LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA . .* c^i****^ ^2^0^^ S S *' ttf&St^ ^>^^t^-txCr M/^L^S&S, -t-t^,*,^. rft%7. - ;>< \ / ' Itf- , s_ / ^X ^ // cL^t^z^^t^^Pte^L>- # C***- -s ' (X*^^/&*^> /lst^S&r>*Ji^Z5y' p? -3?-t^&, VX * s S9 * / Jl s -{&*{*' ' ( - *JLS&*. --^'"^ >' . V J /#<$> *>r-*~ ^^^^^^T/r^ s^ ~^L- ^* S ' -X- r 7 METEOROLOGY, JO^-OSTHM .HTAMIJ3 fci^ Q.V'.v. V-.iiv'lf V DAVIDSON, PRINTER, SERLE'S PLACE, CAREY STREET, LONDON. METEOROLOGY CONSIDERED IN ITS CONNEXION WITH ASTRONOMY, CLIMATE, AND THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION Of ANIMALS AND PLANTS, EQUALLY AS WITH THE SEASONS AND CHANGES OF THE WEATHER. PATRICK MURPHY, AUTHOR OF THE " RUDIMENTS OP THE PRIMARY FORCES OF GRAVITY, MAGNETISM, AND ELECTRICITY IN THEIR AGENCY ON THE HEAVENLY BODIES." "THE ANATOMY OF THE SEASONS, &c." " II est des verites a qu'il ne manque, pour etre accreditees, que d'etre annoncees par des hommes heureux." Schulz. C'est au fond de 1'examen que se trouve la science et la verite, L'or se ramasse au fond des creusets." Helvetius. LONDON: PUBLISHED BY J. B. BALLIERE, 219, REGENT STREET. 1836. ii wrsm o?s ow ?/ i ;i(Joo3 ? ^isoi^ifi Ir/fna^g eil,i b/m oDn'o UB.toi> a fxbu 1^/19 o'j \eaalq apft ifl .a 9i)o w i lo m^IuoK-teaji sdi lo noiiuloa 4 gsvf J 'fiiwoicy| orO Ms 1 -] PREFACE. As FEW who have turned their attention to meteor- ology are ignorant of its extensive relations with science and the general interests of society, it were superfluous, in this place, to enter into a detail of these relations. And if in addition we take into ac- count that it was only by discoveries in meteorology, the solution of the grand problem of science, viz. that of the true theory of the world, could have been at any time arrived at : instead of detracting from the importance of this science in other respects, it thus comes forward invested with additional claims, and a higher title to our consideration, than all the others. And having in the following pages, as I trust, sufficiently shown the truth of these assumptions, M372431 Ti PREFACE. it will be sufficient for me at present to refer to them : but aware, however correct the views there taken, or the principles laid down in reference to the sources of planetary movement, temperature, and the other local phenomena of the seasons and weather, may be, or however important in their re- lations with the interests of society ; that without co-operation, on the part of the public, in order to give them effect, they cannot possibly be attended with any beneficial or useful result: and conse- quently that, in its present stage, the affair of giv- ing their utility to these discoveries, is not yet begun, With the view of rendering them as generally operative as possible, by the formation of a Meteorological Society, I have taken occasion in more than one part of the work, to call attention to this subject; fully sensible of the nullity of any thing that has been done, unless it be followed up by something of the kind. And if in the event of being successful, and that, as being identified with the country, Englishmen of a future day, may, pos- sibly, turn to these discoveries with feelings of pride and exultation : what more appropriate or honour- PREFACE. vii able record could those of the present day leave to future times, as to the reception afforded them at the period of their being made, than the one here pro- posed ; having, as it would be sure to have, from its utility, the countenance and support of all good men on its side. For, as to the individual whose name happens to be associated with these discoveries, ? as personal considerations have had but little to do in the devoting his time and attention in the man ner he has done to these subjects, as proved by the, to him, severe pecuniary losses which, to the present, it has entailed on him. Did he for a mo- ment suppose that his appearing in the business, could, in any way, operate in retarding the accom- plishment of the good work proposed, he would at once add that of suppressing his connexion with these discoveries, to the other sacrifices already made by him. He, however, hopes that a more elevated sen- timent will be allowed to operate on the occasion^ than any thing so low and unworthy as that alluded to ; and that, should it prove disagreeable,- in the magnitude of the object proposed, the individual may be overlooked and lost sight of. It is more viii PREFACE. than probable, indeed, that his perseverance in the course which has led to these results, had been less; but that he was impressed with the idea, whether erroneous or otherwise, that if discoveries of the na- ture of these announced were ever to be made, notwithstanding all that were contributed by others, it could only have been by means of individual ap- plication and industry : as none other could have embraced and combined in it to the same extent the necessary elements of collecting, combining, and digesting the various facts and circumstances con- nected with them as a whole, in order eventually to succeed. For, in a case such as this, where at the out- set, or when first taken up by the author, all was .obscurity; and where, consequently, commencing in darkness, and thence advancing gradually and by almost imperceptible degrees into light, the tran- sit could not by possibility have been sudden ; but, even under the most favourable circumstances, must have been the work of time; and one determined more by accident than by talent in the result. And thus it is that the works successively published by PREFACE. xi the author, on the subject, in 1830, 1834, and the present, will, on examination, be found to mark the different and succeeding stages of inquiry, which, as he trusts, has finally terminated in a manner so ad- vantageous to science. And as, where the interests of society are at stake, the object may be allowed to justify the having recourse to means in order to effect it, which under different circumstances however innocent- might appear rather humiliating and ludicrous : thus, after the manner of the celebrated Tull, the father of the drill or horse-hoeing system of hus- bandry, in inviting his readers to allow themselves to be prevailed on to give it a trial ; the author is disposed though not exactly in the attitude of the Spaniard, and with tears in his eyes! to beg of the reader to take the trouble calmly to examine the merits of the present theory of meteorology, in its connexion with astronomy, &c. before he makes up his mind on the subject. For, as observed by a German writer, " though it requires but little wit to be of an opinion now, which all the world were of twenty years ago ; the reverse of this is rather dif- PREFACE. ferent ; as it bespeaks no slight superiority to be of a sentiment now, which the rest of the world will not be of before twenty years to come. " And as it is while things appear to be yet doubtful, that supe- riority is sure to manifest itself; and that when all are disposed to concur, individual support loses much of its value. Thus perhaps, it is, at present, in regard to the theory here presented to the pub- lic : for if right, as it is sure finally to succeed, those who are the first to see and admit its correct- ness, are likely thereby to acquire to themselves an enviable celebrity ; and such as a similar contin- gency cannot occur a second time as wealth could not procure. Besides, when it is considered that nothing is permanent but TRUTH; as Time, all omni- potent in other respects, changes nothing in reference to the nature of things; and consequently, where er- ror exists, though of one thousand years standing, it is still what it was at first ; and must, as such, be li- mited in its duration. And moreover, that, with the generality of men, few things are more caprici- ous than taste however influential ; more com- mon than envy; or more confident than ignorance ; PREFACE. xi it will serve to show the little of importance which opinion in affairs of science however consecrated by long standing should be allowed to exercise ; when, divested of prejudice, it is dispassionately weighed and examined at the tribunal of right reason. 1 ir 1 Jnoaoiq $& t ai ji ^qjuhaq amlT .si/fey sii lo -duq oiii o) .bdlnaaoiq oiorf viot>rii aift ot 1)333008 Ol ^lififlCt OlJJa 81 ll,, 8B ^if-gh' li lol : oil -iodito-j sir ;iImJ>& En/i aoa o,t jg-irt sdt JJTB oriw saoili as e^Tbarnail* ol oiiopoa at ^dqiedJ ^biil oW t aao. -niiuoo Teirmfe e RB ibua baa j^indala)" ofdnwro if jfi33w as omn fcno'j&sj ^ IUDDO ionnuo LoisbiaiiOD ar ^1 iiodw t at)l>i8^ - .Qiuooiq UB t ofnJT an ;nxuaT iud toongnndq 21 jaoi iso 111 inaioq o ^i .^iiifHtnia ?Avm E&^^vo^ ^j*^ d^i/odt 5 8iaixo lot -ii ocf f /foiJ3 BIS Jaijorr hae ^isift -ia SBW Ij'tarfw IHle d iriA .noiifimb 8)1 IH 5 flfiil 8J/O 8 1>tt 17 f* CM) ,THA'I no sonsi/Fml orfoslsm .39?b*9X9- o*@M iil? JJ ji ni as^ffsKo rfoiifw n^HtfioW srft te s-iris-irog 10 jiiil 10 ^jiiilsVl io v/jjj. rf to alo/iv? 50ii QO3 ic iixsmovoM i^3mjai3 3,0! aotaw r CST DK2oA uA->ZJiiQsad a >t A ^311108 eJi"fid-! ; ; . .SMH70M HliHT ^C TAlil' ^9 TABLE OF CONTEKTS. INTRODUCTION ^^ : - f 1 : . '. :?> v* - I .? Page 1 CHAPTERS OF THE FIRST PART. I. PLANETARY COLD AN EFFECT OF MAGNETIC ACTION 27 II. The Moon exercises a meteoric Influence on the Tern- perature and the Weather; which changes in its nature with that of the moon's position, being electric at the syzygies, and magnetic at the quadratures . 32 III. THE UNION OF OPPOSITE PROGRESSIONS esteemed the fundamental Law of Nature; or that on which the whole of her dispositions are founded . .37 IV. Opinions entertained by some Writers in regard to the Newtonian Principle of UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION . 43 V. GRAVITY its esteemed Source and Nature " % . 51 * * * V:"- * ?^T< ^ VI. MAGNETIC ATTRACTION esteemed the Moteur or Princi- ple in which the elliptical Movement of the heavenly Bodies has its Source, AND ELECTRICAL AGENCY TO BE THAT OF THEIR MOVEMENT OP ROTATION , .61 VII. COMETS. SATELLITES 75 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAP. VIII. RAIN: its Diminutives Fog and Dew; and accessory Phenomena >i?& IB *A,c*d Jr# b ^r> . 78 L??.I IX. Application of Principles : CLIMATE, in reference to the geographical distribution of animals and plants 104 f*ffl lo nojJOB ofiooJoin c>Ht ni 9D/f(7 9,/ci ffw/fv X. CLIMATE, as., connected with the Mineral Kingdom 110 XI. CLIMATE, as connected with Earthquakes, and Vol- canic Action /vv'<^ . 5^j4s -A . 115 XII. CLIMATE, as connected with LOCALITY x$.fli . 139 Iq^JibifCHM ; io Jrf^op'/h _ ,013% XIII. Connexion of MAGNETIC ACTION with the Forma- tion of Rain in the Atmosphere . . .158 XIV. Further Circumstances connected with the opposite Species of Meteoric Action in the Atmosphere . 1 66 "iHtin azfo i. ' pi'n \i\ , ; XV. The WINDS, or Currents of the Atmosphere . 1 76 XVI. Connexion observable between certain Classes of Localities and of Meteors with each other, equally as with the Changes respectively in each of the Meteoric Circles Annual, Lunar, and Diurnal. AURORA BOREALIS. ^ . . . 183 XVII. Further Proof of Principles, in reference to the as- sumed influence of magnetic action, derived from the sudden and total change of the seasons at the periods of the equinoxes, on the opposite sides of the Peninsula of India 1 90 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAP. PAGE XVIII. TENDENCE of Meteoric Action in the Atmosphere, as connected with the Annual and Lunar Circle . 196 XIX. The Variation in the Seasons of different Years, esteemed to be effects produced by the changes which take place in the meteoric action of the external planets, as of comets, on our atmosphere 208 XX. LUNAR ACTION ON THE WEATAER. CONNEXION OP MAGNETIC ACTION WITH PLANETARY COLD, proved by the relation which subsists between the relative mildness or severity of the winter in either hemis- phere, with the relative drought or humidity of the summer in the opposite ,T/. 1< oixsnnoD * 212 8i)i ' ; ; V * ;' J jtt^pomJA 'atom tti&% k> coil XXI. Distinctness of Meteoric Effects in the Atmosphere, as connected with each of its Local Circles Di- urnal, Lunar, and Annual. PHENOMENA OF THE TIDES. Assumed relations, in regard to the influ- fluence on our seasons, exercised by the Superior Planets. Sun's Movement of Rotation. Solar LightConclusion. f o | r raa OB ttstwJ. ,lfitfflflA nit .,>((;bfu-i c l io loo TABLE OF CONTENTS. SECOND PART. PAGE Copy of a PAPER explanatory of the Lunar Action on the Weather, presented, on the Part of the Author, at the Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, held at Dublin, in 1835 j. ; , . ^ . 237 Concluding Observations of the Second Part : in which, by referring to the ravages on the coast of Scotland, caused by the storm of the 18th November, 1835, occasion is taken to show the annual destruction of life and pro- perty which results from the ignorance of Meteorology amongst seafaring men . . . . 253 THIRD PART. METEORIC PROGRESSION considered in its Connexion with the Changes of the Seasons and Weather . .257 INTRODUCTION AT a moment when, from the progress making in chemical and electrical discovery, the darkness which through a number of succeeding ages, had so long and obstinately held enveloped and concealed the first principles of things, is at length, though slowly, -giving way before the penetrating beams of science ; and that the species of optical deception connected with the solar action, as refers to what is called solar heat, similar to that by which it was so long preceded, in reference to the equally ap- parent movement of the sun, is about to undergo a similar fate; as few, at the present day, are so simple, or wedded to ancient prejudices as to sup- pose that the heat induced by the sun is projected from his body, or has its source in combustion ; but that it is, on the contrary, of home growth, as be- ing the result of a local action on the atmosphere, excited by the sun; at a moment ,such as this, I say, so interesting to every true friend of science, when, as if escaping from the last strong-holds of ignorance and barbarism, men's minds are occupied B 4 Introduction. theatre ; and, on the other, claiming kindred and connexion with the entire of that external nature, with all its skyey influences, composed by the sun and remainder of the planets. From all which, I say, it will readily be seen, that owing to its nature, very considerable advances in the most abstruse of the sciences, (chemistry and electricity,) became, in the first place, necessary, in order, with any prospect of success, to make even the slightest progress in meteorology; and that, even provided with such aids as these sciences could furnish, it was still but a matter of chance ', whether man should ever succeed in obtaining an adequate acquaintance with it. And thus that, as observed by Voltaire, if "1'estime des hommes se mesure par les difficultes surmontees," he who, by his industry, should succeed in exploring the sources, and in tracing the rudiments of this science, so as to esta- blish it on principles such and so immutable as that succeeding years would only serve the more fully to confirm and prove their correctness, would, at the least, have merited well of his contemporaries, and have established thereby a just claim to the respect and gratitude of posterity. But if to attempt this, when so many, and these not of the ordinary class of men, had proved unsuc- cessful, were little short of madness : to succeed in such an attempt were, on the other hand, little short of miraculous. And yet such, and so unequal was Introduction. 5 the task proposed to himself by the writer, when, many years ago, he first directed his attention to the subject of meteorology: by no means aware of the nearly insurmountable nature of the difficulties by which, at every step, all his attempts to advance were beset, and which only developed themselves in proportion to his application, and to the more inti- mate acquaintance which it gave him with the sub- ject. As, however, continually recurring to the same subjects, and viewing them on all their faces, and in their various bearings, gradually begets a species of acquaintance which nothing else can give. Thus, though repeatedly discouraged by the want of success, and more than once determined altoge- ther to abandon the pursuit as hopeless, (and which the losses induced by the two works he published on the subject were not much calculated to alter,) continuing to take lessons from failure, as consi- dering them the best account to which it could be turned, under the impression that success was still possible, and aware that the thread of connexion between phenomena apparently having no relations is frequently so fine, as that it is the privilege only of long and intimate acquaintance with them, to see and detect it, and which, if once broken, it might, however necessary, take ages to restore, induced him to persevere : till finally, aided by the acquisi- tion of some new facts elicited by recent experi- ments, which enabled him to trace certain pheno- 6 Introduction. mena to their principles, and thus to fill up some important blanks in the chart of natural causes, combined with some unlooked-for discoveries of another kind, he now feels enabled fearlessly to challenge inquiry, in reference to the correctness of the principles assumed by him in the present theory. The better, however, to show the nature of the difficulties which had to be surmounted, it may not be amiss, in this place, to enter a little into particu- lars. Thus, in reference to the principle of tempe- rature, assuming it to be local, and to result from the union of opposite actions in the atmosphere ; as the only forces besides that of gravity, (of which we shall have occasion to speak presently,) with which We are acquainted in the atmosphere, are those of magnetism and electricity, the task of con- necting heat with the latter was easy ; as in the va- rious experiments in electricity, the evolution of heat by electrical currents has always been found to be one of their characteristics, and consequently but little objection had to be apprehended from the as- sumption that planetary heat has its source in elec- tric action. In assuming, however, that planetary cold has its source in an active, and not, as had been supposed, in a passive principle, or the absence of heat; and to obtain the necessary proofs that this was the case however reasonable to suppose was an affair of quite another kind. For, as gravity could not be supposed to have any thing to do with Introduction. 7 the temperature, magnetism being then the only other force besides electricity, of whose existence in the atmosphere we are acquainted, and between which and cold there was no possibility, by direct experiment, to prove a connexion ; and that, unless this connexion could be satisfactorily established, a most important blank would always remain to be filled up, which would have the effect of leaving the science of planetary temperature in a most defective state. Thus, as nothing in the way of elucidation was to be expected from experiment, it became ne- cessary to obtain proofs of the assumed connexion, if such were to be had, from the phenomena of the atmosphere itself, as being, under the circumstances, the only alternative which remained. And the first of these which seemed to stamp the connexion sought for, was, that as the position of the magnetic pole, or rather poles, of our hemisphere, (as it is supposed there is one in Northern Asia,) are known ; and that, according to the observations of Sir Charles Giesecke and others, it is found that the isothermal lines of Europe and Asia, separate in the higher latitudes, and surround two poles of maximum cold, one in America and the other in Northern Asia, and which, to a certain extent, are found to correspond, in their positions, with those of the magnetic poles in those regions, that thence, if not altogether positive, there was strong presump- tive proof that cold was connected with, and an 8 Introduction. effect of magnetic action. As this, however, amounted to no more than presumptive proof, it re- quired something more positive, in order absolutely to establish the existence of the assumed connexion. And, accordingly, this desideratum has been at length obtained, and in a manner equally full and conclusive as if from actual experiment ; and with it the discovery of another fact in meteorology, of pro- bably equal importance, viz. the indispensable ne- cessity which exists for the presence of magnetic ac- tion, in order to the formation of rain in the atmos- phere ; and thus that, instead of being, as had been supposed, an effect of the chemical process of con- densation, the formation of rain is the effect of a particular species of meteoric action in the atmos- phere, the same as the phenomenon of cold, viz. that as the principle of its temperature is the effect of one species of meteoric action in the atmosphere, rain and its accessories are effects of an opposite species of this action in its body. Thus, in having my attention called to the peculiarity of the climate of Lima, where, as is known, though fog is common, it never rains, or if at all, not more than once, per- haps, in two or three years ; this circumstance ap- peared to me so singular, that, aware it must have its source in something local taking into account the extraordinary elevation of the Andes in its vici- nity, as of their position in reference to the site of the magnetic pole of the southern hemisphere; Introduction. 9 situated (as shown by the direction of the compass needle,) to the east of these mountains, and conse- quently on the opposite side to that of Lima and its territory which, taking into account the great ele- vation of these mountains, must have the effect of intercepting its action on the region of the atmos- phere in which rain-clouds form ; considering this circumstance, I say, it immediately occurred to me, that to this interruption of the magnetic action of the proximate pole on the atmosphere in this part of Peru, as to its true cause, was to be ascribed the phenomenon noticed in its climate. And in testing the principle with the countries of the northern he- misphere, by the difference of climate observable on the opposite sides of mountains whose course crosses the line traversed by the magnetic meridian, I found it in every instance, though not to the same extent as at Lima, (owing to the obstruction, with that of the elevation of the mountains not being so great,) fully borne out; the greatest humidity being, in all cases, on the side which fronts the magnetic pole ; and the greatest drought of climate being on the opposite side. And, as being a necessary conse- quence, that, in order to the progression of the meteor in the atmosphere in which rain has its source, magnetic action is so necessary, that where it is interrupted to a certain extent, as at Lima, it cannot take place. This discovery, however, though indispensable, was no more than a centre link in the 10 Introduction. chain of evidence which was necessary, in order to identify magnetic action with the phenomenon of planetary cold, but of which (in comparing the sea- sons since the severe winter of 1829,) the constant proportion which I find to exist between the relative cold or severity of the winter in the southern hemis- phere, and that of the relative humidity of our sum- mers, and vice versa, may be considered as conclu- sive ; insomuch, that no further doubt can exist, but that planetary cold is the effect of an active agency, and that that agency is magnetic action. Thus, much had been done towards throwing light on some of the most obscure recesses of meteo- rology; but still a most important question re- mained to be disposed of, viz. that of gravity. For if, as assumed, that magnetism and electricity are the only active forces in nature, according to this showing, gravitation, similar to the remainder of her phenomena, should be the effect of the action of these forces in the local atmospheres of the sun and planets : but how obtain the proof? The proof has, happily, been obtained by the experiment of the helix, as will be found more fully treated of in the following pages, and which thence goes to show, that as the force of gravity, whether in the sun or planets, results from the local action of the electric and magnetic forces in their atmospheres, that its range, as connected with these bodies, must neces- sarily be local, and consequently can have nothing Introduction. 1 1 whatever to do with their movements^ as in the ab- sence of more correct data was supposed to be the case. Again, experiment has instructed us of the law by which electrical and magnetic currents are governed, when, as in the atmosphere, they are brought to act together, viz. that they cross or traverse each other at right angles. A discovery so important, it may be observed, that had it not been made, it were vain to hope (as it could not be conjectured,) that we should, at any time, succeed in obtaining a know- ledge of the true system of the world, as on this dis- covery mainly depended that connected with the principles and laws which give movement to the sun and planets : for, assuming, as stated, that the only active forces in nature are those of magnetism and electricity, it is known that " if we communicate electricity to an insulated metallic sphere, we shall find the whole electrical power diffused over its surface" and consequently, that in making this ap- plication to the spheroid of the earth, sun, or other of the planets, the superficies of these bodies consti- tute the chief theatres of the action of the electrical, equally as of the magnetic forces connected with them ; and further, that by the union of these forces their respective powers are most materially increased, as proved by the experiments made on the magnet. By uniting these circumstances with the law of electrical and magnetic currents, of crossing each 12 Introduction. other at right angles, and in making their applica- tion to the principle of planetary movement, similar to that of metallic plates, which they are known to effect as the plain or axis of magnetic action in the earth, and by analogy in the sun and remainder of the planets, corresponds to the plain of the ecliptic, or the path traversed by the planets, in their ellipti- cal movement round the sun, as the axis of electric action locally in these bodies, with that described by their movement of rotation ; it will follow that, simply by the operation of these forces in the local atmospheres of the planets, acted on by the sun, the principle of movement, both elliptical and rotary must, as of necessity, be imparted to them thereby, in the manner we behold, as will be found more fully treated of in the following pages. But as it is by means of the union and dependence which subsists between the sun and planets, that the local energy in the action of the electrical and magnetic forces in the atmospheres of the latter exists, and is upheld ; and that such union must depend on a principle distinct from these forces, but on which their activity is based. Thence, as being that only, (considering the immense distances by which they are separated one from the other, as from the sun,) which could serve as a bond of union in common between the planets and sun, and at the same time serve as the base of the local energy of the magnetic and electrical forces in their atmospheres, the as* Introduction. 13 sumption of our theory, viz. that reflsctlve action is the principle on which the unity of the solar sys- tem, as the activity of the forces of nature therein is based, as being that only which corresponds to the conditions requisite in such an ultimate prin- ciple, or primary first cause. But if, as assumed, this were the grand moteur of Nature in the physical world, there should be something more than conjecture in the way of proof, in order to show that such was the case ; and, ac- cordingly, the requisite proofs are not only supplied by the changes observable in the phenomena of the tides, which always quadrate with the greater or less amount of reflective action subsisting between the the sun, earth, and moon, as depending on the greater approximation to, or elongation of, the latter bodies, whether individually or combined, in their respective circles, from a direct opposition to the solar action, but likewise by the diurnal variations of the compass-needle, and barometrical variations corresponding to the phases of the moon^ as con- nected with the lunar circle of meteoric action ; in such way, that it may be said there is no proposition in geometry more fully demonstrated than the prin- ciple of reflective action, considered as the primum mobile, or first cause in physics. Thus, it will be perceived, there exists neither blank or chasm in the evidence by which the princi- ples assumed by the present theory are, in all their 1 4 /// t redaction . parts, sustained and borne out ; insomuch that, without incurring the charge of vanity in allusion to the words applied by Augustus to Rome, that he found its buildings of mud, and left them of marble the author, with some pride, may say, that he found the edifices of meteorology and astronomy composed of defective, and consequently of perishable materials, but leaves them composed of such, that the corrosive action of time, instead of impairing, will only serve the more fully to increase their lustre, and eternize their stability. And as the various circumstances here alluded to will be found more amply treated of in the work itself, and thence that it may be asked, why introduce them in this place? his answer is, that by thus collecting in a view the chief heads embraced by the present theory, it enabled the author the better to show the extent to which the facts obtained from experiments enabled him to push his inquiries, as the large blank which had still to be filled up from other sources, where such facts could no longer assist ; that thus, in defining the limits of each, a more correct idea might be formed of the difficulties that had to be surmounted. He had, indeed, some hopes, from his respect for long- cherished opinions, however erroneous, that, as con- nected with the principle of planetary movement, and as belonging rather to the class of speculative truths, the principle of Newtonian gravitation might be allowed to retire with all the honours of Introduction. 15 war, till, similar to those by which it was preceded ; it would, of itself, with the increasing conviction of its futility, die a natural death ; but the " damning proofs' 3 supplied by the equinoctial phenomena in the annual, as of their counterparts, so frequently repeated in the lunar circle, at the periods of the syzigies, induced by the revulsion of magnetic action in the body of the atmosphere, incident to the changes which, at these periods, take place in the sites of the acting magnetic poles of the earth and moon, from one to the other, with the change of their positions in the ecliptic, alternately, connected as these phenomena (as we have so clearly shown) are with magnetic action are such and so incontesti- ble, that this, the elliptical movement of the earth, moon, and, by analogy, of the remainder of the planets, has it source in, and is an effect of, magnetic action, as assumed by our theory, (and the manner of which will be found more particularly described in the work,) that, except at the expense or abandon- ment of truth, there was no possibility of passing it over, or of allowing it to remain. In reference to the division and local distribu- tion of the electric and magnetic forces in the sun and remainder of the planets as in the earth, assumed by our theory as it were only by same- ness of disposition throughout these bodies, that it was possible for nature to act as she does, by general laws. Being aware that this is the disposition of these forces in the planet we in- 16 Introduction. habit, enables us to speak with the same certainty of the existence of this division and distribution of them in the sun, &c., as though we had been trans- ported to each of these bodies respectively to ascertain the fact. And, thus fortified, he has not hesitated to assume that such is the case, and to deduce his inferences accordingly, when necessary. " Les tra- vaux des hommes," observes Raynal, in treating of the monuments of ancient Mexico, " ont toujours ete proportionnes a leurs forces et aux instrumens dont ils se servoient. Sans la science de la mecha- nique et 1'invention de ses machines, point de grands monumens. Sans quarts de cercle et sans telescope, point de progres merveilleux en astronomie, nulle precision dans les observations. Sans fer, point de marteaux, point de tenailles, point d'enclumes, point de forges, point de scies, point de haches, point de coignees, aucun ouvrage en metaux qui merite d'etre regarde, nulle ma^onrierie, nulle charpente, nulle menuiserie, nulle architecture, nulle gravure, nulle sculpture." Histoire Pkilosophique, tome cinquieme, pag. 258. And, by parity of reasoning, before discovery had succeeded to ascertain the principles and laws of nature in the physical world, how were it possible that any of the sciences con- nected with the operations of nature, not alone in the atmosphere, but in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, could have ever attained to more than a relative degree of perfection ? and of which the de- Introduction. 17 partment of meteorology, more particularly con- nected with the seasons and changes of the weather, may be cited in the way of illustration ; for no one is ignorant of the efforts that have been successively made by some of the greatest men, both of the present and former times, to penetrate the veil which envelopes her operation in the atmosphere ; and as individual exertion was found unequal to the task, that as occurred in the Palatinate aware of its importance, associations were even instituted with the view the better to forward this object. And yet what has been the result, notwithstanding all the instruments that have been invented, and all the information collected from journals of the weather, continued for years in different countries, &c. &c. ? Why, that it has continued in the same state, or nearly so, in which it was at the time of Virgil, and all from the ignorance of principles ; as it still con- tinued to have no better ground than empiricism for its base. These facts, it is presumed, will serve to illustrate the nature and importance of the dis- coveries connected with the present theory, assum- ing them to be well founded, opening, as they are so well calculated to do, so many new sources of wealth and of security, and supplying by their aid much, if not all, that was wanting towards the perfecting of other departments of science. And if the observation, that " Dans le monde po- litique, comme dans le monde physique, un grand C 18 Introduction. evenement a des effets tres-etendus," be, with reason, much more applicable to the world of science. And, as observed by Rosseau, that, " La science est une monnoie qui n'ajoute au bien-etre qu'autant qu'on la communique, et n'est bonne que dans le com- merce." As the discoveries noticed, in their present state, may be likened to so many wild plants of the wilderness, which, when first found, require the hand of culture, in order to domesticate and extend the range of their usefulness ; and that as far as I know of, though we have societies for the promotion of sci- ence in almost all its other departments, we have none for the advancement of meteorology, the root, in common, of the entire of the natural sciences, inas- much as it may be said to embrace within its range the first principles of them all, and which thence claims precedence even of astronomy itself, hitherto considered the first in the list. To remove this anomaly, only to be accounted for from the cir- cumstance that, in the absence of principles, (now happily obtained,) persons desirous to promote it, being without any rule of guidance, and perceiving the futility of observations without such rule, not knowing exactly what to be at, had given up all at- tempts of the kind as hopeless ; as being, I say, at the same time, the only sure and effectual way to facilitate, with that of the knowledge of them, an extension of their usefulness commensurate to its amount ; it is evident the friends and patrons of Introduction. 19 science in England should lose no time, (as the country may claim the honour of these discoveries,) in setting the example of forming a Meteorological Society, the first of the kind, in order to promote the knowledge of this science, as of the various important objects to which it is applicable, and which, if thus set on foot in this country, could not fail of being quickly imitated by others ; which, by means of the enlarged correspondence thus organized, would soon, by the perfecting of such parts of the present theory as still stand in need of time and increased observation, in order thereto, be productive of the most extensive and important results. And it is easy to see that one of the first results that would attend the formation of this society would be that of the construction of weather almanacs, adapted to the different latitudes of both hemispheres, which, very different from those at present so called, would, after some time, point out the periods of the changes in the weather, as those throughout the year when danger from storm by sea had to be apprehended, with the same fidelity as the changes of the tides, and which, as the first in the list of maritime powers, England evidently has the deepest interest to promote ; for if, as assumed, that the principles in which these changes in the weather and violent class of atmospheric phenomena have their source, may henceforward be considered equally well-known and established as those of any proposition of Euclid; C2 20 Introduction. why should not the same precision as to results be expected to follow from calculations founded on them in the one case as in the other? And as the field embraced by meteorology is so vast that no more than an ebauche, or rough outline thereof, could be attempted in the present work ; and, consequently, that it will require both time and industry to fill up accurately, and perfect its details. And further, lest it should pass on record that discoveries such as these, which, as truth is immortal, are likely to at- tract so general and lengthened an attention to them, have not been met in the spirit, or responded to in the manner, which at a time like the present, when, from the increasing conviction of its import- ance, science is more assiduously cultivated in this great country than at any former period of its history might be expected. Let us hope, both for the honour of science, of humanity, and of the country to which it is addressed, that this appeal will not have been made in vain. Neither is it a reason why, because he who has been so fortunate to make these discoveries has not the honour to belong to this or that scientific body, that this his appeal to the friends and patrons of sci- ence in these countries, should not excite the same lively interest, and be equally responded to, as though it were in his power to produce certificates of connexion with them all. For, as it appears to be an established rule with scientific bodies, neither Introduction. 21 to countenance or assist with their name, or other- wise, the exploring of any speculative point, be- fore the certainty of its being succesful is no longer matter of doubt; and that, in addition, the habit of viewing subjects in a certain light, and of consi- dering certain phenomena as being the effects of certain defined causes, through a number of years, contracted in early life, as usually happens to the members of these associations ; by reason of the bias it imparts, though in most cases altogether unconsci- ously, disqualifies them, in great part, from originating any thing either new or extraordinary ; and which, with some reason, caused Voltaire to observe that " Les grands hommes se sont tons formes ou avant les Academies, ou independamment d'elles. Ho- mere et Phidias, Sophocles et Apelle, Virgile et Vi- truve, le Tasse et Michel-Ange, n'etaient d'aucunes Academies ; le Tasse n'eut que des critiques injustes de la Crusca, et Newton ne dut point a la societe Royale de Londres ses decouvertes sur 1'optique, sur la gravitation, sur le calcul integral, et sur la chro- nologic. A quoi peuvent done servir les academies? A entretenir le feu," he continues, " que les grands geniesont allume." Besides, it may be further observed, that, talents apart it requires both the enterprise and the per- severance of a Cortes, in order to effect anything great, whether in science, in war, or indeed, in any- thin o- pic- o~ri which none but members of what 22 Introduction. may be denominated Nature's Aristocracy are likely either to attempt, or to succeed in. And this it was, probably, which with his accustomed accu- racy and deep knowledge of the human character, caused the great Frederick, in his Memoirs of the House of Brandenburgh, speaking of the intimacy to which that singularly gifted princess Queen So- phia Charlotte of Prussia admitted the celebrated Leibnitz, to observe, that fyc. 77 was effected. And, as further illustrative of the as- sumed principles, repulsive and attractive, propor- tioned to their magnitudes, which exist between the heavenly bodies, in those of the superior planets, as Jupiter, Saturn^ and Uranus, which have the great- est number of satellites attached to them ; the same order in the scale of their distances from their prin- cipals, as between the primary planets and the sun, will, I apprehend, be found to exist equally in the former case as in the latter, viz. that the smallest approach nearest, and that the largest range at the greatest distances from these, the central orbs, round which they revolve. And thus, as has been already observed, both by me and others, that each of these bodies so attended by their satellites, is, to a certain extent, a miniature representation of the solar sys- tem : which, did the latter bodies, as suggested, par- take more of the solar principle than the primary planets themselves, would cause such resemblance to be still greater ; as the only difference would then consist in the circumstance, that these the opposite principles, solar and planetary, as connected with the solar system, and these minor representations of it were locally reversed. Be this, however, as it may, we risk nothing in assuming, that unless some essential object in the economy of nature had to be attained by, and was connected with the presence of satellites, equally as with the rings of Saturn, they 78 Meteorology considered would not have been added to the primary planets to which they belong. CHAP. VIII. Rain; its diminutives Fog and Dew, and ac- cessory Phenomena. THUS having, in this rapid sketch, as I trust, ex- hibited the sources of planetary movement, and shown the identity which, as assumed, subsists be- tween them and those from which the principle of temperature in these bodies is derived, and the inti- mate connexion of meteorology with astronomy; and, for the first time, by tracing its source to electric and magnetic action, shown the real place occupied by gravity, in the economy of nature, and fallacy of the doctrine of universal gravitation^ as applied to this the principle of planetary movement. We shall now resume the subject of inquiry from which we departed, viz. as to the principle in which the for- mation of rain in the atmosphere has its source. Previous to the experiments in electricity, made about the middle of the last century, by the cele- brated BufFon, by Dalibard, and De Romas in France, and by Franklin in America, the phenomena of the atmosphere were only considered and ex- As connected with Rain, fyc. 79 plained on chemical principles; but so numerous and unexpected were the lights thrown on this de- partment of science by these experiments, that for- mer opinions had to be abandoned, and, as marking the dawn of a new and more brilliant era in physics, an entire revolution therein was the result. " S'il est dans 1'histoire des empires," observes Bertholon, "des epoques brillantes, qui excitent 1'admiration et 1'etonnement, on en remarque quelquefois de sem- blables dans celles des sciences. Inexperience de Marly-la- Ville (par M. Dalibard,) sera a jamais celebre dans les fastes de la physique, et la m6teo- rologie depuis cette experience fameuse a pris une nouvelle face. Autrefois on expliquoit tous les phe- nomenes, qui appartiennent a cette branche de la physique, par le moyen des effervescences chy- miques;* aujourd'hui ces vieilles chimeras sont re- leguees avec toutes les absurdites de Vancienne ecole"^ But, however considerable and important the results which, in the course of a few years, fol- lowed in rapid succession the opening thus effected : it was not until very lately that they extended to more than tracing the connexion between electricity and the phenomena of rain, lightning, thunder, and * It is scarce necessary to observe, that the whole of the proofs proposed by Sir I. Newton, in reference to the theory of universal gravitation, were based on chemical principles. f Voyez De I' Electricite* des Meteores, par 1'Abbe Bertholon, tome Premier, p. 4. 80 Meteorology considered this class of meteors ; as it had never entered into the minds of the philosophers of those times, that at- mospheric temperature itself had its source in, or was connected with electric action. Even the cele- brated Abbe Nollet, himself, who, as appears, had the honour of being the first to suppose the con- nexion of electricity with meteors, did not extend his views beyond this point, as the following passage, extracted from a work of his, published in 174'8, entitled " Lemons de Physique Experimentale" and which has been cited by Bertholon, in proof of this his prior claim to the honour noticed, will sufficiently show : " Si quelqu'un, par exemple, entre-prenoit de prouver par une comparaison bien suivie des phe- nomenes, que le tonnerre est entre les mains de la nature, ce que 1'electricite est entre les notres, que ces merveilles dont nous disposons maintenant a notre gre, sont de petites imitations de ces grands effets qui nous effrayent, et que tout depend du meme mechanisme : si Ton faisoit voir qu'une nuee preparee par T action des vents, par la chaleur, par le melange des exhalaisons, &c. est vis-a-vis d'un objet terrestre, ce qu'est le corps electrise, en pre- sence et a une certaine proximite de celui qui ne Test pas ; j'avoue que cette idee, si elle etoit bien soutene, me plairoit beaucoup ; et pour la soutenir, combien de raisons specieuses ne se presentent pas a un homme qui est au fait de 1'electricite ? L'n i- versalite de la matiere electrique ; la promptitude As connected with Rain, fyc. 81 de son action, son inflammabilite e.t son activite a enflammer d'autres matieres ; la propriete qu'elle a de frapper les corps exterieurement et interieure- ment jusques dans leurs moindres parties ; 1'exemple singulier que nous avons de cet effet dans I'experi- ence de Leyde ; 1'idee qu'on peut legitimement s'en faire, en supposant un plus grand degre de vertu electrique, &c. Tous ces points d'analogie que je inedite depuis quelque terns commencent a me faire croire, qu'on pourroit, en prenant 1'electricite pour modele, se former, touchant le tonnerre et les eclairs, des idees plus saines et plus vraisemblables que tout ce qu'on a imagine jusqu' a present." Thus, how- ever easy the transition, and natural the inference, from their being members in common of the same family, it was not till the publication of the experi- ments of M. Donne with the zambonic, or piles seches, in 1827, and by which the connexion of elec- tricity with the changes of the temperature was fully shown, that the attention of philosophers was directed to the latter circumstance ; but without its being productive of any immediate result. The subsequent experiments of Messrs. Christie and Gumming, in England, in thermo-electricity, car- ried this proof a stage farther, by showing, from the diurnal variations of the compass-needle, that mag netic, equally as electric action, is connected with the solar action, and variations of the temperature ; till all further doubt as to the principle of atmos- G 82 Meteorology considered pheric temperature being the conjoint result of electric and magnetic action, excited by the sun, as assumed by our theory, appears to be finally re- moved. This backwardness in making the applica- tion of the discoveries in electricity available, to- wards explaining the source of planetary tempera- ture, will, however, the less surprise, when, in turn- ing our attention to the subject of the formation of rain in the atmosphere, the first circumstance that strikes us is, that the only explanation which even now is given of this operation of nature, is founded on precisely the same chemical principles of evapo- ration and condensation, as though the experiment at Marly-la- Ville, of Franklin, De Romas, &c. had never been made. This, it will be admitted, is the more remarkable, as of all meteors, the phenomenon of rain, from being that which, owing to the palpable nature of the connexion subsisting between it and electric action, first suggested the existence of this connexion, and which, from its being always asso- ciated with the phenomena of thunder, lightning, &c. is that in reference to which the least doubt can be entertained, as to its being, in its nature and source, electric. So far, however, is this from being the view of the subject taken by some of our leading physiciens, that in the following account of the for- mation of rain in the atmosphere, by the Rev- W. Whewell, extracted from his recent work on " Astronomy and General Physics, page 88, there As connected with Rain, fyc. 83 does not occur so much as an allusion jto any such connexion, viz. Laws of Heat Water. u Clouds are produced by aqueous vapour, when it returns to the state of water. This process is condensation, the reverse of evaporation. When vapour exists in the atmosphere, if in any manner the temperature becomes lower than the constituent temperature, re- quisite for the maintenance of the vapoury state, some of the steam will be condensed and will be- come water. It is in tfiis manner that the curl of steam from the spout of a boiling tea-kettle becomes visible, being cooled down as it rushes to the air. The steam condenses into a fine watery poivder, which is carried about by the little aeriel currents. Clouds are of the same nature with such curls, &c." If this rnode of accounting for the phenomena of clouds and rain does not savour more of " ces vieilles chimeres, et absurdites de Tancienne ecole," alluded to by Bertholon, than of the advances making in other departments of science, I must own, I neither know, nor can pretend to say what does ; for as, notwithstanding the numerous discoveries in electri- city bearing on the subject, no principle is intro- duced or alluded to other than chemical ; it is such an explanation of these phenomena as might natu- rally have been expected at the time of Aristotle. Thus demonstrating, as the fact does, that meteoro- logy, considered as a science, is not only not keep- ing pace with the advances making in other sciences, G2 84 Meteorology considered but is rather in what astronomers would call a state of retrogression : for, as far back as the year 1787, being the period of the publication of his work al- ready alluded to, Bertholon showed, by direct expe- riment, the connexion of rain with electric action. But, in order to prove the fallacy of the mode adopted by Mr. Whewell, of accounting for the for- mation of clouds and rain, it is only necessary to contrast the water obtained by distillation from sea water, with that which descends from the clouds : for whereas the latter, even at sea, is both limpid and sweet, all the art that has hitherto been ap- plied to substitute it by distillation, filtration, &c. has, as is known, ended in failure. The reason of this is simple, viz. that, in the former case, sea water, or other, after undergoing the process of decomposi- tion^ by means of the solar action on the element be- neath, and, consequently, of its being separated into its primitive elements, oxygen and hydrogen, and in this their separate and aeriform state, transferred into the atmosphere, where they enter into its com- position, are subsequently, by means of an opposite species of meteoric action, re-united anew in the middle region of the air, and in this state returned to the earth in water, which thus, in order to its re- novation, has to pass through a complete state of revolution ; whereas, in the process of distillation, from no such decomposition of water having, in the first place, been effected, the condensation of it As connected with Rain, tyc. 85 from steam in this process, does little more than re- turn it in its primitive state. It is necessary to add, that one of the chief causes of the error fallen into by Mr. Whewell, and others on this subject, appears to be, that, as in the differ- ent attempts hitherto made to analyze atmospheric air, dissimilar to oxygen, hydrogen has not been found to exist in it in a state of combination ; and thenee it has been inferred that the principle of rain, as to its source, is referable to the presence of what is denominated latent moisture, or aqueous vapour in the atmosphere. But do we not, in the different specific gravity of hydrogen, as compared with oxygen, find the cause of this, and why it were impossible that it could be otherwise ? viz. that in its pure or detached state, owing to its want of spe- cific gravity, and comparative lightness, it were impossible for hydrogen to remain suspended in the same volume of air with oxygen. This the absence of hydrogen in the inferior couches of the atmosphere, being no proof that it does not exist in equal quantity, and in an equally pure state in the superior region of the atmosphere, (though, unfortunately, lying beyond the range of experiment to ascertain,) as what oxygen does in that which lies next the earth's surface. And as, vertically, the region of the clouds in the atmosphere occupies the central space between its opposite extremes; does not this circumstance alone 86 Meteorology considered sufficiently prove the correctness of the assumption that hydrogen exists in the superior region of the atmosphere ? As in the formation of rain one half the gaseous matter (hydrogen) that enters into its composition is drawn from its superior, as the re- mainder (oxygen) from its opposite, or the region next the earth's surface. And as revolution is the conservative principle of Nature, or that on which the stability of her institutions in the physical world is founded ; and that the active agencies of nature, both in decomposition and composition, by which the principle of revolution is upheld, are electricity and magnetism : how much more conformable is it both to reason and experiment to suppose that in this the fundamental operation by which the reno- vation of the element of water is effected, no excep- tion to the general rule in other cases takes place. But, as action induces re-action, that as by means of the direct or reflected action of the sun, electric and magnetic, on the superficies of the earth beneath, the gradual decomposition of its waters into their con- stituent elements, oxygen and hydrogen, and their sublimation into the atmosphere is, on the one hand, effected ; that on the other, in ridding it of their re- dundance, it is, by means of an opposite action of the electric and magnetic forces in the atmosphere to the preceding, by which their decomposition was effected, that their opposite gaseous elements are collected from its opposite extremes into the central As connected with Rain, fyc. 87 region, and reunited in the formation of water, which, being thus renovated is returned anew to the earth in rain ? This being the assumption of our theory in reference to the formation of rain ; * and which by admitting, all the anomalies of the oppo- site theory disappear ; as the various electrical phe- nomena by which this operation of nature in the atmosphere is attended ; or its effect, whether on the barometer or magnetic needle, no longer excite our surprise, they being necessary results of the temporary derangement and partial suspension of the solar action in the region where it occurs ; and of * It has been observed that nothing is so prolific as error : and thus it is that, as the solar action has been hitherto supposed to have its source in chemical principles, or combustion; whereas, in reality, it is not the effect of a chemical action in the sun, but of an electrical action in the local atmosphere of the earth, induced by the sun. Thus it is that, among the number of false conclu- sions to which this erroneous view of the subject has led, is that in reference to the elements of water, when sublimated into the atmosphere by the solar action, viz. that they do not undergo a change of condition by decomposition ; but that, the same as if rarefied by the action of fire, they remain suspended in the state of vapour. But as electric action, as remarked, is one of the uni- versal agencies employed by Nature both in the decomposition and composition of bodies; thus it is, that the effect in this instance, is totally different from what had been the case if the solar action, which induces the evaporation of the waters of the earth, had its source in chemical and not electrical principles. And thence the origin of the error alluded to, which has so long interfered to retard the progress of correct ideas in this important department of science. 88 Meteorology considered the concentric action of the electric and magnetic forces on these the inflammable elements of water while in the act of undergoing the process of their amalgamation and change of properties. This ac- tion, as connected with the renovation of the ele- ment of water in the atmosphere, being esteemed decidedly analogous to that in the animal and vege- table kingdom by which the process of their reno- vation is effected. Nature, in reference to the latter, as assumed, never proceeding but by means of the same principles of action, and which, consequently, is to be considered as in the truest sense sexual. And as, in the opposite actions of the sun, electric and magnetic, as connected with the principle of temperature, we have an instance, as stated, of the primary law of the union of opposite progressions of the same kind. In these the opposite meteoric ac- tions in the atmosphere connected with its opposite states of drought and humidity, we are presented with another and a very marked illustration of the application of the same law. These opposite states of the atmosphere, or rather the actions which in- duce them, being the opposite extremes of the lever, by the alternate action of which on the earth and its atmosphere, the fundamental principle of revolution in both is upheld. Various facts and arguments might be added to the preceding to show the utter fallacy of the prin- ciple assumed by the Rev. W. Whewell in account- As connected with Rain, fyc. 89 ing for the phenomena of clouds and rain, were it not that I consider them superfluous ; which mode of accounting for these phenomena, it may be ob- served, were better suited to the nursery than the study, or existing march of intelligence on these subjects. Besides, how were it possible to couple this tea-kettle principle, with the share which the lunar action is assumed to have in originating rain, or with the influence exercised by the superior and inferior planets on the drought or humidity of the seasons, any more than with the principle of mete- oric progression, &c. ? But the thing speaks for itself, and shows how indispensable it is in treating of natural phenomena, to have, in the first place, obtained by the slow process of persevering applica- tion, an elevation such as embraces within the same perspective of contributing causes, the various points of the extensive horizon with which they are more or less intimately or remotely connected. The only thing, indeed, that can be said in justification of the mode adopted by Mr. Whewell and others, in ac- counting for the phenomena of rain, is that which has been observed in reference to accounting for the phenomena of thunder, &c., on the ancient idea of chemical effervescence, an^ to which may be added the accounting for planetary movement on the prin- ciple of universal gravitation, viz., " cet antique systeme previent en sa faveur par un air de verite, qui entraine presque tous les suffrages, et parcequ'il 90 Meteorology considered il est tres-facile de le coricevoir et de Pexposer." However, as observed by the same author, " ce qui est vraisemblable n'est pas toujours vrai; et une opinion quoique consacree par une longue suite de siecles, n'en est pas pour cela plus respectable, lorsque le flambeau de la verite vient de dissiper les nuages epais de 1'erreur." * But a common symptom, it may be added, and one which of itself may be con- sidered as conclusive of the imperfection of the sci- ences in which it occurs, is that of mistaking for primary, secondary causes; or that which is but the effect, for the principle of action itself which origi- nates it ; such, as assumed, being the case in the different instances noticed. Another circumstance, not slightly calculated to perpetuate erroneous impressions in this department of meteorology, is that of the relative difference in the more or less perfect decomposition of water in the atmosphere, which, as is known, is very consider- able : being generally most perfect in the lower lati- tudes during summer, and in the opposite or higher latitudes in winter. This necessarily arises from the more intense force of the electric action of the sun on the temperature in the former, as of its magnetic action on the temperature in the latter regions, than what, in either season occurs, in the intermediate or central latitudes of our hemisphere, where, during * Voyez Bertholon, " De I'Electricite des Meteores." T. 1. p. 90. As connected with Rain, fyc. 91 winter and summer, these the opposite actions of the sun are always less intense ; such decomposition being necessarily less perfect in the atmosphere of the latter, in summer and winter, than in the re- gions on either side; as throughout the hemisphere in spring and autumn. It may be further observed, that the different degrees of the more or less perfect decomposition of water in the volume of the air, is in general correctly expressed by the different de- grees of its transparency. But though the trans- parency of the atmosphere, as the various degrees of the more or less perfect decompositions of its air, differs so widely at different times ; this does not amount to a proof but that the gradual and pro- gressive decomposition of the element of water be- neath, and its sublimation into the atmosphere, in the manner assumed, does take place. As when- ever the action of the atmosphere on a piece of damp linen, or other substance exposed to it, is to dry, and not to continue or increase such damp- ness, humid vapour, in a palpable state, cannot be present in its volume : and consequently, the busi- ness of decomposition, however slowly, must neces- sarily be progressing in such a state of the air. I may add that the phenomena of dew and fog are the diminutives of the same species of meteoric action, in which the formation of rain has its source ; the principle, (viz. the blending of the opposite, or electric and magnetic actions of the sun in the same 92 Meteorology considered region or couch of the atmosphere,) being the same ; and the effects in these cases varying only from the difference which occurs in the amount of such blend- ing, and of the region of the atmosphere where it occurs. The proof of this being the true theory of dew, will be found in the circumstance that the periods of the blending of these the opposite actions of the sun in the inferior region of the atmosphere, in the diurnal circle, viz. immediately after sunset and sunrise, when they occur ; are those when the deposition of dew is the most considerable other circumstances being the same. The periods of these blendings in the lunar and annual circles, are, as refers to the former, the lunar octants ; and, in the latter, the transition seasons, which, from after the periods of the extreme degrees of heat and cold, in summer and winter, extend thence to the succeeding periods of the equinoxes. And which, other circumstances the same, are decidedly the wettest periods of these circles. But, owing to the peculiar influence exer- cised by magnetic action on the aqueous condensa- tion or formation of rain *, at the periods of the lu- nar syzyges, as connected with the lunar circle; and of the same action, but in a more powerful de- * The discovery as to the impossibility of the formation of rain in the atmosphere, without the direct co-operation of mag- netic action noticed in the introduction, and which will be found fully treated of in the subsequent pages, had not as yet been made when this article was written. As connected with Bain, fyc. 93 gree, at the periods of the equinoxes, as will be found more fully treated of in the subsequent pages ; combined with that of the increasing force of the magnetic action of the sun on the inferior region of the atmosphere, in the fall of the year, in ridding it of the redundance of its calorific base, oxygen, preceding the severe colds of winter ; and the in- fluence so frequently exercised on the occurrence of rain by local causes; this the effect of the blend- ing of the opposite actions of the sun in the atmos- phere at the periods of the lunar octants is occasi- onally so merged or deranged, that it were impos- sible it should, while causes so much more powerful and influential are in operation, be attended by any very distinct or marked effects. But, however correct the preceding view may be, in reference to the principle in which the formation of rain has its source, and of the place occupied by this phenomenon in the economy of nature, as being the pivot on which the revolution established be- tween the gaseous constituents of water, dispersed throughout the atmosphere, and the parent element beneath turns: considering the importance of the subject as connected with meteorology; as allusion has been made to the experiments reported by Ber- tholon, in showing its connexion with electricity, various reasons induce me to insert the following extracts from them; and from the views taken by the the writer in reference to the phenomenon itself, viz. 94 Meteorology considered " Lorsquc les nuages sont electrise negativement, et la terre dans un etat d'electricite positive, les phenomenes doivent etre semblable a ceux qui ar- rivent dans le cas ou ils sont doues d'une electricite positive, le globe de la terre etant alors electrise negativement; puisque 1'experience prouve que les corps electrises par defaut se repoussent mutuelle- ment, et qu' ils sont attires par ceux en qui regne I'electricite par exces : ainsi la pluie tombera egale- ment du nuage. Cette pluie qui tombe sur la super- ficie de la terre, peut etre appelle avec juste raison descendante. Mais, des que la masse de 1'atmos- phere est electrisee negativement, la terre etant electrique par condensation ou positivement, les particules aqueuse renfermees dans la terre pres de sa surface seront soumises a la vertu electrico-repul- sive de la terre et a la force attractive de la masse de 1'air atmospherique, et consequement s'eleveront dans 1'air. Cette pluie tres fine, et souvent imper- ceptible, merite d'etre nomme pluie ascendante 9 comme 1'ectricite qui s'echappe de la terre." * * u Get efFet sera encore le meme dans le cas ou la terre chargee de particules aqueuses a sa superficie, seroit electrisee par rarefaction ou par defaut, Tat- mosphere ^tant dans le meme circonstance electri- see positivement. Les loix de I'eqnilibre propre a tous les fluides et particulierement a celui de I'elec- tricite, exigent cette communication reciproque et alternative entre notre globe et 1'atmosphere ; des As connected with Rain, fyc. 95 observations aussi multiplies que constantes, nous ont force a ne pas mconnoitre ce commerce reci- proque qui existe entre la terre et les cieux. " En bonne physique comme en chemie, il faut produire les phenomenes qu'on veut expliquer, en employant seulement les causes assignees ; aussi ai- je cherche a m'assurer par 1'experience de la justesse de 1'application des principes exposes precedem- ment, au sujet dont il est ici question. Au des- sous du conducteur de la machine electrique, j'ai suspendu une platine de fer dont tous les bords, et les angles avoient &te arrondis; j'avois eu soin au- paravant de parsemer la surface inferieure de cette platine de tres-petites gouttelettes d'eau. Lorsque la machine electrique fut mise en jeu, on vit ces gouttellettes s'elancer vers la table qui representoit la terre, et donner le jolie spectacle d'une pluie electrique dont la cause etoit la repulsion produite par I'electricite. La force de cette pluie ou la rapi- dite de la chute de ces gouttes, etoit d'autant plus grande que la vertu electrique etoit plus forte; et la distance de la plaque de fer a la table etoit aussi relative a 1'energie de Telectricite. Pour representer la pluie ascendante, ou la rosee, je mets sur le con- ducteur une plaque metallique semblable a la pre- cedente, mais dont la surface superieure est arrosee d'un grand nombre de tres-petites gouttelettes d'eau. A une distance convenable de cette platine, je place un corps quelconque pardessus, pourvu qu'il soit 96 Meteorology considered conducteur ; et lorsqu'on electrise la premiere plaque on voit sensiblement la pluie s'elever en 1'air et donner une image de la pluie ascendante, de la rosee, des brouillards et de I'evaporation de 1'eau repandue sur le globe de la terre." * * " Dans les divers phenomenes de la nature qui de- pend de 1'electricite, ^attraction electrique existe en meme terns que la repulsion electrique t et ces deux causes concourent a la production des memes cffets. On peut done dire en general que la pluie d'orage sur-tout depend de Tattraction et de la repulsion electrique, combinees ensemble, ou conspirant au meme but. En effet, il n'est personne qui ne voie que, les nuages etant electrises par exces, et les particules aqueuse de leurs surfaces differentes etant repoussees du nuage, elles sont en meme terns at- tirees par la terre; et que Tattraction et la repul- sion electrique conspirent a produire le meme effet. Je suppose id que ^attraction et la repulsion elec- triques sont deux proprietes, car il n'est pas im- probable que dans la realite elles ri*en constituent qu'une seule: cette idee est bien dans la nature, qui est aussi simple dans ses moyens que dans sa fin/'* Here we are presented with a series of observa- tions and experiments on, or connected with the * Voyez Bertholon, " De I' Electricite des Mete'ores" Tome 2, p. 154, et suiv. As connected with Rain, fyc. 97 phenomenon of rain and its accessories, not on che- mical, but on electrical principles, in which les traits de famille reciproque, observable between them, are so striking, that they are not to be mistaken; and which of itself is demonstrative of the justness of their relations and mutual connexion. By them, on the principle of electrical attraction and repul- sion, we are shown, by reason of the opposite states of electricity subsisting between the earth and its atmosphere, shortly before and after thunder-storms, and of the changes in the relations which take place at these periods between them, why the meteoric effects are so opposite, viz. in the first instance, or when, by reason of the formation of the thunder cloud, the atmosphere is positively electric, while the earth beneath is in an opposite state, or nega- tively electric, - the principle of electric attraction exercised by the earth on such cloud, induces the rapid and heavy descent of its contents, whether it be hail or rain, thence denominated by Bertholon pluie descendante, or descending rain; while, immediately after the fall of such rain, owing to its having car- ried with it, from its parent cloud, the redundance of its electricity, and, together with itself impreg- nated with it the surface strata of the earth, and thence reversed the scale of electric action between the earth and atmosphere ; thus, from the principle of electric attraction being transferred to the atmos- phere, causing that such rains are succeeded by co- H 98 Meteorology considered pious exhalations from the earth, thence denominated by him pluie ascendante. The principle in each case being proved by the opposite effects produced by the discharges of an electrical battery, reciprocally on the opposite sides of a metallic plate, charged on the reverse with a slight sprinkling of minute drops of water, which thence are made to descend as rain, or ascend as evaporation, according to the side of the plate on which the electrical current is brought to act. Thus far, it may be observed, experiment and fact go hand in hand; and, together with the principle of the heavy discharge of rain from a thun- der-cloud, we have likewise that perhaps the only true one, variously modified of the hurricanes and storms by which such rains are occasionally attended, viz. in great part by these the opposite electrical states of the earth and atmosphere, vertically, at such periods, as between proximate regions of the atmosphere, horizontally, that of the true theory of the winds. But of this, more in a subsequent ar- ticle. This material difference, however, occurs between these and such like experiments, and the meteors they are intended to represent, viz. that in the ex- periment, the water intended to represent rain is al- ready formed; and the apparatus employed presents no more than an electrical agency; whereas, in the meteor, the rain is called into being, or generated from its gaseous or aeriform elements; and electric action, instead of being, as in the experiment, in its As connected with Rain, $c. 99 simple or detached state, is always in combination with magnetism; considering the earth and its at- mosphere as a thermo-electrical comMnation^-and which, consequently, to judge by such experiments, or deduce conclusions from them, were about the same as to judge of a countenance by its profile. As these experiments, however imperfectly, not- withstanding, sufficiently prove the connexion of electricity with these meteors, and that the law is known by which electrical and magnetic currents are governed, when, as in the atmosphere, combined, viz. that they traverse or cross each other at right angles : the application of this law may probably be used with effect, in explaining some of the most im- portant phenomena of the atmosphere ; for, assum- ing magnetic action, to be, in all cases, combined with electric, in the formation of rain, and its acces- sory phenomena ; if the axis of the meteor in the middle region in which the latter, or formation of rain, had its source, were vertical, the currents it induced, according to this law, should be rotary. And as, particularly at the equinoxes, and during winter, the most violent tempests usually commence in a particular region of the atmosphere, and thence gradually advance to an opposite, if this the axes of horizontal progression of such meteors were, sup- pose, from south to north, the currents they created, as being at right angles with such axes, should be east or west, and vice versa. But, as the region H 2 100 Meteorology considered * in which storm and rain originate is more or less ele- vated, according to the latitude and season, and thence, on the principle of re-action, that when a current is induced in the inferior region by the me- teor in which these phenomena have their source, an opposite current will, of necessity, be originated immediately above it, or in the superior region of the atmosphere. On these principles, we are ena- bled, in the first place, to account for the opposition of the currents in the superior and inferior regions of the atmosphere, so frequently noticed; their source, as that of the opposition noticed in their direction, being in the meteoric action progressing at the time in the central region by which they are sepa- rated; and, in the second place, why it is that storms take a direction at right angles with the axes of their progression. An instance of the latter will be found noticed in the " Weather-Guide Book" pub- lished by me in 1834, page 256, in the gale which commenced on the Irish coast on the llth of June, 1833, and which thence passed over Black Pool, on the coast of Lancashire, on the following day, where it caused the wreck of ten ships, and finally reached London and its vicinity on the 14th, where, the mischief it occasioned, as stated in the papers, was incalculable. The axis of progression of this me- teor being from north west to south east, while the direction of the hurricane it induced was from the south west to north east; being, as there noticed, As connected with Rain, fyc. 101 (though, from its not being apprehended at the time, no allusion is made to the principle,) nearly at right angles with its axis of progression. And, as the facts in these cases are in accordance, at once, with theory and experiment, they seem to place, heyond doubt, the correctness of the principles as- sumed. It is hardly necessary to add, that, in reference to the first case assumed, or when the axes of these meteors are vertical, we are presented with the principle or cause (the only true one, as far as I am aware of, hitherto proposed,) in which the trornbe, or water-spout, the whirlwind, and this class of phe- nomena, has its source. For, as the movement of ro- tation round their axes, in the middle or superior region of the atmosphere at their commencement, in- creases in its dimensions with their increase, and extends progressively in the direction of the earth, in the form of an inverted cone as soon as it has reached the latter, simply by the force of the suction it induces, both water and other substances that come within its vortex, are, proportioned to its force, ele- vated into the air in the direction of its focus; from which they are subsequently projected in an opposite direction to that of its progression. And, as in the latter case, and thunder-cloud, equally as in the ex- periment of the helix, we have an instance of the effects induced by the electric and magnetic forces, when collected on, and revolving round a local 102 Meteorology considered centre or axis; I may add, that in this the concen- tric action of these forces in the atmosphere, equally as in the case of the larger class of globular meteors, or those from whose bosoms meteoric stones are oc- casionally projected we have so many instances of their action, as in the earth and remainder of the planets, giving birth to and producing, in these res- pective meteors, a force of gravitation : for, it is owing to this circumstance, and to the direction of this new force of gravitation being, on one side, di- rectly opposed to this action in the earth immediately beneath, as being a homogeneous action, and only in consequence thereof, that the measure of terres- trial gravity, on the volume of the atmosphere, could be affected ; so that, in this circumstance, we have explained to us not only the principle of the vortex, or attractive action exercised by such me- teors on the proximate regions of the atmosphere, but the true cause of the fall of the mercury in the tube of the barometer, which they occasion ; the latter keeping exact pace in its amount with that of the force of concentration or gravity, at the time, acting on their axes. For, to suppose that the spe- cific gravity of the atmosphere could be affected by any other than by the intervention of a similar prin- ciple to that in which it has its source, were the same as to suppose that the weight of a body sus- pended on one side of a steel-yard could be affected, except by means of the action, more or less consi- As connected with Rain, fyc. 103 derable, of a similar or other body suspended on the opposite: as in each case the intrinsic specific gravity of the body itself is still the same, and is only altered by reason of a similar action being opposed to, at the time, and coming into collision with it. And (as is the case of the summits or higher regions of mountains,) any circumstance which varies or dis- turbs the equilibrium of the action of gravitation on the atmosphere, has the effect of disposing it, more or less, to the species of meteoric action in which rain has its source, and vice versa. Thus if, for in- stance, a comet happened to approach so near to the earth, as that, similar to the larger class of me- teors, the local concentric action of the electric and magnetic forces on it, had the effect of disturbing the equilibrium of its gravitation in the atmosphere. It is easy to see that, on the principle noticed, the seasons of the approach of such bodies would be more or less remarkable for rain ; and, on the con- trary, that when comets ranged at such a distance as that, without affecting the local action of gravity on the atmosphere, by increasing the sum of reflec- tive action, they rather added thereto ; the contrary, or increased drought in the seasons would be the result. *** 104 Geogaphical Distribution CHAP. IX. Application of Principles : Climate, in Reference to the Geographical Distribution of Animals and Plants. BE this however, as it may, as in treating of the assumed connexion of planetary influence with the changes of the seasons, we shall have to resume, on different grounds, the subject of comets: having thus touched in detail on the leading phenomena connected with the earth and its atmosphere; and guided at once by observation and experiment, traced them, as assumed, to their respective causes, or first principles : we shall now proceed with the no less important task of showing the application which may be made of these principles to some of the various objects of utility with which they are connected. These objects may be classed under the following general heads, viz. as connected with climate, in re- ference to the geographical distribution of animals and plants; with minearology; with earthquakes, and volcanic action ; with localities , in reference to their assumed influence on the temperature and weather ; with planetary and cometary influence on the seasons ; and finally, as connected with the equi- Of Animals and Plants. 105 noctial phenomena, and the lunar action on the weather. And first as regards climate : were the principle of temperature in the atmosphere, derived from the opposite actions, electrical and magnetic, of the sun; the whole of the dispositions and mechanism of na- ture in the earth and remainder of the planets, whether local or external, as connected with the temperature, the variations in the animal and vege- table kingdoms connected with those of climate, or the phenomena of the seasons and weather, would be found in accordance therewith ; so that, deprived of all other, the facts connected with the latter would, of themselves, serve as the most certain and conclusive proofs, in reference to the correctness of the principles assumed. In proof of this, as connected with that most im- portant subject, the geographical distribution of animals and plants: owing to the circumstance that the magnetic, equally as the electric action of the sun, is one of the principles which enters into and determines the peculiar nature of climate as connected with the constitution of animals and plants ; and that the positions of the opposite main foci of the magnetic action of the sun in either he- misphere, or magnetic poles, are equally fixed and invariable, as the position occupied by that of its electric action at the Line. This causes that as great a difference in reference to the meteoric 106 Geographical Distribution conditions which determine the nature of climate, exists along the varying scale of longitude in either hemisphere, however imperceptible in the temperature, as on that of latitude. And hence, as assumed, the source of the mystery which has so long involved the subject of climate, and which has baffled all the attempts hitherto made to ascertain its cause ; as shown by the failure which, as in the case of the tea-plant, and others, has so frequently attended the attempts that have been made to introduce some of the products of certain countries, where, from the climate being considered the same, or better, it was supposed they would suc- ceed equally well as in those of their nativity: this being a necessary consequence of the ignorance of principles. But as with the exception of the difference that occurs in the nature of the magnetic action of the sun on the opposite hemispheres of the earth, the same conditions of climate exist equally in both; but that from the difference in the sites of their magnetic poles, these conditions are, in regard to their positions, necessarily reversed to each other. Thus it is that, however diversified, and different in their positions, a common identity or sameness of climates exist in the opposite hemis- pheres ; in this, that there is no climate in either, as regards the circumstance of meteoric conditions . but that a similar climate may be found in the op- posite. Of Animals and Plants. 107 And consequently there is no product of the ani- mal or vegetable kingdom, however delicate, in either hemisphere, for which a suitable climate is not to be found in the opposite, equally adapted to its introduction as that where it was originally found and of which it is a native. Thus as, according to the principle assumed, the chief source of error hitherto, in reference to cli- mate, consisted in not having taken into account the cirumstance of longitude, (or difference of magnetic action,) equally as of latitude, (or the dif- ference of electric action,) though a glance at the difference which exists between the products of the animal and vegetable kingdoms of the opposite ex- tremes of the scale of longitude, within the same parallels of either hemisphere, as between those of latitude ; will immediately show, assuming it to be the cause, the extent of the influence on both, ex- ercised by the former, equally as by the latter ac- tion of the sun. As connected with this subject, the following observation from the preface of an agricultural work, published in Dublin, 1764, by Mr. H. Rowlands, may be considered, from its no- velty, as not a little curious; being, indeed, the only one bearing on the assumed connexion of magnetism with the constitution of plants, that I have met with, viz. " And probably it may also be a means to discover the proper subject of that noted magnetism, which is observed to lie in the substance of the mold, attracting into it in great 10$ Geographical Distribution proportions the analogous salts and sulphurs of the air, of which the Italian virtuosos in their country have discovered very notable instances." Assuming then, that magnetic action is equally operaticve and influential as electric, on the constitu- tion of animals and plants; and that as great a variety occurs in the nature of magnetic action on the varying scale of longitude in either hemisphere, as on that of latitude ; and at the same time that an equalisation of climates, as stated, exists be- tween the opposite hemispheres. Without entering further into the subject in this place, I shall con- fine myself to pointing out a rule by which the same meteoric equivalents in either hemisphere, as refers to climate, may be found in the opposite, other circumstances being the same, viz. Having ascrtained the latitude and longitude of the place in either hemisphere, where, in the opposite, a simi- lar climate is sought to be found : by referring to the same degree of latitude, and adding to the de- gree of longitude if suppose west from Greenwich the number which, combined with it, makes the sum of 180; such additional number, east longi- tude, in the opposite hemisphere, will be the site of the climate required: and vice versa, as refers to east and west, on the contrasted scales of their lon- gitude. By the application of this simple rule, as as- sumed an obstacle hitherto insurmountable may at Of Animals and Plants. 109 once be got rid of; and thereby an interchange of some of the most valuable products of either hemis- phere be made with the opposite ; and by means of such reciprocal exchanges of the local advantages possessed by either with the other, thus, at once, increasing their amount, and the range of their usefulness. And notwithstanding that, in the ab- sence of trial, in a matter such as this, it cannot be expected that much in the way of proof can be re- fered to, in illustration of the principle assumed. By contrasting the site of what is called the tea- country of China and Japan in the northern, with that of Paraguay in the southern hemisphere, where, only, in that part of the world a species of the tea-plant is found indigenous, viz. the celebra- ted Matte, or as the Spaniards denominate it Yer- la de Camim; it will at once be seen what a close approach to an identity of climate, on the princi- ples assumed, exists between these countries. And that this influence of climate is not confined to the vegetable kingdom, the success which has attended the introduction of the merinos into New South Wales may be considered as affording a proof no less in point, or striking, than the instance cited. For, in examining the conditions of climate sub- sisting between the southern provinces of Spain, in the one, and the vicinity of Sidney in the other he- misphere, they will be found equally proximate as in the case of their tea-countries. Thus shewing what 110 Climate, as connected an extensive field of tempting speculation is opened to the inhabitants of that rising colony, to introduce and domesticate the Spanish vine and olive in their fields, equally as the merinos. For if, as there is some reason to suppose, a similar improvement of quality in the produce of these plants attended their introduction into Australia, as occurred in the case of the Merino wool: instead of having any thing to apprehend on the score of failure, an improvement in each case might be anticipated; as though it were a bounty held out by nature to such as, in this way, extend the empire of her most useful gifts.* CHAP. X. Climate as connected with the Mineral Kingdom. IN reference to the connexion of climate with the mineral kingdom, though it is necessarily much more questionable than in the case of animals and plants; yet, as it has been touched on by others, I * I may notice, en passant, that a paper on this interesting sub- ject was forwarded by me in the summer of 1834 to the then colo- nial secretary, which contained much that, I considered, might prove of importance to the interests of our colonies : but I have not learned whether or not any particular attention has been paid to it. With the Mineral Kingdom. Ill should consider it remiss not to notice the subject in this place. For, it may be recollected,, that St. Pierre, in the affluence of his imaginings, considered that a very marked connexion is apparent between the sites of gold mines and the summits of the higher ranges of mountains, but more particularly those which are permanently covered with snow. And be it remembered that, though, as relates to princi- ples, this supposition may be worth nothing ; it is that of a man who, notwithstanding the errors (and they are not few,) which he has fallen into, has pro- duced a work on Nature, which promises to be no less durable than its subject, " Je remarquerai ici, au sujet des mines d'or," he observes, fc qu'elles sont placees, ainsi que celles de tous les metaux, non- seulement dans les parties les plus elevees des con- tinens, mais dans des montagnes a glace. Les fa- meuses mines d'or du Perou et du Chily sont, comme on sait, dans les Cordelieres; les mines d'or du Mexique sont situees aux environs de la mon- tagne de Sainte-Marthe, qui est couverte de neige toute 1'annee. Les fleuves de PEurope qui roulent de Tor sur leur rivages, sortent des montagnes a glace." " Cette observation peut s'etendre, comme je le crois, a toutes les mines d'or dumonde, meme a celles de 1'Afrique dont les rivieres qui cha- rient le plus de poudre d'or, comme le Senegal, de- scendent des montagnes de la lune." * " Quoi- qu' il en soit, on peut presumer de ce que les mines 112 Climate, as connected d'or sont placees dans les lieux les plus eleves tin continent, que leurs matrices, recueillent dans Fat- mosphere les parties volatilisees de For, qui s'y elevent avec les emanations fossiles et aquatiques que les vents y apportent de toutes parts." Etudes de la Nature, Tom. 2, p. 292, et suiv. Such are the ideas of St. Pierre alluded to. And even ad- mitting the insufficiency of the attractive principle to account for the circumstance noticed; this coin- cidence between the sites of the generality of gold mines and the summits of mountains, or the most elevated points of the earth's superficies, is, to say the least of it, not a little curious and remarkable. And as the brilliant discoveries of Sir H. Davy show that through the medium of electric action, the earths are resolvable to metallic bases \ and fur- ther, that, as refers ti this general law, even the air we breathe, proves no exception, as shown by the aerolite ; but that when acted on by the electric spark in the larger class of meteors, its impalpable volume resolves into an earthy and metallic base. If in addition we assume, as I hold to be the case, that the whole of the active forces of nature in the physical world, whether as connected with the op- posite processes of composition, or decomposition, are either immediately referable to, or derived from electric and magnetic action; and that, from the substances which compose the solid crust of the earth, equally as its waters, belonging to the class With the Mineral Kingdom. 113 of what are called conductors, they are alike per- meable to the action of the electric and magnetic forces, though differently, as the superincumbent at- mosphere itself. And thus, assuming that these the universal agents of Nature admit neither of suspension in their action, or of restraint, but that the march of their activity is equally interminable on the one hand, as boundless in its range on the other; that they always act in conjunction, notwithstanding that in the relative degrees of their united agency, as connected with the various regions of the earth and its atmosphere, they are modified ad infinitum. If, considered under this point of view, that a con- nexion were found generally to subsist between cli- mate and the sites of the chief mineral districts of the opposite hemispheres, according to the princi- ples assumed; instead of detracting from the value of the assumption of St. Pierre, as to the supposed influence of climate on the formation of metals, &c. it would, on the contrary, rather add weight thereto. And by contrasting, as in the instance of the tea- plant, the mines of Hindostan, China, and Japan, with those of Mexico, Peru, and the Brazils, as connected with the opposite hemispheres, whether in reference to the precious metals, gems, &c., the same striking coincidence in this respect will be found to subsist between them, as in the former^ case. Borax may likewise be noticed in the way of I 114 Meteorology considered illustration, as perhaps of all fossil substances, if we except the diamond',* it is that which shows the most marked connexion, in this respect, with cli- mate. This substance, as is known, being almost exclusively confined to Tibet in the northern, and to the neighbourhood of Potosi in the southern he- misphere; and consequently, the coincidence it pre- sents, is still more marked than in the preceding in- stances. But even though the assumed connexion between the mineral kingdom and climate really ex- isted, it could only be considered as curious in a scientific point of view; as the deductions to be drawn from it are so general and vague, that it is not likely they can ever lead to any thing really practical or useful. " L'origine des meteaux," observes Raynal, " n'a pas ete totijours bien connue. On a cru long-terns qu'ils etoient aussi anciens que le monde. On pense aujourd'hui, avec plus de raison, qu'ils se forwent successivement. II n'est pas possible en effect de douter que la nature ne soit dans une action conti- nuelle, et que ses reports ne soient aussi agissans sous nos pieds que sur notre tete." Histoire Phi- losophique. Tome sixieme, page 51. * By contrasting the geographical position of Solempour, the chief diamond mine of Hindostan, with that of Caravelas, and Terro de Frio, in Brazil, under this point of view, the coincidence will appear not a little remarkable. With Earthquakes^ fyc. 115 CHAP. XI. Climate, as connected with Earthquakes, and Vdlcanic Action. IN reference to the destructive phenomena of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, were it not that I consider them, however remotely, as being con- nected with meteoric action, I should not notice them in this place ; and as, in our inquiry, it will be necessary to recur a little to first principles, from the circumstance that opinions are divided in regard to their source, I shall commence with the following, as it appears to be the most generally accredited account of them, taken from Dr. Ure's Dictionary of Chemistry, article volcanoes: " The combustion of those enormous masses of bitumen, which are de- posited in the bowels of the earth, produces volca- noes. They owe their origin more especially to the strata of pyritous coal. The decomposition or ac- tion of water upon the pyrites, determines the heat, and the production of a great quantity of hydrogen, which exerts itself against the surrounding obstacles and at length breaks them. This effect appears to be the chief cause of earthquakes ; but when the concourse of air facilitates the combustion of the bi- tumen and the hydrogen, the flame is seen to issue 12 116 Climate, as connected out of the chimneys or vents which are made ; and this occasions the fire of volcanoes/' Again, *' When the decomposition of the pyrites is advanced, and the vapours and elastic fluids can no longer be contained in the bowels of the earth, the ground is shaken, and exhibits the phenomenon of earth- quakes. Mephitic vapours are multiplied on the sur- face of the ground, and dreadful hollow noises are heard, &c." Thus, it will be seen, the doctor very naturally accounts for these phenomena on chemical principles ; and it must be allowed, if we were to judge from appearances, that such were really those in which they have their source. But, as has been ingeniously observed by Fontanelle, " En physique, des-qu'une chose peut-etre de deuxfagons, elle est ordinairement de celle qui est la plus contraire aux apparences. II est possible que la terre tourne autour du soleil, ou le soleil autour de la terre, et c j est ce dernier, que paroit aux yeux de tout le monde, ce sera done le premier qui sera le vrai, &c." And thus, notwithstanding appearances, probably it is, in reference to the source of earthquakes and vol- canoes; for, similar to the commonly accredited theory of solar light and heat being derived from the principle of combustion in the sun one of the most conclusive arguments that can be opposed to it, ap- pears to be derived from the circumstance that, without the operation of a different cause in the phenomena of volcanoes and earthquakes, than the With Earthquakes, fyc. chemical one of fermentation , it were impossible that the bowels of the earth could have supplied* through such a countless succession of ages as the past, fresh pabulum or combustible matter to be acted on ; and still, notwithstanding, as in the case of the solar light and heat alluded to, without any sensible diminution or falling off having taken place in the mean amount of these phenomena. Besides, as is known, it is of the nature of combustion, when it sets in, that if it be not arrested in its course and extinguished, it continues to consume all the com- bustible matter that comes within its reach, and that it only ceases when it has no longer such matter to act on ; and, consequently that, under this point of view, as chemical combustion (which, it may be observed, cannot exist in the absence of air, any more than hydrogen gas in an elastic state, when it comes into collision with water,) only ceases from exhaustion, or when it no longer has matter to act on ; and thence, necessarily, leaves in the locality it has once visited, no further pabulum to minister anew to the same species of action. How were it possible, on these principles, to ac- count for a renewal of the same phenomena, after stated intervals of time in particular localities, such as Vesuvius, Etna, and other volcanoes, which, from the earliest records of time, have continued in acti- vity, without any apparent falling off in the frequency or force of their eruptions being perceptible ? And, 118 Climate, as connected on the other hand, as regards earthquakes, had they their source, as supposed, in the principle of explo- sion, the effect would, as in the case of mines, be both local and simultaneous; whereas, the contrary occurs in earthquakes, which, as not unfrequently happens, continue during several days, weeks, and even months at a time, similar to that which com- menced in Calabria on the 5th February, 1783, and continued its destructive effects both there and throughout Sicily during the five folio wing months. It is further characteristic of earthquakes, that they in general commence at a particular point, and thence extend to distances more or less considerable, simi- lar to that of the 1st November, 1755, by which the city of Lisbon was destroyed, and which, as is known, extended to different parts of Europe and Africa; and that of the 13th October, 1604, by which the town of Catania, in Sicily, was destroyed, and which, we are told, was felt even at Lima, on the opposite side of the earth! Another circum- stance connected with earthquakes is likewise worthy of notice, viz. that certain places in the line of their progression remain unaffected, while those on either side are convulsed by their action; thus proving, as observed by M. Gueneau de Montbeillard, that " ce n'est point par la communication des terreins con- tigus que se propagent les tretnblemens, puisque des pays intermediates quelquefois plus eleves, With Earthquakes, $c. 119 quelquefois plus has ne sont point ebranles"* Be- sides, if volcanic eruptions were effects simply of combustion, induced by fermentation in the bowels of the earth, how were it possible they should be accompanied by those zigzag flashes of lightning which are so evidently of electric origin ? and which, as will be seen in Mr. Hamilton's account of the famous eruption of Vesuvius, which happened in August, 1779, published in the Philosophical Trans- actions, form so conspicuous a feature in these phe- nomena ; indeed, it is only by assuming, with Bef- tholon, that earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are effects of electrical agency , and result from the re- covery of the equilibrium of electric action between the earth and its atmosphere when disturbed, that such insurmountable difficulties as these noticed, and which are not to be explained on chemical prin- ciples, can be accounted for. As, in admitting elec- tricity to be the moteur in these, as in the other grand phenomena of nature, the difficulties con- nected with the opposite theory immediately disap- pear, from the circumstance, that in it we have an agent, in all respects adequate to the production of these the tremendous effects by which they are at- tended. It has been already observed, and cannot be too frequently repeated, that of all the errors fallen * Journal Encyclopdique, 1769, Dec. 1, pag. 459. 120 Climate, as connected into by philosophers, in their attempts to account for natural phenomena, the most general, and inju- rious to the interests of science, has been that of mistaking secondary for first causes. For, as if a necessary result of our ignorance of first principles, in examining the original ideas and opinions that have been advanced in reference to the assumed sources of natural phenomena, hardly an exception occurs in this, that what has proved to be no more than an effect, has, in the first place, been set down as the cause itself. Thus, as assumed, it is, in re- gard to the principles of heat and cold in the at- mosphere, and of gravitation, and to which, in the present instance, the principle of fermentation, in regard to the source of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, may be added. And as, in reference to electrical, as contrasted with chemical principles, our acquaintance with the latter preceded our ac- quaintance with the former, is it to be wondered at that, as in other cases, and being, as they are, most assuredly, the most obmous, they should have been the first referred to, in accounting for these pheno- mena ? But, in reference to electrical, as contrasted with chemical principles, it is to be observed, that together with the latter being occasionally derived from the former, electric action has this peculiar to itself, that it is not only infinitely more efficacious and powerful, as an agent, than chemical action, but that its effects, however considerable, are brought With Earthquakes, $c. 121 about almost instantaneously. I may add, in refer- ence to this mysterious agency, that, as from the pe- riod of our first acquaintance with electricity, the sphere of its activity in nature has been found con- stantly more enlarged than was previously supposed ; that it has kept pace, in its increase, with that of our increased acquaintance with it; till at length, nume- rous concurrent circumstances lead us to conclude that the limits of its activity are only circumscribed by those of nature itself. And as, being a conse- quence, that, in proportion as assumptions have been hazarded in regard to this the increased range of electrical agency, experience has continually proved, that we were, in the same proportion, right. Thus, to resume the subject of volcanoes. As it is supposed there are no less than seventy-six of them still in activity, of which four are in Europe ; twenty-four in Asia ; three in Africa and the neigh- bouring islands ; forty in America ; and five in the islands of the Pacific Ocean ; how were it possible, without the presence of an agent such as electric ac- tion, to whose touch, as is known, the hardest of terrestrial substances is but as wax, for a quantity of pabulum, such as these consume and eject, to be supplied to the same sources through such a series .of ages, and yet without suffering any sensible dimi- nution in its amount ? Indeed, as Nature, under similar circumstances, is always found to be analo- gous, in order to understand the true theory of vol- 122 Climate, as connected canoes, it were, probably, right to refer to tbe man- ner in which (assuming them to be united,) the primary electrical and magnetic forces act in the larger class of globular meteors : for, though these bodies originate in the local atmosphere of the earth, they do not, in my opinion, though in miniature, the less truly represent the manner in which these forces act, as refers to internal combustion in the sun and planets. For, as when the equilibrium of electric action in globular meteors is destroyed, by the repulsive force from within overcoming the at- tractive force on their superficies from without, ex- plosion ensues, in which the lava they engender is projected to the earth in the shape of meteoric stones. Thus, as assumed, it is in the case of vol- canoes, whose throes, as we are told, have been known occasionally to shake the entire globe of the earth that when the equilibrium of electric, or rather of meteoric action between the earth and its atmos- phere in any of its regions is disturbed, that it vents itself either in earthquakes or in volcanic eruptions, till restored. And were our assumption correct in regard to meteors, and that comets belonged to this class of bodies, it would lead to the conclusion that the whole of the heavenly bodies had their source in the same species of action, which would account for the formation and extent of the granit strata, so generally diffused over the entire superficies of the earth, being as they are a species of lava, and, con- With Earthquakes, $c. 123 scquently, derived from a similar source of action as the latter. And, as the axes of the orbits of the pla- nets pass through the centre of the sun, and are as- sumed to be that of liis rotation, or rather of his magnetic poles. As further illustrative of the cor- rectness of our assumption in reference to the ana- logy supposed to exist between the globular class of meteors and the planets, as evinced by their pos- sessing (as far as we are enabled to judge of,) the same polarities as the latter bodies, that if this were the case, their direction in traversing the atmos- phere should correspond with that taken by the planets in their orbital courses in reference to the sun, i. e. that the direction of such meteors should be the same as that of the magnetic meridian. By a reference to facts, we shall find that this is really the case, as, notwithstanding their inherent principle of movement, which would seem to render them in- dependent of the magnetic attraction of the poles of the earth, the progression of the generality, if not the entire of the globular meteors, has been ob- served to be along the magnetic meridian, or from N. W. to S. E. Such was the direction of the famous meteor of the 17th July, 1771, as observed both from France and England : "son movement," in the words of the celebrated Lalande, " se fit du nordouest au sud-est^ ou plus, approchant cependant de la direction nord et sud/' Such was the direc- tion of that which appeared in England on the 124 Climate, as connected night of the 18th August, 1783, in passing over London, which, as the preceding came from the N. W. and passed on to the south-east,* being thus so far corroborative of the principle in which, ac- cording to our theory, the elliptical movement of the planets has its source. But to resume the subject of volcanoes. As it was not my intention, in introducing it, to notice more than its assumed connexion with meteoric ac- tion, I would beg to direct the attention of those who are curious on the subject, to the work of M. Bertholon, already cited, where they will find, perhaps, the most complete digest of all that history has transmitted to us of the most memorable erup- tions and earthquakes that is to be met with. But, assuming the connexion of these phenomena with meteoric action, and that the principle on which it depends, as stated, consists in the preservation or derangement of the equilibrium of electric action between the earth and its atmosphere. As, in the list of natural causes which might be supposed the most capable of preserving this equilibrium, the equal succession of drought and rain after short in- tervals of time, were that which should the most perfectly establish and uphold it; as the absence of such a succession of changes in the weather were, on * Bertholon, " De L'Electricite des Meteores." Tome Second, pag. 18, &c. With Earthquakes, $c. 125 the contrary, that which should the most naturally disturb and overthrow it. And further, that as in most of the subjects connected with meteoric action, similar to climate, the lunar action on the weather, &c. it is only by grappling with ensembles, that cor- rect ideas are to be arrived at or obtained. By com- paring the positions of the great majority of the volcanoes of the opposite hemispheres of the earth, equally as their number, though, in reference to the latter, the greater part are situated in the southern hemisphere; yet they will be found to be connected with the same axis of meteoric action in both, viz. that which is reversed to tJie axis of their magnetic poles ; and thus that they are situated in the same direction in these hemispheres as that of their great mineral districts. And which circumstance of the axis of meteoric action, as connected with these the opposite hemispheres, being thus reversed to that of their magnetic poles, (as I hope to show, in treating of climate,) exercises a very material influence in dis- turbing the equilibrium of electric action between the earth and its atmosphere. For, to come to parti- culars, did the upholding or loss of the equilibrium of electric or meteoric action, between the earth and its atmosphere, depend on the principle assumed, viz. that of the regular succession of changes in the weather, from drought to rain, as from rain to drought ; or the interruption and suspension of this succession of changes in the weather. As the coun- 126 Climate, as connected tries of the middle latitudes, and more particularly such of the latter as possessed (similar to Ireland,) the most temperate and humid skies, were those where the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanoes should be the least frequent ; and, on the contrary, that the countries of the lower latitudes, owing to the absence of rain, were those where this equili- brium were the most frequently disturbed, and, con- sequently, should be those the most subject to both ; and that, were there in the latter any region where, owing to the influence of local causes, less rain oc- curred throughout the year than elsewhere; such, ac- cording to the principle assumed, should be that which was the most remarkable for earthquakes and volcanic action. And accordingly, by testing the principle with facts, we shall find it so fully borne out, that, did the decision of the question depend on this, it must be considered as triumphantly esta- blished and proved. For, as Ireland may be consi- dered to occupy the extreme of the scale, in refer- ence to the equal succession or blending of the op- posite species of meteoric action in its skies, con- nected with drought and humidity, and where the equilibrium of electric action between the earth and its atmosphere, depending on this succession, were the least frequently disturbed ; and, on the contrary, that the vicinity of Lima, and remainder of the sea- board of Peru and Chili, in part of which, as is known, the absence of rain is continual; may justly With Earthquakes ) fyc. 127 be placed at the opposite extreme point of this me- teoric scale; and consequently, where such equili- brium between the earth and its atmosphere were the most frequently disturbed ; and that, as the former country were that which was the least liable to earthquakes, the latter countries should be those which were the most subject to them. By contrast- ing the annals of these countries in regard to visita- tions of this kind, it will immediately be seen that they are not more strongly contrasted in the wea- ther of their seasons, than what they are in the dif- ference which exists between them in regard to the occurrence of earthquakes no country, perhaps, being less subject to them than Ireland; or more so than Peru and Chili. On the same principle, it would follow, that seasons which have been remark- able for great drought, were those that proved the most remarkable for earthquakes and volcanic erup- tions. And, accordingly, notwithstanding the little attention which, in the absence of suspecting the existence of such a connexion, was formerly paid to that most important circumstance in inquiries of this kind, viz. the species of synchronism that has existed between the seasons and weather at the time, and the occurrence of the most remarkable earthquakes, or volcanic eruptions. Together with the instance al- luded to of the coincidence between the extreme drought of the climate of Peru, and the greater fre- quency of earthquakes there than in> perhaps, any 128 Climate, as connected other region of the globe. In the list of causes as- signed by philosophers at the time, to account for the extraordinary fog or obscurity in the superior region of the atmosphere, which, on the 18th of June, 1783, first made its appearance, simulta- neously, throughout the greater part of Europe, nearly eclipsing the light of the sun and which con- tinued, without interruption, during several months, being, as it was, co-existent with the earthquakes in Sicily and Calabria, of this year, already noticed. I find the following, assigned by M. Castelli, an Italian physician, as cited by Bertholon, in the se- cond volume of his meteorological work, page 141, viz. " M. Castelli, tire Porigine des meteores extra- ordinaires de 1783, premierement du defaut de pluie qui a en lieu pendant plusieurs mois avant leur ap- parition ;" and to the loss of the equilibrium of electric action between the earth and atmosphere, consequent thereon; being thus, as will be seen, exactly conformable to what, on the principle as- sumed, might be expected to have been the case. However, as extremes approximate, it will excite no surprise if excessive rains should, similar to ex- cessive drought, destroy the equilibrium of electric action between the earth and its atmosphere, and thus to have been occasionally known to be the pre- cursors of earthquakes. The earthquake which oc- curred at Florence, in 1449, was thus, as we are informed, preceded by continual rains; and seven With Earthquakes, $c. 129 years afterwards, on the 5th of December, an earth- quake, which destroyed several towns in the king- dom of Naples, was similarly preceded by incessant rains, unaccompanied by wind, during two months. It however, frequently occurs, that the same species of electric action in which earthquakes are assumed to have their source, is co-existent with them in the superincumbent atmosphere, at the time of their oc- currence, as though these opposite actions were the counterparts one of the other ; and that thus an immediate connexion appeared to exist between " les tonneres celeste et terrestre" as they are de- nominated by M. Paulian. Such, amongst a num- ber of others, was that by which Naples was visited in 1343, and of which the following appalling pic- ture has been left us by the celebrated Petrach, who happened to be at Naples when it occurred, viz. " II seroit impossible de peindre 1'horreur de cette nuit, ou tous les elemens paroissoient dechaines. Rien ne peut representer le fracas epouvantable que faisoient le vent, le tonnerre, et la pluie meles en- semble, les mugissemens de la mer en fureur, les mouvemens interieurs de la terre ebranlee,"* &c. Having thus, as I assume, with Bertholon, (that worthy associate of a Franklin and the other emi- nent men of his time, who, aware of its importance, distinguished themselves in the wide and interesting * Bertholon, De V Electrititt des Mfitores. Tom. Prem. pag. 372. K 130 Climate, as connected field of meteoric inquiry,) shown, that an intimate connexion subsists between meteoric action and the phenomena of earthquakes ; and that, as to their source, the immediate cause of earthquakes is to be traced to the loss of the equilibrium of meteoric ac- tion between the earth and its atmosphere, as being the sole principle in nature adequate to the produc- tion of such effects . And further, that in this prin- ciple we may likewise perceive the source of those revolutions by which the substances connected with the depths of the ocean have been transferred to the summits of the Alps, and other such mountains.* But that, as the period of these extraordinary changes in the superficies of the earth appears to be long since passed by, owing, probably, to the more perfect separation of its elements of earth and water, than what, in its early stages, existed, brought about by the gradual operation of time ; and that a re- medy which, though formerly tried and found to be effectual, appears to be entirely lost sight of, might * As being, in some sort, demonstrative that mountains have had their source in volcanic action, it is to be observed, (and will probably be esteemed as not a little curious,) that the highest mountains of the globe are, in their position, connected with the opposite poles of volcanic action in the opposite hemispheres, (as will presently appear,) viz. the mountains of Tibet, in the northern, and Chimborazo, and its neighbouring Andes, in the southern hemisphere ; and which, as if to counterpoise each other's weight, have thus been placed nearly equi- distant on the opposite sides of these hemispheres. With Earthquakes, fyc. still be applied, and prove the means of arresting the ravages in certain countries,, such as Peru, so frequently induced by earthquakes ; I shall con- clude the present notice of them with pointing out this remedy, under the idea, however illusive, that it may be productive of good. M. Bertholon, at the conclusion of his interesting dissertation on volcanoes and earthquakes, in the work of his alluded to, in which he treats them as electrical phenomena ; and as being a necessary con- sequence of the success which attended the idea of placing lightning conductors on buildings, to protect them from the effects of thunder ; having fallen into the opinion, that vertical iron bars, deeply inserted in the surface strata of the earth, in countries sub- ject to these phenomena, by abstracting and dis- charging into the atmosphere, from its interior, the redundance of its electricity would preserve the equilibrium of electric action between it (the earth,) and atmosphere, and thence have the effect of pre- venting their occurrence. And which, as is not un- usual with men of sanguine temperaments, in the first flush of successful discovery, though it may sa- vour a little of what may be called the poetry of science, must, in consideration of the motive which dictated it, be entitled to respect, thus proceeds : " Les anciens moins eclaires que nous ne le sommes, mais plus hardis ont ose rechercher des moyens pour se preserver des tremblemens de terre, comme je le K2 132 Climate, as connected dirai, dans un instant ; avec plus de lumiere au- rions-nous plus de pusillanimite ? Depuis un petit nombre d'annees une nouvelle science, la science de Felectricite semble etre sortie du neant ; les decou- vertes les plus brillantes, et en meme temps les plus etonnantes ont couronne les travaux des physiciens ; ce fluide admirable que nous nommons froidement fluide electrique, a le plus grand rapport avec tous les meteores, et particulierement avec le tonnerre, les tremblemens de terre et les volcans, il en est le principe producteur, et paroit etre Vdme universelle de la nature" * * " Les anciens avoient en- trevu la necessity de creuser despuits profonds pour preserver des tremblemens de terre, moyen qui a quelqu'espece d 3 analogic avec celui que j'ai propose. Pline, assure que les frequentes cavernes propres a donner une issue au fluide subtil, qui cause les trem- blemens de terre, sont un excellent moyen pour les prevenir, c'est ce qu'on remarque dans certaines villes, qui sont moms sujettes aux tremblemens de terre, depuis que plusieurs trous y ont ete formes ; crebri specus remedium prcebent, conceptum enim spiritum exhalant ; quod in certis notatur oppidis y qucE minus quatiuntur crebris ad eluviem cuniculis cavat. Hist. not. lib. 11, cap. 79. Les premiers remains sur-tout, prirent cette precaution de creuser des puits profonds, pour mettre 1'ancien capitole a Tabri des funestes effets des tremblemens de terre, With Earthquakes, fyc. 133 et Us y reussirent, car cette par tie de Rome, n'a jamais rien souffert de leurs ravages. " Les trous perpendiculaires, qui sont sur les di- verses montagnes, et les ouvertures des divers au- tres, sont regardes avec raison cpmme des soupiraux utiles, (Derham, lib. iii. Theol. phis. cap. iii.) et oti a remarque que plusieurs contrees ont 6te en- tierement delivrees des tremblemens de terre, apres que de nouvelles ouvertures y ont ete produites. Depuis le fameux tremblement de terre, qui arriva a Tauris en Perse, le 26 Avril 1721, on a fait creuser un grand nombre de puits tres-profonds, et nul tremblement de terre ne s'est fait sentir jusqu'a present, quoiqu'ils y fussent auparavant tres-com- muns. Ces hereux effets dependent uniquement de ce que Texces de fluide electrique, qui est quelque- fois aecumule dans certaines regions de la terre, s'echappe par ces ouvertures j usque dans 1'air, Tequi- libre se retablissant par ce moyen." * Thus we may perceive that, both in ancient Rome and in modern Persia, the experiment of sinking deep wells, to serve as soupiraux^ or vents, for the escape of those exhalations from the inferior strata beneath, whose imprisonment was supposed to be the imme- diate cause of earthquakes, has been resorted to; and that, if credit is to be attached to the authors * Bertholon De I' Electricite des Meteores. Tom. Prem. pag. 403, &c. 134 Climate, as connected cited, it has, in each instance, been attended with success. And, in recommending the application of this remedy in Peru, and the neighbouring districts of South America, which are the most subject to these visitations ; as the subject appears to involve more than what at first meets the view, it may be right briefly to state the grounds on which I found my opinion. In the science of draining , it is known, that lighting on and tapping a single main spring, or source of water, has frequently the effect of proving beneficial, at distances which might be supposed to be altogether beyond its range, by dry- ing up a number of subordinate sources with which before, it was not supposed to have any connexion. And thus, that the construction of these soupiraux, or para-tremblemens (as Bertholon calls them,) in the countries of South America, and those of the north east of Asia, which are the most subject to earthquakes, might be attended with effects the most extraordinary and unlooked-for, not only in these countries, but in those lying the most distant from them. For, assuming with the last-mentioned author, that electricity and magnetism (which as they are considered to be always united in nature, should be esteemed synonymous terms in inquiries of this kind,) to be "I'dme universelle de la nature" and consequently, that volcanic eruptions and earth- quakes from beneath, as the thunderbolt from above, alike result from electrical agency. It is known to With Earthquakes, fyc. 135 be one of the distinctive characters of electric action that at one and the same time it generates forces directly opposite, viz. attractive and repulsive, as shown in the trombe or water-spout. And of which opposite actions, as the local force of gravity in the sun and planets is, according to our principles, es- teemed to be one ; so, the other is considered to be that which holds these bodies detached from each other in their respective orbits. And as in each in- dividual instance, these opposite forces in the sun and planets, are assumed to be exactly balanced one to the other ; and that as connected with these bo- dies collectively, the whole of these forces are com- bined arid blended by the principle of reflection in which they have their source : that it is to this pe- culiar property of electric action to which the dou- ble harmony, both local and collective, observable in the heavenly bodies, is to be ascribed. And as- suming the action of the electrical and magnetic forces to extend equally into the depths of the earth on the one hand, as into the atmosphere on the other; and that the attraction, in the former case, generated by electric action, converges to the magnetic axis, as to its centre, which connects its opposite magnetic poles. According to this, the repulsive force in the interior of the earth, gene- rated with the attractive, should act on a different line, and in a different direction to the latter force ; and as the attraetive force converged chiefly to the 136 Climate, as connected tropics, the repulsive, acting on a different line to that of the magnetic axis, as stated, should exert itself chiefly on those regions of the opposite hemis- pheres which lay at the extremities or poles of this line, or axis of repulsion. Now, assuming the ex- istence of such a repulsive action in the interior of the earth : as it would necessarily exert itself most in the direction, and at either extremity of its axis. From so remarkable a coincidence in this respect, as that which exists between the volcanic regions of the opposite hemispheres, lying as they do due S. W. and N. E. or nearly at right angles with their mag- netic poles ; as if, like the latter, connected with a peculiar line, and diverging from the same centre of action : do we not in such repulsive force thus ge- nerated, assuming it to exist, discover a cause fully adequate to the production in these opposite regions of the earth, of those frequent and fatal effects con- sequent on the earthquakes for which they are so remarkable ? And that, could a means be found, such as that noticed, which applied at the opposite extremes of this the axis of repulsion, by affording a free egress to the elastic matter so transmitted, in such way as to prevent its local accumulation, and the extraordinary energy consequent on its imprisonment, the effect might be, not only to free the districts where such means were employed, from these destructive visitations, but, perhaps to sap the source of volcanic action throughout the globe, in With Earthquakes, fyc. 137 such way that future ages would (as in the case of other extinct volcanoes,) only know of them, by the traces they had left of their destructive effects. A project which if practicable were, it will be admitted, well worthy the ambition of an Alexander to execute ! as it were a triumph in the cause of hu- manity, such, and so colossal, whether in its object or dimensions, as, up to the present, few have imagined, or, however sanguine, could suppose it possible to realize ; and one in all respects worthy as connected with science of its heaven-born source. And as, on electrical principles, volcanic action in the interior of the earth should result less from a local than from a collective agency > which, if it ex- isted, would occasionally manifest itself simultane- ously in different and very distant places at the same period of time. By referring to facts we shall find that such has frequently been the case ; as, in- dependent of other instances which might be cited, it will be sufficient to notice that the tremendous eruption of Mount Hecla, in Iceland, in 1783, the greatest probably on record, though separated from Calabria and Sicily by nearly half the hemisphere, if it did not occur at the same period of time with the earthquakes, which during five months convulsed the latter countries on this year, as already stated, (a circumstance which T have not been able to as- certain,) occurred, as will be seen, on the same year : thereby, as must be assumed, proving the ex- 138 Climate, as connected istence of a connexion between these phenomena; as it appears more than probable that, in like manner, a connexion existed between them, and the extraordinary fog of the summer of this year, already alluded to; and consequently, an addi- tional argument, as would appear, is thus furnished in support of the theory of electrical agency. And assuming it to exist, as it were desirable to ascer- tain the extent of this connexion of volcanic action, whether on the line of magnetic attraction, as in the instance cited; as on the opposite, being esteemed its true line, or that of repulsion; or, whether it acted simultaneously on both, in the same, or in the opposite hemispheres of the earth : perhaps philosophers would not think it beneath them to direct their attention to the subject. It may be further observed that, did these opposite actions of attraction and repulsion exist in the in- terior of the earth ; independent of their effects as connected with volcanic action, we may readily perceive in them a sufficient cause, not only why a very marked difference as is the case, should ex- ist in the mineral kingdom, equally as in the cli- mate of the countries in either hemisphere, situ- ated on the opposite extremes of the scale of longi- tude, or on the first, as contrasted with the 180th degree, but more particularly in the higher lati- tudes, where their effects, as in the case of the vol- With Earthquakes, fyc. 139 canoes, would the most strongly manifest them- selves. Other questions, it will be seen, might be sug- gested as connected with this subject; such, for in- stance as the share which these opposite actions in its interior towards the poles of the earth, might be supposed to have in inducing the obliquity of its axis of rotation, or the effect which might arise from a change of their positions, in extinguishing the present line of volcanic action^ and, perhaps, of reopening an opposite, &c. ; but I leave these to be discussed by others : satisfied if, by calling atten- tion as to the possible existence of these actions, my doing so may have the effect of proving serviceable to the cause of science. CHAR XII. Climate, as connected with Locality. IT may be set down as among the most important advantages consequent on an increased acquaint- ance with the principles and laws of nature, that it frequently has the effect of modifying or changing first impressions. And, ere entering on the subject of Localities, as connected with the temperature and weather, it may be well to notice one of the early errors fallen into by philosophers in reference 140 Climate, as connected with Locality. to electric action in the atmosphere, viz. that ex- cept when manifested by what were called electrical phenomena, \. e. the spark from the conductor, and the attractive and repulsive forces it at such periods exercised on certain light substances, it was not supposed to be present. However, to repeat an assumption already made, viz. that revolution is the conservative principle of nature ; and that, conse- quently, on which the whole of her dispositions are founded. Assuming the earth and its atmosphere to be "# thermo-electrical combination put into ac- tion by the sun ;" and that the electrical and mag- netic forces are the agents she employs in uphold- ing this the principle of revolution in the physical world, and chiefly through the medium of meteoric action. As the latter, similar to its opposite states of drought and humidity, is divisible into opposite kinds ; it follows that meteoric action in the atmos- phere must be of opposite kinds. And that, as the phenomena alluded to are only induced by one of these opposite species, viz. that in which the forma- tion of rain has its source; it does not follow but that in the absence of this species of meteoric ac- tion in the atmosphere, electric action is equally present and operative, though differently, as when the electrical phenomena noticed are the most freely obtained. These phenomena, as would seem, being chiefly induced by the derangement of the previ- ously existing equilibrium of electric action verti- Climate, as connected with Locality. 141 cally in the opposite regions of the atmosphere ; as, for instance, when the thunder-cloud which origi- nates them in the inferior region, in discharging its contents, descends, and by blending with the air of the latter, saturates it with humidity so as that the equilibrium of electric action therein as contrasted with its opposite state of drought becomes re- versed; these phenomena, as is known, are no longer manifested by the conductor. From this it would follow, that it is not because electricity is ab- sent when such manifestations of it are not to be obtained by the conductor ; but because' its equili- brium being then established, it remains, as it were> quiescent; the lion, at such periods, not being abroad, but simply in a state of comparative repose ! And yet, however palpable, or important, and not- withstanding the continual sensitiveness manifested by the changes of the electrometer, we see what a number of eminent men, from Franklin downwards, have essayed the subject without having lit on or made it available. It is true, as the following pas- sage will show, that there were some, and these too illustrious exceptions, to the common opinion, even at an early period, viz. " II y a des physiciens qui assurent que 1'electricite de Vair serein est toujours serein, a moins qu'il n'ait des or ages, des pluies, ou des nuages dans le ciel. M. M. Volta et Saussure sont dece sentiment."* But their ideas, as would * Voyez Bertholon, " De I'Electricite des Me'te'ores." T. 2. p. 365. 1 42 Climate^ as connected with Locality. appear, had led to nothing ; as it was not before the experiments of Mr. Christie, in 1827, connected with the diurnal variation of the compass needle, that any opinion appears to have been entertained that the temperature had its source in electric action. Again, all bodies, as refers to electricity, are di- visible into opposite classes or kinds, technically called idio-electrics, and anelectrics ; or containing and conducting bodies : the union and mutual ac- tion of which on each other by friction, being esteemed necessary in order to the species of excite- ment in which electrical phenomena have their source. And, as the atmosphere belongs to the former, or containing class of bodies, (consequently electricity though Proteus-like, under a variety of shapes must necessarily be always present in it,) and the mass of the earth with its waters, to the latter or anelectrics, which being acted on by the sun produces electric excitement in the atmosphere ; first at the point of its junction with the earth, where this electric excitement and its effect on the temperature is first felt, as the most powerfully de- veloped; and from which it gradually ascends into the superior region. Thus we have the principle on which the locality of the temperature is based; as the proof that electric action is never absent from the atmosphere; but that, being, as its effects, of opposite kinds; and between which a continual os- Climate, as connected with Locality. 143 dilation, whether as connected with the annual or lunar circle, exists, and is progressing ; and to the tendence in these actions, (as in similar cases,) mu- tually to restore the principle of an equilibrium be- tween them, that, as observed by Lord Bacon, " the air, on a balance, is seldom debtor to itself; nor do the seasons succeed each other in the same tenor for two years together ;" as will be found more particularly treated of, in the Third Part, under the head of me- teoric progression. And as in a preceding paragraph it was stated, as being one of the distinguishing cha- racteristics of electrical agency, that it, at one and the same time, originated the opposite forces of attrac- tion and repulsion, to, and from, the same centre of action. Another peculiarity of electricity in its union with magnetism in the atmosphere, no less paradoxical than the former, appears to be, that, together with these attractive and repulsive forces, it at the same time develops the opposite tempera- tures of heat and cold; being, as the former, the in- corporation, as it were, or union in the same germ, of opposite progressions of the same kind, so con- formable to the dispositions of nature. These results on the temperature being alike op- posite in the direction of their development from their common centre, as in their nature and effects. Which peculiarity, it may be observed, is still more strongly apparent in the thunder-cloud, than on the surface of the opposite hemispheres of the earth, at 144 Climate, as connected with Locality. the solstices; owing to the greater concentration of the electric and magnetic forces in this species of meteoric action, than in that excited by the sun along the extended superficies of the earth. But, notwithstanding that in each species of meteoric ac- tion these opposite effects, as connected with the temperature, are the same, and only differ in de- gree; as the actions are different, the order of pro- gression, in reference to their development on the temperature, is likewise different; the latter being similar to. the order of the colours in the double rainbow, entirely reversed. For, whereas in the meteoric action in the atmosphere, derived from the principle of reflection as excited by the sun, the heat converges to its centre between the tropics, and the cold diverges to the pole of the winter he- misphere: in the thunder-cloud, on the contrary, the cold converges to the axis, or centre of action, and the heat diverges. This disposition is suffici- ently proved by the torrents of hail which are occa- sionally moulded in the womb of the thunder-cloud ; and by the lightning projected from its sides. And, in addition, it may be noticed, that this was the ef- fect experienced by M. Tetu, in his aerostatic ascent into a thunder cloud : in which the cold was so excessive that the mercury in the tube of the ba- rometer sunk five degrees below zero; and the hail and snow collected in his car in such quantity that he was obliged to disembarrass himself of them, in Climate, as connected with Locality. 145 order to prevent their weight from sinking the bal- loon. It may be further added, in proof of the cor- rectness of the assumption advanced in reference to the peculiarities of electric and magnetic action, viz. that both attraction and repulsion, heat and cold, and all the other contrarieties of nature in the physical world, should have emanated from the same source of action ; that it was absolutely ne- cessary in order to uphold the principle of unity, on which the whole of her dispositions therein are based, that these the principles in which her active forces concentrated, should have been so constituted. For it was impossible on any other to establish an order of things which, at the same time that it ad- mitted of such an infinite variety, whether in its pe- riodic aberrations or in its details, from its being so poised and balanced on the same common centre of action, should, in its eccentricities, be circumscribed within certain determinate limits, in such way that the sustaining principle, or equipoise, on which its permanence depended, should not at any time be so deranged, but that by means of the controlling forces thus provided, it should be again restored; and immutably remain unaltered: containing, as it thence would have done within it, the principle of its restoration, equally as of its renovation. These observations I consider the more neces- sary in this place, as- in the preceding notice of cli- mate, in its connexion with the geographical distri- L 146 Climate, as connected with Locality. bution of animals and plants, it was chiefly consi- dered in reference to the influence exercised on it by the difference of magnetic action; and this with a view the better to understand the nature of the influence which, owing to its being, as assumed, derived from the principle of reflective action, cer- tain classes of localities exercise on the temperature of the seasons, and changes of the weather, other circumstances being the same. It being of the na- ture of meteoric action in the atmosphere, that, of whatever kind, it converges to a particular centre or focus, where it is most powerful. And as throughout the year, with the exception of the equinoxes, the position of these foci are determined either by the latitude of places, or by the nature of the locality; and that the influence exercised by the first is uniform, and sufficiently known; whereas that exercised by locality, though frequently more powerful, is less understood; I shall confine myself chiefly to the latter. Locality, in its most comprehensive sense, as con- nected with the temperature and weather of the sea- sons, owing to the unity of the solar and planetary actions on which they depend, embraces at once, or within the same view, the opposite hemispheres of the earth. And between these the opposite he- mispheres, owing to their being traversed through- out their extent by the axis of magnetic action, equally as that of the earth's rotation, combined Climate, as connected with Locality. 147 with the law in reference to the relative direction of electric action, in its connexion with magnetic, a contrast, in reference to the opposite actions of the sunelectric and magnetic, always exists. Thus, (being a necessary consequence of the diver- gence of opposite temperatures from the same source, and of the unity in the actions by which they are induced,) the maximum force of the for- mer, or electric action of the sun, is collected on the summer hemisphere, about the same period that the maximum force of its magnetic action is collected on the opposite or winter hemisphere ; which causes that the opposite extreme degrees of annual tempera- ture in these the opposite hemispheres of the earth oc- cur about the same period of time. A similar disposi- tion, in reference to the division, direction, and local position of the opposite axes and main foci, of these the electric and magnetic forces, whether in the sun or planets, being esteemed to result in all cases from their union ; and to exist equally in the small- est of the satellites, as in the earth, or in Jupker. As, whether in a globular meteor, or in the largest of the fixed stars, wherever electric and magnetic action, in a detached state, are united ; the laws by which they are governed, in regard to their mutual relations, equally as in the development of their ef- fects, are esteemed to be the same. Such, in its most comprehensive bearings, being the meaning L2 148 Climate, as connected with Locality. attached by our theory to the term locality; and which, it will be perceived, as regards the principle of temperature, results from the relative position of places in either hemisphere during the opposite sea- sons of summer and winter, to those occupied by the main foci of the electric and magnetic forces. And thus locality, in this point of view, is synonymous with latitude ; as the variations in the temperature, whether in winter or summer, which originate in this cause, are simply the results of the modification in the operation of the same laws, incident to the difference which, on the extended scale of their ope- ration in either hemisphere, occurs in the relative position of places in reference to those occupied by the respective centres or main foci of the opposite actions from which they emanate : being greatest as we recede from, and less as we approach nearer to these centres, other circumstances being the same. But, in approaching nearer, and examining in de- tail the various members of which the superficies, or reflecting surfaces of either hemisphere are com- posed; we shall perceive, however rudely traced, that they present the elements of a mechanism, or an adaptation of parts to their ends, such as must convince the most sceptical, that design and not ac- cident presided over their disposition. For, assum- ing the principle of reflective action to be that, on, or connected with which, the temperature, and other Climate, as connected with Locality. 149 phenomena of the atmosphere depend : as the re- flecting surfaces presented to the solar action by the land and water superficies of the earth, considered as reflectors are unequal in their forces; land being more powerful than water surface, owing chiefly to the stream of evaporation continually ascending from the latter, which thus to a certain extent neutralizes its reflective power on the tempe- rature. Thus it follows, that next to the differences in the temperature, consequent on the difference of latitude, are those induced by the difference subsist- ing between the land and water surfaces of the earth : and which thus, in their grand outlines, necessarily divide its land and water superficies into opposite classes of localities. And as me- teoric action in the atmosphere is of opposite kinds, of which that connected with the temperature is but one ; and with which no more than a parti- cular class of those localities is identified, and that the remainder are more particularly connected with the species of meteoric action in which the formation of rain has its source. Thus it follows that the land superficies of the earth, such as continents and islands, is more particularly connected with the ten> perature ; as its water superficies with the species of meteoric action in which rain has its source. And as the laws which govern the operations of na.- ture are observed to be the same in detail as en grand; and that the relative forces of the reflecting 150 Climate, as connected with Locality. surfaces 'presented by the land superficies of the earth to the solar action, are proportioned to their dimensions. Thus it is that the action of conti- nents and the larger class of islands, whether in rising or lowering the temperature, according to the season, is more powerful than that of the smaller, or ordinary class of islands, other circumstances being the same. And that from the law of convergence^ the action of these reflectors on the temperature,, is more powerful as we approach their centres, or the positions occupied by their local main foci, and vice versa", which will sufficiently account for the differ- ence in the range of temperature, both in summer and winter, which exists between islands and the in- terior of continents, though lying within the same parallels ; a difference so considerable, as is known, as sufficiently proves the correctness of the principle noticed. Again, the local atmosphere of the earth, equally as its temperature, is, as assumed, the creation of reflective action ; and, as being a necessary conse- quence, the effect of this action on the temperature is something like that of gravity, in the inverse ratio of the squares of the distances from the earth's sur- face. And thence, as the land surface of the earth projects beyond the plain of reflective action pre- sented by that of its waters ; were it not that the re- flective action of land is more powerful than that of water, the surface of the latter, as constituting the Climate, as connected with Locality 151 lowest level of the reflective action of the earth, were, of the two, the more powerful reflector. And as in addition, the land surface is divided into plains and mountains; and consequently, owing to the cause assigned, that a still greater difference and falling off, exists between the reflective powers of the former as contrasted with the latter, than between the land and water surfaces, as noticed. Thence a further division of the land superficies into opposite classes of localities ; of which the plains are more particularly connected with the principle of tempe- rature ; and the mountains with the species of me- teoric action in which the formation of clouds and rain have their source. The difference of the effects on the temperature, incident to that subsisting be- tween the reflective power of plains, as contrasted with the sides and summits of mountains, being more strongly marked in the regions of the torrid zone, than elsewhere. And as an approach to the same meteoric effects whether on the temperature or wea- ther, is induced by capes, headlands, and the vicinity of the sea, as by mountains in the interior of conti- nents ; it were a curious, and not unworthy subject of inquiry, to ascertain the proportion which exists between the opposite principles in meteorology, of horizontal extension from the local centres or foci of reflective action in the interior of continents and islands, on the one hand, and that of vertical eleva- tion from the lowest, or water level of reflective ac- 152 Climate, as connected with Locality. tion, on the other ; circumstances of latitude being the same. For though the falling off in the effect of reflective action vertically on the temperature, has been stated to be something in the proportion of the inverse ratio of the squares of the distances ; this is no more than supposition, and does not come up to the real amount. In the estimation of St. Pierre, this falling off in the force of reflective action is so considerable, that it were doing both him and the subject injustice not to quote him in this place : " Si vous vous elevez dans une montagne, situ6e dans notre latitude, seulement de vingt-cinq toises de hauteur perpendiculaire, vous changez de climat comme si vous aviez fait vingt-cinq lieues vers le nord ; en sorte qu'une montagne de douze cents toises perpendiculaires, nous presenteroit'une echelle de vegetation aussi etendue que celle des douze cents lieues horizontales qu'il y a a-peu-pres d'ici au pole ; Tune et 1'autre se termineroient a une glace perpetuelle. Chaque pas que Von fait dans une montagne, en Relevant on en descendant^ change notre latitude ; et gi on en fait le tour, chaque pas change notre longitude." Etudes de la Nature. Tome second, pag. 426. Such, without referring to principles, are the observations of St. Pierre, on this subject. And, that the analogy between the variation of climate along the ascending scale of la- titude, from the equator to the Pole, and that en- countered in ascending the higher ranges of moun- Climate, as connected with Locality. 153 tains between the tropics, is borne out not only by the difference of temperature, but, to a certain ex- tent, by that observable in the animals and vege- tables found on, or proper to them, no person at all conversant with the subject will deny. It is right to remark, however, that the variation of climate in the ascent of a mountain as connected with its base and summit is not uniform ; but, on the contrary, may be said to go on increasing by a sort of geome- trical progression with the ascent, in such way, that at a certain elevation on its side, three feet perpen- dicular, induce probably a greater change in the mean temperature, than thirty at its base. This being a necessary consequence of the rapid falling off in the effect of the reflective action from beneath, in proportion as we ascend from the plain of its projection on the earth's surface. And thus it is that certain birds and plants of the higher latitudes, are occasionally encountered in the more elevated regions of some of the mountains of the torrid and temperate zones ; * and that the strawberry and other plants of the north, are found to flourish at a certain elevation on these mountains, though totally * "A naturalist of Rome, Mr. Springlen, has formed, with considerable taste and expense, a complete collection of the birds of the Alps, which consist of about five hundred specimens. It contains the species peculiar to every climate, from the south of Italy to the north of America.'' See marginal note to the Appendix of Williams' Switzerland, page 232. 154 Climate, as connected with Locality. unproductive when planted in the plains beneath. Nature thus in her productions indicating the ap- proximations which, without any infraction of her laws, so frequently arise out of that constant ten- dence, so characteristic of her dispositions, to recon- ile opposites. And, as being connected with which, may be noticed an error fallen into by the generality of astronomers, in concluding, from the sun's re- maining during summer a few days longer in the northern than in the southern hemisphere, that a higher degree of mean annual temperature in the former is the result. This, as assumed, not being the case ; as what the southern hemisphere loses in time, is compensated for in distance : the southern hemisphere, as is known, being nearer to the sun in summer than the northern ; in such way, that the re- lative mean temperature of both is esteemed to be the same. But to resume the subject of locality as connected with the weather. The influence exercised by the opposite classes of localities on the weather, results altogether from the difference of their effects on the temperature. This is sufficiently proved by the cir- cumstance that they exercise no influence of any kind on the weather, about the periods of the equi- noxes. But in proportion as from the latter periods we approach those of the solstices, and that, accord- ing to the season, the temperature advances, or re- cedes to its opposite extreme annual degrees ; the Climate, as connected with Locality. 155 difference of the meteoric influence exercised by the opposite classes of localities on the weather, becomes more and more visible ; and thence again, from after the opposite extreme degrees of annual tempe- rature, this influence gradually disappears as we ap- proach the periods of the equinoxes. And which, as connected with mountains, capes, and the vicinity of the sea, is to be accounted for by the blending of opposite temperatures, and consequently of opposite actions electrical and magnetic which, during the solstial seasons, they induce in their atmos- pheres. The amount of the influence on the wea- ther thus exercised by the latter class of localities, being always proportioned to the amount of the con- trast in the temperature, which, at the time, subsists between them, and the interior of the neighbouring plains. Such contrast, as connected with mountains, being greatest in summer : and as connected with capes, headlands, and the vicinity of the sea, in winter. From this it follows that, as we know to be thje case, mountains exercise a more marked in- fluence on the weather in summer, than capes or headlands ; and that, on the contrary, the latter, to which may be added islands lying in the vicinity of continents, exercise a greater influence on the weather during winter, than mountains. And as rain, during summer, but particularly in the lower latitudes, is usually accompanied by thunder, and 156 Climate, as connected with Locality. during the winter months by storm. Thus it is that both rain, hail-storms, and thunder, are more fre- quent in the vicinity of mountains than of capes, &c. during summer ; and, on the contrary, that storm and rain is more frequent in the vicinity of the sea, but more particularly in the neighbourhood of capes and islands, than in mountains, during winter ; other circumstances being the same. For, as being in contrast with the dominant action of the sun during both seasons on plains and the interior of continents, mountain-tops, equally as capes, headlands, and islands, though differing in degree, are, to all intents, magnetic conductors in summer, and electrical conductors in winter. To which is to be traced the fearful celebrity of capes in winter, and of mountains during summer ; the first for the number and violence of the gales in their vicinity ; as the latter for hail and thunder-storms, as noticed. For, as the temperature on the summits of moun- tains during summer, is much colder than at their base ; on the contrary, during severe winters, the temperature on the summits of mountains however strange it may appear is much milder than in the neighbouring plains by which they are surrounded ; being, of itself, a sufficient proof that cold, the same as heat, results from an active agency > and that, as in the latter case, the principle on which its activity in the heavenly bodies is based, is reflective ac- Climate, as connected with Locality. 157 tion* Of this the reversed scale of atmospheric temperature, vertically, during severe winters, the following fact published in the Paris Constitutionnel, of the 7th February, 1830, (reported in a former work of mine,) may be cited in proof, viz. " D'apres les rapports unanimes de tous les voyageurs arrivant d'ltalie, au moment ou les routes dans 1'interieur de la France et de Tltalie sont encombrees de neiges et de glaces au point d'entraver partout la marche des fourgons acceleres, et meme des diligences et cour- riers, la route du Mont-Cenis, en quelque sorte pri- vilegee, a ete depuis le commencement de 1'hiver exempte de neige, et ce point si eleve" (8000 feet above the level of the sea,) " ajoui dhme tempera- ture beaucoup plus douce que la notre" And that the same difference occurs between the temperature in the interior of continents, as contrasted with islands, capes, and the vicinity of the sea, during winter and summer, the climate of Ireland furnishes a sufficiently striking illustration ; in regard to * In reference to the principle of reflective action, the following observation from St. Pierre's Etudes de la Nature, tome second, pag. 67, will probably be considered curious, as showing the anti- quity of this doctrine to be as remote as the time of Pythagoras : " Philolaiis de Crotone, un de ses disciples, pretendoit que le soleil recevoit le feu rfyandu dans Vunivers et le reverberoit, ce qui expli- que mieux sa nature que les emanations perpetuelles de chaleur et de lumiere que nous lui supposons sans reparation et sans epuise- ment." 158 Connexion of Magnetic Action which Humboldt observes, that " Ireland presents one of the most remarkable examples of the combi- nation of very mild winters, with cold summers ; the mean temperature in Hungary for the month of August is 71. 6; while in Dublin it is only 60. 8. In Belgium and Scotland the winters are milder than at Milan."* It is scarce necessary to add, that the variations and peculiarities of climate here noticed, are only explicable on the principles as- sumed by our theory. And that, in the changes of the weather which take place both in summer and in winter, the transitions from fair to rainy wea- ther, always commence in the vicinity of the sea or of mountains ; and that the changes from rainy to fair weather, on the contrary, have their commence- ment in the interior of continents and islands ; whence they extend to the opposite class of lo- calities. CHAP. XIII. Connexion of Magnetic Action with the Formation of Rain in the Atmosphere. AND, in pushing still further our inquiry in refer- ence to the influence exercised by a certain class of localities on climate, we shall find not only new * See Ure's Die. of Chem, art, Climate, p. 226. With the Formation of Rain, fyc. 159 matter worthy of attention,, but still further corrobo- rative of the correctness of our principles. Thus, in treating of the assumed connexion of climate with the phenomena of earthquakes, notice was taken, in a preceding chapter, of the extraordinary fact as to the total absence of ram at Lima, and in that part of Peru. And in examining the climate of other countries in either hemisphere, situated on the op- posite sides of the higher ranges of mountains, but more particularly where their direction is not paral- lel with that of the magnetic meridian, but that they cross it at angles more or less considerable we shall find, though perhaps not to the same extent as in the climate of Peru, that a marked difference, in reference to relative drought or humidity, exists in the countries lying on either side. And further, that such difference is always in accordance with the relative position of such countries, in reference to the more proximate magnetic pole of the earth. Thus, in Scotland, we find that more rain falls on the western than on the opposite or eastern side of the mountains by which it is divided. This differ- ence being still more strongly marked in the coun- tries lying on the opposite sides of the Alps and Pyrenees: the greatest humidity of climate being, in every case, on the side of such mountains which lies in presence of, or exposed to the action of the proximate magnetic pole ; and the greatest drought on the opposite; or where, from the operation of 160 Connexion of Magnetic Action. these natural barriers in excluding it, such polar action is less powerful. And, it must be admitted that, when such effects as these are found to be al- ways constant in their relations, they go to prove, in a manner the least equivocal, the existence of a connexion between the magnetic pole, and the me- teoric action in the atmosphere in which the forma- tion of clouds and rain have their source. For, in no other way can we account for the existence of differences such as these, and so strongly contrasted with each other, in proximate regions of the atmos- phere, where circumstances of latitude are the same, or so slightly different as to be totally incapable of producing any such effects. Now, considering this subject to be one which, on various accounts, is most deserving of attention : as partial views are seldom correct ones; together with reverting to first principles, it becomes neces- sary to examine it a little in its collective relations, the better to enable us to arrive at, and form, just conclusions. The magnetic meridians, extending from either, to the opposite magnetic pole of the earth ; placed between opposite meteoric reflectors, of which the surface of the earth is one, and the most proximate, and the sun's disk the other and most distant ; and being thence the creation of reflective action : though thus reposing on the superficies of the earth at its opposite extremes, are throughout the remainder of Climate, as connected with Localities. 161 their extent detached from it ; and describe in their course a series of extended arches, of which the cul- mens or summits are at the Line ; and from which, as they diverge on either side, as shown by the dip- ping needle, they approach nearer to the earth ; till having arrived at the magnetic poles and term of their extreme range, they concentre, in coming into contact with it. But, as magnetic action in the at- mosphere is never detached from, but, on the con- trary, is inseparably united with electric; and that the whole of its phenomena are esteemed to have their source in the combined action of these forces. Thus it is that these the magnetic meridians may justly be esteemed as the axes of meteoric action in the atmosphere; from, or to which, according to the species, it continually diverges, or converges: and which thus, as being connected with the latter species of this action, necessarily constitutes the re- gion of the clouds, as being that in which it concen- trates. And that this is no ideal supposition, toge- ther with the evidence obtained from the dipping- needle alluded to ; the marked difference in regard to the elevation at which the clouds form in the lower latitudes, as contrasted with those lying fur- ther north or south ; and in summer, than in winter, sufficiently proves. Insomuch, that this the arch* * The arch, described by the line of congelation, and which at the Line is 2400 fathoms (or 14400 feet,) higher than the surface of M 162 Climate, as connected with Localities. formed by the magnetic meridians throughout the extent of the atmosphere, from pole to pole, may justly be considered as constituting the meteoric charpente, or sustaining ground on which it re- poses. These circumstances premised, and assuming the concurrence of magnetic action to be equally neces- sary to the formation of the nimbus, or rain-cloud, as electric ; it is easy to see that an obstruction, such as that presented by the higher ranges of mountains, to the free horizontal circulation of mag- netic action; but more particularly when, as in the cases supposed, they traverse its course, or the di- rection of the magnetic meridian, should induce effects on the climate of the regions lying immedi- ately on the opposite sides, exactly similar to those noticed : a greater proportion of rain being formed in the atmosphere on that side of such mountains which lies open to, or exposed to the action of the more proximate magnetic pole of the earth ; and a less proportion on the opposite, agreeable to the greater or less elevation of such mountains; and to the latitude. For it is easy to see that, from the greater elevation of the arch formed by the mag- netic meridians in the lower, than in the higher la- the sea; from thence as it diverges north and south, gradually ap- proaches nearer to the earth, till at about the 80th degree on either side, it comes into contact with its surface" Climate, as connected with Localities. 163 titudes of either hemisphere, a greater elevation in such mountains, as in the case of Peru, were neces- sary to the production of such effects in the coun- tries of the former than in those of the latter; other circumstances being the same. And thus, together with the cause of these variations, and with the data necessary to make them available to objects of uti- lity, we have, as noticed, an additional proof of the correctness of the principles assumed by our theory, in reference to the source and formation of rain in the atmosphere. Having thus, as I assume, succeeded in showing the necessity which exists for the presence and con- currence of magnetic action, equally as of electric in the formation of clouds and rain: and conse- quently, that it is by means of the concurrence and union of both actions in the middle region of the atmosphere, equally as at the surface of the earth, in regard to the temperature, that this species of meteoric action is induced ; the circumstance is well calculated to call forth a more particular inquiry in regard to the principle in which this and its ac- cessory phenomena have their source, than what we have yet extended to them. It was observed, in a preceding chapter, that, as refers to electricity, bodies were divisible into op- posite kinds, denominated idio-electrics and one- lectrics, or containers and conductors of electricity : M 2 164 Climate p , as connected with Localities. and that in order to the production of the excite- ment in which electrical phenomena have their source, the action of the former on the latter, or of the latter on the former was necessary; as such ex- citement was only obtained by means of such a con- joint action. And that, under this point of view, of the thermo-electric combination formed by the earth and its atmosphere, in reference to the prin- ciple of temperature, the region of the latter which lies nearest the earth, constitutes the ideo-electric, and its superficies, on which this region reposes, the opposite or analectric portion ; by means of whose reflective and conductive powers, acted on and ex- cited by the sun, the meteoric action is generated in this region of the atmosphere, in which heat, or the principle of its temperature has its source : the latter, as should be the case according to these prin- ciples, being greatest at the surface of the earth, or focus of the excitement in which this species of me- teoric action is generated, and gradually less in proportion as we recede vertically from it; till, at a certain elevation, the effects of this reflective ac- tion on the temperature disappear at the point of congelation. But as meteoric action in the atmos- phere is of opposite kinds, of which that connected with the temperature is but one, and confined in its range to a particular region ; and that, in order to the production of the other, or that in which clouds and rain have their source, though connected with Climate as connected with Localities. 165 the superior region of the atmosphere, a similar ar- rangement in reference to the presence and union of an anelectric, with the idio-electric body, formed by the superficies of this its inferior region, became equally necessary as at the opposite side, or super- ficies of the earth. In directing our attention to the construction observable in this our local atmos- phere, vaulted, as it were, throughout its extent, at a certain elevation, by the magnetic meridians, in traversing it from pole to pole, along the line of con- gelation. Do we not, I say, from the marked affi- nity observable between magnetism and iron, equally as the remainder of what are called electrical conduc- tors, in this the magnetic vault suspended over, and enclosing the idio-electrical region of the atmos- phere, which extends from the superficies of the earth to the line of congelation, equally as in the an electric pedestal on which it is based on the op- posite side, and intersecting as this magnetic dome, in its direction, does, that of the electrical currents which are, (owing to the law in reference to the op- posite direction taken by electrical and magnetic currents,) continually moving beneath, discover the elements of an arrangement and mechanism, such, as are altogether adapted to the production, alternately, of these the opposite species of its me- teoric action, by which, together with the principle of its temperature, that of the revolution continually progressing between it and the waters of the earth 166 Opposite Species beneath, is upheld ? And in which, together with the true nature of the difference subsisting between the opposite forces of electricity and magnetism, we may perceive the wise intention of Nature in uniting in the atmosphere, forces such as these, which by rea- son of the contrasts they present, are so admirably adapted to serve as foils to each other, in calling forth and eliciting by this their conjunction, as already noticed, the respective latent energies of each. CHAP. XIV. Further Circumstances connected with the opposite Species of Meteoric Action in the Atmosphere. AGAIN, it being of the nature of meteoric action in the atmosphere, that, of whatever kind, it con- verges to a principal or main focus, where it is most powerful ; and that the opposite species into which it is divisable, are as opposite to each other in their nature, as are the electrical and magnetic forces from which they are derived : and further, that, as being at once the bases of the temperature and remain- der of its phenomena, it is the variations in the species of meteoric action in the atmosphere derived from the principle of reflection, which determine those of the opposite species. Thus it is that the opposite action of the sun as reflected from beneath, Of Meteoric Action. 167 separate and diverge horizontally on the earth's sur- face from a common centre, to directly opposite points of its superficies ; its electric action concen- trating at the line, and its magnetic, diverging thence to the opposite poles, but more particularly centring at the pole of the winter hemisphere. This division in the action of these forces being more strongly apparent at, and after the solstices as we approach the opposite extremes of annual temperature, than at the equinoxes or other parts of the year; and more fully developed at and in the vicinity of their opposite main foci at the line, and pole of the winter hemisphere, than throughout the intermediate regions by which they are separated. It would follow, assuming our principles to be correct, that as the reflective action of the sun is most powerful at the solstices and in the vicinity of its opposite main foci; that these are the periods and regions of the atmosphere, either at, or where, the species of meteoric action in which clouds and rain have their source, is least frequent. And, on the contrary, that at the equinoxes, generally, as at and after the periods of the solstices in those regions which are the most distant from the sites occupied by the opposite main foci of reflective action, were those at, or where the latter, or species of meteoric action in which clouds and rain have their source, should the most frequently occur, other circum- stances being the same. And by contrasting our 168 Opposite Species principles with these the facts to which they refer, we shall find them in all respects borne out by the latter: and thence that, according to the disposi- tions of nature, each specks of meteoric action in the atmosphere as connected with the temperature or opposite class of its phenomena, has both a sea- son, and a locality, equally as a ground or axis pro- per to itself. But as the current of meteoric action in the. atmosphere progresses uninterruptedly, and that these its opposite species cannot progress at the same time in any of its regions ; and conse- quently, that the period of the termination of ei- ther in any region, may be considered as that of the commencement of the opposite. This necessarily leads us to inquire as to the nature of the principle in which these changes have their source ; and this, in all cases, we shall find consists in the loss of the equilibrium, of the existing action. And thus, as where the existing action is the most powerful its equilibrium is the most difficult to be disturbed, and vice versa ; it follows that there is always a strict analogy between the force of the existing species of meteoric action, and that of its equilibrium: for as the force of reflective action is greatest at and in the vicinity of its main foci in summer and winter; in those regions of the atmosphere during these sea- sons also it is, where the equilibrium of this action is likewise the most powerful : and vice versa, as Of Meteoric Action. 1 69 refers to the middle latitudes and opposite seasons of the year. It thence follows, that the sustaining principle of reflective action, is that of disparity between the opposite actions of the sun; as the greater is the latter, or inequality subsisting between these actions in any region of the atmosphere, the greater the force of the dominant action on the temperature, and of the equilibrium of this the species of meteoric action it induces. And where on the contrary, a close approximation of the relative forces of these the opposite actions of the sun, subsists in any re- gion of the atmosphere, and that the amount of such disparity is inconsiderable; the force of the domi- nant action, as of the equilibrium of the meteoric action it induces, is likewise inconsiderable. And as a graduated scale of disparity in the relative forces of the opposite actions of the sun exists in the summer hemisphere from the tropic to the pole; being greatest at the former and least at the latter ; as in the winter hemisphere contrariwise, or from the pole to the tropic. Thus it is, that a moteur, or disturbing cause, which at one extremity of either hemisphere during summer or winter, would, owing to the weakness of the equilibrium of reflective ac- tion, overthrow it, and occasion a commencement of the opposite species in which clouds and rain have their source, would produce no such effect at the opposite, or in the vicinity of the main focus of 170 Opposite Species the existing dominant action of the sun. From this it follows, that as, or in proportion to the force of the equilibrium of reflective action in any region of the atmosphere, must be that of the moteur, or disturb- ing cause, by which it is overthrown. And as from the difference in the reflective power of mountains in summer, and of capes and the vicinity of the sea in winter, as contrasted with the interior of plains or of continents; and the consequent difference of force in the equilibrium of reflective action during these seasons in the former, as contrasted with the latter ; thence its more frequent overthrow, and the occurrence of rain, consequent thereon, in mountains during summer, and in the vicinity of the sea during winter, than in the opposite class of localities no- ticed, circumstances of latitude being the same. And, in reference to the disturbing cause al- luded to, by which the equilibrium of the reflective action of the sun is overthrown. As the dominant action of the sun which induces the equilibrium of its reflective action, cannot be disturbed by itself; it follows that, throughout the year, it is the weaker action of the sun, that must be the disturbing cause by which the equilibrium of the meteoric action of its opposite the dominant action, is overthrown. And thus, as from the period of the equinox to that of the succeeding solstice, both in the summer and winter hemisphere of the earth, the existing domi- nant action of the sun is in a state of continual in- Of Meteoric Action. 171 crease or progression ; and its opposite in an equally continual state of decrease or retrogression: it would follow, according to these principles, that did there not exist a meteoric agency distinct from those of the sun and earth, whose action on the atmos- phere, by uniting with the opposite actions of the sun alternately, increased by the sum of its amount, the force of either during the period of its countenance; and thus by altering its measure when united with the weaker, by the increase it induced, should overthrow the equilibrium of the reflective action of the opposite or dominant force, that during these the opposite progression sea- sons of the year, a change of the weather to rain could not take place. And thence, as the only agent which by reason of its homogeneity could in- duce such effects, were the moon; the fact of the occurrence of rain during these periods of the year, is of itself demonstrative of the existence; as its frequency, of the extent of the lunar action on the weather: it being, as stated, the only disturbing cause, viz. its negative or magnetic action at the syzygies, and quadratures during the summer pro- gression quarter, and its positive, or electric action during the opposite seasons, which could induce these changes to rain. This, however is not the case during the opposite or transition quarters, viz. those which commence at the solstices and terminate at the equinoxes : as it is during these quarters that 172 Opposite Species the progressive increase of the weaker, and decrease in its opposite the stronger or dominant action of the sun, in both hemispheres take place ; till the princi- ple of an equilibrium between their relative forces which during the preceding quarters was lost, be- comes again restored at the periods of the equi- noxes. To this cause, and the increasing weakness of the equilibrium of reflective action incident thereto, it is, that the lunar changes during these periods induce such general and frequent over* throws of the latter; and that in consequence, in either hemisphere of the earth, they are the chief rainy seasons of the year. And further that, as the force of the lunar action is limited in its amount; and, except when favoured by the vicinity of moun- tains, or of the sea, that it is in consequence unable, during the opposite progression quarters of the year, to overthrow the equilibrium of reflective action in the vicinity of its" opposite main foci at the tropic or pole ; that these the transition quarters are those only during which the species of meteoric ac- tion in which rain has its source, can be said to oc- cur in the regions which approximate to these main foci. And thus, in tracing as to its source this the me- teoric action by which clouds and rain are formed, we shall find that it is referable to the transition, or passage from a preceding, to a subsequent state of reflective action, incident to the interruption in Of Meteoric Action. 173 the latter species, caused by the temporary loss of its equilibrium. And that, as the principle on which it, reflective action, depends, is, as stated, a disparity between the relative forces of electric and magnetic action, and their local separation and di- vergence from a common centre or axis, situated at the line of congelation, to the opposite, or superior and inferior regions of the atmosphere, incident thereto : that, on the contrary, on which this the opposite species of its meteoric action is based, is the temporary equalisation, and reversed or concen- tric action of these forces on this the axis, in com- mon, both of their divergence and convergence, which separates horizontally its opposite divisions, electric and magnetic : and which thence may ap- propriately be denominated the inverse, as its oppo- site the direct or divergent species of meteoric ac- tion. And thus, that, as soon as the equilibrium of the latter or direct species of meteoric action in any region of the atmosphere is overthrown, the site of its meteoric action is thence transferred from the surface of the earth beneath, and from the superior region above the line of congelation, to this its centre ; where the contrast which exists in the direc- tion of the currents equally as in the nature of the magnetic and electrical forces on either side, thus brought into collision with each other, constitute the idio-electric and anelectric principles or ground on which it forms ; and from which, in proportion 174 Opposite Species as the clouds it engenders increase, it extends itself on either side, accelerating as it progresses ; till, if sufficiently rapid, thunder and its accessories are developed. The period of its duration being pro- portioned to the amount of the secousse or overthrow sustained by the equilibrium of the opposite action, in which it originates ; and to the velocity or slow- ness with which, (according to the contrast sub- sisting between the opposite action electric and magnetic the season and nature of the locality,) it progresses. That a reversed action of the electric and mag- netic forces from either side, on the middle region of the atmosphere in the formation of rain, similar to that assumed, takes place on such occasions ; not only the fall of the mercury in the tube of the baro- meter, but the variations of the compass-needle which this species of meteoric action, when conside- rable, induces, sufficiently proves. As it is only the temporary attraction to the axis of this species of meteoric action in the middle region thus engen- dered, which by coming into collision with that of gravity, generated by the collective action of these forces throughout the body of the atmosphere on the mass of the earth beneath, combined with the derangement in the direction of the magnetic meri- dian derived from such collective action, thus in- duced, which could produce these effects. And, in the higher ranges of mountains during summer, where, owing to the weakness of the reflective ac- Of Meteoric Action. 1 75 tion of the sun, and the consequent weakness of its equilibrium in the atmosphere, the frequent changes which at times take place between this and the op- posite species of meteoric action in which rain has its source, are so palpably expressed by the sudden formation and disappearance of clouds on their sides and summits, that it has frequently attracted the attention of travellers in such regions to the circum- stance. Of this, the following extract from the writ- ings of the celebrated Arthur Young, while resident in the Pyrenees, will serve to convey an idea : " The heights of the mountains is such, that the clouds, perpetually broken, pour down quantities of rain." * * " They do not only arrest the fleet- ing ones which are passing in the atmosphere, but seem to have a generative power ; for you see small ones at first, like thin vapour rising out of glens, forming by degrees, till they become clouds, heavy enough to rest on the tops, or else rise into the at- mosphere, and pass away with others." Travels in France, vol. 1, page 57 and 58. And from having frequently witnessed in those mountains the circum- stance here alluded to, I can say from my own ob- servation, that the line on which these clouds com- mence to form, is always that described by the base of the snows which continually rest on their sum- mits; and which thus forms the boundary between their opposite regions, electric and magnetic. The principle assumed in reference to the source of this 176 The Winds, or species of meteoric action in the atmosphere, being in this instance proved by the fact ; and from its being so near and palpable, in a manner as little liable to error or deception, as though it passed within the precincts of a laboratory. CHAP. XV. The Winds, or Currents of the Atmosphere. AGAIN, as, according to the law of electrical and magnetic currents, when, as in the atmosphere, the action of these forces is combined, they cross each other at right angles ; and that it is the position of the magnetic meridian which determines that of its opposite, the electrical. And that, as w r e perceive, these opposite meridians in their direction, look to the opposite cardinal points of the world : it were probably not only curious but important to ascertain the connexion which the winds or currents of the atmosphere have with the axes formed by the meri- dians of these opposite actions of the sun ; but more particularly during the opposite seasons of summer and winter, or periods of their alternate domination and retrogression. For, as the axis of the winds, or that on which they progress, as observed in a preceding paragraph, is always at right angles with their course or direction ; and that the same ana- Currents of the Atmosphere. 177 logy exists between the electrical and magnetic currents induced by the opposite actions of the sun ; and that the current in the inferior region of the at- mosphere originated by the existing dominant ac- tion, particularly in the vicinity of its main focus, as proved by the trade-winds of the tropics, has for axis, that of its opposite, the weaker action of the sun, and is, in consequence, on the line, and in the direction of its progression. It would follow, assuming the existence of a connexion between the currents of the atmosphere and the axes formed by the opposite actions of the sun in its body, that as the changes in the weather to rain, are, as shown, induced by the changes which take place in the weaker action of the sun ; that in like manner it is the axis of the latter action, which determines the direction of the winds. And as, with the change of the seasons, that which, during six months, had been the retrogressive or weaker action of the sun, becomes in turn, during the succeeding six months, the dominant or more powerful action ; this will, probably, help to explain the source of the periodical changes which half-yearly take place in the direc- tion, not only of the trade-winds and other currents of the tropics, but generally throughout the different regions of the opposite hemispheres. And, as from the tropics we advance to the higher latitudes, and that the opposite actions of the sun become more nearly balanced one to the other, thence why it is, N 178 The Winds, or that, as partaking more equally of both, the axes, as the direction of the winds, vary from the true axes of both actions ; forming, as the winds in the middle latitudes usually do, angles more or less considerable with the cardinal points ; and that they but seldom, as in the vicinity of the tropic or pole, are in their direction parallel with the axis of the dominant ac- tion. Which, assuming these data to be correct, would give us a truer idea of the theory of the winds, than what, as far as I am aware of, has yet been proposed on this important subject. And if, as as- sumed, the axis of the weaker action of the sun, de- termines in all cases the position of the axis of the winds ; and that their direction can no longer be considered as depending on accident: as by means of a knowledge of the lunar action on the weather, those acquainted with it will be enabled to see in advance the periods when storms are to be appre- hended ; the principles noticed, will likewise enable persons to ascertain their direction at these the pe- riods when they are expected to occur, with the same certainty as other effects in physics, whose princi- ples are known. Observation, however, will be re- quired, in order the better to ascertain the various bearings of this subject ; with the view of giving to it, as connected with navigation, all the utility of which it is susceptible. It is hardly necessary to add, that the position of the axis of the winds in the atmosphere, as here understood, is that of the line of Currents of the Atmosphere. 179 congelation in its middle region. Again, as with the exception of the equinoxes, when, from the equalization in the times, or length of the day and night throughout both hemispheres, that the oppo- site actions of the sun electric and magnetic are equally balanced one to the other ; a difference be- tween the relative forces of these actions exists throughout the remainder of the year. This causes that during the opposite seasons of summer and winter, these the opposite actions of the sun on the atmosphere, are, as noticed, divisible into a dominant and subordinate action ; the electric action of the sun during summer being the dominant, and the magnetic the subordinate action ; and at the oppo- site season of the year, or during winter, vice versa. And it being, as assumed, the changes in the subor- dinate or weaker action of the sun, which during these seasons induces the occurrence of rain ; and that under this point of view, these the opposite ac- tions of the sun are further divisible into an exciting and a sustaining force ', which change their positions relatively with that of the seasons. To this the change which takes place in the ground of meteoric action in summer and winter, is probably owing the marked change which takes place in the acces- sory phenomena by which rain is usually accompa- nied at these opposite seasons of the year. The better, however, to understand this, equally as the principle in which the winds have their source, N2 180 The Winds, or it becomes necessary to recur to the circumstance as connected with electric or meteoric action in the at- mosphere already noticed, viz. that it originates at one arid the same time directly opposite forces attractive and repulsive. Which circumstance is only to be accounted for on the principle of the op- posite directions taken by electric and magnetic ac- tion when, as in the various meteors of atmosphere, combined. This, in the first place, causes, that, as connected with the atmosphere of the opposite he- mispheres of the earth, the position of the magnetic meridians on either side, is that which determines both the position and direction of the centre or main axis of electric action at the line, by which they are separated ; and on the other, that it is this latter, or main axis of electric action at the line which, in turn, is the base or ground of projection to its opposite, magnetic action, from which, thus combined as it is with electric, it diverges on either side to their opposite poles. These forces in this their union, as we perceive, thus mutually acting on, and re-acting from each other: as each forms the base or ground either of convergence or divergence to its opposite. And, as being a consequence of the convergence of the electric action of the sun from the opposite extremes of these hemispheres to its centre at the line, together with the earth's movement of rotation, from west to east, the trade- winds of the tropics are esteemed to be effects ; hav- Currents of the Atmosphere. 181 ing their source, as assumed, in the force of repul- sion generated by the latter action. The force of these currents or winds, as connected with the con- centric action which induces them, being esteemed to express the sum or measure. The same opposi- tion of forces, attractive and repulsive, being equally generated in the meteors of the superior region of the atmosphere ; notwithstanding that, as contrasted with the former, they develope themselves differ- ently : for as it is in the principle of convergence to a centre or axis that these the meteors of the middle and superior region of the atmosphere have their source, it follows, according to this law of electric and magnetic action, that such convergence or prin- ciple of attraction in these meteors, gives birth to, and originates at the same time, an opposite or re- pulsive action from them to the same amount ; these opposite actions expressing mutually, each the sum of the other. This brings us to the principle in which the winds or currents connected with the latter class of meteors have their source ; they being, as assumed, contingent on the repulsive force originated by the opposite or concentric action in which, as stated, these meteors have their source. And, as being the counterparts of such concentric action, they are proportionally strong or more vio- lent, as the latter action which originates them is more powerful ; and vice versa : their relations in this respect being esteemed invariable. And as, 182 The Winds, $c. of the Atmosphere. when such meteors form on an electrical ground, as in summer, and in the lower latitudes, (i. e. when the electric action of the sun in the inferior region of the atmosphere, as contrasted with its opposite, is the dominant action,) from the action in which they have their source being, in general, more con- centric than when under opposite circumstances, as in winter and in the higher latitudes, they form on a magnetic; the first effect of the repulsive force thus created is, usually, to originate the explosive phenomenon of thunder. And of this force, the lightning and thunderbolt may be considered to ex- press the sum, equally as that of the concentric ac- tion in the meteor which originates it ; and of which storm and hurricane are but different modes of de- velopment. These latter, as in winter and in the higher latitudes, owing to the action in the meteor which induces them being less concentric than in the thunder-cloud, or when it forms on an electrical ground, being the usual manner in which this the repulsive force it engenders develops itself. And which difference in the manner of development of the repulsive force in these meteors, may probably be further owing to the acting and exciting prin- ciple in the former case, or thunder-cloud, being the inflammable base of the superior region more par- ticularly connected with magnetic action hydro- gen: as in the latter its opposite oxygen. The principle, however, being the same in both ; as with- Meteors, Sfc. 183 out the action of convergence in the meteor, to which they are referable, in the first instance, they could not in either case occur : contingent, as these opposite actions are assumed to be, on the funda- mental law of nature so frequently noticed the union of opposite progressions of the same kind. CHAP. XVL Connexion observable betiveen certain Classes of Localities and of Meteors with each other, equally as with the Changes respectively in each of the Meteoric Circles Annual, Lunar, and Diur- nal. The Aurora Borealis. BUT, as the opposite actions of the sun on the at- mosphere revolve in three circles the diurnal, the lunar, and annual ; and of which, as constituting the ground of meteoric action in the former, it is the action in the latter or annual circle which chiefly de- termines the effects on the weather induced by the actions in the lunar and diurnal. And that, as no- ticed in a preceding paragraph, a fixed and deter- minate relation always exists between the relative amount of these the opposite actions of the sun in the annual circle and the position of the earth in the ecliptic. Both actions of the sun, as, from after the periods of the equinoxes they converge to their res- 184 Meteors, fyc. pective main foci in the opposite or summer and winter hemispheres, necessarily increase progres- sively, as the earth approaches its apsides at the solstices ; when, or rather some time after, from these being the periods of their greatest concentra- tion, these actions as connected with the annual circle, attain their maximum degrees of force on the temperature. To this circumstance, I say, and to the difference which occurs in the relative force of either action of the sun, whether in the summer or winter hemisphere, as it diverges from the site oc- cupied by its main focus, whether at the pole of the latter, or tropic of the former, it is owing, that in both hemispheres during these the opposite solstial seasons of summer and winter, there are certain lo- calities which, from the weather not being disturbed but by the great changes which take place in the annual circle, connected with those of the seasons, may be said more particularly to belong to the latter, or annual circle, viz. those which lie in the vicinity of the main foci of these the opposite ac- tions of the sun. And that, in proportion as we re- cede to a greater distance from these main foci, whether in descending from the pole of the winter hemisphere, or in ascending from the tropic of the opposite, that the relative force of the existing do- minant action of the sun on the atmosphere dimi- nishes, so as that the changes in the lunar circle are sufficiently powerful to induce changes in the wea 7 Meteors, $c. 185 ther, that thence there is another class of locali- ties in both hemispheres during these seasons, bor- dering on the former, which is more particularly connected with the lunar circle. And finally, that as in the mountainous districts of these the tempe- rate zones of both hemispheres, and in the vicinity of the sea, where, from the near approach to an equilibrium which, even in winter and summer, ex- ists between the opposite actions of the sun, that the changes in these actions which take place in the diurnal circle of their movement, are at times suffi- cient to induce changes in the weather. This causes that, similar to the annual and lunar, there is a third class of localities in both hemispheres, which, during summer and winter, may be said more particularly to belong to the diurnal circle, as connected with the ordinary changes of the weather. For, as regards those of a different class, or such as have their source in the changes which take place in the annual circle : as the actions in the lunar and diurnal circles are united with those in the former ; the periods of their occurrence usually correspond with those when, according to the order of their occurrence in the latter, they should occur; as being the expression of the conjoint action of all three at the time. It is further to be observed as not a little curious, that similar to the connexion observed to exist be- tween certain classes of localities and each of the 186 Meteors, fyc. three circles of meteoric action, as noticed, a like species of connexion appears to subsist between the appearance or occurrence of certain meteors, and the changes which take place in the meteoric action of each of these circles. As, for instance, it is only at the periods of the great changes which take place in the annual circle connected with those of the sea- sons, whether at the equinoxes, or during the winter progression or transition quarters, that either the larger class of globular meteors make their appearance in the middle or lower latitudes, or the aurora borealis in those lying further north. And, of which it may be further observed, that, owing to their being the result of a more powerful action, as that a greater depth of the atmosphere is affected thereby than is the case on ordinary occa- sions, these meteors are usually the precursors of some of the most violent storms of the year. Thun- der and its accessory phenomena, on the contrary, being usually the effects during spring and sum- mer of the changes which take place in the lunar action ; and with which the changes in the annual circle have no part. Dew and Fog,* as is known, * Fog, or mist, as is known, is the first stage of the meteor in which rain has its source ; and beyond which, when either of the contributing actions electric or magnetic which are esteemed necessary to the production of the rain- cloud, do not concur to the required extent, it does not progress. And as being illustra- tive that this is the case, it may be observed that though at Lima Meteors, $c. 187 being more particularly connected with the changes that take place in the diurnal circle. But to revert to the aurora lorealis, from its being a meteor which, as is known, has long excited the attention of the scientific world ; and that, as I conceive, a conclusive proof of the correctness of the principles assumed by our theory is to be derived from it ; I have thought it right to notice it in this place. Thus, as refers to the assumed connexion which subsists between the axes of the opposite ac- tions of the sun in the atmosphere, as between those of its meteors and currents, in traversing each other at right angles. And the assumption, that it is on the occurrence of rain is so unusual ; fog, or mist, on the contrary, during great part of the year, is of almost daily occurrence. And further, that in the polar skies during summer, this the frequency of fog, and absence of rain is likewise observable : thence, agree- able to this double testimony, we have proved in the clearest man- ner, the correctness of the principle assumed, in reference to the rain- cloud. As where at one extreme of the scale of these actions, in the climate of Lima, magnetic action is so disproportioned to its opposite in reference to the production of rain, we find the meteor in which it has its source, though frequently commenced, cannot, in consequence, progress beyond this its first stage : and that at its opposite extreme in the polar skies, from a similar disparity in electric action, as contrasted with magnetic, the result in this re- spect is still the same. And, consequently, as refers to the central regions of this meteoric scale, in either hemisphere, or where these opposite actions in the atmosphere are the most equally blended, why it is that, in these their temperate zones, the oc- currence of rain is the most frequent. 188 Meteors, fyc. the axis of the weaker or subordinate action of the sun in the middle or superior region of the atmos- phere, that the meteors form which are induced by the inverse or concentric action of these forces in those regions in which rain and its accessories have their source; as that the direction of the axis of the opposite or dominant action of the sun, is that of the currents in the inferior region which those me- teors induce. Under this point of view, esteeming the aurora borealis to be of the same species of me- teoric action as that in which thunder and its acces- sories have their source, i. e. the inverse or concen- tric action of the electric and magnetic forces in the region where it occurs : but with this difference, that as electricity is esteemed to be the ground of the meteor, as stated, in which thunder has its source, magnetic action, on the contrary, is es- teemed the base of the meteor in which the aurora has its source ; i. e. that, in the conjoint action of the electric and magnetic forces which has the pre- ponderance. And as this, according to the princi- ples assumed would, if correct, cause that the axis of the aurora should traverse the line described by the magnetic meridian ; we shall find that in every instance of its appearance such is the case. The angle which the axis of the aurora forms with the magnetic meridian varying with the distance from the pole being more completely a tracers or at right angles with it in the higher latitudes ; and, si- Meteors, fyc. 189 milar to the currents, deviating more or less from this as it approaches farther south : the storms which succeed, as should be the case, taking an op- posite direction. It may be further observed of the aurora, that, esteeming its coruscations to be of the same nature as the lightnings projected from the thunder-cloud, and that the direction of the latter is to the earth, or inferior region of the atmosphere, where, at the time, electricity is still in an idio-elec- tric state : and which direction of lightning to the inferior region, is probably an effect of the electric attraction which, as is known, exists between bodies in opposite states of electricity. Thus, as magne- tism is assumed to be the predominant action in the production of the aurora ; and that the lightning or corruscations it projects, instead of taking the direc- tion of the earth, ascend in the opposite, or to the zenith : may not the cause of this be that, as the base or ground of the meteor which originates the aurora is magnetic, and that, as in the instance of the thunder-cloud, as magnetism exists in the su- perior region of the atmosphere above it, similar to electricity, in the latter case, in the inferior region, in what may be denominated an idlo-magnetic, or different state from what it does in the meteor be- neath ; that this the direction of the corruscations of the aurora may not be an effect of the attraction which, as in the former case, may exist between bo- dies in opposite states of magnetism ? 190 Further Proof of Principles CHAR XVII. Further Proof of Principles, in reference to the as- sumed Influence of Magnetic Action, derived from the sudden and total Change of the Seasons at the Periods of the Equinoxes, on the opposite Sides of the Peninsula of India. AND, as being esteemed further illustrative of the important influence exercised by magnetic action in particular localities on the seasons and weather, assuming it to be the cause: in addition to the instance noticed in the climate of Lima, may be cited the total change from summer to winter, or from drought to rain, which at the periods of the equinoxes takes place on the opposite shores of the Peninsula of India, separated as they are by the lofty chain of mountains which traverses its centre, i. e. those of Malabar and Coromandel. A change so sudden and remarkable as to have not only at- tracted the attention, but excited the astonishment of naturalists; and of which the following ac- count, copied from the first volume of Raynal's cele- brated work on the Commerce of both the Indies, may serve to convey an idea: " L'Indostan n'est que le pays renferme entre 1' Indus et le Gange, deux fleuves celebres qui vont se jetter dans les mers As connected with Magnetic Action. 191 des Indes, a quatre oents lieues Tun de 1'autre. Ce long espace est traverse du Nord au midi, par une chaine de hautes montagnes, qui, le coupant par le milieu, va se terminer au Cap Camorin, en sepa- rant la cote de Malabar de celle de Coromandel. " Par une singularite frappante, et peut-etre unique, cette chaine est tine barriere que la nature semble avoir elevee entre les saisons opposes. La seule epaisseur de ces montagnes y separe 1'ete de 1'hiver; c'est-a-dire : la saison des beaux jours de celle de pluies: car on sait qu'il n'y a point d'hiver entre les Tropiques. Mais par ce mot, on entend aux Indes le terns de 1'annee ou les nuages, que le soleil pompe au sein de lamer, sont pousses violem- ment par les vents contre les montagnes, s'y brisent et se resolvent en pluies, accompagnees de frequens orages. De-la se forment des torrens qui se preci- pitent, grossisent les rivieres, inondent les plaines. Tout nage alors dans les tenebres humides, epaisses et profondes. Le jour meme est obscurci des plus noires vapeurs." * " L'ete, sans doute, con- serve mieux son caractere que 1'hiver dans cette re- gion du soleil. Le ciel sans aucun nuage qui inter- cepte ses rayons, y presente Taspect d'un airain em- brase." * " L'influence des deux saisons est encore plus marquee sur les deux mers de 1'Inde, ou on les distingue sous le nom de moussons seches et pluvieuse. Tandis que le soleil, revenant sur ses pas, amene au printems la saison des tempetes et 192 Further Proof of Principles des naufrages pour la mer qui baigne la cote dc Malabar, celle de Coromandel voit les plus lagers vaisseaux voguer sans aucun risque, sur un mer tran- quille, ou les pilotes n'ont besoin ni de science, ni de precaution. Mais Vautomne, a son tour, changeant la face des elemens, fait passer le calme sur la cote Occidentale, et les or ages sur la mer orient ale des Indes; transporte la paix ou etoit la guerre, et la guerre ou etoit la paix. L'insulaire de Ceylon, les yeux tournes vers la region de 1'Equateur, aux deux saisons de I 'Equinox, voit alternativement les flots tourmentes a sa droite et paisable a sa gauche; comme si 1'auteur de la nature tournoit tout-a-coup, en ces deux momens d'equilibre, la balance des fleaux et des bienfaits qu'il tient perpetuellement en ses mains. Peut-etre meme est-ce dans 1'Inde, oa les deux empires du bien et du mal semblent netre separe que par un rampart de montagnes, qu' est ne le dogme des deux principes, dogme done I'homme ne s'affrancbira peut-etre jamais entiere- ment, tant qu'on ignorera les vues profondes de 1'etre tout-puissant qui crea 1'univers." Histoires Philosophiques, tome 1, pag. 55 et suiv. When, even in the comparatively enlightened times in which we live, the rank weeds of supersti- tion still flourish, and continue to extend their baleful influence over so large a portion of society ; it is not to be wondered at if, during the protracted night of " cimmerian darkness " which so long As connected with Magnetic Action. 193 hung over the human mind, and paralysed its ener- gies ; the extraordinary spectacle presented by the sudden revolution of the seasons in regions of the atmosphere so proximate as are those at the opposite sides of the peninsula of India at the periods of the equinoxes, should, from the profound impression it was so well calculated to make on the sensitive tem- perament of its inhabitants, have as conjectured by Raynal, first suggested the idea of personifying the opposite principles of good and evil; and which thence diverging, probably extended to Egypt, and other countries of the East, has served as the basis of the various systems of theology which, during so many ages, have continued to distract, disgrace, and bewilder so large a portion of the human race. Thus, as in other cases, showing the intimate connexion which has always existed between the moral and physical world; and the powerful influence exer- cised by external nature on the opinions, the ha- bits, and institutions, both civil and religious of mankind. For, it were vain to seek elsewhere for such striking proofs of the influence exercised by the principles which preside over and determine the variations of the temperature, and other pheno- mena of the seasons, as those induced by the equi- noxes on the shores of the peninsula of India. And it will serve to place in a true light all that had to be done, in order to arrive at the cause of these extraordinary changes, when even so en- o 1 94? Further Proof of Principles lightened a man as Raynal, could carry his specula- tions no further, or assign any other reason for them, than the thickness, (epaisseur,) of the mountains which separate these opposite regions ! Little sus- pecting, that the true cause of these changes, lay in the transition, which, at these the periods of the equinoxes, takes place between the chief sites of magnetic action in the earth and sun, i. e. from the pole of the approaching summer, to that of the approaching winter hemisphere of the earth, and of the opposite magnetic pole of the sun, as connected with the elliptical movement of the former round the latter, already described. And which, in con- sequence of these mountains in their direction tra- versing, and forming a slight angle from north-east, to south-west, with the magnetic meridian, and thence of their opposite sides looking to the oppo- site magnetic poles of the earth, from their posi- tion nearly under the equator, and their great eleva- tion, which causes that they serve as the natural boundary of the opposite hemispheres, equally as the barrier, on either side, to the meteoric range of the acting magnetic pole of the earth in those skies: by the reverberation of the magnetic action of this the pole of the winter hemisphere in the in- ferior region of the atmosphere, at this the extreme limit of its direct influence, by the side alternately opposed to it by these mountains, thus inducing these sudden and extraordinary changes in the seasons, As connected with Magnetic Action. 195 on the shores of Malabar and Coromandel, at these the periods of the year when the transitions in the local site of this action take place. Such, as as- sumed, being the true cause of these changes, and, consequently, the explanation of this important pro- blem in meteorology. The spectacle of these changes, it may be added, having been in some sort neces- sary, in order that it might be the means, from its being so palpable and direct, of carrying conviction even to the dullest capacity, in reference to the na- ture, and extensive influence exercised by magnetic action on the seasons and weather, equally as on the elliptical movement of the earth, and, by ana- logy, of the remainder of the planets : it being im- possible, in the entire list of natural causes, to find any other adequate to the production of these ef- fects. Thus shewing, as the fact is so well calcu- lated to do, that it was only by the discovery and development of meteorological principles, that the knowledge of astronomical principles could have been, at any time, arrived at. o 2 196 Tendence of Meteoric Action CHAP. XVIII. Tendence of Meteoric Action in the Atmosphere, as connected with the Annual and Lunar Circle. BUT the latter is not the only point of view in which these changes of the seasons at the extremity of Hindoostan claim our attention ; as by them we are likewise supplied with the most unerring data in reference to one of the most difficult and important departments of meteorology, viz. those which influ- ence and determine the tendencies either to drought or humidity, whether as connected with the annual or lunar circle of meteoric action. Which, it may be added, are of a nature such, as, throughout the year, and in every latitude and species of locality, exercise so marked an influence on the seasons and weather, that without some acquaintance with these the principles to which they are referable, calcula- tion in regard to expected changes in the weather, would still continue to be, as heretofore, both doubt- ful and imperfect. And as from the actions in the annual circle being the ground of the actions in the lunar and diurnal, they are those which throughout the year exercise the greatest influence on the sea- sons and weather ; the circumstances which deter- mine the changes in these tendencies in the latter, In the Atmosphere, fyc. 197 are those necessarily which first claim our attention. And as the operation of the causes connected with these changes in the annual circle are sooner felt, and more strongly marked in the weather, in the vi- cinity of the sites occupied by the main foci of the opposite actions of the sun, in the lower latitudes, and polar regions, than in those which lie between : this brings us to a re-consideration of the principles, under the present point of view, connected with the sudden changes which, at the periods of the equi- noxes, take place in the seasons, on the opposite shores of Malabar and Coromandel. These changes, as we perceive, instead of advancing, as elsewhere, by slow and, as it were, imperceptible degrees ; being, as described, both sudden and entire. And assuming the cause of these changes, as stated, to consist in the transition which at the equinoxes takes place in the magnetic action of the sun from the pole of the approaching summer, to that of the ap- proaching winter hemisphere of the earth ; the first circumstance to notice, as connected with them is, that the extremes of the lever, to the alternate changes in the action of which they are referable, are not confined to either, but extend to the extre- mities of these the opposite hemispheres : this lever being no other than the line or meridian which con- nects their opposite magnetic poles. And which, as the main force or amount of the magnetic action of the sun at each succeeding equinox, becomes alter- 198 Tendence of Meteoric Action nately transferred from one to the other of these poles, of the sudden revolution in the direction of magnetic action throughout the hody of the atmos- phere, consequent thereon, the violent phenomena which, from these the periods of their occurrence, are called the equinoctial gales, are to be esteemed the first effects ; and which subsequently, or after the equilibrium of magnetic action is anew restored in the direction thus given to it ; and that, with the advance of the season, its force increases in the vicinity of the pole : as this action continues to weigh on, and sink the temperature in the winter he- misphere, it serves, by its gradual diminution in the opposite, to elevate it in the latter to the same ex- tent. And thus, as from after the autumnal equi- nox we approach the period of the winter solstice as being connected with the gradual fall of its tem- perature, the increasing force of magnetic action in the winter hemisphere, induces a continual tendence in the weather during this period of the year to rain : as, owing to the operation of a totally different prin- ciple, viz. the consecutive increase of electric ac- tion, the tendence of the weather in the opposite or summer hemisphere during the same interval, is to drought. This necessarily causes that, similar to the seasons, the tendence of meteoric action in the opposite hemispheres of the earth, from the equi- noxes to the solstices is constantly contrasted ; and that, by means of these the changes of position alter- In the Atmosphere , fyc. 199 nately in the magnetic, equally as in the electric ac- tion of the sun at the periods of the equinoxes, both at the poles and tropics, similar to the opposite strokes of the steam-engine connected with its move- ment of rotation, it is, that the annual revolution of the seasons and weather in both hemispheres, is up- held and perpetuated. And, as from the union of the electrical and mag- netic forces in the atmosphere, there must of neces- sity exist in its body a common centre, to and from which, with the changes of the seasons, they con- verge and diverge to their opposite main foci in the opposite hemispheres ; and which as being the true limit of meteoric action in either, can be no other, as already noticed, than the magnetic equator by which they are separated. It is easy to see that in these the periodical changes which, at the equinoxes take place in the sites of the main foci of these forces from either hemisphere to the opposite, that as the point of their horizontal collision at these periods, must be on the line of the magnetic equator, that it is on, or in the vicinity of the latter they should first induce those changes in the seasons and wea- ther, incident thereto. And this will serve to show why, as proved by the fact, that, owing to the posi- tion and local influence exercised by the chain of mountains which separates the opposite sides of the peninsula of India, it is here where these periodical changes in the opposite actions of the sun first pro- 200 Tendence of Meteoric Action duce their effects on the seasons and weather. And that, as the magnetic equator, or axis of magnetic action, is situated at, or in the vicinity of the line, and is, in those regions, consequently, the weaker action of the sun ; conformable to the law in refer- ence to the concentric action of these forces in the atmosphere already stated, viz. that the meteoric action incident thereto always forms on the line described by the axis of the weaker force. Thus, that changes in the weather at the periods of the equinoxes should, in the first instance, as they com- mence at the junction of the opposite hemispheres, be in their direction east and west. And that as, with the advance of the season, the magnetic action of the sun increased in the winter, as its electric in the opposite or summer hemisphere of the earth ; their effects of inducing an increased tendence to rain in the former, as to drought in the latter, should gradually develop themselves further, in the direction of the poles; till, about the periods of the solstices these opposite tendencies on either hand, would have attained their maximum degree, and greatest extension throughout the various regions of both. These the opposite actions of the sun, with the opposite tendencies in the weather which they induce, similar to two waves diverging from a com- mon centre in opposite directions, thus, at the pe- riods of the equinoxes, diverging from the line de- scribed by the magnetic equator ; and, with the ad- In the Atmosphere, fyc. 201 vance of the seasons, gradually extending their ef- fects over both hemispheres, thence to the opposite poles. But, as the magnetic action of the sun in the winter hemisphere, though at first it induces rain, ultimately, or as soon as, whether at, or subsequent to the winter solstice, it causes the temperature to fall below the freezing point, (similar to its elec- tric action in the opposite,) induces a change of tendency in the weather to drought. And further, that the contrast in the weather of the opposite he- mispheres induced by these the opposite actions of the sun, is much greater as connected with its oppo- site states of drought and humidity, than with the rise or fall of the temperature ; as proved by the contrasts in the lower latitudes at the periods of the equinoxes so frequently alluded to. This causes, that, when at, or subsequent to the solstice in the winter hemisphere, and owing to the great fall of the temperature, the tendence in its atmosphere is to drought ; that it has the effect, at this period, of inducing an opposite tendency in the atmosphere of the summer hemisphere. And as, of the three conditions which chiefly de- termine the relative force of the opposite actions of the sun on the atmosphere, viz. distance, magni- tude, and length of exposition: the first, as con- nected with the proximity of places to the main focus of its electric action at the line, and the latter, or greater length of exposition to the solar action, 202 Tendence of Meteoric Action owing to the greater length of the day ; induces a more powerful development of this the electric ac- tion of the sun during summer, in the higher and lower latitudes of either hemisphere, than in those which lie between. This causes that, as the rela- tive force of the solar action in the summer hemis- phere about the period of the solstice, is much less in its central latitudes, or temperate zone, than in those on either side ; the change in the tendence of meteoric action in the regions of the latter, at this period, is much more apparent, and sensibly felt in the weather than in the polar or tropical skies. And that, in tracing as to their source the rains which about the period of the summer solstice usually set in with us, and continue thence to about the middle of July, or period of greatest cold in the southern hemisphere ; to this the change of tendence to drought, in the latter, incident to the annual fall of its temperature during this period,- the change of meteoric tendence with us, and the rains it induces, are to be ascribed. About the period of St. Swithin, however, if the calorific action of the sun be suffi- ciently powerful, the tendence of meteoric action again undergoes a change with us to drought ; which continues till interrupted by the setting in of the autumnal equinox. But, owing to the usual weak- ness of the solar action with us at this period of the year, the latter change in the weather at St. Swithin but rarely occurs ; and thence it generally happens In the Atmosphere, fyc. 203 that the tendence to rain which sets in about the solstice, continues, with little interruption, to the autumnal equinox. But, to revert to principles : it may be stated as a general rule, that, whether in summer or winter, in tracing as to its source the existing tendence in the weather, whether to rain or drought, it will be found in the tendence of an opposite kind, which at the time exists in the opposite or southern hemis- phere of the earth. Thus showing the intimate connexion which subsists between meteoric action in the most distant regions of the atmosphere, however seemingly remote ; and the necessity which occurs of grappling with the ensemble of this action in the atmosphere of both hemispheres, in order to arrive at a knowledge of the principles by which it is de- termined. Thus, as refers to the annual circle : the tendence of meteoric action from the autumnal equinox to the winter solstice, is to rain : being an effect of the share magnetic action at all times has in its forma- tion ; its increase during this period being conse- cutive ; and which, acting on an opposite or electri- cal ground in the inferior region of the atmosphere, necessarily induces this effect. To this, if the tem- perature sinks below the freezing point, and conti- nues so during some time ; an interval of drought succeeds, till the period of the extreme degree of winter cold ; or about a month after the solstice. 204 Tendence of Meteoric Action Thence, till after the period of the vernal equinox and the phenomena connected with it, the tendence of the weather is to rain, being an effect of the tran- sition in the temperature consequent on the increase of the electric action of the sun, acting on a magne- tic lase in the inferior region of the atmosphere, while yet the latter is the dominant action of the sun. From after the autumnal equinox to the pe- riod of the summer solstice, the tendence of the wea- ther is again to drought, being an effect of the do- mination and consecutive increase during this period of the electric action of the sun. And, finally, (owing to the fall of temperature and opposite ten- dency consequent thereon in the winter hemisphere,) the tendence of the weather from the period of the summer solstice till after the extreme degree of sum- mer heat about a month subsequently, is to rain ; but more generally, as stated, to the period of the autumnal equinox. The scale of variation in the weather of the seasons, as here sketched, is chiefly such as occurs in our skies, or the temperate zones of both hemispheres ; as matters in this re- spect are very different, both in the vicinity of the poles and tropics. And thus it will be seen that the meteoric division of the annual circle or year, varies with the season, the latitude, and the nature of the locality. But as the variations connected with latitude and locality, however extensive and influential, are, In the Atmosphere, fyc. 205 from being better known, subordinate in inter- est to those connected with the changes that take place in the seasons of different years : the latter more particularly claim our attention in this place. And, as these changes do not fall equally on the dif- ferent quarters of the year, it will be necessary, in the first place, to point out the natural division of the annual circle as connected with these variations. Thus, the equinoxes and solstices, being the oppo- site cardinal points of the annual circle ; its first di- vision, as laid down in the diagram of the annual circle, which will be found in the subjoined paper on the lunar action on the weather, is, according to the lines which connect them. And as, from the extreme degree of summer heat, as of winter cold, being each an effect of the extreme concentration of the existing dominant action of the sun by which it is induced, it necessarily falls after the period of the solstice ; and that the changes which occur in the seasons of different years depend on those of the temperature. Thus, in addition to the lines which connect the cardinal points of the annual circle, it became necessary to add a third, to connect the points at which, subsequent to the solstices, these the opposite extreme degrees of annual temperature are supposed to occur; and which, together with the latter, express the line of greatest variation in the opposite actions of the sun. And, as contrasted with the latter, or line of greatest variation, it be- 206 Tendence of Meteoric Action came equally necessary to introduce another, or fourth line, traversing the latter, or line of greatest variation, and terminating on the opposite sides of that of the solstices, about equidistant from the latter points on the one side, as the line of greatest variation on the other, as being that of permanent uniformity in the opposite actions of the sun ; i. e. that of the opposite points of the annual circle pre- ceding the solstices, where the least variation occurs in the solar action. The necessity which existed for the introduction of this latter division into the meteoric chart of the year, will appear from the cir- cumstance that, as the lunar action on the weather is always determined both in its nature and effects by the meteoric ground in the annual circle on which it acts ; and that, with the exception of this the line of uniformity, the solar action is so variable in its other divisions, that, without its existence, in order to substantiate by a uniformity of effects on the weather produced at these periods of the year by it, the lunar action, it were impossible to afford such proofs of the latter, as the nature of the subject re- quired, and which, by carrying conviction in their course, would satisfy the most sceptical as to its ex- istence, equally as to its nature and extent. And as in regard to certain points connected with phy- sics, it is only by analogy we are enabled to speak with certainty ; did there not exist proofs of a na- ture so conclusive, in reference to the existence and In the Atmosphere, c. 207 extent of the lunar action on the weather, as those afforded at the opposite periods of the year alluded to ; and that in the absence of them we were de- prived of every thing like certainty^ in regard to the existence of a planetary or cometary influence on the temperature and weather of the seasons ; it is easy to see the irreparable loss to this the first of sciences meteorology which would thence ensue. By means of the proofs afforded at these periods of the year, however, in reference to the existence and nature of the lunar action on the temperature and weather ; from the analogy being perfect we are thus, for the first time, enabled to speak with cer- tainty on this important subject. And further, to trace as to their primary cause the source of those variations observable in the temperature and wea- ther of the seasons of different years, viz. to the changes which take place, whether in planetary or cometary influence, arising from the changes which, similar to those of the moon, are continually taking place in the position of these bodies in reference to the sun and earth. And as in nature all is simple, because all is perfect; thus it is that her principles of action being once ascertained, every thing like difficulty disappears, in reference to tracing her phenomena through their different bearings and re- lations. 208 Variations in the Temperature CHAP. XIX. The Variations in the Temperature and Seasons of different Years, esteemed to be Effects produced by the Changes which take place in the meteoric Action of the external Planets, as of Comets, on our Atmosphere. THUS, the fundamental principle on which the whole of the dispositions of nature in the physical world are founded, being, as assumed, that of unity; and which, as refers to astronomy and meteorology, implies the existence of a connexion between the different members of the solar system, however di- vided or distant one from the other : and which, if so, could only exist or be upheld by means of a bond such, as from being applicable to all, at the same time embraced within the sphere of its opera- tion the entire of their superficies. Thus it is that reflective action between the sun and planets, as be- ing that only which answers to these conditions, is esteemed to be, as noticed, the principle of this con- nexion, and the first cause in physics ; it being, as assumed, the vehicle by means whereof the collec- tive action of the electrical and magnetic forces, dis- tributed throughout these bodies, is conveyed to each; varying in reference to the action of either And Seasons of different Years. 209 force on their seasons, with the variation in the re- lative position of these bodies to each other, and to the sun. The sum of this reflective action, in every instance, being greatest when these bodies are in their syzygies, as proved by the tides at the periods of the equinoxes, and lunar syzygies ; and its effects on the temperature being greatest as they approach the periods of their quadratures; as shewn by the earth at the solstices. The action of these the su- perior and inferior planets, as of comets, similar to that of the moon, is, as already stated, esteemed to be positive or electrical at and subsequent to the periods of their syzyges; and negative or magnetic at arid subsequent to those of their quadratures : and, as being a consequence, that they have the ef- fect of rising the temperature of our seasons at the former, as of lowering it at the latter periods. And as the forces of nature in the solar system cannot be supposed to undergo either increase or diminution ; and that it is only by a homogeneous principle or action that variations in the temperature and other phenomena of the seasons could be induced ; where, I would ask, are we to look for the source of these variations, if not in the changes which, with those of their positions, take place in the meteoric action of these bodies, as assumed ? For as, according to the principle of reflective action, as understood by our theory, nothing connected with the planetary world can be neuter; but, on the contrary, that the P 210 Variations in the Temperature forces electrical and magnetic, connected with each of the bodies which compose its members, are al- ways, as regards the others, in a state of activity; it will follow, admitting the change in the nature of the meteoric action of these bodies on each other, with that of their positions, that the same body must, according to its position, whether by increas- ing the sum of electric or magnetic action in our at- mosphere, have the effect, at one period of adding to, and at another of detracting from, the tempera- ture of our seasons. Which, as regards comets, will serve to account for the contradictory state- ments we have, in regard to the seasons on which they have appeared; increased heat, earthquakes, &c. being attributed to some, and increased cold, excessive rains, &c. to others ; of which the follow- ing statement, copied from the Observer Dublin paper, of the 17th October, 1835, will serve to con- vey an idea, viz. " Portents of Comets. In 1005, the appearance of the comet was attended by a great famine, (probably induced by excessive heat;) "in 1080, by an earthquake; in 1155, by a cold winter and a failure of crops; in 1230, by rains and inundations, (part of Friesland was overwhelmed, with 100,000 inhabitants;) in 1304, by great drought, and intense cold in the following winter, succeeded by a pestilence. In 1310, by a still more destructive contagion. In 1456, by wet weather, inundations, and earthquakes; again, in 1531, by And Seasons of different Years. 211 great floods; in 1607, by extreme drought, followed by a most severe winter. In 1682, by floods and earthquakes. In 1759, by some wet, and slight earthquakes. Those of 1795, 1807, and 1811, by extreme hot and unhealthy weather; as the present portentous one, foretold by Dr. Edmund Halley, hence called " H alley's Comet/ 1 If, as I am dis- posed to do, we admit the existence of cometary in- fluence on the temperature and seasons, these state- ments, as will be seen, can be only reconciled on the principles assumed. And, in reference to comets, equally as the superior and inferior planets, I esteem this agency to be more influential in proportion to their greater magnitude and vice versa, the circum- stance of distance being the same; and conse- quently, as regards the latter bodies, that Jupiter, Saturn, and the Uranus, are those which exercise the greatest influence on the temperature and other phenomena of our seasons. And if I may be allowed to produce some recent instances in proof of the ex- istence and extent of cometary and planetary in- fluence on the seasons ; sufficiently striking illus- trations appear to be furnished by the uninterrupted mildness of the winters, and heat of the summers since 1830; when, as will be recollected, it was an- nounced in the almanacs, that the whole of the su- perior planets were in opposition, or at the periods of their syzyges, including the appearance of Hal- ley's comet in 1835. A mildness of the winters, it P 2 212 Lunar Action on the Weather. may be observed, not peculiar to the countries of the middle and lower latitudes; as a gentleman from St. Petersburg assured me, that during this interval, rain has been known sometimes to occur there about Christmas; a circumstance almost un- precedented, he added, in that northern region, at so late a period of the year. CHAP. XX. Isunar Action on the Weather. Connexion of Magnetic Action with the Principle of planetary Cold, proved by the Relation which subsists be- tween the relative Mildness or Severity of the Winter in either Hemisphere, with the relative Drought or Humidity of the Summer in the Op- posite. HAVING thus, by means of the proofs derived from the lunar action on the weather, been enabled to speak with certainty of the existence and nature of planetary and cometary influence on the seasons. Though in the succeeding Part, but little connected with the subject of the lunar action is omitted ; yet I esteem the following short observations as not un- called-for in this place. It being, as noticed, the changes connected with the weaker action of the sun, both in winter and Lunar Action on the Weather. 213 summer, which cause changes in the weather to rain ; thus it is, considered as a general rule, that it is the lunar action which at the time is in contrast with the existing dominant action of the sun in the annual circle, which, according to the order of its occurrence, as connected with the lunar action, in- duces such changes: this order being occasionally changed, owing to the influence on the weather ex- ercised, where it occurs, by local causes. And thence, as proved by the fact, it is the positive lunar tides, or those at the syzyges, in winter ; and the negative lunar tides, or those of the quadratures, in summer ; which usually induce the occurrence of rain and its accessory phenomena. This being more particu- larly the case from the equinoxes to the solstices, or periods of the year when, as stated, the least va- riation in the opposite actions of the sun on the op- posite hemispheres takes place. From this it follows, as a general rule, that the same action of the moon, induces directly opposite effects on the weather in the opposite or summer and winter hemispheres of the earth. And as in contrasting the winter, and summer progression quarters, or those which extend from the equinoxes to the solstices ; the effects of the lunar action on the weather are more strongly marked, or conspicuous, in the former, than in the latter season, because of their connexion with storm, &c. Thus, on the principle of contrast, no- ticed, consequent on the same action of the moon. 214 Lunar Action on tlie Weather. in the weather of the opposite hemispheres, the surest guide for calculating in advance the ap- proaching changes of the weather with us during the months of April, May, and early part of June, is that supplied by the contrast in the weather, at the time, produced by the lunar action in the op- posite or winter hemisphere. For as the lunar ac- tion at the syzyges, during these months, is sure to induce storm and rain in the southern hemisphere ; thus it is that these periods of the moon with us are usually accompanied by fair weather and a marked rise of temperature. And, on the other hand, as the second quadrature of the moon with us in De- cember immediately preceding the period of the winter solstice, usually brings with it the fast frost, or fall of temperature below the freezing point, ac- companied, necessarily, by drought and fair wea- ther; and that the same period of the moon, in the month of June preceding the solstice, may be sup- posed to produce the same fall of temperature in the atmosphere of the southern hemisphere, and return to fair weather. To this, as to its true cause, may, probably, be ascribed the period of storm, which at, and subsequent to the second quadrature of the moon, in the early part of June, usually occurs in our skies: so intimate being the connexion which subsists between the extremes of this most potent, though unsubstantial lever, however distant; as it Lunar Action on the Weather. 215 ascends or descends in the atmosphere of either he- misphere, on the phenomena of the opposite. But as, to the uniformity in the opposite actions of the sun during these the summer and winter pro- gression quarters is chiefly to be ascribed the uni- formity in the effects of the lunar action on the weather ; and that at and after the periods of the solstices this uniformity in the solar actions no longer exists ; but gives place to the periods of their greatest variation, which immediately follow : and that, as in other cases, corresponding changes in the effects consequent on these variations must result therefrom. Thus it is, in reference to the lunar ac- tion immediately after, as contrasted with the pe- riods which precede the solstices. For, owing to those variations in the relative amount of the oppo- site actions of the sun, combined with the change which with that of the actions in the diurnal circle takes place in the length of the day and night im- mediately after the solstices. To the periods of greatest regularity in the effects of the lunar action, succeed during these the summer and winter transi- tion quarters, (i. e. from the solstices to the equi- noxes,) those of the greatest irregularity in the ef- fects of the lunar action on the weather. Notwith- standing, however, that during these seasons the lu- 'nar action can no longer, as before, answer, with any degree of certainty, the purposes of calcula- tion ; it does not follow but that we are still supplied 216 Connexion of Magnetic Action with an equally sure guide to the approaching changes of the weather. For, as these are the pe- riods of the year when the opposite actions of the sun in the annual circle, exercise the greatest in- fluence, (because in some measure detached from those of the moon,) on the temperature and weather ; by means of the contrast, (even more strongly marked during these, than in the progression quar- ters by which they are preceded,) in the effects in- duced by the opposite actions of the sun on the wea- ther of the opposite hemispheres, this defect in the lunar action is compensated for. Thus, as in the winter hemisphere, the first tendence in the weather immediately after the solstice, is to frost and drought; the first tendence in the opposite or summer hemis- phere, after the solstice, is to rain: and the more decided the tendence to drought in the former, the more decided is the opposite tendence in the wea- ther of the latter; and vice versa. And thence it follows that, from the state of the weather after the solstice, in either hemisphere, we are enabled to know with every degree of certainty, the nature of the season, and state of the weather at the time in the opposite. Slight rains with us, for instance, af- ter the summer solstice, being indicative of much rain, and a mild winter in the southern hemisphere ; and vice versa. And these facts, it may be added, are the more important, when it is considered that these opposite With the Temperature. 217 states of the weather in the opposite hemispheres of the earth, after the solstices on such years, (i. e. on mild winters and hot summers, being, as they are assumed to be, effects of the dimi- nution of magnetic action in the annual circle at the time : as drought and intense cold, in the winter hemisphere, simultaneously with heavy rains, in the opposite, are, in like manner, indicative of increased force in the magnetic action of the sun, in the an- nual circle, on the seasons they occur,) go to show, in the clearest way, that a direct connexion exists between magnetic action and the temperature, or phenomenon of winter cold ; equally as between it and that of rain. For, assuming this to be the case, the connexion between the relative degree of winter cold in the one hemisphere, with that of the rela- tive amount of rain at the time in the opposite, be- comes equally clear and undoubted, as between magnetic action, and the relative humidity or drought of the climate of particular regions, agreeable to the greater or less amount of their ex- posure to the action of the proximate magnetic pole of the earth, as already noticed. And as, after about the interval of a month from the solstice, in the winter hemisphere, or period of greatest cold, the tendence in the weather changes from drought to humidity, which continues till the vernal equinox: in the same proportion as this ten- dence to rain in the winter hemisphere becomes 218 Lunar Action on the Weather. more decided ; the tendence of the weather in the opposite or summer hemisphere after the solstice, changes from rain to drought, as we approach the period of the autumnal equinox. And thus, the principle of contrast, as connected with meteoric action in the atmosphere of the opposite hemis- phere, considered as a principle of calculation, is, from the superior force and influence of the actions in the annual, than in the lunar circle, still less lia- ble to error in the former than in the latter. But distance, as already noticed, being one of the conditions which determines the amount, or re- lative force of the solar action on the planets, both in their individual and collective relations. And that as, with the change in the position of the moon in reference to the sun and earth, that when in con- junction, or at the change, as contrasted with her position when in opposition or at full moon, a dif- ference thus occurs between the relative force of the meteoric action of the moon on the atmosphere, as connected with the opposite sides of her orbit. Thus it is, though the actions are of the same name, that, throughout the year, a difference sufficiently marked exists between the effects on the weather equally as on the tides induced by the lunar actions both po- sitive and negative, from the period of the first quadrature, to that of the second, as contrasted with her actions from the latter to the former: both her negative action after the period of the se- Lunar Action on the Weather. 219 cond quadrature, as her positive action at, and sub- sequent to the change, being more powerful and in- fluential on the temperature and weather, than what these her opposite actions are, after the first quad- rature, and period of full moon, other circumstances being the same. And as effects necessarily vary with their causes; thence, as assumed, the source of the differ ence observable in the lunar action on the weather, as of the tendence of meteoric action throughout the year, on the opposite sides of the lu- nar circle, as divided by the line of the apsides ; as will be found more fully noticed in the second part. And that, from after the antumnal, to the vernal equinox, or period of the domination of the mag- netic action of the sun in the annual circle, from its being the more powerful electric action of the moon, and consequently that which at the time contrasts most with this the magnetic ground of meteoric ac- tion in the annual circle ; that together with the ver- nal equinoctial phenomena, the most violent storms and rain but particularly from the autumnal equi- nox to the soltice more frequently occur at, or pre- ceding the period of new, than of full moon. And on the contrary, that during the opposite division of the year, or while the electric action of the sun is the dominant action in the annual circle ; as the electric action of the moon is less, and its magnetic action more powerful, from the period of full moon, 220 Lunar Action on the Weather. to the conclusion of the negative tide of the second quadrature, than when in the opposite division of its orbit, and thus that it contrasts more with the elec- tric ground in the annual circle ; that, not only the equinoctial phenomena in autumn, but the most vi- olent storms and rain during this the summer divi- sion of the year, usually occur at the period of full moon, or subsequent to the second quadrature. The sole exceptions to this rule whether in summer or winter being in regard to the moons which im- mediately succeed the periods of the solstices; when for the moment, owing to the sudden change of me- teoric tendence in the annual circle, the effects of the lunar action on the weather, as described, appear to be reversed. But, as entering further on the subject of the lu- nar action on the weather in this place, were to an- ticipate too much what will be found respecting it, in the subjoined part, alluded to; I shall only add that, as throughout the year, for the reason already stated, the lunar syzygies are minor equinoctial pe- riods;* as its quadratures, minor solstial periods, from their being those at which, (as in the annual circle,) the greatest concentration of the preceding * Owing to the change of tendence from drought to rain, which takes place in the annual circle from the summer to the winter sol- stice; it is during this part of the year chiefly that the effect of the lunar syzygies in inducing storm,Js the most conspicuous. Distinctness of Meteoric Effects. 221 action of the moon on the temperature takes place. Thence it is that both the equinoctial phenomena in spring and autumn, equally as the other more vi- olent storms of the year, are usually connected with the former ; as the extreme degrees, equally as the sudden change in the temperature, with the latter periods of the moon. And thus, as refers to the present theory, it is assumed, that, even in the ab- sence of all other proofs of its correctness, those supplied by the lunar action on the weather, (as should be the case if correct,) will be found so nu- merous and palpable, as must shortly insure to it public confidence; by satisfying all persons whose minds are not closed to conviction, of its truth. CHAP. XXI. Distinctness of Meteoric Effects in the Atmosphere as connected with each of the local Circles. Diurnal, Lunar, and Annual. Phenomena of the Tides. Assumed Relations, in regard to the Influence on our Seasons exercised by the supe- rior Planets. Surfs Movement of Rotation, and Solar Light. Conclusion. IT is further observable of meteoric action in the atmosphere, connected at once, as it is, with the 222 Distinctness of Meteoric Effects, three local circles, diurnal, lunar, and annual ; that though the forces in these circles are homogeneous and act simultaneously, the action in each is perfectly distinguishable from that progressing in the others, in the phenomena it induces, not alone in the tem- perature and weather, but even in those of the tides: as if to remove all doubt as to the meteoric source of the latter. Thus, on the principle, now so generally accre- dited, " that the earth and its atmosphere form a thermo-electric combination put into action by the sun ;" and that the centre, or point of horizontal divergence of its magnetic currents, and conver- gence of its electric, is as noticed, the magnetic equa- tor situated between the tro ics. To the force of the electrical currents collected by the solar action from the extremes of the oppo- site hemispheres on either side, on this the mag- netic equator, in the diurnal circle, is, in the first place, as stated, to be ascribed the earth's movement of rotation; as to the force of impulsion inseparable therefrom, acting on the mass of its waters, is, in the second, as to their primary source, to be ascribed the phenomena of the tides. And as the length of the day between tne tropics is invariable ; and that the impulsion thus originated by the solar action, in commencing at sunrise, or six o'clock, goes on gra- dually increasing with this action till the sun has reached the zenith at noon, when it is greatest ; and The Tides. 223 thence as he descends to the west, and that this his reflective force decreases, that with that of the latter the force of impulsion it originates decreases, till it fi- nally expires at sunset, or six o'clock in the afternoon. Thus, as connected with the tides, the wave it originates in the waters of the ocean, at the period of its setting in in the morning, and which growing with its growth, has attained its greatest elevation at noon, or period of high water ; thence, with the descent of the sun to the horizon, and consequent falling off in the force of the impulsion it induces, the latter gradually decreases on the mass of the waters, till, with the disappearance of the sun be- low the horizon, having totally expired, this the wave or tide it originated in the morning, has re- turned to the same plain or low-water mark, from which it originally sprung; such being the view of these phenomena assumed by the present theory. The tide by which this solar tide by day, is suc- ceeded at night, being esteemed simply the effect of rebound; and which, from the continual progression of the opposite or solar wave on the opposite side of the earth at the time ; and thence that the whole of its circumference is equally divided between these opposite waves; thus the night wave is regulated in the period of its rise and fall during the absence of the sun, the same as that by which it was in- duced and preceded during the day. And in com- paring the interval during which these opposite or 224 Distinctness of Meteoric Effects solar and nocturnal tides take, to perform one en- tire revolution, with that of the circle to the action in which they are ascribed ; we find that the former exceeds the. latter by no more than the difference which exists between the length of the lunar, as contrasted with the solar day ; or period at which the moon crosses the same meridian during two days consecutively ; and which, it is not denied, shows a direct connexion with the lunar action ; but, as regards the diurnal circle of meteoric action, only to the extent, that the reflective action of the moon serves as the pendulum by which the more powerful action of the sun in the latter, or diurnal circle, is regulated. This difference, moreover, be- ing no more than, considering the mass of waters acted on, were absolutely necessary, between the expiration of either movement, and the incipient operation of the opposite by which it is succeeded. Such, as assumed, being the source of the tides ; and the manner in which they are connected with the meteoric action of the sun and moon in the di- urnal circle. The progression of the tide-waves, north and south, through the opposite hemispheres of the earth, from the centre of impulsion at the line, being a necessary effect of the laws which de- termine and regulate the movements of fluids. And the difference which, as is known, exists in the height of the opposite tides in the diurnal circle, may be cited as further corroborative of the fact, The Tides. 225 that the second, or nocturnal tide, is simply an effect of re-bound ; as the falling off which occurs in the latter with the absence of the impelling force, is quite visible ; and can be only accounted for in this way. In reference to the connexion of the tides with the lunar circle of meteoric action, it requires no- thing in the way of argument to prove ; from this connexion (owing to the coincidence which exists between the periods of the spring and neap tides, with those of the lunar syzygies and quadratures,) being universally admitted to exist; though the principle in which it is assumed to consist is differ- ent. But though, as noticed, acting simultaneously with the action in the diurnal circle, this the con- nexion of the tides with the lunar circle, is perfectly distinguishable from the connexion of these pheno- mena with the former or diurnal circle, as alluded to ; and this, notwithstanding that the analogy be- tween the actions in both circles is perfect. For, though the interval occupied by each revolution of the spring and neap tides extends to one half the lunar circle, as that of each revolution in the diur- nal tides, does to half the latter circle ; yet, though subdivided into twenty-eight of the diurnal tides, each revolution of the former can be considered no more than the effect of the gradual increase and de- ; cline of a similar or homogeneous action in the lunar, as in the diurnal circle. A similar difference Q 226 Distinctness of Meteoric Effects as between the opposite tides in the diurnal circle, though originating in quite a different cause, being equally observable between the height of the spring tides at the opposite periods of new and full moon. The source of this difference, as that already no- ticed in its connexion with the weather, being, as assumed, the difference which occurs in the relative force of the reflective action of the moon with that of her distance, in reference to the sun and earth. Arid finally, (which it may be added can only be explained on the principle of reflective action,) the marked difference observable between the tides at the periods of the equinoxes, when reflective ac- tion, as at the lunar spzyges, is greatest in the an- nual circle ; and at those of the solstices, when, as connected with the latter, it is least, or at its mini- mum of force, (as at the lunar quadratures,) suffi- ciently shows that the same analogy exists between the tides and the action in the annual circle, as be- tween them and the actions in the lunar and diurnal : and that though all three are acting simultaneously on the atmosphere, their actions are perfectly dis- tinguishable one from the other in their effects, not only on the temperature and weather, but on these the phenomena of the tides. And it is further not a little remarkable, as connected with the latter phe- nomena, that the number of their tides is the same ; consisting as they do of two entire revolutions in each circle. In the Atmosphere, fyc. 227 These views, however, will be admitted to in- crease in interest and importance, when it is con- sidered that it is only by means of them, and of the species of independence which they go to show sub- sists between the meteoric actions in these circles, as of the individual connexion of each with particular classes of phenomena, that we are enabled, on scien- tific grounds, to account for the diurnal variations of the compass-needle, as being effects of the varia- tions of reflective action in the diurnal circle; or the barometrical variations corresponding to the phases of the moon, which have obliged that acute observer, M. Arago, of the French Institute, to ad- mit, that " they are effects of some special cause totally different from attraction, of which the nature and mode of action are unknown."* And that the anticipation of Mrs. Somervill, when she states, " that perhaps the day may come, when even gra- vitation, no longer regarded as an ultimate prin- ciple, may be resolved into a yet more general * Dr. Wm. Prout, in his " Abstract of Observations on At- mospheric Air," page 568, observes that "the weight of the air is usually heavier about the new and full moon;" which will account for the tides being higher at these than at the opposite periods of the moon, For, as it is the pressure on the surface of its waters in the interior, which induces the tide-wave on the shores of the ocean : at those periods of the moon when this pressure, with that of the air, is greatest, the tides on the shores of the ocean should be the highest ; and vice versd. Q2 228 Distinctness of Meteoric Effects cause, embracing every law that regulates the na- tural world :"* may thus, even now, be considered as already realized. I may further observe, while on this subject, that I think it highly probable, the meteoric influence on our seasons exercised by the actions in the circles traversed by the superior planets when observation shall be directed to ascertain the fact will be found to be equally distinct and distinguishable in refer- ence to each, as in those of the three local circles already noticed. And that, of the three external planets, whose meteoric influence is assumed to be the most powerful, viz. Jupiter, Saturn, and Ura- nus ; as being that which embraces within its orbit the entire of the orbits traversed by the remainder of these bodies, and which thence may be said to compose the cadre or frame of the system it encir- cles, the Uranus is that which exercises the most extensive influence on our seasons. And if from this the extreme verge of being con- nected with the system we inhabit, we turn to its grand source and centre, the sun : his movement of rotation seems conclusive that, as the planets are to him, so is he to a more distant centre, viz. that he is but a member of some superior sideral combina- tion. For, on no other principle than this of the * See Mrs. SomervilTs work " On the Connexion of the Sci- ences,'* page 415, In the Atmosphere, fyc. 229 sun being dependent on a more distant centre, can his rotation considered as being the effect of reflec- tive action be satisfactorily accounted for. Thus seeming to demonstrate, on scientific grounds did we entertain any doubt to the contrary that the same connexion, unity, and dependence subsists throughout the entire of the starry heavens, how- ever illimitable, as in the system, or department of it, to which we more particularly belong. But in reference to the position or nature of the grand centre which serves, by its weight, to balance and unite such countless worlds, who will pretend to say, or even to hazard so much as a conjecture ? In reference to the sun's not exhibiting phases similar to the inferior planets, or the moon, as should be the case, did his light depend on his con- nexion with a distant centre. This circumstance, I think, is chiefly owing to the extent of his atmos- phere ; which, similar to those of comets, from its superior magnitude as contrasted with those of the planets, instead of confining light as in the latter, to one of his hemispheres, has the effect, as in the former bodies, of completely investing him with this dazzling livery. And to which effect, it may be added, the extreme brilliancy of the solar light, be- ing, as it is, of a different species to that of the planets, must be supposed materially to contribute. 230 Distinctness of Meteoric Effects " I do not know," said the illustrious Newton, a short time before his death, " what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary ; whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me." And this modesty of Sir Isaac Newton, as observed by his able biographer, Dr. Brewster, in reference to his great discoveries, " was not founded on any in- difference to the fame which they conferred, or upon any erroneous judgment of their importance to sci- ence. The whole of his life proves that he knew his place as a philosopher, and was determined to assert and vindicate his rights. His modesty arose from the depth and extent of his knowledge 9 which showed him what a small proportion of nature he had been able to examine, and how much remained to be ex- plored in the same field in which he had himself la- boured. In the magnitude of the comparison," con- tinues the doctor, " he recognised his own littleness." And why, it may be asked, do I, in this place, refer to the words of this great man, or to the explana- tion given by his biographer as to the cause of his modesty ? Most assuredly, not from any motive so weak and childish as that of vanity; as no one can be more fully sensible than myself, how immea- surably I should lose by any comparison with him. But that, as the greater depth of his views enabled In the Atmosphere, fyc. 231 him better than, perhaps, any other man of his time, to perceive how impossible it was to penetrate the veil which as yet hung over and concealed the sources of natural phenomena, not excepting even those which he attempted to explain ; whilst, as he expresses it, " the great ocean of truth lay all undis- covered before him : " that, on an occasion like the prjsent, when, guided by more certain lights, a dif- ferent view is taken of the fundamental principle on which his theory is based, than that given by him or others, I considered him the best authority to quote against himself; with the view of showing the little of certainty which he himself attached to the prin- ciple of planetary movement proposed by him. And how, indeed, should it have been otherwise with a man of the enlarged views and deep penetration of Newton, at a time when so little had been done in what may be denominated the preliminary, (and certainly the most difficult and indispensable,) de- partment of such discoveries, viz. that of ascertain- ing by a long course of laborious experiment and pa- tient observation, the first springs and principles in which natural phenomena have their source ; toge- ther with the laws by which they are governed in their development. For, in the absence of the guides thus supplied, it were about the same to at- tempt exploring these departments of science with any prospect of success, as for a man in the dark to attempt tracing the figures on an Indian screen. 232 Distinctness of Meteoric Effects And yet, however palpable this impossibility on the part of Sir J. Newton, or of any other, in the then state of chemical and electrical science, to do more than hazard a conjecture in reference to the source of planetary movement, temperature, &c. the fame of this great man, from being supposed identified with a theory which bears his name, and which, till modern inquiry has shown its futility, was thought to be infallible ; is, however much in contradiction with the object he proposed to himself through his long and glorious career, become one of the most formidable obstacles to the admission of more cor- rect principles. And this, notwithstanding the tes- timony borne by himself as to the little of certainty which he attached to the views he had taken of natu- ral phenomena. The test of infallibility so long at- tached to the Newtonian principle of gravitation, is, as is known, that in all calculations it is found con- formable to the law he proposed, viz. that its action is inversely as the squares of the distances ; as though it were possible for the propelling force which gives movement to the planets, be it what it may, to act according to any other.* And thus it has happened with the principle of universal gravi- tation, that being found right in this respect, it has * Coulomb discovered that electrical attraction and repulsion (similar to gravity,) are inversely as the squares of the distances. See Ure's Die. of Chem,, page 405. In the Atmosphere, fyc. 233 led to the belief that it must be equally so in every other ; which, though totally erroneous, has served to silence all doubts as to its correctness ; to the no small detriment of the cause of truth. For, as ob- served by Raynal, " on n'examine guere ce qu'on croit bien savoir; et c'est ainsi qu'apres avoir pro- page les erreurs y les temoignages qui retardent I' observation, en prolongent encore la duree.* The locality and real place occupied by gravity in the scale of physical causes, has, on the contrary, as I trust, been fully shown in the preceding pages. And that, (by facts obtained from the variations of the tides in the annual and lunar, equally as in the diurnal circle of meteoric action, and barometrical variations corresponding to the phases of the moon, and as should be the case when not an ultimate cause,) gravity itself, similar to all other deriva- tives, varies in its amount with the variations which occur in its source reflective action : and also, (as anticipated by Mrs. Somervill,) that it can no longer be regarded as an ultimate principle, but one which resolves itself into this more general cause which embraces every law that regulates the natural world; as that, from its being altogether local in the sun and planets, gravity can have nothing to do with the principle of their movement ; but that the latter, equally as the temperature and other local * Histoire Philosophique, torn. 6, page 40. 234 Distinctness of Meteoric Effects phenomena of these bodies, is, as being the only ac- tive forces of nature in the physical world, altogether referable to magnetic and electric agency, based on the principle of reflective action ; thus, as I hope, finally disposed of these important questions. And, were it possible to recall "the fleeting breath," and with it the illustrious Newton, to the scene of his former triumphs ; and that he were in possession of the facts supplied by the rapid advances latterly made in what may be called the collateral branches of this department of science, satisfied am I, that he would not only concur with me in this opinion ; but that, in the spirit of that candour which is so characteristic of great minds, and alike superior to those low passions and prejudices which are no less the characteristics of small ones ; hav- ing weighed and considered this theory, both in its ensemble and details, he would be amongst the fore- most to admit and subscribe to its general correct- ness. And that, in the feeling inseparable from see- ing the grand object for which both he and so many other illustrious men had so long, so earnestly, and yet so ineffectually laboured, at length attained; and with it the dawn of a new era in science, (more prolific in important results to the whole family of man, than all those by which it was preceded,) already about to appear : that in the virtuous enthusiasm it inspired, he would, something in the words of Si- meon, exclaim, " let thy servant depart in peace ; In the Atmosphere, $c. 235 now that mine eyes have seen realized the long ex- pected consummation of my fondest hope !" For, it was not without reason Helvetius observed, " que c'est des profondeurs de V imagination qu'on a jus- qu^d present tire le systeme de Vunivers ; et que, si Ton n'a jamais que des nouvelles tronquees des Pays eloignes de nous, les philosophes n'ont pareillement que des nouvelles tronquees du systeme du monde." And that " avec beaucoup d'esprit et de combinai- sons, ils ne debiteront jamais que desfables,jitsqu'd ce que le terns et le hazard leur aient donne unfait general auquel tons les autres puissent se rap- porter"* But, unfortunately for the cause of sci- ence and humanity, " L'homme de genie passe trop vite ! et ne laisse point de posterite : and, perhaps, it were too much to expect the candour of Sir Isaac Newton from his representatives of the present day. * DeU Esprit. Paris edition of 1759, pag. 26. METEOROLOGY, SECOND PART. COPY OF A PAPER Explanatory of the Lunar Action of the Weather, presented, on the part of the Author, at the Meeting of the British Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, held at Dublin, in 1835. ESTEEMING, as I do, the question so much dis- cussed of late as to the existence and nature of a lunar action on the weather to be one of so much im- portance to science, that, on its solution alone, may be said to depend that of the true theory of the world; and having in a lately published work, " The Anatomy of the Seasons, Weather-Guide Book, and perpetual Companion to the Almanac," pro- posed a new theory of temperature, and of the lunar action on the weather, founded on the principle of reflective action reciprocally between the sun and planets ; and for the details of which, I must beg *o refer to the work itself. The object of the present paper is, to add some new views to those advanced in the work alluded to, in reference to the assumed ex- 238 Lunar Action istence of such an agency, as in proof of the princi- ples on which it is founded ; and, it is hoped, of a nature so satisfactory and conclusive, as must con- vince the most sceptical, that this, the question, as to the existence and nature of a lunar action on the weather, is at length finally determined, and a term necessarily put to all further douht on the subject. I may add, that the supposition as to the earth and its atmosphere being a thermo-electric combination put into action by the sun and planets at present so generally accredited is that on which the theory of meteorology proposed by me is founded : and that it is in consequence of the greater proximity of the moon than of the other external agencies of the solar system, and to the more frequent changes in its position in the ecliptic, in reference to the earth and sun, on which is founded the assumption, that the moon exercises an influence still more marked and considerable than the other planets, on the tem- perature and weather of our seasons, equally, as on the phenomena of the tides. And as, from the intimacy of the meteoric action of the earth and moon on the seasons and weather, that, in order to form a correct idea of either action, it cannot be considered without reference to the other ; and that, owing to the most important me- teoric effects throughout the year, whether as re- fers to the temperature or violent class of atmos- pheric phenomena, being connected with the sol- On the Weather. 239 slices, or the lunar syzygies ; * as that these are like- wise the periods which constitute the mean limits respectively to the opposite tendencies of meteoric action in the atmosphere whether to heat or cold to drought or to humidity the former, or solstices, as connected with the annual, and the latter, as connected with the lunar, may, with some propriety, be denominated the meteoric poles of these the an- nual and lunar circles. And as, on a correct know- ledge of the changes which take place in the ten- dence of meteoric action in the atmosphere, as con- nected with the annual and lunar circles, so much of all that is practically useful in the science of me- teorology depends. Thence it is, that, from the ar- ticle on this subject in my published work, as con- nected with the lunar circle, being less perfect than what, from the importance of the subject, it should be ; and from its being that likewise, which furnishes the least equivocal proofs as to the nature and extent of the lunar action on the weather ; I thought right to select it as the subject of this paper. And as the tendence of meteoric action in * The principle of magnetic revulsion in the atmosphere, con- nected with the change of position in the acting magnetic poles of the earth and moon at the periods of the lunar syzygies, connected with the elliptical movement of the moon ; to which the occur- rence of these phenomena at the latter periods is to be ascribed, as noticed in the preceding part ; had not as yet been suspected when this paper was written. 240 Lunar Action the atmosphere as connected with the lunar circle, notwithstanding its changing continually with the change of the seasons, is fixed and determinate throughout the year : my first object shall be to point out the tendence of meteoric action in the lu- nar circle as connected with the different parts of the annual : and finally together with the causes, the periods of the year in which the natural ten- dence of the lunar action on the weather is most subject to be deranged, and those during which it is the least liable to change or variation ; so as that the different bearings of this very complex subject, may appear in a clear and perspicuous point of view. Thus, in the first place, the tendence of meteoric action in the atmosphere, as connected with the lunar circle appears, as refers to its opposite divisions, to change half -yearly with that of the earth's posi- tion in the ecliptic, i. e. from the period of the winter to that of the summer solstice ; and from the latter to the former, alternately. During the former, or from the winter to the summer solstice, the tendence of meteoric action in the atmosphere, as connected with the lunar circle, is as follows, viz. From three days before the period of new moon, or the setting in of the positive meteoric tide of this quarter, to ihat of the setting in of the succeeding positive tide of full moon, the tendence of the lunar action on the weather, is to drought: and during the same period from the setting in of the positive On the Weather. 241 tide of full, to that of the commencement of the po- sitive tide of new moon, the tendence of the lunar action on the weather is to rain and its accessories. Contrary, however, to this, from the period of the summer to that of the winter solstice, from the setting-in of the positive tide of new, to the setting- in of the positive tide of full moon, the tendence of the lunar action on the weather is to rain ; and during the remaining half of the lunar circle, the tendence of this action is to drought. But a cir- cumstance not a little remarkable is, that, whereas these tendencies of the lunar action on the weather as described, are strongly marked immediately after either solstice, and again, for some time, preceding these periods ; in proportion as, on either hand, we approach the equinoxes, the order in the tendence of meteoric action in the atmosphere, as connect- ed with the lunar circle, gradually undergoes a change ; till finally at, suppose, the vernal equinox, this order becomes reversed: and as, being a conse- quence of this, the equinoctial phenomena in spring usually occur at or about the period of new moon, and those connected with the autumnal equinox at the opposite season of the year, at or about the pe- riod of full moon: the preceding order, in both cases, being again restored immediately after the equinoctial phenomena, and thence continues to the approaching periods of the solstices. Thus, as there are six moons from either solstice to the opposite ; R 242 Lunar Action the tendence of meteoric action in the atmosphere during those from the winter to the summer solstice, generally, (i. e. circumstances connected with parti- cular latitudes and localities, as regards the weather excepted,) appears to be as follows, viz. In the lunar circle which succeeds immediately after the winter solstice, the tendence of meteoric action in the atmosphere during its first half, is to drought ; and during the opposite or remaining half, to rain. During the succeeding moon, these the meteoric tendencies in the weather as connected with its op- posite divisions, appear to be nearly equally ba- lanced ; and to be determined to either, chiefly by the existing tendence whether to drought or rain of the season. During the third moon, or that which occurs about the equinox, the preceding order, as noticed, becomes reversed ; as the equinoc- tial phenomena in March, usually occur at the pe- riod oinew moon. In the following moon, or that which usually marks the period of the N. E. wind, the preceding order becomes again restored the tendence of the weather during its first half being to drought, and during the latter half to rain. During the succeeding, or fifth moon, the same order in reference to the tendence of meteoric ac- tion in the atmosphere, as during the preceding continues. And finally, as connected with this di- vision of the year, during the following moon, which extends to the vicinity of the summer sol- On the Weather. 243 stice, this order, as described, is still more strongly marked (than in that by which it was preceded) in the weather ; its commencement being usually dry, and accompanied with a marked rise of tempe- rature ; and the weather towards its close, being not only wet, but attended by some of the most vio- lent gales of the season. Different from this, how- ever, in the first moon after the summer solstice, the tendence of the weather from its commencement to futt moon, is to rain : as during the remaining half to drought. During the following moon, the tendenee of the weather, as at the opposite season of the year, appears to be equally balanced, as con- nected with its opposite divisions, it being the do- minant tendence, as connected with the season whether to drought or rain which, during its con- tinuance determines the weather to either. In the following moon, (the ninth of the year,) the order of meteoric tendence in the atmosphere, as in spring, becomes reversed: and as being a consequence, its setting in is, in general, attended by dry weather: and the equinoctial phenomena, as noticed usually occur at or about the middle of its course, or period of full moon; and I may add, that the period of new moon in this, or as sometimes happens if they have not sooner occurred, in the moon by which it is succeeded, being thus accompanied by fine weather, may be considered as a certain indica- tion of the approaching occurrence of the equinoc- R2 244 Lunar Action tial gales at the succeeding period of full moon. In the fourth moon from the solstice, provided the equi- noctial phenomena have occurred during the pre- ceding moon, the tendence of meteoric action in the atmosphere, as in the first moon after the sol- stice, becomes again restored ; the tendence of the weather during its first half being to rain : as thence to its conclusion, to drought. During the succeed- ing moon (the eleventh of the year,) the preceding order of meteoric tendence in the weather conti- nues ; except in those situations where from the peculiar nature of the localities, combined with a preponderating tendence of an opposite kind in the season, interfere to derange it. And finally, the concluding moon of the year, which thence ap- proaches to the period of the winter solstice, is sure to develope in a still more striking manner than the preceding, this the assumed order in the tendence of meteoric action in the atmosphere : the chief pe- riod of rain, equally as of storm, during this moon, occurring at the period of its setting in, or immedi- ately preceding new moon ; and that of its greatest drought^ as fall of temperature, being at, and sub- sequent to its second quadrature, or conclusion. Now, were the assumed influence of the moon on the weather throughout the different seasons of the year, as here pointed out, always constant and inva- riable, the business of calculating in advance its ap proaching changes, were at any time comparatively On the Weather. 245 easy. But unfortunately however desirable the latter there are various causes which, almost con- tinually, interfere, in deranging to a certain extent, the operation of these the natural tendencies of the lunar action on the weather. And, of these, the first I shall notice are such as are connected with the circumstances of latitude and locality already alluded to and of which the following facts of re- cent occurrence may serve to convey some idea. Thus, as refers to the occurrence of storm at the period of full moon, from towards the period of the autumnal equinox, to the winter solstice ; and, pro- perly speaking, connected with the equinox.* In the summer of 1834 we find that, as early as the 20th of July, (being the period of full moon,} a hurricane occurred at Davis's Straits, which, accord- ing to the report of Captain Stratton, of the whale ship, Ulverstone, as stated in the papers, caused the breaking up of all the land ice in those seas. Again, a dreadful thunder-storm (as reported in the London Morning Post, of the 26th September, 1834,) occurred at the Hague, attended with loss of life, &c. on the 17th of September, (the period of full moon.} Third, the destructive gales of the 15th, 17th, and 18th of October, (full moon having oc- curred on the 17th,) by which, as reported in the newspapers, from Lloyd's lists, no less than fifty-six * See preceding Note. 246 Lunar Action ships were wrecked on the coasts of England and Holland. And finally, the destructive thunder- storm and water-spout, attended with loss of life, &c. which occurred at Gibralter, on the night of the 17th of November, (as reported in the London Globe of the 22nd December, 1834,) full moon having oc- curred on the 16th, or day before.* Thus showing, * To this list of storms as connected with the meteoric action of the moon from after the period of the summer, to the winter solstice, may be added one of a much more recent date, viz. that which occurred in the Channel on the afternoon and night of the 29th July last, (full moon having occurred on the 28th, or day before,) and of which, happening to he on board one of the Lon- don steamers from Dublin, at the time, I was a witness ; the crew unanimously declaring, that nothing equal to it had occurred since the preceding March. And of which from the losses it occasioned in the neighbourhood of Liverpool, the following account ap- peared in the London Weekly Dispatch of the 7th August, 1836 : " Melancholy Shipwrecks* Liverpool. On Friday evening, between seven and eight o'clock, a storm of wind and rain broke over the town. The wind, which had previously been blowing gently from the south, now began to blow with such violence from the N. W. by N., that in a short time it assumed all the features of a hurri- cane," &c. The account then proceeds to say, that the John Welsh, from Savanilla, on the Spanish main, and the William, from Dublin to Chester, were wrecked on the banks during the night ; fourteen persons having perished out of the former ; and all on board the latter ship. From the commencement of this moon, indeed, on the 13th of July, the rains, occasionally accompanied by gales of wind, had been frequent ; but in point of violence, not at all to be compared to the gale on the night of the 29th ; and which, on the principles On the Weather. 247 / as would appear, that in proportion as with the ad- vance of the season, an approach to the same degree in the dominant action, as connected with the an- nual circle, was transferred from the higher to the lower latitudes, and was thus encountered by the lunar action at the period of full moon a similar developement of the same species of meteoric action in the atmosphere of our hemisphere took place, along the descending scale of latitude, in the direc- tion of the tropic : a circumstance, it may be ob- served, not a little curious, and deserving of notice. Another source of derangement in the effects on the weather, induced by the variations in the tendence of meteoric action in the atmosphere, as connected with the lunar circle, will be found in the circum- stance that, as all the leading phenomena of the atmosphere connected with the changes of the sea- sons, such as the periods of the opposite extreme degrees of heat and cold in summer and winter, the occurrence of the equinoctial phenomena in spring and autumn ; the setting in of the N. E. wind in spring, &c. have each their fixed and deter- minate places in the annual circle. When as not unfrequently happens that the lunar action of a contrary tendence to that which is proper to the de- assumed, would show that the cold of winter during this period in the southern hemisphere, had been more severe than during the preceding years ; a circumstance which a short time only will be sufficient to clear up. 248 Lunar Action velopment of these phenomena, occurs at the periods when they should occur, and not the opposite or conformable action of the moon : the consequence is, that, owing to the conflicting of such opposite tendencies in the atmosphere on these points of the annual circle, the periods of the occurrence of these phenomena, both as connected with the latter, and the lunar circle, become more or less altered and deranged, proportioned to the resistances. But a still more influential cause in deranging the natural effects of the lunar action on the wea- ther during the greater part of the year, will be found to have its source in the changes which take place in the extreme degrees of temperature, as in the seasons, equally as in the periods of occurrence of the equinoctial phenomena in different years; which I shall now proceed to notice. And, in or- der to this, it becomes necessary, in the first place, to commence with the solstices, considered as being the true meteoric poles of the annual circle ; and further to observe, that the points on which, subse- quent to the solstices, and at about the same in- tervals of time from the latter, the opposite ex- treme degrees of heat and cold in summer and winter occur, may, in like manner, be denominated the poles of temperature. In turning to the points of the annual circle which on the opposite sides of the solstices to those indicated as being the points where the opposite extreme degrees of annual tern- On the Weather. 249 perature occur, or at about a month preceding the former periods ; we shall find the points where the existence, equally as the nature and extent of the lunar action on the weather, are the most uniformly as clearly expressed; and which thence as in the preceding cases may, with propriety, be denomi- nated the meteoric poles of the lunar action on the weather, as connected with the annual circle. For as, in consequence of the changes which take place in the temperature and seasons of different years, and in the periods of the equinoctial phenomena; that, during the seasons when these variations in the temperature, &c. occur ; they must necessarily induce corresponding variations in the effects pro- duced by the lunar action on the weather. It will follow, that it cannot be before we arrive at the pe- riods of the year noticed, or those which on either hand from after the equinoctial phenomena in spring and autumn, extend to the solstices, that we can expect to find an equal and permanent ac- tion in the annual circle, suck, as would uniformly exhibit without variation, either the nature or extent of the lunar action on the weather. Thus, to revert to principles: the tendence of meteoric action in the atmosphere, from the winter to the summer solstice, as connected with the lunar circle, being, as stated, from the period of new to that of full moon, to drought; as thence, to the commencement of the ensuing lunar circle, to rain 250 Lunar Action and its accessory phenomena: the moon which com- mences in May, and finishes in June, previous to the solstice, will, in a more striking manner than in the moons by which it has been preceded, be found to set in with drought^ and, in general, with a con- siderable rise of temperature, (being illustrative of the calorific action of the moon on the temperature at the periods of the syzygies, when, as in the present case, not deranged by the currents of the atmos- phere, or the occurrence of rain ;) and, during its latter half, but more particularly towards the going out of this moon, that it will be found accompanied by rain and storm. And as the tendence of mete- oric action in the atmosphere from the summer to the winter solstice, as connected with the lunar cir- cle, (as contrasted with the preceding half-year), becomes reversed. Thus the moon which com- mences in November and concludes in December, previous to the solstice, will likewise, in a still more striking manner than in those by which it has been preceded, be found to set in with rain and storm; and at its conclusion, at, and subsequent to the second quadrature, be found to go out with drought and a marked fall of temperature ; being illustrative of the frigorific action of the moon, in lowering the temperature, equally as the tides, at the periods of the quadratures ; when, as in the in- stance noticed, not deranged by the currents, or occurrence of the opposite species of meteoric ac- On the Weather. 251 tion in the atmosphere at the time.* And thence, I say, it is, owing to these the results, as described, being constant in those parts of the annual circle, that these moons may, with some confidence, be re- ferred to, as the test moons of the present theory of meteorology. To conclude: we are thus led to perceive when found that the same simplicity pervades the dispositions of nature in reference to the develope- ment of her phenomena in the atmosphere, however complex in their sources, or evanescent in their du- ration, as in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, connected as these are with the former. And that, in reference to the places occupied in the annual circle by what we have denominated the poles of temperature, and those of the lunar action on the weather, situated on the opposite sides of the sol- stices, or its true meteoric poles ; and which, it may be added, are all permanent in reference to these the positions they occupy : the same analogy exists, as between the opposite magnetic poles of the western and eastern hemispheres of the earth; si- tuated, as the former, at equal distances on either side the poles of the earth's rotation. The better to show the positions occupied by the * For further particulars explanatory of the circumstances here noticed, equally as other parts of this paper, it is necessary to refer to Chap. 18 and 20 of the preceding Part. 252 Lunar Action points alluded to, as connected with the seasons; I am induced to present them in the subjoined dia- gram of the annual circle. Diagram of the Annual Circle. B* Let the circle A A represent the year ; B B' the line of the solstices ; B the winter and B' the sum- mer solstice; the axis C C' the line of the equi- noxes, C the vernal, and C' the autumnal equinox : D D' will show the positions occupied by the oppo- site extreme degrees of temperature : and the ex- tremes of the line E E' the points where the lunar action on the weather, as described, is assumed to be always constant and equal in its results : the po- On the Weather. 253 sition of each of these lines in the annual circle be- ing permanently fixed and unalterable. The dotted lines F F, F F, are intended to show the range of variation which, in different years, takes place in the periods of occurrence of the equinoctial pheno- mena in spring and autumn. Concluding Observations of the Second Part. I had, shortly after presenting this paper to the Association, prepared some further observations con- nected with the subject of the lunar action on the weather, and subsequently collected some additional facts, in reference to the assumed connexion of the lunar action at particular periods, with the occur- rence of storms, (chiefly derived from instances in this class of phenomena which occurred during the winter of 1835-36,) and previous to my entering on the First Part of this work; which were intended to be added to it by way of supplement. But as, on examination, I find the greater part of these ob- servations have already found their way into the preceding pages; and that such as have not, could, if inserted add but little to strengthening the case, in reference to the existence and nature of the mete- oric action of the moon, already made out. In or- der, as much as possible, to avoid repetitions, I think it better, on the present occasion, to omit 254 Concluding Observations giving them publicity in a distinct shape. For if the case thus made out, be not thought sufficient to induce a rally amongst the friends of science in these countries, with the view of setting on foot a society having for object to give to these discoveries the weight and consideration they are assumed to merit; (as being the sole means of making them practically useful, or of giving to them any further develope- ment of which they may stand in need,) any thing further in the way of observation that were advanced by me in this place on the subject, could not possi- bly effect ; and consequently my doing so, were lit- tle better than to labour without object. As being the only effectual means however, of giving immediate operation to these discoveries by the general diffusion of information connected with them, to which it would lead: the better to show the necessity which exists for the formation of a me- teorological society, from the annual sacrifice of life and property, even amongst those engaged in the fisheries on the coasts of these islands, which the slightest acquaintance, on their parts, with the ru- diments of meteorology, might in most cases be the means of preventing; I am induced to notice the storm which on the 18th of November 1835, caused such ravages on the northern coast of Scotland, connected as it was with the change of the moon, the latter or new moon having occurred on the 20th, Of the Second Part. 255 as may be seen by reference to the almanac: and moreover, from its having been preceded and an- nounced a few hours previously by an aurora bore- alls: which circumstances combined, at this ad- vanced period of the season, could have left no doubt as to the proximity of the impending danger, had but the unfortunate sufferers who fell victims to it, had the slightest knowledge on these subjects. The published account of this gale, extracted from the Leinster Independent, of December, 5, 1835, is as follows, "The late storm forty-eight lives lost. The Scotch provincial papers are filled with the most lamentable details of the effects of a vio- lent storm, which appears to have been general on the northern coast of Scotland, on Wednesday morning, the 18th ult. The previous night was clear and calm, and the aurora borealis more than usually brilliant. The morning was equally fine, with a mild breeze from the southward, when about half-past ten o'clock, it veered suddenly to the north, and in a short time blew a perfect hurricane. A great number of fishing boats were overtaken by the storm, and notwithstanding the most experi- enced seamanship on the part of the crews, were unable to survive the tempest." Here follows an account of the loss of eight boats, and 48 men. " In addition to the above awful catalogue several fish- ing boats are still missing, and there is much reason to fear that their crews have met a watery grave. 258 Concluding Observations. Several coasting vessels were totally wrecked." "The hurricane is said to have exceeded any thing of the kind ever remembered, unroofing houses, and driving slates and tiles before it like chaff," &c. This requires no commentary. And if the pros- pect of putting a stop to, or greatly lessening the number of such melancholy catastrophes, proves not a stimulus sufficiently strong to the friends of hu- manity in these countries, to set about contribut- ing to the diffusion of the knowledge obtained on these subjects, amongst all classes of seafaring men ; it were idle to suppose that any thing that could be advanced by me on the occasion would be attended to. METEOROLOGY. THIRD PART. METEORIC PROGRESSION, Considered in its Connexion ivith the Changes of the Seasons and Weather. " A serene autumn," observes Lord Bacon, " de- notes a windy winter"; a windy winter, a rainy spring ; a rainy spring, a serene summer ; a serene summer, a windy autumn : so that the air, on a ba- lance, is seldom debtor to itself; nor do the seasons succeed each other in the same tenor, for two years together." The view of the seasons and weather here taken, equally as the line traced out for con- ducting inquiries connected with them, though to the ordinary observer it should not appear to con- tain in it any thing extraordinary ; yet is one so ne- cessary to be taken in investigations of the kind, that, even with the advantage of correct principles in other respects, it was impossible, except by means thereof, to make them (to the extent of which they were susceptible,) available. S 258 Meteoric Progression. In order to form a correct idea of this, it will be sufficient to observe, that though in the same loca- lity no change in the mean temperature of the sea- sons during two years consecutively took place ; and that in this as in other cases, it were expected that such sameness in the temperature would be productive of similar effects in the seasons ; so far from this being the case, in reference to the latter without taking into account the variation induced simply by the manner in which the opposite species of meteoric action in the atmosphere, connected with its opposite states of drought and humidity, succeed each other therein, as here designated under the title of meteoric progression, all calculations in re- ference to the seasons of these years, would, to a certaint extent, be found defective. So influential, however, do I esteem the operation of this principle of meteoric progression, in inducing an approxima- tion between the same seasons alternately, or every second year, that I think it goes far towards coun- teracting the effects which would otherwise arise from the ordinary changes which take place conse- cutively in the mean annual temperature. As the latter, however, is occasionally so considerable as entirely to merge the influence on the seasons which arises from this cause ; it is only as refers to the or- dinary years, or when the changes that usually take place in their temperature are less considerable, that it can be justly admitted to exercise such an Meteoric Progression. 259 influence ; and it is solely under this point of view I propose to consider it at present. Admitting, how- ever, as is usually the case, that important changes in the seasons are induced by the operation of me- teoric progression: considered as an element of cal- culation, the first thing to ascertain were, the num- ber of years it would require to effect such a revolu- tion in this order, as that at their expiration it would recommence as before; I shall first consider it in this respect. Thus, the seasons of the year being in number limited to four ; whereas, according to the order of meteoric progression, as here sketched by Lord Ba- con, five were necessary to complete the revolution proposed ; were it not that the phenomena of the atmosphere are limited to opposite kinds, the con- sequence would be that, till these the odd, or fifth quarters, returned anew to the same positions in the annual circle which they occupied at first, *. e. every fifth year, a perfect return to the same order of meteoric progression in the seasons could not take place. Owing, however, to the circumstance that the entire phenomena of the atmosphere, as connected with the seasons and weather are limited to opposite classes ) i. e. drought and humidity, to one or other of which these the phenomena of the seasons must, of necessity, belong. It will thence become apparent, that it can only be from an excess of either species of meteoric action, in the seasons S2 260 Meteoric Progression. of the same year, that a derangement in the order of meteoric progression, of the kind noticed by Lord Bacon, could take place. And thus that, during years when, within certain parallels, and localities, a derangement in the order of meteoric progression of the kind mentioned, did occur ; under the influence of opposite circumstances, in other regions of the same hemisphere, quite a different order of meteoric progression from the for- mer would take place. And finally, that* in other regions of the hemisphere, from their being under the influence of circumstances still different from the cases supposed ; or where the acting causes which determine the opposite species of meteoric action in the atmosphere, were equally balanced one to the other in the seasons, that no derangement of the kind would occur; but an entire revolution of me- teoric progression be completed within the year. Showing, as these facts are calculated to do, the important influence exercised by latitude and loca- lity, on the entire annual round of meteoric pheno- mena. And as in the distribution of meteoric action, as connected with the annual circle, a preponderance of drought generally occurs in those countries which are situated in the higher latitudes, equally as in the opposite parallels of our hemisphere ; and conse- quently that it is only in the intermediate regions, and in insular situations, as in these islands, where Meteoric Progression . 261 a redundance of the opposite kind, or of humidity, in the seasons, occurs; thus it is only in the latter class of localities, where meteoric progression in- duces the changes in the seasons noticed by Lord Bacon. With us, however, this influence is very consider- able, as will appear by a reference to the seasons of 1833 and 1834. Thus the winter temperature of those years, (which may be considered as the basis of the phenomena of the succeeding seasons,) being nearly the same : the winter of 1832-33, with a tem- perature equally mild as that of 1833-34, was com- paratively dry and exempt from storm : it was suc- ceeded by a mild spring ; a rainy May and June ; a long interval of drought during the months of July and August, up to the period of the setting-in of the equinox, about the first of September, followed ; and to the latter succeeded the memorable autumn and winter of this year, which for rain and storm in these countries has had but few equals. The tem- perature, however, being equally mild as during the preceding winter. The following spring r and the commencement of the summer of 1834, had nothing strikingly different in the weather from those of the preceding year ; but the change which took place, subsequently, was sufficiently remarkable. For, whereas the greater part of July and August, in 1833, was, (but more particularly in Ireland, whose climate is so peculiar,) an interval of drought ; this period in 1834, was one of almost incessant rains; 262 Meteoric Progression. in so much, that the crops were, in many parts, com- pletely laid by the latter. To this season of wet, a long interval of comparatively dry and very warm weather succeeded, to the period of the setting-in of the equinoctial phenomena in the middle of October. And, finally, the latter was followed by the dry, mild, and pleasant winter of 1834-35; which, in all respects, with the exception of the temperature, was the contrast of the winter of the preceding year. Thus showing that the changes in the weather in- duced by the irregularity of meteoric progression, are chiefly connected with the solstices, or seasons of summer and winter. Notwithstanding, however, as regards the wea- ther, that it is during the summer and winter months the variations induced by the irregularity of meteoric progression are, as stated, most apparent and considerable; such is not the case as refers to the violent class of atmospheric phenomena or chief storm periods of the different seasons of the year: the variations in the occurrence of which, as ap- pears, are but little affected by the variations of the weather about the periods of the solstices ; whereas quite the contrary is the case at those of the equi- noxes. Thus, to refer to facts, in 1833, the storm period connected with the vernal equinox, occurred on the 20th of February; the second, or that of the summer progression quarter, from the llth to the 14th of June ; the third, or that connected with the autumnal equinox, on the 31st of August; and Meteoric Progression. 263 the fourth, on the 29th November. The latter, as already stated, having been succeeded by a very wet and stormy winter and spring. In the succeeding year, of 1834, however, the storms connected with the vernal equinox did not set in till the 28th March, be- ing thirty-six days later than on the preceding year ; whereas that in the early part of summer, occurred about the same period, viz. on the 14th and 15th of June: again, however, as in the spring, dissimilar from the preceding year, the storms connected with the autumnal equinox, did not set in till the 16th and 17th of October, being forty-six days later than in 1833; and, finally, the fourth storm period, as on the preceding year, set in on the 29th of Novem- ber, and continued to the 2nd of December ; having been, as stated, succeeded by a comparatively mild, dry, and pleasant winter. And as, in the succeed- ing spring of 1835, the equinoctial phenomena again, as in 1833, set in as early as the 27th of February, (being the period of new moon ;) as in the autumn of this year, on the night of the 9th September, two days subsequent to the period of full moon ; we are thus warranted in concluding, that while the chief storms connected with the sol- stices are nearly stationary ', in the periods of their occurrence, notwithstanding the variations which take place in the weather of these seasons ; those connected with the equinoxes, on the contrary, vary almost continually in the succeeding years: but 264? Meteoric Progression. that, notwithstanding the latter circumstance, a strict relation between the periods of the occurrence of these the equinoctial phenomena in the spring and autumn of the same year, appears to exist; as the differences observable in this respect, are usually occasioned by the variations which occur in the pe- riods of the lunar action at these the opposite sea- sons of the year, at which they develop themselves. 1 may add, that when an interruption to this order iccurs, viz. when the equinoctial phenomena in pring occur about the same period of the season during two years consecutively, it would seem to in- dicate the approach of a marked change in the wea- ther of the succeeding seasons, from those by which it was preceded, whether to increased heat or cold. Indeed it is in this latter point of view that the periods of the occurrence of the equinoctial pheno- mena appear to have the strongest claim on our at- tention. For, as the equinoctial gales in spring may be considered as marking the period of the an- nual ascent or preponderance of the electric action of the sun on the atmosphere, over that of its oppo- site, the magnetic; as at the opposite periods of the year, the equinoctial gales in autumn mark that of the ascendancy of the latter over the former action. And that on the principle of increased length of exposition, as connected with the solar action : when these phenomena occur early in the spring, the tem- perature of the succeeding summer, (other circum- Meteoric Progression. 265 stances being the same,) should be proportionately higher than when they occurred late in the season. And, on the same principle, that when these pheno- mena occur early in the autumn, the temperature of the succeeding winter should be lower than when they occurred late. And as from the connexion ob- servable between the period of the occurrence of these phenomena in spring and autumn, that on years when they occur early in spring, though the temperature of the succeeding summer may be ex- pected to be high, yet that the early setting in of the equinox in autumn, is likely to induce an early break in the weather, by the setting-in of the au- tumnal rains. Thus it would follow, that on years when the equinox sets in early in spring, though an abundant return from the ordinary winter and spring crops may be expected ; this does not follow in re- ference to those, such as maize, the produce of the vine, &c. which arrive to maturity later in the year; and whose produce must necessarily be injured by the early setting in of the autumnal rains ; and as being a consequence, if these principles were correct, the seasons which were the most favourable to the former c ] ass of crops, should be those least so to the latter. And as from its more northern position than the other wine countries of Europe, the vin- tages in France, more than elsewhere, should be ex- pected to afford illustrations of these principles; by referring to those of the last three yea*s, we may 266 Meteoric Progression. probably find in them the illustration required. Thus, in 1833, the equinox set in as early as the 20th of February; and though the harvest of this year was abundant, the vintage in France was not remarkable either for quantity or for the quality of its produce. In the year 1834, the vernal equinox, on the contrary, did not set in till the 28th of March ; and though, as noticed, the months of July and August were unusually wet, the vintage this year, not only in France but in the other wine countries of Europe, was one of the best that had occurred for a number of years. Again, in the spring of 1835, the equinox set in as early as the 27th of February; and, as is known, the vintage of this year, both in France and Portugal, proved very generally a failure : which may serve to show the intimate connexion subsisting between the period of the setting-in of the equinox in spring, and the suc- ceeding seasons of the year. It may be further observed, that the actions in the annual and lunar circles, as connected with the weather, are so perfectly analogous, that the effects of meteoric progression must be expected to extend to the latter equally as to the former. Indeed, these are at times so strongly marked in the con- trasts which at the same periods of succeeding moons frequently occur in the weather, that it is im- possible not to see and be satisfied that such is the case. And the seasons when these the effects of Meteoric Prognession. 267 meteoric progression, as connected with the lunar action, are the most apparent, are those which ex- tend from the opposite solstices to the ensuing pe- riods of the equinoxes : the meteoric action of the moon during the opposite seasons of the year, or from the equinoxes to the solstices, owing to the cause stated in the preceding paper, being less liable to variation, and necessarily more constant in its effects. And here it may be right to notice, that were the meteoric action of the moon, in its range, similar to the seasons, confined to the atmosphere of either he- misphere of the earth, we might expect it to be much more clearly defined, and determinate in its effects on the weather. But as, similar to the solar action, it is not exclusively confined to the atmos- phere of either, but extends at once -to both ; and that the seasons, as the opposite actions of the sun, on which the effects of the lunar action depend, are continually opposed to each other in the atmosphere of the opposite hemispheres. Thus it is that the ef- fects of the lunar action on the weather in either he- misphere, are, as stated, continually in opposition to the effects induced by it at the time in the atmos- phere of the opposite. And if, as assumed, the state of the temperature with us, whether in winter or summer, enables us to judge as to the relative tem- perature of the seasons, in the southern hemisphere : mild winters with us, being indicative of warm sum- 268 Meteoric Progression. mers in the opposite hemisphere ; and vice versa, as shewn by the cold and rainy summer of 1829, when the winter cold in the southern hemisphere, as experienced in the colonies of New South Wales, was greater than had been known for a number of years. In like manner, I say, it is, that from the effects of the lunar action on the weather with us, being, throughout the year, continually in opposi- tion to those induced by it in the atmosphere of the southern hemisphere, thus, similar to the solar ac- tion it produces directly opposite meteoric effects simultaneously at the opposite extremities of the earth. From this it follows, that an intimate con- nexion subsists between these actions; and that the state of the temperature in the southern hemis- phere, both in winter and summer, instead of being as might be supposed, neutral, may, on the contra- trary, be said, not only to affect the existing tem- perature with us, but materially to influence the ef- fects produced by the lunar action on the weather of our seasons. From every thing connected with the temperature and weather, however, being collective ; and, at the same time, based on the simultaneous operation of opposite principles, which alternately change and supplant each other in the seasons at determinate periods. Thus we are enabled to account why the tendence of meteoric action in the lunar circle changes, with the solar action, from either solstice Meteoric Progression. 269 to the opposite, as noticed ; and in like manner why the equinoctial phenomena cannot develope them- selves at the same, but at opposite periods of the moon, in spring and autumn ; owing to the opposi- tion of the actions in the opposite hemispheres, and the impossibility which exists for the same species of meteoric action being induced by the same lunar ac- tion, in both. Which latter I esteem to be so indu- bitably the case, that the state of the weather with us at, suppose new, or full moon, at any period of the year, enables us with every degree of certainty to know the existing state of the weather within the same parallels of the southern hemisphere at the time. Which, it will be admitted, is an extension of know- ledge in this department of science, far beyond the very limited range to which during so many centu- ries it has been confined, or to which, up to the pre- sent, it was thought possible to carry it.* Thus, to revert to the annual circle: owing to the irregularity of meteoric progression in our sea- sons, the same periods of succeeding years, will usually be found to present contrasts more or less considerable in the weather; and the seasons every second, and probably still more, every fifth year, on * It may be right to notice, that this paper having been written several months previous to the preceding Parts, some of the ob- servations will be found to have been already anticipated in the latter. 270 Meteoric Progression. the contrary, will be found to show an approach to the same kind of weather : the circumstance of mean temperature not being materially different. Insomuch, that, by keeping in view the principle of an equilibrium between the opposite kinds of mete- oric action in the seasons with which we commenced this article, and which is sure to come round and be restored about the periods indicated : thus, to the attentive observer, the past, will always be found to supply in this respect, the most unerring guide to the future ; as regards the nature of the ap- proaching seasons, and changes of the weather. Having thus brought to a close the task (long since entered on,) of exploring the labyrinths, and investigating the sources of meteoric action ; and, as I trust, shown the identity which, to a certain extent, exists between the latter and astronomical principles, equally as those connected with the en- tire round of the physical sciences ; together with the advantages more or less considerable which the whole of the latter must derive from the in- creased light thus obtained. Considering meteoro- logy under the double point of view connected with its theory and practice, as it was impossible with any attention to perspicuity to mix up the latter with the former ; thence the division in the manner Meteoric Progression. 271 of treating the subject here introduced ; the first or theoretic part being to a certain extent defective, without the addition of the two latter by which it is succeeded. And thus it is, as being the con- necting members, and natural divisions into which the subject resolves itself, that though each of these parts has its use, this does not prevent but that, in point of interest, the first is that which chiefly claims attention ; from its being according to the views and principles there taken or laid down, that the theory proposed must be judged of; and consequently, by which it must either stand or fall. And, notwithstanding the attention that has been paid in the preceding pages, to treat of all the lead- ing points connected with meteorology; yet so ample is the field it presents, that, notwithstanding the partial change of principles introduced, many of the views taken in my preceding publications are not only still applicable to the theory as it at pre- sent stands, but are in no slight degree requisite, in order to the better understanding of the subject. And, it may be observed, as not a little curious, that perhaps the most conclusive proofs of the cor- rectness of this theory whether as refers to the movement, temperature, or other local phenomena of the earth, and planets, are derived from a princi- ple which from the imposibility of making it avail- able by experiment, seemed of all others the least likely to answer this end, viz. magnetic action. 272 Meteoric Progression. And consequently these the discoveries connected with planetary magnetism, as detailed in the First Part, are those to which I attach the greatest im- portance ; as the facts they have led to, are such as may challenge not only the strictest investigation, but defy the action of time to gainsay. And as, previous to pushing my inquiries as connected with the subject of planetary magnetism to their present extent, I pointed out (in a letter bearing date the 9th of June 1835, to that distinguished astronomer, Sir William Hamilton, of the Dublin Observatory,) a circumstance connected with it which might serve as a test of the principle of reflective action, as recognised by the present theory, viz. the as- sumed change which, with that of the earth in the ecliptic, takes place in the position of the magnetic equator ; and which, if so, must be greatest at the period of either solstice as contrasted with the op- posite : I think it right to notice the circumstance in this place, under the impression that, as connected with so important a subject to science, it may be thought worthy of investigation. For, notwithstand- ing the number, as palpable nature of the proofs, in reference to the connexion of magnetic action with the temperature, the formation of rain, and elliptical movement of the earth, already noticed ; as in inves- tigations of the kind, every thing practicable should be done to remove doubt, and make 6f assurance doubly sure : " a means so simple as this, and which Meteoric Progressibn. 273 would cost so little labour or expense to ascer- tain, should not be allowed to remain un- examined. Unfortunately for the cause of truth, there are but too many causes in operation, and which, whe- ther owing to the weakness of our organization, to the vices of our constitution, or to other causes, it is to be feared will, to a certain extent, be always in operation, to counteract its salutary influence, and retard its developement : and which, in his dis- quisition on the Negroes, Raynal, with his accus- tomed eloquence and ability, sums up as follows, viz. C'est une preuve ajoute a mille autres de Tin- certitude de nos connoissances. Et comment nos connoissances ne seroient-elles pas incertaines et bornees ? Nos organes sont si foibles, nos moyens si courts, nos etudes si distraites, notre vie si troublee, et 1'objet de nos recherches si vast^e ! Travaillez sans relache, naturalistes, physiciens, chymistes, phi- losophes observateurs de tous les genres : et apres des siecles d'efforts reunis et continus, les secrets que vous aurez arraches a la nature, compares a son immense richesse, ne seront que la goutte d'eau en- levee au vaste ocean. L'homme riche dort ; le sa- vent veille, mais il est pauvre. Ses decouvertes sont trop indifferentes aux gouvernemens, pour qu'il puisse solliciter des secours ou esperer des recom- penses. On trouveroit parmi nous plus d'un Aris- tote ; mais ou est le monarque qui lui dira ; ma T 274 Meteoric Progression. puissance est a tes ordres; puise dans mes tresors, et travaille ? Apprends-nous, celebre Buffon, a quel point de perfection tu aurois porte ton immortel ouvrage, si tu avois vecu sous un Alexandre ! L'homme contemplatif est sedentaire, et le vo- yageur est ignorant ou menteur. Celui qui a re$u le genie en partage, dedaigne les details minutieux de Pexperience ; et le faiseur d* experiences est pres- que toujours sans genie. Entre la multitude des agens que la nature emploie, nous n'en connoissons que quelque-uns, et encore ne les connoissons-nous qu'imparfaitement. Qui sait si les autres ne sont pas de nature a echapper pour jamais a nos sens, a nos instrumens, a nos observations et a nos essais ? La nature des deux etres qui composent le monde, 1'esprit et la matiere, sera toujours un mystere. * * La Religion, qui jette du dedain sur les travaux d'un etre en chrysalide et qui redoute se- cretement les progres de la raison, multipliera les oisifs et retardera Thomme laborieux par la crainte pu par le scruple. A mesure qu'une science s'a- vance les pas deviennent plus difficiles; la genera- lite se degoute, et elle n'est plus cultivee que par quelques hommes opiniatres qui s'en occupent, soit par habitude, soit par Tesperance bien ou mal fondee de se faire un nom, jusqu'au moment ou le ridicule s'en mele et ou Ton montre au doigt, ou comme un fou ou comme un sot, celui qui se promet de vaincre une difficulte centre laquelle quelques hommes cele- Meteoric Progression 275 bres ont echoue. Oest ainsi qu'on masque la crainte qu'il ne reussisse. On a vu dans tous les siecles et chez toutes les nations, les Etudes naitre tomber et se succeder dans un certain ordre rgle. Cette inconstance cette lassitude ne sont pas d'un homme seulement. C'est un vice des societes les plus nombreuses et le plus eclair ees. II semble que les sciences et les arts alent un terns de mode" * And, notwithstanding that certain parts of this picture may be overcharged: we need not go back to the time of Raynal, in order to prove its correct- ness in others. For unfortunately whim, rather than sound judgment, but too frequently presides over the reigning fashion in science, equally as in dress. Thus, when accident brought part of Volta's or Galvani's circuit, I have forgotten which, in col- lision with the limb of a frog : a cool observer might suppose that this newly discovered property of elec- tricity on the occasion, was not confined to the lo- cality where the experiment was made, but extended throughout the scientific world, so promptly did it respond the shock! And what were not the won- ders anticipated, and the conjectures hazarded, as to the results to which it would lead! Again, a gentleman at Paris some time since, in contemplat- * Voyez. Histoire Philosophise, Tome Neuvieme page 176 et suiv. 276 Meteoric Progression. ing the splendours of the setting sun from one of the windows of the Luxemburg, was struck with something new in the diverging rays ; and imme- diately out sprung the science of the polarisation of light: which has during some years fairly divided the suffrages of the learned with the steam engine. And yet, what are these discoveries, however inge- nious, if tried by the test of usefulness ? For the anticipations formed of the first have already passed their term, similar to those of animal magnetism; the central fire of my old friend the late Baron Fou- rier of the French Academy, &c., &c. : and as to the last, the utmost that can reasonably be expected from it, is, to decide between the respective merits of the conflicting theories of solar light ; and which though it may amuse, is not likely to lead to any thing further. It is true that, as connected with science, nothing can be considered as small; from things seemingly the most trivial having so frequently led to results the most important. And if the same anxiety in matters of importance, were always dis- played by its cultivators, as on these light subjects, they might well be excused for indulging in those occasional wanderings. But has such been the case? And as, without co-operation in matters of the kind, the best things must, of necessity, fall still-born; having thus to the best of my ability contributed to increase the sum of our acquaintance with nature and Meteoric Progression. 277 her phenomena in the physical world; let me in- dulge the hope that my efforts in the cause of truth however they may have fallen short of my wishes will not be allowed to become abortive, for want of that protection and support, which, by insuring their success can alone make them valid. :t OI& . THE END. . Davidson, Printer, Serle's Place, Carey Street, Londoji . ERRATA. Page 1, line 17, for on, read in the atmoiphere. 23, line 19, for whistlings, read whistling. 30, line 21, for Sir Fohn, read Sir John. 40, line 5, for les ciel, read le ciel. 67, line 17, for converging, read diverging. 73, line 28, for eclectrical, read electrical. 80, line 28, for L'ui, read L'uni. 85, line 9, for thenee, read thence. 108, line 5, for operaticve, read operative. 108, line 17, for ascrtained, read ascertained. 137, line 3, for traces read traces 154, commencement of line 6, for ile, read cile. 166, line 25, for action, read actions. 171, line 23, for syzygies, and quadratures, read quadratures, or as connected with the syzygies. 174, line 9, for action, read actions. 222, line 15, for tro ics, read tropics. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 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