THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 RIVERSIDE 
 
 Ex Libris 
 I C. K. OGDEN ' 
 
CAB. I. TABOP.K fj 
 
 
 
 
HANDBOOK 
 
 THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 
 
HANDBOOK 
 
 THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 
 
 fvt tjje to nf Ittitouts nail (Otjjrrs. 
 
 JOSEPH ANGUS, M.A., D.D., 
 
 fate Examiner in English Language and Literature to University (f London, 
 
 Author of " Tlie Handbook of English Literature? 
 
 " Tlie Sible Handbook," etc. 
 
 LONDON: 
 THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY; 
 
 66, PATERNOSTER Row; 65, ST. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD; 
 AND 164 PICCADILLY. 
 
LONDON J 
 
 PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, 
 STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE publication of a New Book on the English tongue may seem 
 to some to need a few words of explanation. 
 
 With a strong preference for books ready made to his hand, 
 the author has not been able to find any work that met the 
 necessities of students desirous of becoming acquainted with the 
 hictory of our Language, the principles of its grammar, and the 
 elements of composition. The information needed was either 
 not to be found at all, or was scattered over many volumes, and 
 was mixed with much that was merely curious or speculative. 
 Some books proved too mechanical ; some too brief ; others too 
 full and discursive. No one book, nor all combined, gave pre- 
 cisely the help which the author found to be needed in training 
 young men to speak and write the English tongue with accuracy, 
 clearness, propriety, and force. 
 
 The following points have been kept carefully in view : 
 
 The author has tried to aid the student to recognise words of 
 Saxon and of classic origin, and to use both with propriety. 
 
 He has given enough of the grammar of the Anglo-Saxon to 
 enable the student to trace to their origin our English inflexions, 
 and to read intelligently our older Writers : whose works axe 
 rich both in words and in thought. 
 
 He has applied the science of Etymology to the practical pur- 
 pose of distinguishing the meaning of words and parts of words, 
 so that the student may write with precision. 
 
\i PREFACE. 
 
 He has combined with grammar and grammatical analysis, an 
 exposition of the logical analysis of sentences, a process that con- 
 nects the laws of thought with the study of the forms of words. 
 
 In Syntax and in Hints on Composition, the examples are 
 taken for the most part from classic writers, and are such as 
 generally convey an important or a memorable sentiment. 
 This plan has the double advantage of suggesting great truths 
 and of introducing to the student some of the ' familiar quota- 
 tions ' of our current literature. 
 
 The whole has been written under the conviction that the 
 careful study of English may be made as good a mental discipline 
 as the study of the classic languages : while for the mass it 
 opens richer treasures, and is more readily turned to practical 
 account. 
 
 The writer's obligations to other authors it is not easy to 
 enumerate. But for the labours of Latham, Trench, Key, Marsh, 
 Dasent, Craik, Rogers, Adams, and Morell, parts of the book 
 would never have been written ; while for occasional examples 
 and suggestions he is indebted to the works of Armstrong, 
 Breen, Brewer, Goold Brown, Cornwell, D'Orsey, Farrar, Fowler. 
 Graham, Guest, Hallam, Harrison, Sir E. Head, Hippesley, 
 Irving, Keane, Sir G. 0. Lewis, Mason, Masson, Reid, etc. 
 
 This Treatise presupposes a knowledge of some good elementary 
 Grammar, and may be studied in the order in which the chapters 
 stand. If any reader wish to begin with the Grammar of our lan- 
 guage, chapters i. , v. -viii. , may be taken first ; and later, chapters 
 ii., iii., iv. and ix. To study the whole in the order of the Parts 
 of Speech, it is only necessary to consult the Index, and read 
 together the paragraphs on the article, adjectives, etc. A con- 
 tinual reference to the Questions and Exercises will be found 
 a great help. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PREFACE. . ....... v 
 
 CHAP. T. INTRODUCTORY DEFINITIONS .... 1 
 
 CHAP. II. THE ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH TON'OUE . . 3 
 
 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS 28 
 
 CHAP. III. THE ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE IN THEIR 
 
 HISTORICAL CONNEXION 47 
 
 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS ..... 65 
 
 CHAP. IV. THE RELATION OF ENGLISH TO OTHER MEMBERS 
 
 OF THE SAME TRIBE OF TONGUES ... 00 
 
 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS .... 83 
 
 CHAP. V. ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPT .... 93 
 
 CHAP. VI. ETYMOLOGY 120 
 
 i. On the Science of the Classification of Words 122 
 
 ii. On the Science of the Derivation of Words . 124 
 
 iii. On the Science of the Inflexion of Words . 169 
 
 CHAP. VII. SYNTAX 240 
 
 CHAP. VIII. PUNCTUATION AND PROSODY 328 
 
 CHAP. IX. HINTS ON COMPOSITION 366 
 
 ADDITIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS 41G 
 
 APPENDIX, EXERCISES, AND QUESTIONS ..... 441 
 
 INDEX . 489 
 
'A knowledge of English Grammar is essential to a good education.' 
 
 ' I would inculcate the importance of a careful stud)- of genuine English, and 
 a conscientious scrupulosity in its accurate use, upon all who in any manner 
 occupy the place of teachers or leaders, whose habits, whose tastes, or whose 
 vocations lead them to speak of tener than to hear. ' Prof. Marsh. 
 
 'The English tongue possesses a veritable power of expression such as per- 
 haps never stood at the command of any other language of man.' Grimm. 
 
 'When we reflect on the enormous breadth over which this noble language is 
 either already spoken, or is fast spreading, and the immense treasures of litera- 
 ture which are consigned to it, it becomes us to guard it with jealous care as a 
 sacred deposit not our least important trust in the heritage of humanity.' 
 Henry Rogers. 
 
 'Anglo-Saxon and Gothic ought long ago to have made part of the education 
 of our youth. '.Horne TooTce. 
 
 ' Every country of the globe seems to have brought .some of its verbal manu- 
 factures to the intellectual market of England.. ..Yet whatever there is left of 
 grammar in English bears unmistakeable traces of Teutonic workmanship.' 
 Max Mutter. 
 
 'Some seek so far outlandish English, that they forget altogether their 
 mother's language....! know them that think rhetoric to stand wholly upon 
 dark words, and he that can catch an iiikhorn term by the tail, him they count 
 to be a fine Englishman and a good rhetorician.' Wilson, A.D. 1580. 
 
 The pupil should be habituated to analyze the phrases and periods he rends, 
 to change the order and express the same idea in different words, to put, for 
 example, poetry into prose, etc. Thus these exercises teach him to think and 
 to speak.' Cousin's ' Report on Primary Instruction.' 
 
 ' The first point 'in forming an orator' is to acquire a habit of easy speak- 
 ing. The next, to convert thia style of easy speaking into chaste eloquence. ' 
 Lord Brougham. 
 
 'No word will fall from me in disparagement of classical literature ; I know 
 its value full well ; but it seems strange in a country where so many students 
 are familiar with every dialect of Greek, and every variety of classical style, 
 there should bo so few who have really made themselves acquainted with the 
 origin, the history, and the gradual development into its present form of that 
 mother tongue which is already spoken over half the world, and which embodies 
 many of the noblest thoughts that have ever issued from the brain of man. To 
 use words with precision and with accuracy, we ought to know their history as 
 well as their present meaning. And depend upon it, it is the plain Saxon 
 phrase far more than any term borrowed from Greek or Roman literature 
 that whether in speech or in writing goes straightest and strongest to men's 
 heads and hearts.' Lord Stanley. 
 
 ' Men wonder, and not unnaturally, that in the middle of the 19th eentury it 
 should still be necessary to plead for the culture of the English tongue as one of 
 the recognised studies of our English universities.' D'Orsey. 
 
 At the root of all "this inefficiency " usually lies a complete ignorance of 
 English composition.' Gurney, 
 
THE 
 
 HANDBOOK OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 "The first and highest philosophy is that which delivers the most 
 accurate and comprehensive definition of things." PTJFFENDOEF. 
 
 1. LANGUAGE is the expression of thought by any series of 
 sounds or letters formed into words. 
 
 2. The rules and principles by which Language is guided form 
 Grammar the science of GRAMMAR. As an art, Grammar is con- 
 defined, cerned with the right use and application of such rules, 
 either in speech or in writing. 
 
 Language is composed, for the most part, of letters, syllables, 
 words, and sentences. 
 
 3. The knowledge of letters, their proper sound, and the way in 
 How which they are formed into words, is the business of 
 divided. the first part of Grammar : ORTHOGRAPHY, the science 
 of correct writing ; and ORTHOEPY, the science of correct pro- 
 nunciation. 
 
 4. The knowledge of the different kinds of words, their in- 
 flexions, their origin and affinity, is the business of ETYMOLOGY, 
 the science that treats of the true, matter and form of words. 
 
 5. The knowledge of the way in which words are combined (as 
 to agreement, government, and relations) so as to express thought 
 in sentences grammatically accurate, is the business of SYNTAX. 
 
 G. The knowledge of the rules that regulate the voice in 
 
 B 
 
2 INTItODUCTOIlY. 
 
 accents, and in the combination of syllables similarly affected * 
 (called Metre), is tlie business of PROSODY. 
 
 7. PUNCTUATION may be placed in tliis last division ; but it 
 belongs also to Orthography, and in some degree to Syntax. It 
 is the art of dividing written composition into sentences or parts 
 of sentences, so as to show more clearly the relation and meaning 
 of the words. 
 
 8. COMPOSITION is the art of expressing our thoughts in Lan- 
 Compo- guage. It implies and requires grammatical accuracy, 
 sition. k u t goes far beyond it. Of various forms of sentences, 
 all equally grammatical, it decides on the most appropriate ; and 
 discusses the elements of STYLE, as adapted to persuade, to con- 
 vince, to instruct, or to please: 
 
 9. The LITERATURE of a country is the entire collection of its 
 authorship. It includes all written compositions from Ballads to 
 Treatises on Philosophy and Religion. 
 
 Such are the topics to be discussed in the following pages : 
 English GRAMMAR and COMPOSITION ; and so much of the 
 LITERATURE of our Language as is necessary to give the student 
 an exact mastery of English, and an introduction to those authors 
 who have excelled in writing it with purity, beauty, and force. 
 
 'Similarly affected,' either as to initial letters, as in the alliterative 
 quantity, as in classic metres: as to metre of the Anglo-Saxon,Piers Plow- 
 uccent, as in English metre : or as to mail, &c. See the Cliap. on Prosody. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH, 
 
 CHAPTER II, 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 
 
 CONTENTS : (10) The English a composite language : its Elements 
 chiefly Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 (11, 12, 13) Numerical proportion in dictionaries and in standard 
 writers : comparison, of results. (14-16) On what the Saxon quality of 
 style depends. 
 
 (17) 1. Saxon Words. (18, 19) Rules for ascertaining what are such, 
 based on the forms of words as a, ... j en the things they 
 describe as a, ... g. (20) Importance of a style, both Saxon 
 and classic. 
 
 (21) 2. Words of Latin origin : direct and indirect. (22) a. Classified 
 historically : four periods. (23) b. logically. Roget's Thesaurus. 
 (24, 25) Relation of French to Latin. The French of northern, 
 central, and southern France : the Romanese. (26) How Latin 
 words, through the French, may bo known. Rules and examples. 
 (27) c. Classified etymologically. According to their roots: ac- 
 cording to forms, C.ass i. ii. iii. 
 
 (28) 3. Words of Keltic origin. Three classes, a, b, c. Examples. 
 
 (29) 4. Words of Norse or Uanish origin. Examples. 
 
 (30) 5. Words of Greek origin. Two classes, a, b. 
 
 (31-33) 6. Miscellaneous Elements. From different tongues : From 
 
 names of different persons and countries. 
 
 (34-38) Important principles, illustrated in the various forms and 
 elements of our tongue, with examples. 
 
 1 . Double forms, bespeaking a double origin, direct and indirect : 
 
 2. Double forms, originating in accidental variations : 
 
 3. Forms simulating an English origin : 
 
 4. Forms founded on. erroneous spelling : 
 
 - 5, Forms essentially hybrid. Rule of naturalization. 
 
 (39-41) Etymology, as a help to accuracy in the use of words, 
 illustrated in nouns, verbs, and adjectives ; though likely to mislead. 
 
 (42) Words of the same meaning, but from different roots, how used 
 in English. 
 
 (43) Fallacies originating in the use of words with the same sense but 
 taken from different sources. 
 
 NOTES AND ILLUSTEATIONS : (44) Saxon roots and derivatives; (45) 
 Latin roots and derivatives ; (46) Greek roots and derivatives. 
 
 B 2 
 
ENGLISH WORDS CHIEFLY SAXON. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 
 
 " The Italian is pleasant, but without sinews, like still fleeting water. 
 The French delicate, but never nice, as a woman scarce dariug to open her 
 lips for fear of marring her countenance. The Spanish majestical, but 
 fulsome, and running too much on the o. The Dutch manlike, but 
 withal very harsh, as one ready, at every word, to pick a quarrel. Now 
 we, in borrowing from them, give the strength of consonants to the 
 Italian, the full sound of words to the French, the variety of terminations 
 to the Spanish, and the mollifying of more vowels to the Dutch : and so, 
 like bees, gather the honey from their good properties, and leave the dregs 
 to themselves ; and thus, when substantialness combineth with delightful- 
 nesa, and fulnesse with niccnesse, seemlinesse with portlinesse, and current- 
 nesse with stayednesse, how can the language that cousisteth of all these 
 sound other than full of sweetness." CAHDEN. 
 
 10. The English though a Composite Language is derived 
 English niainly from the Anglo-Saxon. The classic languages, 
 chiefly Greek and Latin, and their modern representatives, the 
 Saxon. JVench, Italian, and Spanish, have contributed largely, 
 but Anglo-Saxon is the chief source. To it may be traced both 
 the matter of our tongue, the words that compose it, and many 
 of the forma which these words assume. These last will be 
 noticed as we proceed : the examination of the matter of our 
 language, its words, as derived from the Anglo-Saxon, is our 
 present business. 
 
 11. Modern English dictionaries contain about 38,000 words, 
 Numerical exclusive of Preterites and Participles : of this number 
 ElTn$o - n 23,000 have been found on examination to be from the 
 Saxon" Saxon; i.e., about 25-40ths (or 5-Sths) of the whole. 
 Diction? And thi s fraction represents with approximate accuracy 
 aries. the proportion of Saxon words in common use.* 
 
 With 'approximate accuracy' only, however. In common 
 use, Articles, Pronouns, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Auxiliary 
 
 The entire number of our words. about 15,003 different words, and iu 
 
 including those used in Science and the poetry of Hilton, about 8,000. 
 
 Art, cannot be less than 80,000. But Marsh's Lectures, p. 183. MaxMiUIer 
 
 the reckoning above given is, as ap- reckons that Kichardson and Webster 
 
 plied to common style, practically give 43.5CC words, 
 accurate, la Shakspeare we have 
 
PROPORTION IN DIFFERENT AUTHORS. 6 
 
 Verbs recur more frequently than other words ; and as these are 
 generally of Saxon origin, the actual proportion of Saxon words 
 in speech or writing exceeds the proportion as fixed by the 
 dictionary. The excess differs in different writers. 
 
 12. Sharon Turner has given, in his ' History of the Anglo- 
 Fn standard Saxons,' a number of passages from classic authors, 
 authors. and has marked by Roman type the words that are not 
 of Saxon origin. The results are instructive : 
 
 In five verses of Genesis (xliii. 25-29), out of 130 words, 
 5 only are not Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 In five verses of John (xi. 32-36), out of 72 words, 2 only are 
 not Anglo-Saxon. Or, combining these passages, in 10 verses of 
 Scripture, containing 202 words, 39-40ths are from the Anglo- 
 Saxon. 
 
 In 11 lines of Milton (Par. L. iv. G39), out of 90 words, 16 are 
 not Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 In 10 lines of Shakspeare (' To be or not to be '), out of 
 81 words, 13 are not Anglo-Saxon : i. e., about 33-40ths of the 
 words in Milton and Shakspeare are Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 In 8 lines of Johnson, out of 87 words, 21 are not Anglo- 
 Saxon : or 30-40ths of Johnson's words are Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 In 12 lines of Pope, out of 84 words, 26 are not Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 In 11 lines of Robertson, out of 114 words, 34 are not Anglo- 
 Saxon. 
 
 In 8 lines of Gibbon, out of 80 words, 31 are not Anglo-Saxon : 
 or, in these last three 26-40ths, 27-40ths, and 24-40ths represent 
 the proportion of Anglo-Saxon words. 
 
 To sum up these results 
 
 In 153 octavo lines, taken from different authors, and contain- 
 Comparison i n g 1492 words, there are only 296 words that are not 
 of results. Saxon. This reckoning gives 32-40ths as the propor- 
 tion of Saxon words in common use. Twenty-five out of every 
 forty is the proportion as fixed by the dictionary ; thirty-two 
 out of every forty is the proportion as fixed by classic authors. 
 
 13. The same process has been applied to larger portions by 
 Professor Marsh, of America, with the following results : 
 
G PROPORTION IN DIFFERENT AUTHORS. 
 
 Saxon words in 
 every forty. 
 
 . In Robert of Gloucester, there are in pp. 354-364 . 38 
 
 In New Testament, tMrteen chapters 37 
 
 In Chaucer, two Tales 37 
 
 Sir T. More, seven folio pages 34 
 
 Shakspeare, three Acts 36 
 
 Milton's L' Allegro 36 
 
 Paradise Lost 32 
 
 Pope's Essay on Man 32 
 
 Macaulay's Essay on Bacon .......... 30 
 
 Cobbett's Essay on Indian Corn, Chapter XI. . . 32 
 
 Ruskin's Painters . . * 29 
 
 ,, Elements of Drawing 33 
 
 Tennyson's In Memoriam 36 
 
 On this Table, it may be observed that ' poetry ' ought to 
 contain more Anglo-Saxon words in proportion than prose, for 
 the subjects of which it treats are not much influenced by 
 modern discovery, nor is the phraseology which describes it. It 
 must also be kept in mind that as our language increases in 
 words of foreign origin every year, a style 33-40ths Saxon is much 
 more Saxon now than it would have been a hundred years ago. 
 Hence it is clear that the preference for Saxon words is growing 
 amongst us. Hence also a good practical rule The study of 
 poetry is a great help to the formation of a Saxon style. 
 
 14. The difference between the proportion of Anglo-Saxon 
 words as fixed by the Dictionary and by actual usage, may be 
 explained by examining the passage which Turner quotes from 
 Johnson. 
 
 Out of the sixty-seven Saxon words used, forty-five are Pro- 
 nouns, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Auxiliaries, and several 
 of these recur again and again. Words of classic origin are 
 in italic type. 
 
 "Of genius, that power that constitutes a poet; that quality 
 without which judgment is cold, and knowledge is inert ; that 
 energy which collects, combines, amplifies, and animates; the 
 superiority must, with some hesitation, be allowed to Dryden. 
 It is not to be inferred that of this poetical vigour Pope had 
 only a little, because Dryden had more ; for every other writer 
 since Milton must givepface to Pope, and even of Dryden it must 
 
HOW TO KNOW SAXON WORDS. ? 
 
 be said, that if he had brighter paragraphs, he has not better 
 
 poems. " 
 
 15. This quotation from Johnson also suggests an important 
 A Saxon principle when we come to apply the rule of numerical 
 pends^n proportion to determine whether a style is Latinized 
 what ? or Saxon. Most of the words that connect together 
 our speech are necessarily Saxon ; and these may be very 
 numerous, without affecting the general character of our com- 
 position. To make a Saxon style, therefore, we need to draw 
 our Verbs and Nouns largely from that tongue. Take care of 
 the Verbs and Nouns ; the particles will take care of themselves. 
 
 16. Mark also, that the book which excels all others in 
 spiritual and moral worth, THE BIBLE, is the richest specimen we 
 have of the beauty and force of the old Saxon speech. In much 
 of Scripture, only one word in forty is not Saxon. 
 
 17. How to ascertain what words are of Anglo-Saxon origin, 
 j so as to write our language forcibly and simply, is 
 
 Anglo- an important practical question. The following 
 baxon. ru i eg require no knowledge of Anglo-Saxon ; and are 
 based first on the forms of words, and secondly on the things to 
 which the words are applied. 
 
 18. i. Rules based on the forms of words. 
 a. Our Articles (' a' and 'the '), Adjective Pronouns (' this,' 
 Saxon ' that,' ' few,' ' many,' ' some,' 'none '), and nearly all 
 words our Conjunctions and Prepositions, are from the 
 
 Kulesfor A-nrrln Sa-rnn 
 ascertain- AnglO-toaxon. 
 
 ing which . ... . , . 
 
 are such b. All Adjectives whose comparatives or super- 
 
 the C fonns ^ a ^ ve3 are formed irregularly, as 'good,' 'bad,' 
 of the 'better,' 'worse,' 'little,' 'less,' etc. : Nearly all so- 
 ords - called irregular, or rather defective Verbs, 'am,' 
 'go,' 'dare,' 'have,' etc. : All our auxiliary Verbs, 'do,' 'have,' 
 'shall,' 'will,' 'may,' 'can,' 'must,' are of Anglo-Saxon origin. 
 
 c. Nearly all words which in any of their forms undergo vowel 
 changes are from the Anglo-Saxon ; such as, 
 
 Adjectives with two forms ; ' old,' ' elder ' : 
 Adjectives forming Nouns by internal vowel changes : 
 'strong,' 'strength;' 'long,' 'length;' 'broad/ 'breadth'; 
 
8 HOW TO KNOW SAXON WOEDS 
 
 Verbs that have modified the vowel of the Noun with which 
 they are connected: 'bliss/ 'bless;' 'knot,' 'net/ 'knit;' 
 ' seat/ 'sit ' : 
 
 All Verbs with strong preterites, of which there are eight 
 classes or more: 'fall/ 'fell;' ' hold," held ;' 'draw/ 
 'drew;' 'slay/ 'slew;' 'fly/ 'flew;' 'give/ 'get/ 
 'stand/ ' take/ etc. : 
 
 All Verbs that undergo vowel changes (and sometimes 
 consonant changes also) when they cease to be intran- 
 sitive : as ' rise/ ' raise ; ' ' lie/ ' lay ; ' ' sit/ ' set ; ' ' fall/ 
 'fell;' 'drink/ 'drench;' 'hound/ 'hunt;' 'wring/ 
 ' wrench ' : 
 
 All Nouns forming their plurals by vowel changes : as 
 ' foot/ ' tooth/ ' goose/ ' mouse/ ' man/ ' woman/ (ori- 
 ginally wif-man, plural ' women,' in pronunciation 
 ' wimmen ') : 
 
 Many words that modify the final consonant of the root to 
 form Nouns : ' stick/ ' stitch ; ' ' dig/ ' ditch ; ' ' smite/ 
 ' smith ' : 
 
 d. Most words with distinctive Anglo-Saxon endings are from 
 the Anglo-Saxon : such as, 
 
 Nouns in '-hood/ '-head/ '-ship/ '-dom/ '-th/ '-t/ '-ness/ 
 '-rick,' '-wick' (except names of places); as 'manhood,' 
 'Godhead/ 'friendship/ 'earldom/ 'freedom/ 'wealth/ 
 'truth/ 'drift/ 'goodness/ ' bishoprick ' (partly from 
 the Greek, but the whole through the Anglo-Saxon), 
 ' bailiwick ' : 
 
 Most Nouns in '-ling/ '-kin/ '-ock/ '-ie/ which are nearly 
 all diminutives : as, ' darling/ ' gosling/ ' lambkin,' 
 'firkin/ 'hillock/ 'lassie/ 'doggie/ etc. : 
 
 All Nouns with plurals in en: as, 'oxen/ 'children/ 
 ' brethren ' : 
 
 Most Adjectives in '-ful/ '-ly/ (A. S. lie, like), '-ish/ f -cn/ 
 '-ern/ '-ward/ '-some ' : as, 'fearful/ 'kingly/ 'blackish/ 
 'childish/ 'wooden,' 'northern/ 'backward/ 'win- 
 some ': 
 
 Most Verbs in en : as, 'whiten/ 'quicken/ 'strengthen.' 
 
 e. On the other hand, Nouns in '-siou/ '-tion/ '-ure/ '-ity/ 
 '-ice/ '-nee/ '-ncy/ '-tude/ '-our/ '-ation/ '-osity ' : as, ' exten- 
 
FROM THEIE FORMS. 
 
 sion/ 'capture,' 'dignity/ 'justice/ 'penitence,' 'expectancy,' 
 ' solitude,' ' labour ' (from the Latin through the French), 
 'denomination,' ' verbosity,' are from the classical languages : as 
 are Nouns in ' -tor/ '-sor/ '-trix': as, ' mediator/ ' sponsor/ 
 ' executrix ' : 
 
 \ /7 ' o ~~ j 7 
 
 gular/ 'primary/ 'retentive,' 'comprehensive/ 'migratory, 
 'illusory/ 'cathartic/ 'arithmetical/ 'verbose,' ' epicurean/ 
 ' canine/ etc. : 
 
 And most Yerbs in ' ize ' and ' fy : ' as ' criticize/ ' agonize/ 
 etc.: ' typify/ ' terrify. ' 
 
 f. All words, moreover, in which are found j, se, oe, ph, rh, 
 ch hard, and the vowel y, in any syllable but the last, are of 
 classic origin : as, 'ejaculation/ ' phenomenon/ ' oeconomy/ 
 'philosophy/ 'rhetoric/ 'chymistry/ 'polygon.' 
 
 g. All words, on the other hand, that begin with ' wh/ ' kn/ 
 ' sh/ and most words that begin with ' ea/ ' ye/ ' gl/ 'th ' (all 
 except a few from the Greek), are from the Anglo-Saxon, as 
 are all words with the combination ' ough ' or 'ng/ in the 
 root. 
 
 h. Most compound or derivative words, the elements of 
 which exist and have a meaning in English, are from the 
 Saxon. 
 
 i. Most of our words of one syllable are taken from the Anglo- 
 Saxon. This rule is of very extensive application : Parts of 
 the body ' head/ ' skull/ ' ear/ ' tongue/ ' lip/ ' chin/ ' lungs/ 
 and so to our 'toes'; the senses 'sight/ 'touch/ 'taste/ 
 ' smell ' ; infirmities 'lame/ 'blind/ ' deaf/ ' dumb ' ; animals 
 'dog/ 'cow/ 'horse/ 'bull' ; elements 'fire/ 'storm,' 'wind/ 
 'thaw/ 'frost/ 'clouds'; products 'grass/ 'corn/ 'bread/ 
 'fowl/ 'fish' ; fuel as 'coal/ 'wood/ 'peat,' 'turf : are all, with 
 very many others, monosyllabic and Saxon. The works of Shak- 
 speare and Milton abound in examples ; and some of the most 
 forcible modern poetry owes its power to its monosyllables. 
 
10 HOW TO KNOW SAXON WORDS 
 
 ' For the angel of death spread his wings on the blast, 
 And breathed in the face of the foe as he pass'd, 
 And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill, 
 And their hearts but once heaved, and for ever grew still. 
 And there lay the steed with his nostrils all wide, 
 And thro' them there rolled not the breath of his pride ; 
 And the foam of his gasping lay white on the turf, 
 And cold as the spray of the rock-beating surf.' 
 
 Here every word, Avith only two exceptions, is Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 j. Many of tlie provincialisms and Scotticisms wliich are found 
 in different counties and in the North of England are old Saxon 
 terms : whether or not they may be used in grave speech must 
 depend on circumstances ; but when they are understood, and 
 are not inappropriate, they are among the most expressive words 
 we can employ. 
 
 19. II. Rules "based on the things to ivhich words are applied. 
 
 a. From the Anglo-Saxon we get most of the names of our 
 ttules earliest and dearest connexions, and of the words 
 based upon that express the strongest natural feelings of our 
 towEteh hearts : 'father,' 'mother,' 'husband,' ' wife,' 'son,' 
 words are * daughter,' ' brother,' ' sister,' ' home,' ' kindred,' 
 app ie . f friends,' are all Anglo-Saxon ; as are 'hearth,' 'roof,' 
 'fireside'; 'tears,' 'smiles,' 'blushes,' 'laughing,' 'weeping,' 
 'sighing,' and 'groaning.' 
 
 b. From the Anglo-Saxon we get the names of most objects 
 of sense ; those that occur most frequently in discourse, and 
 which recall individual and therefore most vivid conceptions. 
 Such are the names of objects ' sun,' ' moon,' ' stars,' fire,' 
 ' earth,' ' water ' (not air) : divisions of time ' day,' ' night,' 
 ' morning,' ' evening,' ' twilight,' ' noon,' ' midnight,' ' sunset,' 
 'sunrise;' 'light,' 'heat,' 'cold,' 'frost,' 'snow,' 'hail,' 'rain,' 
 ' sleet,' ' thunder,' ' lightning.' Such are the names of most ob- 
 jects of natural scenery : ' hill,' 'dale,' 'woods,' 'streams,' ' land," 
 ' sea.' Such are the names of the common objects of the animal 
 and vegetable kingdoms, the postures and motions of animal 
 life. Our ' horses,' ' dogs,' ' cows,' 'calves,' 'pigs,' are all Saxon, 
 and so the last three remain till they are dressed lip aa 
 'beef,' 'veal,' and 'pork.' We 'sit' and 'stand,' and 'lie' 
 and 'walk,' and 'run' and leap/ and 'stagger' and ', stride,' 
 
FROM THE THINGS THEY DESCEIBE. 11 
 
 and f slide ' and ' glide,' and ' yawn ' and ' gape ' and ' wink ' ; 
 \ve 'fly ' and ' swim,' and ' creep ' and ' crawl ' ; we describe our 
 ' arms ' or ' legs ' or ' hands,' our ' eyes ' or * mouth ' or ' ears ' 
 or ' nose,' and nearly every part of the body, from head to foot, 
 in Anglo-Saxon.* 
 
 c. It is almost another form of the same rule to say, that 
 while our general terms are taken mostly from Latin, terms 
 which describe particular objects, qualities, or modes of action, 
 are taken from the Saxon. ' Motion ' is Latin ; but ' creeping, ' 
 ' walking,' 'riding,' and c running,' are words of nobler origin. 
 'Colour' is Latin ; but 'black' and 'blue,' and ' red ' and ' green,' 
 'yellow' and 'brown,' are Anglo-Saxon. 'Sound ' is Latin ; but 
 'humming,' 'buzzing,' 'speaking,' 'hissing,' 'singing,' 'grunt- 
 ing,' ' squeaking,' and 'whistling,' are all Anglo-Saxon. ' Crime' 
 is Latin ; but ' theft ' and ' robbery,' ' killing ' and ' lying,' were 
 all in fact and by name known to our fathers before there was any 
 intercourse with Rome. ' Animal ' is Latin ; ' man ' and ' sheep ' 
 are Anglo-Saxon. ' Number ' is French, and remotely Latin ; 
 but all our cardinal numbers, ' one,' b ' two,' ' three,' etc. , up to a 
 million, are Anglo-Saxon ; as are all our ordinal numbers except 
 ' second,' and that is Latin. 
 
 d. Nearly all the words which have been earliest used by 
 us, and which have therefore the strongest association with 
 the pleasant memories of our youth, are of Anglo-Saxon origin. 
 This rule follows from the preceding ; but it is important, both 
 because it accounts in some measure for the power such words 
 have over us, and because it suggests in an agreeable way how 
 these words may be recalled. Use the words you first learnt, 
 the words that fell from the lips most dear to you, the words 
 that bring up the thought of childhood and home, and you will 
 unconsciously speak in good Saxon. 
 
 e. Most of the objects which occupy our practical reason, in 
 common life, take their names from the Anglo-Saxon. It is the 
 language of business, of the shop, of the market, of the street, of 
 the farm. We ' sell ' and ' buy ' ; we find things ' cheap ' or 
 
 Sir Henry Eogers' paper on ' The >> Some regard 'one * as classic; but 
 English Language,' Edin Eev. Octo- the same form exists in the Gothic 
 ber, 1839. tongues. 
 
12 A STYLE, ANGLO-SAXON AND CLASSIC. 
 
 'dear'; we 'plow ' and e sow ' ; we grow 'rich' or 'poor,' as our 
 fathers did ; and they have left us words to describe the whole. 
 This is the ' market-English ' of many of our popiilar writers, 
 from Bunyan downwards. 
 
 f . Nearly all words in our national proverbs, the utterances of 
 'the wisdom of the many set forth by the wit of one,' 'the 
 hob-nailed philosophy of the people,' are from the Anglo- 
 Saxon. 
 
 g. From the same source comes most of the language of invec- 
 tive, humour, satire, and colloquial pleasantry. It is often 
 pungent, sometimes offensive, nearly always forcible and impres- 
 sive : as ' gawky,' ' grim,' ' lazy,' ' sly,' ' shabby,' ' trash/ 
 'shams,' etc. 
 
 All these rules are not immediately available for grave compo- 
 sition, but most of them are ; and those that are not are still 
 of value, because explaining the secret of idiomatic and effective 
 speech. 
 
 20. Style, it is well known, is most vivid, impressive, and 
 A pictur- picturesque, in proportion as it deals in particulars. 
 what^s ^^ e same excellence belongs, it will be seen, to a style 
 to words. that is rich in Anglo-Saxon terms. But while Anglo- 
 Saxon gives us words that are more specific and picturesque, 
 words of classic origin have often the advantage of brevity, and, 
 where the ideas are abstract, of clearness. For example, a book 
 handling any subject is a ' tractate,' ' tract,' and 'treatise ' ; what 
 belongs to a house is ' domestic ' ; what hangs with the point 
 directly downwards is 'perpendicular'; what belongs to the 
 groundwork of a thing is ' fundamental ' ; the form of a thing in 
 the mind is an ' idea ' ; what is easy to be carried is ' portable ' ; 
 what is hard to be done is ' difficult. ' 
 
 The advantage of brevity in all these cases is with the classic 
 word. Similarly, 'essence,' 'impenetrability,' 'immortality," 
 etc. , are words briefer and clearer than any corresponding Anglo- 
 Saxon forms ; and as 'abstracts ' they call attention to the quali- 
 ties they indicate as completely as do Anglo-Saxon specific names 
 to the individual things they represent. Hence the importance 
 of a mixed style : partly Anglo-Saxon, partly classical. We 
 particularize and define things in Anglo-Saxon ; we generalize 
 and define abstractions in words of classic origin. 
 
WORDS OF LATIN ORIGIN. 13 
 
 21. If the proportion of Anglo-Saxon words in modern English. 
 2. be reckoned at 25-40ths or 5-8ths of the whole, 
 
 wOTctaof 10-40ths, or 2-8ths, may be regarded as of Latin 
 
 Latin origin, orierin. either directly so. or indirectly, through the 
 -their num- , 
 bcr, how - 1 - renut. 
 
 classified. These ten thousand words may be classified on 
 
 different principles, historically, or logically, or etymologically ; 
 ' . e. in answer to the following questions : When were they intro- 
 duced? What objects or acts do they describe ? From what 
 roots do they come ; or what forms do they assume ? 
 
 22. Historically, words in English, of Latin origin, are of four 
 Historically, classes : 
 
 1. Those that belong to the period of Julius Coesar and his 
 successors, down to the close of the Roman rule in Britain. 
 They are such as ' Castrum/ ' Oastra ' (in Chester, Doncaster, 
 Lancaster, Colchester, Chesterton, Exeter, Manchester, etc.) ; 
 ' Coin ' (in Lincoln), from Colonia ; ' Pons ' (as in Pontefract, 
 Ponteland, etc.) ; 'Portus' (as in Bridport) ; 'Street' (as in 
 Watling Street, Stretton), from strata. Nearly all refer to mili- 
 tary affairs or stations. 
 
 2. Those that belong to the period of the Christian Saxons, 
 being introduced chiefly by Augustine and his successors. They 
 are mainly ecclesiastical: as, 'calic' (chalice); ' candle;' 'cloister' 
 (claustrum) ; ( mass ' (missa) ; ' minster ' (monasterium), ' York 
 minster,' ' Leominster,' etc. ; ' monk ' (monachus) ; ' pall ' 
 (pallium) ; ' provost ' (prsepositus), etc. 
 
 It is an interesting fact that the Anglo-Saxon terms for many 
 of the doctrines and rites of Christianity are older than the cor- 
 responding words of Latin origin : one proof, amcng others, of 
 the existence and purity of an early British church. 
 
 For ' baptize,' the Anglo-Saxon was 'fullian,' to perfect, to 
 
 make full, to purify. 
 
 ,, 'synagogue,' ,, ' gesamnung,' a con- 
 
 gregation. 
 
 ,, ' resurrection,' ,, ' osrist,' uprising. 
 
 ' disciple,' ,, ( leorning cniht,' a 
 
 learning knight. 
 
14 WOKDS OF LATIN OEIGIN 
 
 For ' parable/ tlie Anglo-Saxon was ' bispel ' (beispiel, 
 
 Ger.), an example. 
 
 ' repentance,' ' dsedbotnes,' an 
 
 amends - deed - 
 doing. 
 
 3. Those that belong to the interval between the battle of 
 Hastings (A.D. 1066) and the revival of letters. These originated 
 chiefly with the monks, and were used at the universities, and 
 in courts of law. 
 
 4. Those that have been introduced since the revival of letters 
 to the present time. These are of all kinds. Some retain their 
 original form and inflexion in the plural ; an evidence that 
 they are not yet naturalized. Most, however, have become 
 thoroughly incorporated into our language, and number their 
 offspring or connexions by thousands. 
 
 Many of the later terms of Greek and Latin origin superseded 
 old Saxon words : 
 
 ' Hydrophobia ' took the place of '' wseter fyrhtnys ' (water 
 
 fright) ; 
 
 ' Dropsy ' of ' wseter-ael ' (water-ail) ; 
 ' Geometry ' of ' eorth-gemet ' (earth-measuring) ; 
 ' Arithmetician ' of ' gerim-craftig ' (crafty in numbers) ; 
 ' Agriculturist' of 'eorthling'; 'Parliament' of ' Witan-gemot. ' 
 In some of these cases the change is for the worse. 
 
 23. If it were worth while to arrange the words of Latin 
 
 origin according as they name natural objects, military 
 and ecclesiastical affairs, abstract ideas, or general acts 
 or states, as distinguished from particular acts or states, we 
 should have a logical arrangement of them. This indeed is 
 done, in a large measure, to our hand, in Dr. Roget's ' The- 
 saurus of English Words and Phrases.' It is obvious, on the 
 mere opening of that book, that most of our abstract terms are 
 taken from the Latin. 
 
 24. It was said above that we receive Latin words ' indi- 
 Words of rectly through the French,' an expression that needs 
 Latin origin to be explained. 
 
 through the Italian, French, and Spanish are all, for the most 
 French. part, forms of modern Latin ; allied to the eld Latin as 
 
THROUGH THE FEENCH. 16 
 
 Romaic is to ancient Greek, as modern German is to the old 
 High German, or as modern English is to the Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 25. With the armies of Italy, the ancient language overran 
 the greater part of the Roman world. Everywhere it overlaid 
 the original tongues, or quietly grafted itself upon them. In 
 Spain, for example, it mixed and blended with Celtiberic dialects : 
 i.e. dialects allied to the Keltic and to the modern Biscayan 
 Spanish and Portuguese were the results. In France it found 
 dialects of a Keltic stock, and after a long history formed French. 
 The process began in the days of the Republic, and was widely 
 extended throughout all Gaul by the time of Julius Ctesar. 
 
 This French language assumed ultimately three, or even four, 
 Fourfold forms : the French of Central France ; the French of 
 division. [ ie Qrisons in Switzerland, called the Romanese ; the 
 French of the south of France, a district early colonized by the 
 Romans this dialect is called the Provengal, or Langue d'Oc, 
 and is closely allied to the Spanish as spoken on the other side of 
 the Pyrenees ; and the French of Normandy. Northern France 
 was occupied in part by the friends of Clovis and Charlemagne, 
 who were mostly Germans, and in part by the northmen who 
 joined the standard of Rollo. These last were chiefly Scandina- 
 vians, and the language which they helped to form and modify, 
 though fundamentally French, i. e. Keltic-Latin had both Ger- 
 man and Scandinavian elements. It is known in history as the 
 Langue d'Oyl, or Norman-French ; and is indeed the parent of 
 modern French speech. 
 
 The Provencal dialect was the first modern language (except 
 
 Anglo-Saxon) that could boast of a literature of its 
 
 own. The Gospels were translated into it in the 
 
 twelfth century ; and its poets, under the name of troubadours, 
 
 were found in every court and camp of Europe. 
 
 The Norman-French was the language of William the Con- 
 Norman- queror and his knights. That conquest, and indepen- 
 French. <j en t causes at work before and after it, gave Norman- 
 French great influence in England : while the songs of the 
 troubadours, and the intercourse of our nobility with members 
 of the house and court of Aquitaine, then ruling in the south 
 of France, aided the Provencal in superseding, or in enriching, 
 at all events, the rough Anglo-Saxon speech. In fact, we owe 
 
16 LATIN WORDS THROUGH FRENCH. 
 
 to the Anglo-Norman, or to the Latin through it, most 
 of the terms that describe the military system of the middle 
 ages, many of our law terms, and others belonging to poetry and 
 art, as ' duke,' ' count,' ' chivalry,' ' homage,' ' service,' ' villein,' 
 etc. To other dialects of France i. e. to the Latin through them 
 we owe many other words, in all departments of thought. 
 
 26. It is not always easy to tell when English words have come 
 How words indirectly through the French : but nouns in -our, 
 Fre^fmay ~^ er ) -chre, and -eer ; adjectives in -q ue (as ' ardour,' 
 be known, 'cavalier,' 'sepulchre,' 'auctioneer'; ' oblijwe/ 
 1 unique ') ; and words beginning with counter-, pur-, and sur-, 
 ('counteract/ 'purpose,' ' surprise,') belong to this class : and 
 generally, if words of classic origin are greatly altered in the 
 English spelling 1 , it may be presumed that they have reached us 
 through the French : as ' people,' from populous, Fr. peuple ; 
 ' fealty,' from fidelitas, fe'alte' , ' blame,' from blasphemare ; 'pur- 
 sue,' from persequor, Fr. poursuivre ; 'royalty,' from regalitas, 
 Fr. royaute' j ' deign,' from dignor ; ' feat,' from facio ; ' ally,' 
 from adligo ; 'manure,' from manus and opus, Fr. main ceuvre, 
 literally, cultivation by hand labour, etc.* 
 
 The student may feel an interest 'Esquire,' 'equerry,' from scutum, a 
 in examining the following : shield ; hence scutage, scutcheon. 
 
 'Avalanche' is ad vallem: what ' Friar ' is from f rater ; Fr. frere. 
 
 rushes to the vale. 'Gin,' Geneva is Juniper (the berry 
 'Address,' 'dress,' is from dirigere, used to give it flavour); Fr. Ge- 
 
 through the Italian drizzare ; what nievre. 
 
 makes straight. ' Gaol,' ' jail,' is from cavea ("a cage) ; 
 'Balance ' is bi-(two) lanx; a scale. gabia, gabiola, Mediaeval Latin; 
 
 'Cash,' 'case,' is capsa, from cnpio ; Fr. ge die, gaol. 
 
 Fr. caisse (though some refer it to ' Goal,' from caulis (a stem or pole put 
 
 the Portuguese caxa). up at the end of the course) ; Fr. 
 
 ' Chamberlain ' is from camera ; Fr. gaule. 
 
 chambre. ' Hauteur ' is from altus, haut (so 
 ' Costume,' ' custom,' is from con- autre from alter). 
 
 suetudp ; Fr. coutume. ' Impair ' is from pejor, pire, worse ; 
 ' Couch ' is from collocare ; .PV.coucber. Fr. empirer. 
 
 ' Coverlet ' is cooperire lectus ; Fr. ' Invoice,' envoy, voyage, are from 
 
 couvre lit (bed). via. 
 
 'Curfew 'is from cooperire and focus ; 'Lieutenant ' is from locus and tenco ; 
 
 Fr. couvre feu. Fr. lieu. 
 
 'Dandelion' from dens and leo, 'Meagre' is from 'macer,' thin, 
 
 through the Fr. maigre. 
 
 ' Delight ' is from delicise ; Fr. dclice. ' Mushroom ' is from muscus (moss), 
 'Damage* is from dartmum ; Fr. mousseron, or from mousser, to 
 
 dommage. puff. 
 
 Donjon' is m dominium, dom- ' Mortise ' is from mordeo, to bite. 
 
 nium. ' Nuisance ' is from npceo, to hurt. 
 
 'Environs' is from gyrus, a circle; 'Ostrich 'is from avis struthio j Fr. 
 
 gyrare, Fr. vircr ; to go round, ' to aut ruche. 
 
 ever.' 
 
LATIN WOEDS NOT NATURALIZED. 17 
 
 27. Etymologically, words of Latin origin may be placed under 
 Etymologi- their respective roots ; or if imperfectly naturalized, 
 cording C to an( l retaining therefore their own plural forms, they 
 their roots, may be placed under the declensions to which they 
 originally belong. This last classification would include Nouns 
 only ; and only such Nouns as are not thoroughly incorporated. 
 
 Words of Latin origin placed under their respective roots will 
 be found in the notes at the end of this chapter. Words im- 
 perfectly naturalized are such as the following : 
 
 Class I. Words which form their plurals by changing the last 
 syllable. 
 
 a. a into ce : as, *f ormul-a, ss ; lamin-a, e ; larv-a, SQ ; 
 
 nebul-a, as ; scori-a, ce. 
 
 b. MS into i : as, calcul-us, i ; convolvul-us, i ; foc-us, i ; 
 
 *geni-us, i ; mag-us, i ; polyp-us, i ; radi-us, i ; stimul-us ; 
 i ; etc. 
 
 c. um into a : as, animalcul-um, a ; arcan-um, a ; dat-um, a ; 
 
 desiderat-um, a ; empori-um, a ; errat-um, a ; medi-um, a ; 
 memorand-um, a ; moment-urn, a ; *premi-um, a ; scholi- 
 um, a ; specul-um, a ; strat-um, a ; etc. 
 
 d. is into es : as, amanuens-is, amanuenses ; analys-is, es ; 
 
 ax-is, es ; bas-is, es ; cris-is, es ; ellips-is, es ; hypothes- 
 is, es ; parenthes-is, es ; thes-is, es ; etc. 
 
 Class n. Words which have the same form in the singular and 
 the plural, as 
 Apparatus, impetus, congeries, series, species, superficies. 
 
 ' Preach ' is from praedicare, precher. ' Tinsel ' is from scintilla, etincelle, a 
 
 'Quarantine' and ' squadron ' are spark, 
 
 from quadraginta, and quatuor. ' Toilette ' is from tola, a thread ; 
 
 ' Raisin ' is from raccmus, a grape. hence toille, linen. 
 
 'Poison,' 'pottage,' are from pot o, to 'Usher' is from Ostiarius (a door- 
 drink, and potio, Fr. poison. keeper), 'huissier.' 
 
 ' Parapet ' is from para and pectns, a ' Vegetable ' is from vigeo, to grow, 
 
 breast-work. ' Venison ' from venor, to hunt. 
 
 * Route,' ' rote,' ' routine,' are from ' Volley ' is from volo, to fly. 
 
 rota, a wheel. These examples do not always give 
 
 ' Surplice ' is from super and pellis, an the intermediate stages of the process. 
 
 over skin ; hence peltry, etc. Resides the interest connected with 
 
 ' Savage ' is from silva, sauvage. them, they illustrate very well the 
 
 'Soldier' is from solidus, a piece of changes which the French is apt to 
 
 coin given as pay ; Fr. soldat. make in the various words which it 
 
 Tissue' is from texo, to weave. imports from foreign tongues. 
 
 C 
 
18 WORDS OF KELTIC ORIGIN. 
 
 Class in. Words forming the plural by means of an additional 
 syllable, as 
 
 * Append-ix, ices ; cal-yx, ices ; * ind-ex, ices ; rad-ix, ices ; 
 vort-ex, ices ; etc. 
 
 The words marked thus (*) have each a second or English 
 plural : geniuses, praemiums, indexes, appendixes ; and others 
 are seeking a like privilege. Such double plurals are an evidence 
 that the words are naturalized, though retaining proof of their 
 alien origin : when naturalized, they are immediately entrusted 
 (in most cases) with double duties : genii, are e spirits ; ' 
 ' geniuses,' are men of genius ; ' premiums ' are paid on policies 
 of insurance ; preemia are rewards of diligence or skill. 
 
 28. We have still to account for 5-40ths or l-8th of the words 
 Other clc- f our language ; five thousand in all. These are 
 menta. . most miscellaneous in origin, and of very different 
 degrees of importance. 
 
 The first place is due to the Keltic ; in its twofold division of 
 
 3. Ancient British, represented by modern Welsh, 
 
 Celtic. Cornish, and Breton, and of Gaelic, represented by the 
 
 classes of Irish and Scotch Gaelic, and by the Manx of the 
 
 Celtic words. I s l e of Man. 
 
 The Keltic elements of modern English may be divided into 
 three classes : 
 
 (a.) Those that were handed down from the original Kelts of 
 Britain, and now form a part of our tongue. This class in- 
 cludes 
 
 Names of places beginning with ABER (the mouth o& a river 
 or harbour), as ' Aber-brothwick' (Arbroath), ' Aber-wick ' 
 (Berwick), ' Aber-ystwith ; ' with CAER (a fort or town), 
 as 'Caerleon,' 'Carlisle,' 'Caer-caradoch; ' with DuN(a hill, 
 or fort on a hill), the ' Downs,' ' Dunbarton,' 'Hunting- 
 don;' with LIN (a deep pool), ( Zilithgow,' ' Cora-Zmn,' 
 'Lynn' (first 'Bishop's Lynn,' and since Henry the 
 Eighth's day ' King's Lynn ') ; with LLANX (a church), 
 ' Llandaff,' ' Launceston ' (i.e. of Stephen) ; with TRE (a 
 town), ' Coventry ' (town of the convent), ' Oswestry ' (of 
 St. Oswald), 'Daventry' (i.e., the town near the two 
 Avons.* 
 
 The following also are common in are Keltic words : AUCIIIN (a field) ; 
 English, Scotck. or in Irish names, and AKD, or AIRT> (higb.ahillorapromon- 
 
WORDS OP KELTIC ORIGIN. 19 
 
 There are also reckoned among original Keltic elements : 
 
 A few names common in provincial dialects : as, Gwlanen 
 (Herefordshire) Flannel ; 
 
 And some Nouns common in the current language ; of which 
 Mr. Garnett reckons between thirty and forty. Among these 
 are the following : 
 
 Basgawd basket. Grual gruel. 
 
 Botwn button. Gwald welt. 
 
 Clwt clout. Gwn gown. 
 
 Grog crook. Masg mesh. 
 
 Cyln, Cyl kiln or kill. Mop mop. 
 
 Darn darn. Rhail rail. 
 
 Ffleam fleam. Rhasg rasher. 
 
 Ffynnell funnel. Size glue. 
 
 Gefyn fetters, gyves. Tack tackle. 
 
 In addition to these, some other words have been traced to 
 the Keltic by later inquirers ; as ' coat,' ' cart,' ' pranks ' (tricks), 
 ' happy ' (hap, chance), ' pert ' (spruce, insolent). ' Balderdash ' 
 (idle prating) and ' sham ' (a deceit) are from the same source." 
 
 (b.) Those of late introduction ; true Keltic words, but not 
 original constituents of our tongue : as 
 
 'Flannel,' 'tartan,' 'plaid,' 'kilt,' 'clan,' 'reel.' 
 
 (c.) Those that have come to us from the Keltic, but through 
 some other tongue, Latin or Norman-French: as, 'Druid,' 
 'bard.' 
 
 On the whole, the influence of the Keltic on the English tongue 
 has not been by any means so great as might have been 
 Bupposed. Its influence on our grammar is even less than on 
 our vocabulary. 
 
 tory) ; BAL (a village) ; BEN, or PEW high part) ; GLEN (a narrow valley) ; 
 
 (a mountain) ; BLAIR (a field, clear KILL (a cell, chapel, or burying- 
 
 of wood) ; BOTTOM (Anglo-Saxon ground, as Cl-oseburn, cella osburni)-, 
 
 'botm '), a valley or low ground, com- KIN, or KEN, or CHIN (a cape, or 
 
 mon in Sussex, and in many proper head Kent) ; INCH, or ENNIS (an 
 
 names ; BRAE (a hilly, rough piece of island) ; INVER (mouth of a river, 
 
 land) ; CAIRN (a heap of stones, a land fit for tillage) ; Ros (a promon- 
 
 rocky hill) ; COMB, or.CoMp (the low tory of peninsula) ; STRATH (a broad 
 
 part of a valley), 'Compton,' 'Appel- valley). 
 
 durcomb ; ' CRAIG, CARRICK, CRICK Mr. Davies, in ' Transactions of 
 
 (& raggy hill); CUL (the back, or Pbilol. Soc. for 1855.' 
 
20 WOKDS OF DANISH OEIGItf . 
 
 29. The Danish or Norse element of our language was intro- 
 4. duced in part by the frequent visits to the North 
 
 Danish coasts of Britain, especially of the Norsemen, and in 
 element. ,1,1 a 
 
 part by the influence of Canute and Jus companions. 
 
 Words of this class are not easily determined. 
 
 The following are mentioned by Mr. Garnett : Pliilol. Trans. , 
 vol. i Mr. Coleridge has added others, as given below. 
 
 ' By ' is the Norse for town ; as it is also Saxon. 
 
 In ' Whitby ' and ' Derby ' it is Norse, for both towns had 
 other Saxon names. 
 
 The termination ( son ' appended to names is Norse : ' Swain- 
 son' (Sweyn-Sen), 'Ericson,' 'Andersen,' etc. 
 
 ' Ulf,' or ' Ulph,' found in proper names, is Norse for wolf. 
 
 Proper names formed from names of animals are common, it 
 may be added, in many languages. ' Wolf,' * Guelph ' (the same 
 word), ' Ethel wulf ' (the noble wolf), 'Fitz-urse' (the Norman- 
 French form), ' Orsini ' (the Italian form), are examples akin to 
 the ' Ulph ' of the Norse. Similar forms are ' Runjeet Singh ' 
 (Tiger), 'Leonard,' 'Bernard,' 'Everard' (Great Boar), 'Ormsby' 
 (Worm), ' Hippocrates,' ' Phil-ip,' ' Horsa,' ' Horsman,' ' Cheva- 
 lier,' ' Capel,' ' Keppel ' (Caballus), etc. 
 
 'At' (i.e. to, as a sign of the Inf.) common in Westmoreland ; 
 and the following words found in Northern dialects. 
 
 Din noise. Gar make. Ket anything nasty. 
 
 Force waterfall. Gill ravine. Lile little. 
 
 Mr. Coleridge adds, 'bait,' 'bray,' 'dish,' 'dock,' 'doze,' 
 'dwell,' 'flimsy,' 'fling,' 'gust,' 'ransack,' 'rap,' 'whim.' 
 
 30. Greek words are in number and importance greater than 
 5- either of the two last named elements. They are 
 
 Greek ele- either completely incorporated with our language, or. 
 
 ment classified ... T . a ^ ^i 
 
 according to like some Latin words, retain their own plurals : 
 
 its dec. an evidence of imperfect incorporation. 
 
 Of these last, there are two classes. 
 (a.) Words in ' on ' making their plural in a : 
 Apheli-on, a ; Criterion, a ; 
 
 Automat-on, a ; Phasnomen-on, a. 
 
 (b.) Words in 'a' or ' s,' that form the plural in a or s, but 
 re-inserting a syllable that has been struck out in the 
 singular : 
 
OF GREEK AND MISCELLANEOUS OEIGIN. 21 
 
 Dogma, dogmata (root form, dogmat) ; miasma-ta, lemma- 
 ta, canthari-s, des ; chrysali-s, des ; tripo-s, des. 
 
 31. From the Hebrew, we take ' epliod,' and ' cabala,' and 
 o. ' seraph-im/ and 'cherub-im/ and 'amen.' To the 
 iieousele- Arabic, we are indebted for 'admiral,' ' alchemy,' 
 ments. 'algebra,' ' almanack,' 'elixir,' 'talisman,' 'zero,' and 
 'zenith,' besides the names of several animals and of articles of 
 merchandize ; ' giraffe,' ' gazelle ; ' ' coffee ' and ' sugar,' ' lemon' 
 and ' jasmine,' ' sherbet ' and ' syrup,' ' sofas ' and ' mattrasses,' 
 ' mummies,' and ' sultans,' and ' pashas,' and ' assassins,' * and 
 ' caffres. ' From the Persian, we have received ' caravans ' and 
 'dervishes;' 'scarlet' and 'azure' and 'lilac.' From the 
 Turkish, 'scimitars 'and 'divans' and 'janissaries;' 'dragoman' 
 and 'chouse ' the last, from the name of an officer of the Turkish 
 Embassy, who cheated London merchants to a large amount, in 
 the time of James I. From the Chinese, ' gongs,' ' Nankin,' and 
 ' Bohea ' and ' Hyson ' and ' Congou.' From the Malay, we get 
 ' bantam ' and ' sago ' and ' gamboge ' and ' shaddock. ' From 
 India, 'calico,' 'chintz,' and 'muslin,' 'toddy,' 'curry, 'and 'lac.' 
 From. Polynesia, ' taboo ' and ' tattoo. ' From the West Indies, 
 ' tobacco ' and ' potatoes ' and ' maize ' and ' hurricanes. ' From 
 North America, ' squaw ' and ' wigwam ' and ' pemmican. ' From 
 South America, ' hammock ' and 'jerked beef.' From Italy, 
 come 'banditti ' and 'charlatans' and 'pantaloons' and ' gazettes.' 
 From the Spanish, come 'mosquitoes' and 'negroes,' 'punctilios,' 
 'alligators,' and 'galas.' From the Portuguese, 'palaver,' 'coco,' 
 'fetish' (witchcraft), 'caste' and 'marmalade.' From the Dutch, 
 'yachts' and 'sloops' and 'schooners.' 'Ammonia' is Egyptian; 
 ' cyder,' Syrian ; ' mseander,' Lydian ; ' paradise,' Persian. 
 
 32. Other naturalized English words may be traced to their 
 origin thus : ' Tantalize ' is from Tantalus and Virgil ; ' herculean ' 
 from Hercules ; ' philippics ' from the Orations of Demosthenes 
 against Philip of Macedon ; ' hermetic ' from Hermes, the Egyp- 
 tian Mercury ; ' lazaretto ' from Lazarus, who ' sat at the rich 
 man's gate, full of sores ; ' ' simony ' is from the Simon who 
 thought that the ' Holy Ghost was to be bought with money ; ' 
 
 > Introduced at the time of the cru- an intoxicating drink, made from 
 eades : and taken from the name of hemp (' shash ')". 
 
Z2 WOEDS WITH DOUBLE FORMS. 
 
 ' dunce ' we owe 10 Duns Scotus ; ' pasquinade ' to a Roman 
 cobbler ; ' negus ' to a colonel of that name in Queen Anne's 
 time, skilled in mixing ' strong drink ; ' 'orrery' we owe to the 
 name of the patron, an earl of Orrery and Cork; 'spencers,' 
 and ' broughams,' and ' dahlias,' and ' tontines,' and ' martinets,' 
 and ' mackintoshes,' and ' d'oyleys,' and * daguerreotypes,' and 
 ' talbotypes,' and ' silhouettes,' all tell their own history, and 
 bear the name of their inventors ; ' stentorian,' and 'hectoring,' 
 and f quixotic,' are equally clear ; ' rhodomontade ' we owe to a 
 blusterer in Boiardo ; while ' reynard ' (literally ' right royal '), 
 and ' chanticleer,' and ' bruin,' have become common names for 
 the 'fox,' the ' cock,' and the 'bear,' ever since the publication 
 of the ' Reinecke Fuchs/ long one of the most popular tales of 
 Central Europe. 
 
 33. Names of places have, in the same way, originated many 
 common names: as, 'arras,' 'bayonet,' 'bezant,' 'cherry' 
 (Cerasus in Pontus), ' currants ' (Corinth), ' copper ' (Cyprus), 
 ' cambric ' (Cambray), ' cordwain ' (Cordova), ' damask ' and 
 ' damson ' (Damascus), ' dimity ' (Damietta), ' delf ' (Delft), 
 'ermine' (Armenian rat), 'guinea' (of Guinea gold), 'jalap' 
 (Jalapa), ' magnet ' (Magnesia), ' muslin ' (Mussoul, in Asia 
 Minor), ' peach ' (Persia), ' parchment ' (Pergamus), ' spaniel ' 
 (Spain), ' worsted ' (Worstead). 
 
 34. In tracing the words of our language, there are some facts 
 Important of special interest and importance. 
 
 facts in tra- j. Jt will be found, for example, that many words, 
 mentsof our radically the same, have double forms, the one from 
 language. the original source, the other from the language 
 through which the word has come to us : e.g. 'popular/'people;' 
 ' inimical,' ' enemy ;' 'secure,' 'sure ;' ' fidelity,' ' fealty ; ' ' spe- 
 cies,' ' spices ' (kinds of aromatic drugs) ; ' blaspheme,' ' blame ; ' 
 'tradition,' 'treason ;' 'regality,' 'royalty;' 'hospital," hotel;' 
 'persecute,' 'pursue;' 'superficies,' 'surface;' 'faction,' 'fashion;' 
 ' particle,' ' parcel ; ' ' potion,' 'poison ; ' 'redemption,' ' ransom ; ' 
 ' oration,' ' orison.' The first of each set of these words comes 
 directly from the Latin ; the second of each set through the 
 French. Similarly, we have ' adamant ' and ' scandal ' direct 
 from the Greek ; ' diamond ' and ' slander ' through the Latin ; 
 'desk' and 'girdle' we have from the Anglo-Saxon direct ; 'dish' 
 
SIMULATION. 23 
 
 and 'kirtle' through the German. From the Anglo-Saxon 
 ' cnaw/ we have ' know/ ' knowledge ; ' from the Latin form of 
 t, gno, or no, comes 'note,' 'noble,' 'ignominy,' 'ignorant:' 
 and from the Greek form gno, we have ' gnomon,' the face of a 
 dial, 'gnostic,' 'diagnosis/ etc. ; 'syrup/ 'sherbet/ and 'shrub/ 
 are from the Arabic, the first through the Latin, the second 
 through the Persian, the third through the Hindoo ; so of 
 ' episcopal ' and ' bishop/ ' priest ' and ' presbyter/ ' deacon ' 
 and ' diaconal.' 
 
 In all these cases we turn the double forms to the best account 
 we can : we give to each its own meaning, and thus convert 
 what would otherwise be an incumbrance into a help. 
 
 35. 2. Sometimes words from the same root take a double 
 Words vary- form, through accidental variations in spelling. 
 
 if 'how turn- Both f rms are generally preserved, and the entire 
 ed to account, meaning of the word is divided more or less fairly 
 between them : as, ' clot/ ' clod ; ' ' vend/ ' vent ; ' a ' float,' a 
 'fleet;' 'sop/ 'sup/ 'soup;' 'wake/ 'watch;' 'tamper/ 
 'temper;' ' grit," groats ;' 'brat/ 'brood/ 'breed;' 'drill/ 
 ' tliril/ ' trill ; ' ' burser/ ' purser ; ' ' snake/ ' sneak ; ' ' spirt/ 
 ' sprout ; ' ' stud/ ' steed ; ' ' brake/ ' breach ; ' ' deal/ ' dole ; ' 
 ' gulp/ ' gulph ; ' ' trice/ ' thrice ; ' ' band/ ' bond ; ' ' writhe/ 
 ' wreathe ; ' ' lurk/ ' lurch ; ' ' Francis/ ' Frances ; ' ' Philip/ 
 'Phillis.' 
 
 36. 3. There is often a tendency in words of foreign origin to 
 simulate an English form. They put on the appearance of 
 natives, when in truth they are aliens : e.g., 'beef-eater' is from 
 buffetier, and that from buffet, a small sideboard ; ' sparrow- 
 grass' is for asparagus ; 'Jerusalem artichoke ' is from the Spanish 
 girasol, ' turning to the sun ; ' ' oyes/ from the Norman-French 
 Oyez ! Listen ! Hear, hear ! ' sweetheart ' is for sweetard, i. e. 
 one very dear ; ' emerods ' for haemorrhoids ; ' liquorice ' is from 
 the Greek glycyrrhiza, sweet root ; ' frontispiece ' is put for 
 frontispice ; ' sovereign ' for sovran ; ' colleague ' for collegue ; 
 ' lanthom ' for lantern. ' Gooseberry ' is, properly, gorse-berry ; 
 ' bridegroom ' is bride-gum, one who keeps (gyman, hence guma, 
 a man) the bride ; ' Charles' wain ' is the fanner's (the ceorl's) 
 waggon ; ' to run a muck ' * is from the Malayan amuco, a word 
 
 Dryden and Pope. 
 
24 ERRONEOUS SPELLING. 
 
 descriptive of a man who, in a fit of frenzy, is ready to destroy 
 any who come in his way ;* ' night-mare ' is from 'Mara,' the 
 name of a Finland witch. (Compare Danish mare, an incubus.) 
 
 37. 4. Even when there is no tendency to conceal the foreign 
 origin of a word, the true origin is sometimes concealed through 
 erroneous and what may have been accidental spelling. 
 ' Coxcomb,' e. g., should be spelt ' cockscomb ; ' the comb of the 
 cock being the outward symbol of the fool's office. ' Grocer ' 
 ought to be ' grosser,' i. e. , one who sells in the gross or bulk, and 
 not in small quantities. ' Pigmy ' is ' pygmy ; ' a thing the size 
 of one's fist (irvyfjif)). ' Bran-new ' is ' brand-new,' (i. e. , ' burnt- 
 new,' 'fire-new' as Shakspeare calls it). 'Scrip' should be 
 ' script. ' ' Island ' should rather be ' eylancl. ' The derivation is 
 ' ea ' or ' ey ' an isle, as in ' Anglesea ' (the isle of the Angles) ; 
 ' Jersey ' (Caesar's island) ; ' Ely ' (of willows or of eels). 
 ' Syrens ' is properly 'sirens' (tmpdi) from their attractive power. 
 ' Cozen ' is either a form of the German kosen to kiss (A. S. cos) 
 to caress, or ' cousin,' from ' consanguineus.' ' Whole ' is another 
 form of ' healed,' and the ' w ' conceals this connexion. ' Policy,' 
 as indicating how affairs of state (rroXiTein) are managed, is 
 rightly spelt ; but ' policies ' of insurance ought probably to have 
 the '11,' as derived from polliceor, to promise or assure. 'Morrice- 
 dance ' is the dance of the Moors (the ' Maurians ' of the Prayer 
 Book). 'Shamefaced' is 'shamefast.' 'Fancy' is 'phansy.' 
 ' Field ' is land where the trees are ' felled.' All these last words 
 were once accurately spelt. Now their origin is concealed. 1 " 
 
 38. 5. Many of the words, whose origin we have traced, are 
 compounds or derivatives : they are made up of two words, or 
 of parts of words. If language is to be pure and accurate, both 
 the words or parts of words which are thus compounded ought 
 to be taken from the same source. ' Criticize,' for example, is 
 accurately formed : both parts of the word are Greek. ' Human- 
 ize ' and ' civilize,' on the contrary, are inaccurately formed ; the 
 first part of each word is Latin ; the latter part ' ize ' is Greek. 
 
 Such words are therefore called hybrids. 
 Kuie"of 8 Na- These hybrids are classified thus : 
 turaliza- i. Saxon words with classic suffixes : 
 
 Shepherdess, wondrous, mistify. 
 
 D'lsraeli, Curiosities of Lit. * Sec Trench on "Words, 
 
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNONYMES. 25 
 
 2. Latin words with Greek suffixes or prefixes : realize, 
 
 civilize, anti-social. 
 
 3. Compounds made up of tvords taken from different lan- 
 
 guages : Mob-o-cracy, bi-gamy, slav-o-cracy, neck-hand- 
 ker-chief. 
 
 Though, these combinations are all exceptional, the war against 
 hybridism must not be carried too far. Many Latin words, for 
 example, are so thoroughly naturalized, that we never scruple to 
 use them as natives. Hence we compare them, if Adjectives ; 
 decline them, if Nouns ; and conjugate them, if Verbs, as if they 
 were properly subject to all the rules of our speech. Hence we 
 say, 'chasfen' (i.e., to make chaste or holy), ' humoursome,' 
 'artful,' 'useless,' 'subscriber,' ' iaisehocd,' 'martyrdom,' 'sureti- 
 ship,' ' rudeness,' 'aptness,' ' passiveness,' 'polite??/,' 'round/ 1 ?/,' not 
 only without misgiving, but with the feeling that we are adding 
 to the treasures of ' English undefiled. ' Yet these are all hybrid 
 forms. 
 
 Malformations of this kind are avoided by taking all the parts 
 of a word from the same tongue. 
 
 39. A knowledge of the Etymology of words is a great help 
 Etymology to accuracy in xising them : the shade of difference 
 accuracy tO * n meam ' n g being often supplied by the original root, 
 illustrated ' Loathing ' and ' hatred,' ' detestation ' and ' abhor- 
 adjectlves 1 , 8 ' rence >' f r examples, seem synonymous terms. The 
 and verbs' first, however, describes the moral dislike, or nausea, 
 which is excited by a disagreeable object ; the second, the hot 
 displeasure which even holy beings may feel against sin. 
 ' Detestation ' is the earnest dislike which compels us to bear 
 witness against the thing we condemn ; while ' abhorrence ' 
 shrinks shuddering lack from some object of terror and disgust. 
 
 40. Similarly, ' arrogant,' ' presumptuous,' 'insolent,' 'imper- 
 tinent,' ' saucy,' ' rude,' seem at first nearly synonymous words. 
 The difference between them is ascertained most easily by 
 examining their roots. An ' arrogant ' man claims (ad-rogo) 
 more honour and observance than are his due : a ' presumptuous ' 
 man takes things before he has earned the right to take them ,* 
 an ' insolent ' man violates the customary rules which society 
 lays down to regulate the intercourse of social life : and an 
 
26 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNONYMESf 
 
 ' impertinent ' man seeks to know or to meddle in things that 
 do not belong to him : a ' saucy ' man says and does stinging, 
 pungent things, litter as salt : while ' rudeness ' describes the 
 behaviour of an unlearned man, who knows no letter. 
 
 Again, ' to implant/ ' to engraft,' ' to inculcate,' 'to instil,' ' to 
 infuse,' are similar words ; but they differ, according to their 
 etymology. Principles may be ' implanted ' in the mind in 
 childhood : they are ' engrafted ' on an existing stock later in 
 life : they are 'inculcated,' trod in, by authority, or by discipline, 
 sometimes without taking root. Sentiments and gentler thoughts 
 are ' instilled,' dropping as the dew ; or they are ' infused,' poured 
 in, by more vigorous effort. ' Infused ' sentiments are often 
 more partial and less permanent than those that are ' instilled. ' 
 They are less likely to penetrate ; they often pass over the mind, 
 without pervading it. 
 
 Similarly, ' implicate ' and * involve ' are similar words, but 
 with a marked difference. The first means to fold into a thing ; 
 the second, to roll into it. What is folded, however, may be 
 folded but once, or partially ; what is f involved ' is rolled many 
 times. Hence men are said to be ' implicated ' when they have 
 taken but a small share in a transaction : they are said to be 
 ' involved ' when they are deeply concerned. Criminal charges 
 are generally clear and soon settled : men are ' implicated ' in 
 them. Law-suits and debts are intricate and embarrassing, and 
 those who are ' involved ' find it hard to get free. 
 
 41. It must be carefully noted, however, that while ( etymo- 
 Not always logy ' is often an important help to the meaning of 
 a safe guide, WO rds, it is not always a safe or a sufficient guide. 
 ' Countryman,' 'peasant, ' 'swain,' 'hind,' 'rustic,' 'churl,' 'clown,' 
 for example, are in meaning very similar words. 'Country- 
 man ' is one belonging to the country, as distinguished from the 
 town ; ' peasant ' has the same meaning, and is derived from a 
 French root (pays) ; * hind ' and ' swain ' are each equivalent to 
 labourer ; ' rustics ' are born and bred in the country ; ' churl ' 
 describes etymologically the tenant-farmer of Anglo-Saxon 
 times ; as ' clown ' describes the cultivator of the soil (colonus) 
 and the early settler (colonist) in a new country. All these 
 words, therefore, are closely allied. The first two, however, it 
 wi [ I be iioticed, are in character indifferent. ' Swain ' and ' hind ' 
 
NOT A SAFE GUIDE. 27 
 
 are nearly always used to designate rustic innocence ; while 
 ' churl ' and ' clown ' each imply the uncouth manners that too 
 often distinguished uncivilized {i.e., country) life. 
 
 Nor would any one easily guess from ' arrogant ' and ' pre- 
 sumptuous ' the meaning of ' prerogative ' and ' anticipation ' 
 (rogo, ante, and capio) ; or from ' insolent ' the meaning of 
 ' enormous ' or ' immoral ; ' or ' demure ' (norma, mores, des 
 mosurs, good manners) ; or from ' sauce,' the meaning of a large 
 ' salary ' (sal). And yet the same or similar roots lie at the 
 foundation of each set of words. 
 
 42. We may go even further. It must have been noted 
 already that we have in our language many synonymous words 
 derived from Saxon and classic sources, the roots having the 
 same meaning in their respective tongues. Etymologically, 
 therefore, such words are very much alike. And yet, in spite of 
 etymology, these words, if in use, have different meanings, nor is 
 it possible to interchange them : indeed they are retained, on the 
 understanding that each does its own work. If once this under- 
 standing is broken, and two words come to mean precisely the 
 same thing, one ceases to be current, and is soon found only in 
 the cabinets of the curious. The following adjectives will illus- 
 trate this remark. Etymologically, those of each group are, in 
 portions of the roots, synonymous ; but a marked difference of 
 meaning will immediately appear, when we begin to apply them. 
 
 Birthright: genealogical, natal, native. 
 Lively, lifelike: biological, zoological, vital, vivacious, vivid 
 Kindly : general, generic, genial. 
 Kingly : basilica, regal, royal. 
 
 Healthy : salutary, salubrious, sane. * 
 
 Timely : chronic, temporary, temporal. 
 - Tasty : cesthetical, gustatory. 
 Motherly : metropolitan, maternal. 
 
 Earthy, earthly : terrestrial (See 1 Cor. xv. 40, 47), geological. 
 Woody, wooden : sylvan, ligneous, savage. 
 
 43. Archbishop Whately notes that the variety of our language 
 enables a sophist to assume the appearance of giving a reason, 
 when he is in fact only repeating his assertion in words taken 
 from another source ; as when the propriety of affording to all 
 
z NOTES-SAXON EOOTS, 
 
 mankind ' an unlimited liberty of expressing their sentiments ' 
 is stated as a plea for ' freedom of speech.' 
 
 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 44. Select Saxon Roots ; with a few English derivatives, 
 intended to illustrate the changes that words undergo. 
 
 Me, oak, acorn (O. E. oke-corne). 
 2Eo, egg, eyry (f. e., eggery). 
 JEcEE (a field), acre, ' God's Acre.' 
 2Ea, ere, early, erst. 
 
 BAKAN, to bake, bakster (Baxter), batch. 
 
 BANA (death-blow), bane, henbane. 
 
 BANC, a bank, bench, etc. 
 
 BAB, a boar, brawn, brawny. 
 
 BEATAN, to beat, bat, battery, battle, beetle (what strikes against?), 
 
 beetling, combat, debate, abattoir (allied form through French). 
 BENDAN, to bend, bandy-legged. 
 BEBAU, to bear, bearing, bairn, barrow, berry, brat, berth, bier, birth, 
 
 burden, forbear. 
 BETAN, to make better, best (betest), abet (though some say from oldFr. 
 
 abetter). 
 
 BEOEQAN ( ^ P r t ec * or br ing under cover), borough, burgess, 
 
 , o' ,* \ burrow, bury, burglar, harbour ? harbinger, one who 
 
 AJblvCrJl. a Clly, I . , _ _ 
 
 v provides a harbour. 
 
 BIDDAN, to bid (to pray), bidding, bead, beadsman, beadle ? bode, fore- 
 bode, forbid. 
 
 BIQAN or Bugan, to bow (or bend), a bow ; a bow for the sling, a bower 
 (anchor), bowsprit, bow-window, 'Bight,' bough, bout, booth (see 
 Buan), a bay, buxom (bcugh-some, easily bent, lively), elbow. 
 
 BINDAN, to bind, bind-weed, hopbine, bonds, bands, bound, bundle, 
 husband (see Buan). 
 
 BITAN, to bite, bit, embitter (com. remorse'), bait (a hook), bait (a horse). 
 
 BLEO (pale), bleak, bleach (BLAC, black). 
 
 BLAWIAN, to blow (or breathe) f blow, bloom, blossom, blade, blast, blister, 
 
 BLOWAN, to blow or blossom, I bluster, bloat, blaze, blazen, blush. 
 
 BEAD, broad, broadcloth, breadth, broadside, (and perhaps) board, aboard, 
 bread (others take this last from Bredan, to nourish). 
 
 BBECAN, to break, breakers, brake, bracken, breach, bray, brink (tho 
 edge of a broken cliff), brow, brick (a piece of burnt clay), broccoli. 
 
 EOWAN, i ^ brew, barley-bree, brewin, broth, brose, brewer. 
 BETTO, malt, ) 
 
 BUAN (to dwell, to till), boor, neighbour, bower (and some), husband- 
 man (see Bindan), 
 
AND THEIR DERIVATIVES. 29 
 
 BYENAN, } to burn, burnish, brown, brunt, bronze, brimsiane, bran-d 
 
 BBENNAN, J new, brindled, auburn, brand-y (burnt wine). 
 
 CEAP, to turn, to exchange or sell, cheap (East Cheap), chapman, Chip- 
 ping, Chepstow, chop (and change), coup (Scotch). 
 
 CEABCIAN ) to creak > creak > crack, crackle. 
 
 | to crack, cracket, cricket, chirp (chirk, Chaucer), screach, 
 ' ) shriek. 
 
 CENNAIT, } (to produce), kindred, akin, kind, kin, mankind, kindness, 
 
 CYN, J (and by some) king (see Cunnan). 
 
 CEOEL, a churl, churlish, carle, carlin, girl (orig. of either sex, kirla). 
 
 CLAM, a clasp or bandage, clammy (what sticks), clemmed (pinched). 
 
 CLIFIAN, to cleave to ; clay, cleaver (a piece of leather that sticks), 
 claggy, cloggy. 
 
 CLUFIAN, to cleave (or split), cleaver, cleft, cliff, clift, clove, clover 
 (' cloven leaves '). 
 
 CEUC or Cryc, a crook, crutch, crick, creek, crotchet, croach, cricket 
 (game of). 
 
 CtTNjrAS (to know, to be able), can, con, cunning, ken, king, Cunning- 
 ham, Coningsby, ' canny,' congor (from Danish form) eel ; i.e., ' king ' 
 of eels. 
 
 DAEG or Day, dayspring, dawn, daisy (' day's eye '). 
 
 DEOE, dear, dearth, darling, endear. 
 
 DBAGAN, to draw, drag, draggle, drawle, dray, dredge, drudge, drain, 
 draught. 
 
 DEINCAN, drencan, to drink, drench, drown, drunkard. 
 
 DEYGAN, to dry, drought, idrug ('dried' plants). 
 
 DBYPAN, to drip, drop, dribble, droop, driblet, drivel, dripping-pan. 
 
 DEJIAJT (to judge), deem, doom, doomsday. 
 
 FEDAN, to feed, food, fodder, foster- (i.e. foodster) mother, 
 
 FENGAN (to catch), fangs, finger. 
 
 FEOH (cattle-money, comp. pecunia), fee, feudal. 
 
 FLEOGAN, to flee, to fly, flight, flighty, fledge, flicker, fleet, flit, flutter, 
 fluster, flurry, fly-catcher. 
 
 FLOWAN, to flow, 1 a floe (of ice), float, flood, fleet, flotilla, flush, flot- 
 
 FLEOTAN, to float, j sen (goods found floating). 
 
 For, foot, fetter, fetlock. 
 
 FUL, foul, fulsome, filthy, defile. 
 
 GAN, to go, ago (time gone), gang, gangway, undergo (compare Ganges 
 
 through Sanscrit). 
 GAST, a ghost (a spirit), ghastly, aghast, gas. 
 
 :t n o e gSd, sure) ' } ^ ***** **** ^. ". *** 
 
 r, a gleam, glimmer, glimpse, glow. 
 GOD, good, God, gospel (good news), gossip (God-sib, i.e., akin in 
 
 God). 
 GOEST (furze), gorse, gooseberry ? 
 
30 NOTES-SAXON ROOTS, 
 
 GRAF AN, to grave (or dig), engrave, the grave, groove, grove (a placa 
 
 hollowed out of a thicket,), graft, grub. 
 
 GRAPIAN, \ to grapple, gripe, grope, group (a cluster), grapnel (a small 
 GRTPAN, J anchor), grape (what hangs in groups), grape-shot, 
 GEOPAN, ) grovel. 
 
 HABBAN, to have, haft (what is held), hap (what is had), happy, happen, 
 
 perhaps, behave (to have yourself, or conduct). 
 
 HELAN to heal ( ^ a ^ e health, hail (to wish health), holy (whole 
 KEL whole morally), holyrood (holy cross), hallow, whole 
 
 ' ( (rather hwole), wholesale, 
 
 HAM (a dwelling), home, hamlet, names of places in -ham, 
 HANGIAN, to hang, hangings, hinge, hung-beef. 
 HEALDAN, to hold, a holding, behold (to hold in view), beholden (obliged), 
 
 upholsterer, haft, halter (for holding), hilt (what is held, see 
 
 Habban) . 
 
 HEBBAN, \ to heave (to lift), heave-offering, heaven (' the lyft '), heavy, 
 HEFAN, J head (the elevated part of the body), headland, behead. 
 HRADHTAN (to hasten), ready, rathe, rather. 
 
 ING (a meadow), The Ings ; and names of places in -ing. 
 
 LJEDAN, to lead, leader, ladder, mislead, load- (i.e. lode-) stone. 
 
 LET, \ (slow), late, latter, last, belated. 
 
 LSTAN, } (to hinder), to let, lazy, laches ? 
 
 LEAG (a field), lea, names in Lty, as Leyton, Sommerley. 
 
 !to lie, to lay, lair, layer, belay (to put in secret or besiege), 
 outlay, relay, law (laid down), lea, ley (land at rest in 
 grass), ledge, ledger (the book that lies in the counting- 
 house), low, to lower, lowlands. 
 LOMA (household stuff), loom, lumber ? 
 LOT, love, beloved, ' lief.' 
 
 MAGAN (to be able, or strong), may, might, mighty, dismay (rob of 
 might), termagant (a mighty woman), main (the great ocean, not bays ; 
 or the continent, not islands), mainmast, 'might and main.' 
 
 M^NGAN, to mingle, among, mongrel. 
 
 HEBE (a lake or sea), names in -mere, Thirlmere, etc. 
 
 P.&DH, a path, paddle, footpad, footpath. 
 
 PICAN, to pick, "I picke t, peak) beak> pike> pi c fe ere i ( sma n p ii ce ) ) p i tc h. 
 
 Pic, a point, ) 
 
 REAFIAN, to rob, ) Bereave, rover, robber, ravenous, raven, ravin. 
 
 REAFE (spoil), J 
 
 RECAN (to heed), reckless, to reck, to reckon. 
 
 SCACAN, to shake, shock, shocking. 
 
 SCAPAN, to shape, shapeless, ' ship-shape,' friends/*/;;, landscape. 
 
 SCEADAN, to shade, a shade, shadow, shed, sheathe. 
 
AND THEIR DERIVATIVES. 31 
 
 SCEOTAN, to shoot, a shoot, shot, shout, shut (shoot the bolt), shutter, 
 shuttle (what shoots the cross threads), sheet (shot out or expended), 
 scud, undershot. 
 
 SCEEAN (to cut, or separate), scar, scarse (cut short), scarf (a cut piece of 
 silk), score (what is cut or marked in), share, shard (a piece of a vessel), 
 ' sharded beetle ' (having cut wings, or 'a dung beetle,' from shard, 
 dung), sharp, sharper, shroud, shears, sheer (separated, clear), shire, 
 shire-reeve, shore, short, shreds, skirt, Skerries (cut or cragged islands). 
 
 SCUFIAN, to shove, shovel, shuffle, scuffle, scoop ? sheaf P 
 
 SCYLAN (to separate, distinguish), scale, a shell, scales (thin plates, or 
 shells), scalp, scallop, shale (clay slate found in scales), skill, scull (the 
 thin shell enclosing the brain). 
 
 SLAGAN, to slay (to strike), slaughter, sledge-hammer (a sledge for ice is 
 from slidan), sleight (a quick stroke), sleek (beaten smooth), sly, sley 
 (the reed that beats the wolf), sleave (thread ready for the sley ; raw, 
 not spun). 
 
 SLAWIAN, to be slow, sloth, slug, sluggard, slack. 
 
 SNICAN (to creep), sneak, snake, snail (dim; snseg-el). 
 
 SprNNAN, to spin, spinster, spindle, spider, homespun, 
 
 STEAL (a place), stall, forestall, instal, pedestal. 
 
 STELAN, to steal, ) , 
 
 STRAIT, to go stealthily, } to Btalk ' stal ^ orth ( rtl1 stealing). 
 
 STEPAN (to raise up), steep, steeple. 
 
 STICIAN, to stick, stitch, sting, stake ? stickler, stock, stockade, stocks, 
 stockfish (dried for stock or store), steak? stako, tstockstill, over- 
 stock. 
 
 STIGAN (to ascend), stage, stair, Stye-head, storey, stirrup (rup = rope). 
 
 STOC, } (a place), names of places in -stock, -stow, stow-away, bestow, 
 
 STOW, ) steward ? 
 
 STYBAN, to steer (to govern), stern (where the ship is steered), starboard 
 (i. e. the tiller being in the right hand oi. the steersman tho right 
 side) . 
 
 SYLLAN, to sell, sale, handsel, wholesale. 
 
 , to take, to teach, mistaken, taught, token. 
 TIDAN, to betide (to happen), ' time and tide.' 
 TEEOW, true, troth, betroth, truism. 
 TEEWSIAN, to trust, trustee, entrust. 
 
 TWA, J two, twain, twin, twice, twelve, twenty, to twine, between, 
 
 entwine. 
 
 WANIAN (to fail), wan, wane. 
 
 WEALD, to wield (or govern), wold (0". E. power), Bretwalda. 
 
 WALD (a wood), "Weald of Kent, wold, Walt-ham. 
 
 (aware, ward (to watch, or in custody of), warden, 
 warder, wardrobe, warn, wear or weir (for 
 saving water), warrant (a defence or authority), 
 warren (to preserve rabbits), guard, guardian. 
 
32 NOTES LATIN BOOTS, 
 
 WEFAN, to weave, web (what 3 woven), weft or woof (what crosses the 
 warp in weaving), web-footed, and perhaps wife (one who works at 
 the woof), woman, i.e. web or woof-man (comp. spinster), housewife. 
 
 WEG, away, \ wayfarer, wayward, awkward, i.e. away-ward, 
 
 WAGGIAN, to wag, ( (comp. <o-ward) to waggle, waver, waggon, 
 
 WEQEN, to move, j wain, weigh (anchor), wave. 
 
 WENAN (to think), ween, overweening. 
 
 WISSAN, \Vitan (to know), wise, wisdom, wizard, witness (knowledge 
 and evidence as known), wit, wistful (full of thought, earnest), Wit- 
 ena-gemot, 
 
 WISE (manner, Ger. weise), likewise, 'leastways.' 
 
 WEECAN (to punish), wreak, wreck, wrack, wretched, wretch. 
 
 WBINGAN', to wring, wrench, wrong, wrangle, wrangler. 
 
 WYBT (root, Ger. wurzel), Colewort, mangel wurzel, etc. 
 
 45. Select Latin roots ; with specimens of English derivatives. 
 AGO, actum, to lead, drive, do, act : (often IQO in comp.) AGITO (frequent- 
 ative form) : 
 Action, agent, agile, ambiguity, coagulate, cogent, cogitate, exigency, 
 
 navigate, prodigal. 
 Airo, to love ; amicus, a friend ; inimicus : 
 
 Amateur, amatory, amiable, amity, enmity, inimical 
 Axoo, anxi, to vex, to stifle : 
 Anger, anguish, anxiety. 
 ANITOS, a year, a circle : 
 
 Annals, anniversary, annular, annuity, biennial, millennial, super- 
 annuate. 
 APEBIO, apertum, to open ; CO-OPEEIO, to cover : 
 
 Aperture, April, coverture, curfew, covert, overt. 
 AUDIO, to hear, to obey : 
 
 Audience, audit, obey (ob-audi). 
 
 Bis, twice ; Bini, two by two : 
 
 Binary, biscuit (twice baked), combine, bissextile, billion, balance. 
 
 CABALLUS, a little horse : 
 
 Cavalry, chivalry, cavalier, chivalric, Keppel. 
 CADO, casum, to fall; Cido in comp. : 
 
 Accident, cadence, cascade, case, casual, coincide, decay, deciduous, 
 
 occasion, occidental. 
 CJEDO, caesum, to cut, or kill ; Cido in comp. : 
 
 Caesura, concise, decide, excise (a portion cut off as duty or a tally ?), 
 
 precision, regicide, suicide, incisors. 
 CANDEO, to glow with heat, to be bright or white ; Cendo in comp. : 
 
 Candor, candle, candidate (Roman aspirants to office wearing 
 white robes), chandelier, chandler, chaste ? incense, incendiary, 
 incentive. 
 
AND THEIR DERIVATIVES. 33 
 
 CANO, to sing ; CANTO (frequent.), to sing often, to charm : 
 
 Cant, accent, canticle, canto, chanticleer, chant, enchant, recant, 
 
 incantation, ratiocination, vaticinate, precentor. 
 CAPIO, captum, to take ; CIPIO and CUPO in comp. : 
 
 Accept, anticipate, capable, capsule, captive, caitiff, conceive, deceive, 
 
 except, municipal, occupy, prince, principle, recipient, recover. 
 CAPTTT, the head, in Fr. CHEF : 
 
 Cap, cape (head-land), capital, capitation, capitulate, captain, chapter, 
 chapel, chaplain, chaplet, chaperon (originally a head-dress worn 
 by a middle-aged lady), chieftain, decapitate, precipice, precipitate, 
 recapitulate, achieve, corporal (caporal). 
 CAETTS, dear : 
 
 Car- ess (to treat as dear), charity. 
 CAUSA, a cause, reason, lawsuit, blame. 
 
 Accuse, cause, excuse, recusant, accusative. 
 CEDO, to go, yield, stop ; Cesso (freq.) : 
 
 Abscess, accession, ancestry, cease, concede, decease, precedence, 
 
 process. 
 CEENO, cretum, to sift, to judge or decide : 
 
 Decree, discern, discreet, secret, unconcern. 
 CLAETJS, clear, shrill : 
 
 Clarify, clarion, chanticleer, declare. 
 CLAUDO, clausum, to shut, to close, finish ; CLUDO in comp. : 
 
 Clause, cloister, close, closet, conclude, disclose, recluse, exclude, 
 
 seclusion. 
 COLO, cultum, to cultivate, culture : 
 
 Colony, coulter, agriculture, occult, auscultation. 
 CUBA, care, securus, safe, Fr. sure : 
 
 Accurate, cure, curious, procure, proxy (procuracy), secure, sinecure, 
 
 curate, assurance, curative. 
 CUEEO, cursum, to run, to go swiftly : 
 
 Concourse, concur, course, currency, curricle, cursory, corsair, dis- 
 course, excursion, incur, recur, succour. 
 
 Dico, to say, speak. DICTO (freq.) : 
 
 Addicted (in Rome one adjudged as a slave was said to be addictus), 
 indite, interdict, verdict, ditto (as said), index (a pointer), indica- 
 tive, banditto (one given over to the ban), juridical. 
 DIES, a day, diurnus, daily (Fr. jour) : 
 
 Diary, diurnal, adjourn (to put off to another day), journal, jour- 
 ney (a day's travel), a journeyman (one hired to work by the 
 day). 
 DIGNOE, to think worthy : 
 
 Condign, deign, dignity, disdain, indignant. 
 Do, datum, to give, to put ; Ditum in comp. : 
 
 Abscondo (to put oneself away), add, condition, date, deodand, edit, 
 pardon, render (red-do, through the Fr.), rendezvous, traitor, 
 
 1) 
 
34 NOTES LATIN BOOTS, 
 
 DOLED, to grieve, to bo troubled : 
 
 Condole, doleful, indolent (not taking 'trouble'). 
 Duco, ductum, to lead, to draw : 
 
 Aqueduct, conduit, ductile, conduce, conduct, duke, ducat (comp.), 
 'daric,' 'sovereign,' a 'Napoleon '), Doge, educate, induction, 
 
 EMO, emptum, to take, to buy : 
 
 Exempt (bought off, or freed from onerous duty), peremptory, pre- 
 emption, prompt, redeem, impromptu. 
 ENS, ESSE, being, to be : 
 
 Absent, essence, entity, interest, present, representative. 
 Eo, itur, to go ; IENS, going (Saxon higan, Ire) : 
 
 Ambition (a going round to solicit favours, or to accomplish a pur- 
 pose), count (com-es), eyre (iter), circuit, obituary, perish, 
 preterit, sedition, transit, trance. 
 EXTEKNIS, outward, strange : 
 
 Exterior, extreme (from sup.), strange (through the French). 
 
 FACIO, factum, to make, or do (fait, participle, Fr,) : Ficio in comp. ; 
 f acies, the form, the face : 
 
 Artifice, effect, benefice, confection, defeat, deficient, deface, facetious, 
 fact, faction, fashion, feasible, feat, feature, forfeit (to lose by 
 doing), infectious, officer, perfect, profit, refectory, superficial, 
 burface, sufficient, sacrifice, difficult, facade. 
 FEED LATTHM, to bear, carry, bring : 
 
 Circumference, collate, confer, defer, differ, dilatory, ferry, fertile, 
 indifferent, legislator, oblation, prelate, proffer, refer, relate, suffer, 
 superlative, lucifer, transfer, vociferate. 
 FOIXCM, a leaf, or sheet : 
 
 Foil, folio, portfolio, trefoil (three-leaved clover). 
 FONS, a fountain : 
 
 Font, fount. 
 FOE, fan, to speak ; Fatum, speaking : 
 
 Affable, fable, fate, fatal, ineffable, infant, nefarious, preface, Infanta. 
 FIDES, faith, trust ; FIDO (Fr. fier), to trust : 
 
 Affiance, affidavit, confidant, defy, infidel, perfidy, fealty. 
 FBANGO, fractum, to break : 
 
 Fragile, frail, fringe, irrefragable, ospray (ossifraga, bone-breaker, a 
 
 kind of eagle), refractory, suffrage, saxifrage. 
 FETNDO, f usum, to pour, to melt : 
 
 Confound, confusion, diffuse, foundry, refund, profuse, suffusion. 
 
 GENUS, a kind ; Gens, a race ; Geno, gigno, to beget : 
 
 Congenial, generous (having family orrank), genius, genteel, gentle, 
 gentile, gentry, genuine, ingenious, ingenuous, degeneracy, 
 progeny, regeneration, indigenous. 
 
AND THEIR DERIVATIVES. 35 
 
 GRADUS, a step ; GEADIOB, GEESSUS, to step, or go : 
 
 Grade, gradual, gradient, graduate, aggressor, congress, degrade, 
 
 degree, digress, ingredient, retrograde, transgress. 
 GEATIA, favour, free gift ; in pi., thanks : 
 
 Gratis, gratitude, gratuity, gracious, grateful, gratify, congratulate, 
 
 disgrace, ingratiate. 
 GEAVIS, heavy, severe, troubled : 
 
 Grave, aggravate, aggrieve, grief. 
 GEEX, gregis, a flock : 
 
 Aggregate, congregation, egregious, gregarious. 
 
 HABEO, to have; HABITO (freq.), to have often, and to dwell (A. S. 
 habban) ; Debeo (dehabeo), to owe ; Habilis, able ; Debilis, weak : 
 Ability, debenture, debit, debt, deshabille, devoir (both through Fr.), 
 
 exhibition, habit, habiliments, inhabitant, prohibit, 
 HOEPES, a host, or a guest : 
 
 Hospitable, hospital, hotel, spital, host, hostler. 
 
 JACIO, jactum, to throw (Jicio in comp.) ; Jaculor (intensive), to hurl : 
 Abject, adjective, conjecture, dejection, ejaculate, interjection, ob- 
 jection, projectile, jet (through Fr.), jetty, jut out. 
 JUNQO, junctum, to join (joindre, Fr.) : 
 
 Adjunct, conjoin, conjunction, enjoin, joiner, joint, jointure, junc- 
 ture, junto, rejoinder, subjunctive. 
 
 LEGO, to send as representative, to bequeath : 
 
 Allege (to send as a plea), colleague, college (or both from ligo), 
 
 delegate, legacy, legation. 
 LEOIO, to gather, choose, read ; Ligo in comp. : 
 
 Collect, diligent, elect, eligible, intellect, lecture, legend, legible, 
 
 neglect, predilection, recollect, sacrilege, select. 
 LEVO , to lighten, to raise, to lift ; LEVIS, light, easy : 
 
 Alleviate, elevate, levee (an early morning gathering), lever, levant 
 (the sun-rising, or east of the Mediterranean), levy, levity, rele- 
 vant, relief, relievo (the raised part of a figure in sculpture). 
 LIGO, to bind, to tie (lier, Fr.) : 
 
 Allegiance, league, liege (vassal or sovereign), ligament, ally (Fr.), 
 obligation, obligato (a piece of music bound to one instrument),, 
 religion (binding again to God), or from relego, to think again. 
 Locus, a place : 
 
 Locale, local, couch (collocare), lieutenant, purlieus, locomotive. 
 Luo, to wash, diluvium, a deluge : 
 
 Ablution, alluvial (washed to a place by a stream) , deluge, dilute, 
 diluvial (made by or pertaining to a flood), pollute (pro- or per- 
 luo)? 
 
 MANEO, mansum, to stay, to abide : 
 
 Meuse, mansion, permanent, remnant (re"manent), remain. 
 
 D 2 
 
35 NOTES-LATIN ROOTS, 
 
 MANUS, a hand : 
 
 Amanuensis, emancipate, legerdemain, maintain (teneo), manage, 
 manoeuvre ('opus,' ceuvre, Fr.), manure, mortmain, quadru- 
 manous. 
 MEHCOB, to buy, to trade ; MEEX, merchandise : 
 
 Commerce, market, mercenary, mercer, merchant, mercantile. 
 MINUO, to lessen : 
 
 Minor, minuet, mfnute, minute, mite, minim, diminish. 
 MITTO, missuin, to send : 
 
 Admit, commissary, committee, demise (a handing down, and so 
 death), dismiss, intermit, intromit (to meddle with), mass, mitti- 
 mus, mission, permit, premiss, premises (houses or lands), promise, 
 remittance, omission, submission, surmise, message (through Fr.). 
 MODUS, a measure ; Moderor, to limit, commodus, convenient : 
 
 Commodity, incommode, model, moderate, modesty, modify. 
 MOVEO, moturn, to move ; Mobilis, easily moved : 
 
 Commotion, mob, moment, mote, remove, remote. 
 MOEDEO, morsum, to bite : 
 
 Mordant, morsel, remorse. 
 Mtrarrs, a gift, a station or office ; Immunis, free from duty : 
 
 Common, commune, commonalty, community, excommunicate, im- 
 munity, munificent, remunerate. 
 
 NASCOB, natus, to be born : 
 
 Nascent, innate, nation, nature, native, cognate, preternatural. 
 XAVIS, a ship (vovs, Gr.) ; NAYITA, a sailor ; Nav-igo, to sail a ship : 
 
 Aeronaut, naval, navigate, navy, nautical, nautilus, nausea. 
 NOCEO, to hurt : 
 
 Innocent, noxious, nuisance, noisome (through Fr.). 
 KOEIIA, a rule : 
 
 Abnormal, enormous, normal. 
 Xosco, notum, to know (XrruM in comp.) ; Nobilis, worthy to be known : 
 
 Cognition, denote, nobility, noblesse (Fr.), note, notary, notice, 
 notion, connoisseur (Fr.), incognito, recognizance, reconnoitre. 
 
 OLEO, olitum (or oletum ultum), to grow, to smell : 
 
 Abolish, adult, obsolete, olfactory, redolent, prolific, proletarian. 
 OITEN, a sign, an omen : 
 
 Abominate, ominous. 
 OEIOE, ortus, to arise ; OEIGO, a rising or source : 
 
 Oriental, original, abortive, aboriginal. 
 Os, oris, the mouth ; OEO, oratum, to speak, to pray ; oraculum : 
 
 Adore, inexorable, oracle, oration, orison, oral, orifice, oscillate. 
 
 PANDO. passum, to spread : 
 
 Pace, compass, compasses, expanse, passage, passenger, trespass. 
 
AND THEIR DERIVATIVES. 37 
 
 PANIS, bread : 
 
 Accompany P companion ? panada, pantry, panniers, appanage. 
 PANNTJS, a piece or patch of cloth : 
 
 Pane, pannel, empannel (to enrol on a panel as jurors). 
 PAE, like, equal : 
 
 Pair, peer, peerless, parity, disparage, nonpareil, an umpire (i, e-, 
 
 a nonpair) ? 
 PAEIO, partum, to bring forth : 
 
 Parent, parturient, oviparous (ovum, an egg) , viper (i. e,, vivipar) . 
 PAEO, paratum, to get ready : 
 
 Apparatus, apparel, parade, prepare, reparation, sever (from 
 
 separo). 
 PAES, a part or share ; PAETTOB, to divide ; Portio, a share : 
 
 Depart, partial, parcel, particle, particular, parse, partner, propor- 
 tion. 
 PASCO, pastum, to feed : 
 
 Antepast, pastor, pasture, repast. 
 PAX, pacis, peace : 
 
 Appease, pacify, peace. 
 TENDED, pensum, to hang ; Perpendiculum, a plumb line : 
 
 Independent, pendulum, perpendicular, suspense, propeiise, pennant. 
 PENDO, pensum, to weigh, to ponder, to hang (in composition traus., as 
 pendeo is intrans.) (Fr., penser, to think) : 
 Appendix, compensate, dispense, expend, equipoise (through Fr.), 
 
 pensive, pansy, indipensable, stipend, prepense, pension. 
 PES, pedis, a foot : 
 
 Biped, etc., expedite, impediment, expedient, centipede, podal, 
 empeach (Fr., from Impedire), pediment, cap-a-pie (head to 
 foot). 
 PISCIS, a fish : 
 
 Piscatorial, porpoise (i. e., pore pisce, 'poisson,' Fr.), grampus (i. e., 
 
 grand poisson) . 
 PETO, petitum, to seek, to ask : 
 
 Appetency, compete, impetuous, petition, petulant (freq. form), 
 
 repeat. 
 PILO, to heap, to condense, to plunder : 
 
 Compile, pilfer, pillage. 
 PitA, a pillar, a ball : 
 
 Pile, pilaster, pillar, pellet, pelt. 
 PLANQO, to beat, to lament ; plaindre (Fr.), to lament: 
 
 Complain, plaint, plaintiff, plaintive. 
 PLATTDO, to strike, to praise by clapping (ProDO in comp.) : 
 
 Applaud, explode, plaudits, plausible, 
 PLICO, to bend, fold, knit ; PLECTO, plexum, to twine, weave, knit : 
 
 Accomplice, apply, applicant, complex, double (du-plex), ex- 
 plicit, impKoit, pliant, pliers, reply, simple, supplicate, supple, 
 triple. 
 
38 NOTES LATIN ROOTS, 
 
 POLIO, to polish : 
 
 Polished, polite, interpolate. 
 POMTTM, an apple : 
 
 Pomaceous, pomegranate, pommeL 
 PONO, to put, place, lay : 
 
 Compos -t, -itor, composure, deponent, deposit, dep6t, expose, ex- 
 pound, post, pose, postage, positive, provost, purpose, repose, 
 suppose, etc. 
 PONS, abridge: 
 
 Pontiff, pontoon, pontage. 
 POECTTS, a pig : 
 
 Pork, porcupine, porpoise. 
 
 POETTJS, a harbour ; IMPOBTTJNUS, vexed, troublesome, without harbour ; 
 OPPOETUNUS, near a harbour, convenient : 
 
 Importunate, importunity, opportune. 
 POSSE, to be able ; Potens, able : 
 
 Possible, potent, potential, puissance, impotent, plenipotentiary. 
 PBETrcrar, a price : 
 
 Precious, price, to prize, praise, appraise, depreciate, inappreciable. 
 PEEHENDO, prehensum (Fr. prendre, pris), to take, to seize : 
 
 Apprehend, apprentice, apprise, enterprise, prison, prize (taken), 
 
 reprieve, reprisal, reprehend, surprise, &c. 
 PBIMUS, first (Fr. premier) : 
 
 Premier, primary, primate, prime, primer (a first book) , principle, 
 
 prince, principal. 
 PEOPE (Fr. proche), near ; Proximus, nearest : 
 
 Approach, approximate, propitious (near to aid), propitiate, prox- 
 imity. 
 PEOPBITTS, one's own, peculiar: 
 
 Appropriate, property, propriety. 
 PUGNTTS, a fist : 
 
 Pugilist, pugnacious, impugn, repugnant. 
 
 PITNGO, punctum (Fr. poindre, poignant), to prick, to mark with a 
 point : 
 Compunction, expunge, poignant, point, punch, punctilio, punctual, 
 
 pungent. 
 PVNIO, to punish (allied to Pcena) : 
 
 Impunity, punitive, penal, penalty, penitence, repent, subpoena, pain. 
 POTO, putatum, to cut, to think, to reckon : 
 
 .Account (accompt), amputate, compute, depute (?), discount, repu- 
 tation, 
 
 QU.EBO, qusesitum, to seek : 
 
 Acquire, conquer, disquisition, exquisite, inquest, inquisition, per- 
 quisite, query, question, require, etc. 
 
 Supposed to be BO called from the sacrifice on the Sublician bridge. 
 Roman Pontifex making a yearly 
 
AND THEIR DERIVATIVES. 39 
 
 QTUTUOB, four ; QUADRA, a square : 
 
 Quadrant, quadratic, quadrille, quadrumanous, quarantine, quart, and 
 
 -er, -em, quarters, quarto, squadron, square. 
 QUIES, rest : 
 
 Acquiesce, quiet, quiescence, requiem. 
 
 RADO, rasum, to shave, to scrape : 
 
 Rase, erase, razor. 
 RANCEO, to be stale or sour, to be rank : 
 
 Rancid, rancour, rankle, 
 RAPIO, raptum, to snatch : 
 
 Rapid, rapine, rapture, ravish, enrapture, surreptitious. 
 REQO, rectum, to rule (Rigo in comp.) : 
 
 Correct, direct, incorrigible, regal, royal, region, reign, right, 
 
 register, viceroy, rector, regimen. 
 Rrvus, a river : 
 
 Derive, rival, river, rivulet, rill. 
 Rooo, rogatum, to ask, to claim : 
 
 Abrogate (to ask away), derogate, interrogate, prerogative (the right 
 of being asked first, and any right), prorogue (to prolong), 
 surrogate. 
 ROTA, a wheel ; Rotundus, round : 
 
 Rotate, rotunda, round, rote, routine, route, arrondisseaient. 
 
 SAL, salt, seasoning, wit : 
 
 Salad, salary, saline, sauce, saucy, sausage. 
 SALIO, saltum, to leap (silio, sultum, in comp.) : 
 
 Assault, consult, consul (see Sedeo), counsel, desultory, exult, insult, 
 
 resile, sully, somersault (super and salio), salmon. 
 SORIBO, scriptum, to write : 
 
 Ascribe, conscript, describe, prescribe, proscribe (to post up for sale, or 
 as an outlaw), rescript, scribble, scribe, scrip, nondescript, escritoire. 
 SECO, sectum, to cut : 
 
 Bisect, dissect, insect, intersect, sect, sectary, segment. 
 SEDEO, sessum, to sit (Sideo in comp.) ; Sido, to sick ; Sella, a seat : 
 Assess (to sit by as assistant judge, appraising property, etc.), assize, 
 assiduous, insiduous, preside, reside, residue, sedan, see (a bishop's 
 see), siege (a seat, or besetting a fortified place), subsidy (lit. troops 
 sitting down till wanted), consul, consult, counsel. 
 SENTIO, sensum, to feel, to think (Fr. sentir) : 
 
 Assent, dissent, insensate, nonsense, presentment, resentment, sense, 
 
 -ation, sensuous, sententious, sentient, scent. 
 SEQUOE, secutus, to follow (Fr. suivre, suit) : 
 
 Conse-cutive, -quent, -quential, ensue, etc., execute (ex-secute), etc., 
 obsequious, pursuivant, sequel, sue, suit, suite. 
 
*u "NOTES LATIN ROOTS, 
 
 SEEO, scrtum, to join, to knit ; Series, a succession : 
 
 Assert (lit. to join hands to, to maintain), dissertation (a discussion), 
 
 desert, exert, insert, series, sermon. 
 SIGNTDI, a sign or seal ; Signo, to sign or seal : 
 
 Assign, assignat, consign (to deliver up formally), design (to mark 
 down as a plan, an intention), ensign, insignificant, resign, signal, 
 signature, signify. 
 SUIILIS, like ; Simulo, to appear, or make like : 
 
 Dissemble, resemble, similar, similitude, simulation. 
 SOLEDTTS, solid, firm, a piece of money : 
 
 Consolidate, consols, solder, soldier (from his pay). 
 Sunn,, together : 
 
 Simultaneous, assemble, ensemble. 
 SOLVO, solutum, to loosen, to melt, to free, to pay : 
 
 Absolve, absolute, dissolve, dissolute (free from restraint) .insolvent, 
 resolve (to analyze, to clear of doubt, the opposite of hesitating, 
 i. e. sticking fast), soluble. 
 Sons, chance, lot : 
 
 Assort, consort, sorcerer. 
 
 SPATIUIT, space : 
 
 Expatiate, spacious. 
 
 SPECIO, spectum, to see (Spicio in comp.) ; Spccto, to look at ; Speculor, 
 to consider, to watch; species, an appearance of a particular 
 kind: 
 
 Aspect, auspices, circumspect, etc., conspicuous, etc., despise, despite, 
 respite, specie, species, special, spices, espionage, suspicion, spectacle, 
 spectre, speculum. 
 SPIED, spiratum, to breathe ; Spiritus, breath, spirit, courage : 
 
 Aspire, aspirate, conspire, dispirit, expire, inspire, respire, etc., 
 
 spiritual, sprite, etc. 
 SPONDEO, sponsum, to promise : 
 
 Correspond, despond, espouse (to promise in marriage, to marry), 
 
 respond, responsible, sponsor, spouse, espousals. 
 SxiJfGtro, stinctum, to prick, to quench : 
 
 Distinguish, distinct, extinguish, instinct (what spurs on to action, 
 
 independently of external teaching), instigate. 
 STO, statum, to stand (Stitum in comp.) ; Statuo, to set, place : 
 
 Arrest, circumstance, -tial, constant, constitution, destitute, extant, 
 instance (something standing near us), instant, interstice, obstacle, 
 rest, season (through Fr.) : solstice, state, station, stationer, statist, 
 statue, substantial, transubstantiation. 
 
 , strictum, to bind, hold fast : 
 
 Astringent, constraint, constrictor, distrain, district, restrain, straits, 
 strict. 
 
AND THEIR DEEIVATIVES. 41 
 
 STETJO, structuni, to build, to put in order : 
 
 Construe, construct, destroy, instruct, instrument, structure. 
 SUDO, sudatum, to sweat, to flow gently or drop : 
 
 Exude, sudorific, transude. 
 SURGO, surrectum, to rise : 
 
 Insurgent, resource, insurrection, source, surge. 
 
 TABERNA, a shed ; Tabernaculum, a tent : 
 
 Tabernacle, tavern. 
 TANGO, tactum, to touch (-tingo in comp.) : 
 
 Attain, contagion, contiguous, contingent, intact, integer, integral, 
 
 disintegration, entire, taste (' tater,' to feel), tact, tangible. 
 TENDO, tensum, or tentum, to stretch, to go forward : 
 
 Attention, attendance, contend, etc., intense, ostensible, portent, 
 pretence, tendon (a sinew), tense (stretched), tent, -er, tender (put 
 forward), tentacles. 
 TENEO, tentum, to hold, etc. (Tineo in comp.) : 
 
 Abstinent, ap-per-tain, contain, continue, detain, etc., entertain, 
 impertinent, pertinacious, retentive, tenant, tenement, tenet, tenure, 
 tendril, tenon, tenor, countenance, maintenance, malcontent, lieu- 
 tenant, sustenance, retinue. 
 TEEO, trituni, to rub, bruise : 
 
 Attrition, contrition, detriment, trite, triturate (to rub to powder). 
 TERRA, the earth or ground : 
 
 Inter, Mediterranean, terrace (a raised level piece of earth), terrestrial, 
 terrier (a dog that follows game under ground), territory, 
 country. 
 TESTOR, testatus, to bear witness, to call to witness : 
 
 Attest, contest (to bring witnesses together in law, to contend), 
 detest, intestate (not having made a will), protest, testament 
 (originally any witnessed document), testimonial. 
 TINGO, tinctum, to dip, dye, stain : 
 
 Attainder, tainted, tincture, tinge, tint. 
 TONO, tonitum (or tonatum in comp.), to thunder: 
 
 Astonish, astound, detonate 
 TOEQUEO, tortum, to twist, to rack, to hurt : 
 
 Contortion, distort, retort, torment, tortuous, torture. 
 THAHO, tractum, to draw, to extend; TBACTO (freq.), to take often, to 
 handle, to manage : 
 
 Abstract, contract, detract, etc., entreat, portrait, portray, retreat, 
 tract, tractable, trace, trade, train, trait, treat, treatise, treaty, 
 tirade, subtract, subtrahend. 
 
 UMBRA, a shade : 
 
 Umbrage, umbrageous, umbrella. 
 
42 NOTES-LATIN BOOTS. 
 
 UNDA, a wave ; UNDO, to rise in waves : 
 
 Abound (i. e., flowing over its banks), inundate, redundant, undulate, 
 undulatory. 
 
 UNGUO, unctum (Fr. oindre), to smear, to anoint : 
 
 Anoint, ointment, unction, unctuous. 
 UXOB, usus, to use : 
 
 Abuse, peruse, usage, use, usury (paid for use of money), usurp, 
 utensil, utility. 
 
 VALEO, to be well, strong, to be worth or of use : 
 
 Avail, equivalent, carnival (farewell to flesh ?), convalescent, invalid, 
 prevail, valetudinarian, valiant, valid, valour, value. 
 
 VEHO, vectum, to carry, to bear : 
 
 Convey, inveigh (to carry charges against), vehemence, vehicle, vex. 
 
 VENIO, ventum, to come : 
 
 Advent, adventure, avenue, circumvent, convent, -tion, -tional, -tide, 
 convenient, covenant, event, invent, inventory, prevent, revenue 
 (what comes back), supervene, etc. 
 
 VEETO, versum, to turn ; VEESOB, to bo turned often, to live, to associate : 
 Advert, adverse, advertise, animadvert, anniversary, avert, controvert, 
 etc., converse, conversant, conversazione, divers, etc., divorce, 
 inadvertent, inverse, malversation, pervert, perverse, obverse, 
 reversion, reverse, tergiversation, traverse, transverse, universal, 
 versatile, verse, versed, version, vertebra, vertex, vertical, 
 vortex. 
 
 VIA, a way (Fr. voie) : 
 
 Convoy, deviate, envoy, impervious, invoice (a list of goods sent to a 
 purchaser), obviate, obvious, previous, trivial (belonging to a com- 
 mon three-way path), viaduct. 
 
 VIDEO, visum, to see, to see to ; Videor, to appear : 
 
 Envy, evident, interview, provide, providence, provision, proviso, 
 prudent, purveyor, renew, revise, supervise, videlicet, vidette 
 (sentinel on horseback), view, visage, visor, vision, visit, vista, 
 vis-a-vis, survey, prude, jurisprudence. 
 
 Voco, vocatum, to call ; vox, vocis, a voice : 
 
 Advocate, equivocal, provoke, vocal, vocation, vocalist, vociferate, 
 vowel, voucher, vouch (to give one's word, to warrant), vouchsafe 
 (warrant us safe). 
 
 VOLVO, volutum, to roll, turn, fold : 
 
 Convolvulus, devolve, evolve, involution, revolt, revolution, vault (a 
 continued arch, to leap), voluble, volume, voluminous. 
 
 VOVEO, votum, to vow : 
 
 Avow (to declare), devote, devotion, devout, votary, vote (a wish 
 expressed, a suffrage), votive (given by vow). 
 
GREEK ROOTS. 43 
 
 46. Among incorporated Greek words are forma of the 
 following : 
 
 AGEIN, to lead ; Agogos, a leader : 
 
 Demagogue (demos, the people), epact (excess of solar month, etc., 
 over lunar), paragoge (addition of syllable or letter to end of word), 
 pedagogue (pais, a boy), synagogue, strategy (generalship, stratos, 
 an army). 
 
 AECHEIN, to begin, to rule : 
 
 Archaism (an original old form), archduke, archetype (types, pattern), 
 
 anarchy, monarch, oligarchy, patriarch, etc. 
 ASTEE, astron, a star : 
 
 Astronomy, asterisk, disastrous (ill-starred), asteroid. 
 BAIXEIN, to throw ; Bole, a throwing : 
 
 Diabolical (calumniating, accusing, devilish), emblem, hyperbole, 
 parable, parabola, problem, symbol. 
 
 CHBOXOS, time : 
 
 Chronic (continuing a long time), chronology, anachronism, syn- 
 chronous, chronicle, chronogram. 
 DEMOS, the people : 
 
 democracy (kratos, rule), endemic (peculiar to or dwelling among a 
 people), epidemic (widely attacking or coming on a people). 
 
 DOXA, opinion, glory ; dogma, an opinion : 
 
 Doxology, heterodoxy, orthodoxy, paradox, dogma-tic. 
 EEGOK, a work : 
 
 Chirurgeon (cheir, the hand), surgeon (one who lives by manual 
 operation), energy, georgics, liturgy (leitos, public), metal- 
 lurgy. 
 GE, the earth: 
 
 Apogee, perigee (the parts of an orbit farthest from and nearest to the 
 
 earth), geology, geometry, geography. 
 GONIA, an angle : 
 
 Diagonal, hexagon, trigonometry (triangle-measure), goniometer. 
 GEAPHEIN, to write ; gramma, a letter : 
 
 Graphic, autograph, biography, cali graph, ethnography, lexicographer, 
 paragraph, grammar, telegraph (tele, 'afar'), epigram, monogram 
 (two or more letters interwoven as one), programme. 
 HISTANAI, to stand ; Stasis, standing : 
 
 Statics, apostate (' one who stands off '), ecstasy, hydrostatics. 
 HODOS, a way : 
 
 Episode, exode, method, period, synod, methodist. 
 HTJDOB, water : 
 
 Clepsydra, hydropsy (dropsy), hydrogen, hydrophobia, hydra (a water- 
 serpent), hydraulics, hydrocele (kele, a tumour). 
 
44 NOTES GREEK BOOTS, 
 
 KTTKLOS, a circle : 
 
 Cycle, cycloid, cyclopaedia, Cyclops (with one circular eye), epicyes, 
 Cyclades (islands lying in a circle). 
 
 LEQETN, logos, to pick out, to speak ; a word, reason, science : 
 
 Dialect, dialectics, eclectic, eclogue, logic, analogy, catalogue, deca- 
 logue, dialogue, entomology, eulogy, pathology (science of disease), 
 psychology, tautology, theology, toxicology, etc. 
 
 METEOJT, a measure : 
 
 Hydrometer (fluid-measurer), metre, barometer, diameter, hygro- 
 meter (moisture-measurer), perimeter, symmetry, trigonometry. 
 
 MONOS, alone, one : 
 
 Monk, monad, monastery, monody, monomania, monotone, monopoly 
 (polein, to sell), monarch, monolith, monotheism. 
 
 XOMOS, a law or rule : 
 
 Antinomian, astronomy, deuteronomy (repetition of the law), 
 economy (oikos, a house). 
 
 ODE, a song : 
 
 Comedy (Comus), melody, monody ; palinode (a recantation), parody, 
 prosody, tragedy (tragos, a goat). 
 
 OIKOS, a house, a dwelling-place : 
 
 Parochial, parish (by the house), diocese, oecumenical (universal, 
 ' as wide as the habitable globe '). 
 
 ONOHA, a name : 
 
 Anonymous (without a name), metonymy, onomatopoeia, parano- 
 masia (play on words), patronymic, pseudonyme (false), sy- 
 nonyme. 
 
 OPTESTHAI, to see ; Opsis, sight : 
 
 Optic, optician, autopsy (personal inspection), synopsis, dropsy. 
 
 PAK , all : 
 
 Panacea (akeomai, to cure), pandect (dechomai, to take), a complete 
 digest of Roman civil law, panegyric (aguris, an assembly), panoply 
 (hopla, weapons), panorama (horama, a sight), a complete view, 
 pantomimes (mimos, a show), pantheon. 
 
 PATHOS, a feeling, disease : 
 
 Pathetic, allopathy, antipathy, apathy, homoeopathy, sympathy. 
 
 PHAINEIX, to show, to appear : 
 
 Phantasm, phantasmagoria (an assembly (agora) of optical exhi- 
 bitions), fantastic, fancy, phase (an appearance), phenomenon, 
 diaphanous (transparent), epiphany, hierophant, sycophant. 
 
 PHANAI, to say ; Phasis, a saying : 
 
 Blaspheme (blapto, to hurt), blame, emphasis (stress of voice on), 
 euphemism, prophet, prophesy, prophecy. 
 
AND THEIE DEBIVATIVES. 45 
 
 PIIEREIN, to cany : 
 
 Metaphor, periphery (circumference), phosphorus (phos, light), sema- 
 phore (sema, a signal). 
 PHTLEIIT, to love : 
 
 Philanthropy, philology, philomel (melos), a name of the nightin. 
 
 gale, philosophy, philter (a love-potion). 
 PHONE, a sound : 
 
 Phonography, euphony, cacophony, symphony. 
 PHUEIN, to produce, to exist ; Phusis, nature ; P'auton, a plant : 
 
 Physical, physiology, metaphysics, neophyte (a new convert, a 
 
 student), zoophyte. 
 POLIS, a city ; Polites, a citizen : 
 
 Police, policy, politics, polity, acropolis (akron, the top), Constanti- 
 nople, metropolis, Naples, Neapolis, necropolis, cosmopolitan. 
 POIEIN, to make : 
 
 Poem, poet, poesy, poetaster, onomatopoeia (onoma, a name), phar- 
 macopoeia (pharmakon, medicine). 
 POEOS, a passage : 
 
 Pore, porous, emporium, Bosphorus (Bous, an ox). 
 
 BHEIN, to flow : 
 
 Kheum, rheumatism, catarrh, diarrhoea, hemorrhage (haima, blood). 
 
 SKOPEIJT, to see, to behold ; Scope (aim) : 
 
 Bishop, episcopacy, helioscope, kaleidoscope (an instrument for view- 
 ing beautiful forms), microscope (micros, small), telescope (tele, 
 far off), stethoscope (stethos, the breast). 
 SOPHOS, wise : 
 
 Sophism, philosopher, unsophisticated. 
 SPEIKA, a twisted cone : 
 
 Spire, spiral, 
 STEIXEIJT, to send : 
 
 Apostle, systole (contraction of the heart), diastole (dilatation of the 
 heart), perisystole (the interval between the two), epistle, peri- 
 staltic (spiral). 
 STEEPHEIN, to turn ; Strophe, a turning : 
 
 Strophe (a stanza), antistrophe (the second stanza), apostrophe 
 (turning to address the absent), catastrophe. 
 
 TASSEIN, to arrange : 
 
 Tactics, taxidermy (derma, the skin), syntax. 
 THCHNE, art : 
 
 Technical, technology, polytechnic (polus, much, many), pyrotech- 
 nics (pur, fire). 
 TEMNEIN, to cut ; Tome, a cutting : 
 
 Tome (a volume), anatomy, atom, epitome (an abridgement), phle- 
 botomy (vein-cutting). 
 
46 NOTES-WOEDS FEOM CLASSIC ROOTS. 
 
 TITHENAI, to place ; Thesis, a placing ; Thetos, placed ; Theke, a deposi- 
 tary : 
 Theme, thesis, antithesis (contrast), apothecary, epithet, hypothesis, 
 
 parenthesis, synthesis, metathesis (transposition of letters). 
 Toxos, a stretching, a sound : 
 
 Tone, tune, barytone (a deep sound), tonic (what gives tone or 
 
 strength), monotony, intonation (modulation of sound). 
 TCPOS, a place : 
 
 Topic, topical, Utopian (eu, well or beautiful), topography. 
 TEEPEUT, to turn, Trope, a turning : 
 
 Trope, tropic (where the sun turns) , heliotrope (what turns to the sun) . 
 TUPOS, a type or impression : 
 
 Type, antitype, stereotype (stereos, fixed), typography, daguerreo- 
 type, electrotype, typical. 
 
 ZOON, an animal : 
 
 Zoology, zodiac (an imaginary zone in the heavens occupied by 
 twelve signs), azote (nitrogen gas, fatal to animal life). 
 
 The importance of these roots may be seen from the fact that, 
 frompono and positum, we have in English two hundred and 
 fifty words ; from plico, two hundred ; from fero and latum, one 
 hundred and ninety-eight ; from specio, one hundred and seventy- 
 seven ; from mitto and missum, one hundred and seventy-four ; 
 from teneo and tentum, one hundred and sixty-eight ; from capio 
 and captum, one hundred and ninety seven ; from tendo and 
 tensum, one hundred and sixty-two ; from duco and ductum, one 
 hundred and fifty-six. Logos gives us one hundred and fifty-six ; 
 and graphein, one hundred and fifty-two. These twelve words 
 therefore enter into the composition of nearly 2,500 English 
 words. One hundred and fifty -four Greek and Latin primitives 
 yield nearly 13,000 words. 
 
 Nor is the number of words from classic sources the only 
 thing that is striking. Not less so, is the diversity of their 
 meaning. Words from th& same roots are used in the most 
 different senses. The reason is, in part, that we have imported 
 only compound forms, and not the simple roots. The con- 
 sequence is that the compound terms are very liable to be 
 misunderstood and perverted. They have no anchorage in the 
 common speech ; and are driven by wind or tide, just as chance 
 directs.* 
 
 See " Guesses at Truth," p. 222. 
 
HISTORY OP THE ELEMENTS OP ENGLISH. 47 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN THEIB 
 HISTOEICAL CONNEXION. 
 
 CONTENTS: (47) The Keltic. (18) The Latin of the Romans. 
 (19) The Saxon. Successive immigrations. (50, 51) The Anglo-Saxon. 
 (52) The Ecclesiastical Latin. (53) The Norse and Danish. 
 
 (54) The Norman-French. Proof of its prevalence. (55) The Semi- 
 Saxon. 
 
 Old English Middle English Modern English. 
 
 (56) The changes indicated gradual. 
 
 (57, 58) Marks of change enumerated, and illustrated in tabular form. 
 
 (59) History of particular words. "When first introduced, 
 French words : Latin words : the era of the Reformation. 
 
 (60, 61, 62) How the dates of the introduction of words may be 
 ascertained ; spelling ; plurals ; accent ; testimony illustrated. 
 
 (63) History of their meaning. Moral lessons illustrated. Their his- 
 tory as a help to interpretation. 
 
 (64, 65) Meaning narrowed, widened, changed ; examples. 
 
 (66) Dictionaries, and the proper arrangement of them. 
 
 NOTES AND ILLTTSTBATIONS : (67) Saxon inflexions ; (68) Com- 
 parison of Saxon of different periods ; the Lord's Prayer ; Csedmon, A.D. 
 680 and 885; (69, 70) Old Saxon The Heliand, Beowulf; (7L-73) 
 Anglo-Saxon Cscdmon, JElfric, King Alfred ; (74) Canute's song ; 
 (75-78) Semi-Saxon King Leir, Layamon, Anglo-Saxon Chr. (latter 
 part), Ormulum ; (79, 80) Old English Charter of Henry the Third, 
 Robert of Gloucester, Piers Plowman, Chaucer ; (81) Middle English 
 Chaucer, Mandeville ; (82) Comparison of the versions of Wycliffe and 
 others ; (83) Words in Wycliffe and in modern versions ; (84) Early 
 Scotch writers, A.D. 1300-1500; (85) Affiuities of Danish, Friesic, s.nd 
 English ; (86) Affinities of Danish, Dutch, and English. 
 
 " The English language, which by no mere accident has produced and 
 upborne the greatest and most predominant poet of modern times, may 
 with all right be called a world-language ; and like the English people, 
 appears destined hereafter to prevail with a sway more extensive even than 
 its present over all portions of the globe. For in wealth, good sense, and 
 
48 HISTORY OF THE ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 
 
 closeness of structure, no other of the languages at this day spoken 
 deserves to be compared with it not even our German, which is torn 
 even as we arc torn, and must first rid itself of many defects, before it can 
 enter boldly into the lists, as a competitor with the English." JACOB 
 GEEOI, quoted by Dr. Trench : English, p. 39. 
 
 47. Long before the era of authentic history, the western dis- 
 Influenceof tricts of Europe were overrun and peopled by two 
 the Kelts, allied tribes, the Celtse (Ke'Xrai and TaXdrai) and the 
 Cimbri. They were men of fair complexion, of reddish hair, and 
 of ardent temperament ; they spoke dialects of the same tongue, 
 and their descendants are still found on the west coasts of Spain, 
 of France, of Great Britain, and in Ireland. Their language was 
 the parent of the modern Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton. 
 
 48. At the beginning of the Christian era, a large part of 
 The Britain was conquered by the Roman arms. The 
 .Romans, conquerors, however, seem to have introduced, at that 
 time, little civilization, and no literature. A few Latin terms 
 gained a permanent place in the country, but the Gaelic, or 
 British, remained the common language of the people. 
 
 That language, in one or other of its dialects, is still spoken 
 in the Highlands of Scotland, in Wales, in Ireland, *nd in 
 the Isle of Man. As late as tne reign of Elizabeth, a dialect 
 of it was commonly spoken in Cornwall ; and in the reign of 
 Stephen, another dialect, closely resembling the Welsh, was 
 found in Cumberland and Westmoreland. By degrees it has 
 been superseded in most parts of Great Britain by the English. 
 
 49. The English is not only a composite language, it is, also, 
 
 in its essential parts, an imported one. It was intro- 
 duced into England from Germany and Holland, and 
 especially by tribes whose settlements lay in that tract of country 
 which extends from the peninsula of Jutland to the Rhine. 
 Some were Jutes, but most were Angles and Saxons. 
 
 Their language resembled the old Saxon of Germany ; more 
 closely, the Friesic of Friesland. Its modern descendant, the 
 English, resembles most closely, of continental languages, the 
 modern Dutch.* 
 
 The precise time when the Saxons first visited Brit? in cannot 
 
 t See Notes, par. 85, 86. 
 
HISTOEY OF ANGLO- SAXON. 40 
 
 be ascertained. There are reasons for believing that soon after 
 the commencement of our era, the German tribes began to visit 
 the country, and to settle there. The dates of the following 
 invasions are sufficiently determined to be regarded as matters of 
 liistory. 
 
 In 449, A.D., a band of Jutes, under Hengist and Horsa, 
 Various im- landed at Ebbsfleet, in Thanet, and six years after- 
 migrations. W ards founded the kingdom of Kent. 
 
 In 477, A. D. , another band of Saxon invaders settled in Sussex. 
 Their leader was Ella, and they established the kingdom of the 
 South Saxons. 
 
 In 495, A.D., another band, under Cerdic, landed in Hampshire 
 and established the kingdom of Wessex. 
 
 In 530, A. D. , a settlement was made in Essex ; and during the 
 reign of Cerdic, a fifth settlement (of Angles) was made in 
 Norfolk (North-folk) and Suffolk (South-folk), hence called East 
 Anglia. Their capitals were Nor-wich and Sud-bury. 
 
 In 547, A.D., another tribe of Angles, under Ida, landed in 
 Scotland, and occupied the country between the Tweed and the 
 Forth. 
 
 50. From these centres the power and language of the invaders 
 Anglo- extended till, in the days of Egbert, who died in 
 Saxon. ggg^ A.D., a large part of England was subdued. 
 Angles and Saxons had merged into one people, and their different 
 dialects had become a single tongue. Anglo-Saxon became soon 
 after its appropriate name. * For three hundred years it nourished, 
 and was rich in literature, both annals and poetry, before a line 
 had been written in French or Spanish. 
 
 51. The earliest of these compositions (the ' Gleeman's Song,' 
 of the fourth or fifth century, the 'Tale of Beowulf,' etc.) are 
 poems descriptive of the manners and legends of pagan Saxons, 
 before they had come under the power of Christianity.* 
 
 Britain was first called Anglia or Other writers who question the his- 
 
 England, by Egbert, with the sanction torical accuracy of this statement re- 
 
 of a Witenagemot held at Winchester, pard Asser, the supposed author of 
 
 A.D. 800. 'Anglo-Saxons' had already the life of his contemporary King 
 
 been used. It occurs first in Paul A Ifred, as the first to use the term. lie 
 
 Warnefrid,lib. vi.cap. 15; 'Cedoaldus calls Alfred 'Angul-Saxonum Rex.' 
 rex Anglorum-Saxouum/Lappenberg. >> See Notes, par 09, 70. 
 
 E 
 
60 ECCLESIASTICAL LATIN : NORSE. 
 
 Next in order of time are the oldest Anglo-Saxon laws : those 
 of Ina, Athelstan, and other Anglo-Saxon kings. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle gives the history of Anglo-Saxon 
 England from the earliest settlements to the time of Stephen. 
 It belongs to different dates. 
 
 A metrical paraphrase of the Old Testament, ascribed to 
 Csedmon, a monk of Whitby (A.D. 680), and part of which was 
 certainly written by him, is one of the most remarkable of the 
 Anglo-Saxon poems. There are others on Judith, the slayer of 
 Holophernes, on Saint Andrew, and on the discovery of the cross 
 by Helena, the mother of Constantino the Great. 
 
 Of prose-writers, the two best known are King Alfred and 
 ^Elfric, who was abbot of Abingdon and Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 The former translated Bede's ' Ecclesiastical History ' into Saxon, 
 and parts of the Bible. To the latter we are indebted for a 
 collection of Anglo-Saxon homilies, interesting on both literary 
 and religious grounds. To him we owe, also, a Latin-Saxon 
 vocabulary, the translation of the historical books of the Old 
 Testament, and other works.* 
 
 52. In the mean time Christianity had been introduced among 
 the Saxon settlers (A.D. 597) by Austin, and had spread rapidly. 
 In fifty years most of the country was nominally Christian. The 
 Ecclesiasti- language, and some of the literature of Rome came with 
 cal Latin. ^ e new f a ith, many ecclesiastical Latin terms were 
 naturalized, and our educated Saxon countrymen learnt to write 
 and speak what was then the common tongue of civilized nations. 
 
 53. In 787, the Norsemen, who were partly Swedes and 
 Danes, but chiefly Norwegians, made a complete conquest of all 
 the district of country north of the Humber, and lying between 
 Norsemen the Irish and German seas. This district they re- 
 and Danish, tained till the latter part of the tenth century. Soon 
 after, East Anglia was occupied by Danes, or by people of Danish 
 descent ; and from the year 1003 to the year 1041, Danish kings 
 ruled over the whole of England. The language of all those 
 tribes was similar, and it exercised considerable influence over 
 our speech. The Norsemen got rid, as far as possible, of in- 
 flexions, and so prepared the way for the greatest change the 
 Anglo-Saxon has undergone. This influence, however, was les- 
 
 See notes, par. 71-3. 
 
HISTORY OF NORMAN-FRENCH. 51 
 
 sened by the close resemblance between the Danish and Saxon 
 tongues, and by the want of union between the people and 
 conquerors ; and the new language soon yielded, in the south 
 at least, to one that had greater charms, and was supported by 
 more lasting victories the Norman-French. 
 
 54. Long before the battle of Hastings, the influence of tho 
 Norman name and literature had been felt in England. 
 Edward the Confessor had introduced a number of 
 Norman favourites, and Norman-French became the language of 
 the court. The battle of Hastings gave the throne to a Norman 
 king, and the ascendancy of the Norman-French was soon com- 
 Norman- plete. It never superseded the old Saxon among the 
 l rench. mass of the people ; but still it was the language of 
 the court, and to a large extent of the ecclesiastical rulers. 
 Evidence of the pains taken to introduce and diffuse it may bo 
 found in the following facts : " 
 
 a. In the thirteenth century, boys in grammar schools were 
 
 first taught French, and then had to construe their Latin 
 into that tongue. 
 
 b. Members of the universities were ordered to converse in 
 
 Latin or in French. 
 
 c. The proceedings of parliament, and the minutes of the 
 
 corporation of London, were recorded in French, and 
 
 d. Of the authors who wrote in the three centuries after the 
 
 conquest, nearly all used the French tongue. 
 These efforts, however, never greatly modified the language of 
 the people. Atone time the court, at another time the barons, 
 found it their interest to favour the Saxons. The occurrences 
 that severed the Norman conquerors from France contributed to 
 the independence both of our kingdom and of our speech. In 
 the beginning of the fourteenth century, the practice of trans- 
 lating into French was discontinued in public schools ; and by a 
 statute passed in 1362, all pleas in courts of justice were directed 
 to be carried on in English.* 
 
 Hallam's Lit. of Europe, i. 52, and doubted whether the Conquest ex- 
 note, ercised any great influence on our 
 
 b Hippesley, Chapters on English language. Sir F. Palgrave has written 
 
 Literature, p. 11. Some have even in favour of this view. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 CHANGES GEADTJAL. 
 
 55. The result is, that from the battle of Hastings (1066) to 
 Seml . the death of King John (1216)/ the language of 
 Saxon. England was not Anglo-Saxon, but Semi-Saxon. 
 
 From the death of John to the death of Edward II. (1327), 
 Old English, the language is called Old English. 
 Middle From the death of Edward II. to the death of Queen 
 
 English. Mary (1558), it is called Middle English. 
 Modern Modern English is the language of England from 
 
 English, t ke reign o f Elizabeth to the present time. 
 
 The principal works written in Semi-Saxon are, the History of 
 King Leir and his Daughters, the Poem of Layamon, the latter 
 part of the Saxon Chronicle, the Ormulum, and various frag- 
 ments published in the Analecta Saxonica of Thorpe. 
 
 In Old English we have, the Romance of Havelok the Dane, 
 William and the Werwolf, the Gestes of Alisaundre, Robert 
 of Gloucester's Chronicle, the Poems of Robert Mannyng, or de 
 Brunne (i.e. of Bourne, near Deping, Lincoln), and the Vision 
 of Piers Plowman, etc. See Coleridge's Glossarial Index. 
 
 In Middle English we have Wyclifle (A.D. 1324-84), who, how- 
 ever, belongs rather to the earlier stage, Chaucer (A. D. 1328-1400), 
 MandeviUe (A.D. 1300-1372), Lydgate (A.D. 1380-1440), Caxton 
 (A.D. 1470), and to these we may add, from his fondness for 
 archaic forms and words, Edmund Spenser. 
 
 56. Of course it will not be supposed that the changes indicated 
 Change of ^ v *^ ie terms Semi-Saxon, Old English, Middle Eng- 
 language lish, Modern English, took place at any one definite 
 gradual. time. The changes were all gradual ; and yet if we 
 compare our language at intervals of a hundred years, it will be 
 easy to perceive and appreciate them. The changes themselves 
 are the following : 
 
 Marks of There is considerable modification in 
 change enu- 1. The orthography (and apparently in the pro- 
 nunciation) of words. 
 
 2. Many inflexions of nouns and verbs are omitted, and their 
 
 place is supplied by prepositions and auxiliaries. 
 
 3. French or other derivatives are introduced in large numbers ; 
 
 and 
 Ilallam, with stricter accuracy, says from A.D. 1150 to A.D. 1250. 
 
CHANGES ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 63 
 
 4. The inversion of the order of words and the use of ellipses are 
 
 less frequent. 
 
 When the question refers to the sameness of a language, the 
 second and third of these changes are the most important. 
 
 57. The new words of each period, or the old ones with new 
 meaning, and the various modes of spelling can be learnt best only 
 by studying the writers of our language, but some of the other 
 changes may be represented in a tabular form : 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON. 
 to 1050. 
 
 SEMI-SAXON. 
 1050-1250. 
 
 OIJD ENGLISH. MIDDLE ENGLISH. 
 1250-1350. 1350-1550. 
 
 ' Casdmon,' ' History of King 'Havelokthe 
 
 ' .ZElfric,' 'Alfred,' Leir,' ' Saxon Dane,' ' Robert of 
 
 etc. Chron.' latter part, Gloucester,' 
 
 ' Layamon.' ' Wycliffe.' 
 
 ' Chaucer,' 
 ' Mandeville.' 
 
 SPELLING, (a.) Short final vowels are often in the course of time 
 elided, as : 
 Sonu, nama, dagas Sone, name, dages Sone, dayes Son, name, days. 
 
 (b.) Broad vowels are shortened : 
 Iclepod, geongost, . . . . become gradually Yclept, youngest, 
 
 ascode asked. 
 
 THE ARTICLE undergoes the following changes : 
 
 ' Se,' ' seo, ' thsot,' ' Se ' and ' seo ' ' The ' is now of ' The ' is now of 
 is in A. S. of are less fre- all genders, all cases and 
 three genders, quent ; the abl. though with genders. 
 
 with nom., gen., 
 dat., ace,, and 
 abl. cases. 
 
 less fre- 
 quent; declen- 
 sion less dis- 
 tinct. 
 
 different 
 endings. 
 
 NOUNS undergo the following changes : 
 
 (a) The declensions . . . .. 
 
 (six according to 
 Hicks and Rask; 
 three, according 
 to Lye and Bos- 
 worth) 
 
 Are reduced by 
 Chaucer's day 
 to one; with 
 some irregular 
 plurals, as feet, 
 
 (b) Gender, which 
 in A. S. was 
 marked by the 
 ending of the 
 nom. and still 
 more by the 
 endings of other 
 cases, 
 
 Ceases to be 
 marked in this 
 way, and at 
 length follows 
 the sex. 
 
FROM ANGLO-SAXON TO ENGLISH. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON. 
 
 SEMI-SAXON. 
 
 OLD ENGLISH. 
 
 MIDDLE ENGLISH, 
 
 to 1050. 
 
 1050-1250. 
 
 1250-1350. 
 
 1350-1550. 
 
 ' Caedmon,' 
 
 ' History of King 
 
 ' Havelok the 
 
 ' Chaucer.' 
 
 2Elfric," Alfred,' 
 
 Leir,' ' Saxon 
 
 Dane,' ' Robert of ' Mandeville.' 
 
 etc. 
 
 Chron.' latter part, 
 
 Gloucester,' 
 
 
 
 ' Layamon.' 
 
 ' Wycliffe.' 
 
 
 (c) Characteristic 
 
 
 
 Are dropped : or 
 
 
 feminine end- 
 
 
 remain as ex- 
 
 
 ings, in words, 
 
 
 ceptional forms 
 
 . 
 
 as ' spinster,' 
 ' freondinne,' 
 
 
 
 
 (d) Norn., Gen., 
 Dat., Ace., Abl. 
 
 Diminish in 
 number, the 
 
 Expressed by 
 prepositions, 
 
 The accusative 
 ending ceases. 
 
 
 ablative disap- 
 
 except in the 
 
 
 
 . pearing. 
 
 accusative. 
 
 
 (e) The gen. in 
 
 , , . . 
 
 Not used after 
 
 ' s ' used as gen. 
 
 1 es,' as ' Godes,' 
 
 
 ' of,' as ' love 
 
 in all declen- 
 
 
 
 of God,' for 
 
 sions. 
 
 
 
 ' of Godes : ' 
 
 
 (f) The gen. pi. in 
 
 ,, ,. 
 
 Becomes ' s,' as 
 
 
 ' na,' as ' tun- 
 
 
 ' tongues.' 
 
 
 gena," 
 
 
 
 
 (g) The gen. pi. 
 
 ., .. 
 
 .. .. 
 
 Is struck out, as 
 
 (in adj.) in 'r,' 
 
 
 
 they, alle. 
 
 as'theor,' 'aller,' 
 
 
 
 
 (h) Dat. sing, in 
 
 .. .. 
 
 Becomes ' to a 
 
 And then 'to a 
 
 ' e,' as s smithe,' 
 
 
 smitho ' e si- 
 
 smith.' 
 
 
 
 lent. 
 
 
 (i) Dat. pi. in 
 
 End in ' on.' 
 
 .. 
 
 Gradually struck 
 
 ' om,' as ' sel- 
 
 
 
 out. 
 
 dom,' 
 
 
 
 
 (j) Plurals in 
 
 Used indiscrimi- 
 
 Plurals in ' a ' cease : ' s ' superseding 
 
 ' an ' and ' as ' 
 
 nately, as 'ste- 
 
 other endings, 
 
 being the Norman 
 
 
 orran,' 'steor- 
 
 plural ending. 
 
 
 
 ras.' 
 
 
 
 PRONOUNS : 
 
 
 
 
 A dual form, 'wit,' 
 
 . . i . 
 
 Becomes obsolete. 
 
 
 'yit,' 'we -two,' 
 
 
 
 
 ' ye-two,' 
 
 
 
 
 ' Min and ' thin ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 Are rare ; and 
 
 (gen. of I and 
 
 
 
 ' my ' and ' thy ' 
 
 thou) 
 
 
 
 are used. 
 
 'Heo,' fern, of he, 
 
 ., ., 
 
 ,. .. 
 
 Become ' she,' a 
 
 and 'hi,' 'heom,' 
 
 
 
 form of seo, 
 
 ' hem,' 
 
 
 
 ' they,' ' them.' 
 
 In ADJECTIVES the chief change is owing to the fact that, in the 
 Anglo-Saxon, Adjectives were declined, and had genders. They 
 followed the Nouns, and dropped all forms of gender and declension. 
 
CHANGES ILLUSTBATED. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON. 
 
 SEMI-SAXON. 
 
 OLD ENGLISH. 
 
 MIDDLE ENGLISH. 
 
 to 1050. 
 
 1050-1250. 
 
 1250-1350. 
 
 1350-1550. 
 
 1 Cffldmon,' 
 
 ' History of King 
 
 ' Havelok the 
 
 ' Chaucer,' 
 
 '.Elfric," Alfred,' 
 
 Leir,' ' Saxon 
 
 Dane,' 'Robert of 
 
 ' Mandeville.' 
 
 etc. 
 
 Chron.' latter part, 
 'Layamon,' 
 
 Gloucester,' 
 ' Wycliffe. ' 
 
 
 VERBS underwent the following changes : 
 
 Infinitives ended 
 
 Then in ' e,' 
 
 Infinitive ex- 
 
 By 'to' without 
 
 in ' an ' or ' en,' 
 
 neinme for 
 
 pressed by ' to,' 
 
 ' en ' and by 
 
 
 nemmen, to 
 
 then with ' an ' 
 
 ' for to.' 
 
 
 name. 
 
 or ' en ' added. 
 
 
 
 
 A mixture of 
 
 
 
 
 the gerundial 
 
 
 
 
 and the com- 
 
 
 
 
 
 mon infinitive. 
 
 
 ' En ' of the per- 
 
 Left out, as 
 
 
 
 fect participle 
 
 ' ihote.' 
 
 
 
 'ihaten,' 
 
 
 
 
 ' Enne ' of the ge- 
 
 Became ' an ' of 
 
 ' An ' dropped 
 
 Reappears in the 
 
 rundial infini- 
 
 the infinitive. 
 
 after ' to.' 
 
 gerundial or 
 
 tive, 
 
 
 
 participial in- 
 
 
 
 
 finitive, as 
 
 
 
 
 'rising early.' 
 
 ' Ath ' the plur. 
 
 
 
 Became ' en,' the 
 
 This* was dropped, 
 
 indie. 
 
 
 subj. plur. 
 
 and the plur. 
 
 
 
 
 and sing, be- 
 
 
 
 
 came alike in 
 
 
 
 
 1st per. 
 
 Many strong pre- 
 
 .. .. 
 
 Become weak, as 
 
 
 "terites, as wex, 
 
 
 waxed, delved, 
 
 
 dalf, or dolve, 
 
 
 wept. 
 
 
 wop, 
 
 
 
 
 'Ath,' the third 
 
 .. 
 
 Becomes ' s,' as 
 
 ' s ' the common 
 
 person sing., 
 
 
 ' loves.' 
 
 form, 'eth' an- 
 
 
 
 
 tique. 
 
 ' Synd ' and ' syn- 
 
 i . 
 
 Give place to 
 
 
 don,' we are, 
 
 
 ' ben,' we be. 
 
 
 Participles are de- 
 
 i 
 
 They have no de- 
 
 The ending 'ing' 
 
 clined like ad- 
 
 
 clension, and 
 
 regarded some- 
 
 jectives, and 
 
 
 end in ' ing,' 
 
 times as a ver- 
 
 terminate in 
 
 
 taken from the 
 
 bal Noun, some- 
 
 ' eiide ' and 
 
 
 ending of ver- 
 
 times as a ge- 
 
 ' ande.' 
 
 
 bal Nouns, as 
 
 rundial infini- 
 
 
 
 1 Brennung.' 
 
 tive (see above). 
 
 The ' en ' of the plural was dropped 
 in the time of Henry the Eighth. 
 ' To tell you my opinion,' says Ben 
 
 Jonson, ' I am persundeil that the 
 lack hereof will be found a great 
 blemish to our toncue, ' 
 
60 FROM ANGLO-SAXON TO ENGLISH. 
 
 Note that Semi-Saxon, Old English, etc., are distinguished 
 from the other forma of English, by the regular, not the 
 occasional recurrence of the forms peculiar to each. Note also, 
 that of two forms, ' fathers,' and ' of a father,' the inflexional 
 form is the older. As speech modernizes, cases and tenses give 
 place to Prepositions and Auxiliary Yerbs. It was in pre- 
 cipitating this use of Prepositions for inflexions, that the 
 influence of the Danish tongue was most felt. 
 
 68. It will illustrate this table to compare Matt. vii. 27, in the 
 versions of the A. S. , Wycliffe, and Tyndale : 
 
 ANGLO-SAXOX. WYCLIFFE, 1380. TTN-DALE, 1526. 
 
 'Tha rinde hyt .and 'And rain come down 'And abundance of 
 
 thaer com flod, and and floodis camen and rayne descended, and 
 
 bleowon windas and windis blewen and thei the fluddes came, and 
 
 ahruron on thaet hus : huiliden in to that the wyndes blewe, and 
 
 and thaethusfeoll, and house: and it felle beet upon that housse, 
 
 hys hryre was mycel.' down, and the fallyng and it fell, and great 
 
 i.e. ' Then rained it, and down thereof was was the fall of it.' 
 
 there came flood, and grete.' 
 blew winds, and rushed 
 on that house, and the (or that) house fell, and its rush was great.' 
 
 Here we have (1) in Wycliffe a change of order, consequent 
 on the loss of inflection (windas) in the Noun, even though the 
 Verb is still plural (blewen). (2) The plural form of the Verb 
 gradually vanishes bleowtm, blewen, blewe. (3) The Article, 
 which L in A.S. was very much a demonstrative, becomes in 
 Tyndale's time more frequent and less definite. 
 
 59. The date when particular words pass into current rae 
 Hi to of f rms a subject of interesting inquiry. Many of them 
 particular originate in the necessities of the age, and belong to 
 words. the hjgtory of progress and thought. Others originate 
 in the wants or circumstances of the times, and throw light on 
 our literature and natural condition. In nearly all we see the 
 struggles of the human mind to express its meaning, and to 
 define more clearly the limits that separate object from object, 
 or thought from thought. 
 
 Many French words, for example, are found in Chaucer's 
 French writings, and were either introduced by him, or had 
 words. recently founcl a home in the country. Spenser calls 
 his writings 'a well of English undefiled,' as compared with 
 
HISTORY OP PARTICULAE WORDS. 57 
 
 the writers of his own century ; and yet, compared with 
 modern English, it is intensely ' French. ' To the court and times 
 of Charles II. also we owe many French terms. 
 
 The fifteenth century, again, is rich in words of Latin origin, 
 r/atin " The prevailing fault," says Campbell,* "of English 
 words, diction of that century is redundant ornament and an 
 affectation of anglicizing Latin words. In this pedantry and use 
 of 'aureate terms,' the Scottish versifiers went even beyond 
 their brethren of the south. When they meant to be eloquent, 
 they tore up words from the Latin, which never took root in the 
 language. " To this pedantry we are indebted for a large number 
 of terms. 
 
 Nor do we owe less to the Reformation. That event en- 
 Influence of coura g e( i an d developed the Saxon element of our 
 the Kef orm- tongue ; but it also encouraged the revival of learning, 
 and appealed in the language of the learned, as well as 
 of common life, to every class. The effect at first was over- 
 whelming. English writers doubted whether in another century 
 we should have an intelligible English tongue ; but at last the 
 result was the formation of a language, much more copious, 
 delicate, and manly, though overburdened with its new and 
 sometimes useless wealth. 
 
 60. There are four sources, at least, of information on the 
 How the date of the introduction of words : the spelling of the 
 fntroduc 116 wor d, and the form of the plural ; the position of the 
 tibu of accent, and the testimony of authors who note the 
 ascertained, rise and growing use, or the age and obsoleteness of 
 Spelling, the words themselves. In the first three cases we 
 Accent', catch the words while new comers, and undergoing 
 Testimony. ^n e process of naturalization ; in the last case, we 
 have the question decided on authority which is generally con- 
 clusive. 
 
 ' Pyramids ' is now English in Shakspeare's day it was spelt 
 ' pyramides ' and ' pyramis ' ; ' synonym' was, in Milton's day, 
 ' synonyma ' and ' synonymon ' ; ' extasis ' (Burton), ' syntaxis ' 
 (Fuller), ' misanthropes ' (Shakspeare), ' zoophyton ' (H. More), 
 ' phantasma ' (Donne), 'magnes ' (G-. Harvey), ' expansum* (Jer. 
 Taylor), ' intervallum ' (Chillingworth), ' vestibulum ' (Hare), 
 
 Essay on English Poets, p. 93. 
 
68 WHEN INTRODUCED. 
 
 ' caprichio ' (Shakspeare), ' caprich ' (Butler), croisado ' 
 (Bacon), ' croisade ' (Jortin), are all words undergoing natu- 
 ralization, and when used by the writers named must have been 
 of recent introduction. 
 
 61. The tendency of the accent in English is always towards 
 the beginning of words. Hence it is a sign of recent introduc- 
 tion if 'nature' if accented natiire ' (Chaucer), 'prostrate/ 
 ' prostrate ' (Milton), 'theatre,' ' theatre ' (Sylvester), ' academy,' 
 ' acade'my ' (Cowley), ' essay,' ' essdy ' (Dryden), ' barrier/ 
 'effort/ 'barrier/ ' effort' (Pope). 
 
 ' Alligator ' is the modern spelling and accent : in Ben 
 Jonson's day it is ' aligdrta ' ; and in Raleigh's, it is ' el lagarto ' 
 (Discovery of Guiana), ' the lizard. ' He is the introducer of the 
 word. 'Porpoise' was previously 'porpesse/ and earlier still 
 ' porkpisce ' (Spenser), i. e. , hog-fish ; and we may safely con- 
 clude that it was not much earlier than his day. ' Coffee ' and 
 ' tea ' are now naturalized ; in 1684 they were foreign words : 
 and then Locke writes them ' coffe/ ' the.' ' 
 
 62. ' Cajole ' (to prate, as a ' bird in a cage ') was a new word 
 when Skinner wrote his ' Etymologicon ' (1688), as he thinks 
 was 'sentiment.' This last, however, had been previously in- 
 troduced by Chaucer, and was only reintroduced in Skinner's 
 time. ' Congregational' originated, appropriately enough, in the 
 Assembly of Divines. ' Demagogue ' was new in Milton's day, 
 and originated with Bossuet, though long unused. ' Dragonade 
 describes the means employed to convert the Protestants of 
 France by Louis XIV., who quartered dragoons upon them. 
 ' Refugee ' arose at the same time, and was the appropriate corre- 
 lative. Bacon uses ' circle-learning ' ; ' encyclopaedia ' is a later 
 term. Shakspeare ridicules ' element ' as a pet word in his day 
 ('Twelfth Night'), and Wotton notes 'characters' as a conve- 
 nient recent acquisition. ' Inimical ' was first used by Edmund 
 Burke ; ' malignant ' and ' cavalier ' belong to the time of the 
 Commonwealth ; ' roundhead ' belongs to the same period, 
 p.nd even in Baxter's time had been explained in different ways ; 
 ' some say from the cropt, curl-less head of the Puritans,' others 
 from the ' roundheaded Mr. Pym/ as Queen Henrietta called 
 
 Diary Life by Lord King, p. 42, 
 
HISTORY OP PARTICULAR WORDS. 69 
 
 him. ' Mob ' belongs to the reign of Charles II. , and was first 
 applied, Lord North tells us, to members of the Green Ribbon 
 Club. ' Pathos,' a quality in which Richard Baxter excelled, 
 was a word not known in his day, as Sylvester, who describes 
 the quality in his Funeral Sermon for Baxter, tells us that he 
 can describe it only in Greek. ' Plunder ' was imported, Thomas 
 Fuller says, about 1635, and originated with the plunderings of 
 the soldiers of Gustavus Adolphus. ' Suicide ' is marked by 
 Phillips in his ' New World of Words ' (1671) as a word that 
 deserves to be exploded ' hissed off,' as more suggestive of 
 ' sus ' than ' sui. ' c Selfish ' is a good Saxon word, though de- 
 scriptive of a bad quality : it was devised by the Presbyterians 
 of the Commonwealth. ' Sansculottes,' 'terrorism,' ' guillotine,' 
 tell part of the history of the French revolution of 1790. 
 
 In 1534, Sir Thomas Elyot speaks of ' frugality,' ' temperance,' 
 ' sobriety,' and ' magnanimity,' as modern words. In 1589, 
 Puttenham commends the modern invention of 'method,' 'func- 
 tion,' 'numerous,' 'penetrate,' 'indignity,' 'savage,' 'scientific,' 
 ' dimension,' 'idiom,' ' compendious,' 'prolix,' ' figurative,' ' im- 
 pressive,' 'metrical/ 'inveigle.' * In 1601, Philemond Holland, 
 a voluminous translator of classic authors, gives the following as 
 novelties, and adds an explanation of each : 'acrimony,' 'austere,' 
 ' bulk,' 'consolidate,' 'debility,' 'dose,' 'aperient,' 'opiate,' 'pro- 
 pitious,' 'symptom.' Early in the seventeenth century, Fulke, 
 the critic of the Rheimish scriptures, objects to 'rational,' 'tunic,' 
 ' scandal,' ' neophyte,' ' despicable,' ' destruction,' ' homicide,' 
 ' ponderous,' ' prodigious,' as not English ; as ' inkhorn terms, 
 smelling too much of the Latin. ' In 1658, the following were 
 reckoned as uncouth, i.e., as unknown or unusual words : 
 'adoption,' 'abstruse,' 'amphibious,' 'articulate,' 'adventitious,' 
 'complicated,' 'compensate,' 'concede,' 'caress,' 'destination,' 
 'horizontal,' 'oblique, 'ocular,' 'radiant,' etc. They are ap- 
 pended as such to Heylin's Observations on'L'Estrange's History 
 of Charles II. In 1670, Dryden, who is in practice one of the 
 reformers of our style, and a good specimen of idiomatic English, 
 objects to ' good graces,' and 'repartee,' and 'embarrass,' and 
 ''grimace,' and 'chagrin.' Similarly, Johnson is blamed on 
 the publication of the ' Rambler,' for using such words as ' re- 
 
 Many of these ex am pies are taken from the admirable volumes of Dr. Trench. 
 
WHEN INTRODUCED. 
 
 suscitation,' 'narcotic,' 'fatuity,' 'germination/ which were not 
 then parts of the English tongue. 
 
 On the other hand, many words are marked in old lists as 
 obsolete, a fact that proves their antiquity, though it is no 
 evidence that they are not still in use. Some contemporary 
 friend of Spenser's, for example, marks as obsolete, ' dapper,' 
 ' scathe,' 'askance,' 'embellish,' 'forestall,' 'fain.' Among words 
 in Chaucer, said in 1667 to be obscure from age, are ' anthem/ 
 'blithe/ 'bland/ 'carol/ 'franchise/ 'sphere/ 'transcend.' 
 While in Skinner's list of words not in use within the memory 
 of man, ' quse jam ante parentum tetatem in usu esse desierunt,' 
 he reckons such old English words as ' strath/ ' sough/ ' shaw ' 
 (of trees), ' rathe ' (early), ' low ' (flame), ' landlouper/ ' shore ' 
 (sewer), 'laverock' (lark), 'to well up' (to spring), 'yelp/ 
 ' thrill/ ' threpe ' (to affirm), ' rive ' (tear), ' reive ' (carry off), 
 ' dovetail/ 'kirtle/ 'grisly/ 'lewd ' (ignorant), ' ledge ' ; and even 
 ' trenchant/ ' tissue/ ' plumage/ ' malison/ ' outrance/ ' plea- 
 saunce/ 'resource/ 'vicinage/ 'tapestry/ 'villainy/ and many 
 others. Several of these words have, no doubt, been revived in 
 later times : but the fact that they were obsolete two hundred 
 years ago proves that they are old residents in the country. It 
 suggests also what indeed is the fact that the English of our 
 old writers, Chaucer, for example, may be clearer to us than it 
 was to the readers and authors of the age of Dryden and Pope. 
 
 The student may extend these lists. To our own age belong 
 '{esthetic/ 'prestige/ 'myths/ 'photography/ 'handbooks/ 
 ' solidarity/ 'nuggets/ etc. ; ' folklore ' and 'telegrams/ 'tenders ' 
 and ' railways.' To America we owe ' outsiders/ ' coincidences/ 
 'immigrants/ or 'comelings/ as Wycliffe names them. 
 
 63. Scarcely less interesting than the question of the elates of 
 History of the introduction of words into any language, is the 
 the mean- change of meaning which many of them have under- 
 particular gone since they were first used. Dean Trench has 
 words. used this tendency to attach new meanings to old 
 words to illustrate the progress of nations in vice, or occasionally 
 in virtue. He notes, for example, how ' virtus ' was originally 
 the moral quality which becomes us as men ; then the manly 
 courage of the soldier, and then in Italy, as 'virtu/ the taste 
 which busies itself with antiquarian research and curious ele- 
 
ETYMOLOGICAL MEANING. 61 
 
 gance. Similarly, ' worth ' was once a moral quality entitled to 
 honour, a sense still surviving in ' worthy ' and ' worship ' ; now 
 it is often represented by ' money value ' : ' wealth ' has under- 
 gone the same change, though the original meaning is found in 
 Scripture (1 Cor. x. 24, Ps. Ixvi. 12), and survives in ' well ' and 
 1 the common weal. ' Words, moreover, descriptive originally 
 of knowledge, or skill, or art, have come to represent crooked 
 knowledge and perverted skill. ' Cunning,' ' wit,' ' artifice/ and 
 ' craft,' had all once a noble meaning ; now they describe quali- 
 ties insignificant or degrading. The moral tastes of men have 
 influenced their speech. 
 
 64. This tendency is here recorded, however, chiefly to help in 
 fixing the meaning of words. 
 
 As a matter of fact, for example, many of the words in 
 sacred Scripture which are now obsolete in the sense in which 
 our translators used them, had then their common etymological 
 meaning : ' prevent,' ' apprehend,' ' mortify,' ' offend,' ' allow,' * 
 ' conversation,' b belong to this class ; and in writers of the six- 
 teenth and seventeenth centuries such meanings abound. Hence- 
 Cudworth speaks of ' polite surfaces ' as reflecting the images of 
 the things presented to them, and Fuller of ' resenting a favour. ' 
 Hence Lord Bacon tells men that they are to set their affections 
 on ' some provoking object,' and that ' incensed odours are sweet- 
 est.' In these cases we need only recall the derivation of the 
 words, and the sense is plain. 
 
 65. In other cases the meaning of wo.rds has become wider ; 
 more frequently narrower and more specific. Occasionally, the 
 meaning has been entirely changed ; this last process generally 
 taking place through an intermediate meaning common to the 
 first and last meanings of the word, though now lost. 
 
 A few examples of narrowed meaning may prove instructive : 
 Meaning ' attorney ' was used in the sixteenth and seventeenth 
 narrowed, centuries for ' one who takes the turn or place of 
 another ' ; ' one attorney between God and man ' : now it is 
 restricted to the law, or to formal legal acts. ' Imp ' was origi- 
 
 'Allow' from Fr. 'allouer,' and b 'Conversation,' way of life: from 
 
 that from 'al-laudare,' to praise, ap- 'conversari,' to be conversant with, 
 
 prove, commend. 'Allowed to be read Wycliffe. 
 in churches. ' 
 
62 WORDS WITH WIDENED MEANING. 
 
 nally any scion or shoot ; as ' brat ' was anything born. ' Dis- 
 ease ' dis-ease of any kind is now applied only to an ill con- 
 dition of body or mind. ' Animosity,' and ' censure/ and 
 ^conceit/ and ' doom,' and ' officious,' had once two meanings ; 
 viz., ' spiritedness,' 'any opinion/ whether good or bad; 'a 
 concept/ the object of an act of conception ; ' a judgment/ 
 good or bad ; and 'ready for duty.' Now they are used in bad 
 senses only. 
 
 The following are now used with a meaning wider than at 
 first. Tc 'abandon/ was to give up to the ban ; ' bannus/ 
 Meaning an interdict, or edict ; hence, ' banns of marriage ' ; 
 widened. < landit,' one outlawed : now it means, to give up 
 entirely, but in any way. To ' comfort ' meant, in Wycliffe's 
 day, to make or grow strong, ' the child was comforted in spirit ' ; 
 now it means, to strengthen, and help, and console. To ' con- 
 trol ' a man was originally to ' check ' him, by keeping a ' contre- 
 role/ or file, upon transactions with him ; now it means to 
 check and control in any way. ' Christendom ' was originally 
 the act whereby men became avowedly Christ's ; i. e. , baptism 
 'by my Christendom': now it is used collectively of all who 
 have made that profession. ' Gossip ' was at first one who had 
 become akin (' sib '), through common relation, to God ; now it 
 is used in a sense much wider and more trivial. ' Trivial ' itself 
 is an example of the same change. It was originally to use 
 another and similar figure what was well-trodden (' trite ') or 
 talked of at the corners of the roads, where three ways met ; now 
 it is applied to idle gossip, or to frivoloiis accusations of any 
 kind. ' Opinion ' and ' public opinion ' were defined two hun- 
 dred and fifty years ago ' as light, vain, crude, imperfect things, 
 settled with imagination, but never arriving at the understand- 
 ing.' * ' Be sure/ says Locke, ' not to let your son be bred up in 
 the art and formality of disputing . . . unless you . . . desire to 
 have him an insignificant wrangler, a mere opinionator in dis- 
 course.' b For a hundred years and more, the narrow and bad 
 sense of the word is indicated by such forms as ' opinionated, ' 
 ' opinionastic/ ' opinionative/ ' opinionist. ' Now our language is 
 entirely changed. ' Tout devient facile/ said Napoleon, ' quand 
 on suit V opinion. ' ' Question of opinion/ says another, ' means, 
 
 Ben Jonson. Napoleon III., 1855. 
 
 On the Understanding. 
 
WORDS WITH NEW MEANINGS. 
 
 63 
 
 quid faciendum; question of fact, quid factum.'* 'There is in 
 nature/ says an eminent statesman, ' no moving power but mind. 
 In human affairs, this power is opinion ; in political affairs, it is 
 public opinion' ; and 'this public opinion it is that finally wins 
 the day.' b If these sentiments are true, they are practically 
 very important ; nor is it uninteresting to trace the change of 
 meaning which the words have undergone : the history of the 
 word shows the change of popular feeling. 
 
 Sometimes the meaning of words seems entirely changed. 
 Meaning But in all such cases it will be found that there is some 
 changed, third, or third and fourth meaning, which connects 
 the first and the last of the series. A word has at first the 
 meaning a, and at last the meaning d, and there seems no con- 
 nexion between them ; but in fact the first meaning becomes 
 a + b, the second b + c, the third c + d, and in the fourth the c is 
 dropped, and d only remains. Whether the word has modified 
 its meaning, or its spelling, the discovery of these intermediate 
 senses, or spellings, supplies the connecting link in the evidence 
 which makes the whole intelligible. 
 
 The following Table illustrates the change irom one meaning 
 to another, apparently quite different. 
 
 Antique 
 
 Ancient. 
 
 Ancient, obso- 
 
 Antic, ridiculous. 
 
 
 
 lete, ridiculous. 
 
 
 Bombast 
 
 Silk, cotton. 
 
 Cotton used in 
 
 Stuffed, bombastic 
 
 
 
 stuffing, or 
 
 style. 
 
 
 
 padding. 
 
 
 Boor 
 
 Cultivator. 
 
 Cultivator, rough 
 
 Boorish, uncivil- 
 
 
 
 in manners. 
 
 ized. 
 
 Villain 
 
 A farm labourer. 
 
 A labourer, low 
 
 An immoral, bad 
 
 
 
 in moral state. 
 
 man. 
 
 Pagan 
 
 A villager. 
 
 A villager, ig- 
 
 One ignorant of 
 
 
 
 norant of the 
 
 the gospel. 
 
 
 
 gospel. 
 
 
 Chattels, cat- 
 
 Heads of cattle 
 
 Cattle, as a sub- 
 
 Substance of any 
 
 tle (like pe- 
 
 (capitalia) . 
 
 stance or pro- 
 
 kind not money. 
 
 cunia, pe- 
 
 
 perty. 
 
 
 cus) 
 
 
 
 
 Clumsy 
 
 Benumbed with 
 
 Benumbed, awk- 
 
 Awkward from 
 
 
 cold. 
 
 ward. 
 
 any cause. 
 
 Copy 
 
 Abundance. 
 
 Abundance 
 
 A copy itself. 
 
 
 
 through multi- 
 
 
 
 
 plying copies. 
 
 
 Gazette 
 
 A small coin. 
 
 A paper selling 
 
 A paper itself, 
 
 
 
 for a small coin. 
 
 
 Lewd 
 
 Laic, vulgar, ig- 
 
 Ignorant, vicious. 
 
 Vicious. 
 
 
 norant. 
 
 
 
 Btntham on Fallacies, 1824. 
 
 b Lord Palmerston, 1820. Quoted 
 
 from Trans, of Phil. Soc., 18oS. " 
 
WOEDS WITH NEW MEANINGS. 
 
 Pomp 
 
 Miscreant 
 
 Lumber 
 
 Morose 
 
 A procession. 
 Misbeliever. 
 
 What is put in a 
 Lombard's room. 
 
 Given to his own 
 manners or ways. 
 
 Pragmatical One who attends 
 to business. 
 
 Prodigious 
 
 Lurch 
 Orient 
 
 An ominous an- 
 nouncement 
 (prodico), pro- 
 digies. 
 To hide (lurk). 
 
 Sun-rising. 
 
 Preposterous Putting behind what 
 should be before. 
 
 Treacle Made for vipers 
 
 (poisonous 
 beasts) . 
 
 Restive What won't go. 
 
 Prevaricate One who seems to 
 prosecute a charge 
 when he is really 
 defending. 
 
 Stationer One who has a 
 station for sell- 
 ing goods. 
 
 Romance Poetry in the 
 Romanese 
 tongue ; a mix- 
 ture of Latin 
 and French. 
 
 Cheque, check, Game of chess 
 chequers,ex- played on sur- 
 chequer lace marked 
 
 with squares. 
 
 A procession with 
 great show. 
 
 Misbeliever, 
 grossly vicious. 
 
 What is put there, 
 chiefly useless 
 and old things. 
 
 Given to his own 
 ways, self-con- 
 tained or un- 
 genial. 
 
 One, etc., and 
 grows fussy or 
 positive. 
 
 Ominous and 
 very great. 
 
 To hide by dip- 
 ping the head. 
 
 Sun-rising, and 
 so bright, glit- 
 tering. 
 
 Putting, etc., and 
 so absurd. 
 
 Syrup made to 
 cure poisonous 
 attacks. 
 
 Stubborn and 
 won't go. 
 
 One who in tWs 
 way plays 
 false. 
 
 One, etc., for sell- 
 ing paper. 
 
 Poetry, wild and 
 extravagant. 
 
 Great show and 
 parade. 
 
 One grossly vi- 
 cious. 
 
 Such things auj- 
 where. 
 
 Ungeuial. 
 
 Any one fussy and 
 positive. 
 
 Very great. 
 
 To dip the head. 
 
 Bright and glit 
 tering. 
 
 Absurd. 
 
 Syrup of any kind. 
 
 specially of 
 
 sugar. 
 Stubborn in not 
 
 standing still. 
 One who in any 
 
 way plays false. 
 
 One who sells 
 paper. 
 
 Anything wild and 
 extravagant. 
 
 The court where Various A cheque 
 
 a chequered others, is a piece 
 
 table-cloth was and at of paper 
 
 laid and used last used in 
 
 for counting money 
 
 monies. payments. 
 
 66. In good modern dictionaries the gradual changes in the 
 Dictionaries meaning of words are shown by a chronological ar- 
 and the rangement of those meanings, and of the authorities 
 ran^ement quoted. Both the memory and the judgment of the 
 of them. studen* are greatly aided by such an arrangement. 
 
NOTES-ANGLO-SAXON INFLEXIONS. 
 
 65 
 
 For English words, a convenient chronological division of 
 authorities is from the earliest times to the middle of the reign 
 of Henry VIII. , A.D. 1526 ; from 1526 to the middle of the 
 reign of Charles II., A.D. 1674 ; and from 1674 to our own times. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Gen. 
 Dat. and 
 
 Abl. 
 Ace. 
 
 NOTES AND ILLUSTKATIONS. 
 67. ANGLO-SAXON INFLEXIONS. DECLENSIONS. 
 
 NOUNS. First Declension. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Mas. Fern. Neut. Mas. Fern. 
 
 Steorra tunge cage (eye) steorran tungan 
 
 (star) (tongue) 
 
 Steorran tungan eagan steorreua tungena 
 Steorran tungan eagan steorrnm tuugum 
 
 Ncut. 
 eagan. 
 
 eageua. 
 eaguin. 
 
 Steorran tungan eaga steorran tungan eagan. 
 
 Second Declension. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 
 1st Cl. 
 
 2nd Cl. 
 
 3rd Cl. 
 
 1st Cl. 
 
 2nd Cl. 
 
 3rd CL 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Word 
 
 smith 
 
 sprsec 
 
 word 
 
 smithas 
 
 sprseca. 
 
 
 
 
 (speech) 
 
 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Wordes 
 
 smithes 
 
 sprsece 
 
 worda 
 
 smitha 
 
 sprosca . 
 
 Dat. and 
 
 Wordo 
 
 smithe 
 
 sprsece 
 
 wordum 
 
 smithum 
 
 Bpraecum 
 
 Abl. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Word 
 
 Bmith 
 
 sprsece 
 
 word 
 
 Bmithas 
 
 spraGca. 
 
 Third Declension. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 1st Cl. 
 
 2nd Cl. 
 
 3rd Cl. 
 
 Is* Cl. 
 
 2nd Cl. 
 
 3rd Cl. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Treow (a 
 
 man 
 
 gifu (a 
 
 treowu 
 
 menu 
 
 gtfa. 
 
 
 tree) 
 
 
 gift) 
 
 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Treowes 
 
 manncs 
 
 gife 
 
 treowa 
 
 manna 
 
 gifena. 
 
 Dat. and 
 
 Treowe 
 
 men 
 
 gife 
 
 treowum 
 
 mumium 
 
 gifum. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Treow 
 
 man 
 
 gife or u 
 
 treowu 
 
 menu 
 
 gifa. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE INDEFINITE. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 Mas. 
 
 God 
 
 Godes 
 
 Godum 
 
 Godne 
 
 Gode 
 
 Fern. 
 
 god 
 
 godre 
 
 godre 
 
 gode 
 
 godre 
 
 Neut, 
 
 god 
 
 gcdes 
 
 godum 
 
 god 
 
 goda 
 
 Flu. 
 
 gode. 
 
 godra. 
 
 godum. 
 
 gode. 
 
 godum. 
 
 F 
 
66 
 
 NOTES-ANGLO-SAXON INFLEXIONS. 
 
 ADJECTIVES WITH THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Nom. 
 Gen. 
 Dat, 
 Ace. 
 Abl. 
 
 Singular. 
 Mas. 
 Se goda (good) 
 Thaes godan 
 Tham godan 
 Thone godan 
 Thy godan 
 
 Fern. 
 
 seo gode 
 thsere godan 
 thaere godan 
 tha godan 
 thasre godan 
 
 Plural. 
 Ncut. Mas. Fern. artdNcut. 
 thaet gode tha godan. 
 tliEes godan thara godena. 
 tham godan tham godum. 
 thaet gode tha godan. 
 thy godan thain godum. 
 
 PEESONAL PEONOUKS. 
 
 Singular, Dual and Plural. 
 
 1st Per. 2nd Per. 3rd Per. 1st Per. 2nd Per. 3rd Per. 
 
 Dual. Plu. Dual. Plu. 
 
 Nom. Ic thu he heo hit wit we git ge hi 
 
 Gen, Min thin his hyre his uucer ure, user incer eower hira, heom 
 
 inc cow him, heom 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Me the 
 
 hiuo hi hit unc us 
 
 iiic eow 
 
 hi ' 
 
 DEMONSTEATIVB PEONOUNS THJET and THIS. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Mas. 
 
 Fein. 
 
 Ncut. 
 
 Phi. 
 
 
 SNom. 
 
 Se 
 
 seo 
 
 thffit 
 
 tha. 
 
 BO 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Thses 
 
 thaere 
 
 thaeg 
 
 tliura. 
 
 60 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Tham 
 
 thaere 
 
 tham 
 
 tham. 
 
 thaet 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Thone (thcene) 
 
 tha 
 
 thaet 
 
 tha. 
 
 
 Abl. 
 
 Thy 
 
 thsere 
 
 thy 
 
 tham. 
 
 
 !' Nom. 
 
 Thes 
 
 thoos 
 
 this 
 
 thas. 
 
 thes 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Thises 
 
 thisse 
 
 thises 
 
 thissa. 
 
 theos 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Thisum 
 
 thisse 
 
 thisum 
 
 thisum. 
 
 this 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Thisne 
 
 thas 
 
 this 
 
 thas. 
 
 
 Abl. 
 
 Thise 
 
 thisse 
 
 thise 
 
 thisum. 
 
 INTEEEOGATIVE PEONOUN. 
 
 Hwaet (what). 
 
 Hwaes (whose). 
 
 Hwam (Hwaem) (whom). 
 
 Hwat (what). 
 
 Hwi (why). 
 
 Nom. Hwa (who) 
 
 Gen. Hwaes (whose) 
 
 Dat. Hwam (hwaem) (whom) 
 
 Ace. Hwone (hwaene) 
 
 Abl. Hwi 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON CONJUGATION. 
 
 
 VEBBS. 
 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 Pros. Sing. 1 
 
 Lunge 
 
 (I) love. 
 
 2 
 
 Lufast 
 
 (Thou) lovest. 
 
 3 
 
 Lufath 
 
 (He) loves. 
 
 Plur. 1, 2, 3 
 Imperf. Sing. 1 
 
 Lufiath 
 Lufode 
 
 We, ye, they. 
 (I) loved. 
 
 2 
 
 Lufodest 
 
 (Thou) lovedst. 
 
 3 
 
 Lufode 
 
 (He) loved. 
 
 Plur. I, 2, 3 
 
 Lufodoii 
 
 (We), etc- 
 
Pres. Sing. 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 PI. 1, 2, 3 
 
 Iinperf. Sing. 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 PI. 1. 2, 3 
 
 NOTES-ANGLO-SAXON INFLEXIONS. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 67 
 
 Sing. 
 Plur. 
 
 Prea. 
 Ger. 
 
 Participle act. 
 Participle pass. 
 
 Lufige 
 
 Lufl-on, or -an 
 Lufode 
 
 Luf-odon, or -edon 
 
 Imperative. 
 Lufa 
 Lufiath 
 
 Infinitive. 
 Lufian 
 
 (to) Lufigenne 
 Lufigende 
 (ge-) lufod 
 
 (I) love. 
 (Thou) love. 
 (He) love. 
 We, ye, they. 
 (I) loved. 
 (Thou) loved. 
 (He) loved. 
 We, ye, they. 
 
 To love. 
 For to love. 
 Loving. 
 (Be-) loved. 
 
 68. The first of the following versions of the Lord's Prayer is 
 taken from St. Cuthbert's Gospel as it is called, from the fact 
 that it was written in honour of St. Cuthbert. The book is now 
 in the Cotton Library (Nero D. iv.), and was long deposited in 
 the Priory at Holy Island, and in the Cathedral at Durham. It 
 was written probably by Eadfrith, and between 687 and 721 A.D. 
 
 The second version is of the date of King Alfred, A.D. 890 ; 
 and the third is taken from Wiclif , 1380. 
 
 The version from St. Cuthbert's Gospel was printed, though 
 inaccurately, by Camden (p. 22), and accurately by Wanley, in 
 his Catalogue of Northern Books and MSS. appended to Hickes 
 Thesaurus of Northern Literature. 
 
 The Lord's Prayer : 
 
 EARLY SAXON. 
 About 700 A.D. 
 
 Uren Faeder thilc 
 arth in heofuas, sie 
 gehalgud thin nama, to 
 cumath thin ric. Sig 
 thin willa swa is in he- 
 ofnas, and in eorthu. 
 Uve blaf of er wirtlic b 
 
 SAXON OP 890. 
 
 Feeder ure thu the 
 eart in heofenum l . Si ' 
 thin nama gehalgod ' 
 to-be-come thin 1 rice, 
 geweorhte thin willa on 
 jorthan, 1 swa swa on 
 leofenum. 
 
 ULD ENGLISH. 
 Wyclif, 1380. 
 
 Ouro fadir that art 
 in hevenes, Halowid be 
 thi name, Thi kyngdom 
 come to. Be thi wille 
 don in erthe, as in 
 hevene. 
 Geve to us this day 
 v 1 
 
cs 
 
 NOTES ANGLO-SAXON OP DIFFERENT DATES. 
 
 Bel us to daeg and forgef 
 us scylda urna, swa we 
 forgefan scyldgum urum 
 & do inlcad d usith in 
 
 Urne ' dseghwamlican ' ouro breed ovir other 
 hlaf* syle* us to daeg. substauuce, 1 Andforgeve 
 And forgef us ure us oure dettes ' as we 
 gyltas ' swa swa > we forgiven our dettouris, k 
 
 custnung. Ac gefrig e forgifadh urum gylten-jand lede us not into 
 urich from iflo. dum ' & ne gelaedde thu temptaciouu. k But dc- 
 
 us on costenunge. Ac!lyver k us from yvel. 
 
 alys h us of yfcll. Soth- Amen, 
 
 licc. h 
 
 Hence 'loaf.' 
 
 b Over-substantial. 
 
 Obligation, from sceal, I ovro, 
 must, I shall. 
 
 I ulead, not lead. 
 
 Be free. 
 ' Daily. 
 
 s Syle, give ; hence, sell. 
 
 i> A-loosen, to free; soothlike, truly. 
 
 1 k. These words are all Latin ; some of 
 them, marked ( k ) through the French. 
 
 1 'Ure' is the gen. pi. of 'Ic,' I; 
 ' Ueofenum,' tho dat. pi. of ' heofen,' 
 Heaven ; ' Si,' the third pres. subj. of 
 ' wcsan,' to be ; ' gchalgod ' is the 
 past part, of ' halgian,' to hallow ; 
 ' eorthan,' dat. sing, of ' eorthe,' earth ; 
 'swa, swa,' is so as; 'urne,' poss. adj. 
 pron., accus. sing. ; 'gyltas,' ace. pi. of 
 gy It,' a sin or debt ; ' gyltendum,' dat. 
 pi. of ' gyltcnd,' a debtor. 
 
 The following is another specimen of Saxon of different 
 dates : 
 
 FEOM C.ZEDMON, 
 A.D. 680. 
 
 Nu scylun hergan 
 Hafaen ricaes uard, 
 
 Metudaes msecti 
 End his mod gidanc 
 1J"crc uuldur fadur 
 
 Sue he uundra gihuucs 
 Eci drictin 
 Or astelidaa 
 
 He ffirist scop 
 Elda barnum 
 
 Ileben til hrofo 
 Hajlig scepen 
 Tha middun geard 
 Mon cynnaes uard 
 
 Eci dryctin 
 JEfter tiadjs 
 Firum foldu 
 Frea Allmectig, 
 
 KING ALFEED'S vr.rv 
 
 6ION, A.D. 885. 
 
 Nu wo sceolan herian 
 Heofon-rices weard, 
 
 Mctodes mihte 
 
 And his mod gethoiic 
 
 "Wera wuldor-faeder 
 
 Swa he wundra gehwacs 
 Ece dryhten 
 Oord onstealde. 
 
 He aerist gesceop 
 Eorthan bearnum 
 
 Heofon to hrofe 
 Halig scyppend 
 Tha middan geard 
 Mon cynnes weard 
 
 Ece dryhten 
 
 Firum foldan 
 Frea Aelmihtig. 
 
 LITERAL ENGLISH 
 VERSION. 
 
 Now we must praise 
 The guardian ('warden') 
 of Heaven's kingdom 
 
 Tho Creator's (' mea- 
 surer') 'meter' might 
 
 And his mind's (mood) 
 thought 
 
 Of men ('vir'), the 
 Glorious Father 
 
 As ho of every wonder 
 
 Eternal Lord. 
 
 Tho beginning estab- 
 lished. 
 
 He first framed 
 (' shaped ') 
 
 For earth's children 
 (' bairns ') 
 
 The Heavens for a roof. 
 
 Holy Creator ! (shaper) 
 
 Then mid-earth (' yard') 
 
 Man-kind's guardian 
 (' warden '), 
 
 Eternal Lord. 
 
 Afterwards made 
 
 For men the fields 
 
 Master Almighty ! 
 
tfOTES-THE HELIAND. 
 
 69 
 
 69. 70. Tho Heliand, the Healer or Saviour, is a metrical 
 
 gospel harmony, in a language similar to the Anglo-Saxon, and 
 
 spoken in the tenth century by Saxon settlers on the 
 
 Lower Rhine. The language is called by early Gothic 
 
 scholars, Dano-Saxon, and by others, Old-Saxon. 
 
 The following specimen is taken from Luke ii. 8 13 (Part 
 of):- 
 
 Tho ward mapagan cud 
 Obar thesa widen werold 
 
 * * * 
 
 Endi quam lioht Godes 
 Wanum thurh thiu wolcan 
 Endi thea wardos thar 
 Bifeng an them f elda 
 Sie werdun an forhtun tho 
 Thea man an ira moda 
 Giseihun thar mahtigna 
 Godes engil cuman 
 
 * * * 
 
 ' "Wiht ne antdredidin 
 
 Ledes * f on thorn liohta 
 
 Ic seal eu quadhe liobora thing 
 
 * * 
 
 Nu is Crist geboran 
 An thesero selbuu naht 
 Salig barn Godes 
 An thera Davides burg 
 Drohtin the Gode 
 
 * * * 
 
 Thar gi ina fidan mugun 
 An Bethlema burg 
 Barno rikiost 
 Habbiath that te tecna 
 That ic eu getellean mag 
 Warun wordun 
 That he thar biwndun ligedb. 
 That kind an enera cribbium 
 Tho he si cuning obar al 
 Erdun endi himiles.' 
 
 * * * 
 
 Reht so he tho that word gespracenun 
 So ward thar engilo to them 
 Unrim cuinan 
 Helag heriskepi 
 From hebanwanga 
 Fagar f olc Godes 
 
 Then it was to many known 
 Over this wide world 
 
 * * * 
 
 Aud came a light of Gcd 
 
 through the welkin ; 
 
 And the words there 
 Caught on the field ; 
 They were in flight then 
 The men in their mood, 
 They saw there mighty 
 Angel of God come. 
 
 * * 
 ' A whit dread not 
 
 Of evil from the light, 
 
 I shall to you speak glad things. 
 
 * * * 
 
 Now is Christ born 
 On this self -same night, 
 Blessed child of God, 
 In David's city, 
 The Lord the Good, 
 
 * * 
 There ye him find may 
 In Bethlehem's city 
 
 The most royal of children. 
 Ye have as a token 
 That I you tell 
 True words, 
 
 That he there bound lieth 
 The child in a crib, 
 Tho' he be king over all 
 Earth and heaven.' 
 
 * * * 
 
 Right as he that word spake 
 
 So was there of angels to them 
 
 In a multitude come, 
 
 A holy host 
 
 From the heaven-plains, 
 
 The fair folk of God. 
 
 Hence ' fangs.' 
 A. S. ladh, loathe. 
 
 t Hence quote. 
 
70 NOTES -HELI AND : BEOWULF. 
 
 ' Diurida si nu,' quadun sie ' Love be there now,' quoth they, 
 
 ' Drohtine selbun ' To the Lord himself 
 
 An them hohoston On the highest 
 
 Himilo rikea Kingdom of heaven, 
 
 Endi fridu an erdu And peace on earth 
 
 Firiho barnum.' To the children of men.' 
 
 The poem on Beowulf describes the acts of a licro of the 
 Western Danes, ' an Achilles of the North. ' There is only one 
 MS. of the poem, preserved in the Cotton Library (Vitellius, 
 A. 15). That MS. seems to have been written in the tenth 
 century ; but the poem is of much earlier date. Mr. Sharon 
 Turner "was the first to call attention to it in 1805 ; and it has 
 since been published, with a translation and notes, both by Mr. 
 Kemble and by Mr. Thorpe. 
 
 The Saxon of the Heliand, and the Saxon of Beowulf, repre- 
 sent the oldest forms of the Saxon of the Continent and of 
 England respectively. 
 
 BEOAVTJLF, iv. p. 18 of Thorpe's edition. 
 
 Him se yldesta Him the eldest 
 
 andswarode, answered, 
 
 werodes wfsa Q- ne ) ^ ail ds teacher (sage) 
 
 word-hord on leac : (his) word hoard unlocked : 
 
 we synt gum cyimes we are of (the) kin 
 
 Geata leode of (the) Gaetse (Goths) nation 
 
 and Higeluces and Hygelac's 
 
 heorth-geneatas : hearth-enjoyers. 
 
 WSBS men faeder My father was 
 
 folcum gecythed to nations (folk) known 
 
 ^Ethele b ord-fruma (a) noble chieftain (foremost man) 
 
 Ecgtheow haten Ecgtheow called (hight) 
 
 gebad wintra worn (he} abode a number of winters 
 
 rer he on weg hwurfe ere he on (his) way departed (turned 
 
 away) 
 
 gamol of geardum : old from his yards (courts) . 
 
 nine gearwe geman Him well remembers 
 
 witena wsl hwylc sage well-nigh each 
 
 wide geond eorthan : widely thro' (' yond ') the earth. 
 
 we thurh holdne hige we thro' firm (friendly) feeling 
 
 hlaford thinne thy lord 
 
 sunu Heo,lf denes Helfdenes son, 
 
 secean cwomon to seek have come 
 
 leod gebyrgean (thy) people to protect. 
 
 wes thu us larena-god. Be thou our good learner (teacher) 
 
 Ge-neatas, possessed, cnjoyed.from make lored either oneself or another; 
 
 nectan ; hence neat (cattle), and neat- hence either to learn or to teach, the 
 
 herd. latter the more common meaning in 
 
 * Hence Atheling, son of the noble. old English. 
 
 c Hence ' lere,' 'lore.' ' Learn,' is to 
 
NOTES-CLKDMON. 71 
 
 71-73. Csedmon, the first Anglo-Saxon writer of note, was a 
 monk of Whitby, and died about 680. He was originally a cow- 
 Anglo- herd, and a poet ' born, not made.' Bede's narrative 
 Saxon. O f hjg ca ji to- the poetic office has in it a strong cast 
 of the marvellous ; but the general facts of his life and his 
 genius are undoubted. His poems are founded chiefly on Bible 
 history, and on religious subjects. His account of the Fall is 
 not unlike that given by Milton ; and passages have been quoted 
 which it is thought may have suggested some of the finest poetry 
 in the Paradise Lost. But Milton had never seen the writings 
 of Csedmon. 
 
 We give as a specimen Csedmon's description of Satan, when 
 recovering from the consternation of his overthrow. Ccedmon 
 was first published by Junius ; but the most convenient edition 
 is that edited by Mr. Thorpe, and printed for the Society of 
 Antiquaries, 1832. Sharon Turner gives several extracts in 
 ' The History of the Anglo-Saxons,' vol. iii. 
 
 ^Elfric, abbot and bishop, died about the close of the tenth 
 century. He made a collection of Homilies, a translation of the 
 first seven books of the Bible, and wrote several religious 
 Biographies. He was also the author of a Latin grammar. He 
 wrote in Saxon, he tells us, that ' he might be understood by un- 
 lettered people. ' Parts of his works were published early in the 
 seventeenth century ; and in 1844-6, his Homilies, with an English 
 version, were edited for the ^Elfric Society by Mr. Thorpe. 
 
 To King Alfred (A.D. 848-901), we are -indebted for transla- 
 tions into Anglo-Saxon of the historical works of Orosius and 
 BEDE. The last an Ecclesiastical History of the Anglo-Saxons 
 is of great value. It was first published in Bede's Latin and 
 King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon at Cambridge in 1643. Alfred's 
 translation is interspersed with a few reflections of his own : 
 the only original composition of his that is known to have been 
 preserved. 
 
 Other Anglo-Saxon treatises, including several on Scripture, 
 may be found enumerated in Dr. White's Preface to the Or- 
 mulum, Oxford, 1852. 
 
 Wooll a him on innan Boiled up within him 
 
 Hyge ymb his heortan (His) thought about Ids heart, 
 
 Hence, to well or spring up. 
 
NOTES-OEDMON. 
 
 Hat wees him utan 
 
 Wrathlic wite. 
 
 He tha worde cuaeth : 
 
 Is thes asnga steda b ungelic 
 
 swithe 
 
 Tham othrum the we ser cuthon," 
 Hean d on heofon-rice 
 The me miu hearra e onlay 
 Theah the hina for tham Al- 
 
 wealdan' 
 Agan ne moston 
 Romigan * ures rices 
 Naefth h he theah riht gedon 
 That he us hsefeth be-fylled * 
 Fyre to botme k 
 Helle thaere-hatan 
 Heofon-rice benumen ' 
 Haf ath hit gemearcod * 
 Mid mon-cynne 
 To gesettanne. 
 That me is sorga maest 
 That Adam sceal 
 The wees of eorthan geworht 
 Minne stronglican 
 Stol behealdan 
 Wesan him on wynne ' 
 & we this wite th'cftien 
 Hearm ' on thisse helle 
 Wa la ahte ic miura handa geweald 
 * * * 
 
 Thonne ic mid thys werode 
 
 Ac licgath me ymbe 
 
 Iren bendas 
 
 Rideth racentan sal 
 
 Ic eom rices-leas * 
 
 Habbath me swa hearde 
 
 Helle clommas B 
 
 Fccste befangen * 
 
 Her is fyr micel 
 
 Ufan & neothone 
 
 Hence quoth. 
 
 > Hence stead, as in Hampstead, etc. 
 
 Hence un-couth. 
 
 d Same as heah, heahnc. 
 
 Compare German Herr, Mr. O. E. 
 Heir. 
 
 ' Hence Bretwalda, governor of Bri- 
 tons. 
 
 t A. S. ram-m, to give room to, to 
 cede. 
 
 i> From N'abban, not to have. 
 
 1 Hence to fell. 
 
 * Hence ' bottom,' a low piece of land, 
 etc. 
 
 Hot was without him 
 
 His dire (wrathlike) punishment. 
 
 Then spake he words ; 
 
 This narrow place is most unliko 
 
 That other that we formerly knew, 
 High in heaven's kingdom, 
 Which my Master bestowed on me, 
 Tho* we it for the Allpowerful 
 
 May not possess (' own ') 
 (We must) cede our realm ; 
 Yet hath he not done rightly 
 That he hath struck us down 
 To the fiery abyss 
 Of the hot hell ; 
 Bereft us of heaven's kingdom, 
 Hath decreed 
 With mankind 
 To people it. 
 
 That is to me of sorrows the greatest, 
 That Adam shall 
 Who of earth was wrought 
 My strong 
 Seat*possess 
 Be to him in delight 
 And we endure this torment 
 Misery in hell. 
 
 Oh, if I had, (owned) the power of 
 * * * 
 
 Then with this Rpst I 
 But around me lie 
 Iron bonds ; 
 
 Presseth this chain-cord ; 
 I am powerlqs ! 
 Have met^o hard 
 The clasps of heU 
 So firmly graspea! g 
 Here is a vast fire J 
 Above and underneath ; 
 
 f Hence numb, bereft of feeling. 
 m To mark om. to determine. 
 n To settle, or plant it. 
 'Stool,' 'hold' firm. 
 p Hence winsome. 
 
 <i Hence the 'tholes' of a boat that 
 support the oars. 
 ' 'Harm.' 
 
 ' Rideth,' ' sittcth upon.* 
 t Rule-less. 
 
 Hence ' clamp,' clammy. 
 
 * Fast-befingered ; hence ' fangs.' 
 
ANGLO-SAXON. 
 
 73 
 
 Ic a ne geseah 
 Lathran* landscipe 
 Lig b no aswamath 
 Hat ofer helle. 
 
 Never did I see 
 A loathlier landscape 
 The flame (abateth not P) 
 Hot over hell. 
 
 THOEPE'S Ceedmon, 1832. 
 
 It will be observed that the Saxon is written in alliterative 
 metre ; two principal words in each couplet beginning with the 
 same letter. 
 
 From ^Elfric's Treatise on the Old and New Testament, 
 written in the days of Edgar, A.D. 9GO : 
 
 Ic wille secgan sume f eawa word. 
 Direst d be tham hcclende hu he us 
 Iserde 9 on his halgan* Godspelle, 
 tha the hine luviath. Gif go 
 luviath me, healdathminebeboda. 
 De the me luvath, he healt mine 
 sprsece,* &miue f aider hime luvath, 
 & wit h cumiath to him and mid 
 him wuniath witodlike' syththam. 
 Dhe the me ne luvath ne healtho 
 na mine sprsece. Her we magon 
 gehiran k that se haelend luvath 
 swithor tha dsede thonne tha 
 srnethan ' word ; tha word ge- 
 witath m & tha weorc standath. 
 
 I will say some few words. But 
 before (or first) of the healer 
 (Saviour), how he us taught in his 
 holy Gospel, those that him love. 
 If ye love me, hold (keep) my bid- 
 dings. He that me loveth, he holds 
 my saying, and my Father him 
 loveth, and we-two come to him 
 and won (dwell) with him ever 
 after (since then). He that me 
 not loveth, he holds not my say- 
 ings. Here we may perceive that 
 our Healer loveth more the deed 
 than the smooth word ; the word 
 passeth awayand the work standeth . 
 
 73. From King Alfred's translation of Bede'sEcc. Hist., lib. i. 
 cp. 8. After enumerating the articles of the Christian faith, he 
 adds : 
 
 Thas word sind skeortlikegescede, 
 & eowis neod that we hi swutelicor 
 cow onwreon. Hwset is se Feeder ? 
 JEimihtig skyppend u na geworht, 
 ne akenned ac he self gestrende 
 beam, him self um eveneke- p Hwcet 
 is so Sunne ? He is thass feeder 
 wisdom & his word & his miht ; 
 thurh dhone so Fseder gesceop 
 calle thing & gesadode. Nis se 
 
 Ilence 'loathe.' 
 
 Hence lihtan, light. 
 
 Aswamath, not known ; there are 
 various readings, none satisfactory. 
 d Hence er'st. 
 
 Hence learning, lore. 
 
 ' These ' g's ' are all soft, haly.in.* 
 So the German sprache. 
 
 These words are shortly said, and 
 to you is need that we them more 
 plainly to you uncover. What is 
 the Father? Almighty Creator, not 
 made (worked) nor begotten, but 
 he himself got the Son (bairn}, to 
 (or with) AzOTsc^/'coeternal ? What 
 is the Son ? He is the Father's 
 tcisdom,a,Ti<l his icord, and. his might; 
 thro whom the Father made 
 
 k A dual form of the pronoun. 
 
 i Clearly, evidently, truly. 
 
 k Hence to hear. 
 
 i Also spelt smooth. 
 
 m Goes wide away. 
 
 n Hence shape, ship, compare craft 
 
 Hence, being akin to. 
 
 p Even, equal to ; eke, also. 
 
74 NOTES-ALFRED: SEMI-SAXON. 
 
 Suun na geworht na gesccapen ac (shaped) all things, and put them 
 
 ho is akenned : & theah hwsethere in order (or arranged them). Not is 
 
 he is even eald. b . . . the Son nor worked nor made 
 
 (shaped). But he is begotten; and 
 
 yet (tho ) still he is as old 
 
 Ac ic the sylle c besne hu dhu But I to thee give an example how 
 
 Godes akennednesse thy bet under- thou God's begettingness by it to 
 
 standen micht. Fyre akendh of him better understand might. Fire be - 
 
 beorhtnesse & ses beorhtnes is even gets of itself brightness, and the 
 
 eald tham fyre. Nis na thaet fyre brightness is as old as the (dat.) 
 
 of thaere beorhtnesse ac seo beorht- fire. Not is that fire of that bright- 
 
 nes is of tham fyre. Thaet fyr ness, but the brightness is of tho 
 
 akendh dha beorhtnesse ac hit ne fire ; that fire begets the bright- 
 
 bith nsefre butan thaere beorht- ness, but it not beeth (is) never 
 
 nesse. Nu dhu gehyrst tha?t seo without its brightness. Now thou 
 
 boerhtnesse is eal swa eald swa d hearest (perceivest) that the bright - 
 
 thset fyr tha heo of cymth. Gethaf a ness is equally old as the fire of the 
 
 mi for thi thaet God mihte gestry- which it cometh. Admit now for 
 
 nan eal swa eald beam. this that God might get a Son as 
 
 old as (coeval with) himself. 
 
 74. Composed by CANUTE, 1017-1036, and long a popular 
 song. The only known fragment of an Anglo-Saxon ballad : 
 
 1 Merie sungen the muneches bin- Merrily sung tho monks within 
 
 nen Ely, Ely, 
 
 That Cnut Ching rew thereby (When) that Cnute King rowed 
 
 Koweth cnihtes naer the land, thereby ; 
 
 Andhere we thes muneches' sasng.' * Eow knights near the land, 
 
 And hear we those monks' song. 
 
 Semi- 75. From King Leir. SEMI-SAXON in two forms, 
 
 Saxon, differing either in dialect or in date, or perhaps in 
 both. 
 
 Bladad hafde ene sune Bladud hadde one sone, 
 
 Leir was ihaten ; Leir was ihote. 
 
 Efter his fader daie, After his fader he held this lond, 
 
 He hold this drihlice lond In his owene hond, 
 
 Somed an his live Haste his lif-dages, 
 
 Sixti winter. Sixti winter, 
 
 He makede ane riche burb He makede on riche borh 
 
 Thurh radfulle his crafte, Thorh wisemenne reade, 
 
 And he heo lette nemnen And hiue het nemni 
 
 Hence ' whether. ' Scotch ' ben.* 
 
 b Kid, Alderman, elder, etc. ' Latin monachus. 
 
 ' Sell," * Scotch ' sang.' 
 d All so old as. 
 
LAYAMON. 76 
 
 Efter him seolvan ; After him seolve ; 
 
 Kaer-Leir hehte the burh. Kair-Leir hehte the borh. 
 
 Leof heo was than kinge Leof he was than kinge ; 
 
 Tha we, an ure leod-quido, The we, on lire speche, 
 
 Leir-chestre clepiad, Leth-chestre cleopieth 
 
 Geare a than holdo dawon. In than eoldo daiye. 
 
 THOEPE'S Anal. Saxonies, p. 143. 
 
 76. From Layamon's account of King Arthur's Coronation, 
 written about 1180 : 
 
 Tha the king igeten hafde When the king eaten had, 
 
 And al his mcn-weorede And all his man-host, 
 
 The bugan out of burhge Then fled out of the borough 
 
 Theines swithe balde The thanes (people) very boldly. 
 
 Alle tha kinges All the kings 
 
 And heore here-thringes And their war- throng (or of servants) 
 
 Alle tha biscopes All the bishops 
 
 And alle tha claerckes And all the clerks, 
 
 Alle tha eorles All the earls 
 
 And alle tha beornea And alle the men (bar-ons), 
 
 Alle tha theines All the thanes, 
 
 Alle tha sweines All the swains, 
 
 Feire iscrudde Fairly dressed (scrud, shred, ehroud 
 
 cut up), 
 
 Helde geond felde Held (their way) ayont the field. 
 
 Summe heo gunnen aruen Some they began to discharge arrows. 
 
 Summe heo gunnen urnen Some they began to run, 
 
 Summe heo gunnen lepen Some they began to leap, 
 
 Summe heo gunnen sceoten Some they began to shoot (darts) 
 
 Summe heo wrastledeu Some they wrestled, 
 
 And wither-gome makeden And wither-game (contests) made 
 
 Summe he on vclde Some they in field 
 
 Pleonwende under scelde Played under shields (i.e. with 
 
 swords), 
 
 Summe heo driven balles Some they drove balls 
 
 Wide geond the felde. Far ayont (or thro') the fields. 
 
 Layamon, or Laweman, was a priest, and dwelt on the banks 
 of the Severn. He lived during the latter half of the twelfth 
 century. His poetical history is taken from Bede, from St. 
 Albin and Austin, and from the Anglo-Norman metrical chro- 
 nicle of Brut, translated by Wace, from Geoffrey of Monmouth's 
 History. This last embraces the history of Britain from the 
 destruction of Troy. 
 
 Hence 'bow,' to yield. 
 
76 NOTES-SEMI-SAXON : THE ORMULUM. 
 
 77. Semi-Saxon, from the later portion of the Anglo-Saxon 
 Chronicle, A.D. 1154: 
 
 On this gasr waerd the King In tins year was the King Ste- 
 
 Stephen ded, and bebyried ther his phen dead, and be-buried where 
 
 wif and his sune wseron bebyried his wife and his son were be-buried 
 
 at Fauresfeld. Thaet minstre hi at Tauresfield. That minster they 
 
 makeden. Tha the king was ded, made. When the king was dead, 
 
 tha was the eorl beionde sss and ne was the earl beyond the sea, and 
 
 durste nan man don other bute god not durst no man do other but 
 
 for the micel eie of him. Tha he good for the mickle (great) awe of 
 
 to Englelande come, tha was heun- him. When he to England came, 
 
 derfangen mid micel wortscipe & then was he undertaken (received) 
 
 to king bletcsed in Lundene on the with mickle worthship and to king 
 
 Sunnendrei beforen mid-winter- blessed (consecrated) in London ou 
 
 dsei. the Sunday before mid-winter day 
 
 (25th Dec.) 
 
 The Grave : a fragment, written about 1150 : 
 
 The wes bold gebyld For thee a building was built 
 
 Er thu iboren were ; Ere thou y-born wert, 
 
 The wes molde imyiit For thee was mould (earth) y- 
 
 settled 
 
 Er thu of moder come Ere thou of mother catnest ; 
 
 Ac hit nes no idiht But it is not (' not-is not ') y-dight 
 
 (prepared), 
 
 Ne theo deopnes imeten : Nor the deepness meted : 
 
 Nes gyt iloced Nor is it yet seen (looked on) 
 
 Hu long hit the were : How long it for thee were (should 
 
 be) : 
 
 Nu me the bringaeth Now I (or men me) bring thee 
 
 The thu beon scealt Where thou shalt be, 
 
 Nu me sceal the meten Now I (or men) shall thee mea- 
 
 sure, 
 And tha mold seodhdha. And then mould (earth) after that. 
 
 78. From the Ormulum, a metrical paraphrase of part of the 
 New Testament, so called from Ormin, its supposed author, who 
 lived in the time of Henry II. He tells us in the dedication 
 that he was a canon of the order of St. Augustine, and that he 
 composed his Homilies at the request of Brother Walter, for the 
 spiritual improvement of his countrymen. ' Orm ' and 'Walter ' 
 appear consecutively in the Liber Vitoe of the church of Dur- 
 ham ; and it is probable that the Ormulum is of northern origin. 
 The whole was published in a very convenient form by Dr. 
 White in 1852. 
 
OLD ENGLISH. 
 
 77 
 
 And whase wilenn shall tbiss boc 
 Efft otherr sithe writeun, 
 
 Himm bidde ice that het write rihht, 
 Swa summ thiss boc bimm 
 taechethth. 
 
 All thwerrt ut affterr thatt itt iss, 
 
 Uppo thiss firrste bisne, 
 Witbth all swillc rime alls ber iss 
 sett, 
 
 Withth all se f ele wordess ; 
 Aud tact he loke well thatt he 
 
 An bocstaff write twiyyess, 
 JEyy whaer thaer itt uppo thiss boo 
 
 Iss writenn o thatt wise. 
 Loke he well thatt het write swa, 
 
 Forr bee ne mayy nohht elless 
 
 Onn Ennglissh writenn rihht te 
 
 word 
 Thatt wite he wel to sothe. 
 
 And whoso willeth (shall) this book 
 To write again hereafter, 
 
 Him bid I that he write it right, 
 So as this book him teach eth. 
 
 All through (out) as after that it 
 
 is, 
 
 In this the first example, 
 With all such rhythm as here is 
 
 set, 
 
 With wordes all so many, 
 And let him look to it, that he 
 
 Each single letter write twice ; 
 Wherever it in this my book 
 
 Is written in that wise. 
 Look he well that he write it so, 
 For otherwise he cannot (may 
 
 not) 
 
 In English write the words aright 
 That, know he well, is soothfast 
 (true). 
 
 The Ormnlum is remarkable as a repository of purely Anglo- 
 Saxon words. Mr. Marsh notes that out of twenty-three hun- 
 dred words the whole number of foreign origin does not exceed 
 sixty. There is not one from the Anglo-Norman, and scarcely 
 ten from the Latin. 
 
 79. 80. OLD EXGLISH. Charter of Henry III., Robert of 
 Gloucester, and Piers Plowman. 
 
 old From the Charter of Homy III., 1258 A.D., ad- 
 
 English, dressed to the people of Huntingdonshire, and regarded 
 as one of the earliest specimens of ENGLISH : 
 
 Henry thrug Godes fultome King 
 on Engleneloande, Lhoawerd of 
 Irloand, Duk on Normand, send I 
 greting to alle hise hpldc, iliBrde * 
 and ilewede b onHuntindouschiere. 
 'i'hat witen ge wel alle thtet we 
 will en & unnen, that ure nedesmen 
 alle other the moare del of heoin, 
 thaet beoth" ichosen thurg us & 
 thurgthsetloandesfolkonure kune- 
 
 Learned, lore. 
 
 t> Lewd, see Acts xvli. 5. 
 
 Witen, hence to wit. 
 
 Henry, througli God's help, King 
 over (on) England, Lord over 
 Ireland, Duke over Normandj', 
 sends greeting to all his subjects, 
 learned and lewd (unlearned) in 
 Huntingdonshire. This know ye 
 well all that we will and grant what 
 our advisers, all or the more deal 
 of them, that be chosen through us 
 and through the land-folk of our 
 
 * Rsedesmen, hence reader, inter- 
 preter. 
 
 Beotb, a form of the old plural, for 
 which ' been * is afterwards used. 
 
78 NOTES-EGBERT OF GLOUCESTER, ETC. 
 
 riche, habbith idon & schullea don kingrick (-doin), Lave y-done and 
 in the weorthnes * of God, and ure shall do to the honour of God and 
 treowthe, b for the freme of the our truth for the \re\faring of tho 
 loande, thurg the besigte of than land, through the fixing of the 
 beforeu iseide rsedesmen & bco aforesaid advisers, etc. 
 stedfaest & ilestinde in alle thinges abutan seude & we heaten alle ure 
 treowe, in the treowthe thaet heo us ogen.thet heo stede-feslliche healden 
 and sweren to healden & to werien the isetnesses thost beon makede and beo 
 to makien, thurg than toforen iseide redesmen, othur thurg the moare del 
 of heom alswo, alse hit is before iseide. . , . And for thast we willen thset 
 this beo stsedfast & lestinde, we senden gew this writ open, iseined with 
 ure seel, to halden amanges gewine hord. "Witnes us-selven set Lundam 
 tham egetetenthe day on the monthe of Octobr in the two & fowertigthe 
 gcare of ure crunning. 
 
 From Robert of Gloucester, describing tlie short prevalence 
 of the Norman-French : written about 1297. The author was 
 a monk of the Abbey of Gloucester. The work is of no 
 great value, either in matter or form ; and is based, to a large 
 extent, on the Chronicle of Geoffrey of Monmouth. It was pub- 
 lished by Hearne, in 2 vols. 8vo, in 1724, and a reprint of this 
 edition was published at London in 1810. The Chronicle con- 
 tains a large number of French words. 
 
 Thus come lo ! Engelonde into Mormanes honde 
 
 And the Normans ne couthe d speke tho' bote her own speche 
 
 And speke French as dude atom and her children dude also teche. 
 
 So that hey men of thys lond that of her blod come 
 
 Holdeth alle thulke spech that hi of hem nome. 
 
 Vor bote a man couthe Frenche, men tolth of hym well lute ' 
 
 Ac lowe men holdeth to Englyss and to her kund speche yute 
 
 Ich wene ther be ne man in world contreyes none 
 
 That ne holdeth to her kund speche, but'Engelond one 
 
 Ac wel me wot vor to conne bothe well yt ys 
 
 Vor the more that a man con the more worth he ys. 
 
 That is : Thus lo ! England came into the hand of the Normans : and 
 tho Normans could not speak then but their own speech, and spoke 
 French as they did at home, and their children did also teach : so that 
 high men of this land, that of their blood come, keep all the same speech 
 that they took of them. For unless (but that) a man know French, men 
 talk of him little, and low men hold to English and to their natural 
 speech (i.e., of their kin or kind), yet I ween (think) there bo no people 
 in any country of the world that do not hold to their natural speech but 
 in England alone. But well I wot it is well for to know both"; for the 
 more a man knows the more worth he is. 
 
 J Worthiness, glory. a Couthe, conne, hence cunning 
 
 , Truth, i.e. to us. (knowing), etc. 
 
 Or determination. Thulke, Scotch thilk 
 
 ' In A. S. lyt, little. 
 
MIDDLE ENGLISH. 79 
 
 From the ' Visions of Piers Ploughman/ written, it is sup- 
 posed (about A.D. 1362), by a Robert Langton, a monk residing 
 near Malvern. This poem is in alliterative metre, every other 
 line requiring that two words should begin with the same letter. 
 Each line requires also two accented syllables ; the number of 
 unaccented syllables being apparently of no moment. 
 
 Both ' Piers Ploughman ' and the ' Canterbury Tales ' of 
 Chaucer inveigh against the religious corruptions of the age. 
 In ' Piers Ploughman ' the religion is the chief aim of the 
 poetry ; in the ' Tales ' the religion seems subordinate. 
 
 In a summer season When soft was the sun, 
 I snoop me into shrouds * As I a sheep b were ; 
 
 # * * * 
 
 Ac on a May morwening On Malvern Hills 
 Me befel a ferley," Of fairy methought. 
 I was weary for-wandered, d And went me to rest 
 Under a brood e bank, By a burns side ; 
 And as I lay and leaned, And looked on the waters, 
 I slombered into a sleeping, It swayed f so merry 
 Then gan I meten * A marvellous sweven, h 
 That I was in a wilderness, Wist I never where, 
 * * * * 
 
 A fair field full of folc Found I there between, 
 
 Of all manner of men, The mean and the rich, 
 
 Werking and wandering As the world asketh. 
 
 Some putten hem ' to the plough, Playden full seld k 
 
 In setting and sowing Swonken ' full hard, 
 
 And wonnen that wasters m With gluttony destroycth, 
 
 And some putten hem to pride, Apparelled hem thereafter, 
 
 In countenance of clothing Com en deguised, a 
 
 In prayers and penances Putten hem many, 
 
 All for the love of our Lord Liveden full strait,* 
 
 lu hope to have after Heaven-riche * bliss. 
 
 81. MIDDLE ENGLISH, Chaucer, b. 1328, d. 1400. Norman- 
 Middle Saxon style ; showing the influence of intercourse with 
 English. F ran ce. 
 
 Put me into clothes. Put themselves. 
 
 i> Shepherd. k Seldom. 
 
 A wonder. ' Toiled. 
 
 d With over-wandering a Won that which. 
 
 Broad. Came disguised. 
 
 t Sounded. Strictly. 
 
 8 To meet, to have. Kingdom oi heaven's bliss. 
 
 b Dream. 
 
so NOTES-CHAUCP:R. 
 
 Outward, lambcn seemcn we 
 
 Full of goodness andpite 
 
 And inward we withouten fable 
 
 Been greedy wolves ravisable.' Romaunt of the Rose.' 
 
 Seemen and been are the old English plural verbs, a form of 
 part of the old Saxon verb ; lamben is the A. S. plural ; but 
 pite, fable, ravisable (ravenous), are all French. 
 From ' The Parsone's Tale ' : 
 
 'OursweteLordof Heaven, that wol that we comcn all . . . to the blisful 
 lif that is pardurable amonesteth 1 us by the prophet Jeremic, that sayth 
 in this wise : stondeth b upon the wayes and seeth and axeth of the old 
 pathes ; that is to say, of olde sentences which is the good way : and 
 walketh in that way. Many ben the wayes spirituel that leden folk t? 
 our Lord Jesu Crist and to the regne of glory ; of which wayes, ther is a 
 full noble* way and wel convenable.* . . .and this way is cleped "penance"; 
 of which man should gladly herken and enqueren'with all his herte, to 
 wete, what is penance . . . and how many spices d ther ben of penance and 
 which thinges apperteinen*and behovcn'to penance. . . Seint Ambrose 
 sayth that penance is the plaining 4 of man for the gilt that ho hath don 
 and no more to do any thing for which him ought to plain. And soni 
 doctour* sayth: Penance is the way-mending of man that sorowth for his 
 sinne and peineth' himself for he hath misdon. Penance with certain' 
 circumstances, 1 is veray repantance of man, that holdeth himself in 
 Borwe for his giltcs, etc.' 
 
 From Sir John Mandeville (born at St. Alban's, 1300), who 
 travelled in the East, and in 1356 published an account of all 
 he had seen. His book was first published in Latin, then in 
 French, and then in English, ' that every man of my nacioun 
 may undirstonde it.' His 'Travels' is the earliest book in 
 English prose yet published. 
 
 1 And therefore I shalle telle you what the Soudan tolde me upon a day, 
 in his chambre. He leet voyden out of his chambre alle maner of men, 
 
 In this extract, the \vorda parclur- France, and most have remained in 
 
 able, amonesteth, sentences Q'udg- our tongue. 
 
 ments), spirituel, regne, noble, conren- b Stondcth, an A.S. plural, indie. ,ind 
 
 able (suitable), penance, cnqueren, ap- imper., here used as an imperative, 
 pertemen, plaining, doctour, peineth, Clcpped, called, 
 
 certain, circumstances, vcray, repant- * Another form of the word species, 
 
 ance, are ull new importations from kinds, (see p. 22). 
 
 Behoren Is the O. E. plural. 
 
WYCLIFFE. Ml 
 
 lordes and othere ; for ha wolde spake with me in conseille. And there 
 he asked me how the Cristene men governed hem in cure Contree. And 
 I seyde him, righte wel, thonked be God. And he seyde, Treulyche, nay, 
 for ye Cristene men ne recthen right noghte how untrevrly to serve God. 
 Ye scholde geven ensample to the lewedepeple for to do well & ye geven 
 hem ensample to don efyl.' 
 
 82. Comparison of Wiclif's version, and that of others. 
 
 From a MS. of part of NEW WICLIF, A.D. 13SO. 
 
 TESTAMENT in the Library of 
 
 Corpus Christi, No. xxxn. in their Mark i. 16. 
 
 Catalogue : written probably in 
 the early part of the fourteenth 
 century. 
 
 The begynnynge of ye gospel of 
 Ihu Crst God Son, as it was wryten 
 in Isaye ye phete : lo y sende myn 
 aungel byfore ye face, ye whilke 
 shall jdge ye way before ye. The 
 voyce of ye kryandis in ye desert 
 redis ye way of God, rygte make 
 yee ye weiys of hym. And all ye 
 me of Jerusalem wente forth to 
 hym and alle ye kontre of ye jeury 
 and were baptysede of him in yee 
 flode of Jordain schryifende" yere 
 synes. And Ihone was kladde wir 
 heria of cameyls and a gerdel of 
 a skyne about his Icndis and he 
 ete honeysokles and honeye of ye 
 wood. 
 
 WICLIF, 1380. 
 
 Now withouten the lawe the 
 rigtwisnesse of God is shewid, 
 witnessid of the lawe & the pro- 
 fetis & the rigtwisnesse of God is 
 bi the f eith of ihesus crist . . and 
 ben justified freli bi his grace by 
 the again-biyenge that is in crist 
 ihesus, whom God ordevned for- 
 geiver by faith in his blood. 
 
 The bigynnynge of the gospel of 
 ihesus crist, the sone of god, as it 
 is writun in Isaie the profete : lo I 
 sende myn aungel bifor thi face : 
 that shal make redi thi weye bifor 
 thee. The vois of a crier in desert : 
 make 50 redi the weye of the Lord : 
 make ge hise pathis rijt. And al 
 the cuntre of iudee wenten out to 
 hym: and al men of ierusalem, 
 and thei weren baptisid of hym 
 in the flum k lordan, and know- 
 lechiden her synnes. And Ion was 
 clothid with heeris of camels and 
 a girdil of skyn was about his 
 lendis, and he ete honysoukis and 
 wilde hony. 
 
 iii. 2124. 
 
 KHEIMS VERSION, 1582, two hun- 
 dred years later, but with Latinized 
 style. 
 
 Now without the law, the justice 
 of God is manifested : testified by 
 the law and the prophets. And the 
 justice of God by faith of Jesus 
 Christ. 
 
 Justified gratis by his grace by 
 the redemption that is in Christ 
 Jesus, whom God proposed a pro- 
 pitiation by faith in his blood. 
 
 Confessing, to shrive. 
 6 ' Flum ' from ' flow.' 
 
 'Ltndis,' ' loins ;' A S. loans. 
 
8-2 
 
 NOTES- WYCLIFPE'S VERSION. 
 
 83. A convenient mode of acquiring a knowledge of archaic 
 forms is to use a book like Bagster's ' Hexapla,' where we have 
 six versions of the New Testament of various dates, extending 
 from A.D. 1380 to A.D. 1611. The following are some of 
 Wycliffe's words. They are interesting, either for the spelling, 
 the grammatical form, or the substance of the words themselves. 
 These are taken chiefly from the Epistle to the Romans. 
 
 ASCEND, to site up ; stair, etc. 
 Abundance, aboundance. 
 Acceptance, accepeiow of parsonnes. 
 Are (bee) , ben. 
 Adulteress, azrowteresse, adulterer 
 
 (of both genders) . 
 BELOVED, darlynge, derewortke. 
 Birds, briddis. 
 Business, bisynesse, 
 Burnt, breniieden. 
 CHOICE, cAesynge. 
 Church, chirch. 
 Captive, caitiff. 
 Cut, past tense kitte. 
 Commaundement. 
 Cool, kele. 
 
 Comfort of Scripture, counfort. 
 Commit, bitaken. 
 DAMPNACIOUN. 
 Delight, delite. 
 Debtor, dettour. 
 Dig down, underdolven. 
 Difference, departynge. 
 Dishonour, unworschip. 
 ENTEBED, entred, entnd. 
 Evil, jruell, euyll. 
 Experience, provynge. 
 Exhort, monest. 
 Every way, algatis. 
 FAITH, feith, feyth. 
 Favour, faveour. 
 Flesh, fleische, flesshe (fley). 
 Follow, sue. 
 GIVEN, geven, goven. 
 HAVE (we), han. 
 Harden (to), endure. 
 Hear, let us, let him, hjar we, hear 
 
 he. 
 
 Husband, housbonde. 
 JOT, joie. 
 Judge, deme, gess, ghias. 
 
 KINDRED, cosyns. 
 
 Know, 'itAf pi. ind, ; en, pi. 
 sub. 
 
 Kiss, kysse, coose. 
 
 LAID DOWN, underputtiden. 
 
 Lie, lesj'nge. 
 
 Life, liif, lyf e. 
 
 Lump, gob-et. 
 
 Lusts, covetynges. 
 
 MEMBEBS, membres, membris. 
 
 Must, may, mayen, moun. 
 
 May, must. 
 
 Mortal, deedli. 
 
 NATITBAI,, kyndli. 
 
 Numbers, noumbres. 
 
 Nations, folkis. 
 
 Nigh, to draw nigh, To nigh. 
 
 ONE, oon, o, n'oon. 
 
 Once, oonys, oonli. 
 
 Ourselves, us-self, us-silf ; your- 
 selves, you silf. 
 
 Oxen, oxis. 
 
 PATIENCE, pacience. 
 
 Passions, passiouns. 
 
 Ploughing, erynge (earing). 
 
 Preach, preche (com. French). 
 
 Provide, purvey. 
 
 Prayers, preiers. 
 
 Poison, venym. 
 
 Principalities, principatis. 
 
 People, puple. 
 
 Published, puplischid. 
 
 Publican, pupplican. 
 
 EAISED, reised, raysed. 
 
 Repentance, forthenkynge. 
 
 Repay, quiyt to him. 
 
 Resist, agenstonden. 
 
 Resurrection, agen risynge. 
 
 Riches, richessis. 
 
 Revelation, revelacioun. 
 
 SAINTS, saynctes, seyntes. 
 
WYCLIFFE AND TYNDALE. 
 
 83 
 
 True, sothfast. 
 
 Tongues, tungis, tounges, tunges. 
 
 Treasurer, tresorer. 
 
 That same, the ilke, thilke. 
 
 Together, to gidre. 
 
 Throne, trone. 
 
 Third, thridd (hence the Riding). 
 
 Turn aside, boweden awei. 
 
 VAIN, to become, vanyschen. 
 
 Vengeance, veniauuce. 
 
 Voice, vois. 
 
 UNCLEANITESS, filthehead. 
 
 WHETHER, where, wher. 
 
 Wisdom of God, cunnynge of God. 
 
 Would, wolde, wole. 
 
 Sign (received the), took the to- 
 
 Iccnynge. 
 Sold, seelid. 
 Sound, sowne. 
 Stagger, stacker, from stick. 
 Slander, sclaundre. 
 Strong, counforted in feith ; we 
 
 sadder men (i.e., settled), should 
 
 bear, etc. 
 
 Slay, p. tense, slowne, slewe. 
 Servants, servaunts. 
 Schuln, shall be (pi.). 
 Subject, suget. 
 
 THEM, hem (plural, from he). 
 The one, the other ; the toon, the 
 
 tother. 
 
 On comparing the versions in the Hexapla, it will be seen that 
 Tyndale's has exercised a veiy marked influence on the author- 
 ized version of 1611 ; much more, indeed, than any other. This 
 fact, and some others, are well illustrated in the following 
 passage : 
 
 LUKE xv. 11. 
 WICLTF, 1380. TYNDAZE, 1534. 
 
 And he seide, a man hadde tweie And he sayde : a certayne man 
 Sones ; and the 5(y)unger m of hem 
 seide to the fadir, fadir g(g)eue m 
 me the porscioun of catel* that 
 fallith to me, and he departid to 
 hem b the catel, and not after many 
 daies, whenne alle b thingis* weren, b 
 gaderid to gidre : the jonger sone 
 wente forth in pilgrimage c v'2 to a 
 for countre and there he wastid his 
 goodis," inlly vynge leccherousli, and 
 aftir that" he hadde endid alle 
 thingis,a strong hungir was made in 
 that cuntre and he begauue to haue 
 nede. And he wente and drouje 11 
 him i to oon of the citeseyns of that 
 cuntre, and he sente hym in to hia 
 towne," to fede swyne, and he 
 
 couetid to fille his wombe h of the 
 coddis h that the hoggis eten and 
 no man jaf to hym. 
 
 And he turned ajen > in to hyra 
 silf , f and seid, how many hirid men 
 in my fadirs g hous had plente of 
 
 had two sonnes, and the yonger of 
 them sayde to his father: father 
 give me my part of the goodes that 
 to me belongeth. And he divided 
 unto them his substaunce. And not 
 long after the yonger sonne gad- 
 dered m all that he had togedder, 
 and toke his iomey into a farre 
 countre, and theare he wasted his 
 goodes with royetous lyvinge. And 
 when he had spent all that he had, 
 there arose a greate derth thorow 
 out all that same lande, & he 
 began to lacke. And he went and 
 clave to a citesyn of that same 
 countre, which? sent him to his 
 f elde <i to keep his swyne. And he 
 wold fayne have filled his bely with 
 the coddes that the swyne ate, and 
 noo man gave him. 
 
 Then he came to him selfe and 
 sayde : how many hyred* ser- 
 vauntes of my fathers" 1 have breed 
 G 2 
 
81 
 
 NOTES WYCLIPFE A\D TYNDALE. 
 
 looues and I perische here thoruj 
 hungir! I schal 1 rise up and go 
 to my fadir: and I schal seie to 
 hym, fadir I have synned in to 
 heuene and bifor thee, and now I 
 am not worthim to be clepid thi 
 sone, make me as oon of thin s 
 hired men. And he roos up and 
 cam to his fadir, and whanne he 
 was jit afer, his fadir saie hym and 
 was stirid (stirred) bi raerci," and 
 he ran and fil on his necke : and 
 kissid hym. And the sone seide to 
 him, fadir I have synned in to 
 heueue and bifor thee : and now I 
 am not worthi to ba clepid thi 
 gone. And the fadir seide to his 
 Eeruauntis, swj'the" brynge je forth 
 the first stole : and clothe 50 hyin ; 
 and jeue ze a ryng on his hond : 
 and schoon b on his feet : and 
 brynge 50 a fatte calf and ele je : 
 and ete we and make we feest, for 
 this my sone was deed: and hath 
 lyued ajen, he perischid, and is 
 founden, and alle men bigunnen* 
 to ete. 
 
 But his eldris sone was in the 
 feeld, and whanne he cam and 
 nyjed k to the hous : he herde a 
 symfonye & a croude, h and he 
 clepid oon of tho eeruauntis : and 
 ascid what these thingis wcren, 
 and he seide to hym, thi brother is 
 comen, and thi father slouj a fatte 
 calf, for he resceyued hym saaf, 
 and he was wrothe : and wold not 
 come in, therfor his fadir Jede ' out 
 and bigarme to preie hym, and he 
 answerid to his fadir : and seide, lo 
 so many ^eris I serve thee and I 
 neuer brake thin comaundement, and 
 thou neuer gaue to me a kide : that 
 I with my frendis shulde have eet,- 
 but after that this thi sone that 
 hath devourid his substaunce with 
 hooris r cam : thou hast slayn to 
 him a fatte calf; and ho seide to 
 hym, eone thou art euermore with 
 nie : and alle my thingis ben b thiu, 
 
 ynough and I dye for hunger. I 
 will aryse, and goo to my father, 
 and will say unto him : father 1 
 have synned against heven m & 
 before thee, and am no moare 
 worthy to be called thy sonne, 
 make me as one of thy hyred ser- 
 vauntes. And he arose & went to 
 his father. And when he was yet 
 a greate way of, his father sawe 
 him, and had compassion, and ran 
 and fell on his necke and kyssed 
 him. And the sonne sayde to him : 
 father, I have synned agaynst 
 heven, and in thy sight, and am no 
 raoare worthy to be called thy 
 sonne. But his father sayde to 
 his servauntes: bringe forth that 
 best garment and put it on him, 
 and put a rynge on his honde, and 
 showes b on his fete. And bringe 
 hidder m that fatted caulfe, and kyll 
 him, & let us eate & be mery : 
 for this my sonne was deed & is 
 alyve aguyue, he was loste & is 
 now founde. And they began to be 
 merye. 
 
 The elder brother was in tba 
 felde ; and when he cam and drewe 
 nye to the housse,he heard minstrelsy 
 k daunsynge, 1 and called one of 
 his seruauutes and axed what 
 thoose thinges meante. And ho 
 sayde unto him, thy brotber is 
 come, and thy father had kylled 
 the fatted caulfe, because he heth 
 receaved him safe and sound. And 
 he was angry and wolde not goo in. 
 Then came his father out & en- 
 treated him. He answered & said 
 to his father: Loo these many 
 ycares have I done the service, 
 nether brake at eny tyme thy com- 
 maundement," and yet gavest thou 
 me never so moche as a kyd to 
 make mery with my lovers : but as 
 sone as this thy sonne was come, 
 which hath devoured thy goodes 
 with harlootes,' thou hast for his 
 pleasure kyllcd the fatted caulfe. 
 
EARLY SCOTTISH WRITERS. 
 
 but it beliof to to make feest and to 
 have ioie. n for this thi brother was 
 deed andlyued m a5en, heperischid 
 and is founden. 
 
 Goods, chattels. 
 
 b Note these plural forms. 
 
 c ICtymo'.ogically, on foreign travel. 
 
 d Note these plural forms. 
 
 After, is originally a preposition, 
 and this is the intermediate form, 
 before it becomes an adverb. 
 
 ' Note the two forms of the reflexive 
 pronoun, hym and hymsilf. 
 
 s Note these genitive forms, fadris, 
 and thin. 
 
 h 'Cod,' a pillar or cushion (hence to 
 coddle), a bag, a pod ; hence Codcler 
 (Middlesex), a pea-gatherer. ' Croude,' 
 a fiddle, or generally a musical instru- 
 ment. ' Swythe,' quickly, sometimes 
 it='go bring,' i.e. fetch. 'Drouze, 
 past tense of draw. Wombe, see 
 Trench's Select Glossary,' p. 238. 
 
 1 Note both the German spelling- and 
 the use of ' schal ' in the first person. 
 
 k When WyclLffe wrote, the adjective 
 was often used as a verb and inflected 
 as such ; as in this same Gospel, 
 (xiv. 11 :) ' Eche that enhauncith hym 
 shall be louid, and he that meklth hym 
 shall be hi&d.' 
 
 1 Jede, ' 5Tede,' past tense of go ; 
 was displaced by ' went.' 
 
 The words thus marked illustrate 
 
 And he sayde to him : Sonno thou 
 wast ever with, me, and all that I 
 have is thyne : it was meet that we 
 should make mery and be glad, for 
 this thi brother was deed and is 
 aly ve agayne : & was loste and is 
 found. 
 
 the progress of our alphabet. The 
 words in Wycliffe and in Tyndalo 
 should be compared with each other, 
 and with modern spelling. 
 
 n 'Towne," turned again,' 'stirid by 
 mercy,' ' stole ' (garment), in Wycliffc's 
 text, are all taken from the Vulgate 
 the version whence Wycliffe's was 
 made. 
 
 Note the perfect participle form in 
 'en,' either intransitive, as 'comen,' 
 or passive, as ' f ounden. ' 
 
 P Note ' which ' used as a masculine 
 pronoun, referring to persons. 
 
 i ' Felde ' suggests the etymology, a 
 cleared piece of land, on which the 
 trees have been/e//ed and taken away. 
 
 "'Hyre,* ' haricot es,' 'hoor* (now 
 spelt ' whore '), ' varlet,' are all from 
 the A. S. ; 'hyr,' ' hire,' and ' hyra,' a 
 hireling, or hired person. In Old Eng- 
 lish, all these words are applied to both 
 sexes. 
 
 Note in ' servaunt,' ' daunsvnge,* 
 etc., an attempt to express the nasal n 
 of the French, dowser, etc. Words so 
 spelt in Old English have nearly al- 
 ways entered our language through 
 the French. 
 
 84. EARLY SCOTTISH WEITERS. The student may be curious 
 Lowland to compare these specimens with Lowland Scotch. The 
 Scotch. following are from * The Bruce/ the earliest English 
 epic, written by John Barbour, Archdeacon of Aberdeen, and 
 completed in 1373 ; from the ' Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland,' 
 written early in the fifteenth century by Andrew "Wyntown, of 
 Lochleven, and from Gawin Douglas' translation of the ^Eneid, 
 1513. Other specimens from King James' (d. 1437) King's 
 Qukair (Quire or Book), and from Dunbar's ' Golden Targe ' 
 (1490), maybe seen in the Poets and Poetry of Britain. Edin. 
 1855. 
 
88 NOTES-GAWIN DOUGLAS, ETC. 
 
 ' THE BRUCE,' iv. 871892. 
 
 And as he raid in to the nycht, b 
 So saw he, with the moiiys lycht, 
 Schynnyng off d scheldys gret plente", 
 And had wondre quhat it mycht be. 
 "With that all hail thai gatff a cry, 
 And he, that hard sa suddainly 
 Sic ' noyis, sum dele affrayit was. 
 * * * * 
 
 Then with the spuris he strak the sted, 
 And ruschyt in amaing them all. 
 The feyrst he met he gert him fall, 
 And syne his sword he swapyt out, 
 And roucht h about him mony rout, 11 
 And slew sexsum ' weil sone and ma. 
 Then wndre him his horse thai sla, 
 And he fell ; but smertty k rass, 
 And strykand 1 rowm about him mats, 
 And slew of thaim a quantite, 
 Bot woundyt woudra sar m was he. 
 
 ' WYNTOUN CEONYKIL,' Ixiii. 1. 
 
 Blessyde Bretayn Beelde n suld be 
 
 Of al dhe Ilys of dhe Se, 
 
 Quhare Flowrys are fele on Feldys fayro 
 
 Hale of hewe,p haylsum of ayre. 
 
 Of all corne thare is copy ' gret, 
 
 Pese and Atys r Bere * and Qwhet, 
 
 Bath froyt on Tre and fysche in fl\vde, 
 
 And tyl' all catale pasture gwde. 
 
 From GAWIN DOUGLAS' (Bishop of Dunkeld's) TBANSr,ATios of the 
 , born 1474, died 1522. 
 
 As Laocoon that was Neptunus' prest 
 And chosin by cavil unto that ilk office, 
 Ane fare greet bull offerit in sacrifice, 
 Solempuithe * before the holy altare, 
 
 Rode. > Night. Moon's. Pattern 
 
 Jft ' t " ^li'^T 1 ' ?- UCh< * Ma71 - V - -^ S "' ICe1 '' 
 
 'Gar to make, Icelandic. p n, le . , p ]ent v, see par. K. 
 
 h Reached many a blow. r Oats, barley. Flood. 
 
 bix together, very soon. t ]? or to 
 
 k Smartly, quickly. . C nvi\, a rod, hence a lot. 
 
 ^Saxon participle form. 'Solemnly; BO Wicliff spells so- 
 
 Sore - lempne. 
 
FEIESIC AND ENGLISH. 87 
 
 Through the still sey from Tenedos in-fere, 
 Lo twa gret lowpit edderis with mony thraw 
 First throw the flude towart the land can draw. 
 
 The peculiarities of the old Scotch dialect consist partly in 
 spelling and pronunciation, and partly in grammatical forms. 
 Among the former may be named qu for wh ; as ' quhare,' 
 ' where ' ; seh, for sh ; ' d ' for ' th,' as in fader ; ' s ' for ' sh,' 
 as in sail for shall ; ' ai ' for ' e,' as thaim for them, etc. Among 
 unusual grammatical forms, are the genitive and plural forms in 
 ' is ;' a middle pronunciation between the broad es and as of the 
 Saxon and the s of modern English ; similarly the Scotch form 
 of ' assured,' ' affrayed,' is ' assurit,' ' affrayit.' The incomplete 
 participle ends in ' and,' as ' slepand,' ' ridand ' ; and plural 
 verbs end in ' s ' (as thai loves) instead of ' en,' as was common 
 in contemporary English. 
 
 85. 86. MODERN CONTINENTAL LANGUAGES that 
 continental most closely resemble the English, compared : 
 
 1. Danish, Friesic, and English ; 2. Danish, and 
 Dutch, and English. 
 
 From the DANISH NATIONAL SONG. ENGLISH THANSLATION. 
 
 Kong Christian stod ved hoien King Christian stood by the lofty 
 
 mast mast, 
 
 I Eog og Damp In mist and smoke. 
 
 Hans Vserge hamrede b saa fast His sword was hammering so fast, 
 
 Al Gottens Hielm og Hierne Through Gothic helm and brain 
 
 brast it passed. 
 
 Da sank hver fiendligt d Speil og Then sank each hostile hulk and 
 
 Masfc mast 
 
 I Eog og Damp In mist and smoke. 
 
 Flye skreyde flye, boad flye can Fly, shriek'd they, fly he who can, 
 
 Hoo Staar fu Danmark's Christian Who braves of Denmark's Chris- 
 tian 
 
 I Kamp ? The stroke ? (Lit. stands before 
 
 in battle.) 
 
 The Norwegian, Danish, and Scotch dialect are much alike. 
 Of course we must compare not the spelling but the general 
 sound of the words. 
 
 In-fcre together, from ge-fcra, Hielm, A. S. Healm. 
 A. S. companion. Fiendlight, A. S. fcond (pi. fynd), 
 
 A. S. hamer, a hammer. a foe., a fieiid. 
 
83 
 
 NOTES-DANISH, ENGLISH, AND DUTCH. 
 
 MODERN FKIESIC, translated by 
 Mr. Bosworth. 
 
 ' Hwat bist dhou, Libben ? 
 lea wirch stribjen 
 
 Fen pine need in soargh 
 Lange oeren fen smerte 
 In nochten-ho koart ! 
 
 Det ford wine de moars. 
 
 ' Deadh hwat bist dhou ? 
 Ta hwaem alien buisgje 
 
 Fen de scepterde kening ta da 
 
 slave ; 
 
 De laetste baeste freon 
 Om uus soargen to eingjen 
 
 Dhyn gebiet is in t' grecf .' 
 
 ' When Wilfrith, Bishop of York, was accidentally thrown on 
 the coast of Friesland, he preached to them the gospel of Christ 
 in Anglo-Saxon, and baptized nearly all the princes, and many 
 thousands of the people.' Lappeiiberg. 
 
 In the ' Trans, of the Phil. Soc.,' Part i., 1858, is given a list 
 of words common to the English, Dutch, and Friesian lan- 
 guages. They are selected from a list of several thousands. 
 
 From the ' BOOK OF BSAUTY,' 
 1834. 
 
 What art (be'at) thou, Life ? 
 A weary strife 
 
 Of pa'in, need and sorrow ; 
 Long hours of grief (smart) 
 And joys how short (curt) 
 
 That vanish on the morrow. 
 
 ' Death, what art thou ? 
 To whom all bow, 
 
 From sceptered king to slave ; 
 The last best friend, 
 Our cares to eiid, 
 
 Thy empire is in the grave.' 
 
 FEOM MAEK i. 
 
 DANISH. 
 
 Jesu Christi* Guds 
 sons Evangelii* Begyn- 
 delse. Ligesom skrevet 
 er i Propheterne. See, 
 jeg sender min Engel 
 for dit Ansigt, som c 
 skal berede din wei for 
 dig. 
 
 Det er haus Roost, 
 som raave i Oortenen : 
 bereder Herrens wei 
 
 " cover hans stier rette. 
 oobte Johannes, i 
 Oortenen, og prosdi- 
 kede omvendalsens 
 daab lit syndemes For- 
 ladelse. Og det gauske 
 land Judaea git ud till 
 
 The beginning of the 
 Gospel of Jesus Christ, 
 the Son of God. Like 
 as is written (scribe) in 
 ye Prophet : See, I send 
 my Angel before your 
 sight, your way be- 
 fore you he be-righten 
 shall. 
 
 The roice of one cry- 
 ing in the waste, make- 
 right the way of the 
 Lord (flerr), make his 
 paths right. John 
 was dipping in the 
 waste, and preaching 
 the dipping of repen- 
 tance Burning agaiu) 
 to the forgiving of sins. 
 
 Duxcn. 
 
 Het begin des Evan- 
 gelies van Jezus Chris- 
 tus, denZoon van God. 
 Gelijk b gcschrevcn is 
 in ae Prof e ten. Ziet, 
 Ik zend mijuen Engel 
 voor uw aangezigt, die 
 uwen weg d vcor u 
 been bereidcn zal. 
 
 De etem des roepen- 
 deu in de woestijin, 
 bereidt den weg den 
 Heeren maakle zijne 
 
 Eadcji 6 regt ! Jo- 
 annes was doopende 
 in de woestijn, en 
 predikencle den doop 
 der bekeering tot ver- 
 geving der zunden. En 
 
 These are foreign words and take d Way. 
 a foreign genitive. Hence to 
 
 b Sounded, 'ye like.' path (padlis). 
 
 The same. 
 
 pad down j footpad, 
 
DANISH, ENGLISH, AND DUTCH. 
 
 ham* ogsaade cf Jeru- 
 salem : og alle de som 
 bekjendtederes synder, 
 doobtes of ham i Jor- 
 dans Flod> 
 
 Men Johannes havde 
 kinder" of kamelhaaer, 
 og et Laederbaelt d om 
 sin lend, og aad Grses- 
 hopper og Vild Hon- 
 uing. 
 
 And all the land of 
 Judeea went to him out, 
 and they of Jerusalem; 
 and were all of him 
 ydipt in the river of 
 Jordan, confessing their 
 sins. 
 
 And John was beclad 
 with camels hair and 
 with a leathern girdle 
 on his loins, and he ate 
 locusts and wild honey. 
 
 al net Joodsche laud 
 ging* tot hem uit en 
 die van Jeruzalem : en 
 werdeu alien van hem 
 gedoopt in the rivier 
 de Jordaan belijdende 
 huiine Zonden. 
 
 En Johannes was 
 gekleed * met kemels- 
 haar en met eenen 
 lederen gordel om zijne 
 lendenen en at Sprink- 
 hanen en widen honig. 
 
 The student may exercise his skill in translating the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 OLD HIGH GERMAN, from Otfrid's 
 Harmony. Bagster, p. 171. 
 
 Er alien worolt kreftin 
 
 job. engilo gisceftin, 
 So rumo ouh so mahton 
 
 man ni mag gidrahtou 
 Er so ioh himil wurti 
 
 job erda ouh so herti. 
 Ouh wiht in thin gifuarit 
 
 tha5 sin elln thrin ruarit 
 So was io wort wonanti 
 
 er alien ^itin worolti, 
 Ij was rait Druhline far 
 
 ni brast imo es io thar. 
 
 Paraphrase of JOHN i. 1, &c. 
 
 ' Gang oot ' is Scotch. 
 
 ' Our ' yclad,' this form ' ye ' is com- 
 mon in Old English, ' yclept ' is also a 
 remnant of it. 
 
 OLD SAXON, from Tatian's Har- 
 mony, given in Bagster's ' Bible 
 in every Land.' 
 
 In anaginne was wort, 
 
 inti thas wort was mit Gote, 
 
 inti Got Sclbo was thas wort. 
 
 Thas was in annginne 
 
 mit Gote, allin tnuruh thas 
 
 wurdun gitan, inti ujjan siu 
 
 ni was wiht gitanes, 
 
 thas thar gitau was. 
 
 Thas lib was in imo, 
 
 inti thas lib was lioht manno. 
 
 Inti thas lioht in finstaniessen 
 
 leuhta, iiiti finstarnesseu. 
 
 Thas iii bigriff uu. 
 
 JOHN i. 11. 
 
 ' Oat oot til him ' is good Scotch. 
 b Hence 'flood.' 
 c Claethes or cla'cs is Scotch. 
 * Leather belt 
 
90 
 
 ENGLISH AND OTHER MEMBERS 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE BELATION OP ENGLISH TO OTHER ME5IBEES OF THE SAME TRIBE 
 OF TONGUES. 
 
 CONTENTS: (87) Comparison of words and forms in allied lan- 
 guages. 
 
 88. Relation of English to other members of the Indo-European tribe 
 of tongues. (89) Indo-European, what. (90) What stocks it includes. 
 (91) Branches of the Gothic stock. (92) Divisions of the Teutonic 
 branch. (93) Members of the Low German division. 
 
 NOTES : (94) Resemblance between Mseso-Gothic and English. (95) 
 Philology and Ethnology. 
 
 " All languages which I have examined besides discovering some direct 
 ancestral consanguinity with particular tongues as the Saxon with 
 Gothic, etc., and the Latin with the Greek display also in many of their 
 words a more distinct relationship with almost all. . . . No narrated 
 phenomenon of ancient history accounts for the affinities and analogies 
 of words which all languages exhibit, so satisfactorily as tho abruption 
 of a primitive language into many others, sufficiently to compel separa- 
 tions of the general population, and yet retaining in all some indications 
 of a common origin." SHAEON TURNER, ' Anglo-Saxons,' ii. 387. 
 
 87. IF the reader will glance over the following Tables (1, 2, 
 and 3), he will notice at once the marked resemblance, both in 
 matter and in form, of the words in each of the eight languages 
 enumerated. The roots are substantially the same, and the 
 inflexions, if not identical, are closely allied. 
 
 ALLIED LANGUAGES COMPARED. 
 
 TABLE i. 
 English. A. Sax. Dutch. Frisian. Germ. Mas. Dan, Iceland. 
 
 A Fish 
 A Fish's 
 To a fish 
 Fishes 
 Fishes' 
 To fishes 
 
 Fisc Visch Fish Fisch 'Fisks Fisk Fisk, ace. 
 Fisces Visches Fishes Fisches Fiskis Fisks Fisks 
 Fisce Vische Fisko Fische Fiska Fisk Fiske 
 Fiscas Vischen Fiskar Fische Fiskos Fisk Fiskar 
 Fisca Vischen Fiska Fische Fiski Fiskes Fiskar 
 Fiscam Vischen Fiskam Fischen Fisker Fiske Fiskum 
 
 Fishes (ace.) Fiscas Vischen Fiskas Fische Fiskans Fisko Fiske. 
 
OF THE INDO-EUHOPEAN FAMILY. 
 TABLE 2. 
 
 91 
 
 I 
 
 Iv, 
 
 ic 
 
 Ik Ich 
 
 Ic Jeg 
 
 Mine 
 
 Min 
 
 Mins 
 
 Mia Mein 
 
 Meina Min 
 
 Tome 
 
 Mo 
 
 Mig 
 
 Mo Mir 
 
 Mio Mij 
 
 Me 
 
 Me 
 
 Mig 
 
 Munsch Mich 
 
 Mik Mig 
 
 We 
 
 We 
 
 Wig 
 
 Wi Wir 
 
 Weis Wi 
 
 Our 
 
 Ure 
 
 Onzcr 
 
 Use Unser 
 
 Unsara Vor 
 
 To us 
 
 U3 
 
 Ous 
 
 Us Uns 
 
 Uns Os 
 
 Us 
 
 Us 
 
 Ous 
 
 Us Uns 
 
 Uns Os 
 
 Ek 
 
 Min 
 
 Mer 
 
 Mik 
 
 Wer 
 
 War 
 
 Oss 
 
 Oss. 
 
 TABLE 3. 
 
 Come Cumo Kom Kem Komme Quina Kommen Kem 
 
 Came Com Kwam Kom Kam Qwam Kani Kom 
 
 Come Cumen Gekomomen Kemen (Ge) Kommen Quiman Kummen Komman 
 
 Eng. Brother 
 A. S. Broder 
 Dut. Broader 
 Maes. Brother 
 
 Eng. Mother 
 A. S. Modor 
 Dut. Moader 
 Gr. 
 
 TABLE 4. 
 
 Ger. Brudcr 
 Dan. Broder 
 Icel. Bradur 
 Lat. Frater 
 
 Ger. Mutter 
 Dan. Moder 
 Fr, Mere 
 Lat. Mater 
 
 Pers. 
 
 Tart. 
 Iluss. 
 Sans. 
 
 Pers. 
 Euss. 
 Kelt. 
 Sans. 
 
 Bradr 
 Bruder 
 Bratr 
 Bhratre. 
 
 Madr 
 Mater 
 Matheir 
 Matre 
 
 If these tables were enlarged, so as to include other tongues, 
 care being taken to select words common to them, the resem- 
 blances would be still more striking. This is done on a small 
 scale in Table 4, where the words for brother and mother are 
 given in a dozen languages, ending with the Sanscrit. In fact , 
 there are 900 roots in Sanscrit which reappear in the languages 
 of Europe. Words which were current centuries ago at Delhi 
 and Benares, and sprang up long before, in the range of the 
 Caucasus, are but now forcing their way into Columbia and 
 New Zealand, while inflexions from the same language have 
 been modifying the forms of speech of millions of Englishmen 
 in this country for the last thousand years. 
 
 It is interesting and important to know something, not only 
 of the history of our tongue, but of its relations. 
 
 ?. Briefly, then, modern English has been defined* as a 
 Latham. 
 
V 
 92 ENGLISH IN RELATION 
 
 English ' member of the Low Germanic divisions of the Tcu- 
 duiined. tonic branch of the Gothic stock of the Indo-Euro- 
 pean tribe of languages ' a complex definition, but sufficiently 
 clear, if -we take it piece by piece. 
 
 89. After careful examination, it has been found that all the 
 Indo-Euro- languages spoken upon earth are divisible into eight 
 pean what ? or nmej and will probably be found divisible into three 
 or four chief tribes. Of these, the monosyllabic (Chinese, etc.), 
 the Shemitic (Hebrew, etc.), and the Indo-European, are the 
 most important. The Indo-European, or Indo-Germanic, is so 
 called from the fact that it includes the Sanscrit, with all its 
 Indian descendants, and most of the European tongues. The 
 Sanscrit, it may be added, is one of the oldest, richest, and 
 most philosophic languages in the world : many of its forms 
 are found in Greek and in Latin. 
 
 ' Most of the European tongues,' it is said. In fact, the 
 Basque, the Turkish, the Calmuck, the Magyar or Hungarian, 
 the Esthonian, the Finnish, and the Lapponic, belong to other 
 tribes ; but, with these exceptions, the languages of Europe are 
 all Indo-Germanic, and are allied to the Sanscrit. 
 
 ( Indo-European,' it will be noticed, is not a perfectly accurate 
 term. It originated with Bopp, and is the best as yet invented. 
 1 Indo-Germanic ' and ' Japhetic ' (Rask) are more objectionable. 
 
 includes. 90. This tribe includes the following stocks : 
 
 1st. The Gentoo, or Sanscrit, including most of the languages 
 
 of Hindustan. 
 
 2nd. The Iranian, or ancient Persian, the parent of the Affghan, 
 the Beloochee, and the Kurdish. 
 
 Srdly. The Armenian, including Armenian ancient and modern. 
 
 4thly. The Classic or Pelasgic languages, including Greek, 
 ancient and modern (the Romaic), Latin and its descend- 
 ants, the Spanish, French, and Wallachian. 
 
 5thly. The Slavonic, including the Russian language. 
 
 6thly. The Lithuanic, including the Lettish and Lithuanian. 
 
 Tthly. The Gothic ; and 
 
 Sthly. The Keltic, in its different dialects. 
 
 91. The Gothic stock of languages has two main branches the 
 Teutonic (or German) and the Scandinavia^- This last includes 
 
TO OTHER INDO-EUROPEAN TONGUES. 93 
 
 Branches ol the Icelandic, the Norwegian and Swedish, the Danish, 
 the Gothic. an( j the language of the Feroe Islands. These are all 
 closely related, the Icelandic being practically the parent of the 
 first three, and intimately allied to the last. They are called the 
 Norse tongues. 
 
 92. The Teutonic branch contains two divisions, the High 
 Divisions of German and the Low. The High German includes 
 the Teutonic, the Mceso-Gothic and the Classic German of the 
 present day, and especially of written composition. The Low 
 German is the language of the Baltic provinces of Hanover and 
 of Westphalia. 
 
 LOW German 93. To this same Low German division belong the 
 division. five following tongues : 
 
 a. The Old Saxon. 
 
 b. The Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 c. The Frisian. 
 
 d. The Dutch, etc. 
 
 e. Modern English. 
 
 As thus explained, the definition is sufficiently simple. It 
 shows at once what languages most closely resemble the English ; 
 and it helps us to assign to it its proper place among the 
 hundreds of languages and dialects that are spoken upon earth. 
 
 NOTES AND ILLTTSTBATIONS. 
 
 94. Note 1. That the Mseso-Gothic is closely connected 
 with modern English may be seen from the M. G. Gospels of 
 Ulphilas, a translation made in the fourth or fifth century, 
 
 Mark i. 33. 'Yah so baurgo alia ganinnana was at daura.* 
 
 'And the borough all gathered was at the door.' 
 vi. 5. 'Niba lawaim siukaim handuns galagjands, ga hailida.' 
 
 ' Except on a few sick his hands laying-, he healed them.' 
 Luke vii. 21. 'Blindaimmanagaimfragaf siun.' 
 
 To blind many he gave forth seeing.* 
 ,, ix. 3. 'Swa wheitos swe snaiws.' 
 
 ' As white as snow.* 
 24. ' Raus fram vinda wagid.' 
 ' A rush by the wind wagged.' 
 
94 
 
 NOTES ENGLISH AND M^SO-GOTHIC. 
 
 John viii. 32. 'Yah ufkunnaitli sunya, yah BO sunya friyans izuis brikkitli.' 
 And ye ehall know the truth, and the truth free you shall 
 
 break.' 
 
 xiv. 37. 'Saiwala meinafaur thuk lagja.' 
 ' My eoul for thee I will lay down.' 
 
 The conjugation of the Verb TO BE in Mseso-Gothic, Saxon, 
 Icelandic, and Frisian, illustrates very well the connection of 
 these different tongues. 
 
 M.ESO-GOTHIC. 
 Lid. Pres. 
 
 ICELANDIC. FEISIAN. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Pla. 
 
 1 Im (I am) 
 
 2 Is 
 
 3 1st 
 
 1 Sijum 
 
 2 Sijuth 
 
 3 Sind 
 
 Past. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plu. 
 
 1 Vas 
 
 2 Vast 
 
 3 Vas 
 
 1 Vesum 
 
 2 Vesutu 
 
 3 Vesun 
 
 Sub. Pres. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plu. 
 
 1 Sijau 
 
 2 Sijais 
 
 3 Sijai 
 
 1 Sijaima 
 
 2 Sijaith 
 
 3 Sijaina 
 
 Past. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plu. 
 
 Injin. 
 
 1 Vesjau 
 
 2 Veseis 
 
 3 Vesei 
 
 1 Veseima 
 
 2 Veseith 
 
 3 Veseina 
 
 Eom 
 Eart 
 Is 
 
 Em 
 
 Ert 
 Er 
 
 Waes 
 Waere 
 
 \Vo3ron 
 Waeron 
 Wceron 
 
 Syn 
 
 Syn 
 Syn 
 
 Waere 
 Waere 
 Waare 
 
 Waeron 
 Wasron 
 Wasron 
 
 Vis an and Wesan 
 
 Sigan 
 Partie. Visands (being) Weiande 
 
 So 
 
 Ser 
 
 Se 
 
 Seura 
 Seuth 
 Seu 
 
 Vferi 
 
 Vserir 
 
 Vceri 
 
 (Ik) ben. 
 
 (?) 
 (Hi) is. 
 
 Syndon, synd Erum Send, 
 
 Syndon, synd Eruth Send. 
 
 Syndon, synd Eru Send. 
 
 Var Was. 
 
 Vart Was. 
 
 Var Was. 
 
 Vorum Weron. 
 
 Voruth Weron. 
 
 Voru Weron. 
 
 Se. 
 
 Se. 
 Se. 
 
 Se. 
 Se. 
 Se. 
 
 Were. 
 Were. 
 Were. 
 
 Vserum Were. 
 Vscruth Were. 
 Vein Were. 
 
 Vera 
 Verandi 
 
 Wesa (to be). 
 
 Wesande (being).. 
 E-wasen (hav- 
 ing been). 
 
ENGLISH AND THE CAUCASUS. 95 
 
 95. Note 2. The languages of the Indo-European family are 
 all allied, and the nations speaking them must have formed 
 originally one stock. Attempts have been made to prove this 
 conclusion, and even to determine their first settlements on 
 evidence taken from words common to their various tongues. 
 Most of the languages, for example, have kindred words for 
 'snow,' 'Ice,' 'winter,' 'spring'; for 'torrent,' 'valley,' 'rocks,' 
 'sea,' ' silver,' ' ships,' 'axletree,' ' king,' ' vidow.' They have 
 no common word for 'sail,' or 'money,' or 'priest,' or ' ebb and 
 flow,' or 'monkey.' This fact is opposed to the theory that 
 the nations, or the languages spoken by them, are of Indian 
 origin. They all belong to a mountainous district, a colder 
 climate, and apparently to a tideless sea. The neighbourhood 
 of the Caspian, and the mountainous range of the Caucasus, 
 answer to the facts : and herein the results of philology and the 
 traditions of history agree. See ' Les Origines Indo-Europeenes,' 
 par A. Pictet. Paris, 1859. 
 
 This notion, it will be observed, goes somewhat beyond the 
 results of Dr. Prichard's inquiry, as set forth in his work, en- 
 titled ' The Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations proved by a 
 Comparison of their Dialects with the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, 
 and Teutonic Languages.' It seeks not only to connect Europe 
 with the East, but to trace the nations of both continents to 
 some of their earliest settlements. 
 
 Sharon Turner, following the hint that the Saxon race came 
 originally from the neighbourhood of the Caspian, has examined 
 the affinities between the Asiatic languages of that district and 
 the Anglo-Saxon. The ZEND is the oldest language in use 
 there. This was succeeded by the PEHLVI ; and this again by 
 the modern PERSIAN. In the roots he examined, he found 57 
 in the Zend allied to Saxon roots ; in the Pehlvi, 43 ; and in 
 modern Persian 162. Tvans. Roy. Soc. Lit., vol. ii. pt. ii. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OBTHCQRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. 
 
 CONTENTS : (96) Spelling as an art. 
 
 (97, 98) Elementary sounds ; and signs for them. Sounds classified. 
 
 (99) Elementary signs : The letters. (100-104) Vowels, consonants, 
 flats, sharps ; explosive, continuous ; low, aspirate ; labial, guttural, etc. 
 Connection between sounds and letters of the same organ. 
 
 (105-107) Sounds and signs compared. The deficiencies of the English 
 alphabet. Phonography. 
 
 (108-114) Syllables, defined. Influence of syllabification on consonants ; 
 impossible combinations ; unstable combinations ; vowels ; euphony. 
 
 (115) Quantity : Classic and English rules. Doubling of letters. 
 
 (116-119) Accent defined: Importance of, in fixing meaning; in 
 prosody. Secondary accent, what. Accent and quantity. 
 
 (120-124) History of English Alphabet in connexion with its deficien- 
 cies. Phoenician, Greek, Latiu, Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-Norman 
 alphabets. Order of letters. 
 
 (125-129) Spelling: Capitals; syllables. Anomalies of spelling; 
 origin of them, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Rules for spelling, 1-10. Uniformity. 
 
 (130) Orthoepy : Erroneous pronunciations classified. Errors in rela- 
 tion to particular letters. 
 
 ORTnOGEAl-HY SPELLIX0. 
 
 ' The right spelling of a word may be said to be that which agrees 
 beat with its pronunciation, its etymology, and with the analogy of the 
 particular class of words to which it belongs.' PHILOLOGICAL MUSEUM, 
 i. 647. 
 
 96. Spelling is the art of writing words with their proper 
 Spelling letters. In the English language this art is peculiarly 
 what. difficult. Authorities often differ ; and the laws of 
 analogy are not always observed in words of the same class. 
 On the other hand, the student has generally a safe guide in 
 etymology, in the rules which regulate the different sounds of 
 
ELEMENTARY SOUNDS IN ENGLISH. 97 
 
 the same consonant, and in a knowledge of the orthoepical ex- 
 pedients (see par. 128) by which we indicate the length of the 
 vowels and the place of the accent. To be ignorant, therefore, 
 of the spelling of words that are spelt uniformly, and are in 
 frequent use, is justly deemed discreditable. 
 
 Elementary ^' ^ e e l emen * ar 7 sounds of the English tongue 
 
 sounds in are forty-two. Twelve are simple vowel-sounds : i.e., 
 
 g h, they can be pronounced vocales by themselves : 
 
 1 The sound of & in fall 7 The sound of i in tin 
 
 2 a in father 8 oo in cool 
 
 a in fate 9 u in full 
 
 a in fat 10 o in note 
 
 e in led 11 o in not 
 
 ee in feel 12 u in but. 
 
 Two are semi-vowel sounds : 
 
 13 The sound of w in well 14 The sound of y in yet. 
 
 Four are diphthongal, or compound vowel-sounds : that is, are 
 formed by the union of a vowel and semi-vowel or of two 
 vowels : 
 
 15 The sound of ou in house 17 The sound of i in pine 
 
 16 eu in feud 18 oi in voice. 
 
 Sixteen are mutes and semi-mutes : 
 
 19 The sound of p in ep 27 The sound of k in ek 
 
 20 b in eb g in eg 
 .21 f in ef s in ess 
 
 v in ev 30 z in ez 
 
 23 t in et 31 Eh in ish 
 
 24 d in ed 32 z in azure 
 
 25 ,, th in ith b 33 ,, ch in chest 
 
 26 th in idh" 34 j in jest. 
 
 Four are liquid sounds ; so called from their readiness to com- 
 bine with other letters : 
 
 35 The sound of 1 in low 37 The sound of n in now 
 
 36 m in mow 38 r in row. 
 
 There are, besides, the four following : 
 
 39 The sound of r in work 41 The sound of h in hot 
 
 40 ng in song 42 wh in why. 
 
 In all letters, it is important to much more easily detected, than if 
 
 compare not the names, pee, ef, eta, we compare the names only, 
 
 but the sounds ep, ef, ec, eg, etc., the * As in thin. 
 
 relation between them it in this way As in thine. 
 
98 LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET. 
 
 98. Of the mutes, half are sharp and half flat ; some aspirate, 
 
 some lene. These terms designate the sharpness or 
 flatness of the sounds, and the strength or lightness of 
 the breathing in uttering them : 
 
 Lene. Aspirate. 
 
 p is sharp, and b flat f is sharp, and v flat 
 
 t d th dh 
 
 k g [kh gh ] 
 
 s z sh zh ,. azure 
 
 [ts dsz ] r . tsh (ch),, d,h (j) 
 
 Of these the following are closely allied : 
 
 p, b, f , and v k, g [kh and gh] 
 
 t, d, th, and dh s, g, sh, and zh 
 
 and [ts, ds] tsh and dsh (j). 
 
 99. To represent these two-and-forty sounds, we have in 
 Letters English six-and-twenty letters, each of which is 
 used in re- written in two different forma and sizes. The large 
 these ' letters are called capitals, or capital letters, and the 
 sounds. rest small letters ; A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, etc. 
 
 100. The series is called the A, B, C, or from the names of 
 the first two letters in Greek, the alphabet. 
 
 The letters a, e, i, o, u, are called vowels, w and y are either 
 
 Vowels vowels, as in ' blow,' ' by,' or semi-vowels as in ' well/ 
 
 ' yet. ' As semi- vowels they are reckoned with the re- 
 
 n s 'maining nineteen letters, which are called consonants. 
 
 When two vowels are joined in one syllable, they form a 
 diphthong, as in heat ; when there are three vowels, they form 
 a triphthong, as buoyant. Generally the sound is the same 
 as a simple vowel-sound : but in some cases they have a sound 
 of their own, as in 'house,' 'new.' These are proper diph- 
 thongs, i.e., they are double sounds with double letters. In 
 long i, as in pine, we have a diphthongal sound without corre- 
 sponding letters ; and in words like l heat,' ' beau,' we have diph- 
 thongal or triphthongal letters with only simple sounds. 
 
 Some of the consonants cannot be sounded alone, as p, t, k ; 
 Sharps and others can be sounded but imperfectly, only whispered 
 Flats. in fact, as b, v, d, g, z. These are therefore called 
 
 Not found in English. b Not found in English as initial 
 
 tetters ; both common in Hebrew,eto. 
 
HOW ARRANGED. 99 
 
 mute letters. Half of them are sharp and half flat, or, as 
 some describe them less happily, ' hard and soft,' or (in classic 
 Continuous ^ an g ua e ) tonnes and mediae. Some of them again are 
 and expio- continuous, as f , v, sh, zh ; i. e. , the sound can be pro- 
 longed : others are explosive, and the sound escapes at 
 once ; such are b, p, t, d, k, g. 
 
 101. Sometimes all these letters are arranged according to the 
 organs of speech employed in uttering them. If the tongue, for 
 example, is brought in contact with the soft palate of the throat 
 (the velum pendulum), as in pronouncing loch, rag, the stream 
 or sound issues through the narrowing passage and is finally 
 stopped by it. This is a guttural sound and stoppage. "When 
 the tip of the tongue is brought in contact with the teeth, as in 
 Letters ' *V another sound issues and another stoppage is 
 accovdin"- P r duced. The sound and stoppage are dental. When 
 to the " the lower lip is brought in contact with the upper, a? 
 ustcUnpro- * n ' U P>' there is a third sound and a third stoppage, 
 nouncing called labial. Ch (hard), t, and p, are therefore res- 
 pectively guttural, dental, and labial sounds. 
 
 Allied to the guttural soimds of ch and g (rag) are cc and egg, 
 Labial, Gut- pronounced by the pressure of the tongue against the 
 tui-al, &o. roo f or p a l a te of the mouth. Ng and n (as in ' song ' 
 and ' BUI ') are pronounced by the pressure of the tongue against 
 the same surface, so as to force part of the sound through the 
 nostril. These last are called palatals, and sometimes nasal 
 sounds ; or sometimes linguals. L is both a palatal sound and 
 also a lingual ; II (welsh) is palatal and aspirated ; y is palatal ; 
 T is lingual (as in river) and guttural as in rh and work ; s and z 
 are dental ; sh, zh, j, and ch (church) are all dental, and the last 
 four are also palatal ; d, t, dh, th, are dental ; b and p, 
 v and f, m and w are labial ; m is also partly nasal. 
 
 102. Similarly, of the vowels, a (as in psalm) is guttural, 
 i. e. is formed by the opening of the throat : e is palatal, 
 sounded by the tongue and palate ; 65 is labial, sounded by the 
 compression of the lips ; a (as in fate) is a gutturo-palatal ; o (as 
 in note) is a gutturo-labial. It will be observed, however, that 
 most vowels, after labial, lingual, or palatal letters, may be 
 treated as labial, lingual, or palatal sounds, being formed rather 
 
 H 2 
 
100 ALLIED SOUNDS. 
 
 by the organ with which they are for the moment connected 
 than by the organ to which they naturally belong. In the, same 
 way ' h,' the strong breathing, may be regarded as a guttural, 
 a palatal, or a labial sound, as in ' harm,' ' heave,' ' hoop.' 
 
 103. The following table exhibits allied sounds in a con- 
 venient form : 
 
 Vowels. a (Psalm) ; e (there) ; i (machine) ; o (note; ; u (rul3 
 
 full). 
 
 Labials. B, V (i. e. Bh) ; P, F (i. e. Ph) ; M ; W. 
 Dentals. D, Dh ; T, Th; S, Sh, Ch; Z, Zh, J; L, N, E (by some 
 
 called dental liquids). 
 
 Linguals. D, Dh (by some) ; T, Th (by some) ; L, N, E. 
 Palatals. G, k (c) ; Q ; Sh, Zh, Ch, J ; L, LI, N, Ng ; Y. 
 Gutturals. lovgh ; lock; H (as in hard); E (Eh-rk) ; Hw (who), 
 N, ng, and sometimes m are also called nasal sounds. 
 
 Or thus : 
 
 Four Labial sounds. B, V, P, F. 
 
 Four Lingual or Dental sounds. D, Dh, T, Th. 
 
 Four Palatal and Guttural sounds. (k), Ch, G, Gh. 
 
 Eicht Sibilant sounds. Z, Zh, S, Sh, [Ts, Ds,] Tsh (ch), Dsh (j). 
 
 104 Of the letters as thus arranged and pronounced, it may 
 be remarked that the vowels are in the order in which the lips 
 open in pronouncing them. ' A ' is pronounced with the lips 
 most widely apart, ' u ' (65) with the lips most nearly closed. 
 
 The letters of each class are more closely allied to each other 
 than to members of other classes, and are more liable to be 
 interchanged, p for b, d for t, or for the dental sibilant s or ?,. 
 
 When any class needs the help of a liquid, or when any 
 Connexion unstable, liquid combination needs a stronger letter, 
 between the need is generally supplied from the same class ; 
 the same thus dvrjp makes dv-8-pbs, numerus becomes num-b-er. 
 organ. Similarly, in compounds, n becomes m before b and 
 p, as in embarrass, impossible , r is allied to 1 and s, and 1 to k. 
 Though these last facts are gathered rather from etymology than 
 from anything that appears very obvious from the classes to 
 which the letters belong. 
 
ANOMALIES OP 73JE ALPHABET 101 
 
 105. When we come to compare the two-and-forty sounds of 
 The sounds our language with the six-and-twenty letters that are 
 ffnsrfish employed to represent them, we see at once the 
 language deficiencies of our alphabet. The theory of a perfect 
 witifthe alphabet requires that every simple sound should have 
 
 signs that a single sign, that no sound should have more than 
 represent ' ' . . , , . .. , 
 
 them. one sign, and that similar sounus should be repre- 
 sented by similar signs ; these last varying according to the 
 degrees of likeness with the sounds they represent. Such 
 is the theory. 
 
 106. If the English alphabet be tested by these three prin- 
 Deflcienc ; eg ciples, it will be found singularly unsatisfactory. It 
 
 is at once uncertain, inconsistent, erroneous, deficient, 
 ' and redundant. 
 
 ' A,' for example, has four sounds, the open (' father ') and the 
 short ('fat'), the broad ('fall') and the long ('fame'). The 
 last two are represented also by aw (' bawl '), by ou (' bought '), 
 and au ('taught') ; by ay ('ray'), ey and ei ('they,' 'their'), and 
 by ea and ai (' pear,' ' pair '). 
 
 ' O ' has three sounds, the short (' not '), the long or open 
 (' note'), and the broad ( move '). The last two are represented 
 also by oo (' grove '), oe (' toe '), and ow (' window '). 
 
 ' E ' has a long and a short sound (' feet,' ' fed '). The first is 
 lllu t ted re P resen * e( i also by i C machine '), by eo (' people '), 
 ea (' fear '), ei (' receive ') ; and the second, before 
 r, by short i (' dirty ') and by eo (' jeopardy '). 
 
 Of the four diphthongal sounds, eu (' feud ') is represented by 
 u (' mule '), eu (' feud '), ue (' ague ') ; oi (' voice ') is represented 
 by oy (' boy '), and ou (' house ') by ow (' plow '). 
 
 In the case of vowel-sounds, therefore, we have five single 
 letters and four diphthongs to represent sixteen sounds, which 
 sounds are again represented by some twenty vowels, either 
 single or in combination. Or to take a single example, a has 
 four sounds, and two of these are represented by seven different 
 combinations. Hence we have at once uncertainty, deficiency, 
 and redundancy. 
 
 Many of the consonants, also, represent different sounds. 
 
 ' C ' is soft like ( s,' before e, i, y, as ' cell,' ' civil/ ' cymbal,' 
 except in sceptic and Cymry ; hard like ' k ' before a, o, u, r, 1, t. 
 
102 PHONOGRAPHY. 
 
 i 
 
 It has also the sound of sh in a few words social. 
 
 ' F ' is pronounced uniformly except in ' of ' and its compounds, 
 where it is sounded as v. 
 
 ' G ' is hard before a, o, u, n, 1, and r, as in gas, glass, etc. ; 
 soft, generally, before e, i, and y. 
 
 ' S ' is sometimes sharp, as in sing, 
 ,, flat, as in raisin, 
 
 zh or sh, as in pleasure, 
 
 ,, silent, as in island. 
 
 ' T ' has generally its proper sound, but when followed by i 
 and another vowel in the same syllable, it is pronounced sh. 
 
 ' X ' has a sharp sound ks, as in exercise ; 
 And a flat sound gs, as in exertion ; 
 And the sound of z, as in Xenophon. 
 
 ' Z ' has the sound of flat s, as in zeal, 
 
 And also of flat sh, as in azure. 
 That is, seven consonants represent eighteen different sounds. 
 
 The errors of the alphabet and its inconsistencies are also 
 obvious. ' Th ' (in thine) is related to d not to t. It is, more- 
 over, a simple sound, and ought to have, like f, a single letter. 
 ' J ' has no real relation, as a sound, to either i or y. ' Sh ' is no 
 accurate representative of the sound, which is also represented, 
 in certain combinations, by c, s, and t. ' Ch ' (as in chest) has 
 no relation to hard c, nor strictly to h, and if it is a simple 
 sound (as it certainly is in some languages) it ought to have a 
 single letter. 
 
 'C,' it will be noticed, is redundant, and is always either f k' or 
 ' s ' ; j is represented by g (in ginger) ; q is Iways kw, and x is 
 a double letter, being equal to gs or ks, or it is a single letter, 
 equalling z : in either case it is redundant. 
 
 The influence of the imperfection of the alphabet on the 
 spelling of the language will be noticed below. 
 
 107. Phonography is an attempt to remove these anomalies ; 
 Phono- and so far as the representation of the different 
 graph/. sounds of our language, by means of distinct letters, 
 is concerned, and of allied sounds, by similar letters, it may 
 succeed. But a phonetic alphabet will never take the place of 
 the common alphabet, partly because it conceals the etymology 
 and history of words, and confounds words which are alike in 
 
SYLLABLES. 103 
 
 sound but distinct in meaning ; but chiefly because the literature 
 of Europe is written on the old system, and the preponderance 
 of advantage is too doubtful to reconcile men to so troublesome 
 a change, or, as it might prove, to so serious a loss. 
 
 108. A syllable is a collection of letters pronounced by one 
 Syllables effort of the voice, and containing one vowel-sound, 
 defined. either simple or complex, as ' rich,' 'thought,' ' fine.' 
 A monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; a dissyllable a word of 
 two syllables ; a trisyllable of three syllables ; a polysyllable a 
 word of more than three. 
 
 109. When letters are formed into syllables they become 
 Influence of subject to influences which modify the combination 
 
 " and override what would otherwise be their law. If, 
 the sound of for example, we try to pronounce abt, apd, akg, ags, or 
 any similar combination of a sharp and a flat mute, we 
 Unpro- find it unpronounceable. We either leave the last 
 comWna- letter unsounded, or we insert a vowel, or we change 
 tious. one O f the letters for another of the same class as the 
 
 remaining letter. ' Slabs,' for example, is always pronounced 
 Blabs, or slaps ; ' stag,' stagz or stacks. Slabs and stags we cannot 
 pronounce. For a like reason, 'steppcZ' and 'stacked are always 
 ' steppt ' and ' stackt.' 
 
 110. Hence the following rule : When two mutes come 
 
 together, and are pronounced, they are both made 
 either flat or sharp ; and, in fact, right pronunciation 
 always change the sound of the first into that of the second, 
 whether sharp or flat. 
 
 Hence ' s ' has two sounds. It is flat (z) after a flat mute, 
 and sharp (s) after a sharp mute. 
 
 Hence, verbs in p, t, k, s, never make their past tenses in d 
 simply, but either, if strong verbs, by changing the vowels or 
 by adding ed or d, and pronouncing it, if not a separate syllable, 
 as t. 
 
 Hence the exactest rule for forming English plurals is, 'Add s 
 (with the sound of s) to nouns ending in a sharp mute (' stacks '), 
 and s (with the sound of z) to nouns ending in a flat mute (as 
 'stags').' 
 
 These remarks are not applicable except to mutes. Liquids 
 
104 EFFECT OF SYLLABIFICATION. 
 
 (1, m, n, r,) take after them either sharp or flat letters, though 
 themselves generally regarded as flat sounds. Hence we say 
 with equal ease, alpine and altino, arftsan and ardent. 
 
 Vowel-sounds are either flat or sharp ; and hence nouns 
 ending in vowels form their plurals in flat s, or occasionally in 
 sharp s, represented by ce, as penny, pennies, or pence (pennice), 
 die, dies, and dice. 
 
 111. There are other affinities between letters, less rigid than 
 Other affini- the foregoing, but still important: e.g., bring, 
 letters^ 06 " brought 5 drink, draught ; buy, bought ; seek, sought : 
 
 j impossible, embark, intelligent : tem-p-tation, emo, 
 Consonants, em-p-si, num-b-er : tupto, etuphthe : and between 
 consonants and vowel-sounds, as in sure, patient, verdure, dew. 
 
 Verbs, for example, in ng, nk, y, k, naturally soften their 
 Palatals and preterites, in ngd, nkd, yd, kd, all palatal sounds 
 gutturals. i n to the soft gluttural or palatal 'ght.' 
 
 Prefixes before labials or dentals change their final consonant 
 into the initial consonant of the word, or take m or n as the 
 initial is labial or dental : as e/face, impossible, tntact. 
 
 112. Unstable combinations, i.e., a liquid and a consonant, 
 Unstable often borrow a strengthening sound, and always from 
 combina- the class to which either the liquid or the consonant 
 tions. belong, as in num-b-er, tem-p-tation. 
 
 Aspirate letters are more easily pronounced together than an 
 
 aspirate and a lene. Hence if the last T become th 
 
 9 ' in TVTTTCO, TT is likely to become <j> (ph), as in fTv^drjv. 
 
 It has been noticed already that u is a diphthongal sound, 
 
 equal to 'eu' or 'yu,'and as such is more or less palatal. 
 
 an When preceded by a dental, the dental is ever apt to 
 
 become tsh, dsh, or sh simply: 'sure,' 'verdure,' 'virtue,' are 
 
 examples. 'I' and ' e,' closely allied in sound to the palatal 'y,' 
 
 cause a like change, as 'parent,' 'soldier,' 'righteous.' Hence 
 
 the tendency to pronounce dew as ' jew,' though deemed a vulgar 
 
 pronunciation. 
 
 Dean Ramsey notices that 'fin- sellers got by that word 'a better 
 
 non-haddies,' a well-known Scotch grip of them wi' their tongues : ' the 
 
 fish, used *o be 'called ' in the streets fisherman's explanation of the ' un- 
 
 findrama ' and ' findmm-haddies,' stable combination,' of the philologcr. 
 
 for no other reason, as a Newhaven Compare Havre, Londres. 
 fisherman expressed it, than that the 
 
ON LETTERS. . 105 
 
 113. These changes and combinations are owing to the nature 
 Kaiher and intimate connection of the sounds themselves, 
 thanetymo- They belong not to grammar, as a science, or to the 
 logical. history of words, but to the mechanical process of 
 speech. They are euphonic rather than etymological. 
 
 114. The changes which VOWELS undergo in consequence of 
 
 combination are of some importance. The chief of 
 2. Vowels. ., ,, , .., 
 
 them are the following : 
 
 "When short vowels stand alone or in the middle of a syllable, 
 there is a tendency to lengthen them, sometimes by adding a second 
 vowel or a consonant, and sometimes by changing the order of 
 the letters, or by both: comp. annuntio, announce,*annunciation ; 
 'son' (A. Sax.), sonus, sound; sop, soup ; sprit, spirt, sprout. 
 
 When two short vowels come together with a slight con- 
 sonant between them, there is a tendency, when a helping 
 letter cannot conveniently be inserted, to make the two 
 syllables into one : Confluentes, Coblentz ; traditor, traitor ; 
 nomen, noun (comp. Fr. hommes) ; rightewiseness, righteous- 
 ness ; forelosen, forlorn; beran, bairn. This tendency is specially 
 seen in words received from Latin through the French tongue. 
 
 When two vowels, very different in sound or in fulness, occur 
 in two syllables, with no strong consonant between them, there 
 is a tendency to assimilate them ; as in cano, cecini ; capio, 
 accipio, occupo : William, from Gulielmus, etc. 
 
 115. We have spoken of long vowels and short : ' o,' for 
 Quantity in example, in 'not,' is short ; in 'note,' long. The 
 relation, to length or shortness of the sound is called the quantity 
 vowels ' of the vowel. 
 
 English quantity is measured by the length of the vowel 
 sound ; in classic languages by the length of the syllable or of 
 the vowel. In ' seeing,' for example, ' see ' is, in English, long : 
 in Greek, a diphthong might, though itself long, be made short 
 by the following vowel. In ' sit ' and ' sits,' again, the ' i ' is, 
 in English quantity, short ; and short in both cases : in Latin, 
 the first ' i ' may be short but the second must be long. This 
 distinction is important in connection with prosody. 
 
 But though the length of the vowel is not said in English to 
 
 The French gains this end by the strong nasal sound of the n. 
 
106 ACCENTS. 
 
 be modified by the doubling of the consonant, yet the syllable is 
 capable, so to speak, of bearing more when thus strengthened ; 
 and hence, when a short syllable receives an additional syllable, 
 and is accented, the consonant is generally doubled, as forget, 
 forg<5tten. Hence also a tendency to relieve the light syllable of 
 the accent, even though it is part of the original root. We say, 
 for example, not continent, as we should have said if the ' i ' had 
 been long, or had been followed by strong consonants, as in 
 conception, but continent and continental not as in conceivable, 
 with the accent on the root. This tendency to shift the accent 
 from a slight to a strong syllable, or to strengthen the slight 
 accented syllable by doubling the consonant or lengthening the 
 vowel, explains many of the anomalies of English spelling ; 
 compare, e.g., Fr. consdil and Eng. counsel ; recipere, recevdir, 
 and receive. 
 
 116. 'Accent' is itself a part of orthography, though it is 
 Accent more intimately connected with pronunciation. Ac- 
 defined, cent is properly the stress which the voice places on 
 parts of words, as 'presume,' ' husband. ' It is to syllables 
 what emphasis is to words. The accentuated syllable, like the 
 emphasized word, is distinguished from the crowd, and made 
 the more distinct and impressive. 
 
 English words are accented on any of the last four syllables : 
 as relieve, archangel, antidote, inevitable, talkativeness : the 
 tendency of our language being to throw the accent as near the 
 beginning of the word as possible. 
 
 Many words in English aro distinguished by accent 
 alone : 
 
 As Nouns and Verbs : survey, survey ; contrast, contrast ; an 
 
 attribute, to attribute. 
 Nouns and Adjectives : minute, minute ; august, august ; 
 
 invalid, invalid ; cdmpact, compact. 
 Verbs and Verbs, and Nouns and Nouns : cdnjure, conjure ; 
 
 desert, desert, etc. 
 
 The importance of accent in composition and in Prosody will 
 oe noticed hereafter (par. 153). 
 
 117. As a rule, the accent in English is on the root, not on 
 the suffix, a? shepherdess, lengthening ; nor on the prefix, except 
 
PRIMABY AND SECOND AEY. Jft? 
 
 when it greatly modifies the meaning, or is emphatic, or is a 
 much stronger syllable than the chief syllable of the root. 
 ' Unnatural,' ' impossible,' are the common pronunciations, ex- 
 cept when things are said to be ' not natural,' but ' unnatural ' ; 
 'not possible/ but 'impossible.' 'Syllable' and 'consonant' 
 are examples of compounds in which the prefix modifies the 
 meaning or is essential to the form. 
 
 In French and in Greek, the accent is by no means confined 
 to the root ; but varies in position with the length of the word, 
 and even with the nature of the words that are connected with it. 
 
 118. In words of three syllables or more, where the accent is 
 Secondary connected with two or more unaccented syllables, a 
 accent. secondary or helping accent is often used ; though 
 never marked in print, and not easily recognisable by the ear, 
 *s in beautiful, temporary, incontrovertible. Here the chief 
 stress is on the syllables marked thus ( A ), but there is also a 
 slight stress on those marked thus ('). This stress will be 
 readily noticed if the syllables be compared with those that are 
 unmarked. 
 
 This secondary accent is owing to the tendency of the voice. 
 It speaks as we walk, putting down and lifting up alternately ; 
 a process indicated by the terms thesis (putting down) and 
 arsis (taking up) of the Greek prosodists. 
 
 119. It will be noticed that in English, as in Greek, the 
 Accent in accent is entirely distinct from the quantity. August 
 with""" 011 anc ^ August have each one long syllable (au), ac- 
 quantity. cording to our English mode of reckoning the length 
 of syllables, and each two long syllables, according to the classic 
 mode. And yet we can accent either syllable as we please, 
 without influencing the quantity of the vowel. 
 
 120. The imperfections of the English alphabet belong in 
 History of P ar * 1 * ^ s hi s t oi y and in part to the peculiarity of the 
 the English sounds it has to express. Nearly all alphabets, cer- 
 alphabet. tainly all j n Europe, come from the old Phoenician 
 through different channels. Each nation in succession took 
 the letters it needed, omitting the rest ; afterwards, as its 
 literature and modes of speech extended, some of the rejected 
 letters were replaced, not in their original position, which was 
 
108 
 
 ALPHABETS. 
 
 already occupied by some new form of an old letter, but at the 
 Phoenician, close of the whole. And hence the alphabets of the 
 
 Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Anglo-Saxon, and Norman- 
 Anglo-Saxon, _ ' 
 
 Norman trench languages, though substantially one, diner 
 English. somewhat in the signs they use for sounds peculiar 
 to each. 
 
 HEBREW < " >LD LATER T ANGLO- NORIIAN 
 GREEK. GREEK. ^ATIN. SAXON. FRENCH. 
 
 X Aleph 
 
 1 A Alpha A 
 
 A 
 
 A A 
 
 3 Beth 
 
 2 B Beta B 
 
 B 
 
 B B 
 
 3 Gimel 
 1 Daleth 
 
 3 r Gamma r 
 4 A Delta A 
 
 C (at first hard) 
 D 
 
 C (hard) C (soft 
 D D 
 
 n He 
 
 5 E Epsilon E 
 
 E 
 
 E E 
 
 
 
 ! through 
 
 
 1 Vau 
 
 6 F Digamma 
 
 Etruscan 
 and from 
 
 P F 
 
 
 
 old Greek. , 
 
 
 
 
 ( Z struck 
 
 
 T Zayn 
 
 7 Z Zeta Z, 
 
 , r, 1 out and 
 1 inserted 
 
 G G 
 
 
 
 ' afterwards 
 
 
 H Cheth 
 
 8 H Heta E 
 
 (long) II 
 
 II II 
 
 D Teth 
 
 9 Theta 
 
 
 (Soo below) 
 
 i Yod 
 
 10 I Iota I 
 
 I J 
 
 
 D Caph 
 
 11 K Kappa K 
 
 
 __ 
 
 7 Lamed 
 
 12 A Lambda A 
 
 L 
 
 L L 
 
 b Mem 
 
 13 11 Mu M 
 
 M 
 
 M M 
 
 3 Nun 
 
 14 N Nu N 
 
 N 
 
 N N 
 
 
 
 I struck out, } 
 
 
 D Samech 
 
 15 2 Sigma (?) H, 
 
 Kt inserted 
 ( afterwards. ) 
 
 
 y Ayin 
 
 16 O Omicron O 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 Q Pe and Ph 
 
 17 n Pi n 
 
 P 
 
 P P 
 
 V Tsaddi 
 
 18 See No. 7. 
 
 
 SKoppa \ 
 
 
 
 p Koph 
 
 afterwards > 
 
 Q 
 
 Q 
 
 
 ejected. ' 
 
 
 
 1 Resh 
 
 20 P Ilho P 
 
 R 
 
 11 R 
 
 tT Shin 
 
 21 San, Doric. 2 
 
 S 
 
 S S 
 
 n Tau 
 
 22 T Tau T 
 
 T 
 
 T T 
 
 
 23 Upsilon Y 
 
 
 U U 
 
 
 24 Phi * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W (v or w, V W 
 
 
 25 Chi X 
 
 lorms . ; 
 
 
 
 26 Psi * 
 
 x i 
 
 X X 
 
 
 27 Omega O 
 
 2 j later. 
 
 v (nowasl v 
 * [vowel i Y 
 
 The sibilant sounds in the old Greek have undergona 
 several changes : Z, 2, and Sun. 
 
 D (dh) 
 
AND THElfc HISTOKIT. 109 
 
 121. As the early GREEK writers, for example, import the old 
 Hebrew signs, they omit Ts ; Ds, or Z, being the only sound of 
 that kind they know. Gradually F, or digamma, falls into dis- 
 use, ' Ch ' becomes ' H ' (see letter 8), samech becomes ks (15), 
 and koppa is rejected as redundant (see 19 and 11). Meantime, 
 however, other sounds more or less peculiar claim representa- 
 tion, and five letters are added (from 23 and onwards), most of 
 which were unknown even to Homer. 
 
 122. Tho LATIN alphabet is partly taken from the later Greek 
 just named, and partly from the old Etruscan. Hence in olci 
 Latin C is hard, and F takes the place of the digamma. X, Z, 
 and 6 are struck out, the first two because the Latin has not the 
 sounds, and the third, because the old Roman neither needed it 
 nor could he easily pronounce it. K was also struck out, all 
 sounds of that class being represented by hard C or G, which 
 they put in the vacant place of the Greek Z ; or by Q, which 
 took the place of the archaic and rejected koppa (19). When 
 Greek words came to be largely imported into Latin, ks and Z 
 History f were restored, but put at the foot : * was spelt ph, 
 particular and th : simple sounds being in these two cases 
 letters. unhappily represented by double signs. U, moreover, 
 took a double form, and appeared as u and v. I as i and j : this 
 last letter representing a sound that had sprung up from such 
 combinations as lulus, preceded by a dental. 
 
 123. The sounds of the ANGLO-SAXOIT alphabet very closely 
 resemble those of the Greek ; but, unhappily, the alphabet was 
 taken from the Latin with omissions and additions. J, q, and 
 z are left out : j, because the sound is not known ; z, because it 
 is fairly represented by s ; and q, because represented by cw. 
 Dh and th, on the other hand, which are favourite Anglo-Saxon 
 sounds, are represented by distinct letters, and these are placed 
 (so as to create least confusion) at the end. The Anglo-Saxon 
 c, it may be added, was hard ; and when pronounced ch, was 
 spelt ce (as in ceaster). G was nearly equal to ' y,' and ' y ' 
 itself was used only as a vowel (e). 
 
 124. Our ENGLISH alphabet is taken (as to its sounds) from 
 
110 THE OEDEK OF THE ALPHABET. 
 
 the Anglo-Saxon, but as to its forms, from the Latin, through 
 the Anglo-Norman. Hence we have lost the letters for 'dh' and 
 ' th,' those sounds being unknown in the Norman tongue. We 
 have, however, i, and j, and k (this last found in Norman, 
 though not in French), q, and z. * Y,' moreover, has its double 
 sound ; and the v appears in a threefold form, as u, v, and w, 
 each representing a distinct sound. 
 
 125. The order of the alphabet is a question that has excited 
 Order of the attention ; nor is it easy, at first sight, to explain it. 
 alphabet. Within the last twenty years, however, a theory has 
 been formed which is an approximate explanation. It is sug- 
 gested, first, that the original alphabet consisted of sixteen 
 letters, the rest being variations of some of these ; and that of 
 these, a, e, o, are the three principal vowel breathings. The 
 whole will then stand thus, in Hebrew : 
 
 Aleph. First guttural breathing ; beth, gimel, daleth ; b, g, d, 
 
 fiat mutes, and lene. 
 
 He. Second breathing, gutturo-palatal : vau, cheth, teth, 
 bh, gh, dh, aspirates ; lamed, mem, nun, liquids ; samech, 
 sibilant. 
 Ayin. Third breathing, palato-labial : pe, koph, tau ; p, k, t, 
 
 sharp mutes. 
 
 Or, placing them horizontally, and under their respective 
 organs, omitting the liquids and sibilants, we have 
 
 Breathings. Labialt. Palatals. Lingualt. 
 
 A B C (or G) D 
 
 E P CH (or H) Dh (or Th) 
 
 [I Liquids L. M N] 
 
 O P K T 
 
 which is substantially the order of the old Hebrew.* 
 
 This whole question, however, in this aspect of it, is rather 
 curious than practically important. 
 
 This theory was first published by occurred to himself and a friend. 
 Dr. Donaldson. Dr. Latluim mentions Latham, p. 210. bee also The New 
 a substantially similar one as having Cratylus, chap. v. 
 
CAPITALS AND SYLLABLES. Ill 
 
 Use O f 126. Large, or capital letters must be used at the 
 
 capitals, beginning 
 
 1. Of every sentence and of every line of poetry ; 
 
 2. Of all names of GOD and of every PROPER name, whether 
 Rules. noun or adjective, as ' England,' ' English ;' hence 
 
 Of names of objects personified, as ' O Death,' and 
 generally 
 
 Of titles of office or honour, when used as such, * The 
 Queen,' ' The Executive ; ' even 
 
 Of common names, when, through emphasis or treat- 
 ment, they are regarded as important, as 'The Re- 
 formation of the sixteenth century'; 
 
 3. Of every direct quotation, when it gives a complete 
 
 sense, as ' Remember the maxim, " Know thyself ;" ' 
 
 4. Of the names of days, weeks, months, as ' The Wednesday 
 
 of Whitsun week. ' Capitals are also used 
 
 5. For the pronoun I and the interjection O. 
 
 Note that it was the custom a century ago to print ALL 
 NOTTNS with initial capitals. 
 
 Syllables. 12V. To divide words into syllables (par. 108) note that 
 
 1. Words of one syllable are never divided. 
 
 2. Prefixes, affixes, and compound words are divided, 
 Rules. the first two from the root, and the last into the words 
 
 that compose them, as 'mis-deed,' 'harm-less,' 'lov-er,' 
 ' hand-book. ' 
 
 3. When two vowels come together, and do not form a 
 
 diphthong, they are divided, as ' la-i-ty,' ' a-e-ri-al.' 
 
 4. When two consonants come together between two vowels, 
 
 they belong to different syllables, as ' tab-let ' : not, 
 however, if the second vowel is but half-sounded, as 
 'ta-ble,' nor if the second vowel is part of an affix, as 
 ' count-er ' (comp. ' coun-ter-act '). 
 
 5. As a general rule, syllables should begin, as far as the 
 
 pronunciation allows, with a consonant, as 'in-com- 
 pre-hen-si-ble. 
 
 This is the classic rule, and is adopted by Morell and 
 others. Some (as Goold Brown) hold that the conso- 
 nant ends the syllable. In fact, short vowels are gene- 
 rally dependent or close, i.e., are followed, in spelling, 
 
112 ENGLISH SPELLING. 
 
 by a consonant ; long vowels generally independent or 
 open, as ' ep-ic,' 'pa-per. ! In some cases, like 'river,' 
 ' fever,' Dr. Latham* is disposed to think that we 
 pronounce two ' v's ' and not one, and that the 
 single ' v ' belongs really to both syllables. 
 6. Yet as a syllable is properly such a combination of 
 letters as is pronounced by a single effort of the voice, 
 consonants should generally be joined to the vowels 
 which they modify in pronunciation, as ' An-ax-ag- 
 or-as,' 'a-bom-in-a-tion.' 
 
 While these rules are just, the application of them will depend 
 in many cases on the ends we have in view, when dividing words 
 into syllables. If we are teaching the exact sound of letters, we 
 divide so as to secure that result : thus, pro-vi-ded, out-rage, 
 blan-ket, or-thcg-raph-y, the-o-lo-gy. But if our object is to 
 show the etymology of words, we then give the constituent 
 parts, as pro-vid-ed, outr-age ; or as far as possible combine the 
 two methods : as, or-tho=graph-y, the-o=log-y. 
 
 128. The anomalies of English spelling have given rise to 
 
 . ., much discussion, and no doubt create great diffi- 
 Anomalies ,.. , . ' _, ,. 
 
 of English culties to foreigners and even to Englishmen. In 
 
 spelling, defence, or at all events in explanation of them, the 
 following facts must be kept in mind : 
 
 1. Our alphabet is defective. The sounds we get from 
 rrownc- various sources, and there are forty-two of them, 
 counted for. Th e signs we get directly (as do the languages of Eu- 
 rope, except the Turkish) from classical sources only, without 
 all the helps those sources might have given us. Our letters 
 represent but twenty-three distinct sounds, and for the re- 
 mainder, we have to use double letters, which after all fail to 
 represent the sounds intended. Double vowels, oo, ec ; diph- 
 thongal forma to represent single sounds, mean, main, coal, 
 See in the league; double consonants to shorten preceding vowels, 
 rule's?!"!, '"^> k* S8 ' an ^ double consonants to represent sounds 
 0, 8. essentially distinct from the sound of either of them, 
 as ch, th, ng, are examples. 
 
 2. Many single letters have two or more sounds, and in 
 certain combinations it is necessary to modify the spelling to 
 preserve or indicate the sound. In ' rog,' for example, the o is 
 
 Hand-book, 1 231. 
 
ITS ANOMALIES. 113 
 
 long, and this is first indicated by the addition of e, roge ; but 
 by this addition the g is made soft, and this result is neutralized 
 by the insertion of u, rogue ; so with colleague, chemistry, etc. 
 
 3. Our language is composed of the most heterogeneous 
 elements, and though it is only the secondary object of ortho- 
 graphy to indicate whence we receive them, it is an important 
 object, and when gained, helps both the clearness and the force 
 of the thoughts. ' C'ity,' for example, might be spelt, so far as 
 sound is concerned, sity ; but being a derivative word, and spelt 
 in Latin with c, all its relations, moreover, appearing in the 
 same form (civil, civic), and s being likely to guide our atten- 
 tion to an entirely false origin, c ought to be retained. The 
 spelling is puzzling, but it gives the origin and history of the 
 term, and we gain by it much more than we lose. Similarly, 
 ' ph ' is used rather than f in philosophic ; 3 and 03 instead of e, 
 to indicate a Greek origin. So ' debtor ' and ' doufrt ' from the 
 Latin. 
 
 4. Over and above these purposes, it is often desirable to mark 
 by the spelling the different meaning of the words we use, even 
 when no special attention is directed to their history, owing 
 
 either to the fact that they come from the same root, 
 See rule 3. , , , . , . . . J ^ 
 
 or that the root is of no moment, lu-om the same 
 
 root, for example, we have canon and cannon, cord and chord, 
 corps, corpse, drachm and dram, draft and draught, check and 
 cheque, brake and break, holy and wholly, steak and stake, 
 marks and marches. From entirely different roots, bays and 
 baize, sun and son, moat and mote, mane and main, hair and 
 hare, veil and vale, mite and might, tray and trait, scent and 
 sent, &c. The meaning in each pair is different, and it is more 
 important to mark the difference by the spelling than to simplify 
 the spelling at the expense of the sense. 
 
 Our spelling, therefore, is influenced 
 
 By the deficiencies and uncertain sounds of our alphabet, 
 which it seeks to remedy by the use of various orthographical 
 expedients ; 
 
 By the variety and copiousness of our words taken as they 
 are from various sources, and needing to be connected by the 
 spelling, with their roots ; and 
 
 By the necessity of distinguishing words of like sound but of 
 different meaning. I 
 
114 RULES FOE SPELLING. 
 
 5. Add to these sources of diversified spelling and of conse- 
 quent perplexity, yet another : Many words having in Latin 
 or Greek the same forms come to us tlmnigh different channels. 
 Independent and humorsome (Ben Jonson), came direct from 
 the Latin : dependant and humour reach us through the French. 
 Authorise and civilization are Greek forms of Latin words : 
 authorise and civilisation are the forms in which they reach 
 us through the French. All these forms are right ; and the 
 question, which are to be preferred depends upon another 
 whether we mean to follow the general analogy of our language 
 and of the language whence the words are originally taken ; or, 
 neglecting analogy, to give in the spelling the history of the form. 
 
 129. 1. Final ' 11,' and s : Monosyllables ending in f, 1, and s, 
 
 Spelling. 
 
 preceded by a short vowel, double the final letter, as 
 
 'staff,' 'mill,' 'pass.' 
 
 Exceptions As, gas, has, his, this, thus, us, yes, was, 
 
 ItUlC'S. . . . A 
 
 clef, if, of. 
 Final ' 11 ' is peculiar to monosyllables and their compounds. 
 
 2. Other final consonants : Monosyllables ending in any other 
 letter than f, 1, s, keep the final consonant single, as son, cup. 
 
 Exceptions Add, butt, buzz, ebb, egg, err, inn, odd. 
 
 3. Final e : Words in e mute generally retain it before 
 additions that begin with a consonant (a), and omit it before 
 additions that begin with a vowel (b), as paleness, curable. 
 
 (a). Exc. Awful, duly, truly, wholly, and a few others. 
 (b). Exc. That ' e ' is retained after 'v,' as ' moveable,' 
 and after c or g soft, as ' changeable ' ; before ous, it 
 becomes i, as gracious. After ' dg,' the e is generally 
 omitted, as the g is made soft by ' d ' ; as ' judgment/ 
 'abridgment.' 
 
 These exceptions originate in the double sound of some letters 
 (c and g), in the uncertain length of some vowels (as o), and in 
 the necessity there is for distinguishing by the spelling words 
 otherwise identical, as but, butt, etc. 
 
 4. Final y : Final y in words not compounds (a), when pre- 
 ceded by a consonant, is generallj' changed into i (b), before 
 additions when preceded by a vowel, it is generally retained 
 (c), as 'happiness,' 'merrier' ; 'joyful,' 'days.' 
 
 (a). Exc. In compounds treated as such, y remains, as 
 
RULES FOR SPELLING. llfi 
 
 handy-work, lady-sliip. If the word is made one, it 
 
 may become ' i,' as handiwork, 
 (b). Exc. Before ' ing ' and ' ish,' y is retained, as in pitying, 
 
 and words in ie drop e (see Rule 3) and change i into 
 
 y, as 'die,' 'dying.' 
 (c.) Exc. Laid, paid, said, staid, raiment (from array) 
 
 and generally daily, with a few others. 
 
 5. Words in c and ck : Monosyllables (a) and English verbs 
 do not end in c, but take ck for c, or double c, as wreck, attack 
 Words of this ending from the classic languages are now spelt in 
 c, and without k, as music, ptiblic. 
 
 (a). Exceptions : lac, soc (in old Eng., a privilege), zinc, 
 disc, talc. 
 
 6. Final double letters : Words ending with a double letter 
 \ etain both before additions, if these do not begin with the same 
 letter (a) ; as, successful, seeing. 
 
 (a). If the same letter follows, one is omitted, as hilly, freer. 
 Exc. Words in II generally drop 1 before consonants, as 
 
 shall, dwelt, skilful ; and some words in ss drop s, as 
 
 bles*. 
 
 7. Compound and derivative words : Words ending with a 
 double letter, preserve it double in all derivatives formed by 
 prefixes : feoff, enfeoff, call, recall (a). 
 
 (a). Enroll, befell, fulfil, are sometimes spelt with a 
 single 1. 
 
 8. Doubling letters : Monosyllables, and words accented (a) 
 on the last syllable, when preceded by a short vowel (b), double 
 the final consonant (c) before a syllable that begins with a 
 vowel, as thin-ner, acquit-tal. 
 
 (a) If the accent is not on the final syllable, the final con- 
 sonant remains single, as, offer, offering. 
 
 Exc. Apparel/ecZ, cancelled, cavilZer, crystalline, drivelZer, 
 duellist, gr&velled, grovelling, jewelZe?-, levelling, libeller, 
 marvel/oMS, modelling, revelling, rivalling, traveller. 
 These forms are intended to guide the pronunciation. 
 
 If the accent is thrown back, by the addition, from tha 
 final syllable, the final letter is not generally doubled, aa 
 refer, reference ; transfer, transferable, or transferable. 
 
 Exc. Though, if the word is classic, it follows the classic 
 
 i 2 
 
116 EULES FOB SPELLING. 
 
 form, irrespective of English rules ; as, excel', excellence, 
 inflame, inflammation. 
 
 (b) If the vowel is long, the consonant remains single, as 
 toil-ing. 
 
 (c) X final, being a double letter (ks), is never doubled, as, 
 mix-ing. 
 
 9. Ize and ise : Ize (with z) is generally used when it repre- 
 sents the classic termination, as, philosophize, civilize : ise is 
 used in monosyllables, and generally where ' ize ' is not a dis- 
 tinct part of the root (a) ; as, rise, advise, surprise, circumcise ; 
 also in spelling words in ' ize ' of classic origin, received through 
 the French (par. 128. 6). 
 
 (a) Exc. Size, assize. 
 
 10. The student must carefully mark the analogy and ten- 
 dency of our language : e.g., authour, errour, emperour, are now 
 all written without the u, though, as the words were received 
 through the French (erreur, etc.), there is a reason for retaining 
 it. Of three hundred words ending thus, not more than forty 
 retain the u (as favour, honour), and these not always. It is 
 probable, therefore, that the spelling of these forty will ulti- 
 mately conform to that of the rest of the class. 
 
 Systematic uniformity in spelling, it may be added, is hardly 
 earlier than the time of Dr. Johnson's Dictionary. He speaks of 
 orthography as having been to that time ' unsettled and 
 fortuitous. ' In confirmation of this statement, it may be noted, 
 that Tyndal spells so common a word as it in eight different 
 ways it, itt, yt, ytt, hit, Jtitt, liyt, Tiijtt : while within tliirty 
 years the following words are spelt in almost every variety of 
 form. 
 
 TYNDALE, 
 1525. 
 
 TYNDALE, 
 1536. 
 
 CBANMEB, 
 1539, 
 
 GENEVAN N". T. 
 1557. 
 
 Certayne 
 Kych 
 Mocha 
 Fyrst 
 Stewardshippe 
 Stewardesluppe 
 
 certain 
 riche 
 muche 
 firste 
 stewardshypp 
 stewardshypp 
 
 certayn 
 ryche 
 moch 
 first 
 Btewardshyp 
 stewardeshyppe 
 
 certain 
 riche 
 mucbo 
 fyrst 
 stewardeshyp 
 stewardshyp 
 
 What were difficulties in Johnson's time have been settled 
 and we now write without scruple, music (not musi'cA;), 
 
ORTHOEPY, ERRORS. 11? 
 
 'logic,' 'error,' 'tumor/ 'emperor.' Some however remain. 
 ' Honor ' and 'favor ' are regarded with suspicion. Dueling, 
 irsiveling, and reveling seem questionable ; and even practised 
 writers hesitate between * worshipers ' and ' worshippers,' and 
 between ' civilize ' and ' civilise. ' Of such words ' of various 
 or doubtful orthography ' Worcester reckons eighteen hundred. 
 
 130. There are in Great Britain five principal dialects ; the 
 .. .. .. Northern and Scotch, the Irish, the London and 
 
 O r tliocD v 
 
 South-Eastern, the South- Western, and the dialect of 
 the Midland Counties ; the last often containing some of tho 
 peculiarities of the others. There are, of course, smaller differ- 
 ences in other counties : but these are the chief. The 
 Errors in . ,, .; ,, . . . 
 
 pronuncia- following are some of the errors of pronunciation 
 
 tion. peculiar to each dialect. 
 
 A 
 
 (a). The short a (as in fat) is sometimes pronounced like open 
 a (as in father), as, ' what man ' : common in Scotland, and 
 in the North of England. 
 
 (b). The open a is pronounced like the broad a (as in call), as, 
 ' your farther ' ; Ireland and Mid. Counties : or like ' e ' or ' ea ' 
 (feather), as ' f ether,' N. E. 
 
 (c). The long a (as in name) is sometimes unduly lengthened, 
 as ' justifica?/tion.' Common in the South. 
 
 (d). The long a in the diphthongs ea and ay is sometimes pro- 
 nounced like ee, as ( Burgundy peers,' ' pee-master ' : N. E. and 
 Cheshire. 
 
 B 
 
 Is sometimes inaccurately sounded after m, as comb. 
 
 E 
 
 Is often sounded where it ought to be nearly silent ; as in 
 'open,' 'heaven.' These are nearly monosyllables, 'op'n,' etc. 
 In the 3rd pers. sing, of verbs, and in the complete participle 
 and past tense, it is often sounded as u, as, lovuth, lovud. In 
 these cases it ought to be pronounced nearly like short i. 
 
 G 
 
 Is sometimes pronounced aftern, as tliingue, for 'thing,' like 
 rogue ; sometimes omitted, as ' singt'n ' for singing. The ng is 
 properly only one sound. 
 
118 EEEOBS OF PKONUNClATIOff. 
 
 H 
 
 Ought always to be pronounced at the beginning of words. 
 Exc. In h-eir, h-eiress, h-onest-y, h-onour-able, h-ostler, 
 h-our, h-umour-ous-some. In hospital and humble it 
 is better to pronounce it. 
 
 NOT ought it to be introduced in pronunciation when not 
 found in spelling. The neglect of this rule is very common in 
 the Southern and Midland Counties of England. 
 
 It will help the student, to remember that ' the ' before a 
 vowel is always the, as * the eye ' ; before a consonant, it is 
 always th', as th' house, th' man. If this rule is overlooked, 
 'th' eye' is sure to be pronounced with an unwelcome aspiration. 
 It may be added that when ' him,' ' his,' ' her ' are used after 
 verbs or prepositions, and are not emphatic, they are mere en- 
 clitics, i. e., are almost parts of the preceding word ; and in that 
 case the ' h ' is scarcely sounded at all : as * Tell . 7 :im to coine. 
 If the pronoun is emphatic, the h must be made distinct, as 
 ' grave, where is thy victory ? 
 Ask HIM who rose again for me.' MONTGOMERY. 
 
 I 
 
 (a). Is often pronounced like ' ey,' as feyne ; or like ' oi,' foine ; 
 in Ireland and the West of England. 
 
 (b). It is often pronounced like the open a (father); as, A 
 can't tell. N. E., etc. 
 
 (c). It is often slurred over or pronounced like ' u,' as in 
 \mposs'ble, impossuble, wull, for will (Scotch), etc. 
 
 O 
 
 (a). Is often pronounced too openly, like oe or ow, as in sow 
 for so ;' or too closely, as sou for sow (a pig). The first is 
 common in the S. E. of England, the second in the North. 
 
 (b). It is sometimes pronounced like aw, or is shortened ; as 
 in snaw (for snow), the rod for road. Scotch, and N. E. 
 
 (c). It has often the sound of ' u,' but is pronounced as ' o ' ; 
 as in none (pron. non), one (pron. w-on). The true sound is 
 'mm,' 'wun.' Mid. Counties. 
 - Similarly, ' young ' (pron. yung) is erroneously pron. yong. 
 
 K 
 
 Has three sounds : a rough, rolling lingual or palatal sound, as 
 
EEEOES OP PRONUNCIATION. 119 
 
 in rest, road ; a softer sound of the same kind, as in finger ; 
 and a semi-guttural sound, as in work. 
 
 (a). Sometimes the soft ' r ' is omitted, as finga^, paaty. 
 
 (b). Sometimes it is erroneously inserted, as winder, lor (law). 
 
 (c). Sometimes the soft r is changed into the rough rolling 
 sound; as, 'wor-reld,' 'fing-urr,' 'surr.' The former is common 
 in Ireland and Scotland, the latter in S. W. and in Lancashire. 
 
 (d). Sometimes the rough and the soft r are sounded as 
 gutturals. Common in Northumberland, and known as the 
 ' burr.' 
 
 S 
 
 Is sometimes sounded, especially in Somerset, like 'z ;' and by 
 foreigners the flat and sharp sounds are often confounded. 
 
 Th 
 
 Has two sounds, as in thin and thine. Sometimes the final 
 * th ' is pronounced sharp instead of flat, as -with instead of 
 vfidh. 
 
 U 
 
 When long, is generally, except after r, pronounced as eu. 
 Sometimes it is erroneously pronounced as oo, ' dooty,' for 
 ' dewty.' 
 
 Short u (as in dull) is often used for the open u (as in 
 butcher). Hence some say put for put, and (vice versa) but for 
 but. 
 
 W 
 
 Is sometimes changed in pronunciation into ( v,' and f v' into 
 f w;' as, wictuals for victuals, veil for well. Wli, or more 
 properly liw, is sometimes pronounced as w ; as, wen for when, 
 worn, for whom. Occasionally wh is pronounced as f. Aber- 
 deenshire, and part of Wales. 
 
 Carefully note that unaccented vowels are very apt to be 
 slurred over ; or when single and short, to have too broad a 
 sound given to them. 
 
 Sometimes they are too distinctly pronounced ; a fault that 
 gives the impression of pedantry in the speaker ; as, wick-ed- 
 ness. The short ' i ' sound is more nearly accurate in such cases 
 than the very open e ' wickidniss,' or ' wick'dn'ss,' where the 
 comma represents a half -vowel. Similarly, the Welsh are apt to 
 make all unaccented vowels too open, as, Ev-an, Ev-ana. 
 
120 ETYMOLOGY, 
 
 CHAPTER YL 
 
 CONTENTS : (131) Three-fold division of Etymology. (132, 133) 
 i. Etymology, or the classification of words. \Vords classified : four 
 divisions, or eight, arranged grammatically and logically, ii. Etymology. 
 (134) Table of words. The science of the derivation of words. 
 
 (135-141) Crude forms: derivatives, primary and secondary. Com- 
 pounds, decomposites. Meaning of elementary combinations of letters. 
 Examples. 
 
 (142) Derivatives classified : nouns from noun adjective and verb 
 roots : adjectives from ditto: verbs from ditto. 
 
 (143) Prefixes : Anglo-Saxon and classic. Comparative tables. 
 (144-150) Affixes: Anglo-Saxon and classic. Nouns, adjectives, verbs. 
 
 Comparative tables. Patronymics. ' Be," ' head,' ' dom,' etc. 
 
 (151-152) Composition explained grammatically. (153) Eules as to 
 accent. (154) Logical definition. (155-6) Compounds classified : 
 meaning of, 1-5. (157) Incomplete composition. (1-58) Apparent 
 composition. 
 
 (159, 160) Uniting letters of compounds. Importance of composition. 
 
 (161) Comparative power of different languages in forming compounds. 
 
 (162) Diminutives. (163) Saxon ; simple and compound, 1-4 : 1-4. 
 (164) Classic. 
 
 (165) Augmentatives : three classes, (166-168) Personal names, 
 their origin and meaning. (169-177) Number, gender, case. Defined: 
 how far they exist in various languages, enumerated. Relics of number- 
 forms in English adj. Plural forms in verbs. Case-endings in English : 
 gen., dat., ace., abl. 
 
 (178-179) Comparative and superlative forms. 'Er' and 'est,' etc., 
 traced and explained. Adverbial forms. 
 
 (180-182) Numerals : cardinal and ordinal. Table of, in Indo- 
 European tongues. 
 
 (183) Facts and laws on the permutation of letters. Allied sounds. 
 
 (184-186) Permutation of liquids : of palatals and gutturals, of 
 dentals and sibilants, of labials, of r and s, t and s, d and z, h and g, 
 s and h, with examples. 
 
 (187) National preferences for certain sounds : Spanish, Italian, French, 
 German, English. 
 
 (188) Grimm's Law, with examples. 
 
CONTENTS. 121 
 
 (189-196) Effect in modifying consonants: of syncope, aphccresis, 
 apocope, epenthesis, paragoge, and metathesis (with examples). 
 
 (197) Effect in modifying vowels : of assimilation, of accent, of certain 
 consonantal combinations, and of pronunciation, 
 
 (198) Examples of vowel changes. 
 
 iii. Etymology as the science of the inflexion of words or Accidence. 
 
 (199) Accidence defined and explained. 
 
 (200-202) Nouns classified, proper, common, and abstract. 
 
 (203) Table of nouns. 
 
 (J04-206) Number, Rules 1-4. Forms, singular and plural, a ... I 
 
 (207-210) Gentler, how indicated. On personification. Case. 
 
 (2 11-232) Pronouns defined and classified : personal, indefinite, relative, 
 interrogative. Forms of each explained. Adverbs formed from Pronouns. 
 
 (233-236) Adjectives defined and classified : definitive, qualitative, 
 quantitative. Table. Not declined. 
 
 (237-241) Positive, comparative, and superlative forms. 
 
 (242-262) Articles. Definite and indefinite numerals. 
 
 (263) Adverbs formed from adjectives. 
 
 (264-275) Verbs defined and classified : substantive and adjective. 
 Transitive and intransitive ; reflexive. Eegular, irregular, redundant, 
 defective. Causative, inceptive, frequentative. Primitive and derivative. 
 Saxon and classic. 
 
 (276-288) Voice. Moods, indie., subj., imper., inf., gerundial inf. 
 Participles. Forms and use. 
 
 (289-299) Tenses : time actual and essential. Present, past, future, 
 indefiuite, continuous perfect, emphatic. Peculiarities in the use of pre- 
 sent and past tenses. "Weak and strong forms. Conjugations. Irregular 
 verbs. 
 
 (300-302) Future, origin of difficulties of 'shall' and 'will.' 
 Scripture usage. Peculiar use of these forms. 
 
 (303-300) Persons of the English verb. Number. Auxiliaries ex- 
 plained. 
 
 (307-311) Adverbs, classified according to their meaning and force ; 
 according to their origin. Adverbial phrases. 
 
 (312) Words used as adjectives and as adverbs, explanation of. 
 (313-317) Prepositions classified according to their meaning and 
 origin. 
 
 (318-324) Con junctions defined : co-ordinate and subordinate, classified. 
 Their origin, simple, derived, compound. The same words adverbs, 
 prepositions, and conjunctions, 
 
 (325-326) Interjections : classified and explained. Apparent govern- 
 ment of. 
 
 " The changes in corresponding words of kindred languages are not 
 arbitrary and capricious, but regulated by fixed and deeply- seated prin- 
 
122 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 ciples, especially in the radical works of the more ancient dialects. When 
 we meet with a simple verbal form in Anglo-Saxon, we know beforehand 
 in what shape it may be expected to occur in Icelandic, as well as what 
 further modification it is likely to undergo in Danish and Swedish. Of 
 this sort of knowledge the very foundation of all rational etymology 
 our word-catchers do not seem to have had the smallest tincture, and 
 consequently they are perpetually allowing themselves to be seduced by 
 imaginary resemblances into the most ludicrous mistakes." GAKNETT. 
 
 131. Etymology is that part of grammar that treats of the 
 
 Etymolog-y various forms of words. It consists of three 
 
 defined : its m^, . 
 
 parts enu- P ar 
 
 merated. The first is introductory, and classifies words 
 
 according to the parts of speech into which, for grammatical 
 purposes, they are divided. 
 
 The second treats of the changes words undergo in their 
 formation, whether native or imported, derivative or compound. 
 
 The third treats of their inflexions ; i.e., of their declension, 
 if they are nouns or pronouns, and of their conjugations, if they 
 are verbs. 
 
 Though thus divided, etymology has really but one object. 
 It seeks out the primitive forms of words. It is the science of 
 etymons; i.e., of true primitive forms. It classifies them, it 
 traces them from language to language, and it strips words in 
 any given language of their inflexional changes or additions, 
 defining the origin and the meaning of each. 
 
 i. ETYMOLOGY AS THE SCIEXCE OP THE CLASSIFICATION OF 
 
 WORDS. 
 
 132. If we were to examine all the words of any language for 
 \Vords the purpose of arranging them, we should find them 
 classified, readily divisible into four classes : 
 
 1. "Words that are names of persona or things, whether mental 
 or material. 
 
 2. Words that attribute qualities, states, or acts. 
 
 3. Words that describe the relation between one word or one 
 notion and another, or between one assertion and another, and 
 
 4. Words that express rather an emotion than a thought, and 
 have no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence. 
 
THE CLASSIFICATION OF WOEDS. 123 
 
 WORDS that are names of things are called, for grammatical 
 Parts of purposes, nouns and pronouns. WOEDS that attribute 
 fined oTam-Q 1131 ^ 63 or ac ^ s are ca ll e d attributives, and are either 
 matically. adjectives, which append a quality to nouns without 
 formally asserting it ; verbs, which assert the qualities or acts ; or 
 adverbs, which append qualities either to adjectives or verbs. 
 WORDS that express the relation between one word and another, 
 and govern a case, are prepositions ; between one assertion and 
 another, and occasionally govern a mood, are conjunctions. 1 * The 
 fourth class of WORDS are interjections. 
 
 133. Defined logically ; 
 
 Defined Nouns and pronouns may be either the subjects or 
 
 logically. the predicates of propositions. 
 
 Adjectives can be predicates only, and 
 
 Verbs are predicates and copula combined. 
 
 Other parts of speech are of themselves incapable of being 
 used as either predicates or subjects. 
 
 134. TABLE or WORDS. 
 
 i. Give names to persons f 1. NOUNS. 
 
 or things. \ 2. Personal Pronouns. 
 
 {Articles. 
 
 {Possess, and demon 
 Pronouns. 
 4. VKBBS. 
 5. Adverbs. 
 
 iii. Express relations ( 6. Prepositions, 
 between words. ( 7- Conjunctions. 
 
 1 8. Interjections. 
 
 There are no words, in fact, in any language that may not be 
 referred to one of these classes, though there are some words 
 that may be treated as belonging to more than one. Some 
 
 Confusion has arisen from the fact of as existing only in these subjects, 
 
 that adjectives are sometimes said to Hence the old distinction of ' nouns 
 
 be names of things, i.e. of qualities; substantive' and 'nouns adjective." 
 
 as ' good,' ' wise.' Hence, it is said, The above arrangement, however, is 
 
 they belong to the same class as more accurate. 
 
 'nouns.' But nouns are names of b Some words connecting assertions 
 
 things regarded as having an inde- are not conjunctions, as who, whither, 
 
 pendent existence, either actual or etc. These words, however, never 
 
 conceivable; as. 'goodness,' 'man;' govern moods in English, and are 
 
 whereas adjectives are names of rather introductory to adjective 
 
 things that exist, or are conceived clauses than connectives. 
 
124 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 pronouns, for example, like ' this,' ' that,' are regarded some- 
 times as adjectives ; some adjectives, ' a' and 'the,' are called 
 1 articles ; ' and some words are both conjunctions and pre- 
 positions. 
 
 ii. ETYMOLOGY AS THE SCIENCE OF DEKIVATIOX. 
 
 135. A word which is in its simplest form, and cannot be 
 Roots, traced further, is called a ' root. ' When such a word 
 primarvalid undergoes an alteration of form, either by the modifi- 
 uecondary. cation of the letters or by an addition, the new form is 
 called a primary derivative, or with reference to other words to 
 be formed from it, a stem. 
 
 If from the stem-word other words are formed by prefixes or 
 affixes, they are called secondary derivatives. 
 
 Words like 'glass,' 'strong,' 'love,' for example, are roots ; 
 words like ' glaze,' ' strength,' ' loveable,' are primary deriva- 
 tives or stems ; words like ' glazier/ ' strengthen,' ' loveable- 
 ness,' are secondary derivatives. 
 
 136. In many cases, and strictly speaking, the root is not 
 Crude itself a word now in use, but a significant element 
 forms. from which words as forms of thought are derived. 
 ' Ag,' for example, is the real root, with the idea of ' driving,' of 
 three sets of derivatives, a^r-ent, ac-t, exigency. Similarly, some 
 form like 'p-d,' is the true root of ' pes,' ' ped-is,' ' TroS-os-,' ' foot. ' 
 Such words are called ' crude forms. ' They represent the original 
 elements of words, before they have received the addition which 
 is to determine their real use. 
 
 137. If the crude form be regarded as the 'root,' as it some- 
 Crude times is, then the word as it appears in actual use 
 therrderi- "* ** s simplest form, is the stem ; primary derivatives 
 vatives. are formed from the stem, and secondary derivatives 
 from the primary. In comparative grammar this is the most 
 convenient arrangement, but in the grammar of the English 
 language, crude forms cannot be used with advantage. We 
 therefore call those words which we cannot trace farther roots, 
 and the words formed immediately from them, primary deriva- 
 tives ; and if these are the immediate origin of several other 
 forms, they are called also stems. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF DERIVATION. 125 
 
 Examples of crude form roots are the following : 
 Milk, Eng. melk-en., Ger. mulg-eo, Lat. a-jueXy-w, Gr. 
 
 Name, Eng. nam-a, < g X n an ^ ( nom " en -k^* o-vo^-a, Gr. 
 Star, Eng. ster-o, Zend. stell-a, Lat. a-tmjp, Gr. 
 Breafc, Eng. j J^* 11 ' ^L } f-r*7, Lat. P^-^/H, Gr. 
 
 . ' [ Eng. g-npa, Icel. gra&h, Sansc. rop-io, Lat. 
 
 o 'J. y ) 
 
 138. Derivatives admit of the addition of letters or syllables 
 Derivatives, only. If one word or more is added, and the two 
 Decompo- 18 ' are * rea * e( i as a single term, the two constitute a 
 sites. compound term, and the process is called composi- 
 tion ; as 'Ports-mouth,' 'rose-tree.' Sometimes compound 
 words are made up of one compound or more. They are then 
 sometimes called, though not felicitously, Decomposites : as 
 * gentlemanlike,' ' deputy-quarter-master-general.' 
 
 139. It was a favourite notion of Home Tooke's, that primi- 
 Enn-lish ^ ve ro * 3 i n English were nouns names of things, 
 primitive But this is a mistake. Sometimes a thing, and 
 roots what ? gome tiines an act or a quality, must have been first 
 noticed, and the name was given accordingly. ' A sloth,' ' a 
 wolf,' ' a crab,' ' a fowl,' for example, are each called names of 
 things, but the names are all taken from acts or qualities : 
 ' slow ; ' the Gothic ' walw,' to seize ; the Norse ' kriapa,' or E. 
 'creep ;' the A.S. ' fleogan,' to fly. Whether, in fact, the root of 
 any word be a verb or a noun, or a pronoun, or some crude form 
 common to several words and languages, is a question which can 
 be answered not by any d priori theory, but only after a careful 
 examination of both the forms and the sense. 
 
 140. Derivation has not only traced words to their crude 
 forms, it has gone further, and has connected with certain letters 
 and combinations various elementary thoughts. It has sug- 
 Significant gested, for example, that certain natural expressions 
 of I eUment > - n ^ sur P r i s e or disgust, like ugh ! are appropriated to 
 ary sounds, whatever is huge, ugly, unduly aw^raented ; * that 
 combinations like f fT naturally bring up the idea of fluidity 
 
 ' W edjewood'a Etymological Dictionary,' Introduction. 
 
126 ELEMENTARY COMBINATIONS OF LETTERS. 
 
 and change, as do ' st ' and ' str ' of steadfastness ; that forma 
 like e/'/xt, amare, ' ab ' (pater), * am ' (mamma, mother), denote 
 primary sensations ; composed as these words are of primary 
 vowel and labial sounds : * or that the crude forms of the 
 three personal pronouns represent the three primary ideas in 
 space (here, there, yonder). 11 But these questions are as 
 yet too uncertain and intricate to admit here of protracted dis- 
 cussion. 
 
 141. But though it is difficult to ascertain the meaning of 
 elementary combinations of letters, it is easy to trace the process 
 of creating new forms. 
 
 There must have been in all languages roots descriptive of 
 Derivation persons and tilings ; roots descriptive of acts, states, 
 illustrated. an( j qualities ; that is, noun-roots, verb-roots, and 
 adjective-roots. From each of these roots there must have been 
 formed primary derivatives, nouns, verbs, and adjectives, and 
 from some at least of these, secondary derivatives. In this last 
 process, prefixes and affixes must have been used. From nouns, 
 adjectives, and verbs, were formed adverbs, to qualify words 
 descriptive of acts 01 qualities. 
 
 Derivative forms must have been very early used to indicate 
 munber, gender, and case ; comparison of adjectives, moods, 
 tenses, and persons of verbs. From very early times, also, 
 independent words must have been used to indicate those 
 relations between words and sentences which are now expressed 
 by prepositions and conjunctions. 
 
 Let there be, for example, an elementary combination ' go,' 
 found as it is in Sanscrit, ga, and in Gothic, g and 'gang,' 
 making in the past tense gangde. Thence are derived in va- 
 rious tongues, ' ganges,' the course of a river, then a river 
 itself; a 'gang,' i.e., a going or a company ; 'gate,' algatis(' every 
 way '), Wiclif ; ' gang that gate," Scotch ; ' gait : ' then with 
 prefixes, ' ago,' ' outgoing,' ' foregone ; ' or suffixes, ' gang-way,' 
 ' go-between. ' 
 
 So from ' bite,' we get ' bit,' ' bitter,' ' bitterly,' ' bitterness,' 
 ' backbite ;' from ' heart/ ' heartily,' ' heartiness," dishearten,' etc. 
 
 Or let there be an elementary combination like ' vid,' to see, 
 
 'Eichardson'sDictionary,'4to. In- b 'Dr. Donaldson's New Cratylus,' 
 troduction. p. 3S4. 
 
CRUDE FORMS TRACED. 
 
 127 
 
 ani then to know. Some such form actually exists in eight 
 at least of the Indo-European family of languages, and from six 
 of them we have imported derivatives. We have then tho 
 following results ; 
 
 SANS. 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 ( Vid,' to know. 
 
 'i8,'/8,' 
 
 
 to see, know. 
 
 (' Vedas.' 
 
 Idea 
 
 Books of Science 
 
 Ideal -ly 
 
 or true Giiosis.) 
 Vedantist. 
 
 Idealize 
 Idealism 
 
 
 Idealist 
 
 
 Ideology 
 
 
 Unideal 
 
 
 Idol 
 
 
 Idolize 
 
 
 Idolater 
 
 
 Idolatress 
 
 
 Idolatrous -ly 
 Idolatry 
 Kaleidoscope 
 Spheroid 
 
 
 Asteroid 
 
 LATEST. 
 'Vid,' to see. 
 
 Evident -ly 
 
 Evidence -tial -ly 
 
 Provide, provident -ly 
 
 Providence -tial -ly 
 
 Prudence -tly -tially 
 
 Provider 
 
 Provision -al -ly 
 
 Provisionary 
 
 Proviso -or -orship, etc. 
 
 Advise, advice, etc. etc. 
 
 Devise, device, etc, etc. 
 
 Revise, -ion, etc. etc. 
 
 Supervise -or, etc. 
 
 Visage, vista 
 
 Visible -bility 
 
 Vision -ary -al 
 
 Visive, visual 
 
 Visor 
 
 Visit -or -ant 
 
 Visit -ation -atorial 
 
 Revisit 
 
 Invisible, tJnvisitable 
 
 Viz., i. e. Videlicet 
 
 FKESCH. 
 
 'Veer,' 'voiiy 
 
 ' vue,' to see. 
 
 Enpy 
 
 Enviable 
 
 Enviably 
 
 Envious 
 
 Enviously 
 
 Envier 
 
 Envying 
 
 Unenviable, eto. 
 
 View 
 
 Viewer 
 
 GKBHAN. 
 
 'Wizan,' 'wissen, 
 
 to know. 
 
 Wise 
 
 Wisely 
 
 Wisdom 
 
 Wiseness 
 
 Wiseling 
 
 Wistful 
 
 Wistfully 
 
 Overwise 
 
 Unwise 
 
 Unwisely 
 
 GOTHIC. 
 
 ' Vitan,' 
 
 to see, to know 
 
 To wit, witest, 
 
 wist, wot. 
 Wit 
 Witty 
 Wittily 
 Wittiness 
 Witness 
 Witticism 
 Wittingly 
 Witless 
 
128 ENGLISH DERIVATIVE FORMS. 
 
 FEENCH. GEBMAN. GOTHIC. 
 
 1 Veer,' voir, ' Wizan,' ' wissen,' ' Vitan,' 
 
 ' vue,' to see. to know. to see, to know. 
 
 Viewless Unwisdom Witlessly 
 
 Viewing Wizard Overwitty 
 
 Interview Wizard-like Unwittingly 
 
 Review One's wits 
 
 Reviewer 
 
 Reviewing Witenagemot 
 
 Purveying 
 
 Purveyor 
 
 Purveyance 
 
 Purview 
 
 Surveying 
 
 Surveyor 
 
 Surveyal 
 
 Surveyanca 
 
 Surview 
 
 ourvise 
 
 These are particular instances. More systematic inquiry will 
 give rich results. Nor is there any language that illustrates the 
 value of such inquiries better than our own. 
 
 142. The following is a nearly complete view of the processes 
 Derivatives whereby derivatives are formed; nouns, adjectives., 
 classified. an( j verbs. They amount, it will be seen, to upwards 
 of a hundred, exclusive of varieties of Latin and Greek prefixes, 
 and of participial, adverbial, or other subordinate forms. 
 
 NOUNS FECIT Noux ROOTS. 
 
 1. Bond-ff^, herb-age, pound- 15. Mead-o?0, shad-ow, wind-ow. 
 
 age. 16. Hat-ra^, kind -red. 
 
 2. "King-dom, serf-dom, thral- 17. Husbaud-ry, slave-ry. 
 
 dom. 18. "Friend-ship, son-ship. 
 
 3. Maid- CM, kitt-en. 19. Pel (skin) -fry. 
 
 4. Host-<tf. 20. Smith-y. 
 
 5. L&nc-et, pock-et. 21. Law-ytr, saw-yer (See 9). 
 
 6. Stream-W, arm-let. 22. Trust -ee,* physic-taw, inotlie- 
 
 7. Shepherd-s, duch-ess. matic-j'a. 
 
 8. MaiWioorf, god-head, boy-hood. 23. Art-zsa, bene-factor, non- 
 
 9. Grenad-tVr, musket-eer. sense, pro-noun, ana-\)a\>- 
 
 10. Hero-twe, vix-en. tisin, aw^'-type, arcA-angcl, 
 
 11. Even-'w7, morn-ing. cfl/a-strophe, rf/a-meter, epi- 
 
 12. "Lamb-kin, wat-kin, haw-kin. cycle, hypo-ihesis, mono- 
 
 13. "Duck-ling, gos-ling, year-ling. theism, para-phrase, etc. 
 
 14. Hill-oe*, bull-ock. 
 
 Tliese and some of the preceding BO frequently appended to A. S. roots 
 and following are of classic origin, but that they aru inserted, above. 
 
ENGLISH DEBIVATIVE FORMS. 129 
 
 NOUNS FEOM ADJECTIVE ROOTS. 
 
 1. Dull-flttf, druuk-ard. 5. Pleasant-ry. 
 
 2. Free-dom. 6. Hard-s7uj. 
 
 3. Hardi-Aoorf. 7. Tru-<A, dear-<A. 
 
 4. Dear-w. 
 
 NOUNS FBOJI VERB BOOTS. 
 
 1. Bond* (fr. bind), song, brood, 8. Sup-p-er. dinn-r, slipper 
 
 food. 9. Shov-e, gird-te. 
 
 2. SpeeeA b (speak), girth (gird), 10. Hack- (hatch-) et. 
 
 ditch (dig), -web, woof 11. ~K.uovr-le(d)ge, weft-lock (A.S. 
 (weave). lac). 
 
 3. Beg-g-ar. 12. Judge-menf.* 
 
 4. Brag-g-r<, dot-ard. 13. Sea-m (sew), bloo-m (blow). 
 
 5. Bun-n-er. 14. Ward- (to guard) en, mat'w 
 
 6. Spin-ster, doom-ster (execu- (from mseg-an, to be able.) 
 
 tioner). 15. Wef-^ (from weave). 
 
 7. Break-a^, Btow-age. 16. Grow-tfA. 
 
 ADJECTIVES FROM NOUN BOOTS. 
 
 1. Bagg-erf. 7. Snow-y. 
 
 2. Wood-c, earth-. 8. Trouble-sowze. 
 
 3. North-erw, west-erw, etc. 9. South-ward. 
 
 4. Slav-ts/t. 10. Beaute-OM5, portent-ows, glob- 
 
 5. Thought-/M^. ose. 
 
 6. Man-/y. 
 
 ADJECTIVES Fnoii ADJECTIVE BOOTS. 
 
 1. Bedd-tVi, black-zsA. legal, tVzter-mediate, intra- 
 
 2. Like-/y. mural, >w^-content, preter- 
 
 3. Dark-som. natural, swS-acid, 5-urban, 
 
 4. Dts-hpnest. w^ra-marine, a-pathetic, ec- 
 
 5. ?7w-wise. centrical, hyper-CTii\ca\,mela- 
 
 6. Pel-lncid, extra-ox&w&Tj, il- physical, syfft-pathetic, etc. 
 
 ADJECTIVES FEOM VERB BOOTS. 
 
 1. Eat-flife (A. Saxon). 4. Pleas-t^. 
 
 2. TbOz-ative (Classic), 5. Tire-some, win-some. 
 
 3. Learn-7. 6. Stick- y. 
 
 VEEBS FROM NOUN BOOTS. 
 
 1. Gzld* (gold), tt'p (top). 6. .Zte-friend, be- troth, fo-dew. 
 
 2. Shelve' (shelf), halve, l>iea.the. 7. De's-burden. 
 
 3. Prize (price), ap-praw, 8. .En-slave. 
 
 glaz. 9. Uh-tile. 
 
 4. Spark-fe, Knee-/. 10, Survey (sUrvey). h 
 6. ,4-maze, a-base. 11. Typ-t/y, critic-ize. 
 
 * By change of vowel. * By altering the vowel. 
 
 i> By change of consonant. * By altering the consonant. 
 
 Nouns in ' er ' not agents. By altering both. 
 
 * Perhaps A. S. as well as Latin. h By altering the accent. 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 PREFIXES : SAXON, LATIN, GREEK. 
 
 VEEBS FEOM ADJECTIVE ROOTS. 
 
 1. He-dim, fo-calm, ie-numb. 4. Ling-r (long). 
 
 2. .En-feeble. 5. Fill (full).* 
 
 3. Dark-e, black-e, redd-. G. Pro-long. 
 
 VEBBS FEOM VEEB ROOTS. 
 
 1. Fell b (fall), raise (rise), set 14. Cram* (ram), 
 
 (sit), lay (lie). 
 
 2. Wince (wink), dodge (dog). 
 
 c-rib (rob), 
 c-rumple. 
 15. Glimm-er (gleam), swagg-er. 
 
 3. Dredge (drag), gnash (gnaw), 16. Crack-fc, grapp-le (grip). 
 
 drench 4 (drink). 
 
 4. ,4-wait, e a-bide, a-rise. 
 
 5. ^-base, f a-mass, a-mend.' 
 
 6. P-e-fall, be-fel, be-stir. 
 
 7. -For-sake,/or-bid,/o?--get. 
 
 8. fore-tell, /ore-know. 
 
 9. Gain-sap. 
 
 10. Dis-believe, <?zs-please. 
 
 11. Mis-lea,d, mis-give. 
 
 12. .Ke-touch, re-build. 
 
 13. <Smelt, swag, s-tride (tread). 
 
 17. Shov-e?, grov-el (grope), 
 
 18. Burn-tsA. 
 
 19. Blaz-e>, reck-o. 
 
 20. Z7-tie, MM-do. 
 
 21. Worry h (wear), sully (soil). 
 
 22. ^i-solve, 1 z-meli orate, 
 
 prove, r-ray, fl^-tempt, 
 cw-naviga_te, counter-act, 
 part, ^i's-join, ef-fa.ce, iV-radiate, 
 inter-luce, op-pose, post- date, 
 
 ap- 
 
 ctr- 
 de- 
 
 , op-pose, .. 
 
 se-cede, ^wzs-plant, etc.: all of 
 Latin origin. 
 
 143. The following table givesthe meaning of A. S. prefixes with 
 Prefixes, the corresponding prefixes of Latin and Greek origin. 
 
 SAXON. 
 A, on, in ; abed, afire. 
 
 A, before verbs, gives'a 
 transitive force, as 
 wait, a-wait. 
 
 And, ' against,' rare in 
 E., common in A.S. ; 
 a-swer, o-thwart. 
 
 About, ' round,' not now 
 common. 
 
 Aft, behind, back, after- 
 wards. 
 
 All, almighty, always. 
 
 Back, backwards, back- 
 slider. 
 
 Between, ' between- 
 whiles.' 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 'In,' with nouns, in- 
 sular, i.e., in salo, in- 
 carcerate. 
 
 J?>npannel, i.e., to put 
 on the list, as a Juror. 
 
 Contra-diet, counter- act 
 (Fr.), sometimes re, 
 as re-sist. 
 
 ftrcMnzference, amb-ient 
 
 Postpone, sometimes 
 
 rc-linquish. 
 Omnipotent. 
 
 Itelro-spect, reject, re- 
 pel. 
 
 Interlude, intercede. 
 
 GREEK. 
 .E^z'-taph, on a 
 tomb. 
 
 En-demic, among 
 the peopl?. 
 
 Anti- Christian. 
 
 Periphrasis, am- 
 
 j^At'-theatre. 
 Rarely, meta- 
 
 physics. 
 Pan-oply, pan- 
 
 theism. 
 Rarely, aa-camp- 
 
 tic (what bends 
 
 back) . 
 Mesentery. 
 
 By change of vowel. 
 k By change of vowel. 
 By change of consonant. 
 
 * By change of both vowel and con- 
 eonant. 
 
 By Saxon prefix, ' a.' 
 ' By French preh'x, 'a.' 
 
 By prefix 'a' 
 
 h By change of vowel and by addition 
 of a syllable. 
 
 i These are formed by Latin prefixes ; 
 as are re-touch and a/s-believe ; only 
 these last are completely naturalized j 
 and are often prefixed to Saxon roots. 
 
PREFIXES . SAXON, LATIN, GREEK. 
 
 131 
 
 SAXON. 
 By, near, iy-stander. 
 
 LATIN. GREEK. 
 
 Prop - inquity, j'uxia - Par-allel. 
 
 position. 
 
 .Eztfra-ordinary, prefer- Hyper- critical. 
 
 natural. 
 
 Secret, swspect. Hypo-crite, parody. 
 
 Beyond, ' by-ordinar,' 
 
 Scotch. 
 Aside, ' byplay,' ' by- 
 
 path.' 
 
 ' Be,' in A.S., often makes an intransitive verb transitive, fall, befall ; 
 forms verbs from nouns and adjectives, decloud, bedim, iegrime (grim) ; 
 is sometimes in sense privative (behead) ; oftener intensive, as o6~ 
 sprinkle. 
 
 .Descend, decline. 
 
 Down, a'ownhill, down- 
 
 ward. 
 
 First, firstlings, first- 
 fruits. 
 
 For (Ger. ver), 'away,' 
 against, forbid. 
 Intensity, forlorn, 
 
 forgive. 
 
 Negative, forget. 
 Fore,' before in time, 
 foretell, forestall. 
 before in space,/or- 
 
 ward. 
 Fro, from, '/reward' 
 
 (rare). 
 
 Hand, hand-mill. 
 Ill, evil, ift-willed, ill- 
 sinned. 
 
 In, em, en, A.S. in or on, 
 enthrone, in- 
 come, ewlist. 
 to make, en- 
 rich, enlarge. 
 Like, ftMihood. 
 Mid, middle, mid- land, 
 mid-ling. 
 
 Principles, prince (priu- 
 
 ceps). 
 Obstacle, oppose, pol 
 
 (pro) -lute. 
 Pardon. 
 
 martyr. 
 
 proto- 
 
 Catalogue, category. 
 
 Omit, perfidious, displease 
 
 Predict, antecedent Prophesy. 
 
 (ante and avant, Fr.) 
 Proclaim, pwrpose, pwr- 
 
 sue (pur, Fr. form). 
 Averse, abstain, abject. 
 
 Problem, prostyle. 
 Apo-logy, apo-gee. 
 
 Manufacture, 
 Malcontent. 
 
 Jwfuse, impel, tTlude. 
 
 6%eir-urgeon, szr-geon. 
 2)ys-astrous, caco- 
 phony. 
 Entomology. 
 
 Jrradiate, Quinine, irri- 
 gate. 
 
 Similitude. 
 
 Mediocrity, mediterra- 
 nean, mizen (from the 
 Ital. form), a mean. 
 Mis, error, evil, mis- Proscribe, perjure, per- 
 dced. verse, wwltreat, 6use 
 
 Mislead. Sometimes seduce, de- 
 
 range. 
 
 N', not, n'ever, n' either Ne, nee, e-utral, neg- 
 otiate, to attend to 
 business without 
 leisure. 
 
 These two words, ' for ' (Ger. ver) 
 and ' fore ' (Ger. vor) may be, as some 
 think, from the same root ; ' forth ' in 
 the sense of ' all through ' intensifies 
 the meaning, and the sense of 
 ' throughout ' it gives a negative 
 force, as in forbid,' to bid away 
 from doing. Hence in many words 
 in A S., 'fore' has the two mean- 
 ings; sometimes augmenting the 
 
 JJnallage (change 
 
 for another) . 
 JZbwzasopathy. 
 ^Mesopotamia. 
 
 Catachresis (abuse) 
 
 Paraselene, i.e. a 
 by or false moon. 
 
 Z7-topia the king- 
 dom of Prince 
 No-Place. 
 
 force of the word, sometimes nega- 
 tiving it, Pore-by ' (out by, Spen- 
 ser, and besides, Scotch), 'pardon,' 
 and other words favour this view. 
 If accepted, the meaning of 'for' 
 will then be 'forth,' or before in 
 time or in space; intensity, or 
 thoroughness ; excess, or distance be- 
 yond. 
 
 K 2 
 
132 
 
 PREFIXES: SAXON, LATIN, AND GREEK. 
 
 SAXON. 
 Of, off, source, off- 
 
 spring, offshoot. 
 On, onslaught, onward. 
 One, ow-ly, o-ion. 
 Other, otherwise. 
 
 Out, external source, 
 
 ot^goings. 
 
 Over, up above, ' over- 
 hand' (Bible, 1551) ; 
 Over, i.e., upon, 
 overcoat, overgild 
 (T. More) ; 
 Superiority, overrule 
 Excess, cm-load. 
 
 Self, self-control, self- 
 love. 
 
 Side, sideways, sid-ings. 
 To, together (gathered 
 
 to), towards. 
 Through, thoroughfare, 
 
 throughout. 
 
 Two, twelve, totlight, 
 <M;t-children, Ticy- 
 ford. 
 
 Both, A. S. ba- 
 twa = ' both-two,' 
 i.e. two together. 
 Un, before adj. or 
 nouns, not, 
 w^happy. 
 
 ,, verbs, reverses 
 the action, 
 untie. 
 
 sometimes in- 
 tensive, un- 
 loose. 
 
 Under, beneath, under- 
 ground. 
 Inferior, wtcbrlings, 
 
 under secretary, 
 tip, upwards, uproot, 
 wp-land. 
 Subversion, wpset. 
 
 }Tond, yonder, be-yond. 
 
 Well, welcome. 
 
 With, opposition, with- 
 stand. 
 
 With, rare in "E., withal, 
 ivith\vind (the con- 
 volvulus), icith-ers. 
 
 LATIN. GEEEK. 
 
 , abs-ent, aJrade jostle, one sent off. 
 
 Invade. 
 
 C^zanimity, ity. Jl/b?2-ad. 
 
 ^fternately, aliens (of Al/opatliy, hetcro- 
 
 another country). doxy. 
 
 Exit, <j/"-fulgence. ^a;ode, e^egetical. 
 
 e, pr<cter- 
 natural. 
 Stirvey, sM^^structure. J^j'thet, Epigram, 
 
 Superfine, extra, ultra. 
 St(pernuous, cxtra- 
 
 vagant. 
 Stiicide, suicism. 
 
 ^cession, seclusion. 
 ^<?here, ac, cf, ag, al, 
 
 am, etc. 
 Pervade, perfect. 
 
 ^mizdexterous, du- 
 bious, doifot 
 
 l?jped, imary. 
 
 Jnocent, il, im, ir, ig- 
 notus (fr. yivwerxeo). 
 
 .Zfcveal, develop (veil), 
 disarm. 
 
 In or edure, con (some- 
 times), cagent. 
 
 <5M-terraneous, subter- 
 
 fuge. 
 ^(J-deacon, suba.cid. 
 
 Suspend (sursum), stis- 
 
 tain, 
 iS'wiversion, i.e., up, un- 
 
 der. 
 
 Transport, transparent, 
 tdtramzi'me (outre, Fr.) 
 Benefit. 
 Resistance, cistacle, 
 
 Hypercritical. 
 
 Autocrasy, autobio- 
 
 graphy. 
 Parenthesis. 
 
 Z>?ffmeter, diagnosis. 
 
 Amphi-Houa (living 
 in both elements), 
 Diphthong. 
 
 Di-ploma. (twice- 
 folded). 
 
 Atheist, ambrosia. 
 
 Rare, apocalypse ( 
 veiling). 
 
 .Hypothesis. 
 
 Anabasis. 
 
 Co-crce, cwztend, cog, 
 col, cor. 
 
 uogy 
 
 Antipathy, Anti- 
 christ. 
 
 Sy-stem, syn-od., syl- 
 lable, sywi-pathy. 
 
PEEPIXES HAVE TWO MEANINGS. 133 
 
 SAXON. LATIN. GBEEK, 
 
 Within, rare now in E., as Introduce, intra-mural. Eso-teri.c. 
 prefix, within doors. 
 
 Without, I -^? ; ^>' rt "f oraneoTl9 ' .Ero-teric. 
 
 ( Sinecure, simple. Amorphous. 
 
 The following classic prefixes are also common, but have no 
 A. S. equivalents as prefixes : 
 Cis-, on this side ; as cisalpine. 
 Dis and dia, in the sense of dispersion, dispel, diuresis 
 
 (a taking apart). 
 Pene, almost, ^peninsula. 
 Pro, instead of ; pronoun, ^rocuracy, proxy. 
 Meta, implying change from one place to another; as, 
 
 metastasis, removal of disease to another part. 
 'A' has also other meanings, as in abase (4 bas), 
 
 abandon (a ban donner), alarm (a 1'arme), etc. 
 It will be noticed that several of the prefixes have more than 
 one meaning. Some are used as adverbs, some as prepositions, 
 and seem to govern the rest of the word : e.g., absolve, is to 
 free from ; aborigines are original inhabitants ; adhere, to stick 
 to ; adjust, to make just ; antecedent, going before ; ante- 
 meridian, before noon ; deject, to cast down ; dethrone, to cast 
 from a throne ; eject, to cast out ; enervate, to deprive of 
 nervous vigour ; extravagant, wandering beyond bounds ; ex- 
 traordinary, beyond ordinary. So impose and incarcerate ; in- 
 tercede and interval ; prsetermit and preternatural ; subject 
 and subterranean ; superadd, supercargo ; enclitic (leaning on) ; 
 endemic (among the people) ; hypercritical and hyperborean ; 
 apology and apogee ; periphery and perigee, etc. 
 
 144. Noun terminations, and their meaning : 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON. LATIN. GEEEK, 
 
 Indicating 
 
 The agent or doer. Beggar \ AC Actor, sponsor "Poet, athlete. 
 
 Speaker J / ' Secretary, operative Politick 
 Sailor ) * ' (occasionally) 
 Augmentative. Sluggartf,braggar Hellenist 
 
 Lawyer, sawyer Cashier, engin-cer 
 Male agent. Wheel- wrighf Stude 
 
 Barrister, ~Bakster Oculist, linguist SophtVt 
 Female agent, Spinster (occasion- 
 ally) 
 ,, Shepherd-^* Executrz'aJ -issa. 
 
 Hero-tj*. 
 
134 SUFFIXES : SAXON, LATIN, GREEK. 
 
 Indicating ANGLO-SAXON. LATIN. GREEK. 
 
 Dimin.of names. "Browning (see Tull-n Leou-idas. 
 
 below) 
 
 Object of an act. Trustee, nominee CaptiVe (occasion- 
 ally) 
 
 Act, state, being, "Bond-age * Horn-age, fallacy 
 
 gualitv. Ditch, blotc/i 
 
 Hat-rerf, hund-rc<2 Domin-io 
 "Fiee-dom Sanctiwowy, treat- 
 
 ment 
 
 Beggar-y.mockery Modesty, misery Eulog-y, anatomy. 
 "Know-ledge, wed- Yigil0ee, somno- 
 lock lency, marri-age 
 
 Good-ness b Fortito*e 
 
 Finery "Verdure, creat<re Panoraww. 
 
 Friendship Justice, delicacy Hero-ism, aneur- 
 
 is in. 
 Joint, weight, ) Facf, dafe, effect 
 
 Floo-rf, col-d 
 
 Weal-th, dea-th, "Unity Tii-nd. 
 
 Fodd-er, lai-r, Orafnw 
 
 pray-er a Honor, colo?<r 
 
 Laugh-ter, slaugh- Torp-or, val-owr Analysis. 
 
 ter 
 
 Rid-in^(A.S.ung) Mot-iow, crea^'on 
 Augmentative. Da&t-ard (dazed- 
 
 ard) 
 Stand-ard, cu-rrf, 
 
 bomb-flrrf 
 Place or office. Brew-cry, foundry Granary, labora- Monastery. 
 
 EarWofli Prajtori'trt 
 
 Bishopric SepulcAre Theatre, centre. 
 
 Mas ter- s h ip Magistracy, cur- 
 
 acy 
 Baili-wicA; "Pal-ace 
 
 Diminutives, Satch-e?, hurd-/e\ "Lib-el, circle Basilisk (a little 
 
 Pock-eC, stream- 1 Animalcj^e, veh- king). 
 
 let icle Asterisk (* star), 
 
 Duckft^,hillocA:, i. Glob-wfe, obstacle Obelisk. 
 
 shadow 
 Lassi'e, maiden, I 
 
 lambkin ) 
 
 Frequentative*. Teamster, Brew- Poetaster, linguist Hellent'sf. 
 
 For augmentative forms, see par. 165. 
 
 * Really Latin ; but appended to A.S. implies that the thing 1 possesses 
 
 roots. the quality. 
 
 b There are 13CO of these forms in E. Not agents. 
 The concrete (a likeness, a fastness). 
 
SUFFIXES: SAXON, LATIN, GKEEK. 
 
 135 
 
 Patronymics are formed in various ways : as- 
 
 By a Gen. Case. 
 
 Gr. 'O nXarSvos, son of 
 
 Plato. 
 
 Lat. Tull-/s, Marc-HW. 
 It. Orstwi. 
 Eng. Richards, Wilkin*. 
 
 By Suffix. 
 
 A.S. Duck-ling, (or 
 belonging to?) 
 
 Heb. 
 
 Syr. 
 
 By Prefix. 
 
 Ben Oliel. 
 .Z?r-Jesus. 
 
 Dan. Peterson, Nor. F. J%z-TJrse. 
 
 Andersen. Sc. Gael. JlfrtcDonald. 
 Slav. P&ulovitch. Irish G. O'Connor. 
 Pol. Petrow-sky. Welsh. .4^ Hugh,Pugh. 
 Span. Fernandez, P-rich-ard. 
 
 Eng. Johnsott. P(H)owell. 
 
 2?evan, i.e. (ap 
 Evan). 
 
 Besides the foregoing suffixes, we have the following, somewhat 
 anomalous : 
 
 Saxon : twenty, thirty, from tig, fie'ra, ten : fourth, fifth, etc., 
 't.'Lat. and Gr., marking ordinal forms, and probably 
 from the Sans, superlative. Heave?* (to heave or lift), 
 ward-era (guardian), from verbs, and not genitives, but 
 apparently participles ; seam- (sow), bloom- (blow), and 
 dinn-er, supp-er, dower, not denoting agents. 
 
 French: grandee, settee, guarantee (warrant?/), not ob- 
 viously denoting the personal object of a verb. 
 
 Greek : logic, physics, denoting sciences ; and IliacZ, JE>neid ; 
 Dryad, Naiad ; the former denoting treatises, and the 
 last two the names of nymphs. 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 Anonymous. 
 
 Oidsil, i.e., hav- 
 ing the shape 
 or appearance 
 of. 
 '-en, 
 ith; 
 . i.e., 
 in place of the 
 south. 
 
 145. Adjective terminations 
 
 : 
 
 FORMS OF SAXON 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 Indicating ORIGIN. 
 
 
 a. Absence of a ThoughWm \ 
 
 
 quality. (A.S. leas, f 
 
 
 losen) ? 
 
 
 (Ungodly J 
 
 Jwnocent 
 
 b. Saving a qua- ReddwA /,^^ s m ^ 
 lity in a small ChildzsA i ^?j : e tll u e al i j t - 
 
 iHubcsccnt 
 Sub- acid 
 
 degree. j a'nd e(1 io a dif: 
 
 
 Uiike.' from 
 
 
 In respect of Southern, ernly, 
 place. 8ottSM0r | 
 
 Really, south 
 i.e., more 
 
136 ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES. 
 
 FORMS OF SAXON LATIN. GREEK. 
 
 Indicating ORIGIN-. 
 
 c. Having a qua- ( Glpwt^,freez- Patient, tolerant 
 
 lity. 1 ing 
 
 Participial j "Ragged, left- Fervza", gelid, 
 
 forms \ handed confederate, 
 
 sparse, etc. 
 Made ofmater- Wooden (gen. "Ligneous, marine, Cedrme, petrz'we. 
 
 ial suf. A.S.) saline 
 
 Belonging to or Irish (dim, 'sh,' Romanesque Pythagorean, ab 
 
 like a class or tsh, ck) Veron-ese derate, ophite. 
 
 thing. "Lifelike (A.S. / Alimentary, lun- Angel- ic. 
 
 lie) | ar 
 
 Lovely (A.S. 1 Sylvan, menial, 
 lie.) \ civil, -peas-an-t 
 
 I Juvenile, marine, Arithmetic-aJ. 
 \ canine 
 "Wintry, clayey Argillaceous 
 
 (A.S. ig) 
 Righteous (A.S. "For-ens-ie 
 
 wise) 
 
 Frolicsome, light- 
 some 
 
 d. Full of a qua- Truth/J Pestilent, fraud- 
 
 Uty % ulent 
 
 Beauteows Verbose, carious 
 
 Glittertw^ b \ Torrid, fertile 
 "Learned } "Literate, con- 
 
 siderate 
 
 Blithesome, bux- 
 om (A.S. bug-soni), i.e., pleasant, ready to yield. 
 Rocky Aqueous 
 
 Fourfold Quadru^?&, triple 
 
 Drunkaro* V Auda'ows, tena- 
 
 Braggar^ / eiotts 
 
 Coward Codardo, Ital. 
 
 from Cauda. 
 
 e. Causing or JOT- "Winsome (caus- Consolatory 
 parting a qua- ing delight), 
 
 lity. wearisome, 
 
 troublesome 
 
 Tiling, pleasing Terrific, pestifer- 
 ous 
 
 f. Fit to exercise Talkative (act) Destruct-zVe Cathartic. 
 a quality. Eatable (pass)* Legible, amiable 
 
 Frequentative and diminutive ciples. 
 
 forms, implying many littles. o Really an A.S. ending. Both 
 
 b Fulness suggested by the continu- ' able ' and ' live ' are often added to 
 
 cms aud complete forms of the parti- A.S. roots. 
 
VERB SUFFIXES. 
 
 146. Verb terminations : 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON. LATIN. 
 Linger, low-er 
 
 Causative. Whiten, soften (Facilitate 
 
 Clean-w, rin- t 
 
 (rein, Ger.) \ Expedite 
 Fim'sA, burn-ish \Magni/V 
 Sully, worry 
 
 Frequentative and Glimmer, batter /Act, agitate,* ac 
 
 137 
 
 GBEEK. 
 
 Civilize. 
 Harmonics. 
 
 diminutive. 
 
 By prefix. 
 
 Strengthened 
 forms. 
 
 Crack-fc, dragg 
 C-rump/<?, c-rib 
 
 Blu-ster, blow 
 Flu-ster, flit, 
 flutter 
 
 \ cent, re-cant, 
 < movement,mu- 
 I Nation, 
 \ hesitate 
 Perambulate 
 
 Somnzmlulist 
 
 ( Botam're. 5 
 I Hellenic*?. 
 \ Philosophize. 
 
 By prefix. S-patter, s-cruncb." 
 
 147. The precise meaning of these prefixes and affixes cannot 
 Meaning of ^ e gi ven *& an y brief statement : nor is it necessary 
 Prefixes and to give it. The general meaning is sufficiently plain. 
 Affixes. Q ne Qr ^ w . Q exani pi egj however, may be given to 
 
 illustrate the rest. 
 
 148. 
 , 
 
 Be is found in many languages, and is originally 
 the same as 'by.' It is now used in the following 
 way : 
 1. Prefixed to intransitive verbs, it makes them transitive ; 
 
 1. e. Agito, canto, muto (movito), 
 hresito (haereq, haesi), and ambulo, 
 are frequentative forms of ago, cano, 
 rnoveo, haereo, and ambio : and so far 
 answer to the English f requentatives. 
 
 b Words in 'ize 1 seem, whenever 
 they are not causative, to indicate repe- 
 tition and consequent excess. To civil- 
 ize, is to make civil ; to philosophize 
 is to act the philosopher, as to hellenize 
 is to act the Greek. 
 
 c Other forms are found, but they 
 cannot be classified as chip, chop ; 
 drip, drop, droop; reel, roll; rest, roost; 
 fly, flee, flow ; dip, dive (doopan, 
 Dutch) ; twitch, tweak ; twine, twist ; 
 rip, rive, reave (be-reft), rob. Many of 
 these forms are augmentatives : and 
 generally the fuller the sound, the 
 stronger the meaning. 
 
138 BE, HEAD, DOM. 
 
 thus ' become ' is literally to come near, or by a tiling, 
 then to be changed into it, then to befit it ; so bemoan, 
 bethink, bewail. 
 
 2. Prefixed to transitive verbs, it changes the object of the 
 transitive relation, as beseech, behold, behave. 
 
 3. Prefixed to some transitive verbs it gives the idea ot 
 more intensity and completeness, as in bepraise, besmear ; 
 sometimes the simple verb is not in use, as in begin, 
 believe. 
 
 4. Prefixed to nouns and adjectives, it forms transitive 
 verbs, as bedew, beguile, bedim, becalm. 
 
 5. It is used in certain combinations to form adverbs and 
 prepositions, as beneath, before, below, because (' ly reason 
 of '), beside, between, or ' by the two.' 
 
 In many of these forms the word has lost its original force, and 
 has become a mere prefix. Its place is also supplied in modern 
 English by other words, as ' bego,' by pursue ; 'befangen,' by 
 ensnare or apprehend, ' behlehan,' by deride. 
 
 149. 'Hood,' or 'head,' and 'dom,' maybe taken as examples. 
 
 of suffixes. 'Hood,' or 'head,' is perhaps from 'had;' 
 A. S. for habit, state, or condition. 
 
 Affixed to nouns, its common meaning is, the state or nature 
 of the thing named ; as Godhead, manhood. Affixed to adjectives 
 it indicates the state, consequent on having the quality; as 
 hardihood, likelihood. These are primary meanings. 
 
 It designates, also, by metonymy of abstract for concrete, 
 something possessing the essence of the quality, as 'a falsehood;' 
 by a similar metonymy, a collective concrete, as the neighbour- 
 hood, the brotherhood ; and by metonymy of effect for cause, the 
 means, as ' a livelihood. ' 
 
 150. 'Dom' is of uncertain derivation. Some trace it to 
 Dom' and 'doom,' judgment, or law; some to 'dominium,' some 
 
 Ness.' t o <domus.' It is found in many languages ; and is 
 identified by some with the ' tium' of the Latin, and the ' tvan' 
 of the Sanscrit. 
 
 It denotes the abstract quality, as wisdom ; the state, as free- 
 dom, thraldom ; the things that belong to the state, dukedom ; 
 
COMPOUNDS DEFINED. 139 
 
 and by metonymy of cause for effect, the act which makes the 
 quality, as ' martyrdom ;' or of abstract for collective concrete, 
 the class possessing the quality, as Christendom. 
 
 'Ness' (A.S. nes, nysse, perhaps indicating prominent quality, 
 from nesen, anything conspicuous ; ' ness,' a promontory, is pro- 
 bably from the same root), and 'ship ' (from A.S., to shape or 
 form), have similar meanings. 
 
 151. Composition has been already defined as the combination 
 Composi- of two or more different words, and the treating of 
 tiou the compound as a single term. 
 
 defined Ten ^ il-rr i ji 
 
 grammati- If the words are not different, the process is mere 
 cally. duplication (as chit-chat), and if they are not treated 
 
 as one word, they remain distinct terms, and do not form 
 composites 
 
 152. The compound word is made a single term in print by 
 
 the hyphen (as ' thorn-apple '), or by the union of 
 cated* n by~ *^ e wor< *s ( as ' rosebush,' ' dogcart '), or occasionally 
 hyphen, by altered spelling, as care/wZ ; and in speech, in every 
 accent. an case (with, a few exceptions hereafter to be named), 
 
 by throwing the accent on the first part of the com- 
 pound. Compare ' a blackbird,' with ' blackbird,' ' a new port,' 
 with ' Newport,' ' a sharp edged instrument,' with ' a sharpedged 
 instrument,' and this distinction will be plain. 
 
 153. The exceptions to this rule of altered accent are of three 
 Exceptions, classes : 
 
 1. If distinct pronunciation is impossible unless 
 the rule is set aside, the accent remains unaltered, as in 
 'monks-hood,' 'well-head,' 'fool-hardy.' 
 
 2. As it does if the first element bears a small proportion to 
 the entire compound, as 'well-favoured,' ' all-powerful.' 
 
 3. And also if the first element, though a distinct word, is 
 not found as such in English, as ' perchance,' ' misdeeds.' 
 
 With these exceptions the rule is absolute. 
 
 154. Logically, compounds are intended to mark out the 
 Defined species from the genus, by adding the difference, or by 
 logically. nam i n g both species and gerus. The second word 
 always indicates the genus or class, an the first word the species 
 
140 COMPOUNDS 
 
 or the quality that distinguishes the object from the class. Tims, a 
 finger-ring ' is a kind of ring ; a ' ring-finger ' is the finger that 
 \vears the ring. A ' man-servant ' is a kind of servant, as defined 
 by 'man ;' a 'servant-man' is a kind of man, defined by the specific 
 name ' servant. ' To form compounds, therefore, we first find cut 
 a class, and then add the noun or adjective that is to distinguish 
 the one member or speciesfrom the rest, as 'inkstand,' 'freeman,' 
 'forethought,' &c. 
 
 155. Compound words are of various classes. Sometimes they 
 
 , consist of two nouns, as ' inkstand ;' or of an acljec- 
 Compound ...,,' 
 
 words tive and a noun, as ' quicksilver ; of an adverb and a 
 classified. noun ^ as < afterthought ;' sometimes of a noun and an 
 adjective, as ' snow-white,' ' blood-red,' ' fire-new ;' of a nour 
 and a verbal adjective, as ' ox-eyed,' 'hare-brained ;' of a noun 
 and an active participle, as ' heart-rending,' ' time-serving ;' of 
 a noun and a passive participle, as 'tempest-tossed,' 'bed-ridden,* 
 ' wind-bound ;' sometimes of an adverb and an adjective or 
 participle, as ' upright,' ' outspoken ;' sometimes of a verb and a 
 noun, as 'stopgap,' 'turncock,' 'pickpocket,' 'wardrobe,' 'catch- 
 penny,' 'telltale ;' sometimes of a noun and a verb, as a ' Godsend,' 
 to ' backbite,' to 'hamstring.' In all these examples, except in the 
 last two sets, the second word describes the genus, and the first 
 the difference or species. In most of these examples, moreover, it 
 is the first or defining word that receives the accent. 
 
 15G. The precise idea represented by compound nouns is very 
 
 various. 
 Ideas ex- 
 
 1. Sometimes, e.g., they stand in opposition, and 
 
 each is applicable to the subject. The second then 
 
 describes a genus, and the first not so much a specific difference 
 
 as a species or genus ; as Jupiter (Zeus Pater), a ' servant-man,' 
 
 an ' oak-tree,' a ' pea-hen,' i.e., hen of the pavo species. 
 
 2. Sometimes the first noun may be regarded as a genitive case 
 and describes material or origin, as ' an iron-ship,' a ' paper-cap,' 
 an ' aque-duct,' i. e. , aquce ductus. Occasionally the genitive form 
 is expressed, as 'a Turk's head,' 'suicide,' 'jurisprudence,' 
 * triumvir.' 
 
 3. Sometimes it has the force of a dative case, as ' hatband,' 
 'teaspoon,' 'bookcase,' 'doodand/ a thing forfeited to God : 
 
AND THEIB MEANING. 141 
 
 4. Sometimes of an accusative ; wherever, e. g. , the second 
 noun is formed from a verb, as in 'shoemaker,' 'wine-bibber,' 
 'time-keeper ;' or when likeness, or position (place where), or 
 duration, or quantity, or price is indicated ; as ' ox-eyed,' ' heart- 
 rending,' 'stone-blind,' and 'mountain-wave :' 'home-spun,' and 
 ' woe-begone ' (lost in woe), and ' land-force ;' ' night-dew,' and 
 'day-labourer ;' a 'threefoot-rule/ a 'penny magazine,' a 'locum 
 tenens :' 
 
 5. Sometimes of an ablative, as when expressive of place 
 whence, or of instrument by which ; ' landbreeze,' ' bloodguilti- 
 ness,' 'steamboat,' 'vicegerent,' 'locomotive,' 'manumission ;' so 
 'fire-new,' 'thunderstruck.' 
 
 Compounds like ' freeman,' ' halfpenny ' (an adjective and a 
 noun), or like 'outspoken ' (an adverb and a noun or a participle), 
 are clear as to their meaning. ' Godsend,' ' backbite,' ' turn- 
 cock,' 'spendthrift,' 'catchpenny,' 'portmanteau,' and 'pas- 
 tune,' create some difficulty. The first is either a phrase like 
 ' an ipse dixit,' an answer to a prayer, ' may God send,' or 
 equals 'Godsent:' the second, 'to backbite,' means to 'bite,' but 
 only when men are turning, or have turned away. All the rest 
 are alike, and consist, it will be noticed, of a verb and a noun. 
 Dr. Latham thinks that even here the rule applies, and that the 
 second is the generic word, the first marking the difference : a 
 ' turncock,' for example, is one by whom the cock is (not made, 
 but) turned : a ' portmanteau,' the thing wherein the mantle is 
 carried. But this explanation seems forced. It is better to re- 
 gard the verb as modifying the noun in meaning by governing it. 
 So we may explain ' portfolio,' ' wardrobe,' ' breakfast,' &c. We 
 have similar compounds in 'afternoon,' 'dethrone,' 'incarcerate,' 
 &c. The first element governs the second, and is used as a pre- 
 position, rather than as an adverb. 
 
 "With this last and only exception, therefore, it may be noted 
 that in compounds the first is always the defining word. In the 
 exceptions it is the governing word, and the whole phrase defines 
 the person or thing to which we apply the term. 
 
 157. Besides the obvious compounds of our language, there are 
 Incomplete several words in which composition is concealed by 
 compounds.th e a pp are nt incompleteness of one of the elements, 
 or, sometimes, of both. The compound hence appears as a deri- 
 
142 INCOMPLETE AND APPARENT COMPOUNDS. 
 
 vative, or even as a root, when in truth it is neither. Thus 
 'misdeed,' 'kingdom,' 'manhood,' 'friends/zip,' 'careless,' are all 
 compounds, the italic syllables having originally a distinct mean- 
 ing ' At-one ' (to bring into or at one, and thence to do what is 
 needful for that purpose : hence in old English it generally repre- 
 sents a Hebrew and Greek verb that means to expiate sin, and to 
 propitiate favour), ' daisy ' (day's eye), ' naught ' (ne aught), are 
 also compounds. So is ' verdict ' (vere dictum) ; as are also 
 many names, as Saragossa (Cassar Augustus), Naples, Nablous 
 (Neapolis), &c. So are 'bachelor' (bas chevalier, a lower knight), 
 ' biscuit ' (bis coctus, Lat. ; bis cotta, Ital. ), ' curfew ' (couvre 
 feu), ' kerchief ' (couvre chef), ' kickshaws ' (quelques choses), 
 'quandary' (quand airai-je), 'vinegar' (vin aigre, sour wine). 
 So are 'megrims' (hemikranion, Gr., a pain affecting half the 
 head, 'migraine,' Fr.), 'squirrel ' (from o-Kia, a shade, and ovpa, 
 a tail, Lat. sciurus, e*cureuil, Fr.), and 'surgeon:' as are 
 ' frankincense ' (incense freely offered), ' mildew ' (honey dew on 
 plants), ' privilege ' (something secured by private law), ' vouch- 
 safe ' (to vouch or promise safety ; in old English, ' vouch us 
 safe ') : the meaning being concealed by infrequent use of one of 
 the elements. Many of these, however, are hardly English com- 
 pounds, as both the elements of each are not in every case found 
 as distinct words in our tongue. 
 
 158. On the other hand, some words simulate composition, as 
 Apparent vre have seen some simulate an English origin, 
 compounds. w hen the first are not compounds, or have not the 
 elements they assume, as the last are not natives. Such are ' cray- 
 fish,' for ' crevice ' (Fr. e'crevisse), ' loadstone,' for ' leading ' (or 
 'drawing') 'stone,' 'shamefaced' for 'shamefast' (i. e. protected 
 by shame), 'wiseacre' for Ger. weissager, a diviner, 'sparrowgrass' 
 for 'asparagus,' 'fulsome' for 'foul- (filth) some,' 'yeoman' for 
 Anglo-Saxon yemsene, common, 'Mussulmen' for 'Mussulmaun,' 
 or Moslem, 'Hibernia' (winter-land) for 'Erinna,' ' Holiogabalus ' 
 for 'Eloahbalus' (Baal-god), 'baccalaureus' (late Latii , as if from 
 bacca laurea donatus) for 'bas chevalier,' 'beefeaters' for 'boeuf- 
 fetiers,' 'country-dance' for ' contre-danse,' ' bag-o' nails ' for 
 '.bacchanals,' 'goat and compasses' for 'God encompasses us,' 
 etc. 
 
VALUE OF COMPOSITION. 143 
 
 159. Besides the hyphen, and the union in spelling o two 
 Uniting words to form a composite, there seem to be occa- 
 letters. eionally uniting letters : ( black-a-moor ' is an instance, 
 as probably is ' night-iVgale ' (Ger. nacht-i-gall), an echo or 
 song by night. So, perhaps, is the 's' in words like Thur-s-day 
 and Wedne-s-day. It may be a genitive form, but Sunday and 
 Monday are against this explanation, and there are other similar 
 forms (in German especially) not genitives, and that fact is 
 against it. Compare with this set of facts ' aer-i-f orm,' aer-o- 
 nautics,' ' phil-ter,' 'phil-o-sopher.' 
 
 160. Composition, it may be added, is later in a language than 
 importance derivation : and it forms a most important power in 
 of compo- any tongue. In English, as in German and in Greek, 
 
 I0n ' it is a great excellence, and goes far to compensate for 
 the loss of case-endings. Indeed, it helps us to express our mean- 
 ing with a brevity and clearness which case-endings alone would 
 never have given. 
 
 161. The power of forming compounds exists in different 
 
 languages in different degrees ; Sanscrit, Greek, Ger- 
 powcr of man, English, may represent the order, in this respect, of 
 different S0 me of the Indo-European tongues. There seems to be 
 
 Idll' '~UJ1"68. 
 
 one word, at least, in Sanscrit, of a hundred and fifty- 
 two syllables. Aristophanes coins one of seventy-seven. Another 
 of fourteen is translated by Voss into German, and may be ren- 
 dered into English, ' meanly-rising-early-in-the-morning-and- 
 hurrying-to-the-tribunal-to-denounce - another-f or-an-inf raction - 
 of-a-law-concerning-the-exportation-of-figs. ' * These are among 
 the curiosities of composition. 
 
 162. In most languages there are forms of words intended to 
 Diminu- express diminutiveness, and consequent endearment, 
 
 or occasionally contempt. Whether it is that what is 
 little excites admiration, because of its elegance, or that it calls 
 forth our pity by claiming our help, or sometimes creates con- 
 tempt by its insignificance the fact is that the same forms are 
 
 Donaldson's Gr. Gr., p. 326. Miss death of Mr. Burney's wife.' But our 
 
 Burneyspeaksseriouslyof 'the-sudden- language does not willingly admit 
 
 at-the-moment-though - from-linger- sucn combinations, 
 ing-illness-often-previously-expected- 
 
144 DIMINUTIVES. 
 
 often expressive of each of these emotions ; compare ''pet,' petit, 
 petit-ma'itre, duckling, lordling, &c. Sometimes, also, a word 
 retains its diminutive form, without the diminutive meaning. 
 
 Some English diminutives are Saxon in origin, others are 
 classic, and a few mixed ; some simple, others compound. 
 
 163. Diminutive endings of Saxon origin are as follows : 
 Of Saxon 1- ' Ock,' or its equivalents, ot, et, as bull-ock, hill- 
 origin. oc ]^ padd-ock (pad, A. S., a toad), ball-ot, pock-ct : 
 
 or 
 
 2. Some modified form of ock, as ick, ie (Scotch), tch, ish 
 
 (modification of ck), and ow : lassie, wifie, expressive 
 of endearment ; blot-ch, Dut-ch (Theotisch), fool-ish, 
 bear-ish, wind-ow (in Sc. windock), shad-ow, mead-ow. 
 
 3. el, or its equivalents, en, er, as satch-el (sack), spadd-le 
 (spade), thimb-le (thumb), litt-le, hurd-le (hord-ing), 
 maid-en, splint-er. 
 
 4. ing, originally a genitive termination, or an adjective 
 form : as farth-ing (a little fourth), herr-ing (a little army 
 or shoal), whit-ing. 
 
 These are simple forms ; the following are compounds : 
 
 1. ikin or kin (i. e. ock and en), as mann-ikin (con- 
 tempt), bod-kin (boden, a dagger), spill-ikin (very 
 little splinters), lambkin, ladikin, Lakin, Peterkin, Perkin, 
 Hodgkin (hodge), Malkin (Mary), Wil-kin, Watkin (little 
 Wat or Walter). 
 
 2. ling (i. e. el and ing), duckling, darling (little dear), 
 bantling (band, swaddling clothes), lordling, underling 
 (expressing contempt). 
 
 3. let (i. e. el and et, a form of ock, ot, et), as arm-let, ham- 
 let, eye-let, stream-let. 
 
 4. erel (i. e. er and el), as cock-erel (a very little cock), 
 pik-erel, mack-erel (so called, perhaps, from its spots). 
 
 It may be noted that before ' en ' the preceding vowel is some- 
 times changed, as in cock, chick-en, cat, kitt-en ; so when the 
 ' en ' is dropped, as top, tip, chat, chit. 
 
 164. Diminutive endings of classic origin are as follows : 
 Of classic 1- ule, ul, el or le (Lat. ula), as ferr-ule (a little iron 
 origin. ring), cred-ul-ous, chap-el, cir.c-le. 
 
AUGMENTATIVES. 145 
 
 2. el, il, le (Lat. ell, -ill, -ull, It. ella, Fr. elle), lib-el, cast-le, 
 mors-el : so cred-ulous, bib-ulous, fab-le, &c. 
 
 3. ette, et, ot, ito, as ros-ette, lanc-et, chari-ot, Senor-ito. 
 These are simple forms ; the following are compounds : 
 
 1. icule, icle, (i. e. ic, and ule), ret-icule (a very little net), 
 part-icle, art-icle, curr-icle, vermi-celli, violon-cello. 
 
 2. let (i. e. el and et), rivu-let, front-let, brace-let, chap-1-et. 
 
 165. Augmentative forms express the opposite of diminutives. 
 Aug-menta- They describe qualities tending to excess, and hence 
 tires. often imply censure. They are in English as 
 follows : 
 
 1. Such as end in f ard,' ' art ' (0. H. German hart), of 
 Gothic origin : as braggart, drunkard, laggard, coward 
 (all implying censure). In sweetheart, reynard the fox, 
 cust-ard (Dutch kost, food), Richard (right royal from 
 1 ric '), wizard, the form is aiigmentative ; the last sug- 
 gesting, however, that the man is ' too wise by half. ' In 
 wizard, mallard, lennard (a male linnet), the termination 
 indicates also, sex.' 
 
 2. Such as end in ' oon,' ' one,' of Italian origin : as trump, 
 trumpet, trombone, ball, ballot, balloon, barrac-oon, mille 
 (a thousand), million, a thousand thousand, fel-on, 
 poltr-oon. 
 
 3. Such as end in ry ' or ' ery,' with a collective force, as 
 rookery, buffocwery, cookery, scenery, eggery, i. e. eyry, 
 Jewry. These are really taken from the A. S., neuter 
 forms in ru and ra, and indicate many or much. 
 
 Patronymic forms are noticed above. 
 
 1G6. The use of personal names is a subject of interest in 
 Personal etymology. Originally, a single name was sufficient for 
 names. Q &c fo person, and all such names were significant ; i. e. 
 they have meaning in the language in which they are used, and are 
 often descriptive of the qualities or history of the person to whom 
 they are applied ; as Adam (i. e. red, either in colour or because 
 taken from the red ground), Moses (drawn from the water). 
 
 The next step seems to have been to add to the personal name 
 
 In lizard (lacerto), leopard, 'lib- termination has not an augmentative 
 bard ' (Spenser), (leo-pardus), orchard force and is of different origin. 
 (ortgarU), steward (stow-ward), tne 
 
H6 PROPER NAMES. 
 
 the name of the father, as Joshua the son of Nun, Icarus the 
 son of Dasdalus. Hence the patronymics of all languages. 
 
 In the third stage some significant and personal epithet was 
 added, as Harold Harefoot, Edmund Ironsides. 
 
 Among the Romans each man had generally three names, as 
 Publius Cornelius Scipio ; the first, Publius, the prcenomen 
 answering to our Christian name ; Cornelius, the nomen, describ- 
 ing the clan or gens, and Scipio, the cognomen, describing the 
 particular family. Sometimes an epithet, founded on the man's 
 history, was added, as Scipio Africanus. Such a name, from the 
 distinction it conferred, generally superseded the rest. 
 
 Nearly all the Saxon proper names, like those, indeed, of most 
 languages, have significance. Alfred means all peace ; Bede one 
 who prays, hence Bedesmen ; Cuthbert, bright in knowledge ; 
 Edward, oaiA-warden or Acrppmess-warden (Camden) ; Gertrude, 
 all-truth, or truth-guardian. When of old a German had slain 
 a Roman, the gilt helmet of the Roman was placed upon the head 
 of the conqueror, who was thence known as gild-helme. The 
 name became in French Guildhaume, Guillaume, and in Latin 
 and English Gulielmus and William. 
 
 In all primitive states, animals are at once the foes and the 
 companions of men. Hence BiddwZp^ (wolf-killer) ; Bernard 
 (' Great Bear ') ; Leonard (' Great Lion ') ; Philip (fond of 
 horses) ; Hippocrates (horse-tamer), &c. 
 
 167. In modern English it is the Christian name, as it is called, 
 which is regarded as the distinguishing name ; the surname (i. e. 
 the added name) giving the gens or clan. 
 
 There is something beautiful in the notion that children are to 
 be designated by the name that is given them, when first they are 
 distinctly recognised as God's gifts, and as such are consecrated to 
 him. 
 
 It r.B this significance of names that explains many Scripture 
 phrases . We are said to be saved by faith in Christ's name ; 
 his name is Saviour (Jesus), Anointed Teacher, Priest and King 
 (Messiah, Christ). To have faith in his name is practically to 
 recognise what the name implies, and to accept him as our 
 Saviour and King. 
 
 168 Modern surnames are, as is well known, endlessly diver- 
 sified. 
 
PROPER NAMES. H7 
 
 Some are taken from the names of places ; either specific 
 names of places, as Robert of Gloucester, Winchester, Seymour 
 (St. Maure) ; of countries, as Gale from Gael (Scotland), Dennis 
 from Denmark, Wallis, Walsh, Welsh from Wales, French from 
 France ; or from generic names, as Hill, Wood, Green, Mead, 
 Heath, March (a boundary), Cobb (a harbour or ' cove '), Chase 
 (a forest or place for hunting), Barrow (a hilly place). Some- 
 times the suffix * er,' or ' man,' is added, Pitman, Waller. 
 
 Some are taken from occupations ; as Smith (one who smiteth), 
 Wright (worker), Carpenter, Thatcher, Cooper, Sherman (shear- 
 man), Jenner (joiner), Fuller (bleacher), Tucker (clothier), from 
 Ger. tucTi, cloth. 
 
 Some are taken from field-sports ; as Fisher, Fowler, Warrener, 
 Falconer : some from offices ; as Knight, Baron, Dean, Prior, 
 Vickers, Proctor, Constable, Marshal, Champion, Parker, For- 
 rester, Forster. 
 
 Some from qualities, bodily, mental, or moral ; as Strong- 
 i'th'arm, White, Russell (red), Hoare, Wliitehead, Longfellow, 
 Heavyside ; Roy (red) Grimm (strong), Gough (coc7t, red, orgmv, 
 a smith), Keltic : there are besides, of this class, the Hardys, 
 the Cowards, the Moodys, the Blythes, the Blunts, the Sharps, 
 the Doolittles, the Hopes, the Patiences, the Thoroughgoods, the 
 Toogoods, and the Goodenoughs. Some are taken from natural 
 objects : as Moon, Birch, Palfrey, Colt, Coote, Drake, Jay, Night- 
 ingale, Peacock, Chubb (a fish), Herring, Pike, Fisk (= fish), 
 Whiting, Sturgeon, Myrtle, Gage, Pease, Lemon, Gold, Clay, 
 Stone, Jb'liiit : some from relations ; as Cousins, Brotherton, 
 Child, Bachelor, Lover, Guest, Prentice, Foster (i. e. foodster) : 
 some from parts of the body, either human or animal ; as 
 Head, Chin, Beard, Shanks, Horn, Crowfoot : some from coins ; 
 Penny, Pound : some from the weather ; as Frost, Snow, Tem- 
 pest : some from games ; as Bowles, Ball : some from measures ; 
 as Gill, Peck : some from diseases ; as Cramp, Akenside : some 
 from Christian names ; as from Adam, we have Adams, Adamson, 
 Addison, Addiscot. From Alexander we have Allix, Sanders, 
 Sanderson. From Henry we have Henrichson, Harry, Harris, 
 Harrison, Hal, Halket, Hawes, Halse, Hawkins, Herries. From 
 miscellaneous sources we have Overend, Twelvetrees, Gotobed, 
 Godbehere, Drinkwater, Pulvermacher. 
 
 L 2 
 
148 ETYMOLOGY, 
 
 NUMBER, CASE, AND GENDEB. 
 
 169. From the first use of language, men must have noted in 
 Number case tne ^j ec * 3 around them, their number, the relation 
 and gender, ' which certain objects sustained to other objects or 
 
 acts, and the sex of most animals. When the form of 
 a word indicates whether the thing is one, two, or more, the 
 word is said to be in number, singular, dual, or plural. When 
 the form expresses the relation in which an object stands to 
 some other object or act, the form is called a case. Forms that 
 indicate primarily the sex of a thing, or that have the same 
 characteristic ending as words indicating sex, are said to have 
 gender, masculine, feminine, or neuter. Strictly speaking, there- 
 fore, number, case, gender, are, as applied to words grammatical 
 forms expressive of the number, the condition in relation to some- 
 thing else named in the sentence, and the sex of the things to 
 which the words, whether nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or verbs 
 are applied. 
 
 170. These definitions, however, are rather theoretically than 
 Limits of thispractically accurate ; and when we apply them to dif- 
 deflnition. ferent languages, we have to modify them so as to meet 
 the facts. 'Case,' for example, is not always, even in the classic 
 languages, a change of form. Nor is number, or gender. The 
 singular and plural of some nouns, the nominative and accusa- 
 tive, the dative and ablative cases are often alike ; and gender, 
 which we define as a grammatical distinction in words, answering 
 to the natural distinction of sex, can often be gathered in English 
 nouns only from a knowledge of the sex, while in adjectives there 
 is no distinction of any kind. In the classic languages, on the 
 other hand, gender often depends entirely on the termination, 
 without any reference to the sex. A theoretical definition is im- 
 portant, nevertheless ; for without it, gender, number, case, would 
 seem to be applied in different languages to essentially different 
 things. 
 
 Applying these definitions, it will be seen that in English we 
 have two numbers only ; a form expressive of one, and another 
 form of more than one. Greek and old German had three f onus for 
 nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs; a dual (' duo,' expressive of 
 two), a singular and a plural. Anglo-Saxon had three for the pro- 
 noun. Hebrew three for nouns and adjectives ; Modern German 
 and Modern Greek, Latin, an^ English have but two. 
 
NUMBEE, CASE, AND GENDER. 149 
 
 la nouns, these two forms are not always, in English, distinct. 
 Number ' Sheep,' ' fish,' are singular in form, and either singular 
 how ex- or plural in application. 'News,' and 'pains,' are 
 pressed. plural in form, and either plural or singular, generally 
 singular, in application. 'Alms,' and ' riches ' (' ^Elmesse,' A. S. 
 form of f\er]fj.oa-iivT] and 'richesse,' Fr.), are plural in appear- 
 ance, and are singular or plural in application generally plural. 
 In pronouns the distinction of singular and plural is accurately 
 marked, except in ' you,' which though a plural form and requir- 
 ing a plural verb, is often used of one. In verls we have no 
 plural form for the first person (except in ' am ' ' are,' ' was ' 
 ' were '), but only for the second and third, and there (' hast,' 
 ' has,' * have ') the plural is imperfectly marked, as the same form 
 ' have ' belongs also to the first person singular. In adjectives 
 and participles we have no indication of number at all. 
 
 171. Case-endings, in English nouns, are two, the nominative 
 
 and the genitive ; as king, king's. These two forms re- 
 represent three relations the nominative, the genitive, 
 and the accusative or objective. In pronouns we have three 
 cases, he, his, him ; the last an A. S. dative form, but now used 
 chiefly as an accusative. In A. S. nouns and pronouns, as in Latin 
 and Greek, there were five cases or six. Adjectives and par- 
 ticiples have with us no case-endings. 
 
 172. The question of gender in English is less easily settled. 
 
 In Hebrew the sex of the person of the verb is indi- 
 pender, how ca t e d, except for the first person, by the form of the 
 in English, verb ; there are no such forms in Gr., Lat., A. S., or 
 
 English. Nor have we as in Lat. or Gr. any gender 
 in adjectives or participles. Keeping to rigid definition, we have 
 in English nouns, but two modes of expressing gender : by pre- 
 fixes, as Ae-goat, she-go&t, man-servant, maid-servant, cock- 
 sparrow, ^en-sparrow, man, wo (i. e. wif) man : or by suffixes, as 
 vix-en, nero-we, spin-star, widow-er, gan-cZer, mistr-ess, mz-ard, 
 and donn-a, sultan-a. These last are rare forms. In pronoun- 
 forms, as he, she, it (originally hi-t), our language is richer. 
 The -t is a neuter termination of frequent occurrence, as in wha-t, 
 tha-t, augh-t, though not always restricted to neuter words. 
 Taking a wider usage, there is a third mode of expressing gender 
 
150 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 in English, i. e., by the use of a distinct word, as ' boy/ 'girl,' 
 ' brother/ ' sister/ ' ram/ ' ewe/ ' king/ ( queen.' These are not 
 strictly examples, however, of gender, for though the things they 
 represent are of opposite sexes and are related to each other, there 
 is no relation between the forms. The word ' girl ' is no feminine 
 form of the word f boy ; ' nor do we adequately represent the 
 grammatical connexion of gender, till we have words like 
 ' dominus/ and ' domina/ i. e. the same word with distinctive 
 endings, and the distinction preserved through all the cases. 
 
 173. "We have spoken of cases of nouns in English as tivo, 
 and of pronouns as three; and this restriction is owing to the 
 fact that case has been denned as a form expressive of relation. 
 But as most of our grammars are based on the grammars of the 
 
 classic tongues, and as moreover we have other case 
 endings in English, it has been usual to speak of six 
 
 cases, nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, and 
 
 ablative. 
 
 174. The nominative case is that form which a noun or pronoun 
 takes when it names the source or author of an act : as 
 
 ' Can I believe his love will lasting prove, 
 Who has no reverence for the God I love ? ' CRABBK. 
 
 The genitive case indicates primarily origin : as, ' the sun's 
 rays.' Origin often creates ownership; hence the case is also 
 called possessive. It moreover indicates not origin but quality 
 belonging to a substance, and even something done to an object : 
 as, 'The king's murderers.' This last is called the objective 
 genitive. 
 
 The dative or locative case indicated originally the place at 
 or in which a thing rests : as, ( Give it him.' 
 
 The .accusative ca se is the form which marks the object of a 
 rerb : as 
 
 'Vainly we offer each ample oblation.' HEBEB. 
 It is often called the objective case. 
 
 The vocative case is the form we use in addressing an object : 
 as 
 
 ' Sing, Heavenly Muse ! 'MILTON. 
 
CASES. 151 
 
 ' Hereditary bondsmen ! know ye not, 
 Who would be free themselves must strike the blow.' 
 
 CIIILDE HAROLD, ii. 76. 
 
 The ablative case is the form we use to express the means, 
 instrument, or manner in or with which we do a thing. If the 
 thing is done (and the verb is passive), the ablative may express 
 the agent : as, 'Harold was slain by William. He defeated the 
 English with great slaughter. ' 
 
 175. But while our language is not rich in forms that express 
 case or (beyond nouns) number, there are remnants of such 
 forms in O. E. and in modern usage ; and these it is important 
 to explain. 
 
 The genitive form of many words in most Indo-European 
 tongues ends in s, preceded by e, i, o, u. In A. S. the common- 
 est form was ' es;' in O. E. this appears as 'is,' and later as 's': 
 thus 
 
 ' Ic biddein Godcs namen.' ALFRED'S WILL^ 
 
 ' He was also a learned man, a clerk, 
 
 That Christds gospel wolde preche.' CHAUCER. 
 
 'The lark is heavenes menstral.' DUNBAR, 1465. 
 
 The ' lirdis nest,' ' John's book.' The ' s ' is also in E. appencteu 
 to plural nouns : as, the children's bread. It was long supposed 
 that the 's was an abbreviation of ' his ; ' hence ' Matthew Hale 
 lijs book.' But this explanation is wrong ; as ' s ' is appended 
 with equal propriety to feminine nouns and to pluralf* 
 
 This form of the genitive appears also in many adverbs ; as, 
 unawares, eftsoons (immediately), twi-es, thri-es (O. E.), twice, 
 thrice ; and in ' towards,' ' backwards,' which last are adverbial 
 forms of the adjectives, toward and backward. 
 
 So in he-nce, whe-nce, the-nce, compound forms of he, who, 
 the, and -on or -an (motion from a place) ; in gen. he-annes, etc. 
 
 Another A. S. genitive ended in 'an,' 'n,' and 'ena' (pi.). 
 Hence words like mi-ne, thi-ne ; wood-en, oak-en ; these last 
 indicating material. 
 
 Another A. S. genitive of feminine words ended in 're/ and 
 
 '7/is' may have been inserted in not end in 's,' as happened \vi(n 
 A. S., orinO. E., for a possessive, in many nouns of the first and third 
 cases where the gen. of the noun did declensions. 
 
152 ETYMOLOGY NUMBEB. 
 
 in the plural of all genders, in 'ora' and ( fa.' Hence he-r, 
 the-ir, you-r. 'You-r-n/ ' thei-r-n,' 'hi-s-n.' seem double 
 genitive forms. 
 
 The common A. S. dative ending was in ' m ' and ' um ' (pi.), 
 and in ' re ' for adjectives. Hence forms like seld-om, whil-om, 
 hi-m, the-m, who-m, he-r, the-re, he-re, whe-re. 
 
 A. S. accusatives often ended in * n ' ; hence hi-ne (A. S. and 
 O. E.) for him, twa-in. Hence also the-n, whe-n. 
 
 The ablative A. S. ended sometimes in y or e. Hence wh-y 
 (hwi from hwa), the abl. of who. Hence also phrases like e all 
 the more ' = ' eo niajus ' ; in A. S. ' tlii ma,' and ' te battre ' (The 
 Ormolum), O. E. ; thi and te being used as ablative forms. 
 
 It may be noted that in many A. S. nouns cases are distin- 
 guished by the addition of ' e ' : as, smithe, dat. and abl. of 
 smith ; sprace, gen., dat., ace., and abl. of sprac, speech ; nihte, 
 gen., dat., and abl. of niht, night : and hence the frequent addi- 
 tion of ' e ' in 0. E. , even when it is not needed for the lengthen- 
 ing of the preceding vowel. Much of our old spelling is ex- 
 plained by this fact. 
 
 176. Plural forms of adjectives are not found in modern 
 English. ' E ' was a common plural ending of A. S. adjectives, 
 both nom. and ace. , and in O. E. that form is retained : as 
 
 ' Al the cuntree of Judee went out to him and alls the men of 
 
 Jerusalem.' WICLIF. 
 ' And hise disciples comen and token his body.' WICLIF. 
 
 177. Plural forms of verbs have in modern English no dis- 
 tinctive endings. In Saxon, the indicative plural ended in ath, 
 and the subjuctive plural in on, or en. The plural of the 
 subjunctive in many verbs also changed a vowel, ' shall ' making 
 shullon, &c. 
 
 In old English, and even in modern English, both these 
 forms appear, sometimes in the complete participle, sink, sank, 
 sunk ; sometimes in the plural ending -en, ' we tell-en ; ' some 
 times in both, as f men shuln worship the Fadir in spirit and in 
 truthe. ' ' Ath ' is occasionally found, as in be-th, do-th (are and 
 do) ; and sometimes in the form of ' s' (just as in the singular 
 loveth, loves) : thus 
 
 'Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath gives,' SIUKSPEABE. 
 
FORMS IN ER AND EST. 153 
 
 The form 'en,' however, early superseded 'ath,' and in Ben 
 Jonson's time both forms had fallen into disuse. The plural 
 form of the verb in f s ' is constant in James the First's Works, 
 and in the earlier Scotch "writers. 
 
 COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS. 
 
 178. We have in English a number of -words ending in ' er,' 
 Forms in 'either,' 'over,' 'outer,' 'wiser,' i.e., pronouns, 
 adverbs, and prepositions ; comparative forms, with 
 a simple positive sense, and true comparatives. In all cases 
 where this form occurs, Bopp thinks there is involved the idea 
 of duality. Hence in comparatives is expressed a relation of 
 two ; as in superlatives there is a relation of many. 
 
 Among the facts that confirm Bopp's view, are the Sanscrit 
 and Greek forms ekataras = which of two; ekatamas, a super- 
 lative form, which of many ; endrepos = each or either of two ; 
 Ka<rTos, each of more than two. Similarly in English, 
 'whether' and 'which,' 'neither' and 'none,' 'either' and 
 t any. ' In each case, the form in ' er ' offers one alternative 
 only, the choice of one in two, and not in more. The plural 
 form ' others ' seems opposed to this view ; but it is really a 
 late form, and existed in Old English only in the singular. 
 ' All other ' = every one except the persons named as forming 
 the first class. By a similar process, the comparative with the 
 article is sometimes used in Greek for the superlative, and 
 sometimes even the positive : 6 /JUKporepos is the younger one, 
 all the rest being regarded as older. 
 
 All these forms, which are really one, are allied to the 
 Sanscrit. The following table will illustrate this statement : 
 
 SANS. ZEND. GB. LAT. O. IT. GK A. S. 
 
 Comp. ( tara tara rep or ro or & re 
 
 forms. \ iyaa is lui-frt', ij5-tui us & is za worse, less 
 
 The Greek comparative is generally in rep ; the Latin in ( or,' 
 as melior ; and in ' os,' ' is,' as in the old form ' meliosem,' 
 ' melius,' ' magis '; the Saxon in or and re, the former the end- 
 ing of adjectives, the latter of adverbs. 
 
 ' More,' which is used in forming comparatives of more than 
 
154 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 two syllables, is itself a comparative form, representing ooth 
 number (' many ') and quantity (' much '). Its old positive form 
 is ma, with a later form moe. This last is said to be itself a 
 comparative, but that is not clear. 
 
 ' Rather,' an adverbial comparative, is from rathe, ' early ' or 
 'quickly.' It equals the common phrase ' sooner.' 'Better' 
 is a regular comp. from ' bet,' as best is a shortened form of the 
 superlative. The positive is not now used, but we have 'good' 
 instead. ' Worse ' is either a comp. in ' s,' or the ' s ' is part 
 of the root, and ' worser ' the true comp. The former is the 
 more probable view : compare weor, A. S. (' waur,' Scotch) 
 bad. ' Less ' is a true comp. , from ' lyt,' ' lytel,' in a softened 
 or an apocopated form. The fact that these are unusual forms 
 of the comparative explains the tendency to use. ' worser ' and 
 ' lesser.' 
 
 ' Near ' and ' nigher ' are both comparatives from ' neah/ 
 A. S. ; comp. nearre, near. 'Nearer,' therefore, is a double 
 comparative. 'Nighest,' 'nearest,' 'next' (so 'latest,' 'last'), 
 are all forms of the superlative. 
 
 ' Farther ' is the comp. of ' far,' f eor, fyrre, farrer, with the 
 helping ' th ' inserted. ' Further,' on the other hand, is a 
 comp. of fore, or forth ; a word allied to ' far,' though not 
 identical with it. 
 
 179. Superlative forms in English and in classic languages 
 are also connected with the Sanscrit. In that language thero 
 are two forms, 
 
 SANS. ZEND. Gu. LAT. A. SAXON. 
 Super- 
 lative | tama tama rar iin ma as in forj<r. aftcwza. 
 form. \ ishta ishta <TT ust ost and est. 
 
 Hence our English superlatives in st and est, richest, wisest. 
 'Most,' the prefix, is the superlative of ma, moe. 'Most,' the 
 suffix, is a double superlative ending, compounded of the two 
 endings, 'ma' and 'ost.' Hence the M. Gothic fruma=first ; 
 aftuma, last, hindema, hindmost, latema, last. If this expla- 
 nation of the M. G. be true, as Grimm has shown, it follows 
 that foimost is = for-ma-ost, in-most = inne-ma-ost, etc. Furth- 
 ermost and innermost are of course examples of comparatives 
 with double superlative endings. 
 
 If this explanation may be applied to other words in ' st/ then 
 
NUMERALS. 
 
 155 
 
 ' amongst,' ' whilst/ ' betwixt,' ' amidst,' are augmentative or 
 superlative forms expressive of completeness or intensity of 
 'among/ 'while/ 'between/ 'amid.' Perhaps the Danish 
 ' stor ' (great) is connected with the same form. 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 180. For purposes of comparative philology, numerals are of 
 great importance. They are found in nearly all languages. In 
 many they are alike ; and when they slightly differ the differ- 
 ences may often suggest the sounds to which the language is 
 partial, and the laws of change likely to be at work in it. 
 
 ENG. 
 
 One, ane ) 
 o a j 
 
 WELSH. A.-SAXON. OLD H. GEE. 
 Un JEn Ein 
 
 MOD. GEE. GOTHIC. 
 Ein Ain 
 
 Two 
 
 1 Dwv 1 ^ u ' * wa ^" ue 
 
 Zwei Twa 
 
 Three 
 
 Tri, tair Threo Thri 
 
 Drei Thri 
 
 Four 
 
 { P^dair 1 } ] 
 
 Teower Fowiar 
 
 Vier Fidwor 
 
 Five 
 
 Pump Fif Finfe 
 
 Funf Finif 
 
 Six 
 
 Chwech Seox, syc Sehs 
 
 Sechs Saihs 
 
 Seven 
 
 Saith Seofan Sibun 
 
 Sieben Sibun 
 
 Eight 
 
 Wyth Eahta Ohto 
 
 Acht Ahtan 
 
 Nine 
 
 Naw Nihon Niguni 
 
 Neun Niun 
 
 Ten 
 
 Deg Tyn, tig Tehan 
 
 {S!r} M r 
 
 Twenty 
 Hundred 
 
 Ugain Tweutig Twentig 
 Cant Hund-red Hunt 
 
 Zwanzig Twaintigum 
 HundertHunta 
 
 LITHTJAN. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 GEEEK. ZEND. 
 
 PEESIAN. S4NS. 
 
 Wena 
 
 Un-us 
 
 *Ev JEva 
 
 Yik Eka. 
 
 Du 
 
 Duo 
 
 Auo Dwa 
 
 Du Dwi. 
 
 Tri 
 
 Tres 
 
 Tpe Thri 
 
 Seh Tri. 
 
 Keturi 
 
 Quatuor 
 
 TeVrap ) .-,, , 
 IleVoT) ( *-'^ a ' ;war 
 
 Chehaur Chatur. 
 
 Penki 
 
 Quinque 
 
 SE") ^-han 
 
 Penj Panchan. 
 
 Szeszi 
 
 Sex 
 
 'Ef Cswas 
 
 Shesh Shash. 
 
 Septyui 
 
 Sept-em,-ua 
 
 ETTTO. Haptan 
 
 Heft Septan. 
 
 Aztum 
 
 Octo 
 
 /o/crii Astan 
 
 Hesht Ashtan. 
 
 Devyni 
 
 Novem 
 
 Ewca Navan 
 
 Nuh Navan. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Deszimt 
 
 Decem 
 
 Ae'xa Dasan 
 
 Deh { ^ asan - 
 ( Lasan. 
 
 Dwides- ) 
 Zimpti / 
 
 Viginti 
 
 f Sr}^aiti 
 
 Bist Vinsati. 
 
 Zimta 
 
 Centum 
 
 'EKOTOV Satem 
 
 Sad Satam. 
 
150 ETYMOLOGY NUMBERS. 
 
 181. Cardinal numbers are principal numbers ; as, one, two, 
 three, etc. : ordinal numbers are nearly always derived forms, 
 and describe the order in which things are found ; as, first, 
 second, third, etc. 
 
 Throughout the Indo-European class of languages the car- 
 dinal numerals are alike. One, two, three, six, seven, ei;;ht, 
 nine, ten, in the preceding table will create no difficulty ; ' four ' 
 and ' five ' are less clear. 
 
 * Four ' is in M. G. fiduor, and in ^Eolic irla-vp or TreVvp. Ad- 
 mitting the well-known connection between IT and qu or chu, 
 and between TT and f , the derivation is fairly clear. 
 
 ' Five ' is in M. G. finif, and in ^Eolic Greek irep.K(, in Welsh 
 f pump,' in Latin ( quinque ' ; and here again we have the inter- 
 change of f and q, through the intermediate ' p. ' 
 
 Eleven, according to some philologists, is = ein, one, and 
 perhaps ' leofan,' or 'left' ; i.e. one left over ten ; and twelve 
 is two, and leof or lif (M.G.), left ; i.e. two over ten. Bopp and 
 others hold that eleven (0. E. endlene and enlene) is formed, 
 like ev-beKa, and un-decim, from ' one-ten ' ; and twelve, like 
 8o>-8e)ca and duodecim, from ' two-ten,' according to well known 
 letter changes. Thirteen is three and ten, and so on to nine- 
 teen. 
 
 Twenty, thirty, etc., are respectively two tens, three tens 
 etc. ; the tig of the A. S., and deKas of the Greek. 
 
 182. Ordinal numbers are all derivatives ; thirc?, fourJ/i 
 (terdus, quarfris, rpiros, reTapros, etc.) ; and from the third 
 onwards they are formed from the corresponding cardinals. 
 
 In many languages first and second have no etymological con - 
 nection with one and two ; e.g. : 
 
 A. S. O. H. Q. LAT. 
 
 First fynnest vurish primus 
 
 Second, i.e. the othar andar secundus or alter. 
 
 following 
 
 Probably in all the forms of ' first ' st is a superlative ending ; 
 and most of the forms of second (andar, othar, alter, erepos, 
 etc.) are comparative endings. Dr. Latham thinks, after Grimm, 
 that the t, th, d (third, etc.), and m (decim-us) of the ordinals 
 are also superlative endings, and formed from the Sanscrit. It 
 is at all events noteworthy that in most of the Gothic and in 
 the classic tongues the ordinals have the same characteristic 
 
ETYMOLOGY AND ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 
 
 157 
 
 endings, and these generally the endings of the superlative 
 degree. According to this view, ' the fourth ' is the one of four 
 to which that epithet peculiarly applies ; as ' othar,' a compara- 
 tive, is the one of two ; or as ' septimus ' and ' decimus ' represent 
 respectively the seventh and the tenth. 
 
 183. We have already arranged the sounds of the English 
 Permutation alphabet as labials, dentals, palatals ; and as mutes 
 of letters. an( j liquids. "We now present them in a somewhat 
 new form. 
 
 MUTES. LIQUIDS. 
 
 Sharp. 
 
 
 Lene. 
 
 Aspirate. 
 
 Xme. 
 
 Pal. and Gutt. k, q 
 
 kh, h 
 
 g(y) 
 
 Labial 
 
 p 
 
 f 
 
 b 
 
 Dental 
 
 { I 
 
 th 
 sh and ch 
 
 d 
 z 
 
 Flat. 
 
 -^ 
 Aspirate. 
 
 v 
 
 dh 
 
 zh and j 
 
 Flat or 
 Sharp. 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 n 
 
 r 
 
 Each horizontal line of mutes represents allied sounds, ever 
 ready to interchange ; as are also the liquids, 1, m, n, r, especially 
 1 and r, m and n, 1 and n. These tendencies may be illustrated 
 by examples. 
 
 184. Liquid changes : 
 
 L and R. 
 
 Marmor, Lat. Marbre, Fr. 
 
 Purpura, Lat. Purpre, Fr. 
 
 Peregrinus, Lat. Pelegrin, Fr. 
 
 Turtur, Lat. Tortofo, Fr. 
 
 M and N. 
 
 Cones, Lat. Comte, Fr. 
 
 Cowzputor, Lat. Cowter, Fr. 
 
 Racewras, Lat. Raisin, Fr. 
 
 L and N, N and R. 
 
 Garnison, Fr. Garrison. Panorama Palermo. 
 
 Diaconus, Lat. Diacre. Bonoma Bologna. 
 
 Tympanum, Timbril. Pasquin Pasquil. 
 
 Aiapov, Dowum. Mawincowico MefanchoJia. 
 
 These liquids are equally liable to merge in the consonants 
 or vowels with which they are connected ; thus, constare 
 (Lat.) becomes costare (It.), 'cost' (Eng.): convotum 
 
 Marbfe. Dulcime?fe, It., Dulcimer. 
 
 Purpfe. Zusciniola and Rossignol, It. 
 
 Pilgrim. Colonel, pronounced kurnel. 
 
 Turtle. Fleck, freckles. 
 
 Cout. Mushroow, It. Mushroom. 
 Accowwt. Peregriwus, Lat. Pilgrim. 
 ' Ransow, Fr. Ransom. 
 
158 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 (Lat.) and convoiter (Fr.), becomes covet : similarly, co- 
 partner, cogent, etc. In balm, calm, psalm, the 1 is spent 
 in making the a broad; as it is lost in calidus (Lat.), 
 caldo (It.), chaud (Fr.), hot. So chill, cold, cauld, becomes 
 in Scotch caud. 
 
 185. In illustrating the connection between the allied palatal 
 sounds, it must be kept in mind that tsh and dsh (ch and j) are 
 connected both with k and g, and with s and z ; they are both 
 palatal and sibilant. 
 
 Palatal and guttural changes : 
 
 K, G, Kh, H. Gh, Ch, J, Y. 
 
 Draco (Lat.), dragon; cithara (Lat.), ^Aitarra (It.), guitar; rrassus 
 (Lat.), ^rause (It.), ^ros (Fr.), ^rcss; crypta (Lat.), ^rotta (It.), 
 ^rotte (Fr.), ^rot; macer (L.), macro, mayro (It.), mature (Fr.), 
 meagre ; cAorus, yuoir ; crater, ^rata (It.), ^rate ; cornu, Aorn, 
 Cornwall; eaAta (A.S.), oeto (L.), eight; glycyrhiza (Greek), 
 liyworitia (It.), liquorice; 2wayxf> squinancy, ^uinancy, quinsy; 
 rete (Lat.), rachuetta (It.), raquette (Fr.), racket ; iill, yuell ; sigh, 
 sough (sighing of the wind) ; dau^Ater, doc^ter (Sc.) ; rectus (Lat.), 
 right; noct- (Lat.), nacht (Ger.), night ; hesternus (Lat.), gestern, 
 yesterday ; Lancaster, Lancaster ; kist (Scotch), chest ; ban, bencA ; 
 duAre, ducAess ; Air^, church ; crook, croteAet ; garden, yard ; ' gate," 
 'yet' (provincial); rang (Fr.), rank, range; Per^amina (It.), 
 percAemin (Fr.), parcAment ; swarthy, scAwartz ; distract, dis- 
 trau^At; hacAr, ha^cAet; revinrfzcare (Lat.), revancAer (Fr.), re- 
 venge ; yclept, yclept ; ju^um, yofo ; parocAial, parisA ; xP TO *> 
 Aortus, x^'F'""') Ayems. 
 
 Labial changes : 
 P. 
 
 Ej?i'*copus, iisAop ; caput, caio (Sp.) ; chef (Fr.), chief; pro/;ositus, 
 prerost, prot'ost; ^ellis, fell-monger; PAosnicia, ^unica; plat (Fr.), 
 /lat ; nepos, ne^Aew. 
 F. 
 
 Half, halve ; o/**>, amio ; vt<f>t\w, nuSes ; /ather, vader (D.) ; sec/an 
 (A.S.), set-en; sibun. 
 
 B. 
 
 Super, oier, over; turia (Lat.), troppa (It.), troop; tereiin^Aia, ter- 
 meniina (It.), turpentine ; saiiath, Eamedi, purser, Purser ; taierna, 
 tavern ; e/jiV/Soj, frium^A; soubresault (Fr.), Bummereault ; Caiallus; 
 chiralry. 
 
AND ALLIED ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 159 
 
 V. 
 
 GaJverdene, gaiierdine; stcricn (to die, A. S.), starve; carea (Lat.), 
 gaWia (It.), Gafo'ola, cage ; nations (Lat.), naif (Fr.) ; clavus, clef 
 (Fr.), clef ; vulgvs,folc (A. S.) ; ovum, oeuf ; bos, bov- (Lat.),Bceuf 
 (Fr.), beef. 
 
 Dental changes : 
 T, Th, D, Dh. 
 
 Lafeo (Lat.), Aij&a (Gr.) ; pati (Lat.), irofleiv (Gr.) ; lacerfo (Lat.), lizara, 
 strata (Lat.), (strata, It.) ; nutrio (Lat.), nodrise (It.) ; nourrir (Fr.), 
 nourish; latta (A, S.), lath; palatin, paladin; vredder (A. S.> 
 weaker, wetter-horn (peak of tempest) ; ^Aesaurus (Lat.), thresor, 
 treasure ; tertius (Lat.), third. 
 
 Dorp (town), thorpe, dale, thai (Ger.) ; deal, theil (a part) ; burden, 
 burrfen; fithele (A. S.), fiddle; fodder, father (north country, etc.) ; 
 father, vafer; north, south, nord, sad (Fr.). 
 
 Sibilants : 
 
 S, Sh, Ch, Z, Zh, J, T. 
 
 Browe (Fr.), brusA ; cerasus (Lat.), cerise (Fr.), cherry; estamon, 
 staunc/iion; trouson, truncAeon; ensign, ancient; fa<jon (Fr.), 
 fasAion ; premium, pri's, price ; rosso, It. (from rubber, rubigo), rouge 
 (Fr.) ; radix (Lat.), radis (It.), radis/t; Xeres, sherry; .Zhispater, 
 t/wpiter ; ftryoy, /wgum, yoke ; paroisse (Fr.), parish, parochial , 
 austrucAe, ostrich ; zinziber (Gr. and Lat.), 
 
 186. Besides the alliance between the letters indicated by this 
 tabular view, there are other alliances more recondite and 
 infrequent, but still generally recognized by philologers ; for 
 example, between r and s, between t and s, between d and z, 
 d or t and 1, between p and q, and between s and h, g and w or y. 
 Hence lorn (forlorn) and losen (lost) are the same words, as 
 
 are frore, and frozen or frost. 
 
 Hence blefeian (A. S.) and bless, gross and groaf, street and 
 strasse, wafer and wasser, thai and das, vavria and nausea. 
 refufare and refusare (It.), refuser (Fr.), and refuse, career 
 and charfre, charter-house, scinftlla and etincelle. 
 Hence Lazarus and lacZre, oefor and oo>, cathedra, chair, and 
 Kade^ofiai, medium and mezzo, gaudium (Lat.) and gozo 
 (Sp.), duodecim and douzaine. 
 
 Hence rupes and rocca (It.), roc7;e (Fr.), and roc7<;, spuma (Lat.), 
 escume (Fr.), and scum ; XetVco, linqiio, and relief ; ITTTTOS, 
 eyuus, Philip, and equestrian. 
 
 Hence 'Oowcrevs and UZysses, Sa^pv/ia and fachryma, ^Egidiua, 
 St. Gi?es. 
 
ICO ETYMOLOGY, AND NATIONAL PREFERENCES. 
 
 Hence haU and saal, 5X? and salt, eWa and seven, e and six, 
 
 epir<a and serpent, vX?; and sylva, heo and se (A.S.). 
 Hence #eclept and yclept, haK<7 and holy, TFales and ffalles. 
 
 187. Among the strongest influences at work in changing 
 National words, is the preference of different nations for cer- 
 preferences. tain sounds. 
 
 The Spaniards, for example, dislike f, and are fond of h and 
 1. Henee flamma is in Spanish llama ; planus, llano ; pluvia, 
 lluvia, etc. ; falco is halcon ; formosus, hermoso ; f urnus, luimo ; 
 furtum, hurto. It need hardly be added that o is their favourite 
 vowel. 
 
 The Italians are fond of soft sounds, and hence they avoid 
 double and different consonants, put i for 1 and r, flat z for d 
 and t, and ggi for hard c ; while for soft c they often use the 
 strong sibilant tch. Hence planus is piano ; platea is piazza ; 
 Placentia, Piacenza ; flos, flor-, fiore. Hence librarius is libraio, 
 and f errarius, ferraio ; dirigere, dirizzare ; medius, mezzo ; while 
 minutus forms minuzzare (It.) ; mincer (Fr.), and in English to 
 mince ; diurnus, giorno, jour, journal ; dictum becomes ditto, 
 pectus, petto (parapet), and strictus, stretto. 
 
 The French are fond of soft sibilants chanson, /oli ; they mak& 
 a complete nasal of ( n,' and hence support it wherever possible 
 with ' g ' or d and r. For 1 they substitute ' eau,' or some other 
 vowel. Hence from tener comes tendre ; from genus, gendre ; 
 from plangere, plaindre ; pingere, peindre ; from pulvis, poudre ; 
 from altus, haut ; from delphus, dauphin j from alter, autre ; 
 from absolvere, assoil. Double consonants at the beginning of 
 words they soften by prefixing ' e ; ' and hard palatal sounds they 
 change into soft sibilants. Hence scutum forms escuyer and 
 ecuyer, esquire and equerry ; scandalare, esclandre, slander ; 
 escarmouche, skirmish, ' skrimmage ' ; and scintilla, estincelle, 
 e'tincelle, tinsel. Hence judex -icis is juge ; gaudium, gioia (It. ) ; 
 joye, joy ; predicare is precher, to preach ; captivus is chetif, 
 caitiff ; and stagnus forms estancher, etancher. 
 
 The German, Dutch, and English languages have many 
 affinities in sounds. German, however, prefers flat mutes, and 
 avoids the aspirates th and dh. It is also less sibilant than 
 English, as Dutch is more so. It abounds in guttural sounds, 
 both consonants, ch, etc., and vowels a and an. 
 
GEIMM'S LAW. 
 
 161 
 
 188. From the double fact that there are allied sounds in all 
 Grimm's alphabets, and that particular tribes are fond of 
 Law. certain sounds, labial, palatal, guttural, it has been 
 conjectured that the changes of sound in words passing from one 
 tongue to another, are likely to follow some general rule. If p, 
 for example, become /, in passing into any language, is not t 
 likely to become t h ? Such a conjecture was formed years ago, 
 and was announced by Jacob Grimm in his German grammar. 
 He himself applied it to a large number of cases, and though 
 later inquiry has shown that the law itself as laid down by him 
 has so many exceptions that it needs to be considerably modified, 
 still the law deserves to be remembered. It has contributed 
 largely to philological discovery, and it is in principle substan- 
 tially sound. It is called Grimm's law. It may be stated 
 thus : 
 
 Labiucs. 
 Words in Greek or Latin. 
 
 with P, B,F. T, D,Th. 
 
 occur in Hseso-Gothic, 
 
 change these letters into F, P, B. Th, T, D. 
 
 they occur in Old H. 
 
 German, they change 
 
 them into V, F, P. 
 
 Dentals. Palatals. 
 
 K, G, Ch, when they 
 H, G, K, G, and when 
 
 For example :- 
 
 Labials. 
 Latin 
 
 is in Gothic Lang", 
 and in O. German 
 
 Dentals. 
 Latin 
 
 is in Gothic 
 and in O. German 
 
 Palatals. 
 Latin or Greek 
 
 is in Gothic 
 
 D,Z(ds),T. H, G, Ch, K. 
 
 ( Pater Pisces LaSi Stabulum Fero Frator 
 { Father Fish S-lip Stopuill Bear Brother 
 ( Vader Vise Shliffian Staphol Piru Pruoder 
 
 Tecfum Alter Dent-is Domare 
 Thatch Another Tooth Tame 
 Dach Andar Zand Zeman 
 
 ' Clandus Cor Gelidus Ager 
 
 Halt Heart 
 (lame) 
 
 Kalds Akr 
 (cauld) (acre) 
 
 and in O. German \ Halz Herzo Chalt Achar 
 
 t'pa Qappeiv 
 
 Door Dare 
 Tor Turran 
 (durst) 
 
 Xanser Hester- 
 nus 
 
 Gander Gistra 
 (yester- 
 day) 
 
 Kans Kestar 
 
 189. Besides the influences which have originated in the pre- 
 ference of particular nations for certain sounds, there are tenden- 
 cies among all nations to shorten, sometimes to lengthen, and 
 sometimes to modify in other ways, their speech. These ten- 
 
 M 
 
162 
 
 ETYMOLOGY-SYNCOPE. 
 
 dencies are seen at first in spoken language, and are afterwards 
 perpetuated in writing or in print. They are so common and so 
 ancient that nearly all languages contain examples. The Greeks 
 classified the results, and designated the processes syncope, 
 aphseresis, and apocope ; prothesis, epenthesis, and paragoge ; 
 and metathesis. This nomenclature it is convenient to retain. 
 By the first three processes words are shortened ; by the second 
 three they are lengthened ; by the last the order of the letters is 
 changed. 
 
 190. In syncope, two or more syllables are blended into one ; 
 
 g a process very common in language. Thus heafod 
 
 (A.S.) becomes heafde and head ; makode, maked and 
 
 made ; weald, wold, wood ; hlaford, hlovord, hlouard, lord ; 
 
 laferc, laverce, laverock, and lark j and swaylce (so same), such. 
 
 The following are more complex : 
 
 LATIN 
 
 TTAT.TA-V, 
 
 FBENCH. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 OB GBEEK. 
 
 
 
 
 Amicabilia 
 
 Amichevole 
 
 Aimable 
 
 Amiable. 
 
 Ka/Litpo; 
 
 Cammino 
 
 Cheminee 
 
 Chimney. 
 
 Coriacea 
 
 Corazzo 
 
 Cuirasse 
 
 Cuirass. 
 
 Crudelis 
 
 Crudele 
 
 Cruel 
 
 Cruel. 
 
 Kviropuraos 
 Civitas 
 
 Cipresso 
 Civita cit-ta 
 
 Cypres 
 Cite 
 
 Cypress. 
 City. 
 
 Declinatio 
 
 Declinazione 
 
 Declinaison 
 
 Declension. 
 
 Xeipoupyd? 
 
 Desiderium 
 
 Chirurgo 
 Desiderio 
 
 Chirurgien 
 Desir 
 
 Surgeon. 
 Desire. 
 
 Cathedra 
 
 Cattedra 
 
 Chaire 
 
 Chair. 
 
 Diabolus 
 
 Diavolo 
 
 Diable 
 
 Devil. 
 
 Digitus 
 
 Dito 
 
 Doigt 
 
 Digit. 
 
 Dominicum 
 
 
 Domaine 
 
 Domain. 
 
 Dominus, Domnu 
 Dubito 
 
 Dubitare 
 
 8 Don, Spanish] 
 outer 
 
 Don. 
 Doubt. 
 
 Extraneus 
 Fingere 
 
 Strano 
 
 Estrange, etrange Strange. 
 Feindre Feint. 
 
 Giga-s -nt 
 
 Gigante 
 
 Geant 
 
 Giant. 
 
 Gaudia 
 
 Gioia 
 
 Joie 
 
 Joy. 
 
 Ingratum 
 
 Mirabilia 
 
 Malgrado 
 Meraviglia 
 
 Malgre 
 Merveille 
 
 Maugre.* 
 Marvel. 
 
 Masculus 
 
 Maschio 
 
 Male 
 
 Male. 
 
 Minutus 
 
 Minuzzare 
 
 Mincer 
 
 Mince-meat. 
 
 Medietas 
 
 Meta 
 
 Moitie 
 
 Moiety. 
 
 Miscredens 
 
 Miscredente 
 
 Mecreant 
 
 Miscreant. 
 
 Periculum 
 
 Periglio 
 
 Peril 
 
 Peril. 
 
 Penitentia 
 
 
 Penitence 
 
 Penance. 
 
 Made of skin. 
 
 In spite ot 
 
APHJEBESIS, APOCOPE. 
 
 163 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 FEENCH. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 Pilus 
 
 Piluzza 
 
 Peluche 
 
 Plush. 
 
 Petroselinum b 
 
 Petrosello 
 
 Persil 
 
 Parsley. 
 
 Persica (Poma) 
 
 Pesca 
 
 Pesche, peche 
 
 Peach. 
 
 Paralysis 
 
 Paralisia 
 
 Paralysie 
 
 Palsy. 
 
 Phrenitis d 
 
 Frenesia 
 
 Phrenesie 
 
 Pkrensy. 
 
 Phreiiiticus 
 
 Frenetico 
 
 Frenetique 
 
 Frantic. 
 
 Presbyter 
 
 Prete 
 
 Prebstre, prestre, 
 
 Priest. 
 
 
 
 pretre 
 
 
 Pauper 
 
 Povero 
 
 Pauvre 
 
 Poor, poverty. 
 
 Persequi 
 
 Perseguire 
 
 Poursuivre 
 
 Pursue. 
 
 Pavo 
 
 Pavone 
 
 Paon 
 
 Pea-fowl (pawa, 
 
 
 
 
 A.S.). 
 
 Beticulum 
 
 Bacchetta 
 
 Baquette 
 
 Backet. 
 
 Becuperare 
 
 Bicoverare 
 
 Becouvrer 
 
 Becover. 
 
 Botundus 
 
 Botondo 
 
 Bond 
 
 Bound. 
 
 Relaxare 
 
 Bilassare 
 
 Belacher 
 
 Belease. 
 
 Sylvestris 
 
 Selvaggio 
 
 Sauvage (salvage 
 
 Savage. 
 
 
 
 O. Fr.) 
 
 
 Sigillum 
 
 Sigillo 
 
 Sceau (O. Fr., 
 
 Seal. 
 
 
 
 scielle) 
 
 
 Solidare 
 
 Saldare 
 
 Souder 
 
 Solder. 
 
 Supernomen 
 
 Soprannome 
 
 Surnom 
 
 Surname. 
 
 Sofidus 
 
 Soldato 
 
 Soudoyer, soldat 
 
 Souldier, soldier. 
 
 Sponsa 
 
 Sposa 
 
 Espouse, epouse 
 
 Spouse. 
 
 Sacristanus 
 
 Sacristano 
 
 Sacristain 
 
 Sexton. 
 
 Subitaneus 
 
 
 Soudain 
 
 Sudden. 
 
 Viride JEris 
 
 
 Verderis, verde- 
 
 Verdegrease. 
 
 
 
 gria 
 
 
 Veaenum 
 
 Veleno 
 
 Veuin 
 
 Venom. 
 
 191. A similar process at the commencement of words is 
 called aphseresis ; at the end, apocope. If letters only are 
 affected and not syllables, it is sometimes called elision. 
 
 In A. S. many words begin with a, be, ge ; as, abannan, to 
 . command, to proclaim ; bebyrgian, to bury ; gefre- 
 ' agan, to set free, to redeem. With a few exceptions 
 these prefixes are not retained in modern English. 
 
 CLASSIC. 
 
 'A;ro0r)K7j 
 Anas, anatis 
 Avunculus 
 Hospitalis 
 
 ITALIAN. FBENCH. ENGLISH. 
 
 Bottega Boutique Apothecary. 
 
 Anitra [Antrekha Danish] Drake. 
 
 Oncle Uncle. 
 
 Ospedale, spedale Hopital, h6tel, from Spital. 
 hospitium. 
 
 A hair. 
 
 t> A rock parsley. 
 
 Persian apples. 
 
 a Words in ' itis,' indicate disease 
 or inflammation of the organs. 
 
 Or ' vert de gris,' i. e. ' green-grey,' 
 ao called from the colour. 
 
 M 2 
 
1C4 ETYMOLOGY-ELISION. 
 
 CLASSIC. ITALIAN. FRENCH. ENGLISH. 
 
 Haemorrhoids ' Emorrpide Hemorro'ides Emerods. 
 
 Incensorium Incensicre Encensoir Censer. 
 
 Excorticate Scorticare Escorclier, ecorcher Scorch. 
 
 Exemplum Essemplo Exemplaire Sampler. 
 
 Lynx Lonza Once . Ounce. 
 
 Lutra Loutra Loutre Otter. 
 
 Excambire Canglare Eschanger, eehanger 'Chaupe. 
 
 Smaraldo Esmeralde, emc-raude Emerald. 
 
 Examples of elision arc the following : 
 
 Monstrare Mostrare Muster (sea 
 
 monster). 
 
 Mensura Misurare Mesure Measure. 
 
 Venatio Venaison Venison. 
 
 Mores Des mceurs Demure. 
 
 Of apocope : 
 
 Pagina ; page ; pillula, pill ; petit, petty, pet ; puisne" (late 
 born), puny ; fifre, fife ; suivre, sue : and derivatives from such 
 Saxon forms as halig, holy ; hunig, honey ; drig, dry ; bycgean, 
 buy, etc. ; avis struthio, struzzo (It.) ; autruche, ostrich. 
 
 192. On the other hand, these processes are sometimes re- 
 versed, and letters are prefixed, inserted, or appended. Such 
 additions are said to be effected by prothesis, epenthesis, and 
 paragoge. 
 
 193. By prothesis, we have melt and smelt, plash and splash, 
 
 hinny and whinny, spy and espy, state and estate, 
 stop and estop, creak and screech, acies qnadruta and 
 squadrone (It.), escadron (Fr.), squadron, and square. 
 
 194 By epenthesis we form corporal from caporal, farmer from 
 . farrer, partridge and perdrix (Fr.) from perdix, velvet 
 'from velluto (It.) andvillosus (hairy), Lat., knowledge 
 from knowlech, lodging from loge (Fr.) and that from loggia (It.) 
 and locus (Lat.) ; tapesfry from tapisserie, tappezzeria, tapis (a 
 carpet), Lat. ; passenger and messenger from passage and mes- 
 sage, impregnable from impre?2able, trem&le from tremere ; from 
 Register, registrar ; and from rememorare, remember ; cinder, 
 
PAEAGOGE, METATHESIS. 165 
 
 from cinis, cineris, assembly from simul, through the French 
 eemble. In valient (valens) and million (mille) i is inserted to 
 strengthen the I. 
 
 195. By paragoge we get sorcerer from sors and sorcier (Fr.), 
 
 clim& from A. S. climan, subdue from subdere, sound 
 Paragoge. . , , , ' , 
 
 from son, degree from degre. 
 
 196. Sometimes the order of letters is changed, a process called 
 in classic languages metathesis. Hence in A. S. and English 
 
 we have aps, the aspen, ask and ax (aks), efre 
 
 8 s> and ever, enter and entre, brennan and byrnan, 
 
 burnt, brunt, brand, brown, bright; burst, and brussen (prov.); 
 
 wright, wrought, and worked ; wyrst (A. S.) and wrist. Hence 
 
 also the following forms : 
 
 Kermes Cramoisi, Fr. Crimson. 
 
 Inter-teneo Entretenir Entertain 
 
 Propositum Propos Purpose, 
 
 Turba Truppa, It. Troop. 
 
 197. The changes which vowels undergo may appear at first 
 Vowel sight inexplicable, but there are certain facts which 
 changes. h e ]p to explain them. 
 
 1. There is a law of euphony found more or less in all lan- 
 guages ; a law which tends to assimilate the short vowels that 
 precede and follow a liquid or light combination of consonants. 
 When the two vowels are not merged in one, they are often thus 
 assimilated ; e. g., smaraldo (It.) becomes in French esmeralde, 
 <?meraude, and in English emerald ; nu'rabilia becomes succes- 
 sively maraviglia (It.), merveilles, marvels ; bilancia becomes 
 balance ; nomen in Latin is found ending in f a ' in Saxon, and 
 o becomes ' a,' ' nama ' ; ' son ' ends in Saxon in u, and was 
 hence spelt ' sunu.' In semi-Saxon the second ' u ' became ' e,' 
 and the whole word ( sone. ' Similarly, wif-man becomes woman, 
 and in the plural is pronounced ( wimmen. ' The operation of this 
 law is very extensive in all tongues. 
 
 2. Nor less important is the influence of accent. It does not 
 necessarily lengthen or shorten vowels, as we have seen. But 
 its tendency is to lengthen the vowel of the syllable on which it 
 
166 VOWEL CHANGES PRINCIPLES. 
 
 rests, and to shorten the vowels of syllables that are not ac- 
 cented. Hence crevasse becomes crevice ; drdino, ordain ; 
 ordison, <5rison ; venaison, venison ; suffaucare, suffocate ; 
 bourgeois, burgess ; conseil, counsel. The position of the accent 
 has also done much to shorten words. Accent hospital and dis- 
 ciple (discipline) as they were once accented, and they tend to 
 become 'spital' and 'disple.' Both forms are found, and the 
 former (' spital ') is still in use. 
 
 3. The sound of certain vowels is changed when they are con- 
 nected with certain consonants. We pronounce them differently, 
 and naturally spell them differently. Terebinthina, for example, 
 becomes turpentine, the & changes into p, as soon as tli (' dh ) 
 is changed into t ; and this is spelt as pronounced, turpentine. 
 Similarly, ' incere ' and ' ingere ' of the Latin tongue become in 
 French 'eind,' aindre, the nasal n not allowing before it the 
 sound of short i. Similarly we have pardon, pursue, garland, 
 ancient (in Fr.), dark (deorc), stars (steorra), churl (ceorl), 
 worm (wyrm). Nor does viagium differ materially from 
 voyage, the presence of the 'a' giving to i the force of the semi- 
 vowel. 
 
 4. There is reason to think that many changes in repre- 
 senting vowels are owing to changes in pronunciation. ' Cu,' 
 for example, may have been pronounced by the Saxon as it is 
 still pronounced in the north of England, cu. We now pro- 
 nounce cow, and spell accordingly. So of hund (hound), hus, and 
 many others. ' Claustrum ' again was probably pronounced more 
 like clou than claw, and was therefore more nearly allied to 
 ' cloistre ' than it seems. And finally 
 
 5. In many cases the modern representatives of old vowel 
 forms are merely intended to indicate the sound more clearly. 
 It is not that o in brom becomes oo, but being sounded oo is 
 now represented by that form. Nor is it that ' msenan ' has 
 assumed a new vowel that we spell it ' mean ' : our purpose is 
 to express the sound more clearly, and of possible forms of ex- 
 pression (mien, mene, meen) the form adopted is at once charac- 
 teristic and sufficient. 
 
 198. The following examples will illustrate some of the more 
 Vowel changes, frequent vowel changes, or equivalent forms : 
 
EXAMPLES. 167 
 
 A into ao. Fam, faem (A.S.), foam ; strata, straet, street. 
 
 ai. Par, pair, peer ; planus, plain ; oratio, oraison ; plangere, 
 
 plaindre, complaint. 
 aw. Maga (stomach), A.S., maw; tau, tawny; lance, launch, 
 
 vavs, navis. 
 
 e. Anig, enig, A.S., any (pron. eny) ; canalis, chenal, kennel. 
 i. Crevasse, crevice, cat, kitten ; lacerta, lizard, 
 o. Clath, A.S., cloth; casaque, cassock ; crawe, A.S. (and prov.), 
 crow; swa, so ; ghast, ghost ; ham, haem, home ; an, A.S., 
 one; apertus, overt, It., overt; crassus, gros, gross. 
 oa. Ac, oak ; ath, oath ; sapo, soap. 
 u. Wlace, A.S., luke-warm ; 'HpaxA.^, Hercules, 
 oc into a. Glsos, A.S., glass ; fsethom, fathom; stef, staff; thset, that. 
 ai. Hael, hail ; maegen, main (might). 
 e. .ZEfen, even ; inqusesitum, inquest. 
 
 ea. Fsether, feather ; spsecan, sprsscan, to speak ; broothe, breath, 
 ee. .331, eel ; dsed, deed ; or ea, maenan, to mean. 
 
 ai into a. Vaincre (vinco), vanquish ; medaille, medal ; maistre, master. 
 e. Frais, fresh ; vaisseau, vessel ; grammaire, grammar, 
 ea. Aigle, eagle ; aise, ease ; paix, peace ; raison, reason. 
 
 i. Maistresse, mistress ; venaison, venison. 
 
 au into a. Calif acere, chauffer, chafe (to rub warm) ; or ea, Auris, ear. 
 au into o. Taub, dove ; aurum, oro, It. or Fr. ; Plaudo, explode (to clap 
 
 off) ; caudex, codex ; delphinus, dauphin, dolphin, 
 oo, ou, oroi. Pauvre, poor; audire, ouir; faul (A.S.), foul; claustrum, 
 cloistre, Fr., cloister ; avis, oiseau. 
 
 E into a. Bench, bank; perdono, pardon; ensign, ancient; chew, jaws, 
 ai. Retineo, retenir, retain ; abstain, obtain, etc. ; twegen, A.S., 
 
 twain. 
 
 ea. Etan, A.S., eat; impeditare, empacciare, It., empescho, im- 
 peach ; pecher, preach ; mesure, measure. 
 
 I into a, Ghirlanda, garland; bilanx, Lat., bilancia, It., balance; 
 
 mirabilia, maraviglia, marvels. 
 ai. Constringere, constraindre, constraint, etc. ; empirer (pejor), 
 
 impair ; ordinare, ordain. 
 
 e. Briwau, to brew ; fight, f echt (Scotch) ; ingenium, engine ; 
 Oripiaxov, triacle, Fr. treacle ; viridis, vert ; virtus, vertu ; 
 niger, negro ; fides, fide, fe, It., fealty, 
 ea, ee. Snican, sneak ; cuysan, squeeze. 
 
 o. Witan, wot ; wifman, woman ; crypta, grotta ; venenum, 
 venim, It., venom ; wyrm, worm ; iris, orchis. 
 
168 VOWEL CHANGES-EXAMPLES. 
 
 I into oi. Via, voye ; tylaan, toil ; tibi (ti), toi; sibi (si), sol. 
 u. Birian, to bury ; plaisir, pleasure ; fyrse, furze. 
 
 NOTE. I tends to become g or j before a vowel extranem, 
 etraniero, It., stranger ; grama (granarium), grange ; simia, 
 Lat., singe, Fr., an ape ; serviente, It., sergeant. 
 
 O into eu. Novus, neuf ; hora, heure ; sapor, saveur ; nepo-t, nepheu. 
 i or y. Mola, mylen, A.S., mill ; monasterium, minster ; o/i/fyo?, 
 
 imber ; olli, illi. 
 
 oeu. Votum, voeu, vow ; bov-is, bceuf, beef ; Ovum, ceuf . 
 oi, oy. Noxia, noia, It., noise, nuisance ; absolvere, assoil ; ostreum, 
 huistre, oyster ; solum, soil ; vox, voix, vocalia ; voyelle, 
 vowel. 
 
 oo, Hof, A.S., hoof ; boc, book ; brom (Bromwich), broom, 
 ou. Copula, couple ; mon-t, mount ; abonder, abound ; dotarium, 
 
 douaire, dower; gutta, gotto, It., goutte, gout, 
 u. Rothor, rudder; thresor, treasure; grommelle, grumble, 
 
 growl. 
 
 ui. Noc-t, Lat., nuict ; post, postea, Lat., poscia, It., puis ; ostium, 
 uscio, huis, usher; octo, huit; hodie, huy, as in aujour- 
 d'hui. 
 
 oi, e. Bourgeois, burgess (Anglois, Angle) ; harnois, harness ; foible, 
 pronounced feeble ; palefroy, palfrey ; conveyer, convey. 
 
 E into ee. Dcman, to deem ; bece, a beech. 
 
 ei. Vena, vein ; concevoir, conceive, perceive, etc. 
 i. Efel, evil ; kennan, kindle ; bethencan, think ; leo, lion, 
 y. Denego, nier, deny ; depute, deputy ; cheminee, chimney, 
 ie. Feld (felled, or cleared land), field ; achever, achieve ; frere, 
 
 friar. 
 o. Glesan, to gloze (to flatter) ; ken, con; reson, rosin ; vermis, 
 
 worm ; melazzo (honey ?), molasses ; eAoiov, oleum, 
 oi. Lenden, A.S., loins ; ele, A.S., oil ; pondus, peso, It., pois, 
 Fr., strictus, stretto, It. ; estroit, strait ; rex, regis, roi, 
 royal, 
 u. Pellan, to pull ; ken, con, cunning ; tcrpentina, turpentine ; 
 
 yc^e'\Tj, nebula, 
 eaintoa. Geapan, A.S., gape; geard, A.S., yard; weaxan, to wax; 
 
 eald, alderman. 
 
 eo or e. Fea, feo, fee (feudal) ; froo, A.S., free ; read (red), read, henca 
 v ruddy. 
 
 i or y. Neah (near), nigh ; dearian, dyran, to dare (hence dare, durst). 
 
 o. Feald, fold; eald, old; lean (to lend), loan. 
 
 ei or ey into ai. Consilium, consiglio, conseil, counsel ; peinc, pain ; peindre, 
 paint; attingo, atteindre, tainted (i.e., touched). 
 
VOWEL- CHANGES. 169 
 
 uei into oi. Cinquefueilles, cinquefoil. 
 
 eo into a. Deorc, dark ; steorran, A.S., stars ; streow, straw. 
 I ea, ee. Leoma, a gleam ; eorl, earl ; heorth, hearth ; weoc, week 
 
 0. Steonn, storm ; streowan, to strow ; leosan, to lose (Old Eng, 
 
 to leas), hence -less, 
 i or y. Leogan, to lye ('lees,' Scottice) ; beorth, birth (and berth) ; 
 
 seofian, to sigh (hence ' sough ') ; fleoh, a fly. 
 
 ie, oi. Ceosan (to choose), choice ; feond (a foe), fiend ; theof, thief- 
 oa, oo. Fleotan, to float (hence a fleet) ; sceotan, to shoot ; sceolu, a 
 
 shoal, a school ; scon, shoon. 
 
 u. Ceorl, churl ; sceoldan (to owe), should (pronounced u.) 
 eu into eo. Peuple, Fr., people. 
 
 ou. Valeur, valour, etc. ; heure, hour. 
 u. Fleute, Fr., flute; <f>evy<a, fugio; vsvu>, nuo, etc. 
 Ou into o. Souder, sodder ; guberno, gouverner, govern ; couvrir, cover ; 
 
 /Sou?, bos ; /5ov\-t>juai, volo. 
 u. Abouter, abut ; mouton, mutton ; nourrice, nurse ; bourse, 
 
 purse. 
 
 oy into ea. Eoyaume, realm; doyen (Gr. 5eavoj), a dean. 
 U into a. Cura, care ; KVUV, KWOS, canis. 
 
 e. Bury (pron. e), ulmus, an elm ; nn^guette, nutmg. 
 
 i. Busy (pron. i), uncia, ince, A.S., inch ; perraque, perriwig 
 
 euchten, to sigh ; <va>, fio ; maxumus, maximus. 
 
 O and ow. Pulvis, polvere, It., poudre, powder ; lufian, to love; tung, 
 A.S., tongue; thurh, through; hund, hound ; cultor, coutre, 
 coltor ; crux, crocce, It., cross, Santa Cruz, Sp. ; $v\\ov, 
 folium, folio. 
 
 01. Cuffia, It., coiffe ; ungcre, oindre, ointment. 
 
 ow. Cu, cow ; hus, house (hence hus'if, i.e., housewife) ; Dun^ 
 
 Downs ', mus, mouse ; dubito, doubt. 
 ui. Fructus, fruit ; destruere, destruire, to destroy. 
 
 III. ETYMOLOGY THE SCIENCE OF THE INFLEXION OP 
 
 WORDS ; OB ' ACCIDENCE. ' 
 
 199. By ' Accidence ' is meant the department of 
 ace ' etymology which treats of the grammatical inflexion 
 of words. 
 
 In strict accuracy, this department of grammar ought to treat 
 only of forms, but it is practically inconvenient to adhere to this 
 rule. On the one side we are tempted to diverge by the grammar 
 of other languages ; and on the other by the requirements of 
 logic, and by distinctions recognized in English itself. We have 
 
170 ACCIDENCE: NOUNS. 
 
 but three forms for example of case and but two of noun-cases, 
 and yet following classic models we reckon five cases. We have 
 a peculiar form in ' ness,' to express an abstract quality ; and 
 hence it*s convenient to treat of nouns as 'proper,' 'abstract,' 
 and ' common : ' a division without complete corresponding forms, 
 rather logical than grammatical. Adjectives, again, are spoken 
 of as singular and plural ; though strictly this distinction is 
 appropriate rather to Greek or French than to English ; as quan- 
 titative and qualitative, though we have but few adjectives with 
 forms expressive of these distinctions. If, however, the reader is 
 startled to find phrases and distinctions employed which have no 
 formal representatives in the grammar of our tongue, he may be 
 sure that they are used for a good reason ; either to connect our 
 language with other members of the same family, or to explain 
 important processes in the liistory of thought. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 Nouns are 200. Keeping in the first instance to nouns, it will 
 thhTs * BOOn ^ e found that we give particular names to par- 
 persons ticular things ; as ( John/ ' London,' ' England. ' 
 eft F her V by Such names are called PROPER NOUNS, being appro- 
 the senses or priated to individual things, places, or persons. 
 Bttmdtng?" Though strictly applicable only to a single in- 
 dividual at a time, a proper name sometimes admits 
 .roper. ^ plural form, and so designates several : as ' the Miss 
 Thompsons ; ' ' the Marys ' of scripture. 
 
 Sometimes, again, an individual is regarded as the type of a 
 class, and then the noun is used in the singular with an article, 
 to represent any member of the class ; as ' & Milton,' ( a Howard,' 
 ' a John in love, and a Paul in faith. ' Similarly we speak of 
 works of art, as 'an Apollo,' or 'a Claude.' In these instances 
 the proper noun tends to become common. 
 
 201 . Nouns also give names that are appropriate to everything 
 of the same kind ; these are called COMMON NOUNS, 
 I0n< and are of different classes, according as we regard 
 the things to which such nouns are applied. 
 
 (a.) If, for example, the things are viewed as a collective 
 whole, the noun that designates them is called a collective, 
 as 'infantry,' 'flock,' 'covey.' 
 (b.) If there is a class, whether actually existing, and dis- 
 
PROPER, COMMON, ABSTRACT. 171 
 
 coverable by the senses, or formed by qualities ascribed to 
 it through an act of the mind, the noun we use to describe 
 each and every member of the class is called a class-noun, 
 'ox,' 'man,' 'agent,' 'heroes,' 'poets,' 'orators.' 
 The class, it will be noticed, is either actual or conceivable, 
 large or small : any genus up to the highest ; and any species 
 down to the lowest. 
 
 (c.) If we wish to designate materials or substances so as 
 to call attention, not to kinds or quantity, but solely to the 
 quality of the substance, we xise what are called nouns or 
 names of materials, as ' silk,' 'gold, 'sugar.' 
 (d.) When, on the other hand, we designate number, 
 measure, weight, we use nouns of quantity, as ' a pound,' 
 ' a yard,' ' a bushel.' 
 
 As proper nouns tend to become class nouns in the way indi- 
 cated above, so common or class nouns are made specific by 
 adjectives or their equivalents, till at length they have the force 
 of proper nouns. 
 
 ' A man ; ' ' a good man ; ' ' the good man ; ' ' that good 
 man ; ' ' a queen ;' ' the queen ;' ' the Queen of England.' 
 ' This book ; ' ' my a home ; ' ' our* father.' 
 
 202. Sometimes, again, we take the attributes which are ex- 
 
 pressed by adjectives and verbs, regard them in our 
 
 minds as having an actual and independent existence, 
 
 and give them distinct names. These names are called ABSTRACT 
 
 NOUNS, as 'wisdom,' 'health,' 'sleep,' 'thought.' 
 
 Such nouns are variously classed : e.g. as they are taken from 
 words that describe : 
 
 (a.) Names of actions : ' Reading is one means of improve- 
 ment.' 'Not to advance is to recede.' 'Study,' 'pro- 
 gress,' ' decay.' 
 
 Of these, the first two are called verbal abstract nouns, being 
 infinitive forms, used as names of acts. 
 
 (b.) Names of states, condition, or periods, as ' health,' 
 
 ' warmth,' ' summer,' ' the gloaming.' 
 (c.) Names of qualities, referring either to material sub- 
 
 > These arc strictly genitive cases of make the names more definite, 
 pronouns, but arettsed as adjectives to 
 
172 
 
 NOUNS- CLASSIFIED. 
 
 stances, or to thought : as ' youth,' ' beauty,' ' humility,' 
 'manliness.' 
 
 (d.) Names of quantity and degree ; as, ' There is such an 
 overdoing as sometimes proves an undoing. ' ' Let well 
 alone, lest it become worse.' 
 
 Abstract nouns, it may be noted, are sometimes used in a con- 
 crete sense ; the quality for the persons possessing it. Thus 
 ' youth ' may mean the class of young persons. It is then 
 either singular or plural. 
 
 Sometimes we regard the acts or states which verbs assert of 
 their subjects, and form a noun descriptive of a class of agents : 
 as 'sleeper,' 'runner.' These are not abstracts, but common 
 nouns, describing a class. 
 
 203. The whole may be thus classified : 
 TABLE OF NOUNS. 
 
 Table of 
 Nouns. 
 
 i. Proper. 
 
 ii. Common. 
 
 1. Strictly proper .. 
 
 2. Becoming common 
 
 I sensible 
 
 1. Class names < mental 
 
 ( becomin 
 
 2. Collective names 
 
 3. Names of materials 
 
 4. Names of quantity 
 
 5. Names of agents 
 
 .. as 'Milton.' 
 
 ( ' a Milton,' ' some 
 * * { village Hampden. 1 
 
 iii. Abstracts. 
 
 1. Names of states. . 
 
 2. Names of acts . . 
 
 3. Names of qualities 
 
 4. Names of degree 
 
 proper 
 
 ' book.' 
 
 ' a hero.' 
 
 ' the Queen. 
 
 'flock.' 
 
 gold.' 
 
 ' yard,' ' ton.' 
 
 ' a sleeper.' 
 
 death.' 
 
 ' thinking.' 
 
 'goodness.' 
 
 ' excess,' 'deficiency-. ' 
 
 This classification, it will be noticed, is rather logical than 
 grammatical. It represents diversities of thought rather than of 
 form ; yet as it is partly grammatical, and is of importance for 
 helping thought, the student should familiarize himself with it. 
 
 204. Number is, as we have seen, a variation in the form of 
 Number nouns to show whether we are speaking of one or of 
 defined. m ore. The form that speaks of one is singular ; of 
 more than one, plural. 
 
 205. In Anglo-Saxon many nouns formed the plural, by 
 adding ' as ' to the singular. In old English this became 
 
PLUEALS: HOW FORMED. 173 
 
 Pliirals.how ' es,' * and now the ' e ' is generally omitted. This 
 formed. omission made certain changes of pronunciation 
 necessary : hence the first rule : 
 
 1. Plurals are formed from the singular by adding a sharp 
 sibilant (s) to nouns ending with a sharp mute, and a flat 
 sibilant (s or z) to nouns ending with a flat mute : or briefly by 
 adding s : as ' stack-s ' 'stag-s." 
 
 This change of pronunciation would have been less necessary 
 if the ' es' had been retained. 
 
 2. Plurals are formed by adding ' es,' the original suffix, to all 
 singulars, ending (either in form or in sound) in s, sh, ch (soft), 
 x, and z : as ' loss-es,' * blush-es,' ' church-es,' ' topaz-es.' 
 
 The f e ' is retained, because without it the double sibilants 
 could not be sounded. 
 
 Several nouns of foreign origin in ' o ' also add ' es,' as 
 'calico-es,' 'cargo-es,' 'echo-es,' 'hero-es,' 'mulatto-es,' 'negro- 
 es,' e potato-es,' * volcano-es ; ' though to this rule there are ex- 
 ceptions, as 'canto-s,' 'grotto-s,' ' motto-s,' f quarto-s,' ' solo-s.' 
 
 If a noun end in ' y ' after a consonant, ' es ' is added, and 
 ' y ' becomes ' i,' as ' fii-es,' ' ladi-es.' After a vowel the ' y ' is 
 retained, as f boy-s,' 'valley-s.' In the first set again 'e' is retained 
 as an orthographical expedient to indicate the pronunciation. 
 
 Forms like ' flys,' ' the Marys,' are exceptional and distinctive: 
 as is * monies.' The older form was ' moneyes ' (Bacon). 
 
 Nouns of Anglo-Saxon origin, ending in f (except those in 
 ff, rf, and f when preceded by two vowels, as ' roof,' ' reef '), add 
 * es ' to the singular, and change f into v : nouns in ( fe ' (except 
 fife-s, strife-s) add ' s,' and change f into v, as, ( wolf,' 'wolves,' 
 'wife,' 'wives.' 
 
 The following conform to the rule, against the exceptions : 
 Loaf, loaves, thief, thieves, staff, staves. 
 
 3. Plurals are formed from singulars by certain changes 
 peculiar to Anglo-Saxon nouns, and found only in words of 
 Anglo-Saxon origin : e. g. 
 
 a. By suffixing ' en ' to the singular (Anglo-Saxon ' an '), 
 as 'oxen,' 'hosen,' ' shoon,' 'e'en' (eyen), 'peat-en,' 
 ' pull-en,' ' ki-ne.' ' Swi-ne,' is singular and collective. 
 
 As, ' The small birdes singen,' CHAUCEB 
 
174 NOUNS: PLURALS HOW FOEMED. 
 
 b. By modifying the root-vowels, a process consequent on 
 the addition of ' en ' to the singular, the ' en ' being 
 often dropped, as ' brother, brethren,' ' man, mennen, 
 men,' ' cu ' (cow), ' kye ' (orig. ' kine '), ' mice,' ' geese,' 
 ' feet,' etc. 
 
 c. By adding ' er ' (Anglo-Saxon ' ru ' or ' ra ') to the sin- 
 gular, as child-er, or child-re, and then as a double form, 
 child-r-en, ' lamb-r-en,' Wycliffe : hence the collective 
 form, ' yeoman-ry,' ' rook-e-ry.' 
 
 4. Plurals are formed by adopting the forms peculiar to the 
 languages whence the singular is taken : 
 Hebrew, cherub-im, seraph-im. - 
 Greek, criteri-a, dogmat-a, tripod-es. 
 Latin, formul-se, mag-i, dat-a, ax-es, apparat-us, seri-es, 
 
 append-ices. 
 
 Itah'an, banditt-i, dilettant-i, virtuos-i. 
 French, beau-x, mesdames, messieurs. 
 
 Many of these -words have two plurals, ' formulas,' ' memo- 
 randums,' 'geniuses,' * genii.' 
 
 Of course it is only the first and second rules which we em- 
 ploy in forming modern English plurals. 
 
 206. The following observations on number-forms are im- 
 portant. 
 
 a. In words like ' deer,' 'sheep,' 'mackerel,' 'salmon,' 
 ' trout,' ' grouse,' ' heathen,' &c., the same form is either 
 singular or plural. 
 
 b. Some words have both a plural and a collective form, as 
 ' fish,' ' fishes,' ' herring,' ' herrings,' ' dies ' (for stamp- 
 ing), ' dice ' (the set), ' pennies ' (a plural), and ' pence ' 
 (a collective, and generally singular), ' cannon, cannons : ' 
 ' shot, shots : ' ' number, numbers. ' 
 
 c. Many singular nouns admit no plural forms,(l) or if 
 they admit plurals, the meaning is changed. (2) 
 
 (1) As 'gold,' 'silver,' 'pride.' 
 
 (2) Names of materials in the plural indicate varieties, 
 not many of one kind, as ' sugars,' ' wines. ' 
 
 Names of abstract qualities, in the plural, indicate, not 
 the qualities, but particular acts, or sorts, as ' negli- 
 gences,' 'the virtues.' 
 
PECULIAKITIES OF NUMBER. 176 
 
 Sometimes the meaning is entirely changed, as ' iron, 
 irons : ' c domino, dominoes : ' ' vesper, vespers. ' 
 
 d. Some nouns admit, in modern language, no singular, as 
 ' ashes,' ' bellows,' ' pincers, 'scissors,' 'tongs,' ' shears,' 
 etc. 'Aborigines,' 'amends,' 'archives,' 'kalends,' 'hust- 
 ings/ 'lees,' 'measles,' 'fire-arms,' 'news,' 'suds,' 'nup- 
 tials,' ' odds,' ' tidings,' etc. 
 
 e. Some apparent plurals are really singular, though now 
 used generally as plurals, as ' alms ' (A. S. aelmesse), 
 'riches' (richesse, Fr.), and probably 'wages' (wagis, 
 Wycliffe). 
 
 f. Some really plurals are used as singular or plural, as 
 'news,' 'pains,' 'means,' 'amends,' 'summons,' 'molasses,' 
 'gallows'; so 'politics,' 'ethics,' 'optics,' etc., literally 
 what relates (or relate) to the state, to morals, to the 
 science of vision, etc. 
 
 g. Some really singular in form have a collective meaning, 
 and are used as plurals or as singulars, as 'crowd,' 
 'cattle,' 'army,' 'vermin,' 'navy,' 'people,' 'folk,' 
 'gentry,' 'merchandise.' 'Ten sail were seen.' 'Two 
 brace of birds.' 'A three-/oo rule.' 
 
 h. In forming the plural of proper names, we generally 
 preserve the spelling unchanged : as ' the three Marys : ' 
 ' the family of the Wolfs : ' except when they have be- 
 come, through frequent usage, class or common nouns, 
 as ' the Ptolemies,' ' the Alleghanies. ' 
 
 j. The plural of compound proper names is formed in different 
 ways : as ' the Misses Bells : ' ' the Knights Templars. ' 
 Here the nouns are in apposition, as in 'himself,' but 
 this form is not usual. We say also ' The Misses Bell : ' 
 making 'miss' the principal noun (as in 'courts-martial'), 
 and ' Bell ' the distinguishing or adjective term : or ' the 
 Miss Bells ' the usual form. The ' Messrs. Lambert ' is 
 the more common form in commercial life. They are 
 then regarded as a collective unity : while the ' Miss Bells ' 
 are regarded apart. 
 
 k. The plurals of compounds, generally, is formed by adding 
 ' s ' to the noun which describes the person or thing, as 
 
176 KOUNS, GENDER. 
 
 ' sons-in-law,' ' goings-out/ * maid-servants/ ' ' man- 
 stealers.' When the words are so closely allied that the 
 sense is entirely incomplete till the whole are added, the 
 ' s ' is added to the end, as ' pailfuls,' the ' three per 
 cents,' &c. In all these compounds the genitive ending 
 is appended to the last word only, as ' the court-martial's 
 decision/ 'my son-in-law's house.' 
 
 L Of course, other parts of speech may be made into 
 nouns, and inflected as such, as in Shakspeare ' Fie 
 upon "but yet."' 
 
 ' Henceforth my wooing shall be expressed 
 In russet ' yeas,' and honest kersey ' noes.' ' 
 
 The < Ayes ' have it ! ' 
 
 207. Gender is a distinction in words intended to show 
 Gender whether the things of which we speak are male or 
 defined. female, or neither. This is the definition that suits our 
 English tongue. See par. 172. 
 
 As a general rule, gender is determined in English by sex 
 alone. The name of everything of the male sex is called mascu- 
 line, of the female sex feminine, of neither sex, neuter. ' Man,' 
 'horse,' 'James,' are masculine nouns. 'Woman,' 'mare,' 
 ' Ann,' feminines. ' Tree,' ' stone,' ' York,' are neuter. Sex, it 
 will be noticed, belongs to tilings : gender to names of things. 
 
 208. Distinctions of gender based on forma of words are in 
 How ex- English very incomplete. Neuter nouns have no 
 pressed. peculiar form. Masculine and feminine nouns are 
 thus distinguished : 
 
 1. By the use of a compound, part of which indicates th 
 gender, as ' he-goat,' ' she-goat,' ' man-servant,' ' coc 
 sparrow,' ' woman,' ' schoolmaster,' ' schoolmistress.' 
 
 Of these, ' woman ' is the only form that needs explanation 
 ' Man,' was in Anglo-Saxon of both genders ; and 
 'woman' = wif-man, i.e. a man that weaves (cf. 
 ' weft ') : the ' i ' is made ' o ' by the ' a ' of man, and 
 becomes ' i ' in pronunciation in the plural, through the 
 Eound of the ' e. ' 
 
 ' Men-servants ' and ' women-ser- form for other words. In such phrasci 
 rants ' (Gen. xxxii. 5), is not a usual the words are in apposition. 
 
GENDER : PECULIAR FORMS. 177 
 
 2. By the use of suffix forma, as 'widow-er,' 'spinster,' 
 ' wiz-ard,' ' wit-ch,' ' executr-ix,' ' author-ess,' ' abbot, 
 abb-ess,' ' emper-or, emp-ress,' ' hero-ine/ ' sultan-a,' 
 'donna.' 
 
 Widower. Most feminines in English are derived from mas- 
 culine forms, but in this case the rule is reversed. The 
 Anglo-Saxon was widuwa (mas.) and widuwe (fern.). In 
 old English ' widow ' was applied to both sexes, and ' er ' 
 was ultimately added to distinguish them, ' er ' being a 
 common Anglo-Saxon masculine ending (as in sang-ere, 
 a male singer). 
 
 Gander, from gans, a goose, is a similar example. Now 
 ' er ' is added to verbs to denote an agent, without refer- 
 ence to sex. 
 
 Spinster. A common feminine ending in Anglo-Saxon was 
 'istre,' ' estre,' and in English 'ster.' It was added to 
 many verbs, especially descriptive of female employments, 
 to form feminines :* as Bax-(ks)ter, Brew-ster, Spin-ster, 
 Fo-ster-mother (food-ster). In these last examples it has 
 its feminine meaning, in the former it is part of the pro- 
 per name. The form appears also with its original force 
 in the compound feminine, ' seam-str-ess,' ' song-str-ess. ' 
 It is now used generally without reference to sex, as 
 maltster, punster, etc. 
 
 Wizard, from wise, as witch is perhaps from wit, is an ex- 
 ample of an augmentative form used as a masculine : so 
 in ' mallard,' a wild drake, and ' lennard,' a male linnet. 
 
 Ix, ess, are classic forms, either direct from Latin, or 
 through the Norman-French. Sometimes the syllable is 
 added to the masculine form, as ' authoress : ' sometimes 
 it takes the place of the last syllable, as in ' abb-ess,' 
 ' emp-ress.' In forms like ' duke, duchess,' we have the 
 hard ' k ' softened by the ' e,' as in ' castra,' Chester. 
 
 Hero-ine is an example of a suffix form in many languages : 
 reg-ina, Lat. , hero-ina, Gr. , freund-inn, Ger. It appears 
 also in czar-ina, in carl-inn (an old woman), vix-en 
 (Anglo-Saxon, fix-en, from fix, a fox). 
 
 Hence 'the spear,' or 'sword-side,' mother's side.' The phrases occur 
 
 and 'the spinning,' or ' spindle-side," in King Alfred's will, for male and 
 
 are in Anglo-Saxon what are now female lines, 
 called 'the father's-side,' and 'the 
 
178 GENDER: PECULIAE FORMS. 
 
 Sultana is a Turkish, feminine, found also in many lan- 
 
 guages, and donn n, is a Latin form, domin-a : as ' Don/ 
 
 from dominus. 
 3. By the use of words entirely or apparently distinct, as 
 
 * boy, girl,' ' duck, drake,' ' earl, countess/ ' husband, 
 
 wife/ 'sloven, slut.' 
 Girl is originally of either gender, being an abbreviation of 
 
 ceorlen, cirlen, a little churl. It is now appropriated as 
 
 a feminine name. 
 Slut is etymologically the same as ' sloven/ and indicates 
 
 slowness. It was in old English of either gender, and is 
 
 now used as a feminine. 
 Drake is an example of a Scandinavian masculine ending. 
 
 The word is ' ant-rakko/ the ' ant ' meaning ' swimmer 
 
 or duck/ so that little else than the ending remains. 
 
 ' Duck ' (to duck or dive) is etymologically of either 
 
 gender, though used as a feminine. 
 
 209. In gender, the English language is both more philosophic 
 than the classic languages, and more effective : more 
 philosophic because gender is in English co-extensive 
 
 1 emler t0 ^^ sex *^ e g rammat i ca l with the natural dis- 
 tinction : more effective, because in poetry or in 
 prose-personifications, inanimate objects have given to them a 
 reality which in languages that always speak of them by mascu- 
 line or feminine names they cannot have. 
 
 210. The rules that affect the gender of nouns, when the 
 things they represent are personified, it is not easy to ascertain. 
 
 Among the Greeks and Romans, the ' sun ' was masculine, 
 
 and the ' moon ' feminine. The Germans and Anglo- 
 
 tiorff'rules" Saxons reversed this order, and made the moon mas- 
 
 of gender in culine, and the sun feminine. The English follow 
 relation to it. / . 
 
 the classic models in this case, as in many others. 
 
 Shakspeare probably wrote under the influence of the Saxon 
 rule, when he speaks of the sun as 'a fair wench in flame- 
 coloured taffeta.' This principle of assigning gender to neuter 
 nouns seems based on ancient mythology or classic usage. 
 
 It is a natural principle of personification, that the masculine 
 gender should be assign-id to tilings remarkable for strength, 
 courage, majesty, as 'time/ 'death/ 'anger,' 'winter/ 'war/ 
 
PERSONIFICATION AND GENDEB. 179 
 
 and the feminine gender to things remarkable for gentleness, 
 fruitfulness, and beauty, as ' the earth,' ' spring,' ' hope,' ' our 
 country,' etc. 
 
 Hence the following are not pleasing : 
 
 ' Her power extends o'er all things that have breath, 
 A cruel tyrant, and her name is Death,' SHEFFIELD. 
 
 ' Knowledge is proud that he has learnt so much, 
 Wisdom is humble that he knows no more.' COWPEE. 
 
 Cobbett notices a third principle. He tells us that country 
 people speak of things closely identified with themselves, as 
 ' she,' and of things that pass often from hand to hand, as 'he.' 
 The ' scythe ' of the mower, the ' plough ' of the hind, are in 
 Hampshire, feminines ; Avhile the masculine gender is thought 
 good enough for the shovel and the prong. 
 
 Case-forms in English nouns have been discussed 
 Case-forms. . . H -,^\ 
 
 elsewhere (par. 173 175). 
 
 PEONOUNS. 
 
 ' Pronouns cannot be so precisely defined as not to admit many words 
 which may also be considered as adjectives.' BUTTMAN. 
 ' An interrogative pronoun is a relative in search of an antecedent.' 
 
 PHIL. Mus. 
 
 Pronouns 211. The Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; 
 
 defined. as 
 
 ' The friends of my youth, where are they ? And an echo answered, 
 where are they ? ' AEABIC SAYING. 
 
 . _ , 212. Pronouns may be divided into two classes : 
 Classified. , . , , . _. 
 
 substantive and adjective. 
 
 SUBSTANTIVE Pronouns are used instead of nouns. They are 
 (1.) Personal: as, 'I,' 'thou,' 'he,' 'she,' 'it,' 'we,' 'yc,' 
 
 or 'you,' and ' they.' 
 (2.) Reflexive: ' self,' originally a noun. 
 (3.) Indefinite and Distributive: as, 'one* (plural 'ones'), 
 'any,' 'other' (plural 'others'), 'who' (he who), 
 'whoever,' 'whosoever,' and other compounds of 
 'who,' 'each,' 'either,' and 'neither.' Some add 
 'whit,' 'aught,' 'naught,' though these last are 
 really nouns. 
 
180 PEONOUNS CLASSIFIED. 
 
 (4.) Relative and Interrogative: 'who,' 'which,' 'what,' 
 
 and their compounds 'whoever,' 'whosoever,' etc. ; 
 
 'that,' 'as' after 'such,' 'the same,' 'whether,' etc. 
 (5.) Demonstrative : as, ' this,' ' that ' (plural ' these,' 
 
 'those'), 'such,' 'same,' ' self -same/ 'that ilk,' 
 
 'thilk,' and occasionally 'so.' 
 
 All these words are used for nouns, and are rightly named. 
 
 ADJECTIVE Pronouns a somewhat contradictory title are 
 so called, because they are pronouns in origin, some of them 
 never used with a noun, and all of them sometimes used 
 without; and because most of them are used as adjectives. 
 They are 
 
 (1.) The Possessive Pronouns: 'his,' 'its,' 'mine,' 'thine,' 
 ' hers,' ' ours,' ' yours,' ' theirs.' ' His ' and ' its ' are 
 also genitive cases of 'he' and 'it,' and are used as 
 such. ' Hers ' is treated as a possessive pronoun, 
 and the rest are true possessives. 
 
 (2.) The Reflexive Possessive: ' my own,' 'our own,' etc. 
 (3.) The Indefinite Distributive Pronouns : ' any/ ' each/ 
 
 ' either,' ' neither,' ' other.' 
 (4) The Relative and Interrogative Pronouns: 'which/ 
 
 ' what/ and their compounds, ' whichever/ etc. 
 (5.) The Demonstrative Pronouns: 'this/ 'that/ 'such/ 
 
 ' the same/ 'that same,' and ' self-same.' 
 
 The words in this list are better treated as adjectives ; defini- 
 tive, or quantitative. See par. 235. 
 
 213. The Personal Substantive Pronouns are thus declined : 
 
 Firtt Emphatic Second 
 
 Emphatic . Third 
 
 Emphatic 
 
 Person. and Xeytexiee. \Person, 
 
 and Kejlcxive. 
 
 Person 
 
 and Jleilexire. 
 
 8. Norn. I g*., Myself. 
 
 Thou 
 
 fc^.) "tor***- 
 
 f He, 1 
 (. she, it J 
 
 (2nd / Hiin-hcr. 
 form.) t it-self. 
 
 Gen. and \ Of me / My own, ) 
 Pea. /My Mine I of myself./ 
 
 Ofthee 
 Tliy 
 
 f Thy own, \ 
 Thin* i of thyself. / 
 
 ( her, its. 
 
 } Her, { ^ 
 
 Obj. Me Myself. 
 
 Thee 
 
 Thyself. 
 
 /Him ) 
 
 / Him-her. 
 
 
 
 
 (. her, it. / 
 
 (. its-self. 
 
 PL Nom. W * Ourselves. 
 
 I you J 
 
 Yourselves. 
 
 They 
 
 Themselves. 
 
 Gen and \ Of tig f Ol 7 own> ) 
 Poss. / Our Our, \ seiyejT J 
 
 /Of you 
 lYoar 
 
 (Your own,) 
 Yours < cf your-!> 
 ( (elves. ) 
 
 /Of them 
 (.Their 
 
 Theirs ( ^l^' 
 
 Obj. Ui Ourselyet. 
 
 f Ton 
 
 1 and ye 
 
 Yourselves. 
 
 Them 
 
 Themselreg. 
 
VAEIOUS FORMS EXPLAINED. 181 
 
 The Indefinite Pronouns, and the Relative, are thus declined. 
 S. Xora. One (emph.) oneself 
 
 Gen. One's one's own 
 
 Obj. One oneself 
 
 PI. Norn. Ouea 
 
 Gen. Ones' 
 
 Obj. Ones 
 
 who 
 
 who's (whose) 
 
 whom 
 
 who 
 
 who's (whose) 
 
 who/a 
 
 other 
 
 other's 
 
 other 
 
 others (O.E. other) 
 
 others' 
 
 others 
 
 214. Of the personal pronouns, it may be observed several of 
 them are etymologically demonstratives. ( She,' ' it,' ' they,' 
 ' They,' 'it,' ' their,' ' them,' are parts of the A.S. article, and were 
 
 originally demonstratives ; * he,' 'hi,' f hem,' being 
 the pronominal forms. ' Our,' etc., is originally an A.S. gen. 
 (' of us ') used as a possessive pronoun. 
 
 215. Several of the related words have no etymological con- 
 nection. ' We,' ' our,' ' us ; ' ' thou,' ' thy,' ' thee,' are respec- 
 tively from the same root ; but ' thou ' and ' you,' ' he ' and 
 ' they,' ' she ' and ' her,' are from different roots. 'Me ' is no 
 ' I,' ' the ' form of ' I,' and has even been regarded as an inde- 
 etc - pendent nominative. Hence the phrase f it is me ' is 
 Jess exceptionable than ' it is him. ' The French idiom is similar, 
 ' C'est moi.' 'I fear me' may thus be explained. In ' me- 
 thinks,' 'me' is a dative form, and ' thinks' is the A.S. ' thincan,' 
 to seem, to appear, not 'thencan,' to think. The A.S. had the 
 form 'theethinketh,' 'usthinketh,' i.e. 'it seems to thee,' 'to us.' 
 
 216. ' Its ' is a recent form in English. It is seldom found in 
 , j , Shakspeare, and never in sacred scripture. The old 
 
 neuter nom. of ' he ' was ' hit,' and the gen. ' his.' 
 
 217. 'Mine' and 'thine' are A.S. genitive forms. 'My' 
 Thine ' and and ' thy ' are accusative forms used as genitives, 
 'thy,' etc. or shortened genitives. We turn the two to the 
 best account by using 'mine ' and 'thine' without a noun 
 (' it is mine ') ; as in old English they were used before vowels. 
 ' Hers ' is a double genitive form; as are 'ours,' 'yours,' 'theirs.' 
 ' Ourn,' ' yourn,' are double genitives, or rather accusatives, 
 from 'our,' 'your.' They are used only without their nouns. 
 
 'Mine,' 'thine,' 'our,' 'your,' originally genitives, were usedin 
 A.S. as possessive pronouns, and declined as such. Properly 
 they should now be used only when possession or appurtenance 
 is implied. 'In our midst ' is therefore a solecism, though not 
 infrequent. 
 
182 PRONOUNS: REFLEXIVE FORMS. 
 
 218. ' You ' is in old writers often regarded as the accusative 
 , T ' ( eow > A.S.), and r ye' (ge, A.S.) as tlie nominative. 
 
 This distinction is convenient, and is sanctioned by 
 A. S. ; but in fact it has never been generally recognised, and by 
 some writers the rule has even been reversed. 
 
 * You ' is used in English as the ' pronomen reverentise,' or 
 title of respect. This usage was common in the Gothic lan- 
 guages. In German and Danish the respectful mode of address 
 is to use the third person ; and we occasionally approach this 
 form by the use of an abstract noun, as 'your highness.' ' Thou' 
 was originally expressive of familiarity, whether of affection or 
 of contempt ; as in Coke's address at Raleigh's trial : ' I thou 
 thee, thou traitor.' 
 
 It is also used reverentially in addressing GOD. 
 
 219. ' Their ' and ' your,' though generally used as possessive 
 'Their ' and pronouns, are sometimes iised to express origin, the 
 ' your.' true meaning of the genitive ; as ' their terror ' 
 (1 Pet. iii. 14), 'your rejoicing' (1 Cor. xv. 31) ; i.e. the terror 
 excited by them, the joy originating in you. 
 
 220. Strictly speaking we have no pronouns equivalent to the 
 English re- Latin suus, nor have we reflexive pronouns answering 
 flexives. to se, sibi. Such a pronoun is found in A.S., but was 
 rarely used. Its place is supplied in English by ' self ' and 
 ' selves ' in the nominative and objective cases, and by ' own ' in 
 the genitive or possessive case. Neither ' self ' nor ' own ' is a 
 pronoun when used alone ; but each becomes so by combination 
 with other forms. ' Own ' admits the genitive ' his,' ' my,' etc. ; 
 ' self ' admits both the genitive and the objective, ' myself,' 'Aim- 
 self,' ' tli em selves.' These forms moreover are of every case. 
 1 Himself ' and ' themselves ' must have been originally objective 
 forms, and the two parts of each word are in apposition. ' His- 
 self ' and ' theirselves ' are formed on the analogy of ' myself,' 
 ' yourself ' ; and though theoretically allowable, are not used. 
 1 Oneself ' and ' one's self ' are both accurate, though 'oneself ' is 
 the more usual form. In old English the forms ' me,' ' him,' 
 ' hem,', are used as objective reflexives : and sometimes ' self ' 
 is of both numbers : as ' ourself/ ' yourself,' etc. 
 
 221. These are called reflexive pronouns, because the thing of 
 
PEONOUNS : YOU, ONE, WHO, ETC. 183 
 
 Why so person spoken of is the same as the thing or person 
 called. denoted by the noun or pronoun. To make the genitive 
 case a possessive reflexive, ' own ' is inserted ; as, ' He was found 
 in his own garden.' 'Virtue is its own reward.' HOME'S 
 DOUGLAS. ' Myself,' 'himself,' etc., are also used in the nomi- 
 native as emphatic forms of the personal pronoun. 
 
 222. Sometimes e each ' and ' one ' are used with ' other,' and 
 have a reciprocal force : as, They liked one another, they were land 
 to each- other. ( One ' is in such sentences the nominative in 
 apposition to the pronoun, one the other. ' To each other,' is 
 ungrammatical though sanctioned by use. The Old English 
 and more accurate form is ' each to the other. ' 
 
 223. 'One' has a double origin. It is the numeral 'one;' and 
 , , , it is a form of the Norman-French indefinite, ' on ' = 
 
 ' mankind, people. The Saxon indefinite was 'man,' 
 as is the modern German, man sagt=on dit. This 'on' is an 
 abbreviation of 'homines' 'homines,' Fr. Whether the in- 
 definite ' one ' always represents the ' on ' of the French is not 
 agreed. The plural 'our little ones' may be from either form. 
 
 'Men,' 'people,' 'they,' are sometimes used as indefinites ; as 
 are 'it' and 'there,' when they stand for the rest of the sentence. 
 
 ' Any ' is a diminutive form of sen, and means ' any single 
 one.' ' Other ' is properly a form of the A. S. for ' second.' Its 
 termination indicates ' one of two. ' Hence, in 0. E. it has no 
 plural form though used collectively ' all other.' 'Each' is in 
 A. S. selc (ilka one of the Scotch), every. ' Whit,' as in the 
 phrase 'not a whit, 'means a bit of anything hence 'to whittle.' 
 'Aught' is a wiht, anything whatever ; and n' aught, nothing 
 whatever. A in & wiht is allied to the M. Gothic aiv, aye, ever. 
 
 224. ' Who,' and ' whoever,' and ' whosoever ' are generally 
 , relative or interrogative pronouns, but occasionally 
 
 ' they are used personally. They then answer to the 
 quis, oa-ris and 8s dv of the classic languages. 
 
 Most of the other indefinite pronouns may be reckoned among 
 adjectives, being often used to qualify nouns. They are often 
 used however alone, and for nouns. 
 
 225. Relative pronouns are pronouns which besides being sub- 
 
184 EELATIVE PEONOUNS. 
 
 Kelative stitutes for the names of persons and things, refer to 
 
 pronouns. son ie word or phrase in the sentence, and so connect 
 
 the parts of the sentence together ; as 
 
 'No people can be great, who have ceased to be virtuous.' JOHNSON. 
 ' I have found the sheep which was lost.' 
 ' He told me all things, whatever I did." 
 
 The word referred to is called the antecedent. 
 
 As relatives thus connect sentences, and English relatives have 
 no distinct forms for number or for the masculine and feminine 
 genders, it is often useful to substitute for 'who,' 'and he,' 'and 
 they,' etc. 
 
 226. English relative pronouns itt common use are three, 
 
 _ , 'who,' 'which,' and 'that'; and in occasional use, 
 
 Enumerated. , ' > . < i . > i * > 
 ' whoever, etc., ' what, and ' as. 
 
 ' Who ' and ' whoever ' are used of persons ; ' which ' is used 
 'Who,' generally of tilings ; ' that,' ' what,' and ' as,' of both, 
 which.' 'Which,' it may be noted, is properly an adjec- 
 tive wha-liks, 'whilk,' 'which thing I hate,' and therefore is 
 now indeclinable. It is not properly the neuter of who, and is 
 of all genders. Hence, ' Our Father which art in heaven ' is 
 grammatically accurate, and is regarded by some as more reve- 
 rential and less personal than ' who.' 
 
 'Of which' is the common genitive though 'whose' is some- 
 times used of neuter nouns : thus 
 
 ' We remember best those things ivJwse parts are methodically dis- 
 posed.' BEATTIE, ' Moral Science,' i. 69. 
 
 ' I could a tale unfold, whose lightest word ' etc. SHAESPEABE. 
 In favour of this usage, it may be said that the A. S. genitive of 
 ' what ' was ' hwaes,' the same as of ' who.' Still, as ' which ' is 
 the common neuter relative, and ' w-hat ' is discarded, ' whose ' 
 can hardly be used with propriety, except of persons ; i.e. except 
 as the genitive of 'who.' 
 
 ' That ' is properly a demonstrative, but is often used rela- 
 tively, both for 'who' and 'which.' The words, how- 
 ever, are not quite interchangeable. ' That ' is nearly 
 always restrictive and defining, as well as relative ; whereas 
 'who' and 'which' are relative only. Hence 'that' is less proper 
 after words that are already definitive proper names, for 
 
WHO, WHICH, THAT, INTEREOGATIVES. 185 
 
 example or nouns with ' this ' or ' that ' prefixed. Thus, 
 ' Men that grasp after riches are never satisfied. ' ' Men who are 
 themselves fallible should temper justice with mercy. ' ' There is 
 no condemnation to them that are in Jesus ; who walk,' etc. It 
 is obvious also that 'that ' is more euphonious than ' who,' and is 
 therefore preferable whenever there is no special emphasis on 
 the relative, and when the previous noun is not restricted. 
 
 It is observable that the connection between ' that ' and its 
 antecedent is closer than in the case of ' who.' Hence we cannot 
 say, ' The man of tliat I told you ' ; but only * The man that I 
 told you of.' Nor do we put a comma between that and its 
 antecedent, as is sometimes done with 'who.'' 
 
 227. In old English ' what ' is sometimes used for both ante- 
 ' Wh t ce ^ent and relative, and equals ' that which ' ; as, ' Tell 
 
 him what is to be done. ' Similarly, e that ' was often 
 used for ' that which,' as, ' We speak that we know ' ; and occa- 
 sionally 'who,' for ' he who,' as, 'I met I know not whom'; Le. 
 'some one whom I know not.' These words may be treated 
 either as compound relatives, expressing both relative and an- 
 tecedent, or as elliptical phrases. The sentences are best read 
 by pausing after ' that,' and before 'what,' i.e. by treating them 
 as antecedent and relative respectively ; as, ' We speak what 
 we know,' ' We testify that we have seen.' 
 
 ' As ' is sometimes used with the force of a relative, but 
 
 , requires as its antecedent some correlative form, 'such,' 
 
 ' as many,' ' the same. ' The use of ' as ' and ' so ' with 
 
 a pronominal force, is justified by analogous forms in the Gothic 
 
 languages. 
 
 228. Interrogative pronouns are those used in asking questions. 
 Jnterroga- They are 'who' when a person is indicated ; its neuter, 
 tiyeB. 'what,' when a thing is indicated ; ' which ' and ' whe- 
 ther,' when an individual person or thing is indicated out of two 
 (' whether') or more : as, ' Whether of them twain did the will 
 of his father 1 ' ' Which do you like best ? ' ' Which/ ' what/ and 
 'whether/ were all used in old English also as adjectives thus, 
 
 ' What time I ani afraid I will trust in thee,' 
 
 ' Unsure to whether side it would incline.' SPEXSEB. 
 
 The last is obsolete as an adjective, and nearly so as an inter- 
 rogative. 
 
186 PKONOUNS-ONE, SOME, THOSE, ETC. 
 
 229. 'This' and 'these,' 'that' and 'those,' which are 
 This,' demonstrative adjectives as well as pronouns, refer, the 
 ' these,' etc. former to something near the speaker, the latter to 
 something remote, as, 'This is Milton; that, Burke.' Some- 
 times the words are used not of objects as present to the senses, 
 but as introduced into the narrative ; as, ' When the Gentiles 
 heard this, they were glad.' 'For that is unprofitable for you.' 
 When two things already introduced are referred to, this indicates 
 the last named, that the first. ' Virtue and vice are before you ; 
 this leads to misery, that to peace.' This and that are both 
 used also to call attention to something about to be named. 
 ' That be far from thee, to slay the righteous with the wicked ' : 
 ' This I pray, that your love may abound yet more and more.' 
 
 It may be added that both the plural forms are more frequently 
 used without a noun, than is the singular. ' These are not 
 drunken, as ye suppose,' we can still say ; ' this ' and ' that ' 
 are generally adjectives, and reqiiire the noun. 
 
 ' Such ' is swalcik (M. G.), swilc (A. S.), soldi (Ger.), so-like. 
 ' Thilk ' is ' that ilk,' or that same ' Johnson of that Ilk,' i.e. 
 Johnson of Johnson Place. 
 
 230. As the pronominal force of several of these words has 
 been questioned, the following examples may serve to illustrate 
 it: 
 
 ' I have already undergone, he says, the worst sort of banishment a 
 liberal mind can suffer ; a total one from the heart and affections of all 
 good men.' MIDDLETON. 
 
 Johnson, however, deems this relative mode of speech, whether 
 singular or plural, as not very elegant, though used by ' good 
 authors.' 
 
 ' The only good on earth 
 Was pleasure, not to follow that was sin.' 
 
 ' Since Mr. Newton left, there is not in the kingdom a retirement more 
 absolutely such than ours.' COWPER. 
 
 ' He that abideth in Hie, and I in him, the same bringeth forth much 
 fruit.' JOHN xv. 6. 
 
 ' The work some praise, 
 And some the architect.' MILTON. 
 ' We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow, 
 Our wiser sons no doubt will think us so.' POPE. 
 ' A vulgar-spirited man worships men in place, and those only.' EA!;LK; 
 
ADVERBS. ADJECTIVES. 
 
 187 
 
 231. Compound forms, ' whoever/ 'whatever/ 'whichever* 
 (Whoever can it be? Whatever can he mean?), 'whosoever/ 
 'whatsoever/ 'whichsoever/ are in occasional use. ' Whoever' 
 and ' whosoever ' are declined like who. All are relatives (' Tell 
 him, whosoever he be '), and are pointedly indefinite, especially 
 the last three, and therein, the opposite of 'that.' The first 
 three are interrogative also, the word ' ever ' giving a wider and 
 less definite meaning to the question ; as, ' Whatever can have 
 happened ? ' 
 
 232. The following are adverbs formed from pronouns : 
 
 Root 
 form. 
 
 Place 
 where. 
 
 A dat. case. 
 
 Place 
 whence. 
 'An' (from) 
 and a gen. 
 
 Time when. 
 An ace. case. 
 
 Manner and 
 cause. 
 
 An abl. case. 
 
 Motion to 
 a place. 
 
 A comp. form. 
 
 He 
 The 
 Who 
 
 he-re 
 the-re 
 whe-re 
 
 he-nce 
 the-nce 
 whe-nce 
 
 the-n 
 whe-n 
 
 how 
 thus 
 wh-y 
 
 hi-ther 
 thi-ther 
 whi-ther 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 233. An adjective is a word intended to append a quality to a 
 noun, without formally asserting that the quality 
 belongs to it. 
 
 Defined. 
 
 234. Adjectives have been classified according to their forma- 
 Cl 'fied ^ on > as > pronominal('e#Aerway'),proper(' American'), 
 common (' white/ ' good '), participial (' an amusing 
 story '), and compound (' four-footed '). But this arrangement, 
 though more strictly grammatical, is less useful than another : 
 Adjectives refer to qualities that constitute differences, and 
 those qualities they are intended to indicate. We require, for 
 example, to mark out in a general way a thing from its class. 
 For this purpose we use the article ' a/ ' an/ or the 
 definite article ' the/ or the demonstrative ' this ' or 
 'that/ or the relative 'which' or 'what/ or the possessive 
 'mine/ 'hers,' etc. These are definitive, distinctive, or demon- 
 strative adjectives. 
 
 Or we require to mark the peculiarities of a thing by a 
 
 reference to its quality, or supposed quality. The 
 
 ' adjective may then describe the thing as without it 
 
 _ _ . t . 
 
188 ADJECTIVES CLASSIFIED. 
 
 ( { thoughtless '), as having in it a small degree (' reddish '), as 
 
 having it without reference to degree (' intelligent '), as having it 
 
 in a large degree (' truthful '), as imparting it (' pestiferous '), as 
 
 fit to excite it (' amiable '). These are 'qualitative adjectives.' 
 
 Or we require to distinguish things according to their number 
 
 Quantitative or <l uantit y> definitely (' ten '), indefinitely (< some'), 
 
 or distributively ( ( each '). These are ' quantitative 
 
 adjectives.' 
 
 235. TABLE OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 {An, a, the. 
 This, that, 
 Thine, ours, etc. 
 
 /Absence of a quality as Unfeeling 
 I A little of Eubescent. 
 
 ii. Qualitative, implying of *& 
 
 t Power of imparting Terrific. 
 V Fitness to excite , Pleasurable. 
 
 {Definite as Twei 
 
 Indefinite Few. 
 
 Distributive Each 
 
 236. As adjectives qualify nouns they are naturally of the 
 Adjectives same gender, number, and case as the nouns they 
 not now qualify. And so they are said to be in English. In 
 1C ' most languages this agreement is marked by the ter- 
 mination ; but in English all such terminations (except in ' this,' 
 ' these,' 'those ') have now disappeared. 
 
 Till the sixteenth century, however, and even later, we have 
 ancient forms : ' deare,' is an adjective plural from the A. S. , and 
 is very common in Chaucer. In some writers ' s ' was added to 
 the adjective when it followed a plural noun, as ' verbs actives :' 
 and in Shakspeare we have allermost, which is equal to ' most 
 of all,' a gen. pi. form. These are now all exceptional and 
 obsolete. 
 
 237. An adjective, in its simplest form, is said to be in the 
 Degrees of positive degree; i.e. it lays down or assigns the 
 comparison, quality without reference to the measure of it : as a 
 ' tall boy.' \\ 7 hen two objects or classes are compared and one 
 
COMPAEISON. ISO 
 
 is seen to possess a given quality in a higher degree than another, 
 the adjective is changed in form or receives a prefix to indicate 
 this fact, as ' the boy is taller than the girl ; ' ' this is the more 
 beautiful scene.' When more than two objects or classes are 
 compared, and one is seen to possess a given quality in a greater 
 degree than any or all of the rest, the adjective is said to be in 
 the superlative degree ; as in Pope's line on Bacon : ' The wisest, 
 greatest, meanest of mankind.' 
 
 Of course comparatives do not express the absolute degree in 
 which a quality exists, but only the relative degree ; nor do 
 superlatives generally. In some languages, however, the super- 
 lative is used to express absolute eminence; as 'plurimus,' in 
 Latin. This is also occasionally an English idiom, as ' my 
 dearest boy.' More commonly we use 'very ' with the positive. 
 In forms like ' the best possible world ' (Leibnitz), there is a 
 reference to other possible worlds with which the ' best possible ' 
 is compared. 
 
 It must be carefully noted that both comparatives and superla- 
 tives are applicable to classes as well as to particular things, as 
 'one of the upper ten thousand : ' 'a, most excellent man.' Hence 
 comparatives are sometimes used of many ; only of many re- 
 garded as a whole, the excepted being also regarded as a second 
 whole : and superlatives are applicable to several, as parts of a 
 class. Superlatives of eminence are explained probably on this 
 principle. 
 
 The measure of minuter differences between degrees of com- 
 parison is more fully denned by prefixing such words of quantity 
 as 'much/ 'far,' 'little,' 'somewhat:' or by appending 'still,' 
 'yet;' and the denial of difference by 'not,' 'no,' 'not at all,' etc., 
 with the comparative ; as ' he is a little better ; ' ' soon may he 
 be letter still;' ' that is much the lest;' ' she is no worse.' 
 
 238. The common form in English of the comparative is in 
 Form of ' ter, ' ' ther, ' or generally in ' er, ' the former akin to the 
 Comparative. Sanscrit : the latter from the same origin through 
 the A. S. (re), as far-ther, fur-ther (compare ei-ther) ; tall-er. 
 
 239. Superlatives have two forms, one in ' ema,' another in 
 Torm of ' est.' The former is akin to the Sans., and is found 
 Superlatives. on i v fa WO rds like for-m-ost, hind-m-ost, and perhaps 
 decim-us, and sept-im-us. The latter was in A. S. 'est'foradjec- 
 
190 ADJECTIVES COMPARISON. 
 
 tives, and 'ost' for adverbs, and is the common superlative 
 ending, as tall-est. 
 
 If the adjective ends in ' y,' the comparative and superlative 
 change the ' y ' into ' i ' before these suffixes, as holier, holiest. 
 If adjectives are of more than two syllables, comparatives and 
 superlatives are formed by placing ' more ' and ' most' before the 
 positive degree. Even words of two syllables often take this 
 form, and occasionally words of one, as 'more manly,' 'more 
 true.' Our older writers, however, never scrupled to affix ' er ' 
 and ' est ' to words of any length : hence ' virtuousest ' (Milton). 
 ' Honorablest ' (Bacon), etc. These forms are not now in use, 
 however ; partly because the words are not easily pronounced, 
 and partly because they are nearly all hybrids : English adjec- 
 tives of three syllables being most of them of classic origin ; and 
 ' er ' being an A. S. termination. 
 
 Another mode of expressing the superlative we have borrowed 
 from the Hebrew ; as Lord of lords. King of kings. 
 
 240. Adjectives indicating qualities which admit from their 
 
 nature of no variation, have, of course, no compara- 
 Adiectives ,. . i_ j ^ ? , . 
 
 which admit tives in common use. Such are definitive adjectives 
 
 nocompari- ('this,' 'that'), definite numeral adjectives; adjec- 
 tives formed from names of materials, of figures, of 
 time, and of persons or places ; together with all that in them- 
 selves express qualities of the highest or lowest degree : as 
 'twelve,' 'wooden,' 'circular,' 'daily,' 'Asiatic,' 'almighty,' 
 'continual,' 'dead/ 'empty," fluid,' 'human,' 'living,' 'perfect,' 
 ' perpetual,' etc. And yet some of these words, already super- 
 latives in sense, admit of a comparative or superlative form, as 
 'the extremest verge :' Shakspeare, Spenser, Addison ; 'the chief cst 
 of theherdmen ;' 'having a more perfect knowledge of that way." 
 English Scriptures. 
 
 These forms are owing to one of two facts ; either the adjective 
 in its positive form does not express the quality in the highest 
 degree (as when we say ' the house is fuller to-night '), or the 
 language is regarded as inadequate to express the intensity of the 
 thought, as in Milton'a lines, Par. Lost, iv. 76 
 
 ' And in the lowest depth a lower deep, 
 Still threatening to devour me, opens wide, 
 To which the hell I suffer eeems a heaven.' 
 
IEEEGULAB FOEMS. 191 
 
 It will be noticed that forms like 'most perfect' are inaccurate 
 in thought rather than in expression. ' Most wisest/ on the other 
 hand, is doubly inaccurate in thought and also in form. 
 
 Irregular 241. The following are irregular, and some of them 
 obsolete forms : 
 
 Bad wor-se (from positive A. S. weor wor-est, worst. 
 
 Sc. waur) 
 
 Good bett-er (from betan, to improve) best (bet-est). 
 
 Foro for-m-er (ema, and er) for-m-ost, for-est, 
 
 first, (a) 
 Far (feor) farther (more distant) far-th-est. 
 
 The ' th' is either part of the comp. or part of the root, par. 238. 
 Late lat-er, latt-er lat-est, last 
 
 Li Lit e .) (A " S> } Ut ' se ' less> Gess-er) (b) least (A. S. test). 
 
 Man-y (dim) (PI. of number ) , . 
 
 Much (ma or mo-c-el) (Sing, of quantity) j mo-re (c) mo-st. 
 Nigh (A. S, near (double comp. nearer) nearest, next (neahst 
 
 neah) nyhst). 
 
 ni , / elder, (A. S. seldr) elAest (A. S. ealdest). 
 
 { older (A. S. older, adverb) oldest (A. S. oldest adv.). 
 
 Out outer, utter outermost, utmost. 
 
 Eathe (early) rather, used as adverb, rathest (d). 
 
 Forms like in-m-ost, upper-m-ost, &c., are doubly superlative. 
 
 (a.) Compare Trpo, irporepos, irporaros, rrp&Tos : and pro or 
 pris, pri-or, pro-im-us, primus. 
 
 (b.) ' Lesser' is, of course, a double and somewhat barbarous 
 comparative, explained by the fact that 'worse ' and ' less ' 
 are the only comparative forms in ss or se. It is found, 
 however, in our best writers. 
 
 (c.) ' Many, more, most,' has as its opposite, few, fewer, 
 fewest ; ' much ' has as its opposite, little, less, least. 
 
 (d.) Common from the earliest times to the age of Milton. 
 
 242. The definitive adjectives in English are the articles, as 
 Definitive they are called, ' a ' or ' an ' and ' the,' the demonstra- 
 adjectives. tive adjectives ' this ' and ' that,' and the pronominal 
 adjectives ' mine,' ' ours,' etc. 
 
 243. ' A ' is called the indefinite article, because while it helP 3 
 The us to speak of some one of the things to which its 
 articles. noun refers, it does not indicate any particular thing, 
 
192 DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. ARTICLES. 
 
 as f aboy,' 'an orange.' 'The' is called definite because it 
 marks out from the class one particular thing or set of things, 
 as ' the boy/ ' the oranges : ' 
 
 ' The beginning of the end.' 
 
 Mids. Night's Dream, Prologue, and Talleyrand. 
 
 In English ' an ' or ' a ' is allied to ' one ' (Scotch ' ane '), as is 
 the indefinite article, ' un ' (Fr.), ' uno ' (Sp.), ' ein ' (Ger.). In 
 all European languages where it is found, the definite article is a 
 form of the demonstrative, ' the ' of ' this,' ' that ; ' as are ' il," le,' 
 ' lo ' of the Latin ' ille.' White both forms are strictly definitive, 
 they are less so than the numeral and demonstrative adjectives 
 from which they are taken : ' that ' is more definitive than ' the,' 
 and ' one ' is more definitive than ' an.' 
 
 ' An ' ought to be used before vowels, silent h, and the vowel- 
 sound of ' u ; ' as, ' In an epic poem, a writer ought to avoid 
 raising a simile on a low image ' (Kaimes). Yet authors, and 
 especially printers, are apt to insert ' an' before vocal 'h,'and 
 before the semivowel ' u,' as ' an historical sketch,' or ' an useful 
 subject.' This practice we must avoid. 
 
 244. ' The ' applies to either number, and ' a ' to the singular 
 
 only, except when it gives a collective meaning to un 
 with plural adjective and plural noun, as ' a few days,' ' a hundred 
 
 pounds.' 
 
 Prefixed to adjectives ' the ' often marks a class, so that they 
 may be treated as nouns ; as 
 
 ' The young are slaves to novelty ; the old, to custom. 
 'Tfte evil that men do lives after them, 
 The good is oft interred with their bones." SHAKS. Jul. Csea. 
 
 245. The place of the article is before the noun it qualifies, and 
 Place of the when an adjective is used, the article is inserted before 
 article. fa B ut ^fa < suc h,' ' S o,' ' all,' and ' many,' the article, 
 when used, is inserted after them ; ' such an event ; ' 'so sad a 
 disaster;' 'all the company;' 'many a time.' This last is a 
 kind of collective, and appears in old English as ' a many times.' 
 
 246. In phrases bike ' three times a year, a ' penny a pound,' 
 
 the article has a distributive force, and = each or every. 
 In ' all t he better,' ' the ' is an ablative form of the 
 
NUMEEALS, DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE. 193 
 
 demonstrative. ' To-day,' ' fo-morrow,' are generally regarded 
 as forms of the article, as in the ho-die of the Latin. ' The 
 day,' ' the morrow,' are still in use in some districts of England. 
 
 247. All the definite numerals are strictly adjectives, though 
 Definite some are occasionally used as nouns : ' a hundred,' 
 numerate, 'hundreds.' 
 
 248. Cardinal numbers show how many, as one, two, etc. ; 
 Cardinals, ordinals, in what order, as first, second, twenty-fifth ; 
 ordinals, etc. an( j multiplicatives show how many times one thing 
 exceeds another, as sim-ple, dou-ble, tri-ple, (i.e. sim. [sin-e 
 or /], plic-, du-plic-, tri-plic-), or in A.S. form, two-fold, three- 
 fold, etc. 
 
 249. The numeral adjectives from one to ten, are elementary 
 Ordinals, words : the rest are, as we have seen, compounds, 
 how fanned. The ordinals are all formed (except ' first ' and 
 ' second ') by adding th or its equivalent (' tha ' A. S.), a super- 
 lative ending probably, to the cardinals, as four-th ; thir-d 
 (A.S. thri-dda), is a euphonic form of thrith, an arrangement 
 of 'r' and 'i,' still found in Riding (thrid-ing) one of the 
 three divisions of Yorkshire. First is from fore-m-ost, and 
 second, * the following,' is from ' secundus ' of the Latin. 
 ' Other,' the A. S. for second, we have put to another use. 
 
 In compound ordinals, it is the last only that takes the 
 ordinal suffix, as 127th : one hundred-and-twenty-seventh. 
 
 In compound cardinals we say twenty-four, or four and 
 twenty ; but after a hundred the small number is always last, 
 as a hundred and twenty-four. 
 
 250. Phrases like ' the first-three,' and ' the three-first,' are 
 First -three, both accurate, but with different meanings; 'the 
 et<J - three first ' either means different firsts (as in 
 different classes), or it implies the removal of each first, so that 
 the second and third, each in order, become * first. ' ' The first 
 three,' is ordinarily the more accurate phrase ; only it implies 
 that there is a 'second three,' otherwise it is objectionable. 
 
 251. On-ly and al-one are forms of the definite numeral 
 On-ly, 'one.' 'Al-one' stands after its noun: 'only' 
 al-one, etc. generally after, except when the noun has an article 
 
194 ADJECTIVES, DEFINITE. 
 
 or a possessive pronoxin, as ' an only son.' Only means ' that 
 one' and not another ; alone, ' by oneself.' 
 
 252. N-one, and its abbreviated form n-o, are compounds of 
 N n, and one ; they differ as ' my ' and ' mine. ' Nona 
 
 is used without its noun, and at the end of the 
 sentence, thus, 'as to paper there is none.' Though derived 
 from ' one,' it represents either singular or plural nouns, and 
 is used as either singular or plural. 
 
 253. Indefinite numeral adjectives are such as ' all,' ' any,' 
 Indefinite ' enough,' ' some,' applied to number or quantity : 
 numerals. < certain/ ' divers/ ' few/ ' many/ f several/ applied 
 to number only. 
 
 254 'Any' (A.S. sen-ig) is a diminutive of 'one/ and was 
 ^peltinO. E. as it still is in Scotch, 'onie.' Hence its ex- 
 clusive force after words of negative meaning : ' without any 
 doubt ;' 'scarcely any one.' Hence also its comprehensiveness 
 in scripture promises, ' If any man believe he shall be saved.' 
 
 255. ' Enough ' (A. S. genoh) is sufficient : making ' enow ' 
 (in 0. E.) in the plural, and either follows or precedes its noun. 
 
 256. ' Some ' (A. S. sum) is either a pronoun or an adjective; 
 joined with numerals it often means about, as ' some ten years 
 since.' This is an old Saxon idiom. 
 
 257. 'Certain/ 'divers/ and 'several/ as indefinite adjec- 
 tives represent secondary meanings of the words. Certain is 
 an indefinite adjective, either singular or plural : ' a certain 
 man;' 'certain men of our company.' Divers and several, 
 are plural only. The primary meaning of ' certain ' and 
 ' divers ' is still in use ; that of several (' in a several house ') 
 is now nearly obsolete. 
 
 258. ' Few ' (A. S. f ea) is used with a plural noun, and yet 
 admits before it the indefinite article : ' a few names, even in 
 Sardis ' 
 
 ' Few/ it will be noticed = but few, if any. 
 
 ' A few ' = some, though not many. 
 
AND INDEFINITE. 195 
 
 ' Many ' (A. S. mani-g) is a diminutive, and is joined to a 
 plural noun, ' many times/ and with ' a ' intervening to a sin- 
 gular one, ' many a man ; ' or in O. E. with ' a ' before it, as 
 ' a many thousand French,' Shaksp. It is still so used with 
 ' great ' between, as ' a great many persons.' 
 
 259. Distributive adjectives denote objects, one, two, or 
 Distributive more taken separately, as 'each,' 'both,' 'either,' 
 adjectives. < ne ither,' 'another,' 'other,' 'every.' 
 
 260. 'Each' (A. S. se, i.e. one, and ilk, same) is applied to 
 one of two or more. 'Every' (ever and icli or ilk, i.e. all and 
 each), to one of three or more. 
 
 261. ' Bo-th ' (A. S. ba-twa) is made up of two forms of 
 ' two,' and is equal to 'two together.' 
 
 262. ' Either ' (A. S. a-ther, au-ther) is probably ' one ' and 
 the duality suffix ' ther : ' it means ' one or the other,' or 
 ' which of the two you please : ' it has also the meaning of 
 each, both, ' on either side of the river, was there the tree of 
 life.' 
 
 ' N-either ' is the negative form of either. 
 
 ' Other ' is a form of the same word, and means primarily one 
 of two, or one class of two, as ' an other. ' In modern English 
 it takes a plural form, as 'others.' In the phrase as 'other 
 men are,' it distinguishes them as a class from the speaker. 
 
 ' The other day ' (literally the third day past) means a day or 
 two ago, i.e. a few days ago. 'Another' is 'any other,' or 
 ' any one more : ' etymologically a redundant expression, like 
 each one, any one, etc. 
 
 263. Adverbial forms of these adjectives are of three 
 Adverbial classes : Those of time : how often twice, thrice, 
 forms. formerly twi-es, tliri-es, etc. ; four times, etc. : 
 
 Those of order, and those formed from qualitative adjectives 
 of manner, as first-ly, second-ly, wrong-ly : and 
 
 Those that mark distribution, as ' one by one,' ' by twos and 
 threes,' ' two at a time,' 'two apiece.' 
 
 Other forms common to adjectives and adverbs are examined 
 elsewhere. 
 
 2 
 
106 VEKBS CLASSIFIED. 
 
 VEBBS. 
 
 " They may talk as they will of the dead languages. Our auxiliary 
 verbs give us a power which the ancients, with all their varieties of 
 Mood and inflexion, never could attain." SOUTHEY (the Doctor). 
 
 264. A verb is a word that says or asserts something : 'being, 
 Verbs di n g> suffering;' 'being, act, state.' This is its 
 defined. essential quality. 
 
 The person or thing of which the assertion is made is called 
 the suljcct of the verb, as 
 
 ' brevity is the soul of wit.' SHAKSPEAKE. 
 ' The cause not the death makes the martyr.' BEN JONSON . 
 
 265. We may assert what the thing is, or what are its 
 Classified, qualities. Hence the old distinction of verbs sub- 
 and S adjcc- G ' stantive, and verbs adjective. Or we may assert 
 tive. what the subject does to something else, what is 
 done to it ; or in what state it exists or acts. Hence verbs are 
 ' active,' ' passive,' and ' neuter ; ' or better still, ' transitive and 
 Transitive active, transitive and passive, and intransitive, 
 Transitive' wne *her neuter or active. ' Transitive ' implies that 
 and passive, the act passes on to the object of the verb. 'Intransi- 
 . euter. _ ac tive verbs indicate action without an object ; 
 
 neuter verbs, a state ; as, he runs, he sleeps. f Active ' and 
 ' passive ' are best regarded as names of voices. ' Transitive ' 
 and ' intransitive,' as descriptions of verbs. All passive verbs 
 are of course transitive. 
 
 266. Many verbs are both transitive and intransitive ; and 
 some intransitives are made transitives by an appended preposi- 
 tion, as 'he broke the glass' (tr.), ' the glass broke ' (intr.), 
 * he laughed ' (intr.), ' he laughed at it ' (tr.). 
 
 287. In phrases like 
 
 ' They slept the sleep that knows no waking.' SCOTT. 
 ' Let me die the death of the righteous.' 
 
 Sleep and death are used adverbially, and are called cognate 
 accusatives. To ' sleep ' and to ' die ' are still regarded in 
 such phrases as intransitive and neuter verbs. 
 Yerbs which in the active voice govern two accusatives, one 
 
TEANSITIVE, INTRANSITIVE, REFLEXIVE. 197 
 
 of the person and the other of the thing, admit of a passive 
 form with the person as the subject, and the thing as an object; 
 thus, 'The ministry offered Mm the command of the Baltic 
 fleet.' 'He was offered the command of the Baltic fleet.' To 
 offer-the-command is a kind of compound verb with the passive 
 form, 'To be offered-the-command. ' This is also a well-known 
 classic construction. 
 
 268. When the same verb is in use in both an active and a 
 Active passive form ; ' active ' and 'passive ' are regarded as 
 passive, ' voices ' of the verb. Passive forms with active mean- 
 deponent. j Q g are ( d e p 0nen t s . ' a classic distinction. 
 
 Ordinarily the active form calls attention to the agent or subject 
 and the act ; the passive form to the object and the act : as 
 
 ' Paul wrote the Epistle to the Romans, A.D. 58.' 
 ' The Epistle to the Romans was written at Corinth.' 
 
 269. When the subject and the object of the verb are the same 
 . the verb is called reflexive : as, ' thou hast destroyed 
 
 ' thyself.' In modern English 'self' is added to the 
 pronoun to indicate this reflexive meaning. In O. E. the personal 
 pronouns ' him,' 'her,' ' hem ' (them), were soused ; as they still 
 are in forms like, ' I'll lay me down.' Sometimes the pronoun is 
 entirely omitted : as 
 
 ' It (the earth) does move though.' GAXILEO. 
 ' He turned (liimself) and spoke.' 
 
 Reflexive verbs may be thus divided : 
 
 L Reflexives, properly so called, where the agent acts on 
 himself, and the pronoun is emphatic : as, ' To examine 
 oneself. ' (1 Cor. xi. 28, so John viii. 54. ) In all such 
 cases the verbs are transitive, and are used tran- 
 sitively. 
 
 2. Reflexives composed of transitive verbs and an unempTialic 
 pronoun ; the whole having almost a neuter or intransi- 
 tive force : as, ' To recollect oneself. ' ' To boast one- 
 self.' (Psalm lii. 1.) ' To delight oneself .' ' To possess 
 oneself.' ' To fret oneself.' These answer to soina 
 Greek verbs in the middle voice. 
 
198 VERBS. MIDDLE, 
 
 3. Reflexives composed of verbs no longer transitive, though 
 originally so, and an unemphatic pronoun : as, ' I be- 
 thought me.' (1 Kings viii. 47.) 'Behave yourself,' 
 (O. E. ' Be-have,' to have firm, to restrain.) (1 Cor. 
 xiii. 5.) ' To betake oneself,' (A. S. and 0. E. ' Betake,' 
 to deliver to.) (Isaiah xiv. 32, marg.) 'To wallow 
 oneself,' (0. E. wallow, to roll.) (Jer. vi. 26.) 
 
 Many of the verbs in the second and third of these lists are 
 now used without the pronoun as simple transitives, e.g., 
 ' behave," fret,' < delight.' 
 
 Sometimes reflexive verbs are constructed with a double accusa- 
 tive : as, 'To feign oneself just.' (Luke xx. 20.) ' To think 
 oneself worthy.' (Luke vii. 7.) 
 
 270. Though these last may be called reflexives or active-in- 
 transitive verbs, there is a similar form of expression that 
 cannot be so explained ; a form in which we do not mark the 
 doing of an act by an agent, nor the suffering of an act by an 
 object, but something between the two : as 
 
 ' The message does not read well.' 
 
 ' A rose will smell as sweet by any other name.' SHAKSP. 
 
 'Honey tastes pleasant.' 
 
 And in Milton : 
 
 'England hears well abroad.' 
 
 Hence some have proposed a middle voice, to include such transi- 
 tive active verbs as express neither the act of an agent nor the 
 suffering of an object ; a convenient addition to our list ; though 
 the name is not felicitous, being already used in another sense in 
 Greek. If this middle voice be rejected, such forms as those 
 above given must be regarded as a kind of neuter passives. 
 
 271. When transitive active verbs are left without an object 
 Completion the sense is incomplete, as ' William killed Harold : ' 
 of predicate, the adding of the object 'Harold' is called the com- 
 pleting of the predicate, i.e. of the assertion. 
 
 Intransitive verbs require no object : and they are either active, 
 as, ' Time flies ; ' or inactive, as, ' He sleeps soundly. ' ' Inactive 
 
 This is also a Latinism (clurt). 
 
IMPERSONAL, AUXILIARY. 199 
 
 is also called 'neuter,' that is, neither active nor passive. 
 Neuter transitives are akin to the ' middle ' verbs of the 
 preceding paragraph. 
 
 272. When a verb has no grammatical subject it is said to be 
 Impersonal impersonal. The nearest approach to such forms in 
 verbs. English is in words like * methinks ' (A. S. thincan, 
 
 to seem, not thencan, to think) ; ' Us ought ' (Chaucer) ; ' him 
 listeth ' (lystan, to please). These, however, are not perfect 
 impersonals, for the nominative sentence generally follows. In 
 forms like ' it occurs to me that/ etc. , ' it ' is the nominative, 
 and stands for the sentence. 
 
 In some phrases the logical subject of the verb is not 
 expressed ; as, ' It strikes four.' ' It is all over with them.' 
 
 Auxiliary. 273. Auxiliary verbs are such as aid in forming 
 moods or tenses of principal verbs ; as ' have,' ' may,' 
 'will,' etc. 
 
 274. TABLE OF VERBS. 
 
 1. Active and transitive, as ' move the table.' \ Strictly 
 
 2. Passive and transitive, as let the table be } forms of 
 
 moved ' ) TerbB not 
 
 {.Transitive 1^ Ee flective and transitive, as ' move yourself .' _ kind9 ' 
 4. Middle, i.e. having both an active and a passive voice, 
 with a meaning between the two, as ' it tastes sweet.' 
 
 T * -ti f 1. Active and intransitive, ' run quickly.' 
 11. Intransitive | 2 Inactiye or neuter , iie still.' 
 
 iii. Auxiliary As 'do,' 'shall,' 'can.' 
 
 275. This classification of verbs is the most useful for syntax 
 Verbs classi- and composition. There are other classifications 
 
 fled according fa & t are important for other purposes : e. g. 
 to their form, * . , * 
 
 meaning, According to their forms they are 
 
 ori in - Regular, irregular, redundant, and defective : 
 
 regular, when the past tense and perfect participle are formed 
 by adding d or ed to the present, as love, loved, loved : irre- 
 gular, when the past tense and perfect participle are formed in 
 some other way, as see, saw, seen. The former are also called 
 ' weak verbs,' and the latter ' strong verbs.' They are re- 
 dundant when the past tense or perfect participle have more 
 than one form, as clothe, clad, or clothed : defective, when the 
 
200 VERBS, PEIMITIVE AND DERIVATIVE. 
 
 verb is used only in some tenses or moods, as, ' ought,' 'beware,' 
 'quoth.' 
 
 According to their meaning, they are, causative, inceptive, 
 frequentative,* etc. : as ' rise/ ' raise ' (to cause to rise) ; ' fall,' 
 ' fell ' (to make fall) ; to ' wake,' to ' grow white,' to ' blow,' to 
 bluster, to act, to agitate, to fear, to terrify. 
 
 According to their origin, they are primitive or derivative, 
 Saxon or classic. 
 
 Derivatives are formed from nouns, adjectives, and verbs. 
 A complete list may be seen in par. 142, and the four following 
 classes are important. 
 
 1. Those that are formed by adding ' en ' to adjectives : as 
 soften, whiten. They are generally Saxon in origin. 
 
 2. Transitive verbs formed from intransitives by changing the 
 vowel : fall, fell ; sit, set ; rise, raise, etc. b They are all Saxon. 
 
 3. Those formed from nouns by change of accent : as survey, 
 survey. They are all classic. And 
 
 4. By changing a sharp into a flat sound : as use, to use ; 
 breath, to breathe, etc. 
 
 276. The act or state which the verb asserts of its subject 
 
 Voice, mood mav ex i g t under various conditions, and present 
 
 tense, person, itself to the mind in various relations. The forms 
 
 r ' used to express these conditions and relations are 
 
 voice, mood, tense, person, and number. 
 
 The form of a verb which expresses what anything does is 
 called the active voice; the form which expresses anything done to 
 it is called the passive voice : as, I move, I am moved. All verbs 
 of the form of the active voice, whether transitive or intransi- 
 tive, if not defective, are conjugated like the active voice. Only 
 transitive verbs have a passive voice, and that is uniform in all 
 verbs. Every passive voice in English forms its tenses by means 
 of the verb 'to be ; ' though every form in which the verb ' to 
 be ' is found is not passive. 'I am writing/ is an active voice ; 
 
 Inceptive and frequentative verbs to be ever giving out that, to keep say- 
 are often happily expressed by old ing- (^aoxu, dictito). 
 English idioms; as to grow warm b Though all these transitive verbs 
 (calescere) ; to run to wood (silvescero) ; are O f Saxon origin they have <?nl y 
 to shoot up (to manhood), (adolescere) ; wea j preterites. 
 
MOODS, PARTICIPLES. 201 
 
 and ' lie is come ' is an active form of an intransitive verb. * He 
 has fallen ' is an active form, so is ' he is fallen. ' Whether, 
 therefore, the verb is passive or intransitive is decided not by 
 the presence of the auxiliary, but by the nature of the participle. 
 If the participle is passive, so also is the verb : if it is not pas- 
 sive, but only a perfect participle of an intransitive verb, neither 
 is the verb : as, He is arrived.* 
 
 277. An action or state may be asserted of a subject in 
 , different modes. The forms appropriate to each are 
 
 called the modes or moods of the verb. 
 
 The simple assertion that an' action is done, or has been, or 
 will be done, is made in the indicative mood. The form points 
 out a statement of actual fact. 
 
 If uncertainty or dependence on something else is expressed, 
 we use the conditional or subjunctive mood. 
 
 If the assertion is in the form of a command, we use the 
 imperative. 
 
 If we state what the action is, without affirming it of any one 
 or in any way limiting the idea it expresses, we use the infini- 
 tive, as, He told me (indicative) that he should be here (sub- 
 junctive) to sign (infinitive) the deed ; Go (imperative), see if he 
 be coming (subjunctive). 
 
 278. Besides these moods we have in English two participles, 
 
 one the imperfect or incomplete participle in 'ing,' 
 the other the perfect or complete participle generally 
 ending in ' d,' 'n,' or f t.' Sometimes the perfect participle 
 is called past, and the imperfect present, but this distinction 
 is not accurate. Both forms are used with words descriptive of 
 past, present, and future time. They rather describe what is 
 imperfect and what is complete. They are active or passive 
 according to the voice. They are of active or of passive form as 
 they end in ( ing,' or in ' d,' ' n,' ' t,' or some other passive 
 ending. 
 
 Hence we have as participial forms : 
 
 He is coining Pres. incomplete Intr. and active. 
 
 He was coming Past incomplete Intr. and active. 
 
 He is come Pres. complete Intr. and active. 
 
 Some would condemn such forms good English, are found in our best 
 and correct them thus' Ho has writers, and are defended by similar 
 come,' 'he has arrived ; ' but they are constructions in other languages. 
 
202 VERBS, INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 The house ii building * Pres. incomplete Trans, and middle or 
 
 passive. 
 
 The house was building Past incomplete Trans, and middle or 
 
 passive. 
 
 The house is built Pres. complete Trans, and passive. 
 
 279. The number of moods in English is a subject on which 
 Number of there has been much discussion. Some add to the 
 moods. foregoing a potential mood ' I can go;' an optative 
 mood, ' I would go ; * and some even suggest moods ' permissive/ 
 ' interrogative,' etc. If by ' mood ' is meant an alteration of form 
 in any verb, to express an altered relation in the assertion, then 
 we have traces of only four moods at most : as ' Thou lovest,' 
 1 Love thou,' If thou love, To love, or (in) loving : and these traces 
 are very imperfect, and are found only in certain tenses and 
 numbers. Traces of four we have, but traces of more than four 
 we have none. There is no verb that has any remnant of a 
 potential form, and all such phrases as * I can go,' are either 
 indicatives or subjunctives with an infinitive ' I can (to) go. ' 'If 
 thou can go.' Such moods belong entirely to syntax, not to ety- 
 mology. 
 
 280. The different forms of the indicative are given in 
 Indicative, par. 296. 
 
 281. The subjunctive mood is represented in English by a 
 Subjunctive distinct form of the verb, or by auxiliaries : as 
 forms. I am . (if) I be ; I was ; (if) I were." 
 
 When the forms of the first person singular and of the 
 plural are the same as in the indicative, the second and third 
 person always (except in ' wert ') drop the characteristic endings 
 ' st ' and ' s ' or ' eth,' as ' (if) thou write; ' ' (if) he write; ' ' (if) 
 
 Perhaps these incomplete passive, others where auxiliaries are found, 
 or middle forms are nouns, governed the auxiliary has no ending to indi- 
 by a suppressed preposition, ' in,' or cate the third person, as ' Cans ; ' and 
 a,' So in John ii. 20: 'Forty and six verbs that admit such an ending \vlieu 
 years was this temple in building ; ' used absolutely, drop it when used as 
 or 'abyldynge ' (Cranmer), 'abuyld- auxiliaries; as, 'they need not go,' 
 inge ' (Tyndale), 1 Kings vi. 7, 38 ; BO, 'he dare do it.' The omission of the 
 ' a preparing;' 1 Pet. iii. 20. 's' or' eth' seems in these cases 
 
 * ' lean go.' In this form, as in most euphonic. 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE. 203 
 
 he have written ;' ' (if) thou shall write ; ' ' though he slay me, 
 yet will I trust him.' 
 
 When auxiliary verbs are used, it is only by their endings 
 (or in the case of ' be,' by the form) or by qualifying words im- 
 plying doubt that we can distinguish the subjunctive from the 
 indicative. 
 
 The forms of the subjunctive for all persons are : 
 
 Perfect 
 
 Indef. Present. Continuous. Perfect. Continuous. 
 
 Pres. If thou write be writing have written have been writing. 
 
 Past If thou wrote were writing had written had been writing. 
 
 Fut. If thou should should be should have should have been 
 write writing written writing. 
 
 A future subjunctive is not found in A. S. , nor are grammarians 
 agreed in omitting 'st' in the second person of the other tenses. 
 But all the other tenses of the A. S. subjunctive omit the charac- 
 teristic endings of the second and third persons ; as indicative, 
 2nd person, Luf-ost, Lufod-est : subjunctive, all persons, Lufj'^e, 
 Lufode ; so that both analogy and clearness are in favour of the 
 omission. 
 
 282. By some authors this mood is called conjunctive, because 
 B generally preceded by a conjunction. But conjunc- 
 
 called con- tions are not always used ; nor do they in English 
 junctive.' necessarily govern a mood. Subjunctive or con- 
 ditional is therefore the more appropriate name. 
 
 And this quality of conditionality is the true guide both to the 
 accidence and to the syntax of the mood. If I mean to express 
 doubt, or to leave a question undecided, I use the subjunctive ; 
 but if no doubt or indecision is expressed, I use the indicative ; 
 as 
 
 ' If he is not guilty, a thing I do not question, you will be able to 
 
 prove it at the trial.' 
 'If he be guilty, a thing I doubt, or will not affirm, or cannot admit, 
 
 he belies his whole life.' 
 
 When the conjunction expresses or implies more uncertainty 
 than ' if ' the subjunctive is nearly always used : 
 ' Till he come ' (I know not when). 
 ' Unless he come (a thing I doubt) I cannot make out my caso. ' 
 
204 MOODS. IMPERATIVE, INFINITIVE. 
 
 283. The imperative mood is the mood used in commands, 
 
 entreaty, and cohortation. It has no past tense, rarely 
 ' a first person singular, and only softened forms of the 
 third person. By some writers, indeed, the last is regarded as a 
 future form. 
 
 Present. Future. 
 
 1st per. sing. Let me write PI. Write we, let\ Sing. PL 
 
 (as in, let me see). us write. f rn,, .t,.H -v ^oii 
 
 2nd per. Write thou. Write ye. [Thou shall Ye shall 
 
 3rd per. Let him write." Let them write. ) wnte ' 
 
 284. The infinitive mood describes the act of the verb without 
 The iniini- reference to an agent, and often without any indica- 
 tive - tion of time. It leaves nothing defined but the act ; 
 and hence its name. Its common sign in modern English is the 
 prefix ' to,' a prefix that belonged originally to the gerundial 
 form of the Saxon infinitive. Even in modern English, however, 
 this prefix is not always necessary ; and is generally omitted after 
 such verbs as ' may,' ' can,' ' shall,' ' will,' ' must,' ' let,' ' dare ' 
 (intr.), ' durst,' ' do,' ' bid,' ' make,' ' see,' ' hear,' ' feel,' ' need.' 
 
 In O. E. it was generally omitted after other verbs which now 
 require it, as 'constrain,' 'endure,' 'forbid,' ' ought,' 'vouchsafe.' 
 On the other hand, it was sometimes inserted after verbs which 
 do not now generally admit it, as 
 
 ' Make ua to walk.' JEE. TAYLOR. 
 
 Durst to wage ; ' 'Saw to roll.' SHAESPEAEE. 
 
 Infinitives 285. Besides the infinitive form with ' to,' we have 
 ** ' in -' a form in ' ing,' as 
 
 4 Honestly meeting difficulties is wiser than shunning them.' 
 'For compassing the king's death he was condemned.' 
 
 In both these examples the infinitive has the form of a noun, 
 and governs a case. In the first it is the subject of a verb. 
 This form must be carefully distinguished from the participle. 
 Infinitives define only the act : Participles ' partake ' of the 
 nature of a noun and a verb, and connect the act with an 
 agent. 
 
 286. Infinitives and participles are respectively like nouns and 
 
 'Come we now to his translation (Dunciad). Many writers deem the 
 of the Iliad.' POPE. second to be the only person in the 
 
 In poetry, 'Come he.' POPE imperative. 
 
INFINITIVES AND NOUNS. 205 
 
 adjectives. Infinitives resemble nouns, in the fact that they 
 infinitives, describe acts and states merely as things, i. e. as 
 participles) objects of perception or thought ; and that they can 
 tives a com- be m &de either the subject or the object of a verb, 
 pared. Participles resemble adjectives in attributing a quality 
 without formally asserting it, and in agreeing -with their nouns. 
 But they differ respectively in the following particulars : 
 
 The infinitive admits no plural form and rarely a possessive 
 genitive ; and it can govern an accusative case ; as 
 
 ' To put him to death, after giving a promise of pardon, is unjust.' 
 
 The participle, when formed from a transitive verb, can govern 
 an accusative, and then it generally stands after its noun. 
 
 Both infinitives and participles, moreover, admit modifying 
 forms, descriptive more or less of time ; as, 'to write,' 'to be 
 writing/ ' to have written ; ' ' coming,' ' come.' 
 
 287. These forms in ' ing ' suggest a remark of importance 
 Gerundial that there seems to be in English, as there was in 
 Infinitives. A. S., a gerundial infinitive, ending in 'ing,' or with 
 the prefix 'for to,' or 'to,' or 'a,' as 
 
 ' He has a strong passion for painting.' 
 
 ' What went ye out for to see ? ' 
 
 ' And fools who came to scoff, remained to pray.' GOLDSMITH. 
 
 ' I go a-fishing.' 
 
 These forms are thus distinguished from the simple infinitive 
 and from nouns and participles in 'ing.' 
 
 a. Infinitives are always either the subject or the object of a 
 verb, as ' To err is human : ' ' He told me to go. ' These 
 forms are found after intransitive and passive verbs. 
 
 ' Why run to meet what you would most avoid-' COITUS. 
 ' They were slain to make a Roman holiday.' 
 
 b. These gerundial forms are often connected with adjectives 
 or nouns, and apparently governed by them, as 
 
 ' Apt to teach.' 
 ' A time to build.' 
 ' A house to let.' 
 c Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast.' CONQEEVE. 
 
 ' To send a-begging ' is another of or even 'ge,' 'y,' 'i,' as in gcclep'd, 
 
 these phiases. The ' a ' has probably yclep'd, iclepd, or ' summer is i cumen 
 
 different origins, as ' at ;' 'a,' as in inn,' 
 awake ; ' on,' a common A. S. prefix ; 
 
206 COMMON AND GEEUNDIAL INFINITIVES. 
 
 c. If ending in ' ing,' they may be governed by a preposi- 
 tion, and themselves govern a case, as 
 
 ' He spent his fortune in educating his son for the bar.' 
 
 ' In making the map of a country, you learn its geography.' 
 
 The primary object of the gerundial form is to express purpose, 
 fitness, etc. 
 
 The distinction between the two meanings of the infinitive is 
 important, because they represent different A. S. forms, and are 
 differently expressed in the classic languages. The infinitive of 
 purpose is not generally expressed in Latin by an infinitive ; nor 
 is it in most idiomatic Greek. 
 
 288. These forms in ( ing,' participles, nouns, infinitives, and 
 Origin ef gerundial infinitives, are very liable to confusion. It 
 fusion^ mav ke useful therefore to point out their origin, 
 nouns in In A. S. the indefinite infinitive ended in ' an,' as 
 flnlfives and ' 'writ-an,' to write. The gerundial infinitive, really a 
 gerundials. dative case, ended in enne or anne, with ' to ' prefixed, 
 as ' to writenne : ' the imperfect participle in ende, ande (and in 
 0. E. aend, or and), as ( writende. ' From many verbs, moreover, 
 especially those with infinitives in ' ian,' a noun was formed in 
 ' ung,' indicating the act of the verb 'burg-ung.' The participle 
 was gradually changed into ' en ' and ' ing ; ' the two forms of the 
 infinitive it would seem were soon used loosely and interchange- 
 ably, till at length there came the confusion we are now attempt- 
 ing to explain : ' an,' ' enne,' 'ende,' ' ung,' have all taken the 
 form of ' ing,' and words with that ending are nouns, infinitives, 
 gerundial infinitives, or participles ; their precise character being 
 now ascertained only by their government. If simple nominatives, 
 they may be nouns ; if agreeing with nouns, they are partici- 
 ples ; if governed by prepositions and descriptive of acts not 
 qualities, and governing cases, they are certainly infinitives 
 either absolute or gerundial ; and if connected with words 
 descriptive of purpose, and still governing a case, they are true 
 gerundial forms. E. G. ' Seeing is believing ; ' nouns or infinitives : 
 ' Seeing the multitude lie went up into a mountain ;' a participle : 
 Seeing Christ and then believing is one degree of faith ; Relieving 
 in Christ without having seen him is another ;' infinitives : 'For 
 
TENSES. 
 
 207 
 
 seeing him, we require his bodily presence ; for Relieving it is 
 enough to have his word ; ' gerundial infinitives.* 
 
 289. ' Tense ' (from the Latin ' tempus,' through the French 
 Tense ' temps ') means time, and the word is used to mark 
 defined. that form of the verb which shows the time in which 
 an action is performed. 
 
 There are in English three tenses, answering to the three 
 T . divisions of time present, past, and future. In 
 
 A. S. there was no future, and hence arise many of 
 the anomalies of our language in the expression of future time. 
 All future forms in English are recent creations, out of such 
 materials as were at hand. 
 
 Comparing forms like ' I wrote,' and ' I was writing,' it is 
 Actual and evident that while both express past time they differ 
 continuous, jjj- [ ie duration they imply. Hence the distinctions 
 of ' actual ' time and ' essential ; ' the time at which, and the 
 time during which a thing is done. The first may be called past 
 indefinite, aorist, or actual ; the second is time continuous or 
 essential. 
 
 Table of 290. Putting this twofold form of time into tabular 
 Tenses. shape, we have the following result : 
 
 Indefi- 
 Time. nite. 
 
 Present I write 
 Past I wrote 
 
 Future I shall 
 wnte 
 
 Imperfect 
 Continuous. 
 
 I am writing 
 I was writing 
 
 I shall be 
 writing. 
 
 Perfect or 
 Complete. 
 
 I have written 
 I had written 
 
 I shall have 
 written 
 
 Perfect 
 Continuous. 
 
 I have been 
 writing 
 I had been 
 willing 
 I shall have 
 been writing. 
 
 Empha- 
 tic. 
 
 I do 
 write 
 I did 
 
 write 
 I shall 
 write 
 
 291. Besides the first four forms, some grammarians add the 
 Emphatic emphatic present, I do write, etc., and some add a 
 present, paulo-post-future or intentional form, both continuous 
 and perfect, as 
 
 Present I am going to write I have been going to write. 
 
 Past I was going to write I had been going to write. 
 
 Future I shall be going to write I shall have been going to write. 
 
 But perhaps the loss in simplicity caused by these additions is 
 greater than the gain in other respects ; nor is it quite accurate 
 
 See on this whole question ' The 
 Elenvnts of the English Language,' 
 
 by Ernest Adams, Lond. 1S58. 
 
203 TENSES : INDEFINITE AND CONTINUOUS. 
 
 to reckon the emphatic present as a new tense-form, when in 
 fact it denotes the same time as the indefinite. It is better to 
 say present indefinite, f I write/ or indefinite and emphatic, 
 'I do write.' 
 
 292. The indefinite tenses refer strictly to a point of time, and 
 Indefinite * single acts or habits without regard to duration, 
 tenses. They are the appropriate tenses for historical descrip- 
 tion, and answer, except the future, to the aorist of the Greek. 
 
 The following peculiarities of usage are important : 
 
 a. The present indefinite is used to express general truths, 
 
 as 
 
 1 He hastens to repent who decides too quickly ! ' 
 
 1 Light is the shadow of God.' PLATO. 
 
 b. Both the present and the past indefinite are used to 
 
 express habit, as 
 
 ' He writes a good hand.' 
 
 c. In animated narrative, the present is used to describe 
 
 past acts, as 
 
 ' Jesus saith to them, Give ye them to eat.' 
 
 d. The present indefinite is often used for a future, both 
 
 indefinite and perfect, as 
 
 Indef. ' Duncan comes to-night.' SHAZSPEAEE. 
 
 ' He returns to-morrow.' 
 This is the A.S. form of the future. 
 
 Perfect. ' When he arrives he will hear the news.' 
 ' When I have performed this I will come to you.' E.OSI. xv. 28. : 
 i.e., in Latin ' when I shall have performed.' 
 
 293. The imperfect continuous forms are so called because 
 Th . they express duration or continuance of time, and 
 feet continu- the unfinishedness (' imperfection ') of the act. They 
 ous tenses. are ca n e( j sometimes ' incomplete.' ' Continuous ' is 
 the name we need to describe their relation to time. 
 
 294. The perfects are present, past (called pluperfect), and 
 Perfect future. They all indicate that at a given time (pre- 
 tenses, sent, past, or future) the acts finish and are regarded 
 as then complete. That the perfect is a present is clear from 
 the fact that we cannot use it unless the act of which it speaks 
 Influence continues in itself or in its result to the present, as 
 referred to. < England has founded a great empire in the East, and 
 has inherited great responsibilities. ' We cannot say, ' Cromwell 
 has founded a feeble dynasty in England ; ' nor can we connect a 
 
PERFECT: PAST INDEFINITE. 209 
 
 present perfect with an adverb that expresses past time, as ' I 
 have seen him yesterday.' 
 
 The exact construction of the perfect is not certain. The 
 Form and A. S. has no ' perfect ' form. In the MSESO Gothic, to 
 tion. which it is so closely allied, a perfect with reduplicate 
 
 forms was common, as * slepa,' I sleep ; sa-slep, I have slept ; 
 haita, I call ; haihait, I have called. Such forms are also 
 common in Greek and Latin, and in the latter language they 
 often have, as in M.G., the sense of an indefinite past. No 
 such forms, however, are found in English, with the exception, 
 perhaps, of ' liight ' (called), < he'ht ' in O. E. (hecht, Scotch), 
 and ' did,' from do.* Our perfects are of an entirely different 
 origin. On the whole it is probable that in transitive verbs the 
 participle agrees with the object of the verb, as ' I have written 
 letters '= I have letters written (ace. pi.), and that in intransi- 
 tives the participle agrees with a suppressed pronoun, corres- 
 ponding to the subject of the verb, as 'he has come '= he has 
 himself come (ace. sing.). Such is a common form in Latin, in 
 A. Saxon, Italian, and French. Though this is the more 
 probable explanation, most grammarians regard ' I have written ' 
 as a perfect form of ' write,' not as a present form of have. 
 
 Note, that it is always the complete participle, not the past 
 tense, which is connected with ' have ' to form the perfect. 
 
 295. The past indefinite of verbs is formed by changing the 
 Form of vowel, as 'write,' 'wrote,' or by adding 'ed,' ' d,' or 
 definite" ' V to the root, as mended, free-d, spilt. 
 
 Some verbs have two forms of the modified vowel, as ' sang,' 
 ' sung.' These are from a similar double form in the A. S. As 
 forms of the past tense they are used indiscriminately, but the 
 perfect participle form is in ' u ' only. Our tendency is to 
 reserve ' a ' for the tense form and ' u ' for the participle, as 
 ' began,' ' begun ;' and this is now the almost uniform practice. 
 Though ' ed ' is the common form of the past tense and of the 
 perfect participle, yet as in conversation the ' e ' is often dropt, 
 the ' d ' becomes changed in pronunciation into ' t ' after sharp 
 mutes, as clipped (dipt), kissed (kist), reaped (reapt). 
 
 The attempt to revive in our own day the spelling ' reapt,' 
 
 Dr. Guest, Cam. Phil. Mus. ii. Micclit,' In Burns, Hence ' hcst ' and 
 A. S haetan, to say, or name. So ' behest,' for command. 
 
 P 
 
210 VERBS, TENSES. 
 
 ' wisht,' etc., is a failure, though these forma are common in 
 Milton, South, and others. 1 The change is of doubtful advan- 
 tage. It helps us indeed to pronounce 'reaped,' 'clipped,' etc., 
 but it tends to disconnect, by altered spelling, identical forms. 
 
 Besides these modes of forming the past tense, there are 
 other modes important though exceptional. 
 
 Some verbs in ' t' undergo no change, as ' let,' ' slit,' 'cost.' 
 Some of these forms have in A. S. and 0. E. ' strong ' forms, as 
 het-an, * let ; ' slit-an, * slat.' 
 
 Some verbs in 'd' change 'd' into ' t.' In every case a 
 liquid precedes the final letter, ' bend," ' bent ; ' ' gird,' ' girt.' 
 
 Some modify the vowel and add ' d,' as ' -will,' ' would ; ' 
 'tell,' 'told;' 'shall,' 'should.' In every case a liquid pre- 
 cedes the final consonant. 
 
 A few modify both the vowel and the final consonant and add 
 ' t :' as 'bring, brought;' 'buy, bought;' 'catch, caught ;' 'may, 
 might;' 'owe, ought;' 'seek, sought;' 'teach, taught ;' 'work, 
 worked, and wrought.' Here the gutterals g (y), k, and their 
 allied sounds, appear in the form ' gh. ' 
 
 A few verbs are abbreviated or defective : make, made (A. S. 
 mac-ode, 0. E. mak-cd) ; have, had (A.S. hsefde, O. E. hadde); 
 can, cou-l-d (A. S. Ic can, Ic cu-the), by a false analogy to 
 shouZ-d. Am, was ; go, went (past of ' wend '), are examples 
 of blended defectives, and so are irregular forms. ' Yode ' is 
 the 0. E. past tense of ' go ' : as ' gaed ' is a provincial and 
 Scotch form. 
 
 296. CONJUGATION OF A REGULAR VERB ACTIVE VOICE. 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 1. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 
 
 Indefinite I call, thou callest, he calls We, ye, they call. 
 
 Incomplete I am, thou art, he ia We, ye, they are calling. 
 
 calling. 
 
 Complete I have, thou hast, he has We, ye, they have called. 
 
 called. 
 
 Continuous I have, thou hast, he has We, ye, they have been 
 
 been calling. calling. 
 
 2. PAST TENSE. 
 
 Indefinite I called, thou calledst, he We, ye, they called. 
 
 called. 
 
 Incomplete I was, thou wast, he was We, ye, they were calling. 
 
 calling. 
 
 PhiL Mag. L WO. 
 
CONJUGATION. ACTIVE VOICE. 211 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Complete I had, thou hadst, he had We, ye, they had called. 
 
 called. 
 
 Continuous I had, thou hadst, he had We, ye, they had been 
 
 been calling. calling. 
 
 3. FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Indefinite I shall, thou wilt, he will We shall, ye will, they will 
 
 call. call. 
 
 Incomplete 1 shall, thou wilt, he will We shall, ye will, they will 
 
 be calling. be calling. 
 
 Complete I shall, thou wilt, he will We shall, ye will, they will 
 
 have called. have called. 
 
 Continuous I shall, thou wilt, he will We shall, ye will, they will 
 
 have been calling. have been calling, 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Present Call. Call. 
 
 Future Thou shalt, he shall call. Ye, they shall call. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 1. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 
 
 Indefinite (If) I, thou, he call. (If) we, ye, they call. 
 
 Incomplete (If) I, thou, he be calling. (If) we,ye,they be calling 
 Complete (If) I, thou, he have called. (If) we, ye, they have 
 
 called. 
 
 Continuous (If) I, thou, he have been (If) we, ye, they have 
 calling. been calling. 
 
 2. PAST TENSE. 
 
 Indefinite I, thou, he called. We, ye, they called. 
 
 Incomplete I, thou, he were calling. We, ye, they were calling. 
 
 Complete I, thou, he had called. We, ye, they had called. 
 
 Continuous I, thou, he had been call- We, ye, they had been 
 ing. calling. 
 
 3. FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Indefinite I, thou, he should call. We, ye, they should call; 
 
 Incomplete I, thou, he should be call- We, ye, they should be 
 
 ing. calling. 
 
 Complete I, thou, he should have We, ye, they should have 
 
 called. called. 
 
 Continuous I, thou, he should have We, ye, they should have 
 
 been calling. been calling. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Indefinite. (To) call. Complete. (To) have called. 
 
 Incomplete. (To) be calling. Continuous. (To)have been calling 
 
 Gerund. To call : (for) to call : calling. 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 Indefinite. Complete. Having called. 
 
 Incomplete. Calling. Continuous. Having been calling. 
 
 P 2 
 
212 CONJUGATION PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 CONJUGATION o? A KEQULAB VERB PASSIVE VOICB. 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 1. PBESENT TENSE. 
 
 Indefinite. I am called. Complete. I have been called. 
 
 Incomplete. I ain being called. Continuous. 
 
 2. PAST TENSE. 
 
 Indefinite. I was called. Complete. I had been called. 
 Incomplete. I was being called. Continuous. 
 
 3. FUTUBE TENSB. 
 
 Indefinite. I shall be called. Complete. I shall have been. 
 Incomplete, Continuous. 
 
 IMTEBATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present, Sing. Be called. PI. Be called. 
 
 Future. Thou shalt, ye shall You, they shall be called. 
 be called. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 1. PEESENT TENSE. 
 
 Indefinite. I be called. Complete. I have been called. 
 
 Incomplete, Continuous, 
 
 2. PAST TENSE. 
 
 Indefinite. I were called. Complete. I had been called, 
 Incomplete. I were being called. Continuous. 
 
 3. FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Indefinite. I should be called. Complete. I should have been. 
 Incomplete. Continuous, 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Indefinite. (To) be called. Compkte.-(To) have been called 
 
 Incomplete. Continuous, 
 
 PAETICIPLB. 
 
 Indefinite. Being called. Complete. Having been called. 
 Incomplete. Continuous. 
 
 The reader will himself supply the forms for different persons 
 in the passive voice. They are all taken from the verbs 'to be' 
 and 'to have :' I am, thou art, he is, we, ye, they are; I was, 
 thou wast, he was, ive, ye, they were. If I, thou, he le ; If 
 I, thou, he were: I have, tk-ou hast, he has;, we, ye, they have; 
 if I, thou, he have ; if I, thou, he had. 
 
 It will be seen that the passive voice has no distinct continuous 
 form ; the incomplete form ' I am being called ' answering both 
 purposes. Nor is the incomplete form * I shall be being called,' 
 (if) ' I be being called ' in use for the indicative future or 
 subjunctive present. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS CLASSIFIED. 
 
 213 
 
 The past indefinite and the perfect participle of weak verbs are 
 alike. In many strong verbs they are alike. How and when 
 they differ may be gathered from the following Tables. 
 
 Irregular 
 verbs. 
 How 
 classed. 
 
 297. Irregular verbs are often divided into ten or twelve 
 classes, according to the vowel-changes they un- 
 dergo ; the division into three classes such as have 
 one form only for the present, past indefinite, and 
 perfect participle ; such as have two distinct forms, 
 and such as have three ; is for practical purposes the most con- 
 venient : 
 
 1. Those which have only one form for the present tense, the 
 past tense, and complete participle. They are the following : 
 
 Present. Past. 
 
 Burst burst 
 
 Cast cast 
 
 Cost cost 
 
 Cut cut (O. E. kitte' 
 
 Hit hit 
 
 Hurt hurt 
 
 Let let 
 
 Put put 
 
 Kid rid 
 
 Set set 
 
 Shred shred 
 
 Shut shut (O. E. shette) 
 
 Slit slit (0. E. slat) 
 
 Split split 
 
 Spread spread 
 
 Sweat sweat (0. E. swatte) 
 
 Thrust thrust 
 
 Comp. Participle, 
 burst, 
 cast, 
 cost, 
 cut. 
 hit. 
 hurt, 
 let. 
 put. 
 rid. 
 set. 
 shred, 
 shu* 
 slit, 
 split, 
 spread. 
 
 sweat, ' sweaten,' Sh. 
 thrust. 
 
 2. Those which have two distinct f(<rrns for the present, 
 past indefinite, and perfect participle of the verb : they are the 
 following : 
 
 Present. 
 Abide 
 Awake 
 Beat 
 Behold 
 Bend 
 Bereave 
 Beseech 
 Bind 
 Bleed 
 Bless 
 
 Past. 
 abode 
 
 awaked or awoke 
 beat 
 beheld 
 bent 
 bereft 
 besought 
 
 bound (O. E. bend) 
 bled 
 blessed or blest 
 
 Comp. Participle. 
 abode, 
 awaked, 
 beaten, 
 beheld. 
 
 bent (O. E. bended), 
 bereft, 
 besought, 
 bound, 
 bled, 
 blessed. 
 
214 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Comp. Participle. 
 
 Breed 
 
 bred 
 
 bred. 
 
 Bring 
 
 brought 
 
 brought. 
 
 Build 
 
 built 
 
 built. 
 
 Burn 
 
 burned or burnt 
 
 burnt. 
 
 Buy 
 
 bought 
 
 bought. 
 
 Catch 
 
 caught 
 
 caught. 
 
 Cling 
 
 clung 
 
 clung. 
 
 Coma 
 
 came 
 
 come. 
 
 Creep 
 Curse 
 
 crept 
 cursed or curst 
 
 crept (0. E. cropen). 
 cursed or curst. 
 
 Dare (transitive) 
 Deal 
 
 dared 
 dealt 
 
 dared, 
 dealt. 
 
 Delve 
 
 delved (O. E. dolf) 
 
 delved. 
 
 Dig 
 
 dug (0. E. digged) 
 
 dag. 
 
 Feed 
 
 fed 
 
 fed. 
 
 Peel 
 
 felt 
 
 felt. 
 
 Fight 
 
 fought 
 
 fought (O. E. 
 
 Find 
 Flee 
 
 found (O. E. fand) 
 fled (O. E. fley) ' 
 
 found. [foughten). 
 fled. 
 
 Fling 
 
 flung (0. E. flang) 
 
 flung. 
 
 Get (and forget) 
 Grind 
 
 got (O. E. gat) 
 ground (O. E. griiite) 
 
 got (O. E. goten). 
 ground. 
 
 Hang (transitive) 
 Hear 
 
 hanged or hung 
 heard 
 
 hanged or hung, 
 heard. 
 
 JHing (O. E. in- 
 
 hang 
 
 hung.] 
 
 transitive) 
 
 
 
 Hold 
 
 held 
 
 held (O. E. holdcn). 
 
 Keep 
 
 kept (0. E. kep) 
 
 kept. 
 
 Knit 
 
 knitted or knit (O. E. 
 
 knitted or knit. 
 
 Lay 
 
 laid [knot) 
 
 laid. 
 
 Lead 
 
 led (0. E. ladde) 
 
 led. 
 
 Leave 
 
 left 
 
 left. 
 
 Lend 
 
 lent 
 
 lent. 
 
 Load 
 
 loaded 
 
 loaded (loaden or 
 
 
 
 laden.) 
 
 Lose 
 
 lost 
 
 lost. 
 
 Make 
 
 made (O. E. makode) 
 
 made. 
 
 Meet 
 
 met 
 
 met. 
 
 Pay 
 
 paid 
 
 paid. 
 
 Head 
 
 read 
 
 read. 
 
 Bend 
 
 rent 
 
 rent. 
 
 Bun 
 
 ran 
 
 run. 
 
 Saw 
 
 sawed 
 
 sawed or sawn. 
 
 Say 
 
 said 
 
 said. 
 
 Seek 
 
 sought 
 
 sought. 
 
 Sell 
 
 sold 
 
 sold. 
 
 Send 
 
 sent 
 
 sent. 
 
 Shine 
 
 shone 
 
 shone. 
 
 These forms in ' a are obsolete, 
 nd were generally used in O. E. for 
 
 the singular ; the plural having u, as 
 lo /ana. We fundon. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 215 
 
 Present. Past* 
 
 Shoe shod 
 
 Shoot shot 
 
 Sit sat 
 
 Sleep slept 
 
 Slide slid 
 
 Sling slung (0. E. slang) 
 
 Speed sped 
 
 Spend spent 
 
 Spill spilt 
 
 Stand stood (O. E. stond) 
 
 Stick stuck (O. E. stacke) 
 
 Sting stung (O. E. stang) 
 
 Strike struck (O. E. strook) 
 
 String strung 
 
 Swing swung (0. E. swang) < 
 
 Teach taught 
 
 Tell told 
 
 Think thought 
 
 Weep wept (O. E. wep) 
 
 Win won (O. E. wan) 
 
 Wind wound 
 
 Wring wrung (0. E. wxang) ' 
 
 Comp, Participle. 
 
 shod. 
 
 shot. 
 
 sat. 
 
 slept. 
 
 slid. 
 
 slung. 
 
 sped. 
 
 spent. 
 
 spilt. 
 
 stood. 
 
 stuck. 
 
 stung. 
 
 struck or stricken. 
 
 strung. 
 
 swung. 
 
 taught. 
 
 told. 
 
 thought. 
 
 wept (0. E. wopen). 
 
 won. 
 
 wound. 
 
 wrung. 
 
 3. Those which have three distinct forms for the above-men- 
 tioned parts of the verb : they are the following : 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Comp. Participle. 
 
 Arise 
 
 arose 
 
 arisen. 
 
 Bear, to carry 
 
 bore or bare 
 
 borne. 
 
 Bear, to briny 
 
 bore, bare 
 
 born. 
 
 forth 
 
 
 
 Begin 
 
 began 
 
 begun. 
 
 Bid 
 
 bid, bade (O. E. bode) 
 
 bidden. 
 
 Bite - 
 
 bit (O. E. bote) 
 
 bitten or bit. 
 
 Blow 
 
 blew 
 
 blown. 
 
 Break 
 
 broke (0. E. brake) 
 
 broken. 
 
 Chido 
 
 chid (O. E. chode) 
 
 chidden. 
 
 Choose 
 
 chose (O. E. chese) 
 
 chosen. 
 
 Cleave, to cling 
 
 clave, cleaved 
 
 cleaved. 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 Cleave, to split 
 
 cleft or clove 
 
 cleft or cloven. 
 
 Clothe 
 
 clothed 
 
 clad or clothed, 
 
 Crow 
 
 crew 
 
 crowed. 
 
 Dare, to venture 
 
 durst or dared 
 
 dared. 
 
 Do 
 
 did 
 
 done. 
 
 Draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn. 
 
 Dress 
 
 dressed 
 
 drest. 
 
 Drink 
 
 drank 
 
 drunk. 
 
 Drive 
 
 drove 
 
 driven. 
 
 See previous note. 
 
216 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Gimp. Pitrticipls. 
 
 Eat 
 
 ate 
 
 eaten. 
 
 Fall 
 
 fell 
 
 fallen. 
 
 Fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown. 
 
 Forsake 
 
 forsook 
 
 forsaken. 
 
 Freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen. 
 
 Freight 
 
 freighted 
 
 freighted, fraught 
 
 
 
 (figurative only). 
 
 Give 
 Grave 
 
 gave (O. E. gove) 
 graved (O. E. grove) 
 
 given (O. E. goven) 
 graven. 
 
 Grow 
 
 grew 
 
 grown. 
 
 Hew 
 
 hewed 
 
 hewn. 
 
 Hide 
 
 hid 
 
 hidden or hid. 
 
 Know 
 
 knew 
 
 known. 
 
 Load 
 
 loaded 
 
 loaded, loaden or 
 
 
 
 laden. 
 
 Lie 
 
 lay 
 
 lain. 
 
 Mow 
 
 mowed (0. E. mew) 
 
 mown. 
 
 Bide 
 
 rode 
 
 ridden. 
 
 Eing 
 
 rang* 
 
 rung. 
 
 Bise 
 
 rose 
 
 risen. 
 
 Bive 
 
 rived 
 
 riven. 
 
 See 
 
 saw (O. E. soy) 
 
 seen. 
 
 Seethe 
 
 seethed (0. E. sod) 
 
 sodden or seethed. 
 
 Sew 
 
 sewed 
 
 sewn. 
 
 Shake 
 
 shook 
 
 shaken. 
 
 Shape 
 Shave 
 
 shaped (0. E. shope) 
 shaved 
 
 shapen or shaped, 
 shaven. 
 
 Shear 
 
 sheared (0. E. shore) 
 
 shorn or sheared. 
 
 Show 
 
 showed 
 
 shown. 
 
 Shrink 
 
 shrank * 
 
 shrunk or -en. 
 
 is 
 
 sang 
 sank 
 
 sung, 
 sunk. 
 
 Slay 
 Slink 
 
 slew (0. E. slee) 
 slank 
 
 slain, 
 slunk. 
 
 Smite 
 
 smote 
 
 smitten. 
 
 Sow 
 
 sowed 
 
 sown or sowed. 
 
 Speak 
 
 spoke 
 
 spoken. 
 
 Spin 
 
 span or spun 
 
 spun. 
 
 Spit 
 
 spat 
 
 spit. 
 
 Spring 
 
 sprang 
 
 sprung. 
 
 Steal 
 
 stole 
 
 stolen. 
 
 Stink 
 
 stank, stunk 
 
 stunk. 
 
 Stride 
 
 strode 
 
 stridden. 
 
 Strive 
 
 strove 
 
 striven. 
 
 Strew or strow 
 
 strewed or strowed 
 
 strown or strewed. 
 
 Swear 
 
 swore (O. E. sware) 
 
 sworn. 
 
 This Is the modern form of the 
 preterite of these verbs; as it -was 
 the early form. In the Bible, in Mil- 
 ton, and in writers of the eighteenth 
 century, the preterite ln is common. 
 
 Where a and u arc both found, our 
 
 E resent tendency is to use a ('sang') 
 OT the preterite, and u (' sung ') for 
 the participle. 
 
WEAK AND STRONG VERBS. 217 
 
 Present. Past. Camp. Participle. 
 
 Swell swelled swollen or swoln (so in 
 
 O.E. 'molten,' ' unwashen.') 
 
 Swim swam swum. 
 
 Take took taken. 
 
 Tear tore (O.E. tear) torn. 
 
 Thrive throve thriven. 
 
 Throw thraw thrown. 
 
 Tread trod (0. E. trad) trodden. 
 
 Wax waxed (O. E. wox) waxen. 
 
 Wear wore (0. E. ware) worn. 
 
 Weave wove woven. 
 
 Write wrote written. 
 
 299. For many years it was customary among grammarians 
 'Weak' and ^ ca ^ forms like ' killed ' and ' wrote ' regular and 
 'strong 1 irregular. Becker uses the terms 'modern* and 
 
 'ancient;' Grimm, 'weak' and 'strong.' These 
 last are the terms now in most frequent use ; and verbs are 
 classified accordingly. 
 
 300. It has been said already that the Anglo-Saxon had no 
 The future ^ u * ure f rm > nor have most of the Teutonic tongues. 
 
 We are therefore dependent for our future tenses 
 on auxiliary verbs, which have already a distinct meaning, and 
 some of them a very decided meaning ; a meaning, moreover, 
 Origin of the closely connected with constraint and volition. 
 onh"^ 11 ^ 3 ' Shall,' for example, is from a verb that probably 
 lish future means to ' owe ; ' so Chaucer uses it, ' For by the 
 faithe, I shall to God.' 'Will,' again, expresses 
 volition as, ' If any man will do his will ' (JOHN vii. 17). 
 ' Thou who art the author of life canst restore it if thou will' si \ 
 but whether thou wilt please to restore it or not thou alone 
 knowest ' (ATTERBUKY). Hence the right use of these words 
 often seems beset with inextricable difficulties. 
 
 Not that tense forms for future time would necessarily free us 
 from the ambiguity which distinct words involve ; on the con- 
 trary, tense forms are themselves often parts of distinct words, 
 as am-abo, j'amier-a* (probably from hdbeo), scrib-am (amo), 
 facturus (factum ire), etc. ; only in using distinct words we aim 
 at greater precision and require greater nicety. 
 
 The general principle on which futures are formed seems 
 this : words that describe nearneso, with or without motion; 
 
218 THK FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 what we are thinking of doing, what we are becoming (weordan, 
 A. S., 'werden,' Ger.), what we have to do, what we must or 
 should do, what we like to do, what we are left free to do may 
 all be used to express future time, and they are so used in one 
 or more of the languages of Europe. He is near death ; he is 
 about to marry ; he is going to travel ; what are we becoming ? 
 it means to rain to-day ; we must go ; well, let us go ; we have 
 to go ; we shall go to-morrow ; he will set out to-day ; are all 
 future forms, expressing futurity with some added thought. 
 When used as futures, the added thought is dropped and the 
 idea of futurity alone remains.* 
 
 * Shall ' is the oldest English form of the future, and is 
 English always used, except where it would be ambiguous, 
 idioms.- p ne following are our idioms in direct sentences : 
 
 ' I shall : ' * thou wilt : ' 'he will : ' ' we shall : ' ' ye will : ' 
 4 they will : ' ' shall I ? ' ' shalt thou ? ' ' will he ? ' ' shall we ? ' 
 ' shall you ? ' ' will they ? ' That is, ' shall ' in the second and 
 third persons might imply constraint. ' Will ' as addressed to 
 another is no strong assertion of volition, even if it assert it at 
 all. * Shalt thou ' can imply no constraint and is simply 
 future. 'Wilt thou' is ambiguous. 'Will he,' spoken of a 
 third person is less ambiguous than ' shall,' as this last implies 
 constraint or permission exercised by the person addressed. 
 
 If by some other word constraint is denied, ' shall ' can be 
 used of the third person, as : 
 'Let all such as shall be religiously disposed,' etc. COMMUNION SERVICE. 
 
 In indirect sentences our idiom is more complex : 
 (1.) ' I tell you I shall be there.' (2.) 'You tell me you shall 
 be there.' (3.) ' He hopes he shall be there.' (4.) 'I hope you 
 will be there.' (5.) 'I will take care he shall have his share of 
 
 In the Romance languages the have is used as a distinct verb for 
 
 future is formed by means of habeo : future time. In the Mseso-Gothic 
 
 thus Gospels the verb haban, to have, is 
 
 Italian. Provencal. French. Spanish, similarly used, John xii. 20 ; John vi. 
 
 ho (I have) ai ai he 6, 71. 
 
 amcr-6 amar-ai aimer-ai amar-e" So completely is the suffix a distinct 
 
 perder-6 perder-ai perdr-ai perder-e word, that in some languages, the 
 
 sentir-b sentir-ai sentir-ai sentir-e" Portuguese for example, the suffix may 
 
 See Rt. Hon. Sir G. C. Lewis' Essay be separated and an oblique case be 
 
 on the Romance Languages, p. 196. inserted between it and the root : as 
 
 In all these cases the verb (to have) dar-lhe-hei, i.e. give him I will. Sea 
 
 is used as a suffix. In the Spanish, Marsh's Lectures, p. 336, and Sir E. 
 
 Provencal, and Portuguese languages, Head on Shall and Will, p. 91. 
 
HOW FAR 'ETHICAL.' 219 
 
 the prize. ' (6. ) ' I told him he should have it. ' 'I believe he will 
 live.' ' He himself fears he shall die.' 
 
 In (2) shall is used, because from the context unambiguous ; 
 ' will ' would imply volition. So in (3). In (4) ' shall ' would 
 hint ' a threat,' and though ' will ' is not free from ambiguity, it 
 is not discourteous. In (5) 'shall' would be ambiguous, but the 
 context frees it from discourtesy. ( I can of course affirm nothing 
 of what he will have.' We say, however, 'I hope he will:' 
 as ' shall ' would in such a context be ambiguous. It will be 
 seen from these examples that ' shall ' is resumed in the second 
 and third persons when the subject of the future verb is also the 
 siibject of the sentence or when it is clear that the speaker 
 is in the interest of the person spoken of. ' Shall ' is then the 
 simple future form, because unambiguous. 
 
 ' If he should go,' ' whenever he shall come ; ' * lest he should 
 die.' In all these forms we use ' shall,' because all idea of con- 
 straint is excluded by the context. Only let the sentence be 
 hypothetical or indefinite, and ( shall ' is retained in all persons. 
 
 301. In Scripture ' shall ' is a common form of the future, 
 Scripture where if we were speaking of l earthly things,' ' will ' 
 usage. would be more suitable. It is applied to God, because 
 every idea of constraint is by the nature of the case excluded ; 
 and it is applied to his purposes, to the operation of his laws, and 
 the fulfilment of his truth, because a human ' .will ' is not in 
 such cases the originating or controlling cause ; thus, ' Thou shalt 
 endure, and thy years shall not change : ' ' The righteous sJiall 
 hold on his way, and he that hath clean hands shall wax 
 stronger and stronger. ' Of course these ' shalls ' are sometimes 
 wrongly emphasized, and are liable to be mistaken. But they 
 are less ambiguous than f will ' would be. They are to be read 
 without emphasis, except when found in commands, or when 
 representing verbs which imply obligation. They are simply 
 future forms, intimating that the thing will be. Regular futures 
 uninfluenced in form by human fears or courtesies or doubts, 
 they may be called. 
 
 Archdeacon Hare, after Jacob Grimm, explains our rule as to 
 the future on ethical grounds. ' When speaking in the first per- 
 son we speak submissively, when speaking of another, we speak 
 courteously,' Phil. Mus. ii. p. 219. Yet ' I shall ' is often as pre- 
 
220 PECULIAR USE OF < WILL,' ' SHOULD,' ETC. 
 
 sumptuous as 'I will : ' and 'you shall have it/ is as courteous as 
 ' you will. ' There is no doubt some truth in the explanation, but 
 it is not all the truth. Certain forms seem preferred, sometimes, 
 because they are submissive and courteous ; but oftener because 
 they say most exactly just what we mean, and, under the con- 
 ditions of the sentence, no more ; or if not, are least ambiguous. 
 
 302. Other meanings of * shall ' and f will,' with the forms 
 Other mean- 'should ' an< i ' would,' we must indicate, 
 inffs of shall, ' Will/ in the first person, expresses futurity and 
 will, etc. volition. ' Shall,' in the second and third persons, 
 futurity, duty or threatening, constraint or promise. This is the 
 rule in independent sentences. 
 
 * Will ' is sometimes used to give a command in courteous 
 terms, as, ' on receiving this letter you will at once ' 
 
 Both ' will ' and ' shall ' are used to express a result to which 
 the mind has been coming, as an inference from facts, as, ' this 
 will be the son of Auchinlech ; ' i.e. facts are leading to that 
 conclusion ; so ' shall ' is used in some sentences. (See Sir E. W. 
 Head, on Shall and Will, p. 26.) 
 
 Sometimes the idea and inclination in ' will ' is dropped and the 
 habitual action to which inclination leads is made the chief 
 thought. ' He will (or would) spend hours together in their 
 company.' This is a common Hebrew form. 
 
 ' Would ' and ' should ' were both A. S. imperfect indicatives, 
 as well as subjunctives ; and as the imperfect expresses incom- 
 pleteness, both forms are used as softened modest expressions 
 of opinion, or of an actual wish ; as, ' I would that : ' ' would 
 God that,' i. e. if it might please God that, Deut. xxviii. 67, 
 1 Cor. iv. 8. 'I should think so/ i.'e. but for my deference for 
 your judgment, or the difficulties of the case : similarly, ' it 
 would seem so. ' 
 
 ' Should ' is used to express a future, dependent on a past 
 tense, and when the event is under our control ; if not under our 
 control, 'would' is used ; as, 'you promised it should be done,' 
 'you said it would rain.' 
 
 It expresses a supposition : ' if it should rain, I cannot come ; ' 
 or a duty : ' you should not go there : ' and has ' should have ' as 
 its past tense. In expressions like, ' it is strange that you should 
 do it/ it is used as a modest statement, or as a supposition of 
 an actual fact, 
 
VERBS : PERSON. NUMBER. 221 
 
 303. The persons of the verbs are but inadequately ex- 
 
 pressed in English : i. e. we use prefixes, and the 
 Persons. , , , * , ,. 
 
 verbs seldom undergo any change. The exceptions 
 
 are in the second and the third person singular ; ' thou writ-est ; ' 
 'he writ-eth, or write-s ; ' in 'a-rt,' 'i-s,' 'wer-t,' 'shal-t,' 
 ' wil-t,' we have other forms, peculiar to these verbs. ' Est ' 
 (A. S. ast, old Saxon ' is,' Latin ' as/ ' es,' 'is,'> Greek -tis, -as, 
 -s, Sanscrit, 'si'), may be a form of 'o-u,' 'thou,' as 'eth' 
 (A. S. ' ath/ old Saxon and Latin, ' t ') may be a form of 'the,' 
 an old pronoun of the third person : ' s ' is a later form. 
 
 304. In the fourteenth century there was a strong tendency 
 Archaic to append the pronoun to the verb ; as ' kep-i,' 'can-i,' 
 forms. <j keep,' 'I can' (Reliquiae Antiqure, quoted by 
 Marsh) : ' thenkestow,' 'dostow ' (Robert of Gloucester) : 'Hwi 
 nadistow,' why-not-hadst-thou (Piers PI.). Perhaps these are 
 examples of slurred pronunciation only ; but they show the 
 tendency of speech, and probably give the origin of some 
 analogous forms. 
 
 ' A-m,' ' a-rt,' ' i-s,' ' a-re,' ' wa-s,' ' we-re,' are singular and 
 instructive examples. ' A-m ' is probably a compound of ' me ' 
 (ma, Sanscrit, 'me,' Latin, epe, Greek). The other forms are 
 explained by a reference to the Saxon : 
 
 Indicative. 
 -. . ( Singular Ic eom, thu eart, he is. 
 
 * \ Plural We, ge, hi, synd, or syudon. 
 
 ^ { Singular Ic waes, thou wsere, he wae3, 
 
 \ Plural We, ge, hi, wseron. 
 
 Subjunctive Ic, sy, etc. PI. Syn. 
 
 Compare the Latin forms, Su-m, e-s, e-st. 
 
 Er-am, er-as, er-at. 
 
 Subjunctive Si-m, si-s, si-t. 
 
 The ' r ' in eart and wert may be from Icelandic forms. 
 Our English subjunctive ' be ' is from a distinct verb ; singular, 
 'beo,' 'byst,' 'byth ;' plural, ' beoth :' and in subjunctive 'beon.' 
 
 305. For number we have now no distinction of form in verbs 
 
 except for the second and third person singular : and 
 Number. ^ ^ defective and irregular verbs, am, a-re, was, 
 we-re. The uniform ending in other persons is the same as for 
 the first person singular. 
 
 Common in Old English, 
 
222 VERBS AUXILIARIES. 
 
 In 0. E. the plural ending was in ' en,' from the subjunctive 
 form of the A. Saxon. In the Scotch dialect of the days of 
 James I. it ended in ' s,' as it does sometimes in Shakspeare. 
 The A. S. indicative plural was in ' ath ; ' the subjunctive in 
 'on.' In some verbs the vowel of the singular "was changed ; 
 as ' ic sang,' 'we sungon,' 'ic smat,' 'we smiton.' Hence we 
 have the double forms, sang, sung, smote, and smitten. 
 
 Au ^d'f ^f *^*' Auxiliary an< i defective verbs claiming special 
 
 verbs. attention, are the following : 
 
 Be Indicative, \ be . beest> besj . . betbj be ._ beoth) buethj beth) ben> be 
 
 Two! orms j am : art : is : ~ aren ' arn > are " 
 
 Past was : wast : was, wes : weren, were, were, was. 
 
 Imperative be : beoth, beth, be. 
 
 Subj. pres. be: be: be: ben, be. 
 
 past were, were : weron, weren, were, were. 
 
 Infinitive buen, bue : ben, be. 
 
 Can, (from cunnan, to know, to be able). 
 
 Ind. pres. Can, con : canst : can, con : connen, conne, conne, csen. 
 1st. and 3rd. Couthe, coude ( All pers. Couth en, couden, 
 couth, could J couthe, coude, 
 
 2nd. Couthest, coudest, ) couth, coud, 
 
 cou[l]dst. ' could. 
 
 The word expresses both power and possibility, (a). 'Cannot' 
 is used to express both actual and moral impossibility, (b). In 
 phrases like ' I can but try,' it means, ' I can do no more, and 
 it is worth while to do that : ' in 'I cannot but think so,' it 
 means, ' I can do nothing else and must do that.' 
 
 Dare, Darst (dearan, dyrst) are forms of the same verb. ' Durst' is a 
 past tense, but like several past forms (hang from hing 1 , lust 
 from list, mind from munan, ought from owe, should from 
 shall, etc.) has a present as well as a past signification, and is of 
 all persons. Dare is transitive, durst intransitive only. 
 Do. Ind. pres. Do : dost : doth, does : doon, don, doth, done. 
 
 past. 1st and 3rd IDude, dide, did. I All pers. Duden, diden, 
 o_.q }Dudest, didest, < dude", dide.J 
 
 j didst. ( did. 
 
 Inf. Doon, don, do. Part. I-doon, i-don, i-do, doon, done. 
 This verb is generally used emphatically, and governs the follow- 
 ing verb in the infinitive. The verb in the phrase, ' that wil 
 do,' i. e. suffice, is from another A. S. root, ' dugon,' (Ic deah 
 we dugon,) to profit or avail. 
 
 Go. Ind. pres. Go: goest, gost: goeth, goth, goes: goth, goon, 
 gon, go. 
 
 past 
 
AUXILIARIES. 223 
 
 !Wonde, wende, went : wentest : went : weuten, 
 wente, went. 
 Yode, yede: yedest: yede, yode : geden, yeden, 
 yede, yede. 
 Inf. Goon, gon, go, wende, wend. Part. Igoon, i-gon : goon, 
 
 gon, gan, gone. 
 Have. Ind. pres, Habbe, have : habest, havest, hast : haveth, hath. 
 
 Plural. Haveth, haven, han, have. 
 past. Haved, hadde, had : haddest, hedst : hevede, hadde, 
 
 had. Plural. Hadden, hadde, had. 
 6ubj. pies. Have : havon, have. 
 Inf. Habben, habbe, haven, han, have. 
 
 Participle imperf . Havande, having. Perf . I-had, had. 
 List. (' to be pleasant ') only in 3rd Sing. The pronoun usually put 
 before it is in the dat. case, and the subject is the sentence. 
 The past tense is ' lust,' or ' lest.' The derived verb ' lust ' is 
 regular. 
 Make. Ind. pres. Make, makest, maiste, maketh, makith, makes : 
 
 make, maken, make. 
 
 Ind. past. Maked, made, madest : maked, made : made. 
 Inf. Maken, make. Past, imperf. Makand, making. 
 
 Perf. I-maked, i-made. 
 May, Ind. pres. May: maycst, mayst : may: may. 
 
 Past, 1st and 3rd. Mought, might, miht : I PI. Moughteu, might- 
 2nd. Moughtest, mightest, < en, moughte, mighte, 
 
 mihtest ( mought, might. 
 
 May and might express liberty and permission : ' He may go.' 
 
 ' I asked if he might go.' 
 ' May,' when applied to events, expresses the possibility of their 
 
 occurrence : ' It may rain.' 
 When placed before its subject, it expresses a wish : ' May it 
 
 please your Majesty.' 
 Must. A strong form of may. 
 
 Ind. pres. Most, must. PI. Mosten, musten, moste, muste, must. 
 Mot. Used for may, might, must. Comp. Scotch, ' mun,' ' maun.' 
 Sing. Mot, moot, mow : PI. moten, mooten, mown, mowe, 
 mote, mow. (Ger. mochte). 
 Owe. Ought (A. S. agan, to owe). 
 
 The A. S. verb means primarily to keep, then to keep what is 
 due to another, and so to owe it: 'The ower of heaven' 
 (Bp. Hall). Then it means to declare as mine, to acknow- 
 ledge, to own.* 
 
 To express a past tense, we combine ' ought ' with a perfect 
 infinitive : ' He ought to know better ; ' ' He ought to have 
 known better.' 
 
 The connexion between ' owe' and 
 own is confessedly uncertain. Other 
 
224 AUXILIAKIEZ*. 
 
 Ind. pres. Owe: owest: owe : owen, owe, owe. 
 Past, 1st and 3rd. Oughte, ought. 2nd. Oughtest: oughten, 
 oughte, ought. ' Own,' the possessive may be the past parti- 
 ciple : or is connected with the Ger. eigen, of oneself. 
 Quoth. Ind. pres. 1st and 3rd. Quoth, quod (no second). PI. 3rd only. 
 
 Quoth, quod, quo. 
 Quote (to cite) and to ' be-queath ' are regular. All are from 
 
 'cwethan, to say,' Quoth is always followed by its pronoun. 
 Shall. Ind. pres. 1st and 3rd. Schul, schal; j PI. Schulen, schtsln, 
 
 shall schullc, schul, 
 
 2nd. Schult, shall, schal ) schal, shall. 
 
 Past, 1st and 3rd. Schulde, scholde, x , -n, , , , , , , 
 
 schuld, schold. PL Schuldc^scholden, 
 ldest sh *' B ' 
 
 2nd. Schuldest, scholdest, 
 
 Bdiouldst. 
 Tliink. (to appear). 
 
 Only in 3rd sing. pres. and past. Me thinks. ' Us-thought.' 
 The construction is as in 'list.' 
 
 Will. lud. Pres. 1st and 3rd. Wol, wil, 1P1. Wol the, wollen, willen, 
 
 will woln, wiln, wolle, 
 
 2nd. Wolt, wilt, wool ) wille, wol, wil, will. 
 
 Past, 1st and 3rd. Wolde, wold, would, ) PI. "Wolden, wolde, 
 
 2nd. woldest, wouldst / wold, would. 
 
 ' Wilne,' to ' desire/ is a derivative of this verb. 
 Wisse. To teach, to think. (A variation of Witan). 
 
 Ind. Pres. 'Wisse.' Infin. 'Wissea.' ' Ywiss ' = certainly. 
 Witan, 'To know.' 
 
 Ind. Pres. Wite, wot, wat : wotest, wotst, wost : witcth, wot : 
 
 witen, wite, wot. 
 Past, 1st and 3rd. "VViste, wist, wis (2nd wanting) : wisten, 
 
 wiste, woste, wist. 
 
 Infin. Witen, wite, wite. Past. Wittiug, wiste, wist. 
 Gerund, ' To wit.' 
 
 Worth, (to become) fieri. (O. E. worthe, worst, worth. PI. wortheth). 
 Imperative. Worthe, worth. Inf. Worthe, worth. 
 
 ' Woe worth the day,' i.e. ' Woe be to the day.' 
 It is also used in 0. E. as an indie, pres. : 
 
 ' Woe worth me for it.' BEAUMONT AND FLETCHEE. 
 'Lord he worth (is or has become) of France.' EOBEET OF GLOUCESTER. 
 
 Our auxiliary verbs are conveniently divided into simple and 
 join pound : as ' I shall,' ' I shall have been ; ' or into 
 Auxiliaries of voice : am, was, be. 
 Auxiliaries of (so called) mood : may, can, must. 
 Auxiliaries of tense : have, shall, will. 
 Auxiliaries of emphasis and interrogation : do, shall, will, etc. 
 
ADVEEBS. CLASSIFIED. 225 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 307. Adverbs are words used to qualify verbs, or any other 
 Adverbs words that express an attribute ; i. e. adjectives, par- 
 defined, ticiples, adverbs, and apparently nouns, pronouns (when 
 they call attention to qualities), and even prepositions. In all 
 these cases, however, it is an attribute they qualify, either the 
 chief verb of the sentence, or a secondary attribute expressed in 
 some other part of speech 
 
 (a) Verbs and nouns : 
 
 ' Did men always think clearly, and were they at the same time fully 
 masters of their language, there would be occasion for few rules.' 
 JAMIESON. 
 
 (b) Pronouns : 
 
 ' I am affectionately yours.' WILLIAM COWPEB. 
 
 (c) Adjectives : 
 
 ' How greatly humble, how divinely good.' THOHSOS. 
 
 (d) Participles : 
 
 ' A man greatly beloved.' ' It is twice blessed.' SHAKSPEAEB. 
 
 (e) Adverbs : 
 
 ' Our minds are here and there below, above ; 
 Nothing that's mortal can so swiftly move.' DENnAK. 
 
 (f) Prepositions : 
 
 ' I am entirely with you.' 
 
 1 Far from the world, O Lord, I flee ! ' 
 
 808. Adverbs may be classified on different principles : either 
 
 . . . according to their meaning, and logical connection, 
 
 r s to their or according to their origin. We may with advan- 
 
 meaning. tage adopt both 
 
 ADVEEBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIB MEANING. 
 
 /(a.) A point of time (when), past, present, future, 
 indefinite. Once, now, soon, then, at any time, 
 instantly, recently, presently. 
 
 (b.) Duration of time (how long). Always, ever, 
 1 time never, aye. 
 
 (c.) Repetition of time (how often). Often, weekly, 
 
 once, twice, seldom. 
 
 (d.) Relative to some other event (how soon, etc.)- 
 Then, meanwhile, whenever, afterwards, before. 
 
228 
 
 ADVERBS. COMPARISON. 
 
 2. Place. 
 
 3. Degree. 
 
 How much. 
 JQ\ How many. 
 
 4. Manner. 
 
 \ 
 
 (a.) Rest in a place (where). Here, there, at, by, 
 
 yonder, above, below, etc. 
 (b.) Direction to a place (whither). Hither, thither, 
 
 inwards, aloft, down, etc, 
 (c.) Direction from a place (whence). Hence, thence, 
 
 away, etc. 
 Note, some of these express both rest and motion, as, 
 
 over, under, through, below, beyond, near, etc. 
 (d.) Order; (where, whereabouts). Firstly, lastly, etc. 
 
 (a.) Degree without comparison, How (i. e. in any 
 
 degree), everso. 
 (b.) Abundance. Much, too, very, greatly, wholly, 
 
 quite, altogether, fourfold, 
 (c.) Equality and efficiency. Enough, equally, just, 
 
 exactly, 
 (d.) Deficiency. Little, less, hardly, but, partly, 
 
 almost, well-nigh, etc. 
 
 (a.) Manner from quality. Well, ill, justly, etc. 
 
 (b.) Manner from mode (way in which) . Thus, nohow, 
 anyhow, triflingly, namely. 
 
 (c.) Manner from negation or assent. No,* yes, no- 
 wise, forsooth (i. e. for sooth, alw t ays used 
 ironically in modern English, but seriously in 
 Wycliffe, etc., for verily). 
 
 (d.) Manner from doubt or uncertainty. Perhaps, 
 haply, possibly, may-be. 
 
 (e.) Manner from cause and effect, Therefore, where- 
 fore, 1 " etc. 
 
 There are, besides these, conjunctional or relative adverbs, 
 which join sentences, and express also some, circumstances of 
 place, or time, or degree. Such are often the adverbs of cause, 
 why, wherefore, and the relative forms, where, when, and the 
 pronominal compounds, therein, wherewith, etc., than, so, as 
 (when it answers to ' such,' and is connected with a verb), 
 as : 
 
 'The end why God hath ordained evil ia that his grace may be 
 glorified.' GOODMAN. 
 
 ' This is the place where the Great Charter was signed.' 
 
 ' They have ths right to come and go when they please.' HOLEOTD. 
 
 In O. E. ' n ' Is frequently prefixed 
 tot a number of verbs beginning with 
 a vowel, or sometimes a consonant, 
 n'am, am not n'adde, had not 
 
 n'is, or n'es, is not n'ist, wist not 
 n'ere, were not n'old, would not 
 
 n'ill, will not n'ot, wot not 
 
 n'have, have not n'cte, eat not 
 
 i> Therefore, wherefore, are = for 
 this, and for which : in O. E. 'for thi ' 
 and ' for why ' are occasionally used 
 in the same sense. 
 
ADVERBS: CLASSIFIED. 227 
 
 1 You do take my life when you do take the means whereby 1 live.' 
 SHAKSPEAEE. 
 1 Where speech is indistinct, so is the mind.' 
 
 These are all adverbs, because they refer to the qualities 
 expressed by verbs or adjectives in the sentences where they 
 are found. 
 
 Adverbs, derived from interrogative pronouns, are sometimes 
 called interrogative adverbs, and are used as such : ' Where,' 
 ' when,' 'how,' ' why.' 
 
 309. Many adverbs in the above list, which express degree or 
 Adverbs quality, admit of comparison : adverbs of abund- 
 
 admitting a nce, much, more ; little, less : of quality, well. 
 
 comparison., ' . * *_ ,- j 
 
 better ; ill, worse, etc. These comparatives and 
 
 superlatives are formed as in the case of adjectives. When the 
 adverb ends in ' ly,' comparison is expressed by ' more ' and 
 'most.' Milton, however, and Shakspeare constantly form 
 these last by adding ' er ' and ' est,' pronouncing the three 
 syllabled words thus formed, as dissyllables : 
 
 ' Destroyers rightlier called the plagues of men.' PABABISE LOST. 
 
 ' O melancholy, 
 
 Who ever yet could sound thy bottom ? find 
 The ooze,* to show what coast thy sluggish crare (small craft) 
 Might earliest harbour in.' CYMBELDTE, iv. 2. 
 
 310. Adverbs that relate to time, place, manner, are 
 
 generally connected with verbs or participles. Ad- 
 verbs that relate to degree, with adjectives or 
 
 adverbs ; though these last sometimes describe the measure of 
 
 actions or effects, as 
 
 ' I wept much.' REV. v. 4. 
 
 ' If he had felt less, he would have said more.' FUGLES. 
 
 311. ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING} TO THEIR ORIGIN are 
 
 as follows : 
 
 to a tneir da8 *' ^ ome are originally monosyllabic Saxon 
 origin. words : 
 
 Time Now, oft, aye. 
 
 Place In, out, up, neath, fore, hind (behind). 
 
 Quality HI, well. 
 
 i.e. Watery earth or earthy water, Indicating land or bottom. 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 ADVEEBS : THEIE OEIGIiY. 
 
 2. Others are derivatives, and may be classified according 
 
 to the parts of speech whence they are taken, or ac- 
 cording to the t case.' 
 
 Some are formed from nouns : by case forms, as ' needs ' (' he 
 must needs go through Samaria '), ' whilom,' ' some- 
 whiles : ' or by prefixes, ( ashore,' ' aboard,' ' betimes,' 
 ' behind : ' or by affixes, ' wards,' signifying direction, 
 as 'backwards,' 'sidewards,' 'ly,' as 'godly.' 
 Some from pronouns : 'He-re,' 'the-rc,' 'whe-re/ 'hi-ther,' 
 ' thi-ther,' ' whi-ther,' ' lie-nee/ ' the-nce,' ' whc-nce,' 
 'the-n,' 'whe-n,' 'thus,' '-why,' 'how,' 'whe-thcr.' 
 Some from numeral adjectives : either cardinal, ' once,' 
 
 'twice,' etc. ; or ordinal, 'thirdly,' 'fourthly,' etc. 
 
 Very many from adjectives : by adding ' ly ' to the root, as 
 
 ' richly,' ' darkly :' or 'ling,' 'darkling:' or 'ways' 
 
 ('wise'), signifying manner, 'always,' 'likewise.' 
 
 Some from participles : ' Lovingly,' ' learnedly,' and many 
 
 more. 
 Some from prepositions : as ' besides,' ' betwixt,' from 
 
 ' between,' ' out-side.' 
 
 Many of these, though called derivatives, are more properly 
 inflexions, i.e. are cases of nouns or pronouns : Thus, needs, 
 whiles, unawares, eftsoons (immediately, i.e. soon after), once, 
 twice, thence, whence, by rights, betimes, Mondays (i.e. of a 
 Monday), are genitive forms. Whilom, seldom, he-re, the-re, 
 whe-re, are dative forms. Athwart, then, when, are accusa- 
 tives ; so also, some think, are the apparent adjectives, in such 
 phrases as, ' the sun shines bright : ' ' how sweet the moonlight 
 sleeps upon this bank!' i.e. they are adjectives used in the 
 accusative as adverbs. 'Why,' 'how/ 'thus,' 'so,' are abla- 
 tive forms. 
 
 3. Many are compound words and phrases as, nevertheless, 
 
 of course, forthwith, perad venture, all the more, etc. 
 So in sentences like, 'Let me die the death of the 
 righteous,' the last phrase defines the manner of the 
 action, and is not properly the object of the verb : so 
 when we say, 'He walks a mile.' ' It was written a 
 thousand years ago. 1 
 
 4. Many are apparently other parts of speech, from which 
 
 they can be distinguished only by the sense. 
 
THEIR ORIGIN AND USE, 229 
 
 Nouns : 
 
 ' lie conies home to (i.e. the) morrow.' 
 ' He cares not a groat.' 
 
 Pronouns : 
 
 ' He is somewhat arrogant.' DETBEN. 
 
 ' What have I offended thee." (GE.^. xz. 9.) Accusative of 
 degree. 
 
 Adjectives : 
 
 ' Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring.' POPE. 
 'Sweet lord, you play me false.' SHAKSPEAEE. 
 'The whole conception is conveyed clear and strong to the 
 
 mind.' BLAIB. 
 
 ' The steamer arrived safe, but late.' 
 
 ' How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! ' SHAKSPEAKK. 
 ' The green trees whispered soft and low.' LONGFELLOW. 
 ' l-'ull many a gem of purest ray serene.' GRAY. 
 
 ' Participles ' with adverbial force. 
 ' Truth administered scalding hot will repel and not subdue. 
 ' How passing sweet that state must be, 
 Where they meet eternally ! ' 
 
 i.e. 'so hot as to scald:' 'how surpassing what is sweet !' 
 In such phrases as, ' the carnage came running along : ' ' the 
 church stood gleaming through the trees :' the participle ex- 
 presses rather the quality of the subject than of the act, and 
 the construction is similar to the use of the adjective, as ex- 
 plained in paragraph 312 c. 
 
 Prepositions and conjunctions are also used as adverbs. 
 ' From going to and fro in the earth, and walking tip and down in it.' 
 'They shall go in and out, and find pasture.' 
 'Not at all (really an adverbial phrase), or very gently.' LOCKE. 
 Similarly even verbs are sometimes made into adverbs, as 
 ' Smack went the whip, and round went the wheels.' COWPEB. 
 ' Tramp, tramp, across the land they speed, 
 
 Splash, splash, across the sea.' 
 
 These examples illustrate the saying of the old grammarians 
 'Omnis pars orationis migratin adverbium.' ' Adverbs can be made 
 out of anything.' 
 
 On the other hand adverbs are occasionally used for other 
 parts of speech, as 
 
 ' She could never away with me.' 
 ' Down with it.' 
 
230 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 
 
 ' I have heard that before now.' 
 
 ' He has changed his opinion since then.' 
 
 'The then Bishop of London, Dr. Laud, attended on his Majesty.' 
 CLABENDON. 
 
 Tliis last expression, though familar to the classical student, 
 is not elegant English. 
 
 This wide use of all parts of speech as adverbs, has led many 
 writers to regard all phrases or combinations of words descriptive 
 of the time or place or manner of an action as adverbial, thus : 
 
 'He stood and gazed while the house was burning :' Adverbial phrase of 
 time. 
 
 ' On the bare earth exposed he lies.' DBYDKS. Of place. 
 
 'As the hart panteth after the waterbrooks so panteth my soul after 
 thee, O God.' 
 
 'A bow drawn at a venture.' Of manner. 
 
 Adverbs, then, as to origin, are either primitive or derivative, 
 simple or compound, other parts of speech used adverbially or 
 entire phrases modifying the attributive words of the sentence. 
 
 312. The frequent recurrence of adjective forms as adverbs in 
 Origin of English deserves more examination than it has re- 
 
 the frequent ceived. It is owing to the following facts : 
 useofadjec- 
 
 tive forms a. In the classic languages the neuter adjective is 
 as adverbs. use( j j n t ne accusative adverbially, as it was in A. S. 
 b. In Anglo-Saxon, and hence in old English, the adverb 
 was often formed from the adjective by adding ' e,' as 
 seft, or soft, adjective ; and sefte or softe, adverb ; and 
 as the ' e ' was a frequent case termination, the two 
 forms were often confounded : while for other reasons, 
 also, the ' e ' was dropped. This remark is true of the 
 following. The adjective is really the nominative 
 or accusative case ; the adverb the ablative. 
 Clseiie, adverb, hence clsen, adjective, entire and entirely, 
 as in the phrase ' clean gone. ' A later meaning is 
 ' pure ' and ( purely ; ' dcenlic, clcenlice, cleanly. 
 Fsest, fseste, fast, ' to stick fast.' 
 
 Heard, heardlic, are adjectives ; with ' e,' are adverbs. 
 'He rode hard.' 'Hardly' is also used, but with a 
 different sense. 
 
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 231 
 
 80 Hlud, adjective, hlydde, adverb, ' loud : ' lang and lange, 
 'long.' Laet and Isete, 'late :' leetlice was also used, 
 and has now (as in lately) a different sense. 
 
 Riht, rihtlic, are adjectives; with 'e' adverbs: 'right' 
 (' you did right '), and ' rightly ; ' ' then do it rightly.' 
 
 Sar, sar-e, ' sore,' adjective and adverb. Thic and thicce, 
 ' thick,' thiclice, ' thickly. ' Wid, adjective, wide, 
 adverb, 'wide.' Yf el, adjective, yfele, adverb: 'Evil 
 or ill, evilly or illy.' 
 
 In ' ready,' which is both an adjective and an adverb, we 
 have the adverbial termination used for both purposes. 
 The Anglo-Saxon is liradhe. The Anglo-Saxon adjective 
 ' hrsed ' is found only in the old English form ' rathe.' 
 
 It will be noticed that these are old forms : and, as might 
 be expected, the use of such forms in modern English 
 is most common in poetry, where the antique is most 
 welcome. 
 
 c. It may be added that in many cases the adjective form is 
 intended to express rather the quality of the agent as 
 seen in the act, or after the act, than the quality of the 
 act itself. After verbs of being and seeming for in- 
 stance, or their equivalents, the adjective is constantly 
 used, as, ' he is very affectionate ; ' ' it looks beautiful ;' 
 ' it sounds grand ; ' and so in some of the cases given 
 above. ' He arrived late : ' ' How sweet it sleeps !' 
 would have a very different meaning if adverbs were 
 substituted for the adjective forms. 
 
 Such forms, therefore, are justified in some cases by classic 
 usage, in many by the etymology of our language, and in others 
 by the sense. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 313. Prepositions are words generally* placed before other 
 Prepositions words (nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or verbs used 
 defined. as nouns) which they govern : they also generally 
 express some relation between the words with which they are 
 connected. 
 
 314. The principal relations which prepositions express are of 
 
 Sometimes they are placed at the always so used, as is tenus in Latin, 
 end of a sentence, as ' Whom was and cum in phrases like mecum. 
 it wanted by? 1 'Withal' (O.E.) is 
 
232 MEPOSITIONS CLASSIFIED. 
 
 R l tions ex- P^ ace > time, and causality in its widest sense (efficient, 
 pressed by instrumental, final). Other relations are so diversi- 
 them. e( j ^at ^gy canno t be included in any general 
 
 term. 
 
 The primary relations are those of place, with reference to rest, 
 or motion, or both. 
 
 Best ; ' at,' ' by,' ' with,' ' in,' and ' out : ' 
 Motion; 'to' and 'from,' 'into' and 'out of,' 'up* and 
 ' down,' etc. 
 
 Both; as, 'amongst,' 'about,' 'near,' 'through,' 'between,' 
 'across,' 'athwart/ 'before,' 'behind/ 'above/ ' below/ 'abaft/ 
 'off/ 'beyond.' 
 
 The last set can be used with verbs of existence, or of motion 
 indiscriminately : ' It is leyond' ' He went beyond.' 
 
 Belations of time are expressed either (1) by some of 
 the foregoing prepositions, or (2) by others : 
 
 (1.) 'In/ 'at/ 'from/ 'to' ('from rosy morn to dewy 
 
 eve '), ' before/ ' about/ etc. 
 (2.) ' Since/ ' till/ ' until/ ' during/ ' pending/ are used of 
 
 time only. 
 
 This is the modern rule as to ' till,' but in old English and 
 modern Scotch ' till ' is used for ' unto ' a place ; the Anglo- 
 Saxon ' til ' ' fit/ ' tending to an end/ seems the origin. ' Since' 
 is sometimes now used logically for 'seeing that.' The Old- 
 English form is ' sith/ ' sithan/ ' sithence.' It occurs in Ezek. 
 xxxv. 6, in the authorized version of 1611. Both forms are used 
 in Jeremiah. When the two are distinguished, sith means 
 propter hoc, because of that ; since, post hoc, after that. 
 
 Prepositions originally descriptive of place (nearness, etc.) are 
 Causation a ^ so use( ^ * express the agent, the condition in or under 
 which, the instrument and the reason or motive. 
 
 The agent, condition, and instrument are expressed by ' in/ 
 ' through/ ' with : ' ' by '* or by such phrases as, ' by means of ; ' 
 ' by virtue of ; ' 'in the way of/ etc. 
 
 The purpose or motive (final cause) is expressed by ' from ' <is 
 (' from love '), ' out of/ ' for ;' b and by the phrases, ' for the 
 sake of,' ' for the purpose of/ etc. 
 
 'He was slain by Lady Macbeth gained these lands, and with our 
 Kith her dagger, in cold-blood, and swords we will maintain them.' 
 from ambition.' By our swords we > Tor' is also used as a conjunction. 
 
DELATIONS EXPRESSED AND FOKMS. 233 
 
 Other relations, expressed by prepositions, are very various. 
 Other rela- Relation, generally, is expressed by ' about,' ' of,' 
 'ions. i concerning,' ' touching,' etc. : Relation of origin, 
 
 material, quality, position, by ' of,' f from,' ' after : ' 
 
 Agreement or union ; by 'with,' 'within' (or in "with, 0. E.) : 
 Separation or exclusion; by 'without,' 'except,' 'but:' In- 
 clination ; by, ' for,' ' on ' (rely on), ' in ' (believe in) : Aver- 
 sion ; ' against,' ' from : ' Substitution ; ' instead of,' etc. 
 
 Many prepositions are appended to verbs (without relational 
 idea of their own) to give a new force to the verb. As, ' they 
 laughed at him : ' ' his medical attendant despaired of his life. ' 
 These are really adverbs ; as is clear, if we express the verb 
 passively, ' his life is despaired of ;' 'he was laughed at.' 
 
 315. In many languages the relation between words is ex- 
 Case endings pressed by case endings, but as case endings express 
 and preposi- several relations, prepositions come to be employed 
 often with case endings, to express more definitely 
 the relation intended. In modern English the case endings are 
 nearly all lost, so that case endings and prepositions are not 
 both used. The only apparent exception is in phrases like, ' it 
 is the noblest castle of the duke's ; ' but this phrase is elliptical . 
 and means, 'the noblest castle of the dtike's castles.' 
 
 In Old English, both cases and prepositions are often used, as 
 they are in classic languages. 
 
 Classified 316. The prepositions of our language may be 
 according to classified on another principle according to their 
 
 tneir forms. 
 
 forms. 
 
 (1.) Simple: 'at,' 'by/ 'for,' 'from,' 'in,' ' OB,' 'of/ 
 'till/ 'to/ 'through/ 'up/ 'with.' 
 
 (2.) Derivatives, taken from other forms or words ; as, 
 ' after/ ' over/ ' under/ ' since/ ' into/ ' upon/ 
 'underneath/ 'without/ 'notwithstanding.' 
 Or by prefixes, ' a-bout ' (butan, around), ' a-bove/ 
 ' a-cross/ ' a-gain-st/ 'a-long/ 'a-mid-st,"a-mong-st' 
 (mengan, to mingle), 'a-round/ 'a-thwar-t ;' 'be-fore/ 
 'be-hind/ 'be-neath/ 'be-side/ 'be-tween.' ('twain/ 
 
 meaning ' because.' 'For he maketh end which a man puts before him, 
 
 his sun to shine upon the evil and and then makes that^ the motive of 
 
 upon the good.' It is here true to its his action, 
 proper meaning ; i.e. it indicates the 
 
234 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 in 0. E. atwayne), 'be-twixt' (be-twain-st), 'but' 
 (Le. be-utan), 'beyond' (by and yond, a form of 
 gone ; or from ' you ' ' that place ' a form of the 
 Ger. jener). 
 The additional ' st ' is perhaps a superlative or an aug- 
 
 mentative ending. 
 
 (3.) Inflected forms of verbs, either participles or impera- 
 tives, 'except,' 'save,' 'concerning,' 'regarding,' 
 ' touching,' ' during.' 
 
 'Except' and 'save ' are sometimes used as conjunc- 
 tions ; as, ' except these remain in the ship ; ' 'save 
 they to whom it is given.' 
 
 The first and second of these classes are of Saxon origin ; the 
 third of Latin origin. 
 
 ' Sans ' (0. E.) is French, and ' despite ' is really a noun, like 
 ' instead,' and generally has ' of ' after it. 
 
 'Nigh,' 'near,' 'next,' and (in the opinion of some) 'like,' 
 may be regarded in construction as prepositions or as adjectives 
 with the preposition ' to ' understood. 
 
 Adverbs and 317. Many of these words are also adverbs. When 
 prepositions ... ., ., ... ,. , < < ,-, e , 
 
 diBtin- prepositions, they are easily distinguished by the fact 
 
 guished. ^at they govern a case either expressed or implied. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 318. A conjunction is a word used to join words in construc- 
 
 . . tion. or to connect sentences. Conjunctions differ 
 
 Com unctions , ., .. , ., J - 
 
 defined and from other connecting words, thus : from preposi- 
 
 distinguished. tions in never governing a case : from relative pro- 
 nouns, in joining independent propositions, and forming no part 
 of either : from adverbs in this, that while adverbs may be 
 moved to other parts of the sentence to which they belong, con- 
 junctions cannot be moved without destroying the sense. 
 
 It has been said that conjunctions unite sentences or pro- 
 positions only. This is their general character, and upon this 
 definition some grammarians strongly insist (Latham, Morell, 
 etc. ). But it is better to add, ' and words in construction ; ' for in 
 such expressions as, 'two and two make four,' 'the prince and 
 the queen are a noble pair,' 'between thee and me,' it is difficult 
 to treat each as two sentences. In every example the sense 
 requires that the connected words be regarded as a single 
 
CO-ORDINATE AND SUBORDINATE. 235 
 
 Still in most cases conjunctions couple propositions, even when 
 they seem to couple only words. The primary use of conj unctions 
 was, no doubt, to connect two or more sentences ; many of them, 
 however, are now used to connect subordinate and principal 
 clauses so as to give, not two distinct thoughts, but a single 
 modified one. 
 
 319. Hence the convenient distinction of co-ordinate and 
 Conjunc- subordinate conjunctions. Co-ordinate conjunctions 
 tions co-or- unite co-ordinate statements, or join in construction 
 
 dmate, and ,. ' 
 
 subordinate, co-ordinate words, as : 
 
 4 God sustains the world : and he governs it.* 
 ' Towered cities please us then, 
 And the busy hum of men.'' L' ALLEGED. 
 
 Subordinate conjunctions unite statements in such a way that 
 the one modifies the meaning or application of the other, as : 
 
 ' Men learn quickly when they are attentive.' 
 
 'If it were done, when 'tis done, then it were well it were done 
 quickly.' SHAKSPBAEE. 
 
 Co-ordinate 320. These are divided again into various 
 how divided, classes : 
 
 a. Connective with affirmative statements ' And,' ' also,' 
 ' as well as,' ' both ' ' and,' ' further,' ' likewise,' ' more- 
 over,' ' not only ' ' but.' 
 
 b. Alternative. ' Either ' 'or' ) ,* > < -ic. > 
 
 c. Negative.-' Neither '-'nor' ) otflerwise > else - 
 
 d. Adversative. ' But,' 'on the other hand,' 'only,' '-how- 
 
 ever,' ' notwithstanding," still,' ' 
 
 Co-ordinate 
 conjunc- 
 tions are 
 
 These distinctions may be illustrated thus : 
 
 ' Hannibal invaded Italy, and was defeated by Fabius.' 
 1 You must study hard, or you cannot succeed.' 
 ' 'Tis neither here nor there.' OTHELLO. 
 
 ' Or ' is sometimes a sub-altcrna- to two right angles. This is the Sive 
 
 tive, and marks a merely verbal dis- of the Latin, 'Mars siye Mavors:' 
 
 tinction, the same thing being de- alias is sometimes used in this sense 
 
 scribed under other words, as ' the in judicial proceedings. This distinc- 
 
 triangle, or figure formed by three tion is important in Syntax. 
 right lines, has its three angles equal 
 
238 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS CLASSIFIED. 
 
 1 Nothing extenuate, 
 
 JVbr set down aught in malice.' OTHELLO. 
 ' He started for India, but stopped at the Cape.' 
 'The shadow of the earth in every position is round, consequently the 
 
 earth is a globe.' 
 
 1 She loves much, and therefore (I conclude) much has boon forgiven 
 her.' 
 
 321. Subordinate conjunctions are still more numerous and 
 
 Subordinate more complex. 
 
 how divided. They are divided into those of time, place, degree, 
 or manner, and causation, answering in a large degree to the 
 division of adverbs. 
 
 ^a. A point. 'As,' 'as soon as,' 'now that,' 'when, 1 
 
 ('before,' 'ere,' (sometimes 'or,' Dan. vi. 2i, 
 etc.) 'After.' 
 
 1. To time. \ b. Duration.' As long as,' ' as,' ' until,' ' whilst.' 
 
 F c. Repetition. ' As oft as.' 
 
 \d. Relational. 'When,' 'whenever.' 
 
 , a. Rest in. 'Where,' 'there,' etc. 'Where I am, 
 there ye mav be also.' 
 
 2. To place. ) b. Motion to. 'Whither,' 'thither,' 'Whither I go, 
 
 ye cannot come.' 
 c. Motion from. -Whence,' 'thence.' 
 whence he came.' 
 
 'Ho returned 
 
 a. Likeness. ' As,' 'as if,' 'how,' 'so.' 'When we 
 
 cannot do as we wish, we must do as we can.' 
 
 (3. To man-b. Equality. ' As,' 'as,' 'although.' 'As bold as a 
 Ji on / 
 
 c> Excess or deficiency. ' Than,' ' not,' ' so as.' 
 ' More honoured in the breach than the obser- 
 vance. ' HAMLET. 
 
 / a. Effect or result. ' That,' ' so that,' 'and so.' 
 
 b. Condition. ' If,' ' provided,' ' unless,' ' except, 1 
 
 'in case,' ' as.' 
 
 c. Result, independently of condition. ' Although,' 
 
 ' however,' ' notwithstanding,' ' though,' ' yet,' 
 ' for all.' Johnxxi. 11. 
 
 d. Ground or reason. 'As,' 'because,' 'for,' 'for- 
 
 asmuch as,' 'inasmuch as,' 'whereas,' 'sith,' 
 ' since,' ' seeing that ' (in N. T. ' knowing that ') 
 
 e. Purpose. 'That,' 'in oiderthat,' 'lest.' 
 
 ner or 
 degree. 
 
 4. To causa- 
 tion. 
 
 These distinctions may be illustrated additionally thus : 
 
 Aa to time. He left the House, after the vote was taken. 
 
 He sat as long as he could, until the duke came. 
 
PREPOSITIONS BECOMING CONJUNCTIONS. 237 
 
 He spoke as often as the rules of the House allowed. 
 And whenever he spoke, the House cheered him, 
 
 4. Cav.sati.ve. b, Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. 
 
 c. However disagreeable it may be, we must do our duty. 
 
 d. The crop is heavy, because the land is good (cause). 
 The land is good, for the crop is heavy (logical reason}. 
 The husbandman tills and manures the land, because he 
 
 wishes for good crops (motive'). 
 
 e. Head, that you may weigh and consider. 
 
 322. Several of the words here given as conjunctions are used 
 iuiict^ons 1 " * n ^ English as prepositions, and in that case are 
 originally followed by ' that,' the demonstrative, standing for 
 turns' 51 ' * ne res ^ ^ ^ ie seiv tence, as in Galatians ii. 12 : 
 
 ' Before that certain came from James, he did eat with the Gentiles.' 
 'After that I was turned, I repented.' JER. xxxi. 19. 
 'Sith that I have told you.' CHAUCEB. 
 
 "Without ' that ' they arc better regarded as conjunctions. ' If ' 
 and ' how ' and some others are used similarly in old English, 
 and admit a similar explanation, i. e. they have the force. of in- 
 dependent words, and illustrate the principle of Tooke, that al! 
 conjunctions were originally either verbs or nouns. 
 
 Some other words, as ' like ' and ' notwithstanding,' are now 
 used as conjunctions, though not properly ; a usage that origin 
 ates in the employment of them in old English as prepositions 
 with ' that,' ' as ' : thus 
 
 ' Like [as] a father pitieth his children, sc the Lord piticth them that 
 fear him.' 
 
 ' Notwithstanding [thaf] these follies are pretty well worn out of tho 
 nintis of the wise and learned in the present age, multitudes of weak 
 uud ignorant persons are still slaves to them.' SPECTATOB, No. 5Q5. 
 
 If ' as ' and ' that ' are omitted, the use of ' like ' and ( not- 
 withstanding ' as conjunctions is very questionable. 
 
 ' Notwithstanding ' is sometimes used after a noun or pronoun, 
 as a nominative absolute : 
 
 ' I notvvythstandynge.' JOB xiii. BiBtE, 1551. 
 
 Here it has its etymological meaning. 
 
 Orotiicr Many words here given belong in different con- 
 parts of . J , ,. , to . 
 speech. nections to other parts of speech. 
 
 'After,' for example, is an adjective (' the after part of the ship '), 
 an adverb (' they that come after'), a preposition (' After me the 
 
238 CONJUNCTIONS THEIR ORIGIN. 
 
 deluge,' METTERNICH), a conjunction (' he called two days after I 
 left '). ' Then ' (with its double form ' then ' and e than ') is both 
 a conjunction and an adverb : ' For/ a conjunction and preposi- 
 tion : ' Except,' a preposition and a conjunction. * Save ' and 
 'saving,' when they mean 'but,' or merely connect -words, are not 
 adverbs, as Johnson calls them, nor are they verbs, but con- 
 junctions : 
 
 "There was no stranger in tho house, save we two.' 1 KINGS iii. 18. 
 
 ' When all slept sound save she, who loved them both.' 
 
 ROGERS, Italy, 108. 
 
 As conjunctions, they require the same case after them as 
 before them. (See par. 521). 
 
 ' But ' is sometimes an adverb =' only ; ' sometimes a preposi- 
 tion = ' except,' ' without;' and sometimes a conjunction, as : 
 
 1 Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, 
 As to be hated needs but to be seen, (an Adv.) 
 But seen too oft, familiar with her face, (Conj.) 
 We first endure, then pity, then embrace.' POPE. 
 
 ' Oh, who shall say what heroes feel, 
 
 When all but life and honour's lost.' (Prep.) MOOEB. 
 
 'None but the brave deserve the fair.' DEYDEN. 
 
 323. Several of these conjunctions go in pairs, and may be 
 Correlative called correlatives, as neither nor : either or : 
 tious. whether or : if then : for because : now there- 
 fore : both and : as so : so as : though yet or still, etc. 
 
 324. Regarded etymologically conjunctions are of three 
 Classified as classe3 -simple, 'and,' 'as,' 'but,' 'if,' 'or;' 
 
 to their Derived, such as. 'n-or,' 'ei-ther,' 'n-ei-ther.' 'tha-n.' 
 
 nrirr r> * * ' * ' ' 
 
 UIJLHI1. f r- j / t f * e ' if 
 
 if, even, ' since, ' seeing, ' except ; 
 
 And compound, such as, ' n-ever the less,' ' mo-re ov-er,' 
 ' whe-re-fore,' 'al-though' (thafian, to allow), 'howbeit' (in 
 whatever way it be). 
 
 Horne Tooke suggests that this two words: 'bot,' the conjunction, 
 
 1 but ' had a different origin. ' But ' taking- an indicative in the sense of 
 
 in the sense of 'besides ' is from IJot ' but,' and a subjunctive in the sense 
 
 (the root of booty, bootless) ; in the of ' unless ; ' and ' but ' the preposi- 
 
 sense of ' except,' it is from Be-utan, tion. ' Rask's Anglo-Saxon Grarn- 
 
 to take out or abstract (ex-cept). The mar,' p. 131. See Richardson, and 
 
 first ' but ' is short, and the second on the other side. Wedgwood : under 
 
 long. It is certain that the A.S. had 'But.' 
 
INTERJECTIONS. 239 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 325. An interjection is a word or cry that expresses any strong 
 Jnteriec- or su dden wish or emotion of the mind. 
 
 It scarcely comes within the range of articulate 
 16 language, and has no government or connection with 
 other parts of the sentence. 
 
 Interjections may express, by way of exclamation. 
 Classified. an emo ti on of- 
 
 Joy as, Hurrah ! Desire for the presence of 
 Sorrow or pain Oh ! Hoo ! another Ho ! Hollo ! 
 
 Approval Bravo ! Attention Hist ! 
 
 Aversion or contempt Pugh ! Discovery Oho ! Ay, ay 1 
 
 Faugh ! Fie ! Weariness Heigh ho ! 
 
 Curiosity Eh ? Ha? Surprise Ah ! Oh ! 
 
 etc. 
 
 326. Significant words, uttered independently, after the manner 
 Apparent ^ i^terj ections, ought to be referred to their proper 
 govern- classes, and explained elliptically, as Order ! Adieu ! 
 
 ; ot (< To God ' I commend you). Good-b'ye (God, or 
 Good be near you). Strange ! 
 
 'On! Stanley, on! 
 
 Were the last words of Marmion.' SCOTT. 
 
 Though interjections do not themselves govern cases, they may 
 be closely connected with words that do, or they may be used as 
 nouns, as : 
 
 ' If you deny me, fie upon your law.' SHAZSPEABE. 
 
 ' Alas for us ! ' 
 
 ' Woe is me, Albania ! ' BYEON. (i. e. to me.) 
 or Oh, it may be added, is often prefixed to a noun, as a sign 
 
 of the vocative case. 
 
 ' Oh happiness! our being's end and aim!' POPE. 
 ' O pride of Greece ! Ulysses, stay ! ' 
 
 327. Home Tooke bestowed great pains on the particles of our 
 language ; and tried to show that they are all derived from verbs 
 or nouns ; ' if , from ' give ; ' 'unless ' from ' on-lesan,' to dismiss, 
 
 etc. His conjectures are often ingenious and plausible. But 
 the whole subject needs re-investigation. The results however 
 
 are not likely, as words are in such frequent and idiomatic use, 
 
 to be of much practical value. 
 
240 SYNTAX. 
 
 CHAPTER VTL 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 OONTKNTS : (328) Sentence defined. (330) Meaning of the copul\ 
 
 (331) Sentences classified. 
 i. The simple sentence. 
 
 (332) The subject. (333) The enlargement of the subject. 
 
 (334) The predicate. (335) The completion of the predicate or the 
 object. (336) Enlargement of the object. (337) The indirect object : 
 how governed. (338, 339) The indirect object only. 
 
 (340) The extension of the predicate. 
 
 (341) Words classified in relation to sentences. 
 
 (342) Words used to qualify the object, or to extend the predicate. 
 ii. (343) Complex sentences classified. 
 
 (344) The noun sentence. (345) The adjective sentence. 
 (316) The adverbial sentence. 
 
 iii. (347) Compound sentences. 
 (348) Contracted compound sentences. (349, 350) Examples. 
 
 (351) Rules for analyzing them. 
 
 (352) Parsing. 
 
 (353-356) Various methods : relative value of each. 
 
 RULES OF SYNTAX. 
 Nominative Case* 
 (357-379) Concord of nominative and verb. Nominative absolute. 
 
 (381) Position of nominative in the sentence. 
 
 (382) Position of enlargement of the nominative. 
 Genitive Case. 
 
 (384, 3S5) A. S. and Norman forms. Use of each. 
 
 (386-395) Rules. Plural possessive pronouns. Choice of forms. 
 
 (396) Position of genitive. 
 
 (397) Genitive relations. 
 Dative Case, 
 
 (398-404) Various forms and uses. Dative absolute. 
 (405) Dative relations. (406) Examples. 
 
 Objective Case. 
 
 (407-412) Verbs and adjectives governing objective cases. 
 (413) Objective of time, measure. (414) Cognate objective. 
 
SYNTAX. 241 
 
 (415) Objective case and passive verb. (416, 417, 418) Nominative 
 after verbs. 
 
 (419) Position of objective case. 
 
 (420) Other uses of the objective. 
 The Pronoun. Personal and relative. 
 
 (421-454) Eules. (455-459) On the position of Pronouns. 
 
 The Article. Definite and indefinite. 
 
 (4CO-481) Eules on the form, the use, the place, and the repetition of 
 
 the article. 
 TJie Adjective. 
 
 (482-497) Rules on the use and position of the adjective. 
 
 (498-506) Comparative and superlative forms. 
 The Verb. 
 
 (507-512) Eules on concord and government. 
 
 (513) The auxiliary ' do.' (515) ' Shall, will,' etc. 
 
 (515-521) Tenses and modes in complex sentences. 
 
 (522-527) The subjunctive mood. Its rules. 
 
 (528) Verbs used absolutely. (529-541) The infinitive, objective, 
 and gerundial. (542-548) The sign and the position of the in- 
 finitive. 
 
 (549-558) Participles. 
 The Adverb. 
 
 (559-561) Eules as to their use and position. 
 
 (562) Qualify verbs, etc. (563) Adjectives, etc., used as. 
 
 (564) Two negatives. (565-568) 'Not but,' 'no,' 'ever,' 'never,' 
 
 etc. 
 The Conjunction. 
 
 (569-578) Eules on their use. Government of moods, and position. 
 
 (579, 580) Correlative conjunctions. 
 
 (581-583) ' Or,' etc. (584) Omissions and insertions, effect of. 
 
 The Preposition. 
 
 (585, 586) Governs a case. (587, 588) Its place. (5S9) Repeti- 
 tion of. 
 
 (590) Must be appropriate to the words used. 
 
 (591) Compound propositions. (592) Pleonastic. 
 
 The Interjection. 
 (593) Peculiarity of. 
 
 " The English have ever been as indocile in acknowledging rules of 
 criticism, even those which determine the most ordinary questions of 
 grammar, as the Italian and French have been voluntarily obedient.' 
 
 IlALLAit. 
 
242 SENTENCES : 
 
 " The following are the five fundamental laws of syntax : 
 
 1. The verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 
 
 2. Active verbs and prepositions take nouns or something equivalent 
 
 to nouns after them, as their object. 
 
 3. Every adjective or word used as an adjective qualifies some noun 
 
 expressed or understood, or otherwise distinguishes it. 
 
 4. Adverbs modify the meaning of any -words, which convey the idea 
 
 of an action or attribute and not the idea of existence. 
 6. Copulative and disjunctive particles unite together notions or 
 assertions, which hold the same relation to any given sentence." 
 J. D. MOEELL. (See par. 571, 572.) 
 
 328. SYNTAX treats of words as arranged in sentences, their 
 relation and concord. 
 
 THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 329. A sentence is the expression of a thought in words. In 
 
 every such expression there is a thin" of which we 
 A sentence ,,. , i ., ,., , , ., rm 
 
 defined think ; and there is a quality we assert of it. The 
 
 thing thought of is called in a sentence, the subject : 
 the assertion made of it, is called the predicate : as, 
 Men (subject) reason (predicate). Every sentence, however com- 
 plex, is really divisible into these two parts. 
 
 The relation of words to each other in a sentence is expressed 
 by position, by inflection, and by connecting words. 
 
 While grammar regards sentences as made up of two parts, 
 And logi- logic reckons three : the subject, the predicate, and 
 the copula which unites the other two. In grammar 
 the copula is always included in the predicate. The grammati- 
 cal subject moreover is the nominative simply, the logical subject 
 includes all its adjuncts. The grammatical predicate is the 
 verb, the logical predicate is the entire assertion. So far the 
 nomenclature of the two sciences differs. 
 
 330. It may be convenient here to note, that ' is, 1 the logical 
 Meaning of copula of a sentence, is really a word of most exten- 
 he copula. s i ve mea ning. Sometimes it expresses existence (as 
 ' God is '), and then it is the predicate of the sentence. Some- 
 times it expresses resemblance, as when we say, ' Society is a 
 pyramid : ' or causation, as ' Intemperance is the death of thou- 
 
SIMPLE, COMPLEX, COMPOUND. 243 
 
 sands : ' or comprehension of any kind : that is, whenever the 
 predicate of a proposition describes the genus, or the difference, 
 the property or the accident of the subject. This peculiarity 
 of the word is important in logic : it is noted here, only to im- 
 press upon the reader that in grammar ' is ' is either itself a 
 predicate or part of the predicate, and has no peculiar inde- 
 pendent force. 
 
 331 . Sentences are simple, complex, and compound. A simple 
 Sentences sentence contains one subject or nominative, and one 
 classified, finite verb or predicate : as, 'Time flies.' 
 
 A complex sentence contains one principal subject, 
 and one principal predicate, with one finite verb or more depen- 
 Complex. dent on the principal sentence : as 
 
 ' The labour we delight in physics pain.' MACBETH. 
 '"When men cannot do what they wish, they must do what they can.' 
 
 A compound sentence contains two or more simple or corn- 
 Compound, plex sentences : as 
 
 ' Eetail geniuses are nothing worth : go to the wholesale dealers, if 
 you wish knowledge,' EMSIOEY. 
 
 When the predicate is a transitive verb, it requires some 
 word or words to complete the sense : as 
 
 ' Reward sweetens toil.' 
 
 The added word, or words, grammarians call the object of the 
 verb ; or the completion or complement of the predicate. 
 
 In these explanations two sets of phrases have been used : 
 subject and nominative j predicate and verb ; complement of 
 predicate and object. These double phrases are purposely 
 used. They suggest the connexion between grammar and 
 logic ; between the process of speech and of thought ; and the 
 careful attention of the reader is directed to them. 
 
 The connexion between these three kinds of sentences may 
 be illustrated by an example. 
 
 ' Tyrrell shot Eufus.' A simple sentence. 
 
 'Tyrrell [who is thought to have had some grudge against Eufus] 
 shot him [while hunting].' A complex sentence. 
 
 ' Tyrrell shot Ruf us : the king was found in the forest where he had 
 fallen ; and Tyrrell escaped to France.' A compound sentence. 
 
 K 2 
 
214 SENTENCES-THE SUBJECT. 
 
 i. THB SIMPLE SENTENCE. (a) The Subject. 
 
 332. In a simple sentence the stibject may be either simple or 
 The simple enlarged. If rimple, it may consist of a noun, a 
 subject. pronoun, an adjective used as a noun, a common in- 
 finitive, or an infinitive in ' ing : ' as 
 
 ' Procrastination is the thief of time.' YOUXG. 
 
 ' He taught us how to live, and how to die.' TICKELL (Of Addison). 
 
 ' The just shall live by faith.' ROM. i. 17. 
 
 ' To suppress the truth may be a duty to others ; never to utter a false- 
 hood is a duty to ourselves.' HAEE. 
 
 ' Doing his duty is the delight of a good man." 
 
 Nouns with single limiting adjectives may be regarded as 
 simple subjects : as 
 
 ' A man's a man for a* that.' 
 
 ' Extreme care to avoid censure never answers its purpose. There is 
 no escape from cavil." BEIDGES. 
 
 Even if there are two or three words, expressive of ono 
 thought, the subject may still be regarded as simple : as 
 
 'Too little self-confidence begets the forms of vanity.' FOESTEE'S 
 LIFE OF GOLDSMITH. 
 
 Sentences also may be nominatives ; but in such cases, the 
 sentences cease to be simple. 
 
 The simple subject may be placed after the verb ; and then 
 'it,' or 'this,' or 'there,' is placed before it in apposition to 
 the subject : as 
 
 ' It is excellent 
 
 [To have a giant's strength ;] but it is tyrannous 
 [To use it like a giant.]' MEASUBE roit MEASURE. 
 'And there was mounting in hot haste.' BYEOX. 
 
 333. An enlarged subject in a simple sentence may be formed 
 The enlarged ^ an y "words that can be used to modify a noun, 
 subject. provided they do not make a distinct sentence. 
 These may be nouns in apposition (a), an infinitive (b), an ad- 
 jective (c), or a participle (d), a possessive case (e), and preposi- 
 tional (f), or adverbial phrases (g) ; or any combination of these 
 (h) : as 
 
 a. ' Paul the apostle wrote the Epistle to the Romans.' 
 
 b. ' The best course to treat him kindly occurred to none.' 
 
THE PEEDICATE. 245 
 
 c. ' Habitual giving is a Christian duty.' 
 
 d. ' The king feeling desirous of protecting himself, gave up the 
 minister into their hands.' 
 
 e. ' Baxter's cheerfulness was one of his virtues.' 
 
 f . ' Ten of the twelve apostles sealed their testimony with their blood. 
 ' The thirst for fame is an infirmity of noble minds.' 
 
 1 The method of obtaining silver from lead is very ingenious.' 
 
 ' Pensiveness without mind is dulness.' 
 
 'He with his principal officers, was taken.' ROBERTSON. 
 
 g. ' The cathedral there is still unfinished.' 
 
 h. ' Underneath day's azure eyes, Ocean's nursling Venice lies.' 
 
 (b.) The Predicate. 
 
 334. The predicate of a sentence asserts of the subject, what 
 The predi- it is, what it does, or what is done to it : and the verb 
 cate. i s accordingly neuter or intransitive, active and transi- 
 tive, or passive. 
 
 A simple predicate can be varied only by separating the 
 finite verb into the copula and some other part of speech : a 
 noun (1), an adjective (2), or a prepositional phrase or adverb 
 (3) : as 
 
 (1) ' And the earth was all rest and the air was all love.' SHELLEY. 
 
 (2) ' Thou art alive still while thy book doth live, 
 
 And we have wits to read, and praise to give.' JONSON (on Shak- 
 
 speare). 
 (3) ' They are all under the sod.' 
 
 "Tis neither here nor there.' OTHELLO. 
 ' He that complies against his will 
 Is of his oivn opinion still.' HUDIBEAS. 
 
 All negatives and compound expressions conveying a single 
 thought may be regarded as simple predicates. 
 
 (c.) The completion of the Predicate. 
 
 335. When a verb is transitive, the predicate is completed by 
 
 The com- adding the object. In the case of most verbs the 
 pletion of, . . , J , . 7771.,, 
 
 the predi- object is single, but some require a douole object to 
 
 Single complete the sense. 
 
 objects. The single object of a transitive verb maybe a noun, 
 a pronoun, an adjective used as a noun, or an infinitive in 
 either of its forms : as 
 
246 COMPLEMENT OP THE PREDICATE. 
 
 ' Who steals my purse, steals trash.' SHAESPEAKE. 
 ' Sim, the almighty power, 
 
 Hurled headlong flaming from th' ethereal sky.' MILTON. 
 ' An infidel can never be a great man. His views and affections take in 
 only tlif visible ; and are always low and contracted.' 
 
 'Learn to labour and to wait.' 
 
 1 Many preachers make me think a great deal of them, but this one 
 teaches me to think little of myself.' Louis XIV. (of Massillon.) 
 'Ee prefers walking to riding.' 
 
 336. These objects of transitive verbs, being equivalent to 
 The enlarged nouns, maybe enlarged, like the subjects of. sentences, 
 object. jjy the addition of nouns in apposition, of adjectives 
 or participles, of possessive cases, of adverbs and prepositional 
 phrases. 
 
 A sentence also may be the object of a verb, but in that case 
 the whole sentence is complex and not simple. 
 
 337. Some verbs require a second object to complete the 
 The indirect predicate : called the indirect object of the verb. 
 
 This indirect object may be a noun alone, or a 
 noun with a preposition ('for' or 'to'), or with a conjunction 
 (' as '), an adjective or a participle, or an infinitive : as 
 
 ' They made Cromwell Protector : and lie named his son as his heir.' 
 ' The jury found him guilty.' 
 'The people counted him for a prophet.' 
 Tell him to wait' 
 ' I saw him go.' 
 ' It shall grind him to powder.' 
 
 Verbs with this government are generally verbs of making, 
 appointing, pronouncing, etc. ; and the indirect object is some- 
 times called from the first-named, the factitive object. 
 
 The indirect object may be governed by a preposition : as 
 
 ' Burke accused Hastings of high crimes and misdemeanours.' 
 This is called the genitive object. 
 
 ' I have given him every indulgence.' 
 'Mr. Vcrnon bequeathed his pictures to the nation.' 
 This ia called the dative object. 
 
 338. Some intransitive verbs take an indirect object only. 
 
EXTENSION OF THE PEEDICATE. 247 
 
 ' At Eome it was deemed a crime to despair of the republic.' 
 ' Of Heaven he spake, from Heaven he came.' 
 
 These indirect objects are by some regarded as direct objects, 
 governed by the transitive verbs 'to despair of/ 'to speak of,' 
 etc. : and in some respects this view is more just than the 
 other. (See par. 408.) 
 
 339. Neuter verbs and passive verbs of the factitive class are 
 Neuter facti- followed by a completion of the predicate in the 
 tive verbs. nominative. 
 
 1 On the death of Harold, William became king.' 
 ' After a long trial his invention was pronounced the better of the two.' 
 
 Verbs which imply measure or weight are followed by an 
 object in the accusative : as 
 
 ' The lake of Gennesaret measures eight miles across.* 
 "The fish he caught weighs nine pounds* 
 
 Of course these indirect objects of the verb, consisting as they 
 do of nouns or the equivalents of nouns, may bo enlarged in 
 the same way as the nominative. 
 
 (d). The Extension of the Predicate. 
 
 340. The predicate of a sentence may not only be varied and 
 Extension oi completed : it may be extended. For this purpose, 
 the predicate. we use either the simple adverb or an adverbial 
 phrase, or compoiind adverb as it has been called. Both forms 
 are used to express time, place, manner, and causation. 
 
 The simple adverb 
 
 ' He suffered long and died heroically.' 
 
 The adverbial phrase has the following forms. It appears 
 As a noun, or a noun phrase : 
 
 ' He rode three miles, and then returned.' 
 ' Nine times the space that measures day and night 
 To mortal men, he fell.' MILTOS. 
 
 As a participle, or a participial phrase : as 
 ' He died shouting victory.' 
 ' He excepted, all were saved.' 
 ' And on he moves to meet his latter end, 
 Angels around befriending virtue's friend.' GOLDSMITH. 
 
 The last two are examples of the nominative absolute ; a kind 
 of participial phrase that modifies the predicate or assertion of 
 the sentence. 
 
2i8 
 
 LANGUAGE CLASSIFIED. 
 
 As an adjective used adverbially : 
 
 ' Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.' HEJ:HT IV. 
 
 As a prepositional phrase : 
 
 ' Newton was born at Woolsthorpe' (place) 
 
 1 His first prism was of glass, 1 (material) 
 
 1 And he used it for analyzing light.' (purpose) 
 
 ' You rise betimes.' (time) 
 
 ' He speaks with great rapidity, but with great clearness.' (manner) 
 
 Or in any combinations of these forms : 
 ' In that sudden strange transition, (time) 
 By what new and finer sense, (manner) 
 Can she grasp the mighty vision, 
 And receive its influence ? ' CONDEB. 
 
 ' Sometimes wit lieth in a pat allusion to a known srory, sometimes it 
 playeth in words or phrases ; taking advantage from the ambiguity of 
 their sense, or the affinity of their sound.' BAEEOW. 
 
 Language 341. All language, therefore, as used in simple sen- 
 tences, may be classified thus : 
 
 Names descriptive of 
 things or acts. 
 
 Words qualifying 
 names descriptive of 
 things or acts. 
 (Attributes of the 
 noun.) 
 
 Nouns; pronouns. 
 Adjectives, used as nouns. 
 Infinitive moods. 
 (And in complex sen- 
 tences, complete sen- 
 tences.) 
 
 Noun or Infinitive in 
 apposition. 
 Adjectives. 
 Possessive cases. 
 Prepositional phrases, or 
 adverbs. 
 -Participles. 
 
 Forming 
 
 The sub j ect and ob j ect 
 of a sentence. 
 
 y 
 
 Enlargement of 
 .the subject or object 
 of a sentence. 
 
 Words asserting acts | The verbi The predicate . 
 
 or qualities. j 
 
 Wor<k qualifying as- [ Adverbs * time ' P lac M 
 
 Berlins words. ) w^"""*',? A v 11 Enlargement of the 
 
 (Attribute, of flJgg^jJjJWfr p f e dicate. 
 
 ^Preposition with cases. J 
 
 342. It will be noticed that participles, prepositional phrases, 
 and adjectives, are used to qualify the subject, or the object of a 
 sentence, or to extend the predicate. They qualify the subject 
 
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 249 
 
 when they describe the thing of which we are speaking ; and 
 they qualify the predicate when they modify or define the act 
 expressed by the verb. Sometimes it is uncertain whether it is 
 the subject or the predicate that is qualified by the added 
 words : as 
 
 ' She looks beautiful.' 
 
 ' And then came winter clothed all in frieze, 
 Chattering his teeth for cold.' 
 
 ii. THE COMPLEX SEXTEXCE. 
 
 343. A complex sentence is made up of one principal subject 
 Complex an( ^ P re( ii ca te, and contains two or more finite verbs, 
 sentence. The part that contains the principal subject and 
 predicate is called the principal sentence ; the rest, the subordi- 
 nate sentence, or sentences. 
 
 Subordinate sentences are of three kinds : the noun sentence, 
 the adjective sentence, and the adverbial sentence. 
 
 344. The noun sentence is one that occupies the place, and 
 Noun sen- follows the construction of a noun. It may, there- 
 teuces. fore, be either the subject of the principal sentence, 
 or the object that completes the predicate ; 
 
 The subject : 
 
 ' That [a historian should not record trifles], is perfectly true.' 
 MACAULAY. 
 
 ' The fact [that we aro ourselves sinful], should make us ready to 
 forgive.' 
 
 ' It is not known [where Moses was buried].' 
 
 The object, direct or indirect : 
 
 ' She knew [that his heart was darkened with her shadow].' BYEON. 
 ' I was taught in my youth [that to know how to wait is one secret Of 
 success].' 
 
 Most noun sentences begin, it will be seen, with ' that,' though 
 sometimes it is omitted : as 
 
 1 Little did I dream that [I should live to see such a disaster fallen 
 upon her in a nation of gallant men], I thought [ten thousand swords 
 must have leaped from their scabbards to avenge even a look that 
 threatened her with insult]. But the age of chivalry is gone.' BUBKE. 
 
 After negative verbs, ' but that ' is sometimes used. 
 
250 NOUN AND OTHER SENTENCES. 
 
 When the noun sentence is a direct quotation, or is preceded 
 oy the interrogative pronoun, no connecting particle is re- 
 quired : 
 
 ' Buffon used to say, " Genius is patience : " " Genius is common 
 sense intensified," is another definition.' 
 
 ' I know not who you are, or what you want.' 
 
 ' Whence he came and how he achieved his success are profound mys- 
 teries.' 
 
 345. An adjective sentence is one that occupies the place, and 
 Adjective follows the construction of an adjective. It may 
 sentences, therefore be attached to any part of a sentence where 
 an adjective is admissible 
 
 To the subject or to the single object of the verb : 
 
 ' To me the meanest flower that bkwj can give 
 Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears.' "\VonD3WORra. 
 
 To the second of two objects : 
 
 ' But grant mo still a friend in my retreat, 
 Whom I may whisper solitude is sweet.' COWPEB. 
 
 The words that connect the adjective sentence with the 
 principal sentence are either relatives, or words equivalent to 
 relatives, 'when,' ' why,' 'how,' etc. : as 
 ' I know a bank whereon the wild thyme grows.' Mn>. N. DEEAST. 
 When the relative is in the accusative case, it may be omitted 
 without any confusion of sense : 
 
 ' The message you gave me, I have told him.' 
 
 ' Our doubts are traitors, 
 And make us lose the good we oft might win' MEAS. FOE MEASTTBE. 
 
 Sometimes, in poetry and in colloquial prose, the relative, 
 when a nominative, is omitted : as 
 
 ' 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, 
 
 And robes the mountain in its azure hue.' CAMPBELL. 
 ''Tis he leads the opposition, not Bentinck.' 
 
 346. An adverbial sentence is one that takes the place and 
 Adverbial follows the construction of an adverb ; and like the 
 adverb it describes place, time, manner, or causa- 
 tion. It generally qualifies the predicate. 
 Place: ' Where'er we seek thee, thou ait found, 
 And every place is hallow'd ground.' 
 
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 21 
 
 ' Their ashes flew, 
 
 No marble tells us whither? COWPEK. 
 
 Time : 'When I said I should die a bachelor, I did not think I should 
 live till I were married. 1 MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING. 
 
 Sometimes these adverbial forms are abbreviated, either by 
 omitting the verb, or by changing the verb into a participle : 
 as 
 
 ' When young he learnt Hebrew, and tho' he afterwards forgot it all. 
 he died repeating the 23rd Psalm.' 
 Manner : ' Such sights as youthful poets dream, 
 
 On summer eves by haunted stream.' MiLTOIT. 
 Causation : reason, condition, purpose, etc. : 
 
 'I weep the more, because I weep in vain.' GRAY. 
 
 ' In due season we shall reap, if we faint not.' 
 
 * Ask and ye shall receive, that your Joy may be full,' 
 
 etc. 
 Seo the Table of Adverbs in paragraph 308. 
 
 iii. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 
 
 347. A compound sentence, is one that contains two or more 
 Compound principal and co-ordinate assertions. Such sentences 
 sentences. mav be divided into four classes : 
 
 (1.) Those that are copulative, whether affirmative or nega- 
 tive : as 
 
 ' Man proposes and God disposes.' THOMAS i KEMPIS. 
 ' Neither did this man sin, nor his parents.' (Negative) 
 'Ho not only silenced him ; he convinced him.' (Affirmative) 
 
 (2.) Those that are alternative (sometimes called disjunctive) : 
 offering for acceptance one of two things : as 
 
 ' Either these books add to the Koran, or they merely repeat it. In 
 the one case they are blasphemous, in the other futile.' OUAR. 
 'We put new wine into new bottles, else the bottles perish.' 
 
 (3.) Those that are adversative ; where the second clause 
 narrows the first (a), or presents a contrast to it (b), or (more 
 rarely) wholly denies it (c) : as 
 
 (a.) 'Here is an excellent picture, but that it wanted one thing.' 
 HOLLAND'S PLINIE. 
 
 (b.) ' Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice ; 
 
 Take each man's censure (opinion), but reserve thy judgment.' 
 
 HAMLET. 
 
252 CONTEACTED SENTENCES. 
 
 (c.) ' A man is justified not by works, but ly faith.' 
 1 Not the rich are happy, lut the good.' 
 
 (4.) Those that are causative ; where the one sentence gives 
 the logical reason or cause ; and the other the inference or result : 
 as 
 
 ' Christianity is not only reverence ; it is love : therefore it busies itself 
 not only with the worship of the highest, but with the lifting up of the 
 lowly.' 
 
 ' Because she loves much, therefore, (I conclude) much has been for- 
 given her.' Logical conclusion from premises. 
 
 'Because much has been forgiven her, therefore, she loves much.' 
 Consequence from fact. 
 
 The connective particles proper to express the relation between 
 co-ordinate sentences may be seen in paragraphs 320, 321. 
 
 348. Sometimes a compound sentence is put in a contracted 
 Contracted f orm : one subject (a) has two or more predicates, or 
 sentences, one predicate has two or more subjects (b) ; two or 
 more objects (c), or two or more extensions of the predicate (d) ; 
 and sometimes connecting particles are omitted (e) : as 
 
 (a.) ' With ravished ears, 
 The monarch hears, 
 Assumes the god, 
 Affects to nod, 
 
 And seems to shake the spheres.' DRTDEN. 
 (b.) ' Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note.' C. WOLFB. 
 
 'Woe came with war and want with woe.' SCOTT. 
 (c.) ' Cromwell placed England at the head of the Protestant interest, 
 
 and in the first rank of Christian powers.' MACAULAT. 
 (d.) ' Ho taught every nation to value her friendship, and to dread her 
 
 enmity.' MACATJLAY. 
 
 (e.) 'I stood by her cradle: I followed her hearse.' GRATTAN (Of 
 Irish Liberty). 
 
 'Keading, makes a full man; speaking, a ready man; writing, a 
 correct man.' BACOJT. 
 'Last noon beheld them full of lusty life, 
 Last even, in beauty's circle proudly gay, 
 The midnight brought the signal sound of strife, 
 The morn, the marshalling in arms ; the day, 
 Battle's magnificently stern array.' 
 
 CIIILDK HAEOLD'S 
 
EXAMPLES. 253 
 
 In this last example, it will be seen, there is a remarkable 
 omission of predicates. 
 
 Sentences so constructed are generally distinguished by force. 
 
 349. The following examples will illustrate the analysis given 
 Examples, in the preceding pages. 
 
 SIIIPLE AND COMPLEX SENTENCE. 
 
 Subject. Predicate. 
 
 Simple sentence. Labour is abused. 
 
 Extension of subject ) Manual labour, itself a )is often abused by ex- 
 
 and predicate. ' } duty, J cess. 
 
 Complex sentence with ) Manual labour, itself ) is often abused by terri- 
 several enlargements. a du ty and designed \ ble excess, till it be- 
 ) as a pleasure, ) comes a curse. 
 
 COMPLEX AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 
 
 Subject. Predicate. 
 
 Compound sentence. The amphitheatre was' contemplated with 
 
 awe: 
 
 and enthusiasm broke forth. 
 
 Enlargement of subject ) Reduced to its naked } was contemplated with 
 and extension of pre- > majesty the Flavian > awe, by the barbarians 
 dicate. ) amphitheatre ) of the north : 
 
 /broke forth in a solemn 
 proverbial expres- 
 sion, \vliich is re- 
 corded in the eighth 
 century, in the frag- 
 ments of the venera- 
 ble Bede: 'As long 
 as the Coliseum 
 stands Rome shall 
 stand.' GIBBON, ch. 
 71. 
 
 Enlargement of subject \ 
 and extension of pre- f and their rude en- 
 dicate in manner, I thusiasm 
 time, and place. 
 
 350. The simple sentence, ' On a throne sat Satan,' Mil toil 
 enlarges and expands thus : 
 
 ' High on a throne of royal state, which far 
 Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, 
 Or where ths gorgeous East with richest hand 
 Showers on their kings barbaric pearl and gold, 
 Satan exalted sat, by merit raised 
 To that bad eminence.' 
 
254 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 The following are simple, complex, and compound sentences : 
 the style as terse as prose : 
 
 ' He now prepar' d 
 
 To speak ; whereat their troubled ranks they bend 
 From wing to wing, and half enclose him round 
 With all his peers ; attention held them mute. 
 Thrice he assayed ; and thrice, in spite of scorn, 
 Tears such as angels weep burst forth. At last, 
 Words interwoven with sighs found out their way.' 
 
 351. In analyzing single sentences, we adopt the same order 
 Blethod of as a writer adopts in making them. We select first 
 analysis. t\ ie subject of the sentence or nominative of the verb ; 
 arranging under it any enlargements which the sentence con- 
 tains. We then select the predicate or finite verb. If it is a 
 transitive verb, we put under it its object or complement, and 
 arrange under that object any enlargement which the sentence 
 contains. And finally we mark any circumstances of time, place, 
 or manner, which qualify the verb, and set them down as exten- 
 sions of the predicate. 
 
 In analyzing a complex sentence, we mark the principal sub- 
 ject and predicate, and arrange imder each the subordinate sen- 
 tences which modify or enlarge them. 
 
 If the sentence is compound we analyze it in simple sentences, 
 and then mark whether the co-ordinate sentences are copulative, 
 alternative, adversative, or causative. 
 
 It is not so much of course for analyzing sentences as for com- 
 posing them that these hints are important. This analysis is of 
 value chiefly because it enables us the more readily to combine 
 and express our thoughts. 
 
 The connection between these processes and composition will 
 be noticed hereafter ; our immediate business is with syntax. 
 
 PAUSING. 
 
 352. It may be convenient to indicate here the various 
 methods of parsing in use in grammar. 
 
 To parse is to take the various parts of a sentence by thcm- 
 Parsing. se ^ ves an d explain them. Parsing involves analysis ; 
 and has different meanings, as we apply it to words or 
 to entire sentences. 
 
PARSING. 
 
 255 
 
 353. The simplest mode of parsing is to take the different 
 
 words of a sentence and refer them to their parts of 
 First method. , , ,. , , ... 
 
 speech, stating merely what they qualify or govern : 
 
 4 When a writer reasons, we look only for perspicuity!; when he 
 describes, we expect embellishment ; when he relates, we desire plainness 
 and simplicity.' BLAIE. 
 
 ' When,' an adverb of time, quali- 
 fying ' reasons ' ; 
 ' a,' an article or indefinite adj. ; 
 ' writer,'a common noun, nom.to 
 ' feasons,' an active intrans. verb ; 
 ' we,' a pronoun, 1st per. nom. to 
 
 ' look,' an active intransitive verb ; 
 ' only,' an adverb qualifying the 
 
 verb; 
 ' for,' a prep. governing perspicuity, 
 
 or 'look-for,' an active transitive 
 
 verb, etc. 
 
 This is the first and simplest mode of parsing. It classifies 
 ivords, and adds just enough of syntax to show that it is a 
 sentence we are parsing, and not a collection of unconnected 
 forms. 
 
 354. The second method of parsing is to add to this classifica- 
 Second tion of words an analysis and explanation of them 
 method, according to their ' accidence, 1 and to give besides the 
 common rules of syntax : e. g. 
 
 'Pope, finding little advantage from external help, resolved thencefor- 
 ward to direct himself ; and at twelve formed a plan of study which he 
 completed with little other incitement than the desire of excellence.' 
 JOHNSON. 
 
 'little,' an adj. in the pos. degree 
 
 (compar. 'less,' superl. 'least'), 
 
 agreeing with 
 'advantage,' a com. noun, sing. 
 
 numb., obj. case, governed by 
 
 ' finding ' ; etc. 
 
 ' Pope,' a proper name, nom. to ' re. 
 
 solved,' with which it agrees in 
 
 number and person ; 
 ' finding,' an incomplete participle, 
 
 sing, nom., agreeing with ' Pope'. 
 
 past tense 'found'; past part. 
 
 'found' ; 
 
 355. Or we may carry this system of parsing still further, and 
 Third give all the particulars of every word, appending to 
 method! eNC h a complete history of the form : e. g. 
 
 1 It is an ancient mariner, 
 And he stoppeth one of three, 
 By thy long grey beard and glittering eye, 
 Now wherefore stopp'st thou me P ' COLERIDOB. 
 
256 
 
 PARSINGTHIRD METHOD. 
 
 ' It,' the nom. sing, neuter of ' he,' 
 and originally a dem. pronoun. 
 'He' meant that person; and 
 hit' that thing. The 'h' is 
 lost in modern English. The -t 
 is a neuter form, found also in 
 wha-f, and in Latin in illu-cf. 
 'It' is here the nom. to 'is,' 
 and answers to ' ancient mariner' 
 which may be regarded as in 
 apposition to it ; 
 
 'is,' the 3rd pers. sing, of the ir- 
 regular, or rather the defective 
 verb ' to be ' ; a verb found with 
 similar forms in classic languages, 
 in Gothic and in Sanscrit, Here 
 it agrees with its nom. ' it,' or 
 with the noun in apposition ; 
 
 'an,' an indeclinable indef. adjec., 
 commonly called an ' article,' It 
 is originally from the numeral 
 ' one,' as is clear from the A. S., 
 Scotch, and French forms. It 
 agrees with ' mariner,' and takes 
 the full form ' an ' because of the 
 vowel ; 
 
 ' ancient,' an adj., pos. degree, and 
 agreeing with mariner. It is 
 derived from the Latin 'ante,' 
 through the French 'ancien.' 
 The ' t ' is an equivalent of the 
 French nasal sound. A word of 
 the same form (' my ancient ') 
 is found in old English, as 
 equivalent to ' ensign ' or stand- 
 ard bearer, derived from the 
 French ' enseigne,' and ulti- 
 mately from the Latin, 'in- 
 signia,' the military standard ; 
 
 1 mariner,' a noun in the nom. 
 case, after the verb ' is ' ; the 
 verb ' to be,' with several others, 
 taking'the same case after it as 
 before it. From the root ' m-r,' 
 found in Latin, and in A. S. 
 
 'mere,' 'marish,' 'marsh.' Th 
 ' n ' is an adj . form, common to 
 many words ; and the termina- 
 tion 'er,' originally a sign of 
 the masc. gender, now generally 
 indicates an ' agent ' ; 
 
 ' stoppeth,' the 3rd pers. sing. pres. 
 indie, of the verb ' to stop,' with 
 regular weak past tense (stopped) , 
 and regular complete participle : 
 from an A. S. root. The ' p ' is 
 doubled, as an orthographical 
 expedient, to indicate the short- 
 ness of the vowel : ' eth ' is now 
 called a poetic and archaic form, 
 though it is the ordinary A. S. 
 ending, 'stops,' the common in- 
 flexion, being a later form ; 
 
 'eye,' a noun sing, and obj., con- 
 nected by 'and' with beard. 
 The modern plural (' eyes ') is 
 regular; the old plural was 
 ' eyen,' as the Scotch is ' een.' 
 The ' y ' in this word, as in many 
 others, represents originally a 
 'g' (compare egg, 'eggery = 
 eyry '), as in A. S. ' eage,' Ger. 
 ' auge,' Lat. ' oc.' The diminu- 
 tives are eye-l-et, oug-t7, oc-ui- 
 us ; 
 
 'wherefore,' a conjunction, used 
 adverbially : 'e' is added through 
 a false analogy, as the whole 
 word equals 'for what reason' 
 (wher-for). 'VThere' is pro- 
 perly a fern. dat. sing, of hwa, 
 who. All the cases of this rela- 
 tive are found in English, though 
 with different senses : who-se, 
 who-m, whe-re, whe-n, wh-y. 
 ' Wh,' the ' qu ' of the Latin and 
 the strong breathing of the 
 Greek, has been called the 
 interrogative or indefinite com- 
 bination. 
 
FOUETH METHOD- -LOGICAL ANALYSIS. 257 
 
 356. In these three examples we have biTsied ourselves only 
 with the words, their forms, and their syntactic connexion. 
 The analysis is grammatical only. In the following, the fourth 
 rourth method of parsing, we combine with these processes 
 method. the analysis of the sentence as a whole, in its logical 
 connexion ; that is, as an expression of thought. Whatever 
 plan be adopted in carrying out the details of this method, such 
 an analysis is of the utmost importance. Without it grammar 
 is either merely the science that names our tools, or a classifica- 
 tion of forms according to the rules of accidence or of syntax, 
 or at most an exercise in comparative philology. With it, 
 grammar becomes an intellectual exercise of the most instruc- 
 tive kind, strengthening the reasoning powers of the student, 
 and rewarding him for the exercise of them by adding to his 
 stores of thought. Indeed, by this method of analysis, the 
 study of English may be made as perfect a mental discipline as 
 the study of classic languages. 
 
 This method has been sufficiently indicated already, and it 
 only remains to add a few examples for practice. The student 
 will mark first whether the sentences are simple, complex, or 
 compound. He will then indicate the object and predicate, 
 with the enlargement or extension of each ; the principal and 
 subordinate clauses ; and if the sentences are compound, the 
 relation of each to the rest. 
 
 The rules of English syntax will be found in subsequent pages. 
 
 EXAMPLES OP SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 
 ' The gem cannot lie polished without friction, nor man perfected with- 
 out adversity.' BP. HALL. 
 
 'God rewards every degree of sincere obedience to his will with a 
 further discovery of it. "I understand more than the ancients," says 
 David, " because I keep thy statutes." ' SOUTH. 
 
 ' None are poor but those who want faith in God's providence.' 
 BP. WILSON. 
 
 'He that comes to seek after knowledge with a mind to scorn and 
 censure, shall be sure to find enough for his humour, but nothing for his 
 instruction.' BACON. 
 
 ' Tell me not in mournful numbers 
 " Life is but an empty dream ;" 
 For the soul is dead that slumbers, 
 
 And things are not what they seem.' LONGFELLOW. 
 
268 EXAMPLES: PARSING. 
 
 He who finds a God in the physical world, will also find one in the 
 moral, which is History. Nature forces on our heart a Creator ; History, 
 a Providence.' EICHTEB. 
 
 ' The cause only, not the death, makes the martyr.' B. JOXSON. 
 
 ' History is philosophy teaching by example.' BOLINQBROKE. 
 
 1 Used with due abstinence, hope is a lawful tonic ; intemperately in- 
 dulged in, an enervating opiate.' SIB J. STEPHEN. 
 
 ' Praising what is lost 
 
 Makes the remembrance dear.' SHAKSPEAEE. 
 ' How oft the sight of means to do ill deeds 
 
 Makes ill deeds done.' SHAKSPEARE. 
 'Breathes there a man with soul so dead 
 
 Who never to himself hath said, 
 
 This is my own, my native land ? ' SCOTT. 
 
 1 It is a mischievous notion that we are come too late into nature, that 
 the world was finished a long time ago. As the world was plastic and 
 fluid in the hands of God, so it is ever to so much of his attributes as wo 
 bring to it. To ignorance and sin it is flint.' 
 
 ' " Emigravit " is the inscription on the tomb-stone where he lies ; 
 Dead he is not but departed for the artist never dies.' 
 
 LONGFELLOW (on Albert Durer's Epitaph). 
 
 'It has always been our opinion that the real essence of poetry, apart 
 from the pathos, the wit, or the brilliant description which may be em- 
 bodied in it, but may exist equally in prose, consists in the fine percep- 
 tion, the vivid expression of that subtle and mysterious analogy which 
 exists between the physical and the moral world, which makes outward 
 things and qualities the natural types and emblems of inward gifts and 
 emotions, and leads us to ascribe life and sentiment to everything that 
 interests us in the aspects of external nature.' JEFFREY. 
 
 EULES OP SYNTAX. 
 
 THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 
 
 357. The subject of a sentence is put in the nominative case, and 
 
 Nominative is followed by a verb in the same number and person. 
 
 The subject may be (as we have seen) a noun or a 
 
 pronoun, an adjective, an infinitive mood, or a noun sentence 
 
 used as a noun : as 
 
 'Father, thy hand 
 
 Hath rear'd these venerable columns ; thou 
 Didst weave this verdant roof.' 
 
 BRYANT (on the Forests of America). 
 
SYNTAX. THE NOMINATIVE. 259 
 
 358. Sometimes the nominative has a pronoun in apposition to 
 it : as 
 
 ' Thy banks, they are furnished with bees.' SHENSTOKH 
 ' Know ye that the Lord, He is God.' PSA. ex. 3 
 
 Such language is regarded as pleonastic ; but it is allowable in 
 questions and in animated discourse, or when attention is called 
 to the subject of the sentence, or when explanatory words are 
 inserted between the nominative and the verb : as 
 ' The prophets, do they live for ever ? ' ZECH. i. 5. 
 
 1 Yon silver beams, 
 
 Sleep they less sweetly on the cottage thatch 
 Than on the dome of kings ? ' SHELLEY. 
 
 'Hunger and thirst and fatigue, the cold of mountain snows, and the 
 scorching sun of the tropics these were the lot of every cavalier who 
 came to seek his fortunes in the New World.' PEESCOTT. 
 
 Sometimes the noun is repeated, in order to append to it an 
 adjective clause : as 
 
 ' Thoughts delightful still, thoughts of the faces and the voices of the 
 dead, perish not, lying sometimes in slumber, sometimes in sleep.' 
 WILSON. 
 
 359. When the pronoun is in the 2nd person, it is often inserted 
 in apposition to the name of the person addressed : as 
 
 ' Thou son of David, have mercy on us.' 
 
 ' Te fostering breezes, blow ! 
 And temper all thou world reviving sun, 
 Into the perfect year.' THOMSON. 
 
 360. Nouns and pronouns in apposition are always in the same 
 case, though not necessarily in the same number as the words to 
 which they refer : as 
 
 ' We have turned, every one to his own way.' ISA. liii. 6. 
 
 ' The Son and Spirit have each his proper office.' BUTLEB'S ANAL., 
 part ii. 
 
 These are examples of distributive pronouns ; the following 
 are examples of nouns : 
 
 ' The Kenite tribe, the descendants of Hobab.' MILHAN. 
 ' Thy glorious grandeurs, Nature's most august 
 Inspiring aspect ! claim a grateful verse.' Youse. 
 
 S 2 
 
260 THE NOMINATIVE 
 
 But such forms of expression are not elegant. When used 
 the verb agrees in number with the first noun. 
 
 361. Though the nominative generally requires a verb after it, 
 there are two cases in which no verb is found when a noun or 
 pronoun is followed by a participle without a finite verb, the 
 nominative absolute, and when a noun is put in apposition to 
 the whole sentence : as 
 
 ' Honour being lost, all is lost." Nom. absolute. 
 'In Christian hearts, oh for a pagan zeal ! 
 A needful but opprobrious prayer.' Youxo, ix. 995. 
 ' Her voice was ever soft and low an excellent thing in -woman.' 
 'He allowed me the use of his library, a kindness I shall never forget. 
 SWIFT. 
 
 Sometimes in poetry, and even in prose, the participle is 
 omitted : as 
 
 'Now, man to man, and steel to steel, 
 A chieftain's vengeance thou shalt feel.' 
 
 SCOTT (Lady of the Lake). 
 Le. ' Man opposed to man.' 
 
 ' An honest man, close buttoned to the chin, 
 Eroad cloth without, and a warm heart within.' 
 
 COWPEE (To Joseph Hill). 
 
 Exclamations may sometimes be regarded as nominatives ; 
 sometimes they represent oblique cases : as 
 ' Noon by the north clock ! A hot day, gentlemen ! ' HAWTHORNE. 
 ' A horse ! my kingdom for a horse ! ' SHAKSPEABE. 
 
 Some participles used as prepositions are really nominatives 
 absolute : as 
 
 'During the siege of Lueknow, the garrison endured great privation.' 
 
 'Pending the decision of the court, the money was paid to the 
 accountant-general.' 
 
 i.e. While the siege was enduring ; the decision pending. 
 
 The absolute case in Greek was generally the genitive ; in 
 Latin, the ablative ; in A.S., the dative ; but in modern English 
 the case absolute is generally the nominative. (See par. 402.) 
 
 362. When the grammatical subject of a sentence is single, tho 
 Xom. case ver ^ of the predicate is put in the singular, however 
 and verb, the subject be enlarged : as 
 
 ' Six months' interest is due.' 
 ' Godliness with contentment is great gain.' 
 
WITH A SINGULAR VERB. 261 
 
 363. When two nouns describe one and the same subject, or a 
 subject regarded as one, the verb is still singular: as 
 
 ' Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee.' 
 1 Such a Saviour and Redeemer is actually provided.' GUBNEY'S 
 ESSAY, 386. 
 
 ' Her heart, her mind, her love, is his alone.' COWLBY. 
 
 'The hue and cry of the country pursues him.' JUNIUS' LETTEBS, 23. 
 
 ' To admit a God, and then refuse to worship him, is a modern and 
 inconsistent practice.' FULLEB. 
 
 'To read and write was once au honorary distinction.' HAZLITT'S 
 LECTURES. 
 
 364. So also, if the subject has a plural form, but is still 
 regarded as one thing : as 
 
 'The "Pleasures of Memory" was published in 1792, and became at 
 once popular.' A. CUNNINGHAM. 
 
 Though if the exact title be dropped, and merely suggests the 
 subject, the verb is plural, if the subject is plural : as 
 
 'My "Lives" are reprinting.' JOHNSOX. 
 
 It is this principle that explains many proverbial expressions: 
 as 
 
 4 Fair and softly goes far. 
 ' Slow and sure out-travels haste.' 
 ' Poor and content is rich enough.' OTHELLO. 
 
 ' In men, as in carriages, firmness and softness united in each is tLe 
 best arrangement for the safety of all.' AENOT. 
 
 They may indeed be regarded as elliptical ' what goes fair 
 and softly goes far.' But the two words really make up in each 
 case a single idea ; and it is of the idea the affirmation is made. 
 
 365. A collective noun, when the idea of unity is prominent, 
 takes a singular verb : as 
 
 ' The House has decided the question, and it is useless to discuss it.' 
 ' The number of the names was 120.' Acrs i. 15, corrected. 
 ' A priesthood, such as Baal's was of old ; 
 A people such as never was till now.' COWPEB. 
 
 When the idea of plurality is prominent, as is generally tlio 
 case with collective nouns, the verb is put in the plural. 
 ' The College of Cardinals are the electors of the Pope.' 
 
262 THE NOMINATIVE 
 
 ' So depraved were that people whom in their history we so much 
 admire.' HUME. 
 
 Sometimes the two usages are combined in t!ie same sentence 
 with peculiar force : as 
 
 ' Behold, the people is one, and. they have all one langurge.' GES. xi. C. 
 ' And if a king's a lion, at the least 
 The people are a many headed beast.' POPE'S EPISTLES, i. 120. 
 
 366. When the grammatical subject of a sentence is plural, the 
 verb of the predicate is put in the plural : as 
 
 ' Senates have been bought for gold, 
 Esteem and love are never to be sold.' POPH. 
 Aggression and injury never justify retaliation.' WAYIAKD. 
 
 The more common forms of the plural siibject are the plural 
 noun or pronoun ; and two or more nouns connected by ' and.' 
 Even without ' and,' however, there may be plurality in idea, 
 and the verb is still plural : as 
 
 'The breach of trust, the notorious corruption, are stated in the 
 strongest terms.' JUNIUS, Letter xx. 
 
 'Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed.' BEATTIB. 
 
 367. When the subjects are singular, and connected by ' or ' or 
 ' nor,' the verb is singular : as 
 
 ' The wife, where danger or dishonour lurks, 
 Safest and seemliest by her husband stays.' PAEADISE LOST. 
 ' Nor eye nor listening ear an object finds, 
 Creation sleeps.' YOUNG. 
 
 So if the ' or' is suppressed : as 
 
 ' That a drunkard should be poor, that a fop should be ignorant, is not 
 strange.' 
 
 ' To spread suspicion, to invent calumnies, requires neither labour nor 
 courage.' KAMBLEB. 
 
 368. When in any sentence there ia an ellipsis of a noun, and 
 more than one is implied, the verb is still plural : as 
 
 These, and some of the following 'The nation is prosperous. The 
 
 lies, may be summed up much more people are divided. ' 
 
 Dr A c J,' , ' The horse were cut up ; but the 
 
 A singular noun takes a singular foot were safe.' 
 
 . 
 
 n?MiS CO? f V ?P- s J ng V sit ! eas anda Two singular nouns will have a 
 plural verb, il the idea ia plural. plural verb, if so combined as to coa- 
 
WITH PLURAL VERBS. 263 
 
 'The second and the third Epistle of John contain each a single 
 chapter,' 
 
 ' The rising and the falling inflection are to be carefully distinguished.' 
 " 
 
 ' A literary, a scientific, a wealthy, and a poor man, are to take part in 
 the meeting.' 
 
 369. When two singular nominatives are connected by ' and, 1 
 and preceded by ' every,' ' each,' ' no,' the verb is singular : as 
 
 ' Every limb and feature appears with its appropriate grace.' STEELE. 
 ' No part of their substance, and no one of their properties, is the 
 same.' BUTLEB. 
 
 370. When two singular nominatives connected by 'and' are 
 emphatically distinguished, they belong to different propositions, 
 and do not require a plural verb : as 
 
 ' Somewhat, and in many cases, a great deal is put upon us.' BUT- 
 LER'S ANALOGY, part i. 
 
 371. When two nominatives are connected, the one affirmative, 
 the other negative; they make two propositions, and the verb 
 agrees with the affirmative : as 
 
 ' Our own heart, and not other men's opinions, 
 Forms our true honour.' COLEKIDGE. 
 'My poverty, not my will, consents.' SHAKSPEABE. 
 ' Not a loud voice, but strong proofs, bring conviction.' 
 
 372. When two nominatives are connected by ' as well as,' or 
 ' but,' they belong to different propositions. 
 
 'Veracity as well as justice is to be our rule.' BUTLEB. 
 ' Nothing but wailings was heard.' 
 
 373. When a verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with 
 the first, and is understood of the rest : as 
 
 'The earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof.' 1 COB. x. 26. 
 
 374. Sometimes when the nominatives follow the verb, the 
 verb agrees with the first, and is understood of the rest. 
 
 vey a plural idea ; but not otherwise : verbs; but they are followed by singu- 
 
 as lar verbs, when they express a single 
 
 ' John and Thomas are : John or idea : as 
 
 Thomas is. ' ' The news is true. ' 
 ' Every man and every woman is.' (See 'llorell's Analysis of Sen- 
 Plural nouns generally take plural tences,' p. W.) 
 
264 THE NOMINATIVE. 
 
 ' Now abideth faith, hope, charity ; these three.' 1 COB. xiii. 13. 
 ' Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory.' HATT. vi. 13. 
 Therein consists the force, and use, and nature, of language.' 
 
 BERKELEY'S ALCIPHBON, p. 161. 
 
 ' Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro, 
 And gathering tears and tremblings of distress, 
 And cheeks all pale, which but an hour ago 
 Blushed at the praise of their own loveliness.' BYEON. 
 
 375. "When nominatives of different numbers are separated by 
 1 or,' or ' nor,' the verb is generally in the plural, and it is then 
 convenient to place the plural nominative next the verb : as 
 
 ' The king or rather his advisers were opposed to that course ; while 
 neither the prince nor his friends were prepared to defend it,' 
 
 When two nominatives of different numbers are found in 
 different clauses of the sentence, the verb had better be re- 
 peated : as 
 
 ' The voice is Jacob's ; but the hands are Esau's.' 
 
 'Neither were their numbers, nor was their destination, known.' 
 
 376. If in any case a plural verb cannot be used conveniently 
 with two nominatives, and a singular verb is of questionable 
 accuracy, it is often better to change the conjunction than divert 
 attention by ambiguous grammar : as 
 
 ' There is a peculiar force, as well as (not and*) peculiar beauty, in this 
 figure.' - 
 
 377. Though several plural forms are followed by either a 
 plural or a singular verb (see par. 206), it is generally better to 
 use a plural verb; and so avoid calling attention to the mere 
 grammar of the sentence : as 
 
 ' The means used were not such as I can commend.' 
 
 ' Great pains were taken to improve the appearance of the building.' 
 
 378. When the nominative is a relative pronoun, it is followed 
 oy a verb that agrees in number with the number of the antece- 
 dent. Hence the following is wrong. 
 
 "The 2nd book of the .ffineid is one of the greatest masterpieces that 
 ever was (read, ever were) executed by any hand.' BLUE'S EHET. 
 
 379. When there are two antecedents, the one a pronoun, and 
 
ITS POSITION. 265 
 
 the other a noun, the verb generally agrees with the first, unless 
 the sense indicates a close connexion between the noun and the 
 verb : as 
 
 ' It is I, your friend, who bid you go.' 
 
 ' It is I, your master, -who bids you go.' 
 
 ' I am the man who command = I who command am the man.' 
 
 ' I am the man who commands = I am the commander.' 
 
 380. Sometimes the noun following a neuter or passive verb is 
 regarded as the nominative ; and with, it the verb is made to 
 agree. 
 
 As in interrogatives, ' Who art thou ?' 
 
 And in old English, ( It am I.' 'It ben the sherrefes men.' 
 CHAUCER. 
 
 'His pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds of the sky.' 
 Ps. xviii. 11. 
 
 ' To love and to admire has been the joy of his existence.' COLEETDGE. 
 ' The wages of sin is death.' 
 
 In this last example 'wages 1 (wagis, Wycl.) maybe really 
 singular. 
 
 ' In these memorials of Sir J. Mackintosh, we trace the workings of a 
 powerful intellect ; raised and instructed by fearless though reverent 
 questionings of the sages of other times (which is the permitted necro- 
 mancy of the wise).' JEFFBEY. 
 
 381. The nominative is placed in English before the verb ; ex- 
 
 cept in the following cases : 
 
 -"- n interrogative sentences (where there is no 
 tive. interrogative pronoun) : as 
 
 1 How many loaves have ye ? ' 
 
 When the verb is in the imperative mood : come ive, go ye. 
 When a wish is expressed : 
 
 ' May your shadow never grow shorter.' 
 
 When ' neither,' or ' nor,' meaning ' and not/ precedes a 
 verb : 
 
 ' Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it.' GEN. iii. 3. 
 When a conditional clause is introduced, without the con- 
 JTmction ' if : ' 
 
 ' Say what the use were finer optics given, 
 To inspect a mite, not comprehend the heaven/ POPB. 
 
266 ENLARGEMENTS OF THE NOMINATIVE. 
 
 When the adverb c there ' (not an adverb of place) precedes 
 the verb : 
 
 * As in Byron's day, there were thousands to whom the world 
 ' was a blank ' at twenty or thereabouts ; BO now there are 
 hundreds of dilettanti pantheists who tell us the world needs 
 a seer.' KOGEES. 
 
 When verbs like ' say,' ' answer,' &c. , are used as parts of a 
 dialogue : 
 
 ' Son of affliction,' said Omar, ' who art thou ? ' 
 ' My name,' replied the stranger, ' is Hassan.' JOHNSON. 
 When emphasis, or the form of a sentence requires, or :ul- 
 
 mits of a change. 
 As when the predicate comes first : 
 
 'Narrow is the way that leadeth unto life, and few there be that 
 
 find it.' 
 
 ' Still better was the condition of the agricultural labourer.' 
 
 MACAULAY. 
 Or the completion of the predicate : 
 
 'Silver and gold have I none ; but such as I have, give I thee.' 
 Or an adverbial clause : as 
 ' Here am I.' 
 
 'In this unhappy battle of Newbury was slain the Lord Viscount 
 Falkland ; a person of such prodigious parts,' etc. CLAEEHDON. 
 
 382. Enlargements of the subject of a sentence either precede 
 mentsof th *^ 18 8u ^J ec ^ or foUw it, or are placed after the verb ; 
 nominative, as 
 
 ' Possessing an extraordinary greatness of mind, vastness of 
 conceptions remarkable for their universality and precision, conversant 
 with men and books and governments, with various languages, and the 
 forms of political combinations as they existed in England and France, 
 in Holland and the free cities of Germany, he yet sought the source of 
 wisdom in his own soul.' BANCROFT (of ' Penn '). 
 
 ' Being liable to lose their whole substance by an incursion of the 
 English on a sudden breach of truce, they cared little to waste their time 
 in cultivating crops to be reaped by their foes.' SCOTT, ' Minstrelsy of 
 the Scottish Border.' 
 
 4 A poor galley-slave, who had thrown down his chains, took up the gout 
 instead, but made such wry faces, that one might easily perceive he was 
 no great gainer by the bargain.' ADDISOX, 'The Mountain of Miseries.' 
 
 ' The spirit of Francis Bacon was abroad ; a spirit admirably com- 
 pounded of audacity and sobriety.' MACAUXAY, i. 407. 
 
THE GENITIVE CASE. 2fi? 
 
 ' Blest be the art that can immortalize : 
 The art that baffles Time's tyrannic claim 
 To quench it.' COWPEB (on his Mother's picture). 
 An enlargement placed before the subject is not commendable 
 in English, unless from the context the subject is known. 
 THE GENITIVE OB, POSSESSIVE CASE. 
 
 383. The genitive or possessive case has in English two forms ; 
 Forms of the one > the case-ending "s,' of A. S. origin ; the other, 
 genitive. of Norman origin, and substituting for the case- 
 ending, the preposition ' of ' : as 
 
 4 The king's name is a tower of strength.' 
 
 A few words in 0. E. are connected with others in the genitive 
 case without ' o/,' or ' 's ' : as 
 
 ' A manere serjeant,' i. e. ' a kind of servant.' CHAUOEB. 
 
 384. The genitive has also a double force; attributive and 
 Double objective. 
 
 force of. The attributive genitive indicates some quality of 
 
 the noun on which it is dependent : as, origin, or agency, 
 possession, mutual relation of persons, quality, material or 
 substance of which something is made, or the class to which it 
 belongs, as part of a whole ; the genitive of definition, or parti- 
 tive genitive, as this last is sometimes called. The objective 
 genitive expresses the object of some feeling or action. 
 Attributive genitives are such as the following : 
 
 ' The Reformation of Luther really originated in England.' 
 
 ' Solomon's temple belongs to the same age as the siege of Troy.' 
 
 ' Some men can botanize on their mother's grave.' 
 
 'This is the field and acre of our God.' LONGFELLOW. 
 
 ' The child is father of the man.' WOKDSWOETH. 
 
 ' Lamb is a writer of humour ; Smith, of wit.' 
 
 ' To make a virtue of necessity.' SHAKSPEABB. 
 
 ' He had arms of iron and feet of clay.' 
 
 ' Hypocrisy is a sort of homage which vice pays to virtue.' T, PUT.T.KB. 
 ' The earth hath bubbles, as the waters hath, 
 And these are of them.' SHAKSPEAEE. 
 Objective genitives. 
 
 ' The persecution of the Huguenots ; ' i. e. inflicted on them. 
 
 ' The King's rebels." PASTON'S LETTEBS. ' Youre f eer and youre 
 
 tremblinge be on all beastis.' WTCLHTB. 'The love of fame.' 
 
 ' The reading of books.' ' I protest by your rejoicing, which I have.' 
 
 ' That is for his maintenance.' 
 
268 POSSESSIVE FORM. 
 
 385. In modern English the possessive form is confined to geni- 
 Possessive tives * origin or a g enc 7> f possession, and of relation 
 form. o f persons. It is, therefore, generally limited to 
 living things : as 
 
 ' Now Jove suspends his golden scales in air, 
 Weighs the men's wits against the lady's hair.' POPS, 
 
 In old English, and in poetry, the form is often applied to 
 things : as 
 
 ' If we cannot perceive the manner of sin's poison, no wonder if we 
 cannot perceive the method of grace's antidote.' T. FULLEB. 
 
 Sometimes the possessive form is used to express the relation 
 between a portion of time and its correlative action, or state : 
 as 
 
 ' The Thirty- Years' war.' 'Barristers of seven years' standing.' 
 
 In some cases either term may be made principal, and either 
 adjunct : as 
 
 ' A few hours' intercourse.' ' A few hours of intercourse.' 
 
 The existence of a permanent compound of two nouns does 
 not exclude the use of the possessive case ; though the two forms 
 often differ in meaning, as quality and possession : as 
 
 'A horseshoe.' 'The housetop' ('the house's top,' SHAKSPEABE.) 
 ' A goatskin." ' A harelip.' 
 
 The possessive form of the pronouns ' his,' ' its,' ' their,' is 
 often used objectively to avoid the cumbrous or inelegant Norman 
 genitive ' of him,' etc. 
 
 1 His virtues 
 
 Will plead like angels, trumpet-tongued, against 
 The deep damnation of his taking off'.' SHAKSPEAEE. 
 
 386. After the word city or town, country or land, island, etc. , 
 the genitive preposition is used by way of definition : as, ' the 
 city of London ; ' 'the island of Malta ; ' ' river ' is in English 
 used without ' of,' and the name follows in apposition. 
 
 387. When two or more possessives are in apposition, or when 
 a compound name is used, the whole is regarded as a compound 
 phrase ; and the case-ending is appended to the last word : as 
 
 'For thy servant David's sake.' Ps. cxxxii. 10. 
 ' The Bard of Lomond's lay is done.' HoGO. 
 ' I got it at Tonson the bookseller's.' 
 The same principle applies, when anything is spoken of and, 
 
THE GENITIVE. 2C9 
 
 from form or sense, belongs to two or more nouns connected by 
 ' and ' : as 
 ' England and France's armies fought side by side in the Crimea.' 
 
 388. If several nouns, or a description, be appended to the first, 
 the case-ending is added to the name : as 
 
 'I got the book at Tonson's, an old established bookseller, and the 
 publisher of many valuable works.' 
 
 389. When each word is emphatic, or the words are not in 
 apposition, the case-ending is repeated after each : as 
 
 'You may get it at Tonson's, the bookseller's.' 
 
 'Add nature's, custom's, reason's, passion's, strife.' POPE. 
 
 'A father's, or a mother's eister, is an aunt.' WEBSTEB. 
 
 390. The possessive form may be used after ' of,' when the 
 person is supposed to have, or to have executed several of the 
 things named : as 
 
 ' That is a picture of Sir Joshua's (pictures).' 
 'Bead a sonnet of Milton's (sonnets).' 
 'Windsor is a castle of the queen's (castles).' 
 
 Some regard these forms as pleonastic ; but they are really 
 elliptical. They are never used but when the sense of the first 
 noun admits of a partitive usage ; i. e. when it is admissible that 
 the person may have more than one. We can say, ' I met a 
 friend of yours; ' but not ' a wife of yours.' 
 
 391. Sometimes the possessive form stands alone; the word 
 'church,' 'house,' or 'shop,' etc., being understood: as 
 
 ' The first day he repaired to St. Paul's.' BACON. 
 'I was the other day at Will's.' PEIOE. 
 
 392. Some (as Ash, Lowth, Priestley) have held tliat the 
 English plural does not admit of a possessive form; and that, for 
 the sake of euphony, singular nouns ending in ' s,' take simply an 
 apostrophe as the case-ending of the genitive ; but both views are 
 wrong. 
 
 ' It is not meet to take the children's bread.' 
 ' Then shall men's pride and dulness comprehend, 
 Their actions', passions', being's, end.' POPE. 
 
 The form of apostrophe and ' s ' with the plural is, however, 
 of comparatively modern introduction. 
 
 Phil. Mag. ii. 201. 
 
270 TWO GENITIVE FOEMS. 
 
 We still say, ' for conscience sake ; ' sometimes the second ' s ; 
 is dropped in the singular, especially before another ' s ' : as, ' the 
 wrath of Peleus' son,' (Pope) ; but generally it is retained : as, 
 Harris's Hermes, Fox's Journal, Burns's Poems. 
 
 393. Sometimes possessives are governed by gerundial infini- 
 tives in ' ing ' : as 
 
 'What is the meaning of this lady's holding up her train.' PBIESTLEY. 
 ' Upon his breaking it open, he found nothing but.the following inscrip- 
 tion.' KOLLIN. 
 
 But such expressions are, even if grammatical, inelegant and 
 complex. 
 
 When the word in ' ing ' is used entirely as a noun, and of 
 course with a governed noun or pronoun after it, the ex- 
 pression is very idiomatic : as 
 
 'Against the day of my burying hath she kept this.' JOHN xii. 7. 
 
 'By his own showing it is so.' COWPEB. 
 
 394. The noun that governs a plural possessive should not be 
 made plural, unless the sense require it : as 
 
 ' What is your life ? It is even as a vapour.' 
 ' They bless with their mouth : but they curse inwardly.' 
 Hence the following plurals are wrong, because needless and 
 ambiguous : 
 
 ' God hath not given us our reasons to no purpose.' BAECLAT. 
 ' Their healths may be easily secured.' LOCKE. 
 
 395. The fact that we have two genitive forms, enables us to 
 Utility of interchange them, and to adopt the form that is most 
 two forms. c i ear an( j agreeable, Hence the following may with 
 advantage be changed : 
 
 Tor Herodias' sake, his brother Philip's wife.' 
 
 'Till he can read Sanctii Minerva, with Scoppius and Perizonius's 
 Notes. ' LOCKE. 
 
 ' The composition of water was ascertained by Dr. Priestley of Bir- 
 mingham's experiments.' 
 
 396. Possessive genitives are always placed before their govern- 
 Posltlon of ing noun. Analytic, or Norman genitives, are placed 
 genitives. a fl- er them, except when emphasis or poetry changes 
 the order : as 
 
THE DATIVE. 271 
 
 ' Of Truth profound, a sweet continuous lay,' COLEEIDGE (to Words- 
 worth) . 
 ' Of the things we have spoken, this is the sum.' 
 
 397. Besides the genitive case, there are several genitive 
 Genitive relations expressed by ' of.' (See par. 413.) 
 relations. it i a appended to adjectives (mindful, desirous, 
 
 certain, guilty, conscious, innocent, fearful, etc.,), to complete the 
 sense. In Anglo-Saxon these adjectives governed a genitive. 
 
 It is appended to verbs (expressing accusation, acquittal, shame, 
 repentance, deprivation, emptying, etc.) for the same purpose. 
 
 In A. S. (as in modern English), the noun after the super- 
 lative was often put in the gen. : as ' Best of all, God is with us.' 
 
 Sometimes the noun answering the question when, was put in 
 the genitive : as ' He does it of a morning.' 
 
 THE DATIVE CASE. 
 
 898. Dative forms in English are but few ; and some gram- 
 Datives, marians regard all our dative forms as objective cases 
 what? governed either by prepositions or by the verb. There 
 are examples, however, to which neither of these last explana- 
 tions applies ; and there are advantages in treating other 
 examples as true dative forms. 
 
 399. The pronouns that belong to the verbs list, seem, irk, like, 
 
 think, etc., are really datives: 'Him listeth.' 'Us 
 True datives. ',-, , ', 
 
 seemeth, etc. 
 
 ' And al that UJrith me, I dar wel sayn 
 
 It likith the.'' CHATTCEB. 
 ' Then is it wisdom as it thinJceth me 
 
 To maken vertu of necessite.' CHATJCEB. 
 
 400. The case of the personal pronoun which represents the 
 person for whom an action is done, is often a dative. 
 
 Hob me the exchequer.' SHAKSPEARE. 
 4 1 yielded, and unlocked her all my heart.' MILTON. 
 And the case of the person on whom evil is represented as 
 
 resting : as 
 
 'Woe is me., Alhama.' BYBON. 
 1 Woe worth (be to) me for't.' BEAUMONT AND FLETCHEE. 
 
 401. There are other forms where ' to ' is used which are best 
 explained as datives. 
 
272 DATIVE KELATIONS. 
 
 ' They keep the word of promise to the ear, but break it to the hope. 1 
 ' Thy wish was father, Harry, to that thought.' SHAESPEABE. 
 
 402. In A. S., and sometimes in old English, a dative, or so 
 called ablative absolute was used, adverbially, to qualify the verb. 
 
 Historically, the dative form is preferable in English as an 
 
 absolute case to the nominative ; and as it describes the state in 
 
 which a thing is done, it is logically preferable ; but, notwith. 
 
 standing, modern usage decides in favour of the nominative. 
 
 ' While shame, tkou looking on. . would utmost vigour raise.' MILTOS. 
 
 1 Only in destroying I find ease 
 To my relentless thought, and, him destroyed 
 For whom all this was made, all this will soon 
 Follow. ' MILTON. 
 
 403. Verbs of ' telling,' ' bringing,' ' giving,' ' offering,' ' lend- 
 ing,' * sending,' ' showing,' ' promising,' ' thanking,' ' resem- 
 bling,' may be said to govern a dative of the person (as well as an 
 accusative of the thing), with ' to,' or in most cases without it. 
 (See par. 410.) 
 
 ' Give sorrow words.' SHAKSPEAEE. 
 
 404. So also adjectives expressive of ' agreeableness,' ' contra- 
 riety,' ' hurtfulness,' govern a dative with ' to ' : ' like ' governs 
 a dative, with or without the preposition. (See par. 409. ) 
 
 The examples that belong to the last two rules may be 
 regarded as examples of acciisative or objective cases. These 
 forms, however, represent true dative cases in Latin and in A. S. 
 
 405. The prepositions ' to ' and ' for ' are both used to express 
 Dative rela- "what may be called dative relations; and it will be 
 
 seen that in nearly every case the whole expression 
 has the force of an adverb, of an adjective, or of a noun. 
 
 a. ' Beautiful to the eye ' ; ' Deaf to his tears ' ; ' Good for 
 
 food ' ; ' Love to God and man ' : where it limits the 
 application of the preceding word. 
 
 b. ' They met to the number of two hundred ' ; ' It is the 
 
 same to all intents and purposes ' ; f He is good for 
 twenty pounds ' ; ' Do it for once ' ; ' For my part, I 
 think not ' : where it defines the extent to which a 
 thing is carried. 
 
THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 273 
 
 c. c As three to one ' ; ' Translate word for word ' ; 'He 
 
 bought it for a shilling ' : where it implies proportion, 
 comparison, price, etc. 
 
 d. ' To your shame, be it spoken ' ; 'It must be said, to 
 
 their honour ' : ' I could not reach him for the crowd ' : 
 ' But for that I should have been here before ' : where 
 first is expressed an effect and then a preventing 
 cause. 
 
 406. The following are examples of dative cases, or 
 
 PT . t ... 11- 
 
 ot phrases expressive of a dative relation : 
 To Locke, conscience is nothing else than our own opinion of our own 
 actions : to Penn, it is the image of God and his oracle in the soul.' 
 BANCROFT, 
 
 ' Behold the Iliad and the Odysee 
 Eise to the swelling of the tuneful sea/ 
 
 COLERIDGE (on ' Cloudland and Homer '). 
 
 'You would have been burnt to a cinder, or melted to a jelly.'' 
 HAWTHORNE. 
 
 ' I observed my order to a tittles DE FOE. 
 
 ' There was there the spirit of retribution, just growing to the intensity 
 to reveal itself in resistless flame.' JOHN FOSTER. 
 
 'So much/o?- this harmless unoffending animal.' WATERTON. 
 ' The old red sandstone of Scotland has been largely employed for the 
 purposes of the architect, and its limestones occasionally applied to those 
 of the agriculturist," HUGH MILLER. 
 
 ' Tho' I to dimness gaze 
 On the far depth where sheeted lightning plays.' KEAT, 'Endymion.' 
 
 THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 
 
 407- A noun or its equivalent made the objective of a transitive 
 The objective v crb, or governed by a preposition, is put or is said 
 casc - to be in the objective case : as ' I found Mm reading 
 
 Milton^ 
 
 1 The temple of fame stands upon the grave. The flame that burns 
 upon its altars is kindled from the ashes of great men.' HAZLITT. 
 
 The object of a verb may be, as we have seen, a noun or a 
 pronoun, an adjective, a participle, an infinitive, or a nonn 
 sentence. Verbs used transitively require an object ; but if not 
 transitive they do not govern a case. 
 
 408. Several intransitive verbs are made transitive by adding a 
 
 T 
 
274 DOUBLE OBJECTIVE. 
 
 preposition to each. In such cases, it is better to regard the 
 p^ . . objective case as governed by the prepositional verb: 
 as, To depart from ; To despair of ; To pray for. 
 This view is preferable, because these forms are used in the 
 passive voice, or in the active, without a governed relative ; 
 and in both cases the preposition is part of the verb : as, ' The 
 rule was departed from in that case ;' ' It is a result I despair of.' 
 
 409. A very few adjectives govern an objective case : ' like,' 
 ' nigh ' (near and next), and ' worth ' : as 
 
 ' Others said, He is like him,' 
 
 ' And earthly power doth then show likest God's (power) 
 "When mercy seasons justice.' SHAKSPEABE. 
 
 Some grammarians call the last two prepositions, others regard 
 them as adverbs with 'to,' understood. In Anglo-Saxon, all 
 these adjectives govern cases, the genitive or the dative. 
 
 410. Sometimes two or more nouns stand in the objective 
 relation to the same verb ; either because they are in apposition, 
 Twoobjec- or because some verbs (as verbs of asking, giving, 
 
 ve cases, teaching, etc.) govern two accusatives, or as some ex- 
 press it, an accusative and a dative (see par. 403): as 
 ' The saints proclaim thee king,' COWPEE. 
 
 'Him that overcometh will I mako a, pillar in the temple of my God.' 
 REV. iii. 12. 
 
 ' Did I request thee, Maker, from my clay 
 To mould me man ? ' MILTON. 
 
 ' Give truth the same arms which you give falsehood, and the former 
 will prevail.' BLAIB. 
 ' They denied him the privilege.' 
 
 Sometimes the words in apposition are connected by 'for/ 
 sometimes by ' as ' : as 
 
 I took it for a fiery vision 
 Of some gay creature of the element.' COJTUS. 
 
 1 In considering vision as achieved by the means of an image formed at 
 he bottom of the eye, we can never reflect without wonder upon the 
 smallness, yet correctness, of the picture, the subtilty of the touch, the 
 fineness of the lines.' PALEY. 
 
 11. When a noun sentence, or an infinitive with an adjective, 
 is made the object of a verb, it is often used in apposition to < it ' ; 
 
 "Thou thinkst it much [to tread the ooze 
 Of the salt deep.'] SUAKSPEVRB. 
 
OBJECTIVE WITH A PASSIVE VERB. 275 
 
 1 He felt it hard [that he should have to leave home so suddenly], but 
 thought it best to go,' 
 
 ' This ' is sometimes used with or without 'namely.' 
 ' Do the Scriptures authorize any other principle than this ; viz., that a 
 man ascertain what constitutes a Christian, and then make a most faithful 
 investigation into the state of his soul and his life to ascertain whether 
 that which constitutes a Christian be actually there.' FOSTEB. 
 
 412. Sometimes both the nominative and the objective case in a 
 sentence have words in apposition : as 
 
 'The Danes invaded England; some the coast of Northumbria, others 
 the coast of Cumberland.' 1 
 
 413. A noun denoting time, space, or measure is often put in 
 the objective case, with neuter verbs or with adjectives. 
 
 ' Cowards die many times before their death.' JULIUS C.ESAB. 
 
 'The army of the Canaanites, nine hundred chariots strong, covered tho 
 plain of Esdraelon.' MILMAN, ' Jews,' i. 159. 
 
 ' In 1661, the justices fixed the labourer's wages at seven shillings 
 a week, wheat seventy shillings the quarter, and the labourer worked 
 twelve hours a day.' MACAULAY. 
 
 In Anglo-Saxon, such nouns were put in the genitive or in the 
 accusative with or without an adjective. Of this genitive we 
 have examples in such phrases : as 
 
 ' He is of age." ' A lamb of the first year.' ' A gallows of fifty cubits 
 high,' ' An infant of two years old.' "WAYLANP. 
 
 414. Nouns derived from the same root as the verb of the 
 The connate sentence are sometimes used to Qxpreas manner, and 
 objective. are p u t ^ the objective case. This is called the 
 cognate objective, and it is used to intensify the verb : thus 
 
 ' Dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before.' POE. 
 
 415. When two nouns are governed by an active transitive 
 Accusative vert) one o b J ective or accusative may be made the 
 and passive nominative and the other accusative remain with the 
 
 verb in the passive voice : as 
 
 ' I was asked that question yesterday.' 
 
 'Some of his characters have been found fault with as insipid.' 
 HAZLITT, ' Lecture III.' 
 
 Some grammarians question this construction, but it is found 
 in other languages, and has the support of some of cur best 
 writers. T 9 
 
270 OBJECTIVE CASE. 
 
 416. When a noun, or its equivalent is put after a verb, not 
 Nominative ac ^i ve an( ^ transitive, it is put in the same case as the 
 after the noun which precedes the verb, and which refers to 
 the same thing. This may be regarded as an ex- 
 ample of apposition : 
 
 ' The Lord sitteth King for ever.' Ps. xxix. 10. 
 'And he returned & friend, who came a. foe.' POPE. 
 ' He could make the worse appear the letter reason,' MILTOH. 
 ' Whom do you take him to be ? ' 
 
 'After a verb,' it will be noted, describes the order of the 
 sense, rather than the actual place of the noun ; for the noun 
 may stand in any part of the sentence : as 
 
 ' Is not distance a line turned endwise to the eye ? ' BERKELEY'S 
 DIALOGUES. 
 
 ' Be thou an example of the believers.' 1 TIM. iv. 12. 
 
 '/was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame.' JOB xxix. 15. 
 
 ' Clouds they are without water.' JUDB 12. 
 
 ' When pain and anguish wring the brow 
 A ministering angel thou.' HABMION (of woman). 
 
 The principal verbs that take this government are the verbs, 
 ' to be,' ' to seem,' ' to go,' ' to become,' ' to remain,' etc. ; and 
 various passive verbs, 'to be called,' ' to be thought,' etc. Some 
 passive verbs are followed by nominatives, with ' as,' or 'for.' 
 
 417. Of course a noun sentence may be used in place of either 
 A. noun noun. 
 
 ' That [trial by jury, in the common sense of that term, 
 was known in Alfred's days] is a mistake.' 
 
 ' The first symptom of a really free man, is not that [he resists the 
 laws of the universe, but that he obeys them.]' CABLYLE. 
 
 418. When there is an ambiguity in the construction of sen- 
 tences, which seem to be framed upon this principle, but are not 
 clear, it is better to correct them : as 
 
 'There is no doubt of hit being a great statesman.'' 
 ' To prevent hit becoming worse, we must take great precautions.' 
 Better 
 
 ' There is no doubt that he f. To prevent him from becoming worse: 
 ' All presumption of death's being the destruction of living beings must 
 go on the supposition of their being compounded.' BUTLER, pt, i. 
 
ITS POSITION. 277 
 
 ' My chief affliction consisted in my being singled out by a lad about 
 fifteen years of age, as a proper object on whom ho might let loose his 
 cruelty.' COWPEB. 
 
 419. Generally the objective case follows the governing verb : 
 Position of but {i Precedes the verb 
 
 theobjective When the objective word is a relative or an 
 interrogative pronoun : as 
 
 4 The notice which you have been pleased to take of my labours, had it 
 been earlier had been kind.' DB. JOHNSON (to Lord Chesterfield.) 
 
 When emphasis requires such a change : as 
 ' Such sober certainty of waking bliss, 
 I never heard till now.' Cosrus. 
 
 'Equal toil the good commander endures with the common soldier: 
 from his example they all take fire, as one torch kindles many.' SIB T. 
 OVEBBUBY. 
 
 ' This perfection of judicial eloquence Sir W. Grant attained : and its 
 effects upon all listeners was as certain and as powerful as its merits were 
 incontestable and exalted.' BEOUGHASI. 
 
 ' The rapine, by which they subsisted, they accounted lawful and 
 honourable,' SCOTT, ' Minstrelsy of the Border." 
 
 In these last examples, we see the reason of an inverted order. 
 It enables the author to make prominent the chief theme of the 
 paragraph in which the sentence is found. 
 
 420. Besides these forms of the objective or accusative case, 
 Forms of the same case is expressed by such phrases, as ' con- 
 theobjective.cerns,' 'regarding,' 'as for/ etc. : as 
 
 ' Talk they of morals ! thou bleeding Lamb, 
 The true morality is love of thee.' COWPEE. 
 
 ' Even as to religion, careless as you are about it, you occasionally feel 
 a certain indistinct impression, that some other worldly men are too care- 
 less.' FOSTEB. 
 
 The object of such a construction is, to call attention to the 
 chief theme of the sentence. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 421. Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand, in 
 Pronouns gender, number, and person ; and with the verbs to 
 rule> which they are nominatives, in number and person. 
 
278 PKONOUNS. 
 
 422. The apparent exceptions to this rule are the following : 
 
 (a.) 'It' is sometimes used of things possessing 
 Exceptions. v ' , ,, 
 
 sex, when the sex is not known : as 
 
 'The real friend of the child is not the person who gives it 
 what it cries for, but the person who, considering its health, 
 resists its importunities.' OPIE. 
 
 (b.) 'It' is sometimes an expletive, without reference to a 
 particular thing : as 
 
 ' Not lording it over God's heritage.' 
 'Come and trip it as you go.' MILTON. 
 
 (c.) In 0. E. ' it ' is prefixed to verbs in the first person : 
 ' What, who art thou ? It am I, Absolom.' (See par. 380.) 
 
 CHATTCEB, 'The Miller's Tale.' 
 (d.) Some pronouns are indefinite : as 
 'I care not who knows it.' STEELE. 
 ' One knows not how one ought to act on such occasions.' 
 (e.) 'Many a 'is often followed by a pronoun in the plural 
 when the remark is true of the whole : 
 ' In Hawick twinkled many a light, 
 Behind him soon they set in night.' SCOTT. 
 
 (f.) 'You' is used in reference either to a plural or a singular 
 noun, and is always followed by a plural verb. This is 
 the pronomen reverentice in English, as the third person 
 singular is in German, Spanish, and Portuguese. ' We ' 
 is sometimes used in the same way for ' I,' and is always 
 followed by a plural verb. Both of these pronouns, 
 however, when they refer to one person, retain for their 
 reflexive form the O. E. ' self,' instead of ' selves,' ' our- 
 self,' 'you yourself.' When with 'you,' such a phrase 
 as ' your Excellency,' or ' your Majesty,' is used, and it 
 is followed by ' who/ ' who ' is in such cases connected 
 with either the second or third person of the verb, 
 (g.) Occasionally the personal pronouns refer to a sentence: a 
 construction allowable, when the sentence is so clear 
 that the pronoun immediately suggests it ; but not 
 otherwise, as 
 
 ' Surely God is in this place, and I knew it not.' GEN. xxviii. 16. 
 ' When it is asked wherein personal identity consists, the answer 
 should be the same as if it were asked wherein consists sameness or 
 equality. 'BuTLEE. 
 
AGEEE WITH THEIR NOUNS. 279 
 
 423. The rules that regulate the use of a singular verb after 
 two or more nouns, or after a collective noun, apply also to the 
 use of plural or singular pronouns : as 
 
 'This great writer and eminent statesman died in/jis sixty-sixth year.' 
 
 ' Every one must judge of his own (not their own) feelings.' BYBOX, 
 corrected. 
 
 '.ZJyerybodypublishesMemoirsnow-a-days; every body has recollections 
 which he (not they) thinks worth recording.' DUCHESS D'ABRANTES. 
 
 'The butler, and not the baker, was restored to his office.' 
 ' Was Cheops or Cephrenes architect 
 Of either pyramid that bears his name ? ' H. SiirrH. 
 
 'A civilized people has no right to violate its solemn obligations.' 
 WAYLAND. 
 
 'The Times says it has no telegram from India.* 
 
 ' There is little Benjamin with his ruler.' Pg. Ixviii. (corrected). 
 
 424. Yet when two or more nouns are connected by or ' or 
 ' nor,' and are of different genders, and we refer to them in a 
 clause applicable to both, the plural pronoun is sometimes used ; 
 as it is after nouns of multitude used as singular, if the remark 
 which is connected with the pronoun is true, rather of indi- 
 viduals than of the collective whole : as 
 
 ' If an ox gore a man or a woman, so that they die.' Ex. xxi. 28. 
 DEUT. xvii. 5. 
 
 ' Not on outward charms should man or woman build their pretensions 
 to please.' OPIE. 
 
 ' If I Value my friend's wife or son, on account of their connexion with 
 him.' KAIMES. 
 
 These are none of them elegant, and are of questionable 
 accuracy. 
 
 The following are allowable : 
 
 ' This people's heart is waxed gross, and their eyes they have closed.' 
 MATT. xiii. 15. 
 
 ' It is vain for a people to expect to be free, unless they are first will- 
 ing to be virtuous.' WAYLAND'S MOEAL SCIENCE. 
 
 ' Thus urg'd the chief : a generous troop appears, 
 Who spread, their bucklers and advance their spears.' POPE'S HOMER. 
 
 On the person and number of the verb after pronouns of 
 different persons and numbers, see par. 508, 509. 
 
 425. As personal pronouns have case forms, are often found in 
 connected sentences, in one of which the verb is omitted, and as 
 
280 PRONOUNS-YE, THOU, 
 
 relative pronouns are often connected with two verbs in the same 
 sentence, the use of them is peculiarly liable to errors ; and 
 such errors are most easily avoided or corrected by completing 
 the sentence or by analyzing it : e.g. 
 
 * Let you and I endeavour to improve the enclosure of the Carr.' 
 
 SOUTHEY, ' The Doctor.' 
 
 * Let you and let me ; let us.' 
 
 ' If there is one character more base than another, it is him who ' 
 
 That character is he, who.' SYDNEY SMITH (on Trimmer). 
 
 'Between you and I (me) he is mistaken.' 
 
 The nations not so blessed as thee' (as thoii art}. THOMSON, 'Rule 
 Britannia.' 
 
 'It is not for such as us (as ice are} to sit with the rulers of the land.' 
 SCOTT. 
 
 ' Is she as tall as me' (I am). SHAKSPEAEK. 
 
 1 There were a thousand in the French army who could have done as 
 well as him' (as he could). NAPIEE. 
 
 ' Whom do men say that / am ? ' MATT, (That / am who, do men 
 ay.) 
 
 ' Who do you take me to be ' (me to be whom). 
 1 Who servest thou under ' (whom). SHAKSPEAEE. 
 4 Who should I meet the other day but my old friend.' STEKT.B. 
 'My son is going to be married to I don't know who.' GOLDSMITH 
 (whom in both cases). 
 
 426. When pronouns are used as nouns they are indeclinable. 
 ' I don't fear the proudest he in Christendom.' 
 
 4 1 will take no Ae-goat out of thy f olds.' Ps. 1. 9. 
 4 Each bush and oak doth know 'I AM." ' VATJGHAN. 
 
 427. ' Ye ' is the nominative form of the pronoun ; ' you ' the 
 accusative. In O. E. this distinction is carefully observed. In 
 Shakspeare, it is not observed ; and in latter writers the rule was 
 even reversed. It is based, however, on the grammar of the 
 A.S., and ought to be at least so far observed that ' ye ' should 
 not be used in ordinary discourse as an accusative : 
 
 ' Ye rise for religion, what religion taught you that ? ' SIB J. CHEKE. 
 
 428. In modern style ye' is used where solemnity or fami- 
 liarity is intended : while ' you ' is confined to ordinary narrative. 
 ' Thou ' is used occasionally in solemn speech : and it is also used 
 to express the familiarity of tenderness or of contempt : as 
 
MY, MINE, THAT, THESE. 281 
 
 ' Thou sun, said I, fair light ! 
 And thou enlighten'd earth so fresh and gay ! 
 Ye hills and dales ! Ye rivers, woods, and plains ! 
 And ye that live and move fair creatures tell, 
 Tell if ye saw, how I came thus, how here.' PAEADISE LOST. 
 
 'Show your small talents and let that suffice ye, 
 But grow not vain upon it, I advise ye.' DBAYTOX. 
 
 ' How can I live without thee, how forego 
 Thy sweet converse ? ' MILTON. 
 
 ' No father shall thy corpse compose ; 
 Thy dying eyes no tender mother close.' POPE. 
 ' Oh thou who hearest prayer ; unto thee shall all flesh come.* 
 4 Our father who art in heaven ; hallowed he thy name : thy kingdom 
 come.' 
 
 ' Thou liest, thou thread, thou thimble, 
 Thou flea, thou, nit, thou winter cricket, thouS SHAKSPEABE. 
 ' I'll thou thee, thou traitor.' POPE. 
 
 Of course if ' tliou ' or ' you ' begin any sentence, the same 
 form must be used throughout : not thus 
 
 ' I will send upon you famine and evil beasts, and they shall bereave 
 thee.' EZEKJEL v. 17. 
 
 429. Pronouns expressing possession have two forms, my, mine 
 thy, thine ; our, ours ; your, yours ; her, hers. The shorter 
 form is used before a noun, the other when the noun is 
 omitted. 
 
 ' To raise the thought and touch the heart be thine.' POPE. 
 
 1 But who can paint like Nature ? 
 Can imagination boast amid its gay creation 
 Hues like hers ?' THOMSON'S SPUING. 
 
 ' Mine ' and ' thine ' are often used in O. E. and in modern 
 poetry before nouns, when they begin with vowels. (See par. 
 213 and 217.) 
 
 430. ' That ' and ' these ' are often used as pronouns : 
 
 ' There's no use of money like that of beneficence.' MACKENZIE. 
 'The rules of style like those of law arise from precedents often 
 repeated.' 
 ' To be or not to be, that is the question.' 
 
 431. In O. E. 'that' is often used after prepositions and other 
 
232 PRONOTJNS-WHO, WHOSE. 
 
 parts of speech, in apposition to the sentence. The omission of 
 ' that ' in modern usage sometimes changes a preposition into a 
 conjunction. After ' but,' that is still retained. 
 
 1 After t/tat I was turned, I repented.' JEB. xxxi. 19 ; 1 THKSS. ii, 2. 
 ' When that the poor have cried, Caesar wept. 
 Ambition should be made of sterner stuff.' 
 ' In that he liveth, he liveth unto God.' ROJI. vi. 10. 
 ' If that he be a dog, beware his fangs.' SHAKSPEAEB. 
 ' That made him pine away and moulder, 
 As tho' that he had been no soldier.' BUTLEB. 
 
 432. The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender 
 and number. In case, it may be nominative, genitive, or ob- 
 jective governed by a verb or by a preposition. 
 
 433. The antecedent must be a noun, or a pronoun, or an in- 
 finitive ; seldom a finite verb, and never a long assertion : 
 
 ' Bacon at last a mighty man arose, 
 Whom a wise king and nature chose, 
 Lord Chancellor of both their laws.' COWLEY. 
 ' He who hath bent him o'er the dead, 
 Ere the first day of death had fled." BYROX. 
 
 'Yet they can go on to vilify Christianity, which is to talk, as if they 
 had a demonstration of its falsehood.' BUTLEB. 
 
 434. An adjective should never be an antecedent ; for a pronoun 
 does not express or represent a concrete quality as such. Hence 
 the following are wrong : 
 
 ' Some men are too ignorant to be humble, without which there can be 
 no docility and no progress.' BERKELEY. 
 
 ' Homer is remarkably concise, which renders him lively and agreeable.' 
 BLAIR. 
 
 435. ' Who,' ' whose,' and ' whom,' are now limited to rational 
 beings, which to irrational beings, inanimate objects, and col- 
 lective nouns, where the idea of personality is not prominent ; 
 ' that ' may represent nouns of any kind. 
 
 436. A noun which only implies persons, is not commonly 
 followed by ' who.' 
 
 ' That faction in England which (not who) most powerfully opposed 
 hia arbitrary pretensions.' MBS. MACAULAY. 
 
WHICH, WHOSE, ETC. 283 
 
 Unless the idea of personality is prominent : as 
 
 ' A human law is only the expression or the desire of a multitude who 
 
 have power to punish.' BEOWN'S PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 ' The conclusion of the Iliad is like the exit of a great man out of 
 
 company whom he has entertained magnificently.' COWPEB. 
 The combination of the two forms is inelegant : 
 ' That ingenious nation who have done so much for modern literature, 
 
 possesses in an eminent degree the talent of narration.' BLAIR. 
 
 437. Collective nouns require ' which ' when they are followed 
 by a singular verb ; and ' who,' when followed by a plural 
 
 ' The committee which was appointed last session, reports in favour of 
 the bill.' 
 
 438. When inanimate objects are personified, ' who ' may be 
 used, and the corresponding personal pronouns : 
 
 ' There is a reaper whose name is death.' LONGFELLOW. 
 'And learning wiser grows without his books.' COWPEB. 
 'Penance dreams her life away.' KOGEES. 
 
 When a metaphor is used the relative generally agrees with 
 the noun in the literal sense. 
 
 ' The stone which the builders rejected.' 
 
 ' The monarch of mountains rears his snowy head.* 
 
 And yet as the continuance of the reference to the metaphor 
 may do greater mischief to the sense, than a return to the proper 
 gender and number of the antecedent would do to the unity 
 of the sentence, this form is always liable under such circum- 
 stances to change : as 
 
 ' Oh Cassius, thou art yoked to a lamb 
 That carries anger as the flint bears fire ; 
 Who much enforced shows a hasty spark, 
 And straight is cold again.' JULIUS C^SAB. 
 
 ' Behold I lay in Zion a chief corner stone ; and he that believeth on 
 him shall not be ashamed.' 
 
 In such combinations the adverbial relative ' thereon,' 
 'whereby,' etc., and the relative ' that,' can often be used with 
 advantage. 
 
 439. Though ' whose ' is generally applied to rational beings, 
 it is etymologically a genitive of 'what,' as well as of 'who.' 
 Partly on that account and partly to avoid an awkward circum- 
 
284 PRONOUNS WHICH, THAT, IT. 
 
 locution (' of which ') it is sometimes used, especially in poetry, 
 
 of inanimate objects : as 
 
 ' He spoke of love, such love as spirits feel, 
 In worlds whose course is equable and pure.'- 
 
 "WOEDSWOBTH'S LAODA5IIA. 
 
 * That undiscovered country from whose bourne 
 No traveller returns.' HAMLET. 
 
 440. ' Which' is used in O. E. of persons ; with less of personal 
 reference than f who ' implies. ' The which ' is a common form 
 of the objective and occasionally of the nominative case, though 
 only in the neuter. 
 
 ' Our Father which art in Heaven.' 
 
 ' In ' the which ' ye also walked in time past.' 
 
 441. That,' the demonstrative is used as a relative, and is 
 applied to both persons and things. It is often more appropriate 
 than ' who/ or 'which.' 
 
 It may be used for example, when the gender of the noun is 
 doubtful ; and where the antecedents refer to both persons and 
 things : as 
 
 ' He said to the little child that was placed in the midst.' 
 ' Ulysses spake of the men and the cities that he had seen.' 
 It is used before a restrictive clause after a superlative adjec- 
 tive, after ' the same,' and ' who,' and after an antecedent which 
 is without the usual limiting demonstrative : as 
 ' He was the best man that could be found for the place.' 
 ' Even the same that I said unto you at the beginning.' 
 ' Who that is a sincere friend to it, can look with indifference on the 
 attempts to shake the foundation of the fabric.' WASHINGTON. 
 ' Thoughts that breathe, and words that burn.' 
 
 442. ' That ' as a relative does not admit of a preposition before 
 it. And after expressions of time, it often dispenses entirely 
 with the preposition, which a common relative would require : 
 
 1 On the day that thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely die.' 
 Sometimes ' that ' is omitted. 
 
 443. In O. E. that' and 'it' are used for both the antecedent 
 and relative : as 
 
 'To do that is righteous in thy sight.' COMMON PEATEE. 
 
RELATIVE OMITTED. 285 
 
 ' If there be first a willing mind, it is accepted according to that a man 
 hath.' 
 ' This is it men mean by distributive justice.' HOBBES. 
 
 In these examples, the relative ' that ' is omitted : when the 
 antecedent * that ' is omitted, ' what ' is used for the relative 
 and antecedent. (See par. 227.) 
 
 This fact will not justify such phrases as 
 
 ' No man is so perfect but what (that) he may err.' 
 
 444. In familiar language especially the objective relative is 
 often omitted : 
 
 ' The man (whom) I trust.' COWPEE. 
 
 ' JEneas left Troy the very night it was taken.' 
 
 ' We wish not to dogmatize, all we ask is a philosophic abstinence from 
 dogmatism.' ROGEES (on 'Reason and Faith'). 
 
 ' It has been remarked, that there is nothing (better, no other thing} 
 discovers the true temper of a person so much as his letters.' SPECTATOR. 
 
 445. But though the relative is omitted, if it is governed by a 
 preposition connected with a verb, the preposition must be re- 
 tained : as 
 
 ' Had I but served my God with half the zeal I served my king (with), 
 he would not in mine age have left me to mine enemies.' SHAKSPEAEE. 
 ' In the temper of mind he was [in].' SPECTATOB, 64. 
 
 446. When the objective relative is omitted, very rarely the 
 antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative. 
 
 1 Him I accuse 
 The city ports by this hath entered.' SHAKSPEABB. 
 
 447. The omission of the nominative relative is much, Ws 
 frequent : 
 
 ' In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man.' POPH. 
 
 445. The antecedent is sometimes omitted : 
 ' There are indeed who seem disposed to extend this authority much 
 farther.' CAMPBELL. 
 ' How shall I curse whom God hath not cursed.' 
 
 449. The pronoun to which whoever ' refers is often omitted : 
 as 
 
 ' Elizabeth publicly threatened that she would have the head of whoever 
 had advised that course.' 
 
286 RELATIVES BUT, WHEN, WHERE. 
 
 When the pronoun is expressed, the sentence is generally in 
 this form 
 ' Whosoever will, let him take the water of life freely.' EEV. xxii. 17. 
 
 'But 1 is often used after a negative clause, apparently for a 
 relative, or its equivalent, and a negative : as 
 'No cliff so bare but on its steep 
 Thy favours may be found.' WOBDSWOBTH. 
 i.e., that on its steep . . may not be found. 
 
 450. After nouns of 'time,' 'place,' ' manner,' or 'cause,' the 
 relative adverbs, when, where, whence, how, why, are sometimes 
 used, as the first two are also in connection with ' then ' and 
 ' there : ' 
 
 ' The hour cometh when neither in this mountain, nor yet in Jerusalem, 
 shall men worship.' 
 
 ' Thou wilt hear nothing till the judgment morning, 
 
 When the great trump will wake thee with its warning.' H. Sunn. 
 Tor fools rush in where angels fear to tread.' POPE (on ' Criticism '). 
 
 4 Their ashes flew 
 
 No marble tells us whither. 1 COWPEE. 
 4 The reason why' ' The way how.' ' The place where.' 
 
 451. Though these forms must not be used when they obscure 
 the sense ; or are inelegant : as 
 
 'Men's passions are affected by words from whence they have no 
 ideas.' BUBKE (on 'The Sublime'). 
 
 ' The end why we are placed in a state of so much hazard, is our im- 
 provement in virtue.' BUTLEB. 
 
 452. These adverbial relatives are subject to the same general 
 rules as relative pronouns; and are very convenient for use. 
 The relative forms are used sometimes alone ; and sometimes 
 both relative and antecedent are used, where it is intended to 
 make the words emphatic : as 
 
 'Well can the green- garbed ranger tell, 
 How, when, and where, the monster fell.' SCOTT. 
 1 Where heaves the tnrf in many a mouldering heap, 
 The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep.' GEAY. 
 'It is curious, that in the earliest remains of ecclesiastical antiquity 
 where we might expect the continued exertion of those miraculous 
 agencies which distinguished the birth of Christianity, there the traces 
 of miracles are the faintest.' ROGIEBS, 'Reason and Faith.' 
 
UNEMPHATIC PEONOUNS. 287 
 
 Therein, thereof, therefore, thereby, and the corresponding 
 relatives, wherein, whereof, wherefore, whereby, are convenient 
 oblique cases of that and who. 
 
 ' Then ' is sometimes equal to ' in that case,' and is preceded 
 in modern English by ' if ' or an equivalent ; in 0. E. 'whenas ' 
 is a common correlative ; as is 'whereas,' or ' therefore.' 
 
 'Art sworn to secrecy ? Then keep thy vows,' HOBACE SMITH. 
 
 453. When personal pronouns are unemphatic, and are objects 
 after a verb, they bear no accent : as 
 
 ' He that robs me of my fame, 
 Steals that which nought enriches him, 
 And leaves me poor indeed.' 
 ' O spare me, that I may recover strength.' 
 ' Bless me, even me, my father.' GEN. xxvii. 34. 
 The importance of this distinction may be seen from the 
 following example : 
 
 ' And he said, Saddle me the ass ; and they saddled him.' 
 The tendency to place emphasis on unemphatic words in 
 reading Scripture, is very common and very mischievous. 
 
 ' Your ' is also used unemphatically, as equivalent to little 
 more than the article : 
 
 ' Eich honesty dwells like your miser, sir, in a poor house.' SHAKS. 
 There is generally a quiet irony in such phrases. 
 
 454. The repetition and the emphatic use of pronouns con- 
 tributes greatly to the force of style. They give a degree of 
 personal interest, and of dramatic effect which is often very 
 impressive : e.g. 
 
 ' My son, if thy heart be wise, my heart will rejoice, even mine,' 
 'He loved me, and he gave himself for me.' 
 
 ' Forsake me not thus, Adam ! Thy suppliant, 
 I beg and clasp thy knees bereave me not 
 Whereon I live thy gentle looks, thy aid, 
 Thy counsel, in this uttermost distress, 
 My only strength and stay.' PABADISE LOST, x. 
 'These arms of mine shall be thy winding sheet, 
 My heart, sweet boy, shall be thy sepulchre, 
 For from my heart thine image ne'er shall go.' 
 
 SHAKSPEAEE. ' Battle of Towton.' 
 
288 PRONOUNS-THEIB POSITION. 
 
 ' They tug, they sweat, but neither gain, nor yield 
 One foot, one inch, of the contested field. 
 Thus obstinate to death, they fight, they fall ; 
 Nor these can keep, nor those can win the wall.' 
 
 POPE'S ILIAD. 
 
 When two or more relative clauses have the same dependence 
 on one antecedent and are connected by a conjunction, the re- 
 lative must be repeated : as must possessive pronouns, when the 
 nouns they qualify are distinguished. 
 
 'Thus saith He, who is, and who was, and who is to come.' 
 ' They differ both in their form and in their use." 
 
 Position of 455. Generally, pronouns come after the words they 
 pronouns, represent ; but this order is sometimes reversed : 
 ' Hark ! they whisper, angels say.' POPE, 
 ' Who stops to plunder at this signal hour ; 
 The birds shall tear him and the dogs devour.' 
 
 POPE'S ILIAD, XT. 
 
 ' It ' at the beginning of sentences is common. It may intro- 
 duce a noun or a pronoun of any gender or number, and stands 
 for the whole sentence. 
 ' It ivas Margaret who told me of your trials.' 
 ' It is a wise head and a good heart that constitute a good man. 
 
 456. When an objective noun is placed first in a sentence, the 
 pronoun also is sometimes inserted : as 
 
 ' The friends thou hast and their adoption tried, 
 Grapple them to thy soul with hooks of steel.' HAMLET. 
 An objective relative placed first does not admit the pronoun 
 in the same clause of the sentence. 
 
 457. When a personal or relative pronoun does not indicate by 
 its form to what noun it refers, the connection between them 
 should be clearly shown by their position, by the repetition of 
 the noun, or in some other way equally decisive. 
 
 4o8. If two or more pronouns in one sentence differ in gender, 
 number, or person, the reference of each will be clear ; but if 
 they agree, care must be taken that there be no confusion. 
 Speaking generally, the nominatives should all refer to the same 
 person, and the accusatives to the same. 
 
PRONOUNS THEIR POSITION. 289 
 
 The following is an example of the confusion that may be 
 created by the neglect of the rule. 
 
 ' He (Philip) wrote to that distinguished philosopher in terms the most 
 polite and flattering, begging of him (Aristotle) to undertake his (i.e. 
 Alexander's) education, and to bestow upon him (Alexander) those use- 
 ful lessons which his (Philip's) numerous avocations would not allow 
 him (Philip) to bestow.' GOLDSMITH'S GEEECE. 
 
 ' They were summoned occasionally by tJieir kings, when compelled by 
 their wants and by their fears to have recourse to their aid.' ROBERT- 
 SON'S VIEW OF SOCIETY. 
 
 Of all writers, Clarendon is one of the worst offenders against 
 clearness in the use of pronouns : 
 
 1 On which, with the king's and queen's so ample promises to him (the 
 Treasurer) so few hours before conferring the place upon another, and the 
 Duke of York's manner of receiving him (the Treasurer), after he (the 
 Chancellor) had been shut up with him (the Duke) as he (the Treasurer) 
 was informed might very well excuse him (the Treasurer) from thinking 
 he (the Chancellor) had some share in the affront he (the Treasurer) had 
 undergone." CLABENDON'S CONTINUATION. 
 
 The position, of the relative is even more important, for it is 
 always of both numbers ; ' who ' is moreover of two genders. 
 
 ' It is a kind of basin, enclosed by a wall, which comes from a distance 
 of several miles, .... and is of a brackish, disagreeable taste.' RAE 
 WILSON (quoted by Harrison, p. 78). 
 
 ' They flew to arms and attacked Northumberland's horse, whom they 
 put to death.' HUME. 
 
 ' The Earl of Falmcuth and Mr. Coventry were rivals, who should have 
 most influence with the duke, who loved the earl best, but thought the 
 other the wiser man, who supported Pen, who disobliged all the courtiers, 
 even against the earl, who, etc., etc.' CLABENDON'S CONTINUATION. 
 
 459. Relatives being themselves connective words do not admit 
 conjunctions ; unless there are two or more relative clauses to be 
 connected. Hence the following is wrong : 
 
 1 The principal and distinguishing excellence of Virgil, and which in 
 my opinion he possesses beyond all poets (see par. 502), is tenderness. 1 
 BLAIB. 
 
 THE ARTICLE. 
 
 460. The indefinite article is used in speaking of any indi- 
 vidual of a class ; the definite article, in speaking of a particular 
 object or class of objects : as 
 
 ' The gold is but the guinea-stamp, 
 A man's a man for a' that.' 
 
290 THE AETICLE. 
 
 461. The spelling and pronunciation of the articles when com- 
 bined with other letters may be gathered from the following : 
 
 ' At a distance of a hundred yards or so from tkS walls of the abbey, 
 stands an aged oak, and we shall reach it in an hour." 
 
 In old writers, and occasionally in modern print, an is some- 
 times erroneously placed before semi-vowels or vocal ( h ' : as 
 
 ' An usurpation ' : ' An Historical account.' HALT. AM. 
 
 In 0. E. the article was sometimes joined by mistake to the 
 following word : as, ' the tone ' and ' the tother,' for ' the one ' 
 and 'the other.' 'Daffodil' for 'the asphodel,' etc. In the 
 words ' an adder ' and ' an umpire ' (nadder, and nonpair) the 
 process is probably reversed. 
 
 462. Sometimes the definite article is prefixed to plural adjectives 
 to form a class, and to singular adjectives to form an abstract 
 noun. 
 
 1 Men call the proud happy.' 
 ' Then the forms of the departed 
 Enter at the open door." LONGFELLOW. 
 ' Idolatry is the worship of the visible.' HABB. 
 
 463. The definite article is used before a singular noun to 
 represent a class : as 
 
 ' The oak is harder than the elm.' 
 
 ' Man ' and ' woman ' are already class nouns and do not admit 
 the article, unless we speak of particular individuals. 
 
 Similarly, ' a,' and ' the,' and ' no,' are prefixed to proper 
 names to indicate one of a like character, and the ia prefixed to 
 names of places or of institutions to indicate a profession. 
 
 ' Men falsely imagine that arguments against Christianity have been 
 discovered which the intellect of a Pascal or a Sutler was not comprehen- 
 sive enough to anticipate, and which no Clarice or Paley would have been 
 logician enough to refute.' EOGEES'S KEASON AND FAITH. 
 
 ' He is the Machiavetti of modern Italy.' 
 
 ' Love rules the camp, the court, the grove' SCOTT. 
 
 ' He is a member of the outer (utter) bar.' 
 
 From these examples it will be seen that names of particular 
 things, and occasionally proper names, are generalized by pre- 
 fixing the definite article, proper names also by prefixing the 
 indefinite article. 
 
 464. The definite article is sometimes prefixed to superlatives, 
 to make them the more emphatic ; and to comparatives, when 
 
WHEN REPEATED. 291 
 
 followed by ' of ' or in phrases like ' the more the merrier ' in the 
 ablative case : as 
 
 ' The more men know the less they think of themselves.' 
 
 465. Sometimes the definite article is elegantly used, as in 
 French and in Greek, for the possessive pronoun : as 
 
 ' Who have not bowed the Jcnee to Baal ? ' ROM. xi. 4. 
 ' The heart was affected in his case.' DE QUINCT. 
 
 466. The article is never used in English, before virtues, vices, 
 arts or sciences, abstract quantities defined not otherwise par- 
 ticularly, or before terms strictly limited by other definite words, 
 or before titles used as titles, or names as names (see par. 463) : 
 as 
 
 ' Falsehood is odious.' 
 
 "The eldest sou of a duke is called "Marquis." ' 
 
 ' Thames is derived from Tamesis, itself the representative of an old 
 British name.' (Not ' The Thames.'} 
 
 467. The article ought not to be inserted before infinitives in 
 ' ing ' unless they be taken in all respects as nouns : as 
 
 Tor the dedicating o/the altar.' NUMB. vii. 11. 
 'Hirsutus had no other reason for the valuing (of) the book.' 
 RAMBLEB, No. 177. 
 
 468. As the indefinite article indicates one thing of a kind, it 
 must not be used to denote the whole kind : as 
 
 "The unicorn is a kind of rhinoceros,' or 'a rhinoceros;' or, 'a 
 unicorn is a rhinoceros,' we can say ; but not ' a unicorn is a kind of a 
 rhinoceros,' 
 
 469. Generally, the definite article, or some equivalent (this, 
 that), is required before the antecedent of who, which, etc., when 
 followed by a restrictive or denning clause : as 
 
 ' The thoughts which passion suggests are always plain and obvious.' 
 BLAIB. 
 
 470. When two or more subjects are distinctly specified, and 
 attention is called to each, the article (' a ' or ' the ') must be 
 repeated : as 
 
 ' A wit's a feather, and a chief a rod, 
 An honest man's the noblest work of God.' POPE. 
 1 Burleigh had a cool temper, a sound judgment, and a constant eye to 
 the main chance,' MACATJLAY. 
 To a strong spirit, difficulty is a stimulus and a triumph.' FOSTER. 
 
 u 2 
 
292 THE ARTICLE EEPEATED 
 
 ' The common air, the earth, the skies, 
 
 To him are opening Paradise.' GEAY. 
 
 1 The primitive faith owed its vigour not merely to the miraculous 
 attestations which then abounded, nor to the personal teaching of apostles 
 . . . but in an equal degree to the perils of the time, and to the agitations 
 and the heavy storms of trouble which beat upon the infant religion.' 
 ISAAC TAYLOB. 
 
 When the article is thus introduced, it ought to be inserted 
 throughout. Hence the following is wrong : 
 
 ' And own the patron, patriot, and the friend.' SAVAGE. 
 ' She never considered the quality but merit of her visitors.' TTir. 
 PENN. 
 
 ' Before the use of the loadstone, or Jcnoirtectge of the compass.' 
 DEYDEN'. 
 
 471. When two or more nouns are taken collectively, or describe 
 one person, the article is used only before the first : as 
 
 ' A priest and king.' ' The treasurer and secretary.' 
 ' Here at the gates and avenues of sense 
 Thy soul must watch to have intelligence.' NOEEIS. 
 
 472. Similarly, if two nouns are applied to the same person by 
 way of comparison, only one article is used : as 
 
 'Southey is a better prose -writer than poet.' 
 
 If different persons and things are meant, the article is re- 
 peated. 
 
 473. When one noun is qualified by several adjectives, and the 
 article is used, it is generally prefixed to the first adjective only : 
 as 
 
 ' A. loose and verbose manner never fails to create disgust.' BLAZE. 
 'The wisest, greatest, meanest of mankind.' POPE (of Bacon). 
 
 474 The repetition of the article generally indicates that two 
 things are spoken of : as 
 
 'No figures will render a cold or an empty composition interesting.' 
 BLAIE. 
 
 ' The metaphorical and the literal meaning of words are to be carefully 
 distinguished.' 
 
 Sometimes, however, the article is repeated for the sake of 
 emphasis, or to call attention to the qualities expressed by the 
 adjectives : as 
 
 'I returned a sadder and a wiser man,' - 
 
WITH ADJECTIVES. 293 
 
 ' They are singled out from their fellows as the kind, the amiable, the 
 sweet-natured, the upright.' GHALMEBS. 
 ' The most wicked, the most atrocious villain that India ever produced. 
 
 BUEKE. 
 
 In all these cases ambiguity is corrected by the context. 
 
 475. When the adjectives cannot be regarded as describing one 
 and the same thing, the article must be repeated if the noun is in 
 the singular, or it must precede the first adjective only if the noun 
 is in the plural : as 
 
 ' The 3rd and 5th chapters ;' or, ' The 3rd and the 5th chapter, of John.' 
 In the first case, ' chapters ' agrees with 3rd and 5th ; in the 
 
 second case there is an ellipsis after 3rd of the word ' chapter.' 
 Similarly, ' a black and a white horse ' means two horses ; ' a 
 
 black and white horse ' means one horse. 
 
 476. When there is an express connection between the two 
 adjectives, such as is indicated by 'both/ 'neither,' ' either,' the 
 singular form must be used, and the article must be repeated : 
 as 
 
 ' Both the indicative and the subjunctive mood are found in English.' 
 ' Neither the Old nor the New Testament sanctions such a practice.' 
 
 We can say, ' both the earlier and the later editions,' because 
 there may be several editions of each. 
 
 477. This repetition of the article before nouns regarded as 
 distinct, is analogous to the repetition of other parts of speech. 
 _ , Very much of the clearness of style depends on the 
 
 accurate observance of English rules on this subject. 
 The following examples are instructive : 
 
 ' It is a noble and great thing to cover the blemishes and to excuse the 
 failings of a friend.' SOUTH. 
 
 ' A narrow compass, and yet there 
 Dwelt all that's good and all that's fair.' WALLEB. 
 
 ' The liberty of a private man consists in being master of his time and 
 actions, as far as may consist with the laws o/God and o/his country.' 
 COWLEY. 
 
 1 The liberty to know, to utter, to argue freely, according to the dictates 
 of conscience, I prize above all liberties.' MILTON. 
 
 ' I take him to be the rich man that lives upon what he has, owes nothing, 
 and is contented ; for the desire of more is want, and want is poverty.' 
 HOWE. 
 
294 REPETITION OF PARTICLES. 
 
 ' Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright, 
 The bridal of the earth and skic.' HEEBEET. 
 
 ' Whafsgone, and what' s past hope, 
 Should be past grief.' HAMLET. 
 
 ' All men walk in the confines either of heaven or of hell : they hare 
 their fellowship either with the Father and the Son, or else with the 
 apostate and evil angeb.' J. SMITH. 
 
 ' Eternity invests every state, whether of bliss or of suffering, with an 
 importance entirely its own,' ROBEBT HALL. 
 
 ' Type of the wise, who soar but never roam, 
 True to the kindred points of heaven and home.' 
 
 WOEDSWOETH (To the Skylark). 
 
 'At length Clarendon returned, without having a single week to look 
 about him, to mix with society, to note the changes which fourteen event- 
 ful years had produced in the national character and feelings. He was at 
 once set to rule the state. In such circumstances a minister of the 
 greatest tact and docility would probably have fallen into serious errors ; 
 but tact and docility made no part of the character of Clarendon. To 
 him England was still the England of his youth. He ground down every 
 theory and every practice which had sprung up during his own exile. 
 The Roundheads he regarded both with political and with personal aver- 
 sion. His zeal for episcopacy and for the Book of Common Prayer was 
 now more ardent than ever, and was mingled wilh a vindictive hatred of 
 the Puritans which did him little honour, either as a statesman or as a 
 Christian." MACAULAY. 
 
 How emphatic and touching the following enumeration be- 
 comes through the repetition of the governing word : 
 
 ' By thine agony and bloody sweat ; by thy cross and passion ; by thy 
 precious death and burial ; by thy glorious resurrection and ascension ; 
 and by the coming of the Holy Ghost.' 
 
 In these passages the accuracy and the force depend largely 
 on the careful use of the particles, and the student will find it a 
 good exercise to say why in each case they are omitted or 
 inserted. 4 
 
 478. Though 'a' is a weakened form of ' one,' and is therefore 
 properly singular, there are two idioms of our language in which 
 it is used with words of plural force : as 
 
 . Within the Last few months an to his children in succession.' In the 
 expensive UW-ratt has arisen on the other, ' to my brother and his children 
 meaning- of two phrases in the will of in nuccession.' This diversity gives 
 a deceased nobleman. In the one he rise, it is said, to four different inter- 
 gives his property ' to my brother and pretations 
 
AETICLES THEIR POSITION. 295 
 
 'Many a man thinks it better to sacrifice his property than offend his 
 conscience.' 
 
 ' A thousand liveried angels lacquey her.' MILTON. 
 
 ' A thousand questions were opened, and a thousand conflicting claims 
 were preferred.' MACATTLAY. 
 
 In the first case it is connected with a plural adjective, a sin- 
 gular noun, and a singular verb : in the second, with an adjec- 
 tive of multitude, a plural noun, and a plural verb. 
 
 479. Both articles, when used with a noun only, precede the 
 Position of noun : when an adjective qualifies the noun, the 
 the Article, adjective is generally placed before it : as 
 
 ' Passion is the drunkenness of the mind.' SOUTHET. 
 1 A concise writer expresses his thoughts in the fewest possible words.' 
 BLAIE'S EHETOBIC, p. 176. 
 
 Phrases like ' Section the 4th,' ' Henry the 8th,' are excep- 
 tions, unless we regard them as elliptical. 
 
 480. The pronominal adjectives 'all,' 'both,' 'many,' 'such,' 
 and ' what,' and other adjectives, when preceded by ' too,' ' so,' 
 ' as,' ' how,' stand before the article when it is used ; though 
 ' many ' is sometimes preceded by ' the ' and by ' a ' when great 
 intervenes : as 
 
 ' All the world's a stage.' SHAKSPEABE. 
 'I'd rather be a dog, and bay the moon, 
 Than such a Roman.' Juinrs C.ZBSAB (Shakspeare). 
 'Ye see how large a letter I have written to you.' GAL. vi. 11. 
 ' Many a time and oft.' ' The many favours you have done me.' 
 ' Few ' admits either ' a ' or ' the ' before it ; or it is used alone ; 
 but in each case with a different sense : as 
 
 'A few who were present were in the secret.' 
 ' The few who were present were in the secret.' 
 1 few who were present were in the secret.' 
 
 The adverbs ' quite ' and ' rather ' admit ' a ' either before or 
 after them. 
 
 481. When one adjective precedes a noun, and another follows 
 it, a ' often stands before each, and there are really two propo- 
 sitions : as 
 
 ' He was a learned man and a cunning.' BULWEE. 
 'The Lord your God is a great God, a mighty and a terrible.' 
 DETTT. x. 17. 
 
296 ADJECTIVES : 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 482. Adjectives are said to have the same number, gender, 
 Adjectives an d case as the -words they qualify. These words are 
 Rule. nouns, pronouns, infinitives, or noun-sentences, thus : 
 
 ' No worldly enjoyments are adequate to the high desires of an immortal 
 spirit.' BLAIE. 
 
 ' They returned to their own country full of the discoveries they had 
 made.' 
 
 ' He (the melancholy enthusiast) thinks himself obliged to be sad and 
 disconsolate.' ADDISON. 
 
 ' To err is human, to forgive divine.' 
 
 ' That an exclusive attention to the ridiculous side of things is hurtful 
 to the character is true ; but no less mischievous is it to fix attention 
 exclusively on the vices of mankind.' HAEE. 
 
 483. Adjectives are sometimes used as abstract nouns, occasion- 
 ally as concretes, and, in poetry especially, sometimes as adverbs : 
 as 
 
 ' Burke on " The Sublime " and " The Beautiful." ' 
 
 ' The perception of the ridiculous does not necessarily imply bitterness. 
 HAEE. 
 
 'He came to his own, and his own received him not.' 
 
 ' His purpose was to infuse literary curiosity by gentle and unsuspected 
 
 conveyance into the gay, the idle, and the wealthy.' JOHNSON'S LIFE OF 
 
 ADDISON. 
 
 ' Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.' HENET IV. 
 ' They sportive wheel, or sailing down the stream, 
 Are snatched immediate by the quick-eyed trout.' 
 
 THOMSON'S SEASONS. 
 
 Whenever an adjective expresses manner, it is used adverbially, 
 when it expresses quality it is used as an adjective, even though 
 apparently connected with a verb. Compare 'She looks cold,' 
 with ' She looks coldly on him : ' < They stand firm,' with ' They 
 maintain their rights firmly.' This usage, however, will not 
 justify such expressions as, ' He is remarkable well.' 
 
 484. Sometimes the words which adjectives qualify are not 
 expressed. 
 
 ' To him they gave heed, from the least [person] to the greatest.' 
 
 In a few phrases the adjective is used alone, governed by a 
 
EITHEE, EACH, SOME, WHOLE, ETC. 297 
 
 preposition, and having the force of an adverb : as 'In general ; ' 
 'In particular.' 
 
 485. The following forms are idiomatic, and must be recog- 
 nized however we may explain them. 
 
 1 This sort cometh or come not out but by prayer and fasting.' 
 
 The plural verb may be used if ' sort ' refers to number, not 
 quantity ; but not ' these sort come.' 
 
 'Pull many a flower is born to blush unseen.' GEAY. 
 
 ' One seven times hotter than it was wont.' DAN. iii. 19. 
 
 'He was fined "twenty -pound" (Pope, Young, etc.), 'and for every 
 thirty days' delay in paying it a pound wa3 added to the fine.' 
 
 'A thousand horse, and none to ride.' BYEOIT. 
 
 486. "When participles are used as adjectives, they retain the 
 form but not the government of the participle : as 
 
 ' The man that is most sparing of his words is often the most deserving 
 of attention.' 
 
 487. 'Either' and 'neither' (which are both adjectives and 
 pronouns) refer properly to one of two : ' any ' and ' none,' or ' no,' 
 to more than two. 
 
 488. ' Each ' and ' every ' refer to one of many ; the first re- 
 strictively, the second universally. ' The other ' refers to the 
 second of two ; another to more than one of two. Hence ' each 
 other ' should never be used of more than two, nor ' one another ' 
 of two. 
 
 489. Some is used either with or without a noun. Without a 
 noun it is plural. If it is singular, it must be followed in modern 
 English by 'man,' 'person/ 'one/ or an equivalent. In Old 
 English ' som ' is sometimes singular, though used alone. 
 
 490. The ' whole,' which refers to the component parts of a 
 single body, is singular ; ' all ' is plural or collective. ' Less ' 
 (referring to quantity) is singular ; fewer (to number) is plural. 
 The following are therefore wrong : 
 
 ' The Red Cross Knight runs through the whole steps of the Christian 
 life.' SPECT. 540. 
 
 ' There are no less than twenty diphthongs in the English language.' 
 DR. ASH. 
 
298 ADJECTIVES THEIR POSITION. 
 
 491. The position of the adjective in the sentence is either 
 Position of before or after its noun. When only one adjective is 
 Adjectives. use ^ it generally precedes its noun, but is found after it 
 in the following cases : 
 
 Sometimes in poetry, as 
 
 ' Shadows dark and sunlight sheen 
 Alternate come and go.' LONGFELLOW. 
 
 Generally when the adjective is an enlargement of the object 
 of the verb : 
 
 ' God made thee perfect, not immutable.' MILTON. 
 
 1 All men agree to call vinegar sour, honey sweet, aloes bitter.' BUBKE 
 (on Taste). 
 
 Adjectives formed by the prefix ' a,' as ' afraid/ ' alert,' 'asleep,' 
 ' awake,' etc. 
 
 Some adjectives with the force, though without the form of 
 the participle: as, 'The Queen regnant,' 'The heir apparent,' 
 ' The heir presumptive,' ' The time then present. ' 
 
 492. When several adjectives qualify one noun, they sometimes 
 precede it. Sometimes they follow it, especially when any one of 
 them is enlarged. Sometimes one precedes and another follows : 
 as 
 
 ' Be not like dumb, driven cattle 
 Be a hero in the strife.' LONGFELLOW. 
 
 'Along with Shakspeare's intense humour, and his equally intense 
 piercing insight into the darkest, deepest depths of human nature, there is 
 still a spirit of universal kindness pervading his works.' HARE. 
 
 'The great cry that rises from all manufacturing cities, louder than 
 their 'furnace blast, is, that we manufacture everything there except 
 men.' RUSKTN'S STONES OF VENICE. 
 
 ' High above the crowd appeared the Inca, borne upon the shoulders 
 of his principal nobles.' PEESCOTT. 
 
 493. When of two or more adjectives one qualifies another, they 
 ought to be connected by a hyphen, or at all events pronounced as 
 a compound word : as, ' A red-hot iron,' ' A dead-ripe peach.' 
 
 494. When two numerals qualify one noun, the ordinal adjective 
 generally stands first and the cardinal second : as, ' The last tix 
 chapters of John ; ' The first tivo of Matthew.' (See par. 250.) 
 
 495. When there is an enlargement of the adjective by means 
 of qualifying phrases, the adjective is occasionally placed before 
 the noun : as 
 
THEIE POSITION. 299 
 
 ' Sordid in dress, but of lofty bearing ; unimpassioned, though intensely 
 earnest ; abstemious in speech, yet uttering occasionally words of strange 
 significance, Ignatius Loyola was working over the mind of his young 
 companion a mighty spell.' Sis J". STEPHEN. 
 
 When such adjective-clauses are placed first, the sense is kept 
 in suspense till the subject is named. Usually they are placed 
 after the noun : as 
 
 ' Outflew 
 
 Millions of flaming swords, drawn from the thighs 
 Of mighty cherubims.' MILTON. 
 
 ' Oliver found a nobility, opulent, highly considered, and as popular 
 with the commonalty as any nobility has ever been.' MACAULAY. 
 
 'As there is no stronger sign of a mind destitute of the poetical faculty 
 than the tendency to turn images into abstractions Minerva, for example, 
 into Wisdom so there is no stronger sign of a mind truly poetical than a 
 disposition to reverse this process, and to make individuals out of gene- 
 ralities.' MACAULAY. 
 
 ' A fit of the tooth-ache, proceeding from the irritation of a nerve about 
 as big as a-cambric thread, is enough to drive an understanding, capable 
 of instructing the world, to the verge of insanity.' EVEBETT. 
 
 496. Adjectives forming part of the predicate are often placed 
 first for the sake of emphasis : as 
 
 ' Soft is the strain when Zephyr gentle blows.' POPE, 
 
 ' Redder and redder grew the snow, and more heavily trampled, as they 
 winded round the rocks.' WILSON. 
 
 ' The greater the danger, indeed, the higher the charm.' PBESCOTT. 
 
 'Proud and vain-glorious, swelled with lofty anticipations of his destiny 
 no danger could appal, and no toil could tire him.' PEESCOTT. 
 
 These rules on the arrangement of adjectives are subject to the 
 General following principle, that no arrangement is allowable 
 principle, which makes the sense ambiguous. 
 
 497. The comparative degree of adjectives (which is formed, as 
 Compara- ^ e have seen, by ' more,' or by adding c er ' to the 
 lives. positive) always implies that one object possesses more of 
 a quality than another ; the superlative implies that one of more 
 than two possesses a quality in a greater degree than any of the 
 rest. The former should not be used when more than two 
 objects are compared, nor the latter, when there are but two 
 compared. 
 
 Of course these objects may represent classes : 
 
300 ADJECTIVES-COMPARISON. 
 
 ' The church ought to be holier than the world.' 
 ' Cibber grants it a better poem of its .kind than (say the best that) 
 ever was written.' POPE. 
 
 498. After 'other,' 'rather,' 'else,' 'otherwise,' used as com- 
 paratives, and all comparative forms, ' than ' should be used 
 before the latter term of the comparison : thus 
 
 ' Style is nothing else than that sort of expression which our thoughts 
 most readily assume.' BLAIE. 
 
 ' The premeditation should be of things rather than of words.' BLAIR. 
 
 On the other hand, ' than ' is confined to this purpose. Hence 
 the following are wrong : 
 
 ' Scarcely had he uttered the fatal word, than (who)} the fairy dis- 
 appeared." SOANE. 
 
 ' A history now by a Mr. Hume, or a poem by a Mr. Pope, would be 
 examined with different eyes than had they borne any other name.' 
 D' ISRAELI. 
 
 499. Sometimes the object of comparison is only implied in 
 a sentence, and sometimes the superlative is used by way of 
 eminence only, and without any comparison. 
 
 'The lamp of his zeal burnt on brighter and. brighter amidst the dust of 
 parchments . ' LOCKHABT. 
 
 ' In grave Quinctiliau's copious work we find 
 The justest rules and clearest method joined.' POPE (on Criticism). 
 
 500. In old English double comparative and superlative forms 
 are occasionally found. But such forms should be generally 
 avoided, as should adverbs of degree before adjectives not 
 properly susceptible of comparison. 
 
 Lesser is established as a second form of the comparative of 
 little : ' The lesser Asia.' ' In greater or lesser degrees of com- 
 plexity.' BURKE. 
 
 501. When two adjectives are combined, and both are in the 
 comparative or in the superlative degree, one formed in ' er ' or 
 'est,' and the other by 'more' or 'most,' it is better to put tho 
 former first : as 
 
 ' He is the ablest and most conscientious defender they have.' 
 
 502. When adjectives or their equivalents deny equality, or 
 affirm inequality, neither term of the comparison should ever include 
 the other : as 
 
THAN WHOM.' 301 
 
 c Noah and his family outlived all who lived before the flood.' 
 ' 2fo writing lifts exalted man so high 
 As sacred and soul-moving poesy.' SHEFFIELD. 
 ' I know none so happy in his metaphors as Addison.' BLAIB. 
 None are strictly accurate : Noah lived before the flood, and 
 did not outlive himself ; poesy is a writing ; Addison is included 
 in ' none ; ' and is therefore said to be not so happy as himself. 
 
 503. When a comparative is used with ' than ' the thing com- 
 pared must always be excluded from the class of things with 
 which it is compared. 
 
 'Jacob loved Joseph more than all his (insert other) children.' 
 'Errors in education should be less indulged than any ' (add other). 
 LOCKE (on Education, p, iv.). 
 
 504 When a superlative is used, the class between which the 
 comparison is made, and which is introduced by ' of,' should 
 always include the thing compared. Hence the following are 
 logically wrong, though the first is allowed in poetry : 
 
 ' Eve, the fairest of all her daughters.' MILTON. 
 ' Quoth he, This gambol thou advisest 
 Is of all others (read ' gambols ') the unwisest.' HUDIBRAS. 
 ' Of all others that was the qualification most wanted at that time.' 
 
 505. ' More ' and ' most ' are sometimes adverbs of degree, some- 
 times adjectives of number or of quantity ; and they must be so 
 arranged that the reader may not confound them : as 
 
 ' Most instructive lessons may be learnt from adversity.' 
 
 506. In English, the comparative degree does not govern a case, 
 as in some other languages. ' Than ' is simply a conjunction, 
 and has the same case after it as before it : as 
 
 ' I am taller than he ' (is) . ' I have aided you more than him' 
 
 Some (Morell and others) maintain that 'than' is followed by 
 the objective case of the relative : as in Milton 
 
 ' Satan than whom none higher sat.' 
 So apparently in Lord Brougham : 
 
 ' We have now named the most extraordinary individual of his time, 
 one certainly than whom none ever better sustained the judicial office ; 
 one than whom none ever descended from the forum into the senate with 
 more extraordinary powers of argumentation, or flourished there with 
 greater renown,' On SIE W. GEANT. 
 
J02 VERBS. 
 
 If this view be allowed, ' than ' must be regarded as a preposi- 
 tion. But Milton's line is generally held to be bad grammar ; 
 and ' whom ' in the second passage may be regarded as the accu- 
 sative connected by ( than ' -with ' one.' (See par. 585.) 
 
 VEBBS. 
 
 507. Verbs agree with their subject in number and in person. 
 
 . The rules as to number have been given already 
 Verbs. Kale. , ^ . , . ,. 
 
 (see par. 357, etc.). The forms peculiar to the per- 
 sons may be seen in par. 296. The following meet more com- 
 plex cases. 
 
 508. If two or more subjects are of different persons, and are 
 connected by ( and,' the verb is in the plural ; and in the first 
 person if the first person is named ; in the second person, if the 
 second is named ; and in the third person, if both are in the 
 third : as 
 
 ' You and I (we) are ; you and he (you) are ; he and she (they) arc.' 
 
 509. If one pronoun is affirmative, and the other negative, the 
 verb agrees with the affirmativa pronoun : as 
 
 ' You, and not I, were there.' ' He, and not you, is chargeable with 
 that fault.' 
 
 If ' neither,' ' nor,' ' either,' ( or,' are used, the verb usually 
 agrees with the nearest pronoun : as 
 
 ' Neither you nor I am right.' ' Either you or he is wrong.' 
 
 But this last form is inelegant and confusing. 
 
 It may be remarked that Englishmen generally put the pro- 
 noun of the first person last, 'You, and he, and I.' In Latin, 
 the pronoun of the first person is put first, ' Ego et Rex meus.' 
 
 510. "When the relative or the interrogative pronoun is used, 
 the verb must agree with the antecedent in person and number. 
 This principle has been applied to a common phrase, though with 
 doubtful propriety : 
 
 'The words are as follow: ADDISON (Spec. 513). 
 _ Steele, Tooke, Crombie, Morell, Allen, and Cornwell, concur 
 in this form, but most grammarians say ' as follows.' The latter 
 is preferable. If < as follow ' is used, as ' is then a relative re- 
 ferring to < the same/ or < such ' understood : ' as ' (< es,' that, it) 
 and ' so ' are thus used alone in German, but < as ' is not so used 
 
THE USE OF DO.' 303 
 
 in English in any other case. The expression is now adverbial, 
 like '' as regards/ or ' so far as concerns.' 
 
 511. Active transitive verbs govern an objective case ; some two 
 objective cases, some an objective case of the thing, and a dative 
 of the person. (See par. 403, 410.) 
 
 The verb 'to be,' some intransitive verbs, and some passive 
 verbs, admit the same case after them as before them. (See par. 
 416.) 
 
 512. Sometimes the copula or a simple equivalent is omitted in 
 poetry and in energetic composition : as 
 
 ' Sweet the hum 
 
 Of bees, the voice of girls, the song of birds, 
 The lisp of children, and their earliest words.' BYRON. 
 ' Hence (i.e. from imagination) the ardour of the selfish to better their 
 fortunes ; hence the zeal of the patriot and the philosopher to add to the 
 virtue and the happiness of the race.' D. STEWART. 
 
 513. ' Do ' is often used in modern English, sometimes as an 
 auxiliary, sometimes as an emphatic form, and sometimes as a 
 substitute for some other verb. 
 
 As an auxiliary : 
 
 (a). In negative sentences. 
 
 ' With the exception of Godwin, / do not know that any of the male 
 writers of this period can be put in comparison with some of the other 
 sex.' MASSON. 
 
 (b). In questions. 
 
 ' Do you mean that the English are insensible to the effects of a beau- 
 tiful style ? Not at all,' DH QUINCEY. 
 
 (c). In answers with an ellipsis of the principal verb : 
 
 ' Yes, I do.' 
 
 For emphasis : as 
 
 ' When they do agree, their unanimity is wonderful.' SHEEIDAN. 
 
 As a substitute for other forms : rightly where it io an auxiliary, 
 or where it appropriately represents a phrase : as 
 
 ' And then he falls, as I do,' (i.e. as I do fall). SHAKSPEAEE. 
 
 ' This will improve the feeling of the country, and if it fail to do so, it 
 ia still defensible.' DB QUINCEY. 
 
 ' There's not in nature 
 A thing that makes a man so deformed, 
 As doth intemperate anger.' 
 
304 VERBS : SHALL, WILL, ETC. 
 
 Wrongly or inelegantly if it stands for a Avord, as brief and 
 more expressive ; or if it is not an auxiliary and is put for a verb 
 to which its proper meaning is not adapted : as 
 
 ' I did not say, as some have done ' (better ' said '). BOLINGBBOEE. 
 
 ' A poet by the force of genius alone, can rise higher than a public 
 speaker can do ' (' rise '). BLAIR'S EHET. 
 
 ' All that can be urged is the reason of the thing, and this I shall do ' 
 (urge) . WABBTTETON. 
 
 ' Successive images must elevate more than any single image can do.' 
 
 514. The perfect tense is really as we have seen a present; 
 and should be used of past acts only when they are connected 
 expressly or by implication with present time ; otherwise the past 
 tense must be used. Hence the following are wrong : 
 
 ' I have formerly talked with you about a military dictionary.' 
 JOHNSON. 
 
 ' Many years after this article was written, has appeared the history of 
 English Dramatic Poetry by Mr. Collier.' D'ISEAELI. 
 
 ' Of this admirable work a subsequent edition has been published in 
 1822.' Ausox. 
 
 515. ' Shall,' ' will,' ' can,' and ' may ' are sometimes regarded 
 as auxiliaries only ; but in fact they are both auxiliaries and 
 independent verbs. 
 
 ' Shall ' is the English form of the future ; but in modern 
 English, the use of it, to express simple futurity, is confined in 
 direct sentences to the first person : ' will ' is used in the second 
 and third. In questions, f shall ' is used in the first and second 
 persons ; and in indirect sentences, or where all idea of constraint 
 is by the form of expression excluded, it is used of all persons. 
 (See par. 300.) 
 
 All these auxiliaries, as well as 'have' and 'did,' etc., are 
 used in answers and in subordinate clauses with an ellipsis of 
 the principal verb : 
 
 ' I never did like his opinions, and I never can' 
 
 ' Hast thou not sworn allegiance unto me ? I have: SHAKSPEARE. 
 
 Such expressions are allowable, only when the form of the 
 principal verb, as it stands in the one sentence, is such as can 
 be repeated without change in the other. 
 
 516. When two or more words are connected which involve 
 
SUCCESSION OF TENSES. 305 
 
 different forms of the same verb, such parts of the tenses as are 
 not common to both must be inserted in full : as 
 
 ' This dedication may serve for almost any book that has been, is, or 
 shall be, published.' BoLrNOffiBOKE (corrected). 
 
 ' Do ' is an exception (see par. 513). If no part of the one 
 verb is found in the other, this form must not be used at all : 
 as 
 
 ' I am surprised that Mr. Murray should leave some things as he has ' 
 [left them]. 
 
 517. When verbs are connected by ' and ' or ' nor,' and refer 
 to acts described as done by the same person under the same 
 circumstances, and at the same time, they must agree in mood, 
 in tense, in person, and even in form: 
 
 ' If any man be a worshipper of God and do (' doeth ' E, V.) his will, 
 him he heareth.' JOHN ix. 31. See also ACTS xxiv. 19, and MATT. 
 xviii. 22. 
 
 ' With noiseless foot thou walkedst the vales of earth ; 
 
 Most honourable thou appeared (appearedsf), and most 
 
 To be desired.' POLLOK, book ix, 18 24. 
 ' But where is he, the pilgrim of my song ? 
 
 Methinks he cometh late and tarries [eth] long.' BYKON. 
 
 If they differ in person, the mood and tense must be retained. 
 And if the time and circumstances differ and with these, the 
 tense and mood, the simplest form should generally be put first : 
 as 
 
 'Some are and must be greater than the rest.' POPE. 
 
 ' The volume deserves a place on our shelves and will not fail to obtain 
 it.' 
 
 When one verb depends on another, they must observe a 
 proper succession of tenses : as 
 
 ' He tells me that he will' ' He told me that he would' ' I think he 
 can.' ' I thought he could.' 
 
 518. If verbs are used in different voices, moods, or tenses, and 
 are emphatically distinguished, the nominative or its equivalent 
 should generally be repeated : as 
 
 ' There is and [there] must be a supreme Being who created and [who] 
 supports them.' BEATTIE. 
 
 ' A man may be rich by chance, but cannot be (better ' he cannot be,' 
 or better still ' no one can be ') good or rise without effort.' 
 
 ' What would you have said, Dr. Johnson, of Buchanan had he been an 
 Englishman ? ' ' Why, sir, I should not have said of Buchanan had he 
 
 X 
 
305 VERBS MOODS. 
 
 been nn Englishman, what I will' now say of him as a Scotchman, that 
 he is the only man of genius his country ever produced.' JonNSOx's 
 LIFE. 
 
 519. Propositions regarded as universally true are generally put 
 in the present tense, whatever tense precedes them : as 
 
 ' He will tell you that " whatever is, is right." ' 
 
 'He seemed hardly to know that two and two make four.' 
 
 Quotations without ' that ' are generally made in the tense 
 
 used by the author whose words are quoted. 
 'I quoted the saying of Mackintosh, " Men of all countries are more 
 
 alike in their best qualities (and I may add in their worst) than the pride 
 
 of civilization is willing to allow." ' MRS. JAJIESOK. 
 
 520. After verbs of commanding, hoping, desiring, intending, 
 permitting, etc. , the present infinitive is always used for the act 
 commanded, etc., whatever be the tense of the governing verb : 
 
 as 
 
 ' I directed him to go.' 'I shall ask to be there.' ' I hoped to see you 
 come.' 
 
 Unless the act spoken of was regarded as completed before the 
 time expressed by the governing verb : as 
 
 ' I hoped to have seen you before the meeting.' 
 
 Such forms generally imply a supposition or intention, not 
 realized. 
 
 521. The forms ' save ' and ' except ' are originally imperatives 
 and generally govern objective cases : as 
 
 1 Who flatters is of all mankind the lowest, 
 Save him who courts flattery.' H. MOBK. 
 
 Of course a noun sentence originally introduced with 'that,' 
 may take the place of the simple object : as 
 ' Save that they sayden a few wordes more.' CHAUCEB. 
 ' Except [the Lord keep the city] the watchman waketh but in vain.' 
 Ps. cxxvii. 
 
 When these forms govern a case, they are generally "regarded as 
 prepositions. When used before a verb (or sometimes before a 
 pronoun, a noun with a verb understood, see par. 322), ' that ' is 
 often omitted, and they are regarded like 'after,' ' before,' etc., 
 as conjunctions : as 
 
 ' Except ye repent, ye shall all perish.' 
 
 522. The subjunctive or conditional mood is used in complex 
 sentences. The clause that contains the condition (or its equiva- 
 lent) is called the conditional or subordinate clause. The clause 
 
THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 307 
 
 that contains the consequence, the consequent, or principal clause. 
 Either may be placed first in the sentence : as 
 
 ' If there's a hereafter, 
 
 Then must it be an awful thing to die.' BLAIB. 
 ' Every man is a volume, if you know how to read him.' CHAirarsTO. 
 
 623. Sometimes the conditional clause is put as a question, or 
 as an imperative : sometimes it is introduced by * were ' or 
 ' had,' or ' would ; ' and sometimes it is entirely omitted : 
 ' Is any afflicted ? Let him pray.' JAMES, 
 ' Prove that, and I will submit.' 
 ' Would I describe a preacher such as Paul, 
 Were he on earth, would hear, approve, and own, 
 Paul should himself direct me.' COWPEB. 
 
 1 How else should I have known it ; i.e. if I had not heard you say 
 it.' BUEKE. 
 
 ' You did better than I should have done.' GOLDSMITH. 
 A preventing conditional clause is introduced by ' were it not 
 for ; ' ' were it not that ; ' ' but for ; ' and is followed by the 
 subjunctive in the principal clause. 
 
 524. The principal clause is put in the indicative, the imperative, 
 or the subjunctive ; in the indicative or imperative after the 
 present subjunctive, and in the subjunctive after the past sub- 
 junctive : as 
 
 ' Though he slay me, yet will I trust him.' 
 
 ' If it be thou, bid me come.' 
 
 625. The usual forms of the subjunctive in the principal clause 
 are ' would ' or ' should ; ' and ' would,' or ' should have : ' but 
 sometimes ' were ' is used for ' would be ; ' ' had ' for ' could 
 have,' and sometimes the subjunctive auxiliary is omitted : 
 as 
 
 'If 'twere done, when 'tis done, then 'twere (would be) well' 
 It were done quickly,' SHAKSPEABE. 
 
 'It were (would be, or would have been) wise for the king, if the 
 blood now shed had been thought a sufficient expiation for the offence.' 
 GOLDSMITH. 
 
 ' If Pompey had fallen by the chance of war, at Pharsalia, he had died 
 still glorious, though unfortunate.' 
 
 ' I had fainted unless I had believed to see the goodness of the Lord in 
 the land of the living.' Ps. xxvii. 9 
 
308 RULE OP THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 ' Speech is the light, the morning of the mind, 
 It spreads the beauteous images abroad, 
 Which else lie furl'd and shrouded in the soul.' DBYDES. 
 
 526. The correlative subjunctive forms may be seen from the 
 following 
 
 ' If he be here, he is in this part of the room ; or I will find him.' 
 Present subjunctive with present indicative or future . 
 
 ' If he have paid the money, it is now at the bank, or it will be found 
 there to-morrow.' 
 
 Present perfect and present or future. 
 
 ' If he were here, I would tell him to his face, 
 
 Past subjunctive with force of present, as in classic languages. 
 
 ' If he had been here, I should have found him.' 
 
 Past perfect with force of past. 
 
 ' If he were (or were to be, or should be) rewarded, others would be 
 encouraged by his success.' 
 
 A past subjunctive used as a future, or a future subjunctive 
 with a future subjunctive. 
 
 ' If he should (or were to) try, he would succeed.' 
 
 A future subjunctive with a future subjunctive. 
 
 527. In classic languages the use of the subjunctive is regulated 
 by intricate rules, and attempts have been made to introduce 
 similar rules into English. The tendency in modern English is 
 to merge the distinction between subjunctive and indicative. 
 But it is impossible to merge it entirely ; nor is it desirable. 
 To check this tendency and secure simplicity, it is best to adopt 
 the simple principle : When in a conditional clause it is intended 
 to express doubt or denial, use the subjunctive (1). In the conse- 
 quent or principal clause, the subjunctive form is used if the 
 conditional or subordinate clause expresses what is future and 
 contingent ; or ii it refers to past time and by implication denies 
 the supposition (2) : as 
 
 (1). ' If he *'* innocent as you affirm, and I do not question .' 
 
 ' If he be guilty as I hope, and believe he is not .' 
 Should, it will be remembered, is also an imperfect of shall ; 
 and hence a little ambiguity : 
 
 ' If I should visit Geneva, this summer, I will certainly call on you,' 
 (2). 'If he should (i.e. were to) try, he would succeed.' 
 
 4 If he were here (as he is not) I would speak to him.' 
 ' If he had been here (as he was not) I should have spoken.' 
 
THE INFINITIVE. 309 
 
 Others affirm that the subjunctive is used with propriety only 
 when we speak of what is future and contingent ; * never of 
 what is present or past ; but for English this principle is less 
 satisfactory than the preceding. 
 
 528. Verbs are sometimes used absolutely, i. e. independently of 
 other parts of the sentence ; the imperative and the infinitive 
 with ' to ' and in ' ing ' : as 
 
 ' Take him for all in all, 
 
 We ne'er shall look upon his like again.' SHAKSPEABE. 
 'There are, say, a thousand languages and dialects.' 
 ' To speak frankly, he will not succeed.' 
 ' Taking them as a whole, they are a fair sample.' 
 
 To be sure ! Well done ! Here goes ! are rather verbal 
 adverbs, or exclamations, than forms of the verb. 
 
 529. A verb in the infinitive has no nominative ; yet it may take 
 a subject of its own preceded by ' for ' : as 
 
 ' For me to live is Christ and to die, is gain.' 
 
 ' For a man to be proud of hia learning is the greatest ignorance.'- 
 JEREMY TAYLOB. 
 
 'When ill news comes too late for it to be serviceable to your neigh- 
 bour, keep it to yourself.' ZIMMERMAN. 
 
 530. Verbs in the infinitive are placed after nouns, adjectives 
 and other verbs (some add, after other parts of speech), and are 
 governed by them, either with ' to ' or without it. An infinitive 
 is also sometimes the subject of a sentence : as 
 
 ' Honour is a good brooch to wear on a man's hat at all times.' JOXSON. 
 ' The slowest to promise is often the surest to perform.' 
 ' It is vain for us to expect forgiveness, if we refuse to exercise a for- 
 giving temper.' HOADLET. 
 
 ' Eternal hope, when yonder spheres sublime 
 feal'd their first notes to sound the march of time.' CAMPBELL. 
 ' The Son of man is come to seek and (o save the lost.' 
 ' To be entirely just in our estimate of other ages, is not only difficult 
 it is impossible.' FBOTTDE. 
 
 Verbs in the infinitive are sometimes used in English, as in 
 Greek and in Latin, after interjections expressive of a wish : 
 ' Oh ! to have seen him ! ' 
 
 See Harrison on the English Language, p. 28fi 
 
310 VEEBS. 
 
 531. The noun or verb infinitive, if transitive, may govern a case ; 
 and the gerundial form when ending in ' ing ' may be itself 
 governed by a preposition. If it governs a case, it is a verb and 
 does not admit an article before it : if the article is inserted, the 
 verb becomes a noun and requires ' of ' after it : as 
 
 ' The greatest decorum is to be observed in the bestowing of (or in 
 bestowing not in the bestowing) good offices.' SEECT. 292. 
 ' They left beating (of) Paul.' ACTS xxi. 32. 
 
 If ' of ' be retained, it is the sign of an objective genitive. 
 
 532. Sometimes these two forms are equivalent and are used 
 (though not elegantly) in the same sentence (a). Sometimes they 
 differ in sense. When the noun after the verb is the object of 
 the verb the infinitive form should be used ; when it represents 
 the agent, use the noun and the Norman genitive (b). 
 
 (a). ' Poverty turns cur thoughts too much upon the supplying of our 
 wants; and riches upon enjoying our superfluities.' ADDISON, 
 (Spect. 464.) 
 
 (b). ' The court spent the day in hearing the witness.' 
 
 ' It was said in the hearing of the witness.' BEOWN'S GKAMMAR, 
 p. 617. 
 
 533. The genitive form of the infinitive in ' ing ' is frequent : 
 the government by it of a possessive case is always questionable. 
 
 "The desire of seeing his friends induced him to leave.' 
 
 1 Dryden makes a handsome observation on Ovid's writing a letter from 
 
 Dido to JEneas.' SPEOT. 62. 
 
 ' By his studying the Scriptures David became wiser than his fathers.' 
 The last may be corrected by deleting ' his ' ; and the second 
 
 by altering the structure of the sentence. 
 
 534. The objective infinitive (with ' to ') is generally used after 
 verbs that express feelings or acts of the mind ; or acts and states 
 originating directly in the will or in the understanding : as, to 
 wish, to seek, to resolve, to request, to command, to warn, to 
 promise, to refuse, to delay, to think, to cause, to make, to 
 teach, to rejoice, etc. 
 
 After some of these verbs as to command, and to request 
 the objective infinitive is allied to the infinitive of purpose, and 
 is so translated in classic languages. 
 
 535. Verbs of 'thinking, 1 'saying,' 'knowing,' 'believing,' 
 
THE GEKUND1AL INFINITIVE. 311 
 
 ' wishing,' ' rejoicing,' f sorrowing,' ' wondering,' are also often 
 followed by the noun sentence with 'that' expressed or under- 
 stood. 
 
 536. The gerundial infinitive in ' ing ' or with ' to ' represents 
 an A. S. dative form, and may be distinguished from the ordinary 
 infinitive by the fact that it generally implies purpose, and thai- 
 it is found after nouns, adjectives, and intransitive and passive 
 verbs : as 
 
 ' It is high time to awake out of sleep.' 
 
 ' Apt to teach." 
 
 'And fools who came to scoff remained to pray.' GOLDSMITH. 
 
 In 0. E. ' for ' is sometimes inserted with ' to ' ; and in model;. 
 English it is often used with the infinitive in ' ing ' : as 
 ' And clerkes he made, 
 
 For to counseillen the kyng.' PIEES PLOWMAN. 
 'What went ye out for to see.' MATT. xi. 8. 
 ' Fit for teaching.' 
 The gerundial infinitive explains the following forms, 537 541. 
 
 537. The verb ' to be ' with ' for ' and the infinitive in ' ing ' 
 is used idiomatically to express purpose : 
 
 'Any who are for meanly giving up the privileges of Britons.' GOLD- 
 SMITH. 
 
 538. A verb in the active voice is used with nouns and with 
 adjectives, where some might suppose a passive verb required : 
 as 
 
 A house to let.' ' Hard to bear.' ' Sad to tell.' 
 
 539. The infinitive in ' ing ' is sometimes used with ' no ' to 
 express what cannot be done : as 
 
 ' There is no bearing his uncharitableness.' 
 
 540. The infinitive active is used with a form of the verb ' to 
 be,' or ( to have,' to express what is settled to be done : as 
 
 ' He is to start to-morrow.' 
 
 ' Men have to gain their bread by the sweat of the brow.' 
 
 541. The infinitive passive is used with the verb ' to be,' to 
 express what is settled to be done, what must be done, or what 
 may be done : as 
 
 ' The deed is to be signed next week.' 
 
 ' The dictates of conscience are always to be treated with respect.' 
 
312 THE INFINITIVE. 
 
 ' The same sentiment ts to be found in the Epistle to the Romans.' 
 ' The Lord's name is to be praised.' Ps. cxiii. 3. 
 
 542. ' To,' the usual sign of the infinitive, is omitted after the 
 auxiliary verbs, and frequently after ' bid ' (in the sense of com- 
 manding) ; ' dare ' (used intransitively) ; ' do,' f feel ' (used tran- 
 sitively) ; 'have/ 'hear/ 'let' (used transitively); 'make/ 
 ' must/ ' need ' (used as an auxiliary) ; and ' see/ with verbs of 
 like meaning, 'behold/ 'watch/ etc. 
 
 ' If the prophet had bid thee do some great thing.' 2 KINGS v. 13. 
 
 ' Who durst defy the Omnipotent to arms.' MILTON. 
 
 'Certainly it is heaven upon earth to have a man's mind move in 
 charity, rest in Providence, and turn upon the poles of truth.' BACON 
 (Essays). 
 
 'I hear thee speak of a better land.' HEJIANS. 
 
 ' He need not have gone." 
 
 ' A workman that needeth not to be (or that need not fo) ashamed.' 
 2 Tni. ii. 15. 
 
 In O. E. : 
 
 ' If I preche the gospel, glorie is not to me ; for nedeliche I mote doon 
 (must to do) it.' WYCLIF. 
 
 Generally when any of these verbs are themselves infinitives, 
 they are followed by the infinitive with ' to ' : 
 
 ' He would have all men to bend to his plans.' 
 
 543. In old English ' to ' is more frequently inserted ; as it 
 sometimes is in modern English, when the metre or the sense 
 requires it : e. g. 
 
 ' Bid me to strike my dearest brother dead.' Rows. 
 ' Tranio ! I saw her coral lips to move, 
 
 And with her breath she did perfume the air.' SHAKEPEABB. 
 1 Man is made to mourn.' BUBNS. (Infinitive of purpose). 
 'I feel it to be my duty to go,' (So of all mental affections). 
 
 ' Thou hast dared 
 To tell me what I durst not tell.' DETDEN. 
 
 544. The infinitive itself is often omitted after these verbs, in 
 replies to questions, and in subordinate clauses : 
 
 ' Did not Shakspeare borrow from others ? He did (borrow), yet is he 
 more original than the originals.' LANDOB. 
 
 'I could not sleep last night; I never can, when it rains.' LONG- 
 FELLOW (in Adam's Grammar). 
 
 545. When two or more infinitives are used in the same sen- 
 
ITS POSITION. 313 
 
 tence, ' to ' is not repeated, unless attention is called to each verb 
 as descriptive of a distinct act : as 
 
 ' Suffer me first to go and bury my father.' MATT. viii. 21. 
 
 ' The most accomplished way of using books at present is to serve them 
 as some do lords ; learn their titles, and then brag of their acquaint- 
 ance.' SWIFT. 
 
 546. Generally the infinitive is placed after the word that 
 governs it : but when emphatic, it may stand first : 
 
 ' To spare you I came not as yet unto Corinth.' 2 COR. i. 23. 
 
 ' Weep I cannot, 
 
 But my heart bleeds.' SHAKSPEABE. 
 ' To suffer or to do, our strength is equal.' MILTON. 
 
 547. When the infinitive is the nominative to a verb, it is 
 often placed after it, and ' it is ' or some similar form introduces 
 the sentence : as 
 
 ' It is impossible to make people understand their ignorance ; for it 
 requires knowledge to perceive it.' JEBEMY TAYLOB. 
 
 ' 'Tis mad idolatry 
 To make the science greater than the God.' SHAKSPEAEE. 
 
 548. The negative when used with the infinitive always pre- 
 cedes it: with other forms of the verb it either follows, or is 
 inserted between the principal verb and the auxiliary. 
 
 Grant me, O God, thy voice to know, 
 And not to be afraid.' HEMANS. 
 
 549. Participles agree with their nouns in gender, number, and 
 case: as 
 
 * Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, 
 Onward thro' life he goes, 
 Something attempted, something done, 
 Has earned a night's repose.' LONGFELLOW. 
 
 550. Carefully note that participles in ing are known not by 
 their ending, but by the fact that they are formed from verbs 
 and refer to some agent. The following are infinitives : 
 
 1 Habits are soon assumed ; but when we strive to strip them off, 'tis 
 being flay' d alive.' COWPEE. 
 
 ' But this again is talking quite at random.' BUTLEB. 
 
 In many grammars, infinitives in ( ing ' are still erroneously 
 treated as participles. 
 
314 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 The participle in 'ing,' it must be noted, is not necessarily 
 present and active ; nor is the participle in ' ed ' necessarily pas- 
 sive : the first is ' incomplete/ the second, ' complete ' or ' per- 
 fect ' : whether the second is passive depends on the nature of 
 the verb. 
 
 551. The participle often requires other words to complete the 
 sense, and hence it is generally placed after the word it qualifies. 
 Herein it differs from the adjective : as 
 
 ' The very clock had a dismal sound, gasping and catching its breath^ 
 and striking the hour with a violent determined blow.' LONGFELLOW. 
 
 552. The whole clause, however, may be placed before the 
 subject or after it and before the verb : as 
 
 'Leaning my head upon my hand, I began to figure to myself the 
 miseries of confinement.' STERNE. 
 
 ' For freedom's battle once begun, 
 Bequeath' d by bleeding sire to son, 
 Tho' baffled oft is ever won." BYRON. 
 
 553. Sometimes the participle takes the place of an adjective. 
 ' The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade, 
 
 For talking age and whispering lovers made.' 
 
 THE DESERTED VILLAGE. 
 
 554 Participles admit of degrees of comparison only when they 
 describe not acts but qualities : as 
 
 ' A most loving child.' 
 
 555. When a participle is put in apposition to a noun or pro- 
 noun, it is often connected with it by ' as ' : thus 
 
 ' The first cause I shall mention, as contributing to this extraordinary 
 combination and development of fancy and genius, was the Reformation.' 
 HAZLITT. 
 
 556. After verbs of seeing,' hearing,' and ' feeling,' the par- 
 ticiple is often used for the infinitive, and is put in apposition to 
 the object of the verb : as 
 
 ' Full many a glorious morning have I seen 
 Kissing with golden face the meadows green, 
 Gilding pale streams with heavenly alchemy.' SHAKSPEARE. 
 
 557. After an intransitive verb, signifying to begin, to con- 
 
HOW AND WHEN USED. 315 
 
 tinue, etc., the participle is sometimes used for the infinitive, 
 and agrees with the subject of the verb. 
 
 ' The ass began galloping with all his might.' DE. AIKEK, 
 
 ' They commence running next month,' 
 
 ' So when they continued asking him.' JOHN viii. 7. 
 
 Some verbs of this class are transitive, and the apparent par- 
 ticiple may be regarded as an infinitive. In Greek both forms 
 are used. 
 
 558. After verbs of 'desisting' and 'avoiding, 'the participle is 
 sometimes used for the infinitive, and agrees with the subject. 
 If the verb is transitive, the infinitive in ' ing ' is used, or some- 
 times the infinitive with ' to ' : as 
 
 ' He ceased speaking, and the men stopped working, as he had recom- 
 mended them.' Either infinitive or participle. 
 
 ' I cannot help mentioning here one character more.' SPECT. 554. 
 
 ' Nor can I help thinking that we may trace the influence exerted by 
 religious faith in the spirit of the poetry of the age of Elizabeth.' 
 HAZLITT. 
 
 Verbs of preventing are erroneously connected with a participle. 
 They require the preposition from, and the infinitive in ' ing ' : 
 as 
 
 'To prevent it [insert from] breaking oiJt into open violence.' 
 ROBEKTSON'S AMERICA. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 559. The chief concern of syntax with adverbs, is to fix their 
 place ; and to see that when used as adverbs they take the regular 
 adverbial form. 
 
 560. Adjectives are sometimes used adverbially, as we have 
 seen : but that fact will not justify the use of adjectives with 
 adjectives: as 
 
 ' It is excessive wrong.' GOLDSMITH. 
 
 ' His speech was all excellent good.' T. FULLEE. 
 
 ' Egenhart, who was secretary to Charles I., became exceeding popular.' 
 
 Some regard ' exceeding ' as a participle (as in ' passing 
 strange '), and justify the expression : but in fact it is the quality 
 of popularity which is here described, and not something else : 
 the phrase therefore is wrong. 
 
 561. So far as grammar is concerned, adverbs may ordinarily 
 be inserted in any part of the clause of the sentence they 
 qualify : as 
 
316 ADVERBS. THEIR POSITION. 
 
 Unfortunately, he-thinks-too highly-of himself 
 
 Here the adverb may be placed wherever there is a hyphen. 
 
 When great emphasis is intended, or a whole clause is quali- 
 fied, adverbs are often put at the beginning : as 
 
 ' Meanwhile the disorders went on increasing.' MAC.UJLAY. 
 
 But when they are found in the same clause with various 
 words, any one of which they may qualify, they must be closely 
 connected with the words to which they belong ; and are gene- 
 rally placed before adjectives, after verbs, and between the 
 auxiliary and the participle. Hence the following are wrong : 
 
 ' Sextus the Fourth was a great collector of books, at least.' BOLING- 
 
 BEOKE. 
 
 ' By greatness I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the 
 largeness of the whole view.' ADDISON. 
 'For shiners also lend to sinners, to receive as much again.' LTJKB vi. 
 
 The position of the negative (' not ') and of all words that may 
 be either adjectives or adverbs ('only,' etc.), must be carefully 
 marked. 
 
 The importance of this principle may be seen from another 
 example : 
 
 ' Only he promised a book. ' 
 * He only promised a book.' 
 ' He promised only a book.' 
 
 662. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs : 
 though they seem sometimes to be used alone, or sometimes to 
 qualify prepositions, nouns, or other parts of speech : as, ' Yes,' 
 ' No,' ' Certainly.' These last forms stand for a whole sentence. 
 1 Honour hath no skill in surgery then ? No.' HENBY IV. 
 (a). ' Right against the eastern gate, 
 
 Where the sun begins his state.' L' ALLEGRO. 
 (b). ' I hear the far-off curfew bell.' MILTON. 
 (c). ' For the falling and rising again of many in Israel.' LUKE ii. 
 
 In the above expressions, the adverb either qualifies a sup- 
 pressed verb (a) ; is an adjective (b) ; or belongs to a verbal 
 noun (c). 
 
 563. Adverbs are often made adjectives ('the ilien ministry') 
 though not elegantly ; or even nouns and verbs : 
 ' One eternal noio .' COWLBY, WATTS. 
 ' It is a long while ago.' 
 1 Since then.' 
 
NEGATIVES. NOT, BUT, NO. 317 
 
 'I'll hence to London.' SHAKSPEABE. 
 
 ' The calling of assemblies I cannot away with* 
 
 1 Hence with denial vain and coy excuse,' CoMUS. 
 
 564. In Anglo-Saxon, two negatives connected with the same 
 verb, strengthen the negation, as in Greek. In English, as in 
 Latin, they destroy each, other. 
 
 ' He never yet no villanie ne sayde 
 In all his life unto ne manere wight.' CHAUCEB. 
 
 565. During a considerable period in the history of our lan- 
 guage, double negatives with a negative sense were common ; 
 
 ' I never was, nor never will be false.' SHAKSPEABE. 
 'The man that hath no music in himself, 
 Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, 
 Is fit for treasons.' SHAKSPEABE. 
 4 This England never did, nor never shall, 
 Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror.' KING JOHN. 
 In modern English this is not allowed ; though if the two 
 negatives belong to different clauses we may use them both. 
 
 'Ye have no portion, nor (have ye any) right, nor (have ye any) 
 memorial in Jerusalem.' NEH. ii. 20. 
 
 ' We will not serve thy gods, nor (will we) worship the golden image 
 thou hast set up.' DAN. iii. 18. 
 
 * Or ' can be used in such cases ; and the negative will then 
 extend over both clauses. ' And ' cannot be used in such cases 
 if it is meant to deny each and both of the statements. 
 
 566. 'Not but' is equivalent to two negatives, and is a weak 
 affirmative or a concession : 
 
 ' Not but that it is a healthy place, only,' etc. 
 
 ' Cannot but ' is equivalent to must : as 
 
 ' Such a course cannot but end in misery,' 
 
 1 No ' is either an adjective or an adverb. As an adjective it is 
 an abbreviation of ' none ' : as an adverb, of ' not ' (i.e. n 'aught, 
 or nought. Hence phrases like ' whether or no ' are appropriate 
 only when there is a suppressed noun : ' whether or not ' is the 
 proper phrase, if it is a verb that is suppressed : as 
 
 ' Whether he is a sinner or no (sinner) I cannot tell.' 
 
 'Whether love be natural or not (not 'no'), it contributes to the 
 happiness of every society into which it is introduced,' GOLDSMITH'S 
 CITIZEN. 
 
318 ADVERBS. EVER, NEVER. 
 
 667. ' Ever ' and ' never ' are often confounded. ' Never ' is an 
 adverb of time : as, ( Seldom or never has an English word two 
 full accents.' ' Ever ' is an adverb both of time and of degree : 
 as, ' Ever with thee,' ' ever so good.' Hence ' Charm he ever so 
 wisely,' is better than ' never so wisely ' ; though this last makes 
 a sense : 
 
 'Be it ever BO homely there's no place liko home.' 
 
 ' We seldom or ever (rather never) see those forsaken who trust iu 
 God.' ATTEEBUEY. 
 
 ' The prayer of Christ is sufficient to strengthen us, be we never sc 
 weak; and to overthrow all adverse power, be it never so strong.' 
 HOOKEB. 
 
 668. Adverbs in ' ly ' from adjectives in ' ly,' should be avoided : 
 ' That we may godly serve thee ' (Collect for Good Friday), is 
 
 inaccurate, and ' godlily ' is harsh. 
 
 ' Wilily ' and ' holily ' are used in Scripture, but are not com- 
 mendable forms. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 669. Conjunctions connect terms or sentences : as 
 ' All matter is organized or unorganized.' 
 
 'Ah ! if she lend not arms as well as rules, 
 What can she more than tell us we are fools.' POPE. 
 
 There are, however, apparent exceptions to this rule : 
 
 670. ' That,' really a demonstrative, is also a conjunction, and 
 sometimes stands first in the sentence. 
 
 ' That you have wronged me, doth appear in this.' JULIUS GESAB. 
 
 Occasionally, ' either ' or ' neither ' is appended to a sentence 
 after ' or,' ' nor,' or ' not ' : as 
 
 ' No wrong is done to him, or to yon either." 
 
 'He is very tall, but not too tall neither.' SPECT. 475. 
 
 This last sentence is questionable. It means 
 
 ' He is neither other than very tall, nor is he too tall.' 
 
 Sometimes one part of the connected clauses is not expressed : 
 as 
 
 ' Lord, and what shall this man do ? ' JOHN xxi. 21. 
 
 Nor yet that he should offer himself often.' HEB. ix. 15. 
 
 'fiutandiftihe depart.' 1 Cor. vii. 11. 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 319 
 
 571. Conjunctions generally connect nouns and pronouns in the 
 same case ; though it must be carefully noted whether the word 
 that follows the conjunction is connected with the nominative or 
 the objective case of a sentence : as 
 
 ' Give it for me and thee' 
 
 ' Honour thy father and thy mother.' 
 
 ' John gave him more than (he gave) me. 
 
 ' John gave him more than I (gave).' 
 
 ' Johnson acted as usher for some years.' (Nominative.) 
 
 ' Johnson engaged himself as tisher.' (Accusative.) 
 
 ' You assume it as a fact ; it was stated as a supposition.' 
 
 572. They also connect the same form of verbs, when these refer 
 to the same persons and to contemporaneous acts. (See par. 517.) 
 
 ' Men sincerely loving their fellows, arid hating oppression (not who 
 hate), will,' etc. 
 
 573. Conjunctions that are intended to express uncertainty, 
 whether of condition (if, unless, as though), of concession (though, 
 however), of purpose (in order that, lest), or of time, place, 
 or manner (wherever, whenever, until, etc.), govern a subjunctive 
 mood. 
 
 'Tho' he were dead, yet shall he live.' Jonx si. 25. 
 
 574. ' Else,' ' other,' ' otherwise,' * rather,' and all comparatives 
 are followed properly by ' than,' and ' than ' a conjunction takes 
 the same case after it as before it : as 
 
 ' Style is nothing else than that sort of expression which our thoughts 
 most readily assume.' BLAIB. 
 
 'There is no other dictator in language than (not 'but') use.' 
 CAMPBELL. 
 
 ' My Father is greater than I.' 
 
 The following are wrong : 
 
 ' Thou hast been wiser all the while than me,' SOUTHET. 
 ' Thou art a girl as much brighter than her 
 As he was a poet sublimer than me.' PEIOB, 
 
 575. ' Than ' before the relative is by some said to be followed 
 by an objective case ( ( whom ') even when the relative is fol- 
 lowed by a neuter verb ; but this is either a mistake or a 
 Latinism, or ' than ' is in such a construction a preposition : as 
 
 ' Than whom none higher sat." MILTON. 
 See par. 506 and 578. 
 
320 CONJUNCTIONS. ELSE, SUCH AS. 
 
 576. When ' else ' and ' other ' imply something additional and 
 not different, ' besides ' or ' but ' may be used after them : as 
 
 4 He can speak of other things besides politics.' 
 ' Because he had no other Father besides God.' MILTON. 
 1 Thou shalt have none other God but me.' 
 So after 'more,' -when no comparison is expressed : as 
 ' Many more cases, besides the foregoing, might be quoted.' 
 
 577. 'As many as/ 'the same as,' ' such as,' seem used some- 
 times as compound pronouns, and the whole phrase is put in the 
 same case : as 
 
 ' Being such a one as Paul the aged.' PHILEMON. 
 
 4 He hath died to redeem such a rebel as me.' WESLEY. 
 
 ' Can England spare from her services such men as him 9 ' BBOUOHAM. 
 
 ' Such a rebel as /,' ' such men as he,' are forma more con- 
 sistent with modern usage. 
 
 ' Revelation was never intended for such as he ' (is). CAMPBELL. 
 ' Bather let such poor souls as you and J 
 Say that the holidays are drawing nigh.' SWIFT. 
 
 See also par. 431 and 521. 
 
 578. Eelatives, which are themselves connective words, do not 
 admit conjunctions, except when two or more relative clauses are 
 to be connected. 
 
 ' The stores of literature lie before you, [and] from which you may 
 collect, for use, many lessons of wisdom.' KNAPP. 
 
 'The distinguishing excellence of Virgil, and which (an excellence 
 which) he possesses above all others, is tenderness.' BLAIE. 
 
 Hence ' than who,' though a just correction of ' than whom,' 
 when it is the nominative to a verb, is not unexceptionable : 
 ' than he ' is better ; a conjunction and a pronoun, not a relative. 
 
 579. The following are correlative conjunctions : 
 
 I Th<? he slay me, yet will I trust him.' JOB xiii. 15. 
 
 ' Whether it be I or they so ye believed.' 1 COB. xv. 11. 
 
 ' Either make the tree good, and its fruit good, or.' MATT. xii. 33. 
 
 'Thou shalt neither vex a stranger nor oppress him.' 
 
 I 1 am debtor both to the wise and to the unwise.' ROM. i. 14. 
 ' Such as go down into the sea in ships.' 
 
 Such requires that with a finite verb to express a consequence. 
 
 ' The change is such that any one may perceive it.' 
 As requires as to express equality of degree : 
 
 ' As far as the east is from the west,' PSALM ciii. 12. 
 
COEEELATIYE CONJUNCTIONS. 321 
 
 As requires so with two verbs to express sameness or pro- 
 portion : 
 
 ' As the tree falls so it lies.' 
 
 So requires as (a) with an adjective or adverb to limit the 
 degree by comparison ; (b) with a negative preceding to deny 
 equality of degree, and (c) with an infinitive following to express 
 a consequence. 
 
 (a). ' He is so feeble as to be unable to walk.' 
 (b). ' I am not so fallen as to act thus.' 
 
 (c). ' We ought to read blank verse so as to make every line sensible to 
 the ear." BLAIB. 
 
 So requires that with a finite verb to express a consequence : 
 
 ' S run that ye may obtain.' 1 COE. ix. 24. 
 Not only, or not merely requires but, but also, or but even. 
 
 580. When correlative conjunctions are used, no words 
 following the first can be understood after the second, but must 
 be repeated. Words preceding the first apply to the second: 
 as 
 
 ' I am a debtor both to the Greeks and to the Barbarians.' 
 1 You regard neither the letter nor the spirit of the law.' 
 
 581. Occasionally conjunctions are used by way of emphasis 
 so ' et ' in Latin, dX\d and KOI in Greek ; ' and,' ' nor,' ' only,' ' so,' 
 etc., in English. Their effect is owing to the reference they 
 imply to something suppressed. 
 
 582. When conjunctions are used to connect terms or phrases, 
 care must be taken that the phrase which is applied to the two 
 makes a complete grammatical sense with each. 
 
 ' He was more beloved (add than), but not so much admired as Cinthio.' 
 ADDISON. 
 
 If in any sentence this rule is violated, either the position of 
 the conjunctions must be changed, or the words following the first 
 conjunction must be repeated : as 
 
 ' I came not to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance ' : rather, 
 'I came to call not the righteous, but," etc. : or, ' I came not to call the 
 righteous, but to call sinners to repentance.' 
 
 So in Steele 
 
 ' Adversity both taught you to think and to reason. 
 
 583. Carefully note that ' or ' is used -sometimes to connect 
 
 Y 
 
322 CONJUNCTIONS: OMITTED; REPEATED. 
 
 different things, and sometimes merely different names of the 
 same thing. Where two things are meant, and there is danger 
 of supposing that they are one, insert ' either ' before the first, 
 or the article before each, or change or into ' and ' : as 
 ' Whosoever shall (either) cause or occasion a disturbance.' 
 ' A peer or (a) lord of parliament.' (For these are not always the 
 same.) 
 
 'Verbal adjectives, and (not or) such as signify an affection of the 
 mind, require the genitive.' CEOIEBIK. 
 
 684. By omitting the conjunction in English, a writer often 
 adds to the energy and vividness of his descriptions ; as on the 
 other hand, by repeating it, the descriptions are amplified, and 
 the attention is fixed on the details : * as 
 
 ' Thou stretchedst out thy right hand the earth swallowed them.' 
 EXOD. xv. 12. 
 
 'Charity beareth all, believeth all, hopeth all, endureth all.' 
 I COB. xiii. 7. 
 
 ' O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp, 
 Hocks, caves, lakes, fens, bogs, dens, and shades of death, * 
 A universe of death.' PABAPISB LOST, ii. 
 
 ' But a certain Samaritan came where he was, and when he saw him ho 
 had compassion upon him, and went to him, and bound up his wounds, 
 pouring in oil and wine, and set him on his own beast and brought him 
 to the inn, and took care of him.' LUKE x. 33, 34. 
 
 'Love was not in their looks, either to God or to each other, but 
 apparent guilt, and shame, and perturbation, and despair, and anger, and 
 obstinacy, and hate, and guile.' 
 
 ' Seasons return, but not to me returns 
 Day, or the sweet approach of ev'n or morn, 
 Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 
 Or flocks or herds or human face divine.' PAB. LOST, iii. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 585. Prepositions connect words, and are distinguished from 
 conjunctions by governing a case : as 
 
 ' Ah ! who can tell the triumphs of the mind, 
 By truth Dlumin'd, and by taste refin'd ? ' KOGEES. 
 The words they govern may be pronouns, nouns, gerundial 
 infinitives, or phrases that take the place of a noun : as 
 
 ' In honouring God, and doing his work, put forth all thy strength.' 
 JEBEMY TAYLOB. 
 
 Harrison on the English Language. 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 323 
 
 1 To ' before the abstract infinitive, and ' for ' before the object 
 of an infinitive, seem unconnected with the rest of the sentence, 
 and so may be regarded as exceptionable. 'To/ however, was 
 originally the prefix of the gerundial infinitive a dative form ; 
 and had therefore its prepositional force. 
 
 586. Several prepositions may connect the words that follow 
 them with one antecedent term : as 
 
 ' Of him, and thro' him, and to him, are all things' 
 Or they may connect several antecedent terms with one objec- 
 tive noun : as 
 
 ' The time of the infinitive verb may be before or after, or the same as 
 the time of the governing verb.' MUEEAY. 
 
 ' He first spoke for, and then voted against the measure. 
 
 ' Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may of ten be accom- 
 panied by, the advantages of fortune.' 13 LAIR. 
 
 But these last forms are not elegant. The repetition of the 
 noun, or the insertion of a pronoun, is preferable to the suspen- 
 sion of the sense ; unless the prepositions are closely connected 
 and are emphatic. 
 
 587. Generally, prepositions stand before the words they govern. 
 They never stand, however, before the relative 'that' ; and when 
 the relative is omitted they are placed after the verb ; an 
 arrangement common in simple conversational style : as 
 
 'We feel obliged to tho editor, both for making Lord Collingwood 
 known to us, and for the very pleasing, modest way he has taken to do it 
 in.' JEFFREY. 
 
 ' Why then thou knowest not what colour jet is of.' SHAKSPEARE. 
 
 ' The thing is known all Sestos over.' WALKER. 
 
 ' Thy deep ravines and dells among.' SCOTT. 
 
 ' These more sterling qualities of strict moral conduct, regular religious 
 habits, temperate and prudent behaviour, sober and industrious life, he 
 had nothing of.' BROUGHAM'S LIFE OF WILKES. 
 
 In solemn elevated composition the preposition is generally 
 
 connected immediately with the relative. 
 
 . 
 
 588. The word or phrase which the preposition connects with 
 the governed word should always be so placed that the connection 
 may be clear : as 
 
 ' In an introduction correctness should be carefully studied [in the 
 expression].' BLAIE. 2 
 
324 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 'Errors are committed by the most distinguished writers [with 
 respect to shall and will]' 
 
 * The witness was ordered to withdraw, in consequence of being in- 
 toxicated [by the motion of an honourable member].' DENNIS BEOWNE. 
 
 In 'these examples the bracketed clause, which is really of 
 the nature of an adjective or an adverb, must be inserted next 
 the words which it qualifies, and with which the preposition is 
 intended to connect it. 
 
 589. The needless insertion of a preposition is to be avoided ; as 
 is the omission of prepositions where the syntax requires them : 
 
 'Notwithstanding of the numerous panegyrics on ancient English 
 liberty.' HUME. 
 
 ' We entreat of thee to hear us." 
 
 'His servants ye are to whom ye obey.' ROM. vi. 16. 
 
 ' On tho 1st August, 1834.' SLAVE EMAW. ACT. 
 
 To prevent men turning aside to corrupt modes o* worship.' 
 CALVIN'S INSTITUTES, Bk. i. 
 
 ' God expelled them the garden.' BUEDES. 
 
 'It is worthy your notice.' 
 
 All such expressions are slovenly and inelegant. 
 
 590. Care must be taken to use prepositions according to their 
 sense, and to connect them with verbs and nouns appropriate to 
 each: 
 
 * Between,' for example, refers etymologically only to two; 
 
 ' among ' or ' amid,' to many. 
 Averse and aversion are followed in modern English by 'to,' 
 
 not 'from,' though some think that 'aversion from' 
 
 describes ads, and aversion to, feeling. 
 Coupled with and coupled ~by are both right, but they 
 
 express very different thoughts. 
 We say 
 
 ' To differ from,' ' different from,' not ' to.' 
 We 'go beyond,' and 'rise alove.' 
 
 We ' except from censure,' and state exceptions to a course. 
 We ' inquire of,' and not 'at.' 
 We are dependent on, and independent of. 
 We give occasion to persons, for things. 
 We now say 
 
 'In compliance with (not to).' SWIFT. 
 
USAGE. 
 
 325 
 
 'In diminution of (not to).' BACON. 
 1 We dissent from (not with)' 
 
 In A. S. 'on' was used where in modern English other 
 prepositions are used : hence archaic forms : 
 
 'What comes on't.' LOCKE. 
 ' To take told on,' etc. 
 
 Generally a noun takes after it the same preposition as its 
 conjugate verb : thus, 'to confide in,' 'confidence in'; 'disposed 
 to trust,' ' a disposition to trust.' 
 
 Other combinations are illustrated in the following list. 
 
 Accord with (neuter), to (active). 
 Accuse of crime by one's friend. 
 Acquit persons of. 
 Affinity to, or between. 
 Adapted to a thing, or for a pur- 
 pose. 
 Agreeable to; agree with persons 
 
 and to things. 
 
 Attend to (listen), upon (wait). 
 Averse to, when describing feeling, 
 
 from, when describing an act or 
 
 state. 
 Bestow upon, in old writers often 
 
 from. 
 Boast of. 
 Call on. 
 Change for. 
 
 Confer on (give), with (converse). 
 Confide in , when intransitive, when 
 
 transitive, confide it to. 
 Conformable to; so the verb and 
 
 adverb. Addison sometimes uses 
 
 with. 
 
 Compliance with. 
 Consonant to, sometimes icith. 
 Convenient to or /or. 
 Conversant with persons, and in 
 
 affairs. (Among and about, 
 
 Addison.) 
 
 Correspond with and to. 
 Dependent upon. 
 Derogatory to a person, or thing ; 
 
 we derogate from authority. 
 Die of or by. 
 
 Differ from, difference with a per- 
 son, or between things. 
 
 Difficulty in. 
 
 Diminution of. 
 
 Disappointed of what we do not 
 get ; and in it, when we get it 
 and it fails to answer our ex- 
 pectations. 
 
 Disapprove of. 
 
 Discouragement to. 
 
 Dissent from (' with' Addison). 
 
 Eager in. 
 
 Exception is taken, to statements, 
 sometimes against the verb has 
 sometimes from. 
 
 Expert at or in. 
 
 Fall under. 
 
 Free/row. 
 
 Frown at, or on. 
 
 Glad of something gained, and of 
 or at, what befalls another. 
 
 Independent of. 
 
 Insist upon. 
 
 Made of, for. 
 
 Marry to (upon, Scotch). 
 
 Martyr for a cause, and to a 
 
 Need of. 
 
 Observance of. 
 
 Prejudicial to. 
 
 Prejudice against. 
 
 Profit by. 
 
 Provide for, with, against. 
 
 Recreant to, from. 
 
326 PREPOSITIONS. PLEONASM. 
 
 Reconcile to. Taste of, what is actually enjoyed, 
 
 Eeplete with. for what we have the capacity of 
 
 Resemblance to. enjoying. 
 
 Resolve on. Think of, or on. 
 Reduce to a state, and under sub- Thirst for, after. 
 
 jection. True to, or of, 
 
 Regard for, or to. Wait on, at, or for, 
 
 Smile at, upon. Worthy of. 
 Swerve from. 
 
 Many of these words take other prepositions to express various 
 meanings : e.g. 
 
 To fall in, to get into order, to To fall out, to happen, to quarrel. 
 
 meet, or to comply. To fall upon, to light on, to attack. 
 
 To fall off, to deteriorate, or to for- To fall to, to begin eagerly. 
 
 sake. 
 
 Prepositions when prefixed to verbs generally retain their 
 original meaning : but some undergo a marked change, as ' with- 
 stand,' 'withhold;' 'forsake,' 'forget;' 'fo-break' (O. E. to 
 break in pieces), * fo-flee ' (to come to decay). 
 
 591. Sometimes adverbs seem to qualify prepositions, as, ' down 
 from,' 'away from,' etc. j and sometimes two prepositions are used 
 together: as 
 
 ' And from before the lustre of her face 
 White break the clouds away.' THOMSON. 
 ' Every man over against his own house.' NEHEMIAH vii, 3. 
 'Take thy beak from out my heart, and take thy form from off" my 
 door.' POB. 
 
 These propositions may be regarded as one, or one of them may 
 be treated as an adverb. 
 
 692. "When pronominal adverbs are used, instead of the relative, 
 or pronoun whence they are taken, the preposition is sometimes 
 repeated, either at the beginning from whence, from hence 
 or as an enclitic suffix : as 
 
 1 Whereon never man sat.' 
 1 Thereby hangs a tale.' 
 ' He pricketh thro' a forest fair, 
 Therein is many a wilde beast.' CHATJCEB. 
 
 As hence, etc., is already a genitive form, and 'where,' etc., 
 
INTEEJECTIONS. 327 
 
 a dative form, all these expressions may be regarded as pleonastic. 
 They are akin to prepositions with cases in classic languages. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 593. Interjections have, properly speaking, no grammatical 
 connexion with the sentences in which they are found. 
 
 ' Alas ! poor Yorick.' SHAKSPEABE. 
 ' Stern then and steel-girt was thy brow, 
 Dun-Edin ! O ! how altered now.' SCOTT. 
 
 When tj>y are followed by a case, by a noun with 'for,' by a 
 sentence with ' that,' there is really an ellipsis. 
 'But when he was first seen, oh me ! 
 What shrieking and what misery ! ' WOEDSWOBTH. 
 
 Here ' Oh me ! ' is equivalent to ' Woe is to me,' or f for me ' 
 (Shakspeare's phrase). 
 Sometimes the nominative is used : as 
 ' Behold ! Jand the children that thou hast given me! 'Is. viii. 18. 
 
 'Ah ! wretched we, poets of earth.' COWIBT. 
 
 ' Oh ! for a lodge in some vast wilderness, 
 Some boundless contiguity of shade.' COWPEE. 
 
 O that they were wise.' DEUT. xxxii. 9. 
 
 ' O that the desert were my dwelling-place.' BYBOIT. 
 i.e. How I wish, or desire. 
 
 Forms like Adieu ! Farewell i Good-bye S are rather elliptical 
 expressions than interjections, and must be treated as such. 
 They are of course often connected with the syntax of the sen- 
 tence in which they are found. 
 
 These rules, numerous as they are, may be simplified and tested 
 in two ways. Language is the expression of thought ; and 
 generally, language that expresses just what we mean is gram- 
 matically accurate. A rule therefore of grammar can readily 
 be justified by a reference to the sense. This is the first. Every 
 language moreover has its idioms, that is, forms of expression, 
 which, originating sometimes in old grammatical forms, and 
 sometimes in mere custom, cannot be transferred to other cases, 
 however apparently similar. These idioms we must recognise. 
 This is the second. Rules of syntax, therefore, are intended to 
 guide us in the idiomatic expression of the exact sense. By the 
 idiom, and above all by the sense, we may test them all. 
 
328 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 CONTENTS: (594) PUNCTUATION. (595) Stops enumerated and ex- 
 plained. (596) General principle. 
 
 (597) The Comma, Simple sentences. (598, 599) Complex sentences. 
 Rules and exceptions, (600) The case absolute. (601) Nouns in appo- 
 sition. 
 
 (602, 603) The infinitive. (604) Interjections, etc. 
 
 (605) Dependent sentences. (606-612) The comma with conjunctions, 
 
 (613) Semi-Colon and Colon. (614-617) Rules for the semi-colon. 
 
 (618-622) Rules for the colon. 
 
 (623-625) Period or full stop. General principle. 
 
 (626-628) Note of Interrogation. (629-631) Note of Exclamation. 
 
 (632, 633) Parenthesis. (634, 635) brackets. (636, 637) Hash. 
 
 (638) Apostrophe, guilkmets, and other marks. 
 
 (639) PEOSODY and metre denned. (640) Quantity, how measured. 
 (641) Accents, (642) History and change of accents. (643) Rhyme. 
 (644) Double and triple rhymes. (645, 646) Middle, sectional, and 
 
 inverse rhymes. (647) Scandinavian and Spanish rhymes, etc. 
 
 (648) History of rhyme. 
 
 (649) English feet. (650-657) lamoic. Monometer, dumeter, tri- 
 meter, tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, octometer, verses, 
 
 (658) License in Iambic verse. (659-666) Hypermetrical verses. 
 (667) The csesural pause. 
 
 (668-676) Trochaic metres. (677-686) Anapcestic and Dactylic 
 metres. (687-690) Amphibrachic metres. 
 
 (691) Combinations of metres. (692) Spenserian stanzas. 
 
 (693) Rhyme royal. (694) Ottava rima. (695) Terza rima. 
 
 (696) Hallelujah metre. (697) Rhombic and Tricquet metres. 
 
 (698) Unsymmetrical metres. (699) Sapphic and other classic metres. 
 
 -^J* It is an advantage of no mean importance, to be able to grasp in one 
 grammatical expression a general truth, with the necessary limitations 
 qualifications, and conditions, which its practical application requires, and 
 the habitual omission of which characterizes the shallow thinker ; and 
 hence the involution and concentration of thought and style, which 
 punctuation facilitates, is valuable. On the other hand, the principles of 
 punctuation are subtle, and an exact logical training is requisite for the 
 just application of them." MAESH'S LECTURES, p. 44. 
 
PUNCTUATION. 329 
 
 " Of versifying there are two sorts, the one ancient, the other modern : 
 the ancient marked the quantitie of each syllable, and according to that 
 framed his verse : the modern observing only number, -with some regard 
 to the accent, the chief life of it standeth in that like sounding of the 
 words which we call ryme. Whether of these be the more excellent, 
 could beare many speeches ; the ancient no doubt more fit for musicke, 
 both words and time observing quantitie, and more fit lively to expresse 
 divers passions, by the low or lofty sound of the well-weigh' d syllable. 
 The latter likewise with his ryme striketh a certain musicke to the ear ; 
 and in fine, since it doth delight, though by another way, it obtaineth the 
 same purpose, there being in either sweetnesse, and wanting in neither 
 majestie ; and truly the English before any vulgar tongue I know, is fit 
 for both sorts." PHILIP SIDNEY, 'Defence of Poesie.' 
 
 PUNCTUATION AND PROSODY. 
 
 Punctuation marks off words according to the sense : prosody 
 according to the metre. Punctuation uses stops : prosody, ac- 
 cents or stops. 
 
 694. Punctuation divides sentences and paragraphs, by points 
 Punctuation; or stops, so as to show the relation of the words and 
 its object. to indicate more or less fully the pauses required in 
 reading. 
 
 595. The stops used in English are the comma (,), a word in- 
 Stops enume- dicating a portion cut off; the semi-colon (;) indicating 
 rated and half a member (of a sentence) ; the colon (:) a 
 
 member ; the full stop or period (.) ; the note of in- 
 terrogation (?) ; the note of admiration or exclamation (!) ; and 
 the double parenthesis ([()]); the last indicates a putting in 
 ~by the 1y of words that may be withdrawn without affecting the 
 grammar of the sentence. 
 
 596. The general principle of punctuation is, that it indicates 
 General the logical connection of the different words and clauses 
 principle. o f a sentence : or what words are to be taken together 
 in sense, and how these words as a whole are to be separated from 
 the rest. It has also been said that punctuation divides written 
 language as an animated speaker would naturally divide his 
 discourse.* But this is not quite sound. Every speaker must 
 indeed pause (more or less) at stops ; but correct and impressive 
 speaking requires many pauses which no punctuation ever in- 
 
 T. K. Arnold, Buttman, etc. 
 
330 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 dicates. Both speaker and -writer, moreover, have a common 
 rule the sense of the passage ; and it is as unsatisfactory to bid 
 a writer ' stop ' as an orator speaks, as it would be to bid an 
 orator speak as an author ' stops.' The question is, what rules 
 are to guide them both ; and that is determined chiefly by the 
 sense. 
 
 THE COMMA. 
 
 697. The subject and predicate of a simple sentence, if with 
 
 simple adjuncts only, must not be separated from each 
 The comma. ,, L J 
 
 o ther by any point whatever : as 
 
 ' The weakest reasoners are generally the most positive.' 
 
 When the subject of a sentence is accompanied by insepara- 
 ble adjuncts, or when several words together are used as a sub- 
 ject, some place a comma before the verb ; but it is better to 
 omit it, unless it be required to prevent ambiguity : as 
 
 4 To be indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in character. 
 ' Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 
 The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear.' 
 
 The tendency in modern English is to dispense with commas 
 as far as a regard to the sense will allow. If very numerous, 
 they distract the attention, without affording proportionate help 
 to the meaning. 
 
 698. Subordinate sentences, and participial clauses, and adjec- 
 Complex tives with adjuncts, forming a distinct clause, are 
 sentences, generally stopped off' by a comma. 
 
 ' I, that did never weep, now melt in woe,' SHAKSPEARB. 
 
 'Law is a rule of civil conduct, prescribed by the supreme power of a 
 state, commanding what is right, and prohibiting what is wrong.' BiAO""-' 
 ETONE. 
 
 599. The exceptions to this rule, however, are numerous. 
 Exceptions. Eelatives > participles and adjectives, immediately 
 following the words to which they refer ; and taken 
 in a restrictive sense admit no comma : as 
 
 'The vanity that would accept power for its own sake is one of the 
 pettiest of human passions.' 
 
 'The man who is of a detracting spirit will misconstrue the most inno- 
 cent words.' 
 
 CHenr"?!? * 
 
THE COMMA. 331 
 
 ' The things which are seen are temporal ; the things which are not 
 seen are eternal.' 2 COB. iv, 18. 
 
 ' A man renowned for repartee 
 Will seldom scruple to make free 
 With friendship's finer feelings.' COWPEB. 
 Kind nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep, 
 Swift on his downy pinions flies from woe, 
 And lights on lids unsullied by a tear.' YOUNG. 
 
 "When the subordinate sentence is very brief and is closely con- 
 nected with the principal sentence by a conjunction, the comma 
 is often omitted : as 
 
 1 Gentle shepherd, tell mo where.' 
 
 Let him tell me whether the number of stars is even or odd.' 
 TATLOB. 
 
 And when the subordinate sentence is closely connected with 
 the principal sentence by the omission of the relative or the con- 
 junction : as 
 
 ' It is certain we imagine before we reflect.' BEEKELEY. 
 ' The same good sense that makes a man excel 
 Still makes him doubt he ne'er has written well.' YOUNQ. 
 
 600. The case absolute, the vocative case, and the infinitive 
 absolute, are stopped off by a comma : as 
 
 ' The prince, his father being dead, succeeded to the throne.' 
 
 ' My son, give me thy heart.' 
 
 ' To confess the truth, I think I was wrong ! 
 
 The last may even admit a colon or semi-colon, if the con- 
 nection is not close : as 
 
 ' To proceed ; 'To carry the argument a little further : ' 
 
 601. Nouns in apposition generally admit a comma between 
 them : as 
 
 ' He who now calls is Theodore, the hermit of Teneriffe.' JOHNSON. 
 Unless the connection between the words is very close ; as in 
 proper names or their equivalents, and in double accusatives 
 after verbs : as 
 
 ' The brook Eidron.' 
 
 1 He himself told me.' 
 
 ' I have made my tears my meat, day and night. 
 
 ' With Teucer as his leader.' 
 
 602. When an infinitive mood is the subject of a sentence and 
 
332 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 is placed after the verb ; and when an infinitive of purpose is used 
 (the gerundial infinitive), a comma is generally inserted before the 
 infinitive : aa 
 
 ' It i]l becomes good and wise men, to oppose and degrade one another.' 
 'The governor of all has interpos'd 
 Not seldom, his avenging arm, to smite 
 The injurious trampler upon nature's law.' COWPEE. 
 
 Yet if there are no intervening words, or if in other ways the 
 sense is made clear, the comma is omitted. 
 ' He came to save.' 
 It is better for a man to get wisdom than gold.' 
 
 COS. If a finite verb is omitted, a comma is generally required ; 
 as 
 
 ' From law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, 
 knowledge.' 
 
 As a semi-colon must separate the clauses, when the comma is 
 inserted by this rule, and the pause of a semi-colon is sometimes 
 too great for the sense, the omission of the verb may be left 
 unmarked, and a comma be put in place of the semi-colon : as 
 
 ' Heading makes a full man, writing a correct man, speaking a ready 
 man.' BACON. 
 
 ' True hope is swift, and flies with swallow's wings, 
 Kings it makes gods, and meaner creatures kings.' 
 
 SHAKSPEABE (Richard III.). 
 
 604 Interjections, when put without a mark of admiration; 
 Interactions BUC ^ a( ^ ver ^ 3 as na y> so hence, again, first, secondly, 
 etc. , once more, in short, on the contrary ; many 
 conjunctions, as moreover, but further, however, etc. ; and 
 adverbial and prepositional phrases, are generally, though by no 
 means always, stopped off by a comma : as 
 
 ' Lo, I come quickly.' 
 
 ' But, by a timely call upon religion, the force of habit was eluded.' 
 JOHNSON. 
 
 As are repeated words, and quotations closely dependent on 
 such verbs as ' say,' ' tell,' ' cry,' etc. 
 
 ' Mingle, mingle, mingle, 
 They that mingle may.' 
 'It hurts a man's pride to say, I do not know.' 
 ' I say unto all, watch.' 
 
THE COMMA. 333 
 
 When the dependence is not close, a semi-colon or a colon is 
 used. 
 
 605. Dependent sentences (beginning with how, that, when, 
 etc.) are generally stopped off, though if brief and closely con- 
 nected, the comma may be omitted : as 
 
 ' Revelation tells us how we may be saved.' 
 
 Transposed words generally require commas, in order to mark 
 the connexion : as 
 
 ' To rest, the cushion and soft down invite.' POPE. 
 
 And any phrase that is to be made emphatic may be stopped off 
 for that purpose ; though stops be not necessary to mark the 
 sense. 
 
 COG. When two words are connected by conjunctions, they are 
 not separated by a comma : as 
 
 ' It is a stupid and barbarous way to extend dominion by arms ; for 
 true power is to be got by arts and industry,' SPECTATOR. 
 ' He dies and makes no sign.' SHAKSPEABE (Henry VI.). 
 ' The mountain shadows on their heart, 
 Were neither broken nor at rest.' SCOTT. 
 
 If the conjunction is omitted, the comma is inserted : 
 
 ' She thought the isle that gave her birth, 
 The sweetest, wildest land on earth.' HOGQ. 
 
 607. If the connected words have adjuncts, the comma is gene- 
 rally inserted : as 
 
 1 Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies, and the vigour of 
 our minds.' 
 
 608. If the words are connected by the sub-alternative ' or ' (i. e. 
 if they are two names for the same thing), the comma is inserted 
 as 
 
 1 The figure is a sphere, or globe.' 
 
 609. If the connected words are emphatically distinguished the 
 comma is generally inserted : 
 
 ' Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull.' 
 'The vain are easily obliged, and easily disobliged.' 
 
 610. Words in pairs connected by conjunctions are separated in 
 pairs by a comma : as 
 
334 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 ' Familiar in hia mouth as household words 
 Harry, the king, Bedford and Exeter, 
 Warwick and Talbot, Salisbury and Gloucester.' 
 
 SHAKSPEABB (Henry V.). 
 
 611. Occasionally the same principle is applied to large groups : 
 as 
 
 ' And gleaming and streaming and steaming and beaming, 
 And rushing and flushing and brushing and gushing, 
 Is the way the water comes down at Lodore.' SOUTHEY. 
 
 612. "When more than two words are connected in the same 
 construction by conjunctions expressed or understood, a comma is 
 inserted after every one of them, except the last ; and if they are 
 nominatives before a verb, it is inserted after the last. 
 
 ' Heavens ! what a goodly prospect spreads around, 
 Of hills, and dales, and woods, and lawns, and spires.' THOMSON. 
 
 ' We are selfish men ; 
 Oh, raise us up, return to us again, 
 Give us manners, virtue, freedom, power.' WOEBSWOBTII. 
 
 ' To the vile dust from whence he sprung, 
 Unwept, unhonoured, and unsung." SCOTT. 
 
 ' Altar, sword, and pen, 
 
 Fireside, the heroic wealth of hall and bower , 
 Have forfeited their ancient English dower 
 Of inward happiness.' WOEDSWOBTH. 
 
 - ' He has an absolute, immediate, and I may say personal control of the 
 business.' 
 
 ' Reputation, virtue, and happiness, depend greatly on the choice of 
 companions,' 
 
 Some writers omit the comma when ' and ' is used ; and some 
 omit it after the last nominative : but this last practice is wrong, 
 unless, by the structure of the sentence, the last nominative is 
 made to agree with the verb. In such a case, however, when 
 the sense is clear, all the commas may be omitted. 
 
 THE SEMI-COLON AND COLON. 
 
 613. The semi-colon and colon are used in compound sen- 
 tences, and occasionally in complex sentences. The general 
 principle that regulates the choice of either, is the closeness of 
 the connexion between the parts of the sentence. 
 
THE SEMI-COLON. 335 
 
 614. The semi-colon is used in complex sentences, when the 
 The semi- sense being incomplete, the subject, predicate, or object 
 
 is repeated, in order to receive an enlargement : as 
 ' An honourable friend near me a gentleman to whom, etc. ; a gentle- 
 man whose abilities, etc. ; that honourable gentleman has told you, etc.' 
 SHEBTDAN. 
 
 615. A semi-colon is used in co-ordinate sentences, whenever 
 there are two or more clauses in each, especially if these are stopped 
 off by a comma : as 
 
 ' All nature is but art unknown to thee ; 
 All chance, direction, which thou can'st not see ; 
 All discord, harmony not understood ; 
 All partial evil, universal good.' POPE. 
 
 616. A semi-colon is often used in co-ordinate sentences with 
 only one member in each, when the sense is complete, and we 
 wish to mark a greater pause than the comma indicates. 
 
 ' Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom.' 
 ' Slaves cannot breathe in England ; if their lungs 
 Eeceive our air, that moment they are free.' COWPEB. 
 ' To err is human ; to forgive, divine.' 
 
 617. A semi-colon is used when several words that are sepa- 
 rated by the comma stand in the same relation to other words in 
 the sentence : as 
 
 ' Grammar is divided into four parts ; orthography, etymology, syntax, 
 aud prosody.' 
 
 ' This rule forbids parents to lie to children, and children to parents; 
 instructors to pupils, and pupils to instructors ; the old to the young, and 
 the young to the old ; etc.' WAYLAND. 
 
 618. The colon is used just before the final clause, and after 
 
 the last of several members of a compound sentence, each 
 The colon. ^ ^j^^ en fa w ith a semi-colon : as 
 
 ' He whistles as he goes, light-hearted wretch, 
 Cold and yet cheerful ; messenger of grief, 
 Perhaps to thousands and of joy to some : 
 To him indifferent, whether grief or joy.' COWPEB. 
 1 Princes have courtiers and merchants have partners ; the voluptuous 
 have companions and the wicked have accomplices : none but the virtuous 
 can have friends.' 
 
 619. The colon is sometimes used in a compound sentence, 
 
336 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 when the first clause is complete in itself, and is followed by 
 a remark not strictly co-ordinate, and yet not completely inde- 
 pendent : as 
 
 ' Remember Heaven has an avenging rod : 
 To smite the poor is treason against God.' COWPEB. 
 ' Time is the seed field of eternity : what a man soweth, that shall ho 
 also reap." 
 
 620. The colon is also used (instead of a semi-colon) between 
 co-ordinate sentences that are closely connected, but without a 
 connecting particle : as 
 
 ' It may cost something to serve God : (or ; but) it will cost more not 
 to serve him.' 
 
 ' In free states no man should take up arms, but with a view to defend 
 his country and its laws : he puts off the citizen when he enters the camp ; 
 but it is because he is a citizen and would continue such, that he makes 
 himself for awhile a soldier.' BLACKSTONE. 
 
 621. A quotation introduced without any connecting particle, 
 or not closely dependent on the words that introduce it, is often 
 preceded by a colon : 
 
 'He spoke to the following effect : ' 
 
 Know then this truth (enough for man to know) : 
 Virtue alone is happiness below.' POPE. 
 
 ' The New Testament gives the Divine character in a single sentence : 
 " God is love." ' 
 
 This is Murray's rule : some prefer the semi-colon ; and some, 
 the comma. 
 
 622. When words expressive of dependence are used, the comma 
 is generally inserted : as 
 
 ' I pity the man who can travel from Dan to Beersheba, and cry, " "Tis 
 all barren." ' STEBNE. 
 
 THE PERIOD OR FULL STOP. 
 
 623. The period is used at the close of a complete sentence. 
 The period. ^ ou Sht * ^ e used whenever a sentence is complete, 
 
 and has no grammatical connexion with other sen- 
 tences : as 
 
 1 Knowledge is power. Abhor that which is evil.' 
 'By frequent trying, Troy was won. 
 All things by trying may be done.' 
 
NOTE OF INTERROGATION. 337 
 
 624 It may be used when a sentence is complete, even though 
 the sentence has a general connexion \vith other sentences ; 
 provided the connexion be indicated by the use of independent 
 nominatives, or independent conjunctions. 
 
 ' Then we could not weep. Now we could not cease to weep. "We 
 heard little. We saw less. We found ourselves in our bereaved dwelling. 
 There was a well known step. We could not catch it though our ear 
 strained its sense.' HAMILTON. 
 
 625. It is generally used after abbreviations : as A.D., F.R.S. 
 
 ' Consult the statute ; quart. I think it is 
 Edwardi sext. ox prim, et quint. Eliz? POPE. 
 
 Generally, it may be said that the period divides a paragraph 
 General into sentences ; the colon and semi-colon divide com- 
 prmciple. p Oun( j sentences into smaller ones ; and the comma 
 connects into clauses the scattered statements of time, manner, 
 place, and relation, belonging to verbs and nouns. 
 
 Where the sense is clear without commas, it is better to omit 
 them : and then they may take the place of the semi-colon in 
 complex sentences or in co-ordinate sentences. In few cases are 
 the pauses in good reading regulated exactly by the stopping. 
 
 THE NOTE OF INTERROGATION. 
 
 626. Questions expressed as such are always followed by a note 
 Note of in- of interrogation, whether they are introduced or not 
 terrogation. -yyith interrogatory words : as 
 
 ' A wounded spirit who can bear ? ' PEOVEEBS. 
 ' I suppose, sir, you are his apothecary P ' SWIFT. 
 
 627. When a question is stated, and not asked, it loses both 
 the quality and the sign of interrogation : as 
 
 ' To be or not to be ; that is the question.' SHAKSPEABE. 
 ' I asked him why he wept.' STEENE. 
 
 Unless it is intended to represent the question as asked dra- 
 matically in the sentence that records it : as 
 
 ' They put their huge inarticulate question, " What do you mean to do 
 with us ? " in a manner audible to every reflective soul in this kingdom.' 
 CABLYLE. 
 
 Some insert the mark of interrogation after all independent 
 questions, even when they are found in a sentence : as 
 
338 PUNCTUATION NOTE OF EXCLAMATION. 
 
 ' If we ask, who was the gainer by the death of his great ancestor ? 
 the answer is, the patricians.' NIEBUHB'S LECTUBES (Hose's Transl.). 
 
 But this punctuation is not felicitous. 
 
 628. When questions are united in one compound sentence, tho 
 comma, the semi-colon, or the dash divides them, and the note 
 of interrogation is put after the last only : 
 
 ' Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land ? 
 All fear, none aid you, and few understand.' POPE. 
 4 Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle 
 
 Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime ; 
 Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle, 
 Now melt into sorrow, now madden to crime ? ' 
 
 THE BETDE OF ABYDOS. 
 
 THE NOTE OP EXCLAMATION, ETC. 
 
 629. The note of exclamation is used after interjections, or 
 Note of ex- after the words that are immediately connected with 
 clamation. them: as 
 
 'Hold! Enough!' 
 
 ' Whereupon, O King Agrippa ! I was not disobedient to the heavenly 
 vision,' 
 
 630. It is used after invocations, or expressions of earnest 
 feeling : 
 
 ' England, with all thy faults, I love thee still, 
 My country ! ' COWPEB. 
 
 ' Me miserable ! ' MILTON; 
 
 631. It is used after words spoken with vehemence in the form 
 of a question, when no answer is expected ; and after exclamations 
 of any kind : 
 
 1 How various his employments whom the world 
 Calls idle ; and who justly in return 
 Esteems that busy world an idler too ! ' COWPEB. 
 
 ' How changed ! ' ' Who can it be ! ' 
 
 ' What must it be to dwell above ! ' 
 
 632. The parenthesis ( ) is used to mark a clause thrown in 
 The paren- between the parts of a sentence, neither necessary tc 
 
 the grammar nor to the accuracy of the sense : as 
 1 The night (it was the middle of summer) was fair and calm.' THIRL- 
 WALL'S GREECE. 
 
BRACKETS: PARENTHESES. 339 
 
 ' To others do (the law is not severe), 
 What to thyself thou wishest to be done.' BEATTIE. 
 
 Only such clauses as break the unity of the sentence too much 
 to be incorporated with it should be put in parentheses. Hence 
 the following is wrong : 
 
 'Each mode has its peculiar tense, tenses (or times).' 
 
 Generally, the parenthetic words are stopped off in the same 
 way as the words that precede them : as 
 
 ' First, then, with respect to piety : (or whatever other term may be 
 employed, to denote collectively the sentiments felt or expressed by men 
 towards a supreme being :) ' WHATELY. 
 
 Except when the forms of the sentences differ : as 
 
 ' How I dreamt 
 Of things impossible ! (could sleep do more ?)' YOUNG. 
 
 633. Some writers (Arnold, etc.) regard the parenthosis as 
 not needing any stop, unless it be doubtful whether the paren- 
 thetic words belong to what precedes or to what follows. But it 
 ought never to be doubtful. The above rules are the most 
 satisfactory. 
 
 634. Brackets [] indicate a parenthetic sentence on a distinct 
 
 subject : and when both brackets and curves ( ) are 
 used in one parenthesis, the brackets enclose the 
 larger sentence, and curves the shorter : as 
 
 ' I know the banker I deal with, or the physician I usually call in 
 [there is no need, cried Dr. Slop (waking) to call in any physician in the 
 case] to be neither of them of much religion.' STEENB. 
 
 This purpose is gained sometimes by the use of the dash , 
 and then the brackets are reserved for corrections, or explana- 
 tions, or are not used at all. 
 
 635. Parentheses should be used as seldom as possible. They 
 are too often the signs of an imperfectly amalgamated sentence, 
 or even of an imperfectly formed thought. When used, the 
 sentence must be grammatically complete without them. 
 
 636. The dash is used to mark an unexpected or an emphatic 
 pause, 
 
 Sometimes it is used to indicate a faltering speech : 
 as 
 ' I am sorry to say but a it is a necessary .' 
 
 z 2 
 
340 PUNCTUATION THE DASH. 
 
 It marks a sudden break or transition : as 
 
 1 Here lies the great false marble, where ? 
 Nothing but sordid dust lies here.' YOTOG. 
 
 It marks a considerable pause, greater than the stops used 
 require : as 
 
 ' I pause for a reply. None ? Then none have I offended.' SKAK. 
 
 'This bond doth give here no jot of blood.' SHAKSPEAEE. 
 
 'He cannot stand it, said the corporal. He shall be supported, said 
 my uncle Toby.' STEENE. 
 
 Hence it is found between the side heading of a paragraph 
 and the paragraph itself ; and between two numbers where it is 
 to represent the numbers that intervene : as 
 
 ' The character of Enoch. The second name in this catalogue, is that 
 of Enoch, etc.' ' CHAPS, i. vi.' 
 
 Sometimes the dash is used to mark off words in apposition 
 or in explanation : as 
 
 ' One thing, however, is certain that so long as you thus act, you 
 cannot be his spiritual children, nor heirs with him of the same promise.' 
 
 ' We shall attempt first, . . . and secondly.' 
 
 637. The dash is often used when a writer has not taken the 
 pains to decide on the insertion of other and more!definite stops. 
 In such cases, he transfers an important part of his work to such 
 readers as may be willing to supply it ; and the writer should 
 not feel surprise if his readers concur with him in thinking the 
 matter not worth the pains. 
 
 638. Other marks are used in writing and printing, as follows : 
 
 1. (') The apostrophe is used to indicate the elision of one or 
 Apostro he more l etters f a word : as, ' the boy's book ;' ' 'gan,' 
 
 'lov'd,' 'e'en,' f thro'.' It is also used in modern 
 English to mark the possessive forms of plural nouns, and to 
 form the plural of letters or signs : as, * men's minds ; ' ' your 
 parent's wishes ; ' the ' a's ; ' the ' p's ' and ' q's.' 
 
 2. (" " ' ') The guillemets, or quotation points, mark words 
 Guillemets as ( l uo ^ a *^ ons ' ^ ie single points are used to mark 
 
 a quotation within a quotation, or a quotation in 
 sense, but not in exact words : as, " Again he saith, ' Rejoice, 
 ye Gentiles, with his people.' " " His argument is in substance 
 as follows : 'Let it be supposed,' etc." Sometimes this distinc- 
 
HYPHEN : DIURESIS, ETC. 341 
 
 tion is neglected ; and single points alone are used. When 
 many quotations are made, this plan has the advantage of 
 simplicity and neatness. 
 
 3. ( - ) The hyphen is used to connect compound -words : as, 
 
 'sea-water,' 'ever-loving.' It is often used also when 
 a word is divided into syllables: arf, 'ful-fil-ment.' 
 When placed at the end of a line, it shows that one or more 
 syllables of a word are carried to the next line : as, ' extra- 
 ordinary.' In this case it is placed at the end of the first lina 
 and not at the beginning of the second. 
 
 The rules for the use of the hyphen in composition are not 
 very definite ; but the following are generally admitted. 
 
 Between an adjective and its substantive it is not used : as, 
 ' prime minister,' ' high sheriff ; ' unless the two words form a 
 kind of compound adjective to another noun, as ' high-church 
 doctrines. ' 
 
 When an adjective or adverb and a participle form a compoun( 
 adjective, as they generally do when followed by a noun, tht 
 hyphen is inserted, as ' a quick-sailing vessel ; ' when they f ollop 
 the noun, they are generally distinct, as ' a ship quick sailing 
 o'er the deep.' 
 
 When the first noun expresses the material or substance, the 
 hyphen is often omitted : as, ' a silk gown,' ' an iron ship. ' When 
 it expresses possession, or answers to a dative case (' for,' or 
 'belonging to '), the hyphen is inserted, as ' school-master,' 'cork- 
 screw,' ' play-time.' 
 
 Perhaps all these rules may be superseded by a general princi- 
 ple. Whenever two words are made one and regarded as such, 
 they should be spelt as one or be connected with a hyphen : as, 
 'everlasting,' 'ever-living.' The 'high sheriff' would then be 
 regarded as two words ; and ' ironship,' or 'iron-ship ' would be 
 accepted as the appropriate spelling.' 
 
 4. ( " ) The diaeresis when placed over either of two contigu- 
 
 ous vowels, shows tka-t they are to be pronounced 
 Dl * resis - apart: as, 'aerial.' 
 
 5. (")(") The macron and the breve indicate that the vowels 
 Macron and over which either is placed are long and short re- 
 breve, spectively : as, live, having life ; ' ' live, to have life ; : 
 'raven, a bird ; ' 'raven, to seize gluttonously.' 
 
342 PUNCTUATION ACCENT, ETC. 
 
 6. (') The acute accent marks the emphasis: as, 'equal,' 
 Acute ' equality.' It is also used sometimes to mark a short 
 accent. or close syllable, as ' Cav-our,' ' fan-cy ; ' and to note 
 the rising inflection : as, ' Is it well done I ' 
 
 7. ( ' ) The grave accent distinguishes an open or long vowel : 
 Grave as* ' f a-vour ; ' or denotes the falling inflection : as, 
 accent. ' It is well dbne.' It also indicates the full sound of 
 the syllable over which it is placed : as, 
 
 ' It fortuned out of the thickest wood, 
 A ramping lyon rushed suddeinly .' SPENSEB. 
 
 8. ( ) or (***) or (....) The ellipses mark the omission 
 
 of letters or words : as. < The Q n.' < The D** of 
 SH-Pses. p . v , a, told ,../.. 
 
 9. ( ^[ ) The paragraph, which is used chiefly in the Bible, 
 Paragraph. mar ^ cs * ne commencement of a new subject. 
 
 10. ( ) The section marks the smaller divisions of 
 a book or chapter ; and when used with numbers, helps to abridge 
 references, as 6, i.e., Section six. 
 
 11. ( * ) .The asterisk or little star, (f) the obelisk or dagger, 
 Other (t) the double dagger, (||) the parallels, and some- 
 marks, times () the section and (^[) the paragraph are used 
 as marks of reference. 
 
 Printers take them in the following order : 
 Note 1, *. Note 3, f. Note 5, ||. Note 7, **. 
 
 2, f. 4,. 6, f. 8, ft- 
 
 Where there are many references, figures or the small letters 
 of the alphabet are more convenient. 
 
 12. 08^*) The index or hand points to something that deserves 
 to be carefully observed. 
 
 13. (%*) The asterismus, or star-making, is sometimes placed 
 before a long note, without any particular reference. 
 
 14. (,) The cedilla is a mark borrowed from the French, who 
 place it under c to give it the sound of s, before a or o : as, 
 'jacade,' ' Alenfon.' In some dictionaries, it is placed under g, 
 when sounded as j ; under s, when sounded as z ; and under x, 
 when sounded as gz. 
 
PKOSODY. 343 
 
 PBOSODY. 
 
 639. Prosody is that part of grammar that treats of metre or 
 Prosody rhythm. The word is from the Greek, and is repre- 
 16 ' sented in Latin writers by the similar word, accent. 
 Both terms refer to musical melody. Happily the definition is 
 peculiarly applicable to English prosody, as our metres are 
 more dependent on accent than on quantity. 
 
 In its widest sense, metre is the ( recurrence within certain 
 intervals of syllables similarly affected.'* 
 
 They may be similarly affected in their quantities, as in classic 
 Metre de- metres ; in their sounds, either initial, as in Anglo- 
 kindV tlireC Saxon and sometimes in old English ; or final, as in 
 our common rhyme ; or in their accents only, as in 
 all English blank verse. Sometimes all these are combined, as 
 when in rhyming metre we use ' apt alliteration's artful aid ; ' 
 and still oftener, two of the three ; as in classic languages, accent 
 and quantity ; as in A. S. and old English, alliteration and 
 accent ; or as in much modern poetry, accent and rhyme : 
 thus 
 
 *N5n satis 1 5st pul | chra~?sse p5 | Smata; | dulcia | suntO 1 .' HOBACE. 
 ' In Caines cynne 
 Thone cwealm gewrcec.' C.EDMO. 
 
 'The king and his Anights 
 To the Mrk went, 
 To hear watins of the day, 
 And the mass after.' PIEES PLOUGHMAN. 
 
 'Any science under sonne, 
 
 The sevene artz and alle, 
 
 But thei ben ferned for the iordes Jove, 
 
 Jost is all the tyme.' PIEBS PLOUGHMAN. 
 
 'Tis the sunset of life gives me mystical lore, 
 For coming events cast their shadows before.' CAMPBELL. 
 
 640. Quantity is measured in classic languages by the length 
 
 Quantity ; o f the syllable as a whole ; in English, by the length 
 
 measured, of the vowel only. ' Monument,' for example, would 
 
 be, in Latin measurement, two short syllables and a 
 
 long one ; 'seeing ' would be in Latin, a short and a long syllable. 
 
 , Dr. Latham. 
 
344 ENGLISH PKOSODY ITS PECUL1AKITY. 
 
 In English, ' monument ' is three short syllables, and ' seeing ' ia 
 a long syllable and a short one. 
 
 Still more important is the result of measuring feet by accent. 
 In Latin measurement, 'monument' is an anapaest ("*"), and 
 ' seeing ' an iambus (*"). In English, ' monument' is a dactyle 
 (""), and ' seeing' a trochee ('"). 
 
 Hence it would be better to get rid of classic names when 
 speaking of English verse. In the two systems, syllables are 
 not measured in the same way ; nor are feet. A classic nomen- 
 clature therefore is very likely to mislead. 
 
 641. The peculiarity of our metre then is in our accents. 
 
 Generally the accent in English is on the root, espe. 
 three kinds cially in Saxon words. Sometimes in words of 
 of- classic origin it is on part of the termination ; and 
 
 very occasionally, when words are distinguished by a single 
 syllable only, that syllable is accented, as, natural, unnatural. 
 From these facts accents are therefore said to be radical, termi- 
 national, and distinctive. 
 
 Properly, words have one principal accent only. But from 
 the nature of the human voice, there is a tendency when more 
 than two syllables occur after the accent in any word, to add a 
 second or helping accent, as, radical, radically ; intelligent, 
 intel'ligently. Both accents play an important part in English 
 verse. 
 
 642. In reading our older poetry, it must be kept in mind that 
 Accents the old accent of words often differs from modern 
 change. usage. Chaucer, e. g., accents nation, company, 
 abstinaunce, on the last syllable. Spenser makes pyramids and 
 heroes, amphibrachs. Milton accents uproar (as does Spenser), 
 aspect, adverse, contrite, impulse, etc., on the second syllable. 
 Nor is this poetic licence. 
 
 Many of our words are formed, as we have seen, from the 
 Latin, either directly, or through the French. The inflexion is 
 dropped, and the word enters our language with the accent on 
 the last syllable. Thus mortalis is in French ' mortal ; ' con- 
 ditio'ne, natio'ne (formed from conditio, natio), become condi- 
 tion, nation, and in that form they pass into English. This accent- 
 uation moreover creates in such endings an additional syllable, 
 conditi-on, na-ti-*a. Hence Jonson treats condition, and in- 
 
ACCENT AND EHYMB. 345 
 
 fusion, as words of four syllables, and Puttenham calls re'munera- 
 tion, a double dactyle. 
 
 The natural tendency of all Gothic accentuation is to the 
 earlier syllables of words. This tendency, aided in some cases 
 by the study of Italian literature, has changed the accent of 
 most of the above words as well as of many others. 
 
 S43. To form a perfect rhyme, three things are essential, 
 ithyme 1- That the vowel sound and the parts following it 
 
 explained. t^ the same : 
 
 2. That the parts preceding the vowel be different : 
 
 3. That the rhyming syllables be accented alike. 
 
 Hence ' mill ' and ' fell,' ' breathe ' and ' tease,' ' bear ' and 
 ' bare/ ' sky ' and ' happily,' are all imperfect rhymes. So are 
 ' cough ' and ' though/ ' breath ' and ' beneath/ because, though 
 spelt alike, they are pronounced differently. ' Printer's rhymes' 
 they are sometimes called. On the other hand, perfect rhymes 
 may be spelt differently, if only they sound alike. Forms like 
 ' bear ' and ' bare,' ' high ' and ' I/ are mere ( assonances ' and 
 not rhymes. 
 
 644. Two syllables similarly accented, and fulfilling the other 
 Rhymes conditions named above, form a single rhyme. Ac- 
 double and cented syllables followed each by an unaccented 
 triple. syllable, and fulfilling these conditions, form a double 
 rhyme ; and accented syllables similarly followed by two un- 
 accented syllables form a triple rhyme : as, cdmer, summer ; 
 reasons, seasons ; the<5gony, cosmo*gony ; philanthropy, misan- 
 thropy, etc. 
 
 645. Besides the rhymes that are found at the end of lines of 
 verse, middle rhymes are occasionally used in the middle and 
 close of a verse : as 
 
 1 The ice, mast high, came floating by, 
 
 As green as emerald. 
 The ice was here, the ice was there, 
 
 The ice was all around.' COLEEIDCJK. 
 'Brave martyr'd chief! no more our grief, 
 
 For thee or thine shall flow ; 
 Among the blest in Heaven ye rest, 
 
 From all your toils below.' 
 From a Norman-French ballad, on the death of Sir Simon Montfort. 
 
546 PROSODY RHYME. 
 
 646. Sectional, or line rhyme is introduced into a part of the 
 Line and same ^ ne > an< ^ i' 1 ' 761 ' 88 rhyme is used in the last 
 inverse accented syllable of the first clause, and the first 
 rhymes. accen t e d syllable of the second. 
 
 ' Will stoode for skill, and law obeyed lust : 
 Might trode doun right; of king there was no feare.' FEEEESS. 
 ' These steps both reach and teach thee shall, 
 To come by thrift and shift withal.' -TusSEB. 
 
 647. A combination of alliteration, and assonance with occa- 
 Scandanavian sional line rhymes, is found in Scandinavian poetry ; 
 rhyme. and sometimes in English : thus 
 
 '.Roll, O JSill for ever, .Hear the torrent Aurry, 
 
 Rest not lest thy wavelets, .Headlong rashly dashing, 
 
 Sheen as s/iining crystal, Down in deafening thunder, 
 
 Shrink and sink to darkness ! Depths eye hath not fathomed ! 
 
 Wend with winding border, Mighty rocks up rooting, 
 
 Wide aside still turning, .Rudely shattering scattering, 
 
 Green o'etgrown with grasses, .411 its own bright silver, 
 
 Gay as May with blossoms. Into shameless vapour.' 
 
 From G. P. MAESH'S LECTUEES, p. 558. 
 
 So in such lines as the following : 
 
 ' Her look was like the morning star.' BUENS. 
 ' Lying stieut and sad in the afternoon shadows and swn&hine, 
 .Musing a moment before them, Miles Standish paused, as if doubtful.' 
 
 LONGFELLOW. 
 
 In some forms of Spanish poetry the assonance is less 
 Spanish marked, and falls generally on the penult of the 
 poetry. verse : as 
 
 ' Letters came to say, Alhama Straightway from his mule alighting, 
 
 By the Christians now was holden, Then he leaps upon his charger, 
 On the ground he flung the letters, Up the Zacatin he gallops, 
 Slew the messenger that bore them. Comes in haste to the Alhambra. 
 
 Woe is me Alhama ! "Woe is me Alhama ! ' 
 
 If the assonance be scarcely heard in these lines, there is a 
 form of it in German literature, in which it is complete. Words 
 of similar sound, though of different sense, being placed at 
 emphatic points of the verse. 
 
 Twilight stillness when I drink, 
 
 And myself am gazing still, 
 
 Thinking only that I think, 
 
 Then will never rest my will, etc.' MAESH, from Tieck. 
 
ITS HISTORY. 347 
 
 So in the following lines : 
 
 And leaves begin to leave the shady tree.' 
 
 MIEEOB FOB MAGISTBATES (Ind 
 'Now be still, yet still believe me.' SIDNEY. 
 ' And thou, unluckie muse that wontst to ease 
 Thy musing minde, yet can'st not when thou should.' SPENSEB. 
 ' Disturb his hours of rest with restless trances ! 
 Afflict him in his bed with bed-rid groans ! 
 Let there bechance him pitiful mischances, 
 To make him moan, but pity not his moans !' 
 
 SHAKSPEABE, ' Bape of Lucrece.' 
 
 This play upon words is a peculiarity of the Euphuist prose- 
 writers of Queen Elizabeth's day. It abounds in Fuller, and 
 assumes in him some of the qualities of genius. 
 
 648. The history of rhyme in English is a subject of some 
 History of interest. The word is of Gothic origin (rime), and is 
 rhyme. used in the Ormulum as equivalent to rhythm. When 
 in the 16th century the practice of rhyme was revived, it was 
 regarded by scholars as a barbarous innovation on the classic 
 rules of poetry. Ascham quotes Cheke as holding 'that our 
 rude beggarly rhyming was brought into Italy by Gothes and 
 Hunnes ' ; and that ' to follow rather the Gothes in rhyming 
 than the Greekes in trew versifying, were even to eate acornes 
 with swyne, when we might freely eate wheate bread amonges 
 men.' Even Sir P. Sidney condemns it ; and Ben Jonson pro- 
 poses to visit the rhymester with the severest penalties of poetic 
 justice : 
 
 ' Eime, the rack of finest wits, He that first invented thee, 
 
 That expresseth but by fits, May his joints tormented be, 
 
 True conceits. Cramped for ever ! 
 
 Spoiling senses of their treasure, Still may syllables jar with time, 
 
 Cozening judgment with a Still may reason warre with rime, 
 measure, Besting never,' etc. 
 
 But false weight ! 
 
 Milton joins in this censure ; and congratulates himself that 
 in his epic he has avoided 'the jingling sound of like endings,' 
 and has thus restored ' to heroic poem ancient liberty from the 
 troublesome and modern bondage of rimeing. ' 
 
 But though the practice had only 'rime ' in its favour, and not 
 
318 PROSODY-ENGLISH FEET. 
 
 reason, it contained an element of sweetness that made it uni- 
 versally popular throughout Europe : and though there was a 
 reaction, that shewed itself in diminished regularity and in 
 longer intervals between the rhyming syllables, yet is it now part 
 of the metrical system of our language, and is as permanently 
 established as rhythm itself. 
 
 Still it may be safely affirmed that rhyme will never be 
 universal in our poetry. Rhyming words in English are com- 
 paratively few : not a fourth probably of the rhyming words 
 in Italian, nor a sixth of the rhyming words in Spanish.* Many 
 also of our most beautiful poetic words have no rhymes ; nor 
 does the ever accumulating wealth of our language tend to 
 supply this deficiency. Modern additions to our speech are 
 chiefly inflected forms, and are therefore unsuited for poetry. 
 From all these causes there will always be in English room for 
 forms of blank verse, and for the exercise of ingenuity in new 
 metres. These same facts lead to another result. To supply 
 our language with the material of poetical expression, both in 
 form and in substance, there is needed amongst us the careful 
 study of 'primitive English.' 
 
 649. The position of the accent in English words of two 
 syllables, is on the first, as in lovely ; or on the second, as in 
 presume. In words of three syllables it is on the first, the 
 second, or the third ; as in merrily, disabled, cavalier. Each of 
 English these words represents a foot in metre : the first two 
 feet. are dissyllabic feet, the last three trisyllabic. ' Pre- 
 
 sume ' corresponds to the iambus, and ' lovely ' to the trochee ; 
 the three trisyllables, to the dactyle, amphibrach, and anapaest 
 respectively. Lines made up chiefly of dissyllabic feet, are said 
 to be of dissyllabic metre ; those of trisyllabic feet are said to 
 be of trisyllabic metre. 
 
 In combining these feet into lines, we take one, two, three, or 
 four, etc., and the combinations are called, from classic language, 
 Iambic, Trochaic, Dactylic, Amphibracluc, Anapaestic mono- 
 meters (one measure), dimeters (two measures), trimeters, 
 
 Mr. Marsh reckons that Spanish words, Judging from Walker's Rhym 
 words have on the average twenty-five ing Dictionary, is but three. MARSU'S 
 rhymes each : the average of English LECTURES, No. xxiii. 
 
IAMBIC METRES. 349 
 
 tetrameters, pentameters, hexameters, heptameters, or octo- 
 meters, according to the number of feet in each line : as 
 
 650. IAMBIC MONOMETER, ETC. 
 
 Primeter. ' Is this a fast, to ke"ep No : 'Tis a fast to ddle, 
 
 Dimeter. Thy lar | der lean Thy sheaf of wheat, 
 
 Manometer^ And clean And meat, 
 
 Trimeter. From fat of meats and sheep ? TJntd the hun | gry soul.' 
 EOBEET HEBEICK, ' How to keep Lent.' 
 
 651. IAMBIC DIMETER. 
 
 ' Gold pleas | ure buys, ' With ra [ vish'd ears, 
 
 But pleas | ure dies, The mdn | arch hears, 
 
 Too so6n | the gr&ss fruf [ tion cl6ys, Assumes the g6d, 
 
 Tho' rapt | ures cdurt, Affects to ndd, 
 
 The sense j is shdrt ; And seems to shake the spheres.' 
 
 But vir | tue kin ] dies liv 1 iiig joys.' Yotnra. DETDEN. 
 
 652. IAMBIC TRIMETER. 
 ' The kfng | was on | his thrdne, A thdu | sand cups | of gdld, 
 
 Andsa | traps thrdnged | the hall, In Ju | dah deem'd | divfne, 
 A thdu | sand bright [ lamps shdne, Jehd | vah's ves | sels, h61d 
 O'er that | high fes | tival. The god | less hea | thens'wine.' 
 
 BYBON, ' Belshazzar.' 
 
 653. IAMBIC TETRAMETER. 
 
 ' Boon na | ture scat ] ter'd, free | ' The gift | of God | distrust | no 
 
 and wild, more, 
 
 Each plant | and fidw'r | the moun- His in | spira | tion be | thy guide; 
 
 | tain's child, Be heard | thy harp | from sh6re | 
 Here 4g | lantine | embalm'd | the to shore, 
 
 air, Thy song's [reward | thy country' B 
 Hawthorn | and ha [ zel min [ gled pride.' 
 
 there.' LADY or THE LAZE. B. BAETON (on the Queen's Wake). 
 
 This is the metre of Butler's Hudibras, of Gay's Fables, of 
 most of Scott's works, and is a favourite with our poets. 
 
 Eight lines with alternate rhymes form Elegiac iamlic 
 tetrameters. 
 
 ' Wherefore I cry, and cry again ; 
 And in no quiet canst thou be, 
 Till I a thankful heart obtain 
 
 Of thee.' HEEBEET, < The Church,' xcvi, 
 
350 PEOSODY IAMBIC METRES. 
 
 Three rhymes in succession form Iambic tetrameter triplets. 
 
 'A still small voice spake unto me, Then to the still small voice I said' 
 
 Thou art so full of misery, Let me not cast to endless shade, 
 
 Were it not better not to be ? What is so wonderfully made.' 
 
 TENNYSON- 
 
 654. IAMBIC PENTAMETER. 
 
 ' Fix'd is | the term | of all | the race | of earth ; 
 And such | the hard | condi | tion of | our birth, 
 No force | can then | resist, | no flight | can save ; 
 All sink | alike, | the fear | ful and | the brave.' 
 
 POPE'S HOHEE, Book vi. 
 
 1 The mul j titude | of an | gels, with | a shout 
 Loud as | from num | bers with | out num | ber, sweet 
 As from | blest voi | ces ut [ tering joy, | heaven rung 
 With ju | bilee | and loud | hosan | nas filled 
 The etern [ al reg | ions.' MILTON, ' Par. Lost,' iii. 
 
 ' Ten right | eous would | have sav'd | a cit [ y once, 
 And thou j hast ma | ny right | eous. Well | for thee.- 
 
 (On London,) COWPEE'S TASK, iii. 
 
 This verse (the iambic of five feet) is the heroic measure of 
 English metre. Most of our epic, dramatic, and descriptive 
 poetry is written in it. It constitutes without rhyme our blank 
 verse : with rhyme it is sometimes called ' riding rhyme,' from 
 the fact that it is the metre of Chaucer's ' Canterbury Tales,' 
 which are supposed to be told by parties riding to Canterbury. 
 
 Four he roics rhyming alternately form the elegiac stanza of 
 our elegists : as in Gray 
 
 "There, scat | ter'd oft, | the earl | iest of | the year, 
 By hands | unseen, | are show | ers of | vio | lets found : 
 The red | breast loves | to build | and war | ble there, 
 And lit | tie foot | steps light | ly print | the ground.' 
 
 655. IAMBIC HEXAMETER. 
 
 'Celes | tial as | thou art, | O do | not love | that wrong, 
 To sing | the heav | en's praise | with such | an earth | ly tongue.' 
 SHAKSPEABE, ' Passionate Pilgrim.' 
 'Adore | no god | besides | me to | provoke \ mine eyes ; 
 Nor wor | ship me | in shapes | and forms | that men | devise.' 
 
 DB. WATTS' LYRIC POESIS. 
 
 One of the stanzas of The Elegy Gray omitted, because too long a parenthesis. 
 
IAMBIC METRES. 35J 
 
 ' When spring unlocks the flowers to paint the laughing soil ; 
 When summer's balmy showers refresh the mower's toil ; 
 When winter binds in frosty chains the fallow and the flood ; 
 In God the earth rejoiceth still, and owns his maker good.' HEBEE. 
 
 This is the metre of Drayton's ' Polyolbion ' ; and is called 
 Alexandrine, from the fact that old French poems in praise of 
 Alexander (as in 'The Gestes of Alisaundre,' etc.) were written 
 in this measure. It is now seldom used, except in the Spen- 
 serian stanza, or to close a period of Heroic rhyme. 
 
 656. IAMBIC HEPTAMETER. 
 
 ' When all | thy mer | cies, O | my God ! | my ris | ing soul | surveys, 
 Transpor | ted with | the view | I'm lost | in won | der, love, | and 
 praise.' ADDISON. 
 
 ' A wail was heard around the bed, the death-bed of the young ; 
 Amidst her tears, the funeral chant a mournful mother sung.' HEHAN3. 
 
 ' He looked upon his people, and a tear was in his eye, 
 He looked upon the traitors, and his glance was stern and high.' 
 
 MACAULAY, ' The Battle of Ivry.' 
 
 Homer's ' Hiad ' was translated into this metre by Chapman. 
 It is now the custom to divide the verse into alternate lines of 
 four and three feet. So divided, it is the common metre of our 
 Psalms ; and the favourite metre of ballad poetry. ' Chevy 
 Chase,' Cowper's f John Gilpin,' and many more are written in 
 this metre. 
 
 657. IAMBIC OCTOMETEE. 
 
 'All peo | pie that | on earth | do dwell | sing to | the Lord | with 
 
 cheer | f ul voice, 
 
 Him serve with mirth, his praise forthtellj come ye before him and 
 rejoice.' PS. c. (Scottish version). 
 
 Each couplet of this metre is now generally printed as a 
 stanza of four tetrameter lines, rhyming alternately, and each 
 commencing with a capital. In old books, however, the second 
 and fourth lines are made to begin with a small letter. It forms 
 the long metre of our Psalms. A short metre stanza is made up 
 of a couplet in which the first line contains six measures, and 
 the second, seven : as 
 
 1 Give to | the winds | thy fears, | hope and | be un | dismay' d, 
 God hears | thy sighs | and counts | thy tears, | God shall | lift up J thy 
 head.' 
 
352 PROSODY IAMBICS. 
 
 658. This kind of verse, the iambic dissyllable, is in English 
 License in the most common of all. Most of the examples 
 Iambic verse, quoted are strictly accurate. The metre admits, 
 however, the following changes. A trochee (' lovely ') is some- 
 times substituted for an iambus, especially in the first foot ; and 
 sometimes, two very short syllables are used instead of one : 
 thus 
 
 'Bacchus | that first [ from out | the pur [ pie grape, 
 Crush' d the j sweet poi J son of | misus | ed wine.' COMTTS. 
 ' No rest : | through man | y a dark \ and drear | y vale, 
 They pass'd | and man | y a re \ gion do | lorous, 
 O'er man | y afro \ zen, man J y afi \ ery Alp' PAE. LOST, ii. 
 This is a statement of the common exceptions. Milton and 
 others often introduce into their lines spondees, i.e. feet of two 
 accented syllables, or pyrrhics, i.e. feet of two unaccented 
 syllables, and Milton occasionally admits a line of eleven syllables, 
 or even of twelve : as 
 
 ' Thus it shall befall, 
 
 Him who, to worth in women over trust ing, 
 Lets her will rule.' 
 
 ' For solitude sometimes is best society.' 
 Spondees and pyrrhics are in the following : 
 
 ' Every lower faculty, 
 
 Of sense whereby they hear, see, smell, touch, taste.' 
 ' How sweetly did they float upon the wings, 
 Of sflence.' 
 
 Chaucer takes much greater licence. Occasionally in heroics 
 he has only nine syllables ; and often eleven, with or without a 
 double rhyme. 
 
 659. Iambic metre, moreover, admits for some purposes an 
 additional syllable throughout entire poems. Such verses are 
 called hypermetrical, or redundant. A verse shortened by a 
 syllable is called by the old prosodists catalectic, deficient : the 
 complete verse, acatalectic : thus 
 
 660. IAMBIC MONOMETER, HYPERMETRICAL. 
 1 The day had sunk in dim showers, 
 
 But midnight now, with lustre meek, 
 Illumined all the pale flowers, 
 Like hope that lights a mourner's cheek. 
 
HYPERMETRICAL. 353 
 
 I said, | While 
 
 The moon's | smile 
 Ray'd o'er a stream in dimpling bliss, 
 
 The moon | looks 
 
 On many | brooks, 
 The brook can see no moon but this.' MOOBE. 
 
 661. IAMBIC DIMETER, HYPERMETRICAL. 
 
 Forgive | my fol | ly, 
 O Lord | most ho | ly, 
 Cleanse me | from ev | ery stain.' HASTINGS, 
 
 'No o | ther pleas | urt 
 With this [ can meas | ure, 
 And like | a treas | ure, 
 
 We hug the chain.' BYEON. 
 
 'But thou, | Lord, art | my shield | my glo | ry; 
 
 Thee through | my sto | ry, 
 The Exal ) ter of | my head | I count. 
 
 Aloud | I cried | 
 
 Unto | Jeho | vah, he | full soon | replied, 
 And heard | me from | his Ho | ly Mount.' 
 
 MILTON, Ps. iii. 
 
 C62. IAMBIC TRIMETER, HYPERMETRICAL. 
 
 ' Flow on | thou shin | ing riv | er, 
 But ere | thou reach | the sea, 
 Seek El | la's bower | and give | her 
 The wreath | I fling | o'er thee.' MOOBE. 
 
 Tliis is sometimes called ' Gay's stanza.' 
 
 663. IAMBIC TETRAMETER, HYPERMETRICAL. 
 
 ' There was | an an | cient sage j philos | opher, 
 Who had | read A | lexand | er Ross | over.' BUTLEB. 
 
 ' I'm tm | ly sor | ry man's | domin | ion 
 Has bro | ken na | ture's so | cial un | ion, 
 An' just | ifies | that ill | opin | ion 
 
 Which makes thee startle 
 At me, | thy poor | earth-born | compan | ion, 
 
 An' fellow mortal.' BUBNS. 
 
 The addition of the syllable in this metre is most common in 
 
 familiar and humorous styles. 
 
 2 A 
 
364 PROSODY IAMBICS. 
 
 664 IAMBIC PENTAMETER, HYPERMETRICAL. 
 
 'Each sub | stance of | a grief | hath twen | ty shad | oivs, 
 Which show ] like grief | itself | but are [ not so.' RICH. II. 
 
 1 Day stars that <5pe your eyes with m6rn to twmk | le 
 
 From rainbow galaxies of earth's creation, 
 And dew drops oer her lively altars sprinkle 
 
 As a libation. 
 
 Ye matin worshippers that bending lowly, 
 Before the uprisen sun, God's lidless eye, 
 Throw from your chalices a sweet and holy 
 * Incense on high ! 
 
 'Neath cloister'd boughs each floral bell that swingeth, 
 
 And tolls its perfume on the passing air, 
 Makes sabbath in the fields and ringeth 
 
 A call to prayer ! ' H. SMITH. 
 
 665. IAMBIC HEXAMETER, HYPERMETRICAL. 
 
 'Thine eye | Jove'sligh | tning seems, | thy voice | his dread | fulthunrfw.' 
 
 SHAKSPEABE, ' Passionate Pilgrim.' 
 
 666. IAMBIC HEPTAMETER, HYPERMETRICAL. 
 
 ' Come back ! | come back ! [ he cried, | in grief, 
 
 Across | this storm | y wa | ter, 
 And 111 | forgive | your high | laud chief, 
 My daugh | ter ! oh, | my daugh | ter.' CAMPBELL. 
 
 1 Had Helen lost her mirth ? Oh no ! but she was seldom cheer | f ul, 
 And Edward looked as if he felt that Ellen's mirth was fear | f ul. 
 So gentle Ellen now no more could make this sad house cheer | y ; 
 And Mary's melancholy ways drove Edward wild and wear | y.' 
 
 COLERIDQE. 
 
 In these lines of redundant metre there is, it will be seen, a 
 double rhyme. 
 
 667. Much of the harmony of our metres, and of iambic 
 metres especially, depends on the skilful disposition of csesural 
 pauses. They are placed between one word and another, and 
 divide the verses into two (or rarely into three) parts. They 
 often correspond, though not always, to pauses in the sense. 
 
 The most appropriate place for such pauses in iambic metres is 
 
TROCHAIC METEES. 355 
 
 at the end of the second, or of the third foot, i. e. after the fourth 
 or the sixth syllable. Milton however, who uses the pause with 
 great skill, has introduced it in every part of the verse, though 
 the most melodious of his verses are those that have the pause 
 after the fourth and sixth syllables : e. g. 
 
 ' Thus with the year 
 Seasons rettirn ; but not to me returns 
 Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn.' 
 
 ' Yet not the more 
 
 Cease I to wan&r, where the muses haunt 
 Clear spring, or shady grove, or sunny hill, 
 Smit with the love of sacred song ; but chief 
 Thee Bion, and the flowery brooks beneath, 
 That wash thy hallo w'd feet, and warbling flow, 
 Nightly I visit.' 
 
 No sooner had the Almighty ceased, but all 
 The multitude of angels, with a shout, 
 Loud as from numbers without number, sweet 
 As from blest voices, uttering joy.' 
 
 668. In the trochee (lovely) the stress is laid on the odd 
 The syllables ; and as rhyme requires that the rhyming 
 
 trochee. syllables should be equally accented, the final foot is 
 an iambus, or a double rhyme, or a single long syllable : as 
 'Ruin | seize thce, | ruthless | king, 
 Confh | sum on | thy ban | ners wait.' OKAY'S BAED. 
 
 In this measure the iambus is freqiiently changed for the 
 trochee in other places in the line, besides the last. 
 
 669. TROCHAIC MONOMETER. 
 
 Turning, 
 Burning, 
 Changing, 
 Banging, 
 Full of | grief and | full of | love.' ADDISON'S ROSAMOND. 
 
 670. TROCHAIC DIMETER. 
 
 A good name : ' Children, | choose it, 
 
 Don't re | fuse it, 
 
 'Tis a | precious | dia | dem ; 
 
 Highly | prize it, 
 
 Don't do | spise it, 
 
 You will | need it | when yoii'ra | men.' 
 
 From GOOLD BKOWN. 
 2 A 2 
 
356 PEOSODY TROCHAIC METEES. 
 
 ' Clear wells | spring not, Heads stand | weeping, 
 
 Sweet birds | sing not, Flocks are | sleeping, 
 
 Loud bells | ring not, Nymphs back | creeping 
 
 Cheerful | ly. Fearful I ly,' 
 
 SHAKSPEAEE, 'Passionate Pilgrim.' 
 
 671. TROCHAIC TRIMETER. 
 
 'Crabbed | age and [ youth 
 Cannot | live to | gether ; 
 Youth is | full of | pleasaunce 
 Age is | full of | care.' SHAKSPEARE, 'Passionate Pilgrim. 
 
 ' Child of [ sin and | sorrow, 
 
 Fill'd with | dismay, 
 Wait not | for to- | morrow, 
 Yield thee | to day : 
 Heaven bids | thee come, 
 While yet | there's room ; 
 Child of | sin and | sorrow, 
 Hear and | obey.' 
 
 672. TROCHAIC TETRAMETER. 
 
 1 Lauded ] be thy | name for | ever, 
 Thou of | life the | guard and | giver ! 
 * * * 
 
 ' I have | seen thy | wondrous | might, 
 Through the | shadows | of this | night.' HOGCJ. 
 
 'Vital | spark of | heavenly | flame, 
 Quit, oh | quit this | mortal | frame.' POPB, 
 
 Cease, ye | mourners, | cease to | languish, 
 
 O'er the | graves of | those you ] love ; 
 Pain and | death, and | night and | anguish, 
 Enter | not the | world a [ bove.' 
 
 'Great men | die and | are for [ gotten, 
 Wise men | speak ; their | words of | wisdom 
 Perish | in the | ears that | hear them. 
 
 On the | grave posts | of our | fathers 
 Are no | signs no | figures | painted : 
 Who are | in those | graves we | know not, 
 Only | know they | are our | fathers.' LoNGFELtOW, ' Hiawatha. 
 
TBOCHAIC METEES. 367 
 
 'Edme shall | perish | write that | word- 
 
 In the | blood that | she hath | spilt ; 
 Perish | hopeless | and ab | horr'd, 
 Deep in | ruin | as in | guilt.' COWPEE'S BOABICEA. 
 
 The metre of the last stanza forms the usual 7's of our hymns ; 
 the metre of the first two lines of the first forms trochaic 8's, 
 and a blending of the two a favourite measure : 8.7 and 8.7.4. 
 
 ' Saviour, ] breathe an | evening | blessing, 
 
 Ere re | pose our | spirits | seal, 
 Sin and | want we | come con | f essing, 
 Thou canst | save and | thou canst | heal.' 
 
 ' Scenes of | sacred | peace and | pleasure, 
 
 Holy | days and | sabbath | bell, 
 Eichest, | brightest, sweetest | treasure, 
 
 Can I | say a | last fare | well : 
 Can I | leave you, 
 
 Far in | heathen | lands to [ dwell ? ' 
 
 673. TROCHAIC PENTAMETER. 
 
 ' Mountain | winds ! oh ! | whither | do ye | call me ? 
 
 Vainly, | vainly, | would my | steps pur | sue ; 
 
 Chains of | care to | lower | earth en | thrall me : 
 
 Wherefore | thus my | weary | spirits | woo ? ' 
 
 ' Wore half the | power that | fills the | world with | terror, 
 
 Were half | the wealth | bestowed | on camps | and courts, 
 Given to re ] deem the | human | mind from | error, 
 There were | no need | of ar | senals | or forts.' LONGFELLOW. 
 
 The metre is not common nor is it very melodious. 
 
 674. TROCHAIC HEXAMETER. 
 
 ' Holy ! | holy ! | holy ! | all the | saints a | dore thee, 
 Casting | down their | golden | crowns a | round the | glassy | sea.' 
 
 HEBEE. 
 
 This metre is rare. Sometimes each couplet is divided into 
 alternate lines of six syllables and five. This forms the trochaic 
 ll's of our hymns : 
 
 TROCHAIC HEXAMETER CATAIECTIC, ll's. 
 
 ' Hark the | sounds of | gladness | from a | distant | shore, 
 Like re | lief from | sadness, | sadness | now no | more ; 
 'Tis the | Lord hath | done it, | He hath | won the | day, 
 His own | arm hath I done it, | He hath | won the | day.' 
 
868 PBOSODY TROCHAIC METRES. 
 
 Though sometimes called catalectic, these verses are really 
 complete, an accented single final syllable being an allowable 
 licence in trochaic verse. But for tliis licence trochaic metre 
 would always consist of double rhymes. 
 
 TROCHAIC OCTOMETEE CATALECTIC. 
 1 From their | nests be | neath. the | rafters | sang the | swallows | wild 
 
 and | high, 
 
 And the | world be | neath me | sleeping | seemed more | distant | than 
 the | sky.' LONGFELLOW (on The Belfry of Bruges). 
 
 675. TEOCHAIO HEPTAMETEE. 
 
 ' Hasten, | Lord, to | rescue | me, and | set me | safe from [ trouble : 
 Shame thou | those who I seek my j soul, re | ward their | mischief | 
 double.' Ps. Ixx. 
 
 676. TEOCHAIC OCTOMETEE. 
 
 ' Once up | on a | midnight | dreary, | while I j pondered | weak and | 
 weary, 
 
 Over | many a | quaint and | curious | volume | of foi | gotten | lore, 
 While I | nodded | nearly | napping, | sudden | ly there | came a | 
 
 tapping, 
 
 As of | some one | gently | rapping, | rapping | at my | chamber | door : 
 'Tis some | visi | tor I | mutter'd | tapping | at my | chamber | door, 
 
 Only | this and | nothing | more.' POE, (The Raven.) 
 
 ' Once to [ every | man and [ nation | comes the | moment | to de | cide ; 
 ' In the | strife of | truth with | falsehood | for the | good or | evil | side.' 
 
 LOWEL, 
 
 ' In the | spring a | fuller | crimson | comes up | on the | robin's | breast ; 
 In the 1 spring the | wanton | lapwing | gets him | self an j other | 
 crest.' TENNYSON. 
 
 The 8.7. metre may of course be read as trochaic octometers, 
 having the final double syllable contracted into one. 
 
 677. The two chief trisyllabic metres are anaptests and dactyls. 
 Anapsests, ^ anapaestic metre, as the last syllable is accented, the 
 dactyles. rhymes are generally single : but occasionally one 
 short syllable or two is added, and then the rhyme is double 
 or triple. In dactylic metre the rhyme is properly triple ; though 
 occasionally when a final syllable is omitted, the rhyme is 
 double, or when two syllables are omitted the rhyme is single. 
 The anapaestic verse often begins with an iambus; and the 
 dactylic verse is seldom regular throughout. 
 
 Of course anapaests have the stress upon every 3rd, 6th, and 
 9th syllable j and dactyls upon the 1st, 4th, and 7th. 
 
ANAP^ISTIO METRES. 369 
 
 678. ANAP.&STIC MONOMETER. 
 ' Begone | unbelief, ' By prayer | let me wrestTfle, 
 
 My Sav | iour is near; And he | will perform ; 
 
 And for | my relief With Christ | in the vesfsel 
 
 Will sure | ly appear. I smile | at the storm.' 
 
 104th metre. 
 
 679. ANAPAESTIC DIMETER. 
 
 ' We sing | of the realms | of the blest, 
 That country so bright and so fair ; 
 And oft | are its glo | ries confess' d, 
 But what | must it be | to be there ? ' WILSON. 
 
 'He is gone | on the moun | tain, 
 
 He is lost | to the for | est 
 Like a sum | mer-dried foun | tain 
 When our need | was the sor | est.' SCOTT. 
 
 ' 'Tis the last | rose of sum | mer 'Hail to thee | blithe spiiit, 
 
 Left bloom | ing alone, Bird thou | never wert, 
 
 All her love | ly compan | ions That from heaven | or near it 
 
 Are fad | ed and gone.' Pourest | thy full heart.' 
 
 MOORE. SHELLEY (To a Skylark). 
 
 680. ANAPAESTIC TRIMETER. 
 
 (Monometer and Trimeter) ' Come let J us anew 
 
 Our jour j ney pursue, 
 Eoll round | with the year, 
 
 Andne | ver stand still | till the Mas | ter appear.' WESLEY. 
 ' I am mon | arch of all 1 1 survey, 
 
 My right | there is none | to dispute ; 
 From the cen 1 tre all round | to the sea 
 I am lord | of the fowl | and the brute.' 
 
 COWPEB (On Alex. Selkirk), 
 
 681. ANAPAESTIC TETRAMETER. 
 
 ' O heard | ye yon pi | broch sound sad | on the gale, 
 Where a band | cometh slow | ly with weep | ing and wail ?' 
 
 CAMPBELL (Glenara). 
 
 ' For the sun | set of life | gives me mys | tical lore, 
 And coming events cast their shadows before.' 
 
 CAMPBELL (Lochiel's Warning). 
 
SCO PEOSODY DACTYLIC METRES. 
 
 ' And the wi | dows of As | shur are loud | in their wail, 
 And the i | dols are broke | in the temple of Baal : 
 And the might | of the Gen | tile, unsmote | by the sword, 
 Hath melt | ed like snow | in the glance | of the Lord.' 
 
 BYBON (Hebrew Melodies). 
 ' 'Tis a sight | to engage | me if an | ything can, 
 To muse | on the per | ishing plea | sures of man ; 
 Tho' hi3 life | be a dream | his enjoy | ments I see, 
 Have a be | ing less dur | able e | ven than he.' 
 
 COWPEB (The Poplars). 
 
 In this metre longer lines than tetrameters are very rarely 
 found. 
 
 682. DACTYLIC MONOMETER AND DIMETER. 
 
 ' Midnight, as | sist our moan, 
 Help us to | sigh and groan, 
 
 Heavily, heavily.' SHAK. (Much Ado). 
 
 ' One more un | fortunate Take her up | tenderly, 
 
 Weary of | breath, Lift her with | care ; 
 
 Eashly im | portunate, Fashioned so | slenderly, 
 
 Gone to her | death ! Young and so | fair.' 
 
 HOOD (Bridge of Sighs). 
 
 This metre seems specially appropriate to mourning. 
 ' Pibroch o | Donuil Dhu, Come away | come away ! 
 
 Pibroch o* | Donuil, Hark to the | summons ! 
 
 v Wake thy wild | voice anew, Come in your | war array, 
 
 Summon clan | Conuil. Gentles and | commons ! ' 
 
 SCOTT (The Pibroch). 
 
 683. DACTYLIC TRIMETERS AND DIMETERS. 
 
 ' Bird of the | wilderness 
 Blithesome and | cumberless, 
 Light be thy | matin o'er | moorland and | lea; 
 Emblem of | happiness, 
 Blest is thy | dwelling-place ; 
 O ! to a | bide in the | desert with thee.' 
 
 HOGQ (To the Skylark). 
 
 684. DACTYLIC TETRAMETERS. 
 
 ' Weary way | wanderer, | languid and | sick at heart, 
 Travelling, painfully, | over the [ rugged road, 
 WUd visaged | wanderer, | God help thee | wretched one.' 
 
 SOUTH ET. 
 
DACTYLIC HEXAMETER OCTOMETEE. 36 i 
 
 'Come ye dis | consolate, | where'er ye | languish^ 
 Come to the | mercy seat, [ fervently | kneel ; 
 
 Here bring your | wounded hearts, | here tell your ] anguish, 
 Earth has no | sorrows that | heav'n cannot j heal.' 
 
 DACTYLIC PENTAMETERS and HEPTAMETERS are very rare. 
 
 685. DACTYLIC HEXAMETER. 
 
 ' This is the ] forest pri | meval. But | where are the | hearts that 
 
 ben | eath it 
 Leap'd like the | roe when he | hears in the | woodland the | voice of 
 
 the | huntsman.' LONGFELLOW (Evangeline), 
 
 686. DACTYLIC OCTOMETER. 
 
 Boys will an | ticipate, | lavish and | dissipate | All that your | busy pate 
 
 | hoarded with | care ; 
 
 And in their | foolishness, | passion, and | mulishness, | Charge you with 
 j churlishness, ) spurning your | prayer.' 
 
 687. The use of the amphibrach as a regular metre is rare : 
 
 . but common dactylic or anapaestic lines may often bo 
 Amphibrach. J * . 
 
 read as amphibrachs. The following is an example : 
 
 ' Creator, | Preserver, | Eedeemer | of men, 
 
 Divine In | tercessor | above, 
 Oh ! where shall | the song of | thy praises | begin, 
 Or how shall | I speak of | thy love : 
 Heaven is | telling, 
 And earth is | revealing 
 What wonders | Thy mercy | can prove.' 
 
 'I would not | live alway, | yet 'tis not | that here 
 
 There's nothing | to live for, | there's nothing | to love; 
 The cup of | life's blessings | though mingled | with tears 
 Is crowned with | rich tokens | of good from | above.' 
 
 If these be read as beginning with an iambus, they all become 
 anapaestic ; and if as beginning with a single syllable, they 
 become dactyls. Similarly, the following may be read as 
 dactyls, as anapaests, or as amphibrachs. 
 
 ' Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle 
 Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime v 
 
 Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle, 
 Now melt into softness, now madden to crime ? ' 
 
362 PKOSODY: AMPHIBRACHS. 
 
 688. AMPHIBRACH DIMETER. 
 ' The black bands came 6Ver 
 
 The Al'ps and their snow ; 
 With Bourbon, the rdver, 
 
 They pass'd the broad Pd.' BYEOJT. 
 
 689. AMPHIBRACH TRIMETER CATALECTIC. 
 ' Ye shepherds | so cheerful | and gay, 
 
 "Whose ndcks ne | ver careless | ly roam, 
 Should Cdryd | on happen | to stray, 
 
 Oh, call the | poor wander | er home.' SITENSTOJTB. 
 
 690. AMPHIBRACH TETRAMETER CATALECTIC. 
 ' But meeter for thee, gentle lover of nature, 
 
 To lay down | thy head like | the meek moun j tain lamb ; 
 With one faithful friend to witness thy dying 
 In the arms [ of Helvel | lyn and Catch | edicam.' SCOTT. 
 
 691. In many poems the various metres are combined : 
 iambics in one line being followed by trochees in another ; and 
 dactyls by anapaests. These combinations are almost endless. 
 
 692. Some of the more important are the following : 
 
 The SPENSERIAN STANZA : Eight heroics and an Alexandrian. 
 
 ' It was not by vile loitering at ease 
 That Greece obtain'd the brighter palm of art, 
 That soft yet ardent Athens learnt to please, 
 To keen the wit and to sublime the heart, 
 In all supreme ! complete in every part ! 
 It was not thence majestic Rome arose, 
 And o'er the nations shook her conquering dart ; 
 For sluggard's brow the laurel never grows ; 
 Renown is not the child of indolent repose.*' 
 
 THOMSON (Castle of Indolence). 
 
 G93. RHYME ROYAL. Seven heroics, the two last rhymes in 
 succession, and the five first at various intervals. 
 
 'Why then doth flesh, a bubble-glass of breath, 
 Hunt after honour and advancement vain, 
 And rear a trophy for devouring death, 
 With so great labour and long lasting pain, 
 As if hia days for ever should remain ? 
 Sith all that in this world is great or gay, 
 Doth a* a vapour vanish and decay.' 
 
 SPENSEB (Ruins of Time). 
 
VAEIOUS MEASURES. 363 
 
 694. OTTAVA RIMA. Eight heroics; the first six rhyming 
 alternately, the last two in succession. Orlando Furioso, etc. 
 
 'When I prepared my bark first to obey, 
 As it should still obey, the helm, my mind, 
 
 And carry prose or rhyme, and this my lay 
 Of Charles the Emperor, whom you will find 
 
 By several hands already praised ; but they 
 Who to diffuse his glory were inclined, 
 
 For all that I can see in prose or verse 
 
 Have understood Charles badly and wrote worse.' 
 
 MOEGANTB MAGOHOBE (Lord Byron's Translation). 
 
 695. TERZA RIMA. Heroics, with three rhymes at intervals 
 Dante, ' Divina Comedia,' Byron's ' Prophecy of Dante.' 
 
 ' Many are poets without the name ; 
 For what is poesy but to create 
 From over feeling good or ill ; and aim 
 At an eternal life beyond our fate, 
 And be the new Prometheus of new man, 
 Bestowing fire from heaven, and then too late 
 Finding the pleasure given repaid with pain, 
 And vultures to the heart of the bestower, 
 Who having lavish' d his high gift in vain 
 Lies chain'd to his lone rock by the sea-shore ? ' 
 
 696. HALLELUJAH METRE. Four iambic trimeters, and four 
 iambic dimeters (148th). 
 
 ' Lo ! the angelic bands 
 In full assembly meet, 
 To wait his high commands, 
 And worship at his feet ! 
 Joyful they come, 
 And wing their way 
 From realms of day, 
 To sueh a tomb.' DODDEIDQB. 
 
 697. RHOMBIC, TKICQUET MEASURES, etc. 
 
 ' To this last style of poetry there are no limits ; and some old and 
 otherwise judicious guides give rules for composing beautiful verses " in 
 the shapes of eggs, turbots, fuzees, and lozenges." ' PUTTENHAM (Art 
 of Poesie, p. 70, First Edition). 
 
564 PEOSODY: UNSYMMETEICAL METRES. 
 
 'Ah mo! 
 
 Am I the swain 
 
 That late from sorrow free 
 
 Did all the cares on earth disdain! 
 
 And still untouch'd, as at some safer games, 
 
 Play'd with the burning coals of love and beauty's ' flames,' 
 
 Was't I could drive and sound each passion's secret depth at will, 
 
 And from those huge o'erwhelmings rise by help of reason still ? 
 
 And am I now, O heavens ! for trying this in vain, 
 
 So sunk that I shall never rise again ? 
 
 Then let despair set sorrow's string 
 
 For strains that doleful be, 
 
 And I will sing 
 
 Ah me ! ' WITHEB. 
 
 ' Thy tender age in sorrow did begin, 
 
 And still with sicknesses and shame 
 
 Thou didst so punish sin 
 
 That I became 
 
 Most thin. 
 
 With thee 
 
 Let me combine, 
 
 And feel this day thy victory; 
 
 For if I imp my wing on thine, 
 
 Affliction shall advance the flight in me.' 
 
 HEEBEET (Easterwings). 
 
 698. Besides the examples now given, most of which axe sym~ 
 metrical, i.e., the syllables in each line are a multiple of the 
 accents ; we have in English unsymmetrical metres, in which 
 the syllables are not a multiple of the accents : 
 
 'In the year since Jesus died for men, 
 Eighteen hundred years and ten, 
 We were a gallant company, 
 Efding o'er land and sailing o'er sea. 
 Oh ! but we went merrily ! ' 
 
 G99. Though classic metres are framed on different principles 
 Jrorn those that regulate English poetry, various attempts have 
 been made to introduce them into our language. 
 
 Both Watts and Southey have written English sapphics ; 
 Longfellow's hexameters are well-known ; and hexameter and 
 pentameter verses have recently been published by no less an 
 authority than Dr. Whewell, with what success in each case the 
 reader may judge : 
 
CLASSIC METRES. 865 
 
 SAPPHICS. 
 
 1 When the fierce | north wind | with his | airy | forces, 
 Bears up the | Baltic | to a | foaming | fury ; 
 And the red | lightning | with a | storm of | hail comes, 
 
 Bushing a | main down.' WATTS, 'Horse Lyricas.' 
 
 ' Worn out with | anguish | toil and | cold and | hunger, 
 Down sunk the | wanderer, | sleep had | seized her | senses ; 
 There did the j traveller | find her | on the | morning ; 
 
 God had re | leased her.' SOTTTHEY. 
 
 HEXAMETEES AND PENTAMETERS. 
 
 '. Art thou a | lover of | song ? Would' st | fain have an | utterance | 
 
 found it, 
 
 True to the | ancient | flow, || true to the | tones of the | heart, 
 Free from the | fashions | of speech which | tinsel the | lines of our | 
 
 rhymesters. 
 Lend us thy | listening | ear, |j lend us thy | favouring | voice.' 
 
 ' Would' st thou | know thy | self ? Ob | serve what thy | neighbours 
 
 are | doing, 
 
 Would' stthou thy | neighbours | know ? || Look through the | depths 
 of thy | heart.' From SCHILLEE (by Dr. Whewell). 
 
 It may be feared that even these examples by such masters of 
 song will fail to meet the objection of Nash 'The English 
 hexameter verse, I grant to be a gentleman of an ancient house 
 (so is many an English beggar), yet this clime of ours he cannot 
 thrive in ; he goes twitching and hopping in our language like a 
 man running upon quagmires, retaining no part of that stately 
 smooth gait which he vaunts himself with among the Greek and 
 Latin.'* 
 
 See D'Israeli's 'Amenities of Literature,' 1L p. 80, 
 
366 ON COMPOSITION, 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 HINTS ON COMPOSITION. 
 
 CONTENTS : (700) Hints only intended. (701) Grammar and com- 
 position distinguished. (702) No good composition without thought. 
 (703, 704) The end and the successive stages must be clearly seen. 
 
 (705) Composition and mere statement of thought distinguished. 
 
 (706) Eloquence what. (707) Composition requires toil and pains. 
 
 (708) But not necessarily a knowledge of classic languages. 
 
 (709) WOEDS. Copiousness; means of acquiring it. 
 
 (710) Accuracy, Conjugate or cognate, synonymous, and antithetic 
 frords, explained and illustrated. 
 
 (711) Propriety. Limits of this rule. 
 
 (712) SENTENCES. Clearness. (713) Grammatical accuracy. 
 (714) English idiom. (715) Collocation of words. Two rules. 
 
 (716) Effect of punctuation on clearness of style. (717) Clearness 
 abused. 
 
 (718) Unity. Sentence defined, (719) What unity allows, and what 
 it forbids. (720) Heterogeneousness. (721) Parenthesis. (722) Mixed 
 figures, etc. 
 
 (723) Strength, explained. What it requires. (724) Conciseness. 
 Rules. (725) Fulness or conciseness, which to be preferred. 
 
 (726) Vividness. (727) Skiful arrangement ; rules. 
 
 (728) Correspondence of clauses. 
 
 (729) Harmony. 
 
 (730) PAEAGEAPHS defined. (731) Require unity. (732) Theme 
 how stated. (733) Length and mixture of sentences. (734) Various 
 ways of arranging sentences. (7358) How paragraphs are formed, and 
 (739) How connected. 
 
 (740) Mechanical rules for composition not enough. 
 
 (741) Mental qualities needed. (742) Study of good models. 
 
 (743) Three periods in the history of English style. (744) Experience 
 of different writers. (745) Practice. 
 
 For a man to write well, there are required three necessaries : let 
 him read the best authors ; observe the best speakers ; and have much 
 exercise of his own style." BEN JONSON (Discoveries). 
 
BUSINESS OP COMPOSITION. 367 
 
 " There is nothing more becoming a gentleman, or more useful in all the 
 occurrences of life, than to be able on any occasion to speak well and to 
 the purpose." LOCKE (on Education, 171). 
 
 " The best language I should call the shortest, clearest, and easiest 
 way of expressing one's thoughts, by the most harmonious arrangement 
 of the best chosen words, both for meaning and sound, The best language 
 is strong and expressive, without stiffness or affectation ; short and concise 
 without being obscure or ambiguous ; and easy and flowing, without one 
 undetermined or superfluous word." AEMSTEONQ (Essays). 
 
 " Every man who has had any experience in writing, knows how natural 
 it is for hurry and fulness of matter to discharge itself by vast sentences, 
 involving clause within clause ad injlnitum ; how difficult it is and how 
 much a work of art to break up this huge fasciculus of cycle and epicycle 
 into a graceful succession of sentences, long intermingled with short, each 
 modifying the other, and arising musically by linka of spontaneous con- 
 nexion." DE QUINCY, xi. 177. 
 
 " Nature will never be bettered by any art till that art becomes na- 
 ture," GUESSES AT TBUTH. 
 
 " How few can say a thing as it ought to be said ! All of us try ; but 
 how many men in any generation can make a clear statement, or write 
 anything well." FBIENDS IN COUNCIL, 2nd series, ii. 247. 
 
 " To think rightly, is of knowledge ; to speak fluently, is of nature ; to 
 read with profit, is of care ; and to write aptly, is of practice." BOOK OP 
 THOUGHT, p. 140. 
 
 " The laws of light are those of beauty, and clear thoughts require but 
 little art for their proper exhibition," MOOBE'S MAN AND HIS MOTIVES, 
 p. 182. 
 
 700. It is impossible to discuss at length the whole subject of 
 Hints only composition. The utmost that can be attempted 
 to be given, here is to furnish the student with a few hints to 
 guide his own inquiries and practice. 
 
 701. Grammar differs from composition, as a knowledge of 
 the rules of building differs from architecture. Grammar ia 
 
 based on material laws and on custom : composition, 
 como8i a uon d on insight and taste. Grammar is largely mechanical ; 
 distin- composition, organic. The one shapes sentences ac- 
 
 guishei cording to external rule; the other, according to 
 feeling and sentiment. Grammar teaches us to speak and 
 write accurately ; composition, clearly, impressively^ efficiently. 
 Grammar ia a means ; composition,, the end. 
 
368 COMPOSITION NEEDS THOUGHT. 
 
 702. The first essential of all good composition is thought. 
 
 An earnest man, with a sulject in which he feels a 
 comfiosition deep interest, will nearly always be an acceptable 
 without speaker. There are exceptions to this rule : but 
 * oug ' generally, to have something to say is essential, if we 
 wish to say it. The art of seeming to say something when we 
 mean nothing, is for the most part an attainment, and not a 
 gift. Eloquence is the speaking out of something within. If 
 there is nothing within we call it loquacity, a poor power 
 froth indeed without substance. The man who wishes to write 
 must have something to write of ; and that something must be 
 at once a feeling and a thought. 
 
 703. The next stage in composition is to define, in our minds 
 The end must at least, what we intend to prove or to illustrate. If 
 be defined. an argument is to be set forth, it must be shaped into 
 propositions ; if an illustration, the details must be carefully 
 grouped and clearly described. Unless this is done, we shall 
 write or speak without force. Before we commence a journey, it 
 is necessary to decide where we go, especially when it is part of 
 our business to show others how to get there, and to convince 
 them that we are on the road. If the books and chapters ot 
 books that have been written in violation or in f orgetfulness of 
 this rule could be set forth in a visible, architectural form, there 
 would scarcely be room for the ' Tollies ' which would abound on 
 all sides. 
 
 704. Having resolved what it is we intend to prove or to 
 
 illustrate, the next concern of a writer should be to 
 
 And the . . ' .. . f , . 
 
 successive mark in a general way the successive stages of his 
 journey * **** P 1 ' ^ 683 - These may not all be clearly marked ; some 
 of them will ; and of the rest the writer will have a 
 general impression, hereafter to be modified or confirmed. Chap- 
 ters and paragraphs will indicate these stages ; and the writer will 
 take care that the whole are connected, either in logical sequence 
 or in such order as shall make the narrative or the argumen< 
 consecutive, impressive, and complete. 
 
 The old plan of indicating in the margin the subject of a 
 paragraph, had the great advantage of compelling the writer to 
 define it to himself, while it helped the reader to see his way. 
 The practice might well be revived in our modern literature. 
 
AND OEDER. 369 
 
 An illustration of the importance of these remarks may be 
 illustrated, seen in 'Butler's Analogy,' or in 'Macaulay's Eng- 
 land.' The Analogy is divided, as is well known, 
 into two parts, and the first part into seven chapters. Each 
 chapter is made up of divisions that set forth some point of the 
 argument ; each division, of paragraphs containing facts and 
 reasoning essential in Butler's mind to the completeness of the 
 whole. The subject discussed is defined at the beginning and 
 at the close of the part ; sometimes under different aspects at 
 the beginning and close of each chapter ; and sometimes at the 
 beginning only or sometimes at the close of each division. Oc- 
 casionally the subject is not formally announced, and then we 
 ascertain the general drift only by careful thought. The study 
 of the whole is an admirable mental discipline in logical sequence, 
 as well as in other things. 
 
 Macaulay's History is an equally admirable illustration, 
 though of another kind. His third chapter (vol. i.) 
 may be taken as a sample. The theme is, the state of 
 England on the accession of James II. He affirms at the outset 
 that the country has undergone such a change as is without a 
 parallel in the history of the old world, and he closes with a 
 general lesson, involving a repetition of that statement, in the 
 form of a summary of the benefits which the common people 
 have derived from the progress of civilization. He illustrates his 
 statements by a large number of classified facts, arranged undei 
 the head of population, revenue, growth and condition of large 
 towns, etc. Each paragraph is a picture, carefully drawn, skil- 
 fully grouped, and nobly painted : the whole a magnificent 
 gallery, with one subject : ' England in 1685 and in I860.' 
 
 The student may sketch and paint for himself ; beginning 
 with the district or town with which he is most familiar, describ- 
 ing its physical aspects, its population, its trade or resources, 
 and its antiquities or history, and then proceeding to fields more 
 comprehensive. Subjects literary or logical will occupy his 
 attention last. 
 
 705. Having accumulated thoughts, with a definite purpose, 
 and having decided in our own minds how we mean to group 
 them, the next question is, how we are to place them on the 
 canvas. Having something definite to say, how are we to say it ? 
 
 2 B 
 
370 COMPOSITION-ITS ATM, 
 
 It is something gained to understand clearly what the object of 
 romDosition com P os ition is, as distinguished from the mere utter- 
 aud the mere ance of thought. In writing or in speaking, it is a 
 of tho'ught 1 man's business to instruct, to persuade, to convince, 
 or to please ; he has not only to announce a fact or 
 propound an argument, he has to guide the judg- 
 ment and excite the feelings. If in stating a great truth, or 
 still more in explaining a perplexed doctrine, he contents him- 
 self with a single condensed enunciation of it, he will produce 
 no conviction. He is addressing a complex being, with reason, 
 and fancy, and emotion, and to every part of this complex being 
 he must appeal. As sight, and hearing, and touch are all 
 needed for an intelligent knowledge of material things, so is 
 every mental faculty for a clear perception of the form and 
 weight of spiritual truths. ... It must be noted too that con- 
 viction is not only a complex process, it is a slow and very gradual 
 one. The mind requires time to gather round a truth, to 
 handle and feel it. A writer, and still more a speaker, has to 
 aid the mind in this work. He therefore presents his thoughts 
 in different lights and on different sides. He feels that men 
 must 'mark, learn, and inwardly digest' his statements : and 
 that if the process be unduly hastened at any stage, truth itself 
 fails to be nutritive, and may even become disgusting. It is the 
 aim then of composition to present thought to the complex 
 man ; and to keep it in sufficiently protracted contact with 
 every part of our nature, so that it may impress the memory, 
 inform the judgment, and interest the heart. 
 
 It is with this view that Milton has expounded the brief 
 description of the evangelist, ' He showed him all the kingdoms 
 of the world,' into a succession of pictures, which bring before us 
 Athens, and Rome, and Parthia ; while Jeremy Taylor makes 
 "Hie trite sentiment, ' Human life is short, and human happiness 
 frail,' the thesis of an entire book on 'Holy Dying.' 'The 
 Pilgrimage of Life ' represents a thought familiar for centuries. 
 It was reserved for the immortal dreamer in his matchless alle- 
 gory so to unfold and enforce it as to make the theme ' the joy of 
 many generations.' The thoughts of other writers have been 
 expanded and adorned in different ways : with humour, as in the 
 works of Thomas Fuller and Sydney Smith ; with strong robust 
 sense and vigorous wit, as in the sermons of South and Barrow ; 
 
NEEDS TOIL. 371 
 
 with rich fancy, as in Jeremy Taylor and Edmund Burke ; with 
 mingled playfulness and shrewdness, as in the letters of Cowper 
 and Lamb. Sometimes the style is stilted and pedantic, as in 
 Illustrations ^ Thomas Browne ; sometimes easy and natural, as 
 in Addison ; sometimes rhetorical and sonorous, as 
 in Johnson or in Gibbon. But in every case it is taken as 
 granted that thought needs to appeal to man's whole nature, 
 that the whole mind needs to be interested in it, and that it is 
 by style or composition this double purpose is to be gained. 
 
 706. To complete our definitions : when composition has all 
 Eloquence t^ 3 variety and adaptedness to the whole man, and 
 what? the thought is comprehensive, continuous, 'sequa- 
 cious,' as Coleridge phrased it, then we have true eloquence, one 
 of the noblest intellectual gifts. The term indicates the free flow 
 of great and connected thoughts in clear, vivid, and impressive 
 speech. 
 
 707. One of the most fatal mistakes in relation to style is to 
 Composition 8U PP se * na * a "writer who wishes to be natural must 
 requires toil dispense with all toil and pains in composition. This 
 
 mistake has been sanctioned by very different writers : 
 ' Never think,' says Cobbett, ' of mending what you write ; let it 
 go ; no patching.' ' Endeavour,' says Niebuhr, ' never to strike 
 out anything of what you have once written down. Punish 
 yourself by allowing once or twice something to pass, though 
 you see you might give it better.' But it is none the less to be 
 condemned. Composition that costs little is generally worth 
 little. Easy writing is very bad reading ; and for young or 
 unpractised writers to forget or neglect this principle is to make 
 themselves and their work ridiculous. 
 
 The history of literature abounds with illustrations. The 
 Hebrews described poetry, and all poetio composition by a term 
 that was appropriated originally to the process of 
 pruning. Greek and Latin authors spent years, as is 
 well known, on those works which have come down to us as 
 models of style. Ten years Isocrates devoted to one of his 
 works. After eleven years of labour Virgil regarded his ^neid 
 as still imperfect. Pascal often gave twenty days to the compo- 
 sition of a single letter ; and some of those letters he wrote and 
 re-wrote seven or eight times. The result is, that they ara 
 
 2 B 2 
 
372 GREAT WEITEES TAKE GEEAT PAINS. 
 
 reckoned among the best specimens of the grace and flexibility of 
 the French tongue. Tasso and Pope, Milton and Addison, Gold- 
 smith and Hume, are known to have toiled in their task ; and 
 the manuscripts of most of them still attest the earnestness with 
 which they perfected their works. 
 
 Even when the MS. is silent it does not follow that the com- 
 pact perspicuity or apparently careless ease which great authors 
 have gained is not an acquirement. Johnson, and Robert Hall, 
 and Lord Macaulay, are known to have thought out and ar- 
 ranged their paragraphs before committing a word to paper. 
 Sometimes, as in Johnson's case, this was done imperfectly. 
 ' The Rambler,' it is said, was sent to the press, and the author 
 wrote it to a large extent, on the moment, and ' never blotted a 
 line. ' But then the first edition is not now regarded as Johnson's 
 work. The second and third editions contain not less than 6000 
 alterations, and Johnson himself attests that men who in this 
 department ' think themselves born to be illustrious without 
 labour,' will find it a very fallacious hope as fallacious as to 
 ' omit the cares of husbandry and then expect the blossoms of 
 Arabia.' 
 
 Of course it is not meant that this rule is without exceptions. 
 Some writers cannot correct. They exhaust their ardour on 
 the first creative act, and every addition is a weakness. Others, 
 like Gibbon, and Hall, and Macaulay, adopt Niebuhr's sugges- 
 tion, ' cast even long paragraphs in a single mould, try them by 
 the ear, deposit them in the memory, and so suspend the action 
 of the pen till they have given the last finish to their work.'* 
 Others, again, who have had long practice, can dash off sentences 
 and chapters with remarkable rapidity and accuracy. But these 
 exceptions either illustrate the rule, and are apparent only, or 
 they must be regarded as exceptions. For most men the rule is 
 absolute. Skill in composition is an acquired habit ; and like 
 other habits is perfected ' by reason of use.' 
 
 708. It may help and console the merely English student to 
 Good compo- know * na ^ while an acquaintance with the classic lan- 
 requh-insfa gUages may aid "* En glish composition, it is by no 
 knowledge of means essential. William Shakspeare, "William Cob- 
 bctt > Izaak Walton, John Bunyan,Benjamin Franklin, 
 Hugh Miller, all excelled as authors. The style of 
 Gibbon's Memoirs, chap, is- 
 
KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH ENOUGH. 373 
 
 each is copious, clear, and idiomatic ; and the style of two of them 
 Franklin and Miller is remarkable for richness and accuracy. 
 Illustrated. ^ et w ^ len their chief works were written they knew 
 no foreign tongue. Their writings therefore illustrate 
 the wealth of idiomatic English, and the possibility of mastering 
 the language by the study of English literature alone. 
 
 Even for synonymy, a knowledge of the derivation of words is 
 less helpful than a knowledge of their use. Their meaning 
 depends more on actual custom than on origin, and the writer 
 who looks only or chiefly to etymology will be sure to mislead. 
 Both are best : but if we are to have one help only, let it be 
 not etymology, but usage. 
 
 Having a theme and thoughts in relation to it, with a 
 clear conviction that style is an art to be sedulously culti- 
 vated, the next question is, How are these thoughts to be 
 expressed, and what habits are we to cultivate, so as to 
 acquire the power of expressing them ? In brief, we need in 
 our words, copiousness, accuracy, and propriety : in our sen- 
 tences, clearness, unity, strength, and harmony : and in oui 
 paragraphs we need, in addition to preceding qualities, that- 
 skilful combination of sentences, that 'callida juncture/,' on 
 which so much of the rhythm and effectiveness of a writer's 
 style depends. 
 
 i. WORDS. 
 
 709. A copious phraseology is one cure of wordiness, and is 
 a. Copious- essential to effective writing. It helps us to the very 
 ness, words we need. It at once defines and sheds light 
 on the thought we have to examine. 
 
 What scope there is for the cultivation of this quality is 
 clear, from the fact that out of forty thousand words in English 
 Milton uses but eight thousand, and the many-sided Shakspeare 
 but fifteen. 
 
 The sources of a copious diction are various. Horace Walpole 
 has jestingly referred his friend to newspapers. Dr. 
 a copious Chalmers seriously commended them, and maintained 
 diction. ^at man y articles of the daily press are equal in 
 richness and variety to anything in our best standard authors. 
 Such letters as those of Cowper and Charles Lamb abound in 
 
374 WORDSCOPIOUSNESS, 
 
 good idiomatic phrases, The works of great word-painters, 
 Edmund Spenser, Jeremy Taylor, Edmund Burke, De Quincy, 
 and Carlyle deserve study ; and generally the writings of our 
 best poets. In fact the great prose writers of most nations have 
 at some time of their lives given themselves to the study of the 
 poets ; Plato and Cicero, Dryden and Pope, Addison and John- 
 son, Fenelon and Pascal : while others have been themselves 
 poets ; Cowley and Swift, Goldsmith and Cowper, Southey and 
 Scott. Southey, whose general prose style is admirably lucid and 
 natural, ascribes its excellence to the practice of composition in 
 poetry. Nor should the intercourse of private life be overlooked. 
 More than one eminent author has affirmed that he learnt more 
 in this respect from the conversation of intelligent women than 
 from any other source. "What we have to avoid is, on the one 
 hand, the stiff pedantry of a bookish diction, and on the other 
 the tame common-place style of careless conversation. What we 
 have to secure is the vigour and dignity of the first, with the 
 ease and variety of the second. 
 
 The mechanical helps to the acquisition of copiousness are 
 Mechanical also important. A student must, if possible, practise 
 helps. translation from a foreign language into his own ;* 
 read, and then write down in his own words favourite passages ; 
 describe fully objects, scenes, occurrences, characters ; describe 
 them literally and figuratively, now in a style richly florid, and 
 now in a style severely chaste, till he has acquired the habit of 
 saying the same thing in a dozen different ways a great snare, 
 but also a great acquisition. 
 
 710. Accuracy is even more important than copiousness. It 
 
 b Accuracy * eacnes us to give each word its exact meaning, 
 
 makes verbiage as unnecessary as it is always dis- 
 
 Our best writers agree in this language, by obliging us to weigh 
 
 view. ' I derived great advantage,' the shades of difference between 
 
 says Southey, ' from the practice of words and phrases, and to find the 
 
 translating the books read at the expression, whether by the selection 
 
 Westminster School.' 'This prac- of the terms or the turning of the 
 
 tice,' says Scott, 'will give a man a idiom, which is required for a given 
 
 command of his own language, which meaning; whereas when composing 
 
 no one will have, who does not study originally, the idea may be varied in 
 
 English composition in early life.' order to suit the diction which most 
 
 This exercise, Lord Brougham readily presents itself .'' Ways and 
 
 thinks, well calculated to give an Words of Men of Letters,' p. 60. 
 accurate knowledge of our own 
 
ACCUEAOY. 375 
 
 pleasing and tends to produce conviction even when the mind is 
 not disposed to be convinced. The man who says precisely what 
 he means commends his case to our judgment no less than to our 
 taste. He has one of the qualities of a great teacher ; he seems 
 to have insight, ahd he can tell what he sees. 
 
 To use words accurately, we must attach to them a definite 
 meaning, make it clear what that meaning is, and combine them 
 in phrases consistent with the idiom of our tongue. ' Rest,' for 
 example, means ' repose ' and ' remainder ' ; ' nervous ' means 
 both ' weak ' and ' strong ' ; ' to cleave ' means ' to adhere ' and 
 ' to separate ' ; ' speech ' represents both the act of speaking and 
 the words spoken ; thought is both a process and an object ; 
 judgment, an act and a decision. ' Wit ' is used in Pope's 
 ' Essay on Criticism ' with at least seven meanings, nor can we 
 tell in any case but from the context in what sense these terms 
 are used. 
 
 In all languages, moreover, certain combinations are appro- 
 priate. Men ' answer questions ' and 'reply to attacks.' Acts 
 are 'laudable;' persons, 'praiseworthy.' Things 'lie on the 
 table,' or ' are laid there. ' "We speak in English of a ' ray of hope,' 
 a ' shade of doubt,' a ' flight of fancy,' the ' warmth of emotion,' 
 the 'ebullitions of anger.' We have, moreover, in English a 
 large number of idioms, which must be used for the sake of 
 beauty and force, and be accurately used, for the sake of clear- 
 ness, e.g. : ' To make ' is found in upwards of twenty phrases, 
 and with a very different meaning in each. Thus, we make 
 friends merry sport way good amends account a doubt 
 a present a point an end an offer something of it 
 nothing of it it out as though, etc.* Nor is our style accurate 
 unless these and like combinations be noted and maintained. 
 
 Among the helps to accuracy in the use of words, the careful 
 study of conjugate or cognate, synonymous, and antithetic terms 
 is of great value. 
 
 Conjugate By coniusate or cognate terms are meant those that 
 
 words. * 
 
 Swift ridicules the truisms of com- trious, all that youth has of amiable, 
 
 position (see p. 388), and Miss More or beauty of ravishing, sees itself m 
 
 the use of un-English idioms : this quarter. Render yourself hero 
 
 ' My lord and I are in the intention then, my friend, and you shall mm 
 
 to make good cheer, and a great ex- assembled all that is of best, whether 
 
 pense, and this country is in possession for letters, whether for mirth. - 
 
 to furnish wherewithal to amuse one- ' Letter from a lady to her ineua, m 
 
 self. All that England has of illus- the reign of George IV.' 
 
376 CONJUGATES. 
 
 come from the same root, and -which are often used in very 
 different senses, e.g. : From ' beran,' A. S. ' to bear,' we have 
 ' a man's bearing,' ' a heavy burden,' ' a quiet berth,' ' a sweet 
 berry,' ' an overbearing temper.' From ' cado,' to fall, we have 'a 
 natural cadence,' 'a, difficult cose,' ' a sad casualty,' 'a mere acci- 
 dent,' ' a rapid decay,' ( a deciduous plant,' and ' an occidental star.' 
 
 ' Habit and habitation/ ' debit and debility,' ' conversation 
 and conversant,' 'objective and objection,' 'remiss and remis- 
 sion,' ' absolute and absolution,' ' consequent and consequential,' 
 'presumptive and presumptuous,' 'spirited, sprightly, spirituous, 
 spiritual, inspired,' though each group is composed of cognate 
 words, have little connection, or even widely differ, in meaning. 
 This fact needs to be carefully marked to guard both against 
 mistake and against the use of concrete forms, when the abstract 
 form (for example) which we may have to use has no connexion 
 in meaning. Some years ago, a lady anxious to leave to her 
 servant her clothing, jewellery, and whatever she had worn on 
 hcrperson, thought she could not be wrong in describing it ar 
 'personalty,' and unwittingly included in the bequest ten thou- 
 sand pounds. 
 
 True synonymes in English, or in any language, are extremely 
 Synonym rare - ^ certain stages in the progress of a language 
 they are numerous. The reader may often see them 
 side by side in Wycliffe's version. But they stay for a time only. 
 The superfluous words are soon used for a new purpose, or are 
 gradually laid aside. To distinguish between apparent synonymes 
 is a process that requires delicacy, clearness, and practice. 
 
 A few examples may be taken to illustrate the process : 
 One, only, alone, lonely : 
 
 Unity is the idea common to all these words. But they differ 
 thus : That is ' one ' of which there are any ; and is opposed to 
 ' none.' That is ' only' of which there is but one ; the word is 
 opposed to ' more than one.' That is ' alone ' which is actually 
 unaccompanied ; the word is opposed to ' with others.' That is 
 ' lonely ' which is habitually unaccompanied. One child ; an 
 only child ; a child alone ; a lonely child. 
 Whole, entire, complete, total : 
 
 Nothing is ' whole' which has anything taken from it : nothing 
 is ' entire ' that is divided : nothing is ' complete ' that has not all its 
 parts, and those parts fully developed. Complete ' refers to the 
 
SYNONYMOUS TEEMS. 377 
 
 perfection of parts ; ' entire ' to their unity ; ' whole ' to their 
 junction ; ' total ' to their aggregate. A whole orange ; an entire 
 set ; a complete facsimile ; the total expense. 
 
 Superstitious, credulous, bigoted, enthusiastic, fanatical : 
 The ' superstitious ' are too ceremonious or scrupulous in mat- 
 ters of religious worship : the ' credulous ' are too easy of belief : 
 the ' bigoted ' are blindly obstinate in their creed. Enthusiasm 
 is the zeal of credulity ; fanaticism, the zeal of bigotry. The 
 opposite extreme of superstition is irreverence ; of credulity, 
 scepticism ; of enthusiasm and bigotry, indifference. Supersti- 
 tion is often humble and laborious ; enthusiasm impatient and 
 capricious. Credulity is the most inconsistent, and fanaticism 
 the most intolerant, of the religious affections. 
 
 Inexorable, inflexible : 
 
 ' Inexorable,' what no entreaty can bend : ( inflexible,' what 
 nothing can bend. 
 
 Persuasion, conviction : 
 
 These words agree in expressing an assent of the mind, and 
 they differ thus : ' Persuasion ' is assent founded on what appeals 
 to the feelings and imagination, and has but imperfect proof . 
 ' conviction ' is assent founded on satisfactory proofs, which 
 appeal to the reason. That which is pleasant persuades ; that 
 which is binding convinces. Conviction is certainty ; persuasion 
 is ever liable to become doubt. 
 
 Discovery, invention : 
 
 What existed before, but in an unnoticed state, is said, when 
 found out, to be ' discovered : ' what is called into being for the 
 first time is 'invented.' Harvey discovered the circulation of 
 the blood ; Galileo invented the telescope. 
 
 Silence, taciturnity : 
 
 f Silence ' describes an actual state : ( taciturnity,' a habitual 
 disposition. A loquacious man may sit in silence ; and a taci- 
 turn man may be making an effort at conversation. 
 
 Religion, devotion, piety, sanctity : 
 
 ' Religion ' is what binds men to God, and is often external. 
 ' Devotion ' is the state in which men vow to be obedient to him : 
 it always implies the internal subjection of the man to God. 
 * Piety ' is the filial sentiment which we cherish to Him as our 
 Father. ' Sanctity ' is the habitual holiness which a sense of 
 His law and character inspires. 
 
378 SYNONYMOUS AND 
 
 To foster, to cherish, to harbour, to indulge : 
 To ' foster ' is to sustain and nourish with care and effort. 
 To ' cherish ' is to hold and treat as dear. To ' harbour ' is to 
 provide with shelter and protection, so as to give opportunity for 
 working to something that might be, and often ought to be, ex- 
 cluded. To ' indulge ' is to treat with sweetness. 
 
 To hope, and to expect : 
 
 Both express the anticipation of something future : when the 
 anticipation is welcome, we ' hope ; ' when it is certain, we ' expect.' 
 To reprove, to rebuke, to reprimand, to censure, to remon- 
 strate, to expostulate, to reproach * : 
 
 To 'reprove' is to admonish with disapprobation. To r re- 
 buke ' is now used in nearly the same sense, but is a stronger 
 term. To ' reprimand ' is to reprove officially, and by one in 
 authority. To ' censure ' is to express an unfavourable opinion. 
 It implies equality between the parties, and is less personal than 
 the previous terms. To ' remonstrate ' and to ' expostulate ' are 
 acts more argumentative, and imply more of advice than is im- 
 plied in either ' reproofs ' or ' censures.' They also apply only 
 to acts now taking place, or about to take place, while censure 
 applies only to what is past. Men may remonstrate with a 
 superior : they generally expostulate with equals or inferiors. 
 To ' reproach ' is to give vent to our feelings ; it is applicable to 
 all grades ; and it often applies when we attribute to another 
 faults he does not admit. 
 
 By, with, through : 
 
 'Nearness,' 'oneness,' 'throughness, are the ideas these words 
 express, and they are sometimes interchangeable. When 'by' 
 and ' with ' express two causes, the first cause or agent is ex- 
 pressed by the use of ' by,' and the second or instrumental cause 
 by 'with.' 'By' belongs to the agent, 'with' to the instru- 
 ment. This is modern usage. 
 
 When they both express means only, and not original agency, 
 ' by ' implies that the means are necessary, ' with,' that they are 
 auxiliary only. Hence the phrase ' By our swords we gained 
 these lands, and with our swords we will keep them.' 
 
 Generally, ' with ' indicates companionship (from ' withan,' to 
 bind), ' by,' the mode or way of performing some act. They 
 
 See English Synonymes, edited by Archbishop Whatcly. 
 
ANTITHETIC TERMS. 379 
 
 are sometimes either appropriate, ' by patience ' f with patience,' 
 though the sense is not exactly the same. 
 
 ' Through ' implies that the means used form the appointed 
 channel for the conveyance of the object named. 
 
 Therefore, wherefore, then, accordingly, consequently : 
 
 ' Therefore ' is for that reason or those reasons : ' wherefore ' is 
 for which reason or reasons, and applies to something imme- 
 diately preceding. ' Then ' indicates a less formal conclusion, 
 and is often applicable to physical sequence : ' these facts being 
 so. ' ' Accordingly ' is applicable to physical sequence only. 
 Both it and ' then ' often refer to a practical course following from 
 certain causes or facts. 'Consequently' is the most formal con- 
 clusive of the whole, though generally confined to a practical 
 sequence : e.g. 
 
 ' I determined not to act hastily, and therefore I consulted my legal 
 adviser. His opinion was sustained by much learning and good sense : 
 I accordingly adopted the course he recommended: I fixed then upon 
 this plan : consequently, I am not to be blamed, as if I had acted with- 
 out counsel or thought.' ENGLISH STNONTMES. 
 
 These examples are sufficient to illustrate the importance of 
 the whole subject. For further details the reader must refer to 
 Taylor's English Synonymes, to Orabbe's or to the ' English 
 Syiionymes ' edited by the Archbishop of Dublin. No book, 
 however, will supersede the exercise of thought and discrimina- 
 tion on the part of the student himself. 
 
 Antithetic terms are opposites : as, black and white, light 
 Antithetic an ^ darkness, virtue and vice. As most words express 
 words. O ne idea, and imply or connote others, each has 
 several opposites : as, town, country ; town, village ; town, city ; 
 town, neighbourhood. Nor is it difficult to extend a description 
 by enumerating the points of contrast between the thing we have 
 named and the various things it suggests. 
 
 Even when there is no antithesis expressed, a writer may 
 judge of the clearness of his terms by the readiness with which 
 they call up to the mind the opposite thoughts : e.g. 
 
 Gospel, Law : Gospel, no news of God, of forgiveness, of 
 holiness, of eternal life ; Gospel, good news as contrasted 
 with a message of anger, or of unattainable blessing. 
 
 Similarly from the words ' How shall we escape if we neglect 
 so great a salvation?' it would be easy to draw out most import- 
 
S80 WOEDS PROPRIETY. 
 
 ant truth, by vividly describing the opposites of 'salvation,' 
 'neglect,' 'escape.' 
 
 It is with words as with things : they are thoroughly known 
 only through their contraries. 
 
 711. Propriety in the use of words is a principle 
 C. Propriety. . ' , , . i ., ,, c ,i_ -, 
 
 less absolute than either or the preceding. 
 
 As a rule, words of Anglo-Saxon origin are most appropriate 
 when we describe individual things, natural feeling^ 
 domestic life, the poetry of nature : words of Latin 
 origin, when we describe the results of generalization or of 
 abstraction, the discoveries of science. Is it philosophy you 
 discuss? Then 'the impenetrability of matter ' will be found a 
 better phrase than its A. S. equivalent, the ' unthorough fare- 
 someness of stuff.' Is it natural feeling? 'Paternal expect- 
 ations' and 'maternal attachment' are less impressive than a 
 'father's hopes ' and a 'mother's love.' 
 
 It is an equally obvious mle, that the words used be appro- 
 priate not only to the theme we have to discuss, but to the 
 purpose we have in view in discussing it. If truth or facts are 
 to be analyzed for philosophic purposes, the clear phraseology of 
 the ' Theory of Vision,' or of the ' Commentaries on the Laws of 
 England,' is preferable to the gorgeous imagery of the ' Reflec- 
 tions on the Revolution in France.' "We need in that case ' dry- 
 light,' an unstirred atmosphere. If fashion is to be rebuked or 
 ridiculed, the light bantering of the ' Spectator ' is preferable to 
 the ponderous verbiage of the ' Rambler ' : while for serious 
 themes it is a general impression that a style of earnest dignity 
 is most becoming.' 
 
 And yet this rule has great license. Propriety is a relative 
 
 Limits of term. A style, appropriate to the theme it discusses, 
 
 Jes - needs, before it can be pronounced absolutely appro- 
 
 Examples of incongruity of style for the promoting the education of her 
 
 ana subject are the following: ' eldest daughter, to make London her 
 
 bix heartless, desolate years of winter residence. '-MEMOIRS OF DR. 
 
 lonely conjugal chasm had succeeded BURNZY. 
 
 ible their number of unparalleled ' I waited till their slow and harsher 
 
 mugai enjoyment; and the void was inspirations showed them to be both 
 
 miailow and hopeless, when the yet- asleep: just then, on changing my 
 
 very-handsome-though-no-longer-in- position, my head struck against 
 
 her-bloom, Mrs. Stephen Allen of something which depended from the 
 
 Lynn, now become a widow, decided, ceiling.' BROCKDEN BROWN. 
 
RULES MODIFIED. " 381 
 
 priate, to be compared with the character of the writer and the 
 position of the readers. 
 
 Phraseology perfectly appropriate in Jeremy Taylor, because 
 natural and characteristic, would be intolerable in Abraham 
 Tucker (' Edward Search '), or in William Paley. The humour or 
 wit of Eachard, of Thomas Fuller, or of Sydney Smith, is essen- 
 tial to their strength, but would be unbecoming in Arnold or in 
 Howe. The position and tastes of readers need also to be 
 regarded. A. style most attractive to children might repel a 
 grown man. No rule seems to some minds more absolute than 
 that a grave style is required for grave themes. Yet, in apparent 
 violation of both rules, some of the most effective speakers are 
 so simple that even children understand them : while others 
 change in the same paragraph ' from grave to gay,' ( from lively 
 to severe,' and become the more impressive. The fact is that 
 there is not only a most mysterious connection, as has been 
 shown by authors on rhetoric from Aristotle downwards, be- 
 tween apparently incompatible emotions, between laughter and 
 tears ; but man is a complex being, and appeals adapted to his 
 whole nature are often more effective than those that touch only 
 a part. If a writer is natural, and is believed to be in earnest, 
 humour on even serious topics will often prove more impressive 
 than dry dignity. The addresses of Latimer and Luther illus- 
 trate this truth ; and if the name of South is not added to the 
 list, it is because in his case the general effect of his wit is 
 weakened by suspicions of the spirit that prompted it. It may 
 be natural, but it seems inappropriate to his theme. It sounds 
 malicious, and was certainly not healthful for his audience. 
 The general rule therefore that words should be appropriate, 
 
 may with advantage be expanded thus : The words 
 Modified. ,,, ,11 J..T. T 
 
 should be appropriate to the character of the audience, 
 
 to the aptitudes and temperament of the author, and to the 
 subject he has to discuss. 
 
 It may prove an important correction of a popular impression 
 to add that in Coleridge's opinion works of imagination should 
 be written in the plainest language. The more purely imagi- 
 native they are, the more important is it that the style be plain. 
 
 Perhaps these facts may serve also to foster a more catholic 
 and philosophic spirit when men have to judge of the language 
 and labours of those who are seeking to influence their fellows. 
 
382 SENTENCES CLEAENESS. 
 
 Nothing will excuse irreverence. Nothing will justify appeals 
 that flatter pride or excite passion. But as the terms of reason- 
 ing are careful and precise, of love, simple and ardent, so in 
 seeking to instruct and persuade a complex nature, it is not only 
 allowable, it may even be essential to combine logic and love 
 and humour, and thus to address and interest the whole. 
 
 ii. SENTENCES. 
 
 712. The first and grand essential quality of sentences is 
 
 clearness. Speech is properly thought incarnate, as 
 literature is thought incarnate and more or less im- 
 mortal. Each fulfils its mission only when the whole spirit of 
 the thought is represented in the form. Diplomacy indeed has 
 denied this truth, and has affirmed epigrammatically that the 
 concealment of thought is the chief end of speech.* Young 
 thinkers too sometimes mistake darkness for depth, and suppose 
 that whatever is perspicuous must be superficial. To these last 
 it may be conceded that a string of truisms creates languor and 
 even disgust ; and that when thought is poor, perspicuity makes 
 the poverty the plainer. Still the fact remains, that whatever 
 conceals the meaning calls off attention from the thought and 
 weakens impression. Clearness is to speech what a good lens is 
 to the telescope : without it, objects appear distorted, or they 
 remain unseen. It is what a fine atmosphere is to scenery. It 
 makes the whole field visible, and bathes the landscape itself 
 with fresh glory. 
 
 Clearness in the use of particular words has been already dis- 
 cussed. Here we are concerned with them in combination, as 
 sentences. 
 
 713. One of the first requisites for clearness is grammatical 
 Grammatical accuracy. The opposite is a solecism, as the logical 
 accuracy. opposite of truth is an error, and the moral opposite 
 of truth, a lie : e.g. 
 
 ' He is a God in his friendship, as well as in his nature, and therefore 
 we sinful creatures are not took upon advantage, nor consumed in our 
 provocations.' SOUTH (On Friendship). 
 
 Those whom the splendour of their rank, or the extent of their 
 
 The curious reader may trace the 'Modern English Literature,' p. 283. 
 progress of this sentiment in Lreen's 
 
GRAMMATICAL ACCURACY. 383 
 
 capacity, have placed upon the summit of human life, have not often 
 given any just occasion to envy in those who look up to them from a 
 lower station.' JOHNSON (Life of Savage). 
 
 ' That great man (Cato) approached the company with such an air 
 that showed he contemned the honour which he laid claim to.' 
 ADDISON (Tatler, 81). 
 
 ' Let neither partiality or prejudice appear, but let truth everywhere 
 bo sacred.' DEYDEN. 
 
 In these examples, either the sense is obscured, or, what 
 amounts to the same thing, the attention of the reader is dis- 
 tracted by the false grammar. 
 
 English 714. The violation of English idiom, and the 
 idiom. neglect of syntactical completeness, are on the same 
 ground to be avoided : e. g. 
 
 'The wisest princes need not think it any diminution to (of) their 
 greatness, or derogation to (from) their sufficiency, io\ rely upon coun- 
 sel.' BACON (Essays, No. 1). 
 
 'When we look on such objects, we are pleased to think wo are in no 
 danger of (from) them.' ADDISON (Spec. No. 418). 
 
 ' Removing the term from Westminster, sitting the parliament, was 
 illegal,' MES. MACAULAY'S ENGLAND. 
 
 ' A supercilious attention to minute formalities is a certain indication 
 of a little mind, conscious t (of) the want of innate dignity.' HAWK.ES- 
 WOETH. 
 
 ' The discovery he made and communicated with (to) his friends.' 
 SWIFT. 
 
 ' And indeed in some cases we derive as much or more pleasure from 
 that source than from the thing itself.' BTJEKE (On the Sublime and the 
 Beautiful). 
 
 Better 'As much pleasure from that source . . as from the thing 
 itself, perhaps more.' 
 
 ' Chaucer followed nature everywhere, but was never so bold to go 
 before her.' PEYDEN (Essay on Dramatic Poetry). 
 
 ' The Bushman will plunder a Hottentot, with as much recklessness or 
 even more than he would the hated Caffre.' MAYNE REID. 
 
 These sentences are of course syntactically wrong, but tho 
 point they are quoted to illustrate is one of even more import- 
 ance. They fail to express the meaning of the writer. We can 
 guess his meaning, but the guess is not certainty, and the process 
 dissipates our thoughts and weakens the impression. In short, 
 bad grammar is injustice to truth. 
 
384 CLEAKNESS-COLLOCATION OF WOKDS. 
 
 715. The chief attention, however, of a writer who studies 
 Collocation clearness needs to be given to the collocation of his 
 of words, words. Their position generally indicates in English 
 the connection and the sense, It is therefore of the last import- 
 ance. 
 
 Two rules are of frequent use and of great value. 
 
 1. Words that express things connected in thought, should 
 be placed as near to each other as possible, unless another ar- 
 rangement be required by the emphasis. The neglect of this 
 rule suspends the sense and often creates ambiguity : e. g. 
 
 ' The English are naturally fanciful and very often disposed by that 
 gloominess and melancholy of temper which is so frequent in our nation, 
 A to many wild notions and visions to which others are not so liable.' 
 ADDISON (Spectator). 
 
 Transpose the words in italic, insert ' are,' and the sentence 
 will be greatly improved. 
 
 ' It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous, therefore, in such a country, 
 whatever it might be in the Abbot of St. Eeal's, which was Savoy, I 
 think ; or in Peru under the Incas, where Garcilasso de la Vega says it 
 was lawful for none but the nobility to study ; for men of all degrees to 
 instruct themselves in those affairs wherein they may be actors, or 
 judges of those that act or controllers of those that judge.' BOLING- 
 BEOKB (On the Study of History). 
 
 Here two sentences would be better than one : or the whole 
 may be transposed : 
 
 'Whatever may be thought of instruction in Savoy, etc., or in Peru, 
 etc., it cannot, etc.' 
 
 ' Errors A are sometimes committed A (or, here) by the most distin- 
 guished writers, with respect to the use of < shall ' and 'will.' ' BUTLER'S 
 GRAHMAB. 
 
 Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him, who 
 
 J the reins of the whole creation in his hand." SPECTATOR, No. 12. 
 ' Who, in his hands, holds the reins of the whole creation.' KAMES' 
 ELEMENTS OP CEITICISJT, ii. 53. 
 
 Better' Who holds in his hands the reins of the whole creation,' etc 
 There is A a remarkable union in his style of harmony and ease.' 
 BLAIR s RHETORIC. 
 
 'Hence he k considered marriage with a modern political economist aa 
 very dangerous.'-D'ISHAEU (Curiosities of Literature). 
 
 For the same reason, to avoid a suspension of the sense, such 
 constructions as the following should be avoided : 
 
ADVERBS. KELATIVES. 33? 
 
 ' Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often be ac- 
 companied by the advantages of fortune.' 
 
 This ' splitting of particles,' as it has been called, is not un- 
 grammatical, and is even conducive sometimes to exactness of 
 expression ; but it suspends the sense and directs attention to 
 what are generally insignificant words. "When the words are 
 emphatic, and the intervening words are few, the construction 
 may be allowed : e. g. 
 
 Whether he is for, or against us, I cannot tell.' 
 
 The right position of adverbs and the right use and position of 
 relative pronouns come under this rule : e. g. 
 
 'All that is favoured by good use, is not proper to be retained.'- 
 MUEEAT. 
 
 Better 'Not all,' etc. 
 
 ' Thales was not only famous ^ for his knowledge of nature, but for his 
 moral wisdom.' ENFIELD'S PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 * Having A tad once some considerable object set before us.' BLAIB. 
 'There is still a A greater impropriety in a double comparative.' 
 
 PEIESTLEY. 
 
 ' For sinners also lend to sinners to receive A as much again.' LUKE 
 vi. 34. 
 
 ' The following sentence cannot A but be possibly understood.' LOWTH'S 
 
 ' I hope not much to tire those whom I shall not happen A to please.' 
 RAMBLES, No. 1. 
 
 See also par. 458, 459, 561, in Syntax. 
 
 As the relative ' which ' and the pronoun ' it ' are seldom fit 
 representatives of an indicative assertion or of an adjective, the 
 following must be avoided : 
 
 ' The court opposed, which was anticipated ; ' say 'as was anticipated.' 
 
 ' In narration, Homer is at all times concise, which renders him lively 
 and agreeable.' BLAZE'S RHETOEIO, p. 435. 
 
 ' To be dexterous in danger is a virtue ; but to court danger to show it 
 (virtue or dexterity), is weakness.' PENH'S TBEASUBY. 
 
 ' The whole Russians are inspired with the belief that their mission is to 
 conquer the world, and their destiny to effect it.' ALISON'S EUEOPE, 
 ii. 126. 
 
 So must all constructions be avoided that leave ambiguous the 
 antecedent of a relative or the reference of a pronoun : as 
 'I allude to the article BLIND, in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, published 
 
 2c 
 
386 CLEARNESS. PUNCTUATION. 
 
 at Edinburgh in the year 1783, which was written by him' MACKENZIE, 
 ' Life of Blacklock.' 
 
 ' From a habit of saving time and paper, which young men acquire at 
 the university, they write in so diminutive a manner, and with such fre- 
 quent blots and interlineations, that their writing is hardly legible.' 
 SWIFT, 'Letter to a "Soung Gentleman.' 
 
 ' No one had exhibited the structure of the human kidneys ; Vesalius 
 having only examined them in dogs.' TTALT.ATyr. 
 
 Of course, these passages may be so emphasized in reading as 
 to be made clear : but the fault remains. The meaning as in- 
 dicated by the emphasis is not accurately expressed by the writer : 
 and in the absence of emphasis, the reader hesitates between the 
 natural construction and what he supposes to be the sense. 
 
 2. Where words or clauses are so placed as to be susceptible 
 of a double reference, the construction must be changed. 
 
 As when pronouns are repeated and may refer to different 
 persons or things : see par. 458. 
 
 Or when an explanatory or modifying clause is placed between 
 two members of a period : e. g. 
 
 ' This work in its full extent, being now afflicted with an asthma, and 
 finding the power of life gradually declining, ho had no longer courage to 
 undertake.' JOHNSON, ' Life of Savage.' 
 
 'The minister who A grows less by his elevation, like a little statue on 
 a mighty pedestal, will always have his jealousy strong about him.' 
 BOLINGBEOKE (On Parties). 
 
 Such clauses are of the nature of adjectives or adverbs : and 
 they must be connected closely with the words they qualify. 
 
 716. Faults of this kind have increased since the invention of 
 Punctuation ; printing ; partly because of the study of the classic 
 effect of. languages, which admit much more variety of arrange- 
 ment than our own ; and partly because punctuation has been 
 thought sufficient to indicate the arrangement when otherwise it 
 would not have been clear. Punctuation is an article invented 
 to maintain the integrity of the sense, amid the dislocation of 
 related words. It is to writing what pauses and gestures are to 
 speech. It is a great help ; but very liable to be made more of 
 than it deserves. It is, in fact, often managed carelessly and 
 illogically. It always narrows the number of meanings, but it 
 may exclude the right one. And even if it is employed accu- 
 
CLEARNESS ABUSED. 387 
 
 rately, the necessity for it implies a -want of clearness such as we 
 ought to avoid. Above all, it does not connect words, it only 
 separates them ; and if it is supposed that because non-related 
 words are separated, therefore the reader will mentally put them 
 in their proper place, punctuation becomes in such a case an 
 evil and not a good. Legal documents it is well-known tolerate 
 no punctuation. The security against misunderstanding is made 
 to depend chiefly on just and careful arrangement ; and it would 
 be well for authors to act as far as possible on the same principle : 
 ' Use stops : but whenever possible make the sense plain, inde- 
 pendently of them. ' 
 
 Apart from all rules, the grand requisite of a clear style is 
 clear thinking. If an object is not distinctly seen, it cannot be 
 distinctly described : nor can any mechanical combination of 
 words give an adequate conception of what the speaker himself 
 has not adequately conceived. 
 
 717. But while clearness is one essential of a good style, we 
 Clearness ; must carefully guard against three faults which are 
 how abused, sometimes excused on the plea that clearness requires 
 us to commit them. 
 
 Some writers for example think that they are never clear 
 unless they describe minutely every part of a subject and indicate 
 eveiy step of an argument. Nothing is left to the imagination 
 or thought of the reader. Such a style commits the same mis- 
 take as a map-maker who inserts all the villages and streams of 
 a country instead of contenting himself with the principal towns 
 and rivers. The effect is, that the smaller places cannot be 
 discovered without a glass, while by their presence on the map 
 that would otherwise be clear is completely concealed. A 
 master of composition has justly observed, that ' Thucydides and 
 Demosthenes lay it down as a rule, never to say what they have 
 reason to suppose would occur to the auditor and reader, in con- 
 sequence of anything said before ; knowing that every one is 
 tnore pleased and more easily led by us when we bring forward 
 his thoughts indirectly and imperceptibly, than when we elbow 
 them and outstrip them with our own.' * 
 
 Nor less mischievous is the process of blending with narrative 
 
 ' Imaginary Conversations,' i. 129. 
 
 2 c 9, 
 
388 UNITY 
 
 or argument maxims and sentiments so commonplace and trivial 
 as to be taken for granted by all readers. Men sometimes think, 
 that in such cases it is the clearness that readers condemn, when 
 in truth it is the triteness. The cure is to be sought not in 
 obscurity of style but in freshness of thought.* 
 
 A third mistake is committed when writers or speakers con- 
 found ' literal ' and ' clear. ' They suppose that nothing is plain 
 that is figurative ; and in seeking to be perspicuous, are only 
 dull and uninteresting. Let it be noted, therefore, that plain 
 writing may be highly figurative ; and that if the theme is 
 abstract, or spiritual, figurative language is almost essential to 
 perspicuity. 
 
 718. The second important quality in sentences is UNITY. A 
 Unity. sentence is, as already defined, a thought put into 
 
 m)r< ls > one thought, not many. A simple sentence 
 is necessarily one thought only ; for it has but one 
 subject and one predicate. A complex sentence is but one 
 thought ; for though it contains two or more finite verbs, there 
 is but one principal subject and one principal predicate ; all else 
 forming adjective clauses or adverbs. A compound sentence 
 contains two or more thoughts ; but then each part of the sen- 
 tence is really a complete sentence. These parts are separated 
 by a semi-colon, or colon, because it is intended to intimate that 
 the thoughts are related, though also distinct. Substantially, 
 therefore, the statement is accurate that a sentence is one thought 
 and not many. 
 
 It is upon this definition of what a sentence is, that all rules 
 in relation to unity rest. Once let it be understood that a sen- 
 tence is the expression of an entire thought and only one, and 
 the necessity for distinct rules is greatly diminished. It may be 
 well however to explain the principle and to apply it to specific 
 cases. 
 
 719. Let it be carefully no led that unity does not forbid any 
 What nuity ex tension f the predicate, or any enlargement of the 
 does not subject, or of the complement of the predicate. 
 
 These may be extended and enlarged to any degree, 
 
 hit Tri* f > h i a !' ridiculed Ltais Practice in the Mind. -Works, vol. v. 
 iis Tntical Essay on the Faculties of 
 
DEFINED. 389 
 
 provided the objects described as part of the thought are homo- 
 geneous and make one picture or sense. 
 
 Here for example is an enlargement of the subject : 
 ' The trim hedge, the grass plot before the door, the little flower-bed 
 bordered with box, the woodbine trained up against the wall and hanging 
 its blossoms around the lattice, the pot of flowers in the window, the 
 holly providentially planted around the house, to cheat winter of its 
 dreariness and throw in a semblance of green summer to cheer the fire- 
 side ; all these bespeak the influence of taste.' WASHINGTON IEVINO, 
 ' Eural Life in England.' 
 
 Here is an extension of the complement of the predicate : 
 'Methinks I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation rousing 
 herself like a strong man after sleep, shaking her venerable locks ; 
 methinks I see her as an eagle muing her mighty youth 'and kindling 
 her undazzled eyes at the full mid-day beam ; purging and unsealing 
 her long abused sight at the fountain itself of heavenly radiance.' 
 MILTON, ' Areopagitica.' 
 
 Again : 
 
 ' What a scene must a field of battle present, where thousands are 
 left 'without assistance and;. without pity, with their wounds exposed to 
 the piercing air, while the blood freezing as it flows binds them to the 
 earth, amidst the trampling of horses and the insults of an enraged foe. 
 If they are spared by the humanity of the enemy, and carried from the 
 field, it is but a prolongation of torment. Conveyed in uneasy vehicles, 
 often to remote distances, through roads almost impassable, they are 
 lodged in ill-prepared receptacles for the wounded and the sick, where 
 the very distress baffles all the efforts of humanity and skill and renders 
 it impossible to give to each the attention he demands. Far from their 
 native home, no tender assiduities of friendship, no well-known voice, 
 no wife or mother or sister is near to soothe their sorrows, or relieve 
 their thirst or close their eyes in death.' HALL, ' Reflections on War.' 
 
 Many examples of long sentences, violating no rale of unity, 
 may be seen in Jeremy Taylor's writings, in Professor Wilson's 
 Recreations, in Foster's Essays, and in parts of Hazlitt. The 
 last has at least one sentence a hundred and ten lines long ! * 
 
 Again : 
 
 ' To be most intimately in the presence, to be surrounded continually 
 by the glory of a Being omnipotent, and infinitely intelligent, existent 
 from eternity to eternity, the originator, supporter and disposer of all 
 other existences, and to feel no powerful impression on our minds, no 
 reverential fear, no frequent intimations even of the very fact : is not 
 this an astonishing violation of all rectitude, a most melancholy derelic- 
 tion of reason ? ' FOSTEE'S ESSAY (prefixed to Doddridge), 
 Breen, p. HO. 
 
390 HETEROGENEOUSNE^ 
 
 Again : 
 
 ' The morning had come of a mighty day, a day of crisis and of final 
 hope for human nature then suffering some mysterious eclipse and 
 labouring in some dread extremity." DE QUINCY. 
 
 720. It is therefore not the extension or the enlargement of 
 any part of a sentence, but the heterogeneousness 
 lorkid ' Hete- * ** tna * un ^ t y condemns ; whether the sentence 
 rogeneous- be complex or compound. 
 
 Here for example is Dr. Johnson's sketch of the 
 personal history of Prior : 
 
 ' He is supposed to have fallen by bis father's death into the hands of 
 his uncle, a vintner near Charing Cross, who sent him for some time to 
 Dr. Busby at Westminster, but not intending to'give any education beyond 
 that of the school, took him when he was well advanced in literature to 
 his own house, where the Earl of Dorset, celebrated for patronage of 
 genius, found him by chance, as Burnet relates, reading Horace, and 
 was BO well pleased with his proficiency, that he undertook the care and 
 cost of his academical education. 
 
 Had these particulars been jotted down as the theme of a 
 paragraph, no objection could have been taken to them ; but 
 when crowded into a single sentence, they fail to impress the 
 memory, or to interest the imagination. 
 
 Swift describes the times of Charles II. in terms equally 
 confusing : 
 
 ' To this succeeded the licentiousness which entered with the Restora- 
 tion, and from infecting our religion and morals, fell to corrupt our 
 language : which last was not like to be much improved by those who 
 at that time made up the court of King Charles II. ; either such who 
 had followed him in his banishment, or who had been altogether con- 
 versant in the dialect of those fanatic times ; or young men who had 
 been educated in the same company : so that the court which used to be 
 the standard of propriety and correctness of speech was then, aud I 
 think hath ever since continued, the worst school in England for that 
 accomplishment, and so will remain till better care bo taken in the 
 education of our young nobility, that they may set out into the world 
 with some foundation of literature in order to qualify them for patterns 
 of politeness.' Swnr (On the English Tongue). 
 
 If the student will compare these sentences with the common 
 style of Addison, De Foe, or Macaulay, he will perceive at 
 once how greatly unity contributes to effective writing. 
 
PARENTHESES. 391 
 
 Nor are "brief sentences less objectionable if heterogeneous : 
 e. g. 
 
 ' Cato died in the full vigour of life under fifty ; he was naturally 
 warm and affectionate in his temper, comprehensive and impartial, and 
 strongly possessed with the love of mankind.' FEBGUSON, ' History of 
 the Roman Republic.' 
 
 Here we hare Cato's death and vigour and age ; his temper, 
 comprehensiveness, and benevolence all in one compound sen- 
 tence. Either there ought to be two sentences ; or the first co- 
 ordinate sentence should be inserted as a relative clause. 
 
 721. Mitigated forms of this same evil are seen in the use of 
 
 the parentheses. 
 
 Parentheses. Parenthetic clauses ought to be avoided. They aro 
 allowable, however, when they contain brief explanatory phrases 
 intended to narrow or define the sense ; and occasionally when 
 they suggest by a thought which it is important not to withhold, 
 but which has no proper place as a distinct sentence in the 
 paragraph : e. g. 
 
 ' There is no party spirit (in the strict sense of that word) necessarily 
 generated by the forming of a combination with others for fixed and 
 definite objects to be pursued by certain specified means,' WHATELY, 
 ' Essay ii.' 
 
 ' Men should be warned not to suppose Christian humility to consist in 
 a mere general confession of the weakness of human nature, or (what 
 comes to the same thing) such a sinfulness in themselves as they believe 
 to be common to every descendant of Adam.' WHATELT, ' Essay i.' 
 
 ' I know that some of your class (and perhaps your conscience testifies 
 as to one) have no resource for escaping from their disquietude but by 
 throwing themselves into the whirl of amusement, into business or in- 
 temperance.' FOSTEB, ' Essay to Doddridge,' p. xxxv. 
 
 ' He (Sir W. Grant) possessed the first great quality for dispatching 
 business (the ' real,' not the ' affected dispatch ' of Lord Bacon), the 
 power of steadily fixing his attention upon the matter before him.' 
 
 BBOUGHAiT, 
 
 If the explanations are long or frequent, or not closely con- 
 nected with the subject, they distract the sense and destroy 
 impression : thus 
 
 ' When this parliament sat down (for it deserves our particular obser- 
 vation that both houses were full of zeal for the present government and 
 of resentment against the late usurpation), there was but one party In 
 parliament ; and no other party could raise its head in the natioriV- 1 - 
 BOLINGBROKE, ' Dissertation on Parties.' 
 
392 MIXED FIGUEES. 
 
 'Hume's ' Natural Eeligion' called forth Dr. Seattle's (author of 'The 
 Minstrel') able work.' HANDBOOK OF EUBOPEAN LITEBATUEB. 
 
 Burke, in his ' Vindication of Natural Society/ written in 
 imitation of Lord Bolingbroke, has happily illustrated this 
 peculiarity of the style of his model. 
 
 Even if the explanations are short and pertinent, the style 
 may be distracted by their frequency : e. g. 
 
 ' My voice proclaims, 
 How exquisitely the individual mind 
 (And the progressive powers, perhaps, no less 
 Of the whole species) to the external world 
 Is fitted. And how exquisitely too 
 (Theme this but little heard of among men) 
 The external world is fitted to the mind.' 
 
 WOEDSWOETH'S EXCURSION. 
 
 Though poetry admits parentheses more readily than prose, 
 just as in a pleasant stroll men more readily turn aside than 
 when engaged in business pursuits, yet even here the second 
 parenthesis is felt to distract the sense. 
 
 In Dr. Whately's admirable Treatise on Logic, there are said 
 to be upwards of four hundred parentheses, though he himself 
 has earnestly condemned the too frequent introduction of them. 
 
 Among writers who abuse the privilege of parentheses may 
 be named Bolingbroke, Churchill among the poets, Charles 
 Lamb, and occasionally Gibbon. Among writers who skilfully 
 use the privilege are John Foster, Lord Brougham, Whately, 
 and Cowper. 
 
 Generally, if the parenthesis contains more than is needed to 
 guard or limit or apply the expression, it is an evidence that 
 the writer has thoughts which he has not taken the pains to in- 
 corporate in their proper place. Of course the mere omission 
 of parenthetic marks is no relief of the difficulty. A lame man, 
 to use Whately's comparison, ' is not cured by taking away his 
 crutches,' and still less in concealing them. 
 
 722. It may be added that mixed figures of speech, mutually 
 
 Mixed contradictory words applied to the same subject of 
 
 thought, and the union of two or more incongruous 
 
 ideas by means of a single verb or adjective, are to be avoided. 
 
 They are generally destructive of unity : e. g. 
 
 4 There is a period in the history of Europe when every commotion OD 
 
WHEN ALLOWABLE. 393 
 
 its surface was occasioned by one cause deeply seated, like the internal 
 fire that is supposed to have produced the earthquake of Lisbon. This 
 cause was the Reformation. From 1520 to 1649 the Reformation was the 
 great lever of Europe.' LORD JOHN RUSSELL, ' Memoirs of Europe, from 
 the Peace of Utrecht.' 
 
 Better 'From 1520 to 1649 the Reformation convulsed while it ele- 
 vated Europe.' 
 
 ' Two great sins, one of omission and one of commission, have been 
 committed by the states of Europe in modern times.' ALISON, ' History of 
 Europe." 
 
 ' To one so gifted with the prodigality of Heaven can we approach in 
 any other attitude than of prostration.' GILFILLAN. 
 
 ' Of the nineteen tyrants who started up under the reign of Gallienus, 
 there was not one who enjoyed a life of peace or a natural death.' 
 GIBBON, ' Rise and Fall.' 
 
 In classic languages the union of somewhat incongruous ideas 
 by means of a single term is common, and is even deemed an 
 elegance. 
 
 Thus Tacitus speaks of Germany as separated from the 
 Dacians ' by mutual fear, or by mountains ' (mutuo metu aut 
 montibus), and Virgil, of one ' who kept his purpose and his 
 seat.' Gibbon also describes the multitude as rising, 'armed 
 with rustic weapons and irresistible fury. ' 
 
 But in serious composition our language does not favour such 
 forms of utterance. 
 
 In epigrammatic or humorous English, however, they are 
 allowable : thus 
 
 1 Lie heavy on him, earth, for he 
 Laid many a heavy load on thee.' 
 
 DH. EVANS, ' Epitaph on Sir J. Vanbrugh.' 
 
 After much patience, and many a wistful look, Pennant started up, 
 seized the wig, and threw it into the fire. It was in flames in a moment, 
 and so was the officer, who ran to his sword.' WALPOLIANA. 
 
 Puns, and much of the verbal wit of writers like Thomas 
 Fuller, are forms of this style of composition. Discordant 
 ideas are brought, by means of some common term, into unex- 
 pected relation, and the reader is pleased to find resemblances or 
 contrasts where he had expected none. 
 
 723. STRENGTH is that quality of style that fits it to impress, 
 
394 STRENGTH. 
 
 Strength and if need be to move the minds of men. When 
 explained, -words have their full force, they produce a threefold 
 effect upon the hearer. The sound is harmonious ; the represen- 
 tation of the thing for which it stands is clear and vivid, and 
 there is emotion excited by one or both of the foregoing. Such 
 is Burke's enumeration of the results of style when it has done 
 its utmost.* 
 
 To produce such results, style requires clearness and unity, 
 What it the qualities already discussed. It requires besides 
 requires, conciseness, vivid and definite works, skilful arrange- 
 ment, and some degree of correspondence between the correla- 
 tive parts of the same sentence. The opposite faults are dif- 
 fuseness, vague platitudes, feeble grouping, and the imperfect 
 contrast or the imperfect resemblance of connected clauses. 
 
 724 Conciseness is the first quality : though it has clearly 
 c . defined limits. The sense must always be plain ; and 
 
 the expression must be full enough to keep the 
 thought before the mind, and to interest our varied nature. But 
 while avoiding the mistake of enigmatic brevity, a writer must 
 not fall into the other extreme. Thought is 'like the spring of 
 a watch, most powerful when most compressed.' 
 
 The practical rules on conciseness are the following : Avoid 
 E needless words, and needless clauses ; the profuse rela- 
 
 tion of unnecessary circumstances ; and the protracted 
 simile or metaphor. 
 
 Needless Words: 
 
 Such for example as are already implied or expressed in other 
 parts of the sentence. Thus Ferguson speaks of one who pos- 
 sessed both 'magnanimity and greatness of mind;' Bolingbroke, 
 ' of tidings of good news ;' the Spectator, of gaining ' the uni- 
 versal love and esteem of all men ;' D'lsraeli, ' of the mysteries 
 of the arcana of alchemy ' ; and even Archbishop Whately, of 
 ' the trifling minutiae of style,' though this last may psrhaps be 
 defended. 
 
 Adjectives are generally objectionable on the same ground. If 
 
 they are needed to bring out the sense, it is a proof that the 
 
 nouns they qualify are wanting in definiteness. If they are not 
 
 needed to bring out the sense, but are added to express more 
 
 Burke ' On the Sublime,' part v. sec. 4. 
 
CONCISENESS. 395 
 
 fully what is stated in the context, or is so implied as to be 
 immediately deducible from it, the style is loaded with verbiage, 
 and the mental activity of the reader is repressed. Gibbon's 
 style is a good example of the enfeebling influence of epithets 
 on the sentences that contain them. 
 
 It is generally thought that poetry admits, and even requires, 
 greater licence in this respect than prose. And this is true. 
 But even in poetry epithets that add nothing to the completeness 
 of the picture detract from its impressiveness. That there may 
 be the sublimest poetry with few epithets may be shown from 
 the study of the 'Inferno' of Dante, or from the 'Samson 
 Agonistes ' and ' Paradise Regained ' of Milton. And this con- 
 viction will be deepened if we contrast any paraphrase of the 
 Psalms with the English version, or the ' Iliad ' of Pope with 
 the ' Iliad ' of Homer. 
 
 Nor less important is the number and position of conjunctions, 
 prepositions, demonstrative and relative pronouns. A style is 
 often enfeebled by needlessly multiplying these particles, and 
 strengthened by the mere omission of them. 
 
 Several written sentences connected by 'and,' like spoken 
 sentences connected by 'and so,' are nearly always feeble. They 
 are appropriate only when we wish to call attention to particu- 
 lars, and aim not at energy but at minuteness : thus 
 
 1 The army was composed of Grecians, and Carians, and Lycians, and 
 Phrygians.' 
 
 Here each nation passes under review. 
 
 ' Beef (said the sage magistrate) is the king of meat. Beef compre- 
 hends in it the quintessence of partridge, and quail, and venison, and 
 pheasant, and plum-pudding, and custard.' SWIFT (Tale of a Tub.) 
 
 Here we have a fit after-dinner description of the dish he had 
 been discussing ; and it is not difficult to fancy that the descrip- 
 tion and the discussion may have been well nigh equally drowsy 
 and equally long. 
 
 On this principle we avoid such phrases as ' There are few 
 tilings that ;' ' There is nothing which.' The italic words express 
 the whole sense. Even the relative is omitted in energetic 
 English, whenever it can be omitted without obscuring the 
 sense. 
 
 Needless clauses, and the profuse relation of unnecessary cir- 
 cumstances, are analogous faults, only on a larger scale. 
 
396 CONCISENESS. VIVIDNESS. 
 
 Protracted similes and excessive brilliancy of diction we must 
 also avoid. Imagery in style must never be merely ornamental. 
 It must do more than repeat the thought it illustrates : it must 
 amplify and extend it ; if possible, it must fortify it by indirect 
 arguments of its truth. But even when these requirements are 
 met, it must be kept subordinate. Imagery is but the figure of 
 our stuff, not itself the material. And if an author, forgetting 
 this distinction, makes it the substance of his book he will soon 
 fill his readers with weariness, if not with disgust. 
 
 Fulness or 725. Occasionally a writer is in doubt whether it 
 whicirufbe * 3 better * express his meaning fully or concisely : 
 preferred, a case that Whately has met by the following 
 remark : 
 
 'To an author who is in his expression of any sentiment wavering 
 between the demands of perspicuity and energy (of which the former of 
 course requires the first care, lest he should fail of both), and doubting 
 whether the phrase which has the most forcible brevity will be readily 
 taken in, it may be recommended to use both expressions ; first, to ex- 
 pound the sense sufficiently to be clearly understood, and then to contract 
 it into the most compendious and striking form. The hearers will be 
 struck by the forcibleness of the sentence which they will have been pre- 
 pared to comprehend. They will understand the larger expression and 
 remember the shorter.' 
 
 Of these brief expressive closing sentences there are admirable 
 examples in some of the sermons of South. 
 
 726. Vividness of style is more dependent on mental qualities 
 
 than on the other elements of good composition. A 
 Vividness. , . , -f. 
 
 racy humour, a strong fancy, a genial disposition, a 
 
 large generous heart, will nearly always create vivid description. 
 If men feel as well as think, if their thoughts are sentiments as 
 well as opinions, or if their nature is emotional as well as intel- 
 lectual, they may dispense with rules. Let them, feel; vividness 
 will be the natural utterance of their feeling. 'Words that 
 breathe' are the appropriate expressions of 'thoughts that burn.' 
 As helps, however, to the cultivation of this quality, note that 
 vividness prefers to speak not of classes but rather of individuals, 
 and that when this cannot be done it illustrates intellectual and 
 abstract thoughts by means of figurative language. Now and 
 then it dramatizes truth, and paints a scene instead of describ- 
 ing it : e.g. 
 
AKBANGEMENT. 397 
 
 ' They sank, like lead, in the mighty waters,' 
 
 ' The minds of the aged are like the tombs to which they are hastening ; 
 where, though the brass and the marble remain, yet the inscriptions are 
 effaced by time, and the imagery has moulded away.' LOCKE. 
 ' Look here, upon this picture and on this : 
 See what a grace was seated on this brow : 
 Hyperion's curls, the front of Jove himself ; 
 An eye like Mars' to threaten and command.' HAMLET. 
 
 Substitute for lead in the first sentence ' metal ' ; drop the 
 imagery in the second ; change the dramatic element in the third 
 for mere description, and the whole power and beauty will be 
 gone. 
 
 It is to their vividness we may attribute the popularity of 
 proverbs facts at once particular and general the power of a 
 style like Cobbett's, or of preaching like Jay's, and the effective- 
 ness of narrative as contrasted with that of abstract teaching. 
 It is the same quality, under the form of dramatic representation, 
 which we admire in the allegories of Bunyan, the preaching of 
 Whitfield, and, with reverence be it spoken, in the Parables of 
 Our Lord. 
 
 Arrangement 727. The skilful arrangement of words in the 
 of words. sentence is also important. 
 
 As the sense often depends in English on the order, an 
 English writer is more restricted in this respect than were classic 
 writers. And yet we have much greater freedom than is 
 generally supposed. For example : 
 
 Oblique cases when governed by prepositions we can place at 
 the beginning of the sentence : thus 
 
 ' For magnificence, for pathos, for vehement exhortation, for subtle 
 disquisition, for every purpose of the poet, the orator, and the divine, this 
 homely dialect (of Bunyan's) was perfectly sufficient.' MACAULAY. 
 
 'With his 'Sermon on Justification' the great and judicious Hooker 
 put to flight at once and for ever the more oppressive doubts which had 
 overshadowed the mind of the student, and enabled him to plant his foot 
 immoveably on Luther's rock stantis out cadentis ecclesiee.' SIR J. 
 STEPHEN ON THOMAS SCOTT. 
 
 O'er many a dark and dreary vale 
 They passed 
 O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp.' MILTON. 
 
 Oblique cases even without prepositions may be put first, ana 
 
S98 STEENGTH. 
 
 the verb may be placed at the end of the sentence, so as to give 
 in a moment a completed sense. 
 
 ' Dr. Johnson he taxes more than once with a plethoric tympany of 
 sentence.' DE QOTNCT, 
 
 ' The manner of this divine efficiency, being far above us, we are unable 
 to conceive.' HOOKEB. 
 
 ' The stateliness of houses, the goodliness of trees when we behold them, 
 delighteth the eye : but that foundation which beareth up the one, tliat 
 root which ministereth to the other nourishmeiit and life, is in the bosom 
 of the earth concealed,' HOOKEB, Book i, 1 3. 
 
 ' Now is the winter of our discontent 
 Made glorious summer by this sun of York, 
 And all the clouds that lowered on our house 
 In the deep bosom of the ocean buried.' RICHARD III. 
 
 The predicate may be placed first : and in complex sentences 
 we can alter the order of the clauses : 
 
 ' Great is the Lord, and of great power.' 
 
 ' Dangerous it were for the feeble brain of man to wade far into the 
 doings of the Most High, whom although to know be life, yet our soundest 
 knowledge is to know that we know him not as indeed he is.' HOOKEB. 
 
 ' All these things will I give thee, if thou wilt fall down and worship 
 me.' 
 
 Here the promise is put first, and the temptation afterwards. 
 
 Sometimes emphatic words are put first and last, their place 
 being fixed by a regard for emphasis, though for purely gram, 
 matical purposes the writer might have adopted another arrange- 
 ment : thus 
 
 ' Why their knowledge is more than ours, I know not that any reason 
 can be given but the unsearchable will of the Supreme Being.' JOHNSON 
 (Rasselas). 
 
 ' To refer all pleasure to association is to acknowledge no sound but 
 echo.' GUESSES AT TEUTH, 
 
 OF LAW there can be no less acknowledged than that her seat is the 
 bosom of God, her voice the harmony of the world.' HOOKEE, Book i. 
 xvi. 8. 
 
 In short, though in plain idiomatic English an inverted order 
 is not common, yet our language admits inversion to a very 
 large degree. Writers are therefore free to arrange their words 
 in the order that does most justice to the thought. No man 
 need fail to write strongly or emphatically through the supposed 
 deficiency in this respect of the English tongue. 
 
ARRANGEMENT. 399 
 
 It is a question whether strength requires that sentences 
 should end with none but significant and impressive words. 
 Some men affirm this rule, others deny it. In fact, some of 
 our best writers never scruple to end sentences with pronouns, 
 and other insignificant words : and the contrary practice gives to 
 composition an air of stLShess which it is important to avoid. 
 The middle course seems on the whole the safest. Avoid ending 
 too frequently with insignificant words, especially with prepo- 
 sitions and adverbs, when it is not intended to make them 
 emphatic. But use such sentences occasionally, for when 
 blended with other forms of the sentence, they render the para- 
 graph more natural and harmonious. 
 
 Though strength is a most important quality of style, care 
 must be taken in cultivating it to avoid harshness. The writings 
 of Bacon, Hooker, and Milton, though models of energy, are too 
 often defective in smoothness and harmony. Jonson notes that 
 it is a mistake to suppose that language ' is more strong and 
 manly because it strikes the ear with a kind of unevenness.'* 
 Sweetness and strength are as compatible in composition as in 
 the riddle of Samson. 
 
 728. Between members of a sentence, in which two objects 
 
 . are contrasted or compared, it ia desirable to preserve 
 Correspond- , . , , 
 
 enccof a correspondence in language and in construction. 
 
 clauses. ^ n unpractised writer seeks diversity, when the 
 strength of the style requires sameness ; 
 
 In language : 
 
 'Force was resisted by force, valour opposed by valour, and art 
 encountered or eluded by similar address ' [say ' art ']. GILLIES. 
 
 ' I have observed of late the style of some great ministers very much to 
 exceed that of any other productions ' [say 'writers']. SWIFT. 
 
 ' The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation ; the fool, 
 when he recommend* himself to the applause of those about him ' [say, 
 simply, 'gains that of others '], SPEOTATOE. 
 
 In construction : 
 
 'There may remain a suspicion that we overrate the greatness of his 
 genius in the same manner as bodies appear more gigantic on account of 
 their leing disproportioned and mis-shapen ' [say, ' we overrate the great- 
 ness of bodies that are ']. HUME. 
 
 Ben Jonson's Discourses. 
 
400 HARMONY. 
 
 This quality of correspondence or of absolute uniformity, 
 when uniformity is essential to strength, is well exemplified in 
 'Bacon's Essays,' in Pope's ' Comparison of Homer and Virgil,' 1 
 in Johnson's, of Dryden and Pope, and generally in the writings 
 of Lord Macaulay. 
 
 729. HARMO^T in style has reference to rlrythm. It makes 
 
 words ' a concord of sweet sounds. ' It helps the man 
 
 who uses it ' to discourse most eloquent music ' ; and 
 
 when not destructive of clearness of force, it adds greatly to the 
 
 beauty of composition. 
 
 It is difficult to give rules for harmony. Much must be left 
 to the taste of the writer. Style, moreover, must match the 
 thought. Every sound, and word, and phrase, and sentence 
 must be attuned to the sense. Even therefore if it were possible 
 to give rules, they would be nearly useless unless they taught 
 how to modulate the melody to the theme. The laws of 
 harmony, which might be suggested by Addison's papers on Sir 
 Roger, would be useless to one who sought to arouse enthusiasm ; 
 as the laws suggested by the writings of Burke or Chalmers 
 would be useless to authors like Goldsmith or Scott. 
 
 The mechanical rules are such as these : 
 
 In the choice of words, avoid harsh, grating, difficult combi- 
 nations, whether of vowels or of consonants, recurring letters, 
 ' long-tailed forms in " osity," and " ation." ' 
 
 In combining words avoid closely-connected aspirates, the 
 unmelodious repetition of like sounds, whether at the end of one 
 word and the beginning of the next, or at the end or the 
 beginning of different words in any part of the same sentence. 
 
 In arranging clauses of sentences, and sentences in para- 
 graph, special attention must be paid to their length and due 
 proportion. Prosy protractedness, and asthmatic brevity, must 
 both be avoided. 
 
 These rules will help but little, and yet the principle is true : 
 'Nothing is likely to reach the heart which stumbles at the 
 threshold by offending the ear. ' QUINTIXIAN. 
 
 The reader may try his taste by the following : the harmony 
 will be found very different in each. 
 
 Preface to Fomer. 
 
PAKAGKAPHS. 401 
 
 * And at night so cloudless and so still ! Not a voice of living thing 
 not a \vhisper of leaf or waving bough not a breath of wind not a 
 sound upon the earth nor in the air ! And overhead bends the blue sky, 
 dewy and soft, and radiant with innumerable stars, like the inverted bell 
 of some blue-flower sprinkled with golden dust, and breathing fragrance. ' 
 Of Mirabeau ' He has the indisputablest ideas ; but then his style ! 
 In very truth, it is the strangest of styles, though one of the richest ; a 
 style full of originality, picturesqueness, sunny vigour ; but all cased and 
 slated over threefold, in metaphor and trope ; distracted into tortuosities, 
 dislocations ; starting out into crotchets, cramp-turns, quaintnesses, and 
 hidden satire.' 
 
 ' These are thy glorious works, Parent of good, 
 Almighty! Thine this universal frame, 
 Thus wondrous fair : Thyself how wondrous then ! 
 Unspeakable ! who sitt'st above these heavens 
 To us invisible, or dimly seen, 
 In these thy lowest works ; yet these declare 
 Thy goodness beyond thought, and power divine,' &c. 
 
 PARADISE LOST, Book V. 
 
 iii. PAEAGEAPHS. 
 
 730. A paragraph, is a combination of sentences, intended to 
 .,... explain, or illustrate, or prove, or apply some truth ; 
 
 or to give the history of events during any definite 
 portion of time, or in relation to any one subject of thought. 
 
 731. Paragraphs require the element of unity as much as 
 Require sentences ; but the unity is more comprehensive. A 
 unity. sentence is properly one thought ; or if compound, 
 two or more connected thoughts making one whole. A para- 
 graph has one subject, which in various ways the sentences 
 illustrate and explain. When several paragraphs are combined 
 under one head, they form what may be called a chapter ; and 
 when chapters are similarly combined they form a volume. 
 
 732. Properly a paragraph has one theme, which may be 
 The one stated in the margin, or at the beginning, or at the 
 theme may- dose, or at both beginning and close : or which may 
 different be implied only and not stated. Paragraphs of the 
 places. i as ki n d are generally defective in clearness ; and 
 paragraphs that have no one theme to discuss are without the 
 essential element of a paragraph, as a sentence made up of several 
 heterogeneous thoughts is properly no sentence at all. 
 
 2 D 
 
402 PARAGRAPHS. THEME. 
 
 The tlieme put in the margin : 
 
 Subject of the chapter. STATE OP ENGLAND in 1685 and in I860. 
 Subject of the paragraph. The Birmingham of 1685 and 1860. 
 
 'Birmingham had not been thought of sufficient importance to send a 
 
 member to Oliver's parliament. Yet the manufacturers of 
 Birmingham. . , r , , , . . m 
 
 Birmingham were already a strong and thriving race. They 
 
 boasted that their hardware was highly esteemed, not indeed as now, at 
 Pekin and Lima, at Bokhara and Timbuctoo, but in London and even as 
 far off as Ireland. They had acquired a less honourable renown as coiners 
 of bad money. In allusion to their spurious groats, the Tory party had 
 fixed on demagogues who hypocritically affected zeal against Popery, the 
 nickname of Birminghams. Yet in 1685 the population, which is now 
 little less than 200,000, did not amount to 4000. Birmingham buttons 
 were just beginning to be known ; of Birmingham guns nobody had yet 
 heard; and the place whence, two generations later, the magnificent 
 editions of Baskerville went forth to astonish all the librarians of Europe, 
 did not contain a single regular shop where a Bible or an almanack could 
 be bought. On market-days a bookseller named Michael Johnson, the 
 father of the great Samuel Johnson, came over from Lichfield and opened 
 a stall during a few hours. This supply of literature was long equal to 
 the demand.' MACATJLAY'S ENGLAND, i. chap. iii. 
 
 The theme stated at the beginning of the paragraph : 
 Subject of the paper. BOSWELL'S JOHNSON. 
 
 Subject of the paragraph. Is it right to publish careless con- 
 versation ? 
 
 ' An exception was early taken against this Life of Johnson : That 
 such jottings down of careless conversation are an infiingement of social 
 privacy ; a crime against our highest freedom, the freedom of man's inter- 
 course with man.' .... (This is explained, discussed, negatived, and 
 the paragraph ends). . . . ' Nothing dies, nothing can die. No idlest word 
 thou speakest but is a seed cast into Time and grows through all Eternity. 
 The Recording Angel, consider it well, is no fable, but the truest of truths ; 
 the paper tablet thou canst burn ; of the 'iron leaf ' there is no burning. 
 Truly if we can permit God Almighty to note down our conversation, 
 thinking it good enough for Him, any poor Boswell need not scruple to 
 work his will of it.' CABLYLE, 'Miscellanies,' iv. 4952. 
 
 Subject. Everything transitory. 
 
 ' It is a twice-told tale that the world is passing away from us. God 
 has written it upon every page of His creation that there is nothing here 
 which lasts. Our affections change. The friendships of the man are 
 not the friendships of the boy. The face of the visible world is altering 
 around us; we have the grey mouldering ruins to tell of what once 
 
HOW STATED. 403 
 
 was. Our labourers strike their ploughshares against the foundations of 
 buildings which once echoed to human mirth skeletons of men to whom 
 life once was dear urns and coins that remind the antiquarian of a 
 Magnificent empire. This is the history of the world, and all that ia in 
 it. It passes while we look at it. Like as when you watch the melting 
 tints of the evening sky purple-crimson, gorgeous gold, a few pulsations 
 of quivering light, and it is all gone. We are such stuff as dreams are 
 made of.' BOBEBTSON'S SEEMONS, second series, p. 173. 
 
 Subject of the sermon. MAN CHEATED IN GOD'S IMAGE. 
 Subject of the paragraph. Fear in Eden. 
 
 'And lastly, for the Affection of Fear. It was then the Instrument of 
 Caution, not of Anxiety ; a Guard and not a Torment to the Breast that 
 had it. It is now indeed an Unhappiness, the Disease of the Soul : it flies 
 from a Shadow, and makes more Dangers than it avoids : it weakens the 
 Judgment, and betrays the Succours of Reason. So hard is it to tremble, 
 and not to err ; and to hit the Mark with a shaking Hand, Then it fixed 
 upon him who only is to be feared, God : and yet with a filial Fear, which 
 at the same time both fears and loves. It was Awe without Amazement : 
 Dread without Distraction. There was then a Beauty even in this very 
 Paleness. It was the Colour of Devotion, giving a Lustre to Reverence, 
 and a Gloss to Humility.' SOUTH'S SERMONS, vol. i. sermon 2. Original 
 Ed. See par. 126. 
 
 Subject. Immortal life, why not easily realized. 
 
 1 Perhaps the greatest of all the difficulties which we feel in forming 
 such conjectures ' (about another life) ' regards the endless duration of an 
 immortal existence. All our ideas of this world are so adapted to a 
 limited continuance of life not only so moulded upon the scheme of a 
 being incapable of lasting beyond a few years, but so inseparably con- 
 nected with a constant change even here a perpetual termination of one 
 stage of existence and beginning of another that we cannot easily, if at all, 
 fancy an eternal, or even a long- continued, endurance of the same facul- 
 ties, the same pursuits, and the same enjoyments. All here is in perpetual 
 movement ceaseless change. There is nothing in us or about us that 
 abides an hour nay, an instant. Resting-place there is none for the foot 
 . no haven is furnished where the mind may be still. How then shall a 
 creature, thus wholly ignorant of repose unacquainted with any continua- 
 tion at all in any portion of his existence so far abstract his thoughts from 
 his whole experience as to conceive a long, much more a perpetual, dura- 
 tion of the same powers, pursuits, feelings, pleasures ? Here it is that we 
 are the most lost in our endeavours to reach the seats of the blessed with 
 our imperfect organs of perception and our inveterate and only habits of 
 thinking.' BROUGHAM, ' Discourse of Natural Theology,' p. 135. 
 
 2 n 2 
 
40 i PARAGKAPHS. THEME. 
 
 The theme stated at the close : 
 
 Sometimes the thought of a paragraph can be gathered rather 
 from the close than from the commencement. Macaulay, for 
 example, closes his Life of Johnson with a paragraph of tills kind. 
 He intends to affirm the continued and deserved popularity of 
 his author, and he affirms it thus : 
 
 ' Since his death, the popularity of his works has greatly diminished. 
 His dictionary has been altered by editors till it can scarcely be called his. 
 An allusion to his Rambler or his Idler is not readily apprehended in 
 literary circles. The fame even of Rasselas has grown somewhat dim. 
 But though the celebrity of the writings may have declined, the celebrity 
 of the writer, strange to say, is as great as ever. Boswell's book has done 
 more for him than the best of his own books could do. . . The old philo- 
 sopher is still among us in the brown coat with the metal buttons and the 
 shirt which ought to be at wash, blinking, puffing, rolling his head, and 
 drumming with his fingers. . . No human being who has been more than 
 seventy years in his grave is so well known to us. And it is but just to 
 say that our intimate acquaintance with what he would himself have 
 called the anfractuosities of his intellect and of his temper serves only to 
 strengthen our conviction that he was both a great and a good man.' 
 MACATTLAT, ' Miscellaneous Writings,' ii. 303. 
 Similarly : 
 
 ' If we have selected for the subject of our present memoir an ancestor 
 whose memory is held in just veneration by his descendants, our pre- 
 ference is fully borne out by the distinguished place which his writings 
 still maintain m the estimation of the public. A life devoted to the 
 advancement of the interests of the church, which he defended with 
 eminent zeal and ability, deserves to be recorded among the worthies 
 of the nation." LIFE OF STUJLINGFLEET. 
 
 The italic words of this paragraph will direct attention to 
 inaccurate grouping. 
 
 This inversion of the order of a paragraph is most appropriate 
 in closing or in commencing a narrative. It is very frequent in 
 Butler's Analogy, in which the author has to prepare the reader 
 for his conclusions by a quiet enumeration of facts or arguments. 
 Sometimes the subject of the paragraph is not formally stated in 
 it, and then the reader has to gather it from the context. 
 The theme stated at both the beginning and the close : 
 
 Subject. Atheism by establishment. 
 
 ' I call it atheism by establishment, when any state, as such, shall not 
 acknowledge the existence of God as a moral governor of the world ; when 
 
 ; shall abolish the Christian religion by a regular decree ; when it shall 
 te with a cold, unrelenting, steady cruelty, by every mode of con- 
 
HOW STATED. 405 
 
 fiscation, imprisonment, exile, and death, all its ministers ; when it shall 
 generally shut up or pull down churches , when in the place of that 
 religion of social benevolence, and of individual self-denial, in mockery 
 of all ^religion, they institute impious, blasphemous, indecent, theatrick 
 rules, in honour of their vitiated, perverted reason, and erect altars to 
 the personification of their own corrupted and bloody republick ; when 
 schools and seminaries are founded at the public expense to poison man- 
 kind, from generation to generation, with the horrible maxims of this 
 impiety ; when wearied out with incessant martyrdom and the cries of a 
 people hungering and thirsting for religion, they permit it as a tolerated 
 evil I call this atheism by establishment' BUBKE. 
 
 Subject of the paragraph. Correspondence of Wycherley 
 and Pope. 
 
 ' It is curious to trace the history of the intercourse which took place 
 between Wycherley and Pope, between the representative of the age that 
 was going out and the representative of the age that was coming in, 
 between the period of Rochester and Buckingham and the period of Lyttel- 
 ton and Mansfield. At first the boy was enchanted by the kindness and 
 condescension of so eminent a writer.' . . (Then follows a description of 
 the ardour and the growing coolness of their intercourse, till it is broken 
 off, not without bitter and angry words.) . . ' Thus ended this memorable 
 conespondence.' MACATJLAY, ' Edinburgh Review,' Jan. 1841. 
 
 'But, last and most important of all, Budgett, in his capacity as 
 master, is a religious man a real earnest Christian.' . . (First Chris- 
 tianity is explained, and then its influence in business life, till we reach 
 the conclusion.) . . 'It is a Christian mercantile establishment.' 
 BAYNE'S CHEISTIAN LIFE, p. 224-6. 
 
 ' He has a warm and honest sympathy with his men.' . . (Examples 
 are quoted, and the paragraph ends with the confession of one of his 
 servants.) . . ' And he never had a good year but I was the better for it, 
 when stock-taking came.' DITTO. 
 
 733. When sentences are combined into paragraphs it becomes 
 
 Length and consider their variations of length an/1 
 
 mixture of form. A German writer generally packs into his 
 sentences. sen t en ce as much as he possibly can. He cares 
 little for the structure and balancing of his periods, or for the art 
 by Which several periods modify and perfect each other. A 
 French writer, on the other hand, is always clear and generally 
 brief. English style admits both forms ; German fulness and 
 French brevity : and the most effective writing requires a com- 
 bination of the two. Brief sentences give force and clearness ; 
 full sentences add impressiveness and weight. 
 
406 PARAGRAPHS. 
 
 734. TUe general arrangement and character of sentences may 
 v . 'be easy and natural as in Dryden ; or they may be 
 styles of rhetorical, and nicely balanced as in Hooker and 
 arrangement, j^nscn. They may be plain and forcible as in Swift 
 and Paley ; or graceful and idiomatic as in Addison and Gold- 
 smith ; vehement as in Baxter, Bolingbroke, Burke, Chalmers, 
 and Brougham ; florid as in Jeremy Taylor, Gibbon, Hervey, and 
 parts of Rasselas and of the ' Spectator ; ' or they may combine 
 most or all of these qualities, as in the style of Blackstone, 
 Mackintosh (in his ' Law of Nature ' and in his ' Ethical Philo- 
 sophy'), Robert Hall, and Hugh Miller. Every writer must 
 study his own taste and powers. In any of these styles, it is 
 possible to excel ; and excellence will be most easily gained by 
 each in that style which he finds most natural. 
 
 735. If paragraphs be examined with the view of ascertaining 
 v . on what principles different authors have composed 
 of forming them how in fact they are built up they will be 
 paragraphs. found ftn ^^5,^ ob j ec t of study. 
 
 Occasionally, the general subject of a chapter or an essay is 
 stated in the first paragraph, and in a single sentence. The 
 expansion and proofs being reserved for subsequent clauses : 
 e. g. 
 
 (The right man in the right place.) 'It is a peculiar advantage to a 
 nation when men of character and talent are so disposed in the high 
 places of honour, that each of them moves in the sphere which is proper 
 to him, and requires those qualities in which he excels.' 
 
 ' This principle I proceed to illustrate," eto. 
 
 Sometimes an author makes his paragraphs little else than 
 Expanded expanded sentences. This is a common style of 
 8itences. Jeremy Taylor's : thus- 
 Subject of the paragraph. Prayer hindered by anger. 
 
 'Prayer is an action and a state of intercourse and desire exactly 
 opposite to this character of anger. Prayer is an action of likeness to the 
 Holy Ghost, the spirit of gentleness and dove-like simplicity, an imitation 
 of the holy Jesus whose spirit is meek, up to the greatness of the biggest 
 example; and a conformity to God, whose anger is always just, and 
 marches slowly and is without transportation and of ten hindered, and never 
 hasty, and full of mercy. Prayer is the peace of our spirit, the stillness of 
 our thoughts, the evenness of recollection, the seat of meditation, the rest 
 
EXPANDED SENTENCES. 407 
 
 of our cares, and the calm of our tempest. Prayer is the issue of a quiet 
 mind, of untroubled thoughts, it is the daughter of charity and the sister 
 of meekness, and he that prays to God with an angry, that is, with a 
 troubled and discomposed spirit, is like him that retires into a battle to 
 meditate, and sets up his closet in the out-quarters of an army, and chooses 
 a frontier garrison to be wise in. Anger is a perfect alienation of the 
 mind from prayer, and therefore is contrary to that attention which 
 presents our prayers in a right line to God. For so have I seen a lark 
 rising from his bed of grass and soaring upwards, singing as he rises, and 
 hopes to get to heaven and climb above the clouds ; but the poor bird 
 was beaten back with the loud sighings of an eastern wind, and his motion 
 made irregular and inconstant, descending more at every breath of the 
 tempest than it could recover by the librations and frequent weighing of 
 his wings, till the little creature was forced to sit down and pant and stay 
 till the storm was over ; and then it made a prosperous flight, and did rise 
 and sing as if it had learned music and notes from an angel so is the 
 prayer of a good man ; etc.' THB BETUBN OF PBAYEBS. 
 
 ' But when the Christian religion was planted and had taken root and 
 had filled all lands, then all .the nature of things, the whole creation, 
 became servant to the kingdom of grace ; and the head of the religion is 
 also the head of the. creatures, and ministers all the things of the world 
 in order to the spirit of grace ; and now ' angels are ministering spirits,' 
 and all the violences of men, and things of nature and choice, are forced 
 into subjection and lowest ministries, and to co-operate as with an 
 united design to verify all the promises of the gospel and to secure and 
 advantage all the children of the kingdom ; and now he that is made 
 poor by chance or persecution is made rich by religion ; and he that hath 
 nothing, yet possesses all things ; and sorrow itself is the greatest com- 
 fort, not only because it ministers to virtue, but because itself is one, as 
 in the case of repentance 3 and death ministers to life, and bondage is 
 freedom, and loss is gain, and our enemies are our friends, and every- 
 thing turns into religion, and religion turns into felicity and all manner 
 of advantages,' etc. 
 
 This style of eloquence Taylor's contemporary. South, rebukes. 
 In a sermon preached at Christchurch, Oxford, in 1668, on Luke 
 xxi. 16, he criticises thus : 
 
 ' To adorn and clothe [necessary and important truths] Is to cover 
 them, and that to obscure them. The eternal salvation and damnation 
 of souls are not things to be treated of with jests and witticisms. 'I 
 speak the words of soberness,' said St. Paul : ' and I preach the gospel not 
 in enticing words of man's wisdom,' This was the way of the apostles 
 discoursing of things sacred. Nothing here ' of the fringes of the north 
 star,' nothing 'of the down of angels' wings, or 'the beautiful locks of 
 
408 PAEA.GBAPHS. 
 
 the cherubim ; ' no starched similitude introduced with ' Thus have I 
 seen a cloud rolling in its airy mansion,' and the like. No, these were 
 sublimities above the rise of the apostolic spirit. For the apostles, poor 
 mortals, were content to take lower steps and tell the world in plain 
 terms, ' that he who believeth should be saved, and he who believeth not 
 should be damned.' And this was the dialect that pierced the conscience 
 and made the hearers cry out, 'Men and brethren, what shall we do ? 
 It tickled not the ear, but sank into the heart, and when men came from 
 such sermons, they never commended the preacher for his taking voice 
 or gesture, for the pureness of such a simile, or the quaintness of such a 
 sentence; but they spoke like men conquered with the overpowering 
 force and evidence of the most concerning truths. In a word, the 
 apostles' preaching was therefore mighty and successful ; because plain, 
 natural, and familiar : nothing being more preposterous than for those 
 who were professedly aiming at men's hearts, to miss the mark by shoot- 
 ing over their heads.' 
 
 736. Sometimes an author makes each sentence a complete 
 Successive thought, easily separable from the rest of the para- 
 
 a nt i~d graph- Such sentences are often repetitions of each 
 pendent " other, though under a new form with narrowed 
 sentences. meaning, or with appeals to various parts of our 
 nature, now to memory, now to reason, and now to fancy. This 
 is a common style in Johnson and in Burke. 
 
 'Manners are of more importance than laws. Upon them, in a great 
 measure, laws depend. The law touches us but here and there, and now 
 and then. Manner are what vex or soothe, corrupt or purify, exalt or 
 debase, barbarize or refine, as by a constant, steady, uniform, insensible 
 operation, like that of the air we breathe in. They give their whole form 
 and colour to our lives.' (Then having laid down in these various forms 
 the principle, he enumerates facts to show that the French legislature 
 settled a system of manners the most licentious and abandoned that ever 
 had been known, and at the same time the most rude and ferocious.) 
 BUEKE, ' Letters on a Eegicide Peace,' Letter I. 
 
 ' I am sensible that these principles will not be very strenuously opposed. 
 Reason is never inconvenient but when it comes to be applied. Mere 
 general truths interfere very little with the passions. They can, until 
 they are roused by a troublesome application, rest in great tranquillity 
 side by side with tempers and proceedings the most directly opposite to 
 them. Men want to be reminded who do not want to be taught,' etc 
 ' TBACTS.' 
 
 ' Music among those who were styled the chosen people, was a religious 
 art. The songs of Zion. which we have reason to think were in high 
 
SENTENCES HOW CONNECTED. 409 
 
 repute among the courts of eastern monarchs, were nothing else but 
 psalms that adored or celebrated the Supreme Being. The greatest con- 
 queror in this holy nation, after the manner of the old Grecian lyrics, did 
 not only compose the words of his divine odes, but generally set them to 
 music himself ; after which, his works, though they were consecrated to 
 the tabernacle, became the national entertainment, as well as the devotion 
 of his people.' SPECTATOR, No. 405, 
 
 In this sentence we have three assertions, from the first, which 
 is widest, to the last, which is narrowest, and all expressing the 
 same thought. This is a favourite form of paragraph with 
 Addison. See Spect. No. 505. 'Notwithstanding these follies,' 
 etc. 
 
 737. Sometimes an author starts each paragraph with the 
 illustrative theme ; and then without announcing his purpose, 
 sentences. p r0 ves his theme, illustrates it, or applies it. This 
 is the common style of Addison, Macaulay, and many more. 
 
 (The Theme) : ' A man of polite imagination is let into a great many 
 pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving. (First Illustration) : 
 He can converse with a picture, and find an agreeble companion in a 
 statue. (Second Illustration] : He meets with a secret refreshment in a 
 description, and often feels a greater satisfaction in the prospect of fields 
 and meadows than another does in the possession of them. (Third Illus- 
 tration, partly repetitionary] : It gives him a kind of property in every- 
 thing he sees, and makes the most rude uncultivated parts of nature 
 administer to his pleasures. (The Theme repeated] : So that he looks 
 on the world in another light and discovers in it a multitude of charms 
 that conceal themselves from the generality of mankind." ABDISOX, 
 ' Pleasures of Imagination.' 
 
 (Theme]: 'When most disguised and repressed the wisdom of the 
 gospel has been modifying our philosophy and teaching a loftier system 
 of its own. (Illustrations and Proof] : A Howard, sounding and circum- 
 navigating the ocean of human misery, is only an obedient agent of its 
 phil anthropy . A Clarkson and a Wilberf orce have only given utterance to 
 its tender and righteous appeals ior the slave. A Raikes, a Bell, and a 
 Lancaster, have simply remembered its long neglected injunction, ' Suffer 
 little children to come unto me.' ' HAEEIS, ' Posthumous Works,' i. 8. 
 
 (Theme: The early and wide spread, of Protestantism in Northern 
 Europe.] ' In the northern parts of Europe the victory of Protestantism 
 was rapid and decisive. (Here follow some of the reasons of this victory.) 
 The dominion of the papacy was felt by the nations of Teutonic blood as 
 the dominion of Italians, of foreigners, of men who were aliens in language. 
 
410 SENTENCES: 
 
 manners, afcd intellectual constitution. The large j urisdiction exercised by 
 the spiritual tribunals of Rome seemed to be a degrading badge of servitude. 
 The sums which, under a thousand pretexts, were exacted by a distant court, 
 were regarded both as a humiliating and as a ruinous tribute. The charac- 
 ter of that court excited the scorn and the disgust of a grave, earnest, 
 sincere, and devout people. The new theology spread with a rapidity 
 never known before. All ranks, all varieties of character, joined the in- 
 novators. Sovereigns impatient to appropriate to themselves the revenues 
 of the Pope, nobles desirous to share the plunder of abbeys, suitors ex- 
 asperated by the extortions of the Roman Camera, patriots impatient of a 
 foreign rule, good men scandalized by the corruptions of the church, bad 
 men desirous of the license inseparable from great moral revolutions, wise 
 men eager in the pursuit of truth, weak men allured by the glitter of 
 novelty ; all were found on one side. Alone among the northern nations 
 the Irish adhered to the ancient faith ; and the cause of this seems to have 
 been that the national feeling which, in happier countries, was directed 
 against Rome, was in Ireland directed against England (Re- 
 statement of Theme) : In England, Scotland, Denmark, etc., the Reforma- 
 tion had completely triumphed ; and in all the other countries on this 
 side of the Alps and the Pyrenees, it seemed on the point of triumphing. 
 ' But while this mighty work proceeded in the north of Europe, a revo- 
 lution of a very different kind had taken place in the south 
 
 (Reasons of this change) : The temper of Italy and Spain was widely 
 different from that of Germany and England.' etc. MACAXJLAY, 'Review 
 of Von Ranke,' Ed. Rev. Oct. 1840. 
 
 Proof and illustration combined : 
 
 ' The true unity of the church has been better illustrated and promoted 
 by Missions than by any other occasion of its development. A high- 
 minded emulation combines with a generous sympathy. Then we have 
 regretted our divisions, because they may embarrass our impression on the 
 heathen. Then, too, our leisure for controversy was abridged, and our 
 need of it abated. Grave matters there may be for settlement and 
 solution, but we are called to action now. To ' brotherly kindness ' we 
 have added 'charity.' Occasionally brethren have their sharp conten- 
 tions, and depart asunder one from another. The present crisis of civil 
 and religious questions has tried us all. It is probable that they have left 
 behind them even some bitterness and exacerbation. But there are signs 
 of renewed esteem and confidence. The halcyon sails upon the storm. 
 The bow is in the cloud. Co-workers in Christianizing the world cannot 
 long misjudge and impugn each other. The principle of agreement is too 
 well established to be embroiled by these passing strifes. It is visionary 
 to expect a syllabic consonance of creeds, or a mechanical monotony of 
 practice. There is a distinct modification of every human mind. The 
 
HOW CONNECTED. 411 
 
 same truth acting upon this difference of mental surface is reflected in 
 varying aspects, just as the same sunbeam paints a thousand hues accord- 
 ing to the texture of a thousand flowers. We are learning to respect each 
 other, not for the abandonment, but for the maintenance of our peculiar 
 opinions. We hail a substantive agreement. 'If any man trust to him- 
 self that he is Christ's, let him of himself think this again, that as he is 
 Christ's even so are we Christ's.' 'HAMILTON ' On Missions,' pp. 193, 
 194. 
 
 Sometimes the theme is proved by showing the results of the 
 contrary : thus 
 
 ' (Theme) : I am fully persuaded that one of the best springs of 
 generous and worthy action is to have generous and worthy thoughts of 
 ourselves. ( The contrary) : Whoever has a mean opinion of the dignity of 
 his nature, will act in no higher a rank than he has allotted himself in his 
 own estimation. (Result of this contrary} : If he consider his, being as 
 circumscribed by the uncertain term of a few years, his designs will be 
 contracted into the same narrow space he imagines is to bound his 
 existence. (Result in another form) : How can he exalt his thoughts to 
 anything great and noble who believes that after a short turn on the stage 
 of this world he is to sink into oblivion and lose his consciousness for 
 ever.' 
 
 In the following example the theme is not stated ; and it is 
 proved by the results of neglect : 
 
 ' (Theme, the advantage of cultivating taste) : There are but very few 
 who know how to be idle and innocent, or have a relish for pleasures that 
 are not criminal. (A second statement of the same thing) : Every diver- 
 sion they take is at the expense of some virtue, and their first step out of 
 business is into vice or folly. (Hence the conclusion} : A man should 
 endeavour therefore to make the sphere of his innocent pleasures as wide 
 as possible, that he may retire into them with safety, and find in them 
 such a satisfaction as a wise man would not blush to take. (More par- 
 ticularly defined) : Of this nature are those of imagination, which do not 
 require such a bent of thought as is necessary to our more serious employ- 
 ments, nor at the same time suffer the mind to sink into that negligence 
 and remissness which are apt to accompany more sensual delights.' 
 ADDISON. ; 
 
 738. Sometimes an author makes each sentence after the first 
 Sentences originate in some word or turn of thought in the 
 thaUmginate preceding. This is the common style of Burke and of 
 of the many inferior writers. It is apt to degenerate into 
 
 preceding. diffusive talk, but when skilfully managed is both 
 beautiful and curious. 
 
412 SENTENCES: HOW CONNECTED. 
 
 ' The other sort of men were the politicians. To them, who had little 
 or not at all reflected on the subject, religion was in itself no object of love 
 or hatred. They disbelieved it, and that was all. Neutral with regard to 
 that object, they took the order which in the present state of things 
 might best answer their purposes. They soon found that they could not 
 do without the philosophers; and the philosophers soon made them 
 sensible that the destruction of religion was to supply them with means of 
 conquest, first at home and then abroad. The philosophers were the 
 active internal agitators, and supplied the spirit and principles ; the second 
 gave the practical direction ; sometimes the one predominated in the com - 
 position, sometimes the other. The only difference between them was in 
 the necessity of concealing the general design for a time, and in their dealing 
 with foreign nations ; the fanatics going straight forward and openly, 
 the politicians by the surer mode of zigzag. In the course of events this 
 among other causes produced fierce and bloody contentions between them. 
 But at the bottom they thoroughly agreed in all the objects of ambition 
 and irreligion, and substantially on all the means of promoting these 
 ends.' BURKE. 
 
 This practice of making some word of one sentence suggest the 
 thought or words of the next, is common in some kinds of 
 poetry. It may be seen in the ( Servian songs,' and in 
 ' Hiawatha. ' 
 
 ' By the fountain lay the clay-cold Marko 
 Day and night ; a long long week he lay there". 
 Many travellers passed and saw the hero, 
 Saw him lying by the public pathway ; 
 And while passing, said, 'The hero slumbers.' 
 DEATH OF KBAVKLICH MAEKO (Translated by Dr. Bowring). 
 
 739. In connecting paragraphs a writer is generally guided by 
 HOW para- the J ogical order of the thoughts. Sometimes, how- 
 graphs are ever, successive paragraphs are connected verbally, 
 either by a re-statement of the theme, by name and with 
 a new application, by simple connecting words, as ' And here I 
 may remark,' 'Nor was this all,' etc., or by making what might 
 have been the close of one paragraph the commencement of the 
 following : thus 
 
 South, after explaining 'general notions,' adds in a new 
 paragraph 
 
 ' Now it was Adam's happiness in the state of innocence to have these 
 [general notions] clear and unsullied. He came into the world a philosopher; 
 he could view essences in themselves, and read forms without the comment 
 of their respective properties.' . . . (After expanding this thought, he closes 
 
PABAGEAPHS : HOW CONNECTED. 413 
 
 thus) : . . , ' And certainly that must needs have been very glorious, the 
 decays of which are so admirable. An Aristotle was but the rubbish of 
 an Adam, and Athena but the rudiments of Paradise.' SOUTH (Sermons, 
 vol. i., Sermon 2). 
 
 So Hooker 
 
 ' The general end of God's external working is the exercise of his most 
 glorious and most abundant virtue. Which abundance doth show itself in 
 variety, and for that cause this variety is often in Scripture exprest by the 
 name of riches.' . . . (This he explains and applies, and the next para- 
 graph begins) : ' They err therefore who think that of the will of God to 
 do this or that there is no reason besides his will. . . . (These reasons he 
 illustrates, and after noting our inability to grasp or understand them, 
 closes thus) : ' The little thereof which we darkly apprehend we admire, 
 the rest with religious ignorance we humbly and meekly adore.' ECCLE- 
 SIASTICAL POLITY, Book I., ch. ii. [4, 5]. 
 
 740. Thus far we have given what may be called the me- 
 Mccbanical chanical rules of composition. A writer must know 
 rulesjiot them to avoid mistakes. But a knowledge of these 
 
 rules will not necessarily make a good writer. 
 
 741. There must be first of all clear thought, a definite pur- 
 Mental quali- pose, an earnest heart. There must be also reasoning 
 tics needed. p 0werj facility of illustration, and so much of literary 
 taste as is required to appreciate the qualities of style. 
 
 742. With moat men, there is needed besides an acquaintance 
 Study of "-cod w ith good models, much practice in writing or in 
 models aud speech. A few words on each of these last two 
 
 topics may appropriately close this discussion. 
 
 743. The history of English style is conveniently divided by 
 Sir James Mackintosh into three periods : 
 
 The first period extending from Sir Thomas More to Clarendon. 
 
 This was the Latin age of English composition : 
 Three periods m , , j , j-r it. T j. i_- 
 
 in the history The second period extending from the Restoration 
 
 of our style. ^ o fa e middle of the eighteenth century. This was 
 the age of Dryden, Pope, Addison, Goldsmith, and others ; the 
 classic age of natural, idiomatic English : 
 
 The third period, from Johnson onwards, may be called the 
 rhetorical. Its characteristics are studied antithesis and finely 
 rounded sentences : 
 
 Our own age may be described as the fourlli period. The best 
 style of this century has all the ease of Addison, with the nervous 
 
414 STYLE : PERIODS OP. 
 
 compactness of Bacon, the sonorousness of Johnson, with the 
 lightness of De Foe. 
 
 Classifying our writers according to their words, rather than 
 according to their style, we get results somewhat different. 
 
 Saxon words most abound in The Ormulum, The English 
 Bible, Swift, Bunyan, De Foe : 
 
 Norman-French words in Chaucer, Gower, Gibbon : 
 
 Latin words in Taylor, Milton, the Rheims and Douay Bible, 
 and in Johnson : 
 
 A good mixture we have in Shakspeare, Addison, Pope, Cowper, 
 Scott, and in many modern authors. 
 
 744. Selections from these different authors must be studied 
 Experience ^y *k e young writer. Pope formed his style on the 
 of different model of Dryden. Johnson describes Addison's 
 sentences as free from studied amplitude and affected 
 brevity, and adds, that whoever wishes to attain an English style 
 familiar but not coarse, elegant but not ostentatious must 
 give his days and nights to the volumes of Addison. Gibbon 
 carefully studied Blackstone. Robertson was intimately ac- 
 quainted with Swift's writings and no less so with De Foe's. He 
 shocked an inquirer who consulted him on the best discipline 
 for acquiring a good narrative style, by advising him carefully 
 to study 'Eobimon Crusoe; ' or if he wanted something more phi- 
 losophic ' Gulliver's Travels.' Erskine delighted in Milton, and 
 found there, as Lord Brougham says, as good a substitute as 
 could be discovered for the immortal originals in the Greek 
 models. He was also very familiar with Dryden and Pope. 
 Robert Hall diligently studied Johnson and Howe. Burke 
 committed to memory large portions of Young's ' Night Thoughts. ' 
 Nor is there scarcely a single writer of eminence, who has not, 
 for purposes of style, made a study of great authors. 
 
 These examples are purposely taken from the biographies of men 
 who have excelled in literature, and who might be supposed to be 
 above the observance of siich rules. Each author also expresses a 
 preference for a different model. But in the necessity for the study 
 of models they entirely agree ; not that a writer should copy them, 
 but that he may catch their spirit, appreciate and rival their 
 excellence. ' By reading the majestic and pregnant sentences of 
 Bossuet,' says a French authority, 'or the harmonious and 
 
PRACTICE : ITS IMPORTANCE. 416 
 
 eadenced compositions of Massillon, we gradually acquire a 
 language approaching theirs, and imitate them instinctively ; so 
 natural is the attraction of the beatiful, and so strong our pro- 
 pensity to reproduce whatever pleases. By repeating this 
 exercise daily for years, we shall attain a refined taste of the 
 delicacies of language and the shades of style, just as the eye 
 long accustomed to fine forms can no longer endure grotesque 
 and unmeaning buildings.'* Thus it is we 'catch their spirit ; 
 appreciate and rival their excellence.' 
 
 745. But after all, practice is the grand secret of effectiveness 
 p . in this as in every other art. Write much ; write 
 frequently ; most add, write quickly ; and polish after- 
 wards ; and you will be sure to succeed. The last two rules are 
 Johnson's. He strongly advises young composers to train their 
 minds to start promptly, for it is easier to improve in accuracy 
 than in speed. Robert Hall's experience confirms this rule. 
 He used to lament that his progress in composition was so slow 
 and laborious that he could write comparatively little, while what 
 he wrote had an air of stiffness from which his spoken style was 
 free. Whether these last rules are acted upon or not, the two 
 former are absolute. Excellence in composition is a great power 
 and its lowest price for most is patient ML 
 
 ADDITIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS. Various Styles. 
 LATIMER : born 1472, died 1555. THE SERMON OF THE PLOUGH. 
 
 "All things which are written, are written for our erudition and know- 
 ledge. All things that are written in God's book, in the Bible book, in 
 the book of the holy scripture, are written to be our doctrine.' I told 
 you in my first sermon, honourable audience, that I proposed to declare 
 unto you two things. The one, what seed should be sown in God's field, 
 in God's plough-land. And the other, who should be the sowers. 
 
 'That is to say, what doctrine is to be taught in Christ's church and 
 congregation, and what men should be the teachers and preachers of it. 
 The first part I have told you in the three sermons past, in which I have 
 essayed to set forth my plough, to prove what I could do. And now I 
 
 M. Bautain, quoted by Rev. J. Pyecroft. 
 
416 STi'LE. ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 shall tell you who be the ploughers ; for God's word is a seed to be sown 
 In God's field, that is, the faithful congregation, and the preacher is the 
 sower. And it is in the gospel ; ' He that soweth, the husbandman, the 
 ploughman, went forth to sow his seed. 1 So that a preacher is resembled 
 to a ploughman, as it is in another place ; ' No man that putteth his 
 hand to the plough, and looketh back, is apt for the kingdom of God ' 
 Luke ix. That is to say, let no preacher be negligent in doing his office. 
 'For preaching of the gospel is one of God's plough-works, and the 
 preacher is one of God's ploughman. Ye may not be offended with my 
 similitude in that I compare preaching to the labour and work of plough- 
 ing, and the preacher to a ploughmyn. Ye may not be offended with this 
 my similitude, for I have been slandered of some persons for such things. 
 But as preachers must be wary and circumspect, that they give not any 
 just occasion to be slandered and ill spoken of by the hearers, so must not 
 the auditors be offended without cause. For heaven is in the gospel 
 likened to a mustard seed : it is compared also to a piece of leaven ; and 
 as Christ saith, that at the last day he will come like a thief ; and what 
 dishonour is this to God ? Or what derogation is this to heaven ? Ye 
 may not then, I say, be offended with my similitude, for because I liken 
 preaching to a ploughman's labour, and a prelate to a ploughman. But 
 now you will ask me whom I call a prelate ? A prelate is that man, 
 whatever he be, that hath a flock to be taught of him ; whosoever hath 
 any spiritual charge in the faithful congregation, and whosoever he be 
 that hath cure of souls. And well may the preacher and the plouglimau 
 be likened together : First, for their labour of all seasons of the year ; for 
 there is no time of the year in which the ploughman hath not some special 
 work to do. As in my country, in Leicestershire, the ploughman hath a 
 time to set forth, and to assay his plough, and other times for other 
 necessary works to be done. And then they also may be likened together 
 for the diversity of works, and variety of offices that they have to do. 
 For as the ploughman first setteth forth his plough, and then tilleth his 
 land, and breaketh it in furrows, and sometime ridgeth it up again ; 
 and at another time narroweth it and clotteth it, and sometime dungeth 
 it and hedgethit, diggeth it andweedeth it, purgeth and maketh it clean, 
 so the prelate, the preacher, hath many diverse offices to do. He hath first 
 a busy work to bring his parishioners to a right faith, as Paul calleth it ; 
 and not a swerving faith, but to a faith that embraceth Christ, and trusteth 
 to his merits ; a lively faith, a justifying faith ; a faith that maketh a man 
 righteous without respect of works ; as ye have it very well declared and 
 set forth in the homily. He hath then a busy work, I say, to bring his 
 flock to a right faith, and then to confirm them in the same faith. Now 
 casting them down with the law, and with threatenings of God for sin ; 
 now ridging them up again with the gospel, and with the promises of 
 God's favour. Now weeding them, by telling them their faults, and 
 making them forsake sin ; now clotting them by breaking their stony 
 hearts, and by making them supple-hearted, and making them to have 
 
LATIHER. HOOKER. 417 
 
 hearts of flesh, that is soft hearts, and apt for doctrine to enter in. 
 Now teaching to know God rightly, and to know their duty to God 
 and their neighbours. Now exhorting them when they know their duty, 
 that they do it, and be diligent in it ; so that they have a continual 
 work to do. Great is their business, and therefore great should be 
 their hire. They have great labours, and therefore they ought to have 
 good livings, that they may commodiously feed their flock ; for the 
 preaching cf the word of God unto the people is called meat ; scripture 
 calleth it meat : not strawberries,* that come but once a year, and tarry 
 not long, but are soon gone ; but it is meat, it is no dainties. The 
 people must have meat that must be familiar and continual, and daily 
 given unto them to feed upon. Many make a strawberry of it, 
 ministering it but once a year; but such do not the office of good 
 prelates. For Christ saith, 'Who think you is a wise and faithful 
 servant ? He that giveth meat in due time.' So that he must at all 
 times convenient preach diligently : therefore saith he, ' Who trow ye 
 is a faithful servant ? ' He speaketh it as though it were a rare thing to 
 find such a one, and as though he should say, there be but few of them 
 to find in the world. And how few of them there be throughout this 
 world that give meat to their flock as they should do, the visitors can 
 best tell, Too few, too few, the more is the pity, and never so few as now.' 
 
 HOOKER : born 1553, died 1600. FAITH NOT ALONE. 
 
 It is a childisn cavil wherewith in the matter of justification our 
 adversaries do so greatly please themselves, exclaiming that we tread all 
 Christian virtues under our feet, and require nothing in Christians but 
 faith ; because we teach that faith alone justifieth : whereas we by this 
 speech never meant to exclude either hope or love from being always 
 joined as inseparable mates in the faith in the man that is justified ; or 
 works from being added as necessary duties required at the hands of 
 every justified man : but to show that faith is the only hand which 
 putteth on Christ unto justification ; and Christ the only garment, 
 which being so put on, covereth the shame of our defiled natures, 
 hideth the imperfections of our works, preserveth us blameless in the 
 sight of God, before whom otherwise the very weakness of our faith 
 were cause sufficient to make us culpable, yea, to shut us out from the 
 kingdom of heaven, where nothing that is not absolute cannot enter. 
 That our dealing with them be not as childish with them as theirs with 
 us ; when we hear of salvation by Christ alone, considering that 
 ' alone ' is an exclusive particle, we are to note what it doth exclude and 
 where. If I say ' such a judge only ought to determine such a cause,' 
 all things incident unto the determination thereof, besides the person of 
 
 This expression which Latimer their cures once a year, became pro- 
 made use of to designate the non- verbial. 
 residents of his day who only visited 
 
 2E 
 
418 STYLE. ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 the judge, as laws, depositions, evidences, are not hereby excluded ; per- 
 sons are, yet not from witnessing herein or assisting, but only from 
 determining and fixing sentence. How then is our salvation wrought 
 Dy Christ alone ? Is it our meaning that nothing is requisite to man's 
 salvation, but Christ to save, and he to be saved quickly without any 
 more to do ? No, we acknowledge no such foundation. As we have 
 received so we teach, that besides the bare and naked work, wherein 
 Christ without any other associate, finished all the parts of our redemp- 
 tion, and purchased salvation himself alone ; for conveyance of this 
 eminent blessing unto us, many things are required ; as, to be known 
 and chosen of God before the foundation of the world ; in the world 
 be called, justified, sanctified; after we have left the world to be 
 received into glory ; Christ in every of these hath something which he 
 worketh alone. Howbeit, not so by him alone, as if in us, to our 
 vocation, the hearing of the gospel ; to our justification, faith ; to our 
 sanctification, the fruits of the Spirit; to our entrance into rest, 
 perseverance in hope, in faith, in holiness, were not necessary.' 
 HOOKEE, ' A learned Discourse of Justification, etc.' Sermon ii. ; 
 "Works iii, p. 530 : the sermon to which Thomas Scott owed much of hia 
 clearness of view on this great truth. See par. 727. 
 
 JOSEPH HALL: born 1574, died 1656. To ALL KBAUKKS. 
 
 ' I grant brevity, where it is neither obscure nor defective, is very 
 pleasing, even to the daintiest judgments. No marvel, therefore, if most 
 men desire much good counsel in a narrow room ; as some affect to have 
 great personages drawn in little tablets, or as we w.ee worlds of countries 
 described in the compass of small maps. Neither do I unwillingly 
 yield to follow them : for both the powers of good advice are the 
 stronger when they are thus united, and brevity makes counsel more 
 portable for memory and readier for use. Take these therefore for 
 more; which as I would fain practise, so am I willing to commend. 
 Let us begin with him who is the first and last ; inform yourself aright 
 concerning God ; without whom, in vain do we know all things : be 
 acquainted with that Saviour of yours, which paid so much for you on 
 earth, and now sues for you in heaven ; without whom we have 
 nothing to do with God, nor he with us. Adore him in your thoughts, 
 trust him with yourself ; renew your sight of him every day, and his 
 of you. Overlook these earthly things ; and, when you do at any time 
 cast your eyes upon heaven, think there dwells my Saviour, there I 
 shall be. Call yourself to often reckonings ; cast up your debts, pay- 
 ments, graces, wants, expenses, employments ; yield not to think your 
 set devotions troublesome ; take not easy denials from yourself ; yea, 
 give peremptory denials to yourself : he can never be good that flatters 
 himself; hold nature to her allowance; and let your will stand at 
 courtesy ; happy is that man which hath obtained to be the master of 
 
BISHOP HALL. 419 
 
 his own heart. Think all God's outward favours and provisions the 
 best for you: your own ability and actions the meanest. Suffer not 
 your mind to be either a drudge or a wanton : exercise it ever, but over- 
 lay it not: in all your businesses, look, through the world, at God; what- 
 soever is your level, let him be your scope : every day take a view of 
 your last ; and think either it is this or may be : offer not yourself 
 either to honour or labour, let them both seek you : care you only to be 
 worthy, and you cannot hide you from God. So frame yourself to the 
 time and company, that you may neither serve it nor sullenly neglect 
 it ; and yield so far as you may neither betray goodness nor countenance 
 evil. Let your words be few and digested ; it is a shame for the tongue 
 to cry the heart mercy, much more to cast itself upon the uncertain 
 pardon of others' ears. There are but two things which a Christian is 
 charged to buy, and not to sell, Time and Truth ; both so precious, 
 that we must purchase them at any rate. So use your friends, as those 
 which should be perpetual, may be changeable. While you are within 
 yourself, there is no danger ; but thoughts once uttered must stand to 
 hazard. Do not hear from yourself what you would be loth to hear 
 from others. In all good things, give the eye and ear the full of scope, 
 for they let into the mind : restrain the tongue, for it is a spender. 
 Few men have repented them of silence. In all serious matters take 
 counsel of days, and nights, and friends ; and let leisure ripen your 
 purposes : neither hope to gain aught by suddenness. The first 
 thoughts may be confident, the second are wiser. Serve honesty ever, 
 though with apparent wages : she will pay sure, if slow. As in apparel, 
 so in actions, know not what is good, but what becomes you. How 
 many warrantable acts have misshapen the authors ? Excuse not your 
 own ill, aggravate not others : and if you love peace, avoid censures, 
 comparisons, contradictions. Out of good men choose acquaintance ; 
 of acquaintance, friends ; of friends, familiars ; after probation admit 
 them ; and after admittance, change them not. Age commendeth 
 friendship. Do not always your best : it is neither wise nor safe for a 
 man ever to stand upon the top of his strength. If you would be above 
 the expectation of others, be ever below yourself. Expend after your 
 purse, not after your mind : take not where you may deny, except 
 upon conscience of desert, or hope to requite. Either frequent suits or 
 complaints are wearisome to a friend. Bather smother your griefs and 
 wants as you may, than be either querulous or importunate. Let not 
 your face belie your heart, nor always tell tales out of it : he is fit to 
 live amongst friends or enemies that can ingeniously close. Give 
 freely, sell thriftily : change seldom your place, never your state ; 
 either amend inconveniences or swallow them, rather than you should 
 run from yourself to avoid them. 
 
 In all your reckonings for the world cast up some crosses that appear 
 not : either those will come or may. Let your suspicions be charitable ; 
 your trust fearful ; your censures sure. Give way to the anger of the 
 
 2 E2 
 
420 STYLE. ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 great. The thunder and cannon will abide no fence. As in throngs we 
 are afraid of loss, so, while the world conies upon you, look well to your 
 soul ; there is more danger in good than in evil : I fear the number of 
 these my rules ; for precepts are wont (as nails) to drive out one 
 another : but these I intended to scatter amongst many ; and I was 
 loth that any guest should complain of a niggardly hand ; dainty 
 dishes are wont to be sparingly served out : homely ones supply in 
 their bigness what they want in their worth." 
 
 JOHN MILTON : born 1608, died 1G74. 
 THE LIBERTY or UNLICENSED PRINTING. 
 
 ' Lords and Commons of England! consider what nation it is whereof 
 ye are, and whereof ye are the governors ; a nation not slow and dull, 
 but of a quick, ingenious, and piercing spirit ; acute to invent, subtle 
 and sinewy to discourse, not beneath the reach of any point the highest 
 that human capacity can soar to. Therefore the studies of learning in 
 her deepest sciences have been so ancient, and so eminent among us, 
 that writers of good antiquity, and able judgment, have been persuaded 
 that even the school of Pythagoras, and the Persian wisdom, took 
 beginning from the old philosophy of this island. And that wise and 
 civil Roman, Julius Agricola, who governed once here for Caesar, pre- 
 ferred the natural wits of Britain before the laboured studies of the 
 French. Nor is it for nothing that the grave and frugal Transylvanian 
 sends out yearly from as far as the mountainous borders of Russia, 
 and beyond the Hercynian wilderness, not their youth, but their staid 
 men, to learn [our language, and our theologic arts. Yet that which is 
 above all this, the favour and the love of heaven, we have great argu- 
 ment to think in a peculiar manner propitious and propending towards 
 us. Why else was this nation chosen before any other, that out of her 
 as out of Sion should be proclaimed and sounded forth the first tidings 
 and trumpet of reformation to all Europe ? . . . , Now once again 
 by all concurrence of signs, and by the general instinct of holy and 
 devout men, as they daily and solemnly express their thoughts, God is 
 decreeing to begin some new and great period in his church, even to 
 the reforming of reformation itself ; what does he then but reveal him- 
 self to his servants, and as his manner is, first to his Englishmen ? I 
 say as his manner is, first to us, though we mark not the method of 
 his counsels, and are unworthy. Behold now this vast city, a city 
 of refuge, the mansionhouse of liberty, encompassed and surrounded 
 with his protection ; the shop of war hath not there more anvils and 
 hammers waking to fashion out the plates and instruments of armed 
 justice in defence of beleagured truth, than there be pens and heads 
 there sitting by their studious lamps, musing, searching, revolving new 
 
MILTON. 421 
 
 notions and ideas wherewith to present as with their homage and their 
 fealty the approaching reformation ; others as fast reading, trying all 
 things, assenting to the force of reason and convincement. What could 
 a man require more from a nation so pliant and so prone to seek after 
 knowledge ? What wants there to such a towardly and pregnant soil, 
 but wise and faithful labourers, to make a knowing people, a nation of 
 prophets, of sages, and of worthies ? We reckon more than five months yet 
 to harvest ; there need not be five weeks, had we but eyes to lift up, the 
 fields are white already. Where there is much desire to learn, there of 
 necessity will be much arguing, much writing, many opinions ; for opinion 
 in good men is but knowledge in the making. Under these fantastic terrors 
 of sect and schism we wrong the earnest and zealous thirst after knowledge 
 and understanding which God hath stirred up in this city. What some 
 lament of, we rather should rejoice at, should rather praise this pious for- 
 wardness among men, to reassume the ill deputed care of their religion into 
 their own hands again. A little generous prudence, a little forbearance of 
 one another, and some grains of charity might win all these diligencies to 
 join, and unite into one general and brotherly search after truth. ... I 
 doubt not, if some great and worthy stranger should come among us, wise 
 to discern the mould and temper of a people, and how to govern it, 
 observing the high hopes and aims, the diligent alacrity of our extended 
 thoughts and reasonings in the pursuance of truth and freedom, but 
 that he would cry out as Pyrrhus did, admiring the Eoman docility and 
 courage; if such were my Epirus, I would not despair the greatest 
 design that could be attempted to make a church or kingdom happy. 
 Yet these are the men cried out against for schismatics and sectaries, as 
 if, while the temple of the Lord was building, some cutting, some 
 squaring the marble, others hewing the cedars, there should be a sort of 
 irrational men who could not consider there must be many schisms and 
 many dissections made in the quarry and in the timber, ere the house of 
 God can be built. And when every stone is laid artfully together, it 
 cannot be united into a continuity, it can but be contiguous in this 
 world ; neither can every piece of the building be of one form ; nay, 
 rather the perfection consists in this, that out of many moderate 
 varieties and brotherly dissimilitudes that are not vastly disproportional, 
 arises the goodly and the graceful symmetry that commends the whole 
 pile and structure. Let us therefore be more considerate builders, more 
 wise in spiritual architecture, when great ref ormatio n is expected. For 
 now the time seems come, wherein Moses the great prophet may sit in 
 heaven rejoicing to see that memorable and glorious wish of his fulfilled, 
 when not only our seventy elders but all the Lord's people are become 
 prophets. No marvel then though some men, and some good men too, 
 perhaps but young in goodness, as Joshua then was, envy them. They 
 fret, and out of their own weakness are in agony, lest these divisions and 
 subdivisions will undo us. The adversary again applauds, and waits 
 the hour; when they have branched themselves out, saith he, small 
 
422 STYLE ILLUSTRATIONS, 
 
 enough into parties and partitions, then will be our time. Fool ! he sees 
 not the firm root, out of which we all grow, though into branches ; nor 
 will beware until he see our small divided maniples cutting through at 
 every angle of his ill-united and unwieldy brigade.' 
 
 RICHARD BAXTER : born 1615, died 1691. 
 AN OLD MAN'S RETROSPECT. 
 
 'In another thing I am changed : whereas in my younger days I never 
 was tempted to doubt of the truths of Scripture or Christianity, but all 
 my doubts and fears were exercised at home about my own sincerity and 
 interest in Christ ; and this it was which I called unbelief : since then my 
 sorest assaults have been on the other side, and such they were, that had 
 I been void of internal experience and the adhesion of love, the special 
 help of God, and had not discerned more reason for my religion than I 
 did when I was younger, I had apostatised to infidelity ; though for 
 atheism or ungodliness, my reason seeth no stronger arguments than may 
 be brought to prove that there is no earth, or air, or sun. I am now, 
 therefore, much more apprehensive than heretofore of the necessity of 
 well grounding men in their religion, and especially of the witness of the 
 indwelling Spirit; for I more sensibly perceive that the Spirit is the 
 great witness of Christ and Christianity to the world. And, though the 
 folly of fanatics tempted me long to overlook the strength of this testi- 
 mony of the Spirit, while they placed it in a certain internal affection, or 
 enthusiastic inspiration ; yet now I see that the Holy Ghost in another 
 manner is the witness of Christ and his agent in the world. The Spirit 
 in the prophets was his first witness ; and his Spirit by miracles was his 
 second ; and the Spirit by renovation, santification, illumination, and 
 consolation, assimilating the soul to Christ and heaven, is the continued 
 witness to all true believers. 
 
 ' I was once wont to meditate most on my own heart, and to dwell all at 
 home and look little higher. I was still poring, either on my sins, or 
 wants, or examining my sincerity ; but now, though I am greatly con- 
 vinced of the need of heart-acquaintance and employment, yet 1 see more 
 need of a higher work ; and that I should look of tener upon Christ, and 
 God, and heaven.' From EICHAED BAXTEB'S 'Life and Times.' 
 
 JOHN HOWE : born 1630, died 1705. 
 THE TEMPLE IN RUINS. 
 
 ' (1.) That God hath withdrawn himself, and left this his temple 
 desolate, we have many sad and plain proofs before us. The stately ruins 
 are visible to every eye, that bear in their front (yet extant) this doleful 
 inscription' Here God once dwelt' Enough appears of the admirable 
 
HOWE. 423 
 
 frame and structure of the soul of man, to show the divine presence did 
 some time reside in it; more than enough of vicious deformity, to 
 proclaim he is now retired and gone. The lamps are extinct, the altar 
 overturned ; the light and love are now vanished, which did the one shine 
 with so heavenly brightness, the other burn with so pious fervour ; the 
 Iden candlestick is displaced, and thrown away as a useless thing, to 
 make room for the throne of the prince of darkness ; the sacred incense, 
 which sent rolling up in clouds its rich perfumes, is exchanged for 
 
 j. , prayer 
 
 into a den of thieves,' and that of the .worst and most horrid kind ; 
 for every lust is a thief, and every theft sacrilege : continual rapine and 
 robbery are committed upon holy things. The noble powers which were 
 designed and dedicated to divine contemplation and delight, are alienated 
 to the service of the most despicable idols, and employed unto vilest 
 intuitions and embraces ; to behold and admire lying vanities, to indulge 
 and cherish lust and wickedness. What! have not the enemies done 
 wickedly in the sanctuary? How have they broken down the carved 
 work thereof, and that too with axes and hammers, the noise whereof 
 was not to be heard in building, much less in the demolishing this sacred 
 frame ! Look upon the fragments of that curious sculpture which once 
 adorned the palace of that great king ; the relics of common notions ; the 
 lively prints of some undefaced truth ; the fair ideas of things ; the yet 
 legible precepts that relate to practice. Behold ! with what accuracy 
 the broken pieces show these to have been engraven by the finger of God, 
 and how they now lie torn and scattered, one in this dark corner, another 
 in that, buried in heaps of dirt and rubbish ! There is not now a system, 
 an entire table of coherent truths to be found, or a frame of holiness, but 
 some shivered parcels. And if any, with great toil and labour, apply 
 themselves to draw out here one piece, and there another, and set them 
 together, they serve rather to show how exquisite the divine workman- 
 ship was in the original composition, than for present use to the excellent 
 purposes for which the whole was first designed. Some pieces agree, 
 and own one another ; but how soon are our inquiries and endeavours 
 nonplussed and superseded. How many attempts have been made, since 
 that fearful fall and ruin of this fabric, to compose again the truths of so 
 many several kinds into their distinct orders, and make up frames of 
 science, or useful knowledge ; and after so many ages, nothing is finished 
 in any one kind ! Sometimes truths are misplaced, and what belongs to 
 one kind is transferred to another, where it will not fitly match : some- 
 times falsehood inserted, which shatters or disturbs the whole frame. 
 And what is with much fruitless pains done by one hand, is dashed in 
 pieces by another ; and it is the work of a following age to sweep away 
 the fine-spun cobwebs of a former. And those truths which are of 
 greatest use, though not most out of sight, are least regarded: their 
 
424 STYLE. ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 tendency and design are overlooked ; or they are so loosened and torn 
 off, that they cannot be wrought in, so as to take hold of the soul, but 
 hover as faint, ineffectual notions that signify nothing. Its very funda- 
 mental powers are shaken and disjointed, and their order towards one 
 another confounded and broken : so that what is j udged considerable is 
 not considered, what is recommended as eligible and lovely is not loved 
 and chosen. Yea, the truth which is after godliness is not so much dis- 
 believed, as hated, held in unrighteousness ; and shines as too feeble a 
 light in that malignant darkness which comprehends it not. You come, 
 amidst all this confusion, as into the ruined palace of some great prince, 
 in which you see here the fragments of a noble pillar, there the 
 shattered pieces of some curious imagery, and all lying neglected and 
 useless among heaps of dirt. He that invites you to take a view of the 
 soul of man, gives yoii but such another prospect, and doth but say to 
 you, ' Behold the desolation ; ' all things rude and waste. So that should 
 there be any pretence to the divine presence, it might be said, ' If God be 
 here, why is it thus ? ' The faded glory, the darkness, the disorder, the 
 impurity, the decayed state, in all respects, of this temple, too plainly 
 show the great Inhabitant is gone.' 
 
 JOSEPH ADDISON : born 1672, died 1719. 
 
 THE COUNTRY CHURCH : a specimen of Addison's humorous 
 style. 
 
 ' I am always well pleased with a country Sunday, and think, if keep- 
 ing holy the seventh day were only a human institution, it would be the 
 best method that could have been thought of for the polishing and 
 civilizing of mankind. It is certain the country people would soon 
 degenerate into a kind of savages and barbarians, were there not such 
 frequent returns of a stated time, in which the whole village meet together 
 with their best faces, and in their cleanliest habits, to converse with one 
 another upon different subjects, hear their duties explained to them, and 
 join together in adoration of the Supreme Being. 
 
 ' My friend Sir Roger, being a good churchman, has beautified the inside 
 of his church with several texts of his own choosing. He has likewise 
 given a handsome pulpit-cloth, and railed in the communion-table at his 
 own expense. He has often told me, that at his coming to his estate he 
 found his parishioners very irregular : and that in order to make them 
 kneel, and join in the responses, he gave everyone of them a hassock and 
 a Common Prayer Book ; and at the same time employed an itinerant 
 singing-master, who goes about the country for that purpose, to instruct 
 them rightly in the tunes of the Psalms, upon which they now very much 
 
ADDISON.-WILSON. 425 
 
 value themselves, and indeed outdo most of the country churches that I 
 have ever heard. 
 
 'As Sir Koger is landlord to the whole congregation, he keeps them in 
 very good order, and will suffer nobody to sleep in it besides himself ; for 
 if by chance he has been surprised into a short nap at sermon, upon re- 
 covering out of it he stands up and looks about him, and if he sees any 
 body else nodding, either wakes them himself, or sends his servants to 
 them. Several other of the old knight's particularities break out upon 
 these occasions. Sometimes he will be lengthening out a verse in the 
 singing Psalms, half a minute after the rest of the congregation have done 
 with it ; sometimes when he is pleased with the matter of his devotion, 
 he pronounces Amen three or four times in the same prayer ; and some- 
 times stands up when everybody else is upon their knees, to count the 
 congregation, or see if any of his tenants are missing. 
 
 'I was yesterday very much surprised to hear my old friend, in the 
 midst of the service, calling out to one John Matthews to mind what he 
 was about, and not disturb the congregation. This John Matthews it 
 seems is remarkable for being an idle fellow, and at that time was kicking 
 his heels for his diversion. This authority of the knight, though exerted 
 in that odd manner which accompanies him in all the circumstances of 
 life, has a very good effect upon the parish, who are not polite enough 
 to see anything ridiculous in his behaviour; besides that the general 
 good sense and worthiness of his character make his friends observe 
 these little singularities as foils that rather set off than blemish his good 
 qualities.' 
 
 JOHN WILSON. 
 YOUTHFUL FRIENDSHIP AND NATURAL SCENERY. 
 
 ' Sublime solitudes of our boyhood ! where each stone in the desert was 
 sublime, unassociated though it was with dreams of memory, in its own 
 simple native power over the human heart ! Each sudden breath of wind 
 passed by us like the voice of a spirit. There were strange meanings in 
 the clouds often so like human forms and faces threatening us off, or 
 beckoning us on, with long black arms, back into the long withdrawing 
 wilderness of heaven. We wished then, with quaking bosoms, that we 
 had not been all alone in the desert that there had been another heart, 
 whose beatings might have kept time with our own, that we might have 
 gathered courage in the silent and sullen gloom from the light in a brother's 
 eye the smile on a brother's countenance. And often had we such a 
 friend in these our far-of wanderings, over moors and mountains, by the 
 edge of lochs and through the umbrage of the old pine- woods. A friend 
 from whom ' we had received his heart and given him back our own,' 
 such a friendship as the most fortunate and the most happy and at that 
 
426 STYLE. ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 time we were both are sometimes permitted by Providence, with all the 
 passionate devotion of young and untamed imagination, to enjoy during a 
 bright dreamy world of which that friendship is as the polar star. 
 Emilius Godfrey ! for ever holy be the name ! a boy when we were but 
 a child when we were but a youth, a man. "We felt stronger in the 
 shadow of his arm happier, bolder, better in the light of his countenance 
 He was the protector the guardian of our moral being. In our pastimes 
 we bounded with wilder glee at our studies we sat with intenser earnest- 
 ness, by his side, He it was that taught us how to feel all those glorious 
 sunsets, and imbued our young spirit with the love of nature. He it was 
 that taught us to feel that our evening prayer was no idle ceremony 
 to be hastily gone through that we might lay down our head on tha 
 pillow, then soon smoothed in sleep but a command of God, which 
 a response from nature summoned the humble heart to obey. He it 
 was who for ever had at command, wit for the sportive, wisdom for the 
 serious hour. Fun and frolic flowed in the merry music of his lips they 
 lightened from the gay glancing of his eyes and then, all at once, when 
 the one changed its measures, and the other gathered, as it were, a mist or 
 a cloud, an answering sympathy chained our own tongue, and darkened our 
 own countenance, in intercommunion of spirit felt to be, indeed, divine ! 
 It seemed as if we knew but the words of language that he was a scholar 
 who saw into their very essence. The books we read together were, every 
 page, and every sentence of every page, all covered over with light. 
 Where his eye fell not as we read, all was dim or dark, unintelligible, or 
 with imperfect meanings. Whether we perused with him a volume writ 
 by a nature like our own, or the volume of the earth and the sky, or the 
 volume revealed from Heaven, next day we always knew and felt that 
 something had been added to our being. Thus imperceptibly we grew up 
 in our intellectual stature, breathing a purer moral and religious air ; with 
 all our finer affections towards other human beings, all our kindred and 
 our kind, touched with a dearer domestic tenderness, or with a sweet 
 benevolence that seemed to our ardent fancy to embrace the dwellers in the 
 uttermost regions of the earth. No secret of pleasure or pain of joy or 
 grief of fear or hope had our heart to withhold or conceal from Emilius 
 Godfrey. He saw it as it beat within our bosom, with all its imperfections 
 may we venture to say, with all its virtues. A repented folly a con- 
 fessed fault a sin for which we were truly contrite a vice flung from us 
 with loathing and with shame in such moods as these, happier were we 
 to see his serious and his solemn smile than when in mirth and merriment 
 we sat by his side, in the Social hour, on a knoll in the open sunshine. 
 And the whole school were in ecstasies to hear tales and stories from his 
 genius ; even like a flock of birds, chirping in their joy, all newly alighted 
 in a vernal land. In spite of that difference in our age or oh ! say rather 
 because that very difference did touch the one heart with tenderness, and 
 the other with reverence ; how often did we two wander, like elder and 
 
WILSON. 427 
 
 younger brother, in the sunlight and the moonlight solitudes ! Woods into 
 whose inmost recesses we should have quaked alone to penetrate, in his 
 company were glad as gardens, through their most awful umbrage ; and 
 there was beauty in the shadows of the old oaks. Cataracts in whose 
 lonesome thunder, as it peeled into those pitchy pools, we durst not, by 
 ourselves, have faced the spray in his presence, dinned with a merry 
 music in the desert, and cheerful was the thin mist they cast sparkling up 
 into the air. Too severe for our uncompanied spirit, then easily overcome 
 with awe, was the solitude of those remote inland lochs. But as we 
 walked with him along the winding shores, how passing sweet the calm 
 of both blue depths how magnificent the white-crested waves, tumbling 
 beneath the black thunder cloud! More beautiful, because our eyes 
 gazed on it along with his, at the beginning or the ending of some sudden 
 storm, the Apparition of the Kainbow. Grander in its wildness, that 
 seemed to sweep at once all the swinging and stooping woods to our ear, 
 because his too listened, the concerto by winds and waves played at mid- 
 night when not one star was in the sky. With him we first followed the 
 Falcon in her flight he showed us on the Echo-cliff the Eagle's eyry. 
 To the thicket he led us, where lay couched the lovely spotted Doe, or 
 showed us the mild-eyed creature browsing on the glade with her two 
 fawns at her side. But for him we should not then have seen the antlers 
 of the red deer, for the forest was indeed a most savage place, and 
 haunted such was the superstition at which those who scorned it 
 trembled haunted by the ghost of a huntsman whom a jealous rival 
 had murdered as he stooped, after the chase, at a little mountain well 
 that ever since oozed out blood. What converse passed between us two 
 in all those still shadowy solitudes ! Into what depths of human nature 
 did he teach our wondering eyes to look down! Oh! what was to 
 become of us, we sometimes thought in sadness that all at once made our 
 spirits sink like a lark falling suddenly to earth, struck by the fear of 
 some unwonied shadow from above what was to become of us when 
 the mandate should arrive for him to leave the Manse for ever, and sail 
 away in a ship to India never more to return ! Ever as that dreaded day 
 drew nearer, more frequent was the haze in our eyes ; and in our blind- 
 ness we knew not that such tears ought to have been far more rueful 
 still, forihat he then lay under orders for a longer and more lamentable 
 voyage a voyage over a narrow strait to the eternal shore. All all at 
 once he drooped : on one fatal morning the dread decay began with no 
 forewarning, the springs on which his being had so lightly, so proudly, 
 so grandly, moved gave way. Between one sabbath and another his 
 bright eyes darkened and while all the people were assembled at the 
 sacrament, the soul of Emilius Godfrey soared up to heaven. It was 
 indeed a dreadful death ; serene and sainted though it were and not 
 a hall not a house not a hut not a shieling within all the circle of 
 those wide mountains, that did not on that night, mourn as if it had lost 
 a son. All the vast parish attended his funeral Lowlanders and High- 
 
428 STYLE.-ILLUSTBATIONS, 
 
 landers, in their own garb of grief. And have time and tempest now 
 blackened the white marble of that monument is that inscription now 
 hard to be read the name of Emilius Godfrey in green obliteration 
 nor haply one surviving who ever saw the light of the countenance of 
 him there interred ! Forgotten as if he had never been ! for few were 
 that glorious orphan's kindred and they lived in a foreign land 
 forgotten but by one heart ; faithful through all the chances and changes 
 of this restless world! And therein enshrined, amongst all its holiest 
 remembrances, shall be the image of Emilius Godfrey, till it too, like 
 bis, shall be but dust and ashes ! ' 
 
 ROBERT HALL : born 1764, died 1831. 
 
 RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 'The Scriptures contain an authentic discovery of the way 'of salva- 
 tion.' They are the revelation of mercy to a lost world ; a reply to that 
 most interesting inquiry, What we must do to be saved. The distinguish- 
 ing feature of the gospel system is the economy of redemption, or the 
 gracious provision of the Supreme Being has thought fit to make for 
 reconciling the world to himself, by the manifestation in human nature 
 of his own Son. It is this which constitutes it the Gospel, by way of 
 eminence, or the glad tidings concerning our Saviour Jesus Christ, on 
 the right reception of which, or its rejection, turns our everlasting weal 
 or woe. It is not from the character of God, as our Creator, it should 
 be remembered, that the hope of the guilty can arise ; the fullest develop- 
 ment of his essential perfections could afford no relief in this case, and 
 therefore natural religion, were it capable of being carried to the utmost 
 perfection, can never supersede the necessity of revealed. To inspire 
 confidence an express communication from heaven is necessary ; since 
 the introduction of sin has produced a peculiarity in our situation, and 
 a perplexity in our prospects, which nothing but an express assurance 
 Of mercy can remove. 
 
 'In what manner the blessed and only Potentate may think fit to 
 dispose of a race of apostates, is a question on which reason can suggest 
 nothing satisfactory, nothing salutary : a question, in the solution of 
 which, there being no data to proceed upon, wisdom and folly fail alike, 
 and every order of intellect is reduced to a level ; for ' who hath known 
 the mind of the Lord, or being his counsellor, hath taught him ? ' It is a 
 secret which, had he not been pleased to unfold it, must have for ever 
 remained in the breast of the Deity. This secret, in infinite mercy, he 
 has condescended to disclose : the silence, not that which John witnessed 
 in the Apocalypse, of half an hour, but that of ages, is broken ; the dark- 
 ness is past, and we behold, in the gospel, the astonishing spectacle of 
 
EGBERT HALL. 429 
 
 ' God in Christ reconciling the world unto himself, not imputing to them 
 their trespasses,' and sending forth his ambassadors to 'intreat us in 
 Christ's stead to be reconciled to God.' To that strange insensibility 
 with respect to the concerns of a future world, which is at once the in- 
 dication and consequence of the fall, must we ascribe the languid atten- 
 tion with which this communication is received ; instead of producing, as 
 it ought, transports of gratitude and joy in every breast. 
 
 ' This, however we may be disposed to regard it, is unquestionably the 
 grand peculiarity of the gospel, the exclusive boast and treasure of the 
 Scriptures, and most emphatically ' the way of salvation,' not only as it 
 reveals the gracious intentions of God to a sinful world, but as it lays a 
 solid foundation for the supernatural duties of faith and repentance. All 
 the discoveries of the gospel bear a most intimate relation to the character 
 and offices of the Saviour ; from him they emanate, in him they centre ; 
 nor is anything we learn from the Old and New Testament of saving 
 tendency, further than as a part of the truth as it is ' in Jesus.' The 
 neglect of considering revelation in this light is a fruitful source of in- 
 fidelity. Viewing it in no higher character than a republication of the 
 law of nature, men are first led to doubt the importance, and next the 
 truth, of the discoveries it contains : an easy and natural transition, since 
 the question of their importance is so complicated with that of their truth, 
 in the Scriptures themselves, that the most refined ingenuity cannot long 
 keep them separate. ' It gives the knowledge of salvation by the remis- 
 sion of sins, through the tender mercy of our God, whereby the day-spring 
 from on high hath visited us, to give light to them that sit in darkness 
 and the shadow of death, to guide our feet into the way of peace.' While 
 we contemplate it under this, its true character, we view it in its just 
 dimensions, and feel no inclination to extenuate the force of those repre- 
 sentations which are expressive of its pre-eminent dignity. There is 
 nothing will be allowed to come into comparison with it, nothing we shall 
 not be ready to sacrifice for a participation of its blessings, and the exten- 
 sion of its influence. The veneration we shall feel for the Bible, as the 
 depository of saving knowledge, will be totally distinct, not only from 
 what we attach to any other book, but from that admiration its other 
 properties inspire ; and the variety and antiquity of its history, the light 
 it affords in various researches, its inimitable touches of nature, together 
 with the sublimity and beauty so copiously poured over its pages, will be 
 deemed subsidiary ornaments, the embellishments of the casket which 
 contains the ' pearl of great price.' 
 
 ' Scriptural knowledge is of inestimable value on account of its supplying 
 an infallible rule of life. To the most untutored mind, the information it 
 affords on this subject is far more full and precise than the highest efforts 
 of reason could attain. In the best moral precepts issuing from human 
 wisdom, there is an incurable defect in that want of authority which robs 
 them of their power over the conscience ; they are obligatory no farther 
 than their reason is perceived ; a deduction of proofs is necessary, more or 
 
430 STYLE. ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 less intricate and uncertain, and even when clearest it is still but the lan- 
 guage of man to man, respectable as sage advice, but wanting the force 
 and authority of law. In a well-attested revelation it is the judge speaking 
 from the tribunal, the Supreme Legislator promulgating and interpreting 
 his own laws. With what force and conviction do those apostles and 
 prophets address us, whose miraculous powers attest them to be the 
 servants of the Most High, the immediate organs of the Deity ! As the 
 morality of the gospel is more pure and comprehensive than was ever in- 
 culcated before, so the consideration of its divine origination invests it with 
 an energy of which every system not expressly founded upon it is entirely 
 devoid. We turn at our peril from him who speaketh to us from heaven. 
 ' Of an accountable creature duty is the concern of every moment, since 
 he is every moment pleasing or displeasing God. It is a universal element, 
 mingling with every action, and qualifying every disposition and pursuit. 
 The moral quality of conduct, as it serves both to ascertain and to form 
 the character, has consequences in a future world so certain and infallible, 
 that it is represented in Scripture as a seed no part of which is lost, ' for 
 whatsoever a man soweth, that also shall he reap.' That rectitude which 
 the inspired writers usually denominate holiness, is the health and beauty 
 of the soul, capable of bestowing dignity in the absence of every other 
 accomplishment, while the want of it leaves the possessor of the richest 
 intellectual endowments a painted sepulchre. Hence results the indis- 
 pensable necessity, to every description of persons, of sound religious 
 instruction, and of an intimate acquaintance with the Scriptures as its 
 genuine source.' 
 
 WILLIAM WILBERFORCE, M.P. 
 FAITH IN CHRIST, WHAT IT IMPLIES. 
 
 ' Doubtless there have been too many who, to their eternal ruin, havo 
 abused the doctrine of salvation by grace, and have vainly trusted in Christ 
 for pardon and acceptance, when by their vicious lives they have plainly 
 proved the groundlessness of their pretensions. The tree is to be known, 
 by its fruits ; and there is too much reason to fear that there is no prin- 
 ciple of faith when it does not decidedly evince itself by the fruits of 
 holiness. Dreadful indeed will be the doom, above that of all others, of 
 those loose professors of Christianity to whom at the last day our blessed 
 Saviour will address those words, ' I never knew you : depart from me all 
 ye that work iniquity.' But the danger of error on this side ought not 
 to render us insensible to the opposite error an error against which, in 
 these days, it seems particularly necessary to guard. It is far from the 
 intention of the writer of this work to enter into the niceties of contro- 
 
WILBEEFORCE. BUTLEE. 431 
 
 versy ; but surely, without danger of being thought to violate this design, 
 he may be permitted to contend, that they who in the main believe the 
 doctrines of the Church of England are bound to allow that our de- 
 pendence on oiir blessed Saviour, as alone the meritorious cause of our 
 acceptance with God, and as the means of all its blessed fruits and 
 glorious consequences, must be not merely formal and nominal, but real 
 and substantial ; not vague, qualified, and partial, but direct, cordial, and 
 entire. 'Repentance towards God, and faith towards our Lord Jesus 
 Christ,' was the sum of the apostolical instructions. It is not an occa- 
 sional invocation of the name of Christ, or a transient recognition of his 
 authority, that fills up the measure of the terms, believing in Jesus, This 
 we shall find no such easy task ; and, if we trust that we do believe, we 
 should all, perhaps, do well to cry out in the words of an imploring 
 suppliant (he supplicated not in vain), ' Lord, help thou our unbelief.' 
 We must be deeply conscious of our guilt and misery, heartily repenting 
 of our sins, and firmly resolving to forsake them ; and thus penitently 
 'fleeing for refuge to the hope set before us," we must found altogether 
 on the merit of the crucified Redeemer our hopes of escape from their 
 deserved punishment, and of deliverance from their enslaving power. 
 This must be our first, our last, our only plea. We are to surrender our- 
 selves up to him to ' be washed in his blood,' to be sanctified by his 
 Spirit, resolving to p receive him for our Lord and Master, to learn in his 
 school, to obey all his commandments.' 
 
 WILLIAM AKCHEB BUTLER, (late) Prof. Moral Phil., Dublin. 
 THE ATONEMENT. 
 
 ' Did the volume of the Old Testament witness to an atonement as the 
 foundation of eternal life ? There are those who boast themselves fol- 
 lowers of Christ, and yet deny this characteristic. The impatience of 
 mystery, which is so strangely short-sighted when men have to deal with 
 the substance of a communication from heaven, has disabled them from 
 discovering a propitiatory sacrifice in the New Testament ; and the same 
 spirit has usually advanced (on grounds of perfect consistency) either to 
 wave the Old Testament altogether, as antiquated, local, and irrelevant 
 to modern purposes, or to deny, by natural explications, everything 
 miraculous, and everything typical in its pages. 
 
 'Now the object here is to get rid of mystery an object false and futile 
 in itself, when we argue of the interferences of God with man ; but let 
 all that is claimed be conceded, and is the object yet attained ? Suppose 
 it a contest of opposite improbabilities : let every burden of miracle be 
 thrown overboard by our adversaries, and will they yet have lightened 
 their vessel of mystery ? will they have presented au intelligible solution 
 Kev. i. 6. 
 
482 STYLE. ILLUSTBATIONS. 
 
 of the problem of the Old Testament ? Though, in the spirit of a misera- 
 ble criticism, ministering to a still more miserable philosophy, you were 
 to evacuate that Old Testament of every express miracle it records ; 
 though you were to convert the prophets into jugglers and the people 
 into fools, and make of our Elijahs and Isaiahs pretenders to power and 
 conjecturers in knowledge, that is, though you were substantially to 
 justify the Jews for that 'blood of the prophets' which Christ charged 
 as their crime, could you even so clear the Old Testament of wonders ? 
 You may deny the story of miracles, but can you destroy the miracle of 
 the story ? You may discredit this volume of miracles, for the Spirit of 
 God does not now descend to silence its gainsayers, but can you unmiracle 
 the obstinate fact of the volume itself ? Can you resolve the enormous 
 difficulty of this history, these recorded habits, and, above all, this re- 
 corded religion ? 
 
 ' You deny, or, in confessing, you neutralize any typical purport, any 
 prospective atonement : mark, then, the mysteries that emerge upon your 
 own supposition. The whole spiritual system of the Hebrew Scriptures 
 is made up of two elements, entwined with the most intricate closeness, 
 yet absolutely opposite in character. You are then to answer satisfac- 
 torily how it was that every particular of a long and laborious system of 
 minute, and often very repulsive, sacrificial observances, is found united in 
 the same volume with conceptions of God, that surpass, in their profound 
 and internal spirituality, all that unassisted man has ever elsewhere 
 imagined, nay, that all our modern refinement is able to emulate ? What 
 miraculous mind was it that combined these singular contradictions ? 
 Where is there a real parallel to this mysterious inconsistency ? 
 
 'Who is this strange instructor, or series of instructors, that now 
 portrays the form of the One everlasting Essence hid in the veil of attri- 
 butes that are themselves unfathomable, and now issues the most minute 
 and elaborate directions as to the proper mode and the tremendous obliga- 
 tion of slaughtering a yearling lamb, and this as the duty required of him 
 who would approach that eternal Spirit ? Who is he that, at one moment, 
 enounces the simplest, sublimest code of human duties in existence, for 
 even Christ abridged, not altered it, at another, nay, in the same page, 
 the same sentence, exhorts, with equal earnestness, to the equal necessity 
 of drenching the earth with animal blood as the appointed path of human 
 purification? 
 
 1 Here then is, in the very texture of the Old Testament and its polity, 
 a mystery greater than any you can escape by denying its predictive 
 import. It is altogether insoluble on any supposition but the one, the 
 supposition which alone can elevate ceremonies to the dignity of moral 
 obligations. Judaism with a typified atonement may be a miracle or a 
 chain of miracles ; but Judaism without it is a greater miracle still. 
 
 ' Impressed, if he is impressed, with such considerations as these, the 
 opponent of ' mystery ' has, however, a subterfuge in reserve. An excuse 
 for suspense is quite as welcome as an excuse for disbelief. He contents 
 
WILLIAM AECHER BUTLER. 433 
 
 himself with observing, that the atonement is a mystery, and that these 
 difficulties about the Jewish ritualism are certainly somewhat mysterious 
 also : ' Let us, then,' he argues, ' neutralize them by each other, and 
 leave the question as indeterminable.' Certainly, if we can pronounce 
 the improbabilities equal on both sides. But can we ? The improba- 
 bilities of the Jewish system, considered apart from its fulfilment in the 
 Christian sacrifice, are improbabilities of which we can all judge. They 
 are in the field of our own human nature, which, whether we think it or 
 not, is the daily study of every man that lives. On such a question we 
 are adequate and authorized judges. When we call such things impro- 
 bable, we know what we say. 
 
 ' But the great atonement, who shall dare to say that ho knows enough 
 of the counsels of heaven, the requisitions of God, and his relation to 
 man, to pronounce it improbable ? Who is he that comes among us in 
 the high character of confidential secretary to the Divine administration, 
 that he can venture to affirm that God requires no suffering mediator ? 
 Where is the man or angel who has irresistibly demonstrated to the 
 creatures of earth his accurate acquaintance with all the moral systems 
 of all the spheres, and who, enriched with this immensity of knowledge 
 (for nothing short of this will suffice), has at length expressly revealed it 
 as certain, or even probable, that tlie nature of God cannot require a 
 sacrifice as the basis of redemption ? Give us the evidence of such a one, 
 and we will consent that an atonement is 'improbable.' But until such 
 testimony be exhibited, I shall be content to ' search the Scriptures,' and 
 to find them, in characters of blood, 'testifying' to 'the Lamb of God, 
 which taketh away the sin of the world.' Until such a ' friend of 
 God ' and partner of his counsel be forthcoming, I shall be content with 
 that ' friend of God ' who, in covenant and sacrifice of blood, saw the day 
 of Christ, and rejoiced to see it. Until such a visitant of heaven is 
 among us, I shall ask but the testimony of him who has said, that ' no 
 man hath ascended up to heaven, but he that came down from heaven, 
 even the Son of man which is in heaven ' ; b and who, in the might and 
 fulness of that familiarity with all the recesses of the heavenly counsels, 
 hath himself declared that he ' came to give his life a ransom for many ' 
 that ' his blood was shed for many for the remission of sins.' 8 ' 
 
 From 'CHRIST OTTR LIFE.* 
 THE PRACTICAL POWER OP THE CROSS. 
 
 'The death of our Lord may be variously regarded. On the side 
 towards God, it is the instrument of our justification. By his obedience 
 
 John i. 29. ."John iii. 18. Matt. xx. 28 ; xxvi. 28. 
 
 2 F 
 
434 ILLUSTRATIONS. STYLE. 
 
 many are made righteous. We are justified by his blood ; we are recon- 
 ciled by his death. On the side towards men, it is the instrument of our 
 holiness. With both God and man it is omnipotent, containing every 
 element of power ; in itself adapted to stir to its utmost depth all human 
 feeling, and appointed by God as a reason on account of which the influ- 
 ences of his Holy Spirit may be infused into all hearts. ' He has re- 
 ceived gifts for men,' ' even the promise of the Holy Ghost." His is ' a 
 name above every name, that every knee should bow and every tongue 
 confess to the praise of God the Father.' 
 
 ' But the fact that the death of Christ is adapted to have power with 
 men claims additional illustration. 
 
 ' At first sight his obedience unto death may seem to embody neither 
 wisdom nor power. The Jew deemed it not only powerless and inanimate, 
 but a weakness and an offence. The Greek called it foolishness. In the 
 event of the crucifixion, Christ is no doubt exhibited in his deepest humili- 
 ation. As he passed from the hall of judgment to the hill of Calvary, he 
 seemed a common criminal ; his brow still marked with the thorns, and 
 his face swollen with the agony of the previous night and the blows of 
 the soldiery. When he reached the spot where they meant to crucify 
 him, he appeared as one of the poorest and most friendless of men. 
 Amidst shouts and taunts he was lifted up. Others are crucified with 
 him. To the eye of man all are abject, and he most abject of all. 
 
 '.There are not wanting, however, even amid these indications of weak- 
 ness, mysterious tokens of a Divine presence, and of the solemn significance 
 of his death. The earth, and the sky, and the temple fit representations 
 of all created and divine things are moved at the scene. Angels that 
 excel in strength are watching the sufferer with reverent interest. That 
 victim, seemingly disowned by earth and heaven, and therefore suspended 
 between them, is our Maker. In that meek and lowly form is veiled the 
 incarnate God. Angels that smote a camp, and destroyed the first-born of 
 a nation in a night, have worshipped him. His very enemies, who put 
 him to death, and who have often watched him in his acts and speech, can 
 bring against him no consistent or intelligible accusation. His j udges 
 ' find no fault in him.' There, amid the scoffs of his murderers, dies the 
 only one of Adam's race that knew no sin. A life of unequalled benefi- 
 cence is consummated by a death of violence and anguish, itself an expres- 
 sion of the noblest beneficence. Thus viewed, elements of grandeur and 
 tenderness, of loftiest splendour and the lowliest condescension, all blend in 
 that dread sacrifice. Do men look with interest on greatness in misery ? 
 It is here ; the Bang of Glory despised and rejected of men ! Are they 
 touched with sympathy for distress ? How deep must have been his 
 anguish, when even his patient spirit cried out, ' My God, my God ! why 
 hast Thou forsaken me ? ' and rejoiced when he was able to say, ' It ia 
 finished.' Do they need, in order to feel most deeply, to have some con- 
 nection with the sufferer ? They had a suspicion that, somehow or other, 
 the case might have been their own. It is the man Christ Jesus who 
 
CHEIST OUR LIFE. 435 
 
 lies, and dies in the stead of men. Should wisdom attract ? Here was 
 the great Teacher himself, speaking as man never spoke, giving lessons 
 even from the cross. The God-man, of whom Plato had glimpses, is here 
 dying ignominiously, an example of perfect innocence, and enduring the 
 treatment due to consummate wickedness. Are men strongly affected by 
 what they know as affecting others ? This sacrifice stirs all worlds : hell 
 is losing its prey ; heaven is stooping to behold its king incarnate and 
 dying, that he may recover to his allegiance a lost province of his empire, 
 indulging his mercy and satisfying his justice, whilst his last breath mag- 
 nifies his law and proclaims his gospel.' Looking through history, it 
 appears that this scene has influenced the noblest of our race, and has 
 prompted to deeds of unparalleled devotedness. Children have felt its 
 power without being repelled by the mystery. The mightiest intellects 
 have studied it without grasping its vastness. Those living by faith in it 
 have become partakers of a divine nature : the world has become crucified 
 to them and they to the world. No earthly terrors could appal, no 
 earthly charms could allure them. The very miracles of the life of our 
 Lord wrought upon the bodies of men seem to be but faint types of the 
 mightier miracles wrought through the Spirit in their souls by this 
 miracle of grace. 
 
 ' If we look more deeply into this power, we shall find that it has ele- 
 ments of even a nobler kind. 
 
 ' 2. Human life is made up in a large measure of sin and suffering. 
 The first shows us our guilt, and the second our helplessness. Guilt leads 
 us to view God with distrust, and suffering makes it needful that we 
 should have a friend who can show us how to suffer, and give us, at the 
 same time, an assurance of sympathy and relief. No religious system 
 that fails to provide for these necessities of our condition can have a per- 
 manent hold upon the human heart. The provision supplied in this respect 
 by the gospel is identified with the cross. 
 
 ' Conscious of our guilt, and judging God by ourselves, it is hard to 
 believe that he is ready to be ' pacified towards us for all our abomination. ' 
 Till this is believed we cannot love him. It is confidence only that brings 
 man back to God. This is the true principle of our recovery. But what 
 is so adapted to produce this confidence as the death of Christ ? He 
 appears as ' the way, and the truth, and the life.' Herein ' God com- 
 mendeth his love to us, that while we were yet sinners, Christ died for 
 the ungodly.' The reasoning is irresistible : 'He that spared not his Son, 
 but gave him up for us all, how will he not with him also freely give us 
 all things ? ' 
 
 ' But still, though God is thus shown to be love, he is felt to be infi- 
 nitely above us. We shrink from telling him of our cares and weakness. 
 If we knew of one who had experienced human life, and had yet the 
 almighty power of God, in him we might trust: bis personal recollections 
 
 2 F 2 
 
136 ILLUSTRATIONS. STYLE. 
 
 of our condition would encourage our application and dependence. And is 
 not this want nobly met in our Lord ? ' "We have not a high priest who 
 .annot be touched with the feeling of our infirmities, but was in all points 
 tempted like as we are, yet without sin.' If poor, we may remember 
 that he ' had not where to lay his head." If suffering reproach, it is told 
 us that he was deemed ' a glutton and a wine-bibber,' ' a friend of publi- 
 cans and sinners,' ' a blasphemer,' and 'mad.' If unjustly treated by 
 men, and apparently deserted by God, we need but to turn to Calvary, 
 and while gazing there, we cease to think it strange concerning the fiery 
 trial that has befallen us. "We are crucified together. He knows our 
 sorrows ; ' He remembers that we are dust.' 
 
 ' And is an example needed ? Would not even the teaching of our Lord 
 be imperfect if he had not himself shown us how to suffer ? Go again to 
 the cross. ' When he was reviled, he reviled not again ; when he suffered, 
 "he threatened not ; but committed himself unto Him that judgeth righte- 
 ously.' Am I forbidden to feel ? Is stoic indifference a Christian virtue ? 
 'Jesus wept.' He was 'troubled in spirit.' 'Father,' said he, 'if it 
 be possible, let this cup pass from me ; nevertheless, not as I will, but as 
 thou wilt.' Men murder him, and he prays for them. His Father 
 deserts him, and yet he trusts him. Herein he suffered, ' leaving us an 
 example that we should follow his steps.' 
 
 '3. Nor are there wanting other influences. What am I, and what is 
 my condition ? is a question that lies at the foundation of all religion. 
 Eightly to know ourselves is the beginning of all knowledge. Contem- 
 plate, then, in the light of the cross, the condition of human nature. 
 Ancient and modern philosophies have delighted to flatter our pride. They 
 have traced up our pedigree to God, and they have claimed for us a dignity 
 which would be very welcome if only it could be maintained. Brahmins, 
 for example, speak of themselves as an incarnation of the Deity ; and the 
 pantheistic tendencies of men, or their pride, tempt them to hold the 
 sentiment even when they have not shaped it into words. 
 
 ' It follows from this doctrine that in beings so noble there can be no 
 deep inherent depravity. A taint of evil on the surface there may be, but 
 that is all, and it is easily removed. Perhaps (it is darkly hinted) their 
 condition is properly chargeable on matter, on provoking circumstances, 
 or even on the blessed God: so that, after all, men may be guiltless 
 of any worse evil than misfortune. But bring this language to the cross. 
 What lessons are taught there ? He who hung upon it tasted death 
 for every man, because every man had sinned, and so had deserved to 
 die. He is the Just One, and for the unjust he suffers. In the agony 
 and passion of this second head of the race I read the desert of the 
 first. I am no God, nor part of God, but a condemned sinner. The 
 blood of a divine atonement was needed to purge my sins. Am I told 
 of the native dignity and innocence of man, and of his sympathy with 
 
CHEIST OUR LIFE. 437 
 
 the divine ? The divine in all its perfection became incarnate. For 
 that perfection man had no sympathy. Nor was it even welcomed 
 in the world it came to redeem. Veiled at first, the divine glory 
 gradually shone through the veil more brightly till the world was 
 illumined ; but ever as it shone, the hatred in men's hearts burned 
 fiercer, and here on the cross they are doing what they can to extinguish 
 it for ever. 
 
 ' Am I told that the Jews, the murderers of our Lord, were worse than 
 men, and that now at least virtue needs but to be seen in order to be 
 worshipped ? I look again at the cross. Every tendency of human 
 nature which these murderers exhibited I mark around me still. Men are 
 capable of doing over again that deed of blood. They crucify the Son of 
 God afresh in his followers, his principles, and his kingdom. They put 
 him even now to an open shame. And is it amid these scenes, and with 
 the history of this teacher before me, that I am to speak of my native 
 worth, and claim equality with God ? Thoughts like these, everywhere 
 absurd, are impious here. The cross, the exhibition of man's deserts, 
 itself the expression of man's depravity, is clearly adapted to annihilate 
 all such dreams. In the end it may exalt us to unknown dignities, but 
 its first lesson is of humiliation and guilt. "What man deserves, and what 
 man has done, what therefore man is, are truths revealed at Calvary in 
 characters which none need misunderstand. 
 
 ' 4. What, again, is religion, and what are its claims ? Men's cha- 
 racters are moulded by the object of their worship, and by the truths they 
 hold, those especially that refer to God and holiness. Every religious 
 faith some deem to be alike. There is true piety, they say, in all creeds. 
 Sincerity is its essence. Men will never ' see eye to eye.' Have charity ; 
 and receive as brethren, if they be but sincere, the worshippers of Buddha 
 and of Jehovah, of Mahomet and Christ. 
 
 'All such equality the cross disclaims. Had Christ been content to 
 blend Sadduceeism, Pharisaism, and heathenism into one religion, to 
 sanction all as meaning the same thing, or even to allow them a place in 
 that pure and exclusive system he came to reveal, he would never have 
 suffered. Instead of such blending, however, he denounced all com- 
 promises. He assailed every false system, and by the advocates of all he 
 himself was condemned. Truth was not on his lips an eclectic faith, a 
 compound of all human opinions, and as such adapted to meet the pre- 
 judices of all. Like its author, it stood out distinctly from everything 
 earthly, formed no secular alliances, and allowed no rival. Had he been 
 contented to share the throne of men's hearts, or to claim for the religion 
 of the Bible a place among other systems, neither he himself would have 
 suffered, nor would his apostles have had to contend with the ten thousand 
 opposing influences in Jerusalem, in Athens, and at Borne. Of this pecu- 
 liarity of the teaching of our Lord the cross is at once an evidence and a 
 result. 
 
438 ILLUSTRATIONS.-STYLE. 
 
 '5. But it answers another question: May not God pass by trans 
 gression ? Is not law the emanation of God's will ? He instituted, and 
 may he not abrogate it ? He is beneficence and grace. He is the Father 
 of his creatures, and may he not indulge the yearnings of his parental 
 heart, and look with equal eye on all his children, pitying the weakness of 
 the sinful, but in the exercise of a mercy which no finite mind can compre- 
 hend pardoning all, and ultimately receiving them into favour again ? A 
 question of deepest interest, answered partly in nature and in history. 
 The prevalence of misery in a world created by one who is almighty be- 
 speaks a character, if merciful, yet certainly just. The deluge, the history 
 of the Jews, chastened and disowned, the voice of conscience, and the 
 natural forebodings which men feel of a coming judgment, bespeak the 
 existence somewhere of a holy law. But in the cross these questions are 
 completely solved. If ever under God's government mercy might revolt 
 against justice, it was surely here. The Saviour had been sold by the 
 traitor, and deserted by his disciples. He had been assailed by false 
 accusers, and condemned by a judge who acknowledged the injustice of 
 the sentence. He is now handed over to a brutal soldiery and fickle 
 people whom he had often befriended. It was hard to bear, and yet it 
 was to be borne. He meekly drank the cup of his woe ; and it was the 
 Father who mingled it. It was his hand that held it to his lips. If 
 tenderness could have saved our Lord, he must have been saved, for 
 tenderness was there as the heart of man, in its hour of most impassioned 
 feeling, has never conceived it. If mercy could have saved our race at a 
 smaller cost, his death was a needless sacrifice. But it behoved him 
 to suffer. Divine pity ever leans on truth. Mercy, as she forces her way 
 to the sinner, must do homage to justice, and pay the debt before she 
 can free the captive. Nowhere else in the universe does the sanctity of 
 law and the reality of the holiness of God stand out in bolder relief. The 
 lesson is taught in facts, is proclaimed to heaven and earth, and may be 
 read by all. There is mercy, but it is in harmony with justice. There 
 is love, but it spends its force in the gift of the Son. Pardon there is, 
 but it is obtained through no weakness in the law, through no fickleness 
 or false benevolence on the part of the judge. 
 
 ' 6. Whether, therefore, we look at the death of Christ as adapted of 
 itself to excite pity and awe, to touch our religious feelings as guilty and 
 miserable, to instruct and quicken our conscience in relation to ourselves, 
 to religion, and morality, or to God, it is clearly ' the power of God to 
 every one that believeth.' ' To every one that believeth ; ' for without 
 faith the whole sacrifice is robbed of its significance. I must believe that 
 he is the gift of the Father's love ; that in dying he does homage to law ; 
 that I deserve what he suffers ; and that, in earnestly pleading his death, 
 I acknowledge my own guilt, and desire to be freed from it ; or these 
 truths are powerless. Believing them, forgiveness is inseparable from 
 holiness. 
 
CONVICTION OF SIN. 439 
 
 1 Nor let it be thought that we make more of this practical power of 
 the cross than the Bible makes. It is the mightiest plea it employs. 
 Christ 'loved us, and gave himself for us,' and his love 'constrains us to 
 live not unto ourselves, but unto him that died for us, and rose again.' 
 (2 Cor. v. 14.) We ' are bought with a price,' and feel that we are 
 therefore bound to glorify him 'in our bodies and spirits, which are his.' 
 (1 Cor. vi. 20.) When is Christ set forth as ' the power and wisdom of 
 God ? ' As crucified. Where did he spoil ' principalities and powers 
 and make a show of them openly ? ' On the cross. When was ' the 
 judgment of this world,' and when was the 'prince of this world cast 
 out ' from his throne ? In the last hours of our Saviour's agony. What 
 was the chosen theme of the most successful preacher who ever lived ? 
 ' Jesus Christ, and Him crucified,' whom alone Paul determined to know. 
 What is the vow of every Christian, and what the reason for it ? ' God 
 forbid that I should glory, save in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, by 
 which the world is crucified unto me and I unto the world.' So com- 
 pletely, in truth, does this doctrine operate upon our virtue, and so 
 adapted is it, by the view it gives of the consequences of sin, of the excel- 
 lence of the law, of the love and faithfulness of God, of the tenderness 
 and grace of Christ, that those who profess to receive it and are not 
 virtuous, are represented not as the ' enemies ' of the precepts and 
 example of Christ only, but as emphatically the enemies of the cross.' 
 
 JTOTUS CHAELES HAEB, M.A. 
 CONVICTION OF SIN, 
 
 'Lord, with what care hast thou begirt us round ! 
 Parents first season us ; then schoolmasters 
 Deliver us to laws ; they send us bound 
 To rules of reason, holy messengers, 
 Pulpits and Sundays ; sorrow dogging sin, 
 Afflictions sorted, anguish of all sizes ; 
 Fine nets and stratagems to catch us in ; 
 Bibles laid open ; millions of surprises ; 
 Blessings beforehand, ties of gratefulness ; 
 The sound of glory ringing in our ears ; 
 Without, our shame ; within, our consciences ; 
 Angels and grace, eternal hopes and fears. 
 
 ' It would take me too long to go minutely through this rich list of the 
 graces and blessings with which God encompasses us from our cradle to 
 our grave, for the sake of convincing us of sin, and of drawing us away 
 from it, from its slavery and its punishment ; from sin, and death, and 
 hell, to the path of life and the glories of heaven. Parents with their 
 ever watchful love, teachers who train us in the way wherein we are to 
 walk, and fit us for discerning it, laws that set the mark of death upon 
 
440 ILLUSTEATIONS. STYLE. 
 
 ein, reason that would deliver us from the bondage of law, and male 
 the service of duty a free and willing service 
 
 ' Yet all these fences, and their whole array, 
 One cunning bosom sin blows quite away. 
 
 Seeing, therefore, how utterly powerless everything human is, hovs 
 powerless every law is, even the holy law of God, to convince mankind 
 effectually of sin that is to open our eyes, so that we shall see its loathe- 
 someness, and all its snares, so that we shall see its power over us and in 
 us, and the living death which that power brings upon all such as yield 
 themselves to it, and may thus be led to flee from it as from a pestilence, 
 and to guard against it as we should if a plague were creeping through 
 the land it is a work by no means unworthy of the Spirit of God, to 
 convince the world of sin, . . . Especially as without this conviction by 
 the Spirit, in vain would the Son of God have come in the flesh man- 
 kind would not, could not have been saved. . . . 
 
 ' This brings me to consider, though it must needs be briefly, and im- 
 perfectly, in what manner the Spirit convinces the man of his disease 
 the world of sin. If any of us had to convince a person of the sinf ulness 
 of the world how should we set about it ? We should talk should we 
 not of the intemperance, and licentiousness, and dishonesty, and fraud, 
 and falsehood, and envy, and ill-nature, and cruelty, [and avarice, and 
 ambition, whereby man has turned God's earth into a place of weeping 
 and gnashing of teeth. Nevertheless the Spirit of God, when he came to 
 convince the world of sin and to bring that conviction home to the hearts 
 of mankind, did not choose out any of these open, glaring sins to taunt 
 and confound them with. He went straight to that sin which is the root 
 and source of all others, want of faith, the evil heart of unbelief. When 
 the Comforter is come, he will convince the world of sin, because they be- 
 lieve not on me. 
 
 'Now this is a sin that the world, till then, had never dreamt of .as 
 such ; and even at this day few take much thought about it, except those 
 who have been convinced of it by the Spirit, and who, therefore, have 
 been in great measure delivered from it. For they who have spent 
 their whole lives in thick spiritual blindness, and whose eye is still dark, 
 cannot know what the blessing of sight is, and therefore cannot grieve at 
 their want ; they alone who have emerged into light, can appreciate the 
 misery of the gloom under which they have been lying.' 
 
QUESTIONS. PAE. 114. 441 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Chapter i.-ii. 
 (Paragraphs 1-46). 
 
 1-9. DEFINE language and grammar, as an art and as a science ; 
 state the province of orthography, orthoepy, etymology, syntax, 
 prosody, and punctuation. What is meant by composition, and 
 what by literature 1 
 
 10. Explain the statement English is a composite language, 
 but chiefly Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 11. What proportion of the words in an English dictionary 
 are Anglo-Saxon ? Account for the fact that in actual use the 
 proportion is generally greater. 
 
 12. 13. Arrange the authors named in paragraph 12, 13, in 
 the order of the proportion of Saxon words they use from 
 Gibbon 28-40th's to the Old Testament, 39-40th's. 
 
 12, 13. Represent in the form of a diagram the proportion of 
 Saxon words in the authors named : thus 
 
 3 
 fiS 
 
 ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER 
 
 b *5 
 
 PARADISE LOST 
 
 PART OF POPE 
 
 - 
 
 3. 
 . & S 
 
 14, 16. Take the Lord's Prayer, the 103rd Psalm, the llth John, 
 the opening lines of Milton's Paradise Lost, or any passage in a 
 poet, or prose writer, and point out the words of Anglo-Saxon 
 origin. Indicate in each case how you know them as such. 
 
 14. Take any dictionary and indicate on any page the words 
 of classic origin. 
 
442 QUESTIONS. PAR. 12-19. 
 
 12. Take the passages indicated and write out the words of 
 classic origin. 
 
 15. What classes of words need special care, if we mean to 
 use words of Anglo-Saxon origin ? 
 
 18. Give six examples of verbs of Anglo-Saxon origin ; taking 
 them from different classes : 
 Ex. Go, will, bless, fall, raise, quicken, smite. 
 
 18. Give six examples of adjectives of Anglo-Saxon origin ; 
 taking them from different classes : 
 Ex. Good, old, strong, fearful, tough, kingly. 
 
 18. Give a dozen examples of nouns of Anglo-Saxon origin ; 
 taking them from different classes : 
 
 Ex. Breadth, ditch, goodness, children, singer, darling, head, laughter, 
 riding, cow, ' an ill-wind,' a gowk. 
 
 18. Give a dozen examples of words known by their spelling 
 to be of Anglo-Saxon origin : 
 Ex, Wrong, thought. 
 
 18. In King John, Act iii., there are nearly fifty words in 
 succession of Anglo-Saxon origin, find the passage. 
 
 18. Give a dozen examples of words of Latin origin, known 
 as such by their termination : 
 
 Ex. Extension, capture, facility, penitence, solitude, sponsor, verbosity, 
 reputation, tolerant, retentive, migratory, terrify. 
 
 18. Give six examples of words known by their spelling to 
 be of Greek origin : 
 
 Ex. Philip, aesthetics, ceconomy, chyle, rheumatism, polysyllable. 
 
 19. Take the following generic terms, all of classic origin, and 
 give Anglo-Saxon words descriptive of particular examples : 
 
 Impression, sensation, emotion, disposition, impulse, direction, 
 progression, ascension, descent, region, existence, expansion, 
 occupy, insert, curve, prominence, passage, inequality : 
 "R*, Ascension climbing. 
 
 19. Give examples of Anglo-Saxon words descriptive of the 
 things enumerated in par. 19, a . . . g. 
 
PARAGBAPHS 19-25. 
 
 443 
 
 19. Give generic terms for the particular things enumerated 
 
 below : 
 
 Father, son, horses, legs, black, whistling, two, selL 
 
 19. 20. Give reasons for adopting a style largely Anglo-Saxon, 
 but partly classic. 
 
 20. Take a paper in Johnson's Rambler, or a page of hia 
 Rasselas, and substitute Anglo-Saxon words for those of classic 
 origin. 
 
 21. Take the words in paragraph 31, and arrange them 
 logically, i.e. according as they describe acts, states, agents, 
 qiialities, etc. 
 
 22. The following belong to the first two periods of Latin in- 
 fluence on our language and to the Anglo-Norman : classify 
 them : 
 
 Stratford, honur, psalter, sanct, pais (peace), tresur, Coin- 
 brook, Devizes (Devisee), febrifuge, preost. 
 
 25. Compare the following versions of John i. 1-5, and make 
 any criticisms on the origin or forms of the words in each : 
 
 Provengal ver~ 
 
 Waldensian ver- 
 
 Le Fevre's French 
 
 De Sacy's ver- 
 
 sion. 
 
 sion 
 
 version. 
 
 sion. 
 
 
 (also Provetifal). 
 
 
 
 Enlocomensa- 
 
 'Lo filh era al 
 
 ' Au commence- 
 
 'Au commence- 
 
 ment era paraula, 
 
 comenczament, e 
 
 ment estoit la pa- 
 
 ment etoit le 
 
 e la paraula era 
 ab Deu ; e Deu 
 
 lo iilh era enapres 
 Dio, e Dio era 
 
 role, et la parole 
 estoit avec Dieu, 
 
 verbe, et le verbs 
 etoit avec Dieu 
 
 era la paraula. 
 
 lo filh. Aiczo era 
 
 et la parole estoit 
 
 et le verbe e"toit 
 
 Acso era en lo 
 
 al comenczament 
 
 Dieu. Icelle es- 
 
 Dieu. 11 etoit au 
 
 comensament ab 
 
 enapres Dio. To- 
 
 toit au commence- 
 
 commencement 
 
 Deu. Totes coses 
 
 tas cosas son 
 
 ment avec Dieu. 
 
 avec Dieu. Toutes 
 
 son fetes per ell; 
 
 factas par luy ; e 
 
 Toutes choses ont 
 
 choses ont etc" 
 
 e sens ell nenguna 
 
 alcuna cosa non 
 
 este faictes par 
 
 faites par lui et 
 
 cosa no es feta. 
 
 es f acta sencza luy . 
 
 icelle et sans icelle 
 
 rien de ce qui a 
 
 go qui es fet en 
 
 Co que fo fait en 
 
 riens na este faict 
 
 etc" fait n'a e"te 
 
 aquell era viola, 
 
 luy era vita, e la 
 
 qui este faict. Et 
 
 fait sans lui. 
 
 e aquella vida era 
 
 vita era lucz le di 
 
 icelle estoit la vie 
 
 Dans lui etoit la 
 
 lum de homens ; 
 
 iiome. E la lucz 
 
 et la vie estoit la 
 
 vie et la vie etoit 
 
 e lum en tenebres 
 
 lucit en las tene- 
 
 .umiere des hom- 
 
 a lumiere des 
 
 no agueron poder 
 
 bras, e las tene- 
 
 mes, et la lumiere 
 
 lommes, et la 
 
 solva aquell. 
 
 bras non 'cumpre- 
 
 uyt es tenebres ; 
 
 umiere luit dans 
 
 Paris M.S. No. 
 
 seron ley.' 
 
 et les tenebres ne 
 
 es tenebres et les 
 
 6883. 
 
 Dublin M.S. 
 
 ong point com- 
 
 :enebres ne 1'ont 
 
 
 
 )rinse. A. D. 
 
 joint comprise.' 
 
 
 1584. 
 
 i.D. 1668. 
 
444 
 
 QUESTIONS. PAR. 25. 
 
 25. Compare the following words ; and state any conclusions 
 they justify on the affinities of the languages quoted from, or 
 on the letter-changes they illustrate : 
 
 English. 
 
 Anglo- 
 Saxon. 
 
 German. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Norman. 
 
 French. 
 
 Head 
 
 Heafod 
 
 Haupt 
 
 Hoved 
 
 Caput 
 
 Chef 
 
 Tete, chef 
 
 Hair 
 
 Hser 
 
 Haar 
 
 Haar 
 
 Crinis 
 
 Chevoels 
 
 Cheveux 
 
 Eye 
 
 Eage 
 
 Auge 
 
 Oje 
 
 Oculus 
 
 Oils 
 
 CEil 
 
 Nose 
 
 Nasu 
 
 Nase 
 
 Nsese 
 
 Nasus 
 
 Nez 
 
 Nez 
 
 Mouth 
 
 Muth 
 
 Mund 
 
 Mund 
 
 Os 
 
 Buche 
 
 Bouche 
 
 Teeth 
 
 Toth 
 
 Zahn 
 
 Tand 
 
 Dens 
 
 Dens 
 
 Dent 
 
 Tongue 
 
 Tungu 
 
 Zunge 
 
 Tunge 
 
 Lingua 
 
 Lange 
 
 Langue 
 
 Ear 
 
 Eare 
 
 Ohr 
 
 Ore 
 
 Auris 
 
 Oreilles 
 
 Oreille 
 
 Back 
 
 Base 
 
 Eiicke 
 
 Rygge 
 
 Tergum 
 
 Dos 
 
 Dos 
 
 
 
 
 (ridge) 
 
 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 Blod 
 
 Blut 
 
 Blut 
 
 Sanguis 
 
 Sangue 
 
 Sang 
 
 Arms 
 
 Earm 
 
 Arm 
 
 Arm 
 
 Brachium 
 
 Bras 
 
 Bras 
 
 Hand 
 
 Hond 
 
 Hand 
 
 Hand 
 
 Manus 
 
 Mains 
 
 Main 
 
 Leg 
 
 Scince 
 
 Beine 
 
 Bein 
 
 Crus 
 
 Jambe 
 
 Jambe 
 
 Foot 
 
 Fdt 
 
 Fuss 
 
 Fods 
 
 Pes,pod- 
 
 Pez 
 
 Pied 
 
 NaH 
 
 Nagel 
 
 Nagel 
 
 Nagel 
 
 Unguis 
 
 
 Ongle 
 
 Horse 
 
 Hors 
 
 Pferd 
 
 Haest 
 
 Equus 
 
 Chevals 
 
 Cheval 
 
 Cow 
 
 Cu 
 
 Kuh 
 
 Ko 
 
 Vacca 
 
 Vache 
 
 Vache 
 
 Calf 
 
 Cealf 
 
 Kalb 
 
 Kalv 
 
 Vitulus 
 
 Veal 
 
 Veau 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Sceap 
 
 Schaaf 
 
 Faar 
 
 Ovis 
 
 Mutun 
 
 Mouton 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Lamm 
 
 Lamm 
 
 Agnus 
 
 Agnels 
 
 Agneau 
 
 English. 
 
 Welsh. 
 
 Breton. 
 
 Cornish. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 8. Gaelic, 
 
 , Manx. 
 
 Head 
 
 Pen 
 
 Penn 
 
 Pen 
 
 Cean 
 
 Ceann 
 
 Kione 
 
 Hair 
 
 Gwallt 
 
 Bleo 
 
 Bleu 
 
 Folt 
 
 Folt 
 
 Folt 
 
 Eye 
 
 Llygad 
 
 Lagad 
 
 Lagat 
 
 SuU 
 
 Suil 
 
 Seoil 
 
 Nose 
 
 Trwyn 
 
 Fry 
 
 Tron 
 
 Sron 
 
 Sroin 
 
 Stroin 
 
 Mouth 
 
 Genau 
 
 Guenon 
 
 Genau 
 
 Beul 
 
 ]Jcul 
 
 Beul 
 
 Teeth 
 
 Dannedd 
 
 Dant 
 
 Dyns 
 
 Fiacail 
 
 Fiacal 
 
 Feeackle 
 
 Tongue 
 Ear 
 
 Tafod 
 Clust 
 
 Tead 
 Sconarn 
 
 Tavat 
 Scororn 
 
 Teanga 
 Duas 
 
 Teanga 
 Duas 
 
 Chengey 
 Cleaysh 
 
 Back 
 
 Cefn 
 
 Chein 
 
 Chein 
 
 Druim 
 
 Druim 
 
 Dreera 
 
 Blood 
 
 Gwaed 
 
 Goad 
 
 Guit 
 
 Full 
 
 Fuil 
 
 Fuill 
 
 Arm 
 
 Braich 
 
 Brech 
 
 Brech 
 
 Gairdean 
 
 Gairdean 
 
 Clingaii 
 
 Hand 
 
 Llaw 
 
 Dourn 
 
 Lof 
 
 Lamh 
 
 Lamh 
 
 Lave 
 
 Leg 
 
 Goes 
 
 Garr 
 
 Goes 
 
 Cos 
 
 Cos 
 
 Cass 
 
 Foot 
 
 Troed 
 
 Troad 
 
 Trait 
 
 
 
 
 Nan 
 
 Gewin 
 
 Ivin 
 
 Ivin 
 
 longna 
 
 longna 
 
 Ingin 
 
 Horse 
 
 Ceffyl 
 
 March 
 
 March 
 
 Each 
 
 Each 
 
 Agh 
 
 Cow 
 
 Buwch 
 
 Vioch 
 
 Bugh 
 
 Bo 
 
 Bo 
 
 Booa 
 
 Calf 
 Sheep 
 
 Llo 
 Dafad 
 
 Lene 
 Danvat 
 
 Loch 
 Davat 
 
 Laogh 
 Caor 
 
 Loagh 
 Caor 
 
 Lheiy 
 Keyrrep 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Oen 
 
 Can 
 
 Oin 
 
 Uan 
 
 Uan 
 
 Eayn 
 
PARAGKAPHS 2634. 445 
 
 26. Give a dozen examples of words known by their spelling 
 to have been introduced into our language through the French*: 
 
 Ex. Ardour, oblique, chevalier, surname, pursue, manure, feat, ally, 
 ravish.* 
 
 26. Give the origin of the following words (taken from ' Piers 
 Ploughman ') and state which are of Anglo-Norman and which 
 of Anglo-Saxon origin : 
 
 Attachen (to attack, to indict), assetz (enough to pay debts or 
 legacies), garnementz, Crutched Friars, bi-quasshen (to break in 
 pieces quashed, squashed), gadelying (a gadder, a vagabond, a 
 fellow traveller), wanhope (despair), quits, requite, acquit, 
 trollen (to drag). 
 
 27. Give a dozen nouns of Latin origin, and imperfectly 
 naturalized in English : 
 
 Ex, Nebulaj, momenta, species, vertices. 
 
 28. 29. Give the origin and meaning of the following words : 
 gin, toilette, tinsel, Ar-broath, Launceston, Oswestry, welt, 
 gyves, pranks, clans, bards, Comb-Martin, Great Ormsby, 
 Capel, Stock-gill, Force. 
 
 Add any other from the class to which each of these belongs. 
 
 30. Give six nouns of Greek origin, and imperfectly natural- 
 ized in English. 
 
 31. Give two words now used in English from each of the 
 following sources : Hebrew, Arabic, Persian, Chinese, any East 
 Indian language, Spanish, Portuguese, American-Indian, and 
 West Indian. 
 
 32. 33. Give the meaning and origin of the following : jovial, 
 saturnine, panic, martial, cereal, debauch, darics, napoleons, 
 phaeton, cicerone, czar, ducat, donet (or grammar O.E.), Jesuit, 
 spruce, cravats, solecism, frieze, canary, diaper, floren, jacobin, 
 pheasant, indigo. 
 
 34. Give a dozen examples of words radically the same, but 
 of different forms (see 34), because entering our language 
 through different channels. 
 
 Verbs in ' isli,' as astonish, polish, raysh ' were formerly in use : while 
 
 are really formed from the frequent re- on the other hand, to ' burny ' and 
 
 currence of issions in the French con- to ' astony ' were originally forms 
 
 jugation of them. 'Obeysh ' and 'bet- of burnish and astonish. 
 
446 QUESTIONS. PAR. 3544. 
 
 Ex. Bay, radius, marvel, miracle, canal, channel, abridge, abbreviate, 
 loyal, legal, chief, captain. 
 
 35. Give a dozen examples of the same words that differ 
 through an accidental variation of spelling. 
 
 36. Give a dozen examples of foreign words simulating an 
 English origin (see 36). 
 
 Compare Hierosolyma (for Jerusalem as Jeru is for Jebus), Ceclron 
 (the brook of Cedars) for Kidron, i.e. Blackburn ; Cantuarii for Cant- 
 wsere, inhabitants of Kent. 
 
 37. Give a dozen examples of words, the derivation of which 
 is concealed by the spelling. 
 
 Ex. Buxomly (bough-some, obedient, yielding). 
 
 38. Give a dozen hybrid forms that are thoroughly natural- 
 ized, of the classes 1, 2, and 3, par. 35. 
 
 38. Quote any hybrids that have failed to obtain a permanent 
 place in our language : 
 
 33x. Pensifehede (Chaucer), to happify (Eobertson). 
 
 39, 40. Use etymology to distinguish the following words : 
 Abandon, desert, forsake, relinquish : benignity, benevolence, 
 beneficence : fame, renown, reputation, character : fertile, 
 fruitful, prolific : lodgings, apartments : living, benefice : sub- 
 ject, liable, exposed, obnoxious : will, testament : insensibility, 
 apathy : indistinct, confused : palliate, excuse : uncharitable, 
 envious, malicious : flour, meal : feminine, effeminate. 
 
 41, 42. State how usage has modified the application of the 
 following synonyms : 
 
 Hearty, cordial : laic, popular : fatherly, paternal 
 Distinguish between ' apt ' and f fit,' as in 
 
 ' Men are apt to teach what it is not fit that we should learn.' ' Hands 
 apt for poisoning, drugs fit for it.' 
 
 44. Give six examples of English derivatives from each of the 
 following Anglo-Saxon roots : beran, bigan, or bugan, blawian, 
 cennan, cunnan, fleogan, habban, healdan, magan, licgan, 
 sceran, slagan, etc. 
 
 Give three derivatives at least from each of the following 
 Anglo-Saxon verbs : serendian (to bear tidings), a-gulten (to sin 
 against), cnyttan (to knit), dyppan (to dip), gifan (to give), 
 
PARAGRAPHS 44, 45. 447 
 
 lybban (to live), macian (to make), settan, sittan (to set, sit), 
 tellan (to tell), bledan (to Need), cepan (to keep), cnawan (to 
 know), cuman (to come), drufan (to drive), erian (to plow, ex. 
 earth), fseran, frihtan (to put in fear), freon (to free, to love), 
 getan (to get), hyen (to go), hedan (to hate), hrathian (to hasten), 
 laeran (to learn, to teach), lysan (to loose), plegan (to play), 
 rennan (to run), ridan (to ride), ripan (to reap), scinan (to shine), 
 secan (to seeJc), seon, geseon, gesiht (to see, ex. gaze), slipan (to 
 slip), spsecan (to speak), springan (to spring), standan, stod (to 
 stand), stroegan (to spread, ex. straggle), strican (to go a course), 
 astrican (to strike, ex. stroke), wacan (to awake), serian (to l)urn). 
 Give three derivatives, at least, from each of the following 
 Anglo-Saxon nouns : baec (a lack), caru (care), cwen (a queen), 
 doel (a part), cage (an eye), fyr (fire), gamen (sport), glomung 
 (twilight), hand (the hand), is (ice), leode (people, or person), 
 niht (night), rsed (speech, advice), rascal (a lean deer), rec (care), 
 spell (history, message), spor (a heel), sliht ( rain), steal (a place), 
 sweard (grass), thing (a thing, whatever has weight), thrsel (a 
 slave), thuma (a thumb), tid (time, tidan, to happen), tima (time), 
 wood (the clothing of the field, weeds), wind (wind, ex. winter). 
 
 44. Give three derivatives from each of the following Anglo- 
 Saxon adjectives : blac (black), claen (clean), cwic (quick), deore 
 (dear), dim (dim), fseger (fair), fsest (fast), ferse (fresh), god 
 (good), georn (anxious, ex. yearn), hlud (loud), Isen (lean, or 
 frail), leoht (light, not heavy), nesc (soft, ex. nice), ranc (luxu- 
 riant, proud), seoc (sick, sighing), sar (sore), sur (sour, ex. sorrel), 
 styrn (severe), sund (healthy), weet (we), wan (ITOH., wanian, to 
 fail, ex. want), werig (weary), wyld (wi'W, ex. bewilder). 
 
 45. Give at least three derivatives from each of the following 
 Latin words : acer (sharp), acuo (to sharpen), sedes (a house), 
 aquus (level, equal), anima (breath, soul), animus (the mind), 
 ardeo (to burn), arma (arms, fittings), ars (s/a'W, art), barba (a 
 beard), brevis (short), bellum (war), calculus (a pebble), canna 
 (a reed, t or tube), caro, carn-is (flesh), caveo, cautum (to take 
 care), censeo (to judge), commodus (convenient), corpus (a body), 
 culpa (a fault), dens (a tooth), disco (to Zearn), domo (to tame), 
 clormio (to sleep), duro (to harden), edo (to eat), equus (a 7zorse), 
 experior (to try), expedio (to set free), faber (a mechanic), fatuus 
 (tasteless, silly), fides (/art/0; n <* ( to tnist), flagro (to &MTO), 
 
448 QUESTIONS. PAR. 46-51, 
 
 frons (front], fungor (to discharge), gelu, glacies (tee), guberno 
 (to govern), halo (to breathe), horreo (to shudder), impero (to 
 command), integer (whole), ira (anger), judex (a judge), juro (to 
 swear), labor, lapsus (to slide), lapis (a stone), mando (to enjoin), 
 metior, mensus (to measure), moneo (to admonish), mons (moun- 
 tain), munio (to fortify), nego (to deny), nutrio (to nourish), 
 opinor (to think), ordo (order), pagus (a village), palleo (to be 
 pale), pando (to spread), parco (to spare), pater (a father), pecu- 
 lium (private property), poana (punishment), prseda (plunder), 
 pupus, pupillus (a little boy), quatio, quassum, -cutio, -cussum, in 
 comp. (to shake, or strike), qualis (of what kind), radix (a root), 
 ratio (reckoning, proportion), rideo (to laugh), rodo (to gnaw), 
 rumpo (to break), sacer (sacred), sancio (to consecrate), scio 
 (to know), scrutor (to examine), socius (a companion), taceo (to 
 be silent), tego (to cover), timeo (to fear), turba (a mob), tumeo 
 (to swell), uro (to burn), urbs (a city), vaco (to be unoccupied), 
 vado (to go), vapor (steam), veins (old), vivo (to live), vulgus 
 (common people), voveo (to vow). 
 
 46. Give as many derivatives as you can from the following 
 Greek roots : angelos (a messenger), agon (a struggle), anthropos 
 (a man), baros (weight), biblion (a book), bombyx (silk-worm), 
 bios (life), botan^ (grass), grapho (to write), glossa (a tongue), 
 glypho (to carve), dynamis (poiver), ethnos (race), eremos 
 (solitary), hilaros (cheerful), hieros (sacred), klimax (a ladder), 
 krino (to judge), krupto (to hide), organon (an instrument), 
 petra (a rock), stereos (solid), telS (far off). 
 
 46. Give instances of the large number of English derivatives 
 from any given classic root, and state the proportion of words of 
 classic origin to the rest of the words of our language. Account 
 for the diversity of the meaning of derivative words of classic 
 origin. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Chapter iii. 
 (Paragraphs 47-85). 
 
 47, 48. Give the probable origin and character of the Keltic 
 settlers in Europe. In what districts of England are forms of 
 the Keltic still spoken ? 
 
 49, 50, 51. Whence was the Anglo-Saxon language introduced 
 into Britain ? Give the dates of the principal Saxon invasions, 
 
PARAGRAPHS 48-58. 449 
 
 and mention the principal Anglo-Saxon works still extant (a) 
 poetry and (b) prose. 
 
 48, 52. When was Latin first introduced into Britain ; and 
 when most of our ecclesiastical Latin terms ? 
 
 53. Between what dates was the influence of the Danish lan- 
 guage greatest in England? What kind of influence did it 
 exert I 
 
 54. What seems to have been the influence of the Norman 
 conquest on our language ? Give evidence of the pains taken 
 to extend that influence, and account for the difficulties with 
 which it had to contend. 
 
 55. State the successive stages of our language from Anglo- 
 Saxon to modern English. Give the dates of each stage, and 
 mention some of the principal writers of each. 
 
 56. Mention the marks of the gradual change of our tongue. 
 Which of these is found most largely in the Semi-Saxon ? 
 
 57. State the successive grammatical changes in the various 
 forms of the article, the noun, the pronoun, and the verb, 
 between A.D. 1050 and 1550. 
 
 57. Account for the prevalent use of the plural in ' s.' Which 
 is the older form, ' of a father,' or a ' father's ' ? Give any ex- 
 planation of the form ' of my father's ' ; when is such a double 
 form appropriate ? 
 
 58. Translate the following, and state in each case which is 
 the older form : 
 
 / ' Thaer waeron ssexisce meun : folca ealra earmeste (miserable) 
 I Ther weoren ssexisce men : f olken alre sermest 
 
 {And tha Alemainiscan meun : geomerestan (saddest) ealra leoden 
 And tha Alemainisce men : geomerest alre leoden. 
 {Arthur mid his sweorde : f aege-scipe (death- work) worhte ; 
 Arthur mid his sweorde : fasie-scipe wurhte ; 
 {Eall thaet he smat t<5 : hit waes sona (soon) for-ge-don ; 
 Al that he smat to : hit was sone f or-don ; 
 {Eall waes se cyning a-bolgen (to enrage) : sw& byth sewilda bar ; 
 Al wes the king abolgen : swa bith the wilde bar,' 
 From LAYAJION, A.D. 1200. Given in 'Keane's Handbook,' p. 51. 
 
 2 G 
 
450 QUESTIONS. PAE. 59-68. 
 
 59. Take from Sir T. Brown, Jeremy Taylor,* or any other 
 authors of eminence, words which they introduced into our 
 language, but which have never gained there a permanent place. 
 Give also the words that are now used to express their meaning. 
 
 Ex. ' Intenerating (softening) the stubborn pavement.' 
 
 ' Funest (sad), effigiate (conform), clancularly (secretly), deordi- 
 
 nation (confusion), correption (rebuke).' TAYLOR. 
 ' Commentitious (invented), aliene (foreign), negoce (to do business, 
 
 negotiate), excribe (writ off, or out).' BENTLEY. 
 ' Influencive, introitive, extroitive, productivity.' COLEBIDOE. 
 
 59. Mark the aureate and Saxon terms of the following ex- 
 tract 
 
 ' The auriate vanes of bis throne soverane 
 With glittering glance o'erspread the oceane; 
 And large fludis beaming all of licht, 
 With but ane blink of his supernal sicht. 
 For to behold it was ane glore to see 
 The stabled windis and the coloured sea, 
 The soft season, the firmament serene, 
 The lowne illumiate air, and firth amene.' 
 
 GAVIN DOUGLAS, ' Translation of JEneid,' book 12. 
 
 59. Turn to the ' Spectator ' (No. 165), and note which of the 
 words mentioned by Addison as introduced into our languages 
 through the wars of Marlborough, are now current amongst us. 
 
 62. Milton used synonyma and prostrate ; Bacon ' croisado ; ' 
 what conclusion do you gather from these forms ? What other 
 means have we of ascertaining the age of words ? Give examples 
 of words newly introduced in the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 19th 
 centuries. 
 
 63. The altered meaning of words illustrates the moral ten- 
 dencies of men. Give examples. 
 
 64. Give the meaning of prevail, resentment, censure, and state 
 the general rule as to the real obsolete meaning of such words. 
 
 65. Give examples of the narrowed, widened, and changed 
 meaning of different words. 
 
 6878. Take the specimens of Anglo-Saxon and Semi-Saxon : 
 
 Brown and Taylor introduced about 3000 new words ; very few of wliich 
 are low in use. 
 
PARAGRAPHS 6884 451 
 
 and explain the grammatical forms that occur in them; so far 
 as those are explained in par. 67. 
 
 68 78. Give from Spenser's ' Faery Queen ' any old English 
 words that deserve to be revived : 
 Ex. Arcad (to teach, a well-read man), whimpled (plaited). 
 
 To well up, to hurtle (to rush with sound). 
 
 Handeling (management), now used by artists. 
 
 Give from Chaucer any old English words specially striking : 
 Ex. Dusk, dreary (drie, to suffer), daft, murky, gape, gear (all sorts of 
 
 garments, weapons, etc.), baleful, unkempt. Herd (a koeper), 
 
 spurn (to use the heel, spor). 
 
 Give from Milton's Comus, L' Allegro, and II Penseroso, any 
 words of Saxon origin, specially picturesque or forcible : 
 Ex. Low-thoughted care, dimpled brook, wily trains, glazing courtesy, 
 swilled insolence, dingle. 
 
 78. Translate the following lines : 
 ' Jesusess name nemmnedd is 
 
 Haalande onn Enngliss spajche, 
 And f orrthi birrde a itt cwiddedd ben 
 
 Till eggther kinn onn eorthe, 
 Till wepmann b and till wifmann kinn 
 
 For thatt he wolde bathe 
 Weppman and wifmenn haelenn her 
 Off theggre sinness wunde.' 
 
 A.D. 1275. Ormulum, 3054-G1. 
 
 In the Ormulum, all short vowels are indicated through a whim 
 of the writer, by double consonants. In many Anglo-Saxon 
 works, long vowels are indicated by an accent as, ath, oath ; fet, 
 feet ; boc, book. Then, unaccented vowels are short. 
 ' Seyn Pateryk com thoru Godes grace to preche in Irelonde, 
 
 To teche men ther ryt believe Jesu Cryste to understonde ; 
 
 So ful of wormes that londe he founde that no man ni niyghte gon, 
 
 In some stede for wormes that he was wenemyd c anon ; 
 
 Seynt Pateryk bade our Lorde Cryste that the londe delyvcred were, 
 
 Of thilke foule wormes that none ne com there.' 
 
 A.D. 1300. ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER. 
 
 84. Explain the following passage from Caxton ; point out 
 
 1 Birrde, It becomes ? b Weppman, weapon-man, i.e. man 
 
 c Vcnomed, poisoned. bearing weapons, a male. 
 
 2 G2 
 
452 QUESTIONS. PAK. 81-85. 
 
 any words that show by difference of form, or of spelling, the 
 state of our grammar and pronunciation : 
 
 'Foryf I coudehave founden nwe storyes, I wold have sette in hit moo ; 
 but the substaunce that I can fynde and knowe, I have shortly sntte here 
 in this book, to thentente that such thynges as have ben done syth the deth 
 or ende of the sayd boke of Polycronycon shold be had in remembraunce 
 and not putte in oblyvyon ne forgotynge ; prayenge all them that shall 
 see this symple werke to pardone me of my symple and rude wrytynge. 
 Ended the second day of Juyll the xxii. yere of the regne of Kynge Edward 
 the Fourth, and of the Incarnacion of oure Lord a thousand four honderd 
 foure score and tweyne.' From Trevisa's translation of ' Higden's Poly- 
 chronicon,' continued by Caxton from 1357 to 1460. A.D. 1482.' 
 
 81-84. Explain the words and forms found in the extracts 
 given in par. 81-84. 
 
 85, 86. Explain as far as you can the words found in the ex- 
 tracts given in par. 85 and 86. 
 
 84. Give the meaning and derivation of the following Scotch 
 words, all of Anglo-Saxon origin : lippen, a gate to Heaven, 
 cushat, fremmyt, laverock, ebb (shallow), bigging, sare, unco, 
 sark, ill-learned, to rew, to wad, wadset, neb (beak), thud (noise), 
 dow (to be able), spere, clefe, laird, laith, the lyft, the lave, 
 liefer, win (to get by labour), smittle (infectious), kittle, Tolbooth, 
 gloaming, mill-lade, spill (to mar), shanks, wale (to choose), 
 cauve (pi. from cauf), thole, sib, thraw (a pang). 
 
 Many Scotch words are from the Norse : kelp, roup, skit, 
 tousey, cosie, tod (a fox), etc. Others are from the French : 
 douce, leil, chancey, etc. Give additional examples of each class. 
 
 85. Explain the words and forms in italics : 
 
 'In man, there is nothing admirable but his ignorance and weakness.' 
 JEE. TAYLOB. 
 
 ' They were stoned to death, as a document unto others.' KALEIGH. 
 
 ' Thy daughter is dead ; why diseasest thou the master,' Mark v. 35. 
 TYNDAL. 
 
 ' Wild above rule or art, enormous bliss.' MILTON. 
 
 ' [The nobility of France] were tolerably well-bred, very officious, and 
 hospitable.' BUBKB. 
 
 ' [Wicked men] are not secure, even when they are safe.' JEE. 
 TAYLOB. 
 
 ' For ditty, I find Sir W. F*aleigh's vein most lofty, insolent, and passion- 
 ate.' PUTTENHAM. 
 
PAEAGEAPH 85. 463 
 
 ' Who knew the wille of the Lord, or who was his counceilour,' Eom. 
 xi. 34. WICLIF. 
 
 ' The looves of twohundride^zs sufficen not to hem,' John v. WICLIF. 
 
 ' All that ben in Uriels schulen here the voyce of Goddes son,' John v. 
 WICLIF. 
 
 ' The council taking notice of the many good services performed by 
 Mr. J. Milton, have thought fit to declare their resentment and good ac- 
 ceptance of the same.' Extract, ' THE COUNCIL BOOK,' 1651, June 18. 
 
 'Ye schulen see hevene openyde, and the aungels of God steiyunge up 
 and comynge doune upon marines sone.' JOHN i. 
 
 ' And whanne a pore widewe was lone, sche cast two mynutes, that is 
 a ferthing,' Mark xii. 42. WICLIF. 
 
 ' And nothing can we call our own but death, 
 And that small model of the ban-en earth 
 Which serves as paste and cover to our bones.' 
 
 SHAKSPEABE, 'Eichard II.' 
 
 'He broughte forthe tweie^s, and gave to the ostler,' Luke x. 35. 
 WICLIF. 
 
 'The rather lambs ben starved with cold.' SPENSEE, ' Shepherd's Cal. 
 Feb.' 
 
 'He opens the heavenly Hades to reduced apostates.' HOWE. 
 
 ' Christ hath finished his own sufferings for expiation of the world, yet 
 there are portions that are behind of the sufferings of Christ, and happy 
 are they that put in the greatest symbol* J. TATLOB. 
 
 ' Every one is to give a reason of his faith ; but priests or ministers 
 more punctually than any.' HENBY MOEE. 
 
 ' That mediterranean city, Coventry.' H. HOLLAND. 
 
 ' The discommodity of that single house keeping.' HALL. 
 
 'Things are preached not in that they are taught, but in that they are 
 published.' HOOKEB. 
 
 ' Apparent sanctity should flow from purity of heart.' ATTESBUEY. 
 
 'Nay, if you be an undertaker, I am for you.' SHAKSPEAEE. 
 
 ' Trial would be made by clarifying, by a clarion of milk put into 
 warm beer.' BACON, 'Natural History.' 
 
 * A woman that had spendid all her catel in leechis,' Luke viii. 44 . 
 WICLIF. 
 
 'Which could not be past over without this censure; for it is ill thrift 
 to be parsimonious in the praise of that which is very good.' HACKED 
 ' Life of Williams.' 
 
 'That no man overgo, neither desceyve his brother in cha/arinye,'! 
 Thess, iv. 6. WICLIF. 
 
 'The cramp fishknoweth her own force, and is able to astonish others.' 
 HOLLAND. 
 
454 QUESTIONS. CHAPS. IV. V. 
 
 'In the blustering of her look she gave gladness to every wight that 
 cometh in her presence.' CHAUCEB. 
 
 ' Every shepherd ought to seek his sperkeland sheep.' CHAUCEB. 
 
 ' Great principles are grounded, else in the law of kynd, or doom of 
 man's reason.' PECOCK. 
 
 ' I would not deceive him of a mite.' CAVENDISH. 
 
 ' Engrossing is the getting into one's possession large quantities of any 
 kind of victuals, with intent to sell them again.' BLACKSTOXE. 
 
 ' No passion is so weak, but it mates the fear of death.' BACON. 
 
 ' Men should set their affections on & provoking object.' BACON. 
 
 ' That flames of fyre he threw forth from his large nosthrill.' SPENSER. 
 The knight his thrittant spear again essay'd.' SPENSEB. 
 ' And bitter Penaunce with an yron whip, 
 Was wont him once to disple every day.' SPENSER, i. ch. x. 
 
 1 To work new woe and unprovided scathe.' SPENSEE, i. ch. x. 
 
 ' As if late fight had nought in him damnifyde.' SPENSEB. 
 
 'Thought which is as winges to stye above the ground.' SPENSEB, i. 
 ch. xi. 
 
 And taught the way that does to heaven bownd,' SPENSEB, 
 
 ' Adam, our forme Father.' CHATJCER. 
 
 * And nempned hym for a nounpere.' PIERS PIXTOGHMAN, 3149. 
 
 The habitable globe.' ' The frigid zone inhabitable for extremitie of 
 cold.' SANDYS. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Chapter iv.-v. 
 (Paragraphs 86-130). 
 
 87-95. Give examples of words substantially the same from 
 various Indo-European tongues. 
 
 What kind of words may be best selected to prove the identity 
 or diversity of origin of any given languages ? 
 
 What number of roots found in Sanscrit are also found in 
 Borne of the Indo-European languages 1 
 
 What is the relation of English to other members of the same 
 tribe ? Define precisely its relation to the Indo-European family 
 tongues. 
 
 What other names have been used instead of Indo-European ? 
 
 Mention any language in Europe not Indo-European. 
 ^What ancient language, and what modern, most clearly re- 
 sembled modern English ? 
 
 Compare the quotations from the Mseso-Gothic (in par. 94), 
 with the English translation. Compare also the conjugations of 
 
PAEAGEAPHS 87116. 455 
 
 the verb to le in the same paragraph with modem or old English 
 forms ; and point out the resemblances. 
 
 What use has been made of etymology to determine the 
 ethnology of nations, and to fix the original settlement of the 
 ancestors of the Indo-European nations ? 
 
 96. Whence arise the difficulties of English spelling ? Define 
 the principles that ought to guide or aid the spelling of words. 
 
 97. What number of elementary sounds have we in English ? 
 Name the twelve vowel sounds ; the semi- vowels ; the four 
 proper diphthongs ; the sixteen mutes, the four liquids ; what 
 are the remaining sounds ? 
 
 98-100. What are flat, and what sharp sounds? What lene 
 and what aspirated ? Give other names for each group. 
 
 101-104. What is an alphabet? What are labial sounds, 
 what palatal, what guttural, what lingual, nasal, and dental ? 
 Explain the origin of these names and illustrate their meaning. 
 Whence arises the importance of this classification ? 
 
 105. What is the theory of a perfect alphabet? Give the 
 different sounds of a, s, and x. Give the modes of representing 
 by spelling the different sounds of ' a. ' Illustrate the redundan- 
 cies, deficiencies, and errors of the English alphabet. 
 
 105. How does the imperfection of our alphabet influence 
 our spelling ? 
 
 107. What are the advantages, and what the disadvantages of 
 phonography ? 
 
 108-114. Define a syllable ? Criticise and explain the fol- 
 lowing combinations : alt, num-er, in-possible, soldier, hum-b-le, 
 Ham-b-leton. Account for the pronunciation of venison, Chol- 
 mondeley, Leicester ; and for the spelling of cecini, William, 
 renounce. Add other examples illustrating the same laws. 
 
 115. How is ' quantity ' measured in classic languages, and in 
 English ? What is the effect of the removal of an accent from 
 a long syllable on the sound, and on the spelling. 
 
 116. Give a dozen examples of words that are either nouns or 
 verbs ; adjectives or nouns ; according to the accent. 
 
456 QUESTIONS. PAR. 117126. 
 
 Ex. Collect, collect ; fncense, incense ; <5bject, object ; augtist, august ; 
 compact, compact ; minute, minute. 
 
 117, 118. Note the difference in emphasis between unnatural 
 and unnatural. On what part of a derived form is the accent 
 generally found in English ? What are secondary or helping 
 accents ? 
 
 120-124. What letters had the Anglo-Saxon language, which 
 are wanting in modern English ? Account historically for the 
 imperfections of our alphabet. Explain the position, in our 
 alphabet, of z, f, j, x. 
 
 125. What theories have been given on the origin of the order 
 of the letters of the alphabet ? 
 
 126. Capitals. 
 
 Correct the following, and give in each case your reason : 
 ' The smoothest verse and the exactest sense, 
 displease us if ill english give offence. 
 In short without pure language, what you write, 
 can never yield us profit or delight.' From DEYDEN. 
 1 His impious race their blasphemy renew' d, 
 And nature's King through nature's optics view' d.' DEYDEN. 
 ' Why so sagacious in your guesses, 
 Your effs, and teas, and arrs, and esses' SWIFT. 
 ' Shall not the judge of all the earth do right ? ' SCOTT'S BIBLE. 
 ' They corrupt their style with much loved anglicisms,' MILTON, in 
 JOHNSON. 
 
 ' Church-ladders are not always mounted best 
 By learned clerks and latiuists professed.' COWPEB, 
 'And of them he chose twelve whom he also named apostles.' SCOTT. 
 ' But wisdom is justified of all her children.' 
 
 'Adelung was the author of a grammatical and critical dictionary of 
 the German language, and other works.' UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHICAL 
 DICTIONABY. 
 
 ' Shall we not much rather be in subjection to the father of spirits and 
 live.' SCOTT. 
 
 ' Shall we not much rather be in subjection to the Father of Spirits and 
 live.' FRIEND'S BIBLE. 
 
 ' I say not unto you, until seven times ; but, until seventy times seven.' 
 ' One of his mottoes was, 'know thyself.' ' LEMPEIEEE, ' Chilo." 
 '0 sleep; O gentle sleep, nature's soft nurse.' SINGEB'S SHAKSPEABE. 
 
PARAGRAPHS 127, 128. 457 
 
 4 The word is then depos'd and in this view, 
 You rule the scripture, not the scripture you.' DBYDEN. 
 
 ' In colleges and halls in ancient days, 
 There dwelt a sage called discipline.' 
 
 WAYLAND, ' Moral Science.' 
 
 ' Cape Palmas in Africa divides the grain Coast from the Ivory coast, 
 i.e. the Grain Coast from the Ivory Coast.' 
 
 'The chief subject of the book is the revolution of 1688.' 
 
 127. Correct or justify the division of the following wordsjt 
 Thou-ght, rus-ty, mas-sy, guil-ty, fen-der, chan-ter, ma-tern-al, 
 a-scribe, qua-drant, cac-kle (Brown's Grammar), cack-le (Cobb's 
 Spelling Book), blank-et (Cobb), blan-ket (Goold Brown), 
 rank-le (Cobb), ran-kle (Goold Brown), ves-try, wes-tern, weal- 
 thy, mil-ky, eve-ning, aw-ry, ath-wart ; fol-io, fo-lio, gen- 
 ius, ge-nius, am-bro-sia, of-fi-ciate ; jes-ter, fab-le, nor-thern. 
 (5 & 6) Ci-vil, co-lour, ga-ther, ti-mid, scho-lar ; be-ne-fit, 
 ge-ne-rous, se-pa-rate, po-ver-ty ; ca-ter-pil-lar, sin-ce-ri-ty, 
 ri-di-cu-lous ; di-mi-nu-tive, ma-le-f actor, mi-se-ra-ble ; ex-pla- 
 na-to-ry, cha-rac-te-ris-tic, po-ly-syl-la-ble ; ge-o-gra-phi-cal, 
 He-len, Phi-lip, Na-tha-ni-el. 
 
 128. 5. Give six examples of words that admit different spell- 
 ing, according as we regard them as coming from one language 
 direct, or through another. 
 
 Ex. Valour, civilization, dependent. 
 
 128. Give a dozen examples of words of Latin origin, in which 
 the Latin spelling is retained in order to indicate the etymology. 
 Ex. Temple, essential, patience. 
 
 128. 3. Give six examples of words of Greek origin, spelt so 
 as to indicate the etymology. 
 Ex. Philosophy, ceconomy. 
 
 128. Give a dozen examples of words of the same sound, but 
 spelt differently to indicate the meaning. 
 
 Ex. Scent, sent, canon, cannon, ball, bawl, due, dew, foul, fowl, hue, 
 hew. 
 
 Give a dozen examples of words of the same sound and spell- 
 ing, but of different meanings. 
 Ex. Air, bit, dam, let, loom, pale, 
 
458 QUESTIONS. PAB. 128, 129. 
 
 128. Give a dozen examples of the addition of e to a syllable, 
 in order to lengthen the foregoing vowel. 
 Ex. Bathe, fate, fire, plague. 
 
 128. Give six examples of the addition of e to a syllable, to 
 soften the letter to which it is joined. 
 Ex. Kange, singe. 
 
 128. Give six examples each of the insertion of a, e, i, in 
 syllables, in order to lengthen the sound of the vowels. 
 Ex. Coast,* paint, exclaim, feint, chief, soil, fruit. 
 
 128. Give six examples of the insertion of d, t, in order to 
 guide the pronunciation. 
 
 Ex. Lodge, satchel, drudge, ditch. 
 
 128. 3. Give six examples each of the retention of b, c or k, 
 d, e, h, gh, k, n, o, p, s, in words, where they are not pronounced, 
 and in order to indicate the etymology. 
 
 Ex. Debt, speckled, handsome, hearken, chronicle, neighbour, know- 
 ledge, hymn, ceconomical, receipt, psalm, viscount. 
 
 128. Explain the presence of the italic letters in the following 
 words : scent, plagwe, chamber, tender, lim&s, kin-d-red (' kin- 
 red,' O.E.). 
 
 128. Give six examples of the insertion of vowels u, e ; in 
 order to harden or soften the previous consonants. 
 
 Ex. Guile, tongue, jealous. 
 
 129. Spelling. Correct or justify the following, giving in 
 every case your reason : 
 
 ' Perdition is repentance putt of til a future day.' OLD MAXIH. 
 
 ' As the whistling of the winds, the buz and hum of insects, the hiss of 
 serpents, and the crash of falling timber.' BLAIE. 
 
 4 Gas forms the plural regularly, gases.' 
 
 ' The present tense denotes what is occurring at the present time.' 
 
 Adjectives in able signify capacity : as, ' Improveable,' ' Reconcileable,' 
 ' irreconcilable.' JOHNSON. 
 
 ' When he began this custom he was puleing and very tender.' LOCKE, 
 
 ' The event thereof contains a wholsome instruction.' BACON. 
 
 ' Bhymster one who rhymes.' JOHNSON. 
 
 ' Some dryly plain, without invention's aid, 
 Write dull receipts how poems may be made.' POPE, 
 
 ' God destroies them that speak lies.' PBEKINS. 
 
 From costa, the side. 
 
PARAGRAPHS 131139. 4o9 
 
 ' You need my help and you say, 
 Ehylock, we would have monies.' SHAKSPEABB. 
 ' When young, you led a life monastick, 
 
 And wore a vest ecclesiastick ; 
 
 Now in your age you grow fantastick.' JOHNSON'S Dior. 
 
 Patroll (Webster)-, essentiall (Perkins) ; embarrasment (Littleton); 
 carelesly (Perkins) ; befal (Ash) ; recal (Calvin Institutes) ; unrol 
 (Johnson) ; mixal (Shakspeare) ; Berkleianism, Hartleian (Mackintosh) ; 
 plumbtree (Berkeley) ; combatted (Robertson) ; gossipping, fidgetty, 
 groveling, leveling, traveling, characterize, comprize, temporize, 
 dogmatise, tyrannise, arize, methodise.' 
 
 Write the following paragraphs (62-65, and any others), as 
 dictated by the teacher. Insert all stops, and pay special atten- 
 tion to the spelling. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Chapter vi. 
 (Paragraphs 131-210). 
 
 131. State the threefold office of etymology. What one duty 
 has it to fulfil in each office ? 
 
 132-134. Give the four divisions under one or more of which 
 all words may be arranged. Classify them under eight parts of 
 speech ; and under nine or ten. 
 
 134. Classify words, and define the classes logically. Give 
 the etymological meaning of the name of each class. Criticise 
 the accuracy of the name as a full description of each class. 
 
 135. What are roots, primary derivatives, or stems, and se- 
 condary derivatives 1 
 
 136. What are crude forms? Give the crude forms of the 
 following words, and trace the extension of those forms in as 
 many languages as possible : Astronomy, faculty, ocular, 
 mother, brother willinghood, dozen, cunning, took, acumen, 
 agent, anger. 
 
 Ex. Stranger, from e, ex, extra, extraneue, straniero, estranger. 
 
 139. Which are first in any language nouns or verbs? 
 Illustrate your reply by examples. 
 
460 QUESTIONS. PAK. 140-147. 
 
 140. Mention the three principles which have been applied to 
 explain the origin of elementary combinations of letters to 
 express thought. 
 
 141. How are derivatives formed for expressing relations 
 (accidence), and for expressing new thoughts ? Illustrate your 
 answer by taking a noun-root, a verb-root, and an adjective-root. 
 
 Give derivatives from the following forms : mother, mater, 
 M Tr lP 5 knaw (A. S.), nosco, 
 
 142. Give twenty nouns formed by different suffixes from 
 nouns ; and twenty verbs formed by prefixes, or suffixes, from 
 verbs. 
 
 Give ten nouns formed by different suffixes from verb-roots ; 
 and ten verbs formed in any way from noun-roots. 
 
 Give six nouns formed from adjective-roots, six adjectives 
 from noun-roots, six adjectives from verb-roots, and six verbs 
 from adjective-roots. 
 
 Give examples of ' en,' 'el,' 'y,' ( er,' 'ish,' and 'age,' 
 appended to nouns, adjectives and verbs, so as to form nouns, 
 adjectives, or verbs. 
 
 Ex. Host-el, shov-el, black-en, wood-en, maid-en. 
 
 Give six examples each of words formed from other words by 
 prefixing a, le, c, de, e, g, s, and by appending m, t, y. 
 
 Ex. A-wait, c-rumple, g-rumble, s-tride ; sea-m, weft, snowy. 
 
 Give a dozen examples of words formed from other words by 
 vowel changes, and by consonant changes. 
 
 147. Take the prefixes in the Saxon list (147), write them 
 down, and put against each the corresponding Latin and Greek 
 equivalents. Take Latin prefixes and give the Saxon : take 
 Greek prefixes, and give Latin and Saxon. 
 
 Name prefixes (from classic sources) that have no Anglo- 
 Saxon equivalent. 
 
 Distinguish between the meaning of the prefixes in the follow- 
 ing words ; and account for the difference : dethrone, deduce, 
 intercede, interv&l ; sw&mit, SM&marine. 
 
 Name six other similar examples. 
 
 Give the force, and where possible, the origin of the following 
 suffixes and prefixes : 
 
 Us-ur-er, sorc-er-er, ole-aster, dot-age, mess-age, langu-age, 
 
PAEAGEAPHS 145-157. 461 
 
 girond-in, Spanish, Portuguese, Slavonic, Italian, hatred, pan- 
 try, folly, nozzle, pipkin, dumpling, packet, mirth, trickster, 
 committee, token, ru-th-less, blast, drift, puzzle (pose), plat-t-er, 
 bashful, abash, knee-1, nestle, be-seech, be-spat-ter, swadd-le 
 (swathe), s-quash, s-lash, medic-ine. 
 
 Give six terminations, each from Anglo-Saxon, Latin, and 
 Greek sources, to indicate an agent. 
 
 Give a dozen terminations from Anglo-Saxon and Latin, to 
 indicate a state, act, or quality. 
 
 Give from Anglo-Saxon and Latin, to indicate place, or office. 
 
 Give the meaning of the following suffixes : trustee, grandee, 
 twenty, fourfA, supper, logzc, physics. 
 
 145. State in what ways we can form adjectives to express the 
 absence of a quality ; the presence of it ; the presence of it in a 
 small degree ; in a larger degree ; the power of anything to im- 
 part a quality ; and the fitness of anything to exercise it. 
 
 146. What causative forms of verbs have we in English, of 
 Anglo-Saxon, Latin, and Greek origin ? What frequentatives 
 of Anglo-Saxon and Latin origin? What strengthened forms 
 from any source 1 (see 146, note c). 
 
 148-150. Give the different meanings of le, hood, and dom, in 
 composition. 
 
 151-154. Define composition (a) grammatically, and (b) 
 logically. 
 
 Account for the accent in well-head, all-powerful, perchance. 
 To what rule are these exceptions. 
 
 154. Show why it is not unimportant which term of a com- 
 pound word is placed first. 
 
 156. What is there peculiar in the meaning of compounds 
 like 'spitfire,' and 'backbite.' Add six other examples. 
 
 Explain the elements in the following compounds : jurispru- 
 dence, deodand, a locum-tenens, and vice-president. Give other 
 examples in which similar cases are implied, though not so fully 
 expressed. 
 
 Ex. An iron- ship, a teaspoon, etc. 
 
 157. Give a dozen incomplete compounds ; one element being 
 concealed through incompleteness. 
 
462 QUESTIONS. PAR. 160170. 
 
 Give a dozen apparent compounds, really single words, or of 
 an origin not such as the apparent elements suggested. 
 
 160. Distinguish derivation and composition, and state which 
 is the earlier in any language. 
 
 159. Mention any uniting letters used in forming compounds. 
 
 161. Write down any compound words that strike you as 
 felicitous, or in any other way remarkable. 
 
 What are diminutive, augmentative, and patronymic forms? 
 Why do diminutives express endearment and sometimes con- 
 tempt ] Why do augmentatives often imply censure ? 
 
 Point out in the following words, simple and compound forms ; 
 Anglo-Saxon and classic. Give when possible, if the element is 
 classic, the corresponding Anglo-Saxon form, and the vice-versa. 
 Add also words with similar forms : 
 
 Avuncular, marte^o, plummet, crotchet, failing, lambkin, gar- 
 dew, lapped, tartlet, pollard, trickster, saloon, pottery, mockery, 
 Minnie, Anderson, Edgar Athel-ing, meadow, currtHe, Julius 
 Caesar, stanchtow, pillion, sentineZ, noveZ. 
 
 166. Proper names are originally significant. Illustrate this 
 statement from Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Anglo-Saxon names. 
 
 Explain the force and meaning of the following names : 
 Marcus Tullius Cicero, Thomas Johnson, lonides, Melancthon, 
 Desiderius, Erasmus, CEcolampadius, Bonaparte, Talboys, 
 Saunders, O'Neil, Macneale, Neilson, Merle d'Aubigne', Von 
 Bunsen, De Lille, Monkbarns, Orsini, Philipps, Basil Wood. 
 
 169. Define gender, number, and case. 
 
 Make the following statements consistent with facts : 
 'All males are of the masculine gender.' 
 ' We have in English six cases of nouns.' 
 ' John is the nominative ease to the verb.' 
 ' ' Men ' are in the plural number, because they mean many ? ' 
 ' The 's cannot be a contraction of his, for it is put to female nouns.' 
 JOHNSON. 
 
 170. Show from words like sheep, deer, trout, neivs, alms, wlio, 
 this, that number, gender, and case, are very imperfectly marked 
 in English. 
 
PAEAGEAPHS 171-187. 463 
 
 171. English nouns have two cases, representing three rela- 
 tions. Explain this statement. 
 
 172. What are the only forms we have for indicating the 
 gender of English nouns 1 Why are not Idny and queen examples 
 of gender, strictly speaking ? * What are true examples of 
 gender ? What is the neuter termination of several pronouns 1 
 
 174. What is meant by nominative, genitive, dative, or loca- 
 tive, objective or accusative, and ablative cases ? 
 
 175. Give words that are respectively genitive, dative, accu- 
 sative, and ablative forms. 
 
 176. 7. Give plural endings of adjectives ; as found in old 
 English. We have remnants in modern, or old English, of four 
 plural forms of verbs. State them (tell-e, sinks, sunk, be-i/i). 
 
 178. What idea is always implied in the termination ' er.' 
 Explain the origin of forms like plur-imus, robustus, le-ss, 
 
 mo-re, be-st, nigher, nearer, next ; farther, and further, fourtt, 
 
 first, decimus. 
 
 Analyse uppermost and inmost. 
 
 181, 2. Why are the numerals of any language important 
 helps to the study of comparative etymology ? 
 
 Explain the connection between the Greek and English names 
 of four and five $ What are eleven and twelve etymologically ? 
 What thirty, and ninety, and fifteen ? 
 
 183. Liquids are apt to interchange ; as are palatals, labials, 
 and linguals, or dentals. Give six examples of changes in each 
 class. 
 
 Compare 'frore' (Milton) and 'frost,' 'gross' and 'groat,' 
 ' dozen ' and ' decade,' ' ^Egidius ' and ' St. Giles ; ' and give 
 any examples of similar changes. 
 
 187. State to what language the folloAving belong ; and indi- 
 cate the peculiar forms : obispo (a Usliop), huebos (opus, a work), 
 flume (flumen, what flows, a river), notte (night), chambre 
 
 SJC also 207. 
 
464 QUESTIONS. PAR. 188-198. 
 
 (camera), chef (capuf), chose (causa), zonden (sins), gesehreven 
 (written). 
 
 188. What is Grimm's Law ? Illustrate it by examples. 
 
 190-196. What is meant by syncope, aphoeresis, apocope ; 
 what by elision ; what by prothesis, epenthesis, paragoge, and 
 metathesis ? 
 
 Take the classic words under each division, and give tlio cor- 
 responding English forms. Add any other examples. 
 
 197. Mention facts connected apparently with the laws of 
 utterance which modify the vowel-spelling of our language. 
 Marvels (marveilles, mirabilia), illustrates two of these laws : 
 convoy and pardon illustrate another ; and &o'c (boqk), fet (feet), 
 another. Explain these examples. 
 
 190-198. Give in any language you know, words that are 
 cognate to the following, or that correspond to them, and explain 
 all the changes in vowels and consonants they undergo : 
 
 Daffodil (by prothesis from asphodel), nadder, parrot, proctor, 
 rule, short, margent, parchment, subdue, giant, marshall, blame, 
 harpsicord, impregnable, messenger, sombre, garner, discern and 
 discriminate, impair, pair, peer, debauch, deboshed, repeal, broad, 
 (breadth), deal (dole), ghost, grope, weed, wadding, triumph, 
 swathe, swaddle, heft (have), heir, burn, vessel, vinegar, chafe, 
 pea-hen, retain, chain, decree, inveigh, convey, pain, poenal, mint 
 (comp. Latin), cripple (creep), brood, nigh (neali, A. S.), gape, 
 gap, yellow (gealuwe, A. S.), lodestar, tainted, garniture, garri- 
 son, cleave, priest, reeky, sure, book, beech, Mulhausen, engine, 
 declension, negro, worm, pleasure, sake, seek, choir, voice, 
 mouth, cook (kitchen), abound, counterfeit, Jungfrau, Worm- 
 wood Scrubs, gloaming, brood, beef, leisure, veil, drowsy, re- 
 triever, butcher, Spanish Reals, elm, summon, dough, float, 
 accrue, folk, clout, toil (Dutch, tuylen, to till), oil, vowel, 
 unaneled (unanointed, from eal, or ole, oil), doublet. 
 
 Take the so called irregular verbs and show how nearly all 
 the vowel changes enumerated in par. 198 are found in our own 
 language. 
 
 Take the numerals in par. 180, and illustrate the same 
 changes. 
 
QUESTIONS. PAE. 190-8. 465 
 
 190-8. Give any proper names from various languages to 
 illustrate the changes which letters and words undergo in pass- 
 ing from one language to another. Ex. : 
 Hebrew. Greek. Spanish. French. German. Russian. Welsh. English. 
 iTohanan 'Iwavnjs Juan Jean Hans Ivan Evan John 
 Johanna 'l<a'a.wa. Juanna Jeane Johanna Jane, Joanna, 
 
 Joan. 
 Carolus Charles, Caroline, Charlotte, Carlos. 
 
 190. Explain the different parts of the following words, giving 
 the origin and meaning of each part and the meaning of the 
 whole : sal-oon, sorr-el, senti-n-el, scutt-le (to shoot down), sett-le, 
 sadd-le, si-ege, s-pend, s-plash, e-spouse, e-scal-ade, e-stabl-ish, 
 tranc-e, coun-t, trans-it, per-i-sh, da-te, ad-d, ren-d-er, tra-i-tor, 
 ep-is-ode, clar-et, clar-ion, de-clare, cut-ic-le, dam-s-el, par-c-el, 
 inter-est, frai-1, fract-ure, epi-stle, twi-ne, twi-st, scall-op (from 
 shell), di-ligent, neg-ligent, de-fine, de-fleet, de-ny, verm-il-ion, 
 verm-ic-ul-ate, er-st, ear-ly, hopp-ester (hop, to dance, Chaucer), 
 minstr-el, dronk-el-ow (a tippler, Chaucer), escape, es-tranged, 
 hum-b-le (bee), spect-ac-les, ru-th-less, sti-le (for passing into a 
 field, etc.), outr-age, b-liss, b-lithe. 
 
 Give the derivation of the following words, and explain their 
 meaning : debenture, heir apparent, saunter, a score, a-merce, 
 (merciment, O. E.), con-sider, de-mise, wass-ail, e-mol-u-ment, 
 mount-e-bank, cur-tail, en-tail, intaglio, dappled, pommel, hoax, 
 haut-boy, bas-soon, roundelay (a sonnet ending as it begins), 
 lodestar, sire, dam, recipe, consign, January, jury, a moot ques- 
 tion, homage, a guild, the plague, disastrous. 
 
 190-8. Give the etymology, and explain the connection in form 
 and in sense, of the following words : chart, chart-er, card, cart-el, 
 cart-oon, cart-ridge ; a-mass, de-mol-ish ; thin, dwine, dwindle ; 
 corps, corpse, corpulent, corporal (oatli), cors-1-et ; halt, held ; 
 miscreant, discreditable ; cram, crum(b)s ; indomitable, un- 
 daunted ; cud, chew, jaws ; case, cadence, escheats ; extract, es- 
 treat ; barrow, borough ; curry, currier, cuirass ; siege, see (a 
 bishop's see), session ; seat, a settle, saddle, sadness ; bush, boskey ; 
 stew, stove ; wend, went, wand-er ; spade, spud, spaddle ; stray, 
 straggle, stroll ; spray, spread, spraddle, sprawl ; delight, deli- 
 cious, delicacy, delectable ; spark, sparkle ; qualm, s-queamish ; 
 salad, saucer, salary ; garniture, garments, garrison ; capillary, 
 
 2H 
 
466 QUESTIONS. PAB. 190-208. 
 
 dishevelled ; rector, address, dirge, escort ; fley, flesh, fleece, floss ; 
 metal, mettle, medal, medallion ; feed, fodder, forage ; species, 
 spices, specie, spec-ul-ate, spectre ; blue and blew ; green and 
 grown ; brown and burn ; black and bleak ; camel and camlet ; 
 spirt, sprat, sprout ; spike, spokes ; squeal, squall, squabble ; 
 fight, foe, fiend, feud ; crisp, crape ; crack, crackle, crackling, 
 crackn-el ; conquer, acquire ; cock, chicken, chuck, chuckle ; 
 click, clack, cluck, clock ; creep, crab, cripple ; dab, daub, dabble ; 
 crush, crash ; chamber, comrade ; dull, dolt, dullard ; sip, sop, 
 sup, soup ; unity, union, onion, only, alone ; cheer, courage, 
 core, cordial ; slack, slow, sluggish, sloven, slut ; sneak, snake, 
 snail ; thrill, drill, trill, thirle ; span-new, spangles ; steal, stalk, 
 stalwart ; debate, battle ; cord, chord, cordeliers ; latch, lace ; 
 sulky, sullen (soleyn, O.E.), solitary, solace, console ; blaspheme, 
 blame, blemish ; retail, curtail ; tally, tailor, Talboys ; coroner, 
 crown ; horn, cornute, cornet ; crimson, carmine ; crate, cradle ; 
 crave, craven ; dear, dearth, darling ; corsaire, cursory, courser. 
 ' A milken diet ' (Temple), ' the milky way ; ' parley, parlour, 
 parliament. 
 
 190-8. Give the derivation of the following, and show how 
 in each case the derivation explains the meaning : 
 
 Domestic, dominion, doomsday ; deal, dole, doleful ; dis-sonant, 
 dis-syllable, distance ; empire, empirical ; demur, demure ; date 
 (of a letter), date (palm) ; decade, decadence ; compliment, com- 
 plement ; compass, compassion ; console, consols, soluble, solar, 
 solace, soldiery ; defile (to draw out), defile (to pollute) saloon, 
 salad, salmon, salvage ; foundation, foundry ; cord, cordwainer ; 
 liberate, deliberation ; tail, tale, tailor. 
 
 199-208. Define Accidence. 
 
 Why do most grammars give both the logical and the gran> 
 matical arrangement of words 1 
 
 Point out the proper, common, and abstract nouns, in the 
 following sentences and in paragraph : 
 
 ' A is sometimes a noun ; as a great A.' TODD. 
 
 ' Formerly sp was cast in a piece, as st's are now.' 
 
 6 When I see many its in a page, I always tremble for the writer.' 
 COBBETT. 
 
 ' Such mortal drugs I have ; but Mantua's law 
 Is death to any he that utters them.' SHAKSPEARE. 
 
QUESTIONS. PAR. 205. 467 
 
 ' The forcing of wrath bringeth forth strife.' PEOV. xxx. S3. 
 
 ' What are thy comings in.' SHAKSPEABB. 
 
 ' 'Tis Heaven itself points out a hereafter.' ADDISON. 
 
 ' Your if is the only peace-maker.' SHAKSPEABE. 
 
 ' My power, said Reason, is to advise, not to compel. ' Jonxsox. 
 
 ' O'er many a fiery Alp.' MILTON. 
 
 ' Consideration whipp'd the offending Adam out of him.' SHAKS. 
 
 'And gentle dulness ever loves a joke.' POPE. 
 
 By what process are proper nouns made common ; common, 
 proper ; and abstracts, proper and common ? 
 
 Admitting a distinction in the persons of nouns, of what 
 person are the italic words in the following ? 
 
 ' Let thy servant abide instead of the lad a bondman to my lord.' 
 GEN. xliv. 33. 
 
 ' As will the rest, so wilUth Winchester? 
 
 ' Richard of York ! How fares our dearest brother ? ' SHAKSPEABB. 
 
 These last examples prove the inconvenience of the distinction 
 itself: How? 
 
 205. How is the plural of all modern English words formed ? 
 Which is the older plural ending, es or s ? 
 
 Mention the four ways of forming the plural of words of Anglo- 
 Saxon origin. 
 
 What different plural forms have we of words imperfectly 
 naturalized ? 
 
 Correct or justify the following forms : 
 
 Briefs, reliefs, wharves, flagstaff's/ inuendoes, mangoes, pal- 
 mettos, similies, apostrophies, chimnies, alkalies, attornies, allies, 
 alleys, colloquies, soliloquies, peas, pease, mackarels, M. A's., 
 M. D's./pros and cons, court-martials. 
 
 ' The food of the rattlesnake is birds, squirrels, hare.' 
 
 ' HI news rides fast, while good news baits,' MILTON. 
 
 ' The odds is considerable.' CAMPBELL. 
 
 ' On which side do the odds lie P ' LOCKE. 
 
 ' Virtuous conversation was a mean to work the heathen's conversion.' 
 
 HOOKEB. 
 
 ' Let us make brick and burn them.' GEN. xi. 
 
 Though stuff make staves, all the as the plural of staff ; and stares, of 
 compounds are regular. As ' stave ' is stave. 
 
 used, it would be better to keep staffs b This form is allowed as a plural 
 
 for abbreviations. 
 
 2 H2 
 
468 QUESTIONS. PAK. 207230. 
 
 'But high in amphitheatre above, 
 Sis everlasting arms the aloes threw.' GEETBUDE OF WYOMING. 
 
 ' The tree of life bare twelve manner of fruit.' 
 
 ' Healths to both kings.' WALLEB. 
 
 'They are mere heathens.' 
 
 'Several serieses.' WALKEB. 
 
 'Neither the much pains taken, nor the many pains inflicted served to 
 teach him ttie lesson.' 
 
 'The corpse of half her senate manure the fields .of Thessaly.' 
 ADDISON. 
 
 Scarves (Spectator), rooves (Sidney), also's, moreover 's (Camp- 
 bell), ' the two Charles's, f the two Pompies,' ' two spoonsf ull,' 
 nostrums, stamens, stamina, chef-d'oeuvres, asylums, cherubims. 
 
 207. In what three ways is gender indicated in English nouns ? 
 Give the feminine forms of school-boy, tiger, hopper (dancer, 
 Spencer), landgrave, gaffer, lad, uncle, monk. 
 
 Explain the following forms : 
 
 ' The council decided the question at its last meeting.' 
 
 ' I do not know what a witch is now, or what it was then.' 
 
 ' And it became a serpent, and Moses fled from before it.' 
 
 209. On what three principles are things properly of no gender 
 in English, made masculine or feminine, when personified, or 
 when spoken of as possessing gender ? 
 
 210. Correct or justify the following : 
 
 ' Be governed by your conscience, and never ask any bodies' leave to 
 fe honest.' COLLIEK. 
 
 'Sir William Joneses division of the day,' PHIL. Mus. 
 
 'To see the various ways of dressing a calve's head.' SHENSTONE. 
 
 'Burn's Tarn o' Shanter.' SCOTT. 
 
 ' Watts' Logic.' ' For decorum sake.' COWPEE. 
 
 ' Men's happiness or misery is most part of their own making.' LOCKE. 
 
 Of what case is Him etymologically ? Of what case in ordinary 
 syntax ? 
 
 211. 212. Define a pronoun, and state into what classes pro- 
 nouns are divided. 
 
 214. Several of the pronouns are really demonstratives. 
 Illustrate this statement. 
 
 215-230. Why is 'it is me' less exceptionable than 'it is 
 him'? 
 
 What case is the ( me ' in c methinks ' 1 
 
QUESTIONS. PAR. 233263. 469 
 
 Distinguish ' mine ' and ' my ' etymologically and in actual 
 usage. What are ' ours,' ' theirs ' 1 Give an example of ' their, 
 and ' your,' with a proper genitive force. 
 
 Criticize the forms 'himself,' ' myself/ 'oneself,' and 'one's- 
 self.' 
 
 To what age in our language does any passage belong in 
 which ' its ' is found ? 
 
 How is ' you ' used in English ? What is ' one ' in such phrases 
 as, ' one hardly knows what to say ' ? 
 
 How are ' this ' and ' that ' used when they express contrasts ? 
 What are relative pronouns ] what interrogative ? 
 
 Explain etymologically the following words, 'they,' 'who,' 
 'that,' 'which,' 'here,' 'then,' 'how,' 'why,' 'thither.' 
 
 Criticize the expression, ' from whose bourne no traveller re- 
 turns.' 
 
 How are the relatives 'who,' 'that,' 'which,' and 'what,' 
 distinguished in actual usage ? 
 
 Explain, correct, or justify, the following : 
 
 ' I bequeath my soul into the hands of the Almighty God, my Creator, 
 not trusting in mine own merits which am of myself a most wretched 
 sinner, but only in the mercy of God and in the merits of Jesus Christ 
 my Redeemer.' BEENAEB GILPIN'S WILL, A.D. 1583. 
 
 ' That is not such a practice as I can sanction.' 
 
 ' He is not the man as told me the story.' 
 
 233-263. What is an adjective ? Classify adjectives accord- 
 ing to their formation, and according to the kinds of qualities 
 they indicate. Why are ' a ' and ' the ' reckoned adjectives ? 
 tinder what other part of speech are they often reckoned ? 
 
 How far are adjectives declined in English? Explain the 
 following : ' deare children ; ' ' verbs actives ; ' ' allermost. ' 
 
 What is meant by superlatives of eminence ? How are the 
 minuter differences between degrees of comparison indicated in 
 English ? 
 
 Explain etymologically the following forms : ' wiser,' ' farther,' 
 'foremost,' 'firs,' 'less,' 'worse,' 'rather,' 'an,' 'only,' 'to-day,' 
 'other,' 'any,' 'enough,' 'many,' 'each,' 'both,' 'either,' 'the 
 Ridings of Yorkshire,' 'twice.' 
 
 What adjectives admit no degrees of comparison ? Are there 
 any exceptions to this class ? 
 
470 QUESTIONS. PAR. 264285. 
 
 Why do adjectives of more than two syllables generally form 
 their comparatives and superlatives by ' more ' and ' most' ? 
 
 What are cardinal and ordinal numbers ? To what class of 
 adjectives do they belong ? 
 
 What is there peculiar in the syntax of ' few ' and ' many ' ? 
 
 Name five adjectives with more than one superlative form ; 
 five that have no positive, and any that have positive and super- 
 lative forms and no comparative. 
 
 Ex. Farthest, farthermost, undermost, topmost. 
 
 Criticize the following : 
 
 ' Lesser has all the authority which a mode originally erroneous can 
 derive from custom.' JOHNSON. 
 
 ' At present the trade is thought to be in a depressed state if less than 
 a million of tons are produced in a year.' HACAUZAY. 
 
 ' There is nothing in our fellow men that we should respect with so 
 much sacredness as their good name.' TAYLOB. 
 
 ' In the sixth hundredth and first year.' GEN. viii, 13. 
 
 ' To the first of these divisions my ten last lectures have been devoted.' 
 ADAMS. 
 
 264-285. What is a verb ? What are verbs substantive and 
 adjective ? 
 
 What verbs transitive, intransitive, and neuter ? What are 
 verbs active and passive ? Give six examples of each. 
 
 Give six verbs that are used both as transitive and as intran- 
 sitive. 
 
 What are reflexive verbs ? Explain the following phrases : 
 'I laid me down and slept.' 'Recollect yourself.' 'Behave 
 yourself.' 
 
 How are such expressions as ' it tastes sweet ' to be explained ? 
 What are impersonal verbs ? Have we in English any strictly 
 impersonal forms ? 
 
 Give a complete tabular view of English verbs arranged for 
 purposes of syntax. 
 
 Arrange verbs according to their forms, meaning, and origin, 
 for purposes of etymology. 
 
 What is meant by calling ' am ' and ' go ' irregular verbs ? 
 What is a better way of accounting for their different forms ? 
 
 Describe the four most important classes of derived verbs. 
 
 Give six examples of English inceptive, and of English fre- 
 quentative verbs. 
 
QUESTIONS. PAE. 286295. 471 
 
 What is meant by voice, mood, tense, person, and number ? 
 
 Criticize and explain, ' he is come ; ' ' the house is "building ; ' 
 'he can come.' 
 
 What moods have we in English 1 Why do you exclude or 
 include a potential mood ? 
 
 What is the most accurate name of participles in ing, and in 
 ed, en, or t ? 
 
 How do we mark in English the subjunctive mood 1 By what 
 other name is this mood called ? 
 
 What two forms have we of the infinitive ? 
 
 286. How are infinitives in ing distinguished from participles? 
 
 287. What are gerundial infinitives : and how are they dis- 
 tinguished from common infinitives ? 
 
 288. What is the probable origin of the common confusion of 
 participle nouns in ing, common and gerundial infinitives in ing ? 
 
 289-291. What three tenses have we in English ; and what 
 four or five forms of each tense ? What two other forms havf 
 been added ? 
 
 292-295. In what way, and for what purposes are indefinite 
 tenses used in English ? Why are perfect tenses regarded not 
 as past but as present ? 
 
 What is the government of the following words in italics : 
 ( He has come ; ' ' He has written' ? What are ' did ' and ' hight' ? 
 What are weak and what strong verbs ? By what other names 
 are they known ? 
 
 How are irregular verbs classified? Give six with one form 
 only for the present, past, and complete participle. Give six 
 Vith two forms and six with three. 
 
 Classify irregular verbs according to the vowel changes they 
 undergo. 
 
 Take the verbs given in paragraphs 297, 1, 2, 3, and enumerate 
 all the erroneous forms of the past tense, or of the complete 
 participle you have noticed in writing or in speaking. 
 
 Ex. 'Ihadicrote it in the ironical style of Dean Swift.' ALEXANDER 
 CABLYLE, D.D. 
 
 300. What is the origin of the difficulty of the rule, or the 
 
472 QUESTIONS. PAR. 302-311. 
 
 use of ' shall ' or ' will ' in English futures ? By what expres- 
 sions do we describe the futurity of any act ? State the double 
 meaning of 'is,' 'shall,' 'will,' 'may,' 'can.' 
 
 Give the simplest rule for the use of ' shall ' or ' will ' in simple 
 sentences. In dependant sentences which expresses simple 
 futurity ] 
 
 What is the scripture usage as to ' shall ' ? How do you 
 explain the usage ? 
 
 On what ' ethical ground ' has the usage of the English future 
 been based? 
 
 302. Distinguish 'willingness ' and 'wouldingness.' How are 
 the imperfect forms ' would ' and ' should ' used in English ? 
 
 303. What remnants have we in English verbs of endings 
 that express distinctions of persons ? What is the probable 
 origin of a-m, wa-a, lov-eth, a-rt, we-?'e 1 
 
 305. What forms have we in English verbs that express dis- 
 tinction of number ? 
 
 306. Explain the following forms : 
 
 We arn; we been; he wends his way ; quoth they ; you shuln 
 go ; to wit; woe worth the day. 
 
 ' Ye may save or spille 
 
 Your oughne thing ; werkith after your wille.' CHATJCEB. 
 ' Ther may nothing, so God my soule save, 
 Liken to you, that may displesen me.' CHAUCEB. 
 ' And al that liketh me I dar wel sayn 
 It liketh the.' CHAUCEB. 
 ' For this night shaltou deyen for my sake.' CHAUCEE. 
 
 307-311. What are adverbs ; and what parts of speech do 
 they qualify? Classify them (a) according to their meaning, 
 and (b) according to their origin. 
 
 What are conjunctional adverbs, and interrogative adverbs ? 
 
 What adverbs admit degrees of comparison 1 
 
 Give six monosyllabic adverbs of Saxon origin. 
 
 Give six derivative adverbs with case endings. 
 
 Ex. Whilom, twice, unaware, the;;, why. 
 
 Take the examples in paragraph 311, No. 4, and explain the 
 force of each adverbial phrase. 
 
QUESTIONS. PAB. 312325. 473 
 
 312. Account for the frequent use of the same words as ad- 
 jectives and adverbs. 
 
 Which form is accurate : ' It sleeps sweetly,' or ' it sleeps 
 sweet ' ? If both are accurate, how do they differ in meaning ? 
 
 313. How do you distinguish between adverbs, conjunctions, 
 and prepositions ? Classify prepositions (a) according to their 
 meaning, and (b) according to their forms. 
 
 What relations do most prepositions primarily express ? 
 
 In what stage of our language were prepositions and case 
 endings both used ? Are there any examples of the apparent use 
 of both in modern English ? 
 
 Give six examples of prepositions that are original words, and 
 six that are derivatives. Give six that are parts of verbs. 
 
 318-324. Do conjunctions connect sentences only, or words 
 also ? Justify your answer. 
 
 How are conjunctions most conveniently classified ] 
 
 What are co-ordinate conjunctions, and how are they classi- 
 fied? 
 
 What are subordinate conjunctions ? Mention six that describe 
 time ; six, place ; six, manner ; and six, causation. 
 
 Give any words that are adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, or 
 prepositions, according as we use them. Illustrate the word? 
 you name by example?. 
 
 What are correlative conjunctions ? Name six and give the 
 correlative in each case. 
 
 Classify conjunctions etymologically ; and give examples of 
 each class. 
 
 325. What are interjections ? How are they distinguished from 
 other parts of speech ; and how may they be classified ? 
 What was Home Tooke's theory on the origin of particles ? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Chapter vii. 
 (Paragraphs 329-603). 
 
 329-356. Give MorelTs five fundamental laws of syntax. 
 Define a sentence, and enumerate the essential parts of every 
 sentence. 
 
 What are the various meanings of the verb to be, is, are, etc. ? 
 
474 QUESTIONS. PAB. 329357. 
 
 What are simple sentences, complex, compound 1 Give four 
 examples of each. 
 
 Of what may the subject of a sentence consist ] And how 
 may the subject be enlarged ? Give six examples of simple 
 subjects. Enlarge each of them in every possible way. 
 
 How may the simple predicate be varied ? 
 
 What is the completion of the predicate ? How may the object 
 of a transitive verb be enlarged? What are direct and what 
 indirect objects? What are factative, genitive, and dative 
 objects ? 
 
 What verbs complete the predicate in the nominative case ? 
 What in the accusative? What verbs take an indirect object 
 only? 
 
 How is the predicate of a sentence extended ? Mention two 
 kinds of extension of which predicates are susceptible. 
 
 There are four forms of adverbial phrases used in the exten- 
 sion of predicates. What are they ? Give an example of each. 
 
 What part of sentence does the nominative absolute generally 
 modify? 
 
 How may all language be divided in relation to simple sen- 
 tences ? 
 
 What are complex sentences ? What is meant by the prin- 
 cipal, and what by the subordinate sentence ? 
 
 Give examples of noun sentences, adjective sentences, and 
 adverbial sentences ? 
 
 What are compound sentences ; and how are they divided ? 
 1, 2, 3, 4. 
 
 Give examples of copulative, alternative (or disjunctive), 
 adversative, and causative sentences, and note by what particles 
 they are connected with the other parts of a compound sentence. 
 
 What are contracted compound sentences ? State the different 
 forms of contracted sentences. 
 
 How are simple sentences analyzed ; how complex ; how com- 
 pound? 
 
 Take any of the examples given on pages 257, 258, and parse 
 them according to each of the three methods mentioned. 
 
 Distinguish between the grammatical, and the logical parsing 
 of a sentence. 
 
 357. Correct, or justify the following ; giving in every case 
 your reason. 
 
QUESTIONS. PAB. 357365. 475 
 
 357. 'The whole need riot a physician, but them that are sick.' 
 
 BUNYAN. 
 
 ' He will in no wise cast out whomsoever come unto him.' "H>T,T,, 
 ' He offered a great recompense to whomsoever would help him.' 
 HUME. 
 ' You are a much greater loser than me.' SWIFT. 
 
 360. ' Now therefore come thou, let us make a covenant, I and thou.' 
 GEN. xxsi. 44. 
 
 'A torch snuff and all goes out in a moment when dipped in the 
 vapour.' ADDISON. 
 
 362. ' A few hours of intercourse is enough for forming a judgment on 
 the case.' 
 
 'Divers philosophers hold that the lips is parcel of the mind,' SHAKS. 
 
 ' The mechanism of clocks and watches were totally unknown.' HUME. 
 
 1 The palace of Pizarro, together with the houses of several of his 
 adherents, were pillaged by the soldiers.' ROBEBTSON. 
 ' Severe the doom that length of days impose, 
 To stand sad witness of unnumber'd woes.' MELMOTH. 
 
 ' This Thyre, with her twelve children, were notorious robbers.' 
 THOEPE. 
 
 ' The richness of their arms and apparel were conspicuous in the fore- 
 most ranks.' GIBBON. 
 
 ' The it together with the verb to be express states of being.' COBBETT. 
 
 'Bitter constraint and sad occasion dear, 
 Compels me to disturb your season due.' MILTON. 
 
 363. 'Light and knowledge in what manner so ever afforded us is 
 equally from God.' BUTLEE. 
 
 ' To live in sin and yet to believe in the forgiveness of sin is utterly im- 
 possible.' 
 
 ' Early to bed, and early to rise, 
 Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.' 
 
 ' Deborah, a prophetess, the wife of Lapidoth, she judged Israel at that 
 time.' JUDGES iv. 4. 
 
 'Hell at last 
 
 Yawning received them whole, and on them closed 
 Hell their fit habitation, fraught with fire 
 Unquenchable, the house of woe and pain.' MILTON. 
 ' Two and two is four and one is five.' POPE. 
 
 365. ' The number of inhabitants were not more than four millions.' 
 SMOLLETT. 
 
 'Mankind is appointed to live in a future state.' BTJTLEB. 
 
476 - QUESTIONS. PAR. 866-371. 
 
 'For the people speaks but does not write." PHILOSOPHICAL MUSEUM. 
 ' The greater part of their captives were anciently sacrificed.' IlOBEET- 
 SON. 
 
 'A multitude of their words approaches to the Teutonic form, and 
 therefore afford excellence assistance.' DE. A. MUEEAT. 
 
 ' The other party is by no means inferior in the felicities of their style.' 
 
 D'lSBAELI. 
 
 366. ' The masterly boldness and precision of his outline, which astonish 
 those who have trodden parts of the same field, is apt to escape the un- 
 informed reader.' HALLAM. 
 
 ' The boldness, freedom, and variety, of our blank verse is infinitely 
 more favourable than rhyme to all kinds of sublime poetry.' 
 ' There is sometimes more than one auxiliary to the verb.' 
 ' More than a little is required at our hands.' 
 
 367. 'We see plainly that it is neither Osmyn nor Jane Shore that 
 speak.' BLAIB. 
 
 ' When the helplessness of childhood or the frailty of woman make an 
 appeal to her generosity.' JEFFREY. 
 
 ' Either a pestilence or a famine, a victory or a defeat, an oracle of the 
 gods or the eloquence of a daring leader, were sufficient to impel the 
 Gothic arms.' GIBBON. 
 
 ' To write all substantives with capital letters, or to exclude them from 
 adjectives derived from proper names, may perhaps be thought offences 
 too small for animadversion, but the evil of innovation is always some- 
 thing.' DE. BAEBOW. 
 
 368. 'The blessings which political and intellectual freedom have 
 brought in their train.' MACAULAT. 
 
 ' An officer on European and on Indian service are in very different 
 situations.' S. SHTTH. 
 
 ' The logical and [insert the] historical analysis of a language generally 
 in some degree coincides.' 
 
 369. ' Each of which have stamped their own impress on the character 
 of the people.' ALISOK. 
 
 ' Every system of religion and every school of philosophy stand back on 
 this field and leave the Lord Jesus Christ alone.' ABBOTT. 
 
 'Every one of this grotesque family were the creatures of national 
 genius.' D'lSBAELI. 
 
 370. ' This man and that man was born there.' 
 
 371. 372. ' His belly not his brains this impulse give, 
 
 He'll grow immortal for he cannot live.' TouNS (lo Pope). 
 
QUESTIONS. PAR. 372-390. 477 
 
 ' Homer as well as Virgil were translated, and studied on the banks of 
 the Rhine.' GIBBON. 
 
 ' I cannot so warmly admire the Ode to Sleep, which Bouterwek as well 
 as Sedano extol.' HALLAM. 
 
 ' Nothing but clearness and simplicity are desirable.' MAUNDER. 
 
 ' But it, as well as the lines immediately following, defy all transla- 
 tion.' COLEEIDGE. 
 
 ' Nothing but frivolous amusements please the insolent.' 
 
 375-8. ' Neither men nor money were wanting for the service.' 
 
 ' Neither you nor he seem to have entertained the idea.' HOENE. 
 
 'This letter is one of the best that has been written by Lord Byron.' 
 HUNT. 
 
 ' The idea of such a collection of men as make an army." LOCKE. 
 
 ' The faint sparks of it which is in the angels are concealed from our 
 view.' COEBIN'B INSTITUTES. 
 
 ' Sully bought of Mons. Guyon one of the finest Spanish horses that 
 ever was seen." SOUTHEY. 
 
 ' No people ever was more rudely aasailed by the sword of conquest 
 than those of this country.' ALISON. 
 
 380. ' Minced pies was regarded as a profane viand by the sectaries.' 
 HUME. 
 
 ' Two shillings and sixpence is half-a-crown, but not a half-crown,' 
 PEIESTLEY. 
 
 ' Perhaps their cows or else their sheep, 
 Was all that did their silly thoughts so busy keep.' MILTON. 
 
 383. ' My paper is the Ulysses, his bow, in which every man of wit 
 and learning may try his strength.' ADDISON. 
 
 J The river of Kishon swept them away, that ancient river, the river 
 Kishon.' JUDGES v. 21. 
 
 384 What qxiality is expressed by the genitive case in the 
 example in par. 384, under 'attributive genitives ' t , 
 
 387-8. 'Were Cain and Abel's occupations the same ? ' BEOWN. 
 ' Were Cain's and Abel's occupations the same ? ' 
 ' His father's and mother's names were on the blank leaf.' CORNER 
 STONE. 
 
 'And Love's and Friendship's finely pointed dart, 
 Falls blunted from each indurated heart.' GOLDSMITH. 
 Neither the man, nor the woman's distress was relieved.' 
 
 390. * 'A poem of Pope's' is an erroneous or a vulgar phrase.' DB. 
 BLAIB. 
 
478 QUESTIONS. PAE. 390-414. 
 
 c ' This tendency of his' is wrong,' STEBNE. 
 
 ' This sentence of the bishop's is itself ungrammatical.' COBBHTT. 
 
 393. 'I remember its being reckoned a great exploit.' PEIESTLET. 
 ' Much depends on a pupil's composing frequently.' 
 
 'What is the reason of our being so frigid in our public discourse ? 
 BLAIE. 
 ' Cyrus did not wait for the Babylonians coming to attack him.' EOLLIJT. 
 
 394. ' For the elects' sakes.' ' For the elect's sake.' 
 
 ' This world do I renounce ; and in your sights, 
 Shake patiently my great afflictions off.' SHAKSPEABE. 
 
 398. Mention the three forms of expression in English which 
 are best explained as dative cases. Explain the examples in 
 par. 406. 
 
 402. What case absolute is most common in modern English ? 
 Why is the dative form historically and logically more accurate ? 
 
 407. Correct the following : 
 
 ' Who should I meet the other day but my old friend.' ADDISON. 
 'I cannot tell who to compare them to.' BUNYAN. 
 ' We are still much at a loss who civil power belongs to.' LOCKE. 
 ' My son is to be married to I know not who.' GOLDSMITH. 
 1 My desire has been for some years past to retire myself to some of our 
 American plantations.' COWLEY. 
 ' Any word that will conjugate is a verb.' 
 ' Thou, Nature, partial Nature I arraign ! ' BTTBNS. 
 1 He enlarged himself on that subject.' 
 
 408. "Like ' is the only adjective that governs a case.' 
 410, 411. Parse the examples in 410, 411. 
 
 414. Criticise the following : 
 
 4 Passive verbs should never be made to govern the objective case.' 
 BROWN. 
 
 ' When ' ye ' is made use of, it should be in the nominative, not in the 
 objective case.' COBBETT. 
 
 ' The dogs are allowed the crumbs which fall from the master's table.' 
 CAMPBELL. 
 
 ' Where there are many things to be done, each must be allowed its 
 share of time and labour.' JOHNSON. 
 
 An objective case may be used after a transitive verb ; after a 
 preposition ; in apposition ; after an infinitive verb not transitive, 
 
QUESTIONS. PAR. 414424. 479 
 
 as an adverb of measure, time, etc. ; and after passive verbs in 
 some cases. Give an example of each. 
 
 416. 'Let the same be she that thou hast appointed to thy servant 
 Isaac.' GEN. xxiv. 
 
 'I beg pardon, you are not the person whom I thought it was. ' 
 ' It cannot be me.' SWIFT. 
 
 413. 'He does not care the rind of a lemon for her all the whik.' 
 EDGEWO^TH. 
 
 Parse the following : 
 
 ' To reign is worth ambition.' MILTON. 
 
 ' It would be a romantic madness for a man to be a lord in his closet/ 
 SWIFT. 
 
 ' The Jews were ridiculed for being a credulous people.' ADDISON. 
 
 * Near yonder copse.' GOLDSMITH. ' How like him ! ' 
 
 ' He becomes wiser every day.' ' It becomes me so to speak.' DBYDEN. 
 
 ' What made Luther a great man, was his unshaken faith in God.' 
 
 418. 'A greater instance of a man's being a blockhead I do not know.' 
 SPECTATOE. 
 
 ' The New Testament precludes the notion of his being a fictitious per- 
 sonage.' 
 
 424. 'Hath a nation changed their gods which are yet no gods,' 
 JEE. ii. 
 
 ' All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but 
 his follies are innumerable.' SWIFT. 
 
 ' There is a generation that is pure in their own eyes and yet is not 
 washed from their filthiness.' PBOV. xxx. 
 
 ' Both minister and magistrate are compelled to choose between his 
 duty and his reputation.' JUNTOS. 
 
 ' The army, whom its chief had thus abandoned, pursued meanwhile 
 their miserable march.' W. SCOTT. 
 
 ' But she fell a laughing like one out of their right mind.' EDGS- 
 
 WOETH. 
 
 ' If ye from your hearts forgive every one his brother their trespasses.* 
 MATT, xviii. 
 
 ' Did ever Proteus, Merlin, any witch, 
 Transform themselves so strangely as the rich.' POPE. 
 ' If an Aristotle, or a Pythagoras, or a Galileo, suffer for their opinions, 
 they are martyrs.' A. FULLEE. 
 
 4 She was calling out to one or an other at every step that habit was 
 ensnaring them.' JOHNSON. 
 
 'How happy it is that neither of us were ill in the Hebrides.' 
 JOHNSON. 
 
 ' What's justice to a man or laws, 
 That never comes within their claws.' BUTLEB. 
 
430 QUESTIONS. PAR. 433458. 
 
 433. ' Most compounded sentences are more or less elliptical : some 
 examples of which may be seen under different parts of speech.' 
 MURBAY. 
 
 ' Every line consists of ten syllables ; from which there are but two 
 exceptions.' KATMES. 
 
 435. ' He saw his own child dragged to the door by eight or ten cats, 
 whom he had difficulty in driving away.' LiEtJT.-CoL. BUBNES. 
 
 ' I mean that part of mankind who are known by the name of ^women's 
 tnen. ' ADDISON. 
 
 v36. ' Each House shall keep a journal of its own proceedings, and 
 publish the same, except such parts as in their judgment require secrecy.' 
 CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES. 
 
 436. 'Liberty should reach every individual of a peoBle, as they all 
 share our common nature.' SPECTATOR. 
 
 Correct or justify the following : 
 
 445. c In the posture I lay.' SWIFT. 
 
 ' Participles are words derived from verbs, and convey an idea of the 
 acting of an agent, or of the suffering of an object, with the time it 
 happens.' DE. A. MUBBAY. 
 
 451. ' When the motives whence men act are known.' BEATTIE. 
 
 ' The curse of battle where their fathers fell.' POPE. 
 
 ' They framed a protest where they repeated their claims.' HUME. 
 
 453. ' Dear my Lord.' 'That my Lord Elijah.' ' Sweet my mother.' 
 ' Good my liege.' ' Mon cher monsieur.' ' My dear wzadame.' 
 
 454. * A noun is a name of anything that (which) exists, or of which 
 we have any notion.' SOUTH. 
 
 457. ' No man hath a propensity to vice as such ; on the contrary, a 
 wicked deed disgusts him and makes him abhor the author.' 
 
 ' Mark the beautiful variety of the rainbow, and now let us consider its 
 cause.' 
 
 ' He hath made him to be sin for us who knew no sin.' 2 COB. v. 
 'When a conjunction is to be supplied, it is called asyndeton.' 
 
 458. Correct the examples in par. 458, 459, so as to make the 
 meaning clear. 
 
 The my in these cnses IB a mer enclitic, and makes with the follow- 
 ing nouu a single word. 
 
QUESTIONS. PAR. 460-475. 481 
 
 Correct or justify the following : 
 
 460-1. 'Such an one.' BLAIB. 'The shape of an horse.' LOCKB. 
 'Aii eunuch.' POPE. 
 
 'With such a spirit and sentiments were hostilities carried on.' 
 ROBEBTSON. 
 
 466. ' The collision of a vowel with itself is the most ungracious of all 
 combinations ' . . and is called . . ' an hiatus.' 
 
 ' The chief magistrate is styled a president.' 
 'This part of speech is called a 'verb,' ' 
 
 467. ' His whole life was a doing the will of his Father. 
 
 'In Spenser's time the pronouncing the ed seems to have been an 
 archaism.' PHILOSOPHICAL MUSEUM. 
 
 ' Without shedding of blood is no remission.' HEB. ix. 22. 
 
 ' He turned all his thoughts to composing of laws for the good of the 
 state.' KOLLIN. 
 
 ' In depicting of characters, Werner is little better than a mannerist.' 
 CARLYLE. 
 
 'What is here commanded is merely the relieving his misery.' 
 WAYLAND. 
 
 468. ' Cleon was another sort of a man.' GoLDSiirrn. 
 
 469. ' Substantives in ian are those that signify profession.' 
 
 ' That persons who think obscurely should write obscurely is not sur- 
 prising.' 
 
 470-5. ' The levity as well as loquacity of the Greeks made them in- 
 capable of keeping up the true standard of history.' BOLINGBBOKE. 
 
 ' Whose is rather the poetical than regular genitive of which.' JOHN- 
 BON. 
 
 ' The Hebrew, with which the Phoenician and Canaanitish stand in con- 
 nexion.' CONANT. 
 
 ' The north and south line." ' The north and the south Line.' ' The 
 north and south lines.' 
 
 ' A dark and a distant unknown.' CHALMEES. 
 
 'The deepest and the bitterest feeling still is, the separation.' 
 DE. M'CEIE. 
 
 ' The terror of the Spanish and the French monarchies.' BOLIXQ- 
 BEOKE. 
 
 ' An exposition of the Old and New Testament.' M. HENEY. 
 
 ' He unites in himself the human and the divine nature.' GUESTEY. 
 
 1 That he might be lord both of the dead and living.' ROM. xiv. 9. 
 
 Such as ought to subsist between a principal and accessory.' KAMES. 
 
 2 i 
 
482 QUESTIONS. PAR. 478482. 
 
 'I should rather have an orange than apple.' 
 
 ' He was an abler logician than a linguist.' 
 
 ' I saw the prime minister and the warden, and he told me of the 
 appointment.' 
 
 'Is there a second future in either the indicative or the subjunctive 
 moods.' MTJEBAY. 
 
 478. Explain the construction on the examples given in par. 
 478. 
 
 Correct or justify the following : 
 
 506. ' Verse and prose run into one another like light and shade.' 
 BLAIE. 
 
 ' I am not recommending these kind of sufferings to your liking." 
 SHEBLOCK. 
 
 ' These sort of fellows are very numerous.' SPECTATOB, 486. 
 
 ' This literati had been ill rewarded for their labours.' SMOLLETT. 
 
 ' This twenty years have I been with thee.' GEN. xxxi. 38. 
 
 ' Go bear this tidings to the bloody king.' SHAKSPEABE. 
 ' One son I had one more than all my sons 
 The strength of Troy.' COWPEE. 
 
 ' Homer had the greatest invention of any writer whatever.' POPE. 
 
 ' Of all the figures of speech none comes so near to painting as meta- 
 phor." BLAIE. 
 
 ' In no case are writers so apt to err as in the position of the word 
 only' MAUNDEE. 
 
 ' A dreadful quiet felt, and worser far 
 Than arms, a sullen interval of war.' DBYDEX, 
 
 ' There are three great subjects of discussion among mankind : truth, 
 duty, and interest. But the arguments directed against either of them 
 are distinct.' BLAIE. 
 
 ' No less than seven cities disputed the right of giving birth to the 
 greatest of poets.' LEMPEIEBE. 
 
 ' To such as think it deserving their attention.' BUTLEE. 
 
 ' Mankind never resemble each other so closely as at the beginnings of 
 society.' BLAIE. 
 
 ' Of all the other qualities of style clearness is the most important.' 
 
 ' A messenger related to Theseus the whole particulars.' 
 
 ' The question is not whether a good Indian or bad Englishman be most 
 happy, but which stale is most desirable.' JOHNSON. 
 
 482-506. ' In recompense we have more pleasing pictures of manners.' 
 BLAIE. 
 
QUESTIONS, PAB. 510-520. 483 
 
 ' Out of these modifications have been made most complex modes.' 
 LOCKE. 
 
 'At present the trade is thought to be depressed if less than a million 
 of tons are produced in a year.' MACAULAY. 
 
 ' There sleep many a Homer and Virgil, legitimate heirs of their genius.' 
 D' ISRAELI. 
 
 ' The place to which she was going was the very spot which of all others 
 on this side she had wished most to see.' SOTJTHEY. 
 
 'A state of affairs of all others the most calamitous.' ALISOX. 
 
 ' Money is the most universal incitement of human misery.' GIBEOX. 
 
 ' The most unkindest cut of all.' SHAKSPEAEE. 
 
 510. ' Casca, you are the first that rears your hand.' JULIUS GSSAB. 
 
 ' Casca, you are the first that rear your hand." 
 
 'Casca, you are the first that rears his hand.' 
 
 'You know that you are Brutus that speak this.' JULIUS C^ESAE. 
 
 'Art thou not it that cut Rahab and wounded the dragon.' ISAIAH li. 9. 
 
 513. ' It is unfortunate that this number of the ' Spectator ' did not 
 end, as it very well might have done, with the former beautiful period.' 
 BLAIE. 
 
 517, 618. 'When a sentence is obscure it puzzles and doth not 
 please.' KAMES. 
 
 ' I shall make it once for all, and hope it will be remembered.' BLAIE. 
 
 ' Were you not affrighted, and mistook a spirit for a bodj'.' WATSON'S 
 APOLOGY. 
 
 ' Neither will they be persuaded, though one rose from the dead.' 
 LUKE xvi. 31. 
 
 ' If he should succeed, he will not be the happier for it.' 
 
 ' It is while men slept, that the enemy has always sown tares.' 
 
 Jeremiah xxvi. 19. James i. 16. Job xiv. 3, Leviticus xxv. 14. 
 
 519. 'Two young gentlemen have made a discovery that there was no 
 God.' SWIFT. 
 
 ' I observed that love constituted the whole moral character of God.' 
 DWIGHT. 
 
 'Others said that it is Elias; and others, that it is a prophet.' 
 MAEK vi. 
 
 520. ' Swift but a few months before was willing to have hazarded all 
 the horrors of a civil war.' 
 
 Compare paragraph 379, and noto they may sometimes agree with the 
 
 that while the relative and the verb pronoun, 'you,' ' thou' : ' You know 
 
 generally agree with the immediate that you that speak thus are Brutus. 
 antecedent,' the first,' ' Brutus,' ' it ; ' 
 
484 QUESTIONS. PAR. 570579. 
 
 ' Gray might have been able to have rendered him more temperate in 
 his political views.' SOUTHEY. 
 
 570-577. ' The sublime Longinus in somewhat a later period preserved 
 . . . the spirit of ancient Athens.' GIBBON'. 
 
 ' One species of bread, of coarse quality, was only allowed to 
 be baked.' ALISON. 
 
 ' The province of Gaul seems, and indeed only seems, an exception to 
 this universal toleration.' GIBBON. 
 
 ' He had suffered the woodman only to use his discretion in the distant 
 woods.' GILPIN. 
 
 'Let the offence be of never so high a nature.' SPECTATOR, 181. 
 
 ' If I wash myself with snow-water, and make myself never so clean.' 
 JOB ix. 30. 
 
 ' Can hearts not free be try'd whether they serve 
 Willing or no, who will but what they must.' MILTON. 
 
 ' Personification is when * we ascribe life, sentiments, or actions, to 
 inanimate beings, or abstract qualities.' 
 
 ' A proper diphthong is where both the vowels are sounded together.' 
 
 ' Men who but speak to display their abilities are unworthy of atten- 
 tion.' 
 
 'Everything favoured by good usage, is not therefore to be retained.' 
 
 'This construction sounds rather harshly.' MUKTRAY. 
 
 ' I was scarce sensible of the motion.' ' He has not near done.' HAP.EIS. 
 
 ' Whether it can be proved or no, is not the thing.' BUTLER. 
 
 679. 'The Arabian Nights' Entertainment are the production of a 
 . . romantic invention, but* of rich and amusing imagination.' 
 1S> BLAIR. 
 
 'A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read 
 them in a description.' ADDISON. 
 
 ' This is none other but the house of God.' GEN. xxviii. 17. 
 
 ' Yet no sooner does the morning dawn, but this strange enchantment 
 vanishes. ' HERVEY. 
 
 ' But if it be of God ye cannot overthrow it, lest haply ye be found 
 even to fight against God.' c ACTS v. 39. 
 
 ' And when it was told Saul, he sent other messengers, and they pro- 
 phesied likewise.' 1 Sam. xix. 21. 
 
 'Where' and 'when' express same- Conjunctions that are made through 
 
 ness, not of being but only of time and the omission of the connected clause 
 
 place, and are therefore inappropriate emphatic, must be carefully connected 
 
 in definitions and in clauses taken sub- with that word of the sentence which 
 
 etantively. _. . best suggests their reference; read 
 
 b No antithesis is required here. therefore ' to fight even against God.' 
 
QUESTIONS. PAE. 59S-601. 48? 
 
 ' He is such a great man, there is no speaking to him.'* 
 
 ' He was neither an object of derision to his enemies, or of melancholy 
 pity to his friends.' Jtrxrcrs. 
 
 ' I demand neither place, pension, or any other reward whatever.' 
 FBANEXIN. 
 
 ' I make no doubt but* you can help him.' DE. JOHNSON. 
 
 ' He never doubts but that he knows their intention.' TEENCH. 
 
 598-601. ' There is a remarkable union in his style of harmony and 
 ease.' BLAIB. 
 
 ' It is to this last new feature of the game laws to which we intend to 
 confine our notice.' SYDNEY SITITH. 
 
 ' Such were the difficulties with which the question was involved,' 
 ALISON. 
 
 ' The accounts they gave of the favourable reception of their writings 
 with the public.' FBANKLIN. 
 
 ' The abhorrence of the people to its provisions.' ALISON. 
 
 'The Italian Universities sent for their professors from Spain and 
 France.' TTATXATIT. 
 
 ' Two guns were sent for from "Waterf ord.' HACATTLAY. 
 
 ' It is to you te whom I am indebted for this favour.' 
 
 ' The emotion is at last awakened by the accidental instead of by the 
 necessary antecedent." WAYLAND. 
 
 ' He was banished the country.' 
 
 'That is applied to persons as well as things.' 
 
 ' Two or more singular nouns, coupled with and, require a verb in the 
 plural." LENNIE. 
 
 'His prejudice to our cause.' DEYDEN. 
 
 ' How different to this is the life of Fulvia.' ADDISON. 
 
 A figure, including a space between three lines, is the real as well as 
 nominal essence of a triangle.' LOCKE. 
 
 ' They are independent on one another.' CAMPBELL. 
 
 ' In this respect Tasso yields to no poet except to Homer.' BLAIB. 
 
 ' He sold it at above its market value.' 
 
 'Iambic verse consists of from two to six feet ; that is of from four to 
 twelve syllables.' BLAIB. 
 
 ' And the meagre fiend 
 Blows mildew from between his shrivell'd lips.' COWPEB. 
 
 This is good English, if it mean sense is substantially the same as if 
 
 that he is a great man of such a quality} it were omitted, 
 
 but if it mean so great, such is wrong-. These last three sentences are all 
 
 Such is used of quality ; so of degree grammatically accurate ; though it is 
 
 of a quality. not easy to parse them. ' Offrom-ttoo- 
 
 * In the first of these sentences but to-six ieet ' seems the most satisfac- 
 
 ought to be that ; and in the second it tory explanation a sort of compound 
 
 is only redundant, because from the adjective, 
 nature of the preceding word, the 
 
486 QUESTIONS PAR. 700-745. 
 
 State which, of the following prepositions and conjunctions are 
 original, which derived, which verbal, and which compound. 
 
 At, by, about, against, concerning, except, touching, seeing, 
 since, although, beyond, nevertheless, than, but. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. Correct or justify the follow- 
 ing : 
 
 In pronunciation : Dooty, Toosday, delighted, wickitdmos, 
 grcrant, grent, hend, hawnd, fatother, lawr, winder. 
 
 In grammar: Without you do it soon. Who with? I in- 
 tended to have written. His health was drank yesterday. I 
 shall have great pleasure in accepting your invitation.* 
 
 1 1 saw a young and old man walk together.' 
 
 ' You must either be quiet or must leave the room.' 
 
 ' I soon expect to have finished my work.' 
 
 ' I have received your letter, and will consider of it.' 
 
 ' Having failed in this attempt, no further trial was made." 
 
 ' I am afraid of the man dying before a doctor can come.' 
 
 ' The book is one of the best that has been written.' 
 
 ' That will not do for you or I.' 
 
 ' It is not me you injure. 1 " 
 
 ' She always appears very amiably.' 
 
 ' Has either of your three friends arrived ? ' 
 
 ' Each of them shall be rewarded in their turn.' 
 
 ' These kind are the best.' 
 
 ' Nothing but grave and serious studies delight him.' 
 
 700 745. Subjects for description : 
 
 Your native town : its scenery, manufactures, antiquities, 
 eminent men. A country England. A morning walk. The 
 wind on a gusty day. The market. Spring, etc. The tropics. 
 Flowers. The human frame. Darkness. The pleasure of ac- 
 tivity. Religion. Modern discoveries. The Life of Napoleon ; 
 of Julius Csesar ; of Howard ; of Judson ; of Buxton. 
 
 Themes for essays or discussion : 
 
 * Misery is wed to guilt.' 
 
 ' They Bay, best men are moulded out of faults.' 
 4 Our remedies oft in ourselves do lie 
 Which we ascribe to heaven.' 
 
 From D'Orsey's Lecture on ' The b From Mason's 'English Grammar.' 
 Study of the English Language.' London, 1858. 
 
 Cambridge, 1801. From Morell's ' Graduated Exor- 
 
 cises.' Edin. 
 
QUESTIONS. PAB. 700745. 487 
 
 ; They lose the world that do buy it with much care.' 
 ' How many things by season seasoned are 
 To their right praise and true perfection.' 
 ' How oft the sight of means to do ill deeds 
 Makes ill deeds done.' 
 
 'Every man is the architect of his own fortune,' 'Suae quisque for- 
 tunoe faber.' SALLUST. 
 
 'Treasures of wickedness profit nothing.' PBOV. x. 2. 'De male 
 qusesitis, vix gaudet tertius haeres.' JUVENAL. 
 ' Parvum parva decent.' HOBACE. 
 'Union is strength.' ' L'Union fait la force.' 
 
 ' Where there's a will, there's a way.' ' Possunt, quia posse videntur.* 
 VIEQIL. 
 
 ' The laziest people take the most trouble.' 'Nihil gravius audenti, 
 quam ignavo patiendum.' TACITUS. 
 
 ' Forgiveness is the noblest revenge.' ' Infirmi est animi, exiguique, 
 voluptas ultro." JUVENAL. 
 
 ' Make a virtue of necessity.' ' Quoniam id fieri quod vis non potest, 
 velis id quod possis.' TBEENOB.* 
 
 The influence of classical studies and of mathematics respec- 
 tively on the formation of mental habits. 
 
 Biography, patriotism, the ' comity of nations.' 
 
 On decision of character. 
 
 Common sense, genius, and learning ; their characteristics, and 
 comparative value. 
 
 Self government, and the best means of training a people to 
 enjoy it. 
 
 The character of Hume, Gibbon, and Macaulay as historians. 
 
 The character of Young, Hemans, Cowper, etc., as poets. 
 
 The influence of poetry, painting, and sculpture as means of 
 refinement. 
 
 The influence of religious truth on national character. 
 
 Association and its laws ; memory ; judgment. 
 
 Fears of the brave, and follies of the wise. 
 
 The influence of the extensive reading of fiction on character. 
 
 The moral power of sympathy. 
 
 The history of English literature ; including notices of the 
 origin and progress of the language, the introduction of new 
 words, and grammatical forms ; the styles predominant in dif- 
 
 t. goe Brewer's 'Guide to Composition.' 
 
488 QUESTIONS. PAK. 700-745. 
 
 ferent ages ; the writers who have contributed to vary, or have 
 assisted in fixing its present form ; standard authors, poets, 
 translators, historians, essayists, ethical, metaphysical, religious, 
 philosophical, and scientific writers ; the character, beauties, 
 defects, and influence of their writings ; the precision, force, and 
 elegance of the language ; causes that tend to deteriorate it, and 
 the means of improving it.* 
 
 See Parker's 'Aids to English Composition.' 
 
INDEXES 1, 2, 3. 
 
 The first Index contains a list of the chief subjects discussed In this volume 
 alphabetically arranged; the second, of some of the more characteristic 
 Etymologies ; and the third, of some of the examples in Syntax, Prosody, 
 &c. The second and third of these Indexes are intended merely to supply a 
 few catch words to guide the Student in his inquiries. 
 
 INDEX No. 1. GENERAL. 
 
 ACCENT defined Paragraph 116 
 
 effect of, in compounds 152 
 
 kinds of 641 
 
 secondary accent 118, 641 
 
 proves date of introduction of 
 words 61 
 
 use of, in printing 6, 486 
 
 change of, in words 642 
 
 metres based upon 641, 707 
 
 Accidence, what 199 
 
 takes into account both logical and 
 
 grammatical distinctions 199 
 
 Accuracy in the use of words 710 
 
 grammatical, essential to clearness 
 
 713 
 
 Accusative case, ee Objective case. 
 
 Addison's paragraphs 737 
 
 style 705, 711, 720, 734 
 
 Adjectives: 
 
 characteristics of, in Anglo-Saxon 
 56 
 
 forms of, in Anglo-Saxon 57 
 
 how formed 145 
 
 Classified 233, 236 
 
 which classic and which A. S. 18 
 their position in sentences 491 
 formed from, noun roots, adjective 
 
 roots, and verb roots 
 plural forms of 176 
 
 comparatives 178, 179, 237, 241 
 double comparatives 
 used as adverbs 56">, 312 
 
 mischief of multiplying in com- 
 position 724 
 etymology of 233-263 
 syntax of 482-506 
 
 Adjective sentences 345 
 
 Adverbs : 
 
 defined 307 
 
 admit comparison 
 formed from pronouns 
 
 adjectives 263 
 
 by inflection 311,312 
 
 all words used as 
 
 classified according to meaning 308 
 
 origin 311 
 
 Adverbs continued. 
 
 often identical in form with" ad- 
 
 jectives Par. 312 
 
 etymology of 307-311 
 
 syntax 559-568 
 
 importance of position 671, 715 
 
 Adverbial sentences 346 
 
 ^Elfric, account of 71-73 
 
 Alexandrine metre 665 
 
 Alfred, account of his writings 71-73 
 
 Alphabet, History of English 120 
 
 order of 125 
 
 letters classified 109 
 
 deficiencies and redundancies of 106 
 
 Am, how conjugated 304 
 
 Am, art, is, meaning of 304 
 
 American words in English 31, 62 
 
 Amphibrachic metre 687-690 
 
 Analecta Saxonica 55 
 
 Analogy, use of in settling spelling 
 
 129, 10 
 
 Analysis of sentences, grammatical 
 
 and logical 351 
 
 Anapaestic metre 677-681 
 
 Anglo-Saxon : 55 
 
 relation of, to English 10 
 
 proportion of words in English 
 
 11, 12, 13 
 
 best means of ascertaining what 
 
 are Anglo-Saxon words 18, 19 
 
 endings 18 d 
 
 verbs 18 c 
 
 ecclesiastical words 22 
 
 roots and their English derivatives 
 
 44 
 
 Inflexions as they Influence Eng- 
 lish forms 57 
 declensions and conjugations 67 
 specimens of 67-94 
 authors, specimens of 58, 68-74 
 alphabet 120, 123 
 prefixes and affixes 143, 144 
 patronymics 44 
 diminutives 163 
 articles < 66 
 plurals 204 
 
490 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon continued. Par. 
 
 verbs 275 
 
 gerundial inf. 288 
 
 futures 3 r <0 
 
 adverbs 311 
 
 prepositions 316 
 
 conjunctions 324 
 
 genders, syntax of 384 
 
 ityle, on what it depends 16, 17 
 
 secret of the power of 19 d 
 
 authors who excel in 743 
 
 Chronicle 77 
 
 Homilies 51 
 
 Anglo-Saxon settlements in England, 
 
 history of (See Saxon) 49-52 
 
 Antithetic terms 710 
 
 Apharresis, effect of 191 
 
 Apocope, effect of 191 
 
 Apostrophe, use of 638 
 
 Arabic words in English 31 
 
 Archaic forms of pronouns appended 
 
 to verbs 304 
 
 Armstrong on style 700 
 
 Arrangement of words in sentences, 
 
 rules for 727 
 
 Articles, ' a' and ' the ' old A. S. form 
 
 56 
 
 changes of 57 
 
 etymology of 242-246 
 
 syntax of 460-481 
 
 repetition of 477 
 
 As 227 
 
 As many as 577 
 
 Assonances, Scandinavian, Spanish, 
 
 and English 647 
 
 Assimilation, effect of, on spelling 114 
 
 Augmentatives : 
 
 how formed 
 
 of various origin 165 
 
 Authors, English : 
 
 classified according to style 743 
 
 BACON'S Essays 728 
 
 Bagster's Hexapla 83 
 
 Barbour, specimen of 84 
 
 Barrow's style 705 
 
 Baxter's old man's retrospect Page 422 
 
 Be 305 
 
 Beowulf, account of 70 
 
 Berkeley's style 71 
 
 Bible, rich in A. S. words 19 
 
 Blackstone's style 711, 734 
 
 Bolingbroke's style 734 
 
 Bountain, on forming a style 744 
 
 Brackets, use of 634 
 
 Breve, use of 638 
 
 Brougham on Immortality 732 
 
 translating 709 
 
 Burke, his paragraphs 736 
 
 on style 723 
 Bnrke's style 705, 709, 711, 736 
 
 But, different meanings of 322 
 
 Butler's style 704, 732 
 Bunyan's style 705, 708, 726 
 
 X, account of Par. 71 
 
 Camden on the beauty of the English 
 
 10 
 
 Can, etymology of 305 
 
 syntax of 515 
 
 Canute, song by 74 
 
 Capital letters, rules for the use 125 
 Carlyle on Boswell 709 
 
 his style 732 
 
 Case defined 169 
 
 how indicated in A. S. 66 
 
 forms of, in A. S. i~i 
 
 number of cases in English 171 
 nom.,gen.,dat.,obj.,voc., abl., ex- 
 plained 174 
 Chalmers' style 729, 734 
 Chaucer, specimen of 81 
 Chinese words in English 31 
 Churchill, style of 721 
 Classic roots, number of derivatives 
 from 40 
 Clearness, importance of, in style 712 
 how abused 717 
 Cobbett's style 726 
 Colon and semicolon, what 595 
 rules for use of C13-622 
 Combination of letters, unstable 112 
 effect of, on consonants 187-197 
 vowels 197 
 Comma, what 595 
 rules for the use of 697, 598-612 
 Common metre 666 
 Complex sentences 343 
 Composition (style) defined 8 
 its relation to grammar 701 
 requires thought 702 
 definite purposes, &c. 704-707 
 elements of good 708 
 Composition of words defined gram- 
 matically 151 
 logically 154 
 importance of 160 
 excellence of different languages 
 in 161 
 Compounds, what 138 
 classified 155 
 ideas expressed by 154 
 incomplete 
 
 apparent 158 
 
 uniting letters, of 159 
 
 Compound sentences 347 
 
 Conciseness, importance of, and rules 
 for 724, 725 
 
 Conjugate or cognate words 
 Conjugation of regular verbs 
 Conjunctions defined 
 govern moods 
 
 classified according to origin 324 
 many originally prepositions 322 
 co-ordinate 319, 324 
 
 subordinate 321 
 
 syntax of 5C9, 584 
 
 omission of, effect of 584 
 
 correlative 323, 579 
 
INDEX. 
 
 491 
 
 Contracted sentences far, 348 
 
 Copious diction : 
 
 means of acquiring 709 
 
 Copula, various meanings of 330 
 
 Correspondence of clauses in sentences 
 
 728 
 
 Cowley's style 709 
 
 Cowper's style 709, 721 
 
 Crabbe's synonyms 710 
 
 Crude forms 136 
 
 DACTYLIC metre 677, 683, C86 
 
 Danish, history of settlements in 
 
 England 53 
 
 words in English 29 
 
 modern, compared with English 85 
 
 Dante 724 
 
 Daro 306 
 
 Dash, use of 636-7 
 
 Date of first use of words in English, 
 
 how known 60, 62 
 
 Dative case : 
 
 etymology of 174, 399 
 
 syntax of 398-400 
 
 Decomposites 138 
 
 De Foe, style of 720 
 
 De Quincy on style 700 
 
 his style 709 
 
 Derivation 141 
 
 Derivatives, what 135, 138 
 
 primary and secondary 141 
 
 Diaeresis, use of 648 
 
 Diminutives, how formed 144 
 
 Saxon and classic 163 
 
 simple and compound 163 
 
 Do, etymology of 306 
 
 syntax of 513 
 
 Donaldson on elementary combina- 
 tions of letters 140 
 Douglas (G.), specimen of 84 
 Dryden on new words of French origin 
 62 
 
 Dryden's stvle 709, 728 
 
 Dual in A. S.,&c. 56 
 
 Dutch words in English 31 
 
 compared with English 86 
 
 EACH 488 
 
 Eachard, style of . 711 
 
 Egyptian words in English 31 
 
 Either 487 
 
 Elegiac Trimeters 653, 654 
 
 Elementary sounds : 
 
 significance of combination of 140 
 Elision, effect of 191 
 
 Ellipses, use of, in printing 
 Eloquence, what 706 
 
 Else 574, 576 
 
 Elyot on new words 63 
 
 English, a composite language 10 
 its elements 17-33 
 
 compared with Mosso-Gothic 94 
 its relation to other Indo-Euro- 
 pean tongues 88 
 
 English continued. Par. 
 other members of same division93 
 
 style, periods of 743 
 
 changes of, gradual 56 
 
 idioms 714 
 
 English, middle, what 55 
 
 peculiar forms of 57 
 
 specimens of 80-83 
 
 works in 55 
 
 English old, what 58 
 
 peculiar forms of 57 
 
 specimens of 79, 80 
 
 works in 55 
 
 Epenthesis 194 
 
 Etymology defined 4 
 
 threefold division of 131 
 
 classification of words 134 
 
 derivation of words 135 
 
 inflexion of words 199 
 use in ascertaining meaning of 
 
 words 40 
 
 how far a safe guide 41, 42 
 applied to distinguish synonymes 
 710 
 
 to ascertain the early 
 settlements of races 91 
 Euphony, effect of on vowels 197 
 European languages, mostly Indo- 
 European 89 
 Ever and never 567 
 Every 488 
 Except 521 
 Exclamation, note of 595 
 rules for use of 629-631 
 
 FEET : English : 
 
 how measured 649 
 
 Fenelon, style of 709 
 Figures mixed : 
 
 mischief of 722 
 Foster (J.), style of 719, 721 
 
 Franklin, style of 708 
 French language : 
 
 origin of 25 
 
 style of writing 733 
 
 French words in English 26, 59 
 
 specimen of, in Chaucer 81 
 
 French prefer soft sibilant and nasal 
 
 sounds 187 
 
 Frequentatives, how formed 144 
 
 Friesic compared with English 85, 94 
 
 Fulke's list of inkhorn words 62 
 
 Fuller (T.), style of 705 
 
 Future tense in English, origin of 
 
 ambiguity of 300 
 
 GAELIC, extent of, in Great Britain 43 
 
 Garnet on the laws of etymology 31 
 
 Gay's verso 653 
 
 Gender, how indicated in A. S. 56 
 
 denned 169, 207 
 
 how far found in English 171, 207 
 
 determined in English by sex 207 
 
492 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gender cont at ued. 
 
 accuracy of English in this respect 
 Par. 208 
 
 of nouns when personified 209 
 Genitive forms of Saxon origin 175 
 
 Norman in s, influence of 
 Genitive case, etymology of 175 
 
 syntax of 383-397 
 
 Germans prefer guttural and flat mute 
 sounds 187 
 
 German style of composition 733 
 Gibbon, style of 705, 721, 734 
 
 Go 305 
 
 Goldsmith, style of 709, 720, 734 
 
 Grammar defined 
 
 specimens of bad 713 
 
 ' Grave, The,' specimens of 77 
 
 Greek alphabet, origin and history 121 
 Greek origin,words in English of 30, 46 
 Grimm's law, its origin and limits 188 
 Grimm on the English language 47 
 Guillemots, use of, in printing 638 
 
 HALL on religious knowledge page&S 
 style of 707, 734 
 Hallam on the study of French after 
 the conquest 54 
 on the Englishman's dislike of 
 rules 328 
 Harmony in style 729 
 Have ' 306 
 Hazlitt's sentences 719 
 Hebrew words in English 31 
 Heliand, account of 69 
 Henry III., charter of 79 
 Heroic verse 654 
 Hervey, style of 734 
 Hexameter verse 708 
 Heylin's test of new words 62 
 Himself 220 
 Hippesley on the effect of the Con- 
 quest 54 
 H, rules for pronouncing 130 
 Holland's list of new words 62 
 Hooker on Faith not alone paff e 417 
 style of 727, 734 
 Hybridism, what 38 
 Hyphen, use of 638 
 in composition 152 
 
 IAMBIC BIETRE 649-666 
 
 triplets 653 
 
 license in 658 
 
 hypermetrical 660-666 
 
 Icelandic, compared with English 94 
 
 Idioms, importance of observing 710 
 
 violation of 714 
 
 Imperative forms 283 
 
 Imperfect, continuous tenses 293 
 
 Indefinite tenses 292 
 
 Indian words in English 31 
 
 Indicative forms 296 
 
 Indo-European languages 90 
 
 Inflexional forms older than preposi- 
 tional or auxiliary forms far. 56, 58 
 
 Infinitive 284 
 
 in ing 235 
 
 and participle distinguished 286 
 
 gerundial 287, 526 
 
 how distinguished 288 
 
 syntax of 529-548 
 
 Interjections defined and classified 325 
 apparent government of 326 
 
 etymology of 325 
 
 syntax of 593 
 
 Interrogation, note of 595 
 
 rules for use of 626-628 
 
 Irregular verbs : 
 
 three classes of 297 
 
 Italian words in English 
 
 prefers soft sounds 187 
 
 Its 216 
 
 JAT'S style 726 
 
 Johnson's paragraphs : 
 
 sketch of prose 720 
 
 style of 705, 711, 720, 734, 736 
 
 Jonson on style 70C>, 727 
 
 KELTIC words in English : 
 three classes 
 
 LANGUAGE, spread of 
 
 Lamb, Charles, style of 709, 72! 
 
 Landor on style 717 
 
 Language defined 
 
 Langue d'Oc and d'Oyl 
 
 Lappenberg on the Friesic 85 
 
 Latham quoted 88. 182, &c. 
 
 Latimer's Sermon of the Plough 
 
 page 415 
 
 Latin roots and derivatives 45 
 
 Latin origin, words of, in English : 
 Etymologically : four classes 22 
 Historically : 
 three classes 
 direct and indirect 
 ecclesiastical words 52 
 
 history of some 59 
 
 generally used in old English in 
 their literal sense 
 
 Layamon, specimens of 
 
 Leir, King, specimens of 75 
 
 Less 490 
 
 Letters classified as to sound 97 
 
 liquids 
 
 flats, sharps 98 
 
 hard, soft, guttural, palatal, etc. 
 
 101-103 
 
 connection between letters of the 
 same origin 104 
 
 different sounds of 106 
 
 affinities between 111 
 
 changes they undergo when com- 
 bined 184 
 liquids 184 
 sibilants, etc. 185, 180 
 vowels 196 
 
INDEX. 
 
 493 
 
 Listeth 
 
 Literature, what 
 
 Locke on style 709 
 
 London pronunciation, faults of 130 
 
 Long metre 657 
 
 Lord's Prayer in A.S. 68 
 
 MACKINTOSH'S classification of Eng- 
 lish authors 743 
 style of 734 
 Macron, use of 638 
 Make, forms of 306 
 Macaulay, style of 704, 728, 732 
 Malay words in English 31 
 Mandeville, specimen of 81 
 Market English 19 e 
 Marks used in printing 638 
 Marsh on punctuation 594 
 on proportion of A. S. in English 13 
 on rhyme 648 
 May, forms of 306 
 syntax of 515 
 Meanings of words vary 65 
 dictionary order of 66 
 Metathesis 196 
 Metre denned 639 
 kinds of 639 
 C.M., L.M., S.M. 656 
 7., 8.7.4., 8. 672 
 Hallelujah 706 
 Rhombic 707 
 Classic 708 
 unsymmetrical 707 
 see also Iambic, etc. 
 Midland counties pronunciation, faults 
 
 of 
 
 130 
 
 708, 734 
 217 
 
 724-727 
 Page 420 
 
 Miller, Hugh, style of 
 
 Mine 
 
 Milton, style of 
 
 on unlicensed printin^ 
 Moeso-Gothiccompd. witlTEnglish 94 
 
 Moods, number of 279 
 
 meaning of 279 
 
 Moore, Dr. Geo., on style 700 
 Moore, H., on unidiomatic English 710 
 
 More and most 501, 505 
 
 Morell's laws of syntax 328 
 
 Mot, forms of 306 
 
 Mutes and semi-mutes 97 
 
 NAMES personal, origin and meaning 
 of 166 
 
 significance of, in Scripture 167 
 Nash on classic metres iu English 708 
 Negatives : 
 
 etymology of 568 
 
 syntax of 548-505 
 
 Niebuhr on composing 
 Nominative case 174 
 
 syntax of 357-382 
 
 Norman- French, what 
 
 history and influence of 54 
 
 North of England pronunciation.faults 
 
 of 13) 
 
 Not but Par. 566 
 
 Not only 579 
 
 Nouns : 
 
 how declined in A.S. 5fl 
 
 substantive and adjective 132 
 formed from noun, adjective, and 
 verb roots 142 
 
 proper 200 
 
 common 201 
 
 abstract 202 
 
 classified 203 
 
 number of, how formed 204 
 
 etymology of 200-210 
 
 syntax of 357-420 
 
 Noun sentences 344 
 
 Number defined 169, 204 
 
 how far it exists in English 170 
 In nouns 204 
 
 in verbs 305 
 
 Numerals, table of, its importance 180 
 definite and indefinite 246-262 
 cardinal 181 
 
 ordinal 182 
 
 OBJECT of verbs 336 
 
 indirect 336 
 
 enlarged 336 
 Objective case : 
 
 etymology of 171, 173, 175 
 
 syntax of 407-420 
 
 Obsolete words 62 
 
 Or 583 
 
 Or, double meaning of 320 
 
 Ormulum, specimen of 78 
 
 Orthoepy defined 3 
 
 dialects of pronunciation 13C 
 
 Orthography defined 3 
 
 (See Spelling) 
 
 Other 574, 575 
 
 PALEY, style of 705, 711, 734 
 
 Paragoge 195 
 
 Paragraphs, marks of, for printing 638 
 Paragraphs (in composition) : 
 
 defined 7.'0 
 
 require unity 731 
 
 skilful mixture of sentences 733 
 
 theme of, how stated 731 
 
 ways of arranging sentences in 734 
 
 ways of forming 735 
 
 ways of connecting 739 
 
 Parenthesis 595 
 
 rules for use of in print 632, 633 
 
 effect of in composition 721 
 
 Parsing defined 352 
 
 four kinds of 353-356 
 
 Participles, complete and incomplete 
 
 278 
 
 etymology of 278 
 
 syntax of 649-558 
 
 Particles, chiefly Saxon 
 
 Home Tooke on 326 
 
 Pascal, style of 707, 709 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Past indefinite Par. 295 
 
 how formed 295 
 
 Patronymics, how formed 144 
 
 Pauses in metre, importance of 667 
 
 Perfect tense really a present 294 
 
 meaning of forms of 294 
 
 Period, or full stop 595 
 
 rules for use of 623-625 
 
 Persian words in English 31 
 
 Persons of verbs, how formed 303 
 
 of nouns Page 459 
 
 Personification, effect of, on gender 209 
 
 Phillips on new words 62 
 
 Philological Museum on spelling 96 
 
 Phonography, utility of 107 
 
 Pictet on Etymology 95 
 
 Piers Plowman : 
 
 specimen of 79 
 
 Plain language in works of imagina- 
 tion 711 
 Plural forms of verbs in O. E. 56 
 adjectives and nouns in O.E. 56 
 Poetry a help in forming a Saxon style 
 
 13 
 
 in giving copiousness 709 
 
 Polynesian words in English 31 
 
 Pope, style of 709, 728 
 
 Portuguese words in English 31 
 
 Predicate of sentences 334 
 
 completion of 335 
 
 extension of 310 
 
 Prefixes, Saxon, Latin, and Greek, 
 
 tables of 143 
 
 Prepositions govern cases : 
 
 classified as to relation expressed 
 by them 314 
 
 stand instead of case ending 315 
 classified as to form 316 
 
 original, derived, inflected forms 
 of words 316 
 
 etymology of 313 
 
 syntax of 585-592 
 
 Prepositions requiredbyEnglish idiom 
 after various adjectives and verbs590 
 repetition of 589 
 
 sometimes Pleonastic 592 
 
 Preterites, strong and weak 56 
 
 Pronomen reverentiae 422 
 
 Pronouns defined 211 
 
 classified 312 
 
 personal, reflexive, relative 225 
 etymology of 211-236 
 
 syntax of 421-458 
 
 repetition of 454 
 
 Propriety in use of words 711 
 
 Prosody defined 6, 639 
 
 Prosody and punctuation 594 
 
 Prothesis 193 
 
 Provencal, what 25 
 
 Proverbs, qjiiefly Saxon, on words 19 f 
 Puffendorf on definitions 
 
 Puttenham on metres 
 Punctuation 
 
 general principle of 
 
 1 
 
 707 
 
 7,594 
 
 695 
 
 Tnnc'MtMoneontinued. 
 effect of on composition 
 
 Tar. 
 716 
 
 QUANTITY : 
 
 how measured in English 115, 610 
 
 RASK'S A. Saxon Grammar 57, C7 
 Rather 574 
 
 Reformation, effect of, on English 
 language 59 
 
 Relative pronouns : 
 
 etymology of 22C, 227 
 
 syntax of 432-452 
 
 Repetition of pronouns 4.")4, 477 
 
 articles 470-477 
 
 conjunctions 584 
 
 prepositions 589 
 
 Rhombic metre 7o7 
 
 Rhyme, perfect, what 643 
 
 double triple 644 
 
 middle G4fi 
 
 inverse and sectiona. 646 
 
 Scandinavian 647 
 
 history of 648 
 
 Rhyme royal 703 
 
 Riding 654 
 
 Rima ottava 704 
 
 terza 705 
 
 Rhyming words in English few 648 
 
 Roots, primitive, what 135-139 
 
 Roman proper names 106 
 
 Richardson on the origin of words 140 
 
 Robert of Gloucester, specimen of 79 
 
 Roget's Thesaurus, utility of 23 
 
 Rogers on words of A.S. origin 19 
 
 SanscritwordsinEuropeanlanguages87 
 Sapphics, English "08 
 
 Save 521 
 
 Saxon proper names 166 
 
 Saxon, Old, specimens of 69, 70 
 
 Semi 55, 75, 77 
 
 Scott, style of 709 
 
 Scottish writers, early specimens of 
 their style 84 
 
 Scottish spelling, peculiarities of 84 
 Scottish pronunciation, faults of 130 
 Sentences defined 331-339 
 
 classified, simple, compound, com- 
 plex 331 
 require clearness 711 
 logical analysis of 331, 351 
 unity 718 
 strength 723 
 vividness, good arrangement, and 
 correspondence of clauses 728 
 harmony ;29 
 Sevens metre 673 
 Shall, meaning of 300 
 ambiguity of, cause of 300 
 syntax of 615 
 idioms 300 
 Scripture usage 301 
 Short metre 657 
 
INDEX. 
 
 495 
 
 Should, peculiar usage of far. 302 
 Skinner on new words 62 
 
 Simulation, effect on English words 36 
 Smith, P., on versification 594 
 
 style of 705, 711 
 
 Smote 305 
 
 So, some 230 
 
 Sounds, elementary, in English 97 
 South, style of 705, 735 
 
 Southey on translation 709 
 
 Spaniards prefer 1 and o sounds 187 
 Spelling: 
 
 characteristics of Saxon spelling 36 
 
 proves the age of a word 60 
 
 influence of, on forms of word 35 
 
 rules for 129 
 
 peculiar difficulty of 96 
 
 uncertainty of 100 years ago 129 w 
 
 words still uncertain 129 
 
 Spenser, style of 709 
 
 Spenserian stanza 655, 692 
 
 Stops enumerated 595 
 
 Style denned 8 
 
 mixed best 19 c 
 
 A. S. style 20 
 
 best means of forming 741-745 
 
 experience of different writers 744 
 
 Style, English, periods of 743 
 
 Suoject of sentence : 
 
 simple 337 
 
 enlarged 337 
 
 Subjunctive forms 281 
 
 rules for use of 282, 527 
 
 correlative forms 527 
 
 Such 230 
 
 Such as 577 
 
 Swift on triteness 717 
 
 Swift's Times of Charles IT. 720 
 
 style of 709, 720, 734 
 
 Syllables, what 108 
 
 rules of syllabification 127 
 
 influence of on sound 
 
 Syncope 190 
 
 Synonymes true, rare 719 
 
 abuse of 
 
 importance of distinguishing 710 
 Syntax defined 
 
 rules of 357-593 
 
 TATLOH, J. , style of 705, 709, 719, 735 
 Tenses in English : 
 
 three 289 
 
 table 290 
 Terminations of nouns 
 
 adjectives 145 
 
 verbs 146 
 Than, a conjunction 
 
 etymology of 
 
 syntax of 506 
 
 This 229 
 
 That 134, 229, 430 
 
 That, a conjunction 570 
 Their 
 
 The same 5 ?7 
 
 Thine far. 217 
 
 Think (to appear) 305 
 
 Time, actual and continuous 289 
 
 To-day 246 
 
 To, sign of infinitive 642 
 
 Trench on words as illustrating cha- 
 racter 631 
 Trochaic Metres 668-676 
 Tucker, Abraham, style of 711 
 Turkish words in English 31 
 Turner on the affinity of languages 87 
 on the Sanscrit and English 95 
 Tyndale, specimens of 83 
 
 UNITY of sentences, what 719, 720 
 
 VERBS, characteristic of A. S. 66 
 
 changes of, in English 66 
 
 formed from noun, adjective, verb, 
 roots 142 
 
 defined 264 
 
 classified : 
 
 substantive and adjective 
 
 205, 274 
 
 transitive and intransitive 265 
 active, passive, deponent 268 
 neuter passive or middle 270 
 impersonal 272 
 
 auxiliary 
 
 weak and strong 275 
 
 causative, frequentative, in- 
 ceptive 
 
 derivative, four classes 276 
 
 voice, mood, person, number 277 
 
 plural forms of 176-7 
 
 conjugation of 26 
 
 used absolutely 528 
 
 etymology of 264-306 
 
 syntax of 607-558 
 
 Vid, derivatives from 
 
 Vividness 726 
 
 Vowel-sounds in English 
 
 inadequacy of letters to represent 
 
 them ' 106 
 
 Vowel changes in different languages 
 
 WALTON, style of 708 
 
 Weak and strong verbs 299 
 
 Wedgwood on the origin of words 140 
 
 Welsh pronunciation, faults of 130 
 
 Welsh words in English 28 
 
 West Indian words in English 31 
 
 What 227 
 Whately on synonymous terms 
 
 on conciseness 725 
 
 parentheses, style of 721 
 
 Wherein, pleonastic form 692 
 
 Whether 228 
 
 WhewelTs classical metrei 708 
 
 Which 228 
 While 
 
 Whose *2* 
 
496 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Wicliffe, specimen of Par. 2, 83 
 
 Will 306 
 
 syntax of 515 
 
 origin of ambiguity of 300, 302 
 
 Wisse 306 
 
 Witan, to know 306 
 
 Worcester, on the spelling of uncertain 
 
 words 120 
 
 Words classified historically, logically, 
 
 and etymologically 20 
 
 defined logically 133 
 
 and in relation to sentences 341 
 
 of the same origin, and with double 
 
 forms 34, 35 
 
 Word s continued. 
 
 of classic origin, very varied in 
 meaning far. 46 
 
 date of introduction of 60, 62 
 changes of meaning illustrate 
 moral characters of men 64, 65 
 but few in actual use 709 
 
 Words require in composition copious- 
 ness, propriety, and accuracy 7> 9 
 collocation of, in sentences, rules 
 for 715 
 
 Wyntoun's Cronikel 84 
 
 You, ye 
 
 48,427 
 
 
 INDEX No. 2. ETYMOLOGY, 
 
 ABANDON 
 
 Par. 65 BACHELOR 
 
 Aberystwith 
 
 28 
 
 Backbiter 
 
 Abhorrence 
 
 39 
 
 Balance 
 
 Adam 
 
 166 
 
 Balderdash 
 
 Adamant 
 
 34 
 
 Balloon 
 
 Address 
 
 26 
 
 Balmoral 
 
 Affixes: ad, age 
 
 ar, ard, art, ch, d, 
 
 Bantling 
 
 dom, el, et, en, 
 
 er, ess, ez, i, ie, ics, 
 
 Baron 
 
 in, ing, ius, ion 
 ness, r, ric. ry, 
 ster, t, ten, to. 
 
 , let, ling, ledge, lock, 
 s, sen, sky, sou, ship, 
 ty, utch, wick, y 144 
 
 Basket 
 Bayonet 
 Be 
 
 able, alive, 
 
 ed, en, ern, oy, old, 
 
 Be (verb) 
 
 ing, ish, less, like, ly, ous, ward, y 
 
 Beefeater 
 
 
 145 
 
 Ben Lomond 
 
 en, er, ish, le, se. ster, y 146 
 
 Bernard 
 
 Aird 
 
 28 
 
 Berwick 
 
 Alderman 
 
 73 
 
 Better 
 
 Alligator 
 
 61 
 
 Bezant 
 
 Allow 
 
 64 
 
 Biddulph 
 
 All the cuntree and alle the men 176 
 
 Bigamy 
 
 All-powerful 
 
 153 
 
 Biscuit 
 
 Alms 
 
 170 
 
 Bitter 
 
 Alone 
 
 187, 251 
 
 Blair Athol 
 
 Am, art 
 
 W, 303, 304 
 
 Bombast 
 
 Ancient 
 
 355 
 
 Both 
 
 Anglesea 
 
 37 
 
 Boor 
 
 Animosity 
 
 65 
 
 Bow 
 
 Answer 
 
 143 
 
 Braemar 
 
 Antic 
 
 65 
 
 Braggart 
 
 Any 
 
 254 
 
 Brat 
 
 Apparelled 
 
 129 
 
 Breach 
 
 Aqueduct 
 
 156 
 
 Break 
 
 Arbroath 
 
 28 
 
 Breakfast 
 
 Arras 
 
 33 
 
 Bretwalda 
 
 Arrogant 
 
 40 
 
 Broil 
 
 Artifice 
 
 65 
 
 Brood 
 
 Atheling 
 
 70 
 
 Buffoonery 
 
 Attorney 
 
 65 
 
 Bypath 
 
 Avalanche 
 
 26 
 
 
 Auchin 
 
 28 
 
 CAIKK 
 
 Aught 
 
 172 Cajole 
 
 Par. 157 
 
 156 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 164 
 
 28 
 
 163 
 
 75 
 
 28 
 
 33 
 
 148 
 
 306 
 
 86,158 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 178 
 
 33 
 
 166 
 
 38 
 
 157 
 
 141 
 
 28 
 
 65 
 
 261 
 
 65 
 
 75 
 
 28 
 
 164 
 
 3o 
 
 35 
 
 137 
 
 156 
 
 71 
 
 26 
 
 35 
 
 164 
 
 143 
 
 28 
 61 
 
INDEX. 
 
 497 
 
 Cambric 
 
 Candle 
 
 Capel 
 
 Carlisle 
 
 Cash 
 
 Cavalier 
 
 Censure 
 
 Chalice 
 
 Chamberlain 
 
 Change 
 
 Chapel 
 
 Charles's wain 
 
 Chattels 
 
 Check 
 
 Cherry 
 
 Chester 
 
 Chicken 
 
 Children 
 
 Chip 
 
 Christendom 
 
 Churl 
 
 Circle learning 
 
 City 
 
 Civilization 
 
 Cloister 
 
 Closeburn 
 
 Clot, Clod 
 
 Clown 
 
 Clumsy 
 
 Coal 
 
 Coblentz 
 
 Coddle 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Colleague 
 
 Comfort 
 
 Compton 
 
 Concent 
 
 Congregational 
 
 Conversation 
 
 Copper 
 
 Copy 
 
 Cora Linn 
 
 Cordwainct 
 
 Corps 
 
 Costume 
 
 Couch 
 
 Countryman 
 
 Cousin 
 
 Coverlet 
 
 Coxcomb 
 
 Crab 
 
 Craft 
 
 Crawfish 
 
 Crick Howell 
 
 Crimson 
 
 Croude 
 
 Crump I Q 
 
 Culross 
 
 Curfew 
 
 Currant 
 
 Cuthbert 
 
 DAISY 
 Damage 
 
 far. 33 
 
 Damask 
 
 22 
 
 Damson 
 
 284 
 
 Deacon 
 
 28 
 
 Deal dole 
 
 26 
 
 Debtor 
 
 62 
 
 Delf 
 
 65 
 
 Delight 
 
 22 
 26 
 
 Demagogue 
 Demure 
 
 131 
 
 Deny 
 
 164 
 
 Deodand 
 
 36 
 
 Dependent 
 
 65 
 
 Detestation 
 
 65 
 
 Dethrone 
 
 33 
 
 Dies, dice 
 
 22 
 
 Difficult 
 
 163 
 
 Dimity 
 
 205 
 
 Disease 
 
 146 
 
 Dish, desk 
 
 65 
 
 Dom 
 
 41 
 
 Domestic 
 
 62 
 
 Donjon 
 
 128 
 
 Donna 
 
 128 
 
 Doom 
 
 22 
 
 Door 
 
 28 
 
 Doubt 
 
 135 
 
 Draggle 
 
 41 
 
 Drill, trill 
 
 65 
 
 Druid 
 
 128 
 
 Drunkard 
 
 114 
 
 Duchess 
 
 83 
 
 
 61 
 
 EACH 
 
 36 
 
 Edmund 
 
 65 
 
 Edward 
 
 28 
 
 Either 
 
 65 
 
 Eleven 
 
 62 
 
 Ely 
 
 64 
 
 Emerald 
 
 33 
 
 Emerods 
 
 65 
 
 Engraft 
 
 28 
 
 Enormous 
 
 33 
 
 Enough 
 
 128 
 
 Ericson 
 
 26 
 
 Ermine 
 
 26 
 
 Esquire 
 
 41 
 
 Everard 
 
 37 
 
 Every 
 
 26 
 
 Eye 
 
 37 
 
 Eyry 
 
 137 
 
 
 63 
 
 FACILITATE 
 
 158 
 
 Fancy 
 
 28 
 
 Fangs, finger 
 
 196 
 
 Farther 
 
 83 
 
 Farthing 
 
 147 
 
 Fell 
 
 28 
 
 Few 
 
 26, 157 
 
 Field 
 
 33 
 
 Fiend 
 
 166 
 
 Finnon Haddios 
 
 
 First 
 
 157 
 
 Fitzurse 
 
 26 
 
 Float, float 
 
 Par. 33 
 33 
 
 34, 184 
 
 35 
 
 128 
 
 200 
 166 
 166 
 262 
 181 
 37 
 191 
 38 
 40 
 
 26,41 
 
 255 
 
 28 
 
 83 
 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 260 
 
 855 
 
 16* 
 
 146 
 
 37 
 63 
 178 
 163 
 71 
 258 
 37 
 85 
 112 
 182 
 2fr 
 85 
 
498 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Foe 
 
 far. 85 
 
 Instil 
 
 far. 40 
 
 Foolhardy 
 
 153 
 
 Inverary 
 
 28 
 
 Force 
 
 29 
 
 Invoice 
 
 26 
 
 Forget 
 
 143 
 
 Involve 
 
 40 
 
 Forlorn 
 
 114 
 
 Island 
 
 37 
 
 Foster 
 
 167 
 
 It 
 
 355 
 
 Forster 
 
 169 
 
 
 
 Fowl 
 
 139 
 
 JERSEY 
 
 37 
 
 Francis 
 
 35 
 
 Jerusalem artichoke 
 
 36 
 
 Free 
 
 68 
 
 Jurisprudence 
 
 156 
 
 Friar 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 Fundamental 
 
 20 
 
 KENT 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 Keppel 
 
 29 
 
 GANG 
 
 141 
 
 Kickshaw 
 
 157 
 
 Ganges 
 
 141 
 
 KiU 
 
 28 
 
 Gaol 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 Gar 
 
 84 
 
 LANTHORN 
 
 36 
 
 Garden 
 
 66 
 
 Latin roots and derivatives 
 
 45 
 
 Gate 
 
 141 
 
 Launceston 
 
 28 
 
 Gazette 
 
 66 
 
 League 
 
 128 
 
 Ge 
 
 86 
 
 Leominster 
 
 22 
 
 Gin 
 
 26 
 
 Leonard 
 
 20 
 
 Girdle 
 
 34 
 
 Less 
 
 178 
 
 Girl 
 
 207 
 
 Lewd 
 
 66 
 
 Give 
 
 26 
 
 Libel 
 
 164 
 
 Gnomon 
 
 34 
 
 Lieutenant 
 
 26 
 
 Goal 
 
 26 
 
 Liquorice 
 
 86 
 
 Gooseberry 
 
 30 
 
 Llandafl 
 
 28 
 
 Gossip 
 
 65 
 
 Loaf 
 
 68 
 
 Grab 
 Greek roots and derivatives 
 
 137 
 46 
 
 Loathing 
 Logos 
 
 39,71 
 46 
 
 Guelph 
 
 24 
 
 Lore, learn 
 
 70 
 
 Guilt 
 
 68 
 
 Loveth 
 
 3>3 
 
 Guinea 
 
 33 
 
 Lumber 
 
 65 
 
 Guess 
 
 35 
 
 Lurch 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 Lynn 
 
 28 
 
 HAMLET 
 
 164 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 94 
 
 'MA' 
 
 140 
 
 Happy 
 
 28 
 
 Magnet 
 
 33 
 
 Hatred 
 
 39 
 
 Main 
 
 128 
 
 Hauteur 
 
 26 
 
 Manchester 
 
 22 
 
 Hem 
 
 56 
 
 Mariner 
 
 355 
 
 Heroine 
 
 207 
 
 Mass 
 
 22 
 
 Herring 
 
 163 
 
 Meagre 
 
 26 
 
 Hesitate 
 
 145 
 
 Mean 
 
 128 
 
 Hibernia 
 
 158 
 
 Megrims 
 
 157 
 
 Hind 
 
 41 
 
 Methinks 
 
 215 
 
 Hippocrates 
 
 29 
 
 Mickle 
 
 77 
 
 Hireling 
 
 88 
 
 Milk 
 
 ui 
 
 Hood 
 
 149 
 
 Minster 
 
 2-1 
 
 Horsa 
 
 29 
 
 Miscreant 
 
 65 
 
 Horseman 
 
 29 
 
 Misdeeds 
 
 1M 
 
 Hospital 
 
 197 
 
 Mistify 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 Mob 
 
 62 
 
 IGNORANT 
 
 34 
 
 Mobocracy 
 
 38 
 
 Imp 
 
 65 
 
 Monastery 
 
 22 
 
 Impair 
 
 26 
 
 Monkshood 
 
 153 
 
 Impertinent 
 
 40 
 
 Month 
 
 22 
 
 Implant 
 
 40 
 
 Mood 
 
 68 
 
 Implicate 
 
 40 
 
 Morose 
 
 65 
 
 Impose 
 
 40 
 
 Morrice-dance 
 
 37 
 
 Incense 
 
 64 
 
 Mortise 
 
 23 
 
 Inculcate 
 
 40 
 
 Moses 
 
 166 
 
 Insolent 
 
 40 
 
 Most 
 
 179 
 
INDEX. 
 
 499 
 
 Mushroon 
 Muslin 
 Muster 
 
 far. ?f 
 33 
 191 
 
 Prodigious 
 Provoke 
 Provost 
 
 Par. 65 
 64 
 
 NAME 
 
 137 
 
 Proxy 
 
 142 
 
 Neatherd 
 Neckhandkerchlcf 
 Negus 
 Ness 
 
 70 
 
 38 
 32 
 
 15' 
 
 QUANDARY 
 Quarantine 
 Quoth 
 
 157 
 26 
 26 
 
 Newport 
 Nightingale 
 Nightmare 
 
 152 
 159 
 31 
 
 RAISIN 
 
 Ransom 
 Rather 
 
 26 
 34 
 
 178 
 
 None 
 
 2o2 
 
 Reader 
 
 79 
 
 Noun 
 
 114 
 
 Resent 
 
 64 
 
 Nuisance 
 
 26 
 
 Restive 
 
 65 
 
 Number 
 
 111 
 
 Reynard 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 Riches 
 
 
 OFFICIOUS 
 
 C4 
 
 Rivulet 
 
 164 
 
 Only 
 
 251 
 
 Rob, rudo 
 
 145 
 
 Opinion 
 
 65 
 
 Rogue 
 
 28 
 
 Orient 
 
 C5 
 
 Romance 
 
 65 
 
 Orison 
 
 34 
 
 Roof 
 
 68 
 
 Ospray 
 
 45 
 
 Room 
 
 71 
 
 Ostrich 
 Outsiders 
 
 26 
 63 
 
 Roslyn 
 Roundhead 
 
 28 
 62 
 
 Oyes 
 
 36 
 
 Rout 
 
 26 
 
 PADDLE 
 
 163 
 
 Royalty 
 Rude 
 
 34 
 40 
 
 Paddock 
 
 86 
 
 Run amuck 
 
 36 
 
 Pagan 
 
 65 
 
 Rustic 
 
 41 
 
 Pale 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 Parapet 
 
 26 
 
 SALARY 
 
 41 
 
 Parcel 
 
 34 
 
 Sansculottes 
 
 62 
 
 Parchment 
 
 33 
 
 Saragossa 
 
 57 
 
 Partridge 
 
 194 
 
 Satchel 
 
 163 
 
 Peach 
 
 33 
 
 Saucy 
 
 40 
 
 Peasant 
 
 40 
 
 ^avage 
 
 26 
 
 Perpendicular 
 
 20 
 
 Saxon roots and derivatives 
 
 44 
 
 People 
 
 26 
 
 Scandal 
 
 34 
 
 Personalty 
 
 710 
 
 Scrip 
 
 37 
 
 Philip 
 
 35 
 
 Second 
 
 182 
 
 Philippics 
 Pilgrimage 
 
 31 
 83 
 
 Seldom 
 Selfish 
 
 79 
 62 
 
 Plunder 
 
 62 
 
 Sell 
 
 68 
 
 Poison 
 
 26. 34 
 
 Shadow 
 
 163 
 
 Polite 
 
 64 
 
 Shall 
 
 58 
 
 Policy 
 
 37 
 
 Sham 
 
 28 
 
 Pomp 
 
 65 
 
 Shamefaced 
 
 158 
 
 Pontefract 
 
 22 
 
 Shape, ship 
 
 68 
 
 Ponteland 
 
 22 
 
 Shrieve 
 
 80 
 
 Porpoise 
 
 61 
 
 Sundry 
 
 32 
 
 Portable 
 Pragmatical 
 
 20 
 65 
 
 Slaveocracy 
 Sloth 
 
 33 
 39 
 
 Pranks 
 
 28 
 
 Smithe 
 
 67 
 
 Preach 
 
 26 
 
 smooth 
 
 79 
 
 Prefixes : a, ab, ad, aft, all, b, back, be, 
 
 5now 
 
 94 
 
 ben, by, c, cis, de,dis, 
 
 dia, en,Fitz,for, 
 
 Soldier 
 
 26 
 
 fore, fro, ge(y), ill, in 
 
 like, Mac, meta, 
 
 Solempce 
 
 84 
 
 mid, mis, n, non, o, 
 
 off, on, one, out. 
 
 Some 
 
 256 
 
 over, p, pro, s, syrn, 
 
 to, un, etc. 143-6 
 
 soul 
 
 94 
 
 Preposterous 
 
 65 
 
 Sound 
 
 114 
 
 Presumption 
 
 40 
 
 Sovereign 
 
 36 
 
 Prevaricate 
 
 65 
 
 Sparrowgiass 
 
 36 
 
 Priest 
 
 34 
 
 patter 
 
 140 
 
 
 2 ic 2 
 
 
500 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Spices 
 
 far 34, 80 
 
 Usher 
 
 Spilliken 
 
 163 
 
 
 Spirt 
 
 114 
 
 VARLET 
 
 Square 
 
 193 
 
 Vedas 
 
 Squirrel 
 
 157 
 
 Vegetable 
 
 St. 
 
 140 
 
 Venison 
 
 Stair Stye Head, 
 
 83 
 
 Video 
 
 Stationer 
 
 65 
 
 View 
 
 Star 
 
 137 
 
 Vinegar 
 
 Stentorian 
 
 32 
 
 Vision 
 
 Stratheden 
 
 28 
 
 Virtue 
 
 Street 
 
 22 
 
 Viz 
 
 Suicide 
 
 02,156 
 
 Volley 
 
 Surface 
 
 34 
 
 Vouchsafe 
 
 Surgeon 
 
 157 
 
 
 Surplice 
 
 26 
 
 WAG 
 
 Swam 
 
 41 
 
 Warden 
 
 Syrens 
 
 37 
 
 Wealth 
 
 Syrup 
 
 34 
 
 Well-head 
 
 
 
 Welkin 
 
 TEMPTATION 
 
 112 
 
 Well up 
 
 Terminations (see Affixes), 
 
 ad, age, 
 
 What 
 
 able, ar, ard, ate, alive, cl 
 
 i. d, dom. 
 
 Whence 
 
 ed, ee, el, en, er, erm, et, er, ess, ey, 
 
 Wherefore 
 
 ez, fold, full, fy, head, hood. i. ic. 
 
 Wliitby 
 
 ics, ie, ine, ier, ing, ists, 
 ize, ian, kin, ledge, less, 
 lock, m, nient, ock, one, 
 
 ister, ius, 
 like, ling 1 , 
 oon, ous, 
 
 Wholly and holy 
 Why 
 Wide 
 
 qw, .r, red, ric, ry, s, se, 
 
 sen, ship. 
 
 Widower 
 
 sky, some, son, ster, t, t< 
 
 :n, th, ty, 
 
 Wilkin 
 
 vitch, ward, wick, y 
 
 
 William 
 
 Thatch 
 
 183 
 
 Window 
 
 Thimble 
 
 103 
 
 Winsome 
 
 Thine 
 
 175 
 
 Wit 
 
 Thorn Apple 
 
 152 
 
 Wizard 
 
 Tinsel 
 
 26 
 
 Wolf 
 
 Tissue 
 
 26 
 
 Woman 
 
 Toilette 
 
 26 
 
 Wombe 
 
 Traditor 
 
 114 
 
 Worsten 
 
 Treatise 
 
 20 
 
 Worse 
 
 Trivial 
 
 65 
 
 Worth 
 
 Troop 
 
 196 
 
 Writhe, wreathe 
 
 Twice 
 
 175 
 
 
 Twin, Twyford 
 Turn, twist 
 
 145 
 
 145 
 
 YARD 
 
 Your 
 
 
 
 Yours 
 
 UGLY 
 
 39 
 
 Yourn 
 
 Uncouth 
 
 71 
 
 
 far. 25 
 
 83 
 141 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 141 
 141 
 157 
 141 
 
 63 
 141 
 
 26 
 157 
 
 94 
 
 68 
 63 
 53 
 
 206(1 
 
 71 
 
 72 
 
 175 
 
 355 
 
 29 
 
 128 
 
 175 
 
 71 
 
 172 
 
 163 
 
 114, 166 
 
 153 
 
 145 
 
 63, 141 
 
 172 
 
 S!Q, 140 
 172 
 83 
 33 
 178 
 63 
 35 
 
 175 
 217 
 175 
 
 INDEX No. 3. SYNTAX. 
 
 ACCUSED (Burke) Hastings of high 
 
 crimes 337 
 
 A cruel tyrant, and her name is Death 
 
 209 
 
 A few men 480 
 
 A-fishing 287 
 
 After me the deluge 322 
 
 Age (the) of chivalry is gone 144 
 
 A horse ! my kingdom 361 
 
 A hot day ! gentlemen 861 
 
 A house to let 538 
 
 A learned man and a cunning 481 
 
 All the cuntree and alie the men 176 
 
 All the world's a stage 480 
 
 All that's good and all that's fair 477 
 
 All nature is but art 615 
 
 All but life and honour's lost 332 
 
 All that lildth the 393 
 
INDEX. 
 
 C01 
 
 Allowed to be read in churches Par. 64 
 Altar, sword, and pen 612 
 
 A man renowned lor repartee 599 
 A man's a man for a' that 460 
 
 A many thousand French 258 
 
 A ministering 1 angel thou 416 
 
 And the earth was all rest 334 
 
 And from before the lustre of her eyes 
 591 
 Angels around befriending Virtue's 
 
 friend 340 
 
 An historical account 4C1 
 
 A rose will smell as sweet 270 
 
 Ire snatched immediate 483 
 
 Art thou a lover of song? 698 
 
 As and So ; As and As 679 
 
 A sadder and a wiser man 474 
 
 As follows 510 
 
 At a venture 311 
 
 A thousand angels lacquey her 478 
 A thousand horse, and none to ride 
 
 them 485 
 
 Away with me (she could never) 311. 4 
 A wail was heard around the bed 656 
 A wit's a feather 470 
 
 Ayes (the) have it 206 
 
 BACCHUS that first from out 658 
 Bard of Lomond's lay is done 387 
 Bedford and Exeter 600 
 Be it ever so homely 557 
 Be not like dumb driven cattle 492 
 Birdes singen 205 
 Bird of the wilderness 683 
 Bless me, even me 453 
 Bless (they) with their mouth 394 
 Boon nature scatter'd free and wild 619 
 Boys will anticipate 686 
 Brave martyr'd chief, no more our 
 grief 645 
 Breathes there a man 356 
 Brevity is the soul of wit 264 
 Bridal of the earth and skie 477 
 Broad cloth without 361 
 Burke on the Sublime and the Beauti- 
 ful 483 
 Burnt to a cinder 456 
 But meeter for thee 690 
 By our swords we won these lands 314 
 
 CAISES Cynne 629 
 
 Can, I never 515 
 
 Cause (the) makes the martyr 264 
 
 Cease ye mourners 672 
 
 Chastisement doth hide his head 216 
 
 Chattering his teeth lor cold 342 
 
 Child is father to the man 384 
 
 Children choose it 670 
 
 Christianity not only reverence but 
 love 347. 4 
 
 Clear spring and shady grove 667 
 
 Come and trip it as you go 422 
 
 Come back 1 come back ! he cried 666 
 
 Come let us ajrew 680 
 
 Comes (Duncan) to-night Par. 292 
 Come we now 283 
 
 Committee (the) reports 437 
 
 Consult the statute ; quart. I think it 
 is 15 
 
 Counted him for a prophet 337 
 
 Cowards die many times 413 
 
 Crabbed age and youth 671 
 
 Creator, Preserver, Redeemer of men 
 687 
 
 DAY (the) of my burying 393 
 
 Dead he is not, but departed 356 
 
 Deep damnation of his taking off 385 
 Deep yet clear 609 
 
 Destroyers rightlier called 309 
 
 Dictates of conscience to be treated 
 
 with respect 541 
 
 Dreaming- dreams no mortal ever 
 
 dreamt before 414 
 
 Drink deep or taste not 311. 4 
 
 EARTH (the) hath bubbles 384 
 Earth is the Lord's and the fulness 373 
 
 Earthly power likest God's 4C9 
 
 England hears ill abroad 270 
 
 England with all thy faults 630 
 
 Err (to) is human ' 482 
 
 Every body publishes memoirs 423 
 
 Every limb appears 369 
 
 Every man is a volume 522 
 
 Evil (the) that men do 244 
 
 Except ye repent 521 
 
 Extremes! verge 240 
 
 PAIR and softly goes far 364 
 
 Fairest of all her daughters, Eve 504 
 Felt less, and said more 310 
 
 Fie upon your law 320 
 
 Fixed is the term of all the race ol 
 earth 654 
 
 Flow on, thou shining river 662 
 
 Fools rush in where 450 
 
 Fools who came to scoff 536 
 
 For a man to be proud ol his learning 
 
 529 
 
 For talking age 552 
 
 Freedom's battle once begun 555 
 
 From their nests beneath the rafters 
 
 676 
 
 Full many a gem 311. 4 
 
 Full of grief and full ol love 669 
 
 GENIUS is patience 
 Give every man thy ear 
 Give sorrow words 
 Give to the winds thy fears 
 Gleaming and streaming 
 Gold pleasure brings 
 Grapple him to thy soul 
 Great men die and are f< 
 
 344 
 347 
 403 
 657 
 611 
 651 
 
 J456 
 ire forgotten 672 
 
 Grind him to powder 337 - 
 
 HAD I but served my God 445 
 
602 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Hail to thee, blithe spirit Par. 679 
 Hark the sounds of gladness 674 
 Hark, they whisper 455 
 
 He became exceeding popular 5fiO 
 He ceased speaking- 558 
 
 He cometh late and tarries long 517 
 He died shouting victory S40 
 
 He hastens to repent who decides too 
 
 quickly 292 
 
 He (the proudest) in Christendom 426 
 He looked upon his people 656 
 
 Hence with denial vain 573 
 
 Here at the gates and avenues of sense 
 471 
 
 Here lies the great 636 
 
 Her heart, her mind, is his alone 363 
 He returned a friend who came a foe 
 416 
 
 He that steals my purso 335 
 
 He whistles as he goes 618 
 
 He who hath bent him 433 
 
 High on a throne sat Satan 350 
 
 Him I accuse the city gates hath en- 
 
 teved 446 
 
 Him the Almighty power 335 
 
 His pavilion were dark waters 380 
 Honour is a good brooch 530 
 
 How sweet the moonlight sleeps 311. 4 
 How to live and how to die ' 332 
 How various his employments 631 
 
 I AM, each bush and oak doth know 426 
 
 If he be here 526-7 
 
 If that I be a dog 431 
 
 If there's a hereafter 622 
 
 If 'twere done 525 
 
 I hear thee speak 542 
 
 I am truly sorry man's dominion 663 
 
 In Christian hearts 361 
 
 I never was nor never will 525 
 
 In Hawick twinkled many a light 422 
 
 In the lowest deep a lower deep 240 
 
 In this 'tis God directs 447 
 
 In the spring a fuller crimson 876 
 
 I pause for a reply 636 
 
 I protest by your rejoicing 384 
 
 I saw her lips to move 543 
 I shall deny 278, 287 
 
 Is come 276 
 
 Is this a fast to keep 650 
 
 It am I 22 
 
 It cannot but end in misery 506 
 
 I that did never weep 598 
 
 It is an Ancient Mariner 355 
 
 It is a wise head 355 
 
 I took it for a fiery vision 410 
 
 I was asked that question 415 
 
 I unlocked her all my heart 400 
 
 I was eyes to the blind 416 
 
 I weep the more 346 
 
 KEEP the word of promise to the ear 
 
 401 
 
 Kind nature's sweet restorer 591 
 
 LABOUR physics pain 
 Last noon beheld then 
 
 Kings it makes gods Pr. 603 
 
 King's name a tower of strength 383 
 King's (the) rebels 380 
 
 King (the) was on his throne 652 
 Knowledge is proud that he 2C9 
 
 Know ye the land 687 
 
 331 
 348 
 
 Last six chapters of John 494 
 
 Learn to labour and to wait 335 
 
 Lesser Asia 500 
 
 Less than twenty 490 
 
 Letters came to say, Alhaina 647 
 
 Light, the shadow of God 292 
 
 Love rules the camp 462 
 
 Lying silent and sad 647 
 
 MAN proposes, and God disposes 317 
 Man toman and steei to steel 361 
 Many are poets without the name 695 
 Measures (it) eight miles 339 
 
 Men walk on the confines of heaven or 
 
 of hell 294 
 
 More than I ; more than me 571 
 
 Most instructive lessons 505 
 
 Mould me man 410 
 
 Mountain winds, oh whither do ye 
 
 call me 673 
 
 Mounting in hot haste (There was) 332 
 Musing a moment before them 647 
 My banks, they are furnished with 
 
 bees 358 
 
 My poverty not my will consents 371 
 
 NARROW is the way 381 
 
 Nine times the space 340 
 
 No cliff so bare but 449 
 
 None but the brave 321 
 
 None other God but me 576 
 
 Not a drum was'heard 348 
 
 Not but it is a healthier place 566 
 
 Nothing extenuate 321 
 
 Not lording it over 422 
 
 Now abideth faith, hope 374 
 
 Now be still, yet still believe me 647 
 
 O'ER many a frozen Alp 584 
 
 Of fifty cubits high 413 
 Of heaven he spake 
 
 Of the same opinion still 334 
 
 Of truth profound 396 
 
 O heard ye yon pibroch 681 
 
 Oh for a lodge in some vast 593 
 
 Once upon a midnight dreary 676 
 
 One eternal now 573 
 
 One more unfortunate 682 
 
 On, Stanley, on ! 826 
 
 Outer Bar (The) 462 
 
 PASSION is the drunkenness of the 
 
 mind 479 
 
 Peal'd their first notes to sound 530 
 
 People (the) are a many headed beast 
 
INDEX. 
 
 603 
 
 Pibroch o 1 Donuil Dim Far. 682 
 
 Poor and content is rich enough 304 
 
 Priesthood (a) such as Baal's 365 
 
 Procrastination the thief of time 332 
 
 READING makes a full man 348 
 
 Reasons (are) not giving for no pur- 
 pose 394 
 Redder and redder grew the snow 496 
 Resenting a favour 64 
 Retail geniuses are nothing worth 331 
 Rich honesty travels like your miser 
 
 453 
 
 Right against 562 
 
 Rime, the rack of finest wits 648 
 
 Rise to the swelling of the tuneful sea 
 
 4C6 
 
 Rob me the Exchequer 400 
 
 Ro 11, O Rill for ever 647 
 
 Rome shallperish, write that word 672 
 
 SADDLE me the ass 453 
 
 Satan than whom 506 
 
 Save she, that loved them 322 
 
 Say, what the use 381 
 
 Seasons return 584, 667 
 
 Self-confidence (too little) 332 
 
 Senates have been bought 366 
 
 She loves much 321 
 
 She thought the isle 616 
 
 Sith that I have told you 322 
 Slaves cannot breathe in England 616 
 
 Slept the sleep 267 
 
 Smack went the whip 311 
 
 Something attempted 549 
 
 Son of affliction, said Omar 381 
 So (our wiser sons will think us) 230 
 Spear-side (the) and spindle side 208 
 
 Speech is the light 525 
 
 Such a rebel as me 577 
 
 Such as, such that 579 
 
 Such sights as youthful poets 346 
 
 Such sober certainty 419 
 
 TAKE him for all in all 528 
 
 Talk they of morals 420 
 
 Tears, such as angels weep 350 
 
 Than whom 575 
 
 That carries anger 382 
 
 That (not to follow) was sin 230 
 
 That you have wronged me 570 
 
 The common air 470 
 
 The gold is but the guinea stamp 460 
 The heart was affected 4C8 
 
 The ice was high 645 
 
 Then at her flew 346 
 
 The more men know 
 The nations not so blessed as thee 425 
 Then keep thy vows 452 
 
 Then the forms of the departed 462 
 The permitted necromancy of the wise 
 380 
 
 Thereby hangs a tale 592 
 
 There is a reaper whose name 438 
 
 There scattered oft Par. 654 
 
 The stone which 438 
 The then Bishop 311. 4 
 
 The third and fifth chaps 475 
 
 The wisest, meanest 473 
 
 Thirst for fame 333 
 
 This is it men call justice 443 
 
 This is the field and acre 384 
 
 This is the forest primeval 685 
 
 Though he slay me 524 
 
 Thou flea, thou nit 428 
 
 Though to dimness I gaze 406 
 
 Thoughts that breathe 441 
 
 'Tis distance lends 345 
 
 'Tis mad idolatry 547 
 
 'Tis neither here nor there 331 
 
 'Tis the sunset of life 639 
 
 To a tittle 406 
 To be hated needs but to be seen 322 
 
 To be or not to be 430 
 
 To do that is righteous 443 
 
 To have a giant's strength 332 
 
 To me the meanest flower 349 
 
 To read and write was once 363 
 
 Towered cities 319 
 Truth administered scalding hot 311 
 
 Two and two make four 519 
 
 UNEASY lies the head 
 
 341 
 
 VILE dust (the) from whence 612 
 Visible, idolatry the worship of the 462 
 Vital spark 672 
 
 WAGES of sin is death 380 
 
 Was Cheops or Cephrenes 423 
 
 Weakest reasoners most positive 597 
 
 We are selfish men 612 
 
 Weary way wanderer 684 
 
 Weep, I cannot 546 
 
 Were half the power 673 
 
 We sing of the realm 
 
 Whatever is is right 519 
 
 What is the meaning of this lady 393 
 
 What's gone and what's past hope 477 
 
 What went ye out for to see 536 
 
 When that the poor have cried 282 
 
 When the fierce north wind 698 
 
 When the great 
 
 Where'er we seek thee 
 
 Where heaves the turf 45S 
 
 Wherein the wild thyme 
 
 While shame, thou looking on 402 
 
 Who can paint like nature 
 
 Whoever (of) had advised 
 
 Who flatters is lowest 
 
 Whom a wise king 
 
 Whom do you take me to be 
 
 Who do men say that I am 
 
 Whom I may whisper 
 
 Whose bourne (from) no traveller 439 
 
 Who stops to plunder 
 
 Will do his will (if any man) 
 
 Will's, I was the other day at 891 
 
504 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Will stoode for skill Par. 646 
 
 Wish (thy) was father to that thought 
 
 401 
 
 With ravished ears 348 
 
 Wit lieth in a pat allusion 341 
 
 Woe is me, Alhnma 326 
 
 Woe worth the day 8 ;6 
 
 Word for word 405 
 
 World (the) needs a seer 381 
 
 Would I describe & preacher Par. 523 
 
 YEAS (in russet) 2 6 
 
 Ye matin worshippers CCS 
 
 Ye rise for religion 427 
 
 Ye shepherds so cheerful and gay 689 
 
 You do take my lif 3 308 
 
 Your Majesty 422 
 
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