tfornia ma] ty UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES UNIVERSITY of GAUPQRi AT LOS ANGELES LIBRARY SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS Published in conjunction with THE SCHOOL REVIEW and THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL No. 21 June 1922 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS: A STUDY OF THEIR DEVELOPMENT « ■ > oj £ - rHERN BRAIMCi l, >!IF0RNIA, ., CALIF. 421 1 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS: A STUDY OF THEIR DEVELOPMENT By GUY THOMAS BUSWELL ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO CHICAGO, ILLINOIS f?6 4-4 Copyright 1922 By The University of Chicago All Rights Reserved Published June 1922 4 7 31 AC KNO WLED GM ENT The investigation reported in this monograph was made possible by an appropriation from the Commonwealth Fund. This subsidy pro- vided for elaborate modifications of the eye-movement photographic apparatus which has been used in the laboratory of the School of Edu- cation of the University of Chicago, as well as the construction of new devices for the experimental study of the reading process. The subsidy also made possible the employment of a sufficient number of technical and clerical assistants to undertake a more extensive analysis of eye- movement records than had previously been attempted and to study a far greater number of subjects. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE List of Figures . ix List of Plates xi List of Tables xiii CHAPTER I. Fundamentals in Reading i II. Growth Stages of Certain Elements of Reading . . . n Growth in Silent Reading 25 Growth in Oral Reading 36 Eye-Movement Elements and Achievement in Oral Reading . . 44 Eye-Movement Elements and Comprehension in Silent Reading . 50 Comparison of Growth Curves for Three Elements of Silent Reading 55 III. Detailed Analysis of First-Grade Reading 58 Contrasts in Methods of Teaching 63 Development of a Correct Reading Attitude 64 Initiation of Eye-Movement Habits 73 Development of Independence in Word-Recognition .... 86 Word-calling versus Rhythmic Expression in Thought Units . . 92 IV. Individual Variations and Specific Training in Reading. . 106 Analysis of Elementary-School Cases no Analysis of High-School and College Cases 130 Specific Training Exercises 138 Summary 147 Index 149 vu LIST OF FIGURES FIGURES PAGE i. Growth Stages for Average Number of Fixations per Line in Silent Reading 27 2. Growth Stages for Average Duration of Fixation Pauses in Silent Reading 32 3. Growth Stages for Average Number of Regressive Movements per Line in Silent Reading 35 4. Growth Stages for Average Number of Fixations per Line in Oral Reading 38 5. Growth Stages for Average Duration of Fixation Pauses in Oral Reading 41 6. Growth Stages for Average Number of Regressive Movements per Line in Oral Reading 43 7. Relationship between Average Number of Fixations per Line in Oral Reading and Modified Score on Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs . 46 8. Relationship between Average Duration of Fixation Pauses in Oral Reading and Modified Score on Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs . 47 9. Relationship between Average Number of Regressive Movements per Line in Oral Reading and Modified Score on Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs 49 10. Relationship between Average Number of Fixations per Line in Silent Reading and Comprehension Score on Monroe Silent Reading Test 51 11. Relationship between Average Duration of Fixation Pauses in Silent Reading and Comprehension Score on Monroe Silent Reading Test . 53 12. Relationship between Average Number of Regressive Movements per Line in Silent Reading and Comprehension Score on Monroe Silent Reading Test 54 13. Per Cent of Increase in Growth Curves of Three EyeTMovement Habits — Silent Reading 56 14. Diagram Illustrating Hypothetical Progress toward Maturity . . 59 15. Rhythm of Expression of Subject 1, Grade I B 94 16. Rhythm of Expression of Subject 14, Grade I A 96 17. Rhythm of Expression of Thirteen First-Grade Subjects in Reading First Line of Paragraph 100 18. Rhythm of Expression of Fourteen First-Grade Subjects in Reading Lines within Paragraph 10 1 19. Individual Variation from Medians for Eye-Movements in Grade VI 108 ix LIST OF PLATES PLATE I. Silent Reading by Subject 17, Grade I A. II. Silent Reading by Subject 174, College Senior III. Selections Read by First-Grade Subjects . IV. Selections Read by All Subjects above First Grade V. Selections Used for Initial Test of First-Grade Subjects VI. Oral Reading by Subject 188, Grade IB. VII. Silent Reading by Subject 187, Grade IB VIII. Silent Reading by Subject 189, Grade IB IX. Silent Reading by Subject 11, Grade I A, First Test X. Silent Reading by Subject 11, Grade I A, Second Test XI. Silent Reading by Subject n, Grade I A, Third Test XII. Silent Reading by Subject 13, Grade I A, First Test XIII. Silent Reading by Subject 13, Grade I A, Second and Third Tests XIV. Oral Reading by Subject 194, Grade I A . XV. Oral Reading by Subject 10, Grade I A . XVI. Silent Reading by Subject 15, Grade I A . XVII. Silent Reading by Subject 19, Grade I A . XVIII. Oral Reading by Subject 182, Grade I A . XIX. Oral Reading by Subject 2, Grade IB. XX. Oral Reading by Subject 1, Grade IB XXI. Oral Reading by Subject 12, Grade I A . XXII. Silent Reading by Subject 12, Grade I A . XXIII. Oral Reading by Subject 1, Grade IB. XXIV. Index Numbers for Words in First-Grade Selection XXV. Oral Reading by Subject 14, Grade I A XXVI. Silent Reading by Subject 38, Grade II . XXVII. Silent Reading by Subject 37, Grade II . XXVIII. Silent Reading by Subject 25, Grade II . XXIX. Silent Reading by Subject 52, Grade III . XXX. Silent Reading by Subject 47, Grade III . •XXXI. Silent Reading by Subject 62, Grade IV . PAGE 2 3 22 23 62 67 68 70 77 78 79 So 81 82 83 84 85 87 89 90 9i 93 95 97 98 112 113 114 120 121 122 XI LIST OF PLATES I. Silent Reading by Subject 17, Grade I A. II. Silent Reading by Subject 174, College Senior III. Selections Read by First-Grade Subjects . IV. Selections Read by All Subjects above First Grade V. Selections Used for Initial Test of First-Grade Subjects VI. Oral Reading by Subject 188, Grade IB. VII. Silent Reading by Subject 187, Grade IB VIII. Silent Reading by Subject 189, Grade IB IX. Silent Reading by Subject 11, Grade I A, First Test X. Silent Reading by Subject 11, Grade I A, Second Test XI. Silent Reading by Subject n, Grade I A, Third Test XII. Silent Reading by Subject 13, Grade I A, First Test XIII. Silent Reading by Subject 13, Grade I A, Second and Third Tests XIV. Oral Reading by Subject 194, Grade I A . XV. Oral Reading by Subject 10, Grade I A . XVI. Silent Reading by Subject 15, Grade I A . XVII. Silent Reading by Subject 19, Grade I A . XVIII. Oral Reading by Subject 182, Grade I A . XIX. Oral Reading by Subject 2, Grade IB. XX. Oral Reading by Subject 1, Grade IB XXI. Oral Reading by Subject 12, Grade I A XXII. Silent Reading by Subject 12, Grade I A . XXIII. Oral Reading by Subject 1, Grade IB. XXIV. Index Numbers for Words in First-Grade Selection XXV. Oral Reading by Subject 14, Grade I A . XXVI. Silent Reading by Subject 38, Grade II . XXVII. Silent Reading by Subject 37, Grade II . XXVIII. Silent Reading by Subject 25, Grade II . XXIX. Silent Reading by Subject 52, Grade III . XXX. Silent Reading by Subject 47, Grade III . 'XXXI. Silent Reading by Subject 62, Grade IV . 2 3 22 2.3 62 67 68 70 77 78 79 So 81 82 &3 84 85 87 89 90 91 93 95 97 98 112 113 114 120 121 122 XI Xll LIST OF PLATES PAGE PLATE XXXII. Silent Reading by Subject 60, Grade IV . ... 123 XXXIII. Silent Reading by Subject 59, Grade IV 125 XXXIV. Silent Reading by Subject 80, Grade V 126 XXXV. Silent Reading by Subject 85, Grade V 127 XXXVI. Silent Reading by Subject 78, Grade V 129 XXXVII. Silent Reading by Subject 70, Grade V 130 XXXYIII. Silent Reading by Subject 124, High-School Sophomore . 132 XXXIX. Silent Reading by Subject 131, High-School Sophomore . 133 XL. Silent Reading by Subject 175, College Senior . . .136 XLL Silent Reading by Subject 172, College Senior . . .137 XLII. Test Paragraph for Observation of Number of Fixations per Line 144 XLIII. Test Paragraph for Observation of Duration of Fixation Pauses 145 XLIV. Test Paragraphs for Observation of Number of Regressive Movements per Line 146 LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE I. General Data for Silent Reading — All Subjects .... 14 II. General Data for Oral Reading — All Subjects .... 18 III. Growth Stages for Average Number of Fixations per Line in Silent Reading 26 IV. Growth Stages for Average Duration of Fixation Pauses in Silent Reading ... 31 V. Growth Stages for Average Number of Regressive Movements per Line in Silent Reading 34 VI. Growth Stages for Average Number of Fixations per Line in Oral Reading 37 VII. Growth Stages for Average Duration of Fixation Pauses in Oral Reading 40 VIII. Growth Stages for Average Number of Regressive Movements per Line in Oral Reading 42 IX. Relationship between Average Number of Fixations per Line in Oral Reading and Modified Score on Gray Oral Reading Para- graphs 45 X. Relationship between Average Duration of Fixation Pauses in Oral Reading and Modified Score on Gray Oral Reading Para- graphs 47 XL Relationship between Average Number of Regressive Move- ments per Line in Oral Reading and Modified Score on Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs 48 XII. Relationship between Average Number of Fixations per Line in Silent Reading and Comprehension Score on Monroe Silent Reading Test 5° XIII. Relationship between Average Duration of Fixation Pauses in Silent Reading and Comprehension Score on Monroe Silent Reading Test 5 2 XIV. Relationship between Average Number of Regressive Move- ments per Line in Silent Reading and Comprehension Score on Monroe Silent Reading Test 53 XV. Per Cent of Increase in Growth Curves of Three Eye-Movement Habits — Silent Reading 55 XVI. Average Number of Fixations per Line in First and Second Tests— First-Grade Subjects 74 xiii XIV LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE XVII. Grade Medians for Eye-Movements in Silent Reading . . 109 XVIII. Comparison of Individual Records with Medians, Grade II . . in XIX. Comparison of Individual Records with Medians, Grade III . 118 XX. Comparison of Individual Records with Medians, Grade IV . . 119 XXI. Comparison of Individual Records with Medians, Grade V . . 128 XXII. Comparison of Individual Records with Medians, High-School Sophomores 134 XXIII. Comparison of Individual Records with Medians, College Seniors 134 XXIV. Grade Medians for Eye-Movements in Oral Reading . . . 135 CHAPTER I FUNDAMENTALS IN READING In the silent reading of an easy paragraph, Barbara, a first-grade pupil, read at a rate of 39.6 words per minute, while Miss. W, a college Senior, read at a rate of 369 words per minute. A further analysis of the records of these two readers shows that the first-grade pupil has a very narrow recognition span, making an average of 21.3 fixation pauses per line, while the college student has a very wide span, requiring only 3.6 fixations per line. The first-grade pupil was not sure of her recogni- tion of words even after her eyes had fixated upon them, and con- sequently found it necessary to make an average of 6.8 backward, or re-fixating, movements per line. The college student, however, did not make a single backward eye-movement in reading the entire paragraph. A further difference between the habits of these two readers can be seen in the duration of their fixations. In spite of the fact that the first-grade pupil had a very narrow recognition span, she required an average of 1 1.7 twenty-fifths of a second per fixation pause to get a clear perception of this small unit of material; while the college student recognized a much wider unit in an average fixation time of 8 twentv-fifths of a second. The record of the first-grade pupil gave clear evidence of periods of mental confusion, but that of the college student was perfectly regular throughout. The eye-movement records of these two subjects are shown in Plates I and II. The cases just described illustrate the w^de'dTfference between the reading habits of the beginner and the manure reader. ^The task of the school is to convert the habits of the one into those of the other. While the wide interval between these two extremes is perfectly evident, the detailed steps of growth from the beginning stages to ultimate mature habits are not ordinarily thought of by those who are planning school courses. However, it is with these detailed steps that the teaching process is most concernedl An examination of the records in Plates I and II gives no indication of the nature of the route over which the col- lege student has passed, nor of the manner in which the first-grade pupil may finally reach a similar degree of expertness in reading. What the records do show is the meaning of immaturity and of maturity. When the ultimate goal of reading instruction is known, the teacher is at liberty FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS PLATE I* 5 B 2.5 "24 19 2J I 2 4 3 6 If J It 12 II >3 20 14 15 18 it, |7 22 23 A bo 1 £ 9 4 5 » 10 I 3 4 5 6 T 8 16 9 13 15 10 11 12 13 IS 14- IT ran imto the wo Dd 3. The b>3 "an a:'ter th* 14 U 29 r 5 C 5 10 3 20 7 8 3 9 4. 16 6 9 12 3 4 2 5 6 dog. He win 3 4 2 5 6 T mtec 8 6 T 5 T 17 g 10 11 1 22. tie litJe 13 10 12 6 J2 13 21 i4 IS 16 18 dog to g3 hoin 14 9 6 & 4 3 IT 13 20 24. 4 324 1 £ <. T ft IS 9 14 iO 18, 5 6 8 II 13 \lti Bit fchi dot wodld not go horn 3. The little g 6 12 9 II 6 16 13 5 18 <. 13 T 2 7 3 I AM ENTAL READING HABITS with the exception of a notable increase during the Sophomore and Junior years in the high school. The reader should note that the nature of the growth curve for this, as for other elements of reading, is biased by the type of training which the school has given. It cannot.be assumed that the particular curves which appear are necessarily the most desirable forms of growth or even the natural forms. Different emphases upon the vaiious elements at different levels of the school period might produce a considerable change in the rate of growth at those points. The growth curves shown repre- sent the stages of development of the various elements of reading under the present school conditions. The variations of individual cases from the grade medians as exhibited in Table III show that some pupils take a very different route in their progress toward maturity. A careful examination of the growth curve in Figure i will reveal three definite tendencies: first, a very rapid growth during the first four school years; second, a plateau extending through the fifth, sixth, seventh, and Freshman years; and third, a second rise during the middle high-school years. It is clear from the figure that the chief development in span of recognition comes early in the school course. The child proceeds a long distance toward maturity in this element before he enters the fifth grade. While a small increase occurs during the fifth grade, it is only one- fourth as great as the increase during the preceding year. It is a significant fact that the fourth grade marks the turning-point in this element. The radical change in the curve of growth at the end of the fourth grade demands an explanation, either in terms of the element itself or in terms of the school reading situation. It is clear that the limit of growth in span of recognition has not been reached in the fourth grade. The later rise in the curve shows that the high-school medians above the Freshman year exceed the highest score up to the fourth-grade level. If mature habits of reading require a further growth in span of recogni- tion, why does not the curve make a continuous rise up to the highest median ? A possible answer to this question is found in the nature of the school work during the fifth^ sixth, 4 seventh, and Freshman years. Up to the end of the fourth grade the principal emphasis of the school is placed upon the subject oFreading. The reading which the child does is more or less of the same type and for the same purpose. Beginning in the fifth grade there is an increasing amount of time given to a variety of content subjects. The character of the demand upon the child's read- ing habits changes. A greater emphasis is placed upon a type of study GROWTH STAGES OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS OF READING 2Q which is quite different from the former reading which, for the greater part, was concerned with materials easy of comprehension. As long as the reading is of the same general character, a regular increase in the elements of the process would be expected. When the purpose of reading is changed and the different types of material are taken up, the attention of the pupil must be centered on these new variations, while the old elements are in a measure neglected. For example, when a pupil is given a text in algebra or foreign language his previous habit of using a wide recognition unit with simple story material is entirely inadequate for the mastery of this new content. Meanings in algebra and foreign language are not as clear as meanings in descriptive geogra- phv or fiction. The change from the formal subjects of the elementary- period to the varied content of the high-school course seriously inter- rupts the development of the span of recognition, the extent of the inter- ference being disclosed by the plateau in Figure 1. The rise in the curve during the Sophomore and Junior years suggests that the pupil has by that time become adjusted to the various types of new material and to the new study habits required for high-school work. The heavy reading requirements of literature and history stimulate the further development of a wide span of recognition. The drop in the Senior year may be accidental or it may be the compensating result of some other type of adjustment. In any case, the median remains at a higher level than during the period of the plateau. .A study of eye-movement records reveals the fact that the number of fixations per line varies in the reading of an individual subject. The size of the recognition-span is evidently greater at some points than others. Evidence is at hand which indicates that the relative difficulty of the material read or the particular aim of the reader has a direct influence upon the width of the span of recognition. It was for the purpose of eliminating such variable factors that the same selections and the same directions for reading were used throughout this experiment. However, even in the reading of a single selection the number' of fixations per line varies. If a subject reads a complete selection with an average of 8 fixations per line, but reads one of the lines with 4 fixations, the question arises as to whether his span of recognition is equal to one- eighth or one-fourth of the length of the line. The answer to the ques- tion involves a definition of terms. ^The average number of fixations per line gives a measure of the normally used recognition-span.) This normal span may be considerably less than the possible maximum A In certain portions of a selection a variety of causes may co-operate in 3 o FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS making the reading especially easy or difficult, with a corresponding reduction or increase in the number of fixations. The element measured bv the growth curve in Figure i is the average, normally used span of recognition. For a study of reading, this normal span is of greater significance than the possible maximum span. The recognition unit which has been frequently measured in experimental psychology by a simple tachistoscopic apparatus has been the maximum recognition unit. The reader should not confuse this measure with that secured by finding the average number of fixations per line. The former shows the limits of the recognition unit; the latter shows the normal recognition-span used in reading. In the total complex process of reading the size of the average recognition-span is a very significant element. N The ultimate goal of reading is to secure meaning from the printed page in large thought units. The smallest possible unit of thought is the word, while the most common units are phrases. As long as a reader is unable to grasp these thought elements in a single recognition his mental processes are inter- rupted by the necessity of piecing together the material to make up meaningful elements. It is perfectly evident from an examination of Plate I that this first-grade reader is not dealing with thought units, since a large part of her effort is taken up with an analysis of the words. Until she reaches the stage of maturity where she can recognize the word or phrase as a whole and in an automatic manner, she will not be able to give her full attention to the meaning. The college student in Plate II has a recognition-span which is wide enough to deal with whole thought units, making possible a type of reading in which interpretation is the dominant element in consciousness with only a minimum of attention to the recognition process. The immature reader must piece together his small units of recognition with much the same difficulty which a pedestrian would experience in getting a general idea of the geography of a city by walking up and down the streets between the sky-scrapers; while the mature reader has so far mastered his recognition unit that his interpretation of meaning could be compared with a bird's-eye view of the city from an airplane. The significance of a wide recognition- span is that it relieves the mind of a detailed form of word-analysis and makes possible the focusing of consciousness upon the process of interpretation. Growth in rate of recognition. — It has just been shown that the width of the span of recognition increases as reading habits become more mature. If the reader will turn again to Plates I and II he will see that GROWTH STAGES OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS OF READING 31 the college student not only covered a large unit of material at each fixation but that the average duration of her fixations was considerably- shorter than that of the first-grade pupil. The rate of recognition, regardless of the size of the recognition unit, becomes, therefore, an important factor in reading. The growth in rate of recognition', as measured by the average deration of fixations, is shown in Table IV and Figure 2. Table IV gives the average duration of fixations in twenty- TABLE IV Growth Stages for Average Duration of Fixation Pauses in Silent Readim. Average Duration of Fixation Pauses in Twenty- School Grade Total fifths OF A Second IB 1A II III IV V VJ VII F So J Se Col 3°~3- 4.O-4. 5 • o-5 • 6 . 0—6 . 0. . Q . . . 1 4 6 2 12 5 5 6 1 3 8 4 52 60 Q . . . 2 8 3 1 1 6 8 2 II 7 1 4 3 1 5 4 1 0. . . I 1 4 3 7 1 1 1 5 4 3 7.0-7. 8 0-8. Q 17 10 Q . . 1 1 9.0-9. Q . . 2 4 3 1 1 15 6 .9. . .9. . Q I 4 1 1 2. 0-12 i3-o-i3 14. 0-14 15-0-15 16. 0-16 1 7. 0-17 18. 0-18 .9.. .9.. .9. . .9. . .9.. .9. . 2 I I 2 I I 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 20.0-up. . . . 1 Total . . . 9 12 18 15 15 16 19 8 11 12 19 12 13 179 Med ian.. 16.5 10.8 9.1 7-9 6.7 6-3 5-9 6.0 6.1 6.2 5-6 6.2 6-3 • fifths of a second and the school grade for each subject. It shows that the median of the average duration of fixations for Grade I B is 16.5 twenty-fifths of a second; for Grade I A 10.8 twenty-fifths; for the second grade 9.1 twenty-fifths, etc. Figure 2 presents these grade medians graphically. The curve shows a rapid increase in rate of fixa- tion up to the end of the fourth grade, with a continued but smaller increase on through the sixth grade. From that point no higher median is observed with the exception of that of the high-school Juniors. The median for adults is the same as that for the fifth grade. 3 2 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS 20- 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 • 10 11 12 13 14 . 15 16 1 17 ~~~ 18 • 19 up 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 IB IA II III IV V VI VII F. So. J. Se. Col. Fig. 2. — Growth stages for average duration of fixation pauses in silent reading. School grade shown on horizontal axis; average duration of fixation pause shown on vertical axis. GROWTH STAGES OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS OF READING 33 These medians show that growth in speed of recognition proceeds in quite a different manner from growth in span of recognition. The fact, as exhibited by Table IV, that fifty-two subjects were able to reach an average fixation time of 5 twenty-fifths of a second, while only four subjects were able to make a shorter average indicates that the limit of fixation time is about 5 twenty-fifths. Out of the one hundred and ten subjects in the grades above the fourth, only nine failed to raise their average fixation time to the level of 6 twenty- fifths of a second. From these data it is evident that a speed of fixation of from 5 to 6 twenty- fifths of a second satisfies the demands of maturity in reading. It is also evident that it is entirely possible to reach this level by the end of the fourth grade. Rate of recognition, therefore, is one element of reading which can be carried to the level of maturity very early in the school period. The significance of the duration of fixations will be dis- cussed in greater detail in the following chapters, where illustrative records of individual cases will be introduced. Rhythmic progression along printed lines. — The third element of reading, for which a growth curve was determined, is that of rhythmic progression along the printed lines. In the eye-movement record of a mature reader it will be seen that the eye progressed across the lines with a rhythmic swing, making approximately the same number of fixations per line with few or no backward movements. In contrast with this the immature reader moves forward a few fixations, then back- ward to refixate upon some word which was not clearly recognized, then forward and soon back again in the reverse direction. This oscillation of eye-movements back and forth along the lines indicates that the reader is confused and is unable to proceed in regular order along the lines. This irregularity in reading procedure can be measured by the average number of regressive movements per line. J Since regular, rhythmic progress along the lines of print is possible only through the develop- ment of habits of sure recognition, the number of regressive movements required in reading furnishes an index of another element of the recogni- tion process. The relationship between average number of regressive movements per line and school grade is exhibited by the data in Table V and the curve in Figure 3. Table V, which should be read in the same manner as Table III, shows that the median pupil in Grade I B made an average of 5.1 regressive movements per line; in Grade I A an average of 4.0; in Grade II an average of 2.3, etc. The curve of growth in Figure 3 makes a very rapid rise during the first four grades; a notable lack of 34 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS progress during Grades V, VI, and VII; with a second rise during the first two high-school years. In general form the curve is similar to that for span of recognition. The fact that all the medians for the grades beyond the seventh are distinctly higher than any medians below that point indicates that the development of regular, rhythmic eye- movements is one element of reading toward which high-school and college i raining directly contributes. It also shows that the possibility of increased efficiency at the upper levels of the school period is consider- TABLE V Grow th Stacks FOR Average Dumber of Regressive SlLEXT ReADIXC Mov ements per Line in Average n 1 miif.r of Regressive School Grade Total Movements per Line IB I A 11 III IV V VI VII F So J Se Col O o— o A. . . . 1 1 4 3 3 1 1 1 4 4 2 3 1 1 3 2 6 1 1 1 2 5 3 7 3 1 3 2 2 1 5 2 1 1 1 4 5 2 1 7 8 3 1 5 3 2 2 7 5 1 29 40 3i 22 o ^— o . . . . I 1 2 2 6 2 2 2 I o— I 4.. . I ^— I Q . . 2 O— 2 A 20 2.5-2 3-0-3 3 - 5-3 4.0-4 4-5-4 5- 0-5 5 -5"5 6.0-6 O I 3 1 3 7 10 A. . . . 1 g. .. . 4. . . . 9. ... 4. . . . 9. . . . 4 . . . . 2 1 1 2 1 6 4 1 2 1 1 2 1 6.5-6 7.0-7 7-5-7 8.0-8 9.... 4. .. . 9. . . . 1 1 3 1 4. . . . 8.5-U] 3 1 1 Total.... 9 12 iS 15 15 16 19 8 11 12 19 12 13 179 Mi dian.. 5-i 4.0 2-3 1.8 1-4 i-3 i.6 i-5 1.0 0.7 0.7 0.7 o-5 ably greater for this habit than for that of duration of fixations which was plotted in Figure 2. There are several types of regressive movements which are produced by as many different causes. The most common regressive movement occurs at the beginning of a line where the return sweep of the eye has failed to carry the fixation back to the first word in the line and an additional regressive movement is required to make the initial part of the fine clear. This type of regressive movement persists up to the more mature stages of reading. GROWTH STAGES OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS OF READING 35 00 IB IA II III IV V Se. Col. Fig. 3. — Growth stages for average number of regressive movements per line in silent reading. School grade shown on horizontal axis; average number of regressive movements per line shown on vertical axis. 36 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS A second type of regressive movement appears in the records of a number of mature readers who continually try to make as few fixations per line as possible. In their effort to grasp a larger unit in a single eye- li.xation thev occasionally overreach their maximum span and find it necessary to make a backward eye-movement to clarify the meaning. While in such cases regressive movements are characteristic of rather mature reading, the most mature subjects have reached a stage where they do not overreach their capacity and consequently have few, if any, regressive movements. The presence of a few regressive movements caused by an effort to attain a wider recognition unit may be the necessary accompaniment of certain stages of growth in the span of recognition. A third type of regressive movement is caused by lack of word- knowledge. In the paragraphs used in this study, even the compara- tively simple words in the first-grade selection caused many regressive movements for some of the pupils. Pre\ ious investigations have shown that high-school and adult subjects will react in the same manner pro- vided sufficiently difficult words are introduced. A fourth type of regressive movement consists of a random oscilla- tion of the eye with no apparent plan on the part of the reader. This type of behavior has been appropriately named a "confusion period." The reader fails to get a clear perception of the meaning and accordingly sets up a series of eye-fixations which move back and forth over the area, causing difficulty. This type of eye-movement may occur in the beginning stages of reading where it shows lack of ability to grasp proper units of recognition, and it may occur in the later stages of reading where the reading gives way to analysis of some kind. Regressions in the latter case are signs of disintegration rather than immaturity. Four kinds of regressive movements have been described, all of which are characteristic of more or less immature reading. The curve of growth in Figure 3 shows clearly that the elimination of these regressive movements is not easily accomplished, but that growth continues up to the highest level of maturity. GROWTH IN ORAL READING The three growth curves which have just been exhibited were based upon silent-reading records. It will be a matter of interest to determine whether the growth curves as exhibited by oral reading are in any respect different. Accordingly, a series of growth curves will be presented based upon the oral reading records of one hundred and sixty-four subjects. GROWTH STAGES OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS OF READING 37 Table VI and Figure 4 show the relationship between average number of fixations per line and school grade. The median for the IB grade is 16.0; for the I A grade, 14.5; for the second grade, 12.0, etc. The curve in Figure 4 shows a rapid development of this element during the fourth grade, followed by a rapid increase during the fifth grade. Beyond the fifth grade the curve shows no pronounced increase except during the Sophomore and Junior years. The broken line in TABLE VI Growth Stages for Average Number of Fixations per Line in Oral Reading Average Number of School Grade Fixations per Line IB I A II III IV V VI VII F So J Se Col TOTAI 3 • o-3 • 4.0-4. 5-0-5- 6 . 0-6 . a . . . a . . . Q. . . 2 1 2 I 2 2 2 1 7 1 3 7 21 Q . . . 1 T 2 3 4 1 7.0-7. 8.0-8. Q. . . 1 1 2 1 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 2 2 2 2 8 6 2 1 2 3 2 1 2 3 4 1 5 2 1 3 Q . . . 3 6 2 2 40 25 22 12 9.0-9. 10.0-10 1 1 . 0— 1 1 . . . .9. . .9. . .9. . .9. . .9. . .9. . .9. . . . . 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 1 2 1 1 I 2 12 .0—I2 I 8 I30-I3 14. O-I4 I5-0-I5 l6. O—16 6 1 5 4 5 1 1 2 1 I 7. O-17 l8. O-18 .Q. . .0 . . 3 3 I 9. O-ig 20 . 0— up 2 2 Total.... 11 13 16 13 16 16 19 8 11 11 10 9 11 164 Med] an.. 16.0 14-5 12.0 10.4 10.3 8.7 8.9 8.7 9.1 8-3 8.0 9-3 8.4 Figure 4 reproduces the curve for the average number of fixations per line in silent reading. A comparison of the two curves shows that a wider recognition-span is maintained throughout in silent reading, except during the first grade. No significance should be attached to the crossing of the two curves just above the first grade, for two reasons. The first is the fact that the distribution of the individual averages during the first grade shows such a wide variation that the significance of the exact median is small. The second reason for attaching no special importance to the crossing of the curves is the fact that supplementary data indicate that the oral medians in Grades I B and I A should be + 90 4-1 38 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS 20-Up IB I A II III IV V VI VII So. J. Se. Col. Fig. 4. — Growth stages for average number of fixations per line in oral reading. School grade shown on horizontal axis; average number of fixations per line shown on vertical axis. (Broken line reproduces corresponding silent reading curve.) GROWTH STAGES OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS OF READING 39 considerably lower than the particular medians shown in Figure 4. For example, records taken five weeks earlier of fifteen pupils from these same groups showed a median number of fixations per line for oral read- ing of 22 in Grade I B, and of 17 in Grade I A. The further fact that some of the children had read the "Little Red Hen" story shortly before the test may be another reason for the higher curve in oral reading at this point. The principal significance of a comparison of the oral and silent curves lies in the fact that throughout the grades, at least above the first, the silent-reading process makes possible or stimulates broader recognition 'units, while in oral reading the use of these wide fixations is inhibited. This furnishes evidence that there is a fundamental difference between the oral- and silent-reading processes. In oral read- ing some attention must be given to each word as it is pronounced. The necessity, on the part of the voice, of dealing with word units evidently carries over into the recognition habits, causing a smaller recognition- span than in silent reading. With the exception of Grades I and IV the oral curve follows the same general trend as that of the silent process, only at a lower level. The relatively small social importance of oral reading at the higher levels would lead one to expect to find no further increases after the elementary period. The small increase during the high-school period may be due to the particular character of the school's training, or it may be due to the presence of some elements of transfer from the silent process. The growth curve for average durations of fixations in oral reading is shown in Table VII and by the solid line in Figure 5. The broken line gives the corresponding curve for silent reading. With the excep- tion of an irregularity at the third grade, the oral curve shows a rapid rise through the fourth grade, with a small tendency toward increase beyond that point. The characteristics of the oral curves in Figures 4 and 5 are better understood if they are studied together. Figure 4 shows a rapid rise in the curve for average recognition-span during the third grade with practically no growth at all during the fourth. Figure 5 shows a slight loss in average duration of fixation in the third grade with a very pro- nounced increase during the fourth grade. These two grades furnish a good illustration of alternation in growth. The energies of the third grade were evidently so entirely concerned with increasing the span of recognition that the element of duration of fixation made no improve- ment; while the fourth grade expended its energies primarily in develop- 40 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS ing a short fixation time, with only a small increase in the size of recognition-span. A similar situation occurs in the Junior and Senior groups from the high school. These variations indicate the flexibility of the growth in different elements of the reading process. The pupils can make more than one type of adjustment in their progress toward maturity. The fact that the grade medians for the average duration of fixations in oral reading never reach the medians for silent reading is probably TABLE VII Growth Stages for Average Duration of Fixation Pauses in Oral Reading Average Nl'MBER OF School Grade Fixations per Line IB I A II III IV V VI VII F So J Se Col Total ? O—K .0. 1 3 2 2 2 5 4 2 6 2 1 1 4 4 1 2 5 2 2 7 1 1 8 6 . o-O . Q . . 3 7 2 4 7 6 3 7 10 2 42 7.0— 7.0. . 2 3 4 3 1 2 3 1 2 6 49 18 8.O-8.9. . 2 O— Q . 11 IO.O-TO.9 11 .0-1 1 .9 I 2. 0-I2. 9. . 13. O-I3. 9.. 14 0~ 14. Q 3 2 2 I 2 2 I 11 2 1 8 4 2 1 I ^ 0— I < . l6. O-16. 9. . 17 O— 17 Q . . I 1 18 O-18 9. . 19. O-I9. 9. . 20.0-Up. . . . 3 3 3 5 2 Total.... 11 13 16 13 16 16 19 8 11 11 10 9 11 164 Median.. 19. 2 12.8 9.8 10. 1 7-7 7.2 7-3 7-0 6.7 6.6 7.0 6-5 7-5 due to the retarding influence of the voice. Pronouncing the words slows down the entire process, giving the reader more time for his recog- nitions but establishing a habit of making longer fixations. The growth in regularity of procedure along the printed lines, as measured by the decrease in the number of regressive movements, is shown in Table VIII and Figure 6. The curve for oral reading, as exhibited in Figure 6, is very irregular. During the first six years the decrease in regressive movements approaches the level of the silent-read- ing curve, but beyond this point the curve makes no conspicuous rise and remains considerably below the medians for silent reading. The GROWTH STAGES OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS OF READING 41 20-up IB I A II III IV V VI VII So. J. Se. Col. Fig. 5. — Growth stages for average duration of fixation pauses in oral reading. School grade shown on horizontal axis; average duration of fixation pause shown on vertical axis. (Broken line reproduces corresponding silent reading curve.) 42 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS notable characteristic in this curve is not its failure to show greater growth during the last six years, but rather, the high level of rhythmic eye-movement habits during the first six years. This may be due to the fact that in oral reading the reader is conscious of a demand for continuity in the process, and that the mere necessity of pronouncing the words in order also stimulates the eyes to move along in the forward direction. TABLE VIII Growth Stages for Average Number of Regressive Movements per Line in Oral Reading Average Number of Regressive School Grade Total Movements per Line IB I A II III IV V VI VII F So J Se Col o o— o A I I 3 5 5 2 I 1 2 2 4 1 1 I 2 2 I I 4 5 1 1 7 o >— o Q 1 3 2 2 3 2 2 10 2 3 1 1 2 I I 2 2 t6 i.o-i i -5-i 2.0-2 2.5-2 3- 0-3 3-5-3 4.0-4 4-5-4 S-o-5 5 - S _ 5 6.0—6 4. . . . Q . . . . 1 2 4 4 2 1 1 3 4 5 1 1 5 1 2 1 5 1 3 50 23 4 1 4 29 9 11 4. . . . Q 2 2 3 1 1 1 I 3 6 4. . . . 9. . . . 4. . . . . . 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 I 3 4 1 1 4... . Q . . . . 1 1 6.5-6 7.0-7 7-5-7 8.0-8 4.. . . . Q . . . . 4. . . . 8. 5-111 3 1 1 Total.... 11 13 16 13 16 16 19 8 11 11 10 9 11 164 Me dian.. 4-4 3-i 2-5 i.S 2.0 i-4 1-4 2.0 i-5 i-5 1 . 1 i-4 1. 2 As a whole the growth curves for the three fundamental character- istics of eye-movements are not conspicuously different in oral and silent reading. The apparent difference at the first-grade level has been explained. The differences at the upper level are to be expected from the nature of the two processes. It must be kept clearly in mind, however, that the curves for the two processes are the result of the par- ticular kind of training which the school has given. A different emphasis GROWTH STAGES OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS OF READING 43 0.0 IBIA II III IV V VI VII So. J. Se. Col. Fig. 6. — Growth stages for average number of regressive movements per line in oral reading. School grade shown on horizontal axis; average number of regressive movements per line shown on vertical axis. (Broken line reproduces corresponding silent reading curve.) 44 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS upon silent or oral reading might cause a considerable modification in the curves. Before attempting to make further interpretations of the relation of these three types of eye-movements to progress through the school grades, the writer desires to present some facts revealing the relation- ship between two other series of measures. Since position in school grade is not determined by reading ability alone, other factors would certainly modify to some extent the growth curves just exhibited. A studv of the development of eye-movement habits in relation to progress in reading ability as measured by some objective and standardized tests in this subject would, therefore, bring out some significant relationships. For this purpose the growth curves of the three characteristics of eye- movement habits will be shown, first, for oral reading in comparison with the scores on the Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs and, second, for silent reading in comparison with comprehension scores on the Monroe Silent Reading Test. EYE-MOVEMENT ELEMENTS AND ACHIEVEMENT IN ORAL READING In order to make valid comparisons with progress in oral-reading achievement, regardless of school grade, the scores on the Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs were modified so that identical scores represent equal reading ability, without reference to the school grade of the sub- jects. This modification is necessary because in the Gray test the stand- ard scores are relative to the grade, average reading ability in each being assigned the same score. In order to equate the scores, Grade VI was arbitrarily taken as a standard, while the scores for the grades below were reduced as follows: Grade V reduced 5 points, Grade IV reduced 10 points, Grade III reduced 15 points, and Grade II reduced 20 points. This would mean that a score of 50 in Grade II would represent the same degree of reading achievement, before reduction, as a score of 30 in Grade VI. Such a score would accordingly be reduced to 30 for purposes of comparison. Scores on the Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs were secured for eighty subjects selected from the second to the sixth grade, inclusive. The scores for the individual subjects which were used in this part of the investiga- tion have been given in Table II. The relationship between growth in span of recognition and increase in oral reading ability is shown by the data in Table IX and by the corresponding curve in Figure 7. This figure should be read in the GROWTH STAGES OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS OF READING 45 same manner as those preceding, except that on the horizontal axis the modified score interval on the Gray reading test is given instead of school grade. The figure shows that those pupils who make modified scores on the Gray test of from 20 to 29 have a median of 12.8 fixations per line; that those pupils who fall in the score interval of from 30 to 39 have a median of 11.3 fixations per line, etc. The curve shows a rapid rise up to the Gray score interval of 50-59, following which the increase is more gradual. The scores on the Gray test are determined by free- dom from such errors as mispronunciation, repetition, substitution, TABLE IX Relationship between Average Number of Fixations per Line in Oral Reading and Modified Score on Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs Average Number of Fixations per Line Score Intervals on Gray Test Total 20-29 30-30 40-49 S°-50 60-69 70-79 5-0-5- C 6 . 0-6 . c 7.0-7. c 8.o-8.( q.o-g.i IO.O-IO 1 1 . 0-1 1 I 2 . O— I 2 1 I 1 1 2 5 5 1 1 1 2 3 1 ) 1 1 2 2 2 4 1 2 1 1 2 5 3 7 1 2 I 8 5 2 2 1 6 21 1 15 13 8 5 4 1 9 9 9 Q . . 1 3 I3-0-I3 14. O-I4 I5-0-I5 1 6. 0-1 6 Q . . Q . . 1 9 n ...... 2 1 2 1 7 . 0— 1 7 1 Total 7 16 20 20 16 1 80 Media n 12.8 n-3 10. 9.0 8.8 8-5 insertion, and omission of words. While the existence of a high correla- tion cannot be used to prove a causal relationship between the elements correlated, nevertheless the fact that the development of a wider recognition-span accompanies the elimination of these errors is suggest- ive. It is at least an additional item of evidence to indicate that a wide recognition-span is a fundamental element in reading and that up to a certain stage of maturity, growth in general achievement in oral reading is accompanied by a correspondingly rapid growth in span of recognition. 4 6 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS The relationship between growth in rate of recognition and score on the Gray test is shown in Table X and Figure 8. Here again the curve makes a rapid rise up to the interval 50-59 with a tendency to a less 20-29 30-39 40-49 5°-59 60-69 70-79 Fig. 7. — Relationship between average number of fixations per line in oral reading and modified score on Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs. Modified score on Gray oral test shown on horizontal axis; average number of fixations per line shown on vertical axis. GROWTH STAGES OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS OF READING 47 TABLE X Relationship between Average Duration of Fixation Pauses in Oral Reading and Modified Score on Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs Average Duration Score Interval on Gray Test Total of Fixations 20-29 30-39 40-49 5°-59 60-69 70-79 6 . 0— 6 .9 3 8 3 2 4 7 9 3 I 6 9 1 1 17 28 7 . 0—7 .0 2 4 5 3 1 1 8 . 0-8 .9 1 1 QO-9-9 IO. O-IO.9 1 1 . 0— 1 1.9 2 2 10 9 1 I 2 . O-I 2.9 2 3 14. O-I4. 9 I 1 Total 7 16 20 20 16 1 80 10.8 9-4 7-9 7-3 7.2 6-5 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 Fig. 8. — Relationship between average duration of fixation pauses in oral reading and modified score on Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs. Modified score on Gray oral test shown on horizontal axis; average duration of fixations shown on vertical axis. 48 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS pronounced increase beyond that point. The increase at the interval 70-79 represents only a single case and should not be emphasized unduly. The curve shows clearly that a development in the habit of quick recognition is a part of general improvement in reading ability. Table XI and Figure 9 exhibit the data relative to the correlation between average number of regressive movements per line and modified ire on the Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs. The growth curve shows a progressive, but not rapid, development in this habit of regularity of eye- fixations. There is no doubt that the reduction of the number of regres- sive movements is a difficult process, but the value of the development TABLE XI Relationship between Average Number of Regressive Movements per Line i\ Oral Reading and Modified Score on Gray Oral Re.ading Paragraphs Average Number of Score Interval en Gray Test Total Regressive Move- ments per Line 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 1 7 5 5 1 1 1 2 6 7 3 1 2 1 4 3 3 1 2 3 8 1 2 1 1 1 6 26 16 1 ■ ± 2.0-2 2.5-2 3-°-3 3-5-3 4.0-4 4-5-4 4 9 I 3 14 6 5 4 9 A 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 i Tot .\h-< ll 7 16 20 20 16 1 80 lian 2-9 2.0 i-7 1.6 i-3 1 . 2 of regular, rhythmic eye-movements cannot be judged by the absolute size of the reduction. The subject who reduces the average number of regressive movements per line from 2 to 1 has accomplished a task which requires, on the average, three years of school training in reading. The ability to reduce the average number of regressive movements per line to 0.5 or less, as is done by a great many high-school and college students for silent reading, represents a degree of mastery which is characteristic of only those readers with the most mature reading-habits. To summarize the three sets of data comparing growth in eye- movement habits with scores on the Gray test, it is clear that the curves of development for these three fundamental elements of reading show GROWTH STAGES OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS OF READING 49 similar rates of growth when based upon an objective measure of reading achievement and when based upon school grade. It must be remem- bered that all of the eighty subjects used for these three growth curves O.O 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 Fig. 9. — Relationship between average number of regressive movements per line in oral reading and modified scores on Gray Oral Reading Paragraphs. Modified scores on Gray oral test shown on horizontal axis; average number of regressive movements per line shown on vertical axis. were selected from Grades II to VI, and consequently comparisons must be made with similar grades in the curves^of Figures 4, 5, and 6. As the reader develops in span of recognition, rate of recognition, and regularity of procedure along the printed lines, he also becomes more 5° FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS mature in the elements which are measured by the oral test, such as repetitions, omissions, substitutions, insertions, and mispronunciations. EYE-MOVEMENT ELEMENTS AND COMPREHENSION IN SILENT READING One turns with interest to the silent-reading process to see, whether similar conditions are found. In order to secure data upon this problem, a group of sixty-four subjects who had taken the Monroe Silent Reading Test was selected from Grades III to VI, inclusive. The comprehension scores for these subjects, together with their eye-movement average, were shown in Table I. TABLE XII Relationship between Average Number of Fixations per Line in Silent Reading and Comprehension Score on Monroe Silent Reading Test Average Number of Fixations Score Interval on Monroe Test Total per Line 7-14 15-22 23-30 31-38 39-46 ■; O— S.O .... 2 2 3 3 2 3 4 4 19 15 13 6 6 o— 6 . 9 . . 2 3 3 1 3 1 12 4 5 1 1 2 4 1 1 8 0-8.9. : Q . 0— .0 10.0— 10. 9 4 2 1 1 .0—11 .9 1 1 2 . 0— 1 2.9 1 Total 9 13 23 10 9 64 Median 9-4 8-5 7.0 7-3 6.8 The relationship between average number of fixations per line and comprehension score on the Monroe test is exhibited by Table XII and Figure 10. On the base line of Figure 10, score intervals on the Monroe test are substituted for school grade or score on the Gray test. The figure should, therefore, be read as follows: nine pupils made scores on the Monroe test ranging from 7 to 14, the median of their average number of fixations per line being 9.4; thirteen pupils fell in the score interval of 15 to 22, their median number of fixations being 8.5, etc. The curve, although irregular, shows an increase in the width of the recognition-span accompanying an increase in comprehension score. The greatest increase in span of recognition appears between the compre- hension scores of 7 and 30. Beyond a score of 30, increase in recognition- span is not a large factor, or, to put it otherwise, a recognition unit wide GROWTH STAGES OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS OF READING 51 enough to accompany a comprehension level of 30 is almost equally well adapted to a comprehension score of 45. Table XIII and Figure n show the relationship between average duration of fixations and comprehension score on the Monroe test. The curve in Figure n is negatively accelerated and closely resembles the 7-14 i=;-2 2 23-30 31-38 39-46 Fig. 10. — Relationship between average number of fixations per line in silent reading and comprehension score on Monroe Silent Reading Test. Score on Monroe test shown on horizontal axis; average number of fixations per line shown on vertical axis. shape of the curve for this same element of Grades III to VI as shown in Figure 2. As ability to comprehend increases, the average recognition time becomes shorter. This means that when the recognition process becomes more nearly automatic and requires no special analytical effort the mental processes of the reader are relieved of the necessity of close attention to the perceptual elements and can therefore concentrate upon 52- FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS the meaning of the passage with a resulting increase in the compre- hension score. Long fixations are symptoms of difficulty on the part of the reader. * They occur chiefly in two kinds of situations. The first of these is when a particularly difficult word appears in the selection. At such points an excessive number of very long fixations generally appears. The mental process of the reader is engaged in an effort to analyze the word, during which the eye increases the duration of its fixations in order to give time for the reader to arrive at a final solution of the difficulty. A second type of situation in which very long fixations are found is on the occasion of a decided strain upon the mental process of interpretation. When the reader is in the attitude of intensive study TABLE XIII Relationship between Average Duration of Fixation Pauses in Silent Reading and Comprehension Score on Monroe Silent Reading Test Average Duration of Score Interval on Monroe Test Total Fixations 7-i4 15-22 23-30 31-38 39-46 1 7 2 2 1 7 12 4 5 4 1 5 3 1 18 26 7 0—7 .0 3 3 3 II 8 0-8 9 5 4 Total 9 13 23 10 9 64 Median 8-5 6.8 6.4 6.0 5-9 there is a distinct tendency to increase the length of fixations. When a point is reached where a phrase is highly charged with meaning, the reader frequently holds his eye in a fixed position while he makes the required mental interpretation. There are, however, individual varia- tions in meeting this type of situation, since some readers let their eye wander in an apparently aimless series of short fixations while they make the necessary thought adjustment. A capital example of the nature of a long fixation pause may be drawn from a process different from read- ing. If a pupil is given a vertical column of digits with instructions to find the sum, the character of his eye-movements will be quite different from those in his ordinary reading process. The most conspicuous differ- ence is in the duration of the fixations. While in the ordinary process of reading the average duration of a fixation pause for a fifth-grade pupil GROWTH STAGES OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS OF READING 53 is about 6 twenty-fifths of a second, in arithmetic addition the average pause ranges from 40 to 60 twenty-fifths with occasional fixations as long as 150 twenty-fifths of a second. It is not difficult to see the reason 7-14 15-22 23-30 31-38 39-46 Fig. 11. — Relationship between average duration of fixation pauses in silent reading and comprehension score on the Monroe Silent Reading Test. Score on Monroe test shown on horizontal axis; average duration of fixation pauses shown on vertical axis. TABLE XIV Relationship between Average Number of Regressive Movements per Line in Silent Reading and Comprehension Score on Monroe Silent Reading Test Average Number of Regressive Movements per Line Score Interval on Monroe Test Total 7-M 15-22 23-30 31-38 39-46 O O—O 2 5 6 3 5 1 1 3 3 2 4 2 3 3 0.5-0 1 0-1 3 3 1 2 2 2 x 3 A 2 3 I I I I 16 1 -5-i 2 0—2 J 3 A 10 2.5-2 3- o-3 3-5-3 T 3 5 1 2 otal 9 13 23 10 9 64 tedian 1.9 i-7 i-4 i-5 1 . 1 for such long fixations in arithmetic addition. The perceptual problem of recognizing the digits makes a very minor demand. All that is required is that the pupil recognize the successive digits one at a time. 54 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS The difficult part of arithmetic addition consists of making the mental associations required for arriving at the correct answer. The child encounters a combination of 37 plus 9, and, since further perception will not aid him in making the association, he simply lets his eye rest 7-14 15-22 23-30 31-38 39-46 Fig. 12. — Relationship between average number of regressive movements per line in silent reading and comprehension score on Monroe Silent Reading Test. Score on Monroe test shown on horizontal axis; average number of regressive movements per line shown on vertical axis. upon the same point while he is engaged in the mental labor of making the proper association. If it requires as long as 150 twenty-fifths of a second to arrive at the proper answer there is probably less distraction from a single long fixation than from a series of short ones which would introduce new material to the eye. Although further experimentation would be necessary to establish it, the writer proposes the hypothesis GROWTH STAGES OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS OF READING 55 that in general the presence of fixations which are very much longer than the subject's average fixation time is caused by central thought difficulties, while the presence in a given position of an excessive number of fixations indicates a confusion which is primarily related to the process of perception rather than interpretation. This hypothesis applies, how- ever, to variations within a single record or for a single subject, and should not be interpreted to mean that a longer average fixation time indicates a greater degree of interpretation. In fact, the data presented in Figure 1 1 make it clear that in general a decrease in the average duration time accompanies an increase in comprehension. The mature reader who has less trouble with interpretation has fewer long fixation pauses and consequently a lower average fixation time. The correlation between average number of regressive movements per line and comprehensive score on the Monroe test is shown in Table XIV and Figure 12. The curve in Figure 12 shows an increase in regu- larity of comprehension accompanying progress in ability to compre- hend. The break in the direction of the curve indicates that while a certain level of regularity of eye-movements is sufficient for a consider- able range of comprehension, the pupils who reached the highest level of comprehension had made a decided improvement in the rhythmic character of their eye-movements. COMPARISON OF GROWTH CURVES FOR THREE ELEMENTS OF SILENT READING Four groups of data have now been presented relating to the three fundamental characteristics of eye-movements habits, namely, the TABLE XV Percentage of Increase in Growth Curves of Three Eye-Movement Habits — Silent Reading E YE -M OVE ME NT School Grade Habit IB IA II III IV V VI VII F So J Se Col Average number fixations per line 17 42 52 60 63 60 63 61 69 70 66 68 Average duration of fixation O 35 45 52 59 62 65 64 63 63 66 63 62 Average number regressive move- ments 22 55 65 73 75 7i 71 80 86 86 86 90 56 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS average number of fixations per line, the average duration of the fixa- tion pauses, and the average number of regressive movements. It has been shown that a decrease in the measure of each of these three char- acteristics accompanies (i) progress through school grades, (2) develop- ment of oral-reading ability, and (3) increase in comprehension in silent reading. The significance of these facts can be seen more clearly if the 100 IBIA Col. Fig. 13. — -Per cent of increase in growth for three eye-movement habits — silent reading. School grade shown on horizontal axis; per cent of increase shown on vertical axis. Curve a represents average number of fixations per line; curve b average duration of fixation pauses; curve c average number of regressive movements per line. curves of growth for the different elements studied are plotted on the same graph where their characteristics can be compared. In order to reduce the curves for the three measures of eye- movements to a similar scale, the percentage of increase at the different grade levels was computed, the median for Grade I B being taken as the base. The percentage of increase in the successive grades is shown in Table XV. This table should be read as follows: in respect to growth in average number of fixations per line the median for Grade I A showed GROWTH STAGES OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS OF READING 57 an increase over Grade IB of 17 percent; the median for Grade II an increase of 42 per cent; the median for Grade III an increase of 52 per cent, etc. In the same manner the percentage of increase in growth for average duration of fixations and for average number of regressive movements per line is given. These data are expressed in graphic form in Figure 13. The presentation of the three curves upon the same background serves to emphasize the fact that the period of major development of the elements of span of recognition, speed of recognition, and regularity of eye-movements across the line comes during the first four grades. A continued rise in the growth curves is apparent in the fifth grade, but it is relatively small in amount. The turning-point in the direction of the curves appears at the end of the fourth grade. Other investigations in reading have also shown that the fourth grade is a crucial point. The indications are that the character of the reading process is different during the first four years than in the later period. Certainly in the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades the type of development is entirely differ- ent than in the first four years. Evidently these stages of development are sufficiently clear to suggest a definite variation in the treatment of the school. The later rise in the curves for regressive movements and average number of fixations per line suggests that the high school is concerned with a reading problem quite definite in character. It would be an interesting experiment to determine whether a modification of the read- ing course in the intermediate grades would eliminate the plateau in these two curves. If this could be accomplished one would expect a considerable improvement in the character of the reading during this period. In this chapter the facts presented have emphasized the growth of the normal or average pupils. This has been accomplished by combining the data for a large number of subjects. Mass data show general trends, but they also cover up many significant individual variations. In the following chapter the method of study will change from the statistical treatment of many cases to an analytical treatment of the detailed characteristics of certain groups of individuals. CHAPTER III DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READING The reading work of the first grade is without doubt more important than that of any other single year of the elementary school. It is at the beginning of reading that the pupils get their fundamental attitude toward the reading process. It is here that the first basic habits are formed. A wrong start in the first grade is particularly unfortunate since it necessitates the later undoing of foundational habits and atti- tudes. A study of the pupil's reading at this level, therefore, is sure to uncover some very significant facts. Through a comparison of the reading records of immature and mature readers, such as was made in Plates I and II, it is possible to define the approximate initial point and the ultimate goal of reading. As has been pointed out in chapter i, the determination of the ultimate goal in reading does not indicate the nature of the growth stages through which a particular pupil passes in reaching the state of maturity. In order to throw more light upon the detailed steps of this growth process, the data in chapter ii were presented. The normal growth curves for three elements of reading were shown, from which the median position in each grade was apparent. However, each grade median was based upon a different group of subjects, so what the curves really show is not the continuous progress of any particular subject but, rather, a series of cross-sections which gives a true picture of growth only when applied to the large group. If any of the tables accompanying the growth curves are examined again it will be noted that many subjects deviated more or less from these normal curves. {Therefore, the inter- pretation of the growth curves must be that they show the normal prog- ress for the group as a whole — the most common route toward the ultimate goal of maturity. Individuals may deviate somewhat from this normal route and follow a quite different line of progress. But the fact to be emphasized with all the individuals is that sooner or later they must reach the goal. Their route may be devious or direct, but the ultimate goal, if indeed they reach it, is the same for all. The direction of the route over which the pupils travel depends largely upon the method of teaching. One school may begin its reading work by teaching children the alphabet, then simple words, and later 58 DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READIXG 59 sentences. Children taught by this method will ultimately learn to read. Many adults can be found who did learn by this method. Their curve of progress toward maturity followed a definite route. It is not the same route, however, as that which will be traveled by the pupil who spends no time upon a b c's but who begins with some other process of word-analysis. A still different curve of progress will be found where the initial emphasis is placed upon the sentence or some large thought unit. The nature of various methods of reaching a stage of maturity may be illustrated by the hypothetical curves in Figure 14. IOO ^s^a. -Jt ■^c 80 — 60 — 40 20 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 Fig. 14. — Diagram illustrating hypothetical progress toward maturity. Number of years of school experience shown on base line; per cent of maturity shown on vertical axis. In this figure the vertical axis represents the percentage of maturity attained by readers where 100 per cent equals the average maturity to be expected in an eight-year elementary school. The base line represents the number of years of practice in reading. Curves a, b, c, and d represent progress according to four purely hypothetical methods of teaching reading. According to method a maturity will be reached in five years, according to method b in eight years, with method c in seven years, and with method d in six years. With method a the pupils make rapid progress at the beginning and maintain a fairly high rate until maturity is reached. With method b progress during the first four years is rapid, during the next three rather slow, but during the eighth year it is again rapid. Method c produces a perfectly con- 60 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS stant rate of progress, with the same amount of gain each year. Method d begins very slowly but succeeds later in stimulating a very rapid growth. If now these four methods are judged at the end of two years of school work they would be ranked in order of merit a, b, c, d. How- ever, if their merit is judged by the manner in which they ultimately reach a stage of maturity, the ranking will be a, d, c, b. The illustration shows the danger of attempting to evaluate a method until its total growth curve is known. The form of a total growth curve depends upon the order and rate of development of the various elements which enter into its composition. The theoretically most direct route toward maturity, which would produce the symmetrical development of all the elements involved, might be very different from the most economical and practical route. The theoretically direct route in the construction of a skyscraper would be to complete each story before adding the next; but the economical route is to complete all of the steel structure before the building is inclosed, to put in all the plumbing before the walls are finished, etc. A skyscraper may be very mature from the standpoint of its steel structure, but be very immature in its interior finish. In like manner one method of teaching reading may produce in the third grade a high degree of maturity in word-analysis and pronunciation, together with very immature habits of interpretation. Considering these facts, it will be the purpose of the present chapter to describe certain methods of teaching in the first grade, and then, by a detailed analysis, to show the effects of the different methods upon the fundamental elements of reading. It is / not the function of the psychol- ogist to evaluate methods, but rather to furnish a scientific analysis of the relationship between methods and results. This analysis must go into sufficient detail to show the type of growth in the various elements of reading when different methods are used, in order that the teachers and supervisors of reading may make their evaluation upon a scientific basis. A further purpose of this chapter is to show how, from the very beginning of reading, pupils take different courses in the various elements of the process. Many of these variations are of the nature of short by-paths leading sooner or later back into the normal route toward maturity. In some cases, however, the deviations from normal progress continue and eventually cause the types of decided variation which will be described in the next chapter. The nature of such deviations can be best understood when they are seen as the continuation of indi- vidual variations which have their origin in the earliest stages of reading. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READING 6 1 Up to the time of the present investigation, as far as the writer has been able to ascertain, no study of the reading of first-grade pupils has been made by the photographic method. The general immaturity of pupils at this level would seem to prohibit them from serving as sub- jects for such an experiment. In making a trial, however, it was found that first-grade children behaved as normally before the camera as their older schoolmates, and that their eye-movement records are valid. Practically the only difference which was noticed was the somewhat greater amount of head-movement. In only a few cases did this prove so serious that the films had to be discarded. By exercising all possible speed and dexterity in operating the camera, it was possible to secure records of the two paragraphs in an average of five minutes for each subject. This allowed little time for nervousness or for fatigue from sitting in the same position before the camera. For the purpose of securing records at different stages of progress during the first year, photographs of a group of pupils from Grade I B were taken during the seventh week of the school year, again during the thirteenth week, and again during the seventeenth week. Records were also secured from a group of I A children at the same time. Since they had already attended school one semester, their records were taken after a school experience of twenty-five, thirty-one, and thirty-five weeks. This method gave records at six intervals during the first school year. As subjects for these first-grade experiments twelve children were selected from Grade I B and nine from Grade I A of the University laboratory school. In addition to these, four I B and six I A children were secured from a neighboring public school, this group being used, however, only at the end of the semester. This made a total group of thirty-one first-grade pupils. It was a part of the original plan to secure three records from each of the subjects from the University Elementary School. Sickness and other causes interfered in some cases, so that the complete series of three records was obtained from only nine of the pupils. No subject from the University first grade missed more than one test, however, so as a result sixty-one photographic records were available for the total group of thirty-one subjects. Dictaphone records were secured of the oral readings at the same time the photo- graphs were made. The basis upon which the subjects were selected was that both the exceptionally good and the exceptionally poor readers were to be excluded, the pupils being taken from the middle group. The purpose of this method was to secure typical first-grade pupils. 62 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS PLATE V The little red hen found a seed. It was a wheat seed. The little red hen said, "Who will plant the seed?" The pig said, "Not I." The dog said, "Not I." The little red hen said, "I will." A boy had a dog. The dog ran into the woods. The boy ran after the dog. He wanted the dog to go home. But the dog would not go home. The little boy said, "I cannot go home without my dog. Then the boy began to cry. Selections used for initial test of first-grade subjects ft DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READING 63 The selections used for the first test are shown in Plate V. Those used in the later tests have already been exhibited in Plate III. The "Little Red Hen " story, in the form used in the first test, had been read by all of the I B subjects from the University group in their regular school work, most of them having memorized it when it was read in class. CONTRASTS IN METHODS OF TEACHING Before presenting the results of the experiments it will be well to notice the methods of teaching which were employed in the two schools from which the children were selected. This will furnish a background for the interpretation of the analytical studies of individual cases* The children from the public school had learned to read by a method which placed the major emphasis upon word mastery. Elaborate phonic drill was provided in a separate period. Sufficient drill was given to secure great independence in the recognition of words. In teaching a new selection the teacher first told the story in her own words in order to stimulate an attitude of interest on the part of the pupils. Next she wrote the new words upon the board, drilling the children upon them as she proceeded. If a word possessed any particular difficulty she broke it up into its phonic elements and assisted the pupils in attacking it by their regular method of word-analysis. After all the new words had been studied the pupils read the selection orall\\ Following the oral reading they were drilled in finding certain sentences or lines upon being given such directions as, "Find the line which begins with a girl's name - ' or "Find the sentence which begins with 'they." While the teacher frequently directed the pupils' attention to a better form of expression, it was clear that the principal element in the method was that of word-recognition, interpretation receiving secondary consideration. The children in the University school were instructed by a radically different method. In the beginning stages great emphasis was placed upon securing the correct reading attitude of trying to get meaningful experiences from the printed material and of creating a desire to read by providing interesting content. The method proceeded from the whole story to lines and phrases, and finally to individual word study. The word study was not given major consideration but was subordinated to the development of a proper reading attitude. In detail, the early work of the grade was carried out as follows: first, the teacher told the story in the exact words of the book; second, she re-told it, displaying in the meantime certain phrases or words which were prominent in the story; third, the pupils told the teacher how to write the story on the 64 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS hoard; fourth, the pupils read the story; and fifth, they were drilled upon the individual lines, phrases, and words. The general principle of the method is to get the entire thought of the story first, and later subdivide it for reading practice. By this method, it will be observed, the pupils will learn to recognize words or phrases in the setting of the story before the same words will be recognized when standing alone or when appearing in a new paragraph. The essential points of contrast between the two methods are as follows. The public school emphasized word-analysis and recognition above everything else, giving a very large amount of drill in this element. It attempted to stimulate an attitude of interest toward the selection to be read, but not by telling it in the words of the text. The University school placed the chief emphasis upon securing a correct reading attitude by which the child would look for the large meanings in the selection. It did this by letting the child memorize the story before reading it. This was followed by phrase and word drill, but with much less atten- tion to words than in the public school. The University school also gave more opportunity for silent study of the story to be read. In summary, the public-school method emphasized mastery of mechanics; the University school emphasized the process of fusing the words and phrases into meaningful units. With the foregoing description of methods as a background, the detailed data of the experiments with the first-grade children will be focused upon four problems of reading, namely, (i) the development of a proper reading attitude; (2) the growth of the fundamental elements of span of recognition, speed of recognition, and regular procedure along the printed lines; (3) the problem of word-recognition; and (4) the development of a rhythmic expression or interpretation in thought units as contrasted with the mechanical pronunciation of words. DEVELOPMENT OF A CORRECT READING ATTITUDE One of the first problems in teaching reading is the production of a correct attitude toward printed material. The goal of maturity in this respect is an attitude which considers reading as a process of getting ideas about something, the words of the printed page giving those ideas. For the mature subject reading consists of the fusing of words into thought units, with the attention primarily focused upon the interpreta- tion of the meaning. The process of reading, therefore, is more than the successive pronunciation of words, which may or may not be accom- panied by the mental fusion of the words into thought units. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READING 65 As soon' as the child enters school he is forced to take some attitude toward reading. The attitude he takes may resemble or differ from that which is characteristic of maturity, but regardless of this the pupil looks at the process of reading in one way or another. Methods of teaching are of course interested in developing a proper attitude, but the concepts of just what is the proper attitude at this initial stage differ. The one fact which can be emphasized is that regardless of what attitude the pupil may assume at first, he must ultimately develop the attitude which is characteristic of maturity — reading by thought rather than by word units. Recognizing the outcomes of developing habits of reading by words rather than by thoughts, methods of teaching reading have recently been emphasizing the use of the sentence rather than the word as the unit. While the aim of this plan is to develop a mature attitude toward reading, certain difficulties are encountered in practice. In the anxiety to have the pupils get meaning in sentence units one is apt to forget that the mental process by which one does this after he has learned to read is quite different from the mental process involved during the period of learning. The beginning pupil's perceptual units are small and unorganized. Seeing a sentence is one thing for the mature reader and quite another for the beginner. The result often is that in a pupil's haste to see the sentence as a whole he overlooks the elements of which it is constituted. He gets blurred and inaccurate meanings. One of the methods of attempting to produce this sentence-reading attitude is for the teacher first to tell the story in verbatim form, after which the pupils read it. In many cases the pupils get from this method, not an attitude of regarding a sentence as the expression of a single thought, but rather a habit of first learning the sentence or story from hearing the teacher tell it, and then reciting it from memory while their eyes roam at random over the page. They do not develop habits of following the words in their regular order. They get a bird's-eye view of the printed lines and fail to learn that a fused meaning of a sentence can only be secured from noting the particular combination of the words. In order to furnish concrete examples of the various reading attitudes taken by beginning pupils, an analysis will be made of a number of indi- vidual cases. The first photographic records of the subjects from Grade I B were taken during the seventh week of school. It was the purpose of the writer to secure records showing the earliest type of eye-movements. It 66 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS waj^stot expected that these children would do very much reading at this stage. The principal interest lay in seeing how their attitudes and their habits were related. Up to this point the chief aim of the class- room had been to develop the attitude that reading was a process of getting whole units of thought from printed words. The eye-movement records show that in this first test there were only five of the I B pupils who followed the words in their reading, pro- ceeding regularly from line to line. The other five noted at the begin- ning that the selection was the familiar "Little Red Hen" story and thereupon repeated it from memory, letting their eyes move over the page without regard to the printed words. It is of interest to note that they did this for both oral and silent reading. They had not yet reached the stage of maturity where regular eye-movements give evidence that the reader is getting meaning from the printed page rather than from memory. The fact that five pupils made no attempt to follow the lines indicates that the reading attitude which this method aims ultimately to secure had not been approached during the first seven weeks of school. The oral-reading record of Subject 188, a pupil in Grade I A appears in Plate VI. This subject made only 17 eye-movements in "reading" the entire seven lines of the "Little Red Hen" story. These fictions are plotted accurately in regard to their horizontal distribution, but since the eye did not follow the lines it was impossible to determine accurately the vertical location of the fixations. They are plotted, therefore, on a single horizontal line, but were in reality distributed vertically at various points up and down the page. The fact of interest in this record is that the pupil repeated the entire selection without attempting to follow the lines, taking the attitude of reciting from memory rather than that of ascertaining the meaning from the printed page. Plate VII gives the silent-reading record of Subject 187. The pupil was directed to re-read the same selection of seven lines silently, and to tell the experimenter as soon as he had finished. He carried out the direction in a serious manner, informing the experimenter when he had completed the reading. His eye-movement record reveals quite clearly what had been going on in his mind. He had made 1 1 fixations for the entire seven lines. These, again, are shown on a single horizontal dis- tribution since it was impossible to determine with precision the vertical location of the fixations. Evidently the silent-reading process for this pupil meant a silent repetition of the selection, merely looking at the page in the meantime. The fact that some of his fixations were DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READING 67 PLATE VI d> T 12 lo, iC 9 5 11 1 4 i5 13 u u u 14. 3 IT phi 21 (. <» 5o 9 US & "5 3 1 Oral reading by Subject 188, Grade I B " = i 5 * * « .3 11 «° 68 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS PLATE VII Silentfreading by Subject 187, Grade I B DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READING 69 extremely long is indicative of his mental processes. These long fixations occur when the subject is concerned with some inner thought process rather than with the perceptual stimuli. They indicate that he was spending his energy in trying to repeat from memory rather than in examining the words before him. These long, slowly shifting eye- fixations are of the same type as those which occur in arithmetic addition when a difficult combination is encountered, and where the mental process is concerned not with the perception of the stimuli but rather with the internal thought activity needed for reaching the proper answer. In the case of Subject 187, his record indicates that he was getting his cues for whatever reading was going on, not from the printed page before him, but rather from his memory of the story which he had previously learned in class. Certainly this is not the reading attitude which the teacher aims ultimately to secure. The record of one more subject, Number 189, will be presented for purposes of further illustration. In his first test, November 11, 192 1, this subject recognized that the material was the ''Little Red Hen" story, and he accordingly made a stumbling attempt to repeat it. He did not remember the story verbatim and had considerable difficulty. His eye-movements covered the page apparently at random. In silent reading of the same selection he evidently repeated the process. His eye record, plotted on a single horizontal line, is shown in Plate VIII. He made a total of 13 fixations, several of them being long in duration. A second record was taken of this subject on January ninth, using the modification of the "Little Red Hen" story which was shown in Plate III. In reading this selection orally he made a total of 35 fixation pauses, but his eyes still showed no consistent following of the lines. He apparently made an attempt to attach his memory of the story in its original form to the modified form before him, succeeding only par- tially. His dictaphone record, which should be compared with the selection in Plate III, read as follows: One one day found a seed. It was a wheat seed. She said, "Who will plant the seed?" The pig said, "Not I." The cat said, "Not I." The httle red hen said, "I will then." And she did. A third record was taken of this subject's reading on February first. At this time the same story was used as in the second test. His record showed that he was now following the printed lines while reading, although in a very irregular fashion. His dictaphone record indicated, however, that he was still attempting to get the meaning more from mem- ory than from the printed story before him. He was unable to recognize FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS PLATE VIII 10 12. T L 2T 3 2 is r 14 2 10 rrdjn $| 3o ig 10 10 8 1+ 15 Z S 4 fc 3 T 5 IZ % (a 13 3 14 IS '3 33 2 15 IZ 12 23 23 15 g £«, He wanted rche ddg j^p-go hope. 2T 34 6 24> 34 & 10 33 13 15 23 12, ome without my < og. 48 13 7 3 II 20 15 25 3 II +T 5 13 22 3 13 23 3 25 24 23 °2« 31 32 24. 33 34 Ths-a^tnS^boy bpgam to cry , 35 3 (, IX 2.2 22 '8 II 15 10 Silent reading by Subject n, Grade I A, first test ■zr 78 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS 3 i 10 13 PLATE X ■2 3 <. 74 « 5 10 9 I || It |3 15 14 M A Dcpr lac a litt cog. One dav^e dog 15 15 7 IT l<» 33 9 U 9 io 22 2o 21 25 14 2 3 1 4 5 <• 7 S 10 j ia 11 The boy ran after :he ran into the woods. 10 22 r 1 dog. 2 3 He 9 10 11 14 i« 27 11 r 17 5 3 <» 7 S 9 10 11 wanted th> little iog fc) go hone. H IT 30 13 l« tO 15 8 IT 30 13 If tO 19 2 3 14 5 T 6 12 S 9 II 13/0 14 But the «# ■I P ?o og wouH no "8 4 3 13 i T 1 hone. The 1 ttle 1 ? boy ij, "] » * 23 iJ 27 7 3 4- 5 11 ie d 12 J T U t canno go home said, "I 31 \ 2 4 ■ 15 T 1" « 3 '0 12 3 13 14 home wit iquj rqy 3 T 4 <• Ji i T dor," Thel hi begai to 4 5 cry. 4/ 12 4 IT 5 i 3 21 12 T T g 25 3 Silent reading by Subject n, Grade I A, third test So FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS PLATE XII 5 3 4 2 The 10 13 i <• io 3 r 8 il intp thi Wobds. 2 8 ?hi p 3*3 3 T 22. 5 14 4 I 3 13 12, 7 r >»■ s 4, ii io dH?4 £ f te f 23 T 3 the dog. 14 3 8 ,ofa ,4 «n tns .3 14.3 11,2. 4-5 3 II 9 10 4> 20 18 22 21 T 2.3 I He UUted the iL tcU^o Holi. »0 4> to 22 IT 12 21 5 ' 3 fc0 e8 42 13 5 30 23 3 2+ IS 27 |5 T fc 5 3 f I i If 10 II 12 13 r Wt the 135 32 5 3 ; 4- 3 15 2 H a V+ l< dig wo-ji^d Nao]t |go jHome 34 s 6 T 114 Tht lp.U le b °y said » 10 )l 19 21 II 2,3 13 T 28 in 13 « H) 12 19 21 14 23 20 22. r t 25 -24> 34 33 29 3o 28 31 32, IT 2T 25 "24> 34 "3J 1 k J) Mine YitDp T I 12 54 2fc 5 15 fl out my ddg. + 22 35 17 t M1' IU4TTS 7 3 I 2. 4 S <, T 8 54 24 S IS II U 8 15 t+ Thten thi boi began to A: bega|n fo (fry, I9 22. IT IT 2 3 Silent reading by Subject 13, Grade I A, first test DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READING 8l PLATE XIII 5 4 <• T ~> I « S 10 2. II I a |3 14 15 A^bdy Wad little i do^. Ope day the dog 4« 15 13 19 2 12 23 14 12 8 lo 20 3 Id 14, 2 13 5 4 G> T 8 S io II 13 |Z 14 15 ran into the wo )ds. :^he boy ran afltir thb 22 & 18 I? C 18 5 10 T 16 3 \% II lo 14 dog 3 M 4< . I l]e|4aj] H 5 "I 'T '+ 10 7 II 6 12 lr i! 13 14 15 I4> 17 18 13 3M 8 4 ;h> little iog to go hime. 6 13 24 24 8 43 55 I 2 ■3 4 A )oy 1 ad a 1 (. a ttle dog. <° T « J (lay J One pay the d4>g >4 T 20 3 2. 4 fc S I T 8 3 13 io ii 14 12 IS IT I* ran in o the woods. The 3oy ran after th I i 5 24 9 4 J . I4> -t II I! i4 I. I >4 10 T e 3 i dog . He \ /ante I the little 5 3 lo T 4 8 log to g) hone. 3 12 <• 24 24 13 3 <» 8 IS Silent reading of Subject 13, Grade I A — second test, above; third test, below. 82 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS PLATE XIV 5 4 6 I TT 2 8 3 9 One diy i (O II 12 wheat **d len fou id a little 5 I* 2. 8 T 7 6 T 8 10 25 2 | 3 4 5 <» T8 3 10 It seed. Sp< saii to th> dog, "Will yon plant 22 6 15 3 8 12 6 9 S3 2 I 3 my wheat seed? 6 S II i a 3 5 4, T « 9 IO II " The )g said. "No, I will IS T IT T 4- T 8 iS 4- 5 <• T 8 3 il IO n3t plant 5 12 II your little wheat seed." Tie IO 19 he IO IS 5 12 T 10 I said to the-^ig^Will yofi plan 3 4 S riy wheat '6 6 <- 2 13 4 5 seed <. r 8 >>> The fig said, "Yes, I will plant 10 8 18 7 8 IO la 6 seod." 12 X Oral reading by Subject 194, Grade I A your 12 DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READING 83 PLATE XV 4. 5 3 (. 8 T J ig 13 1+ i« 15 i ne dsy 1 red hen ::ound ii litt'.e wheat 10 3 14 13 7 23 24 4 I* * i IS i U 13 '4 t 3T T X II 3a 11 IT 4 sHd.| |$MwF4 13 » 3 I 39 I 14 I 't 't t+ 3 3 5 J 7 s ' » i! " 11 u t: ft II 14 5 3 I o ij 6 14 15 JJ12 J 21 • 5 19 19 4-1 ♦* ,* nu ityr » ,'» » 4* M Uo|g,| 1'WiH H P^ nt 19 4 8* 34 14 3? 23 IT 40 II 24 m4 wijekj j,eejl?"j 'j'jfi L 44 10 3 4 34 * '-I 34|| 31 12 I I ! 14* T J'( 3 39 a 4» |i« « M 38 25 «<• T 1} 4 *4 jt 38 "U* J » 19 it 4* ♦ 1 3 IC 33 ,: 3 not 14 5 £ J 4& 31 * 5 2 Pl# 4 IS ' 5 4 13 '4 T your j 14- T 4« 15 I II 19 19 3 I* lit : e IS il it il » i« 25 23 8 ? I, < wheat seed.' The len If IS * 4 II i4 IS U to tie 21 n 24 » s a 20 u 5 4 * J "•< £2 4. 23 r 4 8 S" 2* pis:, "win 3 ou plant 7 4 15 12. +T 21 + 24 wheat '« 13 2T 37 4' 2 I 3 seld?" 15 <. "<. I 3 2J |4 Bt2 31 3* 32. 24 ITJT30 Tie 4 4 34 41 y n 44 « 2i T 13 4 T fcijr sjid IT J g 12- T 10 13 '+ 15 "1 to Will < *| 4 11 2J I'- ll r 2 28.33 13U 13 J ,j T «<• J 14 !♦ 9 S l» S 22. seec." n 2« Oral reading by Subject 10, Grade I A 8 4 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS PLATE XVI 2 3 4 5 <• t 8 A boy hdd a little dog One dal the dog 8 5 10 2 1 3 4 5 3 5 5 i T S 4 T k T 8 3 10 " into the wpods. Tht boy ran after tn T 4 5 7 5 f a I 3 4 5 4 dog. He wan ;ed the little dog to go 1 3 5 5 5 (. 'S home. 3 4 But ;he r dog would not y,o home. The little I 2. 3 5 4 4 5 boy said, "j ckrnnt go home without my « 5 & T 17 dog." Then he began to cry. 3 s Silent reading by Subject 15, Grade I A DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READING 85 PLATE XYII I 2 3 5 4 <• « T S 16 II lit 13 1+ 15 l« A boy hai a flattie dog. One day the dog g 30 5 7 3 13 a 8 5 13 5 20 i« Jo (t u 2 3 1 4 5 6 7 8 1 m H 13 I* i6 15 ran into the wo 14 1> (. 4 3 >cjs. The! i >oy :*an <• 12 5 10 II j 4 4 13 ai'.er :he ■ 3 14 2 1 3 4 5 S 7 & J 10 dogl He wpnM d in little ic 5 14 15 « 13 * <• J 4 log IS i» 15 21 " 4 tc ;£0 home. 1* & 19 2.3 22 )T s 10 it te IT 3 14 4 5 Bit :he dcg 13 11 4 boy s 4 5 5 ZT 3 7 \c II II IT M 13 .9 u 28 «• 2-5 24 oti go heme. The Little /Z, 4 32 5 fc T '• 5 9 10 14 7 J 4 9 II 6 r U 4 « 7 said, r -T 14 Z s 10 12 13 11 cairn 7 I 20 18 5 4 13 '4 ix IT i» 13 23 i;o hcrce t lu 4, C ?3 20 22 24- 25 24 21 I* 27 without my 4 Jo 8 if 4 41 II 3 dog 2 3 I 5 S 10 7 4 3 Then 5 5 » hi-HbegEn to cry, 13 M 4 7 » > 14 3 » If Silent reading by Subject 19, Grade I A 86 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS The cases described in the foregoing paragraphs show that the first grade is a period of decided growth for the elements of span of recognition, duration of fixations, and regularity of procedure across the lines. They also indicate the wide variations which exist among different pupils in these different elements. These variations in the early development of eye-movement habits are very significant. They show clearly that from the very beginning children are taking different routes toward maturity. One child may make his first step by the development of a correct attitude toward reading at the expense of word-recognition or eye- fixations. Another may begin by developing a habit of giving careful attention to the process of following the lines, word by word, perhaps at the expense of gaining larger units of meaning. Another pupil may develop a comparatively high degree of ability in word analysis, and at first may even fail entirely to take a correct attitude toward the total reading process. Some pupils just develop broad recognition units; others begin by developing speed in dealing with narrow units. The most characteristic fact about the first-grade records is the variation which exists. Apparently there is no single route which pupils must follow in order to reach finally mature habits in reading. The analysis of first-grade reading indicates that pupils are starting out in many different directions. The last records of the I A pupils show that the treatment of the school has tended to draw most of them back into a normal trend of development. Sooner or later all must be drawn back in the general direction which leads to maturity. Those pupils who insist in going off on a tangent will, if they continue, become pathological cases in certain of the elements which enter into reading. Others less extreme make up the class of poor readers. The nature of poor reading in the intermediate grades can be better understood if it is considered simply as the natural outcome of the continuation of a wrong start in certain elements of the process. DEVELOPMENT OF INDEPENDENCE IN WORD-RECOGNITION An analysis of the records of first-grade children shows that one of their most common difficulties is caused by the lack of well-developed habits of word-recognition. If a dictaphone record of the oral reading of a selection is placed beside the corresponding eye-movement record the results of the lack of word-recognition are seen much more clearly. To illustrate the results of this form of analysis the records of four first-grade cases will be described. Plate XVIII gives the record of one line of the oral reading of Sub- ject 182, a pupil in the I A grade. In this record the most noticeable DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READING 87 PLATE XVIII 23 * I T CJ53 18 13 15 said to l^ne-Wg, 14 f< Will you £9 15 T 29 30 IE. T 13 U g li IS |1 5 3 II l<» 17 19 20 lit my Sirheit 7 35 z\ Oral reading by Subject 182, Grade I A 5"o ,4'k 4 4.0 'y 88 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS characteristic is the accumulation of eye-fixations upon the word "plant." The dictaphone record shows a hesitation after the words "will you" followed by a repetition of those two words, which gave time for the careful examination of "plant" before its pronunciation was attempted. This is a typical response to a mild difficulty. The word was mastered, but not without a careful analysis. Plate XIX gives one line from the oral record of Subject 2, a pupil in Grade I B. The dictaphone record of this line shows that the sub- ject omitted the word "little" and repeated the word "the." The period of confusion began when the word "wheat" was encountered at the ninth fixation. In the attempt to recognize' "wheat" and "seed" the word "little" was forgotten, the reading of the whole line being con- fused. This line furnishes a good example of the fact that very often when an unfamiliar word is encountered it not only causes difficulty in the recognition of that word but radically modifies the subject's reading habits for the whole line. This subject read the two preceding lines in 9 and 14 fixations, respectively, and the two following lines in 19 and 11 fixations. This general confusion and breaking down of established reading habits are the most serious aspects of the lack of word-recognition. One line from the oral record of Subject 1, a very immature reader in the I B grade, is shown in Plate XX. This subject was a very slow, deliberate reader, who gave the same expression to every word and apparently got little sense of meaning from what she read. When she came to the word "yes" she hesitated for 4.2 seconds before she pro- nounced it. The confusion caused is clearly evident from her eye- movements. Plate XXI gives the eye-movement record of three lines from the oral reading of Subject 12, a pupil from Grade I A. The second line of the record was read with little difficulty and no hesitation. His eye-movements on that line are few in number and regular in order. As compared with it, the record on the last two words of line 1 makes a decided contrast. The dictaphone shows the insertion of an extra word between "little" and "wheat" with a pause of 6.2 seconds between the two words. The word "wheat" was the particular cause of the difficulty. In the third line the same type of confusion is evident in the eye-movement record when the words "The dog said" were encoun- tered. By referring to the dictaphone it was found that the pupil read as follows: "The dog - - dog - - said dog said, No, I will ." Between the first "dog said" and the last "dog said" a DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READING 89 PLATE XLX 29 * 3 e no 22 30 plant >o 'T - M, & IX II 13. *' 35 "• 32. T 21 S l! t£> 70 up lltth wh^a r 7 4- 13 34 + * 17 ?4 3 J laeU." 19 32. 14 4 S II 5 4 II 34 A Oral reading by Subject 2, Grade I B 19 24 34 35 3T en 13 x 5 to T H t 9° FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS PLATE XX IJ » I* '<• * T 2<> 4 2 3 > s.;. id?" Vhe II M •* M\ s 44 s e 1 « 'hi'ju, i :p 9 io 31 3J M 3S ST Lint your ■t 1 la T il IJ Oral reading by Subject i , Grade I B DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READING 91 PLATE XXI 25, "6 iiiT 2+ 2 I <<> r 14 22 13 15 H a 2r S 5 3{3 (, ■ I 11 ■ ■ • ii 1 11 |i ■ ' 3ije dat k red hdn fdund 32. S 10 H IT 21 15 13 S|J 2o ii 12. vh 16 8 eed. Khe ■ skid II 13 my wheat saj to the dog, la '3 6 3 2I« tt, 5 3 5 * r % 3 "Will UoL^la^ -' T 3 4Ci 3 S 23 T 20 11 1» 13 /(, JJ 14. ,2 |J 15 8 13 10 " '« IT 3, 21 IS 2S 23 Wo, j will 7 12. 5>17 3J|0 '8 fc 17 5 9 Oral reading by Subject 12, Grade I A * 1+ s 3+ 92 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS period of 7.2 seconds elapsed. During that time the eye was busily- engaged in trying to unravel the difficulties. In oral reading, whenever such a confusion of eye-movements occurs, reference to the dictaphone record invariably corroborates the fact that there is confusion in getting the meaning, frequently caused by lack of word-recognition, but sometimes caused by difficulties in recognizing the thought expressed by combinations of easy words. In silent-reading records there is no objective means of confirming the existence of diffi- culties apparent in eye-movements. However, there are no reasons for believing otherwise than that difficulties, similar to those in oral reading, exist in the thought-getting processes of the reader. In Plate XXII, which shows the silent reading of one line by Subject 12, it is difficult to give any other interpretation than that here again the subject is experiencing a considerable amount of mental confusion, caused at first by encountering the words "little dog." WORD-CALLING VERSUS RHYTHMIC EXPRESSION IN THOUGHT UNITS Attention has already been called to the contrast between thought- getting and word-calling processes in reading. In order to get an objec- tive measure of the character of the thought-getting process in oral read- ing, the rhythm of the unit of vocal expression was measured. To accomplish this, a dictaphone record of the reading was secured, from which the intervals between each word were transcribed upon a smoked- paper kymograph record. In this manner it was possible to determine the exact interval between the pronunciation of each word. This affords an objective index which shows whether a subject reads by grouping the words into their natural thought units, or whether he reads by the mere process of word-calling. A record, secured in the manner just described, is shown in Figure 15 for the oral reading of Subject 1, a pupil in Grade I B. The heavy horizontal lines represent sections of a continuous time-line in reading the selection, while the black spots represent the location on the time- line of the pronunciation of the words. The time scale is shown at the base of the diagram, in units of one-fifth of a second. The figure should be interpreted in the following manner. The first three words were read at equal intervals during the first second of time, then followed a pause of two and four-fifths seconds, after which the next four words, "little red hen found," were read. A time interval of three-fifths of a second elapsed before the next words "a little seed" were spoken. There was DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READING 93 PLATE NXII 39 <° 13 *l 8 3b 20 IS 17 19 35 3.+ 3,33 I 2 S 38 + 0*. i t,"S 15 2° 4- i 5 40 32 wantoed." 33 4 3 20 12 4 3 10 12 I 3 .' + ' "heSien 3 7 io 5 20 said tbShe pig "W-.ll 5 7 «. ii 3 s «>o at 3 4 vol t 4 i l'l V io IT l« 15 t 7 heat (. 21 seed 3 3 I 4 ?" The 4 3 4 24 |0 1/ 8 S ij»i«l*Sf»ri! (jj„ ,, 35 13 r Ti3 ])i 31 5 io U J I <• ' !>c 2? I? ii 4 5 fs 14 2i a e :, "IS , 7 J4 ** 3» ar ant our 5 II 3 ^ g 3| 35 3 13 4 io 5 „ t seel" 5 T 2b 12, t 4- T 9 Oral reading by Subject i, Grade I B o6 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS record with that of the eye-movement photograph, which is shown in Plate XXIII, throws much light upon the reading process of this pupil. In the first line the cause of the long pause in the voice record is better understood when one sees what the subject's eyes were doing. The word "red" evidently presented considerable difficulty, although the fact that the subject inserted "little" before it suggests that the association "little red hen" was exerting undue influence and that the memory of the original story was causing confusion. The many fixations in line 2 of the eye-movement record accompany the irregular rhythm of the reading of that line. The last sentence furnishes a fine example of pure word-calling with no rhythmic expression. Here again the thirty-seven 12 5 4 5 4 T 1 J ia II it 13 14 15 it* If It 19 20 21 22 13 2+ 25 2C 2* .1 2> JO 32 JJ M 54 54 ► 35 It 3T J8 59 40 41 42 43 44 45 *4 *r M • • 51 52 55 54 1111 ii 27 my wheat seed?" The dog said, "No, I will 28 23 30 31 32 33 34 75 not plant your little wheat seed." The hen 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 said to the pig, "Will you plant my wheat 45 44 47 4* 43 so si 52 53 seed?" The pig said, "Yes, I will plant your 54 seed." Index numbers for words in first-grade selection 9 8 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS PLATE XXV 12" t 3 4 5. <. 3ne djy i rod hen found a little i^h " t X 5 13 2 * 3 U 19 seed. Sre said to ;he dog, "Will you U "jvil 13 o a ii 8 pkn 19 5 4 <» 5 4 n|y whe^it se*d?" T lo 4 5. d he 10 10 T « 3 dog said, 'No, " will IO I* II 4 13 4 3 13 5 4 6 7 I 3 |5 ,3 , 14 |£ ' Tit hen 13 9 i° 8 lb (, I 13 9 said ? 4 (> « r I a to tie pg, "Will ycu plant ny 7 12. 14 13 Ifc 15 W heat 3135 23 8:35 8 3 lt> 3 S 7 5 seed?' The pig sail, 'Tes, I w 24 »*• 5 13 13 11 plant your IS »| seed." 10 Oral reading by Subject 14, Grade I A DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRAT ) ! ■: READING 99 One day - a red hen - found - a little - wheat seed. She said to - the dog, - "Will you plant - my wheat seed?" - The dog said, - "No, I - will not - plant - your - wheat seed." - Then the - the hen - said - to the pig, - "Will you - plant my wheat seed ?" - The pig said, - "Yes, - I will plant - your seed." The only point of confusion appears at the end of line 4, where the word "then" was inserted and the word "the" was repeated. This is the only place in the record where a marked irregularity of eye- movement occurs, 7 eye-fixations, 3 of which were the result of regressive movements, being required to read the words, "The hen." Both the voice and eye records indicate a considerable degree of maturity for a first-grade subject. Figure 17 shows the voice records of thirteen different subjects in reading the first sentence of the paragraph. In this figure each horizontal line represents a single subject, whose index number appears at the left of the line. The first line shows the rhythm of reading for Subject 195, a university graduate. This subject read the sentence rapidly with the following type of word grouping: "One day — a red hen — found a little wheat - seed." The third line in the figure, for Subject 13, shows a very different rhythm, as "One day - a - hen ■ found a little - wheat seed." Other subjects show still other habits of word groupings, Subjects 17 and 182, for example, exhibiting little rhythm of any type, but instead a mechanical process of word-calling. The last four subjects furnish clear examples of the lack of word-recognition. Subject 20, the fourth line from the bottom, had to study 4 seconds on the word "seed," while the last subject, Number 181, found both the words "wheat" and "seed" difficult. Frequently the reading of the first line in the sentence fails to show a natural rhythm, due to the difficulty of getting adjusted to the nature of the material. Consequently, a spot-diagram showing the word intervals in a sentence selected frpm within a paragraph might give a more valid series of word grouping. Figure 18 gives the records of fourteen subjects in reading one whole sentence and part of another selected from within the paragraph. The sentences used were "The hen said to the pig, 'Will you plant my wheat seed ?' The pig said " The words corresponding to the numbers above the dots may be identified by reference to Plate XXIV. The interval between words 45 and 46 corresponds to the interval between the sentences. This is a point of interest, because a clear recognition of sentence thought units should produce a somewhat longer interval here than at other 100 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS e T - *t - *♦ Z «• I _ _ • •• »• • hi hi ~ H I -II -<> "< > -I > HI _ HI -I I H I -(I ►<> Hi if HI HI HI H| II I ^<> -(I HI HI HI HI .<► HI -(I H I H I M I H I HI -(I HI J i> ►< I -(I -(>-(» '<> HI H I -(I HI Hi HI "(I ♦<> HI _ , ^ H I H I »j I H I H I H I , () HI '<> -(I HI HI HI -(I HI HI _ ►<> HI -<> -(| •(! HI HI ♦<>»<► HI HI -( I n| ^M> ^ { j HI i*(> -*< ) -< > *n hi hi -il -n hi H I H I H I H I "l I H I «< I ••<» H I "II HI _ O in O CO O CO 0) O <" C to "3- co r^ 0\ »-» •-* »-' t-H c-i c< 00 o o cn <^ M d H H o 1 DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READING IOI *< *< 4< ?l 1 > > 1 •it *i 1 *< 1 > ;< 1 *t » SI *< 1 i ► »i > tl » ~i 3( > *l *< 1 ► Ji > ?i > *l I s< *< i 1 1 SI 1 S< > :i 1 > - *< *< > > i( ;< *< > 1 1< *< *< » 1 *( > »l » > si Jl 1 *( i > *( 1 1 K 51 1 » 51 SI > i =< » SI t t s< *< ► *( i S( 1 > 1 5( > » SI » 3( » 1 S< > » ) 4< 1 1 SI > 91 ^ 1 *< *< 1 1 1 1 H *l > s< > » 51 31 *< SI » S< > s< *< 1 SI SI » B< -1 ► SI > 1 71 • 1 *( SI > > s< » > SI » Si S< » S| 1 1 Si > > SI SI 1 » SI si I > *< a, i !; » S< Si > ► xt > SI ► S< > *l > > s< 1 > > S4 1 SI ► S< > i » S( Hi > Si > Si ► xl S< > > 51 SI > ► XI > S< ► SI S< > 51 XI » Si SI ► SI SI ► SI : , > XI ► o o 1/5 o o VO CO O CO «o VO t^. « O c 3 102 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS points on the line. The record of the adult subject, Number 195, shows a definite grouping of words into thought units, with a longer interval between words 45 and 46. The record of Subject 15, a mature first- grade reader, also shows a distinct tendency toward grouping. Subject 21 gives little attention to the end of the sentence, showing a smaller interval between words 45 and 46 than between words 44 and 45. The record of Subject 181, the last in the figure, exhibits almost a perfectly mechanical process of word-calling, moving at the rate of one word per second. At only one point does he miss this regular rate. This subject was a I B pupil from the public school. Certainly for him the degree of word fusion into thought units must be exceedingly small. He furnishes an extreme example of the result of a method of teaching which is primarily concerned with words. A careful examination of the spot-diagrams shown in the last four figures makes possible an objective analysis of rate of reading which is far more productive than a simple statement of average number of words per minute. Rate of reading is a complex, determined by many elements which may vary independently. For example, although two readers may have the same average rate, an analysis may show that one reads with an excellent rhythm except for a few long pauses caused by encoun- tering words which cannot be easily recognized, while the other reads with no rhythmic grouping at all, but makes up for his slow and mechanical expression by a well-developed habit of word-recognition which enables him to avoid any long pauses caused by unfamiliar words. Or from the standpoint of eye-movements, the same rate may be produced by a combination of short fixation pauses and a narrow recognition-span or by a combination of long fixation pauses and a wide-recognition span. The improvement of the rate in two such cases would, however, require exactly opposite modes of treatment. Such records as have been shown in this chapter should emphasize the fact that detailed qualitative analysis will make possible a type of diagnosis which can never be secured by a quantitative manipulation of complex scores. If the degree of rhythmic expression in oral reading can be accepted as one index of the ability to group words into meaningful units, the method just described can be applied as a measure of the degree of maturity of reading habits. The present chapter has been concerned with two outstanding facts: first, that groups taught by various methods show decided con- trasts in the development of the different elements which make up the reading process; second, that even within a given group individuals show pronounced differences in both the order of development and the rate of development of the various reading elements. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READING 103 As has been pointed out in the first part of this chapter, the differ- ent methods of teaching cannot be evaluated in terms of the results in the first grade. The analyses which have been made simply show what are the immediate results of the respective types of teaching. Since all methods of instruction in reading have for their ultimate goal the attainment of mature reading habits, an analysis at any particular stage will show which elements have and which have not been developed, and how far the growth in each case has progressed. The psychologist can state the case to the teacher somewhat as follows: A study of mature readers shows the stage of development toward which the school is moving. Such a final stage may be reached by various methods. However, regardless of the method used/certain fundamental habits must ultimately be developed. | It is the function of the teacher to say when and how rapidly the development can best be accomplished. It is the function of |he psychologist to determine by careful analysis what are the fundamental elements and what is their condition of maturity. If the analysis can be carried far enough to plot the normal growth curves under ordinary school conditions, then the teacher can use the results of analysis very effectively^ A case from the present chapter may be used for purposes of illustra- tion. Out of the group of twelve children from the I B grade of the University laboratory school, five were unable at the end of the first semester to read accurately the modified "Little Red Hen" story. Furthermore, they had not reached the stage of development where their eyes followed the lines of print in a careful manner while they tried to read. They had, however, developed a very active concern for the meaning of the passages which they tried to read and, in general, when they failed to read the story properly they supplied a content of their own which was meaningful. On the whole, their attitude toward reading was mature to the point that they recognized clearly that the story had something to tell and that it was their business to find out what it was. Their lack of proper eye-movement habits and their inability to cope with new words prohibited them from getting the meaning accurately; but their attitude toward the process was more mature. In terms of the analogy of the skyscraper, this method evi- dently considers readings-attitude in the same manner in which the contractor considers the steel structure. By its procedure this method would say that' a correct attitude toward reading is of such great impor- tance that it should be pushed a long way toward maturity, letting the other habits rest for the time being, J With only the evidence which has so far been presented, the psychologist has no criticism of this 104 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS method. He can, however, say to those using this method that sooner or later the eye-movement habits and the word-recognition elements must be developed and that finally they must become just as mature as the element of reading attitude. The advocates of the other method which places first emphasis upon word study could be given the same principle. Habits of word study may be developed first, but ultimately a correct reading attitude must also be secured. This is not equivalent to saying that any method is as good as any other. It is simply stating that a method cannot be accurately evaluated by a cross-section view at the level of any par- ticular grade. In the absence of sufficient data covering the entire interval from the beginning stage to that of maturity, a final evaluation is not in order. What the teacher can do is to use the results of analysis to determine the stages of maturity in the fundamental elements of reading. As a result she will be able to say that in certain elements her pupils are making normal progress; that in other elements they are considerably nearer the ultimate goal of maturity than is normally the case in that particular grade; while perhaps in still other elements her pupils are relatively immature and will need a large amount of exercise. To make the matter concrete, the teacher might raise such questions in regard to her method and results as the following: i. What kind of an attitude toward reading do my pupils have? Do they consider reading as a process of gaining meaning or of pro- nouncing words? When, according to my method, should I expect a correct reading attitude to be attained ? 2. Do my pupils' eyes follow the printed lines in regular order as they read ? Do they depend upon their perception of the words or their memory of the story for their meaning ? 3. Are their habits of word-recognition satisfactory for their stage of development ? Are they able to master a new word by the method of pho- netic analysis ? When, in my method, should children be able to do this ? 4. Is the span of recognition of my pupils developed up to the aver- age for the grade? Do the pupils see words and phrases, or is their recognition unit smaller than a single word? Do they make many or few eye-movements in reading a single line ? 5. Do they have habits of quick perception or are they slow in recognition? Can they read words from flash cards when presented at a rapid rate ? 6. In observing their eye-movements can I detect many backward, oscillating movements, or is there regularity of fixation along the lines ? DETAILED ANALYSIS OF FIRST-GRADE READING 105 7. Do my pupils give evidence of fusing their words into large units of meaning, or do they read in a mechanical word-by-word manner? Does the rhythm of their oral expression display a recognition of thought units? 8. Does my method provide any specific exercise for deficiencies in these elements ? If the application of analysis produces no more immediate results than the serious attempt to answer the foregoing questions, its value will not be negligible. While it is evident, from the flexible adjustments which pupils are able to make, that more than one method of teaching reading may succeed equally well in developing mature reading habits, one would not expect to find a large number of equally good methods. Certainly there can be no doubt that some methods are inferior and uneconomical. In the light of present school experience no one would attempt to justify the practice of using the alphabetic method of teaching reading, although pupils trained in this rn,ajmer will eventually learn to read. As has been stated, the present investigation does not yield the type of data necessary for a judgment of methods, and consequently no attempt has been made to evaluate them. It should not be inferred from this that the psychologist is not interested in methods. The problem of deter- mining which methods are superior and which are inferior is large and significant. It cannot be solved except by following particular groups of pupils through the different stages of growth toward maturity. Its solution will require the combined efforts of the teacher and the psycholo- gist, the teacher trying out the various combinations of methods in the classroom under carefully controlled conditions, while the psycholo- gist furnishes the scientific analysis of results which will show the degree of progress which has been made in each of the fundamental elements of reading. This is a productive field for a future co-operative investiga- tion. In chapter ii growth curves were presented showing the common rate of progress in certain fundamental reading elements. In the pres- ent chapter it has been shown how various methods of teaching cause pupils to take different directions in the development of the various elements. It will be the purpose of the following chapter to show the conditions which occasionally result when a pupil who starts on a devious, rather than a direct, route toward maturity is allowed to go off at a tangent for too long a time before being turned back toward the goal of maturity. CHAPTER IV INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS AND SPECIFIC TRAINING IN READING The growth curves which were presented in chapter ii show that throughout the elementary grades there is a constant approach toward maturity. These curves are based upon grade medians and therefore show the general tendencies of fairly large groups. While the successive grade medians indicate the nature of normal progress from grade to grade, an examination of the individual averages will show in many cases a considerable variation from the general grade norm. The nature of these individual variations can be best understood if they are considered simply as the logical outcome of the tendencies toward devia- tion which were apparent in the records of the first-grade pupils. The curves of growth show the route which is most commonly taken in the journey toward maturity. Deviations from this main line of progress mean that certain pupils are trying to reach the same goal by following a dif- ferent road. Many of these pupils eventually are drawn back to the main line of travel. The pupils, if allowed to go far enough, develop reading habits which are so inconsistent with the demands of maturity that special measures have to be taken to turn them in the right direction. If some special measures are not taken these pupils ultimately become pathological cases and are unable to meet the ordinary standards of the school. This report does not consider the cases of readers who are so deficient as to be classed as pathological. An elaborate study of school children who exhibit these pathological tendencies in varying degrees is provided in another monograph 1 of this series. It is the aim of the present chap- ter to present an analysis of a number of cases, selected from the different school grades, in which individual variations such as are commonly found in school will be studied, using the data for the entire group of pupils as a background. A study of the photographic records shows that an individual pupil may vary from the median rating of his school grade in one, two, or all three of the fundamental characteristics of eye-movements. This means that one pupil may develop a habit of using a wide recognition-span 1 W. S. Gray, Remedial Cases in Reading: Their Diagnosis and Treatment. "Sup- plementary Educational Monographs," No. 22. Chicago: Department of Educa- tion, University of Chicago, 1922. 106 INDIVIDUAL VARIATION'S AND SPECIFIC TRAINING 107 and, as a consequence, be able to read with a comparatively small num- ber of fixations per line. This mature type of habit may, however, be accompanied by a lack of regularity in the order of the fixations or by a very slow fixation time. On the other hand, another reader may reach the same level of reading maturity by using habits of rapid recognition and regular rhythmic eye-movements, but at the same time having a very narrow recognition-span, making many fixations per line. It has frequently been assumed that some such compensating rela- tionship as this exists in the majority of cases, and that most often the reader who has a broad recognition-span consumes a correspondingly greater amount of time per fixation. A study of the facts reveals that this assumption is entirely unfounded. The correlation between the average number of fixations per line and the average duration of fixations for the silent reading of eighty-three subjects in Grades II to VI, inclusive, is r= (Pearson) + .49 ±.056. It must be remembered, however, that during these grades a large amount of improvement in both elements is occurring. This would have the effect of causing the correlation co- efficient to be considerable higher than would be the case if the element of growth were eliminated. An indication of the influence of this growth factor can be seen from comparing the correlation for Grades II to VI with that for the high-school Juniors taken alone. The correlation between average number of fixations per line and average duration of fixations for the nineteen subjects in the Junior class is —.08=*=. 055. The significance of this practically zero correlation is that the two elements are almost entirely independent, which means that a wide recognition-span may be accompanied by a long, medium, or short fixation time. It is possible, therefore, for a reader to make normal progress in one element while the other may be greatly under- or over- developed. A reader may be equally mature in size of recognition-span, average rate of recognition, and regularity of eye-movements across the printed lines. On the other hand, an individual may exhibit any one of nine possible combinations of maturity in these three elements of read- ing. This provides for a large degree of flexibility in meeting the varied types of difficulty in reading. The nature of the individual variations can be presented more clearly by means of a diagram. In Figure 19 the score for each of the three characteristics of eye-movements is given for the individual pupils in the sixth grade. The numbers along the base line of the figure indicate the subject number of each pupil. The vertical axis gives a numerical scale which applied to line a indicates average number of fixations per io8 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS line; when applied to line b indicates average duration of fixation pauses; and when applied to line c indicates average number of regres- sive movements per line. The averages for each pupil are shown directly above the individual subject numbers. For example, Subject 103 made an average of 10. 1 fixations per line, an average of 6.1 twenty-fifths of a second per fixation pause, and an average of 3.1 regressive movements per line. The next subject, Number 104, made an average of 8.8 fixa- tions per line, an average of 5.4 twenty-fifths of a second per fixation, and an average of 1.9 regressive movements per line. The cases in 103 104 94 92 87 97 100 99 98 102 95 91 86 88 89 101 96 90 93 Fig. 19. — Individual variation from medians for eye-movements in Grade VI. Individual subjects shown on horizontal axis; units on vertical axis for curve a repre- sent average number of fixations per line, for curve b average duration of fixation pauses, for curve c average number of regressive movements per line. Figure 19 are arranged according to decrease in average number of fixa- tions per line, as shown by the descending of curve a. The significant fact in the figure is that the average duration of the fixations and the average number of regressive movements per line show a large degree of independence in their relationship to average number of fixations per line. The grade medians for this group show that the norms are 7.3 fixations per line, 5.9 twenty-fifths of a second per fixation, and 1.6 regressive movements per line. The pupil who comes nearest to these norms is Subject 102, whose averages are respectively 7.3, 6.2, and 1.5. While this subject most nearly represents the central tendency of the INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS AND SPECIFIC TRAINING 109 group, the entire group shows a great variety of combinations of the three characteristics of eye-movements. Subject 95 varies only slightly from the group median for average number of fixations per line, but shows a larger deviation in respect to average duration of fixations. Subject 93 has a much wider recognition-span than the median for the group, making only 5.7 fixations per line; but his average fixation time is much longer than the grade median, while in number of regressive movements he is more mature than the median pupil in the grade. The scores of the different individuals plotted in Figure 19 indicate that there are a variety of possible adjustments by which a pupil may meet the demands of reading. The various elements which enter into the reading process may be developed in a very unequal manner. In order to illustrate the significance of variation in any of these three elements of eye-movements, a number of individual cases will be studied in greater detail. The eye-movement averages of these pupils will be compared with the medians in the same elements for the corre- sponding school grades. Illustrative cases will be drawn from the second, third, fourth, and fifth grades of the elementary school, from the high- school Sophomore class, and from a senior college group. Table XVII gives the medians of the average number of fixations per line, the average duration of fixations, and the average number of TABLE XVII Grade Medians for Eye-Movements in Silent Reading IB IA 11 III IV V VI VII F So J Se Col Average number of fixations per line 18.6 15-5 10.7 8.9 7-3 6.9 7-3 6.8 7.2 5-8 5-5 6.4 S-9 Average duration of fixations 16.5 10.8 9.1 7-9 6.7 6.3 5-9 6.0 6.1 6.2 5-6 6.2 6.3 Average number of regressive move- ments per line . . 5-i 4.0 2-3 1.8 1-4 i-3 1.6 i-5 1 .0 0.7 o-7 o-7 0.5 regressive movements per line for silent reading in each school grade. These data are compiled from the medians given in Tables III, IV, and V. The table should be read as follows: The median number of fixa- tions per line in Grade I B is 18.6; in Grade T A it is 15.5; in the second grade 10.7, etc. The medians for average fixation time and average number of regressive movements per line should be read in the same manner. HO FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS Since the majority of subjects in this investigation were chosen from the University of Chicago laboratory schools, the growth curves represented by these data probably show somewhat higher medians than would be expected from average public schools. An indication of the amount of difference which might exist may be gained from a comparison of a group of ten first-grade subjects from the public school with a group of eleven first-grade children from the University school. The medians for the public-school group and the University-school group, respectively, are as follows: for average number of fixations per line 18.5 and 17.0; for average duration of fixations 14.2 and n. 5; and for average number of regressive movements per line 4.8 and 4.5. The difference which exists shows that, at least on the first-grade level, the growth curves would not need to be greatly modified to be used for comparison with pupils from public schools. A comparison of a group of public high- school pupils with a similar selection from the University High School, shows little difference in the development of these elements of reading. While the writer does not urge the acceptance and use of the grade medians from this investigation for finally determined "standards'' of eye-movements, nevertheless these medians will be serviceable as a basis of comparison in the analysis of individual cases. The shape of the growth curves, as well as the nature of the distributions at most of the grades, would indicate that the general characteristics of curves of growth based upon a larger number of cases would not be greatly differ- ent. With this understanding of the medians in Table XVII, compari- sons will be made with a number of individual cases. ANALYSIS OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL CASES Second-grade subjects. — Three cases have been selected from the second grade to show the variation in the development of different read- ing elements at this level. These subjects illustrate three types of com- bination of eye-movement habits. Table XVIII makes possible a ready comparison of their records with the second-grade medians. The first pupil to be used for comparison, Subject 38, is a second- grade boy with immature reading habits. A section of his eye-movement record for silent reading is shown in Plate XXVI. This subject makes an average of 20.5 fixations per line, while the median for his grade is 10.7 fixations. In this characteristic, therefore, the pupil is very much below normal. Since the principal cause of a large number of fixations per line is the existence of a narrow recognition-span, the photographic record shows at once that this subject's immaturity in INDIVIDUAL VARIATION'S AND SPECIFIC TRAINING in reading is at least partly due to lack of development in this element. The record in Plate XXVI also shows a very great irregularity in the reading of part of the lines. For example, the first line was read with 8 fixations while the fifth line required 39. The fact that one line could be read with 8 fixations is clear evidence that this subject's maximum or absolute recognition-span is considerably wider than the span which he habitually uses. The average number of fixations per line is an index of the normally used recognition unit, rather than of the maximum or absolute unit. It should be remembered that tachistoscopic experi- ments generally measure the maximum span; and that comparisons of the recognition units in reading as measured by average number of fixations per line with the average perception span as determined with TABLE XVIII Comparison of Individual Records with Medians, Grade II Median for Grade II Subject 38 Subject 37 Subject 25 Average number of fixations per line IO. 7 20.5 6.1 IO. I Average duration of fixation pauses 9.1 9-5 9-3 12.2 Average number of regres- sive movements per line . . 2-3 8-5 0.6 2-3 the tachistoscope are actually dealing with two types of processes. The element which is of practical value in the reading process is the normally used recognition-span rather than the maximum, which is determined by a different kind of measurement. This distinction should be kept clearly in mind when exercises for developing a wider span are proposed. The problem of enlarging the normally used recognition unit is different from the problem of increasing the width of the maximum span. One would expect to find the possibilities in the former case much greater than in the latter, since the latter seems to be limited by native capacity, which cannot be increased. To return to the record of Subject 38, one finds that he has an average duration per fixation of 9.5 twenty-fifths of a second, while the median for his grade is 9.1 twenty-fifths. In this respect the subject is approx- imately at standard. Since the duration of a fixation is determined by the rapidity of recognition, regardless of the size of the unit perceived, it must be concluded that this pupil recognizes whatever unit of material 112 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS PLATE XXVI 3 i 3 Ol .3 K, 4 10 3 4- i night t eter went to bed n U T 8 early. ItSwas II 3Z I ? (o 3 2 not diink 5 li. •3 It 8 5 10 3 The 7 14 13 IS 15 17 16 18 bright mool ifr^rhone n a the 8 8 90 19 (a % 3 4- 2. 5 16 it u 13 14 II | » |3 t U ] window. Peter 1+ S 2 3 3 MulC 4 Seei i& r 21 20 >VE l(L 23 24 t in II 5 It 6 iz 3 7 7 5 T 24 in the 3 7 3 3 fc 4 rsom. /u: 2 8 io I II 13 12 14 lb IS at once he heard a loise. Peter 2 4- 4 x <; 4 14 8 8 4 4 T 3 23 24 12 2 c >er ed 15 4- 3 5 g 5 27 2| 28 38 31 12, ^ II 29 14 li> 30 3+ his e\e« 2 3 4 Zl 9 U i° grown 5 dark. Some nr 2 II 3 (. » 3 4 5 12 w as outipic ? th e 2 4 4 3T 8 5*8 32 wind i w. 34 Silent reading by Subject 38, Grade II INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS AND SPECIFIC TRAINING 113 PLATE XXVII I 2. 3 4- C 5 T % One night Peter went t) bed ea'ly. It was il 10 S 9 '■ T fe 4 * 3 <• 5 t 8 3 bright moon shcne in at tie h II 4 Si 4 it 3 4 5 could see everything in the 1-2. (c (o 10 not dark. The wine ow. Peter room, t once he heard a 19 noise. P^ter 10 All i 10 15 I 2. 3 4- 4> 5 op sned his ^yes. He sa\v tha| the ro .7 8. 9 not dirk, fflhe brigh|t moor] shpne in 20 9 S | room*. All a 14 I 3 X 5 l4 4- 5 once he heard a noiss Peter I £ 3 + opfcned his eyes. He saw that the room lad 2. 3 grcwn dank. Something was outside 8 3 the w ndow. Silent reading by Subject 47, Grade III 122 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS PLATE XXXI i z One night Peter went to bee earlj 10 * T l a 3 It was not I * 2 3 dark. The bright moon shon ■ 5 2» " in at tl T X winpow. Peter] could 14- 3 4 see 5 4 everything in the 3 2 (. 4- All^t T 5 n. A ^at qned he he; 4 « J 4- rd a noise. Pet?r 12 II I •=■ - opened his eyes. He saw that the room 17 S i. had 14- 8 T 9 low. Fe;er could see everything in S T 3 4- +5 S 3 5 C 1 T 8 10 3 reom. AI 8 T 4 4 2 3 4 1 at once lie heiri a II 4- S3 3 5 4 5 t 9 8 I* II tie <. 11 noise. Pe opened hi ; eyes. He <«. 3 4 5 saw that :er 10 11 12. tie room h = d 4 5 3 T 4 134 T 1 a 3 room. AIL at 11 14 14 once hi heard a noise. Peter hoi: I Z 4 opeped his eyes. H Z 4 3 4 eyes. He saw 9 7 10 S i"2 that the room had 6 4 grawn dank. Something was jutside the Rl 9 4 T T 4- S 1 a w ind 3W 6. 13 Silent reading by Subject 59, Grade IV 126 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS PLATE XXXIV 4 fc I 5 T 823 9 iO ; * It, i<» 5 T 3 4- One lid Lt-Petet-^ent to bed early. It was not .a iark. The b'ight noon sh 4 5 )ne in 4- at the 3 + 5 window. Petfr coulp sep everything ip the 7 •oath. 7 4 6S Z 3 All at once he he;ird a noise. Peter 5 ise. Pel 5 4- I 2 3 4, 5 1 I openpd his |eyes. He saw that the room had 644- growi dark. Something was 13 4- ou :side the wiidow. Silent reading by Subject 80, Grade V INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS AND SPECIFIC TRAINING 127 One PLATE XXXV J J! Y 5 i , nighp Ifeter went to bed] early. It ^as 7"? II (c. + 2 I 3 (■> 5 4 « T not iaik. The bright mooi sl.onij ii at the 9 (c II -^5557 2 <. 3 5 T 4- window. Petei coull i 3 7. I 4 3 5 see room. everything Jn the 3 «, 3 S (. 10 t 5 T * 7 All at oice he heard a T 5 <• '<• "<• iser 1 Peier 3 6. 5 T 4- open&erhis ey^s. He thit th 1 2. 1 e 5 5 <. 5 rDom had gro' vn 4 <• 7 dart Something was oiltside tjhe <* 7 window. 14. Silent reading by Subject 85, Grade V 128 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS are some of the less mature readers who have not yet mastered these fundamental elements of reading. The data for these four subjects, together with the medians for the fifth grade, are shown in Table X3s TABLE XXI Comparison of Individual Records with Medians, Grade V Median for Grade V Subject 80 Subject 85 Subject 78 Subject 70 Average number of fixations per line 6.0 6.1 8.4 11. 7 9.6 Average duration of fixation pauses 6.3 6.2 6-5 6.4 5-4 Average number of regressive movements per line i-3 O. 2 3-4 3-2 2-5 Subject 80 is a mature fifth-grade reader, whose eye-movement record is shown in Plate XXXIV. He is superior to the median pupil in his grade in all three of the types of eye-movements which were measured. The regularity and rhythm of his movements are particularly noticeable. This subject's eye-movement habits are superior to those of the median high-school Senior. The record of Subject 85 shows a marked contrast with that of the case just described. This subject, whose record is shown in Plate XXXV, ranked very low in both the Monroe and the Gray tests. His principal eye-movement deficiency consists of a large number of regres- sive movements and a rather narrow recognition-span. His average fixation time is not far from normal for his grade. The most serious difficulty of this pupil is caused by the lack of ability to move across the line in regular order, the regularity of his eye-movements being below second-grade standard. This one habit is sufficiently immature to cause poor reading regardless of any other deficiencies which the sub- ject may possess. An example of a pupil who is normal in one of the characteristics of eye-movements but very much below average in the other two is shown by Subject 78. He is normal for his grade in respect to average fixation time, but in average number of regressive movements he ranks a little below the second-grade median. This pupil's eye-movement record, which is reproduced in Plate XXXVI, shows that he not only has a very narrow recognition-span but also makes a large number of regressive movements. In the fourth line of his record there is evidence INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS AND SPECIFIC TRAINING 129 PLATE XXXVI T 3 I 4. U 8 "Eel 4 0, Peter," said :he bird "HeL'o," said Peterl 4 'W? 4 »"2. x 5 5 10 4-5 7, <, II 10 8 9 12. 3 are y )u Bird, Peter. 10 5 1 1 [h "la 14 Co 4 g s 4 S 4 5 II Ki Ijt I ,( 13 % ave come to take you 12 S 9 jour father say trat 5 4 T 3+5 2 3 r 1 noon, flult « g 5 :he rrdon, I leard 7 543 3 5* IT 9 13 10 T 11 2 it IS 1? bir i= canmt fly to tie 5 5 45 X » l<> 5 a * S i in at the it- window. Peter cou'.d seo every :hing in the T 4- 3 5 2.'' 8 T II 9 .12 13 10 A|j to n. aj >nce he heard i, noise. D e er 3 3 5 + 3 dpened his eyes. He ssw that the 6 room h, 3 2- 5 rk. SombUIhing was 9 V 10 T gr 3 tvn d; 5 3 3 4 <• 3 4 )utside the 4 4- window. Silent reading by Subject 70, Grade V INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS AND SPECIFIC TRAINING 131 of some confusion when his eyes encountered the words "that birds." A similar situation appears in the following line upon the word "but." This pupil has by far the poorest record of any subject of the group selected from the fifth grade. He is badly in need of specific exercises for widening his recognition-span and developing a rhythmic type of eye-movements. The last case selected from the fifth-grade group is Subject 70. She ranked lowest in her group in the silent reading comprehension test. Her fixations are very rapid, ranking even higher than the median for the college group, but her recognition-span is very narrow and her eye-movements are irregular. Her record, exhibited in Plate XXXVII, shows an erratic type of eye-control. In the silent reading of 19 lines of the story this subject made 21 fixations which were 3 twenty-fifths of a second or less in duration. It is doubtful whether any clear percep- tion can be gained in such extremely short fixation pauses. It seems very probable that one cause of the many regressive movements is the fact that frequently her fixation pauses are so short that only a blurred perception results. If the serial order of her fixations is noted, it will be seen that it is extremely irregular, jerking back and forth with appar- ently no system at all. The reading of this subject can best be described as erratic in type. The width of her recognition-span needs to be increased, and her progress across the printed lines needs to become more regular. An emphasis upon clear fixations, even at the possible expense of speed at first, would doubtless help to eliminate some of her extremely short fixation habits. Of the fifth-grade pupils just described the first furnishes an example of the high degree of eye-control possible by this stage of development; while the other three cases exhibit various combinations of deficiencies. The general shape of the growth curves for eye-movments suggests the desirability of rigidly checking up these fundamental reading habits at the beginning of this grade, in order that the pupil's attention may be free to attack his reading work wholly from the standpoint of content. ANALYSIS OF HIGH-SCHOOL AND COLLEGE CASES High-school Sophomores. — As an example of the reading of high- school pupils, the records of two subjects from the Sophomore class will be presented. A comparison of the averages of these pupils with the grade medians is given in Table XXII. The eye-movement records of these two subjects are shown in Plates XXXVIII and XXXIX. Subject 124 has very mature reading habits, 132 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS PLATE XXXVIII "Z I 3 Ope night Peter went to bed early. It was 12 II A- Z 3 not dark. The bi^ht moon si one in a : the 3 II I £ 3 4 window. Peter could sve everything in the 9 c 5 4 2 rolom. All at once he heard a noise. Peter 3 T 3 3 2 opened his eyes. He saw that the room had 7 i 13,10 4 Dutside t ie T 7% 4 9 8 ■3 S 4- <- T 2 I not dark. The jrikht :n|oon 8 5 1 2 7 10 was T 3 « 3 window. Pet^r could 645 3 4 shone in a: :he • 4 see everything in the 8 I A 2 3 6 5 T room. All ft once he h^arti a noise. Pdter 7 473 2 1 3 opened his 9 5 ^yes. He d> 5 4 <* 5 saw that 4 the room had 52 4-3 grown dark. Something 11 1 2 winiow. 28 3 w£ s outside the 46 2 ^ +> H3 02 a> ro 4^> cQ •r* o a) o or oa^ pj £ ^ o bo INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS AND SPECIFIC TRAINING 145 »— 1 j en a c c o 3 T3 w ^t; r"^ ts ^ s S fe £ h aS as rrt "as *£ **-£ 02 * .95 ^HS 146 FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS o o T3 l^iS • T3 T: M ^ .r-< WW © ° 2 ■ *** 12 § 2 S : Ws « « £ M <1>^ PX 1 J W C3 r-t ffl fe > h g« 4J W r^ O ex 1 «H > o S • — tn « >- be , rig; fifth-grade pupils, 124: high-SChool Sophomore.-, 131; college student-. i;4 Individual variations in reading, to6 Interpretation of growth curve-. 28, 58 Interpretation of meaning, 5 Kinetoscope film, 13, 139 Kymograph record, 02 Length of lines, 24 Long fixation pauses, 52. 69 Maturity in reading, 1, 58 Maximum recognition-span, 29 • Medians for oral reading, 135 .Medians for silent reading. 109 -Memory method, 65 Methods of teaching reading. 63 Modified score on Gray test, 44 Monroe Silent Reading Test, 50 Normal recognition-span, 29 Observation of eye-movements 1 4 5 Oral and silent reading, 39 Pathological cases, 106 I "lotographic method, 7, 11 Plateau in growth curve, 28 Pronunciation, 4 Questions for analysis of teaching, 104 Rate of reading, 6, 102 Rate of recognition, 30 Reading from memory. 66, 72 Recognition of meaning. 4 Regressive movement- Remedial methods, 130 Rhythmic expression in reading, 92 149 !5° FUNDAMENTAL READING HABITS Selections read. 13 Sentence method, 65 Short-exposure apparatus, 140 Short-exposure exercises, 139 Size of type, 9 Span of recognition, 25 Special tachistoscope, 13 Specific training exercises, 138, 141, 147 Spot diagram, 04 Standardized tests, 6 Subjects used, 13 Tachistoscope projector, 140 Thought-reading and word-reading, 92 Time unit, 12, 92 Tuning fork, 11 Variations in first-grade reading, 75 Word-analysis method, 64, 76 Word-calling versus rhythmic expression, Word-recognition, 86 PRINTED IN TH} I - \ 342 1 1 University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 305 De Neve Drive - Parking Lot 17 • Box 951388 LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90095-1388 Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. \ ' UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY AA 000 504 729 5