of youthful appearance with a cow's horns on her head, between the horns the orb of the moon, and with a sceptre of flowers and the emblem of life in her hands (fig. 1). Her greatest temple stood at Busiris (i.e. Pe-Osiri, or Abode of Osiris) in the midst of the Delta of the Nile, where, amidst the fruitful fields, the inhabitants worshipped the mightiest god and goddess with ceremonies which typified the search and discovery of Osiris by his mourning wife after his murder by Typhon. Like Osiris she was a divinity who ruled over the world below. In the course of the fusion of religions which took place under the Ptolemies, Isis and Osiris were con- founded with all manner of Asiatic and Greek gods. In process of time she became in her power the most universal of all goddesses, ruling in heaven, on earth, and on the sea, and in the world below, decreeing life and death, deciding the fate of men, and dispensing rewards and punishments. Her worship spread over Greece, and after the second Punic War ISMENE — -ISOCRATES 325 obtained a firm footing in Rome in spite of repeated interference by the State. In (1) EGYPTIAN ISIS AND HORUS (hARPOCRATES). (Berlin Museum.) the days of the Empire it obtained recog- nition by the State and established itself in all parts of the Roman dominions. The attractiveness of the service of Isis lay in the religious satisfaction which it was cal- culated to insure. Through abstinence from food and from sensual pleasures, and through expiations and purifications, it promised to lead its votaries to sanctification of life and to a true perception of the life divine. The ritual consisted in part of a morn- ing and evening service to the god, partly in annual festivals celebrated in spring at the return of the season for navigation, and also in the late autumn before the advent of winter. At the former festival, held on the 5th of March, and called the ship of Isis {IsMis navigiurn), in recog- nition of her being the patroness of navi- gation, and inventress of the sail, the people in general, with the devotees and priests of Isis, went in solemn procession down to the seashore, where a sailing vessel painted in the Egyptian manner and laden with spices, was committed to the sea. lApuleius, Met. xi 8-17, esp. 11 ; Firmicus Maternus, De Err. Prof. Relig. 2.] The other feast was emblematic of the grief of Isis at her loss and her joy at finding again her husband Osiris and her son Horus. Besides these popular feasts there were also certain special -mysteries of Isis, which in all their essentials were borrowed from the Eleusinian mysteries of Demeter, In these, all who were called thereto by the goddess in a dream were admitted to the select circle of the worshippers of Isis. These devotees, like the priests, were recognised by their linen robes and their shaven heads, and had to devote themselves to an ascetic life. Oracular responses received in dreams were as much associated with the temples of Isis as with those of Serapis {q.v.). In Greek art the goddess is represented as similar to Hera. Her attributes are a serpent, a cornucopia, ears of corn, lotus, moon and horns, as well as the sistrum, a metal rattle, specially employed in her service (fig. 2). (2) ROMAN ISIS AND HORUS (HARPOCR ATES). (Munich, Glyptotbek.) Ismene. A daughter of (Edipus {q.v.). isScrates. The fourth among the Ten Attic Orators, was born at Athens B.C. 436. He was the son of Theodorus, the wealthy proprietor of a flute manufactory, who pro- vided for his son's receiving a careful educa- tion. Accordingly he had the advantage of 326 ISOTELIA ISTHMIAN GAMES. being instructed by Prodicus, Protagoras, Theramenes, and (above all) Gorgias ; his character was also moulded by the influence of Socrates, although he never belonged to the more restricted circle of his pupils. Bashfulness and a weak voice prevented him from taking part in public life. After the fall of the Thirty, as his father had lost his means in the calamitous years that closed the Peloponnesian War, he turned his attention to composing forensic speeches for others. After having taught rhetoric at Chios [possibly about 404 B.C.], he re- turned to Athens in 403, and there opened a regular school of rhetoric about 392. It was largely attended by both Athenians and non-Athenians, and brought him in considerable wealth. The total number of his pupils has been given at one hundred, including Timotheus, the son of Conon, the orators Isseus, Hj'perides, and Lycurgus, and the historians EphSrus and Theopompus. Isocrates also had friendly relations with foreign princes, especially with EvagSras of Cyprus and his son Nicocles, who loaded him with favours. He kept himself com- pletely aloof from any personal share in lihe public life of his day ; yet he attempted to influence the political world, not only with- in the narrow bounds of his native land, but also throughout the whole of Greece, by a series of rhetorical declamations, not in- tended to be delivered, but only to be read. This he did in the first place in his Pdne- gyrlcuH^ which he published in 380 B.C., after spending ten or (according to another account) as many as fifteen years over its preparation. This is a kind of festal oration eulogising the services of Athens to Greece, exhorting the Spartans peacefully to share the supremacy with Athens, and calling on the Greeks to lay aside all internal dissen- sions and attack the barbarians with their united strength. In the ninetieth year of his age, in a discourse addressed to Philip, in 346 B.C., he endeavours to induce that mon- arch to carry out his policy by reconciling all the Greeks to one another, and leading their united forces against the Persians. Other discourses relate to the internal politics of Athens. Thus, in the ArSdpdglttcus, he recommends his fellow citizens to get rid of the existing weaknesses in their political constitution by returning to the democracy as founded by Solon and reconstituted by Cllsthenes, and by reinstating the Areo- pagus as the supreme tribunal of censor- ship over public decorum and morality. He retained his mental and bodily powers un- impaired to an advanced age, and in his ninety-eighth year completed the PdncitM- ndicus, a discourse in praise of Athens. He lived to see the total wreck of all his hopes for a regeneration of Greece, and died B.C. 338, a few days after the battle of Chaeronea^ He is said to have died of voluntary star- vation, owing to his despair at the down- fall of Greek liberty; [but this account of his death, familiarised by Milton in his fifth English sonnet, must be considered af doubtful.] There were sixty compositions bearing his name known to antiquity, but less than half that number were considered genuine. Of the twenty-one which have come down to us, the first, the Letter to Demonlcus, is often regarded as spurious, [but there is no reason to doubt the genuineness of nine of the ten other Letters. It is only the letter prefixed to the nine in the older edition e that is not genuine, having been really written by Theophylact Simocatta early in the 7th century A.D.] Of the speeches, six are forensic orations, written to be delivered by others; the rest are declamations, chiefly on political subjects. By his mastery of style, Isocrates had a far-reaching influence on all subsequent Greek prose, which is. not confined to oratorical composition alone. His chief strength lies in a careful choice of expression, not only in his vocabulary, but also in the rhythmical formation oi his flowing periods, in a skilful use of the figures of speech, and in all that lends euphony to language. [Even in Latin, the oratorical prose of Cicero is, on its formal side, founded chiefly on that of Isocrates. Modern literary prose has, in its turn, been mainly modelled on that of Cicero, and thus the influence of Isocrates has endured to the present day.] is6t61ia (" equality in tax and tribute "). At Athens, the position of partial equality with the citizens which was granted to the more deserving of the mStoeci (q.v.). Isthmian Games. One of the four grea' national festivals of the Greeks, held on the Isthmus of Corinth, in a grove of pine trees sacred to Poseidon, near the shrines of th& Isthmian Poseidon and of Mellcertes. From B.C. 589, they were held in the first month of spring, in the second and fourth years of each Olympiad. According to legend, the Isthmian Games were originally funeral games in memory of Melicertes (q.v.) ; another tradition relates that they were established by Theseus either in honour of Poseidon, or in commemoration of his vie- ITINERARIA. 327 tory over Sclron and Sinis. In any case, the Athenians were specially interested in the festival from the earliest times. It was alleged that, from the days of Theseus downwards, they had what was called the proedrui, the right of occupying the most prominent seats at the games, and, in ac- cordance with a law attributed to Solon, they presented to those of their citizens who were victors in the contests a reward Corinth (B.C. 46) it was restored to that city. The contests included gymnastic exercises, horse-races, and competitions in music. The two former differed in no essential way from the Olympian Games (q.v.) ; in the third, besides musicians, poets of either sex contended for the prize. Be- sides the customary palm, the prize in Pindar's time consisted of a wreath of dr}'- selinon [often translated " parsley," but * SITE OF THE ISTHMIAN GAMES. The Isthminn stadium, nnd sacred inclnsure containing the temples of Poseidon (Neptune) and Melicertes (Palsemon). After Leake's Travels in the Morea, vol. iii, pi. 3. amounting to 100 drachmce. [The only occasion when Socrates was absent from Athens, except with the army, was to at- tend this festival.] The inhabitants of Elis were completely excluded from the games, being debarred from either sending com- petitors or festal envoys. The Corinthians had the presidency, which was transferred to the Sicyonians after the destruction of Corinth (B.C. 146), but at the rebuilding of more probably identical with the " wild celery," dpium graveolens. The selinon was a symbol of funeral games]. After the destruction of Corinth, a crown of pine leaves was substituted for it. The games long continued to be held, even under the Roman Empire. [Cp. Plutarch, Timoleon, 2G,jind Sijmpos. v 3, 1-3.] itingraria. The Roman term for (1) com- pendious lists of the names and distances S28 ITYLUS JANUS. of the different stations on the public roads, after the manner of our road-books (iti- ncraria adnotata or scripta) ; or (2) char- tographic representations similar to our travelling maps {itineraria picta). Of the former kind we have (1) the two Antonine Itineraries, the basis of which belongs to the time of the emperor Antoninus Caracalla ; but the edition which has come down to us dates from the beginning of the 4th century. They contain lists of routes by land and sea in the Roman empire. (2) The Itinerarium Burdigdlense or HiSr6s6lymltSnum, 333 A.D., the route of a pilgrimage from Burdlgala (Bordeaux) to Jerusalem. (3) The Itinerarium Alexandria an ab- stract of the Persian expedition of Alex- ander the Great, drawn up mainly from Arrian for the expedition of the emperor Constantius against the Persians (a.d. 340-345). Of the other kind of itineraries, in the form of maps, we have a specimen in the Peutinger Map, tdbUla Peutingeriana, now in Vienna. It received its name from its former possessor, Konrad Peutinger, a coun- cillor of Augsburg. It was painted at Kolmar in 1265 on the model of an original map which dates back to the middle of the 3rd century a.d. It consists of twelve broad strips of parchment, on which are delineated all those parts of the world which were known to the Romans : only the pieces which should contain Spain and Britain are lost [with the exception of part of Kent.] It is disproportionately elongated in the direction of east to west, the ratio of its height to its breadth being 1 : 21. The distances from town to town are marked on lines running from east to west, and the relative sizes of the towns indicated by distinctive marks. [A cheap and excellent facsimile was published by 0. Maier of Rayensburg in 1888.] |tjrlu8 (Itys). See Aedon, Procne. iulus. See Ascanius. Ixion. Son of Phlegyas (or of Ares), and king of the Lapithae. By Dia he was the father of Pirithoiis (who, according to Homer, however, was a son of Zeus). He attempted to withhold from his father-in- law, DeiOneus, the bridal gifts he had pro- mised. Deioneus accordingly detained the horses of Ixion. The latter invited him to his house and threw him into a pit filled with fire. When Zeus not only purified him from this murder, but even invited him to the table of the gods, he became arrogant and insolent, and even sought to win the love of Hera. Zens thereupon formed of the clouds a phantom resembling Hera, and by it Ixion became the father of the Cen- taurs. On his boasting of the favours he imagined the god'dess to have granted him, Zeus caused him to be punished for this crime by being fastened to a wheel, on which he was to turn in terror for ever- more in the world below. Janus. A god peculiar to the Italians, with no corresponding divinity among the Greeks. Even the ancients were by no means clear as to his special significance ; he was, however, regarded as one of the oldest, holiest, and most exalted of gods. In Rome the king, and in later times the rex sacrOrum (q.v.), sacrificed to him. At every sacrifice, he was remembered first ; in every prayer he was the first invoked, being mentioned even before Jupiter. In the songs of the Srdii he was called the good creator, and the god of gods ; he is elsewhere named the oldest of the gods and the beginning of all things. It would ap- pear that originally he was a god of the light and of the sun, who opened the gates of heaven on going forth in the morning and closed them on returning at evening. In course of time he became the god of all going out and coming in, to whom all places of entrance and passage, all doors and gates, were holy. In Rome all doors and covered passages were suggestive of his name. The former were called idnUce j over the latter, the arches which spanned the streets were called idni, a term perhaps symbolical of the vault of heaven. Many of these were expressly dedicated to him, especially those which were situated in markets and frequented streets, or at cross- roads. In this case they were adorned with his image, and the double arch became a temple with two doors, or the two double arches a temple with four. He was gene- rally represented as a porter with a staff and a key in his hands, and with two bearded faces placed back to back and look- ing in opposite directions {see cut). He is also the god of entrance into a new division JASON JOSEPHUS. 329 of time, and was therefore saluted every morning as the god of the breaking day {jMter mdtutlnus) ] the beginnings of all the months (the calends) were sacred to him, as well as to Juno ; and, among the months, the first of the natiiral year, which derived from him its name Idnuarius. For sacrifices on the calends twelve altars were dedicated to him ; his chief festival, however, was the 1st of January, especially as in B.C. 153 this was made the official beginning of the new year. On this day he was invoked as the god of good beginnings, and was honoured with cakes of meal called ianuce / every disturbance, every quarrel, was care- fully avoided, and no more work was done than was necessary to make a lucky begin- ning of the daily business of the year; mutual good wishes were exchanged, and people made presents of sweets to one another as a HEAD OF JANUS. (On a Roman as.) good omen that the new year might bring nothing but that which was sweet and pleasant in its train {see Stren.e). The newly chosen consuls and the other officials together with the senate and the knights went up to the Capitol to offer to Jupiter a festal sacrifice of white cattle and to pray for the safety of the State. Under the Empire the 3rd of January wns substituted as the day for offering vows for the prosperity of the imperial house. The origin of all or- ganic life, and especially all human life, was referred to him ; he was therefore called consivius (sower). From him sprang all wells, rivers, and streams ; in this relation he was called the spouse of Juturna, the goddess of springs, and father of Fontus, the god of fountains. As the god of coming and going and of traffic, he had power not onl};- on land, but also on sea ; he was therefore described as the husband of the sea-goddess Venilia and as the discoverer of the art of shipbuilding. For this reason the Roman as bore the impression of a ship on the obverse of the head of Janus {see Coinage, fig. 7). His authority extended as much over war as over peace. In connexion with war he was known in the fane founded by Numa near the ancient Forum, as laniis Quirlnus. When war was declared, the consul opened the double doors of this sanctuary and summoned the Roman youths capable of bearing arms to march through it with him. As long as war continued, the doors stood open, but on the declaration of peace they were closed. From the time of Numa to the year of the birth of Christ, this happened on four occasions only, and twice in the reign of Augustus. While Janus appears as the most ancient of the Roman gods, he is at the same time named as the most ancient king of the land, who dwelt upon the Janiculum on the right bank of the Tiber, and erected a temple to the gods and gave a friendly reception to Saturn. In very late times, he is repre- sented with a bearded and an unbearded face ; and, instead of his having the usual attributes of the key and staff, the fingers of his right hand exhibit the number 300 (ccc), and those of his left hand the number of the remaining days of the year (Lxv). Jason. The son of vEson, and leader of the Argonauts (q.v.), husband of Medea. Jeiunlum. The first breakfast among the Romans {see Meals). On leiunium CerSris, the fast of Ceres, see Ceres. Jewellery. See Toreutic Art. Jocasta. See Iocaste. Jordanes. An Alanian by birth, and probably bishop of Crotona. He wrote two historical works : (1) a compendium of Universal History down to 552 a.d. ; (2) an abstract of Cassiodorus' History of the Goths {De Rebus Geticls), which, though done in a cursory and unskilful manner, is nevertheless of great value, owing to the loss of the original work. Josephus {Flavins). Born at Jerusalem, A.D. 37, of a respectable priestly family. He received a scholarly education, and in 63 went to Rome, where he gained the favour of Poppsea, the wife of Nero. After having returned to his native land, he endeavoured in vain to check the revolt of his own people against the Romans ; there- upon he himself joined the rebellion, but, while in command of Galilee, was taken prisoner by the Romans. He was freed 330 JUDEX JUDICIAL PROCEDURE. from this after two years' captivity, owing to his having prophesied the coming reign of Vespasian, from whom he took the family name of Flavius. After having been present at the siege of Jerusalem, in the suite of Titus, he lived in Rome until his death about 93, devoting himself to learned studies and literary activity. His works, which are wi'itten in Greek, are : (1) The History of the Jeicish War, in seven books, originally composed in Syro-Chaldee, but translated into Greek at the request of Titus. It is remarkable for its masterly delineation of events in which he himself took part or of which he was an eye- witness. (2) The Jeicish Antiquities, in twenty books ; a history of the Jews from the creation down to the twelfth year of Nero (a.d. QQ), written with the object of making a favourable impression on the Greeks and Romans. (3) An Autobio- graphy, to complete the Jewish History. (4) A treatise in defence of his Jeicish Antiquities against the attacks of a scho- lar named Apion. The Eulogy of the Maccabees is probably spurious. There is a Latin version of the History of the Jews, dating from the end of the 4th century A.D., under the name of Hegcsippus, a corruption of Josephus. Jud'^x. In the Roman constitution a general des'gnation of all judges, whether officials exercising judicial functions or in- dividuals in a private position, entrusted on oath with the duty of deciding in either civil or criminal trials. For standing and for extraordinary criminal courts (seeQu^STio) the indices were at first chosen from the number of the senators by agreement of the parties concerned. Gains Gracchus first introduced a list of iudices (album) for the permanent tribunals (quoisttoncs perpetUoi). At first this list was perma- nent, but afterwards it was published annually by the prcetor urbdnus, who had to swear that he would be impartial in his selection of names. Under the Empire, as long as the qucestiones perpetuce existed, it was published by the emperor, who nominated the iudices to hold office for life, and from time to time revised and completed the list. By the lex Sempronia of Gains Gracchus, B.C. 123, the office of judge was taken away from the senators, who had held it previously, and transferred to the possessors of the knight's census (the equites). In B.C. 80 a lex Cornelia of L. Cornelius Sulla restored it to the Senate. In B.C. 70 the office was equally divided between the senators, the knights, and the tribuni cerdrii. These last were once more excluded by Caesar. Augustus formed four dScUrice, or divisions, of iudices. Of theso the first three were obliged to possess the knight's census, and the last the half of it. Caligula added a fifth decuria. Under the Empire the judicial functions, hitherto confined to certain definite classes, had become so general in their obligations, that it was considered a privilege to bo freed from them. This exemption was granted to a man with many children, and, afterwards, to those following the professions of grammarians and teachers. The requisite qualifications, apart from that of property, were that a person should be by birth a citizen, and not less than thirty years of age (after Augustus, not loss than twenty- five). The other requirements were bodily and mental capacity, an unblemished repu- tation, and a long residence in Italy. Under the Republic, the number of those who were sworn in varied at different times; under the Empire it was fixed at 4,000, and later at 5,000. For every court of justice the judges were taken from the general list by lot, and out of this special list the presiding magistrate appointed a definite number for each trial. Out of these a certain number might be challenged and rejected by either side ; perhaps the president filled up the vacancies by again drawing lots. The swearing in took place before the trial. When the number of the praetors appointed for the qucestiones was not sufficiently large, a index qucestionis was appointed, generally one who had served as aedile. In civil cases it was customary from early times for the judicial magistrates, i.e. the praetors, to depute the investigation and decision to a person instructed by them and appointed by consent of both sides. From the time of Augustus a single judge {index unus) was appointed in each case from the general album of sworn iudices, but for certain cases several judges were intro- duced, {See Recuperatores, and Judicial Procedure, II, below.) The iudices cen- tumvlri formed the single great judicial body for trying civil cases. {See Centum- viRi.) Concerning the iudices lUlbus iudi- candls, who were also appointed in civil cases, see Viginti-sex Viri. Judicial Procedure. (I) Athenian. A clear distinction was drawn at Athens be- tween public and private actions. But ifr must be remarked that the public action* JUDICIAL PROCEDURE. 331 included more offences than those which directly affected the State. Injuries to individuals might form matter for a public prosecution, if (as. e.g., in a case of theft or damage to property) the wrong to a citizen in his honour or property admitted of being viewed as an attack upon the honour of the citizens or the security of property in general. The difference, both in public and private actions, was essential, whether we consider (a) the right of prosecution, or (6) the consequences of condemnation. (a) Any one might institute a public pro- secution, even if he had himself suffered no wrong. The only condition was that he must be of full age and in possession of all civic rights. It was only in cases of murder that the right of prosecution was limited to the relations of the murdered person. Private prosecutions, on the other hand, could only be undertaken by the injured person or his legal representative, in the case of a ward by his guardian, in that of a married woman by her husband, in that of strangers by their prdxends, in that of resident aliens by their patrons. (b) In the case of public prosecutions, if a fine was inflicted the amount went into the public treasury ; in the case of a private prosecution, to the prosecutor. At public trials other penalties than fines could be inflicted : death, imprisonment, deprivation of civic rights, banishment with confiscation of property. This was not the case in private causes, though in them the State had the right of increasing the penalty. For instance, a prosecution for false witness was not public, but private ; yet if a person was convicted three times, the State could inflict deprivation of civil rights. In public causes the prosecutor ran the risk of being himself fined 1,000 drachmce (£33 6s. 8f/.) if he failed to carry at least one-third of the votes of the jurymen : besides which he lost his right of instituting a similar action again. In private causes the prosecutor, if he failed to establish his case, was fined in an amount generally equal to one-sixth of the sum in dispute. A distinction was drawn between assessed and non-assessed causes. The non-assessed were those in which the amount of the fine was already fixed by law, and any further estimate was therefore unnecessary : the assessed causes were all those in which the amount of fine had to be settled according to the character of the offence, or the magnitude of the damage ; in other words, those which re- quired that the punishment should be fixed for the occasion. Besides those prosecu- tions, the object of which was to get a person punished for an actual breach of law, there were others which merely aimed at settling a disputed right. These were naturally, for the most part, private causes : but there were public prosecutions of this kind as well. For instance, any one who proposed and carried a new law was liable for a whole year after it had passed to prosecution and punishment for making an illegal proposal. But after the year had elapsed his personal responsibility came to an end, and only the new law could be attacked. Private cavises could be settled by arrangement, but the law forbade the accuser in a public cause to drop the case. If he did, he was liable to the same punish- ment as if he had failed to carry one-third of the votes. This was the principle, but it was not always carried out in practice. In certain public causes in which a reward was offered by the State, the prosecutor, if successful, received a share of the fine. The costs of private causes (prytdneia) were paid by both parties in advance, and returned to the successful suitor by his adversary. These fees amounted, if the sum in dispute were less than 1,000 dracJunce (£33 Gs. 8d.), to three drachma; (about 2.?.) ; if greater, to thirty drachmce, or about £1. The costs of public prosecutions were not paid by the accused. They were paid by the accuser in one case only ; namely, if, in the event of the accused being con- demned, the accuser received part of the fine imposed. In testamentary suits, sup- posing a person to claim an inheritance already assigned to another, or to lay ex- clusive claim to one which was claimed by several others, the tenth part of the amount was deposited before the trial. If the suit was instituted against the State, supposing the question affected confiscated property, a fifth part of the amount was deposited. The successful litigant in either case re- ceived the amount deposited. As above mentioned, the Athenian law allowed the prosecutor, in many cases, to institute the same suit in various forms. A case of personal injury might be treated either as a private action for assault or as a public action for outrage. In the latter case the prosecutor could make no claim for personal compensation. If the injury was accompanied by aggravating circumstances, supposing, for instance, that the person injured were performing a public function, either form of action was open. 332 JUDICIAL PROCEDURE. Private actions were often decided by Diaitetai, or arbitrators {see DiiETET^); an important body. For tlie convenience of persons living outside Athens, thirty (in later times forty) local magistrates were appointed by lot, whose business it was to go from place to place and decide petty cases of debt or damage or assault. In cases of^ murder the jurisdiction belonged to the Ephetce^ in certain other cases to the Senate, the Ecclesia, the Strategic the Archons, and the Eleven (see Hendeka). The greater number of cases came before the court of the HeUcea {see Heli^a), The most general name for a public charge was grajthe, or a statement in writing. The graphe was only resorted to in cases of offences already recognised by law, and was always brought before a court of law, never before a political body such as the senate or public assembly. On the special forms of public prosecution, sec Apagoge, Eisangelia, Endeixis, Phasis, Probole. Dike (suit) was the term for a civil process. Under both forms of action the proceedings were very much the same. Except in certain cases affecting the religious mysteries, they were public, and involved a great many formalities. By \'ay of introducing his case the prosecutor applied to the president of the court, who fixed the date for the preliminary investi- gation. The summons was made hy the prosecutor in a public place and in the presence of witnesses. Aliens were obliged to give security for their appearance ; citizens were not, except in case of dpdgoge, endeixis, or eisangelia. And in these cases a special summons was sometimes dispensed with, and the accused might be imme- diately arrested. The charge having been handed in, the presiding judge decided, when the day mentioned in the summons came round, whether he should admit it or not. Various reasons might lead him to dismiss it : the non-appearance of the accused, there being no sufficient evidence to show that he had been summoned ; or if the accuser appeared on the whole not justified in bringing the charge ; or if the forms were not duly observed. If the charge were admitted, it was publicly posted up on a tablet in the neighbourhood of the court, with a notification of the day when the trial would come on. If the accuser failed to appear on the appointed day, the charge fell through ipso facto ; if the accused failed without putting in a valid plea for postponement, he was pro- coeded against in contiimdciam. If the parties came into court, they were both put on their oath, the accuser with respect to his charge, the accused with regard to his answer. They then paid the court fees. The accused generally tried, if possible, to prevent the trial coming on. There were many ways of doing this. He might, or another might for him, dispute the admis- sibility of the charge on various grounds ; e.g. the legal inability of the prosecutor to prosecute, limitation, want of jurisdiction on the part of the authorities, absence of any law to serve as a basis for the charge, and so on. A witness was usually put forward in cases of disputed inheritance, to prove that the prosecutor had no claim. In either case the trial was postponed until a decision had been come to upon the objection raised by the accused or upon the charge of false testimony brought by him against the witness. If the decision went against the accuser he was obliged to retire from the case. After a decision was given on the objection raised by the accused, the pai*ty to whom it was unfavourable had to pay his adversary a fine amounting to a sixth part of the value of the object in dispute. All the material necessary for the trial, the passages to be quoted from laws, docu- ments, and testimony, had to be prepared by the parties. The evidence consisted of written statements which were given in among the records. The witnesses who were responsible for these might either have made them in person before the magistrates, or in their absence before other witnesses. The witnesses were either willing or unwilling. If a person had at first offered to give evidence and after- wards refused to do so, he might be prose- cuted by the person affected by his conduct. If any person, even without having bound himself to appear, refused to give evidence after being formally summoned by the herald, he had to pay into the public trea- sury a fine of 1,000 drachmas. The statements of slaves were only ac- cepted as evidence when given under torture in the presence of witnesses, who had to take them down. The owners of slaves offered to submit them to the torture, either of their own will or on the demand of the opposite party, with which, however, they were not bound to comply. The oath was regarded as the ultimate test of truth. It might either bo taken by both parties on their own proposal, or be exacted by one party from the other. The taking of the JUDICIAL PROCEDURE. 333 oath or the refusal to take it was put into writing as evidence and enrolled among the archives. These documents were kept by the magistrate in a sealed box, and brought by him into court ou the day of trial. In certain cases, such as those rela- ting to commerce, mining, and dowries, the duration of the proceedings was legally limited to thirty days ; but in other causes trials would sometimes drag themselves out through a whole year. If one of the parties failed to appear in court on the day ap- pointed, his reason had to be stated on oath by a representative. The other party was free to declare on oath that the reasons alleged were insufficient : if the judge took this view, the proceedings went on in contumaciam, and the absent party lost in the suit. In the opposite case the accuser had to propose another date for the trial. In private cases an arrangement might be come to, even in court. The charge and the answer having been read by the clerk, both parties delivered their speeches. These had often been composed for them, for according to strict law the parties could not be represented by advo- cates. In practice, however, they often con- tented themselves with a short introduc- tory address of their own, and then asked for permission to employ an advocate. The first speech and reply were often fol- lowed by a second, bat the whole number of speeches on each side was not allowed to exceed a certain time measured by the water-clock. The pieces of written evi- dence were read out by the clerk, during the speaking, in their proper places, but the time which they took was not counted against the speaker. The judge alone had the right of interrupting the speaker. It was usual to introduce the witnesses of parents, wives, children, and influential persons. The voting was secret. Every judge received a black and white pebble (the black for condemnation and the white for acquittal), and put the pebble which indicated his vote into a metal urn, the other into a wooden one. Stones bored through or left entire, mussel shells, beans, or metal balls were also used for voting. The verdict was decided by the majority of votes : if they were equal, the accused was acquitted. If the cause was assessed {agon tlmet6s\ a second voting followed, to decide between the punishment proposed by the accuser and the counter-proposal of the accused. There was no appeal, at least against the decision of the public court of the IleltastoE. The utmost that was possible was to get the verdict set aside by proving that the proceedings in contu- maciam had been illegal, or that the winner had gained the case by suborning false witnesses. The magistrates were, in the case of public actions, responsible for carry- ing out the punishment. Capital sentences were usually carried out (by poison or strangulation) in prison by the executioner commissioned by the Eleven. {See Hen- DEKA.) The corpses of great criminals were thrown down a precipice or removed over the border. If the sentence were banish- ment, the condemned person had to leave the country within a certain time at the peril of his life ; his property was confis- cated. If cltlmia were inflicted, and the condemned person attempted to usurp the rights of which he had been deprived, he was liable to severe, even to capital punish- ment. In case of a fine being inflicted, a man was citimos till it was paid : if he failed to pay by the time appointed, he was liable to a double punishment, and ulti- mately to the confiscation of his ])roperty. If the amount of his property exceeded the fine, the surplus was returned to him ; if it fell short of it, he and his descendants were debtors to the State and atimoi. Im- prisonment seems to have served only as an increase of sentence or as a means of enforcing sentence. Loss of freedom and sale were only inflicted on non-citizens for usurping civic rights. In private actions the ultimate means of compelling the con- demned person to the fulfilment of his obligation was an executory mandate, by which he was declared a debtor to the State in the same sum that he owed the prosecutor, and made atbnos till it was paid. (II) Roman. Criminal jurisdiction, until the establishment of the Republic, belonged to the kings, and on their commission to the quoistores parrtcldii and the duo virl perduellioms. {See Parricidium ; Per- DUELLio.) After the expulsion of the kings it passed over immediately to the consuls, until the public courts {iudida pdpUli) were gradually developed. In capital cases, even in the time of the kings, an appeal was allowed, as an act of grace, from their verdict to the representative assembly, at first to the comltia curiata, and after Servius Tullins to the comitia centuriata. {See Provocatio.) After the establishment of the Republic, it was, in 509 B.C., legally provided that an appeal might be made, in capital cases, from the sentence of the 834 JUDICIAL PROCEDURE. magistrate to the decision of the comiiia centuriata as a court of appeal. Con- demned persons, as a rule, naturally made use of this right, and the magistrates con- sequently brought their verdict before the comitia centuriata, in the form of a charge with reasons to support it. Thus these comitia acquii'ed a jurisdiction, dependent, it is true, on a previous judgment of the magistrates, and limited to capital cases which admitted of appeal. The jurisdiction of the comitia trthUta was developed in the same way. At first these comitia had merely served as a court of appeal against the fines imposed by the tribunes for viola- tion of their authority. {See Multa.) But they soon acquired jurisdiction in all cases involving fines, and quite overshadowed the comitia centuriata in importance. The judicial power of the latter was gradually more and more restricted by the increasing habit of referring cases of common offences to exceptional commissions (qumstiones cx- traordinarioi. At last trials for j}er- duellio were the only ones in which they retained their judicial competence. But the greatest possible number of cases were brought before the comitia tributa, notably those of a political character in which illegal or mischievous administration was in question. Only the name of perduellio was avoided. The distinction between the judicial competence of the two assemblies was founded, not so much on differences in the offences, as in those of the penalties. Whether the comitia centuriata or comitia ■ti'ibuta were to take cognisance of an offence depended on the light in which the magistrates regarded it. If they thought less seriously of it, it would go before the comitia tributa, which had only the power of inflicting fines to the amount of half the property : if more seriously, before the comitia centuriata, which could only pass capital sentences : in early times death, in later times the interdictlo aquce et ignis, and the confiscation of property which ac- companied them, {See Exilium.) The proceedings in the assembly were opened by the accusing magistrate. In the comitia centuriata this would be a consul or prsetor, in the comitia tributa a tribune, sedile, or quaestor. The trial began with the diet dicilO, or fixing of a day for the proceedings. The accused was then either put into prison, or left free on giving bail for his appearance. To give the people some means of arriving at a conclusion on the guilt or innocence of the accused, a preliminary investigation was held in three contiones at intervals of some days. Before these the accused was allowed to defend himself against the charge of the magistrate. At the last contio the magistrate pronounced a provisional verdict, which (if adverse) was taken as a definite charge. At the same time he fixed the day for the meeting of the comitia, always allowing an interval of thirty days. At the meeting of the comitia, supposing nothing had occurred to stop the proceedings — i.e. supposing the accused had gone into voluntary exile, or a tribune had interposed his veto, or the accuser had withdrawn the charge — the accuser made his proposal {rogdtio) to punish the accused. Thereupon the accused (or his advocate) spoke in his defence, the evidence of the witnesses who had been previously called was shortly gone through, and the proofs laid before the assembly. Finally the votes were taken in the usual manner, and the result at once made known. A pro- cacution which remained unfinished at the expiration of the appointed time was not continued, but the accused was regarded as acquitted. The condemnation of the accused was followed by the immediate infliction of the penalty. The sentence could only be reversed by a subsequent resolution of the people, {See Restitutio.) The popular tribunals fell gradually into disuse : the standing judicial courts or qucBstiones arose, the first of which was instituted in B.C. 149. In Cicero's time there were eight of these commissions, each presided over by a prsetor or his represen- tative. These courts were respectively appointed to try the following offences: (1) RSpStimdce^ or official extortion ; (2) Mdiestds, or treason against the majesty of the State ; (3) PecULdtus, or embezzle- ment ; (4) Ambitus, or attempt to gain office by unlawful means ; (5) Vis, or violence ; (6) De Slcdrlls, or murder ; (7) Adul- tSrium, or adultery ; (8) Falsum, or forgery, {See Ambitus, Maiestas, Peculatus, Repe- TUND^, Vis,) Any citizen, not an official, might bring the charge. On the proceed- ings, see QuiESTio. The comitia tributa were, after this, only set in motion in cases for which there was no quaistio perpetua, or for which it was thought improper to institute a qucestio extraordindria. The popular tribunals of the comitia came to an end with the Re- public, but the qua'stiones continued until the 2nd century a.d to act as the regular criminal courts. Under the Empire the JUDICIAL PROCEDURE. 335 senate and the emperor had an extra- ordinary jurisdiction in criminal cases. The senatorial court, which met under the presidency of the consuls, followed the pro- cedure of the qucestiones, but its proceed- ings were not public. The cases which it tried were usually those which aifected persons of high standing charged with political or official offences. The decision of the court took the form of a sSndtus consultiivi, but had all the force of a legal sentence. The emperor, in virtue of his tribunician authority, had the power of neutralizing it by his veto. An interval of ten days occurred between sentence and execution, in pursuance of an order of Tiberius made in 22 a.d. But up to that time the sentence was carried out imme- diately after being passed, even in capital cases. Capital punishment had in the re- publican times been practically abolished, but was at once reinstated under the imperial regime. The emperor himself Tisually exercised his jurisdiction only over his own procurators and the higher officers of the army, notably in the case of strictly military offences. He acted as sole judge even when he invited the assistance of a jury (consilium). No formal act of accusa- tion was required. Cases which he was unwilling to settle himself he would gene- rally hand over to the qucestiones or the senatorial tribunals. The power of inflict- ing sentence of death on Roman citizens was confined originally to the emperor and senate ; but in later times the emperor, by a special mandate, transferred it for pur- poses of provincial administration, to the governors of the provinces, whose juris- diction extended to all citizens, with the exception of the high military officers, senators, and the decuriones of a muni- cipium. {See Decurio, 2.) The criminal jurisdiction in Rome and its neighbourhood for a radius of 100 miles was given to the prcefectus urbi, whose court ended by becoming the chief criminal court in the capital. The rest of Italy was placed under the jurisdiction of the prgefect of the Prse- torian Guard. From the decision of these representatives of the imperial authority an appeal was allowed to the emperor. But, after the 3rd century a.d., the appeal mostly came before the prsefect of the body- guard, whose judgment was generally final. The senatorial court came finally to acting only on the motion of the emperor. The Roman civil jurisdiction, like the criminal, belonged originally to the king. from whom it passed to the consuls. With them it remained until a special magis- tracy, the prsetorship, was instituted for it. {See Praetor.) According to ancient usage, the highest judicial authorities did not superintend the case from beginning to end. Their action was usually confined to the preparation of the case and such measures as its course made absolutely necessary, as (supposing their interference was required) in ordering execution of sentence. The investigation proper, and the passing of judgment, they as a rule handed over (with the consent of the parties) either to a single judge {see Judex) or rScuperdtOres {see Recuperatores) appointed for the occasion, or to the judicial collegia of the indices decemviri and centumviri, ap- pointed, independently of special cases, for the whole year. As an introduction of the case, the plaintiff (pttltor) was required to bring the defendant (rSus) before the tribu- nal of the magistrate {in ius). In the case of the prsetor, this would be his tribunal in the Forum. If the accused failed either to obey the personal summons of the plain- tiff {in ius vGcdtlo) or to appear by his representative {vindex), the plaintiff could, after calling a witness to attest that his summons was in order, take him before the praetor by force. In later time, to meet the cases in which the accused was unable to answer the summons immediately, the vadimonium was introduced. This was a promise, given by the accused on the security of sureties, that he would appear in court on a certain day, or if he failed would pay a sum of money, the amount of which depended on the nature of the question in dispute. The proceedings in iure, or before the magistrate, took place according to certain definite formal rules, the so-called legis actiones, the commonest of which was the actio sacramentl. This was accompanied by the utterance of a solemn formula partly by the magistrate, partly by the parties, and by certain sym- bolical acts. The smallest departure from the traditional formula involved the loss of the suit. The trial thus commenced, the next step was the iudicis ddtio, or appoint- ment of a judge to try it. The case came on before the appointed index {in indicio) on a day appointed. It was first shortly stated ; the parties or their advocates made their speeches, the evidence was tested and judgment pronounced. The cumbrous machinery of the Icgis actiones gave way afterwards, in all cases 336 JUDICIUM JUNIUS CORDUS. but a few, to the procedure by formula. The formula was a document written out by the praetor, in which he, after hearing the parties, summed up the points of the accusation and the replies of the accused, appointed the judge, and gave him the materials for investigation and judgment. The proceedings in iudicio were then opened with the production of the formida. The question of the debt being settled, the judge proceeded' to make a valuation of the object in dispute, in case a definite amount had not been mentioned in the formula. On the procedure in case of default, see CoNTUMACiA. The judgment was irrever- sible. It was only in certain exceptional cases, notably if it appeared that any decep- tion or force had been employed, that the magistrate who had appointed the judge, or his successor in office, could set it aside by restitutio in integrum. If the com- demned party refused to make the payment, the magistrate who had prepared the case could order personal arrest or seizure of goods. (See Mands Iniectio and Bonorum Emptio.) The only weapon against abuse of judicial authority in the republican age was the right of appeal to a magistrate with the power of veto. {See Appellatio.) The system of civil jurisdiction continued to exist in the imperial period, though with many modifications in detail, until the Brd century A.D, After that, the excep- tional procedure {extra ordtnem) in which the magistrate superintended the case till its conclusion and pronounced judgment at the end of it, became the usual one. The emperor, as supreme judge, had the power of deciding every case, criminal or other- wise, if his decision was appealed to. Further, he could interfere by his decree during the course of the trial, and either quash the verdict himself, or lay the appeal for decision before an authority constituted by himself for the purpose. In later times this authority was the prcefectus urbi. A further appeal from this authority back to the emperor was allowed. Judicium. The Latin name for a court : indicium pdpUli, a court in which the populus acted as iudicSs. Indicium privatum, a civil, indicium publicum, a criminal co^irt; indicium domesticnm, a family court. (See Judicial Procedure.) Jugfirum. The unit of superficial mea- sure among the Romans. A rectangle 240 Roman feet in length and 120 feet broad = 28,800 Roman square feet = rather more than half an English acre of 43,560 square feet. Two hundred iugerd forin one cen- tUria [about 132 acres]. Julian Calendar. See Calendar. Jiilianus. (1) Salvins. An eminent Roman jurist, born in Africa, who lived in the days of Hadrian. Besides many original works which were long held in high esteem, he compiled at the command of the emperor in 131 A.D., a systematic collection of Edicts of the Praetors, beginning with the repub- lican time {edictum perpetuum). This was the first scientific collection of Roman legal documents. Numerous fragments of his works are quoted in the Digest. Cp. Corpus Juris Civilis (2). (2) Flavins Claudius, " the Apostate." Born at Constantinople A.D, 331 ; he was the son of Julius Constantius, a brother of Constantine the Great. In spite of his early monastic education, he was so strongly prepossessed against the Christian religion owing to the murderous deeds of his own family, the persecutions he suffered at the hands of his cousin Constantius, and his own intercourse with the most renowned Sophists both in NicSraedia and at Athens, that, on his elevation to the imperial throne in 361, he attempted to drive out Christianity, and to restore Paganism on the foundation of Neo-Platonic philo- sophy. His attempts were however cut short by his death in the war against the Persians. We still possess eight essays written by him in Greek, in the form of speeches ; seventy-eight letters of the most varied contents, valuable as throwing light on his character and his aims ; and two satirical writings : (i) The Caesars, or the Banquet, a brilliant criticism on the Roman emperors, from Caesar downwards, in the form of Varro's Menippean satii^es ; (ii) the Mlsopogon (Beard-Hater), a satire directed against the inhabitants of Antioch, who had cast ridicule on his beard and his philosophic garb. Of his work directed against the Christians and theii religion, which he com- posed in Antioch before the expedition against the Persians, only extracts and fragments survive. Julian is one of the cleverest, most cultivated and ele-Tiant writers of the period after the birth of Christ. Julius CS,pit61inus. A Roman historioT^. {See ScRiPTORES Historic August^e.) Julius Valerius. The Latin translator of the romance of pseudo-Callisthenes on Alex- ander the Great. {See Callisthenes.) Junius Cordus. A Roman historian. {See ScRiPTORES Historic Augusts.) JUNO ^JUPITEJR. 337 Juno (i.e. lovino, a feminine form cor- responding to Idvis contained in luplter). In the Italian mythology, the queen of heaven and of heavenly light, especially that of the new moon ; the wife of Jupiter. After she had been identified with the Greek Hera {q.v.\ she was regarded as the daughter of Saturnus (who was identified with Cronus), and as sister of her husband. In Italy, as the queen of womankind, she was the representative of woman in general, to such a degree that, as every man had his Genius, so every woman had her luno, to whom she offered sacrifice and by whom she swore. It was as luno Luclna (the bringer of light) that she was worshipped from the most ancient times and in many parts of Italy. As such, she was the goddess of the beginnings of all the months, and on the calends, at Rome, the rex sacrorum and his wife made regular sacrifices to her. As all goddesses of light are also goddesses of birth (the appearance of the light from out of the darkness being looked on as a birth), under the same name of Lucina she was honoured as the mightiest of the goddesses of birth. Her temple at Rome, in a sacred grove, was one of the most ancient and venerated. By a custom dating back to Numa, a piece of gold was placed in her treasury there at the birth of every male child. The Matronalia {q.v.) was the most famous feast of the goddess. It was celebrated by the Roman matrons and virgins on the 1st March. At this festival the goddess was represented veiled, with a flower in her right hand, and an infant in swaddling clothes in her left. Another ancient worship highly honoured throughout Italy was that of luno Sosptta (the Saviour), whose ancient grove and temple at Lanuvium was deemed sacred at Rome, which itself had two temples to this divinity. At an appointed time in every year the Roman consuls offered a sacrifice to the Juno at Lanuvium. The image of the goddess at that place wore, over the robes of a matron, a goatskin which served as hel- met and cuirass, with a shield held in one hand and a spear brandished in the other. This worship assigned to the goddess who presided over the life of woman the char- acter of a divinity of protecting power. luno Ciiritis, or Quirltis {i.e. armed with a spear), who was specially worshipped by tlie Sabines, was also a warlike goddess. As goddess of marriage Juno was invoked at weddings under many names. As Domi- duca she conducts the bride into the bride- groom's house ; as Unxla she anoints the D. C. A. doorposts as a sign of good omen at her reception ; as Cinxla she ties and unlooses the marriage girdle ; and as Pronuba and luga she is the foundress of marriage. On the citadels of towns, which were deemed to be under her particular protection, she was specially worshipped by matrons, either with Jupiter, or alone, as luno Reytna, be- ing the wife of luplter Rex and the highest celestial goddess. In this capacity she had her chief temple at Rome, on the Capitol, close to Jupiter. It was there that the well-known geese were kept, which were sacred to her as being prolific and domesti- cated creatures. Another highly honoured fane of luno Regina was on the Aventine, to which her worship had been transplanted from Veii after the destruction of that city. There was also a temple on the Capitol dedi- cated to luno Mdneta ("the admonisher "), in gratitude (it was said) for her salutary admonitions [Cic, De Divinatione, i 45 § 101]. Money derived from the goddess its designation Moneta, as it was coined in the temple of Iiino Moneta. Another most ancient Roman worship was that of luno Caprotlna (Juno of the goat). This was celebrated by the festival held by female slaves on the 7th July, called Nonce Caprotince. (/S'eeCAPROTiNA.) In the third Punic War the worship of luno Ccelestis was brought into Rome from Carthage. This M'as the ancient tutelary goddess of Carthage, strictly speaking the Astarte of the Phoenicians. When Carthage was restored under the Empire, her worship flourished anew. Not only the goose, but also the raven that loves the heights, was sacred to her as the protectress of citadels. JupitSr (luppitSr). In the Italian my- thology, the highest god in heaven, cor- responding to the Greek Zeus (q.v.), with whom he was identical, not only in his nature, but also in his name. For Jupiter is compounded of Idvts (an older form is Diovis) and pater; Zeus stands for Dieus (Indian Diaus=^' the bright heaven ")• As in course of time the Italian god became identified with the Greek, he was regarded as a son of Saturn and of Ops, the deities deemed to correspond to the Greek Uranus and Rhea respectively. _ From Jupiter comes all that appears in the heavens. As Lucetius (from lux, " light ") he is the bringer of light, the cause of the dawn of day, as well as of the full moon at night. Just as the calends (1st) of each month are sacred to Juno, so the ides (13th or 15 th), which are full-moon days, are sacred z 338 JUPITER. to Jupiter. On tliese his special priest, the fldinPn didlis, offers him the IduUa, a sacrifice of a white lamb. While he watches over fair weather, he also controls all other weather ; as Fulgiirator and Fulmlnator ( " flasher of lightning ") and as Tonans or Tonitrudlis (" thunderer ") he brings down those fearful storms which were familiar to Rome : as Pluvius he sends a fertilizing rain. Any place, or thing, struck by lightning was supposed to be sacred to Jupiter as having been taken possession of by him, and thus it needed a particular dedication. (/S'ee Pdteal.) As the god of rain, there was instituted in his honour at Rome a festival of supplication, called dqucellcium. In this the pontlfic&s brought into Rome from the temple of Mars outside the Porta Cdpena a cylindrical stone called the lapis mdndlis (rain-stone), while the matrons followed the procession with bare feet, as did also the magistrates, unac- companied by their insignia. In the same character he was appealed to by the country- folk, before sowing time and in the spring and autumn, when a sacrificial feast was offered to him. He and Juno were wor- shipped before the commencement of the harvest, even before any sacrifice to Cores. Throughout all Latium, the feast of the VlndVta (q.v.) was celebrated in his honour as the giver of wine ; and at the commence- ment of the vintage season he was offered a lamb bj' the jlnmen Dialis. He was honoured in all Italy, after Mars, as the decider of battles and giver of victory; this was specially the case at Rome, where, as early as the daj's of Romulus, shrines were founded to him as Stcitor (" he who stays flight ") and Feretrius (to whom the spoils taken by a Roman general in the field from a hostile general were offered. See Spolia). He watches over justice and truth, and is therefore the most ancient and most important god of oaths ; he was specially called on by the fetiales (q.v.) as a witness at the ceremonies connected with treaties of peace. Not only the law of nations, but also the law of hospitality, is under his special protection, and while he causes his blessing to fall on the whole country, he is also the god of good fortune and blessing to the family. His gracious power does not confine itself to the present alone; by means of signs comprehensible to experts, he rceals the future (see Auspicia) and shows his approval or disapproval of a contemplated undertaking. He was worshipped of old on the Alban Hill, by the Latin people, as their ancestral god, under the name of luppiter Ldtiaris (or Ldtidlis) ; at the formation of the Latin league he was honoured as the god of the league by a sacrificial feast, which they all held in common ; even after its dissolution the sacrifice was continued under the super- intendence of the consuls. {See Feri^.) The chief seat of his worship in Rome was the Capitol, where he was honoured as the ideal head of the State, as the Increaser and Preserver of Roman might and power, under the name of luppiter Optimus Maximus (" Best and Greatest "). It was there that his earthenware image was enthroned, with the thunderbolt in its right hand. It stood in the centre of the temple begun by Tar- quinius Superbus, the last of the kings, and finished and dedicated in the first year of the Republic. In the pediment of tlie temple was the quadriga^ the attribute of the god of thunder, while the chambers to the left and right were dedicated to Juno and to Minerva respectively. Here the consuls, at their entry into office and their departure to war, made their solemn vows ; hither came the triumphal procession of the victor, who was clad in the festal garb of the god, and who, before offering to Jupiter the customary thank-offering of white oxen, prayed to his image and placed in his lap the laurel -wreath of victory bound about t\\Q fascSs. Hither poured in, to adorn the temple and to fill its treasures, countless multitudes of costly votive offerings from the State, from generals and private citi- zens, and from forc'gu kings and nations. When, after its existence for 400 years, the ancient temple was destroyed by fire in B.C. 83, it was rebuilt on its original plan but with increased magnificence (b.c. 78). The image of the god was a copy in gold and ivory of the Olympian Zeus {q.v.). The temple was burnt down again a.d. 70, and Vespasian had scarcely restored it when a fresh fire burnt it down A.D. 80, whereupon Domitian in a.d. 82 erected the temple which continued to stand as late as the 9th century. As was natural for the most exalted god of the Roman State, he had the most splendid festivals in his honour. Amongst the greatest of these wore the ludl Romdni, the ludi magni, and the Ivdi plcbeii. {See Games.) Under the Empire the Capitoline Jupiter was recognised as the loftiest representative of the Roman name and State, whose vicegerent on earth was the emperor. As his worship gradually JURISPRUDENCE. 339 spread over the whole empire, he finally became the representative of the pagan world in general. He was often identified with the native gods of the provinces, inclnding the sun-god of HeliSpolis and Doliche in Syria, who, from the 2nd and 3rd centuries a.d., was worshipped far and wide under the name of luppiter lleliopolitanus and Doliclienus. Antoninus built for the former the magnificent temple of Heliopolis, or Baalbec. He was simi- larly identified with various Celtic and German gods, especially those who were worshipped on Alpine mountain-tops as protectors of travellers. As an example of the latter we have luppiter Optimus Maxi- ^nus Pcemnus, whose seat was on the Great St. Bernard. Jurisprudence. The science of law is the one branch of Roman literature which hB,d a purely national development. Fi'ora an early date there were definite legal ordi- nances in Rome, and shortly after the expulsion of the kings a collection of legSs regies was made by a certain Gains Paplrius. These consisted of archaic cus- tomary laws of a strongly sacerdotal char- acter, and arbitrarily attributed to individual kings (known as the lus Pdplridnutn). However, the foundation of the collective legal life of the Romans was primarily the well known law of the T\v'elve Tables, B.C. 451-450. (^ec Twelve Tables.) This put an end to the want of a generally known law ; for the knowledge of previous legal decisions, like the whole of the judicial procedure, had been hitherto kept in the exclusive possession of the patricians. The administration of the law remained as formerly in the hands of the patricians alone, for they kept from the plebeians all knowledge of the dies fasti and nefasti, i.e. the days on which legal proceedings might or might not be taken, as also the forms of pleading which were regularly employed (legis actiones). The latter were so highly important that the least infraction of them would involve the loss of the cause. This condition of things existed for a long time, until Appius Claudius Ccecus drew up a calendar of the days on which causes could be pleaded, and a list of the forms of pleading. These were made public about 304 B.C. by his secretary, Gna?us Flavius. after whom they were then called lus Flavidnum. By these means a knowledge of the law became generally attainable. It soon had eminent repre- sentatives among the plebeians in the persons of Publius Semprdnius Sophus and Tiberius Coruncdnius. In ancient days, however, the work of the jurists was purely practical. It was considered an honourable thing for men learned in the law to allow people to consult them {considere, hence iuris, or iure consulti) either in the Forum or at appointed hours in their own houses, and to give them legal advice (responsa). It was mainly by a kind of oral tradition that the knowledge of law was handed down, as the most eminent jurists allowed younger men to be present at these consultations as listeners {audltores or discipuU). The beginning of literary activity in this depart- ment, as in others, dates from the second Punic War. It begins with the earliest exposition of existing law. Sextus JElius Cdtus published in 204 B.C. a work named Tripertlta (from its being divided into three parts) or lus jElidnum, which consisted of the text of the laws of the Twelve Tables together with interpretations, and the legal formulce for carrying on suits. From the middle of the 2nd century it became common to make collections of the responsa of eminent jurists, and to use them as a source of legal information. Among others, Marcus Porcius Cdto, the son of Cato the Elder, made a collection of this kind. In some families knowledge of the law was in a measure hereditary, as in those of the .^lii, Porcii, Sulpicii, and Mucii. A member of the last family, the pontifex Quintus Mucius Sccevola (died B.C. 82), was the first who, with the aid of the formal precision of the Stoic philosophy, gave a scientific and systematic account of all existing law, in his work, De lure Clvili. Servius Sidpicius Rufus, the contemporary and friend of Cicero, further advanced this new and more methodical treatment of law by his numerous writings and by training up pupils, such as Aulus Ofilius and Publius Alfenus Varus. The former rendered great assistance to Caesar in his scheme for forming the whole of the lus Civile into a single code. Besides these there were several eminent jurists at the close of the Republic: Gains Trebatius Testa, Quintus iElius Tubero, Gains ^lius Gallus, and Aulus Cascellius. While under the Republic the learned jurist had held an inferior position to the orator in influence and importance, there j is no doubt that under the Empire public eloquence became subordinate, and the position of the jurists was the most coveted and influential in the State, especially when 340 JUSTINIANUS JUVENALIS. Augustus decreed that the opinions of jurists authorized by the head of the State were to have the validity of law. It was from the jurists as advisers of the emperor that all legislation now proceeded. They had access to all the highest offices of the court and of the State. Accordingly the men of the highest gifts and character betook themselves naturally to this pro- fession, and even introduced into the laws an increased unity, consistency, and syste- matic order. Under Augustus two jurists were pre-eminent, Quintus Antistius Ldb8d and Gaius Ateius Cdpito, the founders of the two later schools, named, after their pupils Sempronius Proculus and Masurius Sabinus, the Proculidni and Sahlni respec- tively. Labeo sought to extend his pro- fessional knowledge, whilst Capito held fast to the traditions of former jurists. The first scientific collection of laws was made under Hadrian by the Sabinian lawyer Salvius luUanus, with his Edictum Perpetuum^ a classified collection of the praetorian edicts from the times of the Re- public. {See Edictum.) Sextus PompOnius, his somewhat younger contemporary, com- posed amongst other things a history of the law till the time of Hadrian. Under the Antonines jurisprudence was able to claim a remarkable representative in the Asiatic Gaius, but it received its completion and conclusion in the first half of the 3rd century a.d., through .^hnilius Pdpmi(lnus, Domitius Ulpidnus,a.nd lulius Paulus. After their time there were no jurists of gueat and original capacity. In the 4th century literary activity revived again, but confined itself to the collection of legal authorities, especially that of im- perial ordinances. Thus the Codex Theo- ddsldnus, finished in a.d. 438, contains an official record of all the enactments decreed by the emperors from the time of Con- Btantine. Under Justinian I (527-565 a.d.) the last and most complete Roman collection of laws was made, under the name of the Corpus Iiiris Civilis (q.v.). Jnstinlanus. See Corpus Juris Civilis. Justinus. A Latin author, who com- >posed, probably in the 2nd century a.d., lan abstract, still extant, of the Universal *History of Pompeius Trogus {Trogi Pompel Histdridrum Philippicdrum Epitoma). It enjoyed a great reputation in the Middle A.ges. Of the circumstances of his life nothing is known. Justitlum. The term by which the Romans designated a legal vacation, or cessation from business in the courts of justice, in the sittings of the senate, and even in private life, when all the shops were closed. This took place on extraor- dinary occasions, such as famine, or during the perils of war, and, under the Empire, on the death of a member of the imperial family. It was decreed by the highest magistrate present in Rome, subject to the approval of the senate. When the occasion had passed by, it was removed by a special edict on the part of the magistrate. Juturna. An old Latin goddess of foun- tains, sometimes said to have been beloved by Jupiter, from whom she received the dominion over all the rivers and waters of Latium. She is also called the wife of Janus, and by him the mother of Fontus, the god of springs. Vergil makes her the sister of Turnus of Ardea, king of the Rutuli, probably in allusion to a spring named after her in the country between Ardea and Lavlnium. Besides the pond of Juturna in the Forum at Rome, there was also a spring bearing her name in the Campus Martins, the water of which was considered sacred and salutary, and was therefore employed in all sacrificial rites and services, and also used by sick people. On January 11th, the anniversary of the day on which her temple was erected in the Campus Martius by Lutatius Catulus, all workmen engaged on aqueducts and the like celebrated the Juturnalia. As a goddess who dispenses water, she was, together with Vulcan, specially invoked at the break- ing out of fires. [luturna — DlUtui'na.] Juv6nalis {Declmus lunius). The great Roman satirist, born at Aquinum, a town of the Volscians, about 47 a.d. Ac- cording to the accounts of his life which have come down to us, he was the son, either real or adopted, of a wealthy freed- man, and spent the first half of his life in Rome engaged in declamatory exercises, more for pleasure than as a preparation for the Forum or the schools. He continued there until he became a knight. In an in- scription of the time of Domitian he is named as duumvir and as a flamen of Vespasian in his native town, and also as tribune of the first Dalmatian cohort. The command of a cohort is also specified in the accounts already mentioned. According to these he was sent into banishment under the pre- tence of military distinction, because in a satirical composition he had taken the liberty of denouncing the political influence of a favourite comedian of the emperor. J U VENCUS LACONICUM. 341 As to the place and date of his banishment, the accounts vary between Britain and Egypt, and also between the last years of Domitian (against which theory there are weighty objections) and the reigns of either Trajan or Hadrian. In any case he died after 127 a.d., according to one account, in the eighty-second year of his life, or about 130, the cause being grief at his exile. By others he is made to return to Rome before his death. We possess sixteen satires by him, which the grammarians have divided into five books. In these he delineates with moral indignation and with pitiless scorn the universal corruption of society, particularly in the times of Domitian, painting its vices in all their nakedness and ugliness with the most glaring colours. His composition is often concise to the verge of obscurity, and by its strong rhetorical colouring be- trays his earlier studies. In his own day, and afterwards, his satires enjoyed great popularity, and were held in high repute even in the Middle Ages. Owing to his obscurity he early attracted the attention of learned men of old, and we still possess the remains of their industry in a collection of Scholia. [About the life of the poet nothing certain can be really ascertained except from the hints given in his own writings. The biographies which have come down to us must be used with ex- treme caution : and it is not at all certain that the inscription mentioned above refers to him at all.] Juvencus {Gams Vettius AquUius). A Christian Latin poet and a presbyter in Spain. About 330 he composed a poetic version of the gospel narrative {Uistoria EvangeUca) in four books ; he also cast the books of Moses and Joshua [and Judges] into the form and phraseology of the Roman epic poets. This seems to have been the earliest attempt to make the Christian literature rival the pagan in beauty of form, and to supplant and supersede heathen poetry as a means of education. [The epic paraphrase of the Heptateuch is now no longer ascribed to Juvencus, but to Cyprian, not the bishop of Carthage, but a Graul of the 6th century, in all probability the third bishop of Toulon. (The Latin Heptateuch^ critically reviewed by Prof. Mayor, pp. xxxiv-xlii). See Cyprian, 2.] Juventas. The Roman goddess of youth. {See Hebe.) K see Knijhts. See Equites and Hippeis. Labdacus. Son of Polydorus, grandson of Cadmus, and father of Laius {q.v.). Lab6rius {Decimus). The originator and leading representative of the mime {q.v.) as a form of literature; born about 105 B.C. Being a Roman knight with a strong love of freedom, he roused the wrath of the dictator Csesar; accordingly in B.C. 45 the latter compelled him to appear on the stage at the age of sixty, and to compete with his rival Publilius Syrus. In the pro- logue to the piece, one of the most beautiful monuments of Roman literature which have come down to us, Laberius complains bit- terly of the indignity put upon him. His appearing as an actor involved the loss of knightly rank, which in this case, however, was restored to him by Caesar. He died at Puteoli in 43. Apart from the prologue already mentioned, we have only unimpor- tant fragments of more than forty of his mimes These bear witness to the origina- lity of his wit and the vigour of hi« style. Lacema. The Latin term for a coai-se, dark-coloured cloak, fastened on the shoulder by a brooch, which was in use as a protec- tion against rain. It was provided with a hood. In later times the name was given to a light and elegant mantle, either white or dyed in Tyrian purple, which was worn over the toga to complete the costume at games or other outdoor occasions. In the time of Augustus, who forbade its use in the Forum or Circus, it formed part of the military uniform. It was afterwards commonly worn even in Rome itself. Lach6si8 {Greek). One of the three goddesses of fate. {See MffiRiE.) L§,c6niciim. A species of dry sweating- bath, introduced from Greece by the Romans towards the end of the Republic. It was specially used to correct the effects of excessive indulgence at the table, by in- ducing severe perspiration ; at the conclusion of the process it was usual to take either a cold plunge or a shower-bath. The dry M2 LACTANTIUS LAOCOON. sweating-bath was taken in a small, circular room, covered with a cupola, and capable of being raised to a high degree of temperature. Its sole light was admitted through a hole in its vaulted roof. Under this opening there hung on chains a bronze shield {cllpeus\ by elevating and depressing which it was possible to regulate the temperature. Lactantius {Firmlanus). A pupil of AmQbius, summoned by Diocletian to teach rhetoric in the school of Nicomedia in Bithynia. Here he embraced Christianity (before a.d. 303), and in his old age (about 317) he became the teacher, in Gaul, of Crispus, the son of Constantino the Great. He is remarkable above all Christian authors for the purity and smoothness of his style, for which he was indebted to the careful study of Cicero, so much so indeed, as to have earned the title of the Christian Cicero. His great work is the "Intro- duction to Divine Knowledge" (Divince InstitUtiOnes\ in seven books. A poem on the phoenix, in eighty-five couplets, is also ascribed to him ; but this ascription is doubtful. L&cunaria {Ldcudria, LdquSarla). The Latin name for the panelled ceilings of rooms which were formed by placing planks across the beams of the roof, whereby hollow spaces were produced. These spaces were covered with wood or ivory, or ornamented with sculptured reliefs or pictures; occa- sionally they were even gilded or inlaid with plates of gold. [Horace, Odes, ii 18, 1.] In banqueting-rooms they were some- times so formed that the panels could be slipped aside to let flowers, wreaths, and other complimentary presents fall in showers on the guests below. [Suetonius, Nero, 31.] Laddn. The hundred-headed dragon, who watched over the garden of the Hesperides (q.v.) ; the son of Phorcys (or of Typhon) and of Ceto. He was slain by Heracles when he went to fetch the golden apples. Laena. An ancient Roman garment. It was a woollen mantle, fastened by a brooch, of a coarse, shaggy material, twice as thick as an ordinary tdga. Under the Empire it was very generally worn as an outer cloak by all classes of society, especially on going out to supper. Laertes. King of Ithaca, and son of Arci- sius, a son of Zeus. He was the husband of Anticleia and father of Odysseus (q.v.). LaB3trj^g6n6s. In Homer, a race of giants and cannibals dwelling in the distant north, where the nights are so short that the shepherd driving his Hock out meets the shepherd who is driving his flock in. Their city was Telepylus, founded by Lamus. When Odysseus (q.v.) came thei*e on his wanderings, their king was Antiphates. The later Greeks placed the home of the Lsestrygonians in Sicily, to the south of Etna, near the town of Leontini ; the Romans, on the southern coast of Latium, near Eormise. [Homer, Od. x 82, lOG; Thuc, vi 2 ; Cic, Ad Atticum ii 13 ; Horace, Odes iii 16, 34.] {See Painting, fig. 5.) Laevius. A Roman epic and lyric poet. {See Epos and Lyric Poetry.) L&goena, Lagona ; L§,gyn6s. See Vessels. Laius. The son of Labdacus, grandson of Polydorus, and great-grandson of Cadmus* When his gxiardian Lycus was banished or slain by Amphion {q.v.) and Zethus, he fled to Pelops. At the death of the usurpers^ he ascended the throne of his fathers and married JScasta. {See (Edipds.) Lamp^dedrdmla. See Torch-race. Lampridius. One of the Scriptorcs His- toi'ice Augustce {q.v.). Lamps. See Lighting. Lancea. See Legion, near end. L5,nista. The Roman name for a fen- cing-master or trainer of gladiators. {See Gladiatores.) Lantern of Demosthenes. A mediaeval name for the monument of Lysicrates {q.v.). Lanterns. See Lighting^ LAOCOON AND HIS SONS. (Rome, Vatican.) La5c66n. According to the post-Homeric story, a priest of Apollo. He had displeased that god by marrying against his wishes; LAODAMEIA -LARES. 343 and, when the Greeks had departed for a time from Troy, leaving the wooden horse behind them, he again offended, by serving as a priest on the occasion of the sacrifice offered to Poseidon. Accordingly, in the midst of the sacrificial feast, the god sent two serpents who strangled Laocoon and one of his sons. In Vergil's account [JSn. ii 230] Laocoon draws down npon himself the wrath of Athena, not only for warning the Trojans against the guile of the Greeks, but for piercing with a spear the flank of the horse dedicated to the goddess. Whilst he was sacrificing to Poseidon on the beach, Athena caused two snakes to emerge from the sea and strangle the father and both of his sons. This incident has been represented in the famous group of sculpture (see cut), the work of the Rhodian artists Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus, which was found in 1506 amid the ruins of the house of the emperor Titus at Rome. It is now in the Belvedere court of the Vatican Museum. {Comp. Sculpture.) Laodameia. (Lat. -la). The daughter of Acastus, and wife of Protesilaus (q.v.). She was celebrated for her attachment to her husband, whom she followed to death of her own free will. La6m6d6n. Son of Ilus and Eurydice, father of Priam, Tithonus, and Hesione, and king of Ilium. Apollo and Poseidon served him for wages, the former pasturing his flock on Mount Ida, while the latter, either alone or with the help of Apollo and vEacus (q.v.),hm\t the walls of the town. But Laomedon defrauded the gods of the payment that had been agreed upon. Apollo therefore visited the land with a plague, and Poseidon sent a sea-monster, to whom the king was forced to offer his daughter Hesione. Heracles, on his way back from the Amazons, found the maiden chained to a rock in the sea, and he offered to kill the monster if he were given the magic horses which Zeus had bestowed on Tros in exchange for Ganymede, whom he had carried off. Laomedon agreed to this, but again broke his promise. Accor- dingly Heracles (q.v.) subsequently waged war against him, and after capturing the city, slew him and all his sons,except Priam. Laquearia. See Lacunaria. Laquearius. See Gladiatores. Lara. See Mania. Lararium. The shrine of the Ldres (See Lares.) L§,res {i.e. lords). The Latin name for the good spirits of the departed, who even after death continue to be active in bring- ing blessing on their posterity. The origin of the worship of the Lares is traced to the fact that the Romans buried their dead in their own houses, xintil it was forbidden by the laws of the Twelve Tables. Every house had individually a lar fdmilidris, who was the " lord " or tutelary spirit of the family ; his chief care was to prevent its dying out. His image, habited in a toga, * ALTAR OF LABES COMPITALES. (Pompeii.) stood between the two PSndtes, in the lararium or shrine of the Lares, beside the household hearth, which in early days was 344 LARUNDA LEANDER. in the Otnum ; the group as a whole was also commonly called either the Lares or the P^natSs. The ancient Roman and his children saluted it daily with a morning prayer and an offering from the table ; for, after the chief meal was over, a portion of it was laid on the fire on the hearth. When the hearth and the Lares were not in the eating-room, the offering was placed on a special table before the shrine. Regular sacrifices were offered on the calends, nones, and ides of every month and at all important family festivities, such as the birthday of the father of the family, the assumption by a son of the toga virilis, the marriage of a child, or at the reception of a bride, or the return of any member of the family after a long absence. On such occasions the Lares were covered with gar- lands and cakes and honey ; wine and in- cense, and animals, especially swine, were offered up. Out of doors the Lares were also honoured as tutelary divinities, and in the chapels at the cross-ways {complta) there were always two lares compitalSs or vicomim (one for each of the intersecting roads) which were honoured by a popular festival {Compitalia) held four times a year (cp. cut). Augustus added to the Lares the GSnius Augusti, and commanded two regular feasts to be held in honour of these divinities, in the months of May and August. Further, there were Lares belong- ing to the whole city (lares pn-cBstites). They were invoked with the mother of the Lares, also called Lara, Larunda, or Mania iq.v.), and had an ancient altar and temple to themselves in Rome. The Lares were invoked as protectors on a journey, in the country, in war, and, on the sea. In con- trast to these good spirits we havo the Larvce (q.v.). Larunda. See Mania. LarvSB. In Roman belief the Ijarvce, in contrast to the Lares (the good spirits of the departed), were the souls of dead people who could find no rest, either owing to their own guilt, or from having met with some indignity, such as a violent death. They were supposed to wander abroad in the form of dreadful spectres, skeletons, etc., and especially to strike the living with madness. Similar spectres of the night are the LSmHrSe. To expel them from the house, peculiar expiatory rites were held on three days of the year, the 9th, 11th, and 13th of May, the LSmUria, when all the temples were closed, and marriages avoided. Lasus (Gr. Lasos). A Greek dithyrambic poet. (See Dithyrambos.) Latlfandinm. The Latin term for an extensive landed estate which was worked by means of slaves. Lands of the State (see Ager Publicds) taken into permanent use by occupdtlO formed the foundation of these properties, and their possessor enlarged them by obtaining contiguous pro- perty either by purchase or by forcible appropriation. This system of latifundia gradually caused the utter ruin of the Italian peasantry, and involved in it the general destruction of the community [Lati- fundia perdiderB Itdltam, Pliny, N. II., xviii 35]. Litini. The name originally given by the Romans, in the language of constitu- tional law, to those who belonged to the Latin league. At its dissolution, in B.C. 338, they did not receive the right of Roman citizenship, but entered into the condition of dependent socii (q.v.) ; they had a defi- nite precedence over the other socii, pos- sessed the commercium (q.v.), and the right of settlement in Rome, and their attain- ment of the right of citizenship was mate- rially facilitated. They received this when they had once filled any annual public office in their community, or when, on settling in Rome, they left a son behind them in the colony to which they ♦belonged. After the right of citizenship had been given to all the inhabitants of Italy (B.C. 89), this ius Latii, or Latin Right, became useless for Italy ; it was even given by many of the emperors to communities in the provinces, and a.d. 212 all free inhabi- tants of the empire received the right of citizenship. After this time the only Latini remaining were those called the Latini lUniani, slaves who had been in- formally set at liberty, and who were allowed this privilege from the time of Tiberius. Latinns. Son of Faunus and of the Nymph Marica (according to another story, of Her- cules and Fauna, or of Odysseus and Circe). He was king of Latium, and father of Lavlnia, the wife of ^Eneas (q.v.). Latona. See Leto. Lavatrina. See Baths. Lavema. The Roman patroness of thieves. There was an altar dedicated to her at the gate named after her the PoHa Lavernalis. Lavinla. Daughter of Latinus, and wife of jEneas (q.v.). Leander (Gr, LSandrds). A youth of Abydos. on the Hellespont, whose story was LEARCHUS LEGION . 345 very celebrated in ancient times, and was the theme of a minor epic poem by Musseus iq.v.). He was in love with Hero (q.v.), and every night swam across the Hellespont to visit her in her solitary tower at Lesbos. He was guided by a light in the tower, and on its being extinguished in a night of tempest, he lost his life in the waves. When Hero saw his corpse washed up the next morning on the shore, she threw herself down from the tower, and was thus killed. Lgarclius. The son of Athtlmas (q.v.) and Ino. He was killed by his father in a fit of madness. Lectica. See Litters. Lectisternium. A festival of Greek origin, first ordered by the Sibylline books in 399 B.C. It was held on exceptional occa- sions, particularly in times of great distress. Images of the gods (probably portable figures of wood draped with robes, and with their heads made of marble, clay, or wax) were laid on a couch (called the lectus or pulvlnar). A table was placed before them, on which was laid out a meal, always a free-will offering. At the first Lecti- ster'nia, there were three lectl arranged for three pairs of non-Roman divinities ; Apollo and Latona, Heracles and Artemis (Diana), Hermes (Mercurius) and Pfiseidon (Nep- tune). Afterwards, this sacrifice was offered to the six pairs of Roman gods, who cor- responded to the twelve great gods of the Greeks : Jupiter, Juno, Neptune, Minerva, Mars, Venus, Apollo, Diana, Vulcan, Vesta, Mercury, and Ceres. These banquets to the gods generally took place at festivals of prayer and thanksgiving, which were called SuppUcdtlones (q.v.), and were per- formed in the market-places or at appointed temples, in which the arrangements for the purpose were on a permanent footing. It was customary to have connected with this a domestic feast, to which both strangers and friends were invited, and in which even those imprisoned for debt were al- lowed to participate. From the commence- ment of the 3rd century B.C. a banquet was regularly given to the three Capitoline divinities, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, on every 13th of November, in conjunction with the plebeian games. Under the Em- pire the celebration was on the 13th of September, and was associated with the Roman games. From B.C. 196 it was pro- vided by the College of Epuldnes (q.v.). The images of the three gods were decked with curls, anointed, and tricked out with colours. Jupiter was placed reclining on a cushion, with a goddess on each side of him seated on a chair ; and the divinities were invited to a banquet, in which the whole senate participated. LecJ-thus (Gr. lekiithds). An oil-flask. (See Vases and Vessels.) Leda. Daughter of Thestius, and sister of Althgea, and wife of Tyndareos. Ac- cording to Homer it was by Tyndareos that she became the mother of Castor and Pollux (Polydeuces), and also of Clytse- mnestra, while Helen was her daughter by Zeus. Generally, however, Helen and Pollux are described as children of Zeus, Clytsemnestra and Castor as those of Tyn- dareos. According to the later story, Zeus approached Leda in the shape of a swan, and she brought forth two eggs, out of one of which sprang Helen, and out of the other Castor and Pollux. Legati. The Roman term for (1) ambas- sadors who, under the Republic, were chosen by the senate from among the most dis- tinguished senators and provided with in- structions and proper remuneration. On their return they had to hand in a report to the senate. (2) Persons appointed, as above, by the bonate, to accompany the generals and the governors of provinces. Three or more could be appointed, according to the neces- sity of the case. They were of senatorial rank, and were bound to carry out the com- mands of their superior officer, who was responsible for them. In his absence they took his place as legatd pro prontore. Under the Empire this title was also given to those who assisted in the duties of juris- diction and government in the senatorial provinces. On the other hand, the legati Augusti pro prcetore were nominated by the emperor himself, without any specified limii. of time, to act as governors over imperial provinces in which there was an army. They were divided into consular and prcB- torian legati, according as the authority delegated to them extended over several legions or only one. Besides these there were legati legionum, appointed according to the number of the legions. They were men of senatorial rank, and had the com- mand of the several legions, and of the auxiliary troops belonging to them. Legion (L8gio). In the time of Romulus the united armed forces of Rome went by this name. The legion consisted of 300 knights (cSleres) under the command of a tribunus celerum, appointed by the king, S46 LEGION. and 3,000 foot soldiers, under the command of three tribuni milltum. Each of the three ancient tribes provided a third of this force and one tribune. With the increase of the military forces of Rome the name of legio was given to each of the sub-divisions equivalent in numbers to the original army. The military system of king Servius Tul- lius made the infantry the most important part of the military forces, instead of the cavalry as heretofore. The five classes in- cluded in the census (q.v.) were obliged to serve in the army at their own expense ; those who were not comprised in these classes, viz. the proletdrii, were freed from service, and, when they were enlisted, re- ceived their equipment from the State. The iUniorcs, those who were from 17 to 46 years old, were appointed for field service, and the sSmores, those from 47 to 60, for the defence of the city. The first and second lines of the legion, drawn up in unbroken order like the Greek phalanx, consisted of citizens of the first class, equipped with helmet, cuirass, round shield (clipgus), and greaves, all of bronze. The third and fourth lines were from the second class, and had no cuirass, but had the helmet and greaves and large oblong shields (scutum). The fifth and sixth were armed similarly, but without greaves, and were drawn from the third class. The fourth class was armed with the scutum as its only weapon of defence, but, like the others, provided with spear (hasta) and sword. It either filled the seventh and eighth lines, or, with the fifth class, formed the rOrdrii, who opened the battle with slings and other light missiles. An important alteration, ascribed to Camillus (about B.C. 390), was the abolition of the phalanx and introduction of the manipular formation, which prevailed till the time of Marius (end of the 2nd cen- tury B.C.). In the flourishing days of the Repiablic, the normal strength of a legion, which could be increased in time of need, consisted of 300 knights (eqtiUes), and 4,200 foot soldiers (pSdUes). In respect to the weapons used, the latter were divided into four kinds, according to their length of service and familiarity with warfare. (1) 1,200 hastatl, all in early manhood; (2) 1,200 princzpeSf in the full vigour of life ; (3) 600 triaril, who were proved veterans ; and (4) 1,200 velUes, who were lightly armed, and were drawn from the lowest classes of the census. The three first classes had a bronze helmet (cassis) with a lofty plume of feathers, a scutum, a leathern cuirass (lOrlca, q.v.), greaves and a sword (glddtus), which, after the second Punic War was of the Spanish kind, being short, strong, and two-edged, fitted for thrusting rather than cutting, and worn on the right side. There was also a spear, which in the two first divisions was Bupilum (q.v.), and among the triarii a lance [Polyb. vi 23]. The velites were armed with a leather helmet (gdlea)^ a light shield (parma), and a sword and several light javelins. The 3,000 heavily armed men were divided into 30 mdnlpuli, numbering 120 men each among the hastati and principes, and 60 each among the triarii, and were again subdivided into two bodies called centUrice, and led by centu- rions (q.v.). Of the 1,200 vclitcs, 20 were allotted to each century, and they formed the final complement of each maniple. On the field of battle the maniples were drawn up in open order, separated laterally from one another by intervals corresponding to the breadth of each maniple in front. The arrangement of the maniples would thus resemble that of the black squares on a chessboard. They fell into three divisions ; the hastati in the front rank, with the principes behind them, and the triarii in the rear. If the first division, the hastati, were compelled to give way, then the second division, the principes, advanced through the intervals left by the maniples of the first division ; if the principes in their turn had to retreat, then the third division, the triarii, who had been previously kneeling, protected by their shields, allowed the hastati and principes to fall back into the intervals separating the maniples of the triarii, and themselves closing their ranks pressed forward to meet the enemy. The 300 knights of the legion were divided into 10 turmce of 30 men each, and were equipped with a bronze cuirass, leathern greaves, helmet, shield, a long sword for attack- ing, and a long lance provided at both ends with an iron point. Each turma was under three decurions and three under- officers (opti6nBs\ The legion as a whole was under the command of six tribUni mllitum (q.v.) The consular army consisted of two legions. Four legions were regularly levied in each year ; in other words, 16,800 foot soldiers and 1,200 cavalry. This levy of citizens was further swelled by the Italian allies (socU), a body of 20,000 foot soldiers and 3,600 cavalry, thus adding to each of the two consular armies 10,000 foot soldiers LEGION. 347 and 1,800 cavalry. The former were in twenty cohorts (sec Cohors)^ each consist- ing of 420 men. Ten of these cohorts fought on the right wing, and ten on the left wing of the legions. Besides these, four cohorts of 400 men each were formed into a picked body. The cavalry were in six squadrons (see Ala, 1) of 300 men each. Four of these belonged to the main army, and two to the picked body. In wars beyond the limits of Italy there were also auxiliary forces {auxilia), consisting either of soldiers raised in the country where the war was being carried on, or of light-armed troops furnished by allied kings and nations. Besides the ordinary component parts of the legion there was also the bodyguard of the commander-in-chief, the cohors prcetoria. (See Cohors.) In the course of the 1st century B.C. the organization of the legion was essentially altered. In the first place, in the time of Marius, the census ceased to be the basis of the levy, and all the citizens collectively were placed on the same footing in respect Lio their military service and the uniform which they wore. All the soldiers of the legion alike received the heavy equipment and the pilum, while the light-armed velites were done away with. After the right of citizenship had been conferred on the Italian allies, these no longer formed a separate part of the legions, but were in- corporated with them. Thus the Roman army now consisted only of heavy-armed legions and of light-armed auxiliary troops. The latter were partly raised in the pro- vinces and divided into cohorts, and partly enlisted as slingers and archers. The cavalry of the legions ceased to exist. Like the light-armed soldiers, the whole of the cavalry consisted of auxiliary troops, who were partly enlisted and partly levied from the provinces, while some were supplied according to agreement by allied nations and princes. A further important novelty introduced by Marius was the use of the cohort-formation, instead of the maniple- formation, which broke up the front too much. The legion was now divided into ten cohorts, in each of which there were three maniples of hastati, principes, and triarii, designations which now only concern the relative rank of the six centurions of the cohort. The customary battle array was in three divisions, the first being formed of four cohorts, and the second and third of three each. Again, while in earlier times the obligation of service extended at the most in the infantry to twenty campaigns and in the cavalry to ten, from the days of Marius the soldier remained uninter- ruptedly for twenty years with the army ; an earlier dismissal being only exceptional. For this reason the well-to-do classes sought to withdraw themselves from the general military service, and it thus came to pass that the legions were for the greater part manned by means of conscriptions from the lowest strata of the burgher population of Italy, in which the service was regarded simply as a means of livelihood. Thus from the original army of citizens there was gradually developed a standing army of mei-cenaries. Under the Empire we find what is really a standing army, bound to the emperor by oath (see Sacramentuji) ; apart from the legions this army consisted of the auxilia (q.v.), the guards stationed in Rome and the neighbourhood (see Pr^e- TORiANi), and the city-cohorts (see Cohors), the artillery and the corps of workmen (see Fabri), the marines (see Classiarii), and the municipal and provincial militia. The legions are now once more provided with a corps of cavalry 120 strong, and are designated not only by numbers, but also by distinctive names. Together with the auxiliary troops they form the garrison of the imperatorial provinces under the com- mand of the imperatorial ISgdti legtomim (see Legati), whose place was taken in the middle of the 3rd century by the prcefecti legionum (see Pr^fecti). The strength of the legion now amounted to 5-6,000 men, raised partly by a regular levy, partly by drawing recruits from the Roman citizens of all the provinces beyond the bounds of Italj^^. As under the Republic, it was divided into 10 cohorts of 6 centuries each ; the first cohort was, however, twice the strength of the remainder. It was not until the second half of the 3rd century A.d. that a new division of the 10 cohorts into 55 centuries came into use, with 10 centuries in the first cohort, and 5 in each of the rest. At the death of Augustus, the number of the legions was 25 ; it was then increased to 30, and this number was main- tained until the end of the 2nd century, when three new legions were added by Soptimius Severus. From the beginning of the 4th century it gradually rose to about 175, each of them, however, mustering a considerably smaller contingent. In course of time, and especially after the 2nd century, owing to the conflicts with the barbarians, the legion was drawn up more and more 348 LEITOURGIA. after the manner of the Greek phalanx, without intervals in its line and with a division of troops in its rear. In its equip- ment there was an important alteration beginning with the second half of the 3rd century, when ail the soldiers of the legion carried long swords {spdtha>\ and the first five cohorts two yila, one larger and another smaller, while the last five had lancece, or javelins serving as missiles, and fitted with a leather loop to help in hurling them with precision. The military music of the Romans was provided by tublcines {see Tuba), cornlcines {see Cornicen), huclnatOres {see Bucina), and lUicines {see LiTUUS, 2). On standards or ensigns, see Signdm and Vexillum. On levy, oath of allegiance, pay, and discharge from service, see Dilectus, Sacramentum, Stipendidm, and Missio. The accompany- ing cut (from the Column of Trajan) repre- sents the soldiers of a legion on the march, ROMAN LEGIONARIES ON THE MAUCH. (Relief from the Column of Trajan, Rome.) carrying their helmets close to the right shoulder, and their kit at the top of a pole resting on the left. Leitourgia {i.e. " service performed for the public "). A term applied at Athens to either an ordinary or extraordinary service, which the State imposed on its wealthier citizens in accordance with a regular rota- tion. The ordinainj services, which citizens whose property amounted to more than three talents [£600] were required to per- form, are : (1) the Chor^gin, the most ex- pensive service of this kind, involving the equipment of a chorus (q.v.) for its musical competitions at public festivals, which were accompanied by theatrical and musical per- formances. (2) The Gymndsiarchia, which I imposed the obligation of training in the I Gymnasia the competitors for the gymnastic j contests, supplying them with proper diet while they were in training, and providing ! at the games themselves for the requisite I arrangement and decoration of the scene of I the contest. The most expensive type of this form of service was the lampddarchia, I the equipment of the torch race {q.v.), which ' in one instance [recorded in Lysias Or. ! 21 § 3] cost twelve mince [£40]. (3) The ' ArchUhSOna, or superintendence of the sacred embassies {theorim) sent to the four great national festivals, or to Delos and other holy places. In this case the State contributed part of the expense. There were other leitourgiai confined to the separate tribes and demes, such as the entertainment of members of the clan on festal occasions. The most expensive of all was the extraordinary leitourgia called the trler- arcMa, which was necessary only [or rather mainly] in times of war. This involved the equipment of a ship of war, and was required of the wealthiest citizens only. Before the Persian Wars the equipment of the forty-eight to fifty ships of the Athenian navy of that time devolved on the naucrdrice {q.v.). When the number of the fleet was increased, the necessary number of trierarchs was nominated in each year by the strdtegl. The State provided the vessel, i.e. the hull and mast ; and every trierarch had to fit out this vessel with the necessary equip- ment, to keep it in readiness for the year, and to man it with a complete crew of oarsmen and others. The State supplied pay and provision for the crew, though the sum paid did not always suffice for the purpose ; it afterwards supplied the furni- ture of the vessel also. To lighten the expense, which amounted to between forty nnnce and a talent (£133-£200), it became allowable, about 411 B.C., for two persons to share it. Afterwards, in 358, twenty symmdrioi (q.v.) were instituted, i.e. com- panies consisting of sixty citizens each, with a committee of the 300 wealthiest citizens at their head ; the 300 distributed the expense over the individual symniorioi in such sort that the cost of a single trireme was shared by a greater or less number of citizens. Lastly, about B.C. 340, the inci- LEMURES LETTERS. 349 dence of the burden was regulated by a law introduced by Demosthenes, whereby all citizens, with the exception of the poorer classes, bore the expense in proportion to their property. Thus property [or rather, taxable capital] amounting to ten talents imposed the obligation of equipping one vessel, twenty talents two vessels, and so on. Those who had less than ten talents were to club together and to make up that amount among them. The time of service lasted, as has been already steted, for one year. On its expiration, the trierarch, who had looked after the vessel, was responsible to the Ldgistce {q.v.) for the condition of the vessel, and had to hand in his account of the expenditure of the sums paid by the State, * GANYMEDE AND THE EAGLE. (Rome, Vatican Museum.) Another board, the epimeletai of the neorid (the inspectors of the dockyards), super- intended the regular fulfilment of the duties of the trierarchs, and were armed for this purpose with compulsory powers. No one was compelled to undertake more than one leitourgia at the same time, or two in two immediately successive years. The only persons exempt from the trierarchy were the archons, unmarried " heiresses," and orphans up to the end of the first year after they had come of age. The obligation to see that the leitourgia was discharged in each particular case fell on the tribe concerned. If any one considered that ho had been unfairly chosen for this duty, and a wealthier person passed over, he could resort to the form of challenge to exchange properties known as the antiddsis {q.v.), [Cp. Introduction to Demosthenes, Adv. Leptinein, ed. Sandys, pp. ii-xviii.] L6mures. Ghosts. (See Larv^.) Lenaea. A festival in honour of DJonysus. {See DioNYSiA, 3). L66cha,res. A Greek sculptor, of Athens, who (about 350 B.C.) was engaged with Scopas in the adornment of the Mausoleum (q.v.) of Halicarnassus. One of his most famous works was the bronze group of Ganymede and the Eagle, a work remark- able for its ingenious composition, which boldly ventures to the verge of what is allowed by the laws of sculpture, and also for its charming treatment of the youthful form as it soars into the air. It is ap- parently imitated in the well-known marble group in the Vatican {see cut). Lernaean Hydra. See Heracles. Lesbonax. A Greek rhetorician who lived early in the 1st century of our era. He composed political declamations on imaginary topics. Two of these have come down to us, exhorting the Athenians in the Peloponnesian War to be bold in battle against the Thebans and the Spartans. Lethe (" the river of oblivion "). A river of Hades {q.v.), out of which the souls of the departed drink oblivion of all their early existence. Leto (Lat. Ldtona). Daughter of the Titan CoBus and Phoebe. According to Hesiod [Thcog. 406], she was the "dark-robed and ever mild and gentle " wife of Zeus, before he was wedded to Hera, and the mother of Apollo and Artemis. According to a later legend she is only the mistress of Zeus after he is wedded to Hera ; when about to give birth to her children, she is pursued from land to land till at last she finds rest on the desolate island of Ortygia (DelSs), which, up to that time, had floated on the sea, but was thereafter fixed firmly on four pillars of adamant. As mother of Apollo and Artemis, she dwells in Olympus. Her devoted children exact vengeance for her on Niobe {q.v.). The giant Tityus, for attempting to offer violence to her, is punished for evermore in the world below. She is for the most part worshipped in conjunction with Apollo and Artemis. Letters. Letters were written on tablets {see Diptychon) or small rolls of papyrus, the address being put on the outside. They 360 LEUCOTHEA LIBRARIES. were tied up with a thread, and the knot was sealed with wax. In wealthy Roman families special slaves or freedmen {ab P.pistulls) were kept for writing the corre- .epondence, and carrying the letters : the latter were called tabclldril. Leuc6th6a. The name of the deified Ino. Lexiarchs (Gr. lexiarchoi). At Athens, B. board of six members, who, with thirty assistants, saw that only properly qualified persons attended meetings of the ecclSsia. "They also entered young citizens on the list of their deme when they came of age. Libinius, A Greek rhetorician of Antioch in Syria, born 314 a.d. His education was (begun in his native city and completed at Athens, where he became a public teacher .at the early age of 25. Called from Athens to Constantinople in 340^ he met with ■extraordinary success; at the same time he excited the envy of his rivals, whose •slanders led to his expulsion in 342. After being actively engaged for five years as a public teacher in Nic5media in Bithynia, he was recalled to Constantinople, where he was again remarkably popular, but found himself compelled by the continued per- secutions of his detractors to leave the capital once more in 353. He withdrew to his native city of Antioch, where he was for many years actively employed in the exercise of his profession and in promoting the interests of his fellow citizens ; but even here he was much persecuted by his ■opponents. Apart from bodily sufferings caused by his being struck by a flash of lightning, his old age was saddened by the •decline of learning and the fall of paganism, Avliich he had foreseen would follow the lamented death of his admirer and patron, .Julian. He died about 393, honovired and admired by his pupils, among whom were included Christians such as Basil the Great •and John Chrysostom; for, although he was enthusiastically devoted to the old religion, he was so tolerant in his relations to the adherents of Christianity, that he imparted his instructions to Christians and pagans alike. He himself gives us infor- mation about his life and work in a series of letters and in a speech " on his own for- tune," written in his sixtieth year, but com- pleted at a later date. He was conspicuous among his contemporaries, not only for his comprehensive culture and intellectual ability, but also for his productivity. We still possess sixty-seven of his speeches, the majority of which refer to the events of his iime, and materially add to our knowledge of them ; also fifty declamations ; a consider- able series of rhetorical exercises of various kinds, among them narratives, sketches of character and descriptions of works of art (some of them important in connexion with the history of ancient art), and also argu- ments to the speeches of Demosthenes. We have further about 2,000 letters addressed to friends, pupils, rhetoricians, scholars, statesmen, etc., which give us a vivid picture of his times. A fourth part of them, however, only exist in a Latin translation, and some of them are of doubtful genuine- ness. Indeed many of the writings that bear his name do not really belong to him. His style, which is formed on the best Attic models, is pure and has a certain elegance, although it is not always free from the affected and unnatural mannerism of his age. Libfir. The Italian god of wine, identified with the Greek Dionysus (q.v.). Lib6r§,. The wife of the Italian wine-god Liber ; identified with the Greek. Per sSphone. {See Dionysus, last par.) Lib6ralia. The Roman festival of tho wine-god Liber. {See Dionysus.) Libertas. Among the Romans, the per- sonification of Liberty ; she had a temple on the Aventine. Her name was also given to the AtHum Libertdtis, a place of public business which served, amongst other pur- poses, as an office of the censors. After it had been burnt down un^er Augustus, it was rebuilt by Asinius Pollio, and the first public library in Rome was established within its walls. On coins Libertas is re- presented as a beautiful and richly adorned matron. At the end of the Republic, after the assassination of Caesar, she appears with a dagger and a cap of Liberty {see Pilleus and coin under Brutus). Liberti, Libertini. Sec Freedmen. Libitina. An ancient Italian goddess of voluptuous delight and of gardens, vine- yards, and vintages, originally connected with Venus, and therefore often called Venus Libitina. She was ako regarded as the goddess of death and of the departed, and was therefore afterwards identified with Proserpina. By an ancient ordinance, ascribed originally to Servius Tullus, for every person who died in Rome a piece of money was deposited in her temple. Every- thing requisite for burials was kept there, and had to be bought or borrowed from it. Libraries. In the earlier times libraries, among the Greeks, were only possessed by private individuals, such as Euripides, Aristotle, and Theophrastus. Tradition LIBRAIUUS LIGHTING. 361 attributed the establishment of a public library at Athens to Pisistratus in the 6th century B.C. This was said to liave been carried oft' by Xerxes, and afterwards restored by the Syrian Seleucus Nicanor. The greatest library known in antiquity was that founded by the first Ptolemy at Alexandria, which is said to have contained 400,000 volumes. Next to this, the most important was that of the kings of Per- gamon, said to have contained 200,000 volumes. This library was presented by Marcus Antonius to Cleopatra, when the best part of the library at the Museum of Alexandria was burnt down at the taking of the town by Csesar. There was a second library at Alexandria in the Serapeum, The first libraries which were formed at Rome were Greek, as, for instance, those of iEmilius Paullus, Sulla, and Lucullus, who had brought them to Rome as booty after their wars in Macedonia, Athens, and Asia Minor. From the middle of the last century of the Republic it became the fashion in wealthy families to form libraries ; in country houses, especially, they were regarded as indispensable. Csesar had formed the plan of founding a public library in Rome, and of setting Varro to make a collection of Greek and Latin books. The first public library of Greek and Latin books was actually set up in the time of Augustus by Asinius Pollio in the dtrlum of Libertas. Augustus him- self founded two more, the Octavian library in the portico of Octavia, and the Palatine in the temple of the Palatine Apollo. The most celebrated of those founded by the later emperors was the byblidtheca ULpia of Trajan. In the later imperial period there wei-e twenty-eight public libraries in Rome. There were some very considerable private collections, for instance, that of Serenus Sammonicus, the tutor of Gordian, which consisted of 62,000 volumes. 1,700 rolls have been found in a library discovered during the excavations at Herculaneum. Librarius. The Latin name for a book- f5eller. {See Books and Book-trade.) Liburna. A kind of light war-vessel, with two banks of oars and of little draught. Its shape was long and narrow, pointed at both ends. The pattern was taken by the Romans from the Liburnians, a piratical tribe on the Dalmatic coast. {See Ships.) Lichas. The attendant of Heracles (q.v.), who brought him from Deianira the poisoned garment, and was hurled by him into the sea, where his body became a rock. Licinius Macer. See Annalists. Lictors (Lictores). Attendants who bore the fasces {q.v.) before Roman magistrates who had a right to these insignia. They were generally freedmen, and formed in Rome a corps consisting of three dScUrice under ten presidents. Prom these decuria;, the first of which was exclusively reserved for the consuls, the magistrates in office drew their lictors, while the provincial office-bearers nominated their own for their term of power. There was besides another decuria of thirty lictores cUrtdtl to attend on the public sacrifices, to summon the comitta curiata, and, when these meetings became little more than formal, to repre- sent in them the thirty curice / from this decuria probably were also chosen the lictors of the fldmen didlis and of the Vestals. It was the duty of the lictors to accompany the magistrate continually, whenever he appeared in public. On these occasions they marched before him in single file, last in order and immediately preceding him being the lictor proxtmus, who was supci-ior in rank. All passers by, with the exception of matrons and Vestals, were warned by the lictors to stand aside and make due obeisance. The space required for official purposes was kept clear by them. Sentences of punishment were also executed by them. Their dress corresponded to that of the magistrate ; inside the city the tdga, outside, and in a triumph, the red military cloak. Lighthouse. See Pharos. Lighting. In the earliest times the rooms of the Greeks were lighted by means of pans filled with dried chips of logs, and strips of resinous wood, or long deal staves tied together with bands of bast, and the like. In later times torches were made of metal or clay cases filled with resinous sub- stances. Or again, wooden staves dipped in pitch, resin, or wax were tied close together and inclosed in a metal casing, inserted in a saucer to catch the ashes and drops of resin. These torches were either carried by a handle under the saucer, or had a long shaft and a stand to set them up on. Resinous torches were in use among the Romans also, in early and later times. They used besides a dry wick of linen or oakum dipped in wax or tallow. Oil lamps, however, were no sooner invented than they became the most general medium of illumination among both Greeks and Romans. The lamp consisted of two parts *. (1) A saucer for the oil, sometimes round, 852 LINUS. sometimes oval, sometimes angular, with a hole in the top for poui'ing in the oil, often shut with a lid. (2) The wick-holder, a projecting socket (Gr. myxa; Lat. rostrum). (1 and 2) greek terracotta lamps. (Stackelberg's GrSher der Hellenen, taf . lii.) Sometimes there was a second hole on the surface of the oil-vessel, through which the wick could be pushed up by means of a needle. If the lamp was to be carried, it images of gods, stories from mythology, scenes of warlike and domestic life, of the circus and the amphitheatre, animals, arabesques, etc. (fig. 3). Some lamps are themselves formed in the shape of gods, men, or objects of different kinds (e.g. fig. 3, 6, i). The bronze lamps are specially dis- tinguished by elegance and variety. The opening through which the oil was poured in being small, they had vials specially made for the purpose, with thin necks and a narrow mouth. Special instruments were made for trimming and pulling up the wick • little tongs, or hooked pins, wliich were sometimes fastened by a chain to the handle. No method of preventing the smoking of the lamps was known to the ancients. Lanterns were made of ti'ans- (3) nOMAN T-AMPg. Qnhl and Koner, fig. 460. o MiiFeo Borbonico. IV Iviii ; /, g, h, i, ib VI xlvii, xxx ; b, c, d, e, I, m, Passeriiis, Lucern(B fietiles, I 30, 27, IT 6, I fi, f 1 29, 96; fc, Bellori, Antiche Lucerne. had a handle ; if to be hung up, it was furnished with one or more ears, to which chains were attached. There were lamps with two, three, four, and sometimes as many as twenty wicks; these were hung up on the roof or set up on a high stand. The material of ancient lamps was clay, mostly of the red sort, and the maniifacture of claj^ lamps formed a principal branch of Italian pottery. (Greek lamps of this material are represented in figs. 1, 2.) The next in frequency is bronze ; it is not so common to find lamps of other metals, alabaster or glass. The numerous Roman lamps still preserved generally exhibit ornaments in relief of the most various kinds on the surface and on the handle : parent materials, such as horn, oiled linen, and bladders : the use of glass came in later. (See also Candelabrum.) Linus (Gr. Lmds). A hero representing probably a god of the old Greek nature- worship ; his death, symbolic of the flag- ging vegetation during the heat of the dog-days, was hymned in widely known laments. The lament for Linus is men- tioned as early as Homer [II. xviii 570]. In Argos an ancient festival of Linus was long continued. Here he was said to be the son of Apollo and the princess PsamSithe. Born in secret and exposed by his mother tlie child grew up at a shepherd's among the lambs, until torn in pieces by dogs. Psamathe, however, on the news of what LINUS LITERATUEE (GREEK). 353 had happened, was put to death by her lather. Apollo in wrath sent against the land a monster in female form, named Poine. By this monster mothers were robbed of their children, nor were the Argives freed from the curse until, by the bidding of the oracle, they appeased Apollo by building a temple, and establishing an expiatory fes- tival in honour of the boy and his mother. This was celebrated in the dog-days, in what was hence called the " Month of Lambs," as the "Feast of hnmhs ' ^ (Arneis) or the " Slaying of Dogs " {Cynophontis) , whereat lambs were sacrificed, and the dogs which ran about free were slain, while women and children lamented Linus and Psamathe in mournful songs. In other places, e.g. in Thebes, on Helicon, and on Olympus, Linus, as son of Amphimarus and the Muse Urania, was known as a minstrel, the inventor of the Linus-song, who met with an early death, and whose grave was pointed out in different places. He was said to have challenged Apollo to a contest, and for that reason to have been .slain by the god. On Helicon, the mountain of the Muses, his statue was placed in a grotto, where year by year, before the sacrifice to the Muses, a sacrifice for the dead was offered up to him. In later times he was described as the teacher of Heracles, who, when reprimanded, slew him with the lyre. Lions, Gate of, at Mycenae. See Archi- rECTURE, fig. 2. Litai. See Ate. Literature (general view). Greek Literature. Period I. From Homer to the time of the Persian Wars. (900-500 B.C.) The first efforts of Greek poetry, which were made in the mother-country in Europe, and of which we have only legendary tra- dition, received their earliest artistic form in the Ionian colonies in Asia Minor. Here was developed first of all the Heroic Epos. In the great poems which bear the name of Homer, and are the oldest monuments of Greek literature (about 900 B.C.), we find epic poetry already in a stage of perfection never subsequently attained. As an Ionic school of poets (the Cyclic poets) attached itself to Homer, so in Greece itself, the Boeotian Hesiod (about 800 B.C.), with his didactic and genealogical epics, became the founder of the Boeotian School. The last epic writer of note in this period is PIsander of Camlrus (about 640 B.C.). Elegiac and D. C. A. iambic poetry, like epic, owe their origin to the lonians, the former represented by CallInus (about 700 b.c), Tyrt^us (about 680), MiMNERMUS (about 600), SOlOn (died 559), Theognis (died about 500), and SImo- nIdes of Ceos (died 468); the latter by ArchIlOchus (about 700), Simonides of Amorgus (about 650), and Hipponax (about 540 B.C.). The true lyric or melic poetry was developed after the ^olian Terpander (about 675 B.C.) had originated the classical Greek music. Among the ^olians in Lesbos it assumed the form of a strophic poem, and among the Peloponnesian Dorians of a choric song, composed of strophe, antistrophS^ and Spodds. The great masters of the ^olian school of lyric poetry are the Lesbians Algous and Sappho (about 600 b.c), and the Ionian Anacreon (about 530 B.C.) ; an echo of the ^olian lyric poetry remained, when it was already silent in its native home, in what were called Scdltd. The de- velopment of the choral form of lyric poetry, which soon spread over the whole of Greece, is marked by Alcman (about 660), StesI- ch5rus (about 600), and Ibycus (about 540). Its perfection was reached in the time of the Persian War by Simonides of Ceos, mentioned above, and Pindar (died 442). From the dithyramb (a perversion of the choral lyric, which was given artistic form by ArIon, about 600 B.C.) was developed in Attica, from the second half of the 6th cen- tury onwards, the drama with its three divi- sions, tragedy, comedy, and satyric play. As poetry developed itself first among the lonians, so also did prose, which had its beginning about the middle of the 6th cen- tury, in the era of the Seven Sages. At this time -S]sop created in prose the fables about animals known by his name, and Phere- CYDEs of Syros composed the earliest prose work. The subject of this was philosophical. Philosophy was actually founded, on the one hand, by Thales of Miletus (died about 550), AnaxImander (died 547), and AnaxI- MENES (died 502), the founders of the Ionic school ; on the other hand, by PythagOras of Samos (died 504 B.C.), who established his philosophy in Magna Grsecia. At the same time the first attempts at historical composition were made in Ionia by writers vvhom we know as the Ldgogrdphl. Period II. The Attic Era. (500-300 B.C.) The wonderful impulse which the whole life of the Greek nation received from the Persian Wars showed itself in no place with A A 354 LITERATUEE (GREEK). greater force than at Athens, which, under the guidance of Pericles in particular, became the centre of all intellectual effort. In poetic literature the first place was now taken by the Attic drama, which reached its highest level and maintained it until the close of the 5 th century. Tragedy was represented by JiIschylus (died 456), SOphOcles (died 405), and EurIpIdes (died 405); what is known as old or political comedy by CratInus, EupOlis, and Aris- TdPHANES (died about 388 B.C.). While in the 4th century tragedy followed prac- tically the traditional path, the poets of the Middle Comedy, at the head of which stand AntIphanes and Alexis, found themselves compelled to turn their attention more and more away from public life, which had formed the subject of the older comic writers. Einally the New Comedy (probably from 330 on) under DIphIlus, PhIlemon, and Menander (died 290) took completely the form of a comedy of manners. The other branches of poetry were almost entirely thrown into the shade. Didactic poetry received important con- tributions about the beginning of this period from the Eleatic philosophers XSnOphanes (died about 470) and ParmenIdes (died about 450) ; also from EmpedOcles (died about 430 B.C.). The attempts of Panyasis (died about 450) and of AntImachus (about 400) to revive the heroic Epos, and that of Ch(ErIlus to found the historic, were fruit- less. The elegy attained still less of inde- pendent importance than epic poetry. Lyric poetry had, besides Simonides and Pindar, whose career extends into this period, an eminent exponent in BacchylIdes (about 450 B.C.) ; in later times, the only class of melic composition which showed any vitality was the dithyramb, under the new form of melodrama, in which PhIlOxenus (died 380) and TImotheus (died 357 B.C.) especially distinguished themselves. In the domain of prose the Ionic dialect held undisputed mastery at the beginning of this period : in it were composed the works of the philosophers HeraclItus (died about 475), Anaxag6ras (died about 428), and Dem6crItds (died about 370) , besides those of Her6d6tus (died about 424) the " Father of History," the first to give an.artistic form to prose-narrative, and HippGcrates (died about 377 B.C.) the founder of medical science. In Attic, the dialect of Athens, which was to become the general language of prose, the greatest influence on the artistic development of prose style was exerted by the Sophists, especially Pro- tagoras and GorgIas. The stimulus which they gave was turned to the account of practical oratory first by AntIphon (died 411), the pioneer of the " Ten Attic Orators." He was followed by AndOcIdes (died 344) ; LysIas (died 360), the first really classical orator; IsOcrates (died 338), the father of rhetoric as an art ; Is^us (died 350) ; Demosthenes (died 332 B.C.), who repre- sents the most perfect form of Attic oratory, with ^scHlNfis, HyperIdes, Lycurgus, and DiNARCHUS, his contemporaries. While, on the one hand, it was only in the time of the decline of Greek freedom that Attic oratory reached its highest point (from which, after Demosthenes, it soon declined), in Attic his- torical composition, on the contrary, there stands at the very beginning an achieve- ment never paralleled by Greek literature in this line— the History of ThucydIdes (died not later than 396). After him the most noteworthy representatives of this department are, for this period, his fellow countryman XenophOn (died about 350), and his vounger contemporaries TheOpompus and EphOrus, neither of whom was of Attic origin, though both of them were pupils of Isocrates. In philosophy Athens won a leading position through Socrates (died 399). Of his numerous pupils (Euclides, Aristippus, Antisthenes, Xenophon), Plato (died 348 B.C.) was the founder of the Academic school, and both as philosopher and as prose-writer did ever-memorable service. The same is true of Plato's pupil Aristotle (died 322), the founder of the Peripatetic school, whose literary activity extended over the most widely different branches of knowledge. Outside the domain of philo- sophy he made a marked advance in his con- tributions to the natural sciences. He was followed by a succession of pupils, who made further progress in the separate departments of science. The5phrastus (died 287), foi example, did much for the natural sciences, especially botany, Arist5xenus (about 330) for music, DiCiEARCHUS (about 320 B.C.) for geography. To the close of this period belong the philosophers Pyrrho (died about 275), Zeno (about 300), and EpIcurus (died 268 B.C.), the founders of the Sceptic, Stoic, and Epicurean schools respectively. Period III. The Alexandrian Era. (300-30 B.C.) After the downfall of Greek liberty, Athens remained the city of philosophers; LITERATURE (GREEK). 355 but Alexandria became the true intellectual capital of the Hellenic world and the head- quarters of its erudition. This it owed to its position as metropolis of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, and to the encourage- ment given by the Ptolemies to scientific studies, especially by the establishment of the great Library and of the Museum. The great achievements of the earlier periods were the genuine outcome of the national spirit; but, when the nation no longer existed, literature became more and more the business of the learned, so that even poetry assumed a pedantic dress. As re- gards poetry, at the beginning of this period the New Comedy still existed and endured for a time, but then expired. Tragedy also enjoyed a brief after-glow, in the poets of what is known as the Alexandrine Pleiad. Scarcely anything is known of lyric poets from this period, whereas epic poetry was again taken up and both its branches found numerous followers. The first, or narrative, branch took the form of short epic tales by CallImachus (died about 240), ApollonIus Rh5dius (died about 190), Rhiands (about 230 B.C.). /The poets of the other, or didactic, branch, Aratus (about 270), Nicandek (about 150 B.C.), and others, eagerly devoted themselves to popularising less known branches of knowledge (astronomy, medi- cine, etc.). A new field for epic poetry was even dis- covered during this period, in the bucolic or pastoral poems, which were native to Sicily, and were given artistic form by TheocrItus (about 270 B.C.). In elegiac poetry good service was done, especially by Callimachus, mentioned above, the true founder of the erotic elegy. The same may be said of Epigrams. In the department of prose the Alexan- drine epoch evinced astounding fertility, but form was for the most part neglected. Of the numerous historians of this time, the earlier of whom mostly described the deeds of Alexander the Grreat, e.g. Clitarchus {about 300), the most noteworthy are TiMiEUS (died 256) and P6lybIus (died 122). Besides history itself, its various subsidiary sciences were eagerly cultivated ; lor example, geography and chronology, which received from Eratosthenes (died about 195) their scientific form, and the latter of which especially was further de- veloped by Apoll6dorus (about 140 B.C.). Literary criticism grew into an independent science and flourished under the scholars of Alexandria and Pergamus, as Zen5d5tus (about 275), Arist6phanes of Byzantium (died about 185), Crates (about 170), but above all Aristarchus (died about 153 B.C.). Considerable progress was also made in the exact sciences, in mathematics by EuCLlDES (Euclid, about 300) and ArchI- MEDES (died 212), in astronomy by Eratos- thenes, just mentioned, and especially by HiPPARCHUS (died about 125 B.C.) who established astronomy as a science. Simi- larly the science of medicine attained great perfection in Alexandria, in particular under HerOphIlus and Erasistratds. In philosophy also great literary activity was shown by the various schools, without, how- ever, much speculative progress. Practical oratory existed only in certain free com- munities of Asia and in Rhodes, nor had it any literary importance. On the other hand the science of rhetoric received a great impettas about the end of the 2nd century, chiefly by the services of Her- MAG5RAS (about 120 B.C.). Period IV. The Roman Era. (30 B.C. to 529 A.D.) (30 B.C.) All the Greek provinces of Europe, Asia, and Africa became incorporated in the Roman Empire. Thus to the centres of learn- ing which had hitherto existed in Athens and Alexandria, was added a new centre in Rome, the capital of the world. Greek scholars of every kind flocked from every quarter to Rome. Nor did they only stimulate the rising intellect of Rome, but themselves received much intellectual ad- vantage. Whereas Roman literature after the end of the 1st century a.d. was sinking rapidly and inevitably to its decline, Greek literature received a fresh start from the favour shown to it by the emperors of the 2nd century. It received a further impetus by the contest — the unavailing contest — against Christianity, the victory of which conflned Hellenism within ever narrower limits, until its destruction was sealed by the emperor Justinian, when, in 529, he closed the pagan schools in Athens, their last refuge. Poetry takes a subordinate position in this epoch. The Epigram alone remained in constant use, and during this period much good work was done in this line. Didactic poetry is represented chiefly by Oppian (2nd century), and the fabulist Babrius (beginning of 3rd century ?) nar- rative epic by Quintus Smtrn^US (4th century ?), and the Egyptian NoNNUS (5th century) the founder of a school of his 356 LITERATURE (GREEK). own, to which, besides TryphI5dorus and CoLLYTHUS, belongs the charming Mus^us, In prose, history had numerous repre- sentatives ; e.g. DIodorus and DIOnysIus of Hallcarnassus, who both belong to the be- ginning of this period, Plutarch, Arrian, and Appian in the 2nd century, Dio Cas- sius and Herodian in the 3rd, ZosImds in the 5th, and others. In geography impor- tant work was done by Strabo (about 20 a.d.) and Pt5l£my (about 150 a.d.). The latter's contemporary, PausanIas, did meri- torious work in a narrower sphere. Pto- lemy's services to geography were equalled by his services to astronomy, of which, as of the other exact sciences, Alexandria was che headquarters. Among mathematical writers, Theon, NicOmachus, DI6phantus, and Pappus must be mentioned ; of physi- cians DioscOrIdes, Soranus, and above all Galen (second half of 2nd century). In " grammar," which was now more and more confining itself to the subject of language, the Alexandrines Apollonius DyscSlus and his son Herodian (2nd century) are conspicuous. Among the numerous authors of compilations, Athen^us (about 2(X)), and Stob^us (about 500) are the most meritorious. To rhetoric valuable service was rendered in this period. The revival of rhetoric after the standard of the Attic orators was the aim of Dionysius of Hali- carnassus (already mentioned). The most important work in this department was done by HermSgenes (2nd century). Gram- matical and rhetorical studies were favoured by the direction taken from the beginning of the 2nd century by the later sophistical dchool. This school aimed at attaining the masterly command of prose expression as shown in its fairest form by the Attic orators, and that in very different spheres, but mainly in oratory. The chief repre- sentatives of this tendency in its period of greatest vigour, the 2nd century, are Dio Chrysoitom, ^lius AristIdes, Lucian, and ^lian; in the 3rd, PhIlostratus ; in the 4th, HiMERius, LIbanius, the emperor Julian, Themistius, Synesius. Among the peculiar products of this time may be men- tioned the fictitious letters, written especially by AlcIphron (2nd century) and Arist^- NETUS (5th century), and the love romances of XenOphon of Ephesus, HelIOdorus, LoNGUs, Achilles Tatius, and CharIton. Philosophy in the first two centuries of the imperial times moves on the whole in its old channels and has a generally popular character, as in the writings of Plutarch, Arrian, and Galen, who have already been mentioned under other branches, of Sextus EmpIrIcus, the emperor Marcus Aurelius, and others. A new and final departure was taken by philosophy from the 3rd century onwards in Neo-platonism, founded by Plotinus, and carried on chiefly bv PoRPHYRlus, IamblIchus, and Pr6clus. Roman Literature. Period I. Archaic Literature. Frovi Livius Andronicus to Cicero. (240-80 B.C.) Poetry. Although many beginnings had been made by the Romans from which a national poetry might have been developed, for instance, ritual hymns, songs in praise of ancestors, dramatic dialogues of rude fun and rough wit (see Fescennini), yet the national mind had shown little aptitude for intellectual interests, and so was unable to complete this development and create an independent poetic literature. Instead of this, Roman poetry formed itself entirely upon Greek poetry, which had already been perfected in all its main branches. And although the first kind of literature to be introduced into Rome was the drama — pre- cisely that kind which marked the culmi- nating point of poetical composition — this was not due to any intellectual cravings on the part of the Romans, but to the fact that in this particular branch there existed a point of contact. For a considerable time past the diversions offered to the populace at the public games had included a dramatic representation, in place of which dramas modelled after Greek types were successfully substituted. This attempt was first made by Livius AndrSnIcus, a Greek from Southern Italy, who, from 240 B.C. onwards, brought on the stage tragedies and comedies formed on Greek originals. He also kindled an interest in epic poetry by translating the Odyssey of Homer into the national metre, the Saturnian verse. Livius was soon succeeded, both in dramatic and epic poetry by others, who carried on what he had begun. It shows, however, how little root poetry really had in the life of the people, that for a long time the poets,^ like Livius himself, were foreigners and received little consideration for their per- formances. In tragedy the poets who succeeded him confined themselves to the adaptation of Greek dramas ; in the prce- texta, which treated Roman materials in the Greek dramatic form, only solitary attempts. LITERATURE (ROMAN). 357 wore made by the chief Roman tragedians of the Republic, Ennius (died 170), Pacu- vius (died 130), Accids (died about 100). They had been introduced by N^>vius, who was a prolific writer of tragedies, and still more of comedies, from 235 B.C. onwards. The reproduction of Greek originals in the form of comedies, which were known as palliatce, is best represented by Pladtus (died 184), C^c!lius (died 166), and Ter- ence (died 158 B.C.). This also soon passed over into the representation of Roman life under Greek forms, cmnoedice togatce ; and, after pallidtce had ceased to be written, these attained greater perfection under Afranius (second half of 2nd century B.C.). Towards the end of this period a popular farce, the Atellana, received artistic form from PoMPONius and Novius. It was fol- lowed, probably about 50 B.C., by the mlmus, also originating in popular buffoonery, as treated by Laberius and PublIlids Syrus. N^vius endeavoured to give a national direction to epic as well as to tragic poetry, by his poem on the first Punic War, written in Saturnian verse. This attempt was crowned with success ; for, with un- important exceptions, the epic poems of the whole period were directed to the cele- bration of the achievements of Rome. His immediate successor Ennius took Homer as his model ; he introduced the Greek hexa- meter, and became in consequence the founder of the classic Roman epic. In this period also the only peculiar creation of Roman poetry, the satire, was initiated by Ennius ; but its form and spirit were materially changed by LuciLlus (died about 108 B.C.). The only complete monuments of the archaic poetry of Rome that are still extant are the comedies of Plautus and Terence. While the literary poetry of Rome was thus founded and developed by writers of foreign extraction, prose owes its literary origin to a native Roman ; although con- siderably influenced by Greek models, it was mainly developed by the Romans them- selves. The most important monument of prose composition which the Romans in- herited from ancient times was the Laics of the Twelve Tables (451 B.C.), the foundati9n of the Roman legal system. When the Romans, about 200 B.C., first attempted to write history, their own tongue appeared to them so ill-adapted for the purpose that they used Greek.^ The creator of literary * Dionysius, Ant. Horn, i 6, mentions Fabins as one of the historians who had written in Grreek prose-Latin was the well-known Cato (died 149). He employed his mother- tongue for the most diverse varieties of prose writing, — history, speeches, and learned treatises of every kind. From his time onwards there was much activity in the provinces both of history and oratory. The most numerous class of historical writers, called, from their mode of treating the subject, the Annalists, did not succeed, however, in making any substantial progress in the art of history. Oratory, on the other hand, thanks to the constant practice provided by public life, and the influence of Greek rhetoric, which was becoming daily of greater importance, made important progress, especially as re- pre.sented by Gaius Gracchus (died 121), Crassus (died 91), and Antonius (died 81 B.C.) Jurisprudence was the only science which was independently developed by the Romans ; but literary criticism, as well as rhetoric, both introduced by Greeks about the latter half of the 2nd century B.C., were cultivated, — the former even by men of note, as for example tElius StIlo. Gate's book on husbandry, and (at the end of this period) the treatise on rhetoric often ascribed to Cornificius, are the only monu^ ments of the prose literature of this time which have come down to us entire. Period II. Classical Literature. From Cicero to the death of Augustvs. (80 B.C. to 14 A.b.) This is known as the golden age of Roman literature. The first place in the earlier half of the period, i.e. down to the fall of the Republic, is taken by oratory. This attained its highest perfection in the hands of Cicero and his rival orators, HoR- TENSius, C^SAR, and others. Cicero is the creator of classical prose : his supremacy was not confined to oratorical compositions, but was maintained in his dissertations on rhetoric and philosophy. By the latter he laid the foundations of Roman philosophical literature, which however remained entirely dependent on Greek models. History was conspicuously represented by C^:SAR (died 44) and Sallust (died 36 B.C.), the first great Roman historians, beside whom Cor- nelius Nepos only deserves mention for his on the early legends of Rome ; but Cicero always spsaks of him with Cato as exemplifying the bald- ness of early Latin prose. In the De Divinatione i 43, he refers to the Graci Annales of Fabius Pictor, which does not necessarily or naturally mean " annals written in Greek."— Prof. Nettle- ship's Essays, p. 340. 358 LITERATURE (ROMAN). attempt to bring foreign history also into the field. Varro (died 27 B.C.), the most productive of Roman authors, laboured in the most diverse paths: his writings on grammar, on literary subjects, and on anti- quities were admired for centuries. Poetry was entirely thrown in the shade by prose. Dramatic poetry is only repre- sented by the mlmns, which imitated the license of the capital and was now, as has been stated, elaborated into literature. The Sdturce Menippece of the above-mentioned Van'O and the didactic philosophical poem of Lucretius (died 55) are of conspicuous merit. The latter still maintained the style modelled on Homer by Ennius ; but, beside this, a new departure in epic poetry now appeared. The learned and polished Alex- andrine Greek poets were the models for this, of which a solitary specimen is extant in an epylVtum of Catullus (died about 54 B.C.), the Spithdldimum of Peleus and Thetis. He is perhaps the most richly endowed of Roman poets, and is the first conspicuous writer of Latin lyrics. Lyric poetry was the most alien to the Roman character, and was only beginning to make its way about this time in the forms of iambic poetry, epigrams, and elegiacs. For these too the Alexandrine poets are the type. After the downfall of the Republic, in proportion as public life sank into the background, the interest of the educated classes was in- creasingly absorbed in literary efforts which were favoured in every way by the emperor Augustus himself, and by men of eminence like Maecenas, Messalla, and Asinius Pollio. {See Recitations.) As political events caused oratory and his- tory to recede into the background, the first place in literature was again taken by poetry, which in the time of Augustus attained its highest point in the emulous attempts of the poets to reach Greek perfection in form. The most prominent poetic writers of this age are : Vergil (died 19 B.C.), who, begin- ing with imitations of the bucolic poetry of Theocritus, surpassed the Greeks in didactic poetry, and in his ^neid fashioned for the Romans a national epic; Horace (died 8 B.C.), who gave new life to the satiric poetry of Lucilius, and naturalized in Rome the metrical forms of the ^olic odes ; and the elegiac writers, TIbullus (died 19 B.C.), Pr6pertius (died 15 B.C.), and Ovid (died 17 A.D.). The last-named also applied his perfection of form to didactic poetry with brilliant results. Dramatic poetry alone failed to prosper, as the popular interest was entirely absorbed by the Pantdmlmiis, which, with its gorgeous displays, was just coming into being. Meanwhile, in the realm of prose com- position, the most brilliant contribution of this time is the work of Livy (died 17 A.D.) which comprised the complete history of Rome. Beside him may be mentioned Poi^iPEius Trogus, the compiler of the first Latin universal history. Under the Empire, oratory lost day by day its political importance, and in practice was confined to the senatorial debates, which were entirely under imperial guidance, and to civil law- suits. Its natural field now became the schools of the rhetoricians, in which it sank to mere flowery declamation. A living picture of the proceedings in them at this time is given by the descriptions of the ELDER Seneca, which were not reduced to writing till the following period (he died about 37 A.D.). After poetry most interest was taken in criticism, in which Verrius Placcus and HygInus achieved the most important results. Of the practical sciences, geography was advanced by the mensura- tion of the Roman empire accomplished by Agrippa, and the edifices erected by Augus- tus gave rise to the instructive work of ViTRUVius on architecture (about 15 B.C.). Period III. The Silver Age. From Tiberius to the death of Trajan. (14^117 A.D.) Under the influence of the schools of rhetoric (which had become one of the most important means of education), both the poetic and the prose literature of this epoch show a tendency to the rhetorical and declamatory style. Both alike en- deavour to produce effect by what is interesting and novel, rather than to give pleasure by elegance and taste. Poetry became rhetorical and prose poetic, A goodly array of poetic works has come down to us from this period. Epic is re- presented in its didactic branch by Ger- manIcus (died 19 a.d.) and the poets whom we know as ManIlIus and liUClLlus (Scrip- tor jEtnce about 75 a.d.) ; in its historic, by LuCAN (died 65) and SIlIus ItalIcus (died 101) ; in its heroic, by Valerius Placcus (died about 90) and StatIus (died 96 a.d.), who is also the most eminent lyric writer. Bucolic poetry is represented by Calpur- Nlus SiciJLUS (about 55 a.d.). The satiric poetry of Horace was continued by PersTus (died 62) and .Tuvenal (died about 130). LITTERATOR LITTERS. 359 A new kind of literature, in the form of poetic fables, was introduced into literature byPn.EDRUS (died about 40), and Martial (died 102 A,D.) elaborated the epigram as {in independent branch of poetry. The tragedies of Seneca (died 65 a.d.) are not intended for the stage, on which mimes and pantomimes alone bore sway, but are simply declamatory exercises. The most important prose writers of the time are the same Seneca, who composed numerous philoso- phical treatises ; PetronIus (died 67) with his satirical novel ; the elder Pliny (died 79) with his gigantic Natural History ; QuiNTiLiAN (died about 118), who, in his InstUutlo Ordtorla, sought to cause a re- action to the old models' in oratory ; the great historian TacItus (died about 120) ; and the younger Pliny (died about 114 A.D.) with his Letters and the Panegyric on Trajan, the pattern of the later Pane- gyrics. Beside these must be mentioned the writers of research, Velleids Pater- CULUS and Valerius MaxImus (both about 30), CuRTius RuFUS (about 40), ProntInus (died about 104), who was also an active contributor to technical literature, the geo- grapher PoMPONius Mela (about 40), the physicians Celsus (about 30) and SCRI- BONius Largus (about 45), the writer on \xusbandry Columella (about 65), the grammarian Remmius Pal^emon (about 50), the textual critic Pr6bus (about 65), and the commentator AscOnids PEoiANUS (died 88 A.D.). Period IV. The Literature in its Decline. From Hadrian (117 A.D.) to the Qth century. Of the numerous poets of this period only a few, and those belonging to the later time, are of special interest ; e.g. AdsOnius (4th century), Claudian, Namatianus, Dracon- tIus (5th century). In prose literature, from the time of Hadrian, jurisprudence takes a prominent position. It was mainly represented by GrAius, Papinian, Ulpian, and Paulus (2nd to 3rd century), and a magnificent completion was given to their labouis by the Corpus luris Clvllis com- piled under Justinian I (6th century). Among the historians the most noteworthy are SuetonIus (2nd century), who was also the compiler of numerous writings on archseology, literary criticism, and gram- mar, which were no less eagerly read by subsequent generations than Varro's ; and Amm!anus MarcellInus (4th century). The rest, such as FlOrus (2nd century), the Scriptores Histdrla AugtbstoR (3rd and 4th centuries). Justin, Aurelius Victor, EutrQpius, etc., are only epitomizers. From the 4th century onwards the influence of Christianity made itself felt in this sub- ject, as with SulpIcius and Orosius. In the 2nd century Fronto gave a new direc- tion to oratory by reverting to the writers of the archaic era. In this he was followed by the rhetorician ApuleIus, the writer of a humorous and fanciful novel of character, one of the most interesting products of the period. Gaul was from the end of the 3rd century the headquarters of oratory, in which the panegyric style predominates, as in the collection called the Panegyricl Ldtlnl, and in Symmachus (end of 4th century), who, as well as SId5nIus ApollI- naris (5th century), is also known by his letters. Besides Suetonius already named, grammar found numerous votaries, who were, however, more remarkable as zealoxis compilers than as original investigators. Gellius (2nd century). Nonius (3rd cen- tury), Donatus, CharIsius, DICmSdes, Servius (4th century), MacrObius (5th cen- tury), and Priscian (about 500 a.d.) may be cited. Works on the educational curri- culum were written by Martianus Capella (5th century) and CassI6dorus (6th cen- tury). The above-mentioned Apuleius and also B6eth!us (6th century) are worthy of mention as philosophic writers. As repre- sentatives of other subjects may be adduced Censorinus (3rd century) and FirmIcus Maternus (4th century) for astrology ; VegetIus Renatus (4th century) for tac- tics ; Palladius (4th century) for husban- dry ; C-ELius AuRELiANUS and Marcellus EmpIrIcus (5th century), for medicine. Litterator. The Roman designation of an elementary instructor (see Education, 2). Litt6ratuSo The Roman term for the teacher who imparted the higher branches of knowledge (Suetonius, De Grammaticis, §§ 4, 12). Litters, in ancient Greece, were for the most part used only for the conveyance of sick people and women ; in other cases their use was regarded as a luxury. Among the Romans they appear to have first come into vogue along with the other luxuries of Asia after the victory over the Syrian king, Antiochus the Great (B.C. 190). They were used principally in the country and upon journeys. As in Greece, so in Rome, where driving was only exceptionally allowed {see Chariots, 2), their use was at first confined to invalids and women; but when men 3G0 LITURGY LIVIUS. also began to use them in the town, they formed in the first instance a privilege of certain classes, until in the course of the imperial time they came into general use. Two kinds were distinguished: (1) the lectlca, resembling a palanquin, adapted for lying down : this was a framework spanned by girths and with a bolster and pillow ; and (2) the sella, a sedan chair, for one or two persons, which was used par- ticularly by the emperors and consuldres. Both kinds were provided with an arched covering, which could be closed up, even at the sides, by means of curtains or windows made of thin plates of talc [lapis specu- lar is, Juv. iv 21, iii 242]. The litter was carried upon poles, which were either low and therefore hung in straps, or else rested upon the shoulders of the bearers, who were two, four, six, and even eight, according to its size. In distinguished houses special slaves (Jiectlcarii) of particularly powerful bodily frame, in later times especiallj' Cappa- docians, were kept for this purpose ; these used to wear a red livery. For those who could not afford the expense of a private litter, there were also hack-litters. In the later imperial time a litter called a hasterna came into fashion, which was carried by two mules in shafts before and behind. Liturgia. Sec Leitourgia. Liiuus. (1) The Roman term for augur's wand. It was a staff hooked at the upper end ; with it the augur marked out the sacred region (tevipluni) for the observation of birds (see cut and cp. Augdres). (2) The signal-trumpet of the cavalry, bent at the lower end ; it was blown by the llticen, and emitted a clear, shrill note {cp. Tuba). Livins. (1) Llvlus Andronlcus, the foun- der of Roman epic and dramatic poetry. He was by birth a Greek of Southern Italy, and was brought as a slave to Rome, after the conquest of Tarentum in 272 B.C., while still of tender age. His master, a Livius, whose name he bears, gave him his liberty, and he imparted instruction in the Greek and Latin languages. This employment probably gave occasion for his translation of the Homeric Odyssey into Saturnian metre; in spite of its imperfections, this remained a school-book in Rome for cen- turies. In 240 B.C. he brought on the Roman stage the first di-ama composed after a Greek model, and with such success that thenceforward dramatic poetry was the AN AUGUR 8 WAND. well established in Rome. According td ancient custom he appeared as an actor in his own pieces. His dramatic compositions, tragedies, and comedies were faithful but undoubtedly imperfect translations of Greek originals. He attempted lyric poetry also, for he was commissioned by the State to write a march in honour of lUnd Reglna, Scanty remains of his works are all that have come down to us. (2) Titus Livius, the celebrated Roman historian, was born at PatSvium (59 B.C.), apparently of good family. He was care- fully educated, and betook himself early (certainly before 31 B.C.) to Rome, where he soon became acquainted with the most dis- tinguished men of the time. Even Augustus entertained friendly relations towards him in spite of his openly expressed republican convictions, for which he called him a partisan of Pompey. He does not seem to have taken public ofiSce, but to have lived exclusively for literature. Esteemed by his contemporaries, he died in his native town in 17 a.d. He must have begun his great historical work between 27 and 25 B.C.; it can only have been completed shortly before his death, as he did not publish the first twenty-one books until after the death of Augustus (14 A.D.). He recounts the history of Rome in 142 books> extending from the foundation of the city (whence the title Ah Urhe Condita lihrl) to the death of Drusus (9 a.d.). His own death must have prevented its continuation to the death of Augustus, as he doubtless proposed. He published his work from time to time, in separate parts. He arranged his material — at least for the first ninety books — as far as possible in decads (portions consisting of ten books), and half-decads ; the division into decads was however first carried through in the 5th century, prob- ably for convenience of handling so vast a series of books. There still remain only the first decad (to 293 B.C.), the third, fourth, and half of the fifth decad (218- 167) ; of the remainder, with the exception of a fairly large portion of book 91, only inconsiderable fragments. We also possess from an unknown pen, summaries (periocha:) of all the books except 136 and 137, and a scanty extract from the account of the portents (prddigia), which appeared in 249 B.C. and following year; this is by a certain lulius Obsequens, and perhaps dates from the 4th century. Livy's importance rests more on the magnitude of his patriotic undertaking and LOCHAGOS LOGOGRAPHI. 861 the style of his narrative than upon his thoroughness as a historic inquirer. His preliminary studies were inadequate, and his knowledge of Roman law, and still more of the military system of Rome, was in- sufficient. He was content to select what seemed to him the most probable and reasonable statement from the authorities which happened to be familiar and acces- sible to him, without regard to completeness, and without severely scrutinising their value, — a method which necessarily led to numerous inaccuracies and serious errors. Primarily, his great aim was not critical research into the history of his country. He desired rather by a lively and brilliant narrative, which should satisfy the more exacting taste of the time, to rekindle the flagging patriotism of his countrymen, and to raise his politically and socially degraded contemporaries to the level of their ances- tors' exploits. And his narrative in fact deserves the fullest admiration, especially for its descriptions of events and the actors in them, and for the speeches which are inserted in the work. The latter show his rhetorical training in all its brilliance. His language is choice and tasteful, although in details it marks a decline from the strictly classical standard. Asinius Pollio, in allusion to the author's birth- place, charged it with a certain pdtdvi- nitas. This can only mean a provincial departure from the peculiar language of the metropolis, which is to us no longer perceptible. Livy's work enjoyed the greatest renown down to the latest days of Roman literature, and has been the great mine of information for knowledge of the past to all succeeding generations. LSchagds (Greek). The commander of a Idchds (q.Vo). L6ch6s. The Greek designation of a body of foot soldiers. Among the Spartans, it denoted in early times the largest divisions into which the whole population capable of bearing arms was grouped. Each of these [according to Thucydides v 68, cp. 66] com- prised four pentecostyes of four Snomotice each [an ewomoi^a containing on an average thirty-two men]. The name also denoted the individuals comprised therein ; later, [Xenophon, Rep. Lac. ii 4], it was the name of the four sub-divisions of a mora (q.v.). In Greek mercenary troops, a lochos was a company of 100 men under a separate commander. Several of these companies were united under the superior command of a strdtegos {q.v.). Logeidn (" speaking-place "), see Theatre Logistae ("auditors of accounts"). The name given at Athens to a board consisting originally of thirty, subsequently of ten members, who, in conjunction with another board, the ten euthynl, and their twenty assessors, received from magistrates, at the expiry of their term of office, the accounts of their administration, {See EuTHYNA.) This was especially important with those magistrates through whose hands public money passed. Both boards were originally chosen by show of hands ; later by lot. One member was elected from each phyle, the assessors of the euthyni were appointed by free choice. The logistce were the supreme authority to whom out- going magistrates submitted their accounts. The euthyni examined the several details, notified, when necessary, those who were liable, and returned the accounts to the logistce with a report on their merits. Magistrates who had nothing to do with public money only gave an assurance to the logistce that they had received and paid nothing. If the accounts were approved, and no charge was brought after the public proclamation by the logistce, they gave the magistrate his discharge. In the other alternative they referred the case to a court of justice in which they were themselves presidents. The prosecution was entrusted to ten synegori or counsel for the State^ who were chosen by lot and sat with the logistce. The final decision rested with the Heliastic court. {See Heli^a.) L6g6graphi (Gr. logdgrdphoi, i.e. writers in prose). The name given to the oldest Greek historians, who by their first at- tempts at disquisitions in prose marked the transition from narrative poetry to prose history. As in the case of epic poetry, so these earliest historical writings emanated from Ionia, where the first attempts at an exposition of philosophic reflexions in prose were made at about the same time by Pherecydes, Anaximander, and Anaximenes ; and, in both cases alike, it was the Ionic dialect that was used. This class of writ- ing long preserved in its language the poetic character which it inherited from its origin in the epic narrative. It was only by degrees that it approached the tone of true prose. It confined itself absolutely to the simple telling of its story, which was largely made up of family and local traditions. It never classified its materials from a more elevated point of view, or scrutinised them with critical acumen. The 362 LONGINUS LOVE. logographers flourished from about 550 B.C. down to the Persian Wars. Their latest representatives extend, however, down to the time of the Peloponnesian War. When true history arose with HerSdotus, they soon lapsed into oblivion, whence they were rescued in Alexandrian days. Many of the works ascribed to them were however believed to be spurious, or at least inter- polated. We possess fragments only of a few. The larger number of the historic writers who are described as logographers were Asiatic Greeks, e.g. Cadmus of Mile- tus, author of a history of the founding of Miletus and the colonization of Ionia (he lived about 540 B.C., and was considered the first writer of historic prose) ; further, DidNYSlus of Miletus, a writer of Persian history, Hecat^us {q.v.) of Miletus (550- 476), Xanthus of Sardis (about 496), a writer of Lydian history, HellanICUS (q.v.) of Lesbos (about 480-400), Charon of Lara- psS,cus (about 456), a compiler of Persian history and annals of his native town, Phere- CYDES of the Carian island LgrSs (died about 400 B.C.), who lived at Athens, and in his great collection of myths in ten books treated chiefly of the early days of Attica. Some belonged to the colonies in the West, e.g. HiPPYS of Rhegium, at the time of the Persian War the oldest writer on Sicily and Italy. The only representative from Greece itself is AcusIlaus of Argos in Boeotia, the author of a genealogical work. Longinns (Cassius). A Greek rhetorician, born at Athens about 213 A.D., who studied Neoplatonism at Alexandria, and practised as teacher of philosophy, grammar [i.e. literary criticism], and rhetoric, in his native city, from about 260, until the accomplished queen Zen6bla of Palmyra summoned him as minister to her court. As he persuaded her to resist the Roman yoke, the emperor Aurelian caused him to be executed after Zenobia's overthrow in 273. He possessed such an extent of learn- ing, that Eunapius called him a living library and a walking museum. His ver- satility is proved by compositions on philo- sophy, grammar, rhetoric, chronology, and literature. Of these, only fragments are extant, for example, the introduction to a commentary on Hephsestlon's handbook of metres, and a short Rhetoric incomplete at the beginning. A brief treatise On the Sublime, commonly ascribed to him, is more probably to be assigned to an unknown writer about the Christian era. It treats and illustrates by classic examples the characteristics of the lofty style from a philosophical and aesthetic point of view. It is written in a vigorous manner. Longns, who probably lived in the 3rd century A.D., was the author of a Greek pastoral romance, Daphnis and Chide, in four books. It is considered the best of all ancient romances which have come down to us, on account of its deep and natural feeling, its grace of narrative, and the com- parative purity and ease of the language. It has often been imitated by Italian, French, German, and English writers. [The rare translation by John Day of the French version of Amyot was reprinted in 1890.] Lorica. (1) The leathern corselet of the Roman legionary. It consisted of thongs (lora) of shoe-leather faced with metal. These were fastened one upon another in such a way that they formed a covering for the body with two shoulder-pieces. Below the latter a plate of iron 9^ inches square, was placed over the region of the heart ROMAN LEGIONARY WEARING THE LOBICA. (Arch of SeveruR.) (see cut). Of the early citizen-soldiers, the more wealthy wore also coats of chain- armour {lorica hdmdta), and corselets oi' mail (lorica squdmdta), in which the joints were further covered with metal plates ; the latter were also worn by the praetorians in imperial times. (2) The breastworks on walls and on redoubts. Lot, Election by. See Officials. Lotdph^gi (i.e. Lotus-eaters). A people on the north coast of Africa, mentioned as early as Homer [Od. ix 84]. They lived on the fruit of the lotus. {Cp. Odysseus.) Love, God of, .see Eros ; Goddess of, sec Aphrodite and Venus. LUCAN - LUCIAN. 363 Lucan {Marcus AnncBUs Lucdnus). A Roman poet, born 39 a.d. at Cordova in Spain. He was grandson of Seneca the rhe- torician, and nephew of Seneca the philo- sopher. He was brought up in Rome from the first year of his age, and excited atten- tion at an early date by his rhetorical and poetic powers. On the recommendation of his uncle, Nero conferred on him the quses- torship while yet under the legal age, and admitted him to favour. The applause however which his poems received soon aroused the jealousy of the emperor, who was particularly conceited about his own poetic abilities. Accordingly he was for- bidden for the future to recite his poems in public, or to appear on the platform. This inspired the poet with such animosity that he took part in Piso's conspiracy. When it was detected, he sought at first to save himself by the most abject en- treaties, by denouncing his fellow con- spirators, and even by falsely accusing his mother Acilia. Being nevertheless con- demned to die, he himself caused his veins to be opened, and thus perished (65 a.d.). Of his numerous compositions, the Phar- sdlia, an unfinished epic in ten books, is extant. It is an account of the civil war between Csesar and Pompey, extending beyond the battle of Pharsalus and down to the capture of Alexandria. It main- tains such strict chronological order and exactitude of detail, that it was a ques- tion after his death whether he deserved to be reckoned a poet at all. [Petronius 118 and, at a later date, Servius, Ad .^En. i 382. Cp. Dryden's preface to Annus Mirabilis, quoted in Heitland's Introd. to Lucan, ed. Haskins, p. xix.] Lucan represents himself in his poem as an enthusiastic lover of the lost days of liberty, and in that capacity extols Pompey, to the unjust disparagement of Caesar. His narrative displays some talent, but also an inability to give his materials a more than merely outward poetical form. It is more- over turgid, rhetorical to a degree, and its pathos smacks of declamation. Remains of the literary activity which made him its object in olden times are extant in two col- lections of scholia. Liic6res. One of the three old patrician tribes in Rome. {See Patricians.) Lucerna (a lamp). See Lighting. Lucian (Or. Loukmnds). One of the most interesting of Greek writers, born about 120 A.D. at SamosSta, on the Euphrates in Syria. Owing to the poverty of his parents, he was apprenticed to a stonemason ; but, thanks to his irresistible eagerness for higher culture, contrived to devote himseli to the art of rhetoric. After practising for some time as an advocate, he traversed Greece, Italy, and Southern Gaul in the guise of a sophist, and gained wealth and renown by his public declamations. In his fortieth year he removed to Athens, to devote himself to the study of philo- sophy, and attached himself closely to the Stoic Demonax. In his old age the state of his finances compelled him once more to travel as a professional orator. At last, when far advanced in years, he was given an important and influential post in the administration of justice in Egypt , this he seems to have retained till death. Under his name we still possess more than eighty works (including three col- lections of seventy-one shorter dialogues). Twenty of these are, however, either cer- tainly spurious or of doubtful authenticit}'-. Thej' date from every period of his life, the best and cleverest from the time of his sojourn in Athens. They fall into two classes, rhetorical and satirical. Of the latter the majority are in dramatic form, recalling in dialogue and outward dress the Old Comedy, of which Lucian had a thorough knowledge, and to which his genius was closely akin. These writings present an admirable picture of the ten- dencies and the absurdities of the time. In the field of religion, he directed his mockery (especially in the Dialogues of the Gods) against the tenets of the popu- lar religion, the artificial revival of which was attempted in the time of Hadrian and the Antonines. He further attacked the popular conceptions of life after death in the Dialogues of the Dead. He assails with special bitterness the superstitions which had penetrated from the East, among which he reckons, it is true, Chris- tianity, but without any real knowledge of its nature. In Peregrmus Proteus^ he attacks mystical enthusiasm ; in Alexander, or the Prophet of Lies, the impostors and oracle-mongers who preyed upon the super- stition of the time, which he portrays in a masterly style in his Lover of Lies and his Trtie Stories {Veroi Histdrtce). Another object of his satiric lance was the current philosophy, in which he had sought relief when sated with rhetoric. He had only found in it, however, a petrified dogmatism, a passion for strife and disputation, with the most absolute contradiction between 864 LUCILIUS LUCRETIUS. theoretical teaching and the practice of life. This was true even of the Stoics, and still more of the Cynics, whose meanness and love of pleasure, which they concealed tinder a pretended absence of personal wants, he is never weary of deriding. Especially instructive for his attitude towards philosophy and his general view of life are the Auction of Philosophers, the Fisheii7ian (with his defence of the latter), and Charon, or the Spectator of the Wwld. All these are works of marked ability. The last named is a brilliant exposition, from his negative point of view, of the vanity of all human existence. He even exposes his own class, the Sophists, for attempting to conceal their miserable poverty of intellect by their bold readiness of tongue, and by their patchwork of fragmentary quotations borrowed from the writers of antiquity. In fact, there is scarcely a side of the literary and social life of the time that he does not attack in its weak points, confin- ing himself, however, for the most part to demonstrating what ought not to be, with- out showing how the existing evils were to be cured. To sit in judgment on the false culture and want of taste in his contem- poraries, he was certainly fitted above all others ; for, apart from a wide range of knowledge, he possessed keen observation, and an unusual measure of wit and humour. He had moreover an extraordinary gift of invention, remarkable aptitude for vivid delineation of character, and a singular grace and elegance. In spite of his Syrian origin, his zealous study of the best models gave him a purity of language which for his time is remarkable. LtLcilins. (1) Gains Lucilius, founder of Roman satire, was probably born 180 B.C. at Suessa Aurunca in Campania, of a dis- tinguished and wealthy Latin equestrian family. He afterwards settled in Rome, where his Latin origin excluded him from a political career. Owing partly however to his excellent education, partly to his family connexions (being Pompey's grand- uncle on the mother's side), he was on friendly terms with the most distinguished men. In particular, he lived with the younger Scipio and his friend Lselius in thp closest intimacy. He accompanied the for- mer during the Numantine War, and died in Naples, 103 B.C. — His satires, in thirty books, were much esteemed in the time of the Republic and later. We possess numerous but inconsiderable fragments, from which, however, can be gathered their original position in the general scheme of his work. Each book certainly contained a number of separate poems which, at least in books xxvi-xxx (the first written and published), were composed, like the satires of Ennius, in various metres. In most of the books, however, only a single metre was used, by far the most common being the dactylic hexameter (bks. i-xx and xxx), which from Horace's time became the ordinary metro for satire. The contents of the satires were exceedingly varied : all occurrences of political, social, and learned life were brought by him within the range of his discussion. He even touched upon his own experiences and his studies on literary, anti- quarian, grammatical, and orthographical questions. His severest censure and most pitiless mockery were directed, not only against the vices and absurdities of tho time in general, but also against particular individuals without any respect of persons. On the other hand, true merit received his warmest praise. His satires must have given, on the whole, a true and lively pic- ture of the time. On metrical form and oa style he does not seem to have set much store ; it is apparently only in its metrical setting that his language differs from the daily tone of educated circles. To the lattei' we may also probably ascribe the incorpora- tion of so many fragments of Greek. Hlz writings early became an object of study to the learned of Rome, and they also remained models to subsequent satirists, especially Horace. (2) Lucilius Junior, friend of the philo- sopher Seneca, is supposed by a common but not improbable assumption to be the authorof jEtna, a didactic poem in 645 hexameters, Suetonius, in his life of Vergil, says oi that poet, Scripsit etiam de qua amhigltur jEtnam. It treats of Etna and its wonders, and was composed before the eruption or Vesuvius in 79 a.d. Lucina. The Roman title of Juno (g.v.) as the goddess of light and of child-birth ; later also of Diana in similar acceptation. Lucretius Carus (Titus). A Roman poet, born at Rome about 98 B.C. and died by his own hand, in 55. He composed for his f^-iend Memmius, the orator and poet, a didactic poem in hexameter verse concern- ing the nature of things [De Rerum NatUra) in six books. The teaching of Epicurus forms the main subject, the example of EmpedScles prescribed the poetic form, and the mode of treatment was modelled on Ennius. The ostensible object of the work LUDI LUSTRUM. 365 is to prove by a profound investigation of the world of nature that all comes to be, exists, and perishes by eternal law, without any interference of supernatural powers, and hence to set men free from their fearful torture, terror, and superstition. . The first elements of all existence are the imperish- able atoms which move in infinite space (book i). By union of these come into ex- istence not only the material world (ii), but also soul and spirit, which consequently perish as soon as a dissolution of the atoms takes place (iii) ; perception, sensation, and thought are mental processes, occasioned by images which are ceaselessly being emitted by the surfaces of things (iv). Book V treats of the formation of the world, vi of single natural phenomena. This work is the only considerable composition in epic verse which has come down to us from the time of the Republic. It is also the first attempt at a systematic treatment of Greek philosophy in the Latin tongue. The greatest ad- miration is due to the art with which Lucretius gives poetic form to his unpoetical subject, and adapts to his purpose a language which had hitherto been little exercised on such topics. The matter causes the exposition to be often dry, but fre- quently it rises to a magnificent beauty, as in the famous description of the Athenian plague at the end of the poem. The scientific zeal with which the whole is imbued, and which stands aloof from all frivolity, must inspire respect. He ex- presses himself with simplicity and power, and his language has an antique colouring. He was prevented by death from putting the finishing touches to his work [or even from completing it. Thus there is nothing on the subject of ethics, which could not properly be omitted in an exposition of the teaching of Epicurus]. It is true that Cicero revised it before publication, yet the condition in which we have it is in great measure defective. Ludi. See Games. Luna. The Italian goddess of the moon. She had in Rome an ancient sanctuary on the Aventine, in which as goddess of the month she received worship on the last day * LUCRETIUS. (From a black a