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METEOROLOGY, 
 
JO^-OSTHM 
 
 .HTAMIJ3 
 
 fci^ Q.V'.v. V-.iiv'lf V 
 
 DAVIDSON, PRINTER, SERLE'S PLACE, 
 CAREY STREET, LONDON. 
 
METEOROLOGY 
 
 CONSIDERED 
 IN ITS CONNEXION WITH 
 
 ASTRONOMY, CLIMATE, 
 
 AND THE 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 
 
 Of 
 
 ANIMALS AND PLANTS, 
 
 EQUALLY AS WITH 
 THE SEASONS AND CHANGES OF THE WEATHER. 
 
 PATRICK MURPHY, 
 
 AUTHOR OF THE " RUDIMENTS OP THE PRIMARY FORCES OF GRAVITY, MAGNETISM, 
 AND ELECTRICITY IN THEIR AGENCY ON THE HEAVENLY BODIES." 
 
 "THE ANATOMY OF THE SEASONS, &c." 
 
 " II est des verites a qu'il ne manque, pour etre accreditees, que d'etre 
 annoncees par des hommes heureux." Schulz. 
 
 C'est au fond de 1'examen que se trouve la science et la verite, L'or se 
 ramasse au fond des creusets." Helvetius. 
 
 LONDON: 
 PUBLISHED BY J. B. BALLIERE, 219, REGENT STREET. 
 
 1836. 
 
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 ?/ i ;i(Joo3 ? ^isoi^ifi Ir/fna^g eil,i b/m oDn'o 
 UB.toi> a fxbu 1^/19 o'j \eaalq apft ifl .a 
 
 9i)o 
 
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 lo m^IuoK-teaji sdi lo noiiuloa 
 
 4 gsvf J 'fiiwoicy| orO 
 
Ms 1 -] 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 As FEW who have turned their attention to meteor- 
 ology are ignorant of its extensive relations with 
 science and the general interests of society, it were 
 superfluous, in this place, to enter into a detail of 
 these relations. And if in addition we take into ac- 
 count that it was only by discoveries in meteorology, 
 the solution of the grand problem of science, viz. 
 that of the true theory of the world, could have been 
 at any time arrived at : instead of detracting from 
 the importance of this science in other respects, it 
 thus comes forward invested with additional claims, 
 and a higher title to our consideration, than all the 
 others. 
 
 And having in the following pages, as I trust, 
 sufficiently shown the truth of these assumptions, 
 
 M372431 
 
Ti PREFACE. 
 
 it will be sufficient for me at present to refer to 
 them : but aware, however correct the views there 
 taken, or the principles laid down in reference to 
 the sources of planetary movement, temperature, 
 and the other local phenomena of the seasons and 
 weather, may be, or however important in their re- 
 lations with the interests of society ; that without 
 co-operation, on the part of the public, in order to 
 give them effect, they cannot possibly be attended 
 with any beneficial or useful result: and conse- 
 quently that, in its present stage, the affair of giv- 
 ing their utility to these discoveries, is not yet 
 begun, With the view of rendering them as 
 generally operative as possible, by the formation of 
 a Meteorological Society, I have taken occasion in 
 more than one part of the work, to call attention 
 to this subject; fully sensible of the nullity of any 
 thing that has been done, unless it be followed up 
 by something of the kind. And if in the event of 
 being successful, and that, as being identified with 
 the country, Englishmen of a future day, may, pos- 
 sibly, turn to these discoveries with feelings of pride 
 and exultation : what more appropriate or honour- 
 
PREFACE. vii 
 
 able record could those of the present day leave to 
 future times, as to the reception afforded them at the 
 period of their being made, than the one here pro- 
 posed ; having, as it would be sure to have, from its 
 utility, the countenance and support of all good men 
 on its side. For, as to the individual whose name 
 happens to be associated with these discoveries, ? as 
 personal considerations have had but little to do 
 in the devoting his time and attention in the man 
 ner he has done to these subjects, as proved by 
 the, to him, severe pecuniary losses which, to the 
 present, it has entailed on him. Did he for a mo- 
 ment suppose that his appearing in the business, 
 could, in any way, operate in retarding the accom- 
 plishment of the good work proposed, he would at 
 once add that of suppressing his connexion with these 
 discoveries, to the other sacrifices already made by 
 him. He, however, hopes that a more elevated sen- 
 timent will be allowed to operate on the occasion^ 
 than any thing so low and unworthy as that alluded 
 to ; and that, should it prove disagreeable,- in the 
 magnitude of the object proposed, the individual 
 may be overlooked and lost sight of. It is more 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 than probable, indeed, that his perseverance in the 
 course which has led to these results, had been less; 
 but that he was impressed with the idea, whether 
 erroneous or otherwise, that if discoveries of the na- 
 ture of these announced were ever to be made, 
 notwithstanding all that were contributed by others, 
 it could only have been by means of individual ap- 
 plication and industry : as none other could have 
 embraced and combined in it to the same extent 
 the necessary elements of collecting, combining, and 
 digesting the various facts and circumstances con- 
 nected with them as a whole, in order eventually to 
 succeed. 
 
 For, in a case such as this, where at the out- 
 set, or when first taken up by the author, all was 
 .obscurity; and where, consequently, commencing 
 in darkness, and thence advancing gradually and 
 by almost imperceptible degrees into light, the tran- 
 sit could not by possibility have been sudden ; but, 
 even under the most favourable circumstances, must 
 have been the work of time; and one determined 
 more by accident than by talent in the result. And 
 thus it is that the works successively published by 
 
PREFACE. xi 
 
 the author, on the subject, in 1830, 1834, and the 
 present, will, on examination, be found to mark the 
 different and succeeding stages of inquiry, which, as 
 he trusts, has finally terminated in a manner so ad- 
 vantageous to science. 
 
 And as, where the interests of society are at 
 stake, the object may be allowed to justify the 
 having recourse to means in order to effect it, which 
 under different circumstances however innocent- 
 might appear rather humiliating and ludicrous : 
 thus, after the manner of the celebrated Tull, the 
 father of the drill or horse-hoeing system of hus- 
 bandry, in inviting his readers to allow themselves 
 to be prevailed on to give it a trial ; the author is 
 disposed though not exactly in the attitude of the 
 Spaniard, and with tears in his eyes! to beg of the 
 reader to take the trouble calmly to examine the 
 merits of the present theory of meteorology, in its 
 connexion with astronomy, &c. before he makes up 
 his mind on the subject. For, as observed by a 
 German writer, " though it requires but little wit 
 to be of an opinion now, which all the world were of 
 twenty years ago ; the reverse of this is rather dif- 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 ferent ; as it bespeaks no slight superiority to be of 
 a sentiment now, which the rest of the world will 
 not be of before twenty years to come. " And as it 
 is while things appear to be yet doubtful, that supe- 
 riority is sure to manifest itself; and that when all 
 are disposed to concur, individual support loses 
 much of its value. Thus perhaps, it is, at present, 
 in regard to the theory here presented to the pub- 
 lic : for if right, as it is sure finally to succeed, 
 those who are the first to see and admit its correct- 
 ness, are likely thereby to acquire to themselves an 
 enviable celebrity ; and such as a similar contin- 
 gency cannot occur a second time as wealth could 
 not procure. Besides, when it is considered that 
 nothing is permanent but TRUTH; as Time, all omni- 
 potent in other respects, changes nothing in reference 
 to the nature of things; and consequently, where er- 
 ror exists, though of one thousand years standing, it 
 is still what it was at first ; and must, as such, be li- 
 mited in its duration. And moreover, that, with 
 the generality of men, few things are more caprici- 
 ous than taste however influential ; more com- 
 mon than envy; or more confident than ignorance ; 
 
PREFACE. xi 
 
 it will serve to show the little of importance which 
 opinion in affairs of science however consecrated 
 by long standing should be allowed to exercise ; 
 when, divested of prejudice, it is dispassionately 
 weighed and examined at the tribunal of right 
 reason. 
 
 1 ir 1 
 
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 -duq oiii o) .bdlnaaoiq oiorf viot>rii aift ot 
 
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 as e^Tbarnail* ol oiiopoa at ^dqiedJ ^biil oW t aao. 
 -niiuoo Teirmfe e RB ibua baa j^indala)" ofdnwro 
 if jfi33w as omn fcno'j&sj ^ IUDDO ionnuo 
 LoisbiaiiOD ar ^1 iiodw t at)l>i8^ - .Qiuooiq 
 UB t ofnJT an ;nxuaT iud toongnndq 21 
 
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 CST DK2oA uA->ZJiiQsad a >t A ^311108 eJi"fid-! ; ; . 
 
 .SMH70M HliHT ^C TAlil' ^9 
 
TABLE OF CONTEKTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION ^^ : - f 1 : . '. :?> v* - I .? Page 1 
 
 CHAPTERS OF THE FIRST PART. 
 I. PLANETARY COLD AN EFFECT OF MAGNETIC ACTION 27 
 
 II. The Moon exercises a meteoric Influence on the Tern- 
 perature and the Weather; which changes in its 
 nature with that of the moon's position, being electric 
 at the syzygies, and magnetic at the quadratures . 32 
 
 III. THE UNION OF OPPOSITE PROGRESSIONS esteemed the 
 
 fundamental Law of Nature; or that on which the 
 whole of her dispositions are founded . .37 
 
 IV. Opinions entertained by some Writers in regard to the 
 
 Newtonian Principle of UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION . 43 
 
 V. GRAVITY its esteemed Source and Nature " % . 51 
 
 * * * V:"- * ?^T< 
 
 ^ 
 
 VI. MAGNETIC ATTRACTION esteemed the Moteur or Princi- 
 
 ple in which the elliptical Movement of the heavenly 
 Bodies has its Source, AND ELECTRICAL AGENCY TO 
 
 BE THAT OF THEIR MOVEMENT OP ROTATION , .61 
 
 VII. COMETS. SATELLITES 75 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 CHAP. 
 VIII. RAIN: its Diminutives Fog and Dew; and accessory 
 
 Phenomena >i?& IB *A,c*d Jr# b ^r> . 78 
 
 L??.I 
 
 IX. Application of Principles : CLIMATE, in reference to the 
 
 geographical distribution of animals and plants 104 
 
 f*ffl lo nojJOB ofiooJoin c>Ht ni 9D/f(7 9,/ci ffw/fv 
 X. CLIMATE, as., connected with the Mineral Kingdom 110 
 
 XI. CLIMATE, as connected with Earthquakes, and Vol- 
 canic Action /vv'<^ . 5^j4s -A . 115 
 
 XII. CLIMATE, as connected with LOCALITY x$.fli . 139 
 Iq^JibifCHM ; io Jrf^op'/h _ ,013% 
 
 XIII. Connexion of MAGNETIC ACTION with the Forma- 
 
 tion of Rain in the Atmosphere . . .158 
 
 XIV. Further Circumstances connected with the opposite 
 
 Species of Meteoric Action in the Atmosphere . 1 66 
 "iHtin azfo i. ' pi'n \i\ , ; 
 XV. The WINDS, or Currents of the Atmosphere . 1 76 
 
 XVI. Connexion observable between certain Classes of 
 
 Localities and of Meteors with each other, equally 
 as with the Changes respectively in each of the 
 Meteoric Circles Annual, Lunar, and Diurnal. 
 AURORA BOREALIS. ^ . . . 183 
 
 XVII. Further Proof of Principles, in reference to the as- 
 
 sumed influence of magnetic action, derived from 
 the sudden and total change of the seasons at the 
 periods of the equinoxes, on the opposite sides of 
 the Peninsula of India 1 90 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 XVIII. TENDENCE of Meteoric Action in the Atmosphere, as 
 
 connected with the Annual and Lunar Circle . 196 
 
 XIX. The Variation in the Seasons of different Years, 
 
 esteemed to be effects produced by the changes 
 which take place in the meteoric action of the 
 external planets, as of comets, on our atmosphere 208 
 
 XX. LUNAR ACTION ON THE WEATAER. CONNEXION OP 
 MAGNETIC ACTION WITH PLANETARY COLD, proved 
 
 by the relation which subsists between the relative 
 mildness or severity of the winter in either hemis- 
 phere, with the relative drought or humidity of 
 the summer in the opposite ,T/. 1< oixsnnoD * 212 
 8i)i ' ; ; V * ;' J jtt^pomJA 'atom tti&% k> coil 
 
 XXI. Distinctness of Meteoric Effects in the Atmosphere, 
 as connected with each of its Local Circles Di- 
 urnal, Lunar, and Annual. PHENOMENA OF THE 
 TIDES. Assumed relations, in regard to the influ- 
 fluence on our seasons, exercised by the Superior 
 Planets. Sun's Movement of Rotation. Solar 
 LightConclusion. f o | r raa <fo 
 
 ; XH. " 
 
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 T I>OB ttstwJ. ,lfitfflflA 
 
 nit .,>((;bfu-i c l io loo 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 SECOND PART. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Copy of a PAPER explanatory of the Lunar Action on the 
 Weather, presented, on the Part of the Author, at the 
 Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement 
 of Science, held at Dublin, in 1835 j. ; , . ^ . 237 
 
 Concluding Observations of the Second Part : in which, by 
 referring to the ravages on the coast of Scotland, caused 
 by the storm of the 18th November, 1835, occasion is 
 taken to show the annual destruction of life and pro- 
 perty which results from the ignorance of Meteorology 
 amongst seafaring men . . . . 253 
 
 THIRD PART. 
 
 METEORIC PROGRESSION considered in its Connexion with 
 
 the Changes of the Seasons and Weather . .257 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 AT a moment when, from the progress making in 
 chemical and electrical discovery, the darkness 
 which through a number of succeeding ages, had so 
 long and obstinately held enveloped and concealed 
 the first principles of things, is at length, though 
 slowly, -giving way before the penetrating beams of 
 science ; and that the species of optical deception 
 connected with the solar action, as refers to what 
 is called solar heat, similar to that by which it was 
 so long preceded, in reference to the equally ap- 
 parent movement of the sun, is about to undergo a 
 similar fate; as few, at the present day, are so 
 simple, or wedded to ancient prejudices as to sup- 
 pose that the heat induced by the sun is projected 
 from his body, or has its source in combustion ; but 
 that it is, on the contrary, of home growth, as be- 
 ing the result of a local action on the atmosphere, 
 excited by the sun; at a moment ,such as this, I 
 say, so interesting to every true friend of science, 
 when, as if escaping from the last strong-holds of 
 ignorance and barbarism, men's minds are occupied 
 
 B 
 
4 Introduction. 
 
 theatre ; and, on the other, claiming kindred and 
 connexion with the entire of that external nature, 
 with all its skyey influences, composed by the sun 
 and remainder of the planets. 
 
 From all which, I say, it will readily be seen, that 
 owing to its nature, very considerable advances in 
 the most abstruse of the sciences, (chemistry and 
 electricity,) became, in the first place, necessary, in 
 order, with any prospect of success, to make even 
 the slightest progress in meteorology; and that, 
 even provided with such aids as these sciences could 
 furnish, it was still but a matter of chance ', whether 
 man should ever succeed in obtaining an adequate 
 acquaintance with it. And thus that, as observed 
 by Voltaire, if "1'estime des hommes se mesure par 
 les difficultes surmontees," he who, by his industry, 
 should succeed in exploring the sources, and in 
 tracing the rudiments of this science, so as to esta- 
 blish it on principles such and so immutable as that 
 succeeding years would only serve the more fully to 
 confirm and prove their correctness, would, at the 
 least, have merited well of his contemporaries, and 
 have established thereby a just claim to the respect 
 and gratitude of posterity. 
 
 But if to attempt this, when so many, and these 
 not of the ordinary class of men, had proved unsuc- 
 cessful, were little short of madness : to succeed in 
 such an attempt were, on the other hand, little short 
 of miraculous. And yet such, and so unequal was 
 
Introduction. 5 
 
 the task proposed to himself by the writer, when, 
 many years ago, he first directed his attention to 
 the subject of meteorology: by no means aware of 
 the nearly insurmountable nature of the difficulties 
 by which, at every step, all his attempts to advance 
 were beset, and which only developed themselves in 
 proportion to his application, and to the more inti- 
 mate acquaintance which it gave him with the sub- 
 ject. As, however, continually recurring to the 
 same subjects, and viewing them on all their faces, 
 and in their various bearings, gradually begets a 
 species of acquaintance which nothing else can give. 
 Thus, though repeatedly discouraged by the want 
 of success, and more than once determined altoge- 
 ther to abandon the pursuit as hopeless, (and which 
 the losses induced by the two works he published 
 on the subject were not much calculated to alter,) 
 continuing to take lessons from failure, as consi- 
 dering them the best account to which it could be 
 turned, under the impression that success was still 
 possible, and aware that the thread of connexion 
 between phenomena apparently having no relations 
 is frequently so fine, as that it is the privilege only of 
 long and intimate acquaintance with them, to see 
 and detect it, and which, if once broken, it might, 
 however necessary, take ages to restore, induced 
 him to persevere : till finally, aided by the acquisi- 
 tion of some new facts elicited by recent experi- 
 ments, which enabled him to trace certain pheno- 
 
6 Introduction. 
 
 mena to their principles, and thus to fill up some 
 important blanks in the chart of natural causes, 
 combined with some unlooked-for discoveries of 
 another kind, he now feels enabled fearlessly to 
 challenge inquiry, in reference to the correctness of 
 the principles assumed by him in the present theory. 
 The better, however, to show the nature of the 
 difficulties which had to be surmounted, it may not 
 be amiss, in this place, to enter a little into particu- 
 lars. Thus, in reference to the principle of tempe- 
 rature, assuming it to be local, and to result from 
 the union of opposite actions in the atmosphere ; 
 as the only forces besides that of gravity, (of which 
 we shall have occasion to speak presently,) with 
 which We are acquainted in the atmosphere, are 
 those of magnetism and electricity, the task of con- 
 necting heat with the latter was easy ; as in the va- 
 rious experiments in electricity, the evolution of 
 heat by electrical currents has always been found to 
 be one of their characteristics, and consequently but 
 little objection had to be apprehended from the as- 
 sumption that planetary heat has its source in elec- 
 tric action. In assuming, however, that planetary 
 cold has its source in an active, and not, as had 
 been supposed, in a passive principle, or the absence 
 of heat; and to obtain the necessary proofs that 
 this was the case however reasonable to suppose 
 was an affair of quite another kind. For, as gravity 
 could not be supposed to have any thing to do with 
 
Introduction. 7 
 
 the temperature, magnetism being then the only 
 other force besides electricity, of whose existence in 
 the atmosphere we are acquainted, and between 
 which and cold there was no possibility, by direct 
 experiment, to prove a connexion ; and that, unless 
 this connexion could be satisfactorily established, a 
 most important blank would always remain to be 
 filled up, which would have the effect of leaving the 
 science of planetary temperature in a most defective 
 state. Thus, as nothing in the way of elucidation 
 was to be expected from experiment, it became ne- 
 cessary to obtain proofs of the assumed connexion, 
 if such were to be had, from the phenomena of the 
 atmosphere itself, as being, under the circumstances, 
 the only alternative which remained. And the first 
 of these which seemed to stamp the connexion 
 sought for, was, that as the position of the magnetic 
 pole, or rather poles, of our hemisphere, (as it is 
 supposed there is one in Northern Asia,) are 
 known ; and that, according to the observations of 
 Sir Charles Giesecke and others, it is found that 
 the isothermal lines of Europe and Asia, separate in 
 the higher latitudes, and surround two poles of 
 maximum cold, one in America and the other in 
 Northern Asia, and which, to a certain extent, are 
 found to correspond, in their positions, with those 
 of the magnetic poles in those regions, that thence, 
 if not altogether positive, there was strong presump- 
 tive proof that cold was connected with, and an 
 
8 Introduction. 
 
 effect of magnetic action. As this, however, 
 amounted to no more than presumptive proof, it re- 
 quired something more positive, in order absolutely 
 to establish the existence of the assumed connexion. 
 And, accordingly, this desideratum has been at 
 length obtained, and in a manner equally full and 
 conclusive as if from actual experiment ; and with it 
 the discovery of another fact in meteorology, of pro- 
 bably equal importance, viz. the indispensable ne- 
 cessity which exists for the presence of magnetic ac- 
 tion, in order to the formation of rain in the atmos- 
 phere ; and thus that, instead of being, as had been 
 supposed, an effect of the chemical process of con- 
 densation, the formation of rain is the effect of a 
 particular species of meteoric action in the atmos- 
 phere, the same as the phenomenon of cold, viz. 
 that as the principle of its temperature is the effect 
 of one species of meteoric action in the atmosphere, 
 rain and its accessories are effects of an opposite 
 species of this action in its body. Thus, in having 
 my attention called to the peculiarity of the climate 
 of Lima, where, as is known, though fog is common, 
 it never rains, or if at all, not more than once, per- 
 haps, in two or three years ; this circumstance ap- 
 peared to me so singular, that, aware it must have 
 its source in something local taking into account 
 the extraordinary elevation of the Andes in its vici- 
 nity, as of their position in reference to the site of 
 the magnetic pole of the southern hemisphere; 
 
Introduction. 9 
 
 situated (as shown by the direction of the compass 
 needle,) to the east of these mountains, and conse- 
 quently on the opposite side to that of Lima and its 
 territory which, taking into account the great ele- 
 vation of these mountains, must have the effect of 
 intercepting its action on the region of the atmos- 
 phere in which rain-clouds form ; considering this 
 circumstance, I say, it immediately occurred to me, 
 that to this interruption of the magnetic action of 
 the proximate pole on the atmosphere in this part 
 of Peru, as to its true cause, was to be ascribed the 
 phenomenon noticed in its climate. And in testing 
 the principle with the countries of the northern he- 
 misphere, by the difference of climate observable on 
 the opposite sides of mountains whose course crosses 
 the line traversed by the magnetic meridian, I found 
 it in every instance, though not to the same extent 
 as at Lima, (owing to the obstruction, with that of 
 the elevation of the mountains not being so great,) 
 fully borne out; the greatest humidity being, in all 
 cases, on the side which fronts the magnetic pole ; 
 and the greatest drought of climate being on the 
 opposite side. And, as being a necessary conse- 
 quence, that, in order to the progression of the 
 meteor in the atmosphere in which rain has its 
 source, magnetic action is so necessary, that where 
 it is interrupted to a certain extent, as at Lima, it 
 cannot take place. This discovery, however, though 
 indispensable, was no more than a centre link in the 
 
10 Introduction. 
 
 chain of evidence which was necessary, in order to 
 identify magnetic action with the phenomenon of 
 planetary cold, but of which (in comparing the sea- 
 sons since the severe winter of 1829,) the constant 
 proportion which I find to exist between the relative 
 cold or severity of the winter in the southern hemis- 
 phere, and that of the relative humidity of our sum- 
 mers, and vice versa, may be considered as conclu- 
 sive ; insomuch, that no further doubt can exist, 
 but that planetary cold is the effect of an active 
 agency, and that that agency is magnetic action. 
 
 Thus, much had been done towards throwing 
 light on some of the most obscure recesses of meteo- 
 rology; but still a most important question re- 
 mained to be disposed of, viz. that of gravity. For 
 if, as assumed, that magnetism and electricity are 
 the only active forces in nature, according to this 
 showing, gravitation, similar to the remainder of her 
 phenomena, should be the effect of the action of 
 these forces in the local atmospheres of the sun and 
 planets : but how obtain the proof? The proof has, 
 happily, been obtained by the experiment of the 
 helix, as will be found more fully treated of in the 
 following pages, and which thence goes to show, 
 that as the force of gravity, whether in the sun or 
 planets, results from the local action of the electric 
 and magnetic forces in their atmospheres, that its 
 range, as connected with these bodies, must neces- 
 sarily be local, and consequently can have nothing 
 
Introduction. 1 1 
 
 whatever to do with their movements^ as in the ab- 
 sence of more correct data was supposed to be the 
 case. 
 
 Again, experiment has instructed us of the law by 
 which electrical and magnetic currents are governed, 
 when, as in the atmosphere, they are brought to act 
 together, viz. that they cross or traverse each other 
 at right angles. A discovery so important, it may 
 be observed, that had it not been made, it were vain 
 to hope (as it could not be conjectured,) that we 
 should, at any time, succeed in obtaining a know- 
 ledge of the true system of the world, as on this dis- 
 covery mainly depended that connected with the 
 principles and laws which give movement to the sun 
 and planets : for, assuming, as stated, that the only 
 active forces in nature are those of magnetism and 
 electricity, it is known that " if we communicate 
 electricity to an insulated metallic sphere, we shall 
 find the whole electrical power diffused over its 
 surface" and consequently, that in making this ap- 
 plication to the spheroid of the earth, sun, or other 
 of the planets, the superficies of these bodies consti- 
 tute the chief theatres of the action of the electrical, 
 equally as of the magnetic forces connected with 
 them ; and further, that by the union of these forces 
 their respective powers are most materially increased, 
 as proved by the experiments made on the magnet. 
 
 By uniting these circumstances with the law of 
 electrical and magnetic currents, of crossing each 
 
12 Introduction. 
 
 other at right angles, and in making their applica- 
 tion to the principle of planetary movement, similar 
 to that of metallic plates, which they are known to 
 effect as the plain or axis of magnetic action in the 
 earth, and by analogy in the sun and remainder of 
 the planets, corresponds to the plain of the ecliptic, 
 or the path traversed by the planets, in their ellipti- 
 cal movement round the sun, as the axis of electric 
 action locally in these bodies, with that described 
 by their movement of rotation ; it will follow that, 
 simply by the operation of these forces in the local 
 atmospheres of the planets, acted on by the sun, the 
 principle of movement, both elliptical and rotary 
 must, as of necessity, be imparted to them thereby, 
 in the manner we behold, as will be found more fully 
 treated of in the following pages. But as it is by 
 means of the union and dependence which subsists 
 between the sun and planets, that the local energy 
 in the action of the electrical and magnetic forces 
 in the atmospheres of the latter exists, and is 
 upheld ; and that such union must depend on a 
 principle distinct from these forces, but on which 
 their activity is based. Thence, as being that only, 
 (considering the immense distances by which they 
 are separated one from the other, as from the sun,) 
 which could serve as a bond of union in common 
 between the planets and sun, and at the same time 
 serve as the base of the local energy of the magnetic 
 and electrical forces in their atmospheres, the as* 
 
Introduction. 13 
 
 sumption of our theory, viz. that reflsctlve action 
 is the principle on which the unity of the solar sys- 
 tem, as the activity of the forces of nature therein 
 is based, as being that only which corresponds to 
 the conditions requisite in such an ultimate prin- 
 ciple, or primary first cause. 
 
 But if, as assumed, this were the grand moteur 
 of Nature in the physical world, there should be 
 something more than conjecture in the way of proof, 
 in order to show that such was the case ; and, ac- 
 cordingly, the requisite proofs are not only supplied 
 by the changes observable in the phenomena of the 
 tides, which always quadrate with the greater or less 
 amount of reflective action subsisting between the 
 the sun, earth, and moon, as depending on the 
 greater approximation to, or elongation of, the latter 
 bodies, whether individually or combined, in their 
 respective circles, from a direct opposition to the 
 solar action, but likewise by the diurnal variations 
 of the compass-needle, and barometrical variations 
 corresponding to the phases of the moon^ as con- 
 nected with the lunar circle of meteoric action ; in 
 such way, that it may be said there is no proposition 
 in geometry more fully demonstrated than the prin- 
 ciple of reflective action, considered as the primum 
 mobile, or first cause in physics. 
 
 Thus, it will be perceived, there exists neither 
 blank or chasm in the evidence by which the princi- 
 ples assumed by the present theory are, in all their 
 
1 4 /// t redaction . 
 
 parts, sustained and borne out ; insomuch that, 
 without incurring the charge of vanity in allusion 
 to the words applied by Augustus to Rome, that he 
 found its buildings of mud, and left them of marble 
 the author, with some pride, may say, that he found 
 the edifices of meteorology and astronomy composed 
 of defective, and consequently of perishable materials, 
 but leaves them composed of such, that the corrosive 
 action of time, instead of impairing, will only serve 
 the more fully to increase their lustre, and eternize 
 their stability. And as the various circumstances here 
 alluded to will be found more amply treated of in 
 the work itself, and thence that it may be asked, 
 why introduce them in this place? his answer is, 
 that by thus collecting in a view the chief heads 
 embraced by the present theory, it enabled the 
 author the better to show the extent to which the 
 facts obtained from experiments enabled him to push 
 his inquiries, as the large blank which had still to be 
 filled up from other sources, where such facts could 
 no longer assist ; that thus, in defining the limits of 
 each, a more correct idea might be formed of the 
 difficulties that had to be surmounted. He had, 
 indeed, some hopes, from his respect for long- 
 cherished opinions, however erroneous, that, as con- 
 nected with the principle of planetary movement, 
 and as belonging rather to the class of speculative 
 truths, the principle of Newtonian gravitation 
 might be allowed to retire with all the honours of 
 
Introduction. 15 
 
 war, till, similar to those by which it was preceded ; 
 it would, of itself, with the increasing conviction of 
 its futility, die a natural death ; but the " damning 
 proofs' 3 supplied by the equinoctial phenomena in 
 the annual, as of their counterparts, so frequently 
 repeated in the lunar circle, at the periods of the 
 syzigies, induced by the revulsion of magnetic 
 action in the body of the atmosphere, incident to the 
 changes which, at these periods, take place in the 
 sites of the acting magnetic poles of the earth and 
 moon, from one to the other, with the change of 
 their positions in the ecliptic, alternately, connected 
 as these phenomena (as we have so clearly shown) 
 are with magnetic action are such and so incontesti- 
 ble, that this, the elliptical movement of the earth, 
 moon, and, by analogy, of the remainder of the 
 planets, has it source in, and is an effect of, magnetic 
 action, as assumed by our theory, (and the manner 
 of which will be found more particularly described 
 in the work,) that, except at the expense or abandon- 
 ment of truth, there was no possibility of passing it 
 over, or of allowing it to remain. 
 
 In reference to the division and local distribu- 
 tion of the electric and magnetic forces in the 
 sun and remainder of the planets as in the earth, 
 assumed by our theory as it were only by same- 
 ness of disposition throughout these bodies, that 
 it was possible for nature to act as she does, 
 by general laws. Being aware that this is the 
 disposition of these forces in the planet we in- 
 
16 Introduction. 
 
 habit, enables us to speak with the same certainty 
 of the existence of this division and distribution of 
 them in the sun, &c., as though we had been trans- 
 ported to each of these bodies respectively to ascertain 
 the fact. And, thus fortified, he has not hesitated 
 to assume that such is the case, and to deduce his 
 inferences accordingly, when necessary. " Les tra- 
 vaux des hommes," observes Raynal, in treating of 
 the monuments of ancient Mexico, " ont toujours 
 ete proportionnes a leurs forces et aux instrumens 
 dont ils se servoient. Sans la science de la mecha- 
 nique et 1'invention de ses machines, point de grands 
 monumens. Sans quarts de cercle et sans telescope, 
 point de progres merveilleux en astronomie, nulle 
 precision dans les observations. Sans fer, point de 
 marteaux, point de tenailles, point d'enclumes, point 
 de forges, point de scies, point de haches, point de 
 coignees, aucun ouvrage en metaux qui merite 
 d'etre regarde, nulle ma^onrierie, nulle charpente, 
 nulle menuiserie, nulle architecture, nulle gravure, 
 nulle sculpture." Histoire Pkilosophique, tome 
 cinquieme, pag. 258. And, by parity of reasoning, 
 before discovery had succeeded to ascertain the 
 principles and laws of nature in the physical world, 
 how were it possible that any of the sciences con- 
 nected with the operations of nature, not alone in 
 the atmosphere, but in the animal and vegetable 
 kingdoms, could have ever attained to more than a 
 relative degree of perfection ? and of which the de- 
 
Introduction. 17 
 
 partment of meteorology, more particularly con- 
 nected with the seasons and changes of the weather, 
 may be cited in the way of illustration ; for no one is 
 ignorant of the efforts that have been successively 
 made by some of the greatest men, both of the 
 present and former times, to penetrate the veil which 
 envelopes her operation in the atmosphere ; and as 
 individual exertion was found unequal to the task, 
 that as occurred in the Palatinate aware of its 
 importance, associations were even instituted with 
 the view the better to forward this object. And 
 yet what has been the result, notwithstanding all 
 the instruments that have been invented, and all the 
 information collected from journals of the weather, 
 continued for years in different countries, &c. &c. ? 
 Why, that it has continued in the same state, or 
 nearly so, in which it was at the time of Virgil, and 
 all from the ignorance of principles ; as it still con- 
 tinued to have no better ground than empiricism for 
 its base. These facts, it is presumed, will serve to 
 illustrate the nature and importance of the dis- 
 coveries connected with the present theory, assum- 
 ing them to be well founded, opening, as they are so 
 well calculated to do, so many new sources of wealth 
 and of security, and supplying by their aid much, if 
 not all, that was wanting towards the perfecting of 
 other departments of science. 
 
 And if the observation, that " Dans le monde po- 
 litique, comme dans le monde physique, un grand 
 
 C 
 
18 Introduction. 
 
 evenement a des effets tres-etendus," be, with reason, 
 much more applicable to the world of science. And, 
 as observed by Rosseau, that, " La science est une 
 monnoie qui n'ajoute au bien-etre qu'autant qu'on 
 la communique, et n'est bonne que dans le com- 
 merce." As the discoveries noticed, in their present 
 state, may be likened to so many wild plants of the 
 wilderness, which, when first found, require the 
 hand of culture, in order to domesticate and extend 
 the range of their usefulness ; and that as far as I know 
 of, though we have societies for the promotion of sci- 
 ence in almost all its other departments, we have none 
 for the advancement of meteorology, the root, in 
 common, of the entire of the natural sciences, inas- 
 much as it may be said to embrace within its range 
 the first principles of them all, and which thence 
 claims precedence even of astronomy itself, hitherto 
 considered the first in the list. To remove this 
 anomaly, only to be accounted for from the cir- 
 cumstance that, in the absence of principles, (now 
 happily obtained,) persons desirous to promote it, 
 being without any rule of guidance, and perceiving 
 the futility of observations without such rule, not 
 knowing exactly what to be at, had given up all at- 
 tempts of the kind as hopeless ; as being, I say, at 
 the same time, the only sure and effectual way to 
 facilitate, with that of the knowledge of them, an 
 extension of their usefulness commensurate to its 
 amount ; it is evident the friends and patrons of 
 
Introduction. 19 
 
 science in England should lose no time, (as the 
 country may claim the honour of these discoveries,) 
 in setting the example of forming a Meteorological 
 Society, the first of the kind, in order to promote the 
 knowledge of this science, as of the various important 
 objects to which it is applicable, and which, if thus 
 set on foot in this country, could not fail of being 
 quickly imitated by others ; which, by means of the 
 enlarged correspondence thus organized, would 
 soon, by the perfecting of such parts of the present 
 theory as still stand in need of time and increased 
 observation, in order thereto, be productive of the 
 most extensive and important results. And it is 
 easy to see that one of the first results that would 
 attend the formation of this society would be that of 
 the construction of weather almanacs, adapted to 
 the different latitudes of both hemispheres, which, 
 very different from those at present so called, would, 
 after some time, point out the periods of the changes 
 in the weather, as those throughout the year when 
 danger from storm by sea had to be apprehended, 
 with the same fidelity as the changes of the tides, 
 and which, as the first in the list of maritime 
 powers, England evidently has the deepest interest 
 to promote ; for if, as assumed, that the principles in 
 which these changes in the weather and violent class 
 of atmospheric phenomena have their source, may 
 henceforward be considered equally well-known and 
 established as those of any proposition of Euclid; 
 
 C2 
 
20 Introduction. 
 
 why should not the same precision as to results be 
 expected to follow from calculations founded on them 
 in the one case as in the other? And as the field 
 embraced by meteorology is so vast that no more 
 than an ebauche, or rough outline thereof, could be 
 attempted in the present work ; and, consequently, 
 that it will require both time and industry to fill up 
 accurately, and perfect its details. And further, lest 
 it should pass on record that discoveries such as 
 these, which, as truth is immortal, are likely to at- 
 tract so general and lengthened an attention to them, 
 have not been met in the spirit, or responded to in 
 the manner, which at a time like the present, 
 when, from the increasing conviction of its import- 
 ance, science is more assiduously cultivated in this 
 great country than at any former period of its history 
 might be expected. Let us hope, both for the 
 honour of science, of humanity, and of the country to 
 which it is addressed, that this appeal will not have 
 been made in vain. 
 
 Neither is it a reason why, because he who has 
 been so fortunate to make these discoveries has not 
 the honour to belong to this or that scientific body, 
 that this his appeal to the friends and patrons of sci- 
 ence in these countries, should not excite the same 
 lively interest, and be equally responded to, as 
 though it were in his power to produce certificates 
 of connexion with them all. For, as it appears to 
 be an established rule with scientific bodies, neither 
 
Introduction. 21 
 
 to countenance or assist with their name, or other- 
 wise, the exploring of any speculative point, be- 
 fore the certainty of its being succesful is no longer 
 matter of doubt; and that, in addition, the habit 
 of viewing subjects in a certain light, and of consi- 
 dering certain phenomena as being the effects of 
 certain defined causes, through a number of years, 
 contracted in early life, as usually happens to the 
 members of these associations ; by reason of the bias 
 it imparts, though in most cases altogether unconsci- 
 ously, disqualifies them, in great part, from originating 
 any thing either new or extraordinary ; and which, 
 with some reason, caused Voltaire to observe that 
 " Les grands hommes se sont tons formes ou avant 
 les Academies, ou independamment d'elles. Ho- 
 mere et Phidias, Sophocles et Apelle, Virgile et Vi- 
 truve, le Tasse et Michel-Ange, n'etaient d'aucunes 
 Academies ; le Tasse n'eut que des critiques injustes 
 de la Crusca, et Newton ne dut point a la societe 
 Royale de Londres ses decouvertes sur 1'optique, sur 
 la gravitation, sur le calcul integral, et sur la chro- 
 nologic. A quoi peuvent done servir les academies? 
 A entretenir le feu," he continues, " que les grands 
 geniesont allume." 
 
 Besides, it may be further observed, that, talents 
 apart it requires both the enterprise and the per- 
 severance of a Cortes, in order to effect anything 
 great, whether in science, in war, or indeed, in any- 
 thin o- pic- o~ri which none but members of what 
 
22 Introduction. 
 
 may be denominated Nature's Aristocracy are 
 likely either to attempt, or to succeed in. And this 
 it was, probably, which with his accustomed accu- 
 racy and deep knowledge of the human character, 
 caused the great Frederick, in his Memoirs of the 
 House of Brandenburgh, speaking of the intimacy 
 to which that singularly gifted princess Queen So- 
 phia Charlotte of Prussia admitted the celebrated 
 Leibnitz, to observe, that <c as those whom Heaven 
 has favoured with a particular dignity of mind, are 
 capable of raising themselves upon a level with sove- 
 reigns, she entered into an intimate acquaintance 
 with Leibnitz," &c. page 236. From all which, the 
 writer hopes to make it appear, that, though not 
 sparkling with academic honours, or coming recom- 
 mended with the certificates of the different scienti- 
 fic bodies of Europe, this his appeal to the good 
 sense of the friends and patrons of science in these 
 countries, to set on foot the formation of a meteor- 
 ological society in London, at the present interest- 
 ing moment, should not be the less favourably re- 
 ceived or promptly responded to ; that is to say, in 
 a manner corresponding to its importance and to the 
 necessity which exists for an institution of the kind. 
 The latter, it may be observed, and not the indivi- 
 dual who has the honour to make the appeal, being 
 the object to keep in view ; and which, it may be 
 added, when, as in this instance, it can be clearly 
 shown that the advancement of such object is ne- 
 
Introduction. 23 
 
 cessary to, or required by the interests of society, 
 (whoever the party may be who introduces it,) is 
 almost sure to meet with attention from the public- 
 spirited and enlightened people of this country, 
 " the first in daring, as the first in fame." 
 
 Strange indeed, anomalous, and unequal, is the 
 partition which but too frequently occurs in affairs 
 of this kind ; for though a world may eventually 
 partake of the advantages derived from the labours 
 of an individual who devotes himself to forwarding 
 any particular department of science, or of the arts, 
 he has usually in the first place, as occurred to 
 Harvey and Fulton, not only to set up with the la- 
 bour, the risk, and the expenses incident to the at- 
 tempt, and which, if not successful in, no friendly 
 hand is extended to, to alleviate or lighten the effects 
 of, but which, even though he succeed, while the 
 public reap the advantages, little more remains to him 
 than the empty "whistlings of a name," with perhaps 
 the legacy of impaired health and fortune. To remedy 
 this, no doubt, and assuredly from the wisest as the 
 most just of motives, it is, that it has been the prac- 
 tice of all enlightened sovereigns and governments, 
 to extend their protection to such men. And, as 
 has been justly observed by the illustrious author of 
 the "Memoirs of the House of Brandenburg," al- 
 ready cited, that as " Princes have never been able 
 to force nature to produce those great men whose 
 names alone are capable of rendering ages memora- 
 
24? Introduction. 
 
 ble to posterity ;" it becomes, in some sort, a sacred 
 duty in them to extend their protection to such men, 
 when she does. For if, in the lengthened vista of re- 
 tiring years, that other objects, to use an expression 
 of Lord Byron, curdle, contract, and finally disap- 
 pear ; while, as observed by Reynal, the memory of 
 a Columbus, a Newton, and a Descartes, continues 
 to live green in the memory of posterity ; it were, to 
 say the least of it, bad taste for those in whose hands 
 are deposited the fountains of honour and of wealth, 
 not to mark by their conduct the sense they enter- 
 tain of those common benefactors of mankind. 
 
 This, it may be observed, was the feeling which 
 animated that extraordinary man Louis the Four- 
 teenth, who, whatever his other defects might have 
 been, was as lofty a specimen of moral grandeur as 
 any that modern times has produced. And this was 
 not only the spirit of his government, but of France 
 during his reign, being simply what that of any great 
 country should be at all times. For, as observed by 
 St Pierre, of the French of those times, " II n'y a 
 peut etre pas une grande maison qui ne puisse se 
 glorifier d' avoir pousse en avant et mis en evidence, 
 quelque homme des families du peuple, ou de la sim- 
 ple nobless, qui est devenu clbre dans les arts, 
 dans les lettres, dans Teglise, ou dans les armes, par 
 leur moyen :" and yet where is the Frenchman who 
 does not exult in the recollection of Louis le grand 
 and of this the Augustan age of France ? 
 
Introduction. 25 
 
 And it is not without pride on the part of the 
 writer, that he feels himself enabled/ without adula- 
 tion, to compliment our most gracious sovereign, 
 equally as the members of his Government, on the 
 protect ion which they manifest so much willingness 
 to extend, to persons of literary acquirements and 
 scientific pursuits : a protection which, it were un- 
 just not to notice, was not omitted or lost sight of 
 by their predecessors during the short administra- 
 tion of Sir Robert Peel. This is as it should be; 
 for, as knowledge, happily, is of no sect or party, 
 but like to its emblem, the sun, extends its benign 
 influence alike to all casts and denominations of men ; 
 it were unfortunate if party-feeling were allowed to 
 prevent an equal distribution of the royal bounty to 
 merit, to whatever creedor colour it might belong. 
 And they may rest assured personal considerations 
 apart that if the royal bounty be never worse be- 
 stowed than on works of this kind, there are few in 
 Old England so little alive to its literary fame, but 
 will feel grateful for such an extention of it. For, 
 as being illustrative of the existence and extent of 
 this feeling in England, amongst the members of 
 what other commonwealth or community be it asked, 
 shall we be able to find an individual who, like the 
 late Lord Bridgewater, has bequeathed the munifi- 
 cent sum of 8000, for the publication of a work on 
 one of the most noble ends of science, and which 
 could only be accomplished through its aid, viz., 
 
26 Introduction. 
 
 "On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as 
 manifsted in the Creation?" 
 
 In regard to style, I may say with Raynal, that 
 " J'ai fait tout ce qui etoit en moi pour m'elever a 
 la hauteur de mon sujet. Mais combien les gens d'un 
 gout delicat me trouveront encore eloigne du ton 
 reserve aux ecrivains de genie!" And as to the quo- 
 tations from the latter and other French writers, so 
 frequently introduced into the pages of this work, 
 they, as I conceive, hardly demand an apology; for 
 how were it possible to touch on this, or indeed any 
 other subject connected with science or literature, 
 without drawing largely on so rich a mine ? Be- 
 sides, from the knowledge of the French in this 
 country being so general, I thought it would be lit- 
 tle other than incurring unnecessary trouble and 
 expense, to add literal translations of those quo- 
 tations. 
 
 I may in conclusion observe, that instead of the 
 matter which I esteem to belong to meteorology 
 being exhausted in the following pages; I have 
 omitted touching on some points which, in a scienti- 
 fic point of view, might be considered of importance, 
 in order as much as possible to economize space. 
 
METEOROLOGY 
 
 Considered in its Connexion with Astronomy, 
 
 FIRST PART. 
 
 " Malgre tous les efforts du genie, il faut plusieurs siecles a une 
 science, avant qu'elle puisse etre reduite a des principes simples. 
 II en est des theories comme des machines qui commencent tou- 
 jours par etre tres compliquees, et qu' on ne degage qu' avec le 
 terns, par 1'observation et 1'experience, des roues parasites qui en 
 multiplioient le frottement." RAYNAL, 
 
 CHAP I. 
 
 Planetary Cold ah Effect of Magnetic Action. 
 
 IF in the most simple calling or profession it is 
 only by progressive and slow degrees that even an 
 approach to perfection can be obtained, it will ex- 
 cite no surprise if, in the least known and most 
 difficult of the sciences, meteorology, the progress 
 of discovery in the various departments of experi- 
 mental philosophy, so characteristic of the present 
 age, should induce in their train corresponding 
 changes in the ideas, as connected with planetary 
 
28 Meteorology considered 
 
 temperature, &c. hitherto assumed by me in my 
 published works. And thus, as introductory to the 
 present treatise, I am induced to offer some observ- 
 ations on this subject, suggested chiefly by certain 
 of the recent discoveries which have been made in 
 magnetism and electricity, viz. those which have made 
 known the species of connexion which subsists between 
 these forces, when (as in the atmosphere,) they are 
 combined. And, in reference to this connexion, the 
 circumstance as relates to the principle of tempera- 
 ture, to which I would more particularly direct at- 
 tention, is the law between electric and magnetic 
 currents of crossing each other at right angles ; 
 which, applied to the earth and its atmosphere, as 
 the axis of magnetic action indicated by the mag- 
 netic meridian, traverses the opposite hemisheres 
 of the earth throughout their extent, from pole to pole ; 
 and, (as shown by the dipping-needle,) has its centre 
 at the line; that the axis of electric action in the 
 atmosphere concentrated at the latter, crosses that 
 of magnetism at right angles, or from east to west. 
 Thus, in referring the activity of these forces in the 
 atmosphere to the solar action, and in connecting 
 this their local action with the principle of its tem- 
 perature, as heat is assumed to be an effect of elec- 
 tric, so planetary cold is assumed to be the effect of 
 magnetic action. For, as the highest temperature 
 occurs on or in the vicinity of the line traversed by 
 the axis of electric action between the tropics, and 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy, fyc. 29 
 
 thus corresponds in position with that of its main 
 focus, it would follow, by analogy, even in the ab- 
 sence of more conclusive proof, as the greatest cold 
 of winter occurs at or in the vicinity of the pole of 
 the winter hemisphere, that if heat be an effect of 
 electric, so cold is an effect of magnetic action. And 
 that thence cold, equally as heat, is the effect of an 
 active, and not, as had been supposed, of a passive 
 agency, " Le froid, disons-nous," observes St. 
 Pierre, " est produit par I* absence de la chaleur, 
 mais si le froid n'est qu' une qualite negative, pour- 
 quoi a-t-il des effet positif ? Si vous mettez dans 
 Teau une bouteille de vin glace, comme je 1'ai vu 
 faire plus d f une fois en Russie, vous voyez en peu 
 de temps la glace couvrir d'un pouce d'epaisseur 
 les parois externe de la bouteille."* And did any 
 doubt exist as to this being really the case, the se- 
 paration which occurs in the isothermal lines dur- 
 ing winter, in the higher latitudes of Europe and 
 America, where, as has been ascertained, they con- 
 verge to and surround two poles of maximum cold, 
 the one in North America, the other in northern 
 Asia: and that in, or closely proximate to the same 
 latitudes and localities, a similar separation and con- 
 vergence of magnetic action to opposite poles, situ- 
 ated as the former on either side and about equidis- 
 tant from the pole of the earth's rotation, takes place. 
 
 * Voyez Etude de la Nature. T. 1 1 . page 48. 
 
30 Meteorology considered 
 
 Taking, I say, into account the extent to which 
 magnetism equally as electricity, is blended and 
 identified with the atmosphere and its phenomena, 
 these facts should be considered to afford a proof 
 little short of demonstration, in reference to the as- 
 sumed connexion of magnetism with cold, equally 
 as with the aurora lorealis, fyc. in reference to which 
 the proofs of such a connexion, from the influence 
 exercised by these phenomena on the compass-nee- 
 dle, are less equivocal. And as the facts connected 
 with this assumed identity of magnetism with pla- 
 netary cold, are contained in the following extracts 
 from Mrs. Somerville's excellent work " On the Con- 
 nexion of the Sciences" I am thence irfduced to give 
 them insertion, viz. " It appears that the isother- 
 mal lines, which are nearly parallel to the equator 
 for about 22 degrees, afterwards deviate more and 
 more. From the observations of Sir Charles Gi- 
 esecke in Greenland, of Mr. Scoresby in the Arctic 
 Seas, and also from those of Sir Edward Parry and 
 Sir Fohn Franklin, it is found that the isothermal 
 lines of Europe and America entirely separate in 
 the higher latitudes, and surround two poles of max- 
 imum cold, one in America and the other in the 
 north of Asia, neither of which coincides with the 
 pole of the earth's rotation. These poles are both 
 situate in about the 80th parallel of north latitude. 
 The transatlantic pole is in the 100th degree of 
 west longitude ; and the Asiatic pole is in the 95th 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy, 8?c. 31 
 
 degree of east longitude." Page 283, and subse- 
 quent. And further " It appears from late re- 
 searches, that the law of terrestrial magnetism is of 
 considerable complexity, and the existence of more 
 than one magnetic pole in either hemisphere has 
 been rendered highly probable. That there is one 
 in Siberia seems to be decided by the recent obser- 
 vations of M. Hansteen: it is in longitude 102 de- 
 grees east of Greenwich, and a little to the north of 
 the 60th degree of latitude: so that by these data, 
 the two magnetic poles in the northern hemisphere 
 are about 180 degrees distant from each other. 
 Captain Ross places the American magnetic pole 
 in 70 14' north latitude, and 96 40' west longi- 
 tude." Page 331. 
 
 Further, it has been observed that the highest 
 temperature or greatest heats of summer, in our 
 northern hemisphere, do not occur, as might be 
 supposed, at the line, but at the distance of from 
 fifteen to twenty degrees to the north of it. And, 
 in like manner, we observe that the poles of 
 maximum cold do not occur immediately at or 
 within the same parallels as the poles of magne- 
 tic action, but at about the same distance to the 
 north of them, as that of the greatest heats in sum- 
 mer north of the line: the analogy between the po- 
 sition of the main foci of either action, whether at 
 the line or in the arctic regions, and that where 
 they induce their greatest effects on the tempera- 
 
32 Meteorology considered 
 
 ture in summer and winter, as noticed, being in this 
 respect perfect. And I mention the circumstance 
 as illustrative of the correctness of the principle of 
 reflective action in its connection with planetary 
 temperature ; as, according to this principle neither 
 the greatest heat in summer, or cold in winter, 
 could occur immediately at the sites of the main foci 
 of the actions which induced them ; but in positions 
 where, and at such a distance to the north of them 
 as the concentric action of either force on the entire 
 surface of the hemisphere at either season might be 
 expected to collect, and produce its greatest effect ; 
 and which, in both these cases, as we perceive, is 
 fully borne out by the fact. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 The Moon exercises a meteoric Influence on the 
 Temperature and Weather, which changes in its 
 Nature with that of the Moon's Position, being 
 electric at the Syzygies and magnetic at the 
 Quadratures. 
 
 
 
 But the lunar action on the weather, as assumed 
 by our theory, partakes alternately of both actions, 
 viz. that it is electric during three days before and 
 after the syzygies^ and magnetic during similar pe- 
 riods preceding and following the lunar quadrature*, 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy^ fyc. 33 
 
 And thus, were our principles correct, the same ana- 
 logy should be found to exist between the appear- 
 ance of the aurora borealis and the lunar action at 
 the periods of the quadratures, as between the 
 magnetic poles in the arctic regions, and the sites 
 of those of maximum cold ; and which as being in 
 some sort counterparts one of the other, should, if 
 such were the case, be taken as additional evidence 
 not only of the correctness of the principles as- 
 sumed, as connected with the temperature, but as 
 connected with the assumed nature of the lunar ac- 
 tion on the weather. And by taking into account, 
 that, at about the period of the winter solstice, (on 
 the assumption that the cold of winter is an ef- 
 fect of magnetic action) such is the relative amount 
 and force of magnetic action at this period, in the 
 annual circle, that it may be said to merge for some 
 time the opposite actions of the moon both electric 
 and magnetic and consequently that the meteoric 
 changes connected with the annual circle, not only 
 at this, but at other periods of the year, by outweigh- 
 ing the influence of the lunar action, may occasion- 
 ally determine still more than the latter, the periods 
 of the occurrence of the aurora-borealis, as of storm, 
 &c. Taking, I say, this circumstance into account 
 and referring to facts, it may probably excite our 
 surprise to perceive the extent to which the coinci- 
 dence between the periods of the appearance of the 
 aurora-borealis during some years past, and those of 
 
 D 
 
34 Meteorology considered 
 
 the lunar quadratures, will be found borne out 
 thereby. In reference to the aurora-borealis it may 
 be further observed, that its appearance whether 
 preceding the equinoxes, or the periods of the most 
 violent storms in winter, is almost always connected 
 with the great meteoric changes in the annual cir- 
 cle ; which makes the preceding observations the 
 more necessary. And as at the periods I took notes 
 in reference to the appearance of the aurora, my ob- 
 ject in doing so had no reference whatever to the 
 present subject, but simply as regarded the share 
 which the lunar action might be supposed to have 
 had in their production ; the instances I cite will be 
 the less suspected of bias or partiality as being got 
 up for the occasion. Thus, " On the 7th inst., in 
 the evening, a magnificent aurora borealis was seen 
 at Brussels. It lasted from six to a quarter past 
 nine o'clock/' Galignani of the 14th December, 
 1830 Being, (as will be seen by referring to the 
 almanac,) exactly at the period of the second qua- 
 drature of the moon. Again, " A splendid aurora 
 borealis was seen at Limeric, about ten o'clock on 
 Saturday night, the llth of December, which con- 
 tinued for two hours." Limerick Chronicle, 15th 
 December, 1830. This latter, it will be seen, 
 occurred on the fourth night after the preceding, or 
 at the conclusion of the same lunar tide, when its 
 magnetic action was most powerful. Again " On 
 Saturday evening, (25th of December,) with a clear 
 
In Connexion with Axlr onomy, fyc. 35 
 
 sky, abeautiful aurora of a deep red colour was ob- 
 served at Edinburgh." Galignani^ of the 4th Janu- 
 ary, 1831. This aurora was likewise seen from Ports- 
 mouth, as reported in the Courier, of the 27th De- 
 cember, 1830. The period of its occurrence, simi- 
 lar to the preceding, having been at the conclusion 
 of the lunar tide of the first quadrature, which oc- 
 curred on the 22d of December. Again, on the 
 night of the 7th of March, 1831, being that subse- 
 quent to the period of the second quadrature of the 
 moon, which occurred on the 6th, an aurora was 
 seen at Dublin, of which I was a spectator. This 
 was the precursor of the equinox, which set in with 
 great violence on Sunday the 13th of March, the 
 eve of new moon. A second instance of the aurora 
 occurred at Dublin on the morning of Wednesday 
 the 18th of September 1833, as reported in the Pi" 
 lot, Dublin Paper, of the 20th of that month : being 
 two days before the period of the first quadrature 
 of the moon, on the 20tji or period of the setting 
 in of this lunar tide: having been, as the former, the 
 precursor of the equinox. Again, " A splendid au- 
 rora was seen at Worcester, on Monday evening the 
 22d December, 1834, as reported in the London 
 Globe of the 27th December, 1834; being only a 
 few hours preceding the period of the second qua- 
 drature of the moon, which occurred on the 23d of 
 the month. An account of this aurora, from the 
 pen of Mr, Sturgeon, as seen from Woolwich, ap- 
 
 D2 
 
36 Meteorology considered 
 
 peared in the London Philosophical Magazine, for 
 March, 1835. And finally, may be noticed the au- 
 rora seen from Scotland on the night of the 17th 
 of November, 1835, as reported in the papers, and 
 which was the immediate precursor of the tremen- 
 dous storm which occurred there on the following 
 day, as will be found noticed in a subsequent article. 
 This having been the lunar octant which succeeded 
 the period of the second quadrature on the 13th or 
 conclusion of this lunar tide. 
 
 It is not pretended that the whole of the auroras 
 which have appeared in our skies since 1830 are 
 here reported, as no particular attention was paid 
 by me to the subject ; but it will appear remarkable 
 that, in the entire of the instances cited, not one 
 occured at or about the periods of the lunar sy zygies, 
 while the whole of them are found connected with the 
 opposite periods of the moon ; and, consequently, 
 that the fact must be considered as not slightly cor- 
 roborative of the truth of the assumption in reference 
 to the nature of the lunar action on the atmosphere at 
 the period of the quadratures, being analogous to 
 that of the magnetic poles of the earth, as noticed. 
 And as the aurora is to be considered the precursor 
 of storm and rain as the latter, in our skies, is al- 
 ways found combined with the former and, conse- 
 quently, that the appearance of the aurora is con- 
 nected with the incipient stage of the meteor in the 
 superior region of the air, which subsequently de- 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy, fyc. 37 
 
 velopes itself in rain. This necessarily leads to-an 
 important question in meteorology, viz. as to the 
 principle in which this, the formation of rain in the 
 atmosphere, has its source. However, the better 
 to understand my reasons for viewing this subject 
 differently from others, it becomes necessary, in the 
 first place, to recur a little to first principles ; as, in 
 the event of being fortunate in regard to these, the 
 circumstances connected with this, equally as with 
 the temperature, and the movement, both elliptical 
 and rotary, of the earth, and, by analogy, of the re- 
 mainder of the planets, will, as from their proper 
 sources, be found naturally to extend and develope 
 themselves; for, as observed by Raynal, " en tout, 
 il faut commencer par le commencement." 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 THE UNION OF OPPOSITE PROGRESSIONS esteemed 
 the fundamental L&w of Nature, or that on 
 which the whole of her Dispositions are founded. 
 
 It is a trite observation, but not the less true, that 
 perhaps, of all others, simple ideas, however appa- 
 rent, are the most difficult to seize on or to make the 
 application of. Of this we have a sufficiently memo- 
 rable instance in the well-known circumstance which 
 led to the theory of universal gravitation, as, how- 
 
3B Meteorology considered 
 
 ever frequent the occurrence and apparently unim- 
 portant the spectacle of an apple falling from its 
 parent branch might be thought, it required, as ap- 
 pears, no less than the genius of a Newton to seize 
 on and make its application to science in the manner 
 he has done ; and of which theory it will be suffi- 
 cient to observe in this place, that, however errone- 
 ous in principle, as it was the first grand approxi- 
 mation which, in the lapse of ages, had been made 
 to the true theory of the world, it merited that im- 
 perishable fame which it has so deservedly conferred 
 on its great author. And, as further illustrative of 
 the circumstance alluded to, what, for instance, do 
 we hear more frequently repeated than the truism, 
 that every thing has it opposite? And yet, how- 
 ever common the observation or undeniable the 
 fact, how long has it not been allowed to float, as it 
 were, and pass under the review of mankind, with- 
 out any one having lit on that application of it to 
 science of which, as I hope to show, it was so suscep- 
 tible, from its having contained in it the germ of 
 that universal law of nature in her dispositions 
 which is, probably, the only one that admits of no 
 exception, viz, the union of opposite progressions 
 of the same kind. For, in order to show that this, 
 the union of opposite progressions of the same kind, 
 is the fundamental basis on which the entire of the 
 dispositions of Nature, whether in the moral or phy- 
 sical world, are founded, and which, as observed, 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy, fyc. 39 
 
 admits of no exception, it will be only neeessary to 
 test it a little in detail in order to be satisfied that 
 such is the case. And, as being the lowest in degree, 
 or first link in the mighty chain of being, to com- 
 mence with the individual in the animal and vege- 
 table kingdom, what, it may be asked, are the op- 
 posite, or right and left sides of animals? (whose 
 contrasts and sympathies, as is known, have so fre- 
 quently occupied the attention and speculations of 
 the faculty;) the root and stem of vegetables? or the 
 further sexual combination subsisting between the 
 individuals of either kingdom? or if, rising still 
 higher in the scale of existences, the union of the 
 sun and planets ? differing to such an extent as the 
 former does from the latter ; but, in every instance, 
 this, the union of opposite homogeneous progres- 
 sions ? The same fundamental law, as we shall find, 
 being equally apparent in the world of sentiment 
 and sensation ; and of which combinations each of 
 the senses and passions may be said to constitute a 
 centre, or point of contact, to or from which the 
 opposite progressions of heat and cold, of light and 
 darkness, of pleasure and pain, of joy and grief, of 
 love and hate, of desire and aversion, c. &c. are 
 to be considered but the opposite progressions. 
 And of which universal law, if I may be allowed to 
 touch on a subject more properly belonging to me- 
 taphysics the so often debated principles of good 
 and evil, in the abstract, (and as being of the same 
 
40 Meteorology considered 
 
 family,) cannot be considered an exception. This 
 disposition, in short, being the source in common of 
 the union, harmony, and endless variety observable 
 in nature; in which, as has been observed, " tout est 
 double, tout a son pareil dans les ciel, sur la terre, 
 parmi les etres ; la raison seule n j a pas de pair" 
 And thus, as in the grand assemblage of nature, in 
 reference to this disposition, reason, properly speak- 
 ing, is the sole exception ; and of which, notwith- 
 standing, it (nature) is to be considered but as the 
 incorporation, QIC diverging rays ; and consequently 
 that, as far as regards the ideas we are able to form 
 of perfect unity and indivisibility, reason and Deity 
 may be said to constitute exclusively the only 
 perfect types. Do we not, I ask, in this circum- 
 stance, discover the Iroad line and limit which as it 
 were separates the Creator from his works? And 
 which view, it may be added, if rightly considered, 
 is of itself sufficient to overthrow the entire of the 
 abstruse mystifications of Spinosa, Malbranclie, 
 and all those who with them have affected to iden- 
 tify the Deity with his works. And, as in the ma- 
 terial world we are warranted in supposing, from 
 " the bearings and the ties, the strong connexions, 
 nice dependencies," which are observed every where 
 to pervade it, that nothing therein occurred by 
 chance or was done without object. And conse- 
 quently that, according to this view, both the forms 
 and qualities of bodies are to be considered but as 
 
In Connexion ivith Astronomy, fyc. 41 
 
 the incorporation of the designs which, in reference 
 to them, pre-existed in the mind of the Creator, 
 and by which, necessarily, their creation was pre- 
 ceded. Thus, I apprehend, it is, that forms and 
 qualities should be regarded as the types of ideas', 
 and that, by means of them, we are enabled to trace 
 the conformity and connexion which, from the be- 
 ginning, existed between the invisible and the visi- 
 ble world, or between the designs of the Creator 
 and these his works. 
 
 And as, regarded in this light, the works of cre- 
 ation, both animate and inanimate, stand apart, and 
 as it were detached from their source ; and that the 
 principle of vitality in the former, as the forces 
 which uphold the equally vital principle of move- 
 ment, temperature, and the other local phenomena 
 of the heavenly bodies, on the one hand; and that 
 of instinct, or intelligence, which though in propor- 
 tions so various, may be said universally to pervade 
 the individual members of the animal kingdom, on 
 the other ; can be only considered as the direct ema- 
 nations of the DEITY ; and which, consequently, 
 though separate and distinct, thus exhibits the 
 whole of nature, both physical and intellectual, 
 touching by its opposite extremes, and as it were 
 reposing on the latter. This view, I say, is calcu- 
 lated to show not only the intimate connexion, but 
 total dependance which exists, has always existed, 
 and must continue to exist, between the works of 
 
42 Meteorology considered 
 
 creation and their Source ; who thus permanently 
 holds in his hands, and wields, the first springs of 
 the three grand principles of movement, vitality, and 
 intelligence, by which they subsist. 
 
 But lest, similar to others, I should lose myself in 
 pursuing a subject such as this, it is time to resume 
 that which led to the digression ; and, (considered 
 in regard to science,) in applying the law of the 
 union of opposite progressions to the principle as- 
 sumed by our theory, in reference to that of reflec- 
 tive action, on which it is based, considered as the 
 first cause in physics, equally as to the principles 
 assumed in reference to the movement, temperature, 
 &c. of the heavenly bodies ; we shall find, as I hope 
 to show, the entire of these principles in accordance 
 with this law ; for, in reference to the first reflec- 
 tive action in the sense here understood, necessa- 
 rily depends on the union .of opposite progressions 
 of the same kind, as subsisting between the sun and 
 planets respectively, equally as between the primary 
 and secondary members of the latter bodies, being, 
 in its essence and nature, altogether the opposite to 
 the law of universal gravitation, which is but 
 another name for universal aggregation. 
 
43 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Opinions entertained by some Writers in regard 
 to the Neictonian Principle of UNIVERSAL GRA- 
 VITATION. 
 
 IN reference to this principle, considered as the 
 basis of the Newtonian theory, the following obser- 
 vations may not appear uncalled for, showing as 
 they do, even in the absence of anything better to 
 substitute in its place, the ideas entertained by some 
 of the most enlightened men on the subject. " Si 
 la nature, par exemple," observes St. Pierre, 
 " etoit regie par les seules lois de V attraction, comme 
 le supposent ceux qui en ont fait la base de tant de 
 systemes, tout y seroit en repos. Les corps, tendant 
 vers un centre commun, s J y accumuleroient et se 
 rangeroient autour de lui en raison de leur pesanteur. 
 Les matieres qui composent le globe seroient d'au- 
 tant plus pesantes qu'elles approcheroient davantage 
 du centre, et celles qui sont a sa surface seroient 
 mises de niveau. Le bassin des mers seroit comble 
 des debris des terres ; et cette vaste architecture 
 formee d'harmonies si variees, ne presenteroit bien- 
 tot plus qu' un globe aquatique. Tous les corps, 
 enchaines par une chute commune, seroient con- 
 damnes a une eternelle immobilite. D'un autre 
 
44 Meteorology considered 
 
 cote, si la loi de projection qui sert a expliquer les 
 mouvemens des astres, en supposant qu'ils tendent 
 a s'echapper par la tangente de la courbe qu'ils 
 decrivent; si, dis-je, cette loi avoit lieu, tous les 
 corps qui ne sont pas adherens a la terre, s'en eloig- 
 neroient comme les pierres s'echappent des frondes ; 
 notre globe lui-meme obeissant a cette loi, s'eloig- 
 neroit du soleil pour jamais. Tan tot il traverseroit 
 dans sa route infinie, des espaces immenses ou on 
 n'apergevroit aucun astre pendant le cours de plu- 
 sieurs siecles ; tantot, traversant les lieux, ou le 
 hasard auroit rassemble les matrices de la creation, 
 il passeroit au milieu des parties elementaires des 
 soleils, agr&gees par les lois centrales de Tattraction, 
 ou dispersees en etincelles et en rayons par celles de 
 la projection. Mais en supposant que ces deux 
 forces contraires se soient combinees assez heureuse- 
 ment en sa faveur pour le fixer avec son tourbillon 
 dans un coin du firmament, ou ces forces agissent 
 sans se detruire, il presenteroit son equateur au 
 soleil avec autant de regularite qu'il decrit son cours 
 annuel autour de lui. On ne verroit jamais resulter 
 de ces deux mouvemens constans cet autre mouve- 
 ment si varie, par lequel il incline chaque jour un de 
 ses poles vers le soleil, jusqu' a ce que son axe ait 
 forme sur le plan de son cercle annuel un angle de 
 vingt-trois degres et demi, puis cet autre mouvement 
 retrograde, par lequel il lui presente avec la meme 
 regularite le pole oppose. Loin de lui offrir alter- 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy, fyc. 45 
 
 nativement ses poles, afin que sa chaleur feconde en 
 fonde les glaces tour-a-tour, il les tiendroit ense- 
 velis dans des nuits et des hivers eternels, avec une 
 partie des zones temperees, tandis que le reste de sa 
 circonference seroit brulee par les feux trop constans 
 des tropiques. 
 
 Mais quand on supposeroit, avec ces lois con- 
 stantes d'attr action et de projection, une troisieme 
 loi versatile qui donne a la terre le mouvement qui 
 produit les saisons, et une quatrieme qui lui donne 
 son mouvement diurne de rotation sur elle-meme, et 
 qu'aucune de ces lois si opposees ne surpassat jamais 
 les autres, et ne la determinat a la fin a obeir a une 
 seule impulsion ; on ne pourroit jamais dire qu'elles 
 eussent determine les formes et les mouvemens des 
 corps qui sont a sa surface. D'abord, la force de 
 projection ou centrifuge n'y auroit laisse aucun de 
 ceux qui en sont detaches. D'un autre cote, la force 
 d'attraction ou la pesanteur n'eut pas permis aux 
 montagnes de s'elever, et encore moins aux metaux 
 qui en sont les parties les plus pesantes, d'etre 
 places a leurs sommets, ou on les trouve ordinaire- 
 ment. Si on suppose que ces lois soient Yultimatum 
 du hasard, et qu'elles se soient tellement combinees 
 qu'elles n'en forment plus qu'une seule ; par la 
 meme raison qu'elles font mouvoir la terre autour 
 du soleil, et la lune autour de la terre, elles dev- 
 roient agir de la meme maniere sur les corps parti- 
 culiers qui sont a la surface du globe. On devroit 
 
46 Meteorology considered 
 
 voir les rochers isoles, les fruits detaches des arbres, 
 les anlmaux qui rfont point de griffes, tourner 
 autour de lui en I'air, comme nous voyons les par- 
 ties qui composent 1'anneau de Saturne tourner 
 autour de cette planete," &c. Etudes de la Nature. 
 T. 11. p. 304, et suiv. Again, "Newton, ne 
 pouvant gouter les tourbillons de Descartes, et 
 sentant combien leur existence etoit impossible, 
 etablit un viude immense, dans lequel il pretendit 
 que les astres faisoient leur course, sans que rien 
 s'y opposat. Les pianettes avoient leurs revolutions 
 dans differens circles autour d'un meme centre, et 
 les comettes faisoient les leurs dans des cercles 
 inegaux, excentriques, and differemment diriges. 
 Ce systeme etoit simple, aise a comprendre ; mais 
 il parut impossible a bien des pliysiciens. Us ob- 
 jecterent qu'il etoit impossible qu'un corps conservat 
 toujours le mouvement circulaire sans une cause 
 particuliere, parce que tout corps, des qu'il est libre, 
 ou qu'il n'est point arrete par d'autres corps, enfile 
 une ligne droite qui 1'eloigne du centre de son 
 mouvement, par cette loi reconnue par tous les 
 philosophes dans Toeconomie de 1'univers. Les pia- 
 nettes dans le systeme de Newton, devoient depuis 
 longtems, n'avoir plus leur mouvement circulaire ; 
 elles auroient decrit, selon la loi ordinaire, une ligne 
 droite, et seroient allees s'abimer et s'aneantir 
 dans quelques etoiles fixes. Ces difficultes vous 
 paroitront assez considerables : vous en verrez bien 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy, fyc. 47 
 
 d'autres tout a 1'heure ; mais dans quel systeme ne 
 s'en rencontre-t-il point? Elles n'embarrasserent 
 point le Philosoplie Anglois" " C'est cette pesan- 
 teur, ou cette attraction mutuelle, qui seule est 
 cause de la regularite des mouveraens celestes et 
 de toutes les merveilles, qui jusques aujourd'hui 
 avoient paru devoir etre toujours des mysteres im- 
 penetrables. 
 
 Malgre cette attraction, si necessaire au systeme 
 de 1' Anglois, et qu'il avoit cree si apropos, ses 
 adversaires pretendirent que meme en accordant 
 qu'il y cut dans les corps cette puissance de s'attirer 
 mutuellement, il seroit impossible qu'elle fut la 
 cause de la regularite des mouvemens celestes, 
 puisque la pesanteur donnant aux astres une ten- 
 dance qui les dirige sans cesse vers le centre de leur 
 revolution, ils devroient s'y etre reunis depuis long- 
 terns et avoir ete consumes par le soleil, dans 
 lequel ils se seroient precipites. 
 
 Cette reflexion parut un peu embarrassante a 
 T Anglois; mais il se servit encore du droit qu'il 
 avoit de creer. II donna une seconde direction 
 aux astres ; 1'une perpendiculaire, causee par rat- 
 traction qui les portoit au centre de leur revolution, 
 et 1'autre horizontale, qui les en eloignoit. Ainsi 
 les astres, forces de se preter a ces deux directions 
 differentes, ne pouvant suivre entierement 1'une des 
 deux, furent obliges de partager le differend, et 
 prirent le parti de decrire un cercle. Si I'on eut 
 
48 Meteorology considered 
 
 encore contrarie VAnglois, il cut donne encore une 
 troisieme direction aux globes celestes, et une 
 quatrieme meme, si son systems en cut eu besoin"* 
 Thus it must be admitted, even by his greatest ad- 
 mirers, that notwithstanding his extraordinary merit, 
 Newton was a fortunate man ; for, were it not that 
 the laws of movement were previously discovered by 
 Kepler, and that his theory of attraction, agreeable 
 to the law of the inverse square, was found to be in 
 accordance with the facts in reference to the move- 
 ments of the heavenly bodies, it will readily appear, 
 that such and so numerous were the difficulties con- 
 nected with it, that it had long since shared the 
 same fate of its predecessors. And, in reference to 
 these, the two pillars on which it reposes, and which 
 despite the grave objections noticed have, up to our 
 times, succeeded in upholding its credit : possessed 
 of the discoveries of Kepler, as admitted by D'Alem- 
 bert, it was not at all necessary to suppose a prin- 
 ciple of movement such as that of attraction, in 
 order that the various facts connected with the 
 movements of the planets, should be found in confor- 
 mity with calculation. The latter having gone so 
 far as to say, that instead of its being necessary or 
 useful, the circumstance of admitting or taking into 
 account the existence of such an agency, rather 
 served to embarrass calculation, which did not stand 
 
 * Voyez Philosophic du Eon-Sens. T. 11, p. 471, et suiv. 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy, fyc. 49 
 
 in need of any such, than to simplify it ; and, as re- 
 gards the law of the inverse square of the distances, 
 the moteur, or cause of movement, whatever it might 
 be, could only act on the planets conformable thereto. 
 The action of the other primary forces, as connected 
 with the sun and planets, the same as that of gra- 
 vity, being, as noticed elsewhere, governed by ex- 
 actly the same law ; and thus it will be seen, as 
 stated, that the utmost that can be said of the New- 
 tonian theory is, that its author was fortunate in 
 having been preceded by Kepler, as, without the as- 
 sistance of his discoveries, combined with the law of 
 the inverse square, the theory of universal gravita- 
 tion could no more have maintained itself, or borne 
 the test of scrutiny, than those of Gassendi or Des- 
 cartes ; being, in reality, " though a little louder, yet 
 as empty quite," as the theories proposed by these 
 philosophers, in reference to the true principles and 
 system of nature. And thus, " comme le vrai seul, 
 a des succes durables;" and, as being a conse- 
 quence, that this so celebrated a theory cannot be 
 expected to hold its place much longer ; the observa- 
 tion applied to the corpuscular system by St. Pierre, 
 in the last century, will most probably be found 
 equally to apply to that of universal gravitation in 
 the next, viz. " Une de nos methodes les plus ordi- 
 naires, lorsque nous saisissons quelque effet dans la 
 nature, c'est de nous y'arreter d'abord par foiblesse, 
 et d'en tirer ensuite, par vanite, un principe uni- 
 
 E 
 
50 Meteorology considered 
 
 versel. Si apres cela on trouve le moyen, qui riest 
 pas difficile, de lui appliquer un theoreme de g6ome- 
 trie, un triangle, une equation, seulement un a + b, 
 en voild assez pour le rendre a jamais venerable. 
 C'est ainsi que, le siecle passe, on expliquoit tout 
 par la philosophic corpusculaire, parcequ'on s'etoit 
 aperu que quelques corps se formoient par intus- 
 susception ou par agregation de parties. Un pen 
 d'algebre qu'on y avoit joint, lui avoit donne d'au- 
 tant plus de dignite, que la plupart des raisonneurs 
 de ce temps-la n'y entendoient rien du tout. Mais 
 comme elle etoit mal rentee, elle n'a pas subsisted 
 On ne parle seulement pas aujourd'hui d'une foul 
 de savans et d'illustres, que 1'Europe combloit alors 
 d'eloges." Etudes de la Nature, T. 11, p. 18. 
 
 Notwithstanding the length of these extracts, I 
 thought them not uncalled for in this place, in order 
 to show, however numerous its partisans, the little 
 satisfaction given, or conviction produced, by the 
 Newtonian theory of universal gravitation, even in 
 regard to the few phenomena which it pretended to 
 explain : and the consequent necessity which existed 
 for substituting a theory in its place, which, from 
 being more comprehensive in its bearings, and more 
 in conformity with the march of discovery in the 
 other departments of science, by taking in the whole 
 of the phenomena of nature connected with the hea- 
 venly bodies, would, if successful, leave nothing fur- 
 ther to be sought for or desired in reference to this 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy, $c. 51 
 
 grand department of physics ; and, as in all cases 
 a certain proportion should exist between the means 
 employed and the ends proposed, things could not 
 well be otherwise than as we find them, in reference 
 to the theory of universal gravitation. For, as the 
 principle which served as the basis of this theo^ 
 was but relative, as regards the phenomena of the 
 heavenly bodies, and superficial from being itself, 
 as I hope to show, no more than a member derived 
 in common with others, from a more remote and 
 comprehensive law, or primary first cause, and not 
 being (as should have been the case, if correct,) 
 itself such first cause : but, as regards natural phe- 
 nomena, extremely limited in its range ; how, I ask, 
 were it possible, that a theory based on a principle 
 such as this, could have been right ? 
 
 This premised, we shall enter on an examination 
 of the principles assumed by that by which it is pro- 
 posed to be substituted. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Gravity, its assumed Source and Nature. 
 
 AND first, as to Gravity. It is an assumption of 
 our theory, that, as refers to the earth, sun, and re- 
 mainder of the heavenly bodies, this force is, in every 
 instance, of home growth, and, consequently, is al- 
 
 E2 
 
52 Meteorology considered 
 
 together local in its range ; being esteemed as not 
 only connected with magnetic and electric action in 
 their atmospheres, but absolutely derived from it. 
 To understand this, however, it becomes necessary 
 to enter a little into details. 
 
 In the first place, it is an assumption of our 
 theory, however opposite to the Newtonian, that 
 tli ere is no vacuum in nature, this being, as will be 
 recollected, in accordance with the most recent ob- 
 servations. That, as connected with the heavenly 
 bodies, the matter of which they are composed is of 
 opposite kinds, viz. solid and tzriform, of which the 
 element of water may be considered the bond, or 
 connecting link : and that there exists a still further 
 division of it into solar and planetary, being in each 
 case, though differently, an exemplification of the 
 law of the union of opposite progressions of the same 
 nature ; and of which, as water in the former, the 
 eeriform portion of this matter, as connected with 
 the sun and planets, is the connecting link, equally 
 as the seat of the active forces of nature connected 
 with their temperature and movements. These the 
 active forces of nature connected with the sun and 
 planets, are but two in number, or, as the bodies 
 themselves, of opposite kinds, viz. magnetism and 
 electricity, whose local agency, whether as con- 
 nected with their temperature or movements, is 
 based on the principle of reflective action, i. e. the 
 action of the sun as reflected by the planets, and 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy, fyc. 53 
 
 the action of the planets as reflected by the sun and 
 by each other : this, according to our theory, being 
 the primary or first cause. That these the active 
 forces of nature are locally united in the atmos- 
 pheres of the sun, and remainder of the planets, 
 equally as in that of the earth ; being, as in the pre- 
 ceding cases, still a repetition of the primordial law 
 of the union of opposite progressions of the same 
 kind planetary and solar heat, together with the 
 rotary movement of the sun and planets, having, as 
 assumed, their source in electric action: planetary 
 and solar cold, together with the elliptical move- 
 ment of the planets, having their source in magnetic 
 action. And which, as being esteemed the next in 
 the order of succession, brings us to the subject of 
 gravity. 
 
 In reference to the latter action, I shall, in the 
 first place, observe, that dissimilar to electricity and 
 magnetism with the exception of the variations of 
 the barometer, we have no proof that gravity is con- 
 nected with the active forces of nature in the at- 
 mosphere ; but that, as it is only by the presence 
 and agency of a homogeneous force in the latter, 
 that the action of gravity, as shown by the changes 
 of the barometer, could be affected : the existence 
 of these changes shows that a connexion does sub- 
 sist between the action of gravity and that of the 
 active forces of nature, or electric and magnetic ac- 
 tion in the atmosphere. And finally, that this the 
 
51 Meteorology considered 
 
 action of gravity in the atmosphere consists in an 
 attractive force exerted on all ponderous bodies, 
 (and in proportion to the degree of their pondero- 
 sity,) from the various points of a circle, which sur- 
 rounds the earth on all sides, to a common centre 
 beneath, like inverted rays ; but of the circumference, 
 or exact position of whose extreme superficies we 
 are totally ignorant ; being only aware, from the 
 progressive falling off in the amount of gravity, as 
 we ascend from the surface or mean level of the 
 earth, as shown by the barometer, that its force is 
 greatest at, and in the vicinity of the latter ; and 
 tjiat it cannot extend either to the sun or moon : as 
 if so, divesting ourselves of the jargon of the schools, 
 the effect of gravity on these bodies, the same as 
 on others within its range, had long since consum- 
 mated the junction of their masses with that of the 
 earth. 
 
 It is further necessary to observe, that, indepen- 
 dent of the variations of the barometer, experiment, 
 as in the instance of the helix, shows that an intimate 
 connexion exists between gravity and the action of 
 the electrical and magnetic forces. And which expe- 
 riment with the helix, as it may not be known to 
 the generality of persons, and that I consider it of 
 no small importance as connected with the present 
 inquiry, I think it right to insert an account of in 
 this place, as copied from Mrs, Somervill's work 
 "On the Connexion of the Sciences," page 347, 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy ', tyc. 55 
 
 viz. " If a magnetised steel bar, or needle, be placed 
 within the screw, so as to rest upon the lower part, 
 the instant a current of electricity is sent through 
 the wire of the helix, the steel bar starts up by the 
 influence of this invisible power, and remains sus- 
 pended in the air in opposition to the force of gra- 
 vitation:" and further, <c the effect of the electro- 
 magnetic power exerted by each turn of the wire, is 
 to urge the north pole of the magnet in one direc- 
 tion, and the south pole in the other," and thus "it 
 acts as if it had a north pole at one extremity and a 
 south pole at the other, and is attracted and repelled 
 by the poles of a magnet, exactly as if it were one 
 itself." It may be proper to add, in regard to this 
 and other similar experiments connected with elec- 
 tricity and magnetism, that the laws which govern 
 these the assumed universal agencies of nature, are 
 as accurately expressed on the most contracted scale 
 of experiment, as on those gigantic theatres of their 
 activity the masses of the sun and planets. An 
 illustration of this is furnished by a magnetised bar, 
 for instance, which though it be twenty feet long, 
 will not, with greater accuracy, exhibit the attrac- 
 tive and repulsive forces of its opposite poles, than 
 will the smallest fractional part of the same bar, 
 when detached from the remainder, exhibit, at its 
 opposite extremes, the same phenomena, repulsive 
 and attractive. This observation being equally ap- 
 plicable to experiments connected with the laws 
 
56 Meteorology considered 
 
 which govern electrical and magnetic currents, whe- 
 ther separately or combined ; and which, by sub- 
 mitting the manner in which these laws operate in 
 the great theatre of Nature so correctly to our 
 view, enables us to make their application with the 
 utmost certainty, both as refers to the temperature 
 and movements of the heavenly bodies, equally as to 
 the connexion which subsists between electric and 
 magnetic action and that of gravity. And deprived 
 of which conformity in the laws by which the electric 
 and magnetic forces are governed, whether sepa- 
 rately or combined, thus obtained, it were vain to 
 hope we should ever have arrived at the knowledge 
 of. 
 
 But to resume. In making the application of 
 the experiment of the helix as in the preceding al- 
 lusion to the variations of the barometer it was 
 stated, 4fc'vt they could only be induced by means of 
 corresponding changes occurring in the action of ho- 
 mogeneous forces in the atmosphere, to those in 
 which gravitation has its source. This, the experi- 
 ment of the helix, not only proves more fully that 
 such is the case, but goes still further, in showing 
 the nature of, or in what these forces consist, viz. 
 in the union of electric and magnetic action in the 
 one case, equally as in the other. And further, that 
 an increased energy in the combined action of the 
 electrical and magnetic forces to that which exists 
 in the atmosphere, thus artificially produced, and 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy, fyc. 57 
 
 brought to bear circularly, as in the atmosphere, 
 on a body placed within its vortex, has the effect of 
 superseding the action of terrestrial gravitation on 
 such body, viz. by originating this the force of gra- 
 vitation artificially, and attacking it to a different 
 or local centre, and thence of giving, as we perceive, 
 to the body so acted on, the same polarities as the 
 earth, being, in all respects a miniature representa- 
 tion of the manner in which these, the three primary 
 forces of gravity, magnetism, and electricity, act 
 individually on the different members of the solar 
 system. And thus, I conceive, we are warranted in 
 concluding that, as stated, gravity, whether in the 
 sun or planets is a local action; that it is derived 
 from electric and magnetic action in the atmos- 
 pheres of these bodies ; and in each may be defined 
 to be the contre-coup, rebound, or reverberation 
 collectively, of the combined action of the electrical 
 and magnetic forces in the atmosphere, excited, 
 sustained, and perpetuated in that of the earth and 
 remainder of the planets, by their reflection of the 
 solar action ; as in the sun, by its reflection of the 
 planetary action, or probably of a more distant 
 centre; thus concentrated on their masses beneath, 
 or on the plains of its projection, their reflecting 
 surfaces. These the opposite and mutually con- 
 trolling actions locally in the sun and planets, ori- 
 ginating in the principles of reflection^ as refers to 
 the collective amount of electric and magnetic ac- 
 
58 Meteorology considered 
 
 tion in the atmospheres of these bodies respectively, 
 on the one hand, and that of gravitation on the 
 ponderable matter of their masses on the other, 
 being in each particular case esteemed to be equal, 
 i. e. that they are the sum of, and mutually balance 
 each other, they being, as in the preceding cases 
 noticed, still illustrative of the primary disposition 
 of nature the union of opposite progressions of the 
 same kind. It will follow, in reference to gravity, 
 that the action of this force in the earth and re- 
 mainder of the planets, (as being derived from the 
 solar action,) has its source in the sun ; and contra- 
 riwise as regards the latter : and consequently, that 
 its direction in these bodies must be opposite, from 
 its being reversed on the lines by which they are se- 
 parated ; it being one of the characteristics of elec- 
 tric and magnetic action that it begets directly op- 
 posite forces, attractive and repulsive, at one and 
 the same time. And consequently, as refers to the 
 bodies which compose the solar system in their col- 
 lective relations, that the action of gravity cannot, 
 as had been supposed, be attractive; but must, on 
 the contrary, be a repulsive action. And as, on the 
 principle of reflective action, the individual force of 
 gravity in these bodies, must, in each case, be pro- 
 portioned to the size of the reflecting surface from 
 which it is derived, and that, as being its counter- 
 part, the repulsive action it induces, in reference to 
 the sun, must be proportioned thereto ; and, conse- 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy, fyc. 59 
 
 quently, that it must be greater in the superior and 
 less in the inferior planets proportioned to their 
 size. 
 
 Thus we are Jed to perceive the principle on which 
 the order and harmony subsisting between these 
 bodies and the sun, and between each other, in the 
 ecliptic, is founded ; the smaller planets, owing to 
 the amount of this repulsive force between them and 
 the sun, being less, approaching nearer ; whereas 
 those of larger size, from this repulsive action being, 
 as their masses, greater, range at so much greater 
 distances than the former, proportioned to the 
 amount of such difference. The correctness of this 
 principle generally, it may be added, or considered 
 as a rule, being borne out by the positions occupied 
 by the primary planets in reference to the sun, as by 
 the secondary in their relative positions in reference 
 to the primary planets round which they revolve 
 " Dans les spheres celestes," observes St. Pierre, 
 " si le centre appartient naturellement aux corps les 
 plus considerables, comment se fait-il que Saturne et 
 Jupiter, qui sont beaucoup plus gros que notre 
 globe, soient a Vextremite de notre tourbillon?" 
 Etudes de la Nature. T. 11, p. 8. The reason of 
 this, as refers to the positions of Saturn and Jupiter, 
 is sufficiently evident according to the doctrine of 
 repulsion, as stated, but cannot be accounted for on 
 any other principle ; showing, as elsewhere observed 
 
60 Meteorology considered 
 
 by the same author, that, in this as in other in- 
 stances, Nature " n'agit quepar des reactions" 
 
 Thus, to recapitulate. It will, I hope, appear to 
 be satisfactorily proved by the preceding state- 
 ments and observations, that the active forces of 
 nature are no more than two in number, viz., elec- 
 tricity and magnetism ; and that, considered in their 
 relation with the primary cause on which this the 
 principle of their activity is based, on the one hand; 
 and as in its turn based on the latter or local ac- 
 tivity of these forces in the sun and planets with the 
 force of gravity on the other. In the connexion 
 subsisting between these, the three primordial 
 columns, as they may be called, or sustaining prin- 
 ciples of nature, on which the whole of her creations 
 and dispositions in the physical world are based ; 
 reflective action considered as the primary, or first 
 cause, necessary holds the first place; electric and 
 magnetic action the second; and finally, considered 
 as being derived locally from the latter, gravity can 
 only be assigned the third or last place in this the 
 scale of their relations. 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy r , Sfc. 61 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 MAGNETIC ATTRACTION esteemed the Moteur or 
 Principle in which the elliptical Movement of 
 the Heavenly Bodies has its Source, and ELEC- 
 TRICAL AGENCY to be that of their Movement of 
 Rotation. 
 
 HAVING thus, as I hope, finally solved this so 
 long disputed problem, and assigned its true place 
 in astronomy and physics to the primary force or 
 principle of universal gravitation; it will appear, 
 that though the local bond of union between the 
 elements which compose the sun and planets, and 
 immediately derived from the active forces of nature 
 in their atmospheres; gravity, as already noticed, 
 can have nothing to do with the principle of their 
 movement. And that, as the repulsive action be- 
 tween the sun and planets which grows out of the 
 reversed action of gravity between these bodies on 
 the lines of distance by which they are separated, if 
 not controlled by an opposite, would have the effect 
 of removing them continually farther, one from the 
 other, so as finally to dissolve all connection between 
 them. Assuming that the same local division and 
 distribution of magnetic action exists equally in the 
 sun and remainder of the planets as in the earth, 
 
62 Meteorology considered 
 
 in extending from their equators to opposite poles. 
 In the principle of attraction which, as is known, 
 exists between magnetic poles of opposite names, as 
 to its true source, we are enabled to discover the 
 controlling force opposed by nature to the repulsive 
 action of these bodies on each other alluded to. 
 And further, that, together with thus making mag- 
 netic attraction the bond of union between the sun 
 and planets, nature has likewise engrafted on it, as 
 I hope to show, the elliptical movement of the pri- 
 mary planets round the sun, as of the satellites 
 round the primary planets to which they are at- 
 tached. 
 
 In order, however, that as little as possible should 
 be left to supposition or conjecture, and conse- 
 quently, as relates to principles, that nothing should 
 be advanced that was not warranted or borne out 
 by experiment ; it will, in the first place, be re- 
 collected that, as has been justly observed of it, one 
 of the most important discoveries of modern times 
 shows, that when electric and magnetic actions are 
 combined, instead of their currents progressing, as 
 might be supposed, in the same line, they, on the 
 contrary, are found to move d travers, or to cross 
 eaeh other at right angles ; and, secondly, that each 
 of these forces, when so combined, is found to be 
 capable of imparting, and consequently of being the 
 spring or source of a circular or rotary movement 
 to certain bodies, when they are brought to aqt on 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy, fyc. 63 
 
 them. Keeping these facts in view, the next cir- 
 cumstance which it becomes necessary to notice is, 
 that as the force of gravity individually, whether on 
 the mass of the sun or on those of the planets, is, ac- 
 cording to our showing, exactly balanced by the 
 amount of electric and magnetic action in their local 
 atmospheres; that, as being a consequence, these 
 the active forces of nature, assuming them to be the 
 source of movement in these bodies, are, agreeable 
 to the disposition established between them, the sun 
 and planets, equally capable of producing, as the 
 conformity which exists between the local direction 
 of the action of these forces, when, as in the atmos- 
 pheres of these bodies, combined; with those of the 
 opposite movements of the planets round the sun 
 and round their axes, jit them for being the sources 
 thereof. Which, it may be added, if shown to be the 
 case, will, it is hoped, satisfy all rational minds that 
 the so long sought for knowledge as to the source of 
 movement in the heavenly bodies is at length ob- 
 tained. 
 
 Assuming, then, that the action of gravity on the 
 mass of the sun, as on those of the planets, is the 
 counterpart of the action of the electric and mag- 
 netic forces in their atmospheres : and consequently, 
 that these opposite actions locally in the sun and 
 planets mutually balance and neutralize each other ; 
 the effect on these bodies, notwithstanding their 
 enormous dimensions, must be to render them, indi- 
 
64? Meteorology considered 
 
 vidually, equally buoyant as air-bubbles in the po- 
 sitions they occupy in the ecliptic ; and consequently 
 in a state which fits them to obey the slightest im- 
 pulsions received from without. 
 
 And if in the mutual or collective relations of 
 these the heavenly bodies, that a similar equalization 
 of the electric and magnetic forces existed between 
 them, as individually between the latter and the 
 force of gravity; the effect necessarily would be, that 
 though endued with the principles of movement, as 
 in the case supposed, the magnetic attraction of the 
 sun on the planets, individually, were balanced by 
 the magnetic attraction of the latter ; and its elec- 
 tric action on them, if in like manner balanced by 
 electric action of each of the planets, would be simi- 
 larly neutralized; the consequence would be, that, 
 as referred to either action, between the sun and 
 any one of these bodies, it could not originate move- 
 ment in the latter ; and that in such case a state of 
 rest must ensue. 
 
 But assuming, in the first place, that nothing is 
 detached in nature ; and that the relative force of 
 electric and magnetic action in the sun and planets, 
 is generally as their magnitudes; we are thence 
 enable to see, that from the great centre wheel of 
 the solar system, to the smallest of the satellites 
 as the smaller body in every case revolves round the 
 larger that the whole shows such a graduated 
 scale of forces and relative dependance, as, on the 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy, tyc. 65 
 
 principles assumed, instead of rest, must have in- 
 duced a state of movement throughout the entire of 
 its planetary members. 
 
 But as connected with the orbital movement of 
 the planets, it becomes necessary to notice the col- 
 lision of opposite actions therein; for, as the mag- 
 netic attraction of the sun on the planets, if un- 
 checked, would cause them to approach directly to 
 the sun ; and that its opposite, the action of repul- 
 sion between the sun and planets, if, in like manner 
 uncontrolled, would cause the latter to move off in 
 right lines from the sun. It follows, in the first 
 place, that it must be the sum of these opposite ac- 
 tions of the sun on the planets, which confines them 
 respectively in their orbits ; and though, in order 
 to impart movement, the magnetic attraction of the 
 sun on the planets, must be superior in force to the 
 opposite action of repulsion; the movement it im- 
 parts, owing to its being to a certain extent opposed 
 by the latter action, cannot be precisely in the di- 
 rection of the sun; but, as being made up of opposite 
 forces, must be a movement that partakes of each; 
 and consequently describes the sum or measure of 
 both. And which thence, proportioned to the 
 greater or less difference in the relative amount of 
 these actions individually on the planets, must ap- 
 proach more or less to that of a circle, i. e. the more 
 nearly these opposite forces are balanced, the more 
 the movement of the body acted on must approach 
 
 F 
 
66 Meteorology considered 
 
 to the figure of a circle ; and the more unequal the 
 amount of these opposite actions, the more the 
 movements of the body acted on must deviate from 
 the circle, and approach to the figure of an ellipsis. 
 But if the magnetic attraction of the sun on the 
 planets were, as assumed, the source of the elliptic- 
 tical movement of these bodies, it is easy to see that 
 this were not the only movement which the solar ac- 
 tion on the planets would induce. For, assuming 
 the solar action on the planets to be electrical^ 
 equally as magnetic; the former action of the sun, 
 equally as the latter, would impart a movement to 
 them peculiar to itself; and which, as the direc- 
 tion of its electric action differed from that of its 
 magnetic, would necessarily cause this latter to dif- 
 fer from the elliptical movement of these bodies ; or 
 to be, as the direction of the action which induced 
 it, at right angles with the latter. And as, besides 
 the elliptical, no movement remained to be given to 
 the planets but one round their axes ; that this the 
 electric action of the sun on these bodies, would, at 
 the same time that its magnetic action imparted to 
 them their orbital, necessarily impart to them a 
 movement of rotation. And consequently, that such 
 a division of the electric and magnetic forces in the 
 sun and remainder of the planets, as that which we 
 observe in the earth, must have the effect of induc- 
 ing movements in the latter bodies exactly equal to 
 those they have. 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy r , fyc. 67 
 
 But however correct these assumptions, in order 
 to understand the manner in which the principle of 
 magnet attraction in the sun acts in inducing the or 
 bital movement of the planets, it becomes necessary 
 to enter a little more particularly into details ; which 
 is the more desirable, as it will necessarily lead 
 us to a nearer view of the intimate connexion which 
 exists between the twin sciences of astronomy and 
 meteorology, arising out of the species of com- 
 mon identity that subsists between the principles of 
 both. Thus, as connected with the elliptical move- 
 ment of the earth and remainder of the planets, as- 
 suming that the same division of magnetic action, 
 locally, exists in the sun and remainder of the pla- 
 nets as in the earth, in converging from their centre 
 to opposite poles, situated on, or in the vicinity of 
 the opposite extremes of their axes of rotation. 
 And that, as magnetic poles of the same name don ot 
 attract, but on the contrary repel each other ; and 
 thence that such attraction can only exist between 
 poles of different names; as being a consequence, 
 in order that the magnetic attraction of the sun on 
 the planets should induce in the latter bodies their 
 orbital movement, it became necessary that these- 
 the magnetic poles of the sun were reversed in their 
 position to those of the planets. And as, from the 
 nature of magnetic attraction, that no more than one 
 of the magnetic poles of the sun at any time could 
 act on the orbital movement of the earth or other of 
 
 F2 
 
68 Meteorology considered 
 
 the planets ; and this only hy means of its attraction 
 of the magnetic poles of the latter that were of a dif- 
 ferent name ; i. e. that this the elliptical movement 
 of the earth, &c., could only be upheld by means of the 
 attraction of the magnetic pole of the southern he- 
 misphere of the sun, on the opposite, or magnetic 
 pole, of the northern hemisphere of the earth, or 
 other planet, while the latter was traversing the 
 northern division of its orbit ; and by the attraction 
 of the opposite or magnetic pole of the northern he- 
 misphere of the sun, on the magnetic pole of the 
 southern hemisphere of the earth, while the latter 
 was traversing the southern division of its orbit. 
 
 And thus, as connected with this the elliptical 
 movement of the earth and remainder of the planets, 
 that these the opposite and acting poles of the sun, 
 and earth, &e., would during the period of six 
 months, or one half their orbital course, conse- 
 cutively, be active ; while their opposite magnetic 
 poles continued passive : and thence with the change 
 in the relative position of these bodies in the eclip- 
 tic, that during the remainder of their course, the 
 latter would become the active, and the former, the 
 passive magnetic poles of the sun and planets : and 
 so alternately. 
 
 Now, if, similar to the lunar circle, we divide the 
 annual, by syzygies and quadratures; the former 
 will necessarily correspond to its equinoctial, and 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy, fyc. 69 
 
 the latter to its apsides or solstial points: and that the 
 periods at which the changes in the site of the magnetic 
 attraction of the sun between the opposite poles of 
 the earth take place, are those of the syzigies; when, 
 after traversing one half the ellipsis in which it 
 moves round the sun, the earth is in the act of pass- 
 ing on to its opposite division. 
 
 It follows, as will presently appear, that these the 
 earth's syzigies or equinoctial periods are those of the 
 least) or minimum force of the magnetic action of the 
 sun on either pole of the earth. And, on the con- 
 trary, that the periods of the maximum force of the 
 magnetic action of the sun, collected on the pole 
 and remainder of the winter hemisphere of the earth 
 are those of its quadratures; when the distance of 
 of the acting magnetic pole of the sun, from the 
 corresponding or winter pole of the earth, is great- 
 est. Let us now suppose the earth in quadrature 
 with the sun, at the period of the solstice ; when, to- 
 gether with the greatest distance between the act- 
 ing poles of the sun and earth, (i. e. the southern 
 pole of the sun with the northern pole of the earth 
 at the period of its perihelion, or that of our winter 
 solstice,) the magnetic action of the sun on our winter 
 hemisphere is assumed to be the greatest. It would 
 follow, that the greatest force of the magnetic at- 
 traction of the sun on the earth occurred exactly at 
 the part of the earth's orbit, where, in order to change 
 the direction of its path in the heavens, it was the 
 
70 Meteorology considered 
 
 most requisite. And that, having effected this ob- 
 ject, the continually increasing impetus thence 
 given to the movement of the earth, from the solstice 
 to the period of the vernal equinox, incident to the 
 uninterrupted pull during the intervening three 
 months, imparted to it by the acting pole of the sun, 
 would be such as to cause it, the earth, to continue 
 its orbital course from the period of the equinox to 
 that of the succeeding solstice at its aphelion. But 
 as with the change in the relative positions of the 
 earth and sun in the ecliptic at the period of the 
 vernal equinox, that the site of the magnetic attrac- 
 tion of the latter on the earth, would change from 
 the pole of its approaching summer, to that of its 
 approaching winter hemisphere. Thus, by means 
 of the gradual increase in the force of this attrac- 
 tion of the sun, with the gradual elongation of the 
 earth in its approach to the apside or period of our 
 summer solstice an opposite and controlling force 
 on its orbital movement would thus be generated : 
 which controlling force, together with lessening the 
 rapidity of the earth's movement, would have the ef- 
 fect of gradually changing the direction of its path in 
 the heavens, till, having finally arrived at the period 
 of the solstice, and extreme limit of the earth's orbit, 
 and, at the same time, at the period of the maximum 
 action of the northern magnetic pole of the sun, 
 on the southern or winter pole of the earth : the force 
 of impulsion given to the latter, from the period of 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy, $<?. 71 
 
 the preceding solstice to that of the vernal equinox, 
 and which, as assumed, continued to impel and in- 
 fluence its movement to this point of its orbit be- 
 ing here balanced with the force of resistance thus 
 opposed to its further advance by the increased at- 
 traction of the sun ; and which would have the effect, 
 necessarily, of modelling the direction of its course, 
 and of consigning it anew to the full operation of 
 this the maximum attraction of the sun. Together 
 with a total change of direction in its path, the 
 earth would recommence anew its annual course, 
 from the same point of the heavens as before, in the 
 direction of its perihelion, or the opposite extreme 
 point of its orbit: and vice versa. 
 
 Thus far in reference to the assumed connexion 
 of magnetism with the elliptical movement of the 
 earth and remainder of the planets. And, in re- 
 ference to the assumed connexion of magnetic action 
 with the temperature: as the greatest cold } as 
 stated at the commencement of these observations, 
 is known to occur at or in the vicinity of the mag- 
 netic pole, or poles, of the winter hemispheres of 
 the earth ; and at or after the period of the maxi- 
 mum force of the magnetic action of the sun on the 
 latter. It would follow, however new and seem- 
 ingly paradoxical, that not only the greatest heat 
 of summer, as being an effect of the extreme an- 
 nual concentration of the electric action of the sun 
 on the summer hemisphere of the earth collected on 
 
72 Meteorolog^ considered 
 
 its tropical regions ; but the greatest cold of winter, 
 as being a similar result of the extreme annual con- 
 centration of the magnetic action of the sun, col- 
 lected in the vicinity of the magnetic poles of the 
 winter hemisphere, is likewise an effect of the solar 
 action. These the effects of the opposite actions of 
 the sun electric and magnetic on the tempera- 
 ture, being varied continually in their amount in the 
 annual circle, with that of the co-operative action of 
 the external planets, equally as of the moon, inci- 
 dent to the changes which are continually taking 
 place in the relative positions of these bodies in re- 
 ference to the sun and earth. This the principle of 
 planetary temperature similar to the numerous in- 
 stances already cited being a new and most im- 
 portant result and illustration of the fundamental 
 law of the union of opposite progressions of the 
 same nature, in the sun and planets. Which, from 
 their great source and centre in the sun, extend 
 and develop these their effects in the most distant, 
 equally as in the nearest of the planetary train by 
 which he is surrounded. There is this remarkable 
 difference, however, observable between the action of 
 the electrical and magnetic forces of the sun on the 
 temperature and movements of the planets, viz. that 
 whereas the relative force of the electric action of 
 the sun on the temperature and rotation of the 
 planets, other circumstances being the same, is as 
 the inverse ratio of the squares of the distances 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy, fyc. 73 
 
 from the. sim, and of its approach to a vertical direc- 
 tion on the atmospheres of these bodies; the rela- 
 tive force of the magnetic action of the sun on the 
 temperature and elliptical movement of the planets, 
 is, on the contrary, in the exact ratio of the squares 
 of the distances, zn&ofthe obliquity of its direction 
 on their atmospheres: being thus in all respects 
 opposite both in the manner of its action, as in its 
 effects on the planets, as contrasted with electric 
 action. 
 
 And here I should dismiss this part of our subject, 
 but that there are some other circumstances which, 
 as being still further illustrative of the admirable 
 dispositions of nature in the heavenly bodies it be- 
 comes necessary to notice, viz. in the first place, 
 that, as connected with the movements of these bo- 
 dies, the positions of the sites of the local foci of mag- 
 netic action, situated as they are at the opposite ex- 
 tremes of their axes of rotation, and by means of 
 the solar action on which, as assumed, their elliptical 
 movement is induced ; could not, on the most strict 
 mechanical principles have been more judiciously 
 selected in order to the attainment of this the object 
 proposed ; being, as they are, exactly in the line of its 
 direction, equally as at the points of their superficies 
 where the solar attraction on this movement would 
 induce the greatest possible effect ; the same observa- 
 tion being equally applicable to the eclectrical action 
 of the sun in its assumed connexion with their move- 
 
74? Meteorology considered 
 
 ment of rotation ; from the line of this action of the 
 sun, similar to the former, in crossing the magnetic 
 meridians of these bodies at right angles, being equally 
 in the direction of this movement ; and from its great- 
 est force being collected on the zones at their cen- 
 tres, which encompass their tropical regions, being, 
 as the former action, applied on the parts of their 
 superficies, where, in reference thereto, it would ne- 
 cessarily produce the greatest effect. In the second 
 place, it was impossible that any other disposition 
 of the primary forces in the sun or planets, whether 
 considered in reference to their local or foreign re- 
 lations^ could have been so perfect as the one which 
 we find established ; possessing, as it does from its 
 chief source reflection being local the double ad- 
 vantage of the greatest possible energy on their 
 masses, both as connected with the principle of gra- 
 vitation, on which their existence is based, or with 
 that of their temperature and other local pheno- 
 mena ; and, converted as this local energy in these 
 actions is, to be the means of inducing in the bo- 
 dies acted on, the most perfect buoyancy or freedom, 
 that they might the better respond to the impulsions 
 they receive from without, connected with their 
 movements, elliptical and rotary, as of acting in 
 the distance on the latter. And finally, as the 
 amount of gravitation on the masses of the planets, 
 is assumed to be the measure of the mean local ac- 
 tion of the electric and magnetic forces in their at- 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy ', fyc. 75 
 
 mospheres ; and that the movements, equally as the 
 temperature of these bodies, are assumed to be in 
 a ratio proportioned to these local actions : as these 
 the mean local actions of electricity, magnetism, and 
 gravity in these bodies are invariable ; we are 
 thence enabled to trace, as to its source, the cause 
 of that unchanging harmony in their movements, 
 which, from the earliest records of time to the pre- 
 sent, as observed by La Place, has not varied, pro- 
 bly, by so much as a second of time. 
 
 CHAR VII. 
 
 Comets. Satellites. 
 
 A WORD, in addition, on the subject of comets ^ 
 and I am done. After all the consideration I have 
 been able to give to the subject, comets appear to 
 me to belong to the class of bodies known by the 
 name of meteors, and that the only way we can ra- 
 tionally account for the movement of comets is, to 
 suppose that similar to the larger class of globular 
 meteors, they are, to a certain extent, endued with 
 an inherent force of movement, governed, however, 
 in some degree, and controlled by the action of the 
 sun and planets. For, on these principles only as 
 appears to me and in our supposing that, similar to 
 meteors, they are susceptible of undergoing rapid 
 
76 Meteorology considered 
 
 and important changes in their configuration, can 
 we, on scientific grounds, account for the changes , 
 in their appearances, which they so frequently ex- 
 hibit, equally as for the astonishing velocity of their 
 movements, and the eccentricity of their orbits. 
 
 In reference to the secondary planets, or satel- 
 lites, they exhibit the singular spectacle of a class of 
 bodies, the sources of whose movements elliptical 
 and rotary are, as it were, equally divided between 
 their principals and the sun; the former, or orbital 
 movement of satellites being derived from the mag- 
 netic action of the primary planets to which they are 
 attached ; while the latter, or movement of rotation 
 round their axes, is an effect of the electric action 
 of the sun, the same as that of their principals. And 
 were it not that satellites exhibit phases, I should 
 be inclined to suppose, particularly as refers to the 
 more distant of the superior planets, that their me- 
 teoric action partakes more of the nature of that of 
 the sun, than of the ordinary class of planets. And 
 that it was by means of such a partition and local 
 combination of the opposite actions solar and pla- 
 netary Nature had provided a compensation or 
 counterpoise, for the falling off in the force of the 
 solar action on those distant planets; and that an 
 approximation in the principle of their temperature 
 with those situated nearer the sun, and a similarly 
 quick rotation of the seasons, as in the latter bodies, 
 notwithstanding the great extent of their orbits, 
 
In Connexion with Astronomy > fyc. 77 
 
 was effected. And, as further illustrative of the as- 
 sumed principles, repulsive and attractive, propor- 
 tioned to their magnitudes, which exist between the 
 heavenly bodies, in those of the superior planets, as 
 Jupiter, Saturn^ and Uranus, which have the great- 
 est number of satellites attached to them ; the same 
 order in the scale of their distances from their prin- 
 cipals, as between the primary planets and the sun, 
 will, I apprehend, be found to exist equally in the 
 former case as in the latter, viz. that the smallest 
 approach nearest, and that the largest range at the 
 greatest distances from these, the central orbs, round 
 which they revolve. And thus, as has been already 
 observed, both by me and others, that each of these 
 bodies so attended by their satellites, is, to a certain 
 extent, a miniature representation of the solar sys- 
 tem : which, did the latter bodies, as suggested, par- 
 take more of the solar principle than the primary 
 planets themselves, would cause such resemblance to 
 be still greater ; as the only difference would then 
 consist in the circumstance, that these the opposite 
 principles, solar and planetary, as connected with 
 the solar system, and these minor representations of 
 it were locally reversed. Be this, however, as it 
 may, we risk nothing in assuming, that unless some 
 essential object in the economy of nature had to be 
 attained by, and was connected with the presence of 
 satellites, equally as with the rings of Saturn, they 
 
78 Meteorology considered 
 
 would not have been added to the primary planets 
 to which they belong. 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 Rain; its diminutives Fog and Dew, and ac- 
 cessory Phenomena. 
 
 THUS having, in this rapid sketch, as I trust, ex- 
 hibited the sources of planetary movement, and 
 shown the identity which, as assumed, subsists be- 
 tween them and those from which the principle of 
 temperature in these bodies is derived, and the inti- 
 mate connexion of meteorology with astronomy; and, 
 for the first time, by tracing its source to electric 
 and magnetic action, shown the real place occupied 
 by gravity, in the economy of nature, and fallacy of 
 the doctrine of universal gravitation^ as applied to 
 this the principle of planetary movement. We shall 
 now resume the subject of inquiry from which we 
 departed, viz. as to the principle in which the for- 
 mation of rain in the atmosphere has its source. 
 
 Previous to the experiments in electricity, made 
 about the middle of the last century, by the cele- 
 brated BufFon, by Dalibard, and De Romas in 
 France, and by Franklin in America, the phenomena 
 of the atmosphere were only considered and ex- 
 
As connected with Rain, fyc. 79 
 
 plained on chemical principles; but so numerous 
 and unexpected were the lights thrown on this de- 
 partment of science by these experiments, that for- 
 mer opinions had to be abandoned, and, as marking 
 the dawn of a new and more brilliant era in physics, 
 an entire revolution therein was the result. " S'il 
 est dans 1'histoire des empires," observes Bertholon, 
 "des epoques brillantes, qui excitent 1'admiration et 
 1'etonnement, on en remarque quelquefois de sem- 
 blables dans celles des sciences. Inexperience de 
 Marly-la- Ville (par M. Dalibard,) sera a jamais 
 celebre dans les fastes de la physique, et la m6teo- 
 rologie depuis cette experience fameuse a pris une 
 nouvelle face. Autrefois on expliquoit tous les phe- 
 nomenes, qui appartiennent a cette branche de la 
 physique, par le moyen des effervescences chy- 
 miques;* aujourd'hui ces vieilles chimeras sont re- 
 leguees avec toutes les absurdites de Vancienne 
 ecole"^ But, however considerable and important 
 the results which, in the course of a few years, fol- 
 lowed in rapid succession the opening thus effected : 
 it was not until very lately that they extended to 
 more than tracing the connexion between electricity 
 and the phenomena of rain, lightning, thunder, and 
 
 * It is scarce necessary to observe, that the whole of the proofs 
 proposed by Sir I. Newton, in reference to the theory of universal 
 gravitation, were based on chemical principles. 
 
 f Voyez De I' Electricite* des Meteores, par 1'Abbe Bertholon, 
 tome Premier, p. 4. 
 
80 Meteorology considered 
 
 this class of meteors ; as it had never entered into 
 the minds of the philosophers of those times, that at- 
 mospheric temperature itself had its source in, or 
 was connected with electric action. Even the cele- 
 brated Abbe Nollet, himself, who, as appears, had 
 the honour of being the first to suppose the con- 
 nexion of electricity with meteors, did not extend 
 his views beyond this point, as the following passage, 
 extracted from a work of his, published in 174'8, 
 entitled " Lemons de Physique Experimentale" and 
 which has been cited by Bertholon, in proof of this 
 his prior claim to the honour noticed, will sufficiently 
 show : " Si quelqu'un, par exemple, entre-prenoit 
 de prouver par une comparaison bien suivie des phe- 
 nomenes, que le tonnerre est entre les mains de la 
 nature, ce que 1'electricite est entre les notres, que 
 ces merveilles dont nous disposons maintenant a 
 notre gre, sont de petites imitations de ces grands 
 effets qui nous effrayent, et que tout depend du 
 meme mechanisme : si Ton faisoit voir qu'une nuee 
 preparee par T action des vents, par la chaleur, par 
 le melange des exhalaisons, &c. est vis-a-vis d'un 
 objet terrestre, ce qu'est le corps electrise, en pre- 
 sence et a une certaine proximite de celui qui ne 
 Test pas ; j'avoue que cette idee, si elle etoit bien 
 soutene, me plairoit beaucoup ; et pour la soutenir, 
 combien de raisons specieuses ne se presentent pas 
 a un homme qui est au fait de 1'electricite ? L'n i- 
 versalite de la matiere electrique ; la promptitude 
 
As connected with Rain, fyc. 81 
 
 de son action, son inflammabilite e.t son activite a 
 enflammer d'autres matieres ; la propriete qu'elle a 
 de frapper les corps exterieurement et interieure- 
 ment jusques dans leurs moindres parties ; 1'exemple 
 singulier que nous avons de cet effet dans I'experi- 
 ence de Leyde ; 1'idee qu'on peut legitimement s'en 
 faire, en supposant un plus grand degre de vertu 
 electrique, &c. Tous ces points d'analogie que je 
 inedite depuis quelque terns commencent a me faire 
 croire, qu'on pourroit, en prenant 1'electricite pour 
 modele, se former, touchant le tonnerre et les eclairs, 
 des idees plus saines et plus vraisemblables que tout 
 ce qu'on a imagine jusqu' a present." Thus, how- 
 ever easy the transition, and natural the inference, 
 from their being members in common of the same 
 family, it was not till the publication of the experi- 
 ments of M. Donne with the zambonic, or piles 
 seches, in 1827, and by which the connexion of elec- 
 tricity with the changes of the temperature was 
 fully shown, that the attention of philosophers was 
 directed to the latter circumstance ; but without its 
 being productive of any immediate result. The 
 subsequent experiments of Messrs. Christie and 
 Gumming, in England, in thermo-electricity, car- 
 ried this proof a stage farther, by showing, from the 
 diurnal variations of the compass-needle, that mag 
 netic, equally as electric action, is connected with 
 the solar action, and variations of the temperature ; 
 till all further doubt as to the principle of atmos- 
 
 G 
 
82 Meteorology considered 
 
 pheric temperature being the conjoint result of 
 electric and magnetic action, excited by the sun, as 
 assumed by our theory, appears to be finally re- 
 moved. This backwardness in making the applica- 
 tion of the discoveries in electricity available, to- 
 wards explaining the source of planetary tempera- 
 ture, will, however, the less surprise, when, in turn- 
 ing our attention to the subject of the formation of 
 rain in the atmosphere, the first circumstance that 
 strikes us is, that the only explanation which even 
 now is given of this operation of nature, is founded 
 on precisely the same chemical principles of evapo- 
 ration and condensation, as though the experiment 
 at Marly-la- Ville, of Franklin, De Romas, &c. had 
 never been made. This, it will be admitted, is the 
 more remarkable, as of all meteors, the phenomenon 
 of rain, from being that which, owing to the palpable 
 nature of the connexion subsisting between it and 
 electric action, first suggested the existence of this 
 connexion, and which, from its being always asso- 
 ciated with the phenomena of thunder, lightning, 
 &c. is that in reference to which the least doubt can 
 be entertained, as to its being, in its nature and 
 source, electric. So far, however, is this from being 
 the view of the subject taken by some of our leading 
 physiciens, that in the following account of the for- 
 mation of rain in the atmosphere, by the Rev- 
 W. Whewell, extracted from his recent work on 
 " Astronomy and General Physics, page 88, there 
 
As connected with Rain, fyc. 83 
 
 does not occur so much as an allusion jto any such 
 connexion, viz. Laws of Heat Water. u Clouds 
 are produced by aqueous vapour, when it returns to 
 the state of water. This process is condensation, 
 the reverse of evaporation. When vapour exists in 
 the atmosphere, if in any manner the temperature 
 becomes lower than the constituent temperature, re- 
 quisite for the maintenance of the vapoury state, 
 some of the steam will be condensed and will be- 
 come water. It is in tfiis manner that the curl of 
 steam from the spout of a boiling tea-kettle becomes 
 visible, being cooled down as it rushes to the air. 
 The steam condenses into a fine watery poivder, 
 which is carried about by the little aeriel currents. 
 Clouds are of the same nature with such curls, &c." 
 If this rnode of accounting for the phenomena of 
 clouds and rain does not savour more of " ces vieilles 
 chimeres, et absurdites de Tancienne ecole," alluded 
 to by Bertholon, than of the advances making in 
 other departments of science, I must own, I neither 
 know, nor can pretend to say what does ; for as, 
 notwithstanding the numerous discoveries in electri- 
 city bearing on the subject, no principle is intro- 
 duced or alluded to other than chemical ; it is such 
 an explanation of these phenomena as might natu- 
 rally have been expected at the time of Aristotle. 
 Thus demonstrating, as the fact does, that meteoro- 
 logy, considered as a science, is not only not keep- 
 ing pace with the advances making in other sciences, 
 
 G2 
 
84 Meteorology considered 
 
 but is rather in what astronomers would call a state 
 of retrogression : for, as far back as the year 1787, 
 being the period of the publication of his work al- 
 ready alluded to, Bertholon showed, by direct expe- 
 riment, the connexion of rain with electric action. 
 But, in order to prove the fallacy of the mode 
 adopted by Mr. Whewell, of accounting for the for- 
 mation of clouds and rain, it is only necessary to 
 contrast the water obtained by distillation from sea 
 water, with that which descends from the clouds : 
 for whereas the latter, even at sea, is both limpid 
 and sweet, all the art that has hitherto been ap- 
 plied to substitute it by distillation, filtration, &c. 
 has, as is known, ended in failure. The reason of 
 this is simple, viz. that, in the former case, sea water, 
 or other, after undergoing the process of decomposi- 
 tion^ by means of the solar action on the element be- 
 neath, and, consequently, of its being separated into 
 its primitive elements, oxygen and hydrogen, and 
 in this their separate and aeriform state, transferred 
 into the atmosphere, where they enter into its com- 
 position, are subsequently, by means of an opposite 
 species of meteoric action, re-united anew in the 
 middle region of the air, and in this state returned 
 to the earth in water, which thus, in order to its re- 
 novation, has to pass through a complete state of 
 revolution ; whereas, in the process of distillation, 
 from no such decomposition of water having, in the 
 first place, been effected, the condensation of it 
 
As connected with Rain, tyc. 85 
 
 from steam in this process, does little more than re- 
 turn it in its primitive state. 
 
 It is necessary to add, that one of the chief causes 
 of the error fallen into by Mr. Whewell, and others 
 on this subject, appears to be, that, as in the differ- 
 ent attempts hitherto made to analyze atmospheric 
 air, dissimilar to oxygen, hydrogen has not been 
 found to exist in it in a state of combination ; and 
 thenee it has been inferred that the principle of 
 rain, as to its source, is referable to the presence of 
 what is denominated latent moisture, or aqueous 
 vapour in the atmosphere. But do we not, in the 
 different specific gravity of hydrogen, as compared 
 with oxygen, find the cause of this, and why it were 
 impossible that it could be otherwise ? viz. that in 
 its pure or detached state, owing to its want of spe- 
 cific gravity, and comparative lightness, it were 
 impossible for hydrogen to remain suspended in 
 the same volume of air with oxygen. This the 
 absence of hydrogen in the inferior couches of 
 the atmosphere, being no proof that it does not 
 exist in equal quantity, and in an equally pure state 
 in the superior region of the atmosphere, (though, 
 unfortunately, lying beyond the range of experiment 
 to ascertain,) as what oxygen does in that which 
 lies next the earth's surface. 
 
 And as, vertically, the region of the clouds in the 
 atmosphere occupies the central space between its 
 opposite extremes; does not this circumstance alone 
 
86 Meteorology considered 
 
 sufficiently prove the correctness of the assumption 
 that hydrogen exists in the superior region of the 
 atmosphere ? As in the formation of rain one half 
 the gaseous matter (hydrogen) that enters into its 
 composition is drawn from its superior, as the re- 
 mainder (oxygen) from its opposite, or the region 
 next the earth's surface. And as revolution is the 
 conservative principle of Nature, or that on which 
 the stability of her institutions in the physical world 
 is founded ; and that the active agencies of nature, 
 both in decomposition and composition, by which 
 the principle of revolution is upheld, are electricity 
 and magnetism : how much more conformable is it 
 both to reason and experiment to suppose that in 
 this the fundamental operation by which the reno- 
 vation of the element of water is effected, no excep- 
 tion to the general rule in other cases takes place. 
 But, as action induces re-action, that as by means of 
 the direct or reflected action of the sun, electric and 
 magnetic, on the superficies of the earth beneath, 
 the gradual decomposition of its waters into their con- 
 stituent elements, oxygen and hydrogen, and their 
 sublimation into the atmosphere is, on the one hand, 
 effected ; that on the other, in ridding it of their re- 
 dundance, it is, by means of an opposite action 
 of the electric and magnetic forces in the atmosphere 
 to the preceding, by which their decomposition was 
 effected, that their opposite gaseous elements are 
 collected from its opposite extremes into the central 
 
As connected with Rain, fyc. 87 
 
 region, and reunited in the formation of water, 
 which, being thus renovated is returned anew to 
 the earth in rain ? This being the assumption of our 
 theory in reference to the formation of rain ; * and 
 which by admitting, all the anomalies of the oppo- 
 site theory disappear ; as the various electrical phe- 
 nomena by which this operation of nature in the 
 atmosphere is attended ; or its effect, whether on the 
 barometer or magnetic needle, no longer excite 
 our surprise, they being necessary results of the 
 temporary derangement and partial suspension of 
 the solar action in the region where it occurs ; and of 
 
 * It has been observed that nothing is so prolific as error : and 
 thus it is that, as the solar action has been hitherto supposed to 
 have its source in chemical principles, or combustion; whereas, in 
 reality, it is not the effect of a chemical action in the sun, but of 
 an electrical action in the local atmosphere of the earth, induced 
 by the sun. Thus it is that, among the number of false conclu- 
 sions to which this erroneous view of the subject has led, is that 
 in reference to the elements of water, when sublimated into the 
 atmosphere by the solar action, viz. that they do not undergo a 
 change of condition by decomposition ; but that, the same as if 
 rarefied by the action of fire, they remain suspended in the state 
 of vapour. But as electric action, as remarked, is one of the uni- 
 versal agencies employed by Nature both in the decomposition and 
 composition of bodies; thus it is, that the effect in this instance, 
 is totally different from what had been the case if the solar action, 
 which induces the evaporation of the waters of the earth, had its 
 source in chemical and not electrical principles. And thence the 
 origin of the error alluded to, which has so long interfered to 
 retard the progress of correct ideas in this important department 
 of science. 
 
88 Meteorology considered 
 
 the concentric action of the electric and magnetic 
 forces on these the inflammable elements of water 
 while in the act of undergoing the process of their 
 amalgamation and change of properties. This ac- 
 tion, as connected with the renovation of the ele- 
 ment of water in the atmosphere, being esteemed 
 decidedly analogous to that in the animal and vege- 
 table kingdom by which the process of their reno- 
 vation is effected. Nature, in reference to the latter, 
 as assumed, never proceeding but by means of the 
 same principles of action, and which, consequently, is 
 to be considered as in the truest sense sexual. 
 And as, in the opposite actions of the sun, electric 
 and magnetic, as connected with the principle of 
 temperature, we have an instance, as stated, of the 
 primary law of the union of opposite progressions of 
 the same kind. In these the opposite meteoric ac- 
 tions in the atmosphere connected with its opposite 
 states of drought and humidity, we are presented 
 with another and a very marked illustration of the 
 application of the same law. These opposite states 
 of the atmosphere, or rather the actions which in- 
 duce them, being the opposite extremes of the lever, 
 by the alternate action of which on the earth and its 
 atmosphere, the fundamental principle of revolution 
 in both is upheld. 
 
 Various facts and arguments might be added to 
 the preceding to show the utter fallacy of the prin- 
 ciple assumed by the Rev. W. Whewell in account- 
 
As connected with Rain, fyc. 89 
 
 ing for the phenomena of clouds and rain, were it 
 not that I consider them superfluous ; which mode 
 of accounting for these phenomena, it may be ob- 
 served, were better suited to the nursery than the 
 study, or existing march of intelligence on these 
 subjects. Besides, how were it possible to couple 
 this tea-kettle principle, with the share which the 
 lunar action is assumed to have in originating rain, 
 or with the influence exercised by the superior and 
 inferior planets on the drought or humidity of the 
 seasons, any more than with the principle of mete- 
 oric progression, &c. ? But the thing speaks for 
 itself, and shows how indispensable it is in treating 
 of natural phenomena, to have, in the first place, 
 obtained by the slow process of persevering applica- 
 tion, an elevation such as embraces within the same 
 perspective of contributing causes, the various points 
 of the extensive horizon with which they are more or 
 less intimately or remotely connected. The only 
 thing, indeed, that can be said in justification of the 
 mode adopted by Mr. Whewell and others, in ac- 
 counting for the phenomena of rain, is that which 
 has been observed in reference to accounting for the 
 phenomena of thunder, &c., on the ancient idea of 
 chemical effervescence, an^ to which may be added 
 the accounting for planetary movement on the prin- 
 ciple of universal gravitation, viz., " cet antique 
 systeme previent en sa faveur par un air de verite, 
 qui entraine presque tous les suffrages, et parcequ'il 
 
90 Meteorology considered 
 
 il est tres-facile de le coricevoir et de Pexposer." 
 However, as observed by the same author, " ce qui 
 est vraisemblable n'est pas toujours vrai; et une 
 opinion quoique consacree par une longue suite de 
 siecles, n'en est pas pour cela plus respectable, lorsque 
 le flambeau de la verite vient de dissiper les nuages 
 epais de 1'erreur." * But a common symptom, it 
 may be added, and one which of itself may be con- 
 sidered as conclusive of the imperfection of the sci- 
 ences in which it occurs, is that of mistaking for 
 primary, secondary causes; or that which is but the 
 effect, for the principle of action itself which origi- 
 nates it ; such, as assumed, being the case in the 
 different instances noticed. 
 
 Another circumstance, not slightly calculated to 
 perpetuate erroneous impressions in this department 
 of meteorology, is that of the relative difference in 
 the more or less perfect decomposition of water in 
 the atmosphere, which, as is known, is very consider- 
 able : being generally most perfect in the lower lati- 
 tudes during summer, and in the opposite or higher 
 latitudes in winter. This necessarily arises from the 
 more intense force of the electric action of the sun 
 on the temperature in the former, as of its magnetic 
 action on the temperature in the latter regions, than 
 what, in either season occurs, in the intermediate or 
 central latitudes of our hemisphere, where, during 
 
 * Voyez Bertholon, " De I'Electricite des Meteores." T. 1. p. 90. 
 
As connected with Rain, fyc. 91 
 
 winter and summer, these the opposite actions of 
 the sun are always less intense ; such decomposition 
 being necessarily less perfect in the atmosphere of 
 the latter, in summer and winter, than in the re- 
 gions on either side; as throughout the hemisphere 
 in spring and autumn. It may be further observed, 
 that the different degrees of the more or less perfect 
 decomposition of water in the volume of the air, is 
 in general correctly expressed by the different de- 
 grees of its transparency. But though the trans- 
 parency of the atmosphere, as the various degrees 
 of the more or less perfect decompositions of its air, 
 differs so widely at different times ; this does not 
 amount to a proof but that the gradual and pro- 
 gressive decomposition of the element of water be- 
 neath, and its sublimation into the atmosphere, in 
 the manner assumed, does take place. As when- 
 ever the action of the atmosphere on a piece of 
 damp linen, or other substance exposed to it, is to 
 dry, and not to continue or increase such damp- 
 ness, humid vapour, in a palpable state, cannot be 
 present in its volume : and consequently, the busi- 
 ness of decomposition, however slowly, must neces- 
 sarily be progressing in such a state of the air. 
 
 I may add that the phenomena of dew and fog 
 are the diminutives of the same species of meteoric 
 action, in which the formation of rain has its source ; 
 the principle, (viz. the blending of the opposite, or 
 electric and magnetic actions of the sun in the same 
 
92 Meteorology considered 
 
 region or couch of the atmosphere,) being the same ; 
 and the effects in these cases varying only from the 
 difference which occurs in the amount of such blend- 
 ing, and of the region of the atmosphere where it 
 occurs. The proof of this being the true theory of dew, 
 will be found in the circumstance that the periods of 
 the blending of these the opposite actions of the sun in 
 the inferior region of the atmosphere, in the diurnal 
 circle, viz. immediately after sunset and sunrise, 
 when they occur ; are those when the deposition of 
 dew is the most considerable other circumstances 
 being the same. The periods of these blendings in 
 the lunar and annual circles, are, as refers to the 
 former, the lunar octants ; and, in the latter, the 
 transition seasons, which, from after the periods of 
 the extreme degrees of heat and cold, in summer 
 and winter, extend thence to the succeeding periods 
 of the equinoxes. And which, other circumstances 
 the same, are decidedly the wettest periods of these 
 circles. But, owing to the peculiar influence exer- 
 cised by magnetic action on the aqueous condensa- 
 tion or formation of rain *, at the periods of the lu- 
 nar syzyges, as connected with the lunar circle; 
 and of the same action, but in a more powerful de- 
 
 * The discovery as to the impossibility of the formation of 
 rain in the atmosphere, without the direct co-operation of mag- 
 netic action noticed in the introduction, and which will be found 
 fully treated of in the subsequent pages, had not as yet been made 
 when this article was written. 
 
As connected with Bain, fyc. 93 
 
 gree, at the periods of the equinoxes, as will be 
 found more fully treated of in the subsequent pages ; 
 combined with that of the increasing force of the 
 magnetic action of the sun on the inferior region of 
 the atmosphere, in the fall of the year, in ridding it 
 of the redundance of its calorific base, oxygen, 
 preceding the severe colds of winter ; and the in- 
 fluence so frequently exercised on the occurrence of 
 rain by local causes; this the effect of the blend- 
 ing of the opposite actions of the sun in the atmos- 
 phere at the periods of the lunar octants is occasi- 
 onally so merged or deranged, that it were impos- 
 sible it should, while causes so much more powerful 
 and influential are in operation, be attended by 
 any very distinct or marked effects. 
 
 But, however correct the preceding view may be, 
 in reference to the principle in which the formation 
 of rain has its source, and of the place occupied by 
 this phenomenon in the economy of nature, as being 
 the pivot on which the revolution established be- 
 tween the gaseous constituents of water, dispersed 
 throughout the atmosphere, and the parent element 
 beneath turns: considering the importance of the 
 subject as connected with meteorology; as allusion 
 has been made to the experiments reported by Ber- 
 tholon, in showing its connexion with electricity, 
 various reasons induce me to insert the following 
 extracts from them; and from the views taken by the 
 the writer in reference to the phenomenon itself, viz. 
 
94 Meteorology considered 
 
 " Lorsquc les nuages sont electrise negativement, 
 et la terre dans un etat d'electricite positive, les 
 phenomenes doivent etre semblable a ceux qui ar- 
 rivent dans le cas ou ils sont doues d'une electricite 
 positive, le globe de la terre etant alors electrise 
 negativement; puisque 1'experience prouve que les 
 corps electrises par defaut se repoussent mutuelle- 
 ment, et qu' ils sont attires par ceux en qui regne 
 I'electricite par exces : ainsi la pluie tombera egale- 
 ment du nuage. Cette pluie qui tombe sur la super- 
 ficie de la terre, peut etre appelle avec juste raison 
 descendante. Mais, des que la masse de 1'atmos- 
 phere est electrisee negativement, la terre etant 
 electrique par condensation ou positivement, les 
 particules aqueuse renfermees dans la terre pres de 
 sa surface seront soumises a la vertu electrico-repul- 
 sive de la terre et a la force attractive de la masse 
 de 1'air atmospherique, et consequement s'eleveront 
 dans 1'air. Cette pluie tres fine, et souvent imper- 
 ceptible, merite d'etre nomme pluie ascendante 9 
 comme 1'ectricite qui s'echappe de la terre." * * 
 u Get efFet sera encore le meme dans le cas ou la 
 terre chargee de particules aqueuses a sa superficie, 
 seroit electrisee par rarefaction ou par defaut, Tat- 
 mosphere ^tant dans le meme circonstance electri- 
 see positivement. Les loix de I'eqnilibre propre a 
 tous les fluides et particulierement a celui de I'elec- 
 tricite, exigent cette communication reciproque et 
 alternative entre notre globe et 1'atmosphere ; des 
 
As connected with Rain, fyc. 95 
 
 observations aussi multiplies que constantes, nous 
 ont force a ne pas mconnoitre ce commerce reci- 
 proque qui existe entre la terre et les cieux. 
 
 " En bonne physique comme en chemie, il faut 
 produire les phenomenes qu'on veut expliquer, en 
 employant seulement les causes assignees ; aussi ai- 
 je cherche a m'assurer par 1'experience de la justesse 
 de 1'application des principes exposes precedem- 
 ment, au sujet dont il est ici question. Au des- 
 sous du conducteur de la machine electrique, j'ai 
 suspendu une platine de fer dont tous les bords, et 
 les angles avoient &te arrondis; j'avois eu soin au- 
 paravant de parsemer la surface inferieure de cette 
 platine de tres-petites gouttelettes d'eau. Lorsque 
 la machine electrique fut mise en jeu, on vit ces 
 gouttellettes s'elancer vers la table qui representoit 
 la terre, et donner le jolie spectacle d'une pluie 
 electrique dont la cause etoit la repulsion produite 
 par I'electricite. La force de cette pluie ou la rapi- 
 dite de la chute de ces gouttes, etoit d'autant plus 
 grande que la vertu electrique etoit plus forte; et 
 la distance de la plaque de fer a la table etoit aussi 
 relative a 1'energie de Telectricite. Pour representer 
 la pluie ascendante, ou la rosee, je mets sur le con- 
 ducteur une plaque metallique semblable a la pre- 
 cedente, mais dont la surface superieure est arrosee 
 d'un grand nombre de tres-petites gouttelettes d'eau. 
 A une distance convenable de cette platine, je place 
 un corps quelconque pardessus, pourvu qu'il soit 
 
96 Meteorology considered 
 
 conducteur ; et lorsqu'on electrise la premiere 
 plaque on voit sensiblement la pluie s'elever en 1'air 
 et donner une image de la pluie ascendante, de la 
 rosee, des brouillards et de I'evaporation de 1'eau 
 repandue sur le globe de la terre." * * 
 " Dans les divers phenomenes de la nature qui de- 
 pend de 1'electricite, ^attraction electrique existe en 
 meme terns que la repulsion electrique t et ces deux 
 causes concourent a la production des memes cffets. 
 On peut done dire en general que la pluie d'orage 
 sur-tout depend de Tattraction et de la repulsion 
 electrique, combinees ensemble, ou conspirant au 
 meme but. En effet, il n'est personne qui ne voie 
 que, les nuages etant electrises par exces, et les 
 particules aqueuse de leurs surfaces differentes etant 
 repoussees du nuage, elles sont en meme terns at- 
 tirees par la terre; et que Tattraction et la repul- 
 sion electrique conspirent a produire le meme effet. 
 Je suppose id que ^attraction et la repulsion elec- 
 triques sont deux proprietes, car il n'est pas im- 
 probable que dans la realite elles ri*en constituent 
 qu'une seule: cette idee est bien dans la nature, 
 qui est aussi simple dans ses moyens que dans sa 
 fin/'* 
 
 Here we are presented with a series of observa- 
 tions and experiments on, or connected with the 
 
 * Voyez Bertholon, " De I' Electricite des Mete'ores" Tome 2, 
 p. 154, et suiv. 
 
As connected with Rain, fyc. 97 
 
 phenomenon of rain and its accessories, not on che- 
 mical, but on electrical principles, in which les traits 
 de famille reciproque, observable between them, 
 are so striking, that they are not to be mistaken; 
 and which of itself is demonstrative of the justness 
 of their relations and mutual connexion. By them, 
 on the principle of electrical attraction and repul- 
 sion, we are shown, by reason of the opposite states 
 of electricity subsisting between the earth and its 
 atmosphere, shortly before and after thunder-storms, 
 and of the changes in the relations which take place 
 at these periods between them, why the meteoric 
 effects are so opposite, viz. in the first instance, or 
 when, by reason of the formation of the thunder 
 cloud, the atmosphere is positively electric, while 
 the earth beneath is in an opposite state, or nega- 
 tively electric, - the principle of electric attraction 
 exercised by the earth on such cloud, induces the 
 rapid and heavy descent of its contents, whether it be 
 hail or rain, thence denominated by Bertholon pluie 
 descendante, or descending rain; while, immediately 
 after the fall of such rain, owing to its having car- 
 ried with it, from its parent cloud, the redundance 
 of its electricity, and, together with itself impreg- 
 nated with it the surface strata of the earth, and 
 thence reversed the scale of electric action between 
 the earth and atmosphere ; thus, from the principle 
 of electric attraction being transferred to the atmos- 
 phere, causing that such rains are succeeded by co- 
 
 H 
 
98 Meteorology considered 
 
 pious exhalations from the earth, thence denominated 
 by him pluie ascendante. The principle in each 
 case being proved by the opposite effects produced 
 by the discharges of an electrical battery, reciprocally 
 on the opposite sides of a metallic plate, charged on 
 the reverse with a slight sprinkling of minute drops 
 of water, which thence are made to descend as rain, 
 or ascend as evaporation, according to the side of 
 the plate on which the electrical current is brought 
 to act. Thus far, it may be observed, experiment 
 and fact go hand in hand; and, together with the 
 principle of the heavy discharge of rain from a thun- 
 der-cloud, we have likewise that perhaps the only 
 true one, variously modified of the hurricanes and 
 storms by which such rains are occasionally attended, 
 viz. in great part by these the opposite electrical 
 states of the earth and atmosphere, vertically, at 
 such periods, as between proximate regions of the 
 atmosphere, horizontally, that of the true theory of 
 the winds. But of this, more in a subsequent ar- 
 ticle. 
 
 This material difference, however, occurs between 
 these and such like experiments, and the meteors 
 they are intended to represent, viz. that in the ex- 
 periment, the water intended to represent rain is al- 
 ready formed; and the apparatus employed presents 
 no more than an electrical agency; whereas, in the 
 meteor, the rain is called into being, or generated 
 from its gaseous or aeriform elements; and electric 
 action, instead of being, as in the experiment, in its 
 
As connected with Rain, $c. 99 
 
 simple or detached state, is always in combination 
 with magnetism; considering the earth and its at- 
 mosphere as a thermo-electrical comMnation^-and 
 which, consequently, to judge by such experiments, 
 or deduce conclusions from them, were about the 
 same as to judge of a countenance by its profile. 
 As these experiments, however imperfectly, not- 
 withstanding, sufficiently prove the connexion of 
 electricity with these meteors, and that the law is 
 known by which electrical and magnetic currents are 
 governed, when, as in the atmosphere, combined, 
 viz. that they traverse or cross each other at right 
 angles : the application of this law may probably be 
 used with effect, in explaining some of the most im- 
 portant phenomena of the atmosphere ; for, assum- 
 ing magnetic action, to be, in all cases, combined 
 with electric, in the formation of rain, and its acces- 
 sory phenomena ; if the axis of the meteor in the 
 middle region in which the latter, or formation of 
 rain, had its source, were vertical, the currents it 
 induced, according to this law, should be rotary. 
 And as, particularly at the equinoxes, and during 
 winter, the most violent tempests usually commence 
 in a particular region of the atmosphere, and thence 
 gradually advance to an opposite, if this the axes of 
 horizontal progression of such meteors were, sup- 
 pose, from south to north, the currents they created, 
 as being at right angles with such axes, should be 
 east or west, and vice versa. But, as the region 
 
 H 2 
 
100 Meteorology considered 
 
 * 
 
 in which storm and rain originate is more or less ele- 
 vated, according to the latitude and season, and 
 thence, on the principle of re-action, that when a 
 current is induced in the inferior region by the me- 
 teor in which these phenomena have their source, 
 an opposite current will, of necessity, be originated 
 immediately above it, or in the superior region of 
 the atmosphere. On these principles, we are ena- 
 bled, in the first place, to account for the opposition 
 of the currents in the superior and inferior regions 
 of the atmosphere, so frequently noticed; their source, 
 as that of the opposition noticed in their direction, 
 being in the meteoric action progressing at the 
 time in the central region by which they are sepa- 
 rated; and, in the second place, why it is that storms 
 take a direction at right angles with the axes of 
 their progression. An instance of the latter will be 
 found noticed in the " Weather-Guide Book" pub- 
 lished by me in 1834, page 256, in the gale which 
 commenced on the Irish coast on the llth of June, 
 1833, and which thence passed over Black Pool, on 
 the coast of Lancashire, on the following day, where 
 it caused the wreck of ten ships, and finally reached 
 London and its vicinity on the 14th, where, the 
 mischief it occasioned, as stated in the papers, was 
 incalculable. The axis of progression of this me- 
 teor being from north west to south east, while the 
 direction of the hurricane it induced was from the 
 south west to north east; being, as there noticed, 
 
As connected with Rain, fyc. 101 
 
 (though, from its not being apprehended at the time, 
 no allusion is made to the principle,) nearly at 
 right angles with its axis of progression. And, as 
 the facts in these cases are in accordance, at once, 
 with theory and experiment, they seem to place, 
 heyond doubt, the correctness of the principles as- 
 sumed. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to add, that, in reference to 
 the first case assumed, or when the axes of these 
 meteors are vertical, we are presented with the 
 principle or cause (the only true one, as far as I am 
 aware of, hitherto proposed,) in which the trornbe, 
 or water-spout, the whirlwind, and this class of phe- 
 nomena, has its source. For, as the movement of ro- 
 tation round their axes, in the middle or superior 
 region of the atmosphere at their commencement, in- 
 creases in its dimensions with their increase, and 
 extends progressively in the direction of the earth, 
 in the form of an inverted cone as soon as it has 
 reached the latter, simply by the force of the suction it 
 induces, both water and other substances that come 
 within its vortex, are, proportioned to its force, ele- 
 vated into the air in the direction of its focus; from 
 which they are subsequently projected in an opposite 
 direction to that of its progression. And, as in the 
 latter case, and thunder-cloud, equally as in the ex- 
 periment of the helix, we have an instance of the 
 effects induced by the electric and magnetic forces, 
 when collected on, and revolving round a local 
 
102 Meteorology considered 
 
 centre or axis; I may add, that in this the concen- 
 tric action of these forces in the atmosphere, equally 
 as in the case of the larger class of globular meteors, 
 or those from whose bosoms meteoric stones are oc- 
 casionally projected we have so many instances of 
 their action, as in the earth and remainder of the 
 planets, giving birth to and producing, in these res- 
 pective meteors, a force of gravitation : for, it is 
 owing to this circumstance, and to the direction of 
 this new force of gravitation being, on one side, di- 
 rectly opposed to this action in the earth immediately 
 beneath, as being a homogeneous action, and only 
 in consequence thereof, that the measure of terres- 
 trial gravity, on the volume of the atmosphere, 
 could be affected ; so that, in this circumstance, we 
 have explained to us not only the principle of the 
 vortex, or attractive action exercised by such me- 
 teors on the proximate regions of the atmosphere, 
 but the true cause of the fall of the mercury in the 
 tube of the barometer, which they occasion ; the 
 latter keeping exact pace in its amount with that of 
 the force of concentration or gravity, at the time, 
 acting on their axes. For, to suppose that the spe- 
 cific gravity of the atmosphere could be affected by 
 any other than by the intervention of a similar prin- 
 ciple to that in which it has its source, were the 
 same as to suppose that the weight of a body sus- 
 pended on one side of a steel-yard could be affected, 
 except by means of the action, more or less consi- 
 
As connected with Rain, fyc. 103 
 
 derable, of a similar or other body suspended on the 
 opposite: as in each case the intrinsic specific gravity 
 of the body itself is still the same, and is only altered 
 by reason of a similar action being opposed to, at 
 the time, and coming into collision with it. And (as 
 is the case of the summits or higher regions of 
 mountains,) any circumstance which varies or dis- 
 turbs the equilibrium of the action of gravitation on 
 the atmosphere, has the effect of disposing it, more 
 or less, to the species of meteoric action in which 
 rain has its source, and vice versa. Thus if, for in- 
 stance, a comet happened to approach so near to 
 the earth, as that, similar to the larger class of me- 
 teors, the local concentric action of the electric and 
 magnetic forces on it, had the effect of disturbing 
 the equilibrium of its gravitation in the atmosphere. 
 It is easy to see that, on the principle noticed, the 
 seasons of the approach of such bodies would be 
 more or less remarkable for rain ; and, on the con- 
 trary, that when comets ranged at such a distance 
 as that, without affecting the local action of gravity 
 on the atmosphere, by increasing the sum of reflec- 
 tive action, they rather added thereto ; the contrary, 
 or increased drought in the seasons would be the 
 result. *** 
 
104 Geogaphical Distribution 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Application of Principles : Climate, in Reference 
 to the Geographical Distribution of Animals 
 and Plants. 
 
 BE this however, as it may, as in treating of the 
 assumed connexion of planetary influence with the 
 changes of the seasons, we shall have to resume, on 
 different grounds, the subject of comets: having 
 thus touched in detail on the leading phenomena 
 connected with the earth and its atmosphere; and 
 guided at once by observation and experiment, 
 traced them, as assumed, to their respective causes, 
 or first principles : we shall now proceed with the 
 no less important task of showing the application 
 which may be made of these principles to some of 
 the various objects of utility with which they are 
 connected. 
 
 These objects may be classed under the following 
 general heads, viz. as connected with climate, in re- 
 ference to the geographical distribution of animals 
 and plants; with minearology; with earthquakes, 
 and volcanic action ; with localities , in reference to 
 their assumed influence on the temperature and 
 weather ; with planetary and cometary influence on 
 the seasons ; and finally, as connected with the equi- 
 
Of Animals and Plants. 105 
 
 noctial phenomena, and the lunar action on the 
 weather. 
 
 And first as regards climate : were the principle 
 of temperature in the atmosphere, derived from the 
 opposite actions, electrical and magnetic, of the sun; 
 the whole of the dispositions and mechanism of na- 
 ture in the earth and remainder of the planets, 
 whether local or external, as connected with the 
 temperature, the variations in the animal and vege- 
 table kingdoms connected with those of climate, or 
 the phenomena of the seasons and weather, would 
 be found in accordance therewith ; so that, deprived 
 of all other, the facts connected with the latter 
 would, of themselves, serve as the most certain and 
 conclusive proofs, in reference to the correctness of 
 the principles assumed. 
 
 In proof of this, as connected with that most im- 
 portant subject, the geographical distribution of 
 animals and plants: owing to the circumstance 
 that the magnetic, equally as the electric action of 
 the sun, is one of the principles which enters into 
 and determines the peculiar nature of climate as 
 connected with the constitution of animals and 
 plants ; and that the positions of the opposite main 
 foci of the magnetic action of the sun in either he- 
 misphere, or magnetic poles, are equally fixed and 
 invariable, as the position occupied by that of its 
 electric action at the Line. This causes that as 
 great a difference in reference to the meteoric 
 
106 Geographical Distribution 
 
 conditions which determine the nature of climate, 
 exists along the varying scale of longitude in 
 either hemisphere, however imperceptible in the 
 temperature, as on that of latitude. And hence, 
 as assumed, the source of the mystery which 
 has so long involved the subject of climate, and 
 which has baffled all the attempts hitherto made to 
 ascertain its cause ; as shown by the failure which, 
 as in the case of the tea-plant, and others, has so 
 frequently attended the attempts that have been 
 made to introduce some of the products of certain 
 countries, where, from the climate being considered 
 the same, or better, it was supposed they would suc- 
 ceed equally well as in those of their nativity: this 
 being a necessary consequence of the ignorance of 
 principles. But as with the exception of the 
 difference that occurs in the nature of the magnetic 
 action of the sun on the opposite hemispheres of 
 the earth, the same conditions of climate exist 
 equally in both; but that from the difference in the 
 sites of their magnetic poles, these conditions are, 
 in regard to their positions, necessarily reversed to 
 each other. Thus it is that, however diversified, 
 and different in their positions, a common identity 
 or sameness of climates exist in the opposite hemis- 
 pheres ; in this, that there is no climate in either, 
 as regards the circumstance of meteoric conditions . 
 but that a similar climate may be found in the op- 
 posite. 
 
Of Animals and Plants. 107 
 
 And consequently there is no product of the ani- 
 mal or vegetable kingdom, however delicate, in 
 either hemisphere, for which a suitable climate is 
 not to be found in the opposite, equally adapted to 
 its introduction as that where it was originally 
 found and of which it is a native. 
 
 Thus as, according to the principle assumed, the 
 chief source of error hitherto, in reference to cli- 
 mate, consisted in not having taken into account 
 the cirumstance of longitude, (or difference of 
 magnetic action,) equally as of latitude, (or the dif- 
 ference of electric action,) though a glance at the 
 difference which exists between the products of the 
 animal and vegetable kingdoms of the opposite ex- 
 tremes of the scale of longitude, within the same 
 parallels of either hemisphere, as between those of 
 latitude ; will immediately show, assuming it to be 
 the cause, the extent of the influence on both, ex- 
 ercised by the former, equally as by the latter ac- 
 tion of the sun. As connected with this subject, 
 the following observation from the preface of an 
 agricultural work, published in Dublin, 1764, by 
 Mr. H. Rowlands, may be considered, from its no- 
 velty, as not a little curious; being, indeed, the 
 only one bearing on the assumed connexion of 
 magnetism with the constitution of plants, that I 
 have met with, viz. " And probably it may also be 
 a means to discover the proper subject of that 
 noted magnetism, which is observed to lie in the 
 substance of the mold, attracting into it in great 
 
10$ Geographical Distribution 
 
 proportions the analogous salts and sulphurs of the 
 air, of which the Italian virtuosos in their country 
 have discovered very notable instances." 
 
 Assuming then, that magnetic action is equally 
 operaticve and influential as electric, on the constitu- 
 tion of animals and plants; and that as great a 
 variety occurs in the nature of magnetic action on 
 the varying scale of longitude in either hemisphere, 
 as on that of latitude ; and at the same time that 
 an equalisation of climates, as stated, exists be- 
 tween the opposite hemispheres. Without entering 
 further into the subject in this place, I shall con- 
 fine myself to pointing out a rule by which the 
 same meteoric equivalents in either hemisphere, as 
 refers to climate, may be found in the opposite, 
 other circumstances being the same, viz. Having 
 ascrtained the latitude and longitude of the place 
 in either hemisphere, where, in the opposite, a simi- 
 lar climate is sought to be found : by referring to 
 the same degree of latitude, and adding to the de- 
 gree of longitude if suppose west from Greenwich 
 the number which, combined with it, makes the 
 sum of 180; such additional number, east longi- 
 tude, in the opposite hemisphere, will be the site of 
 the climate required: and vice versa, as refers to 
 east and west, on the contrasted scales of their lon- 
 gitude. 
 
 By the application of this simple rule, as as- 
 sumed an obstacle hitherto insurmountable may at 
 
Of Animals and Plants. 109 
 
 once be got rid of; and thereby an interchange of 
 some of the most valuable products of either hemis- 
 phere be made with the opposite ; and by means of 
 such reciprocal exchanges of the local advantages 
 possessed by either with the other, thus, at once, 
 increasing their amount, and the range of their 
 usefulness. And notwithstanding that, in the ab- 
 sence of trial, in a matter such as this, it cannot be 
 expected that much in the way of proof can be re- 
 fered to, in illustration of the principle assumed. 
 By contrasting the site of what is called the tea- 
 country of China and Japan in the northern, with 
 that of Paraguay in the southern hemisphere, 
 where, only, in that part of the world a species of 
 the tea-plant is found indigenous, viz. the celebra- 
 ted Matte, or as the Spaniards denominate it Yer- 
 la de Camim; it will at once be seen what a close 
 approach to an identity of climate, on the princi- 
 ples assumed, exists between these countries. And 
 that this influence of climate is not confined to the 
 vegetable kingdom, the success which has attended 
 the introduction of the merinos into New South 
 Wales may be considered as affording a proof no 
 less in point, or striking, than the instance cited. 
 For, in examining the conditions of climate sub- 
 sisting between the southern provinces of Spain, in 
 the one, and the vicinity of Sidney in the other he- 
 misphere, they will be found equally proximate as 
 in the case of their tea-countries. Thus shewing what 
 
110 Climate, as connected 
 
 an extensive field of tempting speculation is opened 
 to the inhabitants of that rising colony, to introduce 
 and domesticate the Spanish vine and olive in their 
 fields, equally as the merinos. For if, as there is 
 some reason to suppose, a similar improvement of 
 quality in the produce of these plants attended their 
 introduction into Australia, as occurred in the case 
 of the Merino wool: instead of having any thing to 
 apprehend on the score of failure, an improvement 
 in each case might be anticipated; as though it were 
 a bounty held out by nature to such as, in this way, 
 extend the empire of her most useful gifts.* 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Climate as connected with the Mineral Kingdom. 
 
 IN reference to the connexion of climate with the 
 mineral kingdom, though it is necessarily much 
 more questionable than in the case of animals and 
 plants; yet, as it has been touched on by others, I 
 
 * I may notice, en passant, that a paper on this interesting sub- 
 ject was forwarded by me in the summer of 1834 to the then colo- 
 nial secretary, which contained much that, I considered, might 
 prove of importance to the interests of our colonies : but I have 
 not learned whether or not any particular attention has been paid 
 to it. 
 
With the Mineral Kingdom. Ill 
 
 should consider it remiss not to notice the subject 
 in this place. For, it may be recollected,, that St. 
 Pierre, in the affluence of his imaginings, considered 
 that a very marked connexion is apparent between 
 the sites of gold mines and the summits of the higher 
 ranges of mountains, but more particularly those 
 which are permanently covered with snow. And be 
 it remembered that, though, as relates to princi- 
 ples, this supposition may be worth nothing ; it is 
 that of a man who, notwithstanding the errors (and 
 they are not few,) which he has fallen into, has pro- 
 duced a work on Nature, which promises to be no 
 less durable than its subject, " Je remarquerai ici, 
 au sujet des mines d'or," he observes, fc qu'elles sont 
 placees, ainsi que celles de tous les metaux, non- 
 seulement dans les parties les plus elevees des con- 
 tinens, mais dans des montagnes a glace. Les fa- 
 meuses mines d'or du Perou et du Chily sont, 
 comme on sait, dans les Cordelieres; les mines d'or 
 du Mexique sont situees aux environs de la mon- 
 tagne de Sainte-Marthe, qui est couverte de neige 
 toute 1'annee. Les fleuves de PEurope qui roulent 
 de Tor sur leur rivages, sortent des montagnes a 
 glace." " Cette observation peut s'etendre, 
 
 comme je le crois, a toutes les mines d'or dumonde, 
 meme a celles de 1'Afrique dont les rivieres qui cha- 
 rient le plus de poudre d'or, comme le Senegal, de- 
 scendent des montagnes de la lune." * " Quoi- 
 qu' il en soit, on peut presumer de ce que les mines 
 
112 Climate, as connected 
 
 d'or sont placees dans les lieux les plus eleves tin 
 continent, que leurs matrices, recueillent dans Fat- 
 mosphere les parties volatilisees de For, qui s'y 
 elevent avec les emanations fossiles et aquatiques 
 que les vents y apportent de toutes parts." Etudes 
 de la Nature, Tom. 2, p. 292, et suiv. Such are 
 the ideas of St. Pierre alluded to. And even ad- 
 mitting the insufficiency of the attractive principle 
 to account for the circumstance noticed; this coin- 
 cidence between the sites of the generality of gold 
 mines and the summits of mountains, or the most 
 elevated points of the earth's superficies, is, to say 
 the least of it, not a little curious and remarkable. 
 And as the brilliant discoveries of Sir H. Davy 
 show that through the medium of electric action, 
 the earths are resolvable to metallic bases \ and fur- 
 ther, that, as refers ti this general law, even the air 
 we breathe, proves no exception, as shown by the 
 aerolite ; but that when acted on by the electric 
 spark in the larger class of meteors, its impalpable 
 volume resolves into an earthy and metallic base. 
 If in addition we assume, as I hold to be the case, 
 that the whole of the active forces of nature in the 
 physical world, whether as connected with the op- 
 posite processes of composition, or decomposition, 
 are either immediately referable to, or derived from 
 electric and magnetic action; and that, from the 
 substances which compose the solid crust of the 
 earth, equally as its waters, belonging to the class 
 
With the Mineral Kingdom. 113 
 
 of what are called conductors, they are alike per- 
 meable to the action of the electric and magnetic 
 forces, though differently, as the superincumbent at- 
 mosphere itself. 
 
 And thus, assuming that these the universal 
 agents of Nature admit neither of suspension in 
 their action, or of restraint, but that the march of 
 their activity is equally interminable on the one 
 hand, as boundless in its range on the other; that 
 they always act in conjunction, notwithstanding 
 that in the relative degrees of their united agency, 
 as connected with the various regions of the earth 
 and its atmosphere, they are modified ad infinitum. 
 If, considered under this point of view, that a con- 
 nexion were found generally to subsist between cli- 
 mate and the sites of the chief mineral districts of 
 the opposite hemispheres, according to the princi- 
 ples assumed; instead of detracting from the value 
 of the assumption of St. Pierre, as to the supposed 
 influence of climate on the formation of metals, &c. 
 it would, on the contrary, rather add weight thereto. 
 And by contrasting, as in the instance of the tea- 
 plant, the mines of Hindostan, China, and Japan, 
 with those of Mexico, Peru, and the Brazils, as 
 connected with the opposite hemispheres, whether 
 in reference to the precious metals, gems, &c., the 
 same striking coincidence in this respect will be 
 found to subsist between them, as in the former^ 
 case. Borax may likewise be noticed in the way of 
 
 I 
 
114 Meteorology considered 
 
 illustration, as perhaps of all fossil substances, if 
 we except the diamond',* it is that which shows the 
 most marked connexion, in this respect, with cli- 
 mate. This substance, as is known, being almost 
 exclusively confined to Tibet in the northern, and 
 to the neighbourhood of Potosi in the southern he- 
 misphere; and consequently, the coincidence it pre- 
 sents, is still more marked than in the preceding in- 
 stances. But even though the assumed connexion 
 between the mineral kingdom and climate really ex- 
 isted, it could only be considered as curious in a 
 scientific point of view; as the deductions to be 
 drawn from it are so general and vague, that it is 
 not likely they can ever lead to any thing really 
 practical or useful. 
 
 " L'origine des meteaux," observes Raynal, " n'a 
 pas ete totijours bien connue. On a cru long-terns 
 qu'ils etoient aussi anciens que le monde. On pense 
 aujourd'hui, avec plus de raison, qu'ils se forwent 
 successivement. II n'est pas possible en effect de 
 douter que la nature ne soit dans une action conti- 
 nuelle, et que ses reports ne soient aussi agissans 
 sous nos pieds que sur notre tete." Histoire Phi- 
 losophique. Tome sixieme, page 51. 
 
 * By contrasting the geographical position of Solempour, the 
 chief diamond mine of Hindostan, with that of Caravelas, and Terro 
 de Frio, in Brazil, under this point of view, the coincidence will 
 appear not a little remarkable. 
 
With Earthquakes^ fyc. 115 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 Climate, as connected with Earthquakes, and 
 Vdlcanic Action. 
 
 IN reference to the destructive phenomena of 
 earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, were it not that 
 I consider them, however remotely, as being con- 
 nected with meteoric action, I should not notice 
 them in this place ; and as, in our inquiry, it will be 
 necessary to recur a little to first principles, from 
 the circumstance that opinions are divided in regard 
 to their source, I shall commence with the following, 
 as it appears to be the most generally accredited 
 account of them, taken from Dr. Ure's Dictionary 
 of Chemistry, article volcanoes: " The combustion 
 of those enormous masses of bitumen, which are de- 
 posited in the bowels of the earth, produces volca- 
 noes. They owe their origin more especially to the 
 strata of pyritous coal. The decomposition or ac- 
 tion of water upon the pyrites, determines the heat, 
 and the production of a great quantity of hydrogen, 
 which exerts itself against the surrounding obstacles 
 and at length breaks them. This effect appears to 
 be the chief cause of earthquakes ; but when the 
 concourse of air facilitates the combustion of the bi- 
 tumen and the hydrogen, the flame is seen to issue 
 
 12 
 
116 Climate, as connected 
 
 out of the chimneys or vents which are made ; and 
 this occasions the fire of volcanoes/' Again, 
 *' When the decomposition of the pyrites is advanced, 
 and the vapours and elastic fluids can no longer be 
 contained in the bowels of the earth, the ground is 
 shaken, and exhibits the phenomenon of earth- 
 quakes. Mephitic vapours are multiplied on the sur- 
 face of the ground, and dreadful hollow noises are 
 heard, &c." Thus, it will be seen, the doctor very 
 naturally accounts for these phenomena on chemical 
 principles ; and it must be allowed, if we were to 
 judge from appearances, that such were really those 
 in which they have their source. But, as has been 
 ingeniously observed by Fontanelle, " En physique, 
 des-qu'une chose peut-etre de deuxfagons, elle est 
 ordinairement de celle qui est la plus contraire aux 
 apparences. II est possible que la terre tourne 
 autour du soleil, ou le soleil autour de la terre, et 
 c j est ce dernier, que paroit aux yeux de tout le 
 monde, ce sera done le premier qui sera le vrai, &c." 
 And thus, notwithstanding appearances, probably it 
 is, in reference to the source of earthquakes and vol- 
 canoes; for, similar to the commonly accredited 
 theory of solar light and heat being derived from the 
 principle of combustion in the sun one of the most 
 conclusive arguments that can be opposed to it, ap- 
 pears to be derived from the circumstance that, 
 without the operation of a different cause in the 
 phenomena of volcanoes and earthquakes, than the 
 
With Earthquakes, fyc. 
 
 chemical one of fermentation , it were impossible 
 that the bowels of the earth could have supplied* 
 through such a countless succession of ages as the 
 past, fresh pabulum or combustible matter to be 
 acted on ; and still, notwithstanding, as in the case 
 of the solar light and heat alluded to, without any 
 sensible diminution or falling off having taken place 
 in the mean amount of these phenomena. Besides, 
 as is known, it is of the nature of combustion, when 
 it sets in, that if it be not arrested in its course and 
 extinguished, it continues to consume all the com- 
 bustible matter that comes within its reach, and 
 that it only ceases when it has no longer such matter 
 to act on ; and, consequently that, under this point 
 of view, as chemical combustion (which, it may be 
 observed, cannot exist in the absence of air, any 
 more than hydrogen gas in an elastic state, when it 
 comes into collision with water,) only ceases from 
 exhaustion, or when it no longer has matter to act 
 on ; and thence, necessarily, leaves in the locality it 
 has once visited, no further pabulum to minister 
 anew to the same species of action. 
 
 How were it possible, on these principles, to ac- 
 count for a renewal of the same phenomena, after 
 stated intervals of time in particular localities, such 
 as Vesuvius, Etna, and other volcanoes, which, from 
 the earliest records of time, have continued in acti- 
 vity, without any apparent falling off in the frequency 
 or force of their eruptions being perceptible ? And, 
 
118 Climate, as connected 
 
 on the other hand, as regards earthquakes, had they 
 their source, as supposed, in the principle of explo- 
 sion, the effect would, as in the case of mines, be 
 both local and simultaneous; whereas, the contrary 
 occurs in earthquakes, which, as not unfrequently 
 happens, continue during several days, weeks, and 
 even months at a time, similar to that which com- 
 menced in Calabria on the 5th February, 1783, and 
 continued its destructive effects both there and 
 throughout Sicily during the five folio wing months. It 
 is further characteristic of earthquakes, that they in 
 general commence at a particular point, and thence 
 extend to distances more or less considerable, simi- 
 lar to that of the 1st November, 1755, by which the 
 city of Lisbon was destroyed, and which, as is 
 known, extended to different parts of Europe and 
 Africa; and that of the 13th October, 1604, by 
 which the town of Catania, in Sicily, was destroyed, 
 and which, we are told, was felt even at Lima, on 
 the opposite side of the earth! Another circum- 
 stance connected with earthquakes is likewise worthy 
 of notice, viz. that certain places in the line of their 
 progression remain unaffected, while those on either 
 side are convulsed by their action; thus proving, as 
 observed by M. Gueneau de Montbeillard, that " ce 
 n'est point par la communication des terreins con- 
 tigus que se propagent les tretnblemens, puisque 
 des pays intermediates quelquefois plus eleves, 
 
With Earthquakes, $c. 119 
 
 quelquefois plus has ne sont point ebranles"* Be- 
 sides, if volcanic eruptions were effects simply of 
 combustion, induced by fermentation in the bowels 
 of the earth, how were it possible they should be 
 accompanied by those zigzag flashes of lightning 
 which are so evidently of electric origin ? and which, 
 as will be seen in Mr. Hamilton's account of the 
 famous eruption of Vesuvius, which happened in 
 August, 1779, published in the Philosophical Trans- 
 actions, form so conspicuous a feature in these phe- 
 nomena ; indeed, it is only by assuming, with Bef- 
 tholon, that earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are 
 effects of electrical agency , and result from the re- 
 covery of the equilibrium of electric action between 
 the earth and its atmosphere when disturbed, that 
 such insurmountable difficulties as these noticed, 
 and which are not to be explained on chemical prin- 
 ciples, can be accounted for. As, in admitting elec- 
 tricity to be the moteur in these, as in the other 
 grand phenomena of nature, the difficulties con- 
 nected with the opposite theory immediately disap- 
 pear, from the circumstance, that in it we have an 
 agent, in all respects adequate to the production of 
 these the tremendous effects by which they are at- 
 tended. 
 
 It has been already observed, and cannot be too 
 frequently repeated, that of all the errors fallen 
 
 * Journal Encyclopdique, 1769, Dec. 1, pag. 459. 
 
120 Climate, as connected 
 
 into by philosophers, in their attempts to account 
 for natural phenomena, the most general, and inju- 
 rious to the interests of science, has been that of 
 mistaking secondary for first causes. For, as if a 
 necessary result of our ignorance of first principles, 
 in examining the original ideas and opinions that 
 have been advanced in reference to the assumed 
 sources of natural phenomena, hardly an exception 
 occurs in this, that what has proved to be no more 
 than an effect, has, in the first place, been set down 
 as the cause itself. Thus, as assumed, it is, in re- 
 gard to the principles of heat and cold in the at- 
 mosphere, and of gravitation, and to which, in the 
 present instance, the principle of fermentation, in 
 regard to the source of earthquakes and volcanic 
 eruptions, may be added. And as, in reference to 
 electrical, as contrasted with chemical principles, 
 our acquaintance with the latter preceded our ac- 
 quaintance with the former, is it to be wondered at 
 that, as in other cases, and being, as they are, most 
 assuredly, the most obmous, they should have been 
 the first referred to, in accounting for these pheno- 
 mena ? But, in reference to electrical, as contrasted 
 with chemical principles, it is to be observed, that 
 together with the latter being occasionally derived 
 from the former, electric action has this peculiar to 
 itself, that it is not only infinitely more efficacious 
 and powerful, as an agent, than chemical action, 
 but that its effects, however considerable, are brought 
 
With Earthquakes, $c. 121 
 
 about almost instantaneously. I may add, in refer- 
 ence to this mysterious agency, that, as from the pe- 
 riod of our first acquaintance with electricity, the 
 sphere of its activity in nature has been found con- 
 stantly more enlarged than was previously supposed ; 
 that it has kept pace, in its increase, with that of our 
 increased acquaintance with it; till at length, nume- 
 rous concurrent circumstances lead us to conclude 
 that the limits of its activity are only circumscribed 
 by those of nature itself. And as, being a conse- 
 quence, that, in proportion as assumptions have 
 been hazarded in regard to this the increased range 
 of electrical agency, experience has continually 
 proved, that we were, in the same proportion, right. 
 Thus, to resume the subject of volcanoes. As it 
 is supposed there are no less than seventy-six of 
 them still in activity, of which four are in Europe ; 
 twenty-four in Asia ; three in Africa and the neigh- 
 bouring islands ; forty in America ; and five in the 
 islands of the Pacific Ocean ; how were it possible, 
 without the presence of an agent such as electric ac- 
 tion, to whose touch, as is known, the hardest of 
 terrestrial substances is but as wax, for a quantity of 
 pabulum, such as these consume and eject, to be 
 supplied to the same sources through such a series 
 .of ages, and yet without suffering any sensible dimi- 
 nution in its amount ? Indeed, as Nature, under 
 similar circumstances, is always found to be analo- 
 gous, in order to understand the true theory of vol- 
 
122 Climate, as connected 
 
 canoes, it were, probably, right to refer to tbe man- 
 ner in which (assuming them to be united,) the 
 primary electrical and magnetic forces act in the 
 larger class of globular meteors : for, though these 
 bodies originate in the local atmosphere of the earth, 
 they do not, in my opinion, though in miniature, 
 the less truly represent the manner in which these 
 forces act, as refers to internal combustion in the 
 sun and planets. For, as when the equilibrium of 
 electric action in globular meteors is destroyed, by 
 the repulsive force from within overcoming the at- 
 tractive force on their superficies from without, ex- 
 plosion ensues, in which the lava they engender is 
 projected to the earth in the shape of meteoric 
 stones. Thus, as assumed, it is in the case of vol- 
 canoes, whose throes, as we are told, have been 
 known occasionally to shake the entire globe of the 
 earth that when the equilibrium of electric, or rather 
 of meteoric action between the earth and its atmos- 
 phere in any of its regions is disturbed, that it vents 
 itself either in earthquakes or in volcanic eruptions, 
 till restored. And were our assumption correct in 
 regard to meteors, and that comets belonged to this 
 class of bodies, it would lead to the conclusion that 
 the whole of the heavenly bodies had their source in 
 the same species of action, which would account for 
 the formation and extent of the granit strata, so 
 generally diffused over the entire superficies of the 
 earth, being as they are a species of lava, and, con- 
 
With Earthquakes, $c. 123 
 
 scquently, derived from a similar source of action as 
 the latter. And, as the axes of the orbits of the pla- 
 nets pass through the centre of the sun, and are as- 
 sumed to be that of liis rotation, or rather of his 
 magnetic poles. As further illustrative of the cor- 
 rectness of our assumption in reference to the ana- 
 logy supposed to exist between the globular class 
 of meteors and the planets, as evinced by their pos- 
 sessing (as far as we are enabled to judge of,) the 
 same polarities as the latter bodies, that if this were 
 the case, their direction in traversing the atmos- 
 phere should correspond with that taken by the 
 planets in their orbital courses in reference to the 
 sun, i. e. that the direction of such meteors should 
 be the same as that of the magnetic meridian. By 
 a reference to facts, we shall find that this is really 
 the case, as, notwithstanding their inherent principle 
 of movement, which would seem to render them in- 
 dependent of the magnetic attraction of the poles of 
 the earth, the progression of the generality, if not 
 the entire of the globular meteors, has been ob- 
 served to be along the magnetic meridian, or from 
 N. W. to S. E. Such was the direction of the 
 famous meteor of the 17th July, 1771, as observed 
 both from France and England : "son movement," 
 in the words of the celebrated Lalande, " se fit du 
 nordouest au sud-est^ ou plus, approchant cependant 
 de la direction nord et sud/' Such was the direc- 
 tion of that which appeared in England on the 
 
124 Climate, as connected 
 
 night of the 18th August, 1783, in passing over 
 London, which, as the preceding came from the 
 N. W. and passed on to the south-east,* being thus 
 so far corroborative of the principle in which, ac- 
 cording to our theory, the elliptical movement of the 
 planets has its source. 
 
 But to resume the subject of volcanoes. As it 
 was not my intention, in introducing it, to notice 
 more than its assumed connexion with meteoric ac- 
 tion, I would beg to direct the attention of those 
 who are curious on the subject, to the work of 
 M. Bertholon, already cited, where they will find, 
 perhaps, the most complete digest of all that history 
 has transmitted to us of the most memorable erup- 
 tions and earthquakes that is to be met with. But, 
 assuming the connexion of these phenomena with 
 meteoric action, and that the principle on which it 
 depends, as stated, consists in the preservation or 
 derangement of the equilibrium of electric action 
 between the earth and its atmosphere. As, in the 
 list of natural causes which might be supposed the 
 most capable of preserving this equilibrium, the 
 equal succession of drought and rain after short in- 
 tervals of time, were that which should the most 
 perfectly establish and uphold it; as the absence of 
 such a succession of changes in the weather were, on 
 
 * Bertholon, " De L'Electricite des Meteores." Tome Second, 
 pag. 18, &c. 
 
With Earthquakes, $c. 125 
 
 the contrary, that which should the most naturally 
 disturb and overthrow it. And further, that as in 
 most of the subjects connected with meteoric action, 
 similar to climate, the lunar action on the weather, 
 &c. it is only by grappling with ensembles, that cor- 
 rect ideas are to be arrived at or obtained. By com- 
 paring the positions of the great majority of the 
 volcanoes of the opposite hemispheres of the earth, 
 equally as their number, though, in reference to the 
 latter, the greater part are situated in the southern 
 hemisphere; yet they will be found to be connected 
 with the same axis of meteoric action in both, viz. 
 that which is reversed to tJie axis of their magnetic 
 poles ; and thus that they are situated in the same 
 direction in these hemispheres as that of their great 
 mineral districts. And which circumstance of the 
 axis of meteoric action, as connected with these the 
 opposite hemispheres, being thus reversed to that of 
 their magnetic poles, (as I hope to show, in treating 
 of climate,) exercises a very material influence in dis- 
 turbing the equilibrium of electric action between 
 the earth and its atmosphere. For, to come to parti- 
 culars, did the upholding or loss of the equilibrium 
 of electric or meteoric action, between the earth and 
 its atmosphere, depend on the principle assumed, 
 viz. that of the regular succession of changes in the 
 weather, from drought to rain, as from rain to 
 drought ; or the interruption and suspension of this 
 succession of changes in the weather. As the coun- 
 
126 Climate, as connected 
 
 tries of the middle latitudes, and more particularly 
 such of the latter as possessed (similar to Ireland,) 
 the most temperate and humid skies, were those 
 where the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanoes 
 should be the least frequent ; and, on the contrary, 
 that the countries of the lower latitudes, owing to 
 the absence of rain, were those where this equili- 
 brium were the most frequently disturbed, and, con- 
 sequently, should be those the most subject to both ; 
 and that, were there in the latter any region where, 
 owing to the influence of local causes, less rain oc- 
 curred throughout the year than elsewhere; such, ac- 
 cording to the principle assumed, should be that 
 which was the most remarkable for earthquakes and 
 volcanic action. And accordingly, by testing the 
 principle with facts, we shall find it so fully borne 
 out, that, did the decision of the question depend 
 on this, it must be considered as triumphantly esta- 
 blished and proved. For, as Ireland may be consi- 
 dered to occupy the extreme of the scale, in refer- 
 ence to the equal succession or blending of the op- 
 posite species of meteoric action in its skies, con- 
 nected with drought and humidity, and where the 
 equilibrium of electric action between the earth and 
 its atmosphere, depending on this succession, were 
 the least frequently disturbed ; and, on the contrary, 
 that the vicinity of Lima, and remainder of the sea- 
 board of Peru and Chili, in part of which, as is 
 known, the absence of rain is continual; may justly 
 
With Earthquakes ) fyc. 127 
 
 be placed at the opposite extreme point of this me- 
 teoric scale; and consequently, where such equili- 
 brium between the earth and its atmosphere were 
 the most frequently disturbed ; and that, as the 
 former country were that which was the least liable 
 to earthquakes, the latter countries should be those 
 which were the most subject to them. By contrast- 
 ing the annals of these countries in regard to visita- 
 tions of this kind, it will immediately be seen that 
 they are not more strongly contrasted in the wea- 
 ther of their seasons, than what they are in the dif- 
 ference which exists between them in regard to the 
 occurrence of earthquakes no country, perhaps, 
 being less subject to them than Ireland; or more so 
 than Peru and Chili. On the same principle, it 
 would follow, that seasons which have been remark- 
 able for great drought, were those that proved the 
 most remarkable for earthquakes and volcanic erup- 
 tions. And, accordingly, notwithstanding the little 
 attention which, in the absence of suspecting the 
 existence of such a connexion, was formerly paid to 
 that most important circumstance in inquiries of this 
 kind, viz. the species of synchronism that has existed 
 between the seasons and weather at the time, and 
 the occurrence of the most remarkable earthquakes, 
 or volcanic eruptions. Together with the instance al- 
 luded to of the coincidence between the extreme 
 drought of the climate of Peru, and the greater fre- 
 quency of earthquakes there than in> perhaps, any 
 
128 Climate, as connected 
 
 other region of the globe. In the list of causes as- 
 signed by philosophers at the time, to account for 
 the extraordinary fog or obscurity in the superior 
 region of the atmosphere, which, on the 18th of 
 June, 1783, first made its appearance, simulta- 
 neously, throughout the greater part of Europe, 
 nearly eclipsing the light of the sun and which con- 
 tinued, without interruption, during several months, 
 being, as it was, co-existent with the earthquakes in 
 Sicily and Calabria, of this year, already noticed. 
 I find the following, assigned by M. Castelli, an 
 Italian physician, as cited by Bertholon, in the se- 
 cond volume of his meteorological work, page 141, 
 viz. " M. Castelli, tire Porigine des meteores extra- 
 ordinaires de 1783, premierement du defaut de pluie 
 qui a en lieu pendant plusieurs mois avant leur ap- 
 parition ;" and to the loss of the equilibrium of 
 electric action between the earth and atmosphere, 
 consequent thereon; being thus, as will be seen, 
 exactly conformable to what, on the principle as- 
 sumed, might be expected to have been the case. 
 
 However, as extremes approximate, it will excite 
 no surprise if excessive rains should, similar to ex- 
 cessive drought, destroy the equilibrium of electric 
 action between the earth and its atmosphere, and 
 thus to have been occasionally known to be the pre- 
 cursors of earthquakes. The earthquake which oc- 
 curred at Florence, in 1449, was thus, as we are 
 informed, preceded by continual rains; and seven 
 
With Earthquakes, $c. 129 
 
 years afterwards, on the 5th of December, an earth- 
 quake, which destroyed several towns in the king- 
 dom of Naples, was similarly preceded by incessant 
 rains, unaccompanied by wind, during two months. 
 It however, frequently occurs, that the same species 
 of electric action in which earthquakes are assumed 
 to have their source, is co-existent with them in the 
 superincumbent atmosphere, at the time of their oc- 
 currence, as though these opposite actions were the 
 counterparts one of the other ; and that thus an 
 immediate connexion appeared to exist between 
 " les tonneres celeste et terrestre" as they are de- 
 nominated by M. Paulian. Such, amongst a num- 
 ber of others, was that by which Naples was visited 
 in 1343, and of which the following appalling pic- 
 ture has been left us by the celebrated Petrach, who 
 happened to be at Naples when it occurred, viz. 
 " II seroit impossible de peindre 1'horreur de cette 
 nuit, ou tous les elemens paroissoient dechaines. 
 Rien ne peut representer le fracas epouvantable que 
 faisoient le vent, le tonnerre, et la pluie meles en- 
 semble, les mugissemens de la mer en fureur, les 
 mouvemens interieurs de la terre ebranlee,"* &c. 
 
 Having thus, as I assume, with Bertholon, (that 
 worthy associate of a Franklin and the other emi- 
 nent men of his time, who, aware of its importance, 
 distinguished themselves in the wide and interesting 
 
 * Bertholon, De V Electrititt des Mfitores. Tom. Prem. pag. 372. 
 
 K 
 
130 Climate, as connected 
 
 field of meteoric inquiry,) shown, that an intimate 
 connexion subsists between meteoric action and the 
 phenomena of earthquakes ; and that, as to their 
 source, the immediate cause of earthquakes is to be 
 traced to the loss of the equilibrium of meteoric ac- 
 tion between the earth and its atmosphere, as being 
 the sole principle in nature adequate to the produc- 
 tion of such effects . And further, that in this prin- 
 ciple we may likewise perceive the source of those 
 revolutions by which the substances connected with 
 the depths of the ocean have been transferred to the 
 summits of the Alps, and other such mountains.* 
 But that, as the period of these extraordinary 
 changes in the superficies of the earth appears to be 
 long since passed by, owing, probably, to the more 
 perfect separation of its elements of earth and water, 
 than what, in its early stages, existed, brought about 
 by the gradual operation of time ; and that a re- 
 medy which, though formerly tried and found to be 
 effectual, appears to be entirely lost sight of, might 
 
 * As being, in some sort, demonstrative that mountains have 
 had their source in volcanic action, it is to be observed, (and will 
 probably be esteemed as not a little curious,) that the highest 
 mountains of the globe are, in their position, connected with the 
 opposite poles of volcanic action in the opposite hemispheres, (as 
 will presently appear,) viz. the mountains of Tibet, in the northern, 
 and Chimborazo, and its neighbouring Andes, in the southern 
 hemisphere ; and which, as if to counterpoise each other's weight, 
 have thus been placed nearly equi- distant on the opposite sides of 
 these hemispheres. 
 
With Earthquakes, fyc. 
 
 still be applied, and prove the means of arresting 
 the ravages in certain countries,, such as Peru, so 
 frequently induced by earthquakes ; I shall con- 
 clude the present notice of them with pointing out 
 this remedy, under the idea, however illusive, that 
 it may be productive of good. 
 
 M. Bertholon, at the conclusion of his interesting 
 dissertation on volcanoes and earthquakes, in the 
 work of his alluded to, in which he treats them as 
 electrical phenomena ; and as being a necessary con- 
 sequence of the success which attended the idea of 
 placing lightning conductors on buildings, to protect 
 them from the effects of thunder ; having fallen into 
 the opinion, that vertical iron bars, deeply inserted 
 in the surface strata of the earth, in countries sub- 
 ject to these phenomena, by abstracting and dis- 
 charging into the atmosphere, from its interior, the 
 redundance of its electricity would preserve the 
 equilibrium of electric action between it (the earth,) 
 and atmosphere, and thence have the effect of pre- 
 venting their occurrence. And which, as is not un- 
 usual with men of sanguine temperaments, in the 
 first flush of successful discovery, though it may sa- 
 vour a little of what may be called the poetry of 
 science, must, in consideration of the motive which 
 dictated it, be entitled to respect, thus proceeds : 
 " Les anciens moins eclaires que nous ne le sommes, 
 mais plus hardis ont ose rechercher des moyens pour 
 se preserver des tremblemens de terre, comme je le 
 
 K2 
 
132 Climate, as connected 
 
 dirai, dans un instant ; avec plus de lumiere au- 
 rions-nous plus de pusillanimite ? Depuis un petit 
 nombre d'annees une nouvelle science, la science de 
 Felectricite semble etre sortie du neant ; les decou- 
 vertes les plus brillantes, et en meme temps les plus 
 etonnantes ont couronne les travaux des physiciens ; 
 ce fluide admirable que nous nommons froidement 
 fluide electrique, a le plus grand rapport avec tous 
 les meteores, et particulierement avec le tonnerre, 
 les tremblemens de terre et les volcans, il en est le 
 principe producteur, et paroit etre Vdme universelle 
 de la nature" * * " Les anciens avoient en- 
 trevu la necessity de creuser despuits profonds pour 
 preserver des tremblemens de terre, moyen qui a 
 quelqu'espece d 3 analogic avec celui que j'ai propose. 
 Pline, assure que les frequentes cavernes propres a 
 donner une issue au fluide subtil, qui cause les trem- 
 blemens de terre, sont un excellent moyen pour les 
 prevenir, c'est ce qu'on remarque dans certaines 
 villes, qui sont moms sujettes aux tremblemens de 
 terre, depuis que plusieurs trous y ont ete formes ; 
 crebri specus remedium prcebent, conceptum enim 
 spiritum exhalant ; quod in certis notatur oppidis y 
 qucE minus quatiuntur crebris ad eluviem cuniculis 
 cavat. Hist. not. lib. 11, cap. 79. Les premiers 
 remains sur-tout, prirent cette precaution de creuser 
 des puits profonds, pour mettre 1'ancien capitole a 
 Tabri des funestes effets des tremblemens de terre, 
 
With Earthquakes, fyc. 133 
 
 et Us y reussirent, car cette par tie de Rome, n'a 
 jamais rien souffert de leurs ravages. 
 
 " Les trous perpendiculaires, qui sont sur les di- 
 verses montagnes, et les ouvertures des divers au- 
 tres, sont regardes avec raison cpmme des soupiraux 
 utiles, (Derham, lib. iii. Theol. phis. cap. iii.) et 
 oti a remarque que plusieurs contrees ont 6te en- 
 tierement delivrees des tremblemens de terre, apres 
 que de nouvelles ouvertures y ont ete produites. 
 Depuis le fameux tremblement de terre, qui arriva 
 a Tauris en Perse, le 26 Avril 1721, on a fait creuser 
 un grand nombre de puits tres-profonds, et nul 
 tremblement de terre ne s'est fait sentir jusqu'a 
 present, quoiqu'ils y fussent auparavant tres-com- 
 muns. Ces hereux effets dependent uniquement de 
 ce que Texces de fluide electrique, qui est quelque- 
 fois aecumule dans certaines regions de la terre, 
 s'echappe par ces ouvertures j usque dans 1'air, Tequi- 
 libre se retablissant par ce moyen." * 
 
 Thus we may perceive that, both in ancient Rome 
 and in modern Persia, the experiment of sinking deep 
 wells, to serve as soupiraux^ or vents, for the escape 
 of those exhalations from the inferior strata beneath, 
 whose imprisonment was supposed to be the imme- 
 diate cause of earthquakes, has been resorted to; 
 and that, if credit is to be attached to the authors 
 
 * Bertholon De I' Electricite des Meteores. Tom. Prem. pag. 403, 
 &c. 
 
134 Climate, as connected 
 
 cited, it has, in each instance, been attended with 
 success. And, in recommending the application of 
 this remedy in Peru, and the neighbouring districts 
 of South America, which are the most subject to 
 these visitations ; as the subject appears to involve 
 more than what at first meets the view, it may be 
 right briefly to state the grounds on which I found 
 my opinion. In the science of draining , it is 
 known, that lighting on and tapping a single main 
 spring, or source of water, has frequently the effect 
 of proving beneficial, at distances which might be 
 supposed to be altogether beyond its range, by dry- 
 ing up a number of subordinate sources with which 
 before, it was not supposed to have any connexion. 
 And thus, that the construction of these soupiraux, 
 or para-tremblemens (as Bertholon calls them,) in 
 the countries of South America, and those of the 
 north east of Asia, which are the most subject to 
 earthquakes, might be attended with effects the 
 most extraordinary and unlooked-for, not only in 
 these countries, but in those lying the most distant 
 from them. For, assuming with the last-mentioned 
 author, that electricity and magnetism (which as 
 they are considered to be always united in nature, 
 should be esteemed synonymous terms in inquiries 
 of this kind,) to be "I'dme universelle de la nature" 
 and consequently, that volcanic eruptions and earth- 
 quakes from beneath, as the thunderbolt from above, 
 alike result from electrical agency. It is known to 
 
With Earthquakes, fyc. 135 
 
 be one of the distinctive characters of electric action 
 that at one and the same time it generates forces 
 directly opposite, viz. attractive and repulsive, as 
 shown in the trombe or water-spout. And of which 
 opposite actions, as the local force of gravity in the 
 sun and planets is, according to our principles, es- 
 teemed to be one ; so, the other is considered to be 
 that which holds these bodies detached from each 
 other in their respective orbits. And as in each in- 
 dividual instance, these opposite forces in the sun 
 and planets, are assumed to be exactly balanced one 
 to the other ; and that as connected with these bo- 
 dies collectively, the whole of these forces are com- 
 bined arid blended by the principle of reflection in 
 which they have their source : that it is to this pe- 
 culiar property of electric action to which the dou- 
 ble harmony, both local and collective, observable 
 in the heavenly bodies, is to be ascribed. And as- 
 suming the action of the electrical and magnetic 
 forces to extend equally into the depths of the 
 earth on the one hand, as into the atmosphere on 
 the other; and that the attraction, in the former 
 case, generated by electric action, converges to the 
 magnetic axis, as to its centre, which connects its 
 opposite magnetic poles. According to this, the 
 repulsive force in the interior of the earth, gene- 
 rated with the attractive, should act on a different 
 line, and in a different direction to the latter force ; 
 and as the attraetive force converged chiefly to the 
 
136 Climate, as connected 
 
 tropics, the repulsive, acting on a different line to 
 that of the magnetic axis, as stated, should exert 
 itself chiefly on those regions of the opposite hemis- 
 pheres which lay at the extremities or poles of this 
 line, or axis of repulsion. Now, assuming the ex- 
 istence of such a repulsive action in the interior of 
 the earth : as it would necessarily exert itself most 
 in the direction, and at either extremity of its axis. 
 From so remarkable a coincidence in this respect, as 
 that which exists between the volcanic regions of the 
 opposite hemispheres, lying as they do due S. W. 
 and N. E. or nearly at right angles with their mag- 
 netic poles ; as if, like the latter, connected with a 
 peculiar line, and diverging from the same centre of 
 action : do we not in such repulsive force thus ge- 
 nerated, assuming it to exist, discover a cause fully 
 adequate to the production in these opposite regions 
 of the earth, of those frequent and fatal effects con- 
 sequent on the earthquakes for which they are so 
 remarkable ? And that, could a means be found, 
 such as that noticed, which applied at the opposite 
 extremes of this the axis of repulsion, by affording a 
 free egress to the elastic matter so transmitted, 
 in such way as to prevent its local accumulation, 
 and the extraordinary energy consequent on its 
 imprisonment, the effect might be, not only to free 
 the districts where such means were employed, from 
 these destructive visitations, but, perhaps to sap the 
 source of volcanic action throughout the globe, in 
 
With Earthquakes, fyc. 137 
 
 such way that future ages would (as in the case of 
 other extinct volcanoes,) only know of them, by 
 the traces they had left of their destructive effects. 
 A project which if practicable were, it will be 
 admitted, well worthy the ambition of an Alexander 
 to execute ! as it were a triumph in the cause of hu- 
 manity, such, and so colossal, whether in its object 
 or dimensions, as, up to the present, few have 
 imagined, or, however sanguine, could suppose it 
 possible to realize ; and one in all respects worthy 
 as connected with science of its heaven-born source. 
 And as, on electrical principles, volcanic action 
 in the interior of the earth should result less from a 
 local than from a collective agency > which, if it ex- 
 isted, would occasionally manifest itself simultane- 
 ously in different and very distant places at the 
 same period of time. By referring to facts we shall 
 find that such has frequently been the case ; as, in- 
 dependent of other instances which might be cited, 
 it will be sufficient to notice that the tremendous 
 eruption of Mount Hecla, in Iceland, in 1783, the 
 greatest probably on record, though separated from 
 Calabria and Sicily by nearly half the hemisphere, 
 if it did not occur at the same period of time with 
 the earthquakes, which during five months convulsed 
 the latter countries on this year, as already stated, 
 (a circumstance which T have not been able to as- 
 certain,) occurred, as will be seen, on the same 
 year : thereby, as must be assumed, proving the ex- 
 
138 Climate, as connected 
 
 istence of a connexion between these phenomena; 
 as it appears more than probable that, in like 
 manner, a connexion existed between them, and 
 the extraordinary fog of the summer of this year, 
 already alluded to; and consequently, an addi- 
 tional argument, as would appear, is thus furnished 
 in support of the theory of electrical agency. And 
 assuming it to exist, as it were desirable to ascer- 
 tain the extent of this connexion of volcanic action, 
 whether on the line of magnetic attraction, as in 
 the instance cited; as on the opposite, being 
 esteemed its true line, or that of repulsion; or, 
 whether it acted simultaneously on both, in the 
 same, or in the opposite hemispheres of the earth : 
 perhaps philosophers would not think it beneath 
 them to direct their attention to the subject. It 
 may be further observed that, did these opposite 
 actions of attraction and repulsion exist in the in- 
 terior of the earth ; independent of their effects as 
 connected with volcanic action, we may readily 
 perceive in them a sufficient cause, not only why 
 a very marked difference as is the case, should ex- 
 ist in the mineral kingdom, equally as in the cli- 
 mate of the countries in either hemisphere, situ- 
 ated on the opposite extremes of the scale of longi- 
 tude, or on the first, as contrasted with the 180th 
 degree, but more particularly in the higher lati- 
 tudes, where their effects, as in the case of the vol- 
 
With Earthquakes, fyc. 139 
 
 canoes, would the most strongly manifest them- 
 selves. 
 
 Other questions, it will be seen, might be sug- 
 gested as connected with this subject; such, for in- 
 stance as the share which these opposite actions in 
 its interior towards the poles of the earth, might be 
 supposed to have in inducing the obliquity of its 
 axis of rotation, or the effect which might arise 
 from a change of their positions, in extinguishing 
 the present line of volcanic action^ and, perhaps, of 
 reopening an opposite, &c. ; but I leave these to be 
 discussed by others : satisfied if, by calling atten- 
 tion as to the possible existence of these actions, my 
 doing so may have the effect of proving serviceable 
 to the cause of science. 
 
 CHAR XII. 
 
 Climate, as connected with Locality. 
 
 IT may be set down as among the most important 
 advantages consequent on an increased acquaint- 
 ance with the principles and laws of nature, that it 
 frequently has the effect of modifying or changing 
 first impressions. And, ere entering on the subject 
 of Localities, as connected with the temperature 
 and weather, it may be well to notice one of the 
 early errors fallen into by philosophers in reference 
 
140 Climate, as connected with Locality. 
 
 to electric action in the atmosphere, viz. that ex- 
 cept when manifested by what were called electrical 
 phenomena, \. e. the spark from the conductor, and 
 the attractive and repulsive forces it at such periods 
 exercised on certain light substances, it was not 
 supposed to be present. However, to repeat an 
 assumption already made, viz. that revolution is the 
 conservative principle of nature ; and that, conse- 
 quently, on which the whole of her dispositions are 
 founded. Assuming the earth and its atmosphere 
 to be "# thermo-electrical combination put into ac- 
 tion by the sun ;" and that the electrical and mag- 
 netic forces are the agents she employs in uphold- 
 ing this the principle of revolution in the physical 
 world, and chiefly through the medium of meteoric 
 action. As the latter, similar to its opposite states 
 of drought and humidity, is divisible into opposite 
 kinds ; it follows that meteoric action in the atmos- 
 phere must be of opposite kinds. And that, as the 
 phenomena alluded to are only induced by one of 
 these opposite species, viz. that in which the forma- 
 tion of rain has its source; it does not follow but 
 that in the absence of this species of meteoric ac- 
 tion in the atmosphere, electric action is equally 
 present and operative, though differently, as when 
 the electrical phenomena noticed are the most freely 
 obtained. These phenomena, as would seem, being 
 chiefly induced by the derangement of the previ- 
 ously existing equilibrium of electric action verti- 
 
Climate, as connected with Locality. 141 
 
 cally in the opposite regions of the atmosphere ; as, 
 for instance, when the thunder-cloud which origi- 
 nates them in the inferior region, in discharging its 
 contents, descends, and by blending with the air of 
 the latter, saturates it with humidity so as that the 
 equilibrium of electric action therein as contrasted 
 with its opposite state of drought becomes re- 
 versed; these phenomena, as is known, are no 
 longer manifested by the conductor. From this it 
 would follow, that it is not because electricity is ab- 
 sent when such manifestations of it are not to be 
 obtained by the conductor ; but because' its equili- 
 brium being then established, it remains, as it were> 
 quiescent; the lion, at such periods, not being 
 abroad, but simply in a state of comparative repose ! 
 And yet, however palpable, or important, and not- 
 withstanding the continual sensitiveness manifested 
 by the changes of the electrometer, we see what a 
 number of eminent men, from Franklin downwards, 
 have essayed the subject without having lit on or 
 made it available. It is true, as the following pas- 
 sage will show, that there were some, and these too 
 illustrious exceptions, to the common opinion, even 
 at an early period, viz. " II y a des physiciens qui 
 assurent que 1'electricite de Vair serein est toujours 
 serein, a moins qu'il n'ait des or ages, des pluies, ou 
 des nuages dans le ciel. M. M. Volta et Saussure 
 sont dece sentiment."* But their ideas, as would 
 
 * Voyez Bertholon, " De I'Electricite des Me'te'ores." T. 2. p. 365. 
 
1 42 Climate^ as connected with Locality. 
 
 appear, had led to nothing ; as it was not before the 
 experiments of Mr. Christie, in 1827, connected 
 with the diurnal variation of the compass needle, 
 that any opinion appears to have been entertained 
 that the temperature had its source in electric 
 action. 
 
 Again, all bodies, as refers to electricity, are di- 
 visible into opposite classes or kinds, technically 
 called idio-electrics, and anelectrics ; or containing 
 and conducting bodies : the union and mutual ac- 
 tion of which on each other by friction, being 
 esteemed necessary in order to the species of excite- 
 ment in which electrical phenomena have their 
 source. And, as the atmosphere belongs to the 
 former, or containing class of bodies, (consequently 
 electricity though Proteus-like, under a variety of 
 shapes must necessarily be always present in it,) 
 and the mass of the earth with its waters, to the 
 latter or anelectrics, which being acted on by the 
 sun produces electric excitement in the atmosphere ; 
 first at the point of its junction with the earth, 
 where this electric excitement and its effect on the 
 temperature is first felt, as the most powerfully de- 
 veloped; and from which it gradually ascends into 
 the superior region. Thus we have the principle on 
 which the locality of the temperature is based; as 
 the proof that electric action is never absent from 
 the atmosphere; but that, being, as its effects, of 
 opposite kinds; and between which a continual os- 
 
Climate, as connected with Locality. 143 
 
 dilation, whether as connected with the annual or 
 lunar circle, exists, and is progressing ; and to the 
 tendence in these actions, (as in similar cases,) mu- 
 tually to restore the principle of an equilibrium be- 
 tween them, that, as observed by Lord Bacon, " the 
 air, on a balance, is seldom debtor to itself; nor do the 
 seasons succeed each other in the same tenor for two 
 years together ;" as will be found more particularly 
 treated of, in the Third Part, under the head of me- 
 teoric progression. And as in a preceding paragraph 
 it was stated, as being one of the distinguishing cha- 
 racteristics of electrical agency, that it, at one and the 
 same time, originated the opposite forces of attrac- 
 tion and repulsion, to, and from, the same centre of 
 action. Another peculiarity of electricity in its 
 union with magnetism in the atmosphere, no less 
 paradoxical than the former, appears to be, that, 
 together with these attractive and repulsive forces, 
 it at the same time develops the opposite tempera- 
 tures of heat and cold; being, as the former, the in- 
 corporation, as it were, or union in the same germ, 
 of opposite progressions of the same kind, so con- 
 formable to the dispositions of nature. 
 
 These results on the temperature being alike op- 
 posite in the direction of their development from 
 their common centre, as in their nature and effects. 
 Which peculiarity, it may be observed, is still more 
 strongly apparent in the thunder-cloud, than on the 
 surface of the opposite hemispheres of the earth, at 
 
144 Climate, as connected with Locality. 
 
 the solstices; owing to the greater concentration of 
 the electric and magnetic forces in this species of 
 meteoric action, than in that excited by the sun 
 along the extended superficies of the earth. But, 
 notwithstanding that in each species of meteoric ac- 
 tion these opposite effects, as connected with the 
 temperature, are the same, and only differ in de- 
 gree; as the actions are different, the order of pro- 
 gression, in reference to their development on the 
 temperature, is likewise different; the latter being 
 similar to. the order of the colours in the double 
 rainbow, entirely reversed. For, whereas in the 
 meteoric action in the atmosphere, derived from 
 the principle of reflection as excited by the sun, the 
 heat converges to its centre between the tropics, 
 and the cold diverges to the pole of the winter he- 
 misphere: in the thunder-cloud, on the contrary, 
 the cold converges to the axis, or centre of action, 
 and the heat diverges. This disposition is suffici- 
 ently proved by the torrents of hail which are occa- 
 sionally moulded in the womb of the thunder-cloud ; 
 and by the lightning projected from its sides. And, 
 in addition, it may be noticed, that this was the ef- 
 fect experienced by M. Tetu, in his aerostatic 
 ascent into a thunder cloud : in which the cold was 
 so excessive that the mercury in the tube of the ba- 
 rometer sunk five degrees below zero; and the hail 
 and snow collected in his car in such quantity that 
 he was obliged to disembarrass himself of them, in 
 
Climate, as connected with Locality. 145 
 
 order to prevent their weight from sinking the bal- 
 loon. It may be further added, in proof of the cor- 
 rectness of the assumption advanced in reference to 
 the peculiarities of electric and magnetic action, 
 viz. that both attraction and repulsion, heat and 
 cold, and all the other contrarieties of nature in the 
 physical world, should have emanated from the 
 same source of action ; that it was absolutely ne- 
 cessary in order to uphold the principle of unity, on 
 which the whole of her dispositions therein are 
 based, that these the principles in which her active 
 forces concentrated, should have been so constituted. 
 For it was impossible on any other to establish an 
 order of things which, at the same time that it ad- 
 mitted of such an infinite variety, whether in its pe- 
 riodic aberrations or in its details, from its being so 
 poised and balanced on the same common centre of 
 action, should, in its eccentricities, be circumscribed 
 within certain determinate limits, in such way that 
 the sustaining principle, or equipoise, on which its 
 permanence depended, should not at any time be 
 so deranged, but that by means of the controlling 
 forces thus provided, it should be again restored; 
 and immutably remain unaltered: containing, as it 
 thence would have done within it, the principle of 
 its restoration, equally as of its renovation. 
 
 These observations I consider the more neces- 
 sary in this place, as- in the preceding notice of cli- 
 mate, in its connexion with the geographical distri- 
 
 L 
 
146 Climate, as connected with Locality. 
 
 bution of animals and plants, it was chiefly consi- 
 dered in reference to the influence exercised on it 
 by the difference of magnetic action; and this with 
 a view the better to understand the nature of the 
 influence which, owing to its being, as assumed, 
 derived from the principle of reflective action, cer- 
 tain classes of localities exercise on the temperature 
 of the seasons, and changes of the weather, other 
 circumstances being the same. It being of the na- 
 ture of meteoric action in the atmosphere, that, of 
 whatever kind, it converges to a particular centre 
 or focus, where it is most powerful. And as 
 throughout the year, with the exception of the 
 equinoxes, the position of these foci are determined 
 either by the latitude of places, or by the nature of 
 the locality; and that the influence exercised by the 
 first is uniform, and sufficiently known; whereas 
 that exercised by locality, though frequently more 
 powerful, is less understood; I shall confine myself 
 chiefly to the latter. 
 
 Locality, in its most comprehensive sense, as con- 
 nected with the temperature and weather of the sea- 
 sons, owing to the unity of the solar and planetary 
 actions on which they depend, embraces at once, 
 or within the same view, the opposite hemispheres 
 of the earth. And between these the opposite he- 
 mispheres, owing to their being traversed through- 
 out their extent by the axis of magnetic action, 
 equally as that of the earth's rotation, combined 
 
Climate, as connected with Locality. 147 
 
 with the law in reference to the relative direction 
 of electric action, in its connexion with magnetic, 
 a contrast, in reference to the opposite actions of 
 the sunelectric and magnetic, always exists. 
 Thus, (being a necessary consequence of the diver- 
 gence of opposite temperatures from the same 
 source, and of the unity in the actions by which 
 they are induced,) the maximum force of the for- 
 mer, or electric action of the sun, is collected on 
 the summer hemisphere, about the same period that 
 the maximum force of its magnetic action is collected 
 on the opposite or winter hemisphere ; which causes 
 that the opposite extreme degrees of annual tempera- 
 ture in these the opposite hemispheres of the earth oc- 
 cur about the same period of time. A similar disposi- 
 tion, in reference to the division, direction, and local 
 position of the opposite axes and main foci, of these 
 the electric and magnetic forces, whether in the sun 
 or planets, being esteemed to result in all cases 
 from their union ; and to exist equally in the small- 
 est of the satellites, as in the earth, or in Jupker. 
 As, whether in a globular meteor, or in the largest 
 of the fixed stars, wherever electric and magnetic 
 action, in a detached state, are united ; the laws by 
 which they are governed, in regard to their mutual 
 relations, equally as in the development of their ef- 
 fects, are esteemed to be the same. Such, in its 
 most comprehensive bearings, being the meaning 
 
 L2 
 
148 Climate, as connected with Locality. 
 
 attached by our theory to the term locality; and 
 which, it will be perceived, as regards the principle 
 of temperature, results from the relative position of 
 places in either hemisphere during the opposite sea- 
 sons of summer and winter, to those occupied by the 
 main foci of the electric and magnetic forces. And 
 thus locality, in this point of view, is synonymous 
 with latitude ; as the variations in the temperature, 
 whether in winter or summer, which originate in 
 this cause, are simply the results of the modification 
 in the operation of the same laws, incident to the 
 difference which, on the extended scale of their ope- 
 ration in either hemisphere, occurs in the relative 
 position of places in reference to those occupied by 
 the respective centres or main foci of the opposite 
 actions from which they emanate : being greatest 
 as we recede from, and less as we approach nearer 
 to these centres, other circumstances being the 
 same. 
 
 But, in approaching nearer, and examining in de- 
 tail the various members of which the superficies, or 
 reflecting surfaces of either hemisphere are com- 
 posed; we shall perceive, however rudely traced, 
 that they present the elements of a mechanism, or 
 an adaptation of parts to their ends, such as must 
 convince the most sceptical, that design and not ac- 
 cident presided over their disposition. For, assum- 
 ing the principle of reflective action to be that, on, 
 or connected with which, the temperature, and other 
 
Climate, as connected with Locality. 149 
 
 phenomena of the atmosphere depend : as the re- 
 flecting surfaces presented to the solar action by the 
 land and water superficies of the earth, considered 
 as reflectors are unequal in their forces; land 
 being more powerful than water surface, owing 
 chiefly to the stream of evaporation continually 
 ascending from the latter, which thus to a certain 
 extent neutralizes its reflective power on the tempe- 
 rature. Thus it follows, that next to the differences 
 in the temperature, consequent on the difference of 
 latitude, are those induced by the difference subsist- 
 ing between the land and water surfaces of the 
 earth : and which thus, in their grand outlines, 
 necessarily divide its land and water superficies 
 into opposite classes of localities. And as me- 
 teoric action in the atmosphere is of opposite 
 kinds, of which that connected with the temperature 
 is but one ; and with which no more than a parti- 
 cular class of those localities is identified, and that 
 the remainder are more particularly connected with 
 the species of meteoric action in which the formation 
 of rain has its source. Thus it follows that the land 
 superficies of the earth, such as continents and 
 islands, is more particularly connected with the ten> 
 perature ; as its water superficies with the species 
 of meteoric action in which rain has its source. 
 And as the laws which govern the operations of na.- 
 ture are observed to be the same in detail as en 
 grand; and that the relative forces of the reflecting 
 
150 Climate, as connected with Locality. 
 
 surfaces 'presented by the land superficies of the 
 earth to the solar action, are proportioned to their 
 dimensions. Thus it is that the action of conti- 
 nents and the larger class of islands, whether in 
 rising or lowering the temperature, according to the 
 season, is more powerful than that of the smaller, or 
 ordinary class of islands, other circumstances being 
 the same. And that from the law of convergence^ 
 the action of these reflectors on the temperature,, is 
 more powerful as we approach their centres, or the 
 positions occupied by their local main foci, and vice 
 versa", which will sufficiently account for the differ- 
 ence in the range of temperature, both in summer 
 and winter, which exists between islands and the in- 
 terior of continents, though lying within the same 
 parallels ; a difference so considerable, as is known, 
 as sufficiently proves the correctness of the principle 
 noticed. 
 
 Again, the local atmosphere of the earth, equally 
 as its temperature, is, as assumed, the creation of 
 reflective action ; and, as being a necessary conse- 
 quence, the effect of this action on the temperature 
 is something like that of gravity, in the inverse ratio 
 of the squares of the distances from the earth's sur- 
 face. And thence, as the land surface of the earth 
 projects beyond the plain of reflective action pre- 
 sented by that of its waters ; were it not that the re- 
 flective action of land is more powerful than that of 
 water, the surface of the latter, as constituting the 
 
Climate, as connected with Locality 151 
 
 lowest level of the reflective action of the earth, were, 
 of the two, the more powerful reflector. And as in 
 addition, the land surface is divided into plains and 
 mountains; and consequently, owing to the cause 
 assigned, that a still greater difference and falling 
 off, exists between the reflective powers of the 
 former as contrasted with the latter, than between 
 the land and water surfaces, as noticed. Thence a 
 further division of the land superficies into opposite 
 classes of localities ; of which the plains are more 
 particularly connected with the principle of tempe- 
 rature ; and the mountains with the species of me- 
 teoric action in which the formation of clouds and 
 rain have their source. The difference of the effects 
 on the temperature, incident to that subsisting be- 
 tween the reflective power of plains, as contrasted 
 with the sides and summits of mountains, being more 
 strongly marked in the regions of the torrid zone, 
 than elsewhere. And as an approach to the same 
 meteoric effects whether on the temperature or wea- 
 ther, is induced by capes, headlands, and the vicinity 
 of the sea, as by mountains in the interior of conti- 
 nents ; it were a curious, and not unworthy subject 
 of inquiry, to ascertain the proportion which exists 
 between the opposite principles in meteorology, of 
 horizontal extension from the local centres or foci of 
 reflective action in the interior of continents and 
 islands, on the one hand, and that of vertical eleva- 
 tion from the lowest, or water level of reflective ac- 
 
152 Climate, as connected with Locality. 
 
 tion, on the other ; circumstances of latitude being 
 the same. For though the falling off in the effect 
 of reflective action vertically on the temperature, has 
 been stated to be something in the proportion of the 
 inverse ratio of the squares of the distances ; this is 
 no more than supposition, and does not come up to 
 the real amount. In the estimation of St. Pierre, 
 this falling off in the force of reflective action is so 
 considerable, that it were doing both him and the 
 subject injustice not to quote him in this place : 
 " Si vous vous elevez dans une montagne, situ6e 
 dans notre latitude, seulement de vingt-cinq toises 
 de hauteur perpendiculaire, vous changez de climat 
 comme si vous aviez fait vingt-cinq lieues vers le 
 nord ; en sorte qu'une montagne de douze cents 
 toises perpendiculaires, nous presenteroit'une echelle 
 de vegetation aussi etendue que celle des douze 
 cents lieues horizontales qu'il y a a-peu-pres d'ici au 
 pole ; Tune et 1'autre se termineroient a une glace 
 perpetuelle. Chaque pas que Von fait dans une 
 montagne, en Relevant on en descendant^ change 
 notre latitude ; et gi on en fait le tour, chaque pas 
 change notre longitude." Etudes de la Nature. 
 Tome second, pag. 426. Such, without referring 
 to principles, are the observations of St. Pierre, on 
 this subject. And, that the analogy between the 
 variation of climate along the ascending scale of la- 
 titude, from the equator to the Pole, and that en- 
 countered in ascending the higher ranges of moun- 
 
Climate, as connected with Locality. 153 
 
 tains between the tropics, is borne out not only by 
 the difference of temperature, but, to a certain ex- 
 tent, by that observable in the animals and vege- 
 tables found on, or proper to them, no person at all 
 conversant with the subject will deny. It is right to 
 remark, however, that the variation of climate in the 
 ascent of a mountain as connected with its base 
 and summit is not uniform ; but, on the contrary, 
 may be said to go on increasing by a sort of geome- 
 trical progression with the ascent, in such way, that 
 at a certain elevation on its side, three feet perpen- 
 dicular, induce probably a greater change in the 
 mean temperature, than thirty at its base. This 
 being a necessary consequence of the rapid falling 
 off in the effect of the reflective action from beneath, 
 in proportion as we ascend from the plain of its 
 projection on the earth's surface. And thus it is 
 that certain birds and plants of the higher latitudes, 
 are occasionally encountered in the more elevated 
 regions of some of the mountains of the torrid and 
 temperate zones ; * and that the strawberry and 
 other plants of the north, are found to flourish at a 
 certain elevation on these mountains, though totally 
 
 * "A naturalist of Rome, Mr. Springlen, has formed, with 
 considerable taste and expense, a complete collection of the birds 
 of the Alps, which consist of about five hundred specimens. It 
 contains the species peculiar to every climate, from the south of Italy 
 to the north of America.'' See marginal note to the Appendix of 
 Williams' Switzerland, page 232. 
 
154 Climate, as connected with Locality. 
 
 unproductive when planted in the plains beneath. 
 Nature thus in her productions indicating the ap- 
 proximations which, without any infraction of her 
 laws, so frequently arise out of that constant ten- 
 dence, so characteristic of her dispositions, to recon- 
 ile opposites. And, as being connected with which, 
 may be noticed an error fallen into by the generality 
 of astronomers, in concluding, from the sun's re- 
 maining during summer a few days longer in the 
 northern than in the southern hemisphere, that a 
 higher degree of mean annual temperature in the 
 former is the result. This, as assumed, not being 
 the case ; as what the southern hemisphere loses in 
 time, is compensated for in distance : the southern 
 hemisphere, as is known, being nearer to the sun in 
 summer than the northern ; in such way, that the re- 
 lative mean temperature of both is esteemed to be 
 the same. 
 
 But to resume the subject of locality as connected 
 with the weather. The influence exercised by the 
 opposite classes of localities on the weather, results 
 altogether from the difference of their effects on the 
 temperature. This is sufficiently proved by the cir- 
 cumstance that they exercise no influence of any 
 kind on the weather, about the periods of the equi- 
 noxes. But in proportion as from the latter periods 
 we approach those of the solstices, and that, accord- 
 ing to the season, the temperature advances, or re- 
 cedes to its opposite extreme annual degrees ; the 
 
Climate, as connected with Locality. 155 
 
 difference of the meteoric influence exercised by the 
 opposite classes of localities on the weather, becomes 
 more and more visible ; and thence again, from 
 after the opposite extreme degrees of annual tempe- 
 rature, this influence gradually disappears as we ap- 
 proach the periods of the equinoxes. And which, as 
 connected with mountains, capes, and the vicinity 
 of the sea, is to be accounted for by the blending of 
 opposite temperatures, and consequently of opposite 
 actions electrical and magnetic which, during 
 the solstial seasons, they induce in their atmos- 
 pheres. The amount of the influence on the wea- 
 ther thus exercised by the latter class of localities, 
 being always proportioned to the amount of the con- 
 trast in the temperature, which, at the time, subsists 
 between them, and the interior of the neighbouring 
 plains. Such contrast, as connected with mountains, 
 being greatest in summer : and as connected with 
 capes, headlands, and the vicinity of the sea, in 
 winter. From this it follows that, as we know to 
 be thje case, mountains exercise a more marked in- 
 fluence on the weather in summer, than capes or 
 headlands ; and that, on the contrary, the latter, to 
 which may be added islands lying in the vicinity of 
 continents, exercise a greater influence on the 
 weather during winter, than mountains. And as 
 rain, during summer, but particularly in the lower 
 latitudes, is usually accompanied by thunder, and 
 
156 Climate, as connected with Locality. 
 
 during the winter months by storm. Thus it is that 
 both rain, hail-storms, and thunder, are more fre- 
 quent in the vicinity of mountains than of capes, 
 &c. during summer ; and, on the contrary, that 
 storm and rain is more frequent in the vicinity of 
 the sea, but more particularly in the neighbourhood 
 of capes and islands, than in mountains, during 
 winter ; other circumstances being the same. For, 
 as being in contrast with the dominant action of the 
 sun during both seasons on plains and the interior 
 of continents, mountain-tops, equally as capes, 
 headlands, and islands, though differing in degree, 
 are, to all intents, magnetic conductors in summer, 
 and electrical conductors in winter. To which is 
 to be traced the fearful celebrity of capes in winter, 
 and of mountains during summer ; the first for the 
 number and violence of the gales in their vicinity ; 
 as the latter for hail and thunder-storms, as noticed. 
 For, as the temperature on the summits of moun- 
 tains during summer, is much colder than at their 
 base ; on the contrary, during severe winters, the 
 temperature on the summits of mountains however 
 strange it may appear is much milder than in the 
 neighbouring plains by which they are surrounded ; 
 being, of itself, a sufficient proof that cold, the same 
 as heat, results from an active agency > and that, as 
 in the latter case, the principle on which its activity 
 in the heavenly bodies is based, is reflective ac- 
 
Climate, as connected with Locality. 157 
 
 tion* Of this the reversed scale of atmospheric 
 temperature, vertically, during severe winters, the 
 following fact published in the Paris Constitutionnel, 
 of the 7th February, 1830, (reported in a former 
 work of mine,) may be cited in proof, viz. " D'apres 
 les rapports unanimes de tous les voyageurs arrivant 
 d'ltalie, au moment ou les routes dans 1'interieur de 
 la France et de Tltalie sont encombrees de neiges et 
 de glaces au point d'entraver partout la marche des 
 fourgons acceleres, et meme des diligences et cour- 
 riers, la route du Mont-Cenis, en quelque sorte pri- 
 vilegee, a ete depuis le commencement de 1'hiver 
 exempte de neige, et ce point si eleve" (8000 feet 
 above the level of the sea,) " ajoui dhme tempera- 
 ture beaucoup plus douce que la notre" And that 
 the same difference occurs between the temperature 
 in the interior of continents, as contrasted with 
 islands, capes, and the vicinity of the sea, during 
 winter and summer, the climate of Ireland furnishes 
 a sufficiently striking illustration ; in regard to 
 
 * In reference to the principle of reflective action, the following 
 observation from St. Pierre's Etudes de la Nature, tome second, 
 pag. 67, will probably be considered curious, as showing the anti- 
 quity of this doctrine to be as remote as the time of Pythagoras : 
 " Philolaiis de Crotone, un de ses disciples, pretendoit que le soleil 
 recevoit le feu rfyandu dans Vunivers et le reverberoit, ce qui expli- 
 que mieux sa nature que les emanations perpetuelles de chaleur et 
 de lumiere que nous lui supposons sans reparation et sans epuise- 
 ment." 
 
158 Connexion of Magnetic Action 
 
 which Humboldt observes, that " Ireland presents 
 one of the most remarkable examples of the combi- 
 nation of very mild winters, with cold summers ; 
 the mean temperature in Hungary for the month of 
 August is 71. 6; while in Dublin it is only 60. 8. 
 In Belgium and Scotland the winters are milder 
 than at Milan."* It is scarce necessary to add, 
 that the variations and peculiarities of climate here 
 noticed, are only explicable on the principles as- 
 sumed by our theory. And that, in the changes of 
 the weather which take place both in summer and 
 in winter, the transitions from fair to rainy wea- 
 ther, always commence in the vicinity of the sea or 
 of mountains ; and that the changes from rainy to 
 fair weather, on the contrary, have their commence- 
 ment in the interior of continents and islands ; 
 whence they extend to the opposite class of lo- 
 calities. 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 
 
 Connexion of Magnetic Action with the Formation 
 of Rain in the Atmosphere. 
 
 AND, in pushing still further our inquiry in refer- 
 ence to the influence exercised by a certain class of 
 localities on climate, we shall find not only new 
 
 * See Ure's Die. of Chem, art, Climate, p. 226. 
 
With the Formation of Rain, fyc. 159 
 
 matter worthy of attention,, but still further corrobo- 
 rative of the correctness of our principles. Thus, in 
 treating of the assumed connexion of climate with 
 the phenomena of earthquakes, notice was taken, in 
 a preceding chapter, of the extraordinary fact as to 
 the total absence of ram at Lima, and in that part 
 of Peru. And in examining the climate of other 
 countries in either hemisphere, situated on the op- 
 posite sides of the higher ranges of mountains, but 
 more particularly where their direction is not paral- 
 lel with that of the magnetic meridian, but that 
 they cross it at angles more or less considerable we 
 shall find, though perhaps not to the same extent as 
 in the climate of Peru, that a marked difference, in 
 reference to relative drought or humidity, exists in 
 the countries lying on either side. And further, 
 that such difference is always in accordance with 
 the relative position of such countries, in reference 
 to the more proximate magnetic pole of the earth. 
 Thus, in Scotland, we find that more rain falls on 
 the western than on the opposite or eastern side of 
 the mountains by which it is divided. This differ- 
 ence being still more strongly marked in the coun- 
 tries lying on the opposite sides of the Alps and 
 Pyrenees: the greatest humidity of climate being, 
 in every case, on the side of such mountains which 
 lies in presence of, or exposed to the action of the 
 proximate magnetic pole ; and the greatest drought 
 on the opposite; or where, from the operation of 
 
160 Connexion of Magnetic Action. 
 
 these natural barriers in excluding it, such polar 
 action is less powerful. And, it must be admitted 
 that, when such effects as these are found to be al- 
 ways constant in their relations, they go to prove, 
 in a manner the least equivocal, the existence of a 
 connexion between the magnetic pole, and the me- 
 teoric action in the atmosphere in which the forma- 
 tion of clouds and rain have their source. For, in 
 no other way can we account for the existence of 
 differences such as these, and so strongly contrasted 
 with each other, in proximate regions of the atmos- 
 phere, where circumstances of latitude are the same, 
 or so slightly different as to be totally incapable of 
 producing any such effects. 
 
 Now, considering this subject to be one which, 
 on various accounts, is most deserving of attention : 
 as partial views are seldom correct ones; together 
 with reverting to first principles, it becomes neces- 
 sary to examine it a little in its collective relations, 
 the better to enable us to arrive at, and form, just 
 conclusions. 
 
 The magnetic meridians, extending from either, 
 to the opposite magnetic pole of the earth ; placed 
 between opposite meteoric reflectors, of which the 
 surface of the earth is one, and the most proximate, 
 and the sun's disk the other and most distant ; and 
 being thence the creation of reflective action : though 
 thus reposing on the superficies of the earth at its 
 opposite extremes, are throughout the remainder of 
 
Climate, as connected with Localities. 161 
 
 their extent detached from it ; and describe in their 
 course a series of extended arches, of which the cul- 
 mens or summits are at the Line ; and from which, 
 as they diverge on either side, as shown by the dip- 
 ping needle, they approach nearer to the earth ; till 
 having arrived at the magnetic poles and term of 
 their extreme range, they concentre, in coming into 
 contact with it. But, as magnetic action in the at- 
 mosphere is never detached from, but, on the con- 
 trary, is inseparably united with electric; and that 
 the whole of its phenomena are esteemed to have 
 their source in the combined action of these forces. 
 Thus it is that these the magnetic meridians may 
 justly be esteemed as the axes of meteoric action in 
 the atmosphere; from, or to which, according to 
 the species, it continually diverges, or converges: 
 and which thus, as being connected with the latter 
 species of this action, necessarily constitutes the re- 
 gion of the clouds, as being that in which it concen- 
 trates. And that this is no ideal supposition, toge- 
 ther with the evidence obtained from the dipping- 
 needle alluded to ; the marked difference in regard 
 to the elevation at which the clouds form in the 
 lower latitudes, as contrasted with those lying fur- 
 ther north or south ; and in summer, than in winter, 
 sufficiently proves. Insomuch, that this the arch* 
 
 * The arch, described by the line of congelation, and which at the 
 Line is 2400 fathoms (or 14400 feet,) higher than the surface of 
 
 M 
 
162 Climate, as connected with Localities. 
 
 formed by the magnetic meridians throughout the 
 extent of the atmosphere, from pole to pole, may 
 justly be considered as constituting the meteoric 
 charpente, or sustaining ground on which it re- 
 poses. 
 
 These circumstances premised, and assuming the 
 concurrence of magnetic action to be equally neces- 
 sary to the formation of the nimbus, or rain-cloud, 
 as electric ; it is easy to see that an obstruction, 
 such as that presented by the higher ranges of 
 mountains, to the free horizontal circulation of mag- 
 netic action; but more particularly when, as in the 
 cases supposed, they traverse its course, or the di- 
 rection of the magnetic meridian, should induce 
 effects on the climate of the regions lying immedi- 
 ately on the opposite sides, exactly similar to those 
 noticed : a greater proportion of rain being formed 
 in the atmosphere on that side of such mountains 
 which lies open to, or exposed to the action of the 
 more proximate magnetic pole of the earth ; and a 
 less proportion on the opposite, agreeable to the 
 greater or less elevation of such mountains; and to 
 the latitude. For it is easy to see that, from the 
 greater elevation of the arch formed by the mag- 
 netic meridians in the lower, than in the higher la- 
 the sea; from thence as it diverges north and south, gradually ap- 
 proaches nearer to the earth, till at about the 80th degree on 
 either side, it comes into contact with its surface" 
 
Climate, as connected with Localities. 163 
 
 titudes of either hemisphere, a greater elevation in 
 such mountains, as in the case of Peru, were neces- 
 sary to the production of such effects in the coun- 
 tries of the former than in those of the latter; other 
 circumstances being the same. And thus, together 
 with the cause of these variations, and with the data 
 necessary to make them available to objects of uti- 
 lity, we have, as noticed, an additional proof of the 
 correctness of the principles assumed by our theory, 
 in reference to the source and formation of rain in 
 the atmosphere. 
 
 Having thus, as I assume, succeeded in showing 
 the necessity which exists for the presence and con- 
 currence of magnetic action, equally as of electric 
 in the formation of clouds and rain: and conse- 
 quently, that it is by means of the concurrence and 
 union of both actions in the middle region of the 
 atmosphere, equally as at the surface of the earth, 
 in regard to the temperature, that this species of 
 meteoric action is induced ; the circumstance is well 
 calculated to call forth a more particular inquiry 
 in regard to the principle in which this and its ac- 
 cessory phenomena have their source, than what we 
 have yet extended to them. 
 
 It was observed, in a preceding chapter, that, as 
 refers to electricity, bodies were divisible into op- 
 posite kinds, denominated idio-electrics and one- 
 lectrics, or containers and conductors of electricity : 
 
 M 2 
 
164 Climate p , as connected with Localities. 
 
 and that in order to the production of the excite- 
 ment in which electrical phenomena have their 
 source, the action of the former on the latter, or of 
 the latter on the former was necessary; as such ex- 
 citement was only obtained by means of such a con- 
 joint action. And that, under this point of view, 
 of the thermo-electric combination formed by the 
 earth and its atmosphere, in reference to the prin- 
 ciple of temperature, the region of the latter which 
 lies nearest the earth, constitutes the ideo-electric, 
 and its superficies, on which this region reposes, the 
 opposite or analectric portion ; by means of whose 
 reflective and conductive powers, acted on and ex- 
 cited by the sun, the meteoric action is generated 
 in this region of the atmosphere, in which heat, or 
 the principle of its temperature has its source : the 
 latter, as should be the case according to these prin- 
 ciples, being greatest at the surface of the earth, or 
 focus of the excitement in which this species of me- 
 teoric action is generated, and gradually less in 
 proportion as we recede vertically from it; till, at 
 a certain elevation, the effects of this reflective ac- 
 tion on the temperature disappear at the point of 
 congelation. But as meteoric action in the atmos- 
 phere is of opposite kinds, of which that connected 
 with the temperature is but one, and confined in its 
 range to a particular region ; and that, in order to 
 the production of the other, or that in which clouds 
 and rain have their source, though connected with 
 
Climate as connected with Localities. 165 
 
 the superior region of the atmosphere, a similar ar- 
 rangement in reference to the presence and union 
 of an anelectric, with the idio-electric body, formed 
 by the superficies of this its inferior region, became 
 equally necessary as at the opposite side, or super- 
 ficies of the earth. In directing our attention to 
 the construction observable in this our local atmos- 
 phere, vaulted, as it were, throughout its extent, at 
 a certain elevation, by the magnetic meridians, in 
 traversing it from pole to pole, along the line of con- 
 gelation. Do we not, I say, from the marked affi- 
 nity observable between magnetism and iron, equally 
 as the remainder of what are called electrical conduc- 
 tors, in this the magnetic vault suspended over, and 
 enclosing the idio-electrical region of the atmos- 
 phere, which extends from the superficies of the 
 earth to the line of congelation, equally as in the 
 an electric pedestal on which it is based on the op- 
 posite side, and intersecting as this magnetic dome, 
 in its direction, does, that of the electrical currents 
 which are, (owing to the law in reference to the op- 
 posite direction taken by electrical and magnetic 
 currents,) continually moving beneath, discover 
 the elements of an arrangement and mechanism, 
 such, as are altogether adapted to the production, 
 alternately, of these the opposite species of its me- 
 teoric action, by which, together with the principle 
 of its temperature, that of the revolution continually 
 progressing between it and the waters of the earth 
 
166 Opposite Species 
 
 beneath, is upheld ? And in which, together with 
 the true nature of the difference subsisting between 
 the opposite forces of electricity and magnetism, we 
 may perceive the wise intention of Nature in uniting 
 in the atmosphere, forces such as these, which by rea- 
 son of the contrasts they present, are so admirably 
 adapted to serve as foils to each other, in calling 
 forth and eliciting by this their conjunction, as 
 already noticed, the respective latent energies of 
 each. 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 
 
 Further Circumstances connected with the opposite 
 Species of Meteoric Action in the Atmosphere. 
 
 AGAIN, it being of the nature of meteoric action 
 in the atmosphere, that, of whatever kind, it con- 
 verges to a principal or main focus, where it is most 
 powerful ; and that the opposite species into which 
 it is divisable, are as opposite to each other in their 
 nature, as are the electrical and magnetic forces from 
 which they are derived : and further, that, as being 
 at once the bases of the temperature and remain- 
 der of its phenomena, it is the variations in the 
 species of meteoric action in the atmosphere derived 
 from the principle of reflection, which determine 
 those of the opposite species. Thus it is that the 
 opposite action of the sun as reflected from beneath, 
 
Of Meteoric Action. 167 
 
 separate and diverge horizontally on the earth's sur- 
 face from a common centre, to directly opposite 
 points of its superficies ; its electric action concen- 
 trating at the line, and its magnetic, diverging 
 thence to the opposite poles, but more particularly 
 centring at the pole of the winter hemisphere. 
 This division in the action of these forces being 
 more strongly apparent at, and after the solstices 
 as we approach the opposite extremes of annual 
 temperature, than at the equinoxes or other parts 
 of the year; and more fully developed at and in the 
 vicinity of their opposite main foci at the line, and 
 pole of the winter hemisphere, than throughout the 
 intermediate regions by which they are separated. 
 
 It would follow, assuming our principles to be 
 correct, that as the reflective action of the sun is 
 most powerful at the solstices and in the vicinity of 
 its opposite main foci; that these are the periods 
 and regions of the atmosphere, either at, or where, 
 the species of meteoric action in which clouds and 
 rain have their source, is least frequent. And, on 
 the contrary, that at the equinoxes, generally, as at 
 and after the periods of the solstices in those regions 
 which are the most distant from the sites occupied 
 by the opposite main foci of reflective action, were 
 those at, or where the latter, or species of meteoric 
 action in which clouds and rain have their source, 
 should the most frequently occur, other circum- 
 stances being the same. And by contrasting our 
 
168 Opposite Species 
 
 principles with these the facts to which they refer, 
 we shall find them in all respects borne out by the 
 latter: and thence that, according to the disposi- 
 tions of nature, each specks of meteoric action in 
 the atmosphere as connected with the temperature 
 or opposite class of its phenomena, has both a sea- 
 son, and a locality, equally as a ground or axis pro- 
 per to itself. But as the current of meteoric action 
 in the. atmosphere progresses uninterruptedly, and 
 that these its opposite species cannot progress at 
 the same time in any of its regions ; and conse- 
 quently, that the period of the termination of ei- 
 ther in any region, may be considered as that of the 
 commencement of the opposite. This necessarily 
 leads us to inquire as to the nature of the principle 
 in which these changes have their source ; and this, 
 in all cases, we shall find consists in the loss of the 
 equilibrium, of the existing action. And thus, as 
 where the existing action is the most powerful its 
 equilibrium is the most difficult to be disturbed, and 
 vice versa ; it follows that there is always a strict 
 analogy between the force of the existing species of 
 meteoric action, and that of its equilibrium: for as 
 the force of reflective action is greatest at and in 
 the vicinity of its main foci in summer and winter; 
 in those regions of the atmosphere during these sea- 
 sons also it is, where the equilibrium of this action 
 is likewise the most powerful : and vice versa, as 
 
Of Meteoric Action. 1 69 
 
 refers to the middle latitudes and opposite seasons 
 of the year. 
 
 It thence follows, that the sustaining principle 
 of reflective action, is that of disparity between the 
 opposite actions of the sun; as the greater is the 
 latter, or inequality subsisting between these actions 
 in any region of the atmosphere, the greater the 
 force of the dominant action on the temperature, 
 and of the equilibrium of this the species of meteoric 
 action it induces. And where on the contrary, a 
 close approximation of the relative forces of these 
 the opposite actions of the sun, subsists in any re- 
 gion of the atmosphere, and that the amount of such 
 disparity is inconsiderable; the force of the domi- 
 nant action, as of the equilibrium of the meteoric 
 action it induces, is likewise inconsiderable. And 
 as a graduated scale of disparity in the relative 
 forces of the opposite actions of the sun exists in the 
 summer hemisphere from the tropic to the pole; 
 being greatest at the former and least at the latter ; 
 as in the winter hemisphere contrariwise, or from 
 the pole to the tropic. Thus it is, that a moteur, 
 or disturbing cause, which at one extremity of either 
 hemisphere during summer or winter, would, owing 
 to the weakness of the equilibrium of reflective ac- 
 tion, overthrow it, and occasion a commencement 
 of the opposite species in which clouds and rain 
 have their source, would produce no such effect at 
 the opposite, or in the vicinity of the main focus of 
 
170 Opposite Species 
 
 the existing dominant action of the sun. From this 
 it follows, that as, or in proportion to the force of the 
 equilibrium of reflective action in any region of the 
 atmosphere, must be that of the moteur, or disturb- 
 ing cause, by which it is overthrown. And as from 
 the difference in the reflective power of mountains 
 in summer, and of capes and the vicinity of the sea 
 in winter, as contrasted with the interior of plains 
 or of continents; and the consequent difference of 
 force in the equilibrium of reflective action during 
 these seasons in the former, as contrasted with the 
 latter ; thence its more frequent overthrow, and the 
 occurrence of rain, consequent thereon, in mountains 
 during summer, and in the vicinity of the sea during 
 winter, than in the opposite class of localities no- 
 ticed, circumstances of latitude being the same. 
 
 And, in reference to the disturbing cause al- 
 luded to, by which the equilibrium of the reflective 
 action of the sun is overthrown. As the dominant 
 action of the sun which induces the equilibrium of 
 its reflective action, cannot be disturbed by itself; 
 it follows that, throughout the year, it is the weaker 
 action of the sun, that must be the disturbing cause 
 by which the equilibrium of the meteoric action of 
 its opposite the dominant action, is overthrown. 
 And thus, as from the period of the equinox to that 
 of the succeeding solstice, both in the summer and 
 winter hemisphere of the earth, the existing domi- 
 nant action of the sun is in a state of continual in- 
 
Of Meteoric Action. 171 
 
 crease or progression ; and its opposite in an equally 
 continual state of decrease or retrogression: it 
 would follow, according to these principles, that did 
 there not exist a meteoric agency distinct from those 
 of the sun and earth, whose action on the atmos- 
 phere, by uniting with the opposite actions of the 
 sun alternately, increased by the sum of its 
 amount, the force of either during the period of its 
 countenance; and thus by altering its measure 
 when united with the weaker, by the increase it 
 induced, should overthrow the equilibrium of the 
 reflective action of the opposite or dominant force, 
 that during these the opposite progression sea- 
 sons of the year, a change of the weather to rain 
 could not take place. And thence, as the only 
 agent which by reason of its homogeneity could in- 
 duce such effects, were the moon; the fact of the 
 occurrence of rain during these periods of the year, 
 is of itself demonstrative of the existence; as its 
 frequency, of the extent of the lunar action on the 
 weather: it being, as stated, the only disturbing 
 cause, viz. its negative or magnetic action at the 
 syzygies, and quadratures during the summer pro- 
 gression quarter, and its positive, or electric action 
 during the opposite seasons, which could induce 
 these changes to rain. This, however is not the 
 case during the opposite or transition quarters, viz. 
 those which commence at the solstices and terminate 
 at the equinoxes : as it is during these quarters that 
 
172 Opposite Species 
 
 the progressive increase of the weaker, and decrease 
 in its opposite the stronger or dominant action of the 
 sun, in both hemispheres take place ; till the princi- 
 ple of an equilibrium between their relative forces 
 which during the preceding quarters was lost, be- 
 comes again restored at the periods of the equi- 
 noxes. To this cause, and the increasing weakness 
 of the equilibrium of reflective action incident 
 thereto, it is, that the lunar changes during these 
 periods induce such general and frequent over* 
 throws of the latter; and that in consequence, in 
 either hemisphere of the earth, they are the chief 
 rainy seasons of the year. And further that, as the 
 force of the lunar action is limited in its amount; 
 and, except when favoured by the vicinity of moun- 
 tains, or of the sea, that it is in consequence unable, 
 during the opposite progression quarters of the 
 year, to overthrow the equilibrium of reflective 
 action in the vicinity of its" opposite main foci at the 
 tropic or pole ; that these the transition quarters are 
 those only during which the species of meteoric ac- 
 tion in which rain has its source, can be said to oc- 
 cur in the regions which approximate to these main 
 foci. 
 
 And thus, in tracing as to its source this the me- 
 teoric action by which clouds and rain are formed, 
 we shall find that it is referable to the transition, 
 or passage from a preceding, to a subsequent state 
 of reflective action, incident to the interruption in 
 
Of Meteoric Action. 173 
 
 the latter species, caused by the temporary loss of 
 its equilibrium. And that, as the principle on 
 which it, reflective action, depends, is, as stated, a 
 disparity between the relative forces of electric and 
 magnetic action, and their local separation and di- 
 vergence from a common centre or axis, situated at 
 the line of congelation, to the opposite, or superior 
 and inferior regions of the atmosphere, incident 
 thereto : that, on the contrary, on which this the 
 opposite species of its meteoric action is based, is 
 the temporary equalisation, and reversed or concen- 
 tric action of these forces on this the axis, in com- 
 mon, both of their divergence and convergence, 
 which separates horizontally its opposite divisions, 
 electric and magnetic : and which thence may ap- 
 propriately be denominated the inverse, as its oppo- 
 site the direct or divergent species of meteoric ac- 
 tion. And thus, that, as soon as the equilibrium of 
 the latter or direct species of meteoric action in any 
 region of the atmosphere is overthrown, the site of 
 its meteoric action is thence transferred from the 
 surface of the earth beneath, and from the superior 
 region above the line of congelation, to this its 
 centre ; where the contrast which exists in the direc- 
 tion of the currents equally as in the nature of the 
 magnetic and electrical forces on either side, thus 
 brought into collision with each other, constitute 
 the idio-electric and anelectric principles or ground 
 on which it forms ; and from which, in proportion 
 
174 Opposite Species 
 
 as the clouds it engenders increase, it extends itself 
 on either side, accelerating as it progresses ; till, if 
 sufficiently rapid, thunder and its accessories are 
 developed. The period of its duration being pro- 
 portioned to the amount of the secousse or overthrow 
 sustained by the equilibrium of the opposite action, 
 in which it originates ; and to the velocity or slow- 
 ness with which, (according to the contrast sub- 
 sisting between the opposite action electric and 
 magnetic the season and nature of the locality,) it 
 progresses. 
 
 That a reversed action of the electric and mag- 
 netic forces from either side, on the middle region 
 of the atmosphere in the formation of rain, similar 
 to that assumed, takes place on such occasions ; not 
 only the fall of the mercury in the tube of the baro- 
 meter, but the variations of the compass-needle 
 which this species of meteoric action, when conside- 
 rable, induces, sufficiently proves. As it is only 
 the temporary attraction to the axis of this species 
 of meteoric action in the middle region thus engen- 
 dered, which by coming into collision with that of 
 gravity, generated by the collective action of these 
 forces throughout the body of the atmosphere on 
 the mass of the earth beneath, combined with the 
 derangement in the direction of the magnetic meri- 
 dian derived from such collective action, thus in- 
 duced, which could produce these effects. And, in 
 the higher ranges of mountains during summer, 
 where, owing to the weakness of the reflective ac- 
 
Of Meteoric Action. 1 75 
 
 tion of the sun, and the consequent weakness of its 
 equilibrium in the atmosphere, the frequent changes 
 which at times take place between this and the op- 
 posite species of meteoric action in which rain has 
 its source, are so palpably expressed by the sudden 
 formation and disappearance of clouds on their sides 
 and summits, that it has frequently attracted the 
 attention of travellers in such regions to the circum- 
 stance. Of this, the following extract from the writ- 
 ings of the celebrated Arthur Young, while resident 
 in the Pyrenees, will serve to convey an idea : 
 " The heights of the mountains is such, that the 
 clouds, perpetually broken, pour down quantities of 
 rain." * * " They do not only arrest the fleet- 
 ing ones which are passing in the atmosphere, but 
 seem to have a generative power ; for you see small 
 ones at first, like thin vapour rising out of glens, 
 forming by degrees, till they become clouds, heavy 
 enough to rest on the tops, or else rise into the at- 
 mosphere, and pass away with others." Travels in 
 France, vol. 1, page 57 and 58. And from having 
 frequently witnessed in those mountains the circum- 
 stance here alluded to, I can say from my own ob- 
 servation, that the line on which these clouds com- 
 mence to form, is always that described by the base 
 of the snows which continually rest on their sum- 
 mits; and which thus forms the boundary between 
 their opposite regions, electric and magnetic. The 
 principle assumed in reference to the source of this 
 
176 The Winds, or 
 
 species of meteoric action in the atmosphere, being 
 in this instance proved by the fact ; and from its 
 being so near and palpable, in a manner as little 
 liable to error or deception, as though it passed 
 within the precincts of a laboratory. 
 
 CHAP. XV. 
 
 The Winds, or Currents of the Atmosphere. 
 
 AGAIN, as, according to the law of electrical and 
 magnetic currents, when, as in the atmosphere, the 
 action of these forces is combined, they cross each 
 other at right angles ; and that it is the position of 
 the magnetic meridian which determines that of its 
 opposite, the electrical. And that, as w r e perceive, 
 these opposite meridians in their direction, look to 
 the opposite cardinal points of the world : it were 
 probably not only curious but important to ascertain 
 the connexion which the winds or currents of the 
 atmosphere have with the axes formed by the meri- 
 dians of these opposite actions of the sun ; but more 
 particularly during the opposite seasons of summer 
 and winter, or periods of their alternate domination 
 and retrogression. For, as the axis of the winds, 
 or that on which they progress, as observed in a 
 preceding paragraph, is always at right angles with 
 their course or direction ; and that the same ana- 
 
Currents of the Atmosphere. 177 
 
 logy exists between the electrical and magnetic 
 currents induced by the opposite actions of the sun ; 
 and that the current in the inferior region of the at- 
 mosphere originated by the existing dominant ac- 
 tion, particularly in the vicinity of its main focus, 
 as proved by the trade-winds of the tropics, has 
 for axis, that of its opposite, the weaker action of 
 the sun, and is, in consequence, on the line, and in 
 the direction of its progression. It would follow, 
 assuming the existence of a connexion between the 
 currents of the atmosphere and the axes formed by 
 the opposite actions of the sun in its body, that as 
 the changes in the weather to rain, are, as shown, 
 induced by the changes which take place in the 
 weaker action of the sun ; that in like manner it is 
 the axis of the latter action, which determines the 
 direction of the winds. And as, with the change of 
 the seasons, that which, during six months, had 
 been the retrogressive or weaker action of the sun, 
 becomes in turn, during the succeeding six months, 
 the dominant or more powerful action ; this will, 
 probably, help to explain the source of the periodical 
 changes which half-yearly take place in the direc- 
 tion, not only of the trade-winds and other currents 
 of the tropics, but generally throughout the different 
 regions of the opposite hemispheres. And, as from 
 the tropics we advance to the higher latitudes, and 
 that the opposite actions of the sun become more 
 nearly balanced one to the other, thence why it is, 
 
 N 
 
178 The Winds, or 
 
 that, as partaking more equally of both, the axes, as 
 the direction of the winds, vary from the true axes 
 of both actions ; forming, as the winds in the middle 
 latitudes usually do, angles more or less considerable 
 with the cardinal points ; and that they but seldom, 
 as in the vicinity of the tropic or pole, are in their 
 direction parallel with the axis of the dominant ac- 
 tion. Which, assuming these data to be correct, 
 would give us a truer idea of the theory of the winds, 
 than what, as far as I am aware of, has yet been 
 proposed on this important subject. And if, as as- 
 sumed, the axis of the weaker action of the sun, de- 
 termines in all cases the position of the axis of the 
 winds ; and that their direction can no longer be 
 considered as depending on accident: as by means 
 of a knowledge of the lunar action on the weather, 
 those acquainted with it will be enabled to see in 
 advance the periods when storms are to be appre- 
 hended ; the principles noticed, will likewise enable 
 persons to ascertain their direction at these the pe- 
 riods when they are expected to occur, with the same 
 certainty as other effects in physics, whose princi- 
 ples are known. Observation, however, will be re- 
 quired, in order the better to ascertain the various 
 bearings of this subject ; with the view of giving to 
 it, as connected with navigation, all the utility of 
 which it is susceptible. It is hardly necessary to 
 add, that the position of the axis of the winds in the 
 atmosphere, as here understood, is that of the line of 
 
Currents of the Atmosphere. 179 
 
 congelation in its middle region. Again, as with 
 the exception of the equinoxes, when, from the 
 equalization in the times, or length of the day and 
 night throughout both hemispheres, that the oppo- 
 site actions of the sun electric and magnetic are 
 equally balanced one to the other ; a difference be- 
 tween the relative forces of these actions exists 
 throughout the remainder of the year. This causes 
 that during the opposite seasons of summer and 
 winter, these the opposite actions of the sun on the 
 atmosphere, are, as noticed, divisible into a dominant 
 and subordinate action ; the electric action of the 
 sun during summer being the dominant, and the 
 magnetic the subordinate action ; and at the oppo- 
 site season of the year, or during winter, vice versa. 
 And it being, as assumed, the changes in the subor- 
 dinate or weaker action of the sun, which during 
 these seasons induces the occurrence of rain ; and 
 that under this point of view, these the opposite ac- 
 tions of the sun are further divisible into an exciting 
 and a sustaining force ', which change their positions 
 relatively with that of the seasons. To this the 
 change which takes place in the ground of meteoric 
 action in summer and winter, is probably owing 
 the marked change which takes place in the acces- 
 sory phenomena by which rain is usually accompa- 
 nied at these opposite seasons of the year. 
 
 The better, however, to understand this, equally 
 as the principle in which the winds have their source, 
 
 N2 
 
180 The Winds, or 
 
 it becomes necessary to recur to the circumstance as 
 connected with electric or meteoric action in the at- 
 mosphere already noticed, viz. that it originates at 
 one arid the same time directly opposite forces 
 attractive and repulsive. Which circumstance is 
 only to be accounted for on the principle of the op- 
 posite directions taken by electric and magnetic ac- 
 tion when, as in the various meteors of atmosphere, 
 combined. This, in the first place, causes, that, as 
 connected with the atmosphere of the opposite he- 
 mispheres of the earth, the position of the magnetic 
 meridians on either side, is that which determines 
 both the position and direction of the centre or 
 main axis of electric action at the line, by which 
 they are separated ; and on the other, that it is this 
 latter, or main axis of electric action at the line 
 which, in turn, is the base or ground of projection to 
 its opposite, magnetic action, from which, thus 
 combined as it is with electric, it diverges on either 
 side to their opposite poles. These forces in this 
 their union, as we perceive, thus mutually acting on, 
 and re-acting from each other: as each forms the 
 base or ground either of convergence or divergence 
 to its opposite. And, as being a consequence of 
 the convergence of the electric action of the sun 
 from the opposite extremes of these hemispheres to 
 its centre at the line, together with the earth's 
 movement of rotation, from west to east, the trade- 
 winds of the tropics are esteemed to be effects ; hav- 
 
Currents of the Atmosphere. 181 
 
 ing their source, as assumed, in the force of repul- 
 sion generated by the latter action. The force of 
 these currents or winds, as connected with the con- 
 centric action which induces them, being esteemed 
 to express the sum or measure. The same opposi- 
 tion of forces, attractive and repulsive, being equally 
 generated in the meteors of the superior region of 
 the atmosphere ; notwithstanding that, as contrasted 
 with the former, they develope themselves differ- 
 ently : for as it is in the principle of convergence to 
 a centre or axis that these the meteors of the middle 
 and superior region of the atmosphere have their 
 source, it follows, according to this law of electric 
 and magnetic action, that such convergence or prin- 
 ciple of attraction in these meteors, gives birth to, 
 and originates at the same time, an opposite or re- 
 pulsive action from them to the same amount ; these 
 opposite actions expressing mutually, each the sum 
 of the other. This brings us to the principle in 
 which the winds or currents connected with the 
 latter class of meteors have their source ; they 
 being, as assumed, contingent on the repulsive force 
 originated by the opposite or concentric action in 
 which, as stated, these meteors have their source. 
 And, as being the counterparts of such concentric 
 action, they are proportionally strong or more vio- 
 lent, as the latter action which originates them is 
 more powerful ; and vice versa : their relations in 
 this respect being esteemed invariable. And as, 
 
182 The Winds, $c. of the Atmosphere. 
 
 when such meteors form on an electrical ground, as 
 in summer, and in the lower latitudes, (i. e. when 
 the electric action of the sun in the inferior region 
 of the atmosphere, as contrasted with its opposite, 
 is the dominant action,) from the action in which 
 they have their source being, in general, more con- 
 centric than when under opposite circumstances, as 
 in winter and in the higher latitudes, they form on 
 a magnetic; the first effect of the repulsive force 
 thus created is, usually, to originate the explosive 
 phenomenon of thunder. And of this force, the 
 lightning and thunderbolt may be considered to ex- 
 press the sum, equally as that of the concentric ac- 
 tion in the meteor which originates it ; and of which 
 storm and hurricane are but different modes of de- 
 velopment. These latter, as in winter and in the 
 higher latitudes, owing to the action in the meteor 
 which induces them being less concentric than in the 
 thunder-cloud, or when it forms on an electrical 
 ground, being the usual manner in which this the 
 repulsive force it engenders develops itself. And 
 which difference in the manner of development of 
 the repulsive force in these meteors, may probably 
 be further owing to the acting and exciting prin- 
 ciple in the former case, or thunder-cloud, being the 
 inflammable base of the superior region more par- 
 ticularly connected with magnetic action hydro- 
 gen: as in the latter its opposite oxygen. The 
 principle, however, being the same in both ; as with- 
 
Meteors, Sfc. 183 
 
 out the action of convergence in the meteor, to 
 which they are referable, in the first instance, they 
 could not in either case occur : contingent, as these 
 opposite actions are assumed to be, on the funda- 
 mental law of nature so frequently noticed the 
 union of opposite progressions of the same kind. 
 
 CHAP. XVL 
 
 Connexion observable betiveen certain Classes of 
 Localities and of Meteors with each other, equally 
 as with the Changes respectively in each of the 
 Meteoric Circles Annual, Lunar, and Diur- 
 nal. The Aurora Borealis. 
 
 BUT, as the opposite actions of the sun on the at- 
 mosphere revolve in three circles the diurnal, the 
 lunar, and annual ; and of which, as constituting 
 the ground of meteoric action in the former, it is the 
 action in the latter or annual circle which chiefly de- 
 termines the effects on the weather induced by the 
 actions in the lunar and diurnal. And that, as no- 
 ticed in a preceding paragraph, a fixed and deter- 
 minate relation always exists between the relative 
 amount of these the opposite actions of the sun in 
 the annual circle and the position of the earth in the 
 ecliptic. Both actions of the sun, as, from after the 
 periods of the equinoxes they converge to their res- 
 
184 Meteors, fyc. 
 
 pective main foci in the opposite or summer and 
 winter hemispheres, necessarily increase progres- 
 sively, as the earth approaches its apsides at the 
 solstices ; when, or rather some time after, from 
 these being the periods of their greatest concentra- 
 tion, these actions as connected with the annual 
 circle, attain their maximum degrees of force on the 
 temperature. To this circumstance, I say, and to 
 the difference which occurs in the relative force of 
 either action of the sun, whether in the summer or 
 winter hemisphere, as it diverges from the site oc- 
 cupied by its main focus, whether at the pole of the 
 latter, or tropic of the former, it is owing, that in 
 both hemispheres during these the opposite solstial 
 seasons of summer and winter, there are certain lo- 
 calities which, from the weather not being disturbed 
 but by the great changes which take place in the 
 annual circle, connected with those of the seasons, 
 may be said more particularly to belong to the 
 latter, or annual circle, viz. those which lie in the 
 vicinity of the main foci of these the opposite ac- 
 tions of the sun. And that, in proportion as we re- 
 cede to a greater distance from these main foci, 
 whether in descending from the pole of the winter 
 hemisphere, or in ascending from the tropic of the 
 opposite, that the relative force of the existing do- 
 minant action of the sun on the atmosphere dimi- 
 nishes, so as that the changes in the lunar circle are 
 sufficiently powerful to induce changes in the wea 7 
 
Meteors, $c. 185 
 
 ther, that thence there is another class of locali- 
 ties in both hemispheres during these seasons, bor- 
 dering on the former, which is more particularly 
 connected with the lunar circle. And finally, that 
 as in the mountainous districts of these the tempe- 
 rate zones of both hemispheres, and in the vicinity 
 of the sea, where, from the near approach to an 
 equilibrium which, even in winter and summer, ex- 
 ists between the opposite actions of the sun, that 
 the changes in these actions which take place in the 
 diurnal circle of their movement, are at times suffi- 
 cient to induce changes in the weather. This 
 causes that, similar to the annual and lunar, there 
 is a third class of localities in both hemispheres, 
 which, during summer and winter, may be said 
 more particularly to belong to the diurnal circle, as 
 connected with the ordinary changes of the weather. 
 For, as regards those of a different class, or such as 
 have their source in the changes which take place 
 in the annual circle : as the actions in the lunar and 
 diurnal circles are united with those in the former ; 
 the periods of their occurrence usually correspond 
 with those when, according to the order of their 
 occurrence in the latter, they should occur; as 
 being the expression of the conjoint action of all 
 three at the time. 
 
 It is further to be observed as not a little curious, 
 that similar to the connexion observed to exist be- 
 tween certain classes of localities and each of the 
 
186 Meteors, fyc. 
 
 three circles of meteoric action, as noticed, a like 
 species of connexion appears to subsist between the 
 appearance or occurrence of certain meteors, and 
 the changes which take place in the meteoric action 
 of each of these circles. As, for instance, it is only 
 at the periods of the great changes which take place 
 in the annual circle connected with those of the sea- 
 sons, whether at the equinoxes, or during the 
 winter progression or transition quarters, that 
 either the larger class of globular meteors make 
 their appearance in the middle or lower latitudes, 
 or the aurora borealis in those lying further north. 
 And, of which it may be further observed, that, 
 owing to their being the result of a more powerful 
 action, as that a greater depth of the atmosphere is 
 affected thereby than is the case on ordinary occa- 
 sions, these meteors are usually the precursors of 
 some of the most violent storms of the year. Thun- 
 der and its accessory phenomena, on the contrary, 
 being usually the effects during spring and sum- 
 mer of the changes which take place in the lunar 
 action ; and with which the changes in the annual 
 circle have no part. Dew and Fog,* as is known, 
 
 * Fog, or mist, as is known, is the first stage of the meteor in 
 which rain has its source ; and beyond which, when either of the 
 contributing actions electric or magnetic which are esteemed 
 necessary to the production of the rain- cloud, do not concur to 
 the required extent, it does not progress. And as being illustra- 
 tive that this is the case, it may be observed that though at Lima 
 
Meteors, $c. 187 
 
 being more particularly connected with the changes 
 that take place in the diurnal circle. 
 
 But to revert to the aurora lorealis, from its 
 being a meteor which, as is known, has long excited 
 the attention of the scientific world ; and that, as I 
 conceive, a conclusive proof of the correctness of the 
 principles assumed by our theory is to be derived 
 from it ; I have thought it right to notice it in this 
 place. Thus, as refers to the assumed connexion 
 which subsists between the axes of the opposite ac- 
 tions of the sun in the atmosphere, as between those 
 of its meteors and currents, in traversing each other 
 at right angles. And the assumption, that it is on 
 
 the occurrence of rain is so unusual ; fog, or mist, on the contrary, 
 during great part of the year, is of almost daily occurrence. And 
 further, that in the polar skies during summer, this the frequency 
 of fog, and absence of rain is likewise observable : thence, agree- 
 able to this double testimony, we have proved in the clearest man- 
 ner, the correctness of the principle assumed, in reference to the 
 rain- cloud. As where at one extreme of the scale of these actions, 
 in the climate of Lima, magnetic action is so disproportioned to its 
 opposite in reference to the production of rain, we find the meteor 
 in which it has its source, though frequently commenced, cannot, in 
 consequence, progress beyond this its first stage : and that at its 
 opposite extreme in the polar skies, from a similar disparity in 
 electric action, as contrasted with magnetic, the result in this re- 
 spect is still the same. And, consequently, as refers to the central 
 regions of this meteoric scale, in either hemisphere, or where 
 these opposite actions in the atmosphere are the most equally 
 blended, why it is that, in these their temperate zones, the oc- 
 currence of rain is the most frequent. 
 
188 Meteors, fyc. 
 
 the axis of the weaker or subordinate action of the 
 sun in the middle or superior region of the atmos- 
 phere, that the meteors form which are induced by 
 the inverse or concentric action of these forces in 
 those regions in which rain and its accessories have 
 their source; as that the direction of the axis of the 
 opposite or dominant action of the sun, is that of 
 the currents in the inferior region which those me- 
 teors induce. Under this point of view, esteeming 
 the aurora borealis to be of the same species of me- 
 teoric action as that in which thunder and its acces- 
 sories have their source, i. e. the inverse or concen- 
 tric action of the electric and magnetic forces in the 
 region where it occurs : but with this difference, 
 that as electricity is esteemed to be the ground of 
 the meteor, as stated, in which thunder has its 
 source, magnetic action, on the contrary, is es- 
 teemed the base of the meteor in which the aurora 
 has its source ; i. e. that, in the conjoint action of 
 the electric and magnetic forces which has the pre- 
 ponderance. And as this, according to the princi- 
 ples assumed would, if correct, cause that the axis 
 of the aurora should traverse the line described by 
 the magnetic meridian ; we shall find that in every 
 instance of its appearance such is the case. The 
 angle which the axis of the aurora forms with the 
 magnetic meridian varying with the distance from 
 the pole being more completely a tracers or at 
 right angles with it in the higher latitudes ; and, si- 
 
Meteors, fyc. 189 
 
 milar to the currents, deviating more or less from 
 this as it approaches farther south : the storms 
 which succeed, as should be the case, taking an op- 
 posite direction. It may be further observed of the 
 aurora, that, esteeming its coruscations to be of the 
 same nature as the lightnings projected from the 
 thunder-cloud, and that the direction of the latter 
 is to the earth, or inferior region of the atmosphere, 
 where, at the time, electricity is still in an idio-elec- 
 tric state : and which direction of lightning to the 
 inferior region, is probably an effect of the electric 
 attraction which, as is known, exists between bodies 
 in opposite states of electricity. Thus, as magne- 
 tism is assumed to be the predominant action in the 
 production of the aurora ; and that the lightning or 
 corruscations it projects, instead of taking the direc- 
 tion of the earth, ascend in the opposite, or to the 
 zenith : may not the cause of this be that, as the 
 base or ground of the meteor which originates the 
 aurora is magnetic, and that, as in the instance of 
 the thunder-cloud, as magnetism exists in the su- 
 perior region of the atmosphere above it, similar to 
 electricity, in the latter case, in the inferior region, 
 in what may be denominated an idlo-magnetic, or 
 different state from what it does in the meteor be- 
 neath ; that this the direction of the corruscations 
 of the aurora may not be an effect of the attraction 
 which, as in the former case, may exist between bo- 
 dies in opposite states of magnetism ? 
 
190 Further Proof of Principles 
 
 CHAR XVII. 
 
 Further Proof of Principles, in reference to the as- 
 sumed Influence of Magnetic Action, derived 
 from the sudden and total Change of the Seasons 
 at the Periods of the Equinoxes, on the opposite 
 Sides of the Peninsula of India. 
 
 AND, as being esteemed further illustrative of the 
 important influence exercised by magnetic action in 
 particular localities on the seasons and weather, 
 assuming it to be the cause: in addition to the 
 instance noticed in the climate of Lima, may be 
 cited the total change from summer to winter, or 
 from drought to rain, which at the periods of the 
 equinoxes takes place on the opposite shores of the 
 Peninsula of India, separated as they are by the 
 lofty chain of mountains which traverses its centre, 
 i. e. those of Malabar and Coromandel. A change 
 so sudden and remarkable as to have not only at- 
 tracted the attention, but excited the astonishment 
 of naturalists; and of which the following ac- 
 count, copied from the first volume of Raynal's cele- 
 brated work on the Commerce of both the Indies, 
 may serve to convey an idea: " L'Indostan n'est 
 que le pays renferme entre 1' Indus et le Gange, 
 deux fleuves celebres qui vont se jetter dans les mers 
 
As connected with Magnetic Action. 191 
 
 des Indes, a quatre oents lieues Tun de 1'autre. Ce 
 long espace est traverse du Nord au midi, par une 
 chaine de hautes montagnes, qui, le coupant par le 
 milieu, va se terminer au Cap Camorin, en sepa- 
 rant la cote de Malabar de celle de Coromandel. 
 
 " Par une singularite frappante, et peut-etre 
 unique, cette chaine est tine barriere que la nature 
 semble avoir elevee entre les saisons opposes. La 
 seule epaisseur de ces montagnes y separe 1'ete de 
 1'hiver; c'est-a-dire : la saison des beaux jours de 
 celle de pluies: car on sait qu'il n'y a point d'hiver 
 entre les Tropiques. Mais par ce mot, on entend 
 aux Indes le terns de 1'annee ou les nuages, que le 
 soleil pompe au sein de lamer, sont pousses violem- 
 ment par les vents contre les montagnes, s'y brisent 
 et se resolvent en pluies, accompagnees de frequens 
 orages. De-la se forment des torrens qui se preci- 
 pitent, grossisent les rivieres, inondent les plaines. 
 Tout nage alors dans les tenebres humides, epaisses 
 et profondes. Le jour meme est obscurci des plus 
 noires vapeurs." * " L'ete, sans doute, con- 
 serve mieux son caractere que 1'hiver dans cette re- 
 gion du soleil. Le ciel sans aucun nuage qui inter- 
 cepte ses rayons, y presente Taspect d'un airain em- 
 brase." * " L'influence des deux saisons est 
 encore plus marquee sur les deux mers de 1'Inde, ou 
 on les distingue sous le nom de moussons seches et 
 pluvieuse. Tandis que le soleil, revenant sur ses 
 pas, amene au printems la saison des tempetes et 
 
192 Further Proof of Principles 
 
 des naufrages pour la mer qui baigne la cote dc 
 Malabar, celle de Coromandel voit les plus lagers 
 vaisseaux voguer sans aucun risque, sur un mer tran- 
 quille, ou les pilotes n'ont besoin ni de science, ni de 
 precaution. Mais Vautomne, a son tour, changeant 
 la face des elemens, fait passer le calme sur la cote 
 Occidentale, et les or ages sur la mer orient ale des 
 Indes; transporte la paix ou etoit la guerre, et la 
 guerre ou etoit la paix. L'insulaire de Ceylon, les 
 yeux tournes vers la region de 1'Equateur, aux deux 
 saisons de I 'Equinox, voit alternativement les flots 
 tourmentes a sa droite et paisable a sa gauche; 
 comme si 1'auteur de la nature tournoit tout-a-coup, 
 en ces deux momens d'equilibre, la balance des 
 fleaux et des bienfaits qu'il tient perpetuellement en 
 ses mains. Peut-etre meme est-ce dans 1'Inde, oa 
 les deux empires du bien et du mal semblent netre 
 separe que par un rampart de montagnes, qu' est 
 ne le dogme des deux principes, dogme done 
 I'homme ne s'affrancbira peut-etre jamais entiere- 
 ment, tant qu'on ignorera les vues profondes de 
 1'etre tout-puissant qui crea 1'univers." Histoires 
 Philosophiques, tome 1, pag. 55 et suiv. 
 
 When, even in the comparatively enlightened 
 times in which we live, the rank weeds of supersti- 
 tion still flourish, and continue to extend their 
 baleful influence over so large a portion of society ; 
 it is not to be wondered at if, during the protracted 
 night of " cimmerian darkness " which so long 
 
As connected with Magnetic Action. 193 
 
 hung over the human mind, and paralysed its ener- 
 gies ; the extraordinary spectacle presented by the 
 sudden revolution of the seasons in regions of the 
 atmosphere so proximate as are those at the opposite 
 sides of the peninsula of India at the periods of the 
 equinoxes, should, from the profound impression it 
 was so well calculated to make on the sensitive tem- 
 perament of its inhabitants, have as conjectured by 
 Raynal, first suggested the idea of personifying the 
 opposite principles of good and evil; and which 
 thence diverging, probably extended to Egypt, and 
 other countries of the East, has served as the basis 
 of the various systems of theology which, during so 
 many ages, have continued to distract, disgrace, and 
 bewilder so large a portion of the human race. Thus, 
 as in other cases, showing the intimate connexion 
 which has always existed between the moral and 
 physical world; and the powerful influence exer- 
 cised by external nature on the opinions, the ha- 
 bits, and institutions, both civil and religious of 
 mankind. For, it were vain to seek elsewhere for 
 such striking proofs of the influence exercised by 
 the principles which preside over and determine the 
 variations of the temperature, and other pheno- 
 mena of the seasons, as those induced by the equi- 
 noxes on the shores of the peninsula of India. 
 And it will serve to place in a true light all that 
 had to be done, in order to arrive at the cause of 
 these extraordinary changes, when even so en- 
 
 o 
 
1 94? Further Proof of Principles 
 
 lightened a man as Raynal, could carry his specula- 
 tions no further, or assign any other reason for them, 
 than the thickness, (epaisseur,) of the mountains 
 which separate these opposite regions ! Little sus- 
 pecting, that the true cause of these changes, 
 lay in the transition, which, at these the periods 
 of the equinoxes, takes place between the chief sites 
 of magnetic action in the earth and sun, i. e. from 
 the pole of the approaching summer, to that of the 
 approaching winter hemisphere of the earth, and of 
 the opposite magnetic pole of the sun, as connected 
 with the elliptical movement of the former round 
 the latter, already described. And which, in con- 
 sequence of these mountains in their direction tra- 
 versing, and forming a slight angle from north-east, 
 to south-west, with the magnetic meridian, and 
 thence of their opposite sides looking to the oppo- 
 site magnetic poles of the earth, from their posi- 
 tion nearly under the equator, and their great eleva- 
 tion, which causes that they serve as the natural 
 boundary of the opposite hemispheres, equally as 
 the barrier, on either side, to the meteoric range of 
 the acting magnetic pole of the earth in those 
 skies: by the reverberation of the magnetic action 
 of this the pole of the winter hemisphere in the in- 
 ferior region of the atmosphere, at this the extreme 
 limit of its direct influence, by the side alternately 
 opposed to it by these mountains, thus inducing these 
 sudden and extraordinary changes in the seasons, 
 
As connected with Magnetic Action. 195 
 
 on the shores of Malabar and Coromandel, at these 
 the periods of the year when the transitions in the 
 local site of this action take place. Such, as as- 
 sumed, being the true cause of these changes, and, 
 consequently, the explanation of this important pro- 
 blem in meteorology. The spectacle of these changes, 
 it may be added, having been in some sort neces- 
 sary, in order that it might be the means, from its 
 being so palpable and direct, of carrying conviction 
 even to the dullest capacity, in reference to the na- 
 ture, and extensive influence exercised by magnetic 
 action on the seasons and weather, equally as on 
 the elliptical movement of the earth, and, by ana- 
 logy, of the remainder of the planets : it being im- 
 possible, in the entire list of natural causes, to find 
 any other adequate to the production of these ef- 
 fects. Thus shewing, as the fact is so well calcu- 
 lated to do, that it was only by the discovery and 
 development of meteorological principles, that the 
 knowledge of astronomical principles could have 
 been, at any time, arrived at. 
 
 o 2 
 
196 Tendence of Meteoric Action 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. 
 
 Tendence of Meteoric Action in the Atmosphere, as 
 connected with the Annual and Lunar Circle. 
 
 BUT the latter is not the only point of view in 
 which these changes of the seasons at the extremity 
 of Hindoostan claim our attention ; as by them we 
 are likewise supplied with the most unerring data in 
 reference to one of the most difficult and important 
 departments of meteorology, viz. those which influ- 
 ence and determine the tendencies either to drought 
 or humidity, whether as connected with the annual 
 or lunar circle of meteoric action. Which, it may 
 be added, are of a nature such, as, throughout the 
 year, and in every latitude and species of locality, 
 exercise so marked an influence on the seasons and 
 weather, that without some acquaintance with these 
 the principles to which they are referable, calcula- 
 tion in regard to expected changes in the weather, 
 would still continue to be, as heretofore, both doubt- 
 ful and imperfect. And as from the actions in the 
 annual circle being the ground of the actions in the 
 lunar and diurnal, they are those which throughout 
 the year exercise the greatest influence on the sea- 
 sons and weather ; the circumstances which deter- 
 mine the changes in these tendencies in the latter, 
 
In the Atmosphere, fyc. 197 
 
 are those necessarily which first claim our attention. 
 And as the operation of the causes connected with 
 these changes in the annual circle are sooner felt, 
 and more strongly marked in the weather, in the vi- 
 cinity of the sites occupied by the main foci of the 
 opposite actions of the sun, in the lower latitudes, 
 and polar regions, than in those which lie between : 
 this brings us to a re-consideration of the principles, 
 under the present point of view, connected with the 
 sudden changes which, at the periods of the equi- 
 noxes, take place in the seasons, on the opposite 
 shores of Malabar and Coromandel. These changes, 
 as we perceive, instead of advancing, as elsewhere, 
 by slow and, as it were, imperceptible degrees ; 
 being, as described, both sudden and entire. And 
 assuming the cause of these changes, as stated, to 
 consist in the transition which at the equinoxes takes 
 place in the magnetic action of the sun from the 
 pole of the approaching summer, to that of the ap- 
 proaching winter hemisphere of the earth ; the first 
 circumstance to notice, as connected with them is, 
 that the extremes of the lever, to the alternate 
 changes in the action of which they are referable, 
 are not confined to either, but extend to the extre- 
 mities of these the opposite hemispheres : this lever 
 being no other than the line or meridian which con- 
 nects their opposite magnetic poles. And which, as 
 the main force or amount of the magnetic action of 
 the sun at each succeeding equinox, becomes alter- 
 
198 Tendence of Meteoric Action 
 
 nately transferred from one to the other of these 
 poles, of the sudden revolution in the direction of 
 magnetic action throughout the hody of the atmos- 
 phere, consequent thereon, the violent phenomena 
 which, from these the periods of their occurrence, 
 are called the equinoctial gales, are to be esteemed 
 the first effects ; and which subsequently, or after 
 the equilibrium of magnetic action is anew restored 
 in the direction thus given to it ; and that, with 
 the advance of the season, its force increases in the 
 vicinity of the pole : as this action continues to 
 weigh on, and sink the temperature in the winter he- 
 misphere, it serves, by its gradual diminution in the 
 opposite, to elevate it in the latter to the same ex- 
 tent. And thus, as from after the autumnal equi- 
 nox we approach the period of the winter solstice 
 as being connected with the gradual fall of its tem- 
 perature, the increasing force of magnetic action in 
 the winter hemisphere, induces a continual tendence 
 in the weather during this period of the year to rain : 
 as, owing to the operation of a totally different prin- 
 ciple, viz. the consecutive increase of electric ac- 
 tion, the tendence of the weather in the opposite 
 or summer hemisphere during the same interval, is 
 to drought. This necessarily causes that, similar to 
 the seasons, the tendence of meteoric action in the 
 opposite hemispheres of the earth, from the equi- 
 noxes to the solstices is constantly contrasted ; and 
 that, by means of these the changes of position alter- 
 
In the Atmosphere , fyc. 199 
 
 nately in the magnetic, equally as in the electric ac- 
 tion of the sun at the periods of the equinoxes, both 
 at the poles and tropics, similar to the opposite 
 strokes of the steam-engine connected with its move- 
 ment of rotation, it is, that the annual revolution of 
 the seasons and weather in both hemispheres, is up- 
 held and perpetuated. 
 
 And, as from the union of the electrical and mag- 
 netic forces in the atmosphere, there must of neces- 
 sity exist in its body a common centre, to and from 
 which, with the changes of the seasons, they con- 
 verge and diverge to their opposite main foci in the 
 opposite hemispheres ; and which as being the true 
 limit of meteoric action in either, can be no other, 
 as already noticed, than the magnetic equator by 
 which they are separated. It is easy to see that in 
 these the periodical changes which, at the equinoxes 
 take place in the sites of the main foci of these forces 
 from either hemisphere to the opposite, that as the 
 point of their horizontal collision at these periods, 
 must be on the line of the magnetic equator, that it 
 is on, or in the vicinity of the latter they should 
 first induce those changes in the seasons and wea- 
 ther, incident thereto. And this will serve to show 
 why, as proved by the fact, that, owing to the posi- 
 tion and local influence exercised by the chain of 
 mountains which separates the opposite sides of the 
 peninsula of India, it is here where these periodical 
 changes in the opposite actions of the sun first pro- 
 
200 Tendence of Meteoric Action 
 
 duce their effects on the seasons and weather. And 
 that, as the magnetic equator, or axis of magnetic 
 action, is situated at, or in the vicinity of the line, 
 and is, in those regions, consequently, the weaker 
 action of the sun ; conformable to the law in refer- 
 ence to the concentric action of these forces in the 
 atmosphere already stated, viz. that the meteoric 
 action incident thereto always forms on the line 
 described by the axis of the weaker force. Thus, 
 that changes in the weather at the periods of the 
 equinoxes should, in the first instance, as they com- 
 mence at the junction of the opposite hemispheres, 
 be in their direction east and west. And that as, 
 with the advance of the season, the magnetic action 
 of the sun increased in the winter, as its electric in 
 the opposite or summer hemisphere of the earth ; 
 their effects of inducing an increased tendence to 
 rain in the former, as to drought in the latter, 
 should gradually develop themselves further, in the 
 direction of the poles; till, about the periods of the 
 solstices these opposite tendencies on either hand, 
 would have attained their maximum degree, and 
 greatest extension throughout the various regions of 
 both. These the opposite actions of the sun, with 
 the opposite tendencies in the weather which they 
 induce, similar to two waves diverging from a com- 
 mon centre in opposite directions, thus, at the pe- 
 riods of the equinoxes, diverging from the line de- 
 scribed by the magnetic equator ; and, with the ad- 
 
In the Atmosphere, fyc. 201 
 
 vance of the seasons, gradually extending their ef- 
 fects over both hemispheres, thence to the opposite 
 poles. But, as the magnetic action of the sun in the 
 winter hemisphere, though at first it induces rain, 
 ultimately, or as soon as, whether at, or subsequent 
 to the winter solstice, it causes the temperature to 
 fall below the freezing point, (similar to its elec- 
 tric action in the opposite,) induces a change of 
 tendency in the weather to drought. And further, 
 that the contrast in the weather of the opposite he- 
 mispheres induced by these the opposite actions of 
 the sun, is much greater as connected with its oppo- 
 site states of drought and humidity, than with the 
 rise or fall of the temperature ; as proved by the 
 contrasts in the lower latitudes at the periods of the 
 equinoxes so frequently alluded to. This causes, 
 that, when at, or subsequent to the solstice in the 
 winter hemisphere, and owing to the great fall of 
 the temperature, the tendence in its atmosphere is 
 to drought ; that it has the effect, at this period, of 
 inducing an opposite tendency in the atmosphere of 
 the summer hemisphere. 
 
 And as, of the three conditions which chiefly de- 
 termine the relative force of the opposite actions of 
 the sun on the atmosphere, viz. distance, magni- 
 tude, and length of exposition: the first, as con- 
 nected with the proximity of places to the main 
 focus of its electric action at the line, and the latter, 
 or greater length of exposition to the solar action, 
 
202 Tendence of Meteoric Action 
 
 owing to the greater length of the day ; induces a 
 more powerful development of this the electric ac- 
 tion of the sun during summer, in the higher and 
 lower latitudes of either hemisphere, than in those 
 which lie between. This causes that, as the rela- 
 tive force of the solar action in the summer hemis- 
 phere about the period of the solstice, is much less 
 in its central latitudes, or temperate zone, than in 
 those on either side ; the change in the tendence 
 of meteoric action in the regions of the latter, at this 
 period, is much more apparent, and sensibly felt in 
 the weather than in the polar or tropical skies. And 
 that, in tracing as to their source the rains which 
 about the period of the summer solstice usually set 
 in with us, and continue thence to about the middle 
 of July, or period of greatest cold in the southern 
 hemisphere ; to this the change of tendence to 
 drought, in the latter, incident to the annual fall of 
 its temperature during this period,- the change of 
 meteoric tendence with us, and the rains it induces, 
 are to be ascribed. About the period of St. Swithin, 
 however, if the calorific action of the sun be suffi- 
 ciently powerful, the tendence of meteoric action 
 again undergoes a change with us to drought ; which 
 continues till interrupted by the setting in of the 
 autumnal equinox. But, owing to the usual weak- 
 ness of the solar action with us at this period of the 
 year, the latter change in the weather at St. Swithin 
 but rarely occurs ; and thence it generally happens 
 
In the Atmosphere, fyc. 203 
 
 that the tendence to rain which sets in about the 
 solstice, continues, with little interruption, to the 
 autumnal equinox. 
 
 But, to revert to principles : it may be stated as 
 a general rule, that, whether in summer or winter, 
 in tracing as to its source the existing tendence in 
 the weather, whether to rain or drought, it will be 
 found in the tendence of an opposite kind, which at 
 the time exists in the opposite or southern hemis- 
 phere of the earth. Thus showing the intimate 
 connexion which subsists between meteoric action in 
 the most distant regions of the atmosphere, however 
 seemingly remote ; and the necessity which occurs 
 of grappling with the ensemble of this action in the 
 atmosphere of both hemispheres, in order to arrive 
 at a knowledge of the principles by which it is de- 
 termined. 
 
 Thus, as refers to the annual circle : the tendence 
 of meteoric action from the autumnal equinox to the 
 winter solstice, is to rain : being an effect of the 
 share magnetic action at all times has in its forma- 
 tion ; its increase during this period being conse- 
 cutive ; and which, acting on an opposite or electri- 
 cal ground in the inferior region of the atmosphere, 
 necessarily induces this effect. To this, if the tem- 
 perature sinks below the freezing point, and conti- 
 nues so during some time ; an interval of drought 
 succeeds, till the period of the extreme degree of 
 winter cold ; or about a month after the solstice. 
 
204 Tendence of Meteoric Action 
 
 Thence, till after the period of the vernal equinox 
 and the phenomena connected with it, the tendence 
 of the weather is to rain, being an effect of the tran- 
 sition in the temperature consequent on the increase 
 of the electric action of the sun, acting on a magne- 
 tic lase in the inferior region of the atmosphere, 
 while yet the latter is the dominant action of the 
 sun. From after the autumnal equinox to the pe- 
 riod of the summer solstice, the tendence of the wea- 
 ther is again to drought, being an effect of the do- 
 mination and consecutive increase during this period 
 of the electric action of the sun. And, finally, 
 (owing to the fall of temperature and opposite ten- 
 dency consequent thereon in the winter hemisphere,) 
 the tendence of the weather from the period of the 
 summer solstice till after the extreme degree of sum- 
 mer heat about a month subsequently, is to rain ; 
 but more generally, as stated, to the period of 
 the autumnal equinox. The scale of variation in 
 the weather of the seasons, as here sketched, is 
 chiefly such as occurs in our skies, or the temperate 
 zones of both hemispheres ; as matters in this re- 
 spect are very different, both in the vicinity of the 
 poles and tropics. And thus it will be seen that 
 the meteoric division of the annual circle or year, 
 varies with the season, the latitude, and the nature 
 of the locality. 
 
 But as the variations connected with latitude 
 and locality, however extensive and influential, are, 
 
In the Atmosphere, fyc. 205 
 
 from being better known, subordinate in inter- 
 est to those connected with the changes that take 
 place in the seasons of different years : the latter 
 more particularly claim our attention in this place. 
 And, as these changes do not fall equally on the dif- 
 ferent quarters of the year, it will be necessary, in 
 the first place, to point out the natural division of 
 the annual circle as connected with these variations. 
 Thus, the equinoxes and solstices, being the oppo- 
 site cardinal points of the annual circle ; its first di- 
 vision, as laid down in the diagram of the annual 
 circle, which will be found in the subjoined paper on 
 the lunar action on the weather, is, according to 
 the lines which connect them. And as, from the 
 extreme degree of summer heat, as of winter cold, 
 being each an effect of the extreme concentration of 
 the existing dominant action of the sun by which it 
 is induced, it necessarily falls after the period of 
 the solstice ; and that the changes which occur in 
 the seasons of different years depend on those of the 
 temperature. Thus, in addition to the lines which 
 connect the cardinal points of the annual circle, it 
 became necessary to add a third, to connect the 
 points at which, subsequent to the solstices, these 
 the opposite extreme degrees of annual temperature 
 are supposed to occur; and which, together with 
 the latter, express the line of greatest variation in 
 the opposite actions of the sun. And, as contrasted 
 with the latter, or line of greatest variation, it be- 
 
206 Tendence of Meteoric Action 
 
 came equally necessary to introduce another, or 
 fourth line, traversing the latter, or line of greatest 
 variation, and terminating on the opposite sides of 
 that of the solstices, about equidistant from the 
 latter points on the one side, as the line of greatest 
 variation on the other, as being that of permanent 
 uniformity in the opposite actions of the sun ; i. e. 
 that of the opposite points of the annual circle pre- 
 ceding the solstices, where the least variation occurs 
 in the solar action. The necessity which existed 
 for the introduction of this latter division into the 
 meteoric chart of the year, will appear from the cir- 
 cumstance that, as the lunar action on the weather 
 is always determined both in its nature and effects 
 by the meteoric ground in the annual circle on which 
 it acts ; and that, with the exception of this the line 
 of uniformity, the solar action is so variable in its 
 other divisions, that, without its existence, in order 
 to substantiate by a uniformity of effects on the 
 weather produced at these periods of the year by it, 
 the lunar action, it were impossible to afford such 
 proofs of the latter, as the nature of the subject re- 
 quired, and which, by carrying conviction in their 
 course, would satisfy the most sceptical as to its ex- 
 istence, equally as to its nature and extent. And 
 as in regard to certain points connected with phy- 
 sics, it is only by analogy we are enabled to speak 
 with certainty ; did there not exist proofs of a na- 
 ture so conclusive, in reference to the existence and 
 
In the Atmosphere, c. 207 
 
 extent of the lunar action on the weather, as those 
 afforded at the opposite periods of the year alluded 
 to ; and that in the absence of them we were de- 
 prived of every thing like certainty^ in regard to the 
 existence of a planetary or cometary influence on 
 the temperature and weather of the seasons ; it is 
 easy to see the irreparable loss to this the first of 
 sciences meteorology which would thence ensue. 
 By means of the proofs afforded at these periods of 
 the year, however, in reference to the existence and 
 nature of the lunar action on the temperature and 
 weather ; from the analogy being perfect we are 
 thus, for the first time, enabled to speak with cer- 
 tainty on this important subject. And further, to 
 trace as to their primary cause the source of those 
 variations observable in the temperature and wea- 
 ther of the seasons of different years, viz. to the 
 changes which take place, whether in planetary or 
 cometary influence, arising from the changes which, 
 similar to those of the moon, are continually taking 
 place in the position of these bodies in reference to 
 the sun and earth. And as in nature all is simple, 
 because all is perfect; thus it is that her principles 
 of action being once ascertained, every thing like 
 difficulty disappears, in reference to tracing her 
 phenomena through their different bearings and re- 
 lations. 
 
208 Variations in the Temperature 
 
 CHAP. XIX. 
 
 The Variations in the Temperature and Seasons of 
 different Years, esteemed to be Effects produced 
 by the Changes which take place in the meteoric 
 Action of the external Planets, as of Comets, on 
 our Atmosphere. 
 
 THUS, the fundamental principle on which the 
 whole of the dispositions of nature in the physical 
 world are founded, being, as assumed, that of unity; 
 and which, as refers to astronomy and meteorology, 
 implies the existence of a connexion between the 
 different members of the solar system, however di- 
 vided or distant one from the other : and which, if 
 so, could only exist or be upheld by means of a 
 bond such, as from being applicable to all, at the 
 same time embraced within the sphere of its opera- 
 tion the entire of their superficies. Thus it is that 
 reflective action between the sun and planets, as be- 
 ing that only which answers to these conditions, is 
 esteemed to be, as noticed, the principle of this con- 
 nexion, and the first cause in physics ; it being, as 
 assumed, the vehicle by means whereof the collec- 
 tive action of the electrical and magnetic forces, dis- 
 tributed throughout these bodies, is conveyed to 
 each; varying in reference to the action of either 
 
And Seasons of different Years. 209 
 
 force on their seasons, with the variation in the re- 
 lative position of these bodies to each other, and to 
 the sun. The sum of this reflective action, in every 
 instance, being greatest when these bodies are in their 
 syzygies, as proved by the tides at the periods of 
 the equinoxes, and lunar syzygies ; and its effects on 
 the temperature being greatest as they approach 
 the periods of their quadratures; as shewn by the 
 earth at the solstices. The action of these the su- 
 perior and inferior planets, as of comets, similar to 
 that of the moon, is, as already stated, esteemed to 
 be positive or electrical at and subsequent to the 
 periods of their syzyges; and negative or magnetic 
 at arid subsequent to those of their quadratures : 
 and, as being a consequence, that they have the ef- 
 fect of rising the temperature of our seasons at the 
 former, as of lowering it at the latter periods. And 
 as the forces of nature in the solar system cannot be 
 supposed to undergo either increase or diminution ; 
 and that it is only by a homogeneous principle or 
 action that variations in the temperature and other 
 phenomena of the seasons could be induced ; where, 
 I would ask, are we to look for the source of these 
 variations, if not in the changes which, with those 
 of their positions, take place in the meteoric action 
 of these bodies, as assumed ? For as, according to 
 the principle of reflective action, as understood by 
 our theory, nothing connected with the planetary 
 world can be neuter; but, on the contrary, that the 
 
 P 
 
210 Variations in the Temperature 
 
 forces electrical and magnetic, connected with each 
 of the bodies which compose its members, are al- 
 ways, as regards the others, in a state of activity; 
 it will follow, admitting the change in the nature of 
 the meteoric action of these bodies on each other, 
 with that of their positions, that the same body 
 must, according to its position, whether by increas- 
 ing the sum of electric or magnetic action in our at- 
 mosphere, have the effect, at one period of adding 
 to, and at another of detracting from, the tempera- 
 ture of our seasons. Which, as regards comets, 
 will serve to account for the contradictory state- 
 ments we have, in regard to the seasons on which 
 they have appeared; increased heat, earthquakes, 
 &c. being attributed to some, and increased cold, 
 excessive rains, &c. to others ; of which the follow- 
 ing statement, copied from the Observer Dublin 
 paper, of the 17th October, 1835, will serve to con- 
 vey an idea, viz. " Portents of Comets. In 1005, 
 the appearance of the comet was attended by a 
 great famine, (probably induced by excessive heat;) 
 "in 1080, by an earthquake; in 1155, by a cold 
 winter and a failure of crops; in 1230, by rains and 
 inundations, (part of Friesland was overwhelmed, 
 with 100,000 inhabitants;) in 1304, by great 
 drought, and intense cold in the following winter, 
 succeeded by a pestilence. In 1310, by a still more 
 destructive contagion. In 1456, by wet weather, 
 inundations, and earthquakes; again, in 1531, by 
 
And Seasons of different Years. 211 
 
 great floods; in 1607, by extreme drought, followed 
 by a most severe winter. In 1682, by floods and 
 earthquakes. In 1759, by some wet, and slight 
 earthquakes. Those of 1795, 1807, and 1811, by 
 extreme hot and unhealthy weather; as the present 
 portentous one, foretold by Dr. Edmund Halley, 
 hence called " H alley's Comet/ 1 If, as I am dis- 
 posed to do, we admit the existence of cometary in- 
 fluence on the temperature and seasons, these state- 
 ments, as will be seen, can be only reconciled on the 
 principles assumed. And, in reference to comets, 
 equally as the superior and inferior planets, I esteem 
 this agency to be more influential in proportion to 
 their greater magnitude and vice versa, the circum- 
 stance of distance being the same; and conse- 
 quently, as regards the latter bodies, that Jupiter, 
 Saturn, and the Uranus, are those which exercise 
 the greatest influence on the temperature and other 
 phenomena of our seasons. And if I may be allowed 
 to produce some recent instances in proof of the ex- 
 istence and extent of cometary and planetary in- 
 fluence on the seasons ; sufficiently striking illus- 
 trations appear to be furnished by the uninterrupted 
 mildness of the winters, and heat of the summers 
 since 1830; when, as will be recollected, it was an- 
 nounced in the almanacs, that the whole of the su- 
 perior planets were in opposition, or at the periods 
 of their syzyges, including the appearance of Hal- 
 ley's comet in 1835. A mildness of the winters, it 
 
 P 2 
 
212 Lunar Action on the Weather. 
 
 may be observed, not peculiar to the countries of 
 the middle and lower latitudes; as a gentleman 
 from St. Petersburg assured me, that during this 
 interval, rain has been known sometimes to occur 
 there about Christmas; a circumstance almost un- 
 precedented, he added, in that northern region, at 
 so late a period of the year. 
 
 CHAP. XX. 
 
 Isunar Action on the Weather. Connexion of 
 Magnetic Action with the Principle of planetary 
 Cold, proved by the Relation which subsists be- 
 tween the relative Mildness or Severity of the 
 Winter in either Hemisphere, with the relative 
 Drought or Humidity of the Summer in the Op- 
 posite. 
 
 HAVING thus, by means of the proofs derived from 
 the lunar action on the weather, been enabled to 
 speak with certainty of the existence and nature of 
 planetary and cometary influence on the seasons. 
 Though in the succeeding Part, but little connected 
 with the subject of the lunar action is omitted ; yet 
 I esteem the following short observations as not un- 
 called-for in this place. 
 
 It being, as noticed, the changes connected with 
 the weaker action of the sun, both in winter and 
 
Lunar Action on the Weather. 213 
 
 summer, which cause changes in the weather to 
 rain ; thus it is, considered as a general rule, that it 
 is the lunar action which at the time is in contrast 
 with the existing dominant action of the sun in the 
 annual circle, which, according to the order of its 
 occurrence, as connected with the lunar action, in- 
 duces such changes: this order being occasionally 
 changed, owing to the influence on the weather ex- 
 ercised, where it occurs, by local causes. And thence, 
 as proved by the fact, it is the positive lunar tides, 
 or those at the syzyges, in winter ; and the negative 
 lunar tides, or those of the quadratures, in summer ; 
 which usually induce the occurrence of rain and its 
 accessory phenomena. This being more particu- 
 larly the case from the equinoxes to the solstices, 
 or periods of the year when, as stated, the least va- 
 riation in the opposite actions of the sun on the op- 
 posite hemispheres takes place. From this it follows, 
 as a general rule, that the same action of the moon, 
 induces directly opposite effects on the weather in 
 the opposite or summer and winter hemispheres of 
 the earth. And as in contrasting the winter, and 
 summer progression quarters, or those which extend 
 from the equinoxes to the solstices ; the effects of 
 the lunar action on the weather are more strongly 
 marked, or conspicuous, in the former, than in the 
 latter season, because of their connexion with 
 storm, &c. Thus, on the principle of contrast, no- 
 ticed, consequent on the same action of the moon. 
 
214 Lunar Action on tlie Weather. 
 
 in the weather of the opposite hemispheres, the 
 surest guide for calculating in advance the ap- 
 proaching changes of the weather with us during 
 the months of April, May, and early part of June, 
 is that supplied by the contrast in the weather, at 
 the time, produced by the lunar action in the op- 
 posite or winter hemisphere. For as the lunar ac- 
 tion at the syzyges, during these months, is sure to 
 induce storm and rain in the southern hemisphere ; 
 thus it is that these periods of the moon with us are 
 usually accompanied by fair weather and a marked 
 rise of temperature. And, on the other hand, as 
 the second quadrature of the moon with us in De- 
 cember immediately preceding the period of the 
 winter solstice, usually brings with it the fast frost, 
 or fall of temperature below the freezing point, ac- 
 companied, necessarily, by drought and fair wea- 
 ther; and that the same period of the moon, in the 
 month of June preceding the solstice, may be sup- 
 posed to produce the same fall of temperature in the 
 atmosphere of the southern hemisphere, and return 
 to fair weather. To this, as to its true cause, may, 
 probably, be ascribed the period of storm, which at, 
 and subsequent to the second quadrature of the 
 moon, in the early part of June, usually occurs in 
 our skies: so intimate being the connexion which 
 subsists between the extremes of this most potent, 
 though unsubstantial lever, however distant; as it 
 
Lunar Action on the Weather. 215 
 
 ascends or descends in the atmosphere of either he- 
 misphere, on the phenomena of the opposite. 
 
 But as, to the uniformity in the opposite actions 
 of the sun during these the summer and winter pro- 
 gression quarters is chiefly to be ascribed the uni- 
 formity in the effects of the lunar action on the 
 weather ; and that at and after the periods of the 
 solstices this uniformity in the solar actions no 
 longer exists ; but gives place to the periods of their 
 greatest variation, which immediately follow : and 
 that, as in other cases, corresponding changes in the 
 effects consequent on these variations must result 
 therefrom. Thus it is, in reference to the lunar ac- 
 tion immediately after, as contrasted with the pe- 
 riods which precede the solstices. For, owing to 
 those variations in the relative amount of the oppo- 
 site actions of the sun, combined with the change 
 which with that of the actions in the diurnal circle 
 takes place in the length of the day and night im- 
 mediately after the solstices. To the periods of 
 greatest regularity in the effects of the lunar action, 
 succeed during these the summer and winter transi- 
 tion quarters, (i. e. from the solstices to the equi- 
 noxes,) those of the greatest irregularity in the ef- 
 fects of the lunar action on the weather. Notwith- 
 standing, however, that during these seasons the lu- 
 'nar action can no longer, as before, answer, with 
 any degree of certainty, the purposes of calcula- 
 tion ; it does not follow but that we are still supplied 
 
216 Connexion of Magnetic Action 
 
 with an equally sure guide to the approaching 
 changes of the weather. For, as these are the pe- 
 riods of the year when the opposite actions of the 
 sun in the annual circle, exercise the greatest in- 
 fluence, (because in some measure detached from 
 those of the moon,) on the temperature and weather ; 
 by means of the contrast, (even more strongly 
 marked during these, than in the progression quar- 
 ters by which they are preceded,) in the effects in- 
 duced by the opposite actions of the sun on the wea- 
 ther of the opposite hemispheres, this defect in the 
 lunar action is compensated for. Thus, as in the 
 winter hemisphere, the first tendence in the weather 
 immediately after the solstice, is to frost and drought; 
 the first tendence in the opposite or summer hemis- 
 phere, after the solstice, is to rain: and the more 
 decided the tendence to drought in the former, the 
 more decided is the opposite tendence in the wea- 
 ther of the latter; and vice versa. And thence it 
 follows that, from the state of the weather after the 
 solstice, in either hemisphere, we are enabled to 
 know with every degree of certainty, the nature of 
 the season, and state of the weather at the time in 
 the opposite. Slight rains with us, for instance, af- 
 ter the summer solstice, being indicative of much 
 rain, and a mild winter in the southern hemisphere ; 
 and vice versa. 
 
 And these facts, it may be added, are the more 
 important, when it is considered that these opposite 
 
With the Temperature. 217 
 
 states of the weather in the opposite hemispheres 
 of the earth, after the solstices on such years, (i. e. 
 on mild winters and hot summers, being, as 
 they are assumed to be, effects of the dimi- 
 nution of magnetic action in the annual circle at 
 the time : as drought and intense cold, in the winter 
 hemisphere, simultaneously with heavy rains, in the 
 opposite, are, in like manner, indicative of increased 
 force in the magnetic action of the sun, in the an- 
 nual circle, on the seasons they occur,) go to show, 
 in the clearest way, that a direct connexion exists 
 between magnetic action and the temperature, or 
 phenomenon of winter cold ; equally as between it and 
 that of rain. For, assuming this to be the case, 
 the connexion between the relative degree of winter 
 cold in the one hemisphere, with that of the rela- 
 tive amount of rain at the time in the opposite, be- 
 comes equally clear and undoubted, as between 
 magnetic action, and the relative humidity or 
 drought of the climate of particular regions, 
 agreeable to the greater or less amount of their ex- 
 posure to the action of the proximate magnetic pole 
 of the earth, as already noticed. 
 
 And as, after about the interval of a month from 
 the solstice, in the winter hemisphere, or period of 
 greatest cold, the tendence in the weather changes 
 from drought to humidity, which continues till the 
 vernal equinox: in the same proportion as this ten- 
 dence to rain in the winter hemisphere becomes 
 
218 Lunar Action on the Weather. 
 
 more decided ; the tendence of the weather in the 
 opposite or summer hemisphere after the solstice, 
 changes from rain to drought, as we approach the 
 period of the autumnal equinox. And thus, the 
 principle of contrast, as connected with meteoric 
 action in the atmosphere of the opposite hemis- 
 phere, considered as a principle of calculation, is, 
 from the superior force and influence of the actions 
 in the annual, than in the lunar circle, still less lia- 
 ble to error in the former than in the latter. 
 
 But distance, as already noticed, being one of 
 the conditions which determines the amount, or re- 
 lative force of the solar action on the planets, both 
 in their individual and collective relations. And 
 that as, with the change in the position of the moon 
 in reference to the sun and earth, that when in con- 
 junction, or at the change, as contrasted with her 
 position when in opposition or at full moon, a dif- 
 ference thus occurs between the relative force of the 
 meteoric action of the moon on the atmosphere, as 
 connected with the opposite sides of her orbit. Thus 
 it is, though the actions are of the same name, that, 
 throughout the year, a difference sufficiently marked 
 exists between the effects on the weather equally as 
 on the tides induced by the lunar actions both po- 
 sitive and negative, from the period of the first 
 quadrature, to that of the second, as contrasted 
 with her actions from the latter to the former: 
 both her negative action after the period of the se- 
 
Lunar Action on the Weather. 219 
 
 cond quadrature, as her positive action at, and sub- 
 sequent to the change, being more powerful and in- 
 fluential on the temperature and weather, than what 
 these her opposite actions are, after the first quad- 
 rature, and period of full moon, other circumstances 
 being the same. And as effects necessarily vary 
 with their causes; thence, as assumed, the source of 
 the differ ence observable in the lunar action on the 
 weather, as of the tendence of meteoric action 
 throughout the year, on the opposite sides of the lu- 
 nar circle, as divided by the line of the apsides ; as 
 will be found more fully noticed in the second 
 part. 
 
 And that, from after the antumnal, to the vernal 
 equinox, or period of the domination of the mag- 
 netic action of the sun in the annual circle, from its 
 being the more powerful electric action of the moon, 
 and consequently that which at the time contrasts 
 most with this the magnetic ground of meteoric ac- 
 tion in the annual circle ; that together with the ver- 
 nal equinoctial phenomena, the most violent storms 
 and rain but particularly from the autumnal equi- 
 nox to the soltice more frequently occur at, or pre- 
 ceding the period of new, than of full moon. And 
 on the contrary, that during the opposite division of 
 the year, or while the electric action of the sun is 
 the dominant action in the annual circle ; as the 
 electric action of the moon is less, and its magnetic 
 action more powerful, from the period of full moon, 
 
220 Lunar Action on the Weather. 
 
 to the conclusion of the negative tide of the second 
 quadrature, than when in the opposite division of its 
 orbit, and thus that it contrasts more with the elec- 
 tric ground in the annual circle ; that, not only the 
 equinoctial phenomena in autumn, but the most vi- 
 olent storms and rain during this the summer divi- 
 sion of the year, usually occur at the period of full 
 moon, or subsequent to the second quadrature. 
 The sole exceptions to this rule whether in summer 
 or winter being in regard to the moons which im- 
 mediately succeed the periods of the solstices; when 
 for the moment, owing to the sudden change of me- 
 teoric tendence in the annual circle, the effects of 
 the lunar action on the weather, as described, appear 
 to be reversed. 
 
 But, as entering further on the subject of the lu- 
 nar action on the weather in this place, were to an- 
 ticipate too much what will be found respecting it, 
 in the subjoined part, alluded to; I shall only add 
 that, as throughout the year, for the reason already 
 stated, the lunar syzygies are minor equinoctial pe- 
 riods;* as its quadratures, minor solstial periods, 
 from their being those at which, (as in the annual 
 circle,) the greatest concentration of the preceding 
 
 * Owing to the change of tendence from drought to rain, which 
 takes place in the annual circle from the summer to the winter sol- 
 stice; it is during this part of the year chiefly that the effect of the 
 lunar syzygies in inducing storm,Js the most conspicuous. 
 
Distinctness of Meteoric Effects. 221 
 
 action of the moon on the temperature takes place. 
 Thence it is that both the equinoctial phenomena 
 in spring and autumn, equally as the other more vi- 
 olent storms of the year, are usually connected with 
 the former ; as the extreme degrees, equally as the 
 sudden change in the temperature, with the latter 
 periods of the moon. And thus, as refers to the 
 present theory, it is assumed, that, even in the ab- 
 sence of all other proofs of its correctness, those 
 supplied by the lunar action on the weather, (as 
 should be the case if correct,) will be found so nu- 
 merous and palpable, as must shortly insure to it 
 public confidence; by satisfying all persons whose 
 minds are not closed to conviction, of its truth. 
 
 CHAP. XXI. 
 
 Distinctness of Meteoric Effects in the Atmosphere 
 as connected with each of the local Circles. 
 Diurnal, Lunar, and Annual. Phenomena of 
 the Tides. Assumed Relations, in regard to the 
 Influence on our Seasons exercised by the supe- 
 rior Planets. Surfs Movement of Rotation, and 
 Solar Light. Conclusion. 
 
 IT is further observable of meteoric action in the 
 atmosphere, connected at once, as it is, with the 
 
222 Distinctness of Meteoric Effects, 
 
 three local circles, diurnal, lunar, and annual ; that 
 though the forces in these circles are homogeneous 
 and act simultaneously, the action in each is perfectly 
 distinguishable from that progressing in the others, 
 in the phenomena it induces, not alone in the tem- 
 perature and weather, but even in those of the tides: 
 as if to remove all doubt as to the meteoric source 
 of the latter. 
 
 Thus, on the principle, now so generally accre- 
 dited, " that the earth and its atmosphere form a 
 thermo-electric combination put into action by the 
 sun ;" and that the centre, or point of horizontal 
 divergence of its magnetic currents, and conver- 
 gence of its electric, is as noticed, the magnetic equa- 
 tor situated between the tro ics. 
 
 To the force of the electrical currents collected 
 by the solar action from the extremes of the oppo- 
 site hemispheres on either side, on this the mag- 
 netic equator, in the diurnal circle, is, in the first 
 place, as stated, to be ascribed the earth's movement 
 of rotation; as to the force of impulsion inseparable 
 therefrom, acting on the mass of its waters, is, in the 
 second, as to their primary source, to be ascribed 
 the phenomena of the tides. And as the length of 
 the day between tne tropics is invariable ; and that 
 the impulsion thus originated by the solar action, in 
 commencing at sunrise, or six o'clock, goes on gra- 
 dually increasing with this action till the sun has 
 reached the zenith at noon, when it is greatest ; and 
 
The Tides. 223 
 
 thence as he descends to the west, and that this his 
 reflective force decreases, that with that of the latter 
 the force of impulsion it originates decreases, till it fi- 
 nally expires at sunset, or six o'clock in the afternoon. 
 Thus, as connected with the tides, the wave it 
 originates in the waters of the ocean, at the period 
 of its setting in in the morning, and which growing 
 with its growth, has attained its greatest elevation 
 at noon, or period of high water ; thence, with the 
 descent of the sun to the horizon, and consequent 
 falling off in the force of the impulsion it induces, 
 the latter gradually decreases on the mass of the 
 waters, till, with the disappearance of the sun be- 
 low the horizon, having totally expired, this the 
 wave or tide it originated in the morning, has re- 
 turned to the same plain or low-water mark, from 
 which it originally sprung; such being the view of 
 these phenomena assumed by the present theory. 
 The tide by which this solar tide by day, is suc- 
 ceeded at night, being esteemed simply the effect of 
 rebound; and which, from the continual progression 
 of the opposite or solar wave on the opposite side of 
 the earth at the time ; and thence that the whole of 
 its circumference is equally divided between these 
 opposite waves; thus the night wave is regulated 
 in the period of its rise and fall during the absence 
 of the sun, the same as that by which it was in- 
 duced and preceded during the day. And in com- 
 paring the interval during which these opposite or 
 
224 Distinctness of Meteoric Effects 
 
 solar and nocturnal tides take, to perform one en- 
 tire revolution, with that of the circle to the action 
 in which they are ascribed ; we find that the former 
 exceeds the. latter by no more than the difference 
 which exists between the length of the lunar, as 
 contrasted with the solar day ; or period at which 
 the moon crosses the same meridian during two 
 days consecutively ; and which, it is not denied, 
 shows a direct connexion with the lunar action ; 
 but, as regards the diurnal circle of meteoric action, 
 only to the extent, that the reflective action of the 
 moon serves as the pendulum by which the more 
 powerful action of the sun in the latter, or diurnal 
 circle, is regulated. This difference, moreover, be- 
 ing no more than, considering the mass of waters 
 acted on, were absolutely necessary, between the 
 expiration of either movement, and the incipient 
 operation of the opposite by which it is succeeded. 
 Such, as assumed, being the source of the tides ; 
 and the manner in which they are connected with 
 the meteoric action of the sun and moon in the di- 
 urnal circle. The progression of the tide-waves, 
 north and south, through the opposite hemispheres 
 of the earth, from the centre of impulsion at the 
 line, being a necessary effect of the laws which de- 
 termine and regulate the movements of fluids. And 
 the difference which, as is known, exists in the 
 height of the opposite tides in the diurnal circle, 
 may be cited as further corroborative of the fact, 
 
The Tides. 225 
 
 that the second, or nocturnal tide, is simply an effect 
 of re-bound ; as the falling off which occurs in the 
 latter with the absence of the impelling force, is 
 quite visible ; and can be only accounted for in this 
 way. 
 
 In reference to the connexion of the tides with 
 the lunar circle of meteoric action, it requires no- 
 thing in the way of argument to prove ; from this 
 connexion (owing to the coincidence which exists 
 between the periods of the spring and neap tides, 
 with those of the lunar syzygies and quadratures,) 
 being universally admitted to exist; though the 
 principle in which it is assumed to consist is differ- 
 ent. But though, as noticed, acting simultaneously 
 with the action in the diurnal circle, this the con- 
 nexion of the tides with the lunar circle, is perfectly 
 distinguishable from the connexion of these pheno- 
 mena with the former or diurnal circle, as alluded 
 to ; and this, notwithstanding that the analogy be- 
 tween the actions in both circles is perfect. For, 
 though the interval occupied by each revolution of 
 the spring and neap tides extends to one half the 
 lunar circle, as that of each revolution in the diur- 
 nal tides, does to half the latter circle ; yet, though 
 subdivided into twenty-eight of the diurnal tides, 
 each revolution of the former can be considered no 
 more than the effect of the gradual increase and de- ; 
 cline of a similar or homogeneous action in the 
 lunar, as in the diurnal circle. A similar difference 
 
 Q 
 
226 Distinctness of Meteoric Effects 
 
 as between the opposite tides in the diurnal circle, 
 though originating in quite a different cause, being 
 equally observable between the height of the spring 
 tides at the opposite periods of new and full moon. 
 The source of this difference, as that already no- 
 ticed in its connexion with the weather, being, as 
 assumed, the difference which occurs in the relative 
 force of the reflective action of the moon with that 
 of her distance, in reference to the sun and earth. 
 Arid finally, (which it may be added can only be 
 explained on the principle of reflective action,) 
 the marked difference observable between the tides 
 at the periods of the equinoxes, when reflective ac- 
 tion, as at the lunar spzyges, is greatest in the an- 
 nual circle ; and at those of the solstices, when, as 
 connected with the latter, it is least, or at its mini- 
 mum of force, (as at the lunar quadratures,) suffi- 
 ciently shows that the same analogy exists between 
 the tides and the action in the annual circle, as be- 
 tween them and the actions in the lunar and diurnal : 
 and that though all three are acting simultaneously 
 on the atmosphere, their actions are perfectly dis- 
 tinguishable one from the other in their effects, not 
 only on the temperature and weather, but on these 
 the phenomena of the tides. And it is further not a 
 little remarkable, as connected with the latter phe- 
 nomena, that the number of their tides is the same ; 
 consisting as they do of two entire revolutions in 
 each circle. 
 

 
 In the Atmosphere, fyc. 227 
 
 These views, however, will be admitted to in- 
 crease in interest and importance, when it is con- 
 sidered that it is only by means of them, and of the 
 species of independence which they go to show sub- 
 sists between the meteoric actions in these circles, as 
 of the individual connexion of each with particular 
 classes of phenomena, that we are enabled, on scien- 
 tific grounds, to account for the diurnal variations 
 of the compass-needle, as being effects of the varia- 
 tions of reflective action in the diurnal circle; or 
 the barometrical variations corresponding to the 
 phases of the moon, which have obliged that acute 
 observer, M. Arago, of the French Institute, to ad- 
 mit, that " they are effects of some special cause 
 totally different from attraction, of which the nature 
 and mode of action are unknown."* And that the 
 anticipation of Mrs. Somervill, when she states, 
 " that perhaps the day may come, when even gra- 
 vitation, no longer regarded as an ultimate prin- 
 ciple, may be resolved into a yet more general 
 
 * Dr. Wm. Prout, in his " Abstract of Observations on At- 
 mospheric Air," page 568, observes that "the weight of the air is 
 usually heavier about the new and full moon;" which will account 
 for the tides being higher at these than at the opposite periods of 
 the moon, For, as it is the pressure on the surface of its waters 
 in the interior, which induces the tide-wave on the shores of the 
 ocean : at those periods of the moon when this pressure, with 
 that of the air, is greatest, the tides on the shores of the ocean 
 should be the highest ; and vice versd. 
 
 Q2 
 
228 Distinctness of Meteoric Effects 
 
 cause, embracing every law that regulates the na- 
 tural world :"* may thus, even now, be considered 
 as already realized. 
 
 I may further observe, while on this subject, that 
 I think it highly probable, the meteoric influence on 
 our seasons exercised by the actions in the circles 
 traversed by the superior planets when observation 
 shall be directed to ascertain the fact will be found 
 to be equally distinct and distinguishable in refer- 
 ence to each, as in those of the three local circles 
 already noticed. And that, of the three external 
 planets, whose meteoric influence is assumed to be 
 the most powerful, viz. Jupiter, Saturn, and Ura- 
 nus ; as being that which embraces within its orbit 
 the entire of the orbits traversed by the remainder 
 of these bodies, and which thence may be said to 
 compose the cadre or frame of the system it encir- 
 cles, the Uranus is that which exercises the most 
 extensive influence on our seasons. 
 
 And if from this the extreme verge of being con- 
 nected with the system we inhabit, we turn to its 
 grand source and centre, the sun : his movement of 
 rotation seems conclusive that, as the planets are to 
 him, so is he to a more distant centre, viz. that he 
 is but a member of some superior sideral combina- 
 tion. For, on no other principle than this of the 
 
 * See Mrs. SomervilTs work " On the Connexion of the Sci- 
 ences,'* page 415, 
 
In the Atmosphere, fyc. 229 
 
 sun being dependent on a more distant centre, can 
 his rotation considered as being the effect of reflec- 
 tive action be satisfactorily accounted for. Thus 
 seeming to demonstrate, on scientific grounds did 
 we entertain any doubt to the contrary that the 
 same connexion, unity, and dependence subsists 
 throughout the entire of the starry heavens, how- 
 ever illimitable, as in the system, or department of 
 it, to which we more particularly belong. But in 
 reference to the position or nature of the grand 
 centre which serves, by its weight, to balance and 
 unite such countless worlds, who will pretend to 
 say, or even to hazard so much as a conjecture ? 
 
 In reference to the sun's not exhibiting phases 
 similar to the inferior planets, or the moon, as 
 should be the case, did his light depend on his con- 
 nexion with a distant centre. This circumstance, I 
 think, is chiefly owing to the extent of his atmos- 
 phere ; which, similar to those of comets, from its 
 superior magnitude as contrasted with those of the 
 planets, instead of confining light as in the latter, 
 to one of his hemispheres, has the effect, as in the 
 former bodies, of completely investing him with this 
 dazzling livery. And to which effect, it may be 
 added, the extreme brilliancy of the solar light, be- 
 ing, as it is, of a different species to that of the 
 planets, must be supposed materially to contribute. 
 
230 Distinctness of Meteoric Effects 
 
 " I do not know," said the illustrious Newton, a 
 short time before his death, " what I may appear to 
 the world, but to myself I seem to have been only 
 like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting 
 myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble 
 or a prettier shell than ordinary ; whilst the great 
 ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me." And 
 this modesty of Sir Isaac Newton, as observed by 
 his able biographer, Dr. Brewster, in reference to 
 his great discoveries, " was not founded on any in- 
 difference to the fame which they conferred, or upon 
 any erroneous judgment of their importance to sci- 
 ence. The whole of his life proves that he knew his 
 place as a philosopher, and was determined to assert 
 and vindicate his rights. His modesty arose from 
 the depth and extent of his knowledge 9 which showed 
 him what a small proportion of nature he had been 
 able to examine, and how much remained to be ex- 
 plored in the same field in which he had himself la- 
 boured. In the magnitude of the comparison," con- 
 tinues the doctor, " he recognised his own littleness." 
 And why, it may be asked, do I, in this place, refer 
 to the words of this great man, or to the explana- 
 tion given by his biographer as to the cause of his 
 modesty ? Most assuredly, not from any motive so 
 weak and childish as that of vanity; as no one can 
 be more fully sensible than myself, how immea- 
 surably I should lose by any comparison with him. 
 But that, as the greater depth of his views enabled 
 
In the Atmosphere, fyc. 231 
 
 him better than, perhaps, any other man of his time, 
 to perceive how impossible it was to penetrate the 
 veil which as yet hung over and concealed the 
 sources of natural phenomena, not excepting even 
 those which he attempted to explain ; whilst, as he 
 expresses it, " the great ocean of truth lay all undis- 
 covered before him : " that, on an occasion like the 
 prjsent, when, guided by more certain lights, a dif- 
 ferent view is taken of the fundamental principle on 
 which his theory is based, than that given by him or 
 others, I considered him the best authority to quote 
 against himself; with the view of showing the little 
 of certainty which he himself attached to the prin- 
 ciple of planetary movement proposed by him. And 
 how, indeed, should it have been otherwise with a 
 man of the enlarged views and deep penetration of 
 Newton, at a time when so little had been done in 
 what may be denominated the preliminary, (and 
 certainly the most difficult and indispensable,) de- 
 partment of such discoveries, viz. that of ascertain- 
 ing by a long course of laborious experiment and pa- 
 tient observation, the first springs and principles in 
 which natural phenomena have their source ; toge- 
 ther with the laws by which they are governed in 
 their development. For, in the absence of the 
 guides thus supplied, it were about the same to at- 
 tempt exploring these departments of science with 
 any prospect of success, as for a man in the dark to 
 attempt tracing the figures on an Indian screen. 
 
232 Distinctness of Meteoric Effects 
 
 And yet, however palpable this impossibility on the 
 part of Sir J. Newton, or of any other, in the then 
 state of chemical and electrical science, to do more 
 than hazard a conjecture in reference to the source 
 of planetary movement, temperature, &c. the fame 
 of this great man, from being supposed identified 
 with a theory which bears his name, and which, till 
 modern inquiry has shown its futility, was thought 
 to be infallible ; is, however much in contradiction 
 with the object he proposed to himself through his 
 long and glorious career, become one of the most 
 formidable obstacles to the admission of more cor- 
 rect principles. And this, notwithstanding the tes- 
 timony borne by himself as to the little of certainty 
 which he attached to the views he had taken of natu- 
 ral phenomena. The test of infallibility so long at- 
 tached to the Newtonian principle of gravitation, is, 
 as is known, that in all calculations it is found con- 
 formable to the law he proposed, viz. that its action 
 is inversely as the squares of the distances ; as 
 though it were possible for the propelling force 
 which gives movement to the planets, be it what it 
 may, to act according to any other.* And thus it 
 has happened with the principle of universal gravi- 
 tation, that being found right in this respect, it has 
 
 * Coulomb discovered that electrical attraction and repulsion 
 (similar to gravity,) are inversely as the squares of the distances. 
 See Ure's Die. of Chem,, page 405. 
 
In the Atmosphere, fyc. 233 
 
 led to the belief that it must be equally so in every 
 other ; which, though totally erroneous, has served 
 to silence all doubts as to its correctness ; to the no 
 small detriment of the cause of truth. For, as ob- 
 served by Raynal, " on n'examine guere ce qu'on 
 croit bien savoir; et c'est ainsi qu'apres avoir pro- 
 page les erreurs y les temoignages qui retardent 
 I' observation, en prolongent encore la duree.* 
 
 The locality and real place occupied by gravity in 
 the scale of physical causes, has, on the contrary, as 
 I trust, been fully shown in the preceding pages. 
 And that, (by facts obtained from the variations of 
 the tides in the annual and lunar, equally as in the 
 diurnal circle of meteoric action, and barometrical 
 variations corresponding to the phases of the moon, 
 and as should be the case when not an ultimate 
 cause,) gravity itself, similar to all other deriva- 
 tives, varies in its amount with the variations which 
 occur in its source reflective action : and also, (as 
 anticipated by Mrs. Somervill,) that it can no 
 longer be regarded as an ultimate principle, but one 
 which resolves itself into this more general cause 
 which embraces every law that regulates the natural 
 world; as that, from its being altogether local in 
 the sun and planets, gravity can have nothing to do 
 with the principle of their movement ; but that the 
 latter, equally as the temperature and other local 
 
 * Histoire Philosophique, torn. 6, page 40. 
 
234 Distinctness of Meteoric Effects 
 
 phenomena of these bodies, is, as being the only ac- 
 tive forces of nature in the physical world, altogether 
 referable to magnetic and electric agency, based on 
 the principle of reflective action ; thus, as I hope, 
 finally disposed of these important questions. 
 
 And, were it possible to recall "the fleeting 
 breath," and with it the illustrious Newton, to the 
 scene of his former triumphs ; and that he were in 
 possession of the facts supplied by the rapid advances 
 latterly made in what may be called the collateral 
 branches of this department of science, satisfied 
 am I, that he would not only concur with me in this 
 opinion ; but that, in the spirit of that candour 
 which is so characteristic of great minds, and alike 
 superior to those low passions and prejudices which 
 are no less the characteristics of small ones ; hav- 
 ing weighed and considered this theory, both in its 
 ensemble and details, he would be amongst the fore- 
 most to admit and subscribe to its general correct- 
 ness. And that, in the feeling inseparable from see- 
 ing the grand object for which both he and so many 
 other illustrious men had so long, so earnestly, and 
 yet so ineffectually laboured, at length attained; 
 and with it the dawn of a new era in science, (more 
 prolific in important results to the whole family of 
 man, than all those by which it was preceded,) already 
 about to appear : that in the virtuous enthusiasm it 
 inspired, he would, something in the words of Si- 
 meon, exclaim, " let thy servant depart in peace ; 
 
In the Atmosphere, $c. 235 
 
 now that mine eyes have seen realized the long ex- 
 pected consummation of my fondest hope !" For, it 
 was not without reason Helvetius observed, " que 
 c'est des profondeurs de V imagination qu'on a jus- 
 qu^d present tire le systeme de Vunivers ; et que, si 
 Ton n'a jamais que des nouvelles tronquees des Pays 
 eloignes de nous, les philosophes n'ont pareillement 
 que des nouvelles tronquees du systeme du monde." 
 And that " avec beaucoup d'esprit et de combinai- 
 sons, ils ne debiteront jamais que desfables,jitsqu'd 
 ce que le terns et le hazard leur aient donne unfait 
 general auquel tons les autres puissent se rap- 
 porter"* But, unfortunately for the cause of sci- 
 ence and humanity, " L'homme de genie passe trop 
 vite ! et ne laisse point de posterite : and, perhaps, 
 it were too much to expect the candour of Sir Isaac 
 Newton from his representatives of the present day. 
 
 * DeU Esprit. Paris edition of 1759, pag. 26. 
 
METEOROLOGY, 
 
 SECOND PART. 
 
 COPY OF A PAPER 
 
 Explanatory of the Lunar Action of the Weather, 
 presented, on the part of the Author, at the 
 Meeting of the British Association for the Ad- 
 vancement of Science, held at Dublin, in 1835. 
 
 ESTEEMING, as I do, the question so much dis- 
 cussed of late as to the existence and nature of a 
 lunar action on the weather to be one of so much im- 
 portance to science, that, on its solution alone, may 
 be said to depend that of the true theory of the 
 world; and having in a lately published work, 
 " The Anatomy of the Seasons, Weather-Guide Book, 
 and perpetual Companion to the Almanac," pro- 
 posed a new theory of temperature, and of the lunar 
 action on the weather, founded on the principle of 
 reflective action reciprocally between the sun and 
 planets ; and for the details of which, I must beg 
 *o refer to the work itself. The object of the present 
 paper is, to add some new views to those advanced in 
 the work alluded to, in reference to the assumed ex- 
 
238 Lunar Action 
 
 istence of such an agency, as in proof of the princi- 
 ples on which it is founded ; and, it is hoped, of a 
 nature so satisfactory and conclusive, as must con- 
 vince the most sceptical, that this, the question, as 
 to the existence and nature of a lunar action on the 
 weather, is at length finally determined, and a term 
 necessarily put to all further douht on the subject. 
 I may add, that the supposition as to the earth and 
 its atmosphere being a thermo-electric combination 
 put into action by the sun and planets at present 
 so generally accredited is that on which the theory 
 of meteorology proposed by me is founded : and that 
 it is in consequence of the greater proximity of the 
 moon than of the other external agencies of the 
 solar system, and to the more frequent changes in 
 its position in the ecliptic, in reference to the earth 
 and sun, on which is founded the assumption, that 
 the moon exercises an influence still more marked 
 and considerable than the other planets, on the tem- 
 perature and weather of our seasons, equally, as on 
 the phenomena of the tides. 
 
 And as, from the intimacy of the meteoric action 
 of the earth and moon on the seasons and weather, 
 that, in order to form a correct idea of either action, 
 it cannot be considered without reference to the 
 other ; and that, owing to the most important me- 
 teoric effects throughout the year, whether as re- 
 fers to the temperature or violent class of atmos- 
 pheric phenomena, being connected with the sol- 
 
On the Weather. 239 
 
 slices, or the lunar syzygies ; * as that these are like- 
 wise the periods which constitute the mean limits 
 respectively to the opposite tendencies of meteoric 
 action in the atmosphere whether to heat or cold 
 to drought or to humidity the former, or solstices, 
 as connected with the annual, and the latter, as 
 connected with the lunar, may, with some propriety, 
 be denominated the meteoric poles of these the an- 
 nual and lunar circles. And as, on a correct know- 
 ledge of the changes which take place in the ten- 
 dence of meteoric action in the atmosphere, as con- 
 nected with the annual and lunar circles, so much 
 of all that is practically useful in the science of me- 
 teorology depends. Thence it is, that, from the ar- 
 ticle on this subject in my published work, as con- 
 nected with the lunar circle, being less perfect 
 than what, from the importance of the subject, it 
 should be ; and from its being that likewise, which 
 furnishes the least equivocal proofs as to the nature 
 and extent of the lunar action on the weather ; I 
 thought right to select it as the subject of this 
 paper. And as the tendence of meteoric action in 
 
 * The principle of magnetic revulsion in the atmosphere, con- 
 nected with the change of position in the acting magnetic poles of 
 the earth and moon at the periods of the lunar syzygies, connected 
 with the elliptical movement of the moon ; to which the occur- 
 rence of these phenomena at the latter periods is to be ascribed, as 
 noticed in the preceding part ; had not as yet been suspected when 
 this paper was written. 
 
240 Lunar Action 
 
 the atmosphere as connected with the lunar circle, 
 notwithstanding its changing continually with the 
 change of the seasons, is fixed and determinate 
 throughout the year : my first object shall be to 
 point out the tendence of meteoric action in the lu- 
 nar circle as connected with the different parts of 
 the annual : and finally together with the causes, 
 the periods of the year in which the natural ten- 
 dence of the lunar action on the weather is most 
 subject to be deranged, and those during which it 
 is the least liable to change or variation ; so as that 
 the different bearings of this very complex subject, 
 may appear in a clear and perspicuous point of view. 
 Thus, in the first place, the tendence of meteoric 
 action in the atmosphere, as connected with the 
 lunar circle appears, as refers to its opposite divisions, 
 to change half -yearly with that of the earth's posi- 
 tion in the ecliptic, i. e. from the period of the 
 winter to that of the summer solstice ; and from 
 the latter to the former, alternately. During the 
 former, or from the winter to the summer solstice, 
 the tendence of meteoric action in the atmosphere, 
 as connected with the lunar circle, is as follows, viz. 
 From three days before the period of new moon, or 
 the setting in of the positive meteoric tide of this 
 quarter, to ihat of the setting in of the succeeding 
 positive tide of full moon, the tendence of the lunar 
 action on the weather, is to drought: and during 
 the same period from the setting in of the positive 
 
On the Weather. 241 
 
 tide of full, to that of the commencement of the po- 
 sitive tide of new moon, the tendence of the lunar 
 action on the weather is to rain and its accessories. 
 Contrary, however, to this, from the period of the 
 summer to that of the winter solstice, from the 
 setting-in of the positive tide of new, to the setting- 
 in of the positive tide of full moon, the tendence of 
 the lunar action on the weather is to rain ; and 
 during the remaining half of the lunar circle, the 
 tendence of this action is to drought. But a cir- 
 cumstance not a little remarkable is, that, whereas 
 these tendencies of the lunar action on the weather 
 as described, are strongly marked immediately after 
 either solstice, and again, for some time, preceding 
 these periods ; in proportion as, on either hand, we 
 approach the equinoxes, the order in the tendence 
 of meteoric action in the atmosphere, as connect- 
 ed with the lunar circle, gradually undergoes a 
 change ; till finally at, suppose, the vernal equinox, 
 this order becomes reversed: and as, being a conse- 
 quence of this, the equinoctial phenomena in spring 
 usually occur at or about the period of new moon, 
 and those connected with the autumnal equinox at 
 the opposite season of the year, at or about the pe- 
 riod of full moon: the preceding order, in both 
 cases, being again restored immediately after the 
 equinoctial phenomena, and thence continues to the 
 approaching periods of the solstices. Thus, as there 
 are six moons from either solstice to the opposite ; 
 
 R 
 
242 Lunar Action 
 
 the tendence of meteoric action in the atmosphere 
 during those from the winter to the summer solstice, 
 generally, (i. e. circumstances connected with parti- 
 cular latitudes and localities, as regards the weather 
 excepted,) appears to be as follows, viz. In the 
 lunar circle which succeeds immediately after the 
 winter solstice, the tendence of meteoric action in 
 the atmosphere during its first half, is to drought ; 
 and during the opposite or remaining half, to rain. 
 During the succeeding moon, these the meteoric 
 tendencies in the weather as connected with its op- 
 posite divisions, appear to be nearly equally ba- 
 lanced ; and to be determined to either, chiefly by 
 the existing tendence whether to drought or rain 
 of the season. During the third moon, or that 
 which occurs about the equinox, the preceding 
 order, as noticed, becomes reversed ; as the equinoc- 
 tial phenomena in March, usually occur at the pe- 
 riod oinew moon. In the following moon, or that 
 which usually marks the period of the N. E. wind, 
 the preceding order becomes again restored the 
 tendence of the weather during its first half being 
 to drought, and during the latter half to rain. 
 During the succeeding, or fifth moon, the same 
 order in reference to the tendence of meteoric ac- 
 tion in the atmosphere, as during the preceding 
 continues. And finally, as connected with this di- 
 vision of the year, during the following moon, 
 which extends to the vicinity of the summer sol- 
 
On the Weather. 243 
 
 stice, this order, as described, is still more strongly 
 marked (than in that by which it was preceded) in 
 the weather ; its commencement being usually dry, 
 and accompanied with a marked rise of tempe- 
 rature ; and the weather towards its close, being 
 not only wet, but attended by some of the most vio- 
 lent gales of the season. Different from this, how- 
 ever, in the first moon after the summer solstice, 
 the tendence of the weather from its commencement 
 to futt moon, is to rain : as during the remaining 
 half to drought. During the following moon, the 
 tendenee of the weather, as at the opposite season 
 of the year, appears to be equally balanced, as con- 
 nected with its opposite divisions, it being the do- 
 minant tendence, as connected with the season 
 whether to drought or rain which, during its con- 
 tinuance determines the weather to either. In the 
 following moon, (the ninth of the year,) the order of 
 meteoric tendence in the atmosphere, as in spring, 
 becomes reversed: and as being a consequence, its 
 setting in is, in general, attended by dry weather: 
 and the equinoctial phenomena, as noticed 
 usually occur at or about the middle of its course, 
 or period of full moon; and I may add, that the 
 period of new moon in this, or as sometimes happens 
 if they have not sooner occurred, in the moon by 
 which it is succeeded, being thus accompanied by 
 fine weather, may be considered as a certain indica- 
 tion of the approaching occurrence of the equinoc- 
 
 R2 
 
244 Lunar Action 
 
 tial gales at the succeeding period of full moon. In 
 the fourth moon from the solstice, provided the equi- 
 noctial phenomena have occurred during the pre- 
 ceding moon, the tendence of meteoric action in 
 the atmosphere, as in the first moon after the sol- 
 stice, becomes again restored ; the tendence of the 
 weather during its first half being to rain : as thence 
 to its conclusion, to drought. During the succeed- 
 ing moon (the eleventh of the year,) the preceding 
 order of meteoric tendence in the weather conti- 
 nues ; except in those situations where from the 
 peculiar nature of the localities, combined with a 
 preponderating tendence of an opposite kind in the 
 season, interfere to derange it. And finally, the 
 concluding moon of the year, which thence ap- 
 proaches to the period of the winter solstice, is sure 
 to develope in a still more striking manner than the 
 preceding, this the assumed order in the tendence 
 of meteoric action in the atmosphere : the chief pe- 
 riod of rain, equally as of storm, during this moon, 
 occurring at the period of its setting in, or immedi- 
 ately preceding new moon ; and that of its greatest 
 drought^ as fall of temperature, being at, and sub- 
 sequent to its second quadrature, or conclusion. 
 
 Now, were the assumed influence of the moon on 
 the weather throughout the different seasons of the 
 year, as here pointed out, always constant and inva- 
 riable, the business of calculating in advance its ap 
 proaching changes, were at any time comparatively 
 
On the Weather. 245 
 
 easy. But unfortunately however desirable the 
 latter there are various causes which, almost con- 
 tinually, interfere, in deranging to a certain extent, 
 the operation of these the natural tendencies of the 
 lunar action on the weather. And, of these, the 
 first I shall notice are such as are connected with 
 the circumstances of latitude and locality already 
 alluded to and of which the following facts of re- 
 cent occurrence may serve to convey some idea. 
 Thus, as refers to the occurrence of storm at the 
 period of full moon, from towards the period of the 
 autumnal equinox, to the winter solstice ; and, pro- 
 perly speaking, connected with the equinox.* In 
 the summer of 1834 we find that, as early as the 
 20th of July, (being the period of full moon,} a 
 hurricane occurred at Davis's Straits, which, accord- 
 ing to the report of Captain Stratton, of the whale 
 ship, Ulverstone, as stated in the papers, caused 
 the breaking up of all the land ice in those seas. 
 Again, a dreadful thunder-storm (as reported in the 
 London Morning Post, of the 26th September, 
 1834,) occurred at the Hague, attended with loss 
 of life, &c. on the 17th of September, (the period of 
 full moon.} Third, the destructive gales of the 15th, 
 17th, and 18th of October, (full moon having oc- 
 curred on the 17th,) by which, as reported in the 
 newspapers, from Lloyd's lists, no less than fifty-six 
 
 * See preceding Note. 
 
246 Lunar Action 
 
 ships were wrecked on the coasts of England and 
 Holland. And finally, the destructive thunder- 
 storm and water-spout, attended with loss of life, 
 &c. which occurred at Gibralter, on the night of the 
 17th of November, (as reported in the London Globe 
 of the 22nd December, 1834,) full moon having oc- 
 curred on the 16th, or day before.* Thus showing, 
 
 * To this list of storms as connected with the meteoric action 
 of the moon from after the period of the summer, to the winter 
 solstice, may be added one of a much more recent date, viz. that 
 which occurred in the Channel on the afternoon and night of the 
 29th July last, (full moon having occurred on the 28th, or day 
 before,) and of which, happening to he on board one of the Lon- 
 don steamers from Dublin, at the time, I was a witness ; the crew 
 unanimously declaring, that nothing equal to it had occurred since 
 the preceding March. And of which from the losses it occasioned 
 in the neighbourhood of Liverpool, the following account ap- 
 peared in the London Weekly Dispatch of the 7th August, 1836 : 
 " Melancholy Shipwrecks* Liverpool. On Friday evening, between 
 seven and eight o'clock, a storm of wind and rain broke over the 
 town. The wind, which had previously been blowing gently from 
 the south, now began to blow with such violence from the N. W. 
 by N., that in a short time it assumed all the features of a hurri- 
 cane," &c. The account then proceeds to say, that the John 
 Welsh, from Savanilla, on the Spanish main, and the William, 
 from Dublin to Chester, were wrecked on the banks during the 
 night ; fourteen persons having perished out of the former ; and 
 all on board the latter ship. 
 
 From the commencement of this moon, indeed, on the 13th of 
 July, the rains, occasionally accompanied by gales of wind, had 
 been frequent ; but in point of violence, not at all to be compared 
 to the gale on the night of the 29th ; and which, on the principles 
 
On the Weather. 247 
 
 / 
 
 as would appear, that in proportion as with the ad- 
 vance of the season, an approach to the same degree 
 in the dominant action, as connected with the an- 
 nual circle, was transferred from the higher to the 
 lower latitudes, and was thus encountered by the 
 lunar action at the period of full moon a similar 
 developement of the same species of meteoric action 
 in the atmosphere of our hemisphere took place, 
 along the descending scale of latitude, in the direc- 
 tion of the tropic : a circumstance, it may be ob- 
 served, not a little curious, and deserving of notice. 
 Another source of derangement in the effects on the 
 weather, induced by the variations in the tendence 
 of meteoric action in the atmosphere, as connected 
 with the lunar circle, will be found in the circum- 
 stance that, as all the leading phenomena of the 
 atmosphere connected with the changes of the sea- 
 sons, such as the periods of the opposite extreme 
 degrees of heat and cold in summer and winter, 
 the occurrence of the equinoctial phenomena in 
 spring and autumn ; the setting in of the N. E. 
 wind in spring, &c. have each their fixed and deter- 
 minate places in the annual circle. When as not 
 unfrequently happens that the lunar action of a 
 contrary tendence to that which is proper to the de- 
 assumed, would show that the cold of winter during this period in 
 the southern hemisphere, had been more severe than during the 
 preceding years ; a circumstance which a short time only will 
 be sufficient to clear up. 
 
248 Lunar Action 
 
 velopment of these phenomena, occurs at the periods 
 when they should occur, and not the opposite or 
 conformable action of the moon : the consequence 
 is, that, owing to the conflicting of such opposite 
 tendencies in the atmosphere on these points of the 
 annual circle, the periods of the occurrence of 
 these phenomena, both as connected with the latter, 
 and the lunar circle, become more or less altered 
 and deranged, proportioned to the resistances. 
 
 But a still more influential cause in deranging 
 the natural effects of the lunar action on the wea- 
 ther during the greater part of the year, will be 
 found to have its source in the changes which take 
 place in the extreme degrees of temperature, as in 
 the seasons, equally as in the periods of occurrence 
 of the equinoctial phenomena in different years; 
 which I shall now proceed to notice. And, in or- 
 der to this, it becomes necessary, in the first place, 
 to commence with the solstices, considered as being 
 the true meteoric poles of the annual circle ; and 
 further to observe, that the points on which, subse- 
 quent to the solstices, and at about the same in- 
 tervals of time from the latter, the opposite ex- 
 treme degrees of heat and cold in summer and 
 winter occur, may, in like manner, be denominated 
 the poles of temperature. In turning to the points 
 of the annual circle which on the opposite sides of 
 the solstices to those indicated as being the points 
 where the opposite extreme degrees of annual tern- 
 
On the Weather. 249 
 
 perature occur, or at about a month preceding the 
 former periods ; we shall find the points where the 
 existence, equally as the nature and extent of the 
 lunar action on the weather, are the most uniformly 
 as clearly expressed; and which thence as in the 
 preceding cases may, with propriety, be denomi- 
 nated the meteoric poles of the lunar action on the 
 weather, as connected with the annual circle. For 
 as, in consequence of the changes which take place 
 in the temperature and seasons of different years, 
 and in the periods of the equinoctial phenomena; 
 that, during the seasons when these variations in 
 the temperature, &c. occur ; they must necessarily 
 induce corresponding variations in the effects pro- 
 duced by the lunar action on the weather. It will 
 follow, that it cannot be before we arrive at the pe- 
 riods of the year noticed, or those which on either 
 hand from after the equinoctial phenomena in 
 spring and autumn, extend to the solstices, that 
 we can expect to find an equal and permanent ac- 
 tion in the annual circle, suck, as would uniformly 
 exhibit without variation, either the nature or extent 
 of the lunar action on the weather. 
 
 Thus, to revert to principles: the tendence of 
 meteoric action in the atmosphere, from the winter 
 to the summer solstice, as connected with the lunar 
 circle, being, as stated, from the period of new to 
 that of full moon, to drought; as thence, to the 
 commencement of the ensuing lunar circle, to rain 
 
250 Lunar Action 
 
 and its accessory phenomena: the moon which com- 
 mences in May, and finishes in June, previous to 
 the solstice, will, in a more striking manner than in 
 the moons by which it has been preceded, be found 
 to set in with drought^ and, in general, with a con- 
 siderable rise of temperature, (being illustrative of 
 the calorific action of the moon on the temperature 
 at the periods of the syzygies, when, as in the present 
 case, not deranged by the currents of the atmos- 
 phere, or the occurrence of rain ;) and, during its 
 latter half, but more particularly towards the going 
 out of this moon, that it will be found accompanied 
 by rain and storm. And as the tendence of mete- 
 oric action in the atmosphere from the summer to 
 the winter solstice, as connected with the lunar cir- 
 cle, (as contrasted with the preceding half-year), 
 becomes reversed. Thus the moon which com- 
 mences in November and concludes in December, 
 previous to the solstice, will likewise, in a still more 
 striking manner than in those by which it has been 
 preceded, be found to set in with rain and storm; 
 and at its conclusion, at, and subsequent to the 
 second quadrature, be found to go out with 
 drought and a marked fall of temperature ; being 
 illustrative of the frigorific action of the moon, in 
 lowering the temperature, equally as the tides, at 
 the periods of the quadratures ; when, as in the in- 
 stance noticed, not deranged by the currents, or 
 occurrence of the opposite species of meteoric ac- 
 
On the Weather. 251 
 
 tion in the atmosphere at the time.* And thence, 
 I say, it is, owing to these the results, as described, 
 being constant in those parts of the annual circle, 
 that these moons may, with some confidence, be re- 
 ferred to, as the test moons of the present theory of 
 meteorology. 
 
 To conclude: we are thus led to perceive 
 when found that the same simplicity pervades the 
 dispositions of nature in reference to the develope- 
 ment of her phenomena in the atmosphere, however 
 complex in their sources, or evanescent in their du- 
 ration, as in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, 
 connected as these are with the former. And that, 
 in reference to the places occupied in the annual 
 circle by what we have denominated the poles of 
 temperature, and those of the lunar action on the 
 weather, situated on the opposite sides of the sol- 
 stices, or its true meteoric poles ; and which, it may 
 be added, are all permanent in reference to these 
 the positions they occupy : the same analogy exists, 
 as between the opposite magnetic poles of the 
 western and eastern hemispheres of the earth; si- 
 tuated, as the former, at equal distances on either 
 side the poles of the earth's rotation. 
 
 The better to show the positions occupied by the 
 
 * For further particulars explanatory of the circumstances 
 here noticed, equally as other parts of this paper, it is necessary 
 to refer to Chap. 18 and 20 of the preceding Part. 
 
252 
 
 Lunar Action 
 
 points alluded to, as connected with the seasons; I 
 am induced to present them in the subjoined dia- 
 gram of the annual circle. 
 
 Diagram of the Annual Circle. 
 B* 
 
 Let the circle A A represent the year ; B B' the 
 line of the solstices ; B the winter and B' the sum- 
 mer solstice; the axis C C' the line of the equi- 
 noxes, C the vernal, and C' the autumnal equinox : 
 D D' will show the positions occupied by the oppo- 
 site extreme degrees of temperature : and the ex- 
 tremes of the line E E' the points where the lunar 
 action on the weather, as described, is assumed to 
 be always constant and equal in its results : the po- 
 
On the Weather. 253 
 
 sition of each of these lines in the annual circle be- 
 ing permanently fixed and unalterable. The dotted 
 lines F F, F F, are intended to show the range of 
 variation which, in different years, takes place in 
 the periods of occurrence of the equinoctial pheno- 
 mena in spring and autumn. 
 
 Concluding Observations of the Second Part. 
 
 I had, shortly after presenting this paper to the 
 Association, prepared some further observations con- 
 nected with the subject of the lunar action on the 
 weather, and subsequently collected some additional 
 facts, in reference to the assumed connexion of the 
 lunar action at particular periods, with the occur- 
 rence of storms, (chiefly derived from instances in 
 this class of phenomena which occurred during the 
 winter of 1835-36,) and previous to my entering on 
 the First Part of this work; which were intended 
 to be added to it by way of supplement. But as, 
 on examination, I find the greater part of these ob- 
 servations have already found their way into the 
 preceding pages; and that such as have not, could, 
 if inserted add but little to strengthening the case, 
 in reference to the existence and nature of the mete- 
 oric action of the moon, already made out. In or- 
 der, as much as possible, to avoid repetitions, I 
 think it better, on the present occasion, to omit 
 
254 Concluding Observations 
 
 giving them publicity in a distinct shape. For if 
 the case thus made out, be not thought sufficient to 
 induce a rally amongst the friends of science in these 
 countries, with the view of setting on foot a society 
 having for object to give to these discoveries the 
 weight and consideration they are assumed to merit; 
 (as being the sole means of making them practically 
 useful, or of giving to them any further develope- 
 ment of which they may stand in need,) any thing 
 further in the way of observation that were advanced 
 by me in this place on the subject, could not possi- 
 bly effect ; and consequently my doing so, were lit- 
 tle better than to labour without object. 
 
 As being the only effectual means however, of 
 giving immediate operation to these discoveries by 
 the general diffusion of information connected with 
 them, to which it would lead: the better to show 
 the necessity which exists for the formation of a me- 
 teorological society, from the annual sacrifice of life 
 and property, even amongst those engaged in the 
 fisheries on the coasts of these islands, which the 
 slightest acquaintance, on their parts, with the ru- 
 diments of meteorology, might in most cases be the 
 means of preventing; I am induced to notice the 
 storm which on the 18th of November 1835, caused 
 such ravages on the northern coast of Scotland, 
 connected as it was with the change of the moon, 
 the latter or new moon having occurred on the 20th, 
 
Of the Second Part. 255 
 
 as may be seen by reference to the almanac: and 
 moreover, from its having been preceded and an- 
 nounced a few hours previously by an aurora bore- 
 alls: which circumstances combined, at this ad- 
 vanced period of the season, could have left no 
 doubt as to the proximity of the impending danger, 
 had but the unfortunate sufferers who fell victims 
 to it, had the slightest knowledge on these subjects. 
 The published account of this gale, extracted from 
 the Leinster Independent, of December, 5, 1835, 
 is as follows, "The late storm forty-eight lives 
 lost. The Scotch provincial papers are filled with 
 the most lamentable details of the effects of a vio- 
 lent storm, which appears to have been general on 
 the northern coast of Scotland, on Wednesday 
 morning, the 18th ult. The previous night was 
 clear and calm, and the aurora borealis more than 
 usually brilliant. The morning was equally fine, 
 with a mild breeze from the southward, when about 
 half-past ten o'clock, it veered suddenly to the 
 north, and in a short time blew a perfect hurricane. 
 A great number of fishing boats were overtaken by 
 the storm, and notwithstanding the most experi- 
 enced seamanship on the part of the crews, were 
 unable to survive the tempest." Here follows an 
 account of the loss of eight boats, and 48 men. " In 
 addition to the above awful catalogue several fish- 
 ing boats are still missing, and there is much reason 
 to fear that their crews have met a watery grave. 
 
258 Concluding Observations. 
 
 Several coasting vessels were totally wrecked." 
 "The hurricane is said to have exceeded any thing 
 of the kind ever remembered, unroofing houses, and 
 driving slates and tiles before it like chaff," &c. 
 
 This requires no commentary. And if the pros- 
 pect of putting a stop to, or greatly lessening the 
 number of such melancholy catastrophes, proves not 
 a stimulus sufficiently strong to the friends of hu- 
 manity in these countries, to set about contribut- 
 ing to the diffusion of the knowledge obtained on 
 these subjects, amongst all classes of seafaring men ; 
 it were idle to suppose that any thing that could be 
 advanced by me on the occasion would be attended 
 to. 
 

 METEOROLOGY. 
 
 THIRD PART. 
 
 METEORIC PROGRESSION, 
 
 Considered in its Connexion ivith the Changes of 
 the Seasons and Weather. 
 
 " A serene autumn," observes Lord Bacon, " de- 
 notes a windy winter"; a windy winter, a rainy 
 spring ; a rainy spring, a serene summer ; a serene 
 summer, a windy autumn : so that the air, on a ba- 
 lance, is seldom debtor to itself; nor do the seasons 
 succeed each other in the same tenor, for two years 
 together." The view of the seasons and weather 
 here taken, equally as the line traced out for con- 
 ducting inquiries connected with them, though to 
 the ordinary observer it should not appear to con- 
 tain in it any thing extraordinary ; yet is one so ne- 
 cessary to be taken in investigations of the kind, 
 that, even with the advantage of correct principles 
 in other respects, it was impossible, except by means 
 thereof, to make them (to the extent of which they 
 were susceptible,) available. 
 
 S 
 
258 Meteoric Progression. 
 
 In order to form a correct idea of this, it will be 
 sufficient to observe, that though in the same loca- 
 lity no change in the mean temperature of the sea- 
 sons during two years consecutively took place ; 
 and that in this as in other cases, it were expected 
 that such sameness in the temperature would be 
 productive of similar effects in the seasons ; so far 
 from this being the case, in reference to the latter 
 without taking into account the variation induced 
 simply by the manner in which the opposite species 
 of meteoric action in the atmosphere, connected with 
 its opposite states of drought and humidity, succeed 
 each other therein, as here designated under the 
 title of meteoric progression, all calculations in re- 
 ference to the seasons of these years, would, to a 
 certaint extent, be found defective. So influential, 
 however, do I esteem the operation of this principle 
 of meteoric progression, in inducing an approxima- 
 tion between the same seasons alternately, or every 
 second year, that I think it goes far towards coun- 
 teracting the effects which would otherwise arise 
 from the ordinary changes which take place conse- 
 cutively in the mean annual temperature. As the 
 latter, however, is occasionally so considerable as 
 entirely to merge the influence on the seasons which 
 arises from this cause ; it is only as refers to the or- 
 dinary years, or when the changes that usually take 
 place in their temperature are less considerable, 
 that it can be justly admitted to exercise such an 
 
Meteoric Progression. 259 
 
 influence ; and it is solely under this point of view I 
 propose to consider it at present. Admitting, how- 
 ever, as is usually the case, that important changes 
 in the seasons are induced by the operation of me- 
 teoric progression: considered as an element of cal- 
 culation, the first thing to ascertain were, the num- 
 ber of years it would require to effect such a revolu- 
 tion in this order, as that at their expiration it would 
 recommence as before; I shall first consider it in 
 this respect. 
 
 Thus, the seasons of the year being in number 
 limited to four ; whereas, according to the order of 
 meteoric progression, as here sketched by Lord Ba- 
 con, five were necessary to complete the revolution 
 proposed ; were it not that the phenomena of the 
 atmosphere are limited to opposite kinds, the con- 
 sequence would be that, till these the odd, or fifth 
 quarters, returned anew to the same positions in 
 the annual circle which they occupied at first, *. e. 
 every fifth year, a perfect return to the same order 
 of meteoric progression in the seasons could not 
 take place. Owing, however, to the circumstance 
 that the entire phenomena of the atmosphere, as 
 connected with the seasons and weather are limited 
 to opposite classes ) i. e. drought and humidity, to 
 one or other of which these the phenomena of the 
 seasons must, of necessity, belong. It will thence 
 become apparent, that it can only be from an excess 
 of either species of meteoric action, in the seasons 
 
 S2 
 
260 Meteoric Progression. 
 
 of the same year, that a derangement in the order 
 of meteoric progression, of the kind noticed by Lord 
 Bacon, could take place. 
 
 And thus that, during years when, within certain 
 parallels, and localities, a derangement in the order 
 of meteoric progression of the kind mentioned, did 
 occur ; under the influence of opposite circumstances, 
 in other regions of the same hemisphere, quite a 
 different order of meteoric progression from the for- 
 mer would take place. And finally, that* in other 
 regions of the hemisphere, from their being under 
 the influence of circumstances still different from the 
 cases supposed ; or where the acting causes which 
 determine the opposite species of meteoric action in 
 the atmosphere, were equally balanced one to the 
 other in the seasons, that no derangement of the 
 kind would occur; but an entire revolution of me- 
 teoric progression be completed within the year. 
 Showing, as these facts are calculated to do, the 
 important influence exercised by latitude and loca- 
 lity, on the entire annual round of meteoric pheno- 
 mena. 
 
 And as in the distribution of meteoric action, as 
 connected with the annual circle, a preponderance 
 of drought generally occurs in those countries which 
 are situated in the higher latitudes, equally as in the 
 opposite parallels of our hemisphere ; and conse- 
 quently that it is only in the intermediate regions, 
 and in insular situations, as in these islands, where 
 
Meteoric Progression . 261 
 
 a redundance of the opposite kind, or of humidity, 
 in the seasons, occurs; thus it is only in the latter 
 class of localities, where meteoric progression in- 
 duces the changes in the seasons noticed by Lord 
 Bacon. 
 
 With us, however, this influence is very consider- 
 able, as will appear by a reference to the seasons of 
 1833 and 1834. Thus the winter temperature of 
 those years, (which may be considered as the basis 
 of the phenomena of the succeeding seasons,) being 
 nearly the same : the winter of 1832-33, with a tem- 
 perature equally mild as that of 1833-34, was com- 
 paratively dry and exempt from storm : it was suc- 
 ceeded by a mild spring ; a rainy May and June ; a 
 long interval of drought during the months of July 
 and August, up to the period of the setting-in of 
 the equinox, about the first of September, followed ; 
 and to the latter succeeded the memorable autumn 
 and winter of this year, which for rain and storm 
 in these countries has had but few equals. The tem- 
 perature, however, being equally mild as during the 
 preceding winter. The following spring r and the 
 commencement of the summer of 1834, had nothing 
 strikingly different in the weather from those of the 
 preceding year ; but the change which took place, 
 subsequently, was sufficiently remarkable. For, 
 whereas the greater part of July and August, in 
 1833, was, (but more particularly in Ireland, whose 
 climate is so peculiar,) an interval of drought ; this 
 period in 1834, was one of almost incessant rains; 
 
262 Meteoric Progression. 
 
 in so much, that the crops were, in many parts, com- 
 pletely laid by the latter. To this season of wet, a 
 long interval of comparatively dry and very warm 
 weather succeeded, to the period of the setting-in of 
 the equinoctial phenomena in the middle of October. 
 And, finally, the latter was followed by the dry, 
 mild, and pleasant winter of 1834-35; which, in all 
 respects, with the exception of the temperature, was 
 the contrast of the winter of the preceding year. 
 Thus showing that the changes in the weather in- 
 duced by the irregularity of meteoric progression, 
 are chiefly connected with the solstices, or seasons 
 of summer and winter. 
 
 Notwithstanding, however, as regards the wea- 
 ther, that it is during the summer and winter 
 months the variations induced by the irregularity of 
 meteoric progression are, as stated, most apparent 
 and considerable; such is not the case as refers to 
 the violent class of atmospheric phenomena or chief 
 storm periods of the different seasons of the year: 
 the variations in the occurrence of which, as ap- 
 pears, are but little affected by the variations of the 
 weather about the periods of the solstices ; whereas 
 quite the contrary is the case at those of the equi- 
 noxes. Thus, to refer to facts, in 1833, the storm 
 period connected with the vernal equinox, occurred 
 on the 20th of February; the second, or that of 
 the summer progression quarter, from the llth to 
 the 14th of June ; the third, or that connected with 
 the autumnal equinox, on the 31st of August; and 
 
Meteoric Progression. 263 
 
 the fourth, on the 29th November. The latter, as 
 already stated, having been succeeded by a very wet 
 and stormy winter and spring. In the succeeding 
 year, of 1834, however, the storms connected with the 
 vernal equinox did not set in till the 28th March, be- 
 ing thirty-six days later than on the preceding year ; 
 whereas that in the early part of summer, occurred 
 about the same period, viz. on the 14th and 15th of 
 June: again, however, as in the spring, dissimilar 
 from the preceding year, the storms connected with 
 the autumnal equinox, did not set in till the 16th 
 and 17th of October, being forty-six days later than 
 in 1833; and, finally, the fourth storm period, as 
 on the preceding year, set in on the 29th of Novem- 
 ber, and continued to the 2nd of December ; having 
 been, as stated, succeeded by a comparatively mild, 
 dry, and pleasant winter. And as, in the succeed- 
 ing spring of 1835, the equinoctial phenomena 
 again, as in 1833, set in as early as the 27th of 
 February, (being the period of new moon ;) as in 
 the autumn of this year, on the night of the 9th 
 September, two days subsequent to the period of 
 full moon ; we are thus warranted in concluding, 
 that while the chief storms connected with the sol- 
 stices are nearly stationary ', in the periods of their 
 occurrence, notwithstanding the variations which 
 take place in the weather of these seasons ; those 
 connected with the equinoxes, on the contrary, vary 
 almost continually in the succeeding years: but 
 
264? Meteoric Progression. 
 
 that, notwithstanding the latter circumstance, a 
 strict relation between the periods of the occurrence 
 of these the equinoctial phenomena in the spring 
 and autumn of the same year, appears to exist; as 
 the differences observable in this respect, are usually 
 occasioned by the variations which occur in the pe- 
 riods of the lunar action at these the opposite sea- 
 sons of the year, at which they develop themselves. 
 1 may add, that when an interruption to this order 
 iccurs, viz. when the equinoctial phenomena in 
 pring occur about the same period of the season 
 during two years consecutively, it would seem to in- 
 dicate the approach of a marked change in the wea- 
 ther of the succeeding seasons, from those by which 
 it was preceded, whether to increased heat or cold. 
 
 Indeed it is in this latter point of view that the 
 periods of the occurrence of the equinoctial pheno- 
 mena appear to have the strongest claim on our at- 
 tention. For, as the equinoctial gales in spring 
 may be considered as marking the period of the an- 
 nual ascent or preponderance of the electric action 
 of the sun on the atmosphere, over that of its oppo- 
 site, the magnetic; as at the opposite periods of the 
 year, the equinoctial gales in autumn mark that of 
 the ascendancy of the latter over the former action. 
 And that on the principle of increased length of 
 exposition, as connected with the solar action : when 
 these phenomena occur early in the spring, the tem- 
 perature of the succeeding summer, (other circum- 
 
Meteoric Progression. 265 
 
 stances being the same,) should be proportionately 
 higher than when they occurred late in the season. 
 And, on the same principle, that when these pheno- 
 mena occur early in the autumn, the temperature of 
 the succeeding winter should be lower than when 
 they occurred late. And as from the connexion ob- 
 servable between the period of the occurrence of 
 these phenomena in spring and autumn, that on 
 years when they occur early in spring, though the 
 temperature of the succeeding summer may be ex- 
 pected to be high, yet that the early setting in of 
 the equinox in autumn, is likely to induce an early 
 break in the weather, by the setting-in of the au- 
 tumnal rains. Thus it would follow, that on years 
 when the equinox sets in early in spring, though an 
 abundant return from the ordinary winter and spring 
 crops may be expected ; this does not follow in re- 
 ference to those, such as maize, the produce of the 
 vine, &c. which arrive to maturity later in the year; 
 and whose produce must necessarily be injured by 
 the early setting in of the autumnal rains ; and as 
 being a consequence, if these principles were correct, 
 the seasons which were the most favourable to the 
 former c ] ass of crops, should be those least so to 
 the latter. And as from its more northern position 
 than the other wine countries of Europe, the vin- 
 tages in France, more than elsewhere, should be ex- 
 pected to afford illustrations of these principles; 
 by referring to those of the last three yea*s, we may 
 
266 Meteoric Progression. 
 
 probably find in them the illustration required. 
 Thus, in 1833, the equinox set in as early as the 
 20th of February; and though the harvest of this 
 year was abundant, the vintage in France was not 
 remarkable either for quantity or for the quality of 
 its produce. In the year 1834, the vernal equinox, 
 on the contrary, did not set in till the 28th of 
 March ; and though, as noticed, the months of July 
 and August were unusually wet, the vintage this 
 year, not only in France but in the other wine 
 countries of Europe, was one of the best that had 
 occurred for a number of years. Again, in the 
 spring of 1835, the equinox set in as early as the 
 27th of February; and, as is known, the vintage of 
 this year, both in France and Portugal, proved very 
 generally a failure : which may serve to show the 
 intimate connexion subsisting between the period of 
 the setting-in of the equinox in spring, and the suc- 
 ceeding seasons of the year. 
 
 It may be further observed, that the actions in 
 the annual and lunar circles, as connected with the 
 weather, are so perfectly analogous, that the effects 
 of meteoric progression must be expected to extend 
 to the latter equally as to the former. Indeed, 
 these are at times so strongly marked in the con- 
 trasts which at the same periods of succeeding 
 moons frequently occur in the weather, that it is im- 
 possible not to see and be satisfied that such is the 
 case. And the seasons when these the effects of 
 
Meteoric Prognession. 267 
 
 meteoric progression, as connected with the lunar 
 action, are the most apparent, are those which ex- 
 tend from the opposite solstices to the ensuing pe- 
 riods of the equinoxes : the meteoric action of the 
 moon during the opposite seasons of the year, or 
 from the equinoxes to the solstices, owing to the 
 cause stated in the preceding paper, being less liable 
 to variation, and necessarily more constant in its 
 effects. 
 
 And here it may be right to notice, that were the 
 meteoric action of the moon, in its range, similar to 
 the seasons, confined to the atmosphere of either he- 
 misphere of the earth, we might expect it to be 
 much more clearly defined, and determinate in its 
 effects on the weather. But as, similar to the solar 
 action, it is not exclusively confined to the atmos- 
 phere of either, but extends at once -to both ; and 
 that the seasons, as the opposite actions of the sun, 
 on which the effects of the lunar action depend, are 
 continually opposed to each other in the atmosphere 
 of the opposite hemispheres. Thus it is that the ef- 
 fects of the lunar action on the weather in either he- 
 misphere, are, as stated, continually in opposition to 
 the effects induced by it at the time in the atmos- 
 phere of the opposite. And if, as assumed, the state 
 of the temperature with us, whether in winter or 
 summer, enables us to judge as to the relative tem- 
 perature of the seasons, in the southern hemisphere : 
 mild winters with us, being indicative of warm sum- 
 
268 Meteoric Progression. 
 
 mers in the opposite hemisphere ; and vice versa, 
 as shewn by the cold and rainy summer of 1829, 
 when the winter cold in the southern hemisphere, as 
 experienced in the colonies of New South Wales, 
 was greater than had been known for a number of 
 years. In like manner, I say, it is, that from the 
 effects of the lunar action on the weather with us, 
 being, throughout the year, continually in opposi- 
 tion to those induced by it in the atmosphere of the 
 southern hemisphere, thus, similar to the solar ac- 
 tion it produces directly opposite meteoric effects 
 simultaneously at the opposite extremities of the 
 earth. From this it follows, that an intimate con- 
 nexion subsists between these actions; and that 
 the state of the temperature in the southern hemis- 
 phere, both in winter and summer, instead of being 
 as might be supposed, neutral, may, on the contra- 
 trary, be said, not only to affect the existing tem- 
 perature with us, but materially to influence the ef- 
 fects produced by the lunar action on the weather of 
 our seasons. 
 
 From every thing connected with the temperature 
 and weather, however, being collective ; and, at the 
 same time, based on the simultaneous operation of 
 opposite principles, which alternately change and 
 supplant each other in the seasons at determinate 
 periods. Thus we are enabled to account why the 
 tendence of meteoric action in the lunar circle 
 changes, with the solar action, from either solstice 
 
Meteoric Progression. 269 
 
 to the opposite, as noticed ; and in like manner why 
 the equinoctial phenomena cannot develope them- 
 selves at the same, but at opposite periods of the 
 moon, in spring and autumn ; owing to the opposi- 
 tion of the actions in the opposite hemispheres, and 
 the impossibility which exists for the same species of 
 meteoric action being induced by the same lunar ac- 
 tion, in both. Which latter I esteem to be so indu- 
 bitably the case, that the state of the weather with 
 us at, suppose new, or full moon, at any period of 
 the year, enables us with every degree of certainty 
 to know the existing state of the weather within the 
 same parallels of the southern hemisphere at the time. 
 Which, it will be admitted, is an extension of know- 
 ledge in this department of science, far beyond the 
 very limited range to which during so many centu- 
 ries it has been confined, or to which, up to the pre- 
 sent, it was thought possible to carry it.* 
 
 Thus, to revert to the annual circle: owing to 
 the irregularity of meteoric progression in our sea- 
 sons, the same periods of succeeding years, will 
 usually be found to present contrasts more or less 
 considerable in the weather; and the seasons every 
 second, and probably still more, every fifth year, on 
 
 * It may be right to notice, that this paper having been written 
 several months previous to the preceding Parts, some of the ob- 
 servations will be found to have been already anticipated in the 
 latter. 
 
270 Meteoric Progression. 
 
 the contrary, will be found to show an approach to 
 the same kind of weather : the circumstance of 
 mean temperature not being materially different. 
 Insomuch, that, by keeping in view the principle of 
 an equilibrium between the opposite kinds of mete- 
 oric action in the seasons with which we commenced 
 this article, and which is sure to come round and be 
 restored about the periods indicated : thus, to the 
 attentive observer, the past, will always be found to 
 supply in this respect, the most unerring guide 
 to the future ; as regards the nature of the ap- 
 proaching seasons, and changes of the weather. 
 
 Having thus brought to a close the task (long 
 since entered on,) of exploring the labyrinths, and 
 investigating the sources of meteoric action ; and, 
 as I trust, shown the identity which, to a certain 
 extent, exists between the latter and astronomical 
 principles, equally as those connected with the en- 
 tire round of the physical sciences ; together with 
 the advantages more or less considerable which 
 the whole of the latter must derive from the in- 
 creased light thus obtained. Considering meteoro- 
 logy under the double point of view connected with 
 its theory and practice, as it was impossible with 
 any attention to perspicuity to mix up the latter 
 with the former ; thence the division in the manner 
 
Meteoric Progression. 271 
 
 of treating the subject here introduced ; the first or 
 theoretic part being to a certain extent defective, 
 without the addition of the two latter by which it 
 is succeeded. And thus it is, as being the con- 
 necting members, and natural divisions into which 
 the subject resolves itself, that though each of 
 these parts has its use, this does not prevent but 
 that, in point of interest, the first is that which 
 chiefly claims attention ; from its being according to 
 the views and principles there taken or laid down, 
 that the theory proposed must be judged of; and 
 consequently, by which it must either stand or fall. 
 And, notwithstanding the attention that has been 
 paid in the preceding pages, to treat of all the lead- 
 ing points connected with meteorology; yet so 
 ample is the field it presents, that, notwithstanding 
 the partial change of principles introduced, many 
 of the views taken in my preceding publications are 
 not only still applicable to the theory as it at pre- 
 sent stands, but are in no slight degree requisite, in 
 order to the better understanding of the subject. 
 
 And, it may be observed, as not a little curious, 
 that perhaps the most conclusive proofs of the cor- 
 rectness of this theory whether as refers to the 
 movement, temperature, or other local phenomena 
 of the earth, and planets, are derived from a princi- 
 ple which from the imposibility of making it avail- 
 able by experiment, seemed of all others the least 
 likely to answer this end, viz. magnetic action. 
 
272 Meteoric Progression. 
 
 And consequently these the discoveries connected 
 with planetary magnetism, as detailed in the First 
 Part, are those to which I attach the greatest im- 
 portance ; as the facts they have led to, are such as 
 may challenge not only the strictest investigation, 
 but defy the action of time to gainsay. And as, 
 previous to pushing my inquiries as connected with 
 the subject of planetary magnetism to their present 
 extent, I pointed out (in a letter bearing date the 
 9th of June 1835, to that distinguished astronomer, 
 Sir William Hamilton, of the Dublin Observatory,) 
 a circumstance connected with it which might 
 serve as a test of the principle of reflective action, 
 as recognised by the present theory, viz. the as- 
 sumed change which, with that of the earth in the 
 ecliptic, takes place in the position of the magnetic 
 equator ; and which, if so, must be greatest at the 
 period of either solstice as contrasted with the op- 
 posite : I think it right to notice the circumstance 
 in this place, under the impression that, as connected 
 with so important a subject to science, it may be 
 thought worthy of investigation. For, notwithstand- 
 ing the number, as palpable nature of the proofs, in 
 reference to the connexion of magnetic action with 
 the temperature, the formation of rain, and elliptical 
 movement of the earth, already noticed ; as in inves- 
 tigations of the kind, every thing practicable should 
 be done to remove doubt, and make 6f assurance 
 doubly sure : " a means so simple as this, and which 
 
Meteoric Progressibn. 273 
 
 would cost so little labour or expense to ascer- 
 tain, should not be allowed to remain un- 
 examined. 
 
 Unfortunately for the cause of truth, there are 
 but too many causes in operation, and which, whe- 
 ther owing to the weakness of our organization, to 
 the vices of our constitution, or to other causes, it 
 is to be feared will, to a certain extent, be always 
 in operation, to counteract its salutary influence, 
 and retard its developement : and which, in his dis- 
 quisition on the Negroes, Raynal, with his accus- 
 tomed eloquence and ability, sums up as follows, 
 viz. C'est une preuve ajoute a mille autres de Tin- 
 certitude de nos connoissances. Et comment nos 
 connoissances ne seroient-elles pas incertaines et 
 bornees ? Nos organes sont si foibles, nos moyens si 
 courts, nos etudes si distraites, notre vie si troublee, 
 et 1'objet de nos recherches si vast^e ! Travaillez 
 sans relache, naturalistes, physiciens, chymistes, phi- 
 losophes observateurs de tous les genres : et apres 
 des siecles d'efforts reunis et continus, les secrets 
 que vous aurez arraches a la nature, compares a son 
 immense richesse, ne seront que la goutte d'eau en- 
 levee au vaste ocean. L'homme riche dort ; le sa- 
 vent veille, mais il est pauvre. Ses decouvertes 
 sont trop indifferentes aux gouvernemens, pour qu'il 
 puisse solliciter des secours ou esperer des recom- 
 penses. On trouveroit parmi nous plus d'un Aris- 
 tote ; mais ou est le monarque qui lui dira ; ma 
 
 T 
 
274 Meteoric Progression. 
 
 puissance est a tes ordres; puise dans mes tresors, 
 et travaille ? Apprends-nous, celebre Buffon, a quel 
 point de perfection tu aurois porte ton immortel 
 ouvrage, si tu avois vecu sous un Alexandre ! 
 L'homme contemplatif est sedentaire, et le vo- 
 yageur est ignorant ou menteur. Celui qui a re$u 
 le genie en partage, dedaigne les details minutieux 
 de Pexperience ; et le faiseur d* experiences est pres- 
 que toujours sans genie. Entre la multitude des 
 agens que la nature emploie, nous n'en connoissons 
 que quelque-uns, et encore ne les connoissons-nous 
 qu'imparfaitement. Qui sait si les autres ne sont 
 pas de nature a echapper pour jamais a nos sens, a 
 nos instrumens, a nos observations et a nos essais ? 
 La nature des deux etres qui composent le monde, 
 1'esprit et la matiere, sera toujours un mystere. 
 * * La Religion, qui jette du dedain sur les 
 travaux d'un etre en chrysalide et qui redoute se- 
 cretement les progres de la raison, multipliera les 
 oisifs et retardera Thomme laborieux par la crainte 
 pu par le scruple. A mesure qu'une science s'a- 
 vance les pas deviennent plus difficiles; la genera- 
 lite se degoute, et elle n'est plus cultivee que par 
 quelques hommes opiniatres qui s'en occupent, soit 
 par habitude, soit par Tesperance bien ou mal fondee 
 de se faire un nom, jusqu'au moment ou le ridicule 
 s'en mele et ou Ton montre au doigt, ou comme un 
 fou ou comme un sot, celui qui se promet de vaincre 
 une difficulte centre laquelle quelques hommes cele- 
 
Meteoric Progression 275 
 
 bres ont echoue. Oest ainsi qu'on masque la 
 crainte qu'il ne reussisse. On a vu dans tous les 
 siecles et chez toutes les nations, les Etudes naitre 
 tomber et se succeder dans un certain ordre rgle. 
 Cette inconstance cette lassitude ne sont pas d'un 
 homme seulement. C'est un vice des societes les 
 plus nombreuses et le plus eclair ees. II semble 
 que les sciences et les arts alent un terns de mode" * 
 And, notwithstanding that certain parts of this 
 picture may be overcharged: we need not go back 
 to the time of Raynal, in order to prove its correct- 
 ness in others. For unfortunately whim, rather 
 than sound judgment, but too frequently presides 
 over the reigning fashion in science, equally as in 
 dress. Thus, when accident brought part of Volta's 
 or Galvani's circuit, I have forgotten which, in col- 
 lision with the limb of a frog : a cool observer might 
 suppose that this newly discovered property of elec- 
 tricity on the occasion, was not confined to the lo- 
 cality where the experiment was made, but extended 
 throughout the scientific world, so promptly did it 
 respond the shock! And what were not the won- 
 ders anticipated, and the conjectures hazarded, as 
 to the results to which it would lead! Again, a 
 gentleman at Paris some time since, in contemplat- 
 
 * Voyez. Histoire Philosophise, Tome Neuvieme page 176 
 et suiv. 
 
276 Meteoric Progression. 
 
 ing the splendours of the setting sun from one of 
 the windows of the Luxemburg, was struck with 
 something new in the diverging rays ; and imme- 
 diately out sprung the science of the polarisation of 
 light: which has during some years fairly divided 
 the suffrages of the learned with the steam engine. 
 And yet, what are these discoveries, however inge- 
 nious, if tried by the test of usefulness ? For the 
 anticipations formed of the first have already passed 
 their term, similar to those of animal magnetism; 
 the central fire of my old friend the late Baron Fou- 
 rier of the French Academy, &c., &c. : and as to 
 the last, the utmost that can reasonably be expected 
 from it, is, to decide between the respective merits 
 of the conflicting theories of solar light ; and which 
 though it may amuse, is not likely to lead to any thing 
 further. It is true that, as connected with science, 
 nothing can be considered as small; from things 
 seemingly the most trivial having so frequently led 
 to results the most important. And if the same 
 anxiety in matters of importance, were always dis- 
 played by its cultivators, as on these light subjects, 
 they might well be excused for indulging in those 
 occasional wanderings. But has such been the case? 
 And as, without co-operation in matters of the kind, 
 the best things must, of necessity, fall still-born; 
 having thus to the best of my ability contributed to 
 increase the sum of our acquaintance with nature and 
 
Meteoric Progression. 277 
 
 her phenomena in the physical world; let me in- 
 dulge the hope that my efforts in the cause of truth 
 however they may have fallen short of my wishes 
 will not be allowed to become abortive, for want 
 of that protection and support, which, by insuring 
 their success can alone make them valid. 
 
 :t OI& 
 
 . 
 
 THE END. 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 Davidson, Printer, 
 Serle's Place, Carey Street, Londoji . 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 Page 1, line 17, for on, read in the atmoiphere. 
 
 23, line 19, for whistlings, read whistling. 
 
 30, line 21, for Sir Fohn, read Sir John. 
 
 40, line 5, for les ciel, read le ciel. 
 
 67, line 17, for converging, read diverging. 
 
 73, line 28, for eclectrical, read electrical. 
 
 80, line 28, for L'ui, read L'uni. 
 
 85, line 9, for thenee, read thence. 
 108, line 5, for operaticve, read operative. 
 108, line 17, for ascrtained, read ascertained. 
 137, line 3, for traces read traces 
 154, commencement of line 6, for ile, read cile. 
 166, line 25, for action, read actions. 
 171, line 23, for syzygies, and quadratures, read quadratures, 
 
 or as connected with the syzygies. 
 174, line 9, for action, read actions. 
 222, line 15, for tro ics, read tropics. 
 
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