National Conference of Social 
 Work 
 
 Social Standards for Industry
 
 mL. 
 
 /- f-s'' 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 Li'brcry
 
 Ir.
 
 SOCIAL STANDARDS FOR 
 INDUSTRY 
 
 J Platform 
 
 BY 
 
 THE COMMITTEE ON STANDARDS OF 
 LIVING AND LABOR 
 
 OWEN R. LOVEJOV, Chairman 
 
 * 
 
 NATIONAL CONFERENCE 
 OF CHARITIES AND CORRECTION 
 
 CLEVELAND, OHIO 
 
 JUNE 12-19, 191.: 
 
 1,1 ! r'lr.Y 
 
 Institute of Indur' -'^.1 PelationB 
 
 Univcrrlty of California 
 
 Los Angeles 24, California
 
 REPORT. 
 
 The following statement by the Committee on Standards of 
 Living and Labor is prepared by the Chairman of the Committee 
 with the advice and approval of its members. 
 
 While individual members of the committee have presented 
 a variety of opinions on the topics, this statement expresses the 
 majority view, and with the exception of two or three paragraphs 
 is signed in its entirety by all members of the committee. 
 
 Owen R. Lovejoy, Chairman. 
 
 COMMITTEE ON STANDARDS OF LIVING AND LABOR, 
 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF CHARITIES AND COR- 
 RECTION, CLEVELAND, OHIO, JUNE 12-19, 1912. 
 
 Owen R. Lovejoy, Chairman, 105 East 22d Street, New York City, N. Y. 
 Mrs. Raymond Robins, Vice-Chairman, 1437 West Ohio Street, 
 
 Chicago, 111. 
 Dr. John B. Andrews, i Madison Avenue, New York City, N. Y. 
 Julius Henry Cohen, 15 William Street, New York City, N. Y. 
 Dr. Edward T. Devine, 105 East 22d Street, New York City, N. Y. 
 Dr. Lee K. Frankel, i Madison Avenue, New York City, N. Y. 
 Hon. John Golden, Fall River, Mass. 
 
 Miss Pauline Goldmark, 105 West 40th Street, New York City, N. Y. 
 Dr. Alice Hamilton, Washington, D. C. 
 
 Alexander Johnson, ex officio. Secretary of the Conference. 
 Mrs. Florence Kelley, 106 East 19th Street, New York City, N. Y. 
 Paul U. Kellogg, 105 East 22d Street, New York City, N. Y. 
 Rev. Charles S. Macfarland, 215 Fourth Avenue, New York City, N. Y. 
 Hon. Julian W. Mack, President of the Conference. 
 V. Everit Macy, 68 Broad Street, New York City, N. Y. 
 Benjamin C. Marsh, 320 Broadway, New York City, N. Y. 
 Mrs. Dexter Otey, Lynchburg, Va. 
 Prof. W^alter Rauschenbusch, Rochester, N. Y. 
 Rev. John A. Ryan, St. Paul's Seminary, St. Paul, Minn. 
 Hon. A. T. Stovall, Okalona, Miss. 
 
 Harry Thomas, 310 Prospect Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio. 
 Hon. William B. Wilson, Blossburg, Pa. 
 
 New York, 1912.
 
 H 
 
 SOCIAL STANDARDS FOR INDUSTRY. A PLATFORM. 
 
 PREAMBLK. 
 
 THE STANDARD OF LI\IX(,. 
 
 The welfare of society and the prosperity of tlie state require 
 for each individual such food, clothing, housing conditions, and 
 other necessaries and comforts of life as will secure and maintain 
 physical, mental, and moral health. These are essential elements 
 in a normal standard of living, below which society cannot allow 
 any of its memliers to live without injuring the public welfare. 
 An increasing percentage of our population derives the means to 
 maintain this normal standard through industry. Industry there- 
 fore must submit to such public regulation as will make it a means 
 of life and health, not of death or inefficiency. 
 
 This regulation has to do with hours, safety, over-strain, and 
 other conditions of the day's labor; with premature employment, 
 unemployment, incapacity, and other factors which shorten or 
 impair the length of the working life; with wages as the basis 
 which work affords for a normal standard of home life; with 
 unwise taxation and other community conditions which in our 
 industrial centers exploit wages ; with insurance against those 
 risks of trade — death, injury, occupational disease — which break in 
 upon the working years and wipe out earnings; and with protec- 
 tion against poverty in old age when productive lalx)r is ended. 
 
 The community has a right to complete knowledge of the 
 facts of work. 
 
 The community can cause to be fornnilated iniiiiniuni occupa- 
 tional standards below which work is carried on only at a human 
 deficit. 
 
 The community should bring such subnormal industrial con- 
 ditions within the scope of governmental action and control, in the 
 same way subnormal sanitary conditions are subject to public regu- 
 lation, and for the same reason — because they threaten general 
 welfare. 
 
 Such minimum standards in relatit^i to Wages, Hours, Hous- 
 ing. Safety and Health. Term of Working Life, and Workman's 
 Compensation are called for if the United States is to keep abreast 
 with the social statesmanship of other great industrial nations; 
 they are counseled by physicians and neurologists who have studied 
 
 Library 
 Institute of Industrial Pelati r ^ 
 U'-iverrity of C".' i fornia 
 8412SSMg^®3 24, California 
 
 v I
 
 the effect of fatigue and over-strain upon health; by economists 
 who have analyzed the extravagance of unskilled labor, excessive 
 hours, and low pay; and by social workers who deal with the 
 human wastes of industry through relief societies, or through 
 orphanages, hospitals, insane asylums, and alms houses. 
 
 Wherever they are not the standards of given establishments 
 or given industries, are unprovided for by legislatures, or are 
 balked by unenlightened courts, the community pays a heavy cost 
 in lessened efficiency, and in misery. Where they are sanctioned 
 and enforced, the conservation of our human resources contributes 
 the most substantial asset to the wealth of the future. 
 
 NOTE : The Planks in this Platform are : 
 
 Wages Page 5 
 
 Hours " 13 
 
 Safety and Health " 19 
 
 Housing " 27 
 
 Term of Working Life " 35 
 
 Compensation or Insurance " 41 
 
 Following each plank annotations are inserted as follows : 
 
 A. Specific information bearing on the topic. 
 
 B. Federal, State, or Foreign laws that apply. 
 
 C. Standards already accepted by social welfare 
 
 organizations. 
 
 This supplementary material is intended to be illustra- 
 tive and not exhaustive.
 
 I. WAGES. 
 
 1. A Living Wage. A living wage for all who devote their 
 time and energy to industrial occupations. The monetary equiva- 
 lent of a livini; wage varies according to local conditions, but must 
 include enough to secure the elements of a normal standard of 
 living; to provide for education and recreation; to care for im- 
 mature members of the family ; to maintain the family during 
 periods of sickness; and to permit of reasonable saving for old age. 
 
 2. MixiMu.M Wage Commissions. iMany industrial occupa- 
 tions, especially where women, children, and immigrant men are 
 employed, do not pay wages to maintain a normal standard of 
 living. Minimum wage commissions should therefore be estab- 
 lished in each state to inquire into wages paid in various indus- 
 tries, and to determine the standard which the public will sanction 
 as the minimum. 
 
 3. Wage Publicity. Properly constituted authorities should 
 be empowered to require all employers to file with them for public 
 purposes such wage scales, and other data as to earnings as the 
 public element in industry demands. The movement for honest 
 weights and measures has its counterpart in industry. All tallies, 
 scales, and check systems should be open to public inspection and 
 inspection of committees of the workers concerned. Qianges in 
 wage rates, systems of dockage, bonuses, and all other modifica- 
 tions of the wage contract should be posted, and wages should be 
 paid in cash at least every two weeks. 
 
 A. SPECIFIC IXFORM.\TION ON WAGES. 
 
 Family Incomes. — In an investigation covering 3,297,819 
 wage earners, the average weekly earnings of all classes are 
 $10.06; for men above 16 years, $11.16; for women, $6.17; for 
 children under 16. $3.46. Out of the total number of men in- 
 cluded in the statistics, i. 215. 798, or 46 per cent., earned $10.00 
 or less a week. (U. S. Bulletin 93, Census of Manufactures, 
 
 1905) 
 
 It is simply impossible for a family of five to maintam a 
 decent standard of living on an income of $10 a week; hence
 
 wives and children are compelled to participate in the fierce 
 struggle for existence. (United States Bureau of Labor, 
 1908.) 
 
 "An investigation of 131 families in New York City, en- 
 gaged in making artificial fiowers at home in 1912, showed the 
 average wage of the father $9.20 per week, the average rent 
 $3.01 per week, average size of family 6 persons." (Watson, 
 Elizabeth C: "Home Work in New York City," National 
 Child Labor Committee.) 
 
 Of 1,217 families studied in Washington, 39 per cent, had 
 an income of $500 or less; and only 8 per cent, had an income 
 of over $1,000. (p. 3.) The 39 per cent, above referred to — 
 those receiving less than $500 per year — spent 43.68 per cent, 
 of their income for food. "The question of food . . . is of 
 special significance from an economic standpoint in families 
 of limited means." (President's Homes Commission: Report 
 of Committee on Social Betterment, G. M. Kober.) 
 
 "It appears that half of the adult males of the United 
 States are earning less than $500 a year; that three-quarters 
 of them are earning less than $600 annually; that nine-tenths 
 are receiving less than $800 a year ... A corresponding 
 computation of the wages of women shows that one-fifth earn 
 less than $200 annually; three-fifths are receiving less than 
 $325; that nine-tenths are earning less than $500 a year." The 
 above computation allows for loss through unemployment. 
 (Nearing: "Wages in the United States." p. 313.) 
 
 It seems safe to conclude that an income under $800 is 
 not enough to permit the maintenance of a normal standard. 
 A survey of the details of expenditure for each item in the 
 budget shows some manifest deficiency for almost every 
 family in the $600 and $700 groups. Fuel is gathered on the 
 street by half of the $600 families; one-third of them are not 
 able to afford gas; one-third are within the 22-cent minimum 
 limit for food, and 20 per cent, of the $700 families spend 
 22 cents or under. (Chapin, "Standard of Living in New York 
 City," p. 245.) 
 
 Of 25,440 families studied, 16 per cent, had deficits averag- 
 ing $65 to $68; while 33.44 per cent, of the families barely 
 finish the financial year without contracting debt. (New York 
 Bureau of Labor, i8th Annual Report.) 
 
 There are in the United States at least five million indus- 
 trial workmen who are earning $600 or less a year. "Such a 
 state of affairs that during a year of prosperity one-sixth of 
 all families fall into debt, and 49 per cent, are unable to save 
 for a rainy day, is insufferable." (Streightoff, "Standards of 
 Living.") 
 
 In the lowest expenditure group of budget families the 
 average weekly outlay was $9-^7, and the averages for items 
 were: Rent, $1.88; food, $4.16; fuel, $.38; clothing. $.94; fur- 
 niture, $.09; household expenses, $.15; insurance. $.70; tobacco, 
 $.07; liquor, $.20; medicine, $.10; other expenses, $.50. For a 
 family of normal size this provides only a two-room tenement 
 in a crowded court, with no sanitary conveniences; a supply 
 of food below the minimum sufficient for mere physical well- 
 being; insurance that makes provision which is utterly inade- 
 quate for the family left without a breadwinner; a meagre 
 expenditure for clothes and furniture, and an almost negligible 
 margin for recreation, education, and savings. (Byington, 
 Margaret F., "Homestead, the Households of a Mill Town." 
 p. 102.) 
 
 6
 
 A "fair living wage" for a workingman's family of average 
 size in New York City should be at least $72« a year, or a 
 steady income of $14 a week. (More, Louise Bolard, "Wage- 
 Earners* Budgets." p. 269.) 
 
 Wages ok Women. — Investigations show that the least sum 
 on which a girl can live in New York is $9.00 a week. (New 
 York City Consumers' League, 1912). 
 
 L)nly II per cent, of girls employed in department stores 
 in Kansas City (573) receive a-, much as the cslimated mini- 
 mum wage — $9.00 a week; while 32 per cent, receive $500 a 
 week or less. ... Of 574 girls employed in factories, 34^ 
 or 60 per cent, received $0oo or less per week. (Board of 
 Public Welfare, Kansas City, Missouri.) 
 
 Of 22,185 women studied, 61.80 per cent, earned less 
 than $7.00; 20.85 per cent, from $7.00 to $8.00; and 17-35 
 per cent, over $8.00. Estimated living wage in Pittsburgh. 
 $7.00. (Butler: "Woman and the Trades," p. 337) 
 
 Of 2,690 women workers in department stores, telepjione 
 exchanges, and laundries. 1.801 received from $6.50 to $4.00; 
 and 743 less than $400 a week. (p. 5) "Two-thirds of the 
 working women in Kentucky leceive $6.50 or less per week; 
 and one-quarter <>i them receive $4.00 or less per week." (p. 
 8.) The minimum living wage for Louisville is $6.50. (Com- 
 mission to Investigate Conditions of Working Women in Ken- 
 tucky; Report, Dec, 191 1.) 
 
 Of 7,540 women studied in mercantile houses m 1907, 5-510, 
 or 73 per cent., received less than $6.00 a week. (Butler: 
 "Women and the Trades," p. 304) 
 
 Out of a studv of 301 girls in New Y'ork department 
 stores, in 343 cases the averaj."e total wage is $6.00 a week, 
 in analyzing the incomes of 241 saleswomen, the report shows 
 108 received less than $6.00; 206 received less than $900. 
 Thus, only 35, or uj^ per cent., received an amount equivalent 
 to the least sum on which a girl can live in New York. 
 (United States Bureau of Labor, Report on Conditions of 
 Women and Child Wage Earners.) .... r. 1 
 
 Of 4,048 women department store workers studied in Bal- 
 timore, 2,184, or =,4 per cent., earn less than $5.00; 3.266. or 
 81 per cent., less than $6.00 per week. Calculated minimum 
 living wage. $6.70. (Butler: "Saleswomen in Mercantile 
 Stores," Baltimore, 1909, p. 113) 
 
 Monthly Expenditure for Girls Living Away from Home: 
 Room rent (lodging in other family's apartment, 
 
 no privacy) P" '"O- ?4-00 
 
 Food: Breakfast (average wr.rking girl takes coffee, 
 bread, and butter, self-prepared), daily 10 cents, 
 
 per mo. 300 
 Lunch (sandwiches, tea), daily 15 cents, per mo. 45° 
 
 Sui>per (hot meal, minimum cost), daily 20 cents. 
 
 per mo., 6.00 
 
 $1750 
 
 Carfares to and from work per mo. 2.50 
 
 Newspapers pernio. .50 
 
 Clothes per mo. 700 
 
 $27 50 
 
 Annual expenses ••$33000 
 
 (New York Section of the Council of Jewish Women.) 
 
 7
 
 Forty-one per cent, of the candy workers, 10.2 per cent, of 
 the saleswomen, 16.1 per cent, of the laundry workers, and 
 2S per cent, of the cotton workers earn less than $5.00 a 
 week; and 65.2 per cent., 29.5 per cent., 40.7 per cent., and 
 37.9 per cent, of them respectively earn less than $6.00 a week. 
 (Report of the Commission on Minimum Wage Boards, Mass., 
 p. 10.) 
 
 "The lower a woman's wages, the more timid she is of 
 .any sort of disturbance of the unstable equilibrium of her 
 livelihood. Trade-unionism and similar movements have never 
 flourished amongst the poorest class of workers." (Wise, 
 IE. F., "Wage Boards in England," American Economic Re- 
 view, March, 1912. 
 
 Women entering industry do not bargain with employers 
 concerning wages; and often do not know beforehand what 
 they are to receive. (Kentucky Commission to Investigate 
 Conditions of Working Women, 191 1, p. 36.) 
 
 Concerning wages of children in the Gulf Coast canneries, 
 Lewis W. Hine, staff photographer of the National Child 
 Labor Committee, says: "It is not at all rare to see four- and 
 five-year-olds struggling with the rough shells, and in the 
 course of the day earning about five cents. . . . The earn- 
 ings of the very little ones are not usually over five cents a 
 day. . . . Several of seven and eight years earn from ten 
 cents to 'two bits.'" (Hine, Lewis W.: "Child Labor in 
 Gulf Coast Canneries.") 
 
 "The very act of eliminating immature children from em- 
 ployment tends to raise the wages of the older members of the 
 family, for in any occupation where children can be employed, 
 their employment tends to bring down the wages of the indi- 
 vidual to the child standard." (McKelway, Dr. A. J.: "Child 
 Labor in Mississippi.") 
 
 "The poor widow with her children to support was not 
 found among the home finishers (of garments). If she were 
 a factor, her poor children would starve, as the remuneration 
 for this class of labor falls far short of supporting its most 
 diligent and tireless workers. (United States Senate Docu- 
 ment 645, Vol. VIII.) 
 
 "Higher earnings and increased industrial efficiency go 
 far toward developing in working women a sense of responsi- 
 bility, personal and social." (Butler: "Women and the 
 Trades," p. 3~^.) 
 
 Minimum Wage Boards. — "Two uncontroverted facts stand 
 out clearly: first, that the best wages are paid in the most 
 strictly regulated trades. Where the limitation of hours is 
 most defined and best enforced, wages are invariably highest. 
 The unregulated trades, with the longest hours, are the most 
 sweated and underpaid. Second, while we cannot assert that 
 the operation of factory laws has been the direct cause of 
 higher wages, there is no doubt that the sequel of shorter 
 hours has almost invariably been a rise in wages, even after 
 a temporary loss. Output . . . has been maintained and 
 increased in the shortened hours. The main cause for this has 
 been the increased efficiency of the workers, and this is the 
 explanation also of the seeming paradox of twelve hours' pay 
 for ten hours' work, and ten hours' pay for eight hours' 
 work." (Goldmark, Josephine, "Fatigue and Efficiency," p. 
 
 "The justification of the minimum standard-of-living wage 
 must be found ... in the social necessity for the main- 
 
 8
 
 tenance of the family." Results of minimum wage: In indus- 
 tries serving local markets and free from outside competition, 
 wages would probably increase anil the luiniber of workers 
 remain the same; in industries serving wider market and sub- 
 ject to competition, raise of wago would be accompanied by 
 decrease in employment. Some industries (sweated indus- 
 tries) would cease to exist. (Iltdcomhe, A. N.; "The Legal 
 Minimum Wage in the United Stales," American Economic 
 Review, March, 1912, p. 34.) 
 
 "Experience has shown that the injurious results (of mini- 
 mum wage boards) predicted by the oppijnents of labor legis- 
 lation and labor organizations iiave not taken place. In a 
 majority of instances the greater part of the additional cost 
 (of wages) has been met by an increased efliciency in the pro- 
 ductive process. . . . Another part has come out of the 
 profits of those concerns that were obtaining more than the 
 usual amount of interest on their investment." Ryan. Rev. 
 John .'\.: "Minimum Wages and Mininmm Wage Boards," The 
 Survey, September 3, 1910.) 
 
 "Neither will the assumed saving in the prices of the 
 goods produced by the exploited worker equal the loss due to 
 lower indu-trial etViciency, sickness, poverty, and crime. . . . 
 By expediency as well as by morality the parasitic indU'^try 
 stands condemned. . . . As a general rule, an industry that 
 is not self-supporting, that cannot pay living wages to all its 
 employes, has no valid reason for existing. (Ibid.) 
 
 Results of Minimum Wage: 1. Protection against class 
 legislation; 2, distinction made between unemployable and un- 
 employed; 3, restriction of competition between workers; 4, 
 restriction of competition between employers. "The indirect 
 economic effect of the establishment of a minimum standard- 
 of-living wage would be to promote the concentration of com- 
 petition between work people and between employers upon 
 efficiency." (Ilolconihe, A. .\.: "Le^al Minimum Wage in the 
 United States," American Economic Review, March, 1912, 
 p. 36.) 
 
 A legal minimum wage would lead to better distribution of 
 immigrants among various industries. (Holcombe. A. N.: 
 "Legal Minimum \\'age in the L'nited States," American Eco- 
 nomic Review, March, 1912, p. 35.) 
 
 "Nothing but the rise of the masses to a plane above 
 uncertainties of income can give to society an improving, 
 stable, physical heredity." (Tatten, Simon N.: "New' Basis 
 of Civilization," p. 43.) 
 
 "Women in general are working because of dire necessity, 
 and in most cases the combined inctjme of the family is not 
 more than adequate to meet the family's cost of living. In 
 these cases it is not optional with the woman to decline low- 
 paid employment. Every dollar added to the family income 
 is needed to lighten the burden which the rest are carrying. 
 Wherever the wages of sul-Ii a woman are less than the cost 
 of living and the reasonable provision for maintaining the 
 worker in health, the industry employing her is in receipt of 
 the working energy of a human being at less than its cost, and 
 to that extent is parasitic. The balance must be made up in 
 some way. It is generally paid by the industry employing 
 the father; it is sometimes paid in part by the future inef- 
 ficiency of the worker herself and by her children; and perhaps 
 in part ultimately by the State. . . If an industry is per- 
 manently dependent for its existence on underpaid labor,
 
 its value to the Commonwealth is questionable. (Commis- 
 sion on Minimum Wage Boards, Massachusetts, Report, Janu- 
 ary, 1912, p. 17.) 
 
 "Physiologically considered, the worst effect of low pay, 
 especially low piece rates such as prevail in the stitching 
 trades, is their incentive to a too great intensity of work, and 
 to a feverish speed on the part of the operators." (Gold- 
 mark, Josephine: "Fatigue and Efficiency," p. 56.) 
 
 "The earnings of children seldom permanently increase 
 the total income of the family. The increase in the income 
 through the earnings of the children is often offset by the 
 decrease in the earnings of the father." (Williams, John, 
 Michigan Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1901, p. 259.) 
 
 B. FEDERAL, STATE, OR FOREIGN LAWS ON 
 WAGES. 
 
 No state in this country has yet undertaken to establish a 
 legal minimum wage in private employments. The courts 
 have always ruled that such laws are a direct violation of the 
 right of "freedom of contract." 
 
 Several states have legislated to keep the rate of wages 
 on public work up to. the "current rate" in private employ- 
 ments. Baltimore has fixed a minimuin rate of $2.00 a day 
 for all workmen, laborers, or mechanics employed by the 
 city. California and Nebraska have fixed the same rate for 
 persons employed by the city, state, or its political divisions, 
 and Nevada has fixed a minimum rate of $3.00 a day for all 
 public work. 
 
 In the Federal printing office the wages for linotype and 
 monotype operators have been fixed by Congress at $.60 an 
 hour; and all Federal workmen not on an annual salary re- 
 ceive a 50 per cent, advance for Sunday labor. 
 
 Wisconsin requires all contracts between employers and 
 employes to be open to inspection by the Industrial Commis- 
 sion, and the Commission must publish annually at least 
 250 pages of information on the contracts. 
 
 Massachusetts protects the already low wages of textile 
 workers by providing that no hour worker in manu- 
 facturing or mechanical establishments may be docked for 
 time lost while waiting in the shop for machinery to be re- 
 paired. A commission to study wages has recently reported, 
 and a wage board bill is now before the legislature of that 
 State. 
 
 Ohio is considering a provision for Minimum Wage 
 Boards in the new constitution. 
 
 In contrast with our failure thus far to enact such legisla- 
 tion, minimum wage boards were authorized in England, in 
 1900, to cover chain making, machine-made lace finishing, 
 wholesale tailoring, and paper box manufacture. The inves- 
 tigations and recommendations of the boards have increased 
 wages for some kinds of work 150 per cent., and in some 
 cases even more. 
 
 The industries in which the system may be applied are 
 named by Parliament, but the Board of Trade may provi- 
 sionally extend the application of the act to other industries, 
 subject to subsequent continuation by Parliament. The wage 
 boards are composed of representatives of employers and 
 workers in equal numbers, and of other members appointed 
 
 ID
 
 by the Board of Trade. The act went into eftect January i. 
 igio. 
 
 England this year enacted a Minimum Wage law for 
 all underground workers in coal mines. Its main provisions 
 are: i. The establishment of Joint District Boards composed 
 of representatives of employers and employes, to determine 
 rates and general rules; 2. Minimum rate of pay, to be part 
 of every contract; 3. Minimum wage payable from time miners 
 return to work; 4. Miner can i;ue owner for wages of not less 
 than minimum rate; 5. Owner's rights safeguarded by rules 
 for regularity and efficiency of work; 6. Non-compliance with 
 these rules deprives miner of right to minimum wage; 7. Aged 
 and infirm miners excepted. 
 
 Minimum wage boards were established in Victoria in 
 1896, and arc now regulating wages for 91 trades. They also 
 exist in New South Wales. West Australia, South Australia, 
 New Zealand, and Tasmania. Germany has this year provided 
 for wage boards; and France, Belgium, Austria, and Switzer- 
 land have similar bills under consideration. 
 
 Practically all continental countries have systems of 
 industrial courts where aggrieved workers may appeal for 
 justice. 
 
 C. WAGE STANDARDS ALREADY ACCEl'TED. 
 
 "The opportunity should be given to all men to earn a 
 liviuK for their families by the sweat of their brow, but under 
 conditions which permit decent living, proper housing, wh«>lc- 
 some nourishment, and provisions for the proverbial 'rainy 
 day.' When this is not done, society itself pays the penalty.' 
 (Charity Organization Society of BufTalo. X. Y.) 
 
 "Xornially. the great bulk of the industrial work of our 
 country should be done by the heads of families, and wage> 
 should be adjusted not to the co^^t of living of the unmarried 
 boarder, but to the family life in the home. The living wage 
 differs from time to time and from place to place." (Federal 
 Council of Churches of Christ in America.) 
 
 "The interests of the community demand that all workers 
 shall receive fair living wages." (National Consumers" 
 League.) , ^ . 
 
 "A weekly wage of $7.00 is necessary for even a mmmuim 
 standard of living (for girls in New York). This allows for 
 no recreation, vacation money, books or medical aid. Sea- 
 sonal trades last no more than seven months yearly, which 
 with earnings of $6-$; weekly would ligure only $iS<>-$Jio an- 
 nually. The above is not a decent standard of livmg. The 
 minimum wage, therefore, should be at least $8-$«) a week — 
 $40O-$450 annually. Few girls earn so much." (New York 
 Section of the Council of Jewish Women.) 
 
 "We deplore the evils of child labor, the conditions that 
 compel women and girls to be employed away from their 
 homes, and the needless work of men and women on the 
 Lord's Day. . . . We sympathize with every legitimate 
 effort to obtain a living wage, reasonable hours, protection of 
 life and limb, workingmen's just compensation, decent and 
 healthful conditions in the home. shop. mine, and factory, and 
 pledge our support to all legislative action instituted t«» this 
 end." (Catholic I'ederation Resolutions.) 
 
 "Between fifty and sixty leading merchants in New \ ork 
 City have been brought to agree to pay women. 18 years old 
 
 II
 
 and upward, who have had one year's experience as clerk, 
 not less than $6.00 a week. Investigation of the income of 
 working women and girls shows that $8.00 is the least on 
 which women in New York City can keep themselves in health 
 and efficiency. Minimum wage boards encourage the fullest 
 publicity of payrolls and wage books and assure to the public 
 clear knowledge where now there is blank ignorance on the 
 part of the shopping public." (National Consumers' League.) 
 
 "The Church holds that in a Christian society these things 
 should prevail: . . . (c) the pay of every worker for six 
 days' work made sufficient for the needs of seven days of 
 living." (Presbyterian Board of Home Missions.) 
 
 "The Church must stand for a living wage as a minimum 
 in every industry, and for the highest wage that each industry 
 can afford." "For the most equitable division of the products 
 of industry that can ultimately be devised." (Federal Council 
 of Churches of Christ in America.) 
 
 "We take the position that a sufficient wage should be 
 paid to require a man to labor not above an average of eight 
 hours out of twenty-four to earn an amount that will meet 
 the necessities of decent maintenance; to provide for the edu- 
 cation of children; and the gradual building of such a surplus 
 as will provide a home and support for a reasonable period, 
 after the age when ability to work has ceased." (Order of 
 Railway Conductors of America.) 
 
 "We recommend a legal minimum wage in sweated 
 trades." (National Women's Trade Union League.) 
 
 "We demand a living wage in every industry." (Methodist 
 Federation for Social Service.) 
 
 Living wage: The workingman with an average family 
 should live in a sanitary, comfortable house; provide good 
 food; be able to keep his children in school until 16; and lay 
 up enough to maintain himself in illness or old age. (Mitchell, 
 John, quoted by Heydrick in The Chautauquan.) 
 
 Reasons for establishing Minimum Wage Commission: 
 
 I. To promote the welfare of the State by protecting 
 women workers from impaired health and inefficiency, due to 
 economic distress; 2. To bring employers to a realization of 
 their public responsibilities; 3. To furnish women employes a 
 means of obtaining the best minimum wages consistent with 
 the ongoing of industry, without recourse to industrial dis- 
 turbances; 4. To prevent the exploitation of helpless women, 
 and abolish sweating industries; 5. To diminish the parasitic 
 character of some industries and lessen the burden now 
 resting on other employments; 6. To protect employers from 
 the undercutting of wages by unscrupulous competitors; 
 7. To stimulate employers to develop the efficiency of the 
 workers; 8. To induce employers to keep together their trained 
 workers, and avoid as far as possible seasonal fluctuations; 
 9. To educate employes to meaning of the payroll, and heal 
 sense of grievance. 
 
 (Commission on Minimum Wage Boards, Massachusetts, 
 report, January, 1912, p. 25.) 
 
 12
 
 11. 11(.)URS. 
 
 1. i'.u.u i-llniK Uay. The cstabli.siiiiunt «>i uiu t.iL;iii-iiL)Ur 
 day for all men employed in continuous industries, and as a n^.axi- 
 mum for women and minors in all industries. 
 
 2. Six-Day \\'i:ek. The work period limited fu mx (lays 
 in each week ; and a period of rest of forty consecutive hours in 
 each week. 
 
 3. Night Work. Night work for minors entirely prohib- 
 ited; an uninterrupted period of at least eight hours night rest for 
 all women ; and night work for men minimized wherever possible. 
 
 A. SPECIFIC INFORMATION ON HOURS. 
 
 "The regulation of working hours is the necessary 
 mechanism to prevent overfatigue or exhaustion, forerunner 
 of countless miseries to individuals and whole nations." 
 (Goldmark. Josephine: "Fatigue and Efticiency," p. 9.) 
 
 "The shorter workday and relief from overstrain are not 
 in themselves the cure for tlie ills we have considered; but 
 they are the sine <;mij non without which no other cure is pos- 
 sible or conceivable. Just because a fatigued person is a 
 poisoned person, poisoned by the accumulation of his own 
 waste products, nothing can fundamentally cure the exhausted 
 worker which does not eliminate the cause of such accumu- 
 lated poisoning. . . . After exhaustion has set in nothing 
 but rest and repose permits the organism to expel its poisons 
 from day to day." (Ibid., p. 281.) 
 
 "If the short day were the enemy of production, as its 
 opponents asstrt. and actually led to a lowered output in the 
 long run, the progress toward an 8-hour day in the great 
 men's trades would long since have broken down. No trade 
 could persist and grow which was permanently carried on at 
 a loss. . . . Economic etVicicncy rises and falls with the 
 worker's physical efficiency, and whatever contributes to the 
 latter tends to raise the former!" (Ibid., p. 169.) 
 
 "Hours are 'long.' whether the day is eight hours or ten. 
 if the work is continued so long that it causes ill health or 
 interferes with the employes' capacity for recreation. From 
 the standpoint of ^ocial welfare, the maximum working day 
 must be limited to a number of hours in which in most indus- 
 tries no more energy is expended than may be regained by a 
 night's rest. fJccupations involving special strain must be 
 provided for specifically." (Butler: Women and the Trades, 
 
 P- 35^>) 
 
 Women workers in California canneries report average 
 season in country 14.2 weeks, in city 18.4 weeks. Average 
 hours, country O3.8. city 578 per week. Over one-half the 
 
 13
 
 workers questioned reported maximum weeks of 72 hours or 
 over, running in some cases up to 98 a week._ A number of 
 those reporting extremely long hours both in average and 
 maximum weeks are labelers and stampers, who have to do 
 with the product after it is canned, hermetically sealed, cooked, 
 and no longer perishable. Thirteen per cent, of the cannery 
 workers among the women are under 16 years of age. (U. S. 
 Bureau of Labor, Bulletin 96, p. 479-) 
 
 "The Maryland law contains a provision forbidding the 
 employment of children under 16 more than 10 hours a day. 
 As far as the canneries are concerned, this law appears to 
 be a dead letter. Of the whole group of children studied 
 (189) there were but five who had not had a maximum day 
 of over 10 hours, while 157 had had usual days exceeding 
 this limit." (U. S. Bureau of Labor, Bulletin 96, p. 479-) 
 
 "Under the pressure of the rush season the employes not 
 only work longer hours, but they increase the speed of their 
 production and thus their hourly earnings. It is equally plain 
 and highly significant that over 'J^ hours a week, which in- 
 volves 6 working days of over 11 hours each, fails to net the 
 workers an average of $6.00 a week. (Mfg. of candy, etc.) 
 (U. S. Bureau of Labor, Bulletin 96.) 
 
 "No store, factory, schoolhouse. playground, or private 
 home is a fit place for the systematic occupation of children 
 during the night hoars." (National Child Labor Committee, 
 "Child Labor and the Night Messenger Service.") 
 
 "The irregularity of work is much greater in the packing 
 of shrimp (than in the packing of oysters) as the catch is so 
 easily delayed by adverse weather conditions. The workers 
 do not begin quite so early in the morning and one manager 
 told me that because the fluid in the shrimp affects the fingers 
 of the pickers, it is not possible for the best of them to work 
 much over six hours. It is a common sight to find the chil- 
 dren with swollen and bleeding fingers." Oyster shuckers 
 work from three or four in the morning until about four in 
 the afternoon, and sometimes they have a short lunch period. 
 (Hine, Lewis W.: "Child Labor in the Gulf Coast Canneries," 
 
 P- 4) 
 
 "Because of the long periods of idleness when they can 
 earn nothing, these women (home finishers of men's clothing) 
 make the most of the busy season when it comes, and when 
 plenty of work is to be had the combined labor of the whole 
 family, all day and often at night, is utilized. They take as 
 many garments as they can possibly secure, and then work un- 
 limited hours and strain to the utmost to complete their 
 tasks." (U. S. Report on Conditions of Women and Child 
 Wage Earners, Senate Doc. 645, Vol. VIII.) 
 
 "Taking the 28 North Carolina mills which employed 
 M'omen or children at night, all together, the children working 
 fey day in all these mills were 25.32% of all the day employees 
 there, and the 437 children working by night in all these mills 
 were 26.29% of all the night workers." (U. S. Report on the 
 Conditions of Women and Child Wage Earners, Senate Doc. 
 645. Vol. I.) 
 
 There are 35 states in the Union in which children under 
 16 years of age may work more than 8 hours a day. . . . 
 Under the most exacting conditions, the child is confined in 
 school 1,000 hour? annually. In Massachusetts the factory child 
 is confined 2,808 hours a year, and in New York, where the 
 8-hour day prevails, he is subjected to 2,496 hours' confine- 
 
 14
 
 ment. In Alabama a child of 12 years may legally work 3,120 
 hours a year, while children of 14 may be cxploycd 78 hours 
 a week, or 4.056 hours a year. The total number of hours of 
 daylight in tlic year, exclusive of Sundays, is 3,744. so that 
 the manufacturinj^ industries of Alabama may legally employ 
 their 14-year-old children 312 hours of the night besides all 
 the hours of daylight. (National t'hild Labor Committee, 
 "Seven Years of Child Labor Ucform.") 
 
 "Tomato peeling i> often done at long tables where the 
 workers stand all day. Children of u years are employed 
 at this exhausting work for far lunger hours than is permitted 
 in factories for children two years older." (Goldmark, 
 Pauline: "Do Children Work in the Canneries?") 
 
 "It is not at all unusual ft>r young girls and women to 
 work for 80 or w hours a week. They have been known to 
 work for iH hours of the 24 in certain canneries in New York 
 State." (Goldmark, Pauline: "Child Labor in Canneries.") 
 
 "Evidence is available to show that children, especially 
 the foreign born, work in some sheds with the adults ten to 
 fifteen hours a day, or as long as there is work to be done." 
 (Hall, George A.: "Unrestricted Forms of Child Labor in 
 N. Y. State." 1 
 
 B. FEDERAL, STATE, OR FOREIGN LAWS 
 LIMITING HOURS. 
 
 HOUR LIMITATION— WOMEN. Arizona has estab- 
 lished the 8-hour day for laundry workers, and Montana 
 a 9-hour day for telephone operators in cities over 3.000. The 
 lo-hour laws of Oregon, Illinois, Michigan, and Ohio, and the 
 8-hour law of Washington have been sustained by the courts. 
 The 60-hour week holds for Georgia, Illinois. Louisiana. Mary- 
 land, Nebraska. North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsyl- 
 vania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee. Virginia, 
 New Jersey, and Kentucky. Connecticut. Maine, Minnesota, 
 and New Hampshire have a 58-hour week; Rhode Island 
 56-hour; Wisconsin 55; Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, 
 New York, Ohio, and Utah 54. 
 
 NIGHT WORK. In Europe 14 countries— Germany, 
 Austria, Belgium, Denmark, .Spain, France, Great Britain, 
 Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden. Switzer- 
 land, and Hungary — have signed an agreement to abolish 
 night work for women. In America three states — Massachu- 
 setts, Indiana, and Nebraska — have laws prohibiting night 
 work for women. 
 
 HOUR LIMITATION— MEN. In 17 states there are 
 general laws defining a legal day's work for men. Twenty 
 states, the District of Columbia, the United States, Hawaii, and 
 Porto Rico limit the hours of labor in public employment to 8 
 per day. Regulation in different industries is as follows: mines 
 13 states, smelters 8, railroad labor 24 and the United States, 
 telegraph or telephone operators handling trains 18 and the 
 United States, street car employment 10, cotton and woollen 
 mills 3; while the following industries are regulated in one 
 state each: bakeries, brickyards, cement and plaster mills, 
 drug clerks, jailers, tunnel and caisson workers, letter carriers 
 (federal law). 
 
 The legal prohibition of night work for men is still con- 
 sidered impossible in America. Norway, Finland. Italy, and
 
 the Swiss Canton of Tessin have recognized that in such em- 
 ployments as bakeries, night work is injurious, even for men, 
 and have prohibited it entirely. 
 
 In Germany, Svi^itzerland, Norway, Austria, and Russia, 
 the Government has power to fix the length of the working 
 day for any industries where the health of the workers might 
 be injured by long hours. There are on the statute books of 
 the United States, the states, territories, and dependencies, 
 65 distinct laws designed to limit daily hours of labor of adult 
 males in private employment. Eighteen decisions have been 
 given by courts of last resort on laws concerning bakeries, 
 mines, and smelters. Of ther.e, 11 have upheld the laws as 
 within state police power; 5 have held adversely on account of 
 federal regulation, though affirming or implying their validity 
 in the absence of federal statutes; 2 have been absolutely ad- 
 verse to legislation on constitutional grounds, of which i is 
 generally regarded as based on unsound reasoning. 
 
 Convict Labor: The following states have a fixed 8-hour 
 day for convict labor: Colorado, Illinois, Missouri, New Jer- 
 sey, Nevada, New York, Pennsylvania, Utah, Washington. 
 The following have an 8-hour maximum day: Delaware, In- 
 diana, Iowa. The following have a fixed lo-hour day: Kan- 
 sas, Oregon, South Carolina, Tennessee, Wisconsin. The 
 following have a lo-hour maximum day: Florida, Louisiana, 
 Massachusetts, Minnesota, Texas. Florida, Idaho, and Louisi- 
 ana forbid night work for convicts. 
 
 HOUR LIMITATION— CHILDREN. The work of chil- 
 dren under 16 years of age is prohibited at night and limited 
 to an 8-hour day in the following states: Arizona, California, 
 Colorado, Illinois, Kansas, Missouri, Mississippi, Nebraska, 
 New York (9 hours in mercantile establishments). North Da- 
 kota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Wisconsin. In addition to these, 
 night work for children under 16 is prohibited in Indiana, 
 Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, New Hampshire, South Caro- 
 lina, Vermont. The following states forbid the employment 
 of night messengers under 21: Arizona, Massachusetts, New 
 Jersey, Rhode Island, Utah, Wisconsin, New York. The 
 same occupation is forbidden boys under 18 in California, 
 Michigan, New Hampshire, Ohio, Oregon, Tennessee. 
 
 CONTINUOUS INDUSTRIES— ALL WORKERS. In 
 the United States, two laws embodying the principle of three 
 shifts for continuous industries have been passed: in Montana 
 there is an 8-hour law for hoisting engineers in mines oper- 
 ated more than 16 hours a day; and the United States has 
 passed a federal law regulating hours of labor in interstate 
 commerce providing a 13-hour day for telegraphers in offices 
 open only in the day time, and a g-hour day in offices open 
 day and night. A conference of the International Associa- 
 tion for Labor Legislation is now meeting in London, to con- 
 sider the question of continuous industries, with a view to 
 securing a universal 8-hour shift for all workers in continu- 
 ous processes, with the possible abolition of night work. 
 
 ONE DAY REST IN SEVEN— ALL WORKERS. Cali- 
 fornia has adopted the principle of one day rest in seven for 
 workers in the great industrial employments calling for seven- 
 day labor. Many other states have recognized the principle 
 of Sabbath observance. European countries almost univer- 
 sally require a continuous rest period of at least 24 hours at 
 some time each week. 
 
 16
 
 C. STANDARDS OF HOURS ALREADY ACCEPTED. 
 
 "A twelve-hour day and a seven-day week are alike a dis- 
 grace to civilization. . . . There should be laws requiring 
 three shifts in all industries operating twenty-four hours a 
 day, and there should be laws requiring one day of rest in 
 seven for all women in seven-day industries." (Federal Coun- 
 cil of the Churches of Christ in .Xnicrica. Report on South 
 Bethlehem, Pa., situation.) 
 
 "Eight-Hour Day to be recognized, and hours of labor 
 on all public works to be reduced as rajiidly as possible to 
 eight per day. Rest and holidays to be provided — at least 
 36 consecutive hours of rest each week; all legal holidays, 
 and half holidays on Saturdays each week to be allowed. 
 These provisions also to be reijuircd of all contractors doing 
 work for the city." (Socialist Party.) 
 
 "For children 14-16, 6-hour day, two-hour recess, no night 
 work; 16-18, 8-hour day. Under 18 no night work, no em- 
 ployment in dangerous trades. No night work for women." 
 (Association of American Physicians.) 
 
 "We recommend the 8-hour day, and the elimination of 
 night work." (National Women's Trade Union League.) 
 
 "One complete hour of rest; no overtime work; ma.ximum 
 eight hours for factory work." (X. Y. Section of the Coun- 
 cil of Jewish Women.) 
 
 "Provide that one day's rest in seven be granted, no mat- 
 ter how continuous the industry, and co-operate in establish- 
 ing through legislation the ma.ximum ten-hour working day 
 for women." (American Association for Labor Legislation 
 Immediate Program, 1912.) 
 
 "There are no set standards governing the employment 
 of members of our Organization relative to the questions you 
 have submitted, except the limitation of the working-day 
 period which must not exceed nine hours in the 24. and which 
 at this time does not exceed 8 hours in the 24 by at least 
 80% of our membership, and the balance will, it is expected, 
 in the near future have adopted the 8-hour working day." 
 (Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers' International Union of 
 America.) 
 
 The only just principle for regulation of hours is to 
 limit the number to a point below which any specific occupa- 
 tion will have no injurious effect upon the health of the 
 workers. (Labor Bureau Oflicials & Factory Inspectors, Re- 
 port, ion. p. 86.) 
 
 "The Church must stand for the gradual and reasonable 
 reduction of the hours of labor to the lowest practical point, 
 and for that degree of leisure for all which is a condition of 
 the highest human life." . . . "The Church must stand for 
 release from employment one d.-iy in seven." (Federal Council 
 of the Churches of Christ in .America.) 
 
 "Reduction (of hours) to the lowest practical point. 
 One day rest in seven." (Methodist Federation for Social 
 Service.) , , , 
 
 "We hold that the Church ought to declare for the release 
 of every worker from work one day in seven. For such order- 
 ing of the hours ami rc<iuirements of labor as to make them 
 compatible with healthy physical, mental, and moral life." 
 (Board of Home; Missions. Presbyterian ( hurch.) 
 
 "On the limitation of houf for women and children we 
 maintain the iiosition taken by those organizations which 
 
 17
 
 come in contact with labor of that class. It should not be 
 permitted under conditions that create an economic peril, 
 either to the working class who are displaced by them or to 
 the propagation of the race." (Order of Railway Conductors 
 of America.) 
 
 "An i8 or 19-year-old boy just upon the threshold of 
 manhood is more dangerously exposed to certain forms of 
 social vice than would be the boy of 12 or 13 years. Officers 
 and members of the National Child Labor Committee have 
 therefore reached the conclusion after careful and mature 
 deliberation that this service (night messenger) should be 
 withdrawn from any person under 21 years of age during the 
 late night hours." (National Child Labor Committee, "Child 
 Labor and the Night Messenger Service.") 
 
 "I emphasize the fact that there should be at least 24 
 continuous hours interval during each week in the produc- 
 tion of ingots." (Elbridge H. Gary, President U. S. Steel 
 Corporation, March 18, 1910, letter to Presidents of all Con- 
 stituent Companies.) 
 
 Obviously, a day long enough for adult men and women 
 is not too short for undeveloped children. We therefore seek 
 to establish as rapidly as possible a maximum of eight hours 
 in the daily labor of children in manufacturing and mercantile 
 pursuits. . . . During youth and adolescence the human life 
 should be protected through regular hours of rest, recreation, 
 and feeding, and we therefore contend that children under 16 
 years of age should be prohibited from such occupations as 
 demand their service at night. (National Child Labor Com- 
 mittee, "Seven Years of Child Labor Reform.") 
 
 "We are of the opinion that a 12-hour day of labor fol- 
 lowed continuously by any group of men for any considerable 
 number of years means a decreasing of the efficiency and les- 
 sening of the vigor and virility of such men." (Committee 
 of Stockholders, U. S. Steel Corporation.) 
 
 i3
 
 III. SAFETY AND HEALTH. 
 
 1. Investigation. An investigation by llie Federal Govern- 
 ment of all industries, on the plan pursued in the present investi- 
 gation of niining^, with a view to establishing standards of sanitation 
 and safety and a basis for compensation for injury. This should 
 include a scientific study and report upon fire-escapes, safety-appli- 
 ances, sanitary conditions, and the effects of ventilation, dust, poi- 
 sons, heat, cold, compressed air, steam, t^larc, darkness, speed, and 
 noise. 
 
 2. PROHIDITION OF PoisoNS. Prohibition of manufacture or 
 sale of poisonous articles dangerous to life of worker, whenever 
 harmless substitutes are possible, on the principle already estab- 
 lished by Congress in relation to poisonous phosphorus matches. 
 
 3. Regul.\tion ACCORDING TO HAZARD. In trades and occupa- 
 tions offering a menace to life, limb, or health, the employment of 
 women and minors regulated according to the degree of hazard. 
 No minor under 18 employed in any dangerous occupation, or in 
 occupations which involve danger to fellow workmen or require 
 use of explosives, poisonous gases, or other injurious ingredients. 
 Unskilled craftsmen who do not read and understand the English 
 language forbidden to handle dangerous machinery or processes 
 known to be extra hazardous. 
 
 4. Standardized Inspection, Inspection of mines and work 
 places standardized either by inter.state agreement or by establish- 
 ment of a Government standard. All deaths, injuries, and diseases 
 due to industrial operations to be reported to public authorities as 
 required in accident laws of Minnesota, and with respect to .some 
 trade diseases in New York. 
 
 A. SPECIFIC INF0RM.\T10N < >V S\II-TV WD 
 HEALTH. 
 
 "In I90<> few competent .luthoritics ilarcil lt> as>crl lliat 
 more than 50% of tlic industrial accidents were preventable 
 To-day we do not hesitate to say that from ;.>% to Qo'I' are 
 preventable." (Lescohier: .Accident Bulletin No. ,\. Mmnc- 
 sota.) 
 
 19
 
 On the railroads at the beginning of the present decade, 
 each year one trainman in every 137 was killed, and one in 
 every 11 injured; one employee in every 399 met his death in 
 service, and one in every 26 was wounded. (Report of In- 
 dustrial Commission, Vol. 313, p. 913.) 
 
 "During the past 10 years we have had two wars — the 
 Spanish and the Philippine — and the aggregate loss of killed 
 and wounded in the two was less than 6,000 men; while 
 the number killed and wounded in our industrial army during 
 the same period . . . was more than 5,000,000; that is, for 
 every man killed or wounded in war, 'victories of peace' 
 have cost us S75 men killed and wounded." (International 
 Assn. of Officials of Bureaus of Labor, Factory Inspection, & 
 Industrial Commissioners, Proceedings, 27th Annual Conven- 
 tion, Sept., 191 1, p. 20.) 
 
 "Take the last estimate of our industrial expense, the 
 total number of casualties sufifered by our industrial army is 
 sufficient to carry on perpetually two such wars at the same 
 time as our Civil War and the Russo-Japanese War. (Tol- 
 man. Ibid., p. 21.) 
 
 "Statistics show us that more than 15,000 men are annu- 
 ally killed in American work accidents, and some 500,000 in- 
 jured — every male in a city of 75,000 slain every year, and 
 every male in a State like Minnesota wounded or crippled." 
 (Paper by Don D. Lescohier, of Minn., Ibid., p. 88.) 
 
 "Prof. Irving Fisher estimates . . . that of the annual 
 loss of $3,000,000,000 due to sickness, accident and death, one- 
 half, or $1,500,000,000, is preventable." (Ibid., p. 20.) 
 
 "The provisions of the factory law are general. Because 
 they are applicable to all industries alike, of necessity they 
 fail to cope with the trade danger, which is not general, but 
 characteristic of a particular occupation." (Butler: "Women 
 and the Trades," p. 364.) 
 
 "The speed of machinery . . . impels the worker to in- 
 crease the quantity of her output. . . . The nervous strain 
 inevitable under these conditions has no inconsiderable share 
 in causing positive breakdown." (Butler: "Women and the 
 Trades,"_ p. 366.) 
 
 "Noise not only distracts attention, but necessitates a 
 greater exertion of intensity or conscious application, thereby 
 hastening the onset of fatigue of the attention." (Goldmark, 
 Josephine: "Fatigue and Efficiency," p. 71.) 
 
 "When we find the number and ratio of accidents in- 
 creasing up to a certain point with each successive hour of 
 work during the morning, falling toward zero at the noon 
 hour and again rising to a maximum in the afternoon, it is 
 reasonable to ascribe the increase in large part to the effects 
 of fatigue." (Ibid., p. 71.) 
 
 "The chief preventable conditions from which work acci- 
 dents result are: (i) lack of provision for safety in construc- 
 tion; (2) Ipng hours of work; (3) too great speed maintained 
 in_ many lines of work; (4) inadequate plant inspection; (5) 
 failure to remedy known defects; (6) inadequate warning and 
 signal systems; (7) inadequate instruction and direction of 
 ignorant workers." (Eastman, Crystal: "Work Accidents and 
 the Law," p. 107.) 
 
 "If direct protective legislation is to be effective, within 
 the limited field in which safety rules are practicable, inspec- 
 tors must possess a technical mastery of the industry they 
 deal with, inspection must be thorough and frequent, and the 
 
 20
 
 penalty for failure to comply with orders must be swift and 
 sure." (Ibid., p. 107.) 
 
 "Excessive toil under the most healthful conditions be- 
 tween the ages of 12 and lO or any toil during this period 
 which precludes an equivalent development of the intellect, 
 results in an arrest of the normal yrowth of the brain, a 
 replacement of functional with connective tissue or neuroglia. 
 It reduces permanently the mental capacity of the individual, 
 reflecting itself subsequently by the loss of ambition, of will 
 power, the power of concentration, of extended mental effort." 
 (Harmon, William E.: "Handicaps in Later Years from Child 
 Labor.") 
 
 "You can travel among the plantations of \'irginia. North 
 and South Carolina, and tind hundreds of families of the best 
 type and heredity, where poverty has been so extreme as to 
 require the constant toil of the children; and wherever you 
 find it, almost invariably the marks of mental arrest are dis- 
 tinctly evident." (Ibid.) 
 
 "We have but to look about us to trace the history of 
 families in our own community ; in fact, to study ourselves, 
 in many instances, to find wherein the excessive work of our 
 fathers and forefathers has handicapped us in the exercise of 
 the finer intellectual and arti.^tic faculties which we feel sure 
 are potentially resident within us." "All excessive labor 
 among children, or even all labor which does not give full 
 opportunity for simultaneous development, is criminally 
 wrong." (Ibid.) 
 
 "Premature employment in standing positions tends to 
 produce postural deformities of the feet; sitting employment 
 in young children tends to cause distortions of the spine 
 and chest. . . . Children come to their employment with vari- 
 ous abnormal conditions already existing. . . . These things, 
 all of them, lead up to the postural deformities, which develop 
 later during the course of their employment. ... A spine 
 which has started to become crooked . . . and a chest which 
 has not developed to the normal extent may be likened to a 
 nail slightly bent. It may seem strong enough when you 
 look at it . . . but put it under the hammer and instead of 
 going into the wood it bends more. This is precisely what 
 happens to these unfortunate children when they are placed 
 in the unfavorable environment of factories and workshops, 
 and at a time when their growth and development arc not yet 
 complete." (Freiberg, Albert II.: "Some Effects of Improper 
 Posture in I'actory Labor.") 
 
 "The hygienic conditions of even a poor school are 
 much better, it seems to me, than the hygienic conditions in 
 the best of workshops, so long as a child must spend nine 
 or ten hours a day, or even eight hours a day, at work with 
 only the lunch hour as an opportunity for diversion and relax- 
 ation. . . . Where are the graduates of the factories? I have 
 not come across them in literature, science, art, or politics." 
 (Ibid.) 
 
 "In England, and to a certain extent in Germany, the 
 work people .ire of the same nationality as their employers 
 and they usually form a stable part of the community. Here, 
 in the poisonous and dusty trades, at least, they are largely 
 foreigners and form a floating migratory population. . . . 
 I do not believe that in any country the distance between 
 peasant and noble is greater than is that between this army 
 of homeless Greeks and Slavs housed in the company shacks 
 
 21
 
 of the smelting works, and the American citizen householder 
 of the little town barely a mile away." (Hamilton, Alice, 
 M. D.: Occupational Diseases, Proceedings of 38th Annual 
 Meeting, National Conference of Charities and Correction, 
 1911.) 
 
 "As about 20% of all the men are unduly susceptible to 
 lead and become poisoned in a very short time, from a week 
 to a couple of months usually, a factory which is continually 
 taking in new recruits will also continually send out poi- 
 soned men, while a factory which strives to keep its men, can 
 weed out the over-susceptible and settle down to a steady 
 and fairly resistent force." (Ibid.) 
 
 "The (Illinois Steel) Company's statistics show that seri- 
 ous accidents have been reduced since the energetic safety 
 campaign has been instituted by from 50% to 662-3%, varying 
 with the types of accidents." (Young, Robert, Minn. Acci- 
 dent Bulletin No. 4.) 
 
 "It is of importance to recognize that the whole plant 
 in which an industry is lodged is a force for or against health. 
 Planning a building with reference to the needs of a particu- 
 lar industry is, if possible, more important than safegiiarding 
 the individual in the interest of health." (Butler: "Women 
 and the Trades," p. 361.) 
 
 The factories in which very much complaint was made 
 with regard to unsteadiness and improper conduct of girls 
 are precisely those where the hours of work were the longest, 
 sanitary conditions and wages unsatisfactory. (Commission 
 to Investigate Conditions of Working Women in Kentucky, 
 Report Dec, 1911.) 
 
 Reports from the few states which have taken the matter 
 of child exposure in industry seriously enough to report upon 
 it, indicate that children 16 years of age and under are in- 
 jured or killed at a ratio startlingly higher than are adults 
 in the same industries. (National Child Labor Committee: 
 "Seven Years of Child Labor Reform.") 
 
 "Upon a conservative estimate the total mortality from 
 accidents in the United States among adult male wage earners 
 is between 30,000 and 35,000, of which it should be by no 
 means impossible to save at least one-third and perhaps one- 
 half. . . . There were approximately not much less than 
 two million non-fatal accidents." (U. S. Bureau of Labor, 
 Bulletin 78, p. 458.) 
 
 B. FEDERAL, STATE AND FOREIGN LAWS ON 
 SAFETY AND HEALTH, 
 
 About 30 states have laws intended to protect workers 
 from dusts, unsanitary conditions, bad lighting, and impure 
 or poisonous air. The majority of these laws are too poorly 
 worded to be effective and too carelessly enforced to afford 
 adequate protection. 
 
 In Illinois the health and safety of employes" receive 
 special attention. Employers engaged in processes involving 
 use of certain p>oisonous substances such as lead and paris 
 green, manufacture of brass or smelting of lead, must pro- 
 vide proper working clothes for employes, respirators, dress- 
 ing rooms, hot and cold water, and eating rooms separate 
 from the dangerous processes; and every precaution must be 
 
 22
 
 taken to prevent poisonous dusts and fumes from polluting 
 the air. More important still, employes in dangerous proc- 
 esses must be given a physical examination once a month by 
 a physician provided by employer. (No other state has legis- 
 lation of equal importance to the workers in similar indus- 
 tries.) 
 
 Massachusetts empowers her state Board of Health to 
 rectify industrial conditions causing eye injuries to workers 
 and to remove children from employment in dangerous proc- 
 esses. 
 
 Children are excluded entirely from employment in a 
 specified list of dangerous occupations in Connecticut, Illi- 
 nois, Kentucky, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, Ohio, Okla- 
 homa, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Women have been ex- 
 cluded only from mines and saloons in certain states and in 
 other states are prohibited from cleaning machinery while in 
 motion. 
 
 On this point we are far behind foreign countries. In 
 France females are forbidden to enter a place where any one 
 of 4]6 processes is carried on, because of the danger from poi- 
 soning or disease due to high temperature or the presence 
 of injurious dusts or fumes. Another list of nearly one hun- 
 dred occupations is forbidden to women and children, except 
 under special protective conditions. In many countries women 
 and children are forbidden to work in processes involving the 
 use of white lead and other dangerous materials. 
 
 The legal abolition of a poisonous substance in manufac- 
 turing has occurred in this country for the first time this year 
 when Congress passed a law which will prohibit the use of 
 poisonous phosphorus in the manufacture of matches. Ger- 
 many, Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Switzerland, 
 France, Great Britain, Italy, Spain, Austria, Hungary, and 
 Sweden had taken similar action several years ago. 
 
 France has entirely forbidden the use of white lead in any 
 house-painting process either on outside or inside of build- 
 ings. Belgium prohibits the use of white lead in dry form, 
 and forbids scraping off of lead paint by a dry process. The 
 sale of white lead in the form of powder or cakes to anyone 
 except specially authorized persons is also forbidden. 
 
 Eight American states — California, Connecticut. Illinois. 
 Maryland, Michigan. New Jersey, New York, and Wisconsin — 
 require physicians to report all cases of sickness resulting 
 from work in several most common industrial poisons, such 
 as lead, mercury, and arsenic. 
 
 Twenty-two states have laws for protection against acci- 
 dents, but the constant stream of injured and killed in indus- 
 trial life indicates that in none of these states is any standard 
 established which will afford adequate protection to workers. 
 
 For the protection of employes in building construction, 
 good laws exist in Nebraska, Oregon, and Indiana. In the last 
 two states employers are required to provide protective meas- 
 ures which are "limited only by the necessity for preserving 
 the efficiency of the structure . . . and without regard to the 
 additional cost of suitable material or safety appliances and 
 devices." 
 
 Thirty-two states have regulations for protection of mine 
 employees. These laws relate to proper ventilation for good 
 air and for dust removal. Installation and maintenance of 
 electrical wiring, telephones, safety lamps, care of explosives, 
 and ignitable material, escapement shafts, and construction 
 
 23
 
 of cages and hoisting apparatus. Illinois has established mine 
 rescue stations where men are trained in methods of accident 
 prevention and of rescue work. Illinois also has a commission 
 working on the subject in connection with the Federal Bureau 
 of Mines and the state university. However, the frequent 
 occurrence of terrible mine disasters indicates that no ade- 
 quate standards have yet been reached. 
 
 Legal protection from factory fires scarcely exists in this 
 country. Ohio, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Colorado, and New 
 Hampshire have raised their standards of safety; Pennsyl- 
 vania provides for fire drills where women and girls are em- 
 ployed; and New Jersey last year enacted the most detailed 
 law on the subject found in this country. 
 
 In Germany, England, and France, workers in poisonous 
 trades are required to wash hands and faces before eating or 
 leaving factory. No food, drink, or tobacco allowed in work- 
 rooms. Regular warm baths required in dusty trades. Plants 
 must be well cleaned, lighted, and ventilated. Germany and 
 England require certain trades to keep health record of em- 
 ployes. In all three countries a medical certificate of fitness 
 is required from every applicant for work; physical examina- 
 tions are frequent, and "leaded" men are required to be re- 
 moved from contact v/ith the poison. Removal of lead paint 
 by dry process prohibited. Belgium prohibits use or sale of 
 white lead paint in any but paste or liquid form; and France 
 prohibits use of white lead paint in any form after July 20, 
 1914. 
 
 LAWS CONCERNING CHILDREN. Children under 16 
 are forbidden employment in the list of about 40 occupa- 
 tions in 
 
 Arizona Illinois New York Tennessee 
 
 Colorado Indiana Ohio Vermont 
 
 Connecticut Missouri Oklahoma Wisconsin 
 
 Minnesota Montana Pennsylvania 
 
 In Texas no boy under 17 may be employed in or about 
 rriines or quarries. 
 
 In Massachusetts, the State Board of Health may from 
 time to time after hearing duly had, determine whether or 
 not any particular trade, process of manufacture or occupa- 
 tion, in which the employment of children under 18 years of 
 age is not already forbidden by law, or any particular method 
 of carrying on such trade, process of manufacture, or occu- 
 pation, is sufficiently dangerous to the lives or limbs or injuri- 
 ous to the health or morals of children under 18 years of age 
 to justify their exclusion therefrom. No child under 18 years 
 of age shall be employed, permitted, or suffered to work in 
 any occupation thus determined to be dangerous or injurious 
 to such children. There shall be a right of appeal to the 
 Superior Court from any such determination. 
 
 Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma pro- 
 hibit employment of women in any occupation requiring con- 
 stant standing. 
 
 Twenty-three states require provision of seats for all 
 female employes, and Florida makes same provision apply to 
 all employes. 
 
 24
 
 C STANDARDS OF SAFETY AND HEALTH AL- 
 READY ACCEPTED 
 
 '■\\ I- litiuaiul employers' liability; ii»ilu>iri;ii ui>urancc 
 . . . sanitation of workshops (regulation as to air, tempera- 
 ture, moisture, etc.)." (As^ociation of American lMiysician>.) 
 
 "We recommend protected machinery, sanitary work- 
 shops, separate toilet roonis, scats for women and permission 
 for their use when the work allows." . . . "To provide ade- 
 quate tire protection." (National Women's Trade Union 
 League.) 
 
 "Extend the uniform reporting of occupational diseases 
 to additional states." (American 'Association for Labor Leg- 
 islation, Immediate program, 1912.) 
 
 "\Ve advocate the establishment by congressional enact- 
 ment of a permanent commission of, say five members, anal- 
 ogous in character to the Interstate Commerce Commission, 
 this commission to have complete power to prescribe the con- 
 ditions under which coal entering into interstate commerce 
 shall be mined, just as the I'edcral Government at present 
 passes upon the character and conditions under which meat 
 produce enters into interstate commerce." ( Haynes, John K., 
 M. D., Commissioner of Mining Accidents in California.) 
 
 The American Association for Labor Legislation makes 
 the following recommendations for regulation of lead indus- 
 tries in N. V. State: (i) Require trades to be licensed; (2) 
 require monthly physical examination of workers under super- 
 vision of State Medical Inspector of Factories; (3) require 
 removal of "leaded" men from industry, or at least from 
 contact with lead; (4) require State Medical Inspector, with 
 adequate staff, to supervise and inspect conditions; staff to 
 include chemist for testing air. etc.; (5) require Medical 
 Inspector to keep health records of workmen; (6) every work- 
 room to be properly ventilated, cleaned, and lighted; all lead 
 dust to be removed by sufficiently powerful exhaust; (7) wash- 
 ing facilities with hot water and baths, and separate lunch 
 room to be provided for all lead workers; (8) no edibles or 
 tobacco to be taken into workrooms; (q) workmen to be 
 provided with protective devices according to rules of Medical 
 Inspector; (10) workmen required to wash in hot water 
 before meals and Weaving factory; and to take hot bath once 
 a week — all on company time; (11) employer to furnish free 
 medical advice on premises, with drugs and treatment in case 
 of poisoning; (12) workmen to be instructed in dangers and 
 prevention of lead poisoning, and instructions to be posted; 
 (13) in house painting, no paint to be removed by dry process. 
 
 The International Association for Labor Legislation has 
 laid down certain principles upon which the work of regulat- 
 ing and eliminating industrial poisons should be based. Those 
 which apply to this country are briefly as follows: (l) Phy- 
 sicians and hospitals should be compelled to make returns 
 concerning cases of industrial disease; (2) employers should 
 be required to report the manufacture or use of industrial 
 poisons; (3) special inspection of those industries which man- 
 ufacture or employ industrial poisons should be made by 
 official physicians especially instructed in industrial hygiene; 
 (4) the hours of labor of workers emplf>yed in poisonous in- 
 dustries should be shortened according to the degree of dan- 
 ger; (5) the study and knowledge of industrial pois<ms should 
 be especially demanded in the instruction in medical colleges. 
 
 as
 
 and young physicians should in special courses pay attention 
 to the chief prophylactic measures which are necessary for the 
 systematic protection of the health of laborers. (Bulletin of 
 Bureau of Labor No. 86, Jan., iQio, p. 148.) 
 
 A comprehensive national inquiry into the whole subject 
 of occupational diseases is urgently called for. . . . The in- 
 quiry should determine the true mortality rate in particular 
 industries for which the facts can be secured by special 
 research, and also the sickness rate in particular employments, 
 by utilizing as far as practicable the experience data of work- 
 men's sickness insurance funds. (American Association for 
 Labor Legislation, Pub. 12, p. 14.) 
 
 "Sanitary conditions to be maintained in all places of 
 employment — proper light, heat, ventilation, toilet facilities, 
 safety appliances, etc. Health department to co-operate in 
 these matters; extra factory inspectors to be appointed for 
 this purpose where necessary." (Socialist Party.) 
 
 "For such regulation of the conditions of the industrial 
 occupation of women as shall safeguard the physical and 
 moral health of themselves, the community, and future gen- 
 erations." (Presbyterian Board of Home Missions.) 
 
 "The Church must stand for the protection of the worker 
 from dangerous machinery, occupational disease, injuries, and 
 mortality." (Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in 
 America.) 
 
 26
 
 IV. HOUSING. 
 
 1. liiK Right to a Homk. Social welfare deinamls for 
 every family a safe and sanitary home: healthful surroundings; 
 ample and pure running water inside the house; modern and sani- 
 tary toilet conveniences for its exclusive use, located inside the 
 building ; adequate sunlight and ventilation ; reasonable fire protec- 
 tion ; privacy; rooms of sufficient size and number to decently house 
 the members of the family ; freedom from dampness ; prompt, ade- 
 quate collection of all waste materials. These fundamental re- 
 quirements for normal living should be obtainable by every family, 
 reasonably accessible from place of employment, at a rental not 
 to exceed 20 per cent, of the family income. 
 
 2. Taxes. To protect wage earners from exorbitant rents 
 and to secure for them that increased municipal service <lemandcd 
 by the massing together of people in thickly settled industrial com- 
 munities, a greater share of taxes to be transferred from dwellings 
 to land held for speculative purposes the value of which i> en- 
 hanced by the very congestion of ihese industrial populations. 
 
 3. Home Work. Factory production to be carried on in fac- 
 tories. Whenever work is given out to homes, abuses are sure to 
 creep in which cannot be controlled by any known system ••^ iTi^pec- 
 tion or supervision. 
 
 4. Tenement Manufacture. Tenement house manufacture 
 is known to be a serious menace to the health, education, and eco- 
 nomic independence of thousands of people in large cities. It 
 subjects children to injurious industrial burdens and cannot be suc- 
 cessfully regulated by inspection or other official supervision. Pub- 
 lic welfare, therefore, demands for city tenements the entire prohi- 
 bition of manufacture of articles of commerce in rooms occupied 
 for dwelling purposes. 
 
 5. Labor Colonies. In temporary construction camps and 
 labor colonies, definite standards to provide against over-crowding, 
 and for ventilation, water supply, sanitation, to be written into the 
 contract specifications, as now provided in the New York law. 
 
 27
 
 A. SPECIFIC INFORMATION ON HOUSING. 
 
 "George Picto, one of the leaders in the housing move- 
 ment, in the discussion of the question of limiting the divi- 
 dends of building societies, before the last congress for cheap 
 dwellings, pointed out that precisely in those districts w^here 
 there is the greatest congestion and w^here the conditions are 
 w^orst, investments earn the highest dividends." (Hotchkiss, 
 Willard E., "Housing Problem in France" — Municipal Affairs, 
 p. 404.) 
 
 An investigation in Berlin some years ago revealed the 
 fact that the death rate for families occupying one room was 
 163.5 per thousand, for families occupying two rooms 22.5 
 per thousand, three rooms 7.5, and four rooms or more 5.4 
 per thousand. (Riis, Jacob A., Charities & the Commons, 
 Vol. XVIII, p. T!^ 
 
 Infant mortality varies almost arithmetically with housing 
 conditions. Although children under five are only one-ninth- 
 of the population, they furnish one-third of the deaths. 
 (President's Homes Commission; Report of Com. on Build- 
 ing of Model Houses, p. 8.) 
 
 "In these one-room tenements, the average death rate for 
 a number of given cities at home and abroad is about twice 
 what it is in a two-room tenement, four times what it is in a 
 three-room tenement, and eight times what it is in a tenement 
 consisting of four rooms or over." (Roosevelt, Theodore, 
 Message to Congress, Dec, 1904.) 
 
 Three-quarters of an hour between house and work prac- 
 tically establishes the limit of residence for wage-earners. 
 (Cargill, H. L., "Small Houses for Working Men" in The 
 Tenement House Problem, p. 331.) 
 
 Model tenement buildings, being better constructed, cost 
 more than tenements erected by speculative owners, but 
 rentals need not be larger. The expense of management 
 is less per given unit when several contiguous city lots are 
 built upon. The repair account is less by reason of better 
 construction and more efficient management. There are fewer 
 vacancies and losses from irrecoverable arrears. . . . Gross 
 rental receipts of 9% upon a thoroughly well-built model tene- 
 ment building will yield as high a net return as gross rentals 
 of II to 12% upon the ordinary tenement. (Gould, Elgin 
 R. L.. "Financial Aspects of Recent Tenement House Opera- 
 tions in New York," in The Tenement House Problem, pp. 
 365-6.) 
 
 Until better terminal facilities are arranged for New York, 
 so as to distribute the crowds coming into the city with 
 greater speed and less congestion it will be impossible to 
 break up the vicious tenement system. (Weber, Adna F., 
 "Rapid Transit and the Housing Problem," p. 412.) 
 
 More girls have been started in recent years upon a life 
 of immorality, because of their associations in the tenement 
 houses, than by all other means combined that supply this 
 traffic. (DeForest, R. W., & Veiller, Lawrence, "The Tene- 
 ment House Problem," p. 52.) 
 
 The workingman in New York is housed worse than in 
 any other city of the civilized world, notwithstanding the fact 
 that he pays more money for such accommodations than is 
 paid elsewhere, being compelled to give more than one-fourth 
 of his income for rent. (Ibid., p. 115.) 
 
 Every improvement made in city, town, or village ... is 
 
 28
 
 to some extent exploited by the owner of workmen's dwell- 
 ings. (Edwards. John, "The Socialist Remedy for Unheatth- 
 ful Homes," in Municipal Affairs, p. 438.) 
 
 Xo improvement in the size, convenience, or quality of 
 the workinan'b home has taken place during the last hundred 
 years which has not been forcctl upon builders and owners by 
 legal enactment and municipal by-law. (Ibid., p. 44J.) 
 
 The old ideal of home which recjuires that every family 
 shall possess its own dwelling is one which does not harmon- 
 ize with the economic conditions of our modern social life. 
 (Hotchkiss, Willard E.. "Housing Problem in Trance," in 
 Municipal Affairs, p. 404.) 
 
 "W here cities grow vertically in.stcad of horizontally, they 
 tend to become like a column of water — densest at the bot- 
 tom. But the growth of the suburbs depends upon three 
 things: the rapidity and efHciency of transportation facilities, 
 cost of transportation, and housing conditions in the suburbs." 
 (Guthrie, VV. B., "Housing Problem in Germany," in Munic- 
 ipal Affairs, p. 383.) 
 
 Tiie pre>cnt position seems to be that municipalities suc- 
 ceed in building really very good houses, which as a rule they 
 have no difficulty in letting, but that the great majority of 
 them have failed to provide for the requirements of the class 
 which perhaps most needs help. (.Ashley, Percy, "Housing 
 Problem in England," in Municipal .\fFairs, p. 371.) 
 
 "A sort of selective proce>s, always going on. fi^rces out 
 or kills off those of the immigrant population who are not 
 satisfied with or not able to endure tenement conditions, 
 leaving behind a peculiar 'type' that is the despair of those 
 who are working for social betterment to-day." (Claghorn, 
 Kate Holladay, "Foreign Immigration and the Tenement 
 House in New York City," in The Tenement House Problem, 
 p. 78.) 
 
 Some people feel that the question of housing comes 
 down to the question of income. There are too few good 
 houses, but the present income of the laboring classes can 
 apparently command no more. The feeling seems to be gen- 
 eral that if the capitalistic method of production is detri- 
 mental to the interests of the laboring classes, the capital- 
 istic management of consumption is still more injurious. The 
 control of the housing interests should be more socialized. 
 (Guthrie. \V. B., "Housing Problem in Germany," in Munic- 
 ipal Affairs, p. 393.) 
 
 Either the city nmst be prepared at no diNtant flate to 
 house all the poorer class of tenement dwellers, or it must 
 leave them to be housed as heretofore by individual enter- 
 prise properly regulated by law. (Del'orest. Roht. \\'.. "Mu- 
 nicipal Regulation — Not Ownership," in Municipal .\ffairs, 
 p. 452.) 
 
 Simple houses for the well-doing poor may yield a small 
 interest to a philanthropic investor or to a municipality; but 
 with regard to the poor who are not well-doing experiments 
 are urgently called for in building houses which, if they do 
 not immediately pay .£. s.. d. will ultimately pay in dimin- 
 ished disease, pauperism, and crime. (Mann. John. Jr.. "Hous- 
 ing the Very l^oor." in Municipal .Affairs, p. 4.^rt.'> 
 
 Indirect taxation, by enliaiirinvj rents .Tiid prices which 
 the poor must pay. takes from them part of what they actu- 
 ally receive for their w<irk. By enforcing abnormal econo- 
 mies and thereby diminishing the demand for workers, it 
 
 29
 
 restricts their incomes by contracting their earning oppor- 
 tunities. (Post, Louis F., "The Taxing Power and the Hous- 
 ing Problem," in Municipal Affairs, p. 420.) 
 
 "Were indirect municipal taxation abandoned in favor 
 of taxation in proportion to site values, all other causes of 
 the housing problem could be easily combated and overcome. 
 The working poor themselves could overcome them. For 
 site monopoly as well as tax extortion would largely disap- 
 pear." (Ibid., p. 424.) 
 
 "The evil effects (of overcrowded, unsanitary homes) are 
 cumulative. Each generation starts with an enfeebled consti- 
 tution to the economic loss of the nation." (Dewsnup, E. R., 
 "Housing Problem in England," p. 24.) 
 
 L.ABOR Colonies. — "The standard charge for bunking in 
 these camps is $1 a month per man. There is much over- 
 crowding, and the shanties and wooden shacks are almost 
 uniformly dirty, the air being frequently stifling and malodor- 
 ous. Sanitary conditions in and about these shanties are 
 usually bad." (Report of the New York State Commission 
 on Immigration, 1909.) 
 
 "Such conditions are injurious, not only to the workers 
 and their families, but to the community and to the State, 
 which suffers from the physical and moral degeneration caused 
 by herding human beings like cattle. Some of the high rec- 
 ords of criminality among immigrants might be explained by 
 the conditions of living tolerated in the labor camps and simi- 
 lar places." (Ibid.) 
 
 "The living quarters provided by the canners are often 
 shamefully overcrowded. Fifty people, including men, women, 
 and children, may be housed in an old barn; or shacks may 
 be erected of the poorest construction, allowing but one small 
 room for a whole family of adults and children. Often sev- 
 eral hundred persons live together in the utmost squalor, 
 lacking all the decencies of life, under unhygienic conditions 
 that would not be tolerated in any city." (Goldmark, Pauline, 
 "Child Labor in Canneries.") 
 
 "In labor camps the working and living conditions of men 
 are the worst known in the country and the children are the 
 most neglected." (Kellor, Frances A., "Needed — A Domestic 
 Immigration Policy.") 
 
 "Of the 32 canneries visited outside of Baltimore City, 
 20 depended partially or wholly upon help from the city, and 
 the housing facilities of 10 out of the 20 contained sleeping 
 shacks with single rooms occupied by from 2 to 15 families." 
 (U. S. Bureau of Labor, Bulletin 96, p. 373.) 
 
 "In the camps the highest standard found assigned an 
 entire family to one room, and the lowest crowded unrelated 
 men, women, and children into the same sleeping space with 
 absolutely no provision for privacy. . -. . No one has yet 
 measured the train of influences of such living conditions 
 upon the health of the workers — all moral and ethical ques- 
 tions aside. . . . This 'free housing' is held out by canner 
 and 'row boss' as a factor in compensation." (Ibid.) 
 
 "Some (of the houses in cannery camps) were entirely 
 too close to the cannery, getting the odors of decaying refuse, 
 and when the drainage and management of the camp itself 
 were inadequate offensive odors assailed the workers day and 
 night." (Ibid.) 
 
 TENEMENT MANUFACTURE. "Men's ready-made cloth- 
 ing is often finished in the homes of a class of people whose 
 
 30
 
 under-nourished condition, due to poverty and lack of thrift 
 and hygienic sense, general low !>tandard of living, and dirty 
 habits, make them most susceptible to contagious diseases; 
 hence it is asserted that the practice of giving out to workers 
 garments to be finished or made up in their homes is to place 
 the wearer in the way of contracting tuberculosis and other 
 contagious or infectious diseases, or of catching vermin. 
 . . . Doctors who will agree to conceal diseases fron> the 
 health department arc the most popular with the garment 
 workers, .\gents of the ( l'. S.) Bureau (of Labor) found 
 women working on garments while children in the house were 
 suffering with contagious diseases. . . . It is not claimed 
 that all home finishing is done under unsanitary or revolting 
 conditions, yet the fact that it can be done under such condi- 
 tions, and that much of it is so done, forces the conclusion 
 that such a method of manufacture should be abolished in the 
 interest of public health." (I'. S. Senate Document. 645, 
 Vol. VIII.) 
 
 Of the married j/io/> finishers none earned less than 
 $2.00 in a full week, while practically 15 per cent, of the mar- 
 ried lunnc finishers earned less than that amount; . . . 
 a little more than 50 per cent, of the married home t'lnishers 
 earned less than $3.00 a week. (United States Report on 
 Woman and Child Wage Earners in the Nfen's Ready-Made 
 Clothing Industry. Senate Doc. 645, Vol. VIII.) 
 
 The compensation which the home workers receive for 
 their labor is, as a rule, such that they do not eani enough to 
 provide even the shelter, food, and raiment, essential to main- 
 tain a moderate standard of pliysical efficiency. (Ibitl. p. 28) 
 
 Of 114 flower making firms, 91 gave out part of their work 
 to home workers. Of these firms 76 reported the number of 
 home workers on their pay rolls as 2,300 families. In no 
 families interviewed by our investigators there were 226 out- 
 side wage earners and 371 home workers, or an average of 
 more than three home workers in a family. On the basis of 
 the number of families reported by the employers, it would 
 appear, therefore, that nearly 7.000 home workers are em- 
 ployed to make artificial flowers in New York. (Van Klceck. 
 Mary. "Makers of Artificial Flowers.") 
 
 Over 30 per cent, of the family groups earned a weekly 
 wage of less than $5.00, although in 83 per cent, of the families 
 there are two or more home workers. Sixty per cent, lost 
 from three to six months." (Ibid.) 
 
 "I found one tenement containing two or three families 
 of home workers in which there was a child exceedingly ill 
 with diphtheria. I found one woman finishing pants who 
 was ill of tonsilitis. I twice found children with bad sore 
 throats making flowers. They constantly put their fingers to 
 their mouths to make them moist. . . . Children with sore 
 eyes an<l cars, so sore that they matterated, I constantly 
 found working." (Quin, Harhara Story, "Relation of Home 
 Work to the Standard of Living.") 
 
 "They all help with the flowers, which were daisies the 
 first time' I called. They receive 10 cents a gross. They can 
 never earn more than $4 a week at this kind of work, and 
 usually earn about $3. The mother never goes to bed before 
 midnight, and is always up by four o'clock in the morning." 
 
 (Ibid.) ^ . , J 
 
 I'actorics can be moved away from congested places, and 
 
 their workers with them. . . . .\ step toward inducing migra- 
 
 31
 
 tion to the suburbs would be the prohibition of child labor, 
 not only in factories and stores, but in every kind of busi- 
 ness; and the establishment of the minimum age of employ- 
 ment at i6 instead of 14 years. (Weber, Adna F., "Rapid 
 Transit and the Housing Problem," Municipal Afifairs, pp. 
 415-6.) 
 
 Reduction in rates of fare are necessary for diffusion or 
 population. Cheap trains might be run morning and evening. 
 (Ibid.) 
 
 The continuous attention, year in and j-ear out, of some 
 one body directly charged with the enforcement of tenement 
 house laws is essential for their administration. (DeForest, 
 R. W., & Veiller, Lawrence, "The Tenement House Prob- 
 lem.") 
 
 "Officials in several states have testified to the physical 
 impossibility of enforcing laws regulating home finishing. 
 No single state can afford to employ a corps of inspectors suf- 
 ficiently numerous to make more than a cursorj^ inspection 
 of licensed houses. Proper inspection would require almost 
 daily visits to innumerable homes." (U. S. Senate Doc, 645, 
 
 Vol. vni.) 
 
 "All laws 'regulating' tenement house manufacture are 
 more or less ineffective in the accomplishment of the prin- 
 cipal purpose for which they have been enacted, namely the 
 preservation of the public health." (Ibid.) 
 
 "The nature of this system of industry is such that its 
 evils are its essence. Strictly speaking 'regulation' has no 
 place in an attempt to deal with such conditions. To abol- 
 ish the evils means to abolish the system; to 'regulate' the 
 system means nothing. The test of the effectiveness of such 
 legal responsibility would be its tendency to eliminate the 
 home-work system. No matter what may be the path of 
 approach, it seems that prohibition, direct or indirect, of all 
 manufacture carried on in living rooms is the ultimate solu- 
 tion of the problem." (Van Kleeck, Mary, Charities and the 
 Commons,^ Jan. 18, 1908.) 
 
 B. FEDERAL, STATE, OR FOREIGN LAWS ON 
 HOUSING, 
 
 TENEMENT HOUSE ORDINANCE, COLUMBUS, 
 OHIO. Height of building not to exceed distance from house 
 to opposite side of widest street on which it stands. In cor- 
 ner lots not more than 75% and interior lots not more than 
 50% to be occupied by building. Back yards proportionate 
 to height of building. Courts proportionate to height of 
 building and open at top. Rooms, minimum size; windows, 
 % floor area of room, opening on court or street. Halls, mini- 
 mum ventilation, size, light. Fireproof if over 3 stories. 
 Two separate flights of stairs. Halls and stairs fireproof. 
 Yards to connect with street. Running water and water 
 closets in each apartment. Enforcement by Board of Health 
 of lighting, ventilation, and sanitation provisions; by Build- 
 ing Department of remaining provisions. 
 
 The New York Tenement House Law (1901) has the fol- 
 lowing general provisions: Abolishment of the "dumb bell" 
 type of tenement, and substitution of the "new law" tenement 
 with large courts, providing light and ventilation to every 
 room; no window is within less than 12 feet of an opposite 
 
 32
 
 window, and usually the space is 25 feet; air shafts are abol- 
 ished; overcrowding checked by limiting height and ground 
 space of tenements; running water and water closets in each 
 apartment; no dark halls; tireproof Hoors between cellar and 
 rest of building, and fireproof halls and stairs; metal stairs 
 required for fire escapes. By amendment, semi-fireproof con- 
 struction is permitted in four-story houses or less. Above 
 six stories whole tenement must be fireproof. Direct access 
 to fire escapes from each apartment. Enforcement by Tene- 
 ment House Department. 
 
 New Jersey has a law similar to the New York law. 
 
 See also Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Boston and other 
 building ordinances. 
 
 England. — County councils appoint medical health inspec- 
 tors. General duty to report on work of smaller authorities. 
 These local boards have duty of inspecting sanitary condi- 
 tions, make by-laws, and enforce changes. They employ 
 medical officers, inspectors, etc., for whom the central gov- 
 ernment pays half the salaries, and holds dismissing power. 
 London County Council and urban authorities elsewhere re- 
 quired to clear any large area condemned as unhealthy on 
 report of medical officer. Local authority deals with cleared 
 area as it sees fit. Local authorities may order single houses 
 closed or demolished; and may purchase land on which they 
 stand. Building on cleared land by local authority must be 
 authorized by local government board of county council. 
 Money may be borrowed for these purposes, on approval of 
 Local Government Board, on taxes. Tenants dispossessed 
 must be rehoused by local authorities, or railway expropriat- 
 ing land. Local authorities may purchase land for building 
 purposes outside their own boundaries if necessary. 
 
 France. — In 1894 established superior council on work- 
 ingmen's homes. Under this council local councils are organ- 
 ized for the purpose of encouraging local building movement. 
 Charitable institutions, hospitals, etc., may invest certain pro- 
 portion of their funds in securities of building societies, etc., 
 and savings banks may also do this under certain restrictions. 
 Such societies must not receive more than 4 per cent, divi- 
 dends. Certain taxes are remitted to builders — private and 
 corporations. Law applies only to homes for workers of 
 limited incomes. 
 
 Belgium. — National savings bank, on approval of local 
 committee for study of sanitary conditions, may invest por- 
 tions of its funds in purchase or construction of houses for 
 the poor. These loans are made to joint societies of credit 
 or construction, which conduct operations. Public authorities 
 in cities also undertake building operations direct. 
 
 In Germany the zoning or districting system is generally 
 in vogue, and the local authorities have the right to limit the 
 size of buildings, or the number of stories, as well as the pro- 
 portion of the lot area that may be occupied in the outlying 
 sections of the city to a greater extent than in the center of 
 the city. Among such cities are Munich. Dusscidorf, Cologne, 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main, and Mannheim. 
 
 Holland. — Dutch Parliament has made the funds of the 
 National Savings Bank available for cooperative building so- 
 cieties, of which there are large numbers in the country. 
 
 Under the Cotters* Act, cotters' cottages in Scotland are 
 entirely exempt from taxation. 
 
 33
 
 C. STANDARDS OF HOUSING ALREADY ACCEPTED. 
 
 "The Church must stand for the suppression of the sweat- 
 ing system." (Federal Council of Churches of Christ in 
 America.) 
 
 "We hold that our Church ought to declare for the re- 
 moval of unsanitary dwellings and the relief or prevention of 
 congestion of population, so that there may be proper physi- 
 cal basis for Christian family life." (Board of Home Mis- 
 sions of the Presbyterian Church.) 
 
 "We recommend measures against congestion, and for 
 proper sanitation." (Association of American Physicians.) 
 
 "The city shall acquire land, which shall be platted 
 according to modern principles of city planning, devoting cer- 
 tain definite territory to manufacturing purposes, others to 
 mercantile and others to residence purposes. Upon the latter 
 the city shall erect model dwelling houses for the people, to 
 be rented at rates sufficient to cover the cost of construction 
 and maintenance. Building code to be carefully revised to 
 prevent building insanitary dwellings; overcrowding to be 
 prohibited." (Socialist Party.) 
 
 "Congestion, minimizing amount of air to each person, 
 diminishes labor power. . . . High rents necessitate reduction 
 of cost of living by boarding of strangers, causing congestion, 
 lowering moral standards." (Council of Jewish Women, 
 N. Y. Section.) 
 
 "No home work should be permitted — absolutely no excep- 
 tion to be made to this rule. High rentals cause necessity 
 for longer hours of labor, curtailment of schooling of children 
 who must assist." (N. Y. Section, Council of Jewish Women.) 
 
 Laws should be so changed as to hold the landlord re- 
 sponsible for knowing what is going on in his buildings. Also, 
 there should be some way of making the halls of tenement 
 houses come within police jurisdiction, as public highways. 
 pp. i8, 19. (Adler, Dr. Felix, "Prostitution as a Tenement 
 House Evil," in The Tenement House Problem.) 
 
 Germany. — General Cooperative Union, consisting of 
 smaller cooperative bodies; Old Age Pension Funds, banks, 
 philanthropists, etc., lend money to these cooperative bodies 
 for building purposes. "Public bodies favor cooperative 
 building associations in preference to other agencies, because, 
 by means of their joint liability and their effective control 
 over each member, they afford the greatest security, warrant- 
 ing advances up to 75, 80, 90, in one case even 97 per cent., 
 of the value of the buildings; and also because they do the 
 best work in providing exactly the kind of houses which are 
 wanted at a comparatively small cost." (Wolff, Henry W., 
 "Cooperative Housing," in Municipal Affairs.) 
 
 Nearly 400 German cities now have a land increment tax. 
 
 In 1885 the English Royal Commissioners on Housing 
 recommended taxing "land available for building outside of 
 towns at 4 per cent, on its selling value." 
 
 34
 
 V. TERM OF WORKING LIFE. 
 
 Society may reasonably demand from every normal individual 
 his self-support durinp: a certain period of life. This period should 
 be bounded by a minimum age, to protect against premature labor, 
 and a maximum age beyond which the wage earner should find 
 himself economically independent of daily labor. Adoption of the 
 following standards will promote this end. 
 
 1. Employment of Children. Prohibition of all wage-earn- 
 ing occupations for children under i6 years of age. 
 
 2. EMrLOVMKNT ov W'oME.v. Prohibition of employment of 
 women in manufacturing, commerce, or other trades where work 
 compels standing constantly. Also prohibition for a period of at 
 least eight weeks at time of child birth. 
 
 3. Intermittent Employment. Any industrial occupation 
 subject to rush periods and out-of-work seasons to be considered 
 abnormal, and subject to Government review and regulation. Offi- 
 cial investigation of such intermittent employment and other forms 
 of unemployment as a basis for better distribution of immigrants, 
 for guiding seasonal laborers from trade to trade, and other 
 methods for lessening these evils. 
 
 4. The Unemplov.vrle. The restrictions ujJon employers set 
 forth in this platform will lead them to refuse to engage any who 
 fall below a grade of industrial efficiency which renders their work 
 profitable. An increased army of industrial outcasts will be thrown 
 upon society to be cared for in pul)lic labor colonies or by various 
 relief agencies. This condition will in turn necessitate a minimum 
 standard of preparation, including at least sufficient educational 
 opportunity to abolish illiteracy among all minors and to train 
 every minor over 16 years of age to some form of industrial 
 efficiency. 
 
 A. SPECIFIC lNFOKMATK).\ OX TKKM OF WORK- 
 IN Ci LIFK. 
 
 "According to the testimony of many observers, the in- 
 dustrial overstrain of women has commonly reacted in three 
 visible ways: in a heightened infant mortality, a lowered birth 
 rate, and an impaired second generation. " (Cioldmark. 
 Josephine, "F'atigue and Efficiency," p. 91.) 
 
 35
 
 ''Overtime means something more than an over-long 
 period of work. It means irregular work; it means evening 
 work after and in addition to day work, often without pre- 
 vious notice to the employe; it means in many trades that 
 worst sequence, overwork followed by out-of-work, a 'rush' 
 season of too m.uch work with the slack season of no work 
 and destitution close behind it." (Ibid., p. 175.) 
 
 "It is a fatuous policy of the state to permit a minor 
 to sacrifice during his years of possible physical develop- 
 ment that which he cannot hope to regain or correct com- 
 pletely in his later years; to sacrifice a material portion of 
 that practical efficiency which would otherwise be his and 
 which he requires to give him that place in life to which he 
 is by nature entitled." (Freiberg, Dr. Albert H., "Some Ef- 
 fects of Improper Posture in Factory Labor.") 
 
 "The recognized standard of all civilized nations excludes 
 the child under 14 years from the field of competitive indus- 
 try. This we have adopted as a minimum standard, below 
 which no community, alert to its larger interest, can afiford 
 to fall. . . . The state is the natural guardian and protector 
 of all minor children, and it is our contention that the labor 
 of all minors should be regulated in harmony with principles 
 that conserve individual and social interests." (National 
 Child Labor Committee, "Seven Years of Child Labor Re- 
 form.") 
 
 The labor of children and minors is a particularly valu- 
 able asset in the financial scheme of most immigrant fami- 
 lies, who will seek the most favorable location for its exploi- 
 tation. The large city provides the largest opportunities 
 for such exploitation. (Weber. Adna F., "Rapid Transit and 
 the Housing Problem," in Municipal Affairs, p. 316.) 
 
 "The average woman who earns her living as a domestic 
 is commercially dead after she is 45 years of age. There is 
 no place for a man fifty years of age, if he is a common 
 laborer, if he shows his age." (Report of the Industrial Com- 
 mission of Wisconsin.) 
 
 "Not only are the American industrial people often under- 
 fed, under-clothed, and under-housed; they are forced to toil 
 under severe nervous strain, are early worn out, and then they 
 are cast aside." (Streightof¥, "Standard of Living," p. 126.) 
 
 "The report (U. S. Senate Document 645, Vol. I.) shows 
 that 20% of the employes in Southern cotton mills are under 
 the age of 16 in spite of the laws passed in all the Southern 
 states since 1900. But the report itself shows it has been 
 ultraconservative in its estimate of the number of children 
 employed." . . . "In one yarn mill in South Carolina employ- 
 ing 168 persons, 70 were children under 16. In a cloth mill 
 in that state 39.6% of the employes were children. In Mis- 
 sissippi, which then had no child labor law, 42.8% of the em- 
 ployes in a small yarn mill were children. In 143 establish- 
 ments visited, 9,126 children were found employed, 753 of 
 whom were under the legal age of 12 years." (McKelway, 
 A. J.. "The Cotton Mill: The Herod Among Industries.") 
 
 "It is readily seen that with these children working at 
 these ages (cotton mill workers under 14) and with no op- 
 portunity for their education, we are simply perpetuating and 
 multiplying the poverty and ignorance of the present gen- 
 eration. If the law did not permit the burden of support 
 to be laid upon these young children of the family; some 
 way would be found by humane and kind-hearted people to 
 
 36
 
 give them a better chance in life." (McKelway. A J , 'Child 
 Labor in Georgia.") 
 
 "The old apprenticeship system has practically died out 
 and the present system of subdivision and specialization in 
 industry confines the beginner to one machme or one opera- 
 tion and gives him no chance to learn the trade as a whole. 
 Consequently the ranks ..f unskilled and low-grade labor are 
 overcrovvded, industry suffers for want of skilled workmen, 
 and the individual worker hnds his life narrow and monoton- 
 ous, his work a mere round of drudgery instead of a means 
 of self-expression. Out of this situation has gn.wn the de- 
 mand for a system of education which shall meet the needs of 
 workers of the industrial classes at least as thoroughly as the 
 established system meets those of the professional and com- 
 mercial classes." (25th Annual Report, United State* Com- 
 missioner of Labor. 1910.) 
 
 "On the whole, it is safe to say that a higher grade and 
 a greater age do not guarantee better positions and higher 
 earnings. ... In the formative period, from 14 to 16. what- 
 ever discipline the school has given is of little service in 
 unskilled juvenile occupations." Talbert. E. L.. "Opportuni- 
 ties for School and Industry for Children of the Stockyards 
 District," p. 34.) 
 
 "The promising child of ten degenerates into the lean 
 and sallow young person of thirteen, and this process is 
 continued until a whole population becomes stunted; and thus 
 the conditions of life in factory towns become a real source 
 of danger to England's future." (Torrop, James S., Nf. D., 
 Certifying Factory Surgeon, Heywood, Lancashire, in "Hy- 
 giene," May. 1801.) 
 
 "Only 3% (of the 622 children investigated in six states 
 who left school to go to work) of these children were work- 
 ing at occupations in which the maximum wage was $15.00 
 or over, 90% were in trades where adults earn less than 
 $10.00. The children's opportunities for advancement with- 
 out a change of employment were slight, and in many cases 
 advancement in pay ceases automatically at 16 years, showing 
 that the work was schemed for children alone, giving no 
 opportunity for educational or financial growth — the "dead 
 end' occupations which blight youth. 520 out of the 622 chil- 
 dren received less than $5.50 a week. 374 less than $5.00. 
 Less than 4% worked less than 9 hours a day; half of them 
 worked 10 hours a day or over." (U. S. Senate Document 
 
 645, Vol. vn.) 
 
 "When wretched housing conditions, gross overcrowding, 
 and poor nourishment (for mothers will not take time to pre- 
 pare meals) are added, the physical condition of children in 
 the canneries is indeed deplorable. So little do the foreign 
 mothers realize the injury done to growing children under 
 these conditions, that they kcei' urging even the youngest 
 to work, sharply repressing childish playfulness and clamor." 
 (Goldmark. Pauline. "Do Children Work in the Canneries?") 
 
 "There is no more reason to permit the parents' igno- 
 rance or greed to injure the chihl's welfare here than in any 
 other form of child labor. Indeed froni the point of view 
 of need, the employment of young children in canneries is 
 even less excusable than in other occupations where adult 
 members of the family are not employed with them." (Ibid.) 
 
 "Far from having any educational value, the w.->rk which 
 young children now perform teaches them chiefly instabil- 
 
 Z7
 
 ity and disregard of the future." (Kelley, Florence, Illinois 
 Report Factory Inspector, 1896, p. 28.) 
 
 "We cannot afford to destroy men and women in their 
 childhood for the sake of cheapening commodities. ... A 
 people develops capacity for production and achieves a lead- 
 ing place in art and industry by comfort, education, short 
 hours of labor, etc., but never by child labor, long hours, or 
 brutalizing environment." (Ludw^ig, Andrew B., Kentucky 
 Report Labor Inspector, 1903, pp. 132-3-) 
 
 "I believe that we owe it to ourselves and to posterity 
 and to the workingmen of our State, that the age of labor 
 be raised in order to lessen the tendency to bring the labor 
 of children into competition with men and women." (At- 
 kinson, Gov. G. W., W. Va., Bureau of Labor Report, 1899- 
 1900, p. 218.) 
 
 "It is more than vain to talk about the claims of parents 
 to profit by the wages of their children. Their children are 
 not chattels, but human beings, with rights of their own, 
 which no parents for their own pleasures or uses may vio- 
 late. And if parents fail to protect the rights of their chil- 
 dren, the commonwealth is bound to do so." (Cardinal Man- 
 ning: Mass. District Police report, 1891, p. 23.) 
 
 "It is obvious that children of 10, 12, and 14 years of 
 age may be steadily worked in our manufactories without 
 any schooling, and that this cruel deprivation may be perse- 
 vered in for years and yet no dangerous outbreak may occur 
 to arouse the public mind from its guilty slumbers. The retri- 
 bution waits the full completion of the offense. But when 
 they go blunted in morals, blind in intellect, from the sphere 
 of childhood to full political sovereignty, there will come a 
 terrible retribution." (Mann, Horace, Wisconsin Labor Sta- 
 tistics, 1899-1900, p. 277.) 
 
 "Upon the proper distribution of labor in the labor mar- 
 ket depend production, wages, and stability of employment." 
 (Women's Educational & Industrial Union, Boston, "Labor 
 Laws and Their Enforcement," p. 337.) 
 
 There is often a large unsatisfied demand for unskilled 
 labor while at the same time there is a large supply of much 
 labor unemployed in neighboring districts. (tJ. S. Bureau 
 of Labor, Bulletin 68.) 
 
 In ordinary years of business prosperity, taking all indus- 
 tries into consideration, out of every one hundred persons, 
 sixty will be steadily employed; forty will be working irregu- 
 larly. Of those who have irregular employment, three will 
 be out of work. (N. Y. Com. on Employers' Liability, and 
 Unemployment, 191 1.) 
 
 Eliminating idleness due to disability and labor disputes, 
 the mean percentage of unemployment for the last half of 1910 
 was I I.I as compared with 10.8 for 1909. Similar figures for 
 the end of December are 15.51 for 1910 as against 16.6 in 
 1909. (N. Y. Dept. of Labor, Bulletin, March, 191 1.) 
 
 In 1905 in New York State there was a difference between 
 the maximum requirements and minimum requirements for 
 workers in all manufacturing industries of not less than 
 300,000. (U. S. Census of Manufactures. 1905.) 
 
 Unemployment is always a factor in modern industry; 
 the average miner can work from year to year about two- 
 thirds of the time; in other industries, the average unemploy- 
 ment from year to year is almost one-fifth. In some years 
 the unemployment is several times more severe than in others. 
 
 38
 
 • . • ""^^''^ thiiiK ir, clear— ca>ual labor i> inetlicirnt. cheap, and 
 disastrous to the casual laborer." (NearinK. 'Wages in the 
 U. S., pp. 199, 200.) 
 
 "It is the irregularity in the requirements of industry troin 
 month to ni..nth that is the chief cause of unemployment " 
 (Prof. Seager, ".Social Insurance.") 
 
 B. FEDERAL, STATE, OR FOREIGN LAWS ON 
 TERM OF WORKING LIFE 
 
 Children under 14 years of age are prohibited from tht 
 principal wage-earning occupations in the following states: 
 Arizona Louisiana North Dakota 
 
 Colorado Massachusetts Ohio 
 
 Delaware Michigan Oregon 
 
 District of Columhin Minnesota Pennsylvania 
 
 Illinois Missouri Rhode Island 
 
 Indiana Mississippi* Tennessee 
 
 Iowa Nebraska Wisconsin 
 
 Kansas New Jersey 
 
 Kentucky New York 
 
 (* Boys 12.) 
 
 In addition to these a number of other states forbid 
 child labor under 14 years in any occupation while the schools 
 are in session. 
 
 TRADE EDUCATION. In Wisconsin wherever evening, 
 continuation, industrial, or commercial schools are estab- 
 lished by cities or towns, children from 14 to 16 must attend 
 not less than 5 hours per week for 6 months. Employers 
 must reduce the hours of such children not less than the num- 
 ber of hours which they must attend these schools. Illiterate 
 minors over 14 may not be employed where there are such 
 schools unless in attendance upon them, and they must fur- 
 nish employer weekly with written report of attendance. 
 
 LAWS CONCERNING WOMEN. Massachusetts in 
 1910 prohibited the employment of pregnant women for two 
 weeks before and four weeks after childbirth. New York 
 this year prohibited employment for four weeks after child- 
 birth. Practically all foreif^n countries have similar legisla- 
 tion, frequently extending the prohibited period to eight weeks, 
 and Austria. Belgium, Denmark. Germany, Great Britain, 
 Italy, Norway, and Russia provide insurance or medical aid 
 in some form. 
 
 In Belgium, Holland. Austria, and Denmark (except upon 
 medical certificate stating that it will not injure mother or 
 child), women must not be employed in industry within four 
 weeks of childbirth. 
 
 Switzerland requires total absence from work of eight 
 weeks, six of them after childbirth; longer period in trades 
 exposing women to phosphorus, lead, mercury, sulphuric acid, 
 or in dry cleaning works, india rubber works, and processes 
 requiring lifting and carrying heavy weights or exposure to 
 violent shocks. 
 
 In Germany women must not be employed within four 
 weeks after childbirth. This time is extended to six weeks 
 unless woman presents certificate approving employment at 
 end of four. 
 
 39
 
 Spain prohibits employment of women within three weeks 
 of childbirth, and provides time — two half hours, not to be 
 deducted from wages — to care for baby during work day. 
 
 C. STANDARDS ALREADY ACCEPTED ON TERM OF 
 WORKING LIFE. 
 
 "We hold that the Church ought to declare for the aboli- 
 tion of child labor, that is, the protection of children from ex- 
 ploitation in industry and trade; and from work that is 
 dwarfing, degrading, or morally unwholesome." (Presbyterian 
 Board of Home Missions.) 
 
 "We pledge ourselves to the improvement of the industrial 
 condition of the workers by forbidding the employment of 
 children under i6 years of age." (Socialist Party.) 
 
 "No children under 14 years should be employed." (Assn. 
 of American Physicians.) 
 
 "We hold for the abolition of child labor." (Presbyterian 
 Church, Bureau of Social Service.) 
 
 "The Churches must stand for the abolition of child 
 labor." (Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in 
 America; Methodist Federation for Social Service.) 
 
 "Minimum age for self-support — 16 years. Maximum 
 age — according to physical condition." (New York Section, 
 Council of Jewish Women.) 
 
 "Wages should be high enough to give the man of ordi- 
 nary thrift the opportunity to lay by sufficient to maintain 
 him in old age after having reached the age of say 65 or 
 68." (Order of Railway Conductors of America.) 
 
 "Bad as is the effect of continuous labor on children, 
 words are not strong enough to condemn the practice of em- 
 ploying child labor at night. ... I earnestly commend to 
 the consideration of our members the advisability of entirely 
 abolishing the employment of children, so that we can in the 
 near future say that we employ child labor neither directly 
 nor indiVectly. Where we employ them indirectly, as we do 
 in the purchase of bottles, the solution of the problem is not 
 in our hands, but surely our influence with the bottle manu- 
 facturers is great enough to abolish child labor in that in- 
 dustry." (Liebmann, Julius, President (1907-8) U. S. Brewers' 
 Association.) 
 
 "No pregnant woman should be allowed to work in a fac- 
 tory, under continual strain. Housework gives relief at inter- 
 vals, but factory work does not. . . . No nursing mothers 
 should be permitted to work away from home for at least the 
 first six months after the birth of a child." (N. Y. Section 
 of the Council of Jewish Women.) 
 
 "We recommend the prohibition of the employment of 
 pregnant women two months before and after childbirth." 
 . . . "We recommend the appointment of women physicians as 
 health inspectors, whose duty it shall be to visit all workshops 
 where women and children are employed, to examine the 
 physical condition of the workers. . . . We recommend pen- 
 sions for working mothers during the lying-in period." (Na- 
 tional Women's Trade Union League.) 
 
 -50
 
 \I. COMPKXSATinx OR INSL'RANCK. 
 
 CoMi'tiNs.vnuN Df.manulu. liotli social and individual wel- 
 fare require some effective system of compensation for the heavy 
 loss now sustained by industrial workers as a result of unavoidable 
 accidents, industrial diseases, sickness, invalidity, involuntary un- 
 employment, and old age. 
 
 1. Accidents. Equitable standards of compensation must be 
 determined by extensive experience, but there is already ample 
 precedent for immediate adoption as a minimum the equivalent 
 of four years' wages in compensation for accidents resulting fatally. 
 Compensation for accidents resulting in permanent disability should 
 not be less than 65 per cent, of the annual wage for a period of 
 15 years. 
 
 2. Trade Dise.\ses. For diseases clearly caused by nature 
 and conditions of the industry, the same compensation as for acci- 
 dents. 
 
 3. Old Age. Service pensions or oKl age insurance when- 
 ever instituted so protected that the person who with«lraws or is 
 discharged from the employment of a given company docs not for- 
 feit his equity in the same. 
 
 4. Uxe-Mflovment. Unemi)!c)ymcnt of able-lwdicd adult 
 men under 65 years of age is abnormal and wasteful, and is as 
 proper a subject for recognition by the public authorities as con- 
 tagious disease or other abnormal conditions which menace the 
 public well being. The demand for insurance against unemploy- 
 ment increases with the increasing specialization in industry. The 
 development of state, municipal, and private agencies to insure 
 against unemployment in Kuropean countries affords ample infor- 
 mation for the guidance of such enterprises in America. 
 
 A.— SPECIFIC INFORM.\TION ON COMPENS.\TION 
 OR INSURANCE. 
 
 The Report of the United States Bureau of Labor. 1900. 
 covers a study of about 1.200 wnrknicn's insurance funds or 
 societies. The Report is Riven for 8S national or international 
 labor organizations operating >uch funds, including a study 
 
 41
 
 of 530 local labor organization funds; 50 railroad funds, and 
 461 local establishment funds such as are maintained by large 
 corporations like coal and iron companies. The labor organ- 
 ization and industrial benefit society funds are mutual in 
 operation. The greater number of railroad relief funds are 
 handled by the management and the railroad pension funds 
 ,are exclusively controlled by the employer. In the estab- 
 lishment funds, however, the management in 74 per cent, is 
 v^fith the members, in 6.9 per cent, with the employer, and in 
 19.1 per cent, there is joint management of employer and 
 employes. Nearly all the funds investigated attempt no more 
 than to relieve immediate necessities. The investigation shows 
 that the working man usually receives but scant compensa- 
 tion for disabling injuries received in the course of his work, 
 and especially when he suffers the loss of a part of his body 
 or some other permanent disability. It shows further that by 
 far the greater part of the compensation comes from the work- 
 ing man rather than from the industry that presents the 
 hazard. (United States Bureau of Labor, 23d Annual Re- 
 port.) 
 
 Only a small percentage of the (workmen's insurance 
 and benefit) funds pay superannuate benefits, that is, benefits 
 to members who have passed a certain age. This kind of in- 
 surance has not made much progress in the United States, al- 
 though it seems to be meeting with some favor in recent 
 years. 
 
 During the past twenty-five years in Germany exports to 
 foreign countries have risen from fourth to second place in 
 international trade. Emigration has practically ceased, and 
 the country is obliged to import annually a million laborers. 
 The national wealth is doubled. Wages have risen for un- 
 skilled labor 25 per cent.; for skilled, 50 per cent.; in certain 
 trades the increase has been as high as 100 per cent. The 
 standard of living of German laborers moves in a constantly 
 higher direction. Germany has the lowest percentage of un- 
 employment. (Prof. Zacher, "German System and Foreign 
 Countries, in the Arbeiterversorgung," March 21, 191 1; and 
 "Combination of Compulsory State Insurance with Voluntary 
 Private," Ibid., Oct. i, 191 1.) 
 
 All that insurance can do is to compensate for the loss 
 or damage brought to an individual by a force over which he 
 has no control, and thus prevent extreme poverty. The aver- 
 age duration of life in Germany has increased for males from 
 38.1 years to 48.8 years; for females from 42.5 years to 54.9 
 years; and this lowered mortality rate is in great part due to 
 the curative and preventive work of the insurance system. 
 (Ibid.) 
 
 "The investigation of 43:2 families of home workers in 
 New York City in 1912 shows 134 heads of families regularly 
 employed, while 298 heads of families were emploj'cd irregu- 
 larly. Among the causes of idleness are the following: sick- 
 ness, 13; old age, 4; seasonal trades, 76; inability to find work, 
 205." (Watson, Elizabeth C, "Home Work in New York 
 City," National Child Labor Committee.) 
 
 There are 3 classes of unemployed: i, efficient and will- 
 ing to work; 2, inefficient and willing to work; 3, unwilling 
 to work. "A conservative estimate would be that in ordinary 
 years of business activity the least number out of work is 
 about 3 per cent, of the wage earners regularly employed in 
 the industries of the state; while during the winter months the 
 
 42
 
 number would rise to 8 or lo per cent. In a year of business 
 depression, like 1908, the number out of work ranges from 
 15 to 30 per cent. . . . Over and above the pcrcentaKcs 
 here Riven arc the beggars, tramps, and vaKrant*. who have 
 entirely dropped out of our in<Iustries." "Ten per cent of the 
 wage earners enK'aKcd in manufactures arc kept as a reserve 
 to meet the fluctuatinf? monthly demands " "Every year from 
 one-quarter to t>ne-third of our waj^e earner- are turned out 
 of work for various periods. . . . At all times of the year 
 in every industrial center (»f the stale (New York) able- 
 bodied men are forced to remain idle thouKh willing to work " 
 (Commission on Employers' Liability an«l Causes of Indus- 
 trial Accidents; Unemployment, and Lack of Farm Labor. 
 Report of Committee «>n l'nempli)yment. Ge<»rge A. Voss, 
 Chairman.) 
 
 "Employers will reckon with this responsibility for the 
 prevention of accidents just abf>ut as fast as the c<»nscience 
 of society is arousf<l on the subject. . . .-\n ctTective 
 
 public opinion would develop more ((uickly in industrial com- 
 munities if a complete report of all acci<lcnts were required." 
 (Eastman, Crystal, "Work Accidents and the Law." pp. IIO- 
 
 111.) 
 
 "If accidents became a heavy and determinable cost to 
 the business not dependent upon the cleverness of lawyers, 
 the leaninps of judges, or tlie sympathies of juries, but directly 
 proportioned to the number of <leaths and the number and 
 seriousness of injuries anions the men on the payr<-ll. then 
 the prevention of them would become <)l direct tcoriomic in- 
 terest to tiic employer One economic motive would be set 
 off against another. If safe, slow ways of producing involve 
 a reduction in profits, we must see that the human waste re- 
 sulting from dangerous, quick ways shall involve a greater re- 
 duction in profits. This is not because the employer is wicke«I 
 and must be punished, but because he. like most of us, is held 
 closely in the grip of economic motives." (Ibid., p. 114.) 
 
 "The wage earner's work, however individually managed 
 and controlled, however competitively bargained for. is a part 
 of a great undertaking in wiiich society as a whole shares and 
 by which it profits. If in many of the fundamental operations 
 of this undertaking there is constant danger to life and limb, 
 it is not just that those whose lot falls in this part of the 
 work should endure not only all the |)hysical torture that 
 comes with injury, but also ahni>st the entire economic loss 
 which inevitably follows it. . . . The physical suflering of 
 the injured we cannot share. \Vc cannot satisfy the longing 
 or lessen the grief. Hut the economic loss we can share. Our 
 failure to do this is an injustice to the wage earner; and the 
 outcome of this injustice is misery." (Ibid., p. 152.) 
 
 I'roper care of persons out of work is an efhcicnt means 
 of preventing such persons from underbidding the prevailing 
 rates of wages, and thereby maintaining an existing level. 
 (Report of I'nited States Commissioner of Labor, igog. p 20.) 
 
 Out of 16.^74 brewery workers within a two-year period 
 I 72^ met with'i.'>8l industrial accidents, disabling thetn for an 
 aggregate period <4 r^.y>'> «la>s. That is. the i.vrrage tunc 
 laid off was 27.0 days, or almost four weeks ( I helps, fcd- 
 ward Bunnell, United States Hrewers' Association > 
 
 "The employment of children has increased with the 
 reduction of wages, and the employment of adults has rtc- 
 
 4^
 
 creased with the employment of children." (Fell, New Jersey 
 Insp. Factories and Workshops, 1884. p. 19.) 
 
 "The employment of children is assigned by these reports 
 (state statistics on unemployment) as one of the chief causes 
 for the idleness of working men and women. If child labor 
 could be abolished to-day there are probably enough adults 
 out of employment and willing to work to fill their places." 
 (Colorado Bureau Labor Statistics, 1901-2.) 
 
 B. FEDERAL, STATE, OR FOREIGN LAWS ON 
 COMPENSATION OR INSURANCE 
 
 Workmen's Compensation Laws were enacted in ten 
 states in 1911. The main provisions are as follows: 
 
 Death. — Compensation equal to about 3 years' wages in 
 California, Kansas, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Hampshire. 
 Minimum awards, $1,000 in California, $1,200 in Kansas and 
 Massachusetts, and $2,000 in Nevada. Maximum awards, $5,000 
 in California, $3,600 in Kansas, and $3,000 in Massachusetts, 
 Nevada, and New Hampshire. Compensation equal to about 
 4 years' wages in Illinois, Ohio, and Wisconsin; with mini- 
 mum award of $1,500 in each state, and maximum awards 
 of $3,500, $3,400, and $3,000 in order given. New Jersey 
 awards from $1,500 to $3,000, according to circumstances; 
 Washington from $20 to $35 a month during dependency or 
 childhood. Ohio and Washington pay funeral expenses. In 
 nearly all cases compensation is greatly reduced where there 
 are no dependents. 
 
 Total Disability. — Compensation equal to about 50 per 
 cent, of weekly wages in Illinois, Kansas, Massachusetts, New 
 Hampshire, New Jersey; 60 per cent, in Nevada; 65 per cent, 
 in California, and Wisconsin; and 662-3 per cent, in Ohio. 
 Yearly wages on which to reckon compensation: minimum in 
 California, $333.33; Wisconsin, $375; Massachusetts, $400; Illi- 
 nois, New Jersey, and Ohio, $520; Kansas, $624. Maximum, 
 Wisconsin, $750; Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and New 
 Jersey, $1,040; Illinois and Ohio, $1,248; Kansas, $1,560; Cali- 
 fornia, $1,666.66; Nevada, $3,000. Time limits: California, 
 780 weeks; Illinois, 416; Kansas, 520; Massachusetts, 500; New 
 Hampshire, 300; New Jersey, 300-400; Ohio, 312; Wisconsin, 
 780. 
 
 Partial Disability. — Compensation equal to 50 per cent, 
 weekly wages in Illinois, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, 
 New Jersey; 60 per cent, in Nevada; 65 per cent, in Cali- 
 fornia and Wisconsin; 662-3 in Ohio; Kansas, 25 per cent.- 
 75 per cent.; Washington, according to degree of disability. 
 California, Illinois, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Wis- 
 consin place same maximum compensation and time limit as 
 in case of total disability. Kansas gives same time limit; 
 Massachusetts, Nevada, and Ohio same maximum compensa- 
 tion; California, Ohio, and Wisconsin give same minimum 
 compensation. 
 
 In all states except Ohio the employer is sole contributor. 
 In Ohio the employe may be assessed 10 per cent, of the cost 
 of insurance. 
 
 Act of 19 10 — Employer's Liability Act (New York State). 
 
 I. Shifts burden of proof of contributory negligence to 
 employer. 
 
 44
 
 3. Makes "fellow servant" not apply to anyone exercis- 
 ing authority, that is. any foreman or boss. 
 
 3. The workman can only be held responsible for as- 
 sumption of risk when the employe knows the risk but does 
 not notify the employer of it; and the employer does not know 
 and cannot discover by reasonable care, tests, inspection, etc. 
 
 Barnes Act of 1906 (New York State). 
 
 Applies to railroads. Practically same as act of 1910. 
 Excludes from class of "fellow servant" anyone operating 
 signals, switches, locomotive engines, cars, trains, or tele- 
 graph offices. Makes the mere existence of defect which the 
 employer could have discovered by reasonable care, etc., 
 prima facie evidence of negligence on part of employer. 
 
 Compensation laws have been enacted in 26 foreign states. 
 In Belgium and Great Britain they apply to practically all 
 employments. In Austria, Belgium. Germany, Denmark. Fin- 
 land, Italy, Luxembourg. Netherlands. Norway. Russia. Spain, 
 and Switzerland only wage earners, and in some cases those 
 exposed to the same risk, such as overseers and technical 
 experts, come within the scope of the law. On the other 
 hand, in France, Great Britain, the British Colonies, and in 
 Hungary, the laws apply to salaried employes and work- 
 men equally, except that overseers and technical experts earn- 
 ing more than a prescribed amount are excluded in several 
 countries. The entire burden of compensation rests upon the 
 employer in all but six countries — Austria, Germany, Greece, 
 Hungary, Luxembourg, and New South Wales — where the 
 employes bear part of the expenses. The laws in every case 
 fix the compensation to be paid, and usually compensation is 
 based upon the wages received by the injured person. 
 
 In Denmark compensation in case of permanent dis- 
 ability equals six times the annual earnings, and proportionate 
 payments for partial permanent disability. In Great Britain 
 compensation for death equals three years' earnings. In Italy 
 compensation for death, if occurring within two years after 
 accident, is five times the annual wages; and if permanent 
 disability, six times annual wages. 
 
 SOCIAL INSURANCE. 
 
 (Taken from Report of the United States Commissioner 
 of Labor, iQog, "Workmen's Insurance and Compensation Sys- 
 tems in Europe." Methods cited in order of development of 
 modern most approved systems.) 
 
 1. ACCIDENT INSURANCE: 
 
 a. Systems of pure compensation, in which employer must 
 provide compensation accordinii to scale specified in law. with- 
 out any obligation to insure in advance. Belgium, Denmark, 
 F'rance. Great Britain, Greece. Russia. Spain. 
 
 b. Law establishes individual responsibility of employer, 
 and requires him to take out insurance in certain private or 
 state institutions, or to furnish guaranty sufficient to cover 
 his responsibility. Finland. Italy, the Netherlands. 
 
 c. Law requires employer to insure in specified manner Of 
 specified institution. Austria. Germany. Hungary. Luxem- 
 bourg, Norway. 
 
 2. SICKNESS INSURANCE: . 
 a. Free, unregulated mutual benefit societies. Russia, 
 
 Spain.
 
 b. Government regulation. Individual societies encour- 
 aged, by certain privileges, but not compelled to submit to 
 government regulation. Great Britain, Finland, Netherlands, 
 Italy, Sweden. 
 
 c. Government subsidies to benefit societies. Belgium, 
 Denmark, France. 
 
 d. Compulsory insurance. Shifts part of burden from em- 
 ploye to employer. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Luxem- 
 bourg, Norvi^ay. 
 
 3. MATERNITY INSURANCE: 
 
 (Purposes: to assist mothers; to reduce infant mortality.) 
 
 Germany combines maternity insurance with sickness in- 
 surance system. 
 
 France, no specific legislation, maternity insurance granted 
 by many private societies. 
 
 Russia requires employers to furnish medical aid, in some 
 cases with hospitals and midwives in constant attendance. 
 
 Austria combines maternity with sickness insurance 
 system. 
 
 Italy (proposed law) national maternity insurance system, 
 compulsory. , 
 
 4. OLD AGE INSURANCE. 
 
 a. Voluntary systems not receiving government subsidies. 
 Funds for special industries from contributions of workmen 
 and employers, Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Great 
 Britain, Poland. Trade Unions, Friendly Societies, Mutual 
 Aid Societies, mostly in Great Britain, Austria, Belgium, 
 France, Germany, Italy. 
 
 b. Voluntary systems, receiving government subsidies. 
 Belgium.. France, Italy, Portugal, Spain. 
 
 c. Compulsory insurance (contributions of insured and 
 employers), National systems, Austria (salaried persons only), 
 France, Germany. Special industries: mining, Austria, France, 
 Russia; navigation, Belgium, France; railroads, France, Italy, 
 Russia, Belgium; government industrial establishments, 
 France, Italy, Russia; etc. 
 
 d. Ncn-contributory systems: pensions paid from state 
 revenues. Great Britain, France, Denmark, certain Austral- 
 asian countries. 
 
 5. INVALIDITY INSURANCE: 
 
 a. Voluntary systems not receiving government subsidies. 
 (Usually done in connection with old age, or sick benefits.) 
 Friendly societies in Great Britain, trade unions in Germany, 
 mutual benefit societies in Belgium, France, and Italy. 
 
 b. Voluntary systems receiving government subsidies. 
 Belgium, France, Italy. 
 
 c. Compulsory insurance. Combined with old age insur- 
 ance, Austria, France, Germany. (France, miners, railway 
 employes; Belgium, railway employes, seamen.) 
 
 d. Non-contributory systems of insurance. France, Aus- 
 tralian federation, Victoria, Denmark, New South Wales. 
 
 6. UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE: 
 
 a. Voluntary organizations not receiving government sub- 
 sidies. Trade unions. Great Britain and the continent (out- 
 of-work, travel, and removal benefits.) 
 
 b. Voluntary organizations receiving government sub- 
 
 46
 
 sidies. Belgium (Ghent system). France, Norway. Denmark. 
 Germany. 
 
 GHENT SYSTEM. 
 
 The following summary of the plan of unemployment in- 
 surance in Ghent describes the most significant system in 
 Europe: Unemployment committee, established 1900 Under- 
 lying principle: Help in proportion to self-help; i. e.. if worker 
 himself provides against unemployment, by joining an asso- 
 ciation granting out-of-work benefits to members; or by plac- 
 ing funds in a bank, he may upon unemployment receive from 
 city committee a grant of money in direct proportion to 
 amount received from association, or drawn from bank. 
 
 Committee appointed by communal council, consisting of 
 councillors and representatives of afhiiated associations. Sub- 
 sidy paid only in case of involuntary unemployment, including 
 fire and breakdown of machinery; not including unemployment 
 due to strikes, lock-outs, sickness, or other physical incapacity. 
 Payment made through affiliated associations wherever pos- 
 sible. 
 
 Committee works in cooperation with municipal labor ex- 
 change. Workmen claiming grants required to register at ex- 
 change, and are bound to accept suitable work offered, on 
 pain of forfeiting grant. Daily registration — now required 
 by many trade unions — will probably be required in near fu- 
 ture. Adult men and women aie treated on same basis; chil- 
 dren receive a smaller rate; present number of members in- 
 sured is 20,000. 
 
 "The existence of the scheme has had a most important 
 effect on the unions. . . . They have come to look upon 
 themselves not simply as armies drilled to make war on em- 
 ployers, but as instruments of general social organization and 
 progress, fulfilling most important functions in the common- 
 wealth, even apart from their functions as protectors of the 
 workman against the employer." (Gibbon. I. G.. "Unemploy- 
 ment Insurance," p. 89.) 
 
 In Bavaria the commune is responsible by law for the 
 labor bureau. Central employment bureaus in the largest 
 Bavarian cities are connected with outlying bureaus into one 
 system. No fees are charged; the entire cost being defrayed 
 by the municipality assisted by grants from the Bavarian gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 England recently established a system of National Em- 
 ployment Exchanges which follow the German system, ex- 
 cept that while the German exchanges, though coordinated and 
 encouraged to some extent by State and Imperial Govern- 
 ments, are mainly municipal in scope; the English system is 
 uniform and national in character. Eighty-two labor ex- 
 changes were opened in February, 1910. January, 191 1. the 
 number increased to 148, and by September. 191 1. to 338. 
 
 C. STANDARDS ON COMPENSATION' OR INSUR- 
 ANCE ALREADY ACCEPTED. 
 
 The principles upon which the system of compulsory 
 insurance advocated by the National Association of Manufac- 
 turers of the United States is based arc as follows: 
 
 I. All legislation must be for compensation; 2. compensa- 
 tion legislation must cover every wafjc-workcr; 3, compensa- 
 tion must be assured; 4, compensation must be efficient; 5. em- 
 
 Llbrary 
 Institute of indurt-'p.i Pplatlona 
 
 Univo:*city ^■' ' "^ 
 
 Los Aiib'Oloa I-': -^^
 
 ployer and employe are jointly responsible for all unprevent- 
 able accidents, and should therefore jointly meet the compen- 
 sation expenditures; 6, every injury except those due to 
 criminal carelessness or drunkenness on the part of the worker 
 should be compensated; 7, humanity and efficiency demand 
 that prevention of accidents is made of prime importance; 8, 
 since the progressive individual usually provides voluntarily 
 for reasonable accident compensation, it is right that the re- 
 actionary or selfish individual be compelled to do likewise, 
 through universal compulsory insurance; 9, to prevent unfair 
 competition between employers in dififerent localities, it is 
 necessary that compensation laws of the various States are 
 reasonably uniform; 10, single liability is essential for reasons 
 of efficiency and equity. (Schwedtmann, Prof. F. C, before 
 the International Association of Factory Inspectors, 1911. 
 See report, p. 22.) 
 
 "The common law system of employers' liability based 
 upon negligence with its defences of contributory negligence, 
 assumption of risk, and fellow servant's fault. . . . has 
 been outgrown and should be abandoned, substituting for it a 
 law based not upon the fault but upon the fact of injury, a 
 law that would recognize as its basis that injuries to work- 
 men under existing conditions should be regarded as risks of 
 the industry." (United States Com. to Investigate Employers' 
 Liability and Workmen's Compensation.) 
 
 The consensus of opinion among delegates to the last in- 
 ternational conference on social insurance in Dresden was 
 that compulsory state insurance should be limited to the wage 
 earners, and to certain risks only. Such insurance so limited 
 is not like private insurance and ordinary commercial enter- 
 prises, but has a social or relief aspect. The humane element, 
 social responsibility, is therefore a sine qua non of the juris- 
 prudence of a national insurance system. (Brodsky, Ran- 
 dolph T., "Is the German Industrial Insurance System a Fail- 
 ure?" Survey, May 4, 1912.) 
 
 "We stand for insurance against death or accident in in- 
 dustry; industrial arbitration; care of dependent and incapable 
 persons." (Presbyterian Bureau of Social Service.) 
 
 "Each city shall have a thoroughly equipped bureau for 
 the assistance of those out of work. The bureau to co- 
 operate with similar bureaus of other cities and states so that 
 both the industrial and agricultural fields shall be thoroughly 
 covered. . . . Public works and public institutions in 
 various lines to be executed so as to give work to the un- 
 employed. (Socialist Party.) 
 
 "The Churches must stand for suitable provision for the 
 old age of the workers and for those incapacitated by in- 
 jury." (Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America.) 
 
 "We hold that our Church ought to declare for some 
 provision by which the burden imposed by injuries and deaths 
 from industrial accidents shall not be permitted to rest upon 
 the injured person or his family." (Presbyterian Board of 
 Home Missions.) 
 
 "In all pursuits where irregular employment is one of its 
 regular accompanying features the wage should be graded so 
 that it will furnish at least continuous subsistence." (Order 
 of Railway Conductors of America.) 
 
 48 
 
 Library 
 
 Institute of Induntrial Relations 
 
 Univernity of Ca''ifornia 
 
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